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  =_Crown 8vo, price 6s. 6d._=

  =TEACHING AND ORGANISATION.=

  =With Special Reference to Secondary Schools.=

  A MANUAL OF PRACTICE.

  Edited by P. A. BARNETT, M.A.

  CHAPTER

      I. =The Criterion in Education.= By P. A. BARNETT, M.A., late
         Principal of the Isleworth Training College.

     II. =Organisation and Curricula in Boys’ Schools.= By A. T.
         POLLARD, M.A., Head Master of the City of London School.

    III. =Kindergarten.= By ELINOR WELLDON, Head Mistress of the
         Kindergarten Department, The Ladies’ College, Cheltenham.

     IV. =Reading.= By ARTHUR BURRELL, M.A., Assistant Master in
         Bradford Grammar School.

      V. =Drawing and Writing.= By I. H. MORRIS, Head Master of the
         Gleadless Road Board School, Sheffield.

     VI. =Arithmetic and Mathematics.= By R. WORMELL, D.Sc., Head
         Master of the City Foundation Schools, London.

    VII. =English Grammar and Composition.= By E. A. ABBOTT, D.D., late
         Head Master of the City of London School.

   VIII. =English Literature.= By the EDITOR.

     IX. =Modern History.= By R. SOMERVELL, M.A., Assistant Master in
         Harrow School.

      X. =Ancient History.= By H. L. WITHERS, M.A., Principal of the
         Isleworth Training College.

     XI. =Geography.= By E. C. K. GONNER, M.A., Professor of Political
         Economy in University College, Liverpool.

    XII. =Classics.= By E. LYTTELTON, M.A., Head Master of Haileybury
         College.

   XIII. =Science.= By L. C. MIALL, F.R.S., Professor of Biology in the
         Yorkshire College, Leeds.

    XIV. =Modern Languages.= By F. STORR, B.A., Chief Master of Modern
         Subjects in Merchant Taylors’ School.

     XV. =Vocal Music.= By W. G. MCNAUGHT, Mus.Doc. and H.M. Assistant
         Inspector of Music in Training Colleges.

    XVI. =Discipline.= By A. SIDGWICK, M.A., Fellow and Tutor of Corpus
         Christi College, Oxford.

   XVII. =Ineffectiveness in Teaching.= By G. E. BUCKLE, Master of
         Method in the Isleworth Training College for Schoolmasters.

  XVIII. =Specialisation.= By M. G. GLAZEBROOK, M.A., Head Master of
         Clifton College.

    XIX. =School Libraries.= By A. T. MARTIN, M.A., Assistant Master in
         Clifton College.

     XX. =School Hygiene.= By C. DUKES, M.D., Lond. Medical Officer in
         Rugby School.

    XXI. =Apparatus and Furniture.= By W. K. HILL, B.A., late Head
         Master of Kentish Town High School.

   XXII. =Organisation and Curricula in Girls’ Schools.= By M. E.
         SANDFORD, Head Mistress of the Queen’s School, Chester.

  LONGMANS, GREEN, AND CO.
  39 PATERNOSTER ROW, LONDON;
  NEW YORK, AND BOMBAY.




WORK AND PLAY IN GIRLS’ SCHOOLS




  WORK AND PLAY
  IN
  GIRLS’ SCHOOLS

  BY

  THREE HEAD MISTRESSES

  DOROTHEA BEALE
  LUCY H. M. SOULSBY
  JANE FRANCES DOVE

  [Illustration]

  LONGMANS, GREEN, AND CO.
  39 PATERNOSTER ROW, LONDON
  NEW YORK AND BOMBAY
  1898




PREFACE.


The book is divided into three Sections, and each of the writers is
responsible only for her own part, and yet I hope it will not be merely
a composite book; all the contributors are members of the teaching
staff of the Cheltenham Ladies’ College, or have at some time formed
part of it, and now, as then, there is I believe a unity of purpose,
which will give harmony to the work.

The book is intended to be a practical one, helpful chiefly to teachers
in our large Secondary Schools; the limits imposed compel us (1) to
deal more with methods than the underlying principles; (2) to isolate
more or less the influences of the school from those of the manifold
environment, which are at the same time forming the body, mind and
character of the child, and which seem to make the school-life of
relatively small moment; (3) we have to treat only of a few years of
life; for, like the bird of the fable, the soul of the child comes to
us often from some unknown region, stays for a while in our banqueting
hall, and then passes again into the darkness.

Yet I suppose the experience of most of us bears witness to the great
importance of the school-life as one of the factors in the “development
of a soul”. “The atmosphere, the discipline, the life” of the school
is so potent, that the word education has been often limited to the
school period, and the pupils of an Aristotle, an Ascham, an Arnold,
speak of their teachers as having given them a new life. Our work is
not insignificant, and our earnest study must be by instruction and
discipline, by what Plato calls music and gymnastic, to promote the
harmonious development of the character; to bring our children into
sympathetic relations with the noble and the good of all ages; to lead
them into the possession of that good land, “flowing with milk and
honey,” the spiritual inheritance of humanity.

I would fain hope, that one day all teachers will endeavour to spend
at least some time, before entering on professional work, in studying
the art, the science, the philosophy of education. In this little book
we have had to restrict ourselves almost to the first, but we have
referred to works which deal with the higher aspects of the subject. I
would earnestly press on all my readers, that their own education must
never be regarded as finished; if we cease to learn, we lose the power
of sympathy with our pupils, and a teacher without intellectual and
moral sympathy has no dynamic, no inspiring force. Especially should
all teachers be students of psychology, of that marvellous instrument,
from which it is ours to draw forth heavenly harmonies. To many a
teacher might the words of Hamlet be addressed by her pupils:--

  How unworthy a thing you make of me! You would play upon me; you
  would seem to know my stops; you would pluck out the heart of my
  mystery; you would sound me from my lowest note to the top of my
  compass; and there is much music, excellent voice in this little
  organ; yet cannot you make it speak. Do you think I am easier to be
  played on than a pipe? Though you can fret me, yet cannot you play
  upon me.

  DOROTHEA BEALE.




CONTENTS.


  SECTION I.

  INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION. EDITED BY DOROTHEA BEALE, PRINCIPAL OF THE
  CHELTENHAM LADIES’ COLLEGE; FORMERLY MATHEMATICAL AND CLASSICAL TUTOR,
  QUEEN’S COLLEGE, LONDON.

                                                                    PAGE

  INTRODUCTION                                     _Dorothea Beale_    1

  A FEW PRACTICAL PRECEPTS                         _Dorothea Beale_   37


  PART I. HUMANITIES.

  ENGLISH LANGUAGE GENERALLY--READING, WRITING, GRAMMAR,
  COMPOSITION                                      _Dorothea Beale_   44

  CLASSICAL STUDIES                     _William H. D. Rouse, M.A._   67

  MODERN LANGUAGES                                 _Dorothea Beale_   94

  SPELLING REFORM                                  _Dorothea Beale_  106

  HISTORY AS AN EDUCATIONAL SUBJECT                _Dorothea Beale_  114

  TEACHING MODERN HISTORY TO SENIOR CLASSES         _Alice Andrews_  124

  THE TEACHING OF ANCIENT HISTORY             _Mary Hanbidge, M.A._  159

  TIME-MAPS                                        _Dorothea Beale_  168

  ECONOMICS FOR GIRLS                            _Margaret Bridges_  186

  ENGLISH LITERATURE                                    _Amy Lumby_  192

  PHILOSOPHY AND RELIGION                          _Dorothea Beale_  202


  PART II. MATHEMATICS.

  ARITHMETIC                                       _Dorothea Beale_  216

  MATHEMATICS                                      _Dorothea Beale_  239


  PART III. SCIENCE.

  INTRODUCTION--PSYCHOLOGICAL ORDER OF STUDY WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE
  TO SCIENTIFIC TEACHING                           _Dorothea Beale_  251

  THE TEACHING OF THE BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES     _Charlotte L. Laurie_  260

  GEOGRAPHY                           _Margery Reid, B.Sc. (Lond.)_  275

  PHYSICS                           _Agatha Leonard, B.Sc. (Lond.)_  291

  THE TEACHING OF CHEMISTRY
                           _Clare de Brereton Evans, D.Sc. (Lond.)_  307


  PART IV. ÆSTHETICS.

  INTRODUCTION--ART                                _Dorothea Beale_  320

  PIANOFORTE TEACHING                            _Domenico Barnett_  326

  THE VIOLIN                                           _Lewis Hann_  338

  CLASS-SINGING                                   _Florence Mosley_  340

  SINGING. TONIC SOL-FA                              _Rhoda Rooney_  344

  ELOCUTION                                           _Rose Seaton_  346

  DRAWING, PAINTING, ETC.                    _Pauline M. Randerson_  348

  BRUSH DRAWING                                  _ Mary Farbrother_  354

  PAINTING                                      _Arthur Richardson_  356

  FRESCO                                               _Eadie Reid_  358

  CHINA PAINTING                                    _Minna Crawley_  360

  ART NEEDLEWORK                                    _Minna Crawley_  361

  WOOD-CARVING, ETC.                           _M. S. Lyndon Smith_  362

  MODELLING                                   _Evangeline Stirling_  363

  SLOYD                                       _Evangeline Stirling_  366

  CONCLUSION--RELATION OF SCHOOL TO HOME           _Dorothea Beale_  367


  SECTION II., p. 374.

  THE MORAL SIDE OF EDUCATION. BY LUCY H. M. SOULSBY, OF MANOR HOUSE
  SCHOOL, BRONDESBURY, N.W.; LATE HEAD MISTRESS OF THE OXFORD HIGH
  SCHOOL.


  SECTION III., p. 396.

  CULTIVATION OF THE BODY. BY JANE FRANCES DOVE, OF WYCOMBE ABBEY
  SCHOOL; LATE HEAD MISTRESS OF ST. LEONARD’S SCHOOL, ST. ANDREWS, N.B.


  INDEX                                                              425




SECTION I.


INTRODUCTION.

By DOROTHEA BEALE.

[Subject.]

I have been asked to undertake one section of a book on the
education of girls, and to confine myself, as far as possible, to
the intellectual aspects of education, leaving to others the task of
dealing with the physical and moral aspects. I shall try to keep within
the assigned limits--abstain from any systematic treatment of the laws
of hygiene, and write no formal treatise on school ethics--but all the
intellectual work must of course be conditioned by the necessities of
the physical life, and the final cause of all education must be the
development of a right character.

[Education of girls in secondary schools.]

I am to treat the subject too with special reference to the large
secondary schools which have come into existence during the last fifty
years, and in doing so, I must dwell briefly upon the changes which
have taken place in the ideals and theories regarding the education of
girls, which have found expression in these schools, and in the Women’s
Colleges. I shall speak of what has yet to be accomplished, for we are
still in a period of transition, and I shall consider by what means we
may best realise our ideals.

[Aim of education]

Now in education there is always a twofold object. Bacon tells us the
furthest end of knowledge is “the glory of the Creator and the relief
of man’s estate”--in other words, the perfection of the individual, and
the good of the community. In some periods, indeed in pre-Christian
times generally, the latter was emphasised,[1] men were to live for
the commonwealth; the individual was regarded as an instrument for
accomplishing certain work--he was not thought of as an end in himself.
Thus even the most enlightened among ancient writers have spoken of
slaves, as if they were mere chattels. Our moral sense is shocked by
much that we read in Plato and Aristotle, and still more by what the
laws of Rome permitted. Christianity on the other hand taught that the
primary relationship of each was to the All-Father, the primary duty of
each to realise God’s ideal for His children, to become perfect, and by
glorifying human nature to glorify God. This was the first commandment,
but the second was implied in the first--self-love was not selfish, the
love of God descending from heaven became the enthusiasm of humanity.

  [1] Even Milton writes: “I call a complete and generous education
  that which fits a man to perform justly, skilfully and magnanimously
  all the offices to the public and private, of peace and war”.

[as regards the individual,]

“Education,” writes Mr. Ruskin (_Queen’s Gardens_), “is the leading
human souls to what is best and making what is best out of them; and
these two objects are always attainable together, and by the same
means; the training which makes men happiest in themselves, also makes
them most serviceable to others.” “The only safe course,” writes
Miss Shirreff (_Intellectual Education_), “is to hold up individual
perfectness as the aim of education.”

[as regards the commonwealth.]

And so the task of the educator is in the first instance to develop to
the highest perfection all the powers of the child, that he may realise
the ideal of the All-Father. But the perfection of man “the thinker,”
the anthropos, “the upward looker,” can be attained only when as a son
he enters into, and co-operates with the Divine purpose in thought and
act: therefore to know God and His laws for His children’s education
and development, is the beginning and the end. These laws man reads
(1) in the world of Nature with which science has to do; (2) in human
history and institutions; (3) in the hidden life of the soul--of which
philosophy and religion and ethics treat. He has to seek first to know
truth, to bring his will into conformity with the Divine thought,
and then to utter what is true and right in word and deed; only thus
will the kingdom of righteousness be set up, and the perfection of
the whole--the well-being of the commonwealth--of “man writ large” be
secured. The most civilised nations are devoting their best energies
to the work of education, realising that upon this depends their
very existence--that it is not by starving the individual life, and
merging it in the general, but by developing each to perfection, that
the common good will be secured. They trust less to the power of laws
and institutions, more to the power of a right education--less to
external restraint, more to the wisdom that comes of a wisely directed
experience.

[Reforms since 1848.]

These principles have guided the new movement for women’s education,
and those who have followed the changes in public opinion, since
people have thought more of each individual as an end in himself, are
full of confidence and hope. The reformers said: “Let us give to girls
an invigorating dietary, physical, intellectual, moral; seclusion from
evil is impossible, but we can strengthen the patient to resist it”.

    ’Tis life, not death for which we pant,
    More life and fuller, that we want!

Such were, I believe, the feelings and the thoughts of those who
initiated just fifty years ago the great movement, which found its
first visible expression in the foundation of Queen’s College by
Maurice and Kingsley and Trench and others like-minded and less known.
This was soon followed by the opening of Bedford College, 1849, and
the Cheltenham Ladies’ College, 1853. Miss Buss and her brothers, in
association with Mr. Laing, established the first great High School,
and Mrs. Grey and Miss Shirreff carried on the movement in that
direction; from the Union founded by them grew up the G.P.D.S. Co.,
while Miss Davies with far-seeing wisdom won over Cambridge professors
(amongst whom I may specially mention Professor Henry Sidgwick and
James Stuart) to offer the highest culture to women.

The leaders had to ask and answer many questions. What direction, what
shape should the new movement for higher education take? Should there
be two sorts of education for girls and boys? The Schools’ Inquiry
Commission had shown that a specially feminine education had not
produced very successful results, and the leaders said: Let us give to
girls the solid teaching in languages and mathematics and science,
which are found to strengthen the powers of boys, and prepare them to
do good work of many kinds. If it was objected that women were to rule
in the home, and men in the larger world, they argued, that for girls
as for boys, the right course was to give a liberal education. The boy
does not learn in the school the things which will be required in his
future business or profession, but he brings to these the cultivated
mind, the power of work, the disciplined will.

[Results physical and moral.]

And the world is more and more recognising that the leaders were
right, and schools have arisen in all our great towns. Fifty years
ago there were dismal prophecies--an outcry that study would ruin
health. Now it is a common remark that there is a general improvement
in physique. Women too are more conscious of their responsibilities in
the life of the family, as well as in that of the country, especially
in social and church life. They feel, that though they may have but
the “smallest scruple” of excellence, they must render for it “thanks
and use”. Besides, another good has been more and more realised; as
Mrs. Jameson, in her beautiful lecture,[2] set forth, girls taught on
the same lines, and women who can enter into the subjects of study
and thought which occupy the minds of their fathers, husbands, sons,
have more understanding, more sympathy, more power to make the home
what it should be; the only healthy intellectual companionship is
communion between active minds, and the highest purposes of marriage
are unfulfilled, if either husband or wife lives in a region of
thought which the other cannot enter. Besides, those many women who
remain unmarried can, if well educated, find in some form of service
the satisfaction of their higher nature. Surely women trained in good
schools and colleges have as wives and mothers shared the labours
and entered more fully as companions into the lives of husbands and
children. The names of many will occur to my readers, but one cares
not to name the living. We see every year at the Conference of Women
Workers, that the seed sown in faith has brought forth fruit; that the
whole aspect of the woman’s realm has changed since the days of Evelina
and Miss Austen.

  [2] “Communion of Labour.”

But none of us may rest in that which has been attained. We ask for
the “wages of going on and not to die”. There is earnest endeavour
on the part of all engaged in the work of education, which has found
expression in such societies as the Parents’ Educational Union, the
Child Study Society, and the Teachers’ Guild. Teachers are not content
with the school year, but holiday courses are the order of the day,
and many are seeking training, and others ask for a year or a term to
improve, and books on education are pouring from the press, and some
of us, who have gained experience which may be helpful to others, feel
bound, though much hindered by the calls of active life, to share those
experiences, and say what we can about the ideals, the principles,
the methods, which, we trust, have already, in spite of the gloomy
portents of years gone by, improved the physical, the intellectual and
moral vigour of those who have shared the larger life, entered into
the higher intellectual interests, and undergone the strengthening
discipline of our large schools.

[Curriculum]

With these preliminary remarks, I enter upon the subject of the
curriculum; I have drawn up a table which I shall proceed to discuss.
I have classed the subjects of education under five heads, and divided
the pupils in a general way also into five classes. But before I deal
with the practical, let me speak of the ideal. There is nothing so
practical as _ideas_--these are the moving power of all our acts.

If what I have said is true, the subject cannot be treated in reference
to girls only; not because I would assimilate the teaching of girls to
that of boys, but because the teaching of both should aim at developing
to the highest excellence the intellectual powers common to both. The
teaching of modern science tells us that both pass through the same
lower stages, that they may rise into the higher, and all history tells
us that men and women

                            Rise or sink
    Together, dwarfed or godlike, bond or free.

So we ask generally what is the Education of Man? Fröbel has rightly
emphasised the last word. It is the development of that which
distinguishes man from all the lower forms of life “summed up” in him,
that can alone be properly called the Education of Man: other creatures
can live, as he does, the nutritive or vegetable life, which goes on
of itself--other animals live the conscious life, they see and know,
but to man alone it is possible to objectify all things by transcending
them, and even that lower self, which is part of his dual nature; he
is able to know himself both as “I” and “me”; he brings to sensation
the formative power of his own thought, makes, as Kant has said, the
universe which he did not create. And so man does not merely perceive,
but apperceive, takes into his own being ideas, thoughts; combines,
associates these,--and indeed it is difficult to speak of these ideas
otherwise than Herbart does, as entities, by which the mind grows,
fashioning them to its own uses, as the body does, the food on which it
lives. Because he can objectify thus, language is possible. Man gives
to thoughts, these “airy nothings, a local habitation and a name”; he
is able to plan, to project and therefore to form judgments.

But if he is related to that world to which the senses reach, he is
also in relation, through an inward feeling which we call sympathy,
with other “subjects,” able to recognise in others that which he
knows in himself as mind; if he finds himself so related to the world
of sense, that he responds to its touch, much more nearly is he in
relation with other personalities; these he knows, before he recognises
objective nature; through other minds his own is educated, and so the
humanities take the first place; he enters into relations through
the _communis sensus_ with a world of thinking beings. These persons
communicate thoughts, specially through (_a_) language immediate, and
through written language. By written speech the limitations of space
and time are abolished, and we are able to speak not only of men, but
of man, for not only is his physical life continuous, but his mental
and moral life through the ages is one. So from language we pass to
(_b_) history and literature and historic act, the record of what men
have done and suffered and thought and recorded, not in books only but
in all material things; for man the dead live; and as the actors pass
from the stage, history, no less than philosophy and science, tends
upwards to those higher regions of thought, where we ponder on the
(_c_) mysteries of man’s self-conscious life, on his relation to other
minds, and to the One whose offspring we are, and in Whom all things
live and move and have their being.

The subjects of study then may also be classified under five headings:--

I. The Humanities: which have to do with man, known objectively
through word and deed, in language and literature, in history and art;
subjectively, as in ethics, religion, philosophy.

II. Mathematics: embracing three divisions relating to space, number,
energy in the abstract--these have to do with necessary truth.

III. Science: which rests not on a basis of thought only, but on facts
given through sense objectively.

IV. Æsthetics: which may be classed under the three heads, as music,
painting and the other arts--considered subjectively.

V. The exercises suitable for the physical development.

It is with the first section that every teacher has to do; though
he may be a specialist for science or mathematics or music, he has
always to do with man in his manifold relations, he has ever to do
with the humanities. It must be the constant study of the teacher to
find the best means of developing the powers of thought, of calling
forth right motives of action, developing right habits, and so forming
noble characters, which is the final cause of all his labours. Ever
throughout life he will by study and experience deepen and extend his
knowledge, but it is earnestly to be desired that he should have some
leisure for definite preparation by the study of education as an art,
a science, a philosophy, before entering on his responsible work. In
this, as in everything else, only those who have gained the knowledge
are really judges of its value. The man who knows no foreign tongue,
supposes he understands English, but we know in how poor and faulty
a way. A study of the mysteries of our own being, of the fundamental
basis of philosophy and psychology, personal knowledge of and sympathy
with the great thinkers and philosophers and martyrs of education,
must move us to more purposeful and thoughtful and devoted lives, and
give us a joy that we cannot feel when we are working blindly and
mechanically, without the faith which works by love.

HOURS OF STUDY INCLUDING PREPARATION PER WEEK.

  +-------+-----------------+----------------+----------------+--------+
  |       |    Subjects.    |   A. Under 8   |   B. 8 to 12   | Hrs. B |
  |       |                 |     years.     |     years.     | and C. |
  |       |                 |                |About 24 hours. |        |
  |       |                 |                |                |        |
  +-------+-----------------+----------------+----------------+--------+
  |      {| 1. Language.    |English reading |Elementary ideas|}=12=   |
  |      {|                 |and French _v.  |of grammar,     |}       |
  |      {|                 |voce_.          |French _v.      |}       |
  |      {|                 |                |voce_, and read-|}       |
  |      {|                 |                |ing and trans-  |}       |
  |      {|                 |                |lation into Eng-|}       |
  |      {|                 |                |lish, learning  |}       |
  |      {|                 |                |poetry, dia-    |}       |
  |      {|                 |                |logues, etc.    |}       |
  |      {|                 |                |                |}       |
  |      {| 2. Man  {His-   |Mythological    |Time maps and   |}       |
  |      {|    ob-  {tory.  |tales and       |epochs in       |}       |
  |I.    {|    jec- {Litera-|stories from    |world’s history.|}       |
  |=Hu-  {|    tive-{ture.  |history. Learn- |English history |}       |
  |mani- {|    ly.  {Art.   |ing poetry.     |treated bio-    |}       |
  |ties.={|                 |                |graphically.    |}       |
  |      {|                 |                |Stories from    |}       |
  |      {|                 |                |ancient history.|}       |
  |      {|                 |                |Learning poetry.|}       |
  |      {|                 |                |                |}       |
  |      {|                 |                |                |}       |
  |      {|                 |                |                |}       |
  |      {|                 |                |                |}       |
  |      {|                 |                |                |}       |
  |      {|                 |                |                |}       |
  |      {| 3. Man  {Ethics.|Bible stories,  |Bible lessons   |}       |
  |      {|    sub- {Reli-  |simple hymns and|selected. Learn-|}       |
  |      {|    jec- {gion.  |prayers.        |ing simple pas- |}       |
  |      {|    tive-{Philo- |                |sages from New  |}       |
  |      {|    ly.  {sophy. |                |Testament, hymns|}       |
  |      {|                 |                |and collects.   |}       |
  |       |                 |                |                |        |
  |      {| 4. Arithmetic   |Arithmetic,     |Arithmetic in   |}=3 to  |
  |      {|    and Algebra. |chiefly with    |some cases      |}5=     |
  |      {|                 |concrete        |generalised to  |}       |
  |      {|                 |objects.        |algebra for     |}       |
  |      {|                 |                |older children, |}       |
  |      {|                 |                |for younger     |}       |
  |      {|                 |                |still much con- |}       |
  |      {|                 |                |crete.          |}       |
  |II.   {|                 |                |                |}       |
  |=Math-{| 5. Geometry.    |Simple ideas of |Elementary prac-|}       |
  |emat- {|                 |form.           |tical geometry. |}       |
  |ics.= {|                 |                |Many problems.  |}       |
  |      {|                 |                |In some cases a |}       |
  |      {|                 |                |beginning of    |}       |
  |      {|                 |                |logical demon-  |}       |
  |      {|                 |                |strations.      |}       |
  |      {|                 |                |                |        |
  |      {| 6. {Kinematics. |                |                |        |
  |      {|    {Mixed Mathe-|                |                |        |
  |      {|    {mats.,      |                |                |        |
  |      {|    {_e.g._, Me- |                |                |        |
  |      {|    {chanics.    |                |                |        |
  |       |                 |                |                |        |
  |      {| 7. Natural      |Object lessons. |Botany, zoology,|=2 to 4=|
  |      {|    Science.     |                |astronomy, laws |        |
  |      {|                 |                |of health--in   |        |
  |      {|                 |                |succession.     |        |
  |      {|                 |                |                |        |
  |      {|                 |                |                |        |
  |      {|                 |                |                |        |
  |III.  {| 8. Physio-      |Making map of   |Erdkunde, phys- |        |
  |=Sci- {|    graphy.      |school and near |iography,       |        |
  |ence.={|                 |places; modeling|natural phenome-|        |
  |      {|                 |in clay or sand.|na.             |        |
  |      {|                 |                |                |        |
  |      {| 9. Molecular    |                |                |        |
  |      {|    Science.     |                |                |        |
  |      {|                 |                |                |        |
  |      {|                 |                |                |        |
  |      {|                 |                |                |        |
  |       |                 |                |                |        |
  |      {|10. Music.       |Sol-fa singing. |Instrumental    |        |
  |      {|                 |                |music, singing, |        |
  |      {|                 |                |elocution.      |        |
  |      {|                 |                |                |        |
  |      {|                 |                |                |        |
  |IV.   {|11. Drawing, etc.|Drawing with    |Drawing and     |=7 to 9=|
  |=Æs-  {|                 |pencil and      |painting.       |        |
  |thet- {|                 |brush.          |                |        |
  |ics.= {|                 |                |                |        |
  |      {|12. Plastic Arts,|Modelling in    |Various kinds of|        |
  |      {|    etc.         |clay. Basket    |handwork.       |        |
  |      {|                 |making, card-   |                |        |
  |      {|                 |board sloyd,    |                |        |
  |      {|                 |etc., etc.      |                |        |
  |       |                 |                |                |        |
  |      {|13. Gymnastics,  |                |Systematic      |        |
  |      {|    etc.         |                |drill.          |        |
  |      {|                 |                |                |        |
  |V.    {|                 |                |                |        |
  |=Ath- {|                 |                |                |        |
  |let-  {|14. Games.       |Kindergarten    |Games.          |        |
  |ics.= {|                 |games and drill.|                |        |
  |      {|                 |                |                |        |
  |      {|15. Country      |                |Field clubs.    |        |
  |      {|    Excursions.  |                |                |        |
  +-------+-----------------+----------------+----------------+--------+

  +-------+-----------------+-------------+-------------+--------------+
  |       |    Subjects.    | C. 12 to 16 | D. 16 to 18 |  E. Over 18  |
  |       |                 |    years.   |    years.   |    years.    |
  |       |                 |   About 30  |   About 36  |              |
  |       |                 |    hours.   |    hours.   |              |
  +-------+-----------------+-------------+-------------+--------------+
  |      {| 1. Language.    |Grammar; in- |French, Ger- |An additional |
  |      {|                 |creasing at- |man or Latin.|language,     |
  |      {|                 |tention to   |In some cases|Greek or      |
  |      {|                 |philology;   |one other    |Italian.      |
  |      {|                 |French, with |language.    |              |
  |      {|                 |German, or   |             |              |
  |      {|                 |Latin.       |             |              |
  |      {|                 |             |             |              |
  |      {|                 |             |             |              |
  |      {|                 |             |             |              |
  |      {| 2. Man  {His-   |English his- |English con- |Ancient clas- |
  |      {|    ob-  {tory.  |tory in      |stitutional  |sics in the   |
  |I.    {|    jec- {Litera-|periods and  |history. Spe-|original or   |
  |=Hu-  {|    tive-{ture.  |corresponding|cial period  |translations. |
  |mani- {|    ly.  {Art.   |literary     |of English.  |Foreign clas- |
  |ties.={|                 |periods with |Also of an-  |sics and view |
  |      {|                 |special      |cient or mod-|of European   |
  |      {|                 |books. Out-  |ern. Diffi-  |literature.   |
  |      {|                 |lines of     |cult books in|              |
  |      {|                 |general his- |English.     |              |
  |      {|                 |tory, ancient|             |              |
  |      {|                 |and modern,  |             |              |
  |      {|                 |with time    |             |              |
  |      {|                 |maps.        |             |              |
  |      {|                 |             |             |              |
  |      {| 3. Man  {Ethics.|A gospel. In-|St. John or  |Fundamental   |
  |      {|    sub- {Reli-  |struction in |epistles.    |ideas of phi- |
  |      {|    jec- {gion.  |the prayer-  |Doctrinal    |losophy.      |
  |      {|    tive-{Philo- |book, etc.   |teaching.    |Christian dog-|
  |      {|    ly.  {sophy. |             |             |matics and    |
  |      {|                 |             |             |ethics.       |
  |       |                 |             |             |              |
  |      {| 4. Arithmetic   |Arithmetic   |Advanced pure|              |
  |      {|    and Algebra. |and algebra  |and mixed    |              |
  |      {|                 |to quadrat-  |mathematics. |              |
  |      {|                 |ics.         |             |              |
  |      {|                 |             |             |              |
  |      {|                 |             |             |              |
  |      {|                 |             |             |              |
  |      {|                 |             |             |              |
  |II.   {|                 |             |             |              |
  |=Math-{| 5. Geometry.    |Euclid I. and|             |              |
  |emat- {|                 |II., or      |             |              |
  |ics.= {|                 |equivalent.  |             |              |
  |      {|                 |             |             |              |
  |      {|                 |             |             |              |
  |      {|                 |             |             |              |
  |      {|                 |             |             |              |
  |      {|                 |             |             |              |
  |      {| 6. {Kinematics. |Elementary   |             |              |
  |      {|    {Mixed Mathe-|mixed        |             |              |
  |      {|    {mats.,      |mathematics. |             |              |
  |      {|    {_e.g._, Me- |             |             |              |
  |      {|    {chanics.    |             |             |              |
  |       |                 |             |             |              |
  |      {| 7. Natural      |Botany,      |Physiology   |              |
  |      {|    Science.     |zoology,     |and one or   |              |
  |      {|                 |astronomy,   |more branches|              |
  |      {|                 |laws of      |of physical  |              |
  |      {|                 |health--in   |science.     |              |
  |      {|                 |succession.  |             |              |
  |      {|                 |             |             |              |
  |III.  {| 8. Physio-      |Erdkunde,    |             |              |
  |=Sci- {|    graphy.      |physiography |             |              |
  |ence.={|                 |or natural   |             |              |
  |      {|                 |phenomena.   |             |              |
  |      {|                 |             |             |              |
  |      {| 9. Molecular    |Chemistry,   |             |              |
  |      {|    Science.     |heat, light, |             |              |
  |      {|                 |electricity--|             |              |
  |      {|                 |in succes-   |             |              |
  |      {|                 |sion.        |             |              |
  |       |                 |             |             |              |
  |      {|10. Music.       |Instrumental |}            |              |
  |      {|                 |music, sing- |}            |              |
  |      {|                 |ing, elocu-  |}            |              |
  |      {|                 |tion.        |}            |              |
  |      {|                 |             |}            |              |
  |IV.   {|11. Drawing, etc.|Drawing and  |}            |              |
  |=Æs-  {|                 |painting.    |}Some one    |              |
  |thet- {|                 |             |}branch.     |              |
  |ics.= {|                 |             |}            |              |
  |      {|12. Plastic Arts,|Various kinds|}            |              |
  |      {|    etc.         |of handwork. |}            |              |
  |      {|                 |             |}            |              |
  |      {|                 |             |}            |              |
  |      {|                 |             |}            |              |
  |       |                 |             |             |              |
  |      {|13. Gymnastics,  |Systematic   |             |              |
  |      {|    etc.         |drill.       |             |              |
  |      {|                 |             |             |              |
  |V.    {|                 |             |             |              |
  |=Ath- {|                 |             |             |              |
  |let-  {|14. Games.       |Games.       |             |              |
  |ics.= {|                 |             |             |              |
  |      {|                 |             |             |              |
  |      {|15. Country      |Field clubs. |             |              |
  |      {|    Excursions.  |             |             |              |
  +-------+-----------------+-------------+-------------+--------------+

I have mentioned at the close of the introduction some books not too
large or difficult which will be helpful to those who desire to begin
the serious study of the subjects included under the general heading of
pedagogy.

In the table (p. 10) I have arranged courses of study and grouped
pupils according to age, but only for those called B and C have I
attempted to give the time each week, which might be allowed on an
average for serious study. I think the Bs generally and the Cs almost
always should follow a fixed course, though some variation should be
permitted to the Cs. The Ds and Es should take special directions,
dropping some subjects and giving much time to others. Under the head
of B, I have given what is perhaps the nearest approach to the normal
type in my own school. Those who do not learn music, can of course take
an extra language, or otherwise cultivate a special subject; those who
are but slightly pervious to mathematical ideas are allowed to drop
Euclid, after having done enough to profit by the wholesome discipline
of writing out propositions say up to Euclid I. 26. These may perhaps
add another musical instrument or some manual work.

The principle I would insist on is that our curriculum should, to use a
sensible figure, be pyramidal, having a broad base and narrowing; the
total cubic content might be the same each year, but in proportion as
the subjects taken were fewer, there would be greater depth. Thus the
Cs would specialise to a slight extent, the Ds should do so still more,
and the Es have found out their vocation, so that for these last no
time-table can be given.

[Silence.]

In drawing up a time-table I have given only the general lines, and
assigned an average time for each section; the case of every individual
must be separately considered, and there should always remain some
hours of leisure--in the highest classes I have arranged for school
work about eight hours out of the twenty-four. If we give four hours
to meals and outdoor exercise, and eight to sleep, we have a margin of
four hours--a considerable amount of time, if multiplied by six; part
of this may be given to general reading, part to social and family
life, but for the growing and developing mind there must be time for
solitude, for entering into the secret chamber, and listening for the
voice heard only in the stillness. We read much in praise of “Eyes”
and much in dis-praise of “No-eyes,” but there are times when great
thinkers are blind to outward things, and deaf to earthly voices; it
is at such times there rise before the mind’s eye ideals which fashion
the whole life. I am sure that in these days the young lose much for
want of more quiet on Sundays. There may have been over strictness in
the past--there is now a surprising ignorance of the Bible and the
grounds of faith. The silence rules of a good school tend to produce
a spirit of repose, and a library where no speaking is allowed is a
help. Rules which hinder idle talk in the bedrooms are a great boon to
those who find the value of quiet at the beginning and end of the day,
and I earnestly hope that the excitement of the playground may never
supersede the country rambles which have been fruitful of spiritual
health to many of us.

In considering how I shall best make this small volume of use to
teachers in high schools, I propose to adopt the following plan. First
to treat of a few general matters which belong to organisation and
the methods of management--_e.g._, distribution and economy of time,
corrections, marks, etc.

Then to deal with the subjects of the curriculum in order, in a series
of papers by myself and my colleagues.

In Part I. I have written first of language generally, embracing
reading, speaking, grammar, composition, foreign tongues. It will be
clear to all that I could not possibly, in the few pages assigned to
each subject, treat the matter exhaustively, but I hope I may strike
out some lines of thought which will be helpful, and the lists of books
may assist teachers in their studies. In most subjects I have been able
to get a few papers from members of my staff, past and present. Under
the head of Language I have one from Mr. Rouse, a most able teacher,
who had many years’ experience with our elder pupils, specially those
reading for classical honours in the University of London.

In History and Literature I have papers by Miss A. Andrews, Miss
Hanbidge and Miss Lumby, the very successful teachers who take these
subjects in the London and Higher Cambridge class; there is also a
paper on Economics by Miss Bridges.

In Part III. I have papers by four specially able and experienced
teachers--Miss de Brereton Evans, D.Sc. Lond., Miss Reid, B.Sc. Lond.,
Miss Leonard, B.Sc. Lond., and Miss Laurie.

In Part IV. I have a number of short papers by members of our teaching
staff.

Section II. has been assigned by the publishers to another hand, and
for that I am not responsible. Upon the basis of this classification,
I have drawn up a table showing how the methods of teaching these
subjects will vary with the age of the pupil, and what is, I consider,
the best order of subjects. I have also added some chapters on various
subjects--as Spelling Reform and the Relation of School to Home.

[Time available.]

Before proceeding further it will be best to consider what is the
amount of time at our disposal for school teaching. The division of the
year into three terms of about twelve weeks, consisting of five or six
days each, is so generally adopted that we may take that for granted.
The years of school life are at the utmost about ten--in the case of
most girls far less.

For day schools in large towns, attended by pupils from considerable
distances, two attendances are impossible, and the morning has to
last from about 9 or 9·30 to 1 or 1·30. Of the four hours about three
and a half are available for lessons, the remaining half-hour being
taken up with the general assembly for prayers and a brief interval
for recreation; but these twenty-one or twenty-four hours are not
spent, as parents are apt to imagine, in poring over books, but are
varied by lessons in gymnastics, drawing, singing. Some pupils in
large towns remain to dine at the school, and have afternoon teaching
in accomplishments. In small towns they return. Thirty hours a week
should, I think, be the limit of time given to study for girls of
school age. Students fully grown may study six hours a day. Eight
should, I think, not be exceeded by any.

[Length of lesson.]

In arranging the time-table, several things have to be considered.
(1) A, the youngest children, would have no lessons of more than half
an hour, and not more than two hours of definite instruction, the
remainder being occupied with games, drill, singing and various hand
occupations. Those under eight would have a larger proportion of these
last, and perhaps attend for a shorter time. The elder children can
have a reading lesson before the general assembly, and the little ones
might leave half an hour before the morning closes. If they wait for
elder sisters, amusements may be devised. (2) In the case of all, an
endeavour should be made to place those studies which make the heaviest
demands on the attention as far as possible in the early morning
hours. (3) The lessons for Sections B and C would average about fifty
minutes, some being thirty minutes, others an hour, the drawing lesson
being perhaps longer, whilst religious instruction following upon
prayers would occupy half an hour, as would drill and singing. (4) Care
should be taken to vary the subjects, so that if possible two lecture
lessons should not follow one another, nor two on language, nor two
mathematical lessons.

[Order of study.]

[Dietary.]

We have next to consider the order of study, what subjects are best
adapted to the state of development of the child, or in what different
ways the same subject may be treated to make it suitable at different
ages. In this matter fatal mistakes are still made.[3] Happily the
teachings of educational reformers have brought before us the evils
of the neglect of psychological principles. We are shocked when we
hear of mothers ignorant of physiology, feeding infants on bread and
tea, and giving soothing syrups; we recognise the danger of too many
sweets, and of cigars for growing boys--these have their parallels in
the mental dietary. But it is not so much giving wrong things as the
deprivation of right things at the right time that is fatal. It is
wonderful how much unwholesome food can be disposed of by a vigorous
child--there is a fit of sickness and it is gone; but we see in the
adult bodily framework, the stunted skeleton, the decaying teeth,
etc., the effect of starvation during years of growth. To deprive the
child of the mental food and exercise necessary for his development
at each period of his growth is a fatal error, the consequences of
which are irreparable. This has been forcibly put by Dr. Harris, Chief
Commissioner of Education, U.S.A. Speaking of the prolongation for man
of the period of infancy required for his development, that he may
be adapted to the spiritual environment of the social community into
which he is born, he writes: “Is it not evident that if the child is
at any epoch inured into any habit or fixed form of activity belonging
to a lower stage of development, the tendency will be to arrest
growth at that point, and make it difficult or next to impossible to
continue the growth of the child into higher and more civilised forms
of soul-activity? A severe drill in mechanical habits of memorising,
any overcultivation of sense-perception in tender years, may arrest
the development of the soul, form a mechanical method of thinking, and
prevent the further growth into spiritual insight--especially on the
second plane of thought, that which follows sense-perception, namely,
the stage of classifying or even the search for causal relations, there
is most danger of this arrested development. The absorption of the gaze
upon the adjustments within the machine, prevents us from seeing it as
a whole. The attention to details of colouring or drawing may prevent
one from seeing the significance of the great works of art.... To
keep the intellect out of the abyss of habit, and to make the ethical
behaviour more and more a matter of unquestioning habit, seems to be
the desideratum.”

  [3] “The logical order of a good course of instruction,” writes
  Compayré (_Psychology Applied to Education_), “must correspond to
  the chronological order of development of the mental powers.” “If,”
  writes Herbert Spencer, “the higher faculties are taxed by presenting
  an order of knowledge more complex and abstract than can be readily
  assimilated, the abnormal result so produced will be accompanied by
  equivalent evil.”

Tradition furnishes those who have made no formal study of the subject
of mental growth with some empirical rules for a healthy dietary,--as
Mr. Barnett has shown,[4] or our children would fare badly; but the
evils of misplacing subjects in the order of study, of neglecting to
teach the right subjects at the right time, and of partial starvation,
are too apparent. Let me conclude with an illustrative anecdote--an
object lesson. At school I always kept caterpillars; they were
regularly fed, and seldom failed to come out in perfect condition. Once
some “woolly bears” escaped; they were found after a few days, and
again provided with ample food; but it was too late, they came out with
only rudimentary wings.

  [4] _Teaching and Organisation_, p. 5.

But not only have we to provide the right subjects at the right time,
we have to consider how the manner of teaching the same subject may
be adapted to the age of the pupil. In an excellent Report on the
Schools of St. Louis some years ago, Dr. Harris expounded the spiral
system. In studying say botany in the lowest class, the children would
learn to observe the forms of plant life, and become familiar with
the main facts of classificatory botany, the observing power being
chiefly called into action. Then the subject would be dropped, and
taken up years after from the physiological point of view, when the
learners would be able to understand the chemical changes, the process
of development, etc., as they could not in earlier years. Similarly
all Herbartians know how the teaching of history proceeds from the
mythological story, through biography to history, and some of us have
seen the bad results of giving little children formularies which have
no meaning for them, instead of seeking to develop in them through the
discipline of home, and Bible teaching regarding the lives of the good,
feelings of filial trust and reverence and obedience. For examples of
this I may refer to Miss Bremner’s book on the _Education of Girls_.

In the accompanying time-table I have endeavoured to make a double
classification in reference to the subjects taught, and the age of the
learners. In discussing it I shall continue to use the word faculty,
in spite of Herbartian protests, meaning thereby the power of doing
certain special acts, which vary in character. We have the power of
directing our attention to the objects of sense, or of withdrawing it
from these, and becoming conscious only of the working of our own mind;
we have, _i.e._, the faculty of observation and of reflection; by the
use of the word faculty--etymologically, the power of doing--we need
not dismember the Subject, but think of the One person as acting in
different ways.

Part I., the humanities, should throughout the whole course be
represented in all its branches; to it belong specially the
_cultur-studien_. I think of some miserable starved specimens of girls
I have known, fed upon an almost unmixed diet of either classics or
mathematics; their physique had suffered, and they had no mental
elasticity, their one idea being to win scholarships: they did this,
but never flourished at the university, for want of all-round culture.
Others I have known, who thought they could be high-class musicians by
practising their fingers, without cultivating their minds; the results
were lamentable; whereas those who gave half the time to music and half
to _cultur-studien_, did more in the limited time. Is not the overwork
of which many complain later, due to the too undivided work at one
subject during the undergraduate period at the university? Mathematics
relieves the strain of classics; specialising may be comparatively
harmless to the full-grown man, but the child-specialist will grow up
deformed.

[Class teachers and specialists.]

Shall teaching be by class teachers or by specialists? Once every
teacher was expected to take all the subjects with her class, now
the tendency is towards specialisation. In junior classes the class
mistress has many advantages over the specialist, for she knows what
the children can do, the character and difficulties of each, and
can adapt her teaching to her pupils. In any case she must exercise
control over specialists, each of whom is inclined to think her subject
the most important. She can get hold of children, and exercise a
stronger influence than an occasional teacher, and the more subjects
she teaches, the more intimate will be the relation to her pupils.
On the other hand, it is not good for children to be shut up to one
personality, though it is not well for them to be under too many, and
there ought always to be one predominant; for this reason special
arrangements are made in some boys’ schools for a tutor to follow
the boy’s career all the way up the school. A class teacher too can
correlate the different subjects, and make one help the other; being
always at hand, she can give such help as is needed at odd times, to
bring up laggards, and generally bring the intellectual to act upon the
moral.

On the other hand, a specialist can attain to greater excellence, throw
more life into the subject, keep up with new discoveries and methods;
the best plan is perhaps for the class teacher, at least in junior
classes, to hear and help to bring home to her pupils the teaching of
specialists; this is desirable with some foreign teachers, who fail to
understand the exact difficulties of English children. It can, however,
only be done when the staff is large. The case is different with upper
classes, which should be taught almost entirely by specialists, though
there should be always some one person responsible for each class.

[Head mistress.]

There seems to be a great difference between the kind of influence and
control exercised by a Head Master, and a Head Mistress. The government
of a boys’ school approaches more nearly to a republic, of a girls’
school to a constitutional monarchy; whilst classes and teachers change
for the child each year, the head mistress is permanent, and follows
each through all the classes, knowing her in all her phases. She
reads marks, gives encouragement and admonition, and is in immediate
relation with the other controlling influences, parents and teachers.
Then--owing possibly to the fact that many women have not degrees--the
head mistress permits herself to criticise and advise her teachers
in a way that no young master fresh from the Honour Schools would
permit. “I hear you go and listen to your teachers,” said the head of
an Oxford College to me--his face, on my admitting it, expressed more
than his words. Again, the head mistress considers herself responsible
for good order in every class, whereas in boys’ schools the entire
responsibility seems to rest on the individual master; this must
always be the case to a certain extent; head mistresses try to avoid
indiscipline by insisting on the training of teachers, and resorting
to various devices, _e.g._, a junior teacher is made assistant to a
senior, and entrusted with a class of her own, only when she has shown
herself able; or--until she has well grasped the reins--she is set
to teach in a large room in which there may be the head mistress and
some other teacher capable of overawing the restless; or if she is
a specialist the class teacher may be in the room. If the class is
insubordinate owing to the bad teaching they get, there is of course no
alternative but to change the teacher, or to improve her.

[Economy of time.]

Here let me touch on some of the chief perplexities of modern teachers.
Professor Miall (_Thirty Years of Teaching_) writes: “No one can write
on education without insisting on new subjects; and yet the old claims
are not relaxed. We must have science in several branches, modern
languages (more efficient than heretofore), drawing and gymnastics, but
classics and mathematics and divinity must be kept up and improved.
Increased hours are not to be thought of, fewer lessons, shorter
lessons, and not so much home-work, are the cry. More potatoes to
carry, and a smaller basket to carry them in.... I believe the problem
is not an insoluble one after all.”

The remedy, or perhaps I ought to say rather the mitigation of the
teacher’s difficulties, is to be found in four directions. (1) In
increasing the number of school years. The well-trained kindergarten
child comes with an interest in lessons, a power of attention, a
considerable amount of knowledge, and a clear understanding of much
that formerly children knew nothing about, so that we gain time at the
beginning. (2) Then if girls come earlier to school and stay later,
if we have a girl from eight to eighteen, we can give many things in
succession, which we once had to attempt simultaneously, when girls
came “to finish” in a year, or at most two years. (3) If the hours are
shorter, we can get more work done than was the case when children
were wearied out with long hours; when I began my teaching life at
Cheltenham, children came back sleepy for two hours of afternoon
lessons, and returned to do home work, when they should have been in
bed. (4) Better methods economise time, but this matter is so important
that I shall insist on it at some length.

[Economy of time in school.]

(_a_) First let me beg a teacher to think how easy it is to waste half
an hour in one minute. You have thirty girls before you and you say:
“Now, girls, I am going to give you a lesson, and you must be very
attentive,” and so on for one minute. Let every teacher use as few
words as possible. Let there be no preambles, no repetitions: “Now, my
dear child, I wonder whether, if I asked, you would be able to tell me
at once,” etc. Let the question be direct. “As I have said just now,”
then do not say it again.

Wordiness must be avoided. We all know how wearisome it is to hear the
same thing repeated in the same or different words. If we see this in a
book, we skim; if it is done in lesson or lecture, we let our thoughts
wander. Children do the same. I once heard a mistress of method
recommend teachers to repeat themselves!

(_b_) Learn what not to say, _e.g._, a name that you do not want
remembered. I knew some boys who were set to learn the names of the “Do
nothing” kings; the memory must not be loaded with useless luggage.

(_c_) In giving a dictation, some teachers will habitually repeat
twice; the consequence is that many do not listen the first time, and
a third repetition is often asked for. Let it be understood that the
sentence will be given distinctly, and not repeated.

(_d_) In English dictations do not ask that every word should be
written, but emphasise those required--“Each _separate_ parcel was
_received_”. “I did not _perceive_ his meaning.” “He did not _succeed_
in persuading her to _secede_.”

(_e_) If a lesson has been set, we must ascertain that every one
has learnt it, but there should be no questioning round and round
a class. If a question and answer take one and a half minutes in
a class of thirty, the whole time is gone, and the teacher has no
distinct impression of which pupils have answered well; but if two
questions in succession are asked of each and are promptly answered,
the whole lesson may be considered to be known. Suppose there is a
French dialogue to be heard, or an exercise has been learned, the
teacher should not read the English; the sentences should all be
numbered, the teacher call the number, and the child read the French
from the English. The sentences in some books are not numbered, and
some dialogue books are so printed, that the French cannot be covered;
these are time-wasting books. A prompt reply must always be given;
since we speak at the rate of over a hundred words in a minute, three
children could say two short sentences each in half a minute. Thus a
class of twenty could be heard in ten minutes, or if the class teacher
is assisting, and takes half the class, five minutes only would be
necessary, and time saved for oral composition, or reading exercises at
sight, or training in pronunciation, etc. Some teachers, if unanswered,
repeat a question. A girl who is not sure will often give an indistinct
reply; one who does this robs her companions; the time of the class
cannot be wasted thus, she must come in the afternoon and say it by
herself; it will generally be found that her vocal powers are improved
by this exercise.

(_f_) In many subjects a so-called written _viva voce_ may be properly
substituted--say six questions written on the blackboard with numbers,
the answers promptly written in class, the papers of different girls
exchanged, the faults underlined and the name of the corrector signed.
The answers can be quickly marked by the class teacher at home. This
has been dwelt on in Miss Andrews’ paper.

If French verbs have to be heard, table should be suspended, and the
teacher point to a tense and a number. Here is a portion of one:--

                        _Sing._       _Plur._
  Indic. Pres.          1, 2, 3.      1, 2, 3.
  Imperf.
  Passé défini, etc.

Of course this rapid questioning is suitable only when we wish to
ascertain whether a lesson has been learned, not to such _viva voces_
as are dialectic, intended to elucidate a subject and make pupils think.

Note-taking should never be allowed in junior classes; a syllabus
may in some cases be profitably supplied, or the lesson may be an
amplification of a text-book which the pupils have read, or questions
may be set calculated to bring out the main points of the lesson. It
should be an _invariable rule_ that _whatever is written_ is looked
over and corrected; if this is not done, we shall certainly get bad
writing, slovenly work and general inaccuracy. Should this not be
possible without over-working the staff, the _written_ work of the
pupils must be diminished, or the number of teachers increased.

[Corrections.]

The work of correcting is not mere drudgery, and it is essential, not
for the sake of the pupil only, but of the teacher. Without written
exercises she may imagine she is teaching, whilst her pupils are not
learning. A lesson she felt to be good, she will find perhaps has been
ill-adapted to the class, and therefore relatively bad. She will find
she has not emphasised the important matters, she has given a confused
picture in which one fails to see the wood for the trees. There are no
teachers like one’s own pupils if one will learn of them: they convict
us of disorder, inaccuracy, vagueness, etc.

It is important however that the teacher should be spared as much as
possible unnecessary labour and waste of time. It is one of the most
urgent duties of the head mistress to see that the teachers have not so
much to do in the way of correcting, as to stupefy them, and deprive
them of the time required for preparing lessons. The work of correcting
should be reduced as far as practicable for the teacher, and made as
profitable as possible for the pupil.

Suppose the teachers to be free after one o’clock, an hour may be
given in the afternoon to correcting, and one in the evening. Language
teachers, whose preparation is light, might do more, those who give
lectures less; the work of correction must be fairly distributed, and
a junior teacher trained to correct, by taking books first, and having
these revised and given out in class, in her presence by a senior
teacher.

[Giving up books.]

Very strict rules must be made regarding the giving up of books at the
right time by the pupils, and their being returned punctually in class
by the teacher with explanations and comments. The books should always
be in uniform, and some rules, _e.g._, respecting French being red,
German, blue, etc., are very useful. Outside should be a label with the
name of the pupil, the class and the boarding-house. This is important
in the case of derelicts. All corrections should be made in red ink,
and the exercise signed with the initials of the corrector.

[Giving out books.]

Suppose we have a foreign language exercise to be given out. The
teacher should come into class with memoranda of faults which have
commonly occurred, and mention these to the class generally. Faults of
mere carelessness should have a special indication in the book of the
offender, and need not be spoken of further to the class. Each pupil
should, before writing the next exercise, divide the page, write on one
side correctly the sentence in which the fault occurred, underlining
the words that were wrong, but on no account writing the mistakes
again, and on the other explain why it was wrong.

When an arithmetic paper has been set the teacher may read out the
answer, and each girl write W or R. The papers may be then collected,
and it will only remain for the teacher to see whether the method was
good. If not, she can write L W for “long way,” give explanations at
the next lesson, and have the sum done again. Slates should not be
used, nor loose papers, for such exercises.

If the paper is an essay, or answers to questions, the teacher should
make notes of the subjects in which the class generally has gone wrong,
and explain these. She may select specimens of broken figures, bad
grammar, etc., but it is very profitable to read out good specimens;
it is a great help to us to see others succeed, when we have tried
and failed, and there is nothing that many need more than a word of
encouragement to make them feel able to try. One who has done well
may be requested to enter good paragraphs in a book (what I think Dr.
Kennedy called a “Golden Book”) for the benefit of the class, and the
worst writers desired to copy it; this would have done them no good,
had they not tried and failed, but afterwards it helps us much to see
how well another can express what we could not. The teacher may herself
write in the book of the most painstaking pupil, things which she has
failed to make clear, and ask her to copy that into the aforesaid book;
it will do her good and help others. Certain conventional marks may be
agreed on, _e.g._, L would stand for wordiness, C P for commonplace, S
for satisfactory, G for good, Fig. for broken metaphors, etc.

[Apparatus.]

Diagrams and apparatus may be reckoned amongst time-saving things, but
like ready-made toys these may be less profitable to children than
very simple things, which they put together themselves, and the more
they make for themselves, the more they appreciate and profit by the
labours of others. Fergusson, lying on his back with a brown paper roll
for a telescope, and watching the movement of the stars, learned more
than many who are provided with an elaborate orery, and the Edgworths
learned more about the reason of a rainbow from their glass of water,
than many from the lens. As Miss Leonard has said in her paper, many
things are not necessary in teaching elementary science, and it is
a great pleasure to children to make anything for themselves. Here
the kindergarten training will tell. For higher work well-equipped
laboratories are good, but these are an expensive luxury, especially as
new things are being constantly invented.

Physiological models are almost indispensable for class teaching, and
excellent botanical ones are obtainable. A museum in which lessons can
be given, and specimens referred to, is very desirable for natural
science, but children should have their own private ones. Maps of
physical geography should be constantly before the eye, but wall maps
of political and historical geography cannot be so well seen; the
teacher should be able to draw on the board or on paper, maps bringing
out the special features of the lesson. It is understood that no class
on history or geography is given without large maps both of space and
time.[5]

  [5] And here let me protest against the mischievous practice of
  having a round roller at the bottom, but a flat piece of wood at the
  top of maps. They are sure to be rolled on the latter and the map cut
  to pieces.

Working models of pumps, archimedean screws, mechanical powers, and
steam engines are within the reach of most, and some simple forms of
orery. There is an inexpensive one with the world inside a glass globe,
on which are engraved a few circles, and this removes the difficulty
which most children feel on seeing a pair of globes.

[Marks, reports, prizes, place-taking.]

In former times when lessons were made less interesting, many ways were
employed to keep up attention. Place-taking, by which each child took
down all above her who failed to answer a particular question. This
was most distracting; and so much depended on accident, that it was
impossible by means of it to arrive at any trustworthy conclusions.
Except for small children it has wholly gone out. The giving of
counters has found more favour on the Continent, but this lends
itself to barter, and anything which fosters the habit of considering
what we can get by knowledge, is destructive of that calmness, that
“wise passiveness” which is as necessary for mental, as for physical
assimilation; it is equivalent to playing games, or running about
during dinner-time. Some record there should be of each exercise, some
“stock-taking” at intervals, and these intervals should for little ones
be short, for time passes more slowly with them. If the head mistress
each week looks over the mark-book in the presence of the class and
the teacher, she is kept in touch with all, comes to know if there are
girls who are wasting their time, and is able to give encouragement or
reproof, and strengthen the hands of teachers. If there are a great
number of lessons returned, she may find that a specialist is making
unreasonable demands; she sees if corrections have been omitted by
the teacher--in fact, notices things which, if left to the end of the
term, might have resulted in considerable mischief. It is undesirable,
however, to take up much of the teacher’s time in adding up marks,
and placing pupils in order of merit; it may be left to individual
class teachers to do as they think best; there is no need in this for
uniformity of practice, and it is always well to give every teacher as
much liberty in following her own methods, as is consistent with the
general management.

In language exercises the number of faults can be written at the end,
and classified as mere careless ones, and those for which there is at
least some excuse--the former being counted double. In these and other
exercises a maximum say of ten marks may be given; in many the teacher
can give only a general estimate, but when returning books, she can
show why she puts a higher estimate on one than on another. In junior
classes the marks may be added, read with comments, and perhaps sent
home each week. A sort of weather chart is used by us in the youngest
classes--showing for each week whether they have risen or fallen in the
number of marks.

[Illustration]

Prizes, in part determined by work done at home, are dangerous, the
temptation to get undue help is great; a conscientious child will
reject such assistance as would be really good for her, lest she should
gain an unfair advantage. Prizes given on the result of examinations,
provided they are given not to the best, but to all who have attained a
certain standard, are less objectionable; we cannot make it too clear
that good may be better than best, and that the only praise we should
desire is to hear: “She hath done what she could”.

Public prize-givings seem to me very undesirable. A terminal report
parents may reasonably look for, and words of blame or encouragement
may be made very helpful to the child. Punishments in the shape
of doubled lessons, lines, etc., are objectionable; if a duty has
been neglected, or badly done, it has to be done at an inconvenient
time--say in the afternoon. A fine may be required for untidiness and
damage--in order to compensate others for trouble and expense, but to
inflict a fine for breaking rules is altogether wrong. At a school
I knew, where this was done, girls would deliberately break rules,
_e.g._, talk at prohibited times, and say they were going to have
“three pennyworth”. Into a matter of right and wrong, money cannot
enter; so also conduct prizes should, I think, never be given; the
proper reward for doing right is a good conscience, and the trust,
friendship, respect of others.

[Use of examinations.]

Having lived through the pre-examination period, and seen the great
evils which resulted from there being no test, I cannot join in the
popular condemnation. There is no unmixed good, and many mistakes,
which we learn to avoid later, are made when a system is new. I
shall regard examinations only from the point of view of their value
educationally. (1) They are useful as a test of what we really know;
preparation for them enables us to find out what are our permanent
possessions; (2) competitive examination compels us to set these in
order, and estimate their relative importance. (3) Examinations tend
to produce presence of mind, mental self-control, (4) to suppress
wordiness and abolish a florid style, and (5) to make us feel the
supreme importance of clearness and accuracy.

Examining is a difficult art, and examiners have to learn their
_métier_. All are not perfect; the process of reading papers is
exhausting, and after reading ninety-nine, an examiner may fail to
appreciate the exquisite thought and philosophic insight of the
hundredth. It is possible he may form an erroneous opinion regarding
some unusual performance--there have been reviewers who failed to
appreciate the early volumes of Wordsworth, Tennyson and Browning;
there are examiners, however, really sympathetic, laborious, and
anxious to see what has been done (which is limited) rather than find
out what has not been done (which is unlimited), and these may give
much help both by their criticisms and their encouragement. It is good
for all of us to have our work tested by a competent critic.

An internal examination, if well conducted, is most valuable, as it can
better follow the work, but on the other hand, many teachers feel that
an internal examination places them too much at the mercy of caprice,
or personal feeling, and hence prefer a central one, such as the
University Locals.

[Regular attendance.]

Schools must insist on punctuality in returning, and no unnecessary
absences should be allowed. Children who are absent cannot follow the
teaching in the next lesson, and laggards demoralise the class and
distract the teacher, who feels she is not understood.

[Rapport with the class.]

In conclusion let me say the teacher must have the power of holding the
class. She must be sensitive to the least inattention, quick to discern
whether it is her fault or that of the pupil, and take her measures
accordingly, acting always upon the wholesome maxim (which should
never be heard outside the common room), certainly never whispered to
parents, that it is always the teacher’s fault, if pupils do not learn.
When she fails to establish the rapport between herself and her class,
she must try to discover the cause of her failure. Young children,
like wild animals, are tamed by the eye, and a class is controlled by
a teacher who sees everything that goes on. If a teacher when using
the board turns away and writes in silence, a restless child is almost
sure to play some amusing trick, and it may take a considerable time
to recover attention. If experiments are performed, the teacher, like
the conjurer, should never cease talking or questioning. If she cannot
manage to do both, she must have an assistant.

[Dress, manner, etc.]

She must avoid awkward tricks. I knew two very distinguished teachers
whose lectures were admirable, but one had a habit of pulling a tuft
of hair, and another would stuff his handkerchief carefully into his
folded hand, and then draw it out again--to the great distraction of
the class. We have all heard of the parliamentary orator and his button.

A study of the _Pedagogical Seminary_ for August, 1897, would be
profitable to teachers careless about externals. The article is called
“A Study in Morals”. The question was put in writing and answered by
twenty-three boys and one hundred and sixty girls: “Reflect which
teachers, from kindergarten to college, you have liked best, and been
influenced most by, and try to state wherein the influence was felt.
Account if you can for the exceptional influence of that particular
teacher. Was it connected with dress, manner, voice, looks, bearing,
learning, religious activity, etc.? Four out of five mentioned the
manner of the teacher as exerting an influence. One in three speaks
of the voice, one in four speaks of dress.” These externals, as we are
apt to call them, are the outcome of the personality, or they would
not exert influence. We must therefore so order our inner being that
manner, voice, dress, should express self-respect and unselfishness,
right feeling, love of order, good taste.

If I were writing a treatise on psychology, I might insist on the
teacher’s gaining an insight into the contents of the child’s
mind--what Herbart calls apperception-masses, but in this short
introduction I can only touch on the subject. I subjoin a short list
of books not too difficult for teachers. I conclude with a few common
rules derived from psychological observation and a few practical hints
for the schoolroom.


A FEW PRACTICAL PRECEPTS.

This is not a treatise on psychology but a practical hand-book for
young teachers. Before entering on the special subjects, it may be
well to say something of the application of the principles which are
familiar to all who are trained, and dwell upon a few of the most
important.

(1) There is the fundamental precept, _awaken interest_. Have you seen
the Medusa spreading its tentacles idly on the waves? Have you watched
the change as it fastens on its prey? So does the mind grasp that which
is suitable for its nourishment. As the intelligence of the child
awakens, it no longer perceives in the lazy, dreamy way in which the
infant is conscious of a light; it apperceives, takes into itself the
object, the word, the thought, and grows thereby.

(2) _Avoid distractions._ The senses and the mind must be fixed on the
subject of instruction. When a bird is to be taught to speak, he is
placed in a dark room, shielded from the distractions of sight, until
the words are acquired, then the use of other senses than hearing is
permitted; so little children require more quietness and isolation than
older ones.

Distractions are not all of sense. The mind is distracted by fear. How
dreadful are the old pictures of the dame, teaching rod in hand, or the
master with his cane; some may remember the music teacher ready to rap
the knuckles, and know how all sense of harmony was destroyed. And it
is so also with the seeking of rewards. I hope place-taking and prizes
and scholarships will one day follow the rod and the cane, and children
be led from their earliest years to feel, what is really natural to
them, that knowledge is in itself a pleasure and a good.

(3) _Proceed from the known to the unknown._ Observe the laws of
association; for this a teacher must be in _intellectual sympathy_ with
her pupils--know and feel by an inner sense, when mind is responding
to mind. I have heard some so-called teachers, who spoke like a book,
who were lecturers; they saw their own thoughts, but not those of their
pupils, and were therefore unable to lead them on. _E.g._, if a sum
was wrong, they would say, “Do it thus,” instead of inquiring into the
cause of the mistake. In questioning they would not try to see into the
child’s mind.

It is more difficult to enter into intellectual sympathy with very
little ones, hence we need specially able teachers for them. It is also
better for class teachers not to change too often, as it takes time to
get into sympathy with a new class. Of course specialists have to do
this; it is one reason why _cæteris paribus_ they are less successful
than class teachers.

(4) Proceed in classifying by noticing first the likenesses, then the
differences--in other words, proceed from the genus to the species.
There are some excellent chapters on this in Rosmini’s _Method of
Education_, translated by Mrs. Grey, p. 15.

(5) _Make lessons pleasant._ This does not imply that the act of
learning should be always easy or amusing. Children like to feel they
are making progress, and a teacher wearies them who is always trying
to be amusing, but does not really get them on. Porridge has a very
plain taste, but for everyday fare even children prefer it to tarts for
breakfast. A London confectioner was asked, if he did not find the many
boys he employed make depredations. “No,” he said, “when first they
come I tell them they may eat what they like; in a few days they make
themselves sick and eat no more.” There was a book called the _Decoy_,
a story mixed with conversations on grammar; children always managed
to get the story without the grammar. They like sums and history for
regular meals, fairy tales for dessert.

(6) _Teaching must be adapted to the mental state of the pupil, and be
just a little above his unassisted intelligence._ It is a worse fault
to teach below than above the powers of the child. I shall never forget
my indignation at having a book given me, which was below my powers,
nor the stimulus of trying to do what was hard. One who was afterwards
a distinguished teacher, told me how the Maurice lectures helped him,
by making him feel there were regions of thought on which he had not
yet entered. Knowledge quite within reach does not promote progress.
A friend who had a night school was told by its members, “We want to
be taught something as we can’t understand”. They meant something they
could not learn without help; they wanted to overcome difficulties.

(7) _Form right habits._ We should as far as possible prevent the
making of mistakes even once. A child when reading the Bible miscalled
the word patriarch, reading it partridge; when an old man, he never saw
the word without recalling his error. Hence we should not give children
misspelt words, or bad grammar to correct, or let them write exercises
before the ear has been cultivated to know what is right. I knew a
music master who would anticipate mistakes, and stop the pupil, saying:
“You shall not play that wrong note”.

On the other hand each repetition of a right action makes it easier,
and the prime work of the educator is to form right habits; these
should become instinctive, and so set free thought for ever higher and
more perfect performance.

(8) _Awaken and sustain the spirit of inquiry._ We need, however, to
be very careful not to ask questions, which the child cannot possibly
answer. This encourages mere guessing, and the habit of deciding upon
insufficient data. We should question the pupils, and build on their
knowledge, but as they get older the _viva voce_ questioning may be
overdone--and for the highest classes it would be simply a distraction.
For these it is well to give questions to be thought out, and answered
in writing. Pascal’s father shut him up alone to find out the
translation of a classical author; there are so many helps now, that
people rely upon them when they might gain vigour by grappling with
difficulties. No intellectual habit is more essential than the habit of
patient, sustained inquiry, that described by Newton when he said: “I
keep the subject of my inquiry continually before me, till the first
dawning opens gradually by little and little to the perfect day”.

(9) _Foster intellectual ambition._ Help the child to feel the joy of
surmounting difficulties, of climbing the heights. This invigorates
the intellectual life. Some can remember how, _e.g._, they grappled
with the dull work of early mathematical study, that they might one
day learn to solve the problems of astronomy, or went through the
labour of learning irregular verbs, that they might read the poetry and
philosophy of Greece.

(10) _Put before pupils the highest ideals which they can appropriate._
These are not the same at each stage of development. The little child
desires first to have something, and this is not wrong. Later it feels
more the need of love, of approbation, and this is a legitimate and
right motive; it is generally his best guide, until he can exercise
himself, irrespective of the outward voice, to have a “conscience void
of offence”. We have to teach him to discriminate voices which are in
harmony with, from those in discord from, that inward voice, and to
make this ultimately his supreme law.

(11) _The ultimate ideal or final cause should be implied in all that
we teach_, _viz._, the attainment of the perfect development of the
individual, through bringing each into harmony with the environment,
the universal, and thereby on the other hand helping to perfect the
whole. For this, wisdom and self-denial and sympathy with the noblest
and the best are to be sought, and above all with the One, the Infinite
Wisdom revealed in Nature, in the world of thinking beings and in the
self-conscious mind. All should feel in their inmost soul what Milton
has expressed:--

    How charming is Divine philosophy,
    Not harsh and crabbed as dull fools suppose,
    But musical as is Apollo’s lute,
    And a perpetual feast of nectared sweets,
    Where no dull surfeit reigns.

  +----------------+----------+------+------+---------+----------------+
  | Name of Work.  | Author.  |Pages.|Price.|   Pub-  |    Remarks.    |
  |                |          |      |      | lisher. |                |
  +----------------+----------+------+------+---------+----------------+
  |Psychological   |W. Harris |  400 |  6s. |Appleton |An excellent    |
  |Foundations     |          |      |      |         |book by the Com-|
  |                |          |      |      |         |missioner of    |
  |                |          |      |      |         |Education,      |
  |                |          |      |      |         |U.S.A., showing |
  |                |          |      |      |         |the correlation |
  |                |          |      |      |         |of the Philoso- |
  |                |          |      |      |         |phy of Education|
  |                |          |      |      |         |with Psychology |
  |                |          |      |      |         |and Ethics.     |
  |                |          |      |      |         |                |
  |Philosophy of   |Rosenkranz|  280 |  6s. |Appleton |Well translated.|
  |Education       |          |      |      |         |Notes by Dr.    |
  |                |          |      |      |         |Harris add much |
  |                |          |      |      |         |to its value.   |
  |                |          |      |      |         |                |
  |Handbook of     |Sully     |  400 |  6s. |Longmans |                |
  |Psychology      |          |      |  6d. |         |                |
  |                |          |      |      |         |                |
  |Education of Man|Fröbel    |  330 |  6s. |Appleton |Well translated |
  |                |          |      |      |         |by Hailmann.    |
  |                |          |      |      |         |                |
  |Educational Laws|Hughes    |  300 |  6s. |Arnold   |Should be read  |
  |                |          |      |      |         |by all teachers.|
  |                |          |      |      |         |A very clear ex-|
  |                |          |      |      |         |position of the |
  |                |          |      |      |         |ideas of Fröbel |
  |                |          |      |      |         |and other re-   |
  |                |          |      |      |         |formers.        |
  |                |          |      |      |         |                |
  |Pedagogy of     |Ufer      |  120 |  2s. |Isbister |Not too diffi-  |
  |Herbart         |          |      |  6d. |         |cult for begin- |
  |                |          |      |      |         |ners.           |
  |                |          |      |      |         |                |
  |Herbart and     |De Garmo  |  270 |  5s. |Heine-   |A clear account |
  |Herbartians     |          |      |      |mann     |of Herbart’s    |
  |                |          |      |      |         |thoughts and    |
  |                |          |      |      |         |application of  |
  |                |          |      |      |         |his principles  |
  |                |          |      |      |         |by others.      |
  |                |          |      |      |         |                |
  |Essentials of   |De Garmo  |  130 |  2s. |Heath    |                |
  |Method          |          |      |  6d. |         |                |
  |                |          |      |      |         |                |
  |Herbart’s ABC of|Eckhoff   |  300 |  6s. |Appleton |Not an easy     |
  |Sense-Perception|          |      |      |         |book. Gives much|
  |                |          |      |      |         |insight into    |
  |                |          |      |      |         |Herbart’s theo- |
  |                |          |      |      |         |ries and prac-  |
  |                |          |      |      |         |tice, especially|
  |                |          |      |      |         |in mathematics. |
  |                |          |      |      |         |                |
  |Application of  |Mulliner  |  360 |  4s. |Sonnen-  |Introduction    |
  |Psychology to   |          |      |  6d. |schein   |gives a full ex-|
  |Education       |          |      |      |         |position of     |
  |                |          |      |      |         |Herbart’s psy-  |
  |                |          |      |      |         |chology.        |
  |                |          |      |      |         |                |
  |Apperception    |Lange     |  120 |      |Isbister |Very clear.     |
  |                |          |      |      |         |Suitable for    |
  |                |          |      |      |         |beginners. On   |
  |                |          |      |      |         |Herbartian      |
  |                |          |      |      |         |lines.          |
  |                |          |      |      |         |                |
  |Herbartian      |Adams     |  200 |  2s. |Isbister |Excellent for   |
  |Psychology      |          |      |  6d. |         |beginners. Full |
  |                |          |      |      |         |of apt illustra-|
  |                |          |      |      |         |tions.          |
  |                |          |      |      |         |                |
  |Primer of       |Ladd      |      |  5s. |Longmans |                |
  |Psychology      |          |      |  6d. |         |                |
  |                |          |      |      |         |                |
  |Leading         |Rosmini   |  360 |  5s. |Heath    |A thoughtful,   |
  |Principle of    |          |      |      |         |religious, sym- |
  |Method          |          |      |      |         |pathetic writer.|
  |                |          |      |      |         |Translated by   |
  |                |          |      |      |         |Mrs. Grey.      |
  |                |          |      |      |         |                |
  |Vocation of the |Fichte    |  130 |  2s. |Chapman  |Will kindle     |
  |Scholar         |          |      |  6d. |         |enthusiasm and  |
  |                |          |      |      |         |lift the        |
  |                |          |      |      |         |thoughts to the |
  |                |          |      |      |         |higher aspects  |
  |                |          |      |      |         |of learning.    |
  |                |          |      |      |         |                |
  |Metaphysica Nova|Laurie    |  300 |  6s. |Williams |Clear and full  |
  |et Vetusta      |          |      |      |& Norgate|of interest.    |
  |                |          |      |      |         |                |
  |Outlines of     |Rein      |  200 |  6s. |Sonnen-  |                |
  |Pedagogics      |          |      |      |schein   |                |
  |                |          |      |      |         |                |
  |Educational     |Oscar     |  192 |  3s. |         |                |
  |Theories        |Browning  |      |  6d. |         |                |
  |                |          |      |      |         |                |
  |Elementary      |Baldwin   |  300 |      |Appleton |Very systematic.|
  |Psychology      |          |      |      |         |Not a book for  |
  |                |          |      |      |         |the general     |
  |                |          |      |      |         |reader, but for |
  |                |          |      |      |         |the serious stu-|
  |                |          |      |      |         |dent. Many good |
  |                |          |      |      |         |diagrams.       |
  |                |          |      |      |         |                |
  |Psychology      |Kirchner  |  350 |      |Sonnen-  |A very thorough |
  |                |          |      |      |schein   |book, suitable  |
  |                |          |      |      |         |for those who   |
  |                |          |      |      |         |have some knowl-|
  |                |          |      |      |         |edge of philoso-|
  |                |          |      |      |         |phy.            |
  |                |          |      |      |         |                |
  |Psychology Ap-  |Compayré  |  220 |  3s. |Isbister |Useful and well |
  |plied to        |          |      |  6d. |         |arranged.       |
  |Education       |          |      |      |         |                |
  |                |          |      |      |         |                |
  |Education as a  |Bain      |  450 |  5s. |Kegan   }|Contains much of|
  |Science         |          |      |      |Paul    }|value to        |
  |                |          |      |      |        }|teachers. With a|
  |Education       |Herbert   |  170 |  2s. |Williams}|good deal the   |
  |                |Spencer   |      |  6d. |& Nor-  }|editor is not in|
  |                |          |      |      |gate    }|sympathy.       |
  |                |          |      |      |         |                |
  |L’Education des |Gréard    |  300 |      |Hachette |A very interest-|
  |Femmes          |          |      |      |         |ing book.       |
  |                |          |      |      |         |                |
  |Rousseau’s Emile|Worthing- |  160 |  3s. |Heath    |                |
  |Extracts        |ton       |      |  6d. |         |                |
  |                |          |      |      |         |                |
  |Les Pères et les|Legouvé   |  350 |  3s. |Hetzel   |Short chapters  |
  |Fils            |          |      |      |         |giving in the   |
  |                |          |      |      |         |narrative form  |
  |                |          |      |      |         |the way a father|
  |                |          |      |      |         |deals with his  |
  |                |          |      |      |         |son. Delightful |
  |                |          |      |      |         |reading.        |
  |                |          |      |      |         |                |
  |Hist. Critique  |Compayré  |  500 |      |Hachette |Several volumes.|
  |des doctrines de|          |      |      |         |Very judicious  |
  |l’Education     |          |      |      |         |and interesting.|
  |                |          |      |      |         |                |
  |Educational     |Quick     |  330 |      |Longmans |Very good.      |
  |Reformer        |          |      |      |         |                |
  |                |          |      |      |         |                |
  |L’Education Pro-|Necker de |      |  7s. |         |Three vols. A   |
  |gressive        |Saussure  |      |      |         |mine of original|
  |                |          |      |      |         |observation.    |
  |                |          |      |      |         |Rosmini depends |
  |                |          |      |      |         |much on it.     |
  |                |          |      |      |         |                |
  |Home Education  |Mason     |      |  3s. |Kegan    |A very helpful  |
  |                |          |      |  6d. |Paul     |book for parents|
  |                |          |      |      |         |and teachers.   |
  |                |          |      |      |         |                |
  |Lectures on     |Fitch     |  430 |  5s. |Camb.    |Should be in the|
  |Teaching        |          |      |      |Univ.    |hands of all    |
  |                |          |      |      |Press    |teachers.       |
  |                |          |      |      |         |                |
  |Teaching and    |Barnett   |  420 |  6s. |Longmans |A very valuable |
  |Organisation    |          |      |  6d. |         |book. Contains  |
  |                |          |      |      |         |23 papers on    |
  |                |          |      |      |         |different sub-  |
  |                |          |      |      |         |jects.          |
  |                |          |      |      |         |                |
  |Aims and        |Spenser   |  280 |      |Camb.    |Very good. Con- |
  |Practice of     |          |      |      |Univ.    |tains 12 papers |
  |Teaching        |          |      |      |Press    |by various      |
  |                |          |      |      |         |writers. An ex- |
  |                |          |      |      |         |cellent one on  |
  |                |          |      |      |         |modern languages|
  |                |          |      |      |         |by the editor.  |
  |                |          |      |      |         |                |
  |Thirty Years of |Miall     |  250 |  3s. |Macmillan|A series of     |
  |Teaching        |          |      |  6d. |         |brightly-written|
  |                |          |      |      |         |practical es-   |
  |                |          |      |      |         |says, which all |
  |                |          |      |      |         |teachers may    |
  |                |          |      |      |         |read with plea- |
  |                |          |      |      |         |sure and profit.|
  |                |          |      |      |         |                |
  |School and Home |Rooper    |  480 |  1s. |Brown    |Original and    |
  |Life            |          |      |      |         |suggestive.     |
  |                |          |      |      |         |                |
  |Educative       |Holman    |  530 |  6s. |Isbister |Not too diffi-  |
  |Psychological   |          |      |      |         |cult for begin- |
  |Foundations     |          |      |      |         |ners.           |
  |                |          |      |      |         |                |
  |Teaching and    |Trumbull  |  400 |      |Hodder   |                |
  |Teachers        |          |      |      |         |                |
  |                |          |      |      |         |                |
  |Religious       |Bell      |  180 |  2s. |Macmillan|A very good     |
  |Teaching        |          |      |  6d. |         |book.           |
  +----------------+----------+------+------+---------+----------------+

  The Bureau of Education, U.S.A., issues valuable reports each year,
  which are presented to the Teachers’ Guild and a few favoured places.
  They always contain a great deal of interesting matter.

  The _Pedagogical Seminary_, edited by Dr. Stanley Hall, should be
  studied by all who desire to keep in touch with the new scientific
  methods. No. for Aug., 1897, is specially good.




PART I. HUMANITIES.


ENGLISH LANGUAGE GENERALLY--READING, WRITING, GRAMMAR, COMPOSITION.

By DOROTHEA BEALE.

I propose to treat in order of the different subjects of our school
curriculum. The first of these is language generally.

[Reading.]

As a branch of formal instruction, we begin with reading. A more
aggravating subject of dispute can hardly be found than that which
relates to the teaching of reading. The pure Fröbellian will have none
of it before the child is seven years old, and occasionally children
do come to school unable to read, but with the senses awakened to all
sorts of other relations except that of articulate sounds to written
forms. In spite of the reproaches of those who build the sepulchres of
the prophets, we teach reading when a child seems ready for it, and
maintain that the principles of Fröbel are best carried out when we
improve on his methods, and adapt ourselves to new circumstances; we
urge that the children from intellectual homes are different from the
class of children with whom he had most to do.

[When begun.]

I would not press reading upon infants, nor require the close and
continuous attention that reading implies, but as soon as the appetite
for any special kind of knowledge is shown, we may conclude, on
Fröbellian principles, that the child is fit for it. Our order is: (1)
drawing, (2) writing, (3) reading.

[First lessons.]

The kindergarten child has learned to draw lines, straight and
curved, developing into simple objects and curious patterns--rude
picture-writing, it may be called. We lead on to writing in some such
way as this.

[Alphabet.]

“How did men at first send silent messages to one another when they
were far off? If you wanted a doll, you might draw a picture of one
and send it to mother on your birthday. A man might make a picture
of a fish, and send it to a fisherman with a piece of money, and the
fisherman would understand; or one might want to sell a sheep, and
send a picture to his neighbour; this would be easier than sending the
sheep. In fact, the first letter of the alphabet is a rude picture of
the head of an ox, [Illustration]. People were not particular, as we
see on old monuments, which way the letter stood, and so we have it
sometimes topsy-turvy, sometimes sideways, [Illustration]; this is like
a Greek alpha, [Illustration], [Illustration]. Beth in Hebrew was a
dwelling, two tents [Illustration], Gimel [Illustration], the camel’s
head and long neck. Delta [Illustration], a door. Kappa Κ, a bird with
its wings out. Rho Ρ, a man’s head. But with pictures only it is hard
to make sentences; _e.g._, if you wanted to say, “I have found some
water,” you might draw [Illustration], but you would have to find some
way of showing whether you meant ‘I have’ or ‘I want’; and if somebody
sent you the picture of a man walking, you might not know whether
you were expected to come or to go. It is hard to represent verbs by
pictures, though it is so easy in speaking.”

Some pictures of Egyptian hieroglyphics and explanations will here be
found to interest children much---part of their drawing lesson might be
to copy a hieroglyph alphabet. Then we might enlarge on the need for
words to tell people what to do. Baby says “mamma,” “doll,” “puss,” but
it wants also to say “come,” “give,” “go,” and this cannot be pictured,
so people seem to have tried to represent sounds by drawing a picture
of the mouth making the different sounds.

I suppose the first sound most babies make is a sort of mumbling,
and if they open their mouths we get a sound like _ma_; now in all
languages _ma_ stands for mother, with some slight alterations. What
is M like? Is it not much like a mouth shut up? and suppose you add a
round shape to represent an open mouth you would get something like
picture-writing _ma_. You might put the two side by side, a picture
of a woman and _ma_--the Egyptians often had the two signs. The next
easy sound is _pa_, and this stands in all languages that I know, for
father. How could this be written? If you say _ap_ you will notice a
movement of the lips, which open with a sort of bursting sound. We may
represent that movement by a stroke and put a round after it to stand
for the open mouth P. There is another sound very like P, but not quite
so sharply said. We hear it in _ab_. We can make the stroke as before,
and put the loop lower down, to show that _ba_ is a quieter sound than
_pa_--so shorthand writers make a long stroke for the _b_ and a short
one for _p_ (│_b_ ╷_p_) and put no loop.

Thus we get three lip letters, but we can shut up the mouth in the
middle--half shut it and we get _n_, which is half _m_. The breath
will have to come of course through the nose. We can move the tongue
suddenly from the teeth and get _d_ as in _ad_, and write a stroke
as before, but put a loop representing the open mouth behind it; the
sound nearest to it which we hear in _at_ would have the loop at the
top, [Illustration], as we had in _pa_, but in our alphabet the loop
has disappeared and we have only _t_. In shorthand we write a long
horizontal stroke for _d_ and a short one for _t_. Thus we have three
dentals.

We may also shut up the throat and let the breath go through the
nose, as in _sing_, or we may make the sudden movement quite in the
throat. We could take the bird shape but think of the two strokes as
if pointing down the throat in Κ, and for the softer sound only one
pointer Γ, this was the Greek G. We make it rounder at the bottom
now. For the first of the throat sounds we have no single letter, but
we write an _n_ to show it is a nose letter, and a _g_ to show the
shutting up is to be done in the throat.

So now you see we have got nine letters--three made with the lips,
three with the tongue near the middle of the mouth, three in the
throat. Three are made by sending the breath through the nose, three
are made by a sudden opening and sending the breath through it with
force, and three by sending the breath more gently. The names given
to these different sorts of letters I may now give and the shorthand
signs:--[6]

                         _Nasals._        _Hard._     _Soft._
  Lip letters        m [Illustration]       p ╷         b │
  Tooth letters      n [Illustration]       t ╴         d ─
  Throat letters    ng [Illustration]       k ‿         g ∪

  [6] I give the characters of the script, which is much simpler for
  children than Pitman’s.

Reading books published by A. Chrysogon Beale (Sonnenschein) are
perhaps the best for beginners. There are coloured pictures of the
mouth; the deaf alphabet is given, and the words which are not written
phonetically are gradually introduced. Sonnenschein’s books are also
good, and Miss Soames’ _Introduction to Phonetics_.

Thus the child could be taught to observe the movements for
articulation, be interested in early writings, and prepared to look
intelligently at ancient monuments.

In teaching, the sounds of the letters will be given of course, not
their names, and the alphabet will be from the first classified, and a
basis laid for philological study. A shorthand alphabet will be learned
side by side without trouble, and besides this, the pronunciation
will be improved--all this without any over-pressure or giving any
instructions unsuited for a small child.

In a later lesson the meaning of an aspirate should be explained,
and added to each of the mutes; we then get four varieties under the
heads of labial, dental and guttural. The sibilants, which are in some
respects aspirates, may be classified, and the feeble lip aspirate in
_when_ (written in old English _hwen_) should be noticed. The relation
of palatals _l_ and _r_, and the different kinds of palatals, may be
dwelt on.

I give a comprehensive table, founded on one in Professor Key’s volume
on the alphabet. The three horizontal planes give gutturals, dentals
and labials. The front plane the sharp mutes, the back the flat mutes;
the right plane the sharp aspirates, the left the flat aspirates; the
sibilants are classed as dental aspirates and the nasals appended.

Other classifications are noticed in the paper on Spelling Reform.

[Illustration]

The classification of vowels is more difficult, and it may be pointed
out how easily these pass into one another. How difficult it is too for
English people to sustain a pure vowel, _o_, without passing into _u_,
_a_ into _ai_. The vocal triangle as given in Brachet’s dictionary,
adapted from Helmholtz and Brücke, is perhaps most easily understood.

[Illustration]

For those who do not use the alphabet of the _maître phonétique_,
tables such as those of Larousse should be always at hand to hang on
the wall, when French lessons are given. These tables enable one to
draw attention to sounds which English people do not discriminate, or
which offer special difficulty, _e.g._, _ê_, _è_, _é_, _ais_, _ai_,
_ou_, _u_, _eu_, _e_; to the feebly nasalised vowels as in French
_pain_, pronounced Anglice, _pang_; to the formation of the sound
constantly changed by English people into _ou_, when a vowel follows,
_e.g._, _loui_ for _lui_; to the proper pronunciation of _moi_, _mwa_,
not _mwau_; to the addition of a syllable, as in _deer_ for _di_+_r_;
to the attractive power of labial consonants, making _impossible_
_inpossible_, and so on. Systematic teaching saves much time.

For older pupils it is an instructive and amusing exercise to work
out the combinations of two vowels to produce a multitude of mixed or
diphthongal forms; such an exercise will do much to teach delicate
discrimination of sounds, and it is important early to cultivate the
ear and the vocal organs. I append the diphthong table--to read it
proceed from one vowel to another, following the arrow head.

[Illustration]

[Interchange of letters.]

The classification of letters is of the greatest importance as the
basis of linguistic study, and so the matter should early be made
interesting and intelligible, not only for the sake of pronunciation,
but as accounting for, and simplifying a great many rules of grammar,
and enabling pupils to acquire quickly a large vocabulary, when they
begin foreign tongues, by observing such laws as are expounded by Grimm
and Vernier, and thus helping them later to recognise that there is
such a thing as a science of language, something more than a wearisome
list of empirical rules and unreasonable exceptions. Thus reading, if
taught as it should be, conforms to the psychological principles (1)
that we should develop the powers of observation, (2) let the child do
or make something, (3) show the uses of what is produced, (4) plant
some root principles which may grow up and bear fruit in later studies,
(5) associate the different studies with one another. The reason why
teaching is often so dull, is that teachers do not take a large view of
the field of instruction, but work like day-labourers, and adopt that
fatal maxim, you should “throw it all off, out of school hours”. “I
am a gentleman after four o’clock,” said a schoolmaster! Now I should
like those who are going to teach the alphabet to read Max Müller’s
_Science of Thought_ in their leisure hours. It is too ponderous a
volume to buy--660 pages--but it should be in the Teachers’ Library.
There is a most interesting chapter on the origin of roots, which
he traces to imperatives. I need hardly say that the two volumes of
_Lectures on Language_ should be familiar to all, and that the teacher
should work out roots for herself after the model of “Mar”. She must
not, however, bury the important things under a mass of erudition;
the larger her store the more should she be able to select by the
discursive faculty (I ask pardon of Herbart) what is most illustrative
of her subject for the special class: it is very important to know what
not to say.

Melville Bell’s _Visible Speech_ is very instructive reading, and all
should be familiar with _Le Mestr.: Fonetiq_ of Paul Passy. I abstain
from recommending some of the very learned books “made in Germany”.
These are not suited to persons of limited leisure, but are rather for
the Grammarian who said:--

    Let me know all! Prate not of most or least,
                  Painful or easy,
    Even to the crumbs, I’d fain eat up the feast,
                  Ay, nor feel queasy.

If reading is begun early, taught in the way suggested, and the sounds
insisted on, to the exclusion of the absurd spelling, which pretends to
produce cat from _see ay tee_, children seem to get on slowly at first,
but the progress is rapid, when they have once mastered the signs,
_i.e._, as rapid as is possible with our cacography.

In an excursus I have insisted on the great importance of reformed
spelling. It is difficult to get people to agree, but any system,
Soames’ or Pitman’s or Bell’s, would be better than our present
chaos. If Government would give liberty to those who teach a phonetic
system, things would improve, and children would easily read ordinary
characters afterwards. All who write shorthand must spell phonetically.

[Voice production.]

Not only right articulation needs attention, but what is called
voice production. The health of many a delicate girl may be greatly
strengthened by habituating her to breathe as she ought, and the whole
class of what are called clergymen’s throats are in great measure, if
not entirely due to the improper use of the organs of speech. There
will be little difficulty later, if we, from the beginning, make
children stand and breathe rightly, speak and read with due attention
to stops and emphasis, and to those subtle changes of voice on which
expression depends so much.

Children should never be allowed to learn a poem without preparation,
or to memorise it by gabbling it over; as well might we expect them to
become musicians by rattling off pieces unstudied, without regard to
time and accent. At first, the poems to be learned should be repeated
_viva voce_ by the teacher to the little ones. Later, a special study
should be made of anything set to a class, and it should be learned by
the mind, not the ear. In France and Germany a poem is not set until
it has been discussed and explained, points of importance insisted on,
special beauties, etc.

A reading class should not be one in which each girl has to listen to
the bad reading of another. I know no manual so good for the teacher,
and for elder pupils, as Professor Meiklejohn’s _Expressive Reading_.
There are some good remarks in a brief paper by Mr. Birrell in
Barnett’s _Teaching and Organisation_, and I may draw attention to page
131 of Spenser’s chapters on _Teaching_, for all these books should be
in the Teachers’ Library.

From the first, children should learn poetry by heart--poetry suited to
their understanding. A child was heard to drone forth:--

    Save that from yonder ivy-mantled tower
    The lowing herd doth to the moon complain.

The reflections of the poet were utterly uninteresting to him; he did
not perceive the absurdity of cows ascending a tower.

I cannot sufficiently deprecate the setting of melodramatic pieces
chosen not for their intrinsic beauty, but to show the power of
execution--to borrow a musical term. The pieces learned need not be all
poetry. Some of Hans Andersen’s Mährchen are excellent. Scenes in which
several can take part help to give animation.

[Learning by heart.]

Throughout their school life children should continue to store
their memory, during the years in which it is easy to learn, with
masterpieces in prose and poetry; because learning by heart was
formerly overdone it is much neglected now. These early acquisitions
are a treasure all one’s life. Familiarity with really good writers is
the first thing necessary for writing well; it is good to let children
write from memory passages learned instead of giving dictation.

[Recitation.]

Looking at the higher aspects, I can hardly exaggerate the importance
of getting children to speak with the understanding and right
expression; for this teachers must make them enter into the meaning of
the writer, realising the imagery, the feelings, the thoughts; this
calls out right emotion, and thus elocution becomes of no small value
as a part of moral training. Plato dwells much on the influence for
good or evil upon the actor who realises the character he represents,
and as Aristotle has said that through the drama one may purify the
soul, so we may help our pupils to feel all the grand music of our
great poets, and to enter with fuller sympathy into the teaching of the
sacred scriptures of the world.

There is an excellent article in the volume of _Special Reports_ issued
by the Education Office by Mr. Dale of Merton College, from which I
give extracts.

“Before the reading of Geibel’s poem on Frederick Barbarossa (the story
of the sleeping kaiser who wakes to grasp the sceptre once more) a
scholar was bidden to relate the fairy tale of the sleeping princess.

“The analysis of the piece into sections was given, each with a brief
title indicating its subject-matter, and the exposition of their
relation to one another, showing it had a distinct purpose and value.”

[Oral composition.]

The practice of composition may begin systematically in quite early
years. Mr. Dale has given an interesting account of the way in which
children are taught orally, and one who attended a Ferien-Kursus at
Jena has explained the matter fully to me. First, the teacher always
insisted upon answers to questions being complete sentences. I quote
once more from Mr. Dale, but the whole article should be read.

“The first division of the subject in the German code is ‘exercises in
_speaking_’; and the careful and admirable training in oral expression
is worthy of special attention. It is of frequent occurrence to hear
a boy when called upon for an answer speak with but little hesitation
for two or three minutes, using grammatical and connected language,
and displaying a vocabulary which might have been supposed to be too
wide for any but adults. This result is the working, primarily, of
a principle which has always lain deep in the German conception of
teaching, and which has been reinforced by the influence of Herbart and
his followers, that in every lesson the child should take an active
part. It is given as a precept to every seminar student, ‘Let the
teacher speak little, the children much’.

“The teaching of composition is one of the most valuable parts of the
work done in the German schools. It is begun at a very early age and
practised steadily throughout the course.

“The composition is conducted by word of mouth. ‘Who,’ asks the
teacher, ‘can give me a sentence to begin the first section?’ One is
suggested, and criticised. ‘Can any one else give me a better?’ The
others then suggest, if necessary with a little help, their variants,
and finally one version is accepted. In the case of the youngest
children this is written on the blackboard. The same process is pursued
with each section till the piece is finished. With the older boys the
blackboard is not used, save for the titles indicating the outline of
each section. The class then writes it out from memory.

“The fundamental presupposition of this method is the inability of
young pupils to compose and think out a series of ideas without
much assistance, even though the subject be a familiar one. Their
thoughts need concentration and guidance, and this help is given them
by the working out of the matter in class. Yet individual liberty of
expression is by no means sacrificed. The sentences are the children’s
own, and for the purpose of good composition the oral method is
invaluable. It proceeds on the sound principle that a child should be
taught to test style by the ear and not by the eye alone. It makes
short work of a lumbering period.

“On the other hand, the activity and interest of every scholar are kept
up by the desire to improve on his fellows, and to have his own version
accepted. Constant practice, moreover, is gained in the art of finding
synonyms, and it affords an admirable opportunity of instruction
in grammar and orthography. Indeed, the practising school at Jena,
following a suggestion of Professor Ziller, removes grammatical
explanations altogether from the reading piece, and transfers them to
the child’s own composition, an expedient which avoids the fault of
defacing the beauty and unity of a poem by picking it to pieces for the
sake of illustration.”

Sometimes a picture is used to form a subject of conversation,
questioning and explanation. Thus is the valuable power of oral
composition formed, a good vocabulary obtained, taste cultivated, and
that respect for the mother tongue which is so sadly wanting in many
English people. Children gain a facility in writing which no dissection
into different clauses, enlargements of predicates, etc., can give.
Rules are introduced with the reasons for such rules, and only at
last a grammar is placed in the pupil’s hands--even as a Euclid is
given when it is all known. I have heard a small kindergarten boy stand
up and give in a clear and quiet way quite a long story which he had
studied. The habit of accurate expression will thus be formed and the
thought become clear, for it is language alone which gives form and
body to thought--gives it “a local habitation to a name”.

In the higher schools, Mr. Dale writes, the practice of oral
composition is continued (p. 573):--

“The practice of oral paraphrase which we saw existing in the
elementary schools here reaches its climax. The scholars are bidden to
prepare a scene or passage of some author, or to read up some period of
literary history at home. The next morning, before the lesson begins,
one of them is called upon to give a summary of what he has read, a
sort of short essay by word of mouth--lasting three or four minutes,
and sometimes even longer. The correctness both of style and matter,
with which this difficult task is performed, needs to be heard in order
to be fully appreciated at its true value. It combines many of the
advantages gained from a debating society with those of an essay. It
cultivates readiness of speech and thought, while, like an essay, by
enabling the teacher to gauge the points on which interest has centred,
it lends him a proper starting-place for his lecture.”

This oral composition tells very advantageously upon the written work,
and could be introduced more generally into English schools; but from
quite early years children should be accustomed to write answers to
questions upon their lessons, or to tell something that they know.
Later, subjects may be given to be thought out or a _résumé_ given of
a lesson; and lastly the pupils of the higher class required to read up
a subject, and write upon it, or compose an essay.

[Grammar taught inductively.]

As regards the formal teaching of English grammar, I shall say but
little. I may instead refer my readers to the long and interesting
paper by Dr. Abbott in the volume edited by Mr. Barnett, and to his
book, _How to Tell the Parts of Speech_. The system he recommends will
form a good foundation for the acquisition of foreign tongues. Pupils
are led to make their own definitions, and in part their own grammar.
A class thus taught French by our present Mistress of Method were
astonished and delighted to find they knew already the chief rules of
their French grammar, when at length it was placed in their hands. It
is impossible and unnecessary to insist upon all grammatical forms
being obtained inductively; life is too short to carry it out in all
its details, and so the tabulation and learning of various paradigms
becomes necessary; but pupils should learn to form them. I am sure
there is much less use in the old-fashioned parsing exercises than is
generally supposed; parsing becomes mechanical; nine-tenths of what
they have to write children know, and need not think about, and when
sentences are given to parse, certain words only should be underlined
for parsing. I first questioned its usefulness when I found at school
that one who was so dull, that we used to regard her as somewhat of an
idiot, always came to the top when we took places for parsing. What
the French call _analyse logique_--classifying all words and phrases
according to their function in the sentence--is valuable.

[Logical and grammatical analysis.]

Mr. Blakiston in his _School Management_ endorses this view, and
recommends the teaching of logical even before grammatical parsing.
Mr. Fearon in _School Inspection_ writes: “What is wanted is to get
as quickly as possible a notion of the structure of the sentence, and
the logical relation of its parts. The teaching of English should be
based on the analysis of sentences. Some may think the teaching of
English grammar by means of logical analysis more difficult than the
old method. I am perfectly convinced from observation and experience,
both as a teacher and as an inspector, that this is not the case. They
are not more difficult than the terms which it is necessary to use in
teaching grammar on the old system. The great point is to make children
have an intelligent understanding of the real things which underlie
them and which they represent.”

Professor Woodward (_Monographs on Education_) writes: “There is
need of preparatory drill in forms and language study, to bring a
child to the intelligent study of construction, but this done, the
analytical method of sentence-study commends itself. Intelligence is
called into play, for the pupil is no longer studying words as words,
but as the expression of thought; memory is subordinate and reason
to the front--nouns, verbs, etc., are in some languages stamped with
distinguishing marks, and can be recognised by their forms, but in
English the power of any word and its influence in the sentence are
rarely dependent on its form; the part of speech cannot be determined
at sight, but by its connection and dependency.”

The analysis of sentences is of course very important in the study of
foreign languages. Hosts of rules about conjunctions, governing moods,
etc., can be discarded if once children can recognise a dependent
sentence. Various models of analysis are given in all good grammars.
Here is a form which has many recommendations as showing clearly the
structure of a complex sentence:--

     _Sentence._         _Dependent._          _Principal._

   1 The man      }                          { subject of 5
   2 who          } subj. of 3 }             {
   3 wrote        } pred. of 2 } adjective   { extension of 1
   4 that letter  } obj. of 3  }             {
   5 said         }                          { predicate of 1
   6 that         } conj.                    {
   7 he           } subj. of 8 } substantive { object of 5
   8 would return } pred. of 7 }
   9 but            conj.
  10 he                                        subj. of 11
  11 did not                                   pred. of 10

Another matter which should have great attention is the use of tenses.
There is nothing perhaps so difficult for foreigners to acquire as
the power of discriminating tenses. Owing to the want of the present
and future imperfect in French verbs, many children get an idea that
imperfect means past, and few know until they learn Greek that “I
have written” is a present tense. Such a table as this can be used to
contrast languages:--

            _Indefinite._    _Imperfect._          _Perfect._

  _Present_  I write        am writing          have written
  _Past_     Wrote          was writing         had written
  _Future_   Shall write    shall be writing    shall have written

The authors of the Parallel Grammar Series have sought to reduce the
time occupied in learning grammar. In one book the general rules only
need be given, and the variations from these rules appear in other
grammars. Thus the tiresome repetitions in each grammar of the letters
of the alphabet--the definitions of the parts of speech of many rules
regarding concords--could appear once for all.

Let me in conclusion quote a portion of the resolutions concerning the
teaching of English passed by the Conference called by the Committee of
Ten.[7]

  [7] Report of the Committee of Ten on secondary studies, 1892,
  Washington.

“The main direct object of the teaching of English in schools is (1) to
enable the pupil to understand the expressed thoughts of others and to
give expression to thoughts of his own; and (2) to cultivate a taste
for reading, to give the pupil some acquaintance with good literature,
and to furnish him with the means of extending that acquaintance.
Incidentally, other ends may be subserved, but such subsidiary
interests should never be allowed to encroach on the two main purposes.
Though it may be necessary to consider these separately, in practice
they should never be dissociated in the mind of the teacher, and their
mutual dependence should be kept constantly present to the mind of the
pupils.

“If the pupil is to secure control of the language as an instrument
for the expression of his thoughts, it is necessary (1) that during
the period of life when imitation is the chief motive principle in
education, he should be kept so far as possible away from the influence
of bad models and under the influence of good models, and (2) that
every thought which he expresses, whether orally or on paper, should
be regarded as a proper subject for _criticism as to language_.
Thus every lesson should become a part of the pupil’s training in
English. There can be no more appropriate moment for a brief lesson in
expression than the moment when the pupil has something which he is
trying to express.

“In addition to this incidental training, appropriate special
instruction in English should form a part of the curriculum from the
beginning. This special instruction may be considered under three
heads: A. _Language and composition._ During the _first two years_ at
school, children (under eight) may acquire some fluency of expression
by reproducing orally in their own words stories told them by their
teachers, and by inventing stories about objects and pictures.

“In the _third school year_ children should begin to compose in
writing; they should copy and write from dictation and from memory
short and easy passages of prose and verse.

“The subjects assigned should gradually increase in difficulty. (The
paraphrasing of poetry is not to be commended.) Pains should be taken
to improve the child’s vocabulary by suggesting to him, for the
expression of his thoughts, better words than those he may himself have
chosen. He should also be trained to perceive the larger divisions of
thought which are conventionally indicated by paragraphs. The teacher
should bear in mind the necessity of correctness in the formation of
sentences and paragraphs.

“Compositions and all other written exercises should receive careful
and appropriate criticism, and the staff of instructors should be large
enough to protect every teacher from an excess of this peculiarly
exacting and fatiguing work.

“B. _Formal or systematic grammar._ Not earlier than twelve years of
age the study of formal grammar, with drill in fundamental analysis,
may be taken up. It should not be pursued as a separate study longer
than is necessary to familiarise the pupil with the main principles.
Probably a single year will be sufficient. Subsequently, although
grammatical analysis may properly accompany reading and the study of
composition, it should not be regarded as a separate subject in the
curriculum. The teaching of formal grammar should aim principally
to enable the pupil (1) to recognise the parts of speech, and (2)
to analyse sentences both as to structure and as to syntax. Routine
parsing should be avoided.

“With regard to the study of formal grammar the Conference wishes to
lay stress on three points: (1) a student may be taught to speak and
write good English without receiving any special instruction in formal
grammar; (2) the study of formal grammar is valuable as training in
thought, but has only an indirect bearing on the art of writing and
speaking; and (3) the teaching of formal grammar should be as far as
possible incidental, and should be brought into close connection with
the pupil’s work in reading and composition. These principles explain
the considerable reduction recommended by the Conference in the amount
of time allowed to this study.

“The best results in the teaching of English in high schools cannot
be secured without the aid given by the study of some other language.
Latin and German are especially suited to this end.

“Every teacher, whatever his department, should feel responsible for
the use of good English by his pupils.”

One would like to say much on the study of language generally, and not
only of its mere formal elements--of the “fossil poetry” to be found in
figures of speech; of the metaphors which express the same thought in
different languages. I give the names of some useful books, but there
are many other good grammars.

  +----------------+----------+------+------+---------+----------------+
  | Name of Work.  | Author.  |Pages.|Price.|  Pub-   |    Remarks.    |
  |                |          |      |      |lishers. |                |
  +----------------+----------+------+------+---------+----------------+
  |Lectures on     |M. Müller | 1100 |      |Longmans |Indispensable.  |
  |Language        |          |      |      |         |                |
  |                |          |      |      |         |                |
  |Lectures on     |M. Müller |  660 |      |Longmans |Full of         |
  |Science of      |          |      |      |         |interest.       |
  |Thought         |          |      |      |         |                |
  |                |          |      |      |         |                |
  |Philology       |Peile     |  100 |  1s. |Macmillan|Excellent. May  |
  |                |          |      |      |         |be used as a    |
  |                |          |      |      |         |class-book for  |
  |                |          |      |      |         |children.       |
  |                |          |      |      |         |                |
  |Etymological    |Skeat     |      |  7s. |Clarendon|Very necessary  |
  |Dictionary      |          |      |  6d. |Press    |for language    |
  |                |          |      |      |         |teachers.       |
  |                |          |      |      |         |                |
  |Etymological    |Brachet   |      |      |Clarendon|Introduction    |
  |Dictionary      |          |      |      |Press    |specially good. |
  |                |          |      |      |         |Required by all |
  |                |          |      |      |         |who teach       |
  |                |          |      |      |         |French.         |
  |                |          |      |      |         |                |
  |English Past and|Nesfield  |  450 |  3s. |Macmillan|Very good for   |
  |Present         |          |      |  6d. |         |upper classes.  |
  |                |          |      |      |         |                |
  |English Grammar |Hyde      |  150 |  1s. |Crosby   |Suggestive for  |
  |                |Clarke    |      |      |         |the teacher.    |
  |                |          |      |      |         |Contains much   |
  |                |          |      |      |         |that is inter-  |
  |                |          |      |      |         |esting.         |
  |                |          |      |      |         |                |
  |Comparative     |Sayce     |  400 |      |Trübner  |                |
  |Philology       |          |      |      |         |                |
  |                |          |      |      |         |                |
  |Primer of       |Sweet     |  120 |  1s. |Clarendon|                |
  |Phonetics       |          |      |  6d. |Press    |                |
  |                |          |      |      |         |                |
  |Visible Speech  |Bell      |   80 |  2s. |Volta    |The large book  |
  |                |          |      |      |Press,   |costs about four|
  |                |          |      |      |Washing- |dollars.        |
  |                |          |      |      |ton      |                |
  |                |          |      |      |         |                |
  |Ecriture phoné- |}         |      |      |         |                |
  |tique           |} Passy   |      |  1s. |Firmin   |Clear and easy. |
  |Les sons du     |}         |      |  6d. |Didot    |                |
  |français        |}         |      |      |         |                |
  |                |          |      |      |         |                |
  |Phonétique des  |Victor    |      |  5s. |Heelbronn|Somewhat diffi- |
  |deutschen       |          |      |  6d. |         |cult.           |
  |                |          |      |      |         |                |
  |Introduction to |Soames    |  280 |  3s. |Sonnen-  |A very useful   |
  |Phonetics       |          |      |  6d. |schein   |introduction,   |
  |                |          |      |      |         |adapted to      |
  |                |          |      |      |         |English, French |
  |                |          |      |      |         |and German.     |
  |                |          |      |      |         |                |
  |Expressive      |Meiklejohn|  360 |      |Holden   |Very good. Con- |
  |Reading         |          |      |      |         |tains a suitable|
  |                |          |      |      |         |selection.      |
  |                |          |      |      |         |                |
  |Plea for Re-    |Pitman    |      |      |Pitman   |                |
  |formed Spelling |          |      |      |         |                |
  |                |          |      |      |         |                |
  |Spelling Reform |Gladstone |      |      |Pitman   |                |
  |                |          |      |      |         |                |
  |How to Teach    |Stanley   |   40 |  1s. |Heath    |                |
  |Reading         |Hall      |      |      |         |                |
  +----------------+----------+------+------+---------+----------------+

  Amongst English grammars I may mention those by Morris and Mason,
  various books by Dr. Abbott, and the Parallel Grammar Series. There
  are good grammars, too numerous to mention, suitable for school use.


CLASSICAL STUDIES.

By W. H. D. ROUSE, M.A., formerly Fellow of Christ’s College in
Cambridge, and a Master at Rugby School.

[Aim of a girl’s education.]

It were idle to expect that classics can be studied with the same
thoroughness in girls’ schools as in boys’. Girls’ schools have grown
up with other traditions; music and drawing and modern languages have
so long been the staple of a girl’s education, that it is perhaps too
late now to make any radical change. Nor is it clear that even if
possible, it would be well to substitute classics for these subjects.
If the object of girls’ education be, as many think, not so much to
turn out finished scholars as to give an intelligent and sympathetic
interest in life, this can be better achieved by grafting classics upon
the existing curriculum, than by ousting other studies for the sake
of these. Nevertheless, there will be many whose aim it is to give
themselves to teaching as a profession, and some who are scholars born,
and willing to spend their life in research and study. A good school
must provide for these; and we have to consider how to combine the
interests of both classes. The result will naturally be a compromise:
the average pupil getting less than the average boy gets, while the few
specialists will need to make up for lost time, and to compress their
work into a shorter period than is usually given to it. The object of
teaching will be the same in any case: a mastery of the matter perfect
as far as it goes; and at the outset, the methods will be much the same.

[Importance of Latin in all schemes of higher education.]

It is scarcely necessary to insist on the value of Latin for every
educated man or woman. It is not only valuable as a thorough training
of the mind, in close reasoning and unremitting attention; nor only as
opening to the student a literature of great interest: it is actually
useful in a practical way. It is the key to all the Romance languages;
Latin once mastered, French and Italian, Spanish and Portuguese are
brought within easy reach. Almost all that has then to be learnt is
the grammar of these languages; for the body of the words is already
familiar. Certainly much study and practice will be needed before these
languages can be spoken; but is it nothing to be able to read? Men
who are preparing for the Civil Service in India learn Sanskrit; not
because the Government is interested in the training of their minds,
but because this is the key to the spoken dialects of India. As this
dead language is practically useful in learning Hindi or Bengali, so
Latin is practically useful in learning Italian or French. Then again,
the grammatical drill is much more rigid and effective in teaching
Latin than in teaching French, Italian, or even German. The relation
of action to object, the subordination of thought to thought, the
dependence of an oblique statement, all become clear to the mind in
English or French when they have been made clear to the eye by Latin.
Nor must we forget that without Latin no one can really understand
English, especially the English of such writers as Milton and Bacon.
And besides these advantages, Latin has a direct use in several
professions, which are now or may yet be open to women: in medicine,
in the law, in letters; and even in business a knowledge of it, as
already pointed out, will enable any one to become fit for foreign
correspondence with far less difficulty than otherwise.

We will assume, then, that Latin will be begun even in girls’ schools
early enough (say at thirteen or fourteen) to get through the grammar,
without undue pressure, by the time the specialist will wish to begin
Greek. There may be at that time a certain amount of work yet to get
through which a boy of the same age would have done; but this will
have to be done more quickly, that is all. It must not be slurred or
neglected, certainly; but the student will probably find that the work
progresses at a rather quicker rate than might be expected, because the
mind is already better trained and stored than is usual at that stage
of the study.

[The right method of teaching a language.]

[(1) Grammar.]

[To “learn by reading” not sufficient.]

The right method of teaching a language may be put in a nutshell:
grammar, reading, writing and conversation should go side by side. For
convenience, and because of the importance of the subjects, grammar and
exercises in composition will naturally have special times assigned
to them; but they should never be left out of sight. No construing
lesson ought to be done without some grammatical drill, or without a
few sentences of conversation, which is in fact composition in brief.
The importance of grammar can hardly be overestimated; and the first
thing the learner must understand is that the skeleton of the language,
the inflections, have to be known by heart. A knowledge of cognate
languages may help, and comparative tables of forms may help both
intelligence and memory, but in the end it all comes to the same thing:
however the pupil may have learnt them, he must be prepared to say off
his declensions and conjugations from memory in the usual tabular form.
There are, in this slipshod age, those who affect to despise precise
knowledge, such as geographical names and facts, historical dates,
and the paradigms of a grammar. “Learn by reading” is their motto in
language; a most false and pernicious principle, as I can testify
from sad experience. It has been my lot to learn one or two languages
sufficiently well to enable me to read in them, and I grieve to relate
that in these I shirked the drudgery of the grammar. The result is that
although a certain amount of grammar has soaked in, I cannot yet read
without a manual by my side. The most such a method can do is to give
the general sense of a sentence; but it often fails to do even that,
inasmuch as the general sense of a sentence is made up of the precise
sense of its parts. Exactness in understanding is not to be had without
paying the price, and the price is an exact knowledge of grammar.
The rottenness of this system is shown when it comes to writing; and
the productions of these empirics might well make Quintilian stare
and gasp. Thus, however the grammar may be taught to begin with, the
class should always have handy some book containing just the facts of
the language, arranged in the usual fashion, and not encumbered with
exercises. They will need this in the end, and they may as well have
it at the beginning. The most useful books of the kind are Kennedy’s
_Revised Latin Primer_ (or Postgate’s _New Latin Primer_, which is in
some respects better, notably in the marking of quantities) and Abbott
and Mansfield’s _Greek Grammar_. If no book of exercises is used, it
is hardly necessary to say that these books cannot be learnt straight
through from cover to cover. Indeed, the very first pages of both are
unintelligible to beginners. In that case the teacher must himself
select what is to be learnt; and the tables which follow (pp. 87-8) are
meant to assist in this.

[(2) Reading to be begun as soon as possible.]

As soon as the pupil is able to understand a simple sentence, he should
begin to use some reading book. One of the most satisfactory Latin
readers I have had to do with is Abbott’s _Dux Latinus_; some of the
books err in not being simple enough in the structure of the sentences.
Equally good and more easy to work with are the cheap _Single Term
Readers_ of Messrs. Rivington. The sooner the pupil can be put on to a
genuine classical author, the better. _Eutropius_, _Nepos_ or _Phædrus_
is better suited for beginners than _Cæsar_; _Cæsar_ will come next.
Stories from _Ovid_ may follow, and some of _Cicero’s_ lucid and
interesting narrative; the best selection is that of Walford (Clarendon
Press). _Virgil_ may be well begun in Allcroft’s _Story of Æneas_
(Blackie). Once the pupil has attained this stage, further selection
should be easy; only, be it said, too many notes spoil the scholar.

The student will be able sooner to tackle an author in Greek than
in Latin, because of the greater simplicity of the language. In a
very short time he ought to pass on to the excellent Clarendon Press
_Easy Selections from Xenophon_, or some adaptation of stories from
_Herodotus_, or parts of _Lucian_. He may then take one of the Rugby
_Scenes from Greek Plays_ (Rivingtons), and the easier parts of
_Thucydides_, as edited in Rivington’s _Middle Form Greek Readers_.

[Construing.]

[(3) Conversation.]

[How to be used.]

[Its great advantages.]

In the construing lesson, the teacher will of course try to give each
pupil a small portion to translate; and with a class of twenty-five
this can easily be done in three quarters of an hour, leaving time
for questions. He will then go through the passage himself, asking a
question or two now and then to rivet their attention; and then one and
another should be called upon to decline or conjugate as many of the
words (regular as well as irregular) as can be got into the time. It
is needless to insist that constant practice is necessary in grammar
and parsing. In this manner the accidence will be kept fresh in the
mind, and at last (it is to be hoped) firmly impressed upon it. But one
most important aid to learning is so often neglected, that it will be
necessary to speak about it rather fully. This is conversation. First
let me say that nothing is meant resembling the method of Gouin. What
may be the merits of that method in the case of French or German, it is
needless to ask here; but I am confident that a syntax and accidence
so elaborate as those of Greek could not possibly be taught by that
method in any reasonable time, and I do not believe they could be so
taught at all. Simple conversation can be begun as soon as the pupil
begins to read. We will suppose the reading book contains the sentence,
_Post triduum Cæsar equitatum ad Labienum misit_. The teacher will
ask, _Quid fecit Cæsar_? and the pupil must be made to answer, at
first by prompting if necessary, _Misit equitatum Cæsar_. The next
question may be, _Ad quem misit equitatum_? the reply, _Ad Labienum
misit equitatum Cæsar_. Other questions may be got out of this short
sentence; such as _Quis misit_? _quid_? _quando_? The class should be
made to give always a complete sentence in reply. At first they may
have the book open before them; but so soon as they are used to the
sound of the words, they should be made to shut the book and answer
from memory. Five minutes at the end of a lesson is not much to give,
and it is surprising how this kind of thing quickens interest and
memory. The pupils find the advantage when they sit down to write their
exercises, for now the words and constructions come quickly into the
mind. Moreover, they will find that they have learnt unconsciously the
difference in emphasis which position makes; for it will be observed
that in the simple answers given above, the words which answer the
question, and are therefore the most important, come first in the
answer. The teacher should ring the changes on his reading exercise in
this way, until after a term or two he will be able to begin talking
to them on other subjects: such as the weather, the pictures on the
walls, the pupils’ dress, their inky fingers, anything that occurs to
him. He must take every opportunity of dropping in the accusative and
infinitive, a phrase of purpose or consequence, or the like; and thus,
without much trouble, these bugbears will be got rid of. If a pupil can
answer no more than _Nescio quid dicas_, it is something that he uses
the subjunctive in a dependent question.

[A difficulty met.]

But it will be asked, where are the teachers to be found who can do
this? The answer is, that it is perfectly easy to learn, and only needs
practice. The teacher will have his own book open before him, and need
not go beyond its words till he has gained confidence; then by degrees
he will do it more and more easily, and in a while talking will come
quite naturally to him. In more discursive conversations, it is true,
some preparation will be necessary, but it is quite worth the while.
There are one or two little books that teachers will find useful,[8]
but they will best make their own collections. A few hours’ reading
will give an ample store of colloquialisms from Plato, Aristophanes and
Lucian, from Plautus, Terence, and Cicero’s letters. It is not a bad
plan to compile lists of colloquial sentences, say a hundred, and make
every pupil learn them by heart.

  [8] _Sprechen Sie Attisch?_ Ioannides: Koch, Leipzig, 1889. _Sprechen
  Sie Lateinisch?_ Id. Sargent, _Greek Prose Composition_. Blackie,
  _Gr. Conversation_.

[A practical test.]

It may be worth while saying that the writer has tested this method,
and found it practicable with young and old. Moreover it has been
applied, within his knowledge, to the teaching of Russian, a language
hardly less difficult than Greek; and it is found possible, by
combining conversation, reading, writing and learning by heart, to
teach even obtuse persons how to read an ordinary novel or newspaper,
to write a social or official letter, and to converse on ordinary
topics, in three months, although before they began this course they
knew not even the Russian alphabet.

[(4) Composition.]

For Latin composition the teacher can hardly do better than begin with
Abbott’s _Via Latina_; for Greek, Ritchie’s _Practical Greek Method_ is
to be recommended, though not so unreservedly. What books are best to
follow up with may be seen from the lists given below. But after all,
it is not books that teach, so much as the teacher; and he had better
fix on the subjects that are to be taught at each stage, and select or
make the exercises necessary to teach them.

[Practical hints for teaching it.]

Every exercise will of course be corrected, and the pupil should
never pass on without having written out a correct translation of the
exercise himself. If it is practicable, the best thing is for him
to be told his mistakes, and then to rewrite the exercise, doing it
again and again until it is right. But if time permits not this, the
teacher may do a good deal to encourage self-help by going round the
class whilst they are writing, and underlining all mistakes, which the
pupils are then to correct, if they can. As soon as possible, pieces
of continuous prose should be done as well as sentences; and this can
be begun quite early, in fact after a couple of terms’ work. The same
plan of underlining mistakes may be followed with these; but it will be
found advantageous, as the work increases in difficulty, to give more
and more often fair copies of the teacher’s, or by some other competent
person. In all composition it is useful to dictate the fair copy, and
then to give a few minutes for the class to learn it. The class should
then be called up, the copy taken away, and the English should be
translated _viva voce_. Of course any reasonable translation will be
accepted; it is not meant that only the very words of the copy given
will do. Let the old pieces be done over now and again at sight; and
the results cannot fail to be good.

[Type-sentences to be learnt by heart.]

Most of the exercise books have explanations prefixed to each exercise,
with examples. All such examples, or at least one of each construction,
should be learnt by heart. The same should be done with the syntax
rules of any grammar which may be in use. These should all be so well
drilled into the pupils, that when a rule is given, or a heading, or
(for beginners) the English meaning, the pupils should be able to
reel off the example without hesitation. A certain portion of syntax,
or of the exercise book, or both, should be set for each stage; and
the classes which are studying that part of the subject must learn
these, and keep up the old work. The reading book will give plenty of
opportunity to ask for these quotations, and it should constantly be
done. The oftener the pupil repeats his example of the instrumental
ablative, or whatever it may be, the better he will know it; and he
cannot know it too well. The pupil should be tested and kept up to the
mark by regular grammar papers, at least twice a term.

[Unseen translation.]

Unseen translation should be commenced as early as possible, and form
part of the regular work. Beginners can try some unprepared piece out
of their reading book, which they must do on paper, and without help,
except that they will use the vocabulary. As soon as the pupils are far
enough on to use a dictionary, some special book of unseens should be
taken, such as Jerram’s _Anglice Reddenda_. The use of helps can be
gradually discontinued, until the pupil is weaned from them altogether.
This can be done by forbidding dictionaries, and giving the meanings of
the more unfamiliar words, fewer and fewer by degrees.

[Repetition.]

As soon as the pupil has begun to read a verse author, repetition
should be begun, and never afterwards discontinued. Verse is easier
to learn, so with verse we begin; but pieces of prose for learning
should be set later. It is useful to make the repetition a part of the
terminal examination, and to have every word of it written out. A Greek
play and a book of Virgil should be chosen (say the _Medea_, or the
_Œdipus Tyrannus_, and the IVth or VIth _Æneid_), together with the
_Heroides_ of Ovid, and if time allows, one of the speeches against
_Catiline_ and a _Philippic_ of Demosthenes. These can be divided into
portions, a portion for each form or class, and it should be understood
that this has to be learnt during the term and kept up afterwards. The
examination will simply consist in writing out all the portion learnt
during the term, and all the old work, if any. As the work will always
be the same, the older pupils will soon get to know it perfectly. The
system here recommended has been used in one great school for perhaps a
quarter of a century, and the results have been excellent.

[Methods of work more advanced.]

[What is to be aimed at.]

[Use of notes and other aids.]

We will now suppose that the accidence and syntax are fairly well
known, and that the pupil is ready to read a book of Virgil or a speech
of Cicero, Euripides or Demosthenes, without serious difficulty. The
methods followed will not change; they will merely be applied more
widely. The grammar will need to be kept fresh by the same means as
before, and the study will be made more intelligent by use of the
comparative and historical methods;[9] construing will be done in the
same order, but some style will be expected; composition will be worked
by means of correction and fair copies, but the pieces chosen will be
harder, and here, too, style will be more attended to; conversation
will by this time have become easy and interesting, and will cover a
wider range of ideas. The aims of the teacher at this stage must be
to teach self-reliance, and to direct the student more and more to
illustrative reading. It is advisable at this stage to do part of the
work without the aid of notes. The class is reading, we will suppose,
a book of Horace’s Odes, and one of Cicero’s speeches. He should have
a complete text of Horace, and the proper volume of Cicero’s works
(or the whole), with no notes at all; from this he should prepare the
work for the first time of doing. Difficulties he must make out as
best he can, with the aid of grammar and dictionary, some dictionary
of antiquities (_Rich_ for beginners, _Smith’s_ large one for older
students), Gow’s _Companion_ and the pictorial _Atlas of Antiquities_.
For revision, he should be given notes dictated by the teacher, or
some edition with printed notes in it. The class work should be done
with the utmost care and exactness, and parts of the author committed
to memory: side by side with this should go more discursive reading,
especially for the older students. They should be encouraged (and
at last expected) to read more of the author by themselves, and to
bring difficulties to the teacher, who ought now and again to test
their progress. Thus the curriculum of the latter part of the school
work will consist of a portion of all the chief authors to be read in
school, and as much more as possible of the same authors read out of
school.

  [9] Lindsay’s _Short Historical Latin Grammar_. For Greek there is
  none such as yet, but notes may be given from Giles’ _Manual_, or
  King and Cookson (see lists below).

[Illustrative works.]

The pupil should also be directed to illustrative works which will
serve to quicken his interest in any author. The excellent series of
_Ancient Classics for English Readers_ contains an account of each
author, with extracts translated; and well do I remember my interest
in the _Xenophon_ of this series, when quite a boy. Passages might
be read to the class from some book of travels; _On the Track of the
Ten Thousand_, if Xenophon be the author; _Travels or Explorations in
Egypt_, if Herodotus; and so forth. The reader of Cicero could not fail
to be interested in Boissier’s _Cicero and his Friends_; the Latin
poets are well illustrated by Sellar’s _Roman Poets of the Republic_
and of the _Augustan Age_. Symonds’ _Greek Poets_, Mahaffy’s literary
and historical books, Champagny’s _Les Césars_, Girard’s _Education
Athénienne_ are only a few out of many books which make the old days
live again, and add to the literary appreciation of a learner.

[Translations.]

The elder pupils in their private reading must be taught the proper use
of translations. It is not to be expected that they will do without
them entirely; but they should have access to the best, in a school
library or elsewhere, under some direction at first and afterwards at
discretion. If they are clearly shown that it is their interest to use
them only where their own honest efforts have failed, or as models in
the case of books they have already done, most of them will be sensible
enough not to abuse their liberty. The pupil will gain much, too, by
reading some of the old translations of the sixteenth and seventeenth
centuries. From North’s _Plutarch_, Hobbes’ _Thucydides_, Holland’s
_Livy_, and other such, the learner will gain a new idea of what the
English language can do, much to the advantage of his style. Nor is
there the same danger in giving pupils these books as in allowing them
the free use of modern translations. They reproduce the spirit rather
than the letter, and are of little use as “cribs”.

[Style.]

[Lectures and demonstrations.]

When the pupil has learnt how to write correct Latin or Greek, it will
be time to pay some attention to style. The pieces chosen should at
first be definitely historical, oratorical, philosophical, or dialogue,
according to the author being at the time studied; in the last stage,
these should be given one after the other, unless any weak point
needs strengthening. It is useful now and again to give lectures and
demonstrations in composition to a class. Each will be provided with
a copy of the English, and the teacher then will get to the heart of
it, state its thoughts in the sequence and subordination as simply as
possible, and finally translate it bit by bit, using the blackboard
to record each step. Questions may be asked or anticipated, and the
various renderings suggested should be weighed and discussed. In this
manner the beginner sees how a trained mind works, and is helped to
guide his own. Good examples of the method may be seen in Sidgwick’s
_Lectures on Greek Prose Composition_, Postgate’s _Sermo Latinus_, and
Sargent’s _Primers_.

[Verse-writing.]

[Its value.]

So far nothing has been said of verse composition. Much obloquy has
been poured on this of late years; and it may be admitted that formerly
too much time was given to it. But in spite of all that objectors can
say, there is no manner of doubt that verse-writing is a practice of
very great value. No one really pretends that it can make poets (the
common sneer); all that is claimed for it is, that it is valuable as a
mental gymnastic and in training the literary sense. Prose-writing can
teach the power of words, but only verse their subtler associations;
prose teaches the effect of position upon emphasis, but verse makes
clear that there is such a thing as literary form. Most people never
realise the rhythm of a piece of prose; its more striking faults may
offend or its merits unconsciously please, but why these please or
offend it would be beyond their power to say. But the dullest boy
or girl who has learnt how to piece together an elegiac couplet,
understands that this particular kind of composition is regulated by
definite bounds, and cast in a _form_, the variations of which are
limited. His ear becomes attuned more or less to rhythm, and this
first step may be used to lead him on to the comprehension of literary
form in other kinds. I do not say that he will never learn the lesson
without writing verses, but that this is the easiest way to teach it;
and I would apply the same principle to English or any other language.
Some incidental advantages follow at the same time; not the least
that the pupil understands the metre of the poets he reads. He will
not learn this equally well by scanning. To have full effect the act
of scanning must be unconscious; that is, the reader must take in
words, meaning and rhythm at the same time without effort. So far as
my experience goes, those who have not learnt how to write verses
never read poetry in this way, but the scanning (if done) is done by
a conscious effort, which draws off the mind from the poetry. Let
the class, then, as soon as they begin to read a verse author, do a
term’s work or two on elementary exercises in metre (I will not say
verse-writing) from Penrose’s _Latin Elegiac Verse Composition_. The
time will not be wasted, as has been shown, even if no more is done.
Those who wish to go further in Latin verse cannot do without a skilled
teacher, for no books exist which can help him much. Demonstrations on
the blackboard can teach a great deal at this stage; but nothing can
be done by the pupil without learning a great deal of Latin verse by
heart. Greek verse is easier to compose than Latin, and may be begun
quite late. Nearly all the elementary books on Greek verse are useless
without a teacher, and need constant supervision and help; perhaps I
may be pardoned for mentioning a little book called _Damon_, since
this is the only one wherein the learner is led on by steps graduated
close one after the other. Pupils may go straight from this book to the
rendering of pieces of English verse, but both Sidgwick’s and Sargent’s
books on Greek verse will always be found useful.

[Pronunciation of Latin and Greek.]

It is necessary now to say something about the pronunciation of Latin
and Greek. The reformed pronunciation is strongly to be recommended.
This is simply set forth in a pamphlet published by the Cambridge
University Press,[10] and for Latin is practically that given in the
first pages of the _Latin Primer_. The sole advantage of pronouncing
Latin and Greek words as if they were English, is that the learner need
learn nothing new. But this is far outweighed by the disadvantages; and
after all, the pupil has begun to learn French or German, and so is not
struck dumb at being called upon to pronounce _i_ as _ee_. The main
disadvantages are these: (1) Confusion of _s_, _c_, and _t_, as _Ceres_
with _Seres_, _cedit_ with _sedit_; (2) Confusion of quantity, _mensīs_
(abl. pl.) with _mensĭs_ (gen. sing.), _mālum_ (“evil”) with _mălum_
(“apple”); (3) Difficulty of pronunciation in many words, especially in
Greek, as παύω when the first syllable is made to rhyme with _law_; (4)
Loss of much beauty in the sound of the languages.

  [10] _The Reformed Pronunciation of Greek and Latin_: Arnold and
  Conway. 1895. IS.

[The accent in Greek.]

[To be taught as far as practicable.]

In one point, however, I differ from the authors of this pamphlet--that
is, on the question of Greek accentuation. It is generally agreed that
the Greek accents must be learnt, and rightly so, for many interesting
linguistic points turn on them; but it is also the invariable practice
not to try to pronounce them. But there is really no reason why most
of them should not be pronounced. The Greek accent, as is well known,
was a musical intonation; the acute[11] denoting a rise in the tone,
the circumflex a rise followed by a fall, _i.e._, a kind of drawl.
The circumflex can always be pronounced with ease; so can the acute,
when final; so can the great majority of internal accents. It is
just as easy to say ἐλΕΙποντο as ἐλειΠΟΝτο. The only cases of real
difficulty are words like φέρηται, άνθρωπος, where a long vowel follows
an accented syllable. These might be waived for beginners, but these
are few compared to the rest; and even to pronounce the accent and
quantity in these is not very difficult, especially with the reformed
pronunciation. This plan has been tried, and found to work fairly, with
young boys from twelve to sixteen.

  [11] The grave on finals, when written for acute, is practically the
  same.

[Value of old English translations.]

There is a means by which the classical teacher may be greatly
helped, and that is if the general course of studies in the school
be so arranged, that good English translations of the classics
form a fair proportion of the English authors read. Many of these
translations are themselves English classics, such as Chapman’s and
Pope’s _Homer_, North’s _Plutarch_, Dryden’s _Virgil_ and _Juvenal_.
Others there are in plenty, no less excellent than these, if less
known--Phaer’s _Virgil_, Holland’s versions of _Livy_, _Suetonius_,
_Plutarch’s Morals_, and many other works; Hobbes’ _Thucydides_,
Barnard’s _Terence_, Echard’s _Plautus_--indeed there is hardly a
classical author of repute who did not find a worthy translator in the
Elizabethan age. A few of these are accessible in cheap reprints,[12]
and if there were a demand for any of them a reprint would appear at
once. By reading these the children will become familiar with the
subject-matter of classical authors before they have to translate
them; and they will also have made acquaintance with some fine works
of literature, many of which (such as North) are interesting from
association with Shakspere. When Roman or Greek history comes in the
regular historical cycle, some of these books might well be read along
with them.

  [12] Messrs. Dent & Co., in the Temple Classics, have brought out
  Chapman, and intend to include North and others.

[Models and illustrations.]

The last thing to be mentioned is the use of models and illustrations.
There is almost no limit to the number of such things that can be had;
the real limit is the depth of the teacher’s purse. But the schools
ought to provide these things for use; it is too much to expect that
teachers should spend their sparings and savings in educational plant.
Any money spent in this way is amply repaid by the interest added to
the work. Classical teachers ought to have at their disposal lantern
slides illustrating classical life and history, wall pictures and maps,
photographs and models. Slides may be hired from the Hellenic Society,
or bought through the Teachers’ Guild;[13] for wall pictures there are
two excellent series, those of Cybulski and Launitz. Of photographs
there are thousands. The wise teacher will travel and collect them;
but for those who will not, one or two addresses of photographers are
given below,[14] with the names of some useful works. The pictures can
be kept in the school library, and hung up for the term when they will
be useful. For the photographs, frames with movable backs are most
to be recommended, as the pictures can then be changed at will. The
teacher should talk about them, and question his class, and (as already
suggested) they may form a topic of Latin or Greek conversation.
It is astonishing how much children will learn from these things.
In addition, it is highly desirable that each pupil should have his
pictorial atlases as he has an atlas of geography.

  [13] There is a large collection in the Guild Museum, Gower Street,
  London. Here also models may be seen.

  [14] See p. 93.

[Recapitulation.]

[Weak points to be strengthened.]

The writer has now pointed out what, in his opinion, is the place which
Latin and Greek should take in a girl’s education, and the methods
best calculated to teach them. If in these there is not much that is
new, they are at all events such as experience has proved to be sound.
One or two points may be indicated which are apt to be weak in girl
students, and must therefore be specially guarded against. They are apt
to be shaky in grammar, and they seem to have less mental self-reliance
than boys. As regards those who learn late, they must go over the
same ground; for no teacher and no book, no not if angels wrote it,
can point out a royal road to learning. These late-learners bring to
the task a mind already more or less trained, and so they will get on
faster; but let them beware of trying to get on too fast. They must
make up their minds that grammar has to be learnt, and work at it with
a will. If they have already done half of the drudgery by learning
Latin, as here recommended, their task will be not easy indeed, but
not beyond their powers; and even if both Latin and Greek are begun
late, they need not even then despair. I have known several, both
men and women, who have begun late and ended with success, even with
distinction; although it must be admitted that these were persons of
exceptional powers. But it is of the utmost importance that the most
capable teachers should have charge of the late-learners. The greater
the difficulty, the greater need for a teacher who has his subjects
at the ends of his fingers, who can see a short-cut, and is able to
judge how much of the preliminary work can safely be shortened, or even
omitted for the time. When skill in the teacher meets with will in the
taught, between them they may remove mountains.


SUGGESTED SCHEME OF WORK IN SIX PARTS.


LATIN.

  _Grammar._                          _Composition._

  1. Parts of speech and elements:    1. Simplest sentences: statement,
  regular nouns and adjectives:       question and answer.
  _est_, _sunt_, and how to form 3rd
  sing. and pl. pres. indic. first
  conjugation, given the infinitive
  present.

  2. Commonest pronouns: present      2. Cases of agent and instrument,
  indic. of _sum_, and how to form    time and place: _quam_ with nom.
  3rd sing. and pl. of all four       and acc., abl. of comparison: a
  conjugations, given the infinitive  few common prolate verbs: simplest
  present.                            relative sentences and _cum_
                                      temporal.

  3. Pronouns and cardinal numerals:  3. Ablative absolute, and a few
  active of the four conjugations:    more case usages: accusative with
  _sum_: meanings and case of a few   infinitive: use of _se_, _suus_,
  common prepositions.                _ipse_: double questions:
                                      factitives in active, prolate
                                      verbs: relative sentences, with a
                                      hint of finals: commands and
                                      prohibitions: causal, concessive
                                      and temporal sentences.

  4. Ordinal numerals: passive of     4. _Quisquam_, _quisque_,
  the four conjugations: a few        _quivis_, etc. (meaning): chief
  common irregular verbs.             case usages: factitives: common
                                      verbs with dative: dependent
                                      questions: accusative with
                                      infinitive, tenses distinguished:
                                      simple finals, pos. and negative:
                                      simple consecutives: verbs of
                                      hindering and fearing.

  5 and 6. Deponents, impersonals,    5. _Utor_ and other verbs with
  irregular verbs: fill up gaps (add  various cases: all case usages:
  _e.g._, the rest of the numerals).  gerund and gerundive: some
                                      impersonal verbs: final and
                                      consecutive sentences: conditions
                                      begun.

                                      6. _Quisquam_, etc., use and
                                      idioms: participles: _nunquam_,
                                      etc., causal, concessive, temporal
                                      and other conjunctions:
                                      conditions: _obliqua_.


GREEK.

  _Grammar._                          _Composition._

  1. Regular nouns and adjectives:    1. Concords (including that of
  article: εστιν and εισιν: how to    neuter plural): article in direct
  form 3rd sing. and pl. pres.        predication: simplest sentences,
  indic. of verbs in -ω given the     statement, question and answer:
  infinitive present.                 simplest meanings of cases:
                                      meanings of απο, εις, εν, εξ, μετα
                                      (gen.), συν.

  2. Some irregular nouns: cardinal   2. Article with demonstrative and
  numerals: comparison of             with adjectives of position:
  adjectives: commoner pronouns:      αυτος: simplest meaning of the
  ειμι, with active of λυω. General   tenses: accusative with
  rules for accent in its dependence  infinitive: some further particles
  on quantity.                        of question and emphasis.

  3. Numerals: ειμι, λυω: a few       3. Genitive absolute: agent and
  irregular nouns. Accent of nouns    instrument and other case usage:
  and verbs (general rules).          infinitive with verbs of command
                                      or request: commands,
                                      prohibitions, wishes (opt.): ἱνα
                                      and its sequence: double questions
                                      and further formulæ.

  4. Contracted verbs: parts of a     4. ὁπως with fut. indic. ὡστε: all
  few irregular verbs: accent of      final constructions: verbs of
  nouns and verbs (special rules)     fearing: δια, νατα, μετα, παρα,
  and contracted syllables.           προς, ὑπο.

  5. Verbs in -μι: οιδα φημι: parts   5. Accusative and nominative with
  of commoner irregular verbs.        infinitives: use of participles
                                      with certain verbs: consecutive
                                      and temporal constructions: simple
                                      indirect statement and question:
                                      the conditions begun.

  6. Irregular nouns and verbs: fill  6. The cases, tenses, participles
  gaps. Revise with Goodwin’s         and prepositions: idioms, such as
  _Grammar_.                          καιπερ ἁτε ὡς: conditions: all
                                      rules of _obliqua_.


BOOKS.[15]

  [15] V is added to those which have vocabularies; K means key.

The writer wishes it to be understood that this is not an exhaustive
list. These books he has either tested by use, or has good grounds
in the experience of others for the judgment given of them; but
there are many others of the same kind, and there is often little to
choose between them. The publishers whose books are given below are:
Camb. Univ. Press, Clarendon Press, Blackie, Dent, Grevel, Isbister,
Longmans, Macmillan, Murray, Rivingtons, Seeley, Trübner.

LATIN: GRAMMAR AND COMPOSITION.

  _Public School Lat. Primer_ (or Postgate’s _New Lat. Primer_, in some
  respects a more useful book) should be kept at hand, if only for
  reference and revision. Abbott, _Via Latina_ (v), 3/6; excellent.
  Morris, _Elementa Latina_, with _Tripertita_ as an exercise book,
  followed by Mansfield’s _Lat. Exercise Book_; a good series for very
  beginners, but the exercises need supplementing. Allen, _Rudimenta
  Latina_ (v) 2/6; belongs to a complete series, the other books
  being an _Elementary Latin Grammar_, 2/6, a _First_ (v), 2/6, and
  a _Second Latin Exercise Book_ (v), 3/6. The last named is an
  excellent book for teachers, who may learn much from it, but I have
  found it dull and difficult for the learner. Ritchie, _First Steps
  in Lat._ (v), 1/6; also one of a series, with _Ex. in Lat. Prose
  Comp._ (v), 2/6, and _Easy Continuous Lat. Prose_, 2/6,[16] _Latin
  Clause Construction_, 1/6, a _First Lat. Verse Book_ (v), 2/-,
  and a Reader _Fabulæ Faciles_ (v), 2/6, with _Imitative Lat. Ex._
  (v), 1/6, based upon it. These are good books, and I prefer them
  to Allen’s after using both series: the explanations are clearer,
  and there are more sentences. Macmillan’s _Latin Course_ (v), two
  parts, 3/6 and 4/6; good. It has an advantage in the large number of
  exercises. England, _Exx. in Latin, Syntax and Idiom_ (v k), 2/6;
  a companion to Roby’s _School Latin Grammar_. Rooper and Herring,
  _Primary Lat. Exx._ (v), 3/6; specially adapted to the _Revised Lat.
  Primer_. North and Hillard, _Lat. Prose Comp._ (v), for the middle
  forms, 3/6; carefully arranged and progressive from phrases and
  sentences to continuous prose. Champneys and Randall, _Easy English
  Pieces for Translation into Latin Prose_, 1st and 2nd series, each
  1/6; excellent, and can be used with a sentence book as soon as the
  elements are mastered. More advanced Grammars: W. M. Lindsay, _Short
  Historical Lat. Gr._, 4/6; excellent. This is mainly philological. H.
  J. Roby, _School Lat. Gr._, 5/-; good. Not philological.

  [16] See below, Champneys.

For Idiom and Construction in the higher stages:--

  Bradley, _Arnold’s Lat. Prose Comp._ (v), 5/-, and _Aids to Writing
  Latin Prose_, 5/-, with full explanations; the former has sentences,
  the latter continuous prose. Abbott, _Lat. Prose through Eng. Idiom_,
  2/6; is a most useful little book for committing to memory. This
  should be used with one or two forms or sets in addition to the
  stock books. Jerram, _Latine Reddenda_, 1/6; useful collection of
  miscellaneous sentences. Books of chosen English: Holden, _Foliorum
  Centuriæ_, 8/-, for Gr. and Lat. prose; the standard collection.
  Wilkins’ _Manual of Lat. Prose Comp._, 4/6. Sargent and Dallin,
  _Materials and Models for Lat. Pr. Comp._ (k), 6/6; with references
  for each piece to portions of Latin authors on similar subjects; a
  useful book. Potts, _Passages for Transl. into Lat. Prose_ (k), 2/6.
  Nettleship, _Passages for Transl. into Lat. Prose_, with a valuable
  introduction. Postgate: see below.

Most useful for teachers, advanced students, or private students:--

  J. Y. Sargent, _Lat. Prose Primer_ (v), 2/6; most of the pieces are
  carefully analysed, and the steps by which the sense is mastered and
  then translated are shown in detail. It is a companion to Sargent’s
  _Easy Passages for Transl. into Lat._ (k), 2/6. Potts, _Hints
  towards Lat. Pr._, 3/-; perhaps the most useful of all manuals on
  Latin prose style. Postgate, _Sermo Latinus_ (k), 2/6; interesting
  and instructive. Ramsay, _Lat. Pr. Versions_, with the English,
  5/-; excellent models. Meissner’s _Lat. Phrase Book_, 3/6; phrases
  and quotations classified and indexed; a most useful book. Roby’s
  _Lat. Gr._, two vols., 9/- and 10/6; indispensable. W. M. Lindsay,
  _Lat. Language_, 21/-; indispensable to those who study Latin from
  the comparative standpoint. His _Short Historical Lat. Gr._ will,
  however, be sufficient for less advanced students.

VERSE.

  Manuals by Penrose (elegiacs); Morice (same, more advanced), and
  Lupton (lyrics): Holden, _Foliorum Silvula_ (the best anthology).


READERS.

  There are numbers of elementary readers, and there is really little
  to choose between them. The most useful set seems to the writer to
  be Rivington’s _Single Term Latin Readers_, 8d. to 1/4 each. With
  notes, exercises and vocabularies. These are sets of three books for
  each of six terms, each book containing enough for a term’s work, and
  each set having the same standard. Others in common use are: Morice,
  _Loculi_, 2/-; Abbott, _Dux Latinus_, 2/-, adapted to _Via Latina_;
  Ritchie, _Fabulæ Faciles_; Bennett’s _Easy Lat. Stories_, Hardy’s
  _Lat. Reader_, etc. Teachers and private students may learn much from
  Abbott’s _Latin Gate_.


GREEK: GRAMMAR AND COMPOSITION.

  Abbott and Mansfield, _Primer of Gr. Gr._, 2/6, or with Syntax, 3/6;
  is perhaps the most convenient as a collection of facts. A _Primer of
  Gr. Ex._, 3/6, has been compiled to go with it. Ritchie’s elementary
  exercise books can be recommended. Ritchie and Moore, _Practical
  Gr. Method for Beginners_ (v k), 3/6. Ritchie, _First Steps in Gr._
  (v), 2/-; exercises need to be supplemented. Jackson, _First Steps
  to Greek Prose Comp._ (v k), and _Second Steps_ (v k), 1/6 and 3/6;
  are useful exercise books. Macmillan’s Greek course: _Easy Ex. in
  Gr. Accidence_ (v), 2/-; _Easy Ex. in Gr. Syntax_ (v), 2/6; _Second
  Gr. Exercise Book_ (v), 2/6; companions to Rutherford’s _Greek
  Grammar_. They are almost exclusively exercises, and very full.
  Jerram, _Graece Reddenda_ (v), 2/6; a collection of miscellaneous
  sentences. Sidgwick’s _First Gr. Writer_ (v k), 3/6; easy continuous
  prose, may be used along with any book of sentences. Following this
  comes his excellent _Gr. Prose Comp._ (v k), 5/-, and then the pupil
  will be able to dispense with crutches. Both have clear and useful
  introductions. Arnold’s _Gr. Pr. Comp._ (v k), 3/6, ed. by Abbott,
  has useful exercises in idiom.

  More advanced, and to be used as soon as the accidence is mastered,
  is Goodwin’s _Gr. Gr._, 6/-, new ed., excellent; or his _School Gr.
  Gr._, 3/6. To the advanced student Goodwin’s _Gr. Moods and Tenses_,
  second ed., 14/-, is indispensable. Much may be learnt from the
  _Gr. Gram._ of Goodwin, 6/-; Rutherford, 3/6; and Sonnenschein.
  Collections of chosen English: Holden, _Foliorum Centuriæ_; Wilkins,
  _Manual of Gr. Prose Comp._, 5/-; Sargent and Dallin, _Materials
  and Models for Gr. Prose Comp._ How to tackle a piece of English,
  see Sidgwick’s _Lectures on Gr. Prose Comp._, and _Lectures on the
  Teaching of Composition_, 4/6. Sargent’s _Gr. Prose Primer_ (v k),
  3/6, is stimulating.


VERSE.

  _Damon: A Manual of Gr. Iambic Verse_ (v k), by Williams and Rouse,
  2/6. Holden’s _Foliorum Silvula_ (the best anthology). Help may be
  obtained from the Greek verse books of Sidgwick and Morice (v k),
  (v), Sargent (v), and Kynaston (v), 4/6.


READERS.

  Rivington’s _Single Term Readers_ (v), like his Latin readers, 9d.
  each; recommended. Heatley, _Græcula_ (v k), 1/6, for beginners.
  Sidgwick, _First Gr. Reading Book_ (v), 2/6: 100 easy stories, with
  some grammar. Rushbrooke, _First Gr. Reader_ (v), 2/6; Bell’s _Second
  Gr. Reader_, 3/-; Murray’s _Fourth_ (specimens of dialects), 4/6, and
  Abbott’s _Fifth_ (Homer and the dramatists), 4/6. Macmillan’s _Gr.
  Reader_, stories and legends, 3/-. Mayor, _First Gr. Reader_, 4/6.
  The student had better pass on as soon as possible to some such book
  as the following: _Xenophon, Easy Selections_, Philpotts and Jerram.
  _Herodotus, Battle of Marathon in Attic Prose._ _Herodotus, Tales
  from, Atticised_, Farnell, 1/6. _Arrian: Selections_, Walpole, 1/6.
  _Lucian: Extracts_, Bond and Walpole, 1/6. The next step will be to
  selections from the _Attic Orators_: Rivington’s _Middle Form Greek
  Readers_, 1/6 each; Plato’s _Crito_ or _Apology_; Sidgwick’s _Scenes
  from Greek Plays_.


GREEK AND LATIN: UNSEEN TRANSLATION.

  Jerram, _Anglice Reddenda_, three series, 2/6, 3/-, 3/-. Reid,
  _Transl. at Sight_, 2/6 each part. Spratt and Pretor, _Transl. at
  Sight_ (k); an extremely good selection of difficult passages.

  Models: Jebb, Jackson and Currie’s _Translations_, and Fox and
  Bromley, _Models and Exx. in Unseen Translation_.


ANTIQUITIES.

  Gow, _Companion to School Classics_; indispensable. Schreiber,
  _Atlas of Class. Antiq._, 21/-. Anderson, _Atlas to Homer_, 21/-.
  Rouse, _Atlas of Gr. and Rom. Portraits_, 1/6 each part. Macmillan’s
  _Manuals of Antiq._, 5/- each. Murray, _Handb. of Gr. Archæology_,
  18/-. J. Harrison, _Mythol. and Monuments of Early Athens_.
  Middleton, _Remains of Ancient Rome_. Lanciani, _Ruins of Ancient
  Rome_ and other works. Schneider, _Das Alte Rom._ (Pictorial atlas
  with maps; excellent.)


COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY AND TEXTUAL CRITICISM.

  P. Giles, _Manual of Phil._; the best handy manual. Henry, _Comp.
  Gram. of Gr. and Lat._ King and Cookson, _Introd. to the Comp.
  Gram. of Gr. and Lat._, 5/6. Lindsay, _Short Hist. Lat. Gram._,
  5/6. More advanced: Brugmann, _Compar. Gram. of the Indo-Germ.
  Languages_ (translated). The standard work. King and Cookson,
  _Principles of Sound and Inflexion_, 18/-. Lindsay, _Lat. Language_,
  21/-. Prellwitz, _Etymolog. Wörterb. der griech. Sprache_; good.
  Wharton, _Etyma Græca_ and _Etyma Latina_. Thompson, _Gr. and Lat.
  Palæography_, 3/6.


ILLUSTRATIVE PICTURES AND MODELS.

  Cybulski, _Tabulæ quibus antiquitates Græcæ et Latinæ illustrantur_
  (Köhler, Leipzig). Wall pictures, coloured, 4/- or 5/- each. An
  excellent series. Launitz, _Wandtafeln zur Veranschaulichung antiker
  Lebens und antiker Kunst_. Through Deighton Bell, Cambridge. Casts:
  Brucciani, Covent Garden (catalogue).

  Models: Inquire at Museum of Teachers’ Guild, Gower St., London.

  Slides: the same. Field, _Cat. of Lantern Slides for Fyffe’s History
  of Greece_, 6d. _Roman_ catalogue preparing. Catalogue of the slides
  in the Loan Collection of the Hellenic Society.

  Photographs, etc.: Catalogue of _English Photographic Company_, S.
  C. Atchley, Place de la Constitution, Athens. A very full and cheap
  collection. Mr. Atchley is well known to the writer, and strangers
  need have no hesitation in writing and sending money direct.
  Photographs are sold by _German School_ at Athens.

  The following Greek photographers have good collections: _Rhomaïdes
  Frères_, Rue de Niké, 24; _Constantin Athanasiou_, Rue d’Hermès, 6.
  Catalogues. The Levant: Bonfils & Co., Beyrout, Syria; and local
  photographers at Constantinople, Smyrna, Jerusalem and Cairo.
  Purchases should be made through some one on the spot. Italy: Sommer
  e Figlio, Largo Vittoria, Napoli: photographs and models. Collezione
  Brogi, and the Stabilimento Fotografico Moscioni have large choice.
  Museums. London: Stereoscopic Company, Clarke & Sons, Mansell & Co.
  Berlin: the Museum publishes a few (catalogue). Paris: Girardon,
  15 Rue Bonaparte. Munich: Bruckmann, Verlagsanstalt für Kunst (see
  below).

  Publications. _Denkmäler der Griech. und Röm. Skulptur_: Brunn &
  Bruckmann, Munich. Magnificent plates. _Griechische und Römische
  Porträts_: Arndt & Bruckmann, Munich. _Einzelverkauf_: photographs
  of sculpture (Bruckmann), separately about 6d. each. _Classical
  Sculpture Gallery_: Grevel & Co. 12/- a year. Cheap reproductions of
  all the chief works of sculpture, ancient and modern. _Bilder zur
  Mythologie und Geschichte der Griechen und Römern._ Hoppe-Graeser,
  Vienna.


MODERN LANGUAGES.

By DOROTHEA BEALE.

First a few words on the order in which languages should be taught. I
do not think that we should make a change for the better as regards
girls’ education, were we to substitute Latin for French, placing that
subject first in order of time. It seems to me best to begin with
French, a language etymologically related to our own, and having a
simple grammatical structure.

[Order of language teaching.]

Secondly I prefer to take German, the grammar of which approaches more
nearly to the classical models, whilst the inflections are easier to
learn than the French; its etymology too not only throws much light
on our own, but is more transparent, which makes it a medium, perhaps
as valuable as Greek, far more valuable than Latin, for showing the
refinements of language, the poetry and philosophy fossilised in
speech. Thus those only take up the classical languages who have some
linguistic power. Girls who are unable to master the difficulties of
the grammar will never encounter them, and as the languages gradually
increase in difficulty, we can better fit the means of education to
the power of the pupil. The classics form, it is true, a key to modern
tongues, but on the other hand modern tongues lead up to Latin and
Greek, and I believe this order is equally logical and answers better
with girls; it is something to open to them the literature of France
and Germany, something to teach them languages, so that they shall find
the study (as they generally do) one of interest. At any rate there are
four stages at which we can leave behind those unable to continue their
march, and who, if we tried to bring them further, would form only a
crowd of stragglers. Those who have a good knowledge of one or two
modern languages will have no great difficulty in taking up Latin or
Greek say at fourteen or fifteen. They will have a large etymological
store, which will make it easy to acquire the vocabulary, and they will
have to study only the differentia of the grammars of the different
languages--may we not rather say dialects?--of the Indo-European stock.

Nearly all syntax rules will be already known, and a Latin Grammar in
which the principles are brought out, may take the place of one written
for young boys in whom the grammatical faculty is rudimentary--in which
dogmatic rules only abound; dogma should as far as possible yield to
principles, which are intelligible and interesting to elder girls,
and this will help them over the necessarily considerable labour of
learning the inflections. Perhaps few will attain the minute exhaustive
scholarship of which some minds are capable, but many will read with
keen enjoyment; some girls who have begun late have taken high places
in university examinations.

Much has been recently written on the subject of modern languages;
in the books edited by Mr. Barnett and Dr. Spenser, just published,
to which I have frequently referred, are excellent papers. I shall
therefore make my remarks on the subject very brief. In the first is
an excellent paper by Mr. Storr, and Dr. Spenser has written a paper
of about fifty pages, giving a full account of the modern system of
teaching.

It is time that some reform took place. The Oxford Local Examiners
of 1896 reported the French as phenomenally bad. In 1897 nearly half
the seniors failed. I have tabulated the answers to the few questions
set by me to pupils entering over twelve, and I find, taking some two
hundred, that not one in ten knows the regular verbs, and scarcely any
write very simple sentences without egregious faults.

[Only oral teaching at first.]

The first teaching in modern languages should certainly be oral. In
the kindergarten, French and German songs and simple sentences may be
taught in the lowest forms. Supposing that children begin about seven
or eight, it seems better they should not see written French at first.
If they have learned the alphabet, as I have suggested in a former
paper, they will take some interest in the new sounds of French and
might read from a phonetic transcription.

[Phonetic alphabet.]

There are good papers in the (August and September, 1897) _Journal
of Education_ on this subject by Mr. Ware, Mr. Kirkman and Mons.
Passy, which I commend to my readers. I give a few extracts. Mr. Ware
writes: “In Germany, every teacher has to render himself capable of
teaching pronunciation, and results prove that he succeeds. In various
German training colleges, there are courses of lectures on phonetics
applied to the study of foreign languages. It was owing to the success
attending the introduction of phonetics in the French teaching in
certain German schools that I was finally induced to try them in the
earliest stages of French teaching at Bradford. The results have
exceeded my expectations.”

This is confirmed by Mr. Bearder of Nottingham. He writes: “Though I
have not used the method in such a thorough and systematic manner as he
has done at Bradford, still the results are such as to convince me that
I am entitled to support Mr. Ware in his refutation of one argument,
letting alone others, which the opponents of phonetic teaching
continually bring forward, that time is wasted in learning the two
modes of spelling”.

[Common errors.]

If it is not possible to get the reading taught phonetically, using the
international alphabet, the use of the tables of Larousse will be a
great help. In any case pieces which are learned by heart, dialogues,
etc., should be repeated in the class after the French teacher, before
the children see the book. Few English people have ever learned to
distinguish the sounds of the final syllable in the imperfect and
_passé défini_ or the future and the conditional or the gradual opening
of the sounds as we pass through _e_, _é_, _è_, _ê_. Very few pronounce
_u_ properly when it precedes another vowel--_lui_ is pronounced
_looee_. Very few observe that a labial nasal before another labial is
changed into a dental nasal, thus not _impossible_ but _inpossible_,
and nearly all say _leer_ for _lee_ + _r_. Children are taught to read
so unsystematically, that if they are told these things they forget
them, and waste time in repeating easy sounds, instead of working
at the hard ones. Children should not be set to learn verbs, etc.,
without having first repeated them and practised the sounds with their
teachers. When they do begin to read, the sound-table should be hanging
up, and should be referred to, that they may correct their errors
themselves. These pronouncing lessons should go on in a room alone,
so that children may speak together in imitating the teacher; then
she should single out individuals for different sounds; but the whole
class should never sit round, as is the custom in some schools, and
hear each of their companions read in succession a piece of French with
true British accent. If they listen, their time is worse than wasted;
if they do not, they get habits of inattention. The attention must not
be wearied, and if two or three sounds are acquired each week, the
whole will very soon be mastered, and time saved for the repetition of
poetry, for _viva voce_ composition, etc.

[Translation.]

When children begin to read, we should spare them as much stupefying
dictionary work as possible, but it is not well to let them learn the
vocabularies of the book without comment, and they should be led from
their past knowledge to discover the meaning, and as far as may be, get
at the root meaning of unknown words, and see the underlying figure.
Thorough work is much quicker in the end. Pascal’s father left his son
with a Latin book, and no dictionary, to find out the translation. This
may be a counsel of perfection suited only to a Pascal, but there are
not many words of which children could not discover the meaning. Much
more translation from French into English should be got through than
is usual; children ought soon to be able to read at sight. Time need
not be wasted by hearing all that has been prepared, but each could be
called on to translate one sentence, and then translation go on at
sight.

[Vocabulary.]

The pupil should have a small note-book in which each new word is
entered. This book should be divided into three columns: the first will
contain the word in its general form; the second the root of the word
with its etymological meaning, if known, or any cognate by which it may
be remembered; the third column, the primary and principal secondary
meanings. Every noun should have the article before it; these should be
learned and repeated before the next translation lesson. The teacher
may also give groups of words, derivatives of the root, and by this
means a copious vocabulary will be in a short time acquired--the words
once grasped will not be forgotten. The enthusiastic teacher will
probably have to put a check on his zeal, for if he is led off too far
into etymologies, he will get through no translation. After a little
the pupil should begin to prepare alone, and to make his own word-book;
every translation should begin with the inspection of this book by the
teacher and by the hearing of the words.

[Exercises.]

Since the acquisition of correct habits is the main thing in learning
languages, we should before all things prevent the acquisition of
wrong ones, by letting pupils speak, and write exercises before their
ear and eye have been trained. They should not be allowed to speak a
language carelessly, to “pick it up,” as the phrase is, incorrectly.
A most pernicious practice is it to set girls to speak a foreign
tongue together. The evil habits acquired cannot possibly be undone in
subsequent study. I knew a master of languages who refused to give
lessons to those obliged to speak thus. He could not, he said, in a
few hours a week, correct the bad French learned during the remainder.
Learning bad French, however, is one of the least evils connected with
this practice. Anything deserving the name of conversation is banished
where it is strictly enforced, and so the mind is dwarfed and stunted,
and when girls leave school, they are often found unable to talk except
upon trivial subjects, and unable to express themselves like rational
beings in any language.

I quote from the rules of the _maître phonétique_:--

[Re-translation.]

“Le maître fera étudier les phrases les plus uselles, des textes
suivis, dialogues, descriptions et récits, aussi faciles, aussi
naturels et aussi intéressants que possible. Il enseignera d’abord la
grammaire inductivement, comme généralisation des faits observés: une
étude plus systématique sera réservée pour la fin.”

The translation book must be made the basis of teaching, and the ear
familiarised with the correct form by the learning of good French, the
rules as far as possible being found inductively. Thus the children
will observe the changes in _mon frère_, _ma mère_, _mes frères et mes
sœurs_, and be able to make a table. Life is too short to find out all
grammar, and so we shall eventually have recourse to collections of
grammatical forms, but this need not be done until a good deal has been
discovered by means of sentences formed for the purpose.

Easy passages should be translated into English and back into French
according to Ascham’s method. This should precede the writing of
exercises, which may, however, be read at sight in class. Children
should repeat verbs interrogatively and negatively with pronouns
in their places, so that the ear may be trained before the rule is
discovered. Fassnacht’s books are good. Mrs. Bell’s books too are
useful for children to learn instead of ordinary dialogues. It is
impossible for them to speak in a natural way, when they are merely
giving abstract sentences, but they can hold short conversations with
one another in an animated way, and these can be taught _viva voce_ in
daily lessons.

[Composition.]

Monotony should be avoided, and occasionally instead of setting an
exercise, it is well for the teacher to relate a short story, and let
the children repeat what they can, or write what they can remember; but
in all these things we must avoid as much as possible wasting their
time by making them listen to one another’s mistakes.

Exercises may be written and a grammar used later, but if the teacher
economises time, there will remain enough in each lesson to prepare
pupils for the writing of the next exercise and to warn them of
mistakes they would otherwise be likely to make. I need not repeat here
what I have said under the head of corrections and time saving (see p.
28, introduction).

[Philology.]

Finally as regards grammatical rules. There are doubtless many forms
which must be learned, and rules which we must treat as arbitrary,
because we can see no reason for them, but the more reasons we can
show, the more interesting will language become, and the easier to
learn. Thus children are glad to discover that the terminations are
not mysterious letters for which there is no reason, but the remnants
of pronouns put on at the end--that in the French future we get the
same as the English, “I have to write,” only “have” comes after, and
in the conditional, “I had”. They need not then learn these tenses,
only notice the abbreviations. The survival of the _t_ in _a-t-il_
and many other things will enliven the grammar lesson. Peile’s
delightful _Manual of Philology_ and D’Arcy Thomson’s _Day-dreams of a
Schoolmaster_ are suggestive, but of course the more a teacher knows
of philology, the more interesting she can make her lessons, and one
versed in the subject should be found in every school.

[Rationale of rules.]

The never-ending rules for the past participle may be at once disposed
of by just showing children that the participle being an adjective must
agree with the word it belongs to. If I say, “I have written a letter,”
of course “written” belongs to letter and therefore it must agree. We
need not make them think about whether it is subject or complement.
The only curious thing they have to notice, is that it does _not_
agree when the word it belongs to comes after “have”. Is it because
the thought of the act of writing is more present to the mind when we
say, “I have written a letter,” and we do not think of the letter as
written, whereas when the letter is objectified to our gaze, being
represented by a pronoun, we think of it rather as a letter written?

The learning of a third language will present less difficulties. If
the language is German we can, by a few simple etymological laws, get
command of a copious vocabulary in a short time. The declensions offer
some difficulty at the outset, chiefly on account of the adjectives.
But the phonetic change is made in order to avoid the repetition of
the harsh sound _s_, _m_, _r_, and therefore when this occurs in a
preceding pronominal adjective, it is dropped or softened in the
second adjective; thus the ear guides, and we have not to think about
the forms; one has only to notice that in the oblique cases it is
weakened to _n_, and in the plural it is always _n_.

The order of words offers difficulties too, and we have a complicated
construction. We have to fix our attention on the functions of words,
as we did not in a simpler language, for a whole row of words goes to
make up an adjective, and dependent sentences are constantly taking the
place of simple words. Insight there must be to see what are dependent
sentences, and then the whole paraphernalia of rules about certain
conjunctions which require the verb to be sent to the end vanish too
and we move freely.

Another difficulty is the different uses of prepositions. In English we
go “through” the street, in German “on”. We go “through” a town, the
Germans “over”. Let the difference of the conception be realised, and
the prepositions will come right.

[Literature.]

It is a great pleasure to those approaching maturity to study a
language made for metaphysics. We cannot read German without finding
everywhere fossil poetry and philosophy, and the rolling periods and
the grand verse stir our soul like a trumpet, and we know that we hear
the voice of an heroic people, who speak a language and think thoughts
akin to our own.

Latin does not attract perhaps in the same way; the military precision
of the Latin classics has its charm. I feel strongly that Latin should,
however, properly come after German, specially for girls. There is a
pestilential atmosphere in the Campania, and one needs to have one’s
moral fibre braced by the poetry of the Hebrews and of England and
Germany, if one would remain unaffected by writings saturated with
heathen thought.

Those who are able to spare time and strength for Greek, and love
poetry in all its forms, will delight indeed in the “Wine of Hellas,”
and with the enthusiasm which they will bring to a new study they will
surmount in a short time obstacles which would have delayed them for
months, when they had less knowledge of co-ordinate forms, less taste,
less insight, less joy in wrestling with problems and searching into
mysteries. If there is not time nor talent nor inclination for all,
then I would say prefer Greek to Latin.

The chief thing for the teacher to do is so to teach that the pupil
shall enjoy the work. I do not mean that the pupil should be spared
hard work and drudgery, or be always expecting to find honey on
Hymettus; but do we not all know that the labour of making our way
over rotten glaciers and up stony moraines is forgotten when we stand
on the crest, and that all the way we go, we think of the joy set
before us, when we shall attain to some lofty peak, whence we can see
the outstretched heavens and the sunlit earth? For this we must throw
ourselves in each language upon literature--the forms of grammar will
be the ladder whereby we mount.

And then we shall return to our own native poets and thinkers, with
minds enriched by foreign travel, and Milton will be the interpreter
of the poetry of the world--of ancient and modern times, Spenser of
the mediæval romances, Chaucer of the world of nature, Wordsworth and
Coleridge of spiritual philosophy, and we shall feel that we must be
worthy of so great an inheritance, and not trample under our feet the
pearls, the precious jewels of speech.

Do I seem unpractical? It is just these ideas that are practical, which
we must get our children to see and to feel, and then the burden of
earnest, thoughtful labour will seem light, and our English tongue will
not be degraded by slovenly pronunciation or the use of vulgar and
inappropriate words.


SPELLING REFORM.

By DOROTHEA BEALE.

Let me earnestly beg of teachers not to put aside the question of
spelling reform as of little moment, but to do their utmost to bring it
about.

Can it be to educators of little moment that learning to read, instead
of introducing children to an orderly system, reveals chaos, and
interferes with the tendency upon which all science is founded to
expect law and order. As Professor Max Müller writes «Every thing that
children have to learn in reading and spelling is irrational; one rule
contradicts the other, and each statement has to be accepted simply on
authority, and with a complete disregard of those rational instincts,
which lie dormant in the child, and ought to be awakened by every kind
of healthy exercise».

I find it difficult to express my strong sense of the immense
importance of this reform on grounds educational, economic,
patriotic. Not only does our cacography oppose an enormous obstacle
to intellectual progress during the most important years of mental
development, and thus squander brain power on useless work, it is also
a waste of money which is expended by the upper classes in forcing
on the children of the poorer a waste of time and--a sort of useless
prison-labour.

D^{r} Gladstone calculates that the average board-school child spends
more than 2000 hours in acquiring the arts of reading and spelling,
and that the waste of money is over £ 1000000. This was 20 years ago;
with increased grants, the loss of money must be far more now. He also
calculates the waste of capital in printing unnecessary letters at
nearly 20 per cent. This is only one of the many arguments for reform,
which he puts most clearly and forcibly.

Most of the richer children have an indefinite amount of leisure in
childhood, and they forget how long it took to learn to read, but
children in elementary schools groan under a pedantic tyranny, which
imposes wearisome and useless labours upon those who might otherwise in
their short school time gain such facility in reading, that it would be
a pleasure ever after, and the time which is now wasted on spelling,
would be available for much beside: Germans have time to acquire
foreign tongues, but Englishmen and Frenchmen have not time to acquire
them in addition to their own spelling; either language from its simple
structure might become a world-wide tongue, and there would be no need
of Volapuk.

I quote from Professor Max Müller’s article.

«According to a Liverpool Schoolmaster of great experience it takes
from 6 to 7 years to learn the arts of reading and spelling with
a fair amount of intelligence. I. e. about 2.000 hours. A Glasgow
schoolmaster writes, «I have taught poor children to read the Sermon
on the Mount after a course of exercises extending over no more than 6
hours», and a father writes, «My boy who is a few months more than 4
will read any phonetic book ... and how long do you think it took me
to impart to him this power? Why something less than 8 hours, and that
was in snatches of five minutes at a time; his next brother a boy of 6
has had a phonetic education, what is the consequence? Reading in the
first stage was so delightful that he taught himself to read. My eldest
boy 11 years old, at a first-rate school has carried off the prize for
orthography». Mr. Ellis, who did so much for education writes, «With
the phonetic system the Primer is mastered within 3 months at most;
careful experiments have established 1) that pupils may be taught to
read books in phonetic print in from 10 to 40 hours, and that when they
have attained fluency in reading ordinary print, the pronunciation is
much improved, the interest in study kept alive, and a logical training
of enduring value given ... and they acquire the art of ordinary
spelling more readily than those instructed on the old method.»»

Let those who think I exaggerate, look into Miss Soames’s introduction
to Phonetics, and they will marvel how a foreigner can ever learn
to read and write English--she gives the 34 ways in which we write
the indefinite ‘a’ sound in aloud--the 26 for representing ‘or’;
the 18 for giving ‘sh’ the 20 representing ‘n’, 18 for ‘k’, and so
on--Pagliardini enumerates the 44 ways in which ‘oo’ is written and 36
for the sound ‘ee’; those who have tried to teach foreigners know how
hopeless it all seems.

Pagliardini tells of a work published 1861 on French spelling, which
gives 163 ingenious rules and occupies 285 pages. It is asserted that
2 lessons a week for 3 years will suffice. How much better writes
Pagliardini would these precious hours be spent in studying noble
thoughts in books, the history of nations, the mathematical sciences,
or the laws by which God governs the universe, or if confined to
words, then how much more interesting and intellectual would be their
decomposition into their elements, showing their affinity with words in
other languages. What a fund of poetry might be found in the metaphors
of which words are the abbreviated forms. All this, now unopened to his
view for lack of time, would be revealed.

This may be paralleled by the spelling book of the Meiklejohn series.
‘Spelling with sidelights from history.’ It contains 150 pages, gives
many rules, and concludes with one thousand of the most difficult words
selected from examination papers.

M. Pitman has done good service in printing and circulating for a
very small sum various tracts, and I hope my readers will get some,
specially the paper by Prof. Max Müller. Alas, reforms are slow when
the opinion of many unthinking persons has to be formed, before they
can be carried. It needed a pope to reform the calendar.

The _Westminster Review_ for Sept. 1897 has an article on spelling
reform, urging its great importance, if English is to be a world-wide
language. The impossibility of getting a new alphabet adopted at least
for a long time is urged as a reason for pressing minor reforms, the
chief being the omission of all useless letters. Thus we should leve
out awl thos perplexing vowels in lev recev decev belev; and thes
changes mit posibly be carid with sum slit efort at wuns, if sum
popular orthor wood requir his book too be printed foneticaly.

Some defend our spelling for philological reasons, but it is
unanimously condemned by philologists; I name those best known in
England--Professor Max Müller pronounces it a national misfortune, and
has written an article against it--Professor Sayce and Skeat, Ellis and
Sweet, D^{r} Murray, editor of the Etymological Dictionary, condemn it,
and amongst linguists, Pagliardini, and scientists, D^{r} Gladstone.

But the chief reason, that we should press forward this movement
is, that only thus does it seem possible to avert the catastrophe
foreshadowed in an article on the Queen’s English in the _Review
of Reviews_ for June 1897. Dialectic varieties are arising in the
English-speaking Colonies, which, if unchecked by phonetic symbols
corresponding with speech, will develop into different languages. The
longer we delay, the greater will be the difficulty of agreeing on a
common notation--at present the differences of opinion between us and
our colonies, and even between us and our American cousins are slight,
but those who have heard the English of the States spoken by the
children of German immigrants, will recognise the danger.

Miss Soames before her death published reading books in phonetic type,
and spent much time and money in promoting the teaching of English
reading on this system, and in introducing to the notice of English
people the alphabet of the Association Phonétique Internationale, 11,
Rue de Fontenay, Bourg la Reine (Seine).

Such an alphabet would be better than one suitable for English only,
but if Pitman’s is the only one generally available, it is better to
use that for elementary schools, and remember the maxim ‘le mieux est
l’ennemi du bien’--For teaching the right pronunciation of foreign
languages, _le Maître Phonétique_ is very valuable.

Melville Bell’s Visible Speech is a physiological alphabet of
marvellous ingenuity--but perhaps too elaborate for general use, and
the conclusions at which he arrives are not always endorsed by the
chief authorities. All students of phonetics will learn much from
reading it.--English visible speech, in 12 lessons 50 cents, Volta
bureau Washington, gives the essentials of the system--the large work
costs 4 dollars.

Great efforts are being made in France to introduce an international
phonetic alphabet.

If all could agree on one alphabet, it would be possible for a
foreigner to read at sight any foreign language. It is true there would
be certain niceties of pronunciation to be taught Viva Voce, but the
pronunciation would be very nearly correct at once.

I subjoin a few specimens of writing and the alphabet from ‘lə mɛːtr
fɔnetik’ (_Le Maître Phonétique_).

The French alphabet is very simple. The consonants are as in English
except

  { ɲ for the palatal n as in signe.
  { ʃ for ch as in champ--Ex. shut.
  { ʒ for ʒʰ as in je--Ex. pleasure.

The vowels are

  { ɑ pâte  { ɛ tête  { i ni    { o côte   { u tout
  { a patte { e dé    { j yeux  { ɔ tort   { y tu

  { œ seul  { w oui     {  ̃ nasalises
  { ø peu   { ɥ huile   { ː lengthens
  { ə de    {           {

The complete international alphabet which is subjoined requires more
signs but this suffices in French.

French.--

  kɑ̃t   yn  fwa  ɔ̃ li   kuramɑ̃
  quand une fois on lit couramment

  l ekrityːr   fɔnetik   i  syfi   d  kɛlkəz   œːr
  l’écriture phonétique il suffit de quelques heures

   pur  aprɑ̃ːdr a liːr l ekrityːr  ɔrdinɛːr.
  pour apprendre à lire l’écriture ordinaire.

In English we want θ ð for th in thick & then, ɕ for ch in hue, ŋ for
the guttural nasal, ʌ for but, a vowel not quite the same as seul, æ
for at--

English.--nau ðə pɔint ai wɔnt tu get æt iz hweðəɹ ðe seːm deskripʃən
kæn bi givn.

(now the point I want to get at is whether the same description can be
given.)

German.--vɛn viːr uns in unserm lɑndə rɑif dɑfyːr hɑltn di ɑlgəmɑinə
høːərə bilduŋ ɑusʃlisːliɕ auf di mɔdɛrnə kultuːr tsu gryndn.

(Wenn wir uns in unserm Lande reif dafür halten die algemeine höhere
Bildung auschliesslich auf die moderne Cultur zu gründen.)

COMPLETE ALPHABET

  +---------------+-----+-----+------+---------+---------+
  |               | La- |Gut- |  Vé- |Palatales|Palatales|
  |               |ryn- | tu- |laires|d’arrière| d’avant |
  |               |gales|rales|      |         |         |
  +---------------+-----+-----+------+---------+---------+
  | = {Plosives   |  ʔ  |     | q  G |  k  g   |  c   ɟ  |
  | C {           +-----+-----+------+---------+---------+
  | O {Nasales    |     |     |      |  ŋ̊ ŋ̌  | ɲ̊  ɲ̌  |
  | N {           +-----+-----+------+---------+---------+
  | S {Latérales  |     |     |      |  ɫ̥ ɫ̬  | ʎ̥  ʎ̬  |
  | O {           +-----+-----+------+---------+---------+
  | N {Roulées    |     |Q̥ Q̬| R̥ R̬|         |         |
  | N {           +-----+-----+------+---------+---------+
  | E {           |     |     |      |         |         |
  | S {Fricatives |  h  | H h̬| ʁ̥ ᴚ̬|(ʍ w) x g| (ɥ̊ ɥ̌) |
  | = {           |     |     |      |         |    ɕj   |
  +---------------+-----+-----+------+---------+---------+
  | = {           |     |     |      |                   |
  | V {Fermées    |     |     |      |u  ɯ  ü    ï  y  i |
  | O {           +-----+-----+------+                   |
  | Y {Mi-fermées |     |     |      | o   v  ö ë  ø  e  |
  | E {           +-----+-----+------+                   |
  | L {Mi-ouvertes|     |     |      |  ɔ  ʌ  ɔ̈ ä  œ  ɛ |
  | L {           +-----+-----+------+                   |
  | E {Ouvertes   |     |     |      |        ɑ    a     |
  | S {           |     |     |      |                   |
  | = {           |     |     |      |                   |
  +---------------+-----+-----+------+-------------------+

  +---------------+----------------+----------+
  |               |   Linguales    | Labiales |
  |               |                |          |
  |               |                |          |
  +---------------+----------------+----------+
  | = {Plosives   |      t   d     |   p   b  |
  | C {           +----------------+----------+
  | O {Nasales    |     n̥   n̬    |  m̥  m̬  |
  | N {           +----------------+----------+
  | S {Latérales  |     ɭ̥   ɭ̬    |          |
  | O {           +----------------+----------+
  | N {Roulées    |     r̥   r̬    |          |
  | N {           +----------------+----------+
  | E {           |                |f v   F ʋ |
  | S {Fricatives |ɹ̥ ɹ̬, θ ð, ʃ ʒ,|          |
  | = {           |        s z     |ʍ w ɥ̊ ɥ̌ |
  +---------------+----------------+----------+
  | = {           |                |          |
  | V {Fermées    |                |   (u ü y)|
  | O {           |                |          |
  | Y {Mi-fermées |                |   (o ö ø)|
  | E {           |                |          |
  | L {Mi-ouvertes|                |  (ɔ ɔ̈ œ)|
  | L {           |                |          |
  | E {Ouvertes   |                |          |
  | S {           |                |          |
  | = {           |                |          |
  +---------------+----------------+----------+


HISTORY AS AN EDUCATIONAL SUBJECT.

By DOROTHEA BEALE.

[Definition.]

The second subdivision of Part I. is of great educational value.
“History,” writes Dr. Harris, “reveals the higher self of man as
organised in institutions. For the first time man comes to know his
substantial self, when he comes to study history. His little self
beholds his colossal self.” The Man “writ large” of Plato.

[Enlarges sympathies.]

“History,” writes Dr. Martineau, “enlarges the sympathies, opening
fresh continents of character to mental survey, throwing human tones
upon the ear in language unheard before; it acts upon the judgments of
conscience like foreign travel upon those of perception; it imparts
a breadth of view unattainable within a narrow circle. The smaller
the scale of the personal lot, the more precious and needful are the
friendships of history.

“The ground plot of a man’s own destiny may be closely shut in, but
if he can find his way through vanished cities, hear the pleading of
justice, visit the battlefields where the infant life of nations has
been baptised in blood; if he can steal into the prisons, where lonely
martyrs have waited their deaths; if he can walk in the garden or
the porch, where the lovers of wisdom discourse; if the experiences
of his own country consecrate the very soil--he consciously belongs
to a grander life. Hence the advantage which human studies possess
over every form of science, the sympathy with man over the knowledge
of nature. They are an enlargement of moral experience, and call into
continual exercise the sense of right and wrong.

“In watching the drama of history, the soul may be purified by ‘pity
and fear’. ‘Here we find examples for judgment, examples of patient
suffering, that touch the springs of pity; of selfishness and cruelty
that gnaw the heart with honest indignation, of heroic faithfulness
that flings across the soul a breeze of resolution, of saintly love
that diffuses the very atmosphere of heaven.’”[17]

  [17] _Hours of Thought._ Martineau.

[Supplements the teachings of science.]

In history as in science we learn facts that we may trace laws, and
history corrects by a larger outlook the erroneous judgments deduced
from a limited experience. History too seems specially useful as a
complement to the teaching of science. In physics we find inexorable
law. Admiration and fear may be excited, but we look on the inevitable;
we pass no moral judgment. History and biography show us the Divine
government adapting itself, so to speak, to the necessities of man,
an education of men and of man, we study a mystery which attracts
and baffles us; we are able to predict our world’s path in space and
time, unable in reference to those larger regions beyond our “little
systems”--regions, however, in which we must believe the same laws,
physical and moral, to be working.

[Gives an outlook beyond time.]

History corrects the judgment of the world; in its pages we look only
at dead men, and we call him happy, not who has been successful, but
him who has left the world better because he has lived, and so history
reverses the pernicious teaching which puts before the young success
as the main object of life, and shows us the difference between noble
and pitiful ambitions. The heroes of history are those who endured
hardness and lived and died for others, a Heracles, a Theseus, a St.
Louis, a Gustavus, a Washington. The villains are those who lived for
self, in ease and splendour, and self-indulgence. We find in these, and
still more in those in whom the lights and shades are less strongly
marked, encouragements and warnings for our own life, and help in
interpreting the lives of those around us. How tawdry looks the field
of the cloth of gold in the light of a later century! How silly seem
those courtiers who carried their “manors on their backs”! “He is worth
so much” has a different meaning for the dead and for the living; the
dead _have_ not, they _are_. Each noble life has left the world richer
in spiritual energy, in the power of self-sacrifice, in great ideals,
in true riches; there is a treasury of saints, not of a transferable
righteousness, but of a transforming, a transfiguring. We can see that
no noble life has been lived in vain. “In the sight of the unwise they
seem to perish, yet is their hope full of immortality;” the corn which
falls into the ground and dies bears much fruit.

[Reveals progress through the ages.]

Lastly if we include in this study not only the history of men and
of societies, but of the intellectual and moral life of man as a
whole, not his descent but his ascent, history forms a subject of
surpassing interest and energising hope. We find there enacted upon
the largest theatre the daily recurring drama of the contest of light
with darkness. We learn how man’s eyes have been gradually opened
to the wonders of the visible universe, and his soul lifted into the
regions of the invisible, his intellectual conceptions enlarged,
his higher being developed, and his desires purified; history which
discourages, as we look at a narrow tract, strengthens our faith in a
Divine order of progress, as we take in the larger regions of time; the
waves seem often to recede, while the tide advances, the stars seem to
retrograde, but it is because our little world oscillates in space;
and so our faith is strengthened, and our hope increased, and we learn
not patriotism merely, but we catch something of that enthusiasm of
humanity, which shone with unclouded brightness in the Son of Man.

[Cultivates the judgment.]

Another use of history, rightly taught, is to train in habits of
justice and truthfulness, though it is too often written to serve party
ends. It is not easy to be just. The hearts of the young are naturally
drawn out to those who suffer. If the Eikon Basilike was not true, we
are inclined to say it must have been true, as we look upon Vandyke’s
picture, see the calm face of the martyr, or read the verses:--

    He nothing common did nor mean
    Upon that memorable scene,
    But bowed his kingly head
    Down as upon a bed.

[Stirs right enthusiasm for heroic men.]

We must, however, not let our sympathy with suffering blind us to
the fact that Charles failed in his duty as a king--that had he been
successful in what he attempted, England must have suffered from the
evils under which France subsequently groaned. We must point out that
it was his incurable deceit which brought him at last to the scaffold.
But neither, on the other hand, must we ignore the fact that Cromwell
trampled on the rights of men, that his was a lawless Government too.
We would not, however, have that sham impartiality which paints all
men of one colour and height, which is incapable of conceiving a hero,
and contemplates crime with calmness, remarking there are always two
sides to a quarrel. Need I say that throughout, the teacher must stir
noble enthusiasms, a worthy emulation, admiration for true manliness,
for virtue, rouse sympathy for the oppressed, zeal for right--show that
the history of each nation is that nation’s Bible--the Book which tells
of the Heavenly Father’s care for it, as manifested in the incidents
of its life? If addressing higher classes, the teacher will point
out, as opportunity offers, that each had a work to do in the world,
Hebrew, Greek, Roman, as Miss Wedgwood has shown so well in the _Moral
Ideal_.[18]

  [18] _Moral Ideal_, by Julia Wedgwood. Trübner.

[Shows the disintegrating power of unrighteousness.]

The young must learn, too, that the great principle is found
everywhere, that what we sow we must reap in the moral as well as the
physical world--that the selfish neglect of the poor brought about
the Black Death and gaol fevers, that the selfishness, rapacity and
immoral greed fostered by England’s unjust claims on France, brought
its own punishment; this was seen when the Hundred Years’ War ended
in the internecine strife of the fifteenth century, and led to the
extermination of a selfish aristocracy. So too the degradation of the
higher classes, say in the eighteenth century in France, which led
them to regard the lower classes as scarcely human, brought about the
fearful retaliation of the Revolution. Or again the wealth of Spain,
filling the nation with pride and haughtiness, was actually her ruin;
by persistently destroying or expelling, by war or persecution, all
the nobler spirits, the nation was degraded in a few centuries. Of
course these latter lessons will be more suited to a higher class, but
something of it may be taught early.

Questions of right and wrong will ever be arising. What ought to have
been done under such circumstances? Is rebellion ever justifiable? and
when? What forms of government are best? is there an absolute best?
We shall see how short-sighted is crime when we come to the murder of
Cæsar, of Henry III., Henry IV., William the Silent. The teacher will
not omit to look at the historical clock, when asking whether acts were
right or wrong. We must do justice to devotion, while pointing out
errors and crimes; we must be warned by seeing that wrong deeds are
often done by those who mean well; we must learn that though error and
ignorance is evil, and we must fight against both, yet that good often
comes of the honest working out even of mistaken opinions; that through
illusions we gain the vision of truth.

[Teaches by experience.]

The many experiments of the past show us too that evils which exist in
a community cannot be cured by merely changing a form of government,
or getting rid of this man or that man by violence; to do this is only
to sow dragon’s teeth. A nation is made up of individuals, and only
by individual virtue can salvation come; so people now seek to bring
about the well-being of nations by education rather than by revolution,
because freedom without sense to use it is an evil, and a nation that
is truly free will deserve and obtain free institutions. As Mazzini
says:--

[Teaches the solidarity of man]

“We must convince men that they are all sons of one sole God, and bound
to fulfil and execute one sole law here on earth; that each of them is
bound to live not for himself, but for others; rights can only exist as
a consequence of duties fulfilled, and we must begin with fulfilling
duties in order to achieve rights. We can obtain our rights only by
deserving them through our own spirit of love and sacrifice. If we seek
our rights in the name of duties, we shall obtain them. If we seek
them in the name of egotism, or any theory of happiness and well-being
propounded by the teachers of materialism, we shall never achieve other
than a momentary triumph, to be followed by utter confusion.”

One may point out the gradual progress which, with occasional
recessions, has, we trust, been made. One may stir in the young
patriotism, and an enthusiasm of humanity, and make them feel a desire
to do what they can to amend the evils of their own time.

[and the duty of each to the community.]

Lessons of political economy seem to me more important for girls than
the legislative contests of constitutional history. They cannot enter
into these with the keen interest of boys, who may themselves one day
be lawgivers. All should be taught that a selfish, wasteful citizen
is a disgrace, a sort of moral caterpillar--learn that selfishness,
sensuality, falsehood, under whatever disguises, are detestable, whilst
a self-devoted life is a heritage for ever. We should especially
recognise the faults of our own nation in past times, and in the
present too; we should desire the elevation of the degraded classes,
and each should feel that his life and example has at least some power,
that each of us is responsible to men as well as to God, that it is by
noble enthusiasms, by self-devotion, by giving up one to another that
human society is possible.

History, like geography, can be approached two ways:--

[Methods of approaching the subject.]

1. We may take the map of the world, indicate its leading features and
its political divisions.

2. We may take a small tract, realise by description the form and
beauty, the flora and fauna, the temperature, the snowy peaks, the
rushing rivers, the silent stars, think it all out, until we feel
at home in the land, work up through details of topography to clear
conceptions.

In teaching history, I think we ought to take some kind of time-map,
mark out in it a few of the most prominent recorded facts, tell
something of the heroes, after whose names tracts of time have been
called, trace out a few of the leading empires, give landmarks.

[With juniors.]

Then we may, after showing the position of a certain period in the
world-chart, work it up in detail. The way in which each period should
be treated will depend much on the age of the class. With young ones,
the teaching will be more narrative and biography; the memory and
imagination will be chiefly called into play. Some outline or short
history should be read by the child, the most prominent events, etc.,
should be entered in a special historical map. The chronological, as
well as the geographical atlas, should always be at hand. The teacher
should go quickly round the class, asking each child a few questions,
just to ascertain whether the work has been properly prepared, then she
should fill up herself such parts as will come home to the class. For
young classes, though some passages from good histories may be read,
the teacher must be prepared to give a great deal _viva voce_. Little
children do not take in so well what is written for older people, the
words are not adapted to them, nor the mode of expression. Besides, the
teacher’s eye is occupied, she does not see whether she is holding the
attention of her class. True, her words may not be quite well chosen,
but she will be able to make the narrative more life-like to those
whose minds she knows. But she must on no account try to learn it up.
If she would relate well, she must conjure up the scene before her own
mind, carefully paint in the details, and then describe her own vision,
watching the children to see if they, too, take it in.

But all must not be _told_; as far as may be, children should be led
to anticipate. Thus in a narrative of a campaign, generally so dry and
unprofitable, the children should be led to consider what were the
aims, what would be the best way of carrying out operations, what posts
would be occupied, which leader chosen, how the money would be raised,
etc. They will take great delight in finding out these things, and not
easily forget what they have discovered; it will accustom them to read
in an intelligent way, so they will be able to predict to some extent
what people are likely to do.

[With senior classes.]

The elder classes should read some large history, if possible some
original authority, and thus learn to read for themselves, to examine
the statements set before them, and to sift evidence. The characters
of Richard II. and Richard III., of Mary Queen of Scots and Elizabeth,
of the Stuarts and Cromwell, of Laud and Bacon, will form good
exercises in the discussion of probabilities, and teach caution and
moderation in the judgments of daily life. For elder classes, too, we
may make great use, not only of Shakspere, but of the best historical
novels. For the teaching of higher classes I may point to the following
papers and add also a chapter on time-maps.


TEACHING MODERN HISTORY TO SENIOR CLASSES.

By ALICE ANDREWS.

                                        Girls,
    Knowledge is now no more a fountain seal’d;
    Drink deep, until the habits of the slave,
    The sins of emptiness, gossip and spite
    And slander, die.

    _The Princess._

[Introductory.]

In teaching history our aim should be not to miss the “spirit” of
the period we are taking. We have to inquire what forces are at work
moulding the character of the nation, and to estimate the results they
produce. We have to find the place our period holds in building up the
national history. Each period has a heritage from the past, each hands
on its legacy for the future--of warning from failure or from a success
which is more disastrous than failure--of encouragement from victories,
not necessarily of the battlefield, and which perhaps were won at the
cost of noble lives willingly, even joyfully, offered.

There have been periods of ignoble wars, such as the Hundred Years’
War, when Englishmen were brutalised by murder and rapine, ruining a
people too deeply sunk in misery to defend themselves. And retribution
overtook the nation as it overtakes the individual. Our own Wars of the
Roses were the fruit of the unjust wars in France. There have been
periods of ignoble peace, when “peace with dishonour” might have been
England’s motto, when foreign troops were subsidised to protect the
shores that Englishmen were too craven-hearted to defend themselves,
when enthusiasm was ridiculed as “mock patriotism,” and political
reformers were nicknamed “boy patriots”. Corruption was reduced to a
system, and Walpole believed that every man had his price. The Church
was paralysed by spiritual deadness.

Individual men stand out as warnings or examples. Richard II. appears
first as full of noble impulses, a born leader of men, but his crime
determines his life. To rid himself of the man who _knows_ his crime,
he banishes Norfolk for life; the other, who suspects it, he banishes
for a term of years, and this is reduced at the intercession of old
Gaunt. Either the punishment was, or was not, just. If just, it ought
not to have been reduced on petition; if unjust, it ought never to have
been inflicted. Henceforward Richard rapidly deteriorates: he seizes
Gaunt’s lands in spite of his promise to the absent Bolingbroke, in
spite of the warning of his uncle York:--

    Take Hereford’s rights away and take from Time
    His charters and his customary rights...
    You pluck a thousand dangers on your head,
    You lose a thousand well-disposed hearts,
    And prick my tender conscience to those thoughts
    Which honour and allegiance cannot think.

Richard has himself set the example of disregard of others’ rights, and
makes it possible for Bolingbroke to return in the name of justice and
raise the country against the king.

[Previous knowledge.]

The teacher of history in the older classes ought to be able to assume
a correct knowledge of the most important facts and dates at least in
English history. These are very easily learnt in childhood and most
difficult to acquire by older girls. Those who have been trained on
the historical chart are acquainted with the main characteristic of
each century, and the principal events in it, and have no difficulty
in grouping fresh knowledge round central well-known facts, just as
the geographical student can fill in with increasing completeness
a map from memory. Comparatively few are trained in any knowledge
of foreign history, and I have known not a few grown-up girls find
the greatest difficulty in mastering the leading names and events
in French and other European history. In this respect other nations
are beyond us. Foreign girls, both French and German, are trained to
connect the history of their own country with the general course of
events, and know the facts of European history as a whole. The absence
of this knowledge in English girls makes the study of foreign policy
unnecessarily difficult to them.

[Continuity of history.]

In outline history, paint with a thick brush. “One can’t see the wood
for the trees in it” might too often be the criticism of the pupil
on a lesson. The conscientious teacher tries to omit nothing, the
consequence in the pupil’s mind is blind confusion. The principle of
selection rules here if anywhere. We must aim at avoiding the defect
which Lord Acton denounces as “the want of an energetic understanding
of the sequence and real significance of events, which ... is ruin to
a student of history. It is playing at study (he continues) to see
nothing but the unmeaning and unsuggestive surface as we generally
do.” We want instead to trace in broad outline the continuity of
history--for instance, look at the Wars of the Roses in this light.
How do they stand in relation to constitutional development? While the
nobles were at war, the commons were gaining victories, bloodless it
is true, but more lasting than any gained on battlefields. It was a
time of immense constitutional development. And yet these victories
were practically worthless for the moment. What advantage was it to the
victim of the “overmighty subject” that the Statute Book provided for
his rights and liberties? The “Paston Letters” give a vivid picture of
the impotence of the ordinary subject to get the law enforced. What
the country needed was strong government, not political privileges.
“Constitutional development had outrun administrative order,” had
outrun, that is to say, the general point of development reached by the
nation at large, and the Tudors came in, so to speak, on the programme
of strong government. The Tudor rule represented the two great
principles of orderly administration and even-handed government. It
needed a dictatorship to accomplish the task. The task was completed at
the Armada, and the country took back the trust at the accession of the
Stuarts. That the Stuarts failed to recognise this, was the cause of
the long constitutional struggle that culminated in the Civil War. Once
more constitutional development proceeds, but now the nation is keeping
pace with it.

[Topical or sectional arrangement.]

The subject of sectional as opposed to chronological teaching seems
to belong here, for upon it depends the very essence of clearness in
teaching. If pupils have before them the time-map, or chronological
chart, already referred to, the teacher can with greater freedom treat
the subjects sectionally, for before the eye of the pupil are grouped
all the parallel events in each square representing some definite space
of time. To teach chronologically may seem more accurate perhaps,
but really too often produces hopeless confusion in the mind of the
pupil--the thread is lost in taking up many different subjects, _e.g._,
in Elizabeth’s reign, I would take as separate sections her relations
with Scotland, necessitating a review of Scotch affairs generally,
and the series of plots for releasing Queen Mary; Elizabeth’s policy
with regard to (_a_) the Anglican Church; (_b_) Roman Catholics;
(_c_) Protestant Nonconformists; her Irish policy; her foreign policy
illustrated by her “courtships”; the domestic history of the reign
and so on. The different sections touch sometimes, but it only adds
to the interest to illustrate the new section from one already known.
So in the Seven Years’ War, I would not follow the course of events
for each separate year on the Continent and in America and in India,
but I would take the whole course of the war in Europe, explaining
why it was not only justifiable but a stroke of genius in Pitt, to do
what he had himself denounced in the “Hanover-troop minister,” and by
utilising foreign troops for England’s war on the Continent, set her
free to follow her true interests in the colonies, and I would trace as
separate sections the laying of the foundations of her world-empire in
India and in Canada.

[Syllabus of lessons.]

This method of teaching presupposes that a scheme has been drawn out
for the course. If possible the scheme should be given to the class in
the form of a syllabus of the lessons. If printing is too expensive,
it is worth while to cyclostyle copies oneself. The value the class
attaches to them is sufficient reward for the trouble, and they become
a model to the girls on which to arrange their own study of history in
post-school days. Examples of such a syllabus for English history and
French history lessons will be found at the end of the paper.

[Illustrations: (_a_) Historical atlas.]

The historical map ought to be the inseparable accompaniment of the
history lesson, and in this respect there is nearly everything to be
wished for. Good wall maps with bold colouring in which the outlines
of different territories can be seen from a distance, and in which the
names are clearly printed in English, have yet to be found. To use a
modern map in doing French outlines or other continental history is
most misleading, and yet too often this is all the teacher has at hand.
There is Sprüner of course, but even if the school can afford these
expensive maps, they are not very satisfactory for the ordinary class;
the colouring is not distinct, and the map is so overcrowded with
names that it is difficult to find at a glance the places one wants.
They are rather for private and minute study than for class work.
The publisher’s explanation is that there is not a sufficient demand
to make it worth while to bring out historical maps, an incidental
illustration of how little attention is given in English schools to
continental history, while a class map of the Roman Empire can be found
everywhere. At present the teacher is forced to make her own maps. If
she is happy enough to have old pupils with a talent for map-drawing,
she can gradually make a collection of maps enlarged from those in good
histories; the maps in Kitchin’s _History of France_ are invaluable
for this purpose, but Kitchin provides nothing for the periods of the
Italian expeditions, and these have to be adapted from Sprüner.

Gardiner’s _Student’s Atlas_ provides what is necessary for the pupil
in the English history class; there is a small cheap German atlas for
general history (Putzger, 2 marks), but it is not very satisfactory
for the ordinary English schoolgirl, the difference in the names
is puzzling. What is wanted is a student’s atlas for continental,
especially French history, at a reasonable price.

But even given the atlas, it remains for the teacher to find an
unfailing receipt by which to ensure its use.

[(_b_) Blackboard]

Not the least part of the value of a syllabus in the hands of a pupil,
is the saving of time it makes in the lesson, otherwise the blackboard
must be used for unfamiliar names and words. The merest glance through
a pupil’s rough notes of French history will be a sufficient proof of
this.

[(_c_) First-hand acquaintance with authorities.]

Besides the text-book, which every pupil should possess, no teacher
of older girls will be satisfied unless they read at least passages
from the authorities on the period. The difficulty is to provide a
sufficient number of copies for a large class, or any copies at all,
beyond those possessed by the teacher or the school: this difficulty,
however, may be met. There are always girls who are glad to have good
books suggested for Christmas or birthday presents, and who begin a
really nice library of their own in this way. But a class-library can
be formed without much trouble. The nucleus of a class-library being
made by the necessary books for one year’s work, the girls can be
asked to leave a similar legacy for their successors. A list of books
wanted, with their prices, can be prepared, and it will be found that
several will combine to give really expensive books, and in this way
the class can command the use of sets of Stubbs, Froude, Gardiner,
Ranke, Lecky, etc., besides smaller books like the Great Statesmen
Series.

Since it is impossible for girls with their limited time to read
the whole of the big histories, the teacher will find it a valuable
practice to dictate the numbers of the pages (in one or more volumes)
bearing upon her lesson, which the girls should read. They are thus
trained to use authorities, and this is being recognised more and
more as of the first importance. There was a time when girls depended
entirely upon their notes, and the misspelling of names of historians
showed that their knowledge of great writers was second-hand. But
when they get a first-hand acquaintance with historians like Froude,
Gardiner, Seeley, Ranke, Lecky, they are insensibly being trained to be
satisfied with nothing but the best.

[(_d_) Contemporary writings: chronicles.]

The period should be studied by the teacher, and to a certain extent by
the pupil, in contemporary writers. Chronicles are delightful reading.
Who that has once learnt to know Saint Louis of France in the pages
of his faithful seneschal, can fail to breathe the very atmosphere of
the time? De Joinville shows him what a later preacher called him,
“the most loyal spirit of his age”. Again no weighty dissertations
on the small account in which human life was held in the Middle Ages
would be so convincing as the incidental contemptuous remarks of
the courtier-chronicler Froissart. The exquisite courtesy to a De
Ribeaumont was quite compatible with the halters for the six citizens
of Calais. And to take one more illustration quite late on in the
centuries--what a gulf separates ante-Reform times from our own! How
expressive of the haughty landed aristocrat are these words of the
Duchess of Buckingham after condescending to listen to the Wesleyan
preaching: “I thank your ladyship for the information concerning the
Methodist preachers. Their doctrines are most repulsive and strongly
tinctured with impertinence and disrespect towards their superiors,
in perpetually endeavouring to level all ranks and to do away with
all distinctions. It is monstrous to be told that you have a heart as
sinful as the common wretches that crawl the earth. This is highly
offensive, and I cannot but wonder that your ladyship should relish any
sentiments so much at variance with high birth and good breeding.”

Full lists of contemporary writers will be found in Traill’s volumes on
_Social England_, which as “a record of the progress of the people in
Religion, Laws, Learning, Arts, Industry, Commerce, Science, Literature
and Manners, from the earliest times to the present day,” meets perhaps
the greatest want of the ordinary teacher, to whom no one general
history of social progress was before accessible.

[(_e_) Historical pictures.]

As illustrations there are also historical portraits, contemporary
pictures of historic scenes, and pictures of costumes. Most schools
now subscribe to the “Art for Schools Association,” and can make a
very good portrait gallery of their own. The splendid collection
of historical costumes designed by Mr. Lewis Wingfield for the
Healtheries can still be seen, I believe, and a few of them have been
reproduced by him in a book with descriptive letterpress. Exhibitions,
like the Tudor and Stuart, are most valuable to the realisation
of history, and visits to historical buildings are within the
possibilities of most, and add great zest to many a holiday both for
teachers and girls. It is impossible to forget the circumstances of the
Dauphin’s coronation at Rheims, after staying where Joan of Arc stayed
and standing in the cathedral, where she witnessed the fulfilment of
her mission.

[(_f_) Historical poems, Shakspere’s plays, historical novels.]

Passages from historical poems or from a Shakspere play often add to
the interest of a lesson; as the challenge-scene from Richard II.,
the trial-scene from Henry VIII., Milton’s sonnet on the massacre in
Piedmont, Spenser’s Gloriana and the false Duessa for Elizabeth and
Mary Queen of Scots. And in quite modern history Mrs. Hamilton King’s
_Disciples_, Swinburne’s _Songs before Sunrise_, Mrs. Browning’s _Peace
of Villafranca_, all give expression to the passionate longing for
freedom of Italy.

Perhaps nothing makes history more real than a good historical novel.
Bulwer-Lytton’s _Last of the Barons_ makes the figure of Warwick as
lifelike as that of any minister of our own day. Edward IV., Clarence,
Richard III. have each their individuality, and so has that shadowy
prince who was killed at Tewkesbury, while Isabella Neville stands out
for ever distinct from her gentle, timid sister Anne.

_John Inglesant_ gives the very spirit of the Charles I.
period--cavaliers and ladies coquetting with the classics in the
learned Oxford halls, the devotion, even to the death, of the
Jesuit-trained John Inglesant, and the midnight apparition of the
murdered Strafford to the king, for whom he had laid down his life.

It is quite worth while to put up a list of historical novels bearing
on their period, for older as well as for younger classes.

[Home-work: (_a_) _Viva-voces_.]

How are we to test the work done by the pupils? Lord Acton quotes
from Sir W. Hamilton: “I must regard the main duty of a professor to
consist, not simply in communicating information, but in doing this in
such a manner and with such an accompaniment of subsidiary means, that
the information he conveys may be the occasion of awakening his pupils
to a vigorous and varied exertion of their faculties”.

By means of _viva-voce_ questions and paper work, the class should be
tested between each lecture. The object of the teacher is to find out
with as little expenditure of time as possible, that the work set has
been thoroughly done. I know no better means of doing this than by
what are called written _viva-voces_. The teacher prepares two sets of
questions called respectively A and B. The alternate girls write the
answers to the A and B questions in small exercise books which they
keep for the purpose. They rule two margins, the left-hand for the
number of the question, the right-hand margin is used by the corrector.
Ten minutes can test an hour’s lesson. The books are changed so that
the Bs correct the work of the As, and have to attend to the answers
of the questions they did not do. The teacher repeats aloud the answer
to each question. Each corrector signs her name and puts the mark
obtained. The teacher, when she looks through the books afterwards,
can thus bring home any careless correction to the right person, and
anything like favouritism in correcting is prevented. This _viva-voce_
work ensures accurate knowledge of facts, and I have known girls find
it sufficiently useful, to continue the same system among themselves
after they have gone up to the university.

[(_b_) Essay-writing.]

The most valuable exercise for the pupil is the writing of essays.
These may begin on a subject already dealt with in class (care being
taken that the essay is not a reproduction of notes of the lesson),
but the pupil will soon be trained to read and think out for herself
subjects which she has not previously heard discussed. She will learn
experimentally what Lord Acton calls, “those shining precepts which
are the registered property of every school, that is to say, learn as
much by writing as by reading; be not content with the best books,
seek sidelights from the others; have no favourites; keep men and
things apart; guard against the prestige of great names; see that your
judgments are your own and do not shrink from disagreement; no trusting
without testing; be more severe to ideas than to actions; do not
overlook the strength of the bad cause or the weakness of the good”.

The giving back of the essays ought to be a very valuable lesson. Happy
passages should be read aloud, weak passages criticised, each paper
estimated as a whole, and the pupil ought to leave the class, feeling
that if the work were to be done again, she at least understands the
general drift of the subject and could treat it more adequately than
before.

I venture to illustrate my meaning, the subject set being a discussion
of the policy of Francis I. in his relations with Charles V. The essay
should show that Francis I., like his predecessors in the Italian
expeditions, Charles VIII. and Louis XII., failed to realise in what
direction lay the true interests of France, with regard to the new
problem of balance of power. By entering into personal rivalry with
Charles and striving for territorial conquest in Italy, Francis lost
the opportunity which should have belonged to France, of controlling
the European situation. If he had only been content with securing
gateways into Italy and making alliances with the northern Italians
and German Protestant princes against Imperial encroachments, he would
have gained the casting vote in European affairs and have held the key
to the problem, which it was not permitted to France, till the time of
Richelieu, to solve.

[Post-school work.]

A word or two as to the way in which the teacher can help her old
pupils to read history. There are a fortunate few who pass on to the
universities. An increasing number can attend University Extension
lectures and become members of a local Students’ Association. But it
is those who are not within reach of any local organisation, who are
glad of a little help. To these, when they first leave school, an old
girls’ Reading Society is generally welcome. The regular reading it
requires is a training in methodical arrangement of time, and schemes
of reading, with plenty of choice, are a help to those who have
hitherto had all their intellectual work arranged for them. Teachers
have sometimes found it possible to take up parties to the Summer
Extension meetings. Parents are willing to let their daughters go
with responsible guardians, and the preparatory reading is a great
interest, besides the stimulus that the lectures themselves give to
subsequent work at home.

[Conclusion.]

The educational value of historical study does not belong to this
paper, but I end by quoting three passages, which are full of
encouragement to the teacher of history. They are referred to by Lord
Acton in his famous lecture at Cambridge.

“The study of modern history is, next to theology itself and only next
in so far as theology rests on a divine revelation, the most thoroughly
religious training that the mind can receive.” (Bishop Stubbs.)

“History is full of indirect but very effective moral teaching. It is
not only, as Bolingbroke called it, philosophy teaching by examples,
but it is morality teaching by examples. It is essentially the study
which best helps the student to conceive large thoughts. It is
impossible to overvalue the moral teaching of history.” (Sir J. Fitch.)

“The object (in history teaching) is to lead the student to ... take
interest in history not as a mere narrative, but as a chain of causes
and effects, still unwinding itself before our eyes and full of
momentous consequences to himself and his descendants, an unremitting
conflict between good and evil powers, of which every act done by any
one of us, insignificant as we are, forms one of the incidents, a
conflict in which even the smallest of us cannot escape from taking
part, in which whoever does not help the right side is helping the
wrong.” (Mill. Inaugural Address.)


SPECIMEN SYLLABUS OF ENGLISH HISTORY.


Foreign Policy of Elizabeth.

  _Introductory._--Keynote of the period; dynastic alliances. Power
  of House of Hapsburg built up on political marriages, even England
  threatened with absorption by the Hapsburgs, as a consequence of Mary
  Tudor’s marriage to Philip, and though Mary’s death made “a great
  rent in the Hapsburg net, in which England was enmeshed” (Seeley),
  yet Philip long struggled to re-establish the Hapsburg dominion in
  England, and this, according to the fashion of the time, by marriage.
  “Courtships of Queen Elizabeth” begin January, 1559; Philip offers
  his hand to Elizabeth: “The more I reflect on this business, the more
  clearly I see that all will turn on the husband which this woman will
  choose” (De Feria). Other suitors in Hapsburg interest, Philibert
  of Savoy, Archdukes Ferdinand and Charles--Elizabeth encourages
  Hapsburg suitors--could thus keep English Catholics in hand in spite
  of innovations, and get better terms from France in Treaty of Cateau
  Cambrésis, April, 1559, France believing her supported by Spain.
  But England’s safety from Hapsburgs largely due to her danger from
  Valois. The Valois had secured Scotland, and claimed England through
  marriage of Mary and Francis. For Philip to overthrow Elizabeth would
  mean to clear the way for Mary of Scots: it was not till he could
  come as Mary’s heir, that he openly made war on England.


Period I. The Scotch Period, 1558-1567.


(i.) 1558-1564, IN WHICH A BASIS IS LAID FOR THE UNION OF ENGLAND AND
SCOTLAND.

  England and Scotland both under queens; both had to choose between
  a power based upon the wishes of the nation, and a power supported
  by foreign help. Elizabeth chose a national position: “took a
  course visibly full of danger, a course in which success was only
  possible by courage and heroic endurance, but in which success,
  if it came, might be splendid, and might raise the nation itself
  to greatness”. Mary, on the contrary, brought her subjects under
  a foreign yoke. Since Mary of Guise’s regency was a High Catholic
  rule, the Reformation in Scotland took the form of a _national_
  movement, and the national party turned towards England for help.
  “The first achievement of Elizabethan policy lay in this, that she
  called out a great Reformation party in England and Scotland at once,
  and thus laid the foundation of the union of England and Scotland.”
  Elizabeth’s self-justification in helping subjects against their
  sovereign: that she was maintaining national independence against
  a foreign power. Arran becomes Elizabeth’s suitor in Protestant
  interest. January, 1560--Treaty of Berwick--importance. Elizabeth
  “put herself at the head of the national religious movement in
  Scotland”; “in consideration of the attempt to annex Scotland to the
  French crown, she promised to aid the Scotch to drive out the foreign
  invaders”. Success of Elizabeth’s policy; French troops recalled.
  July--Treaty of Edinburgh ends the government of Scotland by the
  French; December--death of Francis II. severs the union of French
  and Scotch crowns. 1561--Return of Mary to Scotland; she refuses
  to ratify the Treaty of Edinburgh, and sets to work to build up an
  Anglo-Scotch party in the interest of the Counter-Reformation.


(ii.) 1565-1567, IN WHICH THE DANGER IS OF THE UNION OF ENGLAND AND
SCOTLAND UNDER MARY AGAINST ELIZABETH.

  1565--Marriage of Mary and Darnley--importance: Mary puts herself
  definitely at the head of the Catholic party in England. 1567--Murder
  of Darnley; marriage with Bothwell; Lochleven; battle of Langside;
  collapse of Counter-Reformation in Great Britain; prospect in James
  of a solution for England of both problems of succession and religion.


Period II. The French Period, 1567-1585.

  Danger lest France or Spain, or both, make war on England to release
  Mary and secure the Catholic succession, but hands of both tied at
  home, and Elizabeth’s efforts directed to keeping them so. To that
  end, sends help to Huguenots in Wars of Religion, and to the revolted
  Netherlands.

  France alarmed by victory of Lepanto (1571), makes advances to
  England. Courtship of Anjou, 1570-72, and of Alençon, 1572-84.
  “Matters were indeed in a critical position for England; the Ridolfi
  plot was brewing, the English Catholic nobles in a ferment, and the
  Pope, Philip, the League and the Guises ready to turn their whole
  power to the destruction of Elizabeth.” 1572--Treaty of Blois,
  pledging Charles IX. and Elizabeth to give informal aid to the
  revolted Netherlands. The St. Bartholomew; marriage negotiations
  interrupted. 1574--Don John, Governor of the Netherlands, grasps the
  necessity of the overthrow of Elizabeth as a preliminary to reducing
  the Netherlands, and aims at himself marrying the Queen of Scots and
  securing England. “The true remedy for the evil condition of the
  Netherlands ... is that England should be in the power of a person
  devoted and well affectioned to your Majesty’s service.” 1575--The
  Netherlands offer sovereignty of Holland and Zealand to Elizabeth;
  she declines. 1578--Flemish appeal to Alençon to lead them; he
  accepts in reliance on England; Elizabeth’s policy is that Alençon
  shall be under English, not French, patronage, and she poses before
  Europe as his affianced bride. 1579 and 1581--He visits England for
  supplies. 1582--Alençon invested with sovereignty of the Netherlands;
  Elizabeth’s connection emphasised by presence of Leicester and Sir
  P. Sidney. 1584--Alençon expelled from Netherlands; his death.
  “Elizabeth had begun her long marriage juggle in 1559 in hourly
  danger of being overwhelmed and crushed by her own Catholic subjects
  in union with one or other of her great continental neighbours. She
  ended it in 1583, triumphant all along the line, with both her rivals
  crippled and distracted, whilst she really held the balance of peace
  and war of Europe in her hands.”


Period III. The Spanish Period, 1585-1603.


(i.) TO 1596, WHEN ENGLAND, FRANCE AND THE NETHERLANDS FIGHT SPAIN
EITHER SEPARATELY OR IN A CONCERT WHICH IS SECRET.

  Counter-Reformation in France represented by the League, the
  anti-dynastic party; Pact de Joinville between Philip and the League,
  after murder of William of Orange, for extirpation of heresy in
  France and the Netherlands; importance of 1585 in English policy;
  Alençon gone, Elizabeth must act openly if Netherlands are to be
  saved. Only military movement as yet helping Scotch in 1561. With
  1585 begins what is meant by the “Elizabethan Age”. Pause to estimate
  Elizabeth’s policy. Froude finds no clue but inconsistency--really a
  consistent inconsistency. Seeley’s estimate: “There are emergencies
  in which a persistent abstinence from action, a kind of resolute
  irresolution, is the only sound policy.... Everything at her
  accession was in a sort of suspense. Whether the nation was Catholic
  or Protestant, by what title she herself reigned, who would be
  her own successor, and whom she should marry--all was undefined.”
  Elizabeth really understood popular government; she gave her people
  twenty-six years of peace, in which they learnt to know themselves
  and what they wanted. 1585--Siege of Antwerp; Netherlands in
  extremity; offer sovereignty to Elizabeth; she refuses; Philip
  tries intimidation by wholesale arrest of British sailors; war
  inevitable. Leicester’s expedition; his blunders; fall of Antwerp;
  Zutphen; Elizabeth also lets loose her “Knight of the Ocean”;
  Drake’s expeditions, 1577, 1585, 1587; execution of Mary Queen of
  Scots. “The execution of Mary Stuart in the greatest degree, and
  the campaign of Leicester in a secondary degree, together with
  the adventurous voyages of Drake, brought on the open war between
  Elizabeth and Philip.” 1588--Armada; causes of failure: (_a_)
  superiority of English ships and English sailors; (_b_) English
  guns heavier and better served; (_c_) unfavourable winds causing
  delay and then destruction; (_d_) unfitness of Parma for command.
  “But all said and done, the victory was one of men and tactics more
  than materials.” “The Armada was not defeated by a storm, but at
  Gravelines, on Monday, 29th July; and the enterprise was defeated
  when Parma failed to bring up his flotilla.” Results of Armada:
  (_a_) gave England a new position in Europe; (_b_) secured her from
  danger of future invasion, and consequently (_c_) enabled Elizabeth
  to turn her attention to the divisions that weakened the English
  Church; (_d_) gave the nation leisure for the struggle between Crown
  and Parliament, which only ended with William III. 1589--Elizabeth’s
  Counter-Armada; Drake’s advice, “better cheap” than awaiting renewed
  attack. Spain’s power broken, the religious question is fought out
  on a new battle-ground; succession struggle in France; League helped
  by Spain against Henry of Navarre; Arques; Ivry. 1591--English
  forces under Essex to help Henry of Navarre. 1595--Henry publishes
  declaration of war against Spain.


(ii.) 1596-1598. FRANCE, ENGLAND AND NETHERLANDS UNITED IN A FORMAL
COALITION OF ONE CATHOLIC AND TWO PROTESTANT POWERS AGAINST THE
COUNTER-REFORMATION.

  1596--Elizabeth makes a formal alliance offensive and defensive with
  Henry IV. and the States against Spain, and sends expedition under
  Howard and Essex against Cadiz; the “Trafalgar of the Elizabethan
  War” (Laughton). 1597--Essex and Raleigh make the “Island voyage”
  against Spain.


(iii.) 1598-1603. COALITION DISSOLVED. PHILIP III. AGAINST ELIZABETH
AND NETHERLANDS.

  1598--Henry IV. deserts his allies and makes peace with Spain in
  Treaty of Vervins. Philip III. continues war against Elizabeth in
  order to use Ireland--in revolt--as basis of operations for the
  Counter-Reformation against England. Danger from Ireland increased
  by treason of Essex. 1602--Spanish expedition lands in Ireland;
  joins Tyrone against Kinsale; defeated by Mountjoy. 1603--Elizabeth
  increasingly hostile towards Spain till her death.


Results of Elizabeth’s Policy.

  1. She gave England twenty-six years of peace, in spite of the
  distracted state of things abroad, and by this means (_a_) the
  religious question, (_b_) the succession question, were settled
  without civil war.

  2. By creating a new mental atmosphere, she gave England a new
  national temper, which found expression in a national poetry.
  Shakspere’s “jubilant patriotism”:--

    “This England never did, nor never shall
    Lie at the proud foot of a conqueror....
    Come the three corners of the world in arms,
    And we shall shock them; nought shall make us rue,
    If England to herself do rest but true.”

    --_K. John._

    “This royal throne of kings, this sceptred isle ...
    This precious stone set in the silver sea ...
    This land of such dear souls, this dear, dear land.”

    --_K. Richard II._

  And the passionate devotion to Elizabeth as the embodiment of the
  national greatness:--

    “She shall be loved and feared; her own shall bless her:
    In her days every man shall eat in safety
    Under his own vine, what he plants, and sing
    The merry songs of peace to all his neighbours.”

    --_K. Henry VIII._

  Elizabeth the Gloriana of Spenser.

  3. She saved England from absorption by Spain or France, and from
  fear of future invasion.

  4. She created the monarchy of Great Britain by laying the basis of
  union between England and Scotland.

  5. She made England insular, but counterbalanced the disadvantages of
  insularity by encouraging maritime expansion.


SYLLABUS OF LESSON ON RICHELIEU.

  =1610.= _Louis XIII._|Difficulties of Regent Mary de Medici. “The day
                       |of Kings is past, that of Grandees and Princes
                       |has arrived.” Her Spanish policy. Concini.
                =1614.=|States-General, last of old Régime. Louis
                       |assumes government. Fall of Concini. Rise of De
                       |Luynes. Queen Mother becomes centre of
                       |disaffection. Guise. Bouillon. Mayenne. Epernon.
                       |Huguenots.
                =1622.=|Peace of Montpellier. Huguenots have only
                       |Rochelle and Montauban.
                =1624.=|Entrance into power of Richelieu.
           =RICHELIEU.=|Born a leader of men. Genius of conception,
                       |force of will. Ideal, absolutism. Obstacle,
                       |feudal nobility; destroys their political
                       |vitality by increasing power of monarchy. 1.
                       |Substitutes Intendants for great Governors of
                       |Provinces. 2. Destroys feudal strongholds. 3.
                       |Brings nobles under the law; duelling,
                       |Montmorency; peculation, Marshal de Marillac;
                       |conspiracy, Cinq Mars. 4. States-General never
                       |meet. 5. Parlements restricted to judicial
                       |duties. 6. Heavy taxation. Cultivates three
                       |powerful alliances: 1. Men of letters; 2. Favour
                       |of commons; 3. Love of national glory.
              =Foreign |Policy.= To substitute influence of France in
                       |Europe for Austro-Spanish power. Founder of an
                       |“occidental” policy. Two things necessary: 1.
                       |Balance of power; 2. Mutual religious
                       |toleration. Difficulties at home: 1. Spanish
                       |sympathies of Anne of Austria; 2. Huguenot
                       |struggles for independence.
              =Periods |of Richelieu’s Rule.=
                     I.|=The Valtelline Period, 1624-26.= Richelieu
                       |enters European politics. Importance of
                       |Valtelline as connecting link between Austro-
                       |Spanish dominions. Seized in defiance of Treaty.
                       |Interference of Richelieu. Huguenot revolt. T.
                       |Montpellier pacifying them while he concludes
                       |Valtelline question in T. Monzon.
                    II.|=Period of La Rochelle, 1626-28.= Richelieu
                       |crushes all opposition at home to clear his way
                       |for decisive interference abroad. “La
                       |conspiration des Dames.” Vendome in Brittany.
                       |1627. Buckingham’s expedition to Rhé. 1629. Fall
                       |of La Rochelle and Montauban.
                   III.|=Period of absolute supremacy at home, 1629-35.=
                       |Re-enters European politics, but only as a
                       |secondary power, in Thirty Years’ War. France
                       |acts again in Italy. Succession in Mantua and
                       |Montferrat. Valtelline question reopened, and
                       |again settled in favour of France. Day of Dupes,
                       |11th Nov., 1630. T. of Cherasco, 1631. Intrigues
                       |of Gaston of Orleans with enemy. Richelieu acts
                       |with Gustavus Adolphus, the “Protestant
                       |Crusader”. Interests of France move to Lorraine
                       |border. Death of Gustavus indirect advantage to
                       |France. Richelieu’s terms with Bernard of
                       |Weimar. 1635. France declares war against Spain.
                    IV.|=Period of France’s supremacy in Europe,
                       |1635-43.= 1636. Recovery of Corbie from Spanish.
                       |1638. B. Rheinfeld. Fall of Brisach. 1639. Death
                       |of Bernard of Weimar. “Turning point of the
                       |contest,” from a useful ally was becoming a
                       |dangerous rival. Richelieu secures Alsace.
                       |Conspiracy of Cinq Mars.
                =1642.=|Death of Richelieu. Rise of Mazarin.


LIST OF BOOKS.

  The following lists have been drawn up with the help of several
  teachers of history, and are intended for the practical work of the
  school. They aim at giving the chief authorities for each period,
  besides other books dealing with special subjects. Where possible,
  the publisher and price have been given. Those who want more
  exhaustive lists and desire original authorities can find them in the
  syllabuses of the University Extension Lectures.

  The historical stories have been chosen from lists furnished by
  pupils.


TEXT-BOOKS.

  Gardiner. _Student’s History._ Longmans. 4/- a volume.

  Vol. i., to 1509; vol. ii., 1509-1689; vol. iii., 1689-1885.

  J. F. Bright. _History of England._ Longmans.

  Vol. i., “Mediæval Monarchy,” 449-1485 (4/6); vol. ii., “Personal
  Monarchy,” 1485-1688 (5/-); vol. iii., “Constitutional Monarchy,”
  1689-1837 (7/6).

  Ransome. _An Advanced History of England._ Rivingtons. 7/6.

  Acland and Ransome. _Analysis of English History._ Longmans. 6/-.

  D. Beale. _Text-book of English and General History._ Bell & Daldy.
  2/6.

  Taswell-Langmead. _Constitutional History._ Stevens & Hayes. 15/-.

  D. Beale. _Student’s Chronological Maps_ (Charts). Bell & Daldy. 3/6.

  Gardiner. _Student’s Historical Atlas._ Longmans. 5/-.

  F. W. Putzger. _Historischer Schul-Atlas._ Bielefeld and Leipzig.
  Verlag von Velhagen und Klasing. 2 marks.


Period 1066-1272--

  Stubbs. _Constitutional History._ Frowde. Clarendon Press. 12/- each
  volume.

  Vol. i., to 1215; vol. ii., 1215-1399.

  J. R. Green. _History of the English People_, vol. i. Macmillan. 16/-.

  -- _The Making of England._ Macmillan. 16/-.

  -- _The Conquest of England._ Macmillan. 18/-.

  Freeman. _History of the Norman Conquest._ Macmillan. 36/-.

  Lingard. _History of England_, vols. i. and ii. Duffy. Set of 10
  vols. £1 10/-.

  Kate Norgate. _England under the Angevin Kings._ 2 vols. Macmillan.
  £1 12/-.

  Mrs. J. R. Green. _Henry II._ (Twelve English Statesmen). Macmillan.
  2/6.

  O. H. Richardson. _National Movement under Henry III._ Macmillan. 6/6.

  Stubbs. _Early Plantagenets_ (Epochs). Longmans. 2/6.

  Cox. _Crusades_ (Epochs). Longmans. 2/6.

  Traill. _Social England_, vol. i. Cassell. 15/-.

  Thorold Rogers. _History of Agriculture and Prices_, vols. i. and ii.
  Clarendon Press. £2 2/-.

  Hunt. _English Church in the Middle Ages._ Longmans. 2/6.

  Stubbs. Introductions to (_a_) _Gesta Henrici II._: _Benet of
  Peterbro_;

  (_b_) _Roger of Hoveden_ (for foreign policy) (Rolls Series).

                { _St. Thomas of Canterbury._ David Nutt. 1/-.
  W. H. Hutton. { _Misrule of Henry III._ David Nutt. 1/-.
                { _Simon de Montfort._ David Nutt. 1/-.

  In English History from Contemporary Writers Series.

  De Joinville. _Saint Louis._ Chronicle (translated by James Hutton).
  Sampson Low. 2/6.


Period 1272-1399--

  Stubbs. _Constitutional History_, vol. ii. Clarendon Press. 12/-.

  Green. _History of the English People_, vol. i. Macmillan. 16/-.

  Lingard. _History of England_, vols. ii. and iii. Duffy. 10 vols. £1
  10/-.

  Author of “The Greatest of the Plantagenets.” _Life and Reign of
  Edward I._ Seeley Jackson. 6/-.

  Tout. _Edward I._ (Twelve English Statesmen). Macmillan. 2/6.

  Longman. _Life and Times of Edward III._ Longmans. 2 vols. 28/-.

  Traill. _Social England_, vol. ii. Cassell. 15/-.

  Burton. _History of Scotland._ Blackwood. 8 vols. £3 3/-.

  Oman. _Art of War_ (Hundred Years’ War). Fisher Unwin. 17/6.

  Wakeman. _History of the Church of England._ Rivingtons. 6/-.

  Stubbs. _Early Plantagenets_ (Epochs). Longmans. 2/6.

  Poole. _Wycliffe and Early Movements for Reform._ Longmans. 2/6.

  Freeman. _Historical Essays._ 1st series, Essay on Edward I.
  Macmillan. 10/6.

  Jusserand. _English Wayfaring Life in the Middle Ages._ Fisher Unwin.
  7/6.

  Ashley. _Economic History._ Longmans. Part i., 5/-; part ii., 10/6.

  Shakspere. _Play of Richard II._

  Froissart. _Chronicles._

  Chaucer. _Canterbury Tales._

  Langland. _Piers Plowman._


Period 1399-1485--

  Stubbs. _Constitutional History_, vol. iii. Clarendon Press. 12/-.

  Green. _History of the English People_, vols. i. and ii. Macmillan.
  16/- each vol.

  Lingard. _History of England_, vols. iii. and iv. Duffy & Sons. 10
  vols. £1 10/-.

  Ramsay. _Lancaster and York._ Clarendon Press. £1 16/-.

  Wylie. _England under Henry IV._ Longmans. 4 vols. 10/6, 15/-, 15/-,
  £1 1/-.

  Church. _Henry V._ (Men of Action Series). Macmillan. 2/6.

  Gairdner. _Richard III._ Longmans (out of print). 10/-.

  Oman. _Warwick_ (Men of Action Series). Macmillan. 2/6.

  Stubbs. _Lectures on the Study of Medieval and Modern History._
  Clarendon Press. 8/6.

  Seebohm. _Oxford Reformers._ Longmans. 14/-.

  Traill. _Social England_, vol. ii. Cassell. 15/-.

  Gairdner. _Lancaster and York_ (Epochs). Longmans. 2/6.

  James Gairdner. _Paston Letters._ Constable. 16/-.

  Fortescue. _Governance of England_ (edited Plummer). Clarendon Press.
  12/6.

  Shakspere. _Plays_: _Henry IV._, _Henry V._, _Henry VI._


Tudor Period, 1485-1603--

  York Powell and Tout. Text-book, _History of England_ (Henry VIII. to
  William III.). Longmans. 2/6.

  Lingard. _History of England_, vols. iv., v., vi. Duffy & Sons. 10
  vols. £1 10/-.

  Green. _History of the English People_, vol. ii. Macmillan. 16/-.

  Froude. _History of England from the Fall of Wolsey to the Armada._
  Longmans. 12 vols. 3/6 each.

  Hallam. _History of England_ (Constitutional). Murray. 7/6.

  Busch. _England under the Tudors._ Innes & Co. 16/-.

  Gairdner. _Henry VII._ (English Statesmen Series). Macmillan. 2/6.

  Bacon. _Henry VII._ (edited Lumby). Cambridge University Press. 2/-.

  Brewer. _Reign of Henry VIII._ Murray. 2 vols. 15/- each.

  Beesley. _Queen Elizabeth._ Macmillan. 2/6.

  Creighton. _Elizabeth._ Boussod. £2 8/-.

  -- _Age of Elizabeth_ (Epochs). Longmans. 2/6.

  -- _Wolsey_ (Twelve English Statesmen). Macmillan. 2/6.

  Ranke. _History of England_, vol. ... endon Press. 6 vols. £3 3/-.

  Traill. _Social England_, vols. ii. and iii. Cassell. 15/- each
  volume.

  Stubbs. _Lectures on Medieval and Modern History._ Clarendon Press.
  8/6.

  Macaulay. _Essays_ (Burleigh). Longmans. 2/6.

  Seeley. _Growth of British Policy._ Cambridge University Press. 2
  vols. 12/-.

  Seebohm. _Oxford Reformers._ Longmans. 14/-.

  Wakeman. _History of the Church of England._ Rivingtons. 6/-.

  Burnet. _History of the Reformation._ Clarendon Press. 7 vols. £1
  10/-.

  Aubrey Moore. _History of the Reformation._ Kegan Paul. 16/-.

  Froude. _English Seamen in the Sixteenth Century._ Longmans. 6/-.

  Hume. _Courtships of Queen Elizabeth._ Fisher Unwin. 12/-.

  -- _The Year after the Armada._ Fisher Unwin. 12/-.

  -- _Walter Raleigh._ Fisher Unwin. 5/-.

  -- _Philip II._ (Foreign Statesmen). Macmillan. 2/6.

  Cunningham. _English Industry and Commerce._ Pitt Press. Vol. i.,
  13/4; vol. ii., 15/-.

  H. Hall. _Society in the Elizabethan Age._ Sonnenschein. 10/6.

  Berville. _The Story of the Chevalier Bayard_ (Chronicle). Friswell.
  2/6.


Stuarts and Commonwealth, 1603-1660--

  Cordery and Philpotts. _King and Commonwealth_ (text-book). Seeley.
  5/-.

  Gardiner. _History of England_, 1603-1642. Longmans. 10 vols. 6/-
  each.

  -- _History of the Great Civil War_, 1642-1649. Longmans. 4 vols. 6/-
  each.

  Lingard. _History of England_, vols. vii. and viii. Duffy & Sons. 10
  vols. £1 10/-.

  Green. _History of the English People_, vol. iii. Macmillan. 16/-.

  Ranke. _History of England_, vols. i., ii., iii. Clarendon Press. 6
  vols. £3 3/-.

  Hallam. _Constitutional History._ Murray. 7/6.

  Guizot. _History of the English Revolution._ Bohn. 3/6.

  -- _Life of Oliver Cromwell._ Bentley. 6/-.

  Frederic Harrison. _Cromwell_ (Twelve English Statesmen). Macmillan.
  2/6.

  Traill. _Social England_, vol. iv. Cassell. 17/-.

  Sanford. _Studies and Illustrations of the Great Rebellion._ John
  Parker. 16/-.

  Forster. _Sir John Eliot._ Longmans (out of print).

  -- _Grand Remonstrance._ Murray. 12/-.

  Church. _Bacon_ (English Men of Letters). Macmillan. 1/-.

  Carlyle. _Cromwell’s Letters and Speeches._ Chapman & Hall. 2/6.

  W. H. Hutton. _William Laud_ (Leaders of Religion Series). Methuen.
  3/6.

  Ottley. _Lancelot Andrewes_ (Leaders of Religion Series). Methuen.
  3/6.

  Lady Verney. _Memoirs of the Verney Family._ Longmans. 2 vols., 42/-;
  vol. iii., 21/-.


The Later Stuarts, 1660-1714--

  Hale. _Fall of the Stuarts_ (Epochs). Longmans. 2/6.

  Morris. _Age of Anne._ Longmans. 2/6.

  Lingard. _History of England_, vols. ix., x. (ends 1689). Duffy. 10
  vols. £1 10/-.

  Ranke. _History of England_, vols. iii., iv., v. (use for foreign
  policy). Clarendon Press. £3 3/-.

  Macaulay. _History of England._ Longmans. 5/-.

  Hallam. _Constitutional History._ Murray. 7/6.

  Lecky. _History of England in the 18th Century._ Longmans. 7 vols.
  6/- each.

  Green. _History of the English People_, vols. iii. and iv. Macmillan.
  16/- a vol.

  Traill. _William III._ (Twelve English Statesmen). Macmillan. 2/6.

  Stanhope. _Reign of Queen Anne._ Murray. 16/-.

  Wyon. _History of Great Britain during the Reign of Queen Anne._
  Chapman & Hall (out of print). 2 vols. £1 12/-.

  Leslie Stephen. _Swift_ (Men of Letters Series). Macmillan. 1/-.

  Swift. _Conduct of the Allies._ Various.

  Hassall. _Bolingbroke_ (Statesmen Series). W. H. Allen. 2/6.

  Macaulay. _Essays_ (Temple). Longmans. 2/6.

  Evelyn. _Diary_ (Chandos Classics). Warne. 1/6.

  Traill. _Social England_, vol. iv. Cassell. 17/-.

  Burnet. _History of His Own Times._ Clarendon Press. 9/6.

  Anson. _Law and Custom of the Constitution._ Clarendon Press. Vol.
  i., 12/6; vol. ii., 14/-.

  Hodder. _Shaftesbury._ Cassell. 3/6.


Hanoverian Period, 1714-1815--

  Skottowe. _Our Hanoverian Kings._ Sampson Low. 3/6.

  Lecky. _History of England in the 18th Century._ Longmans. 7 vols.
  6/- each.

  Stanhope. _History of England_ (to 1783). Murray. 9 vols. 5/- each.

  Green. _History of the English People_, vol. iv. Macmillan. 16/-.

  Erskine May. _Constitutional History_ (from George III.). Longmans. 3
  vols. 18/-.

  Hallam. _Constitutional History._ Murray. 7/6.

  Ranke. _History of England_, vol. v. Clarendon Press. £3 3/-.

  Seeley. _Expansion of England._ Macmillan. 4/6.

  Traill. _Social England_, vol. v. Cassell. 17/-.

  Morley. _Walpole_ (Twelve English Statesmen). Macmillan. 2/6.

  Macaulay. _Essays_ (Clive, Hastings). Longmans. 2/6.

  Morley. _Chatham_ (Twelve English Statesmen). Macmillan. 2/6.

  Not yet published.

  Rosebery. _Pitt_ (Twelve English Statesmen). Macmillan. 2/6.

  Montagu Burrows. _British Foreign Policy._ Blackwood. 6/-.

  Mahan. _Influence of Sea Power on History._ Sampson Low. 15/-.

  Burke. _Thoughts on the Present Discontents._ Clarendon Press. 4/6.

  -- _Reflections on the French Revolution._ Clarendon Press. 5/-.

  Also cheaper editions.

  Carlyle. _French Revolution._ Chapman & Hall. 2 vols. 2/6 a vol.

  Also cheaper issues.

  Thos. Wright. _Caricature History of the Georges._ Hotten. 6/6.


LIST OF HISTORICAL NOVELS AND TALES AND POEMS

ILLUSTRATING THE PERIOD 1066 to 1815.


Period 1066-1272--

  Kingsley. _Hereward the Wake_ (Last Struggle of the English).
  Macmillan. 3/6.

  Lytton. _Harold._ Routledge. 2/-.

  M. M. Blake. _Siege of Norwich Castle_ (Struggle of the English).
  Seeley. 5/-.

  Henty. _Wulff the Saxon_ (written for boys). Blackie. 6/-.

  -- _Winning his Spurs_ (written for boys) (Crusades). S. Low. 2/6.

  Macfarlane. _Camp of Refuge_ (Hereward). Constable. 3/6.

  Sir W. Scott. _Count Robert of Paris_ (First Crusade). Black. 1/6.

  -- _The Betrothed_ (Henry II.). Black. 1/6.

  -- _The Talisman_ (Richard and Saladin). Black. 1/6.

  -- _Ivanhoe_ (Richard Cœur de Lion). Black. 1/6.

  C. M. Yonge. _The Constable’s Tower_ (King John). National Society.
  3/-.

  -- _The Prince and the Page_ (Edward I.). Macmillan. 3/6.

  -- _The Little Duke_ (Richard the Fearless of Normandy). Macmillan.
  2/6.

  These are children’s books.

  G. P. R. James. _Philip Augustus_ (Struggle with King John). Warne.
  -/6.

  Tennyson. _Harold_: a drama.

  -- _Becket_: a drama.


Period 1272-1399--

  Jane Porter. _The Scottish Chiefs_ (1296-1314). Routledge. 2/-.

  Grace Aguilar. _The Days of Bruce._ Nisbet. 2/-.

  Mary Peard. _Prentice Hugh_ (Edward I.). National Society. 3/6.

  M. Everett Green. _The Lord of Dynevor_ (Edward I. Wales). Nelson.
  2/6.

  Sir W. Scott. _Castle Dangerous_ (1306). Black. 1/6.

  Henty. _In Freedom’s Cause_ (William Wallace). Blackie. 6/-.

  C. M. Yonge. _The Lances of Lynwood_ (Black Prince in Spain).
  Macmillan. 2/6.

  Henty. _St. George for England_ (Crecy, Poitiers). Blackie. 5/-.

  Conan Doyle. _The White Company_ (Black Prince in France). Smith &
  Elder. 6/-.

  E. Mitchell. _The Golden Horseshoes_ (Chivalry. Edward III.).
  Masters. 5/-.

  Everett Green. _In the Days of Chivalry_ (Black Prince). Nelson &
  Sons. 5/-.

  Henty. _A March on London_ (Wat Tyler). Blackie. 5/-.

  -- _The Lion of St. Mark_ (Venice). Blackie. 6/-.

  Lytton. _Rienzi_ (Last Tribune, 1354). Routledge. 3/6.

  Sir W. Scott. _Lord of the Isles_ (Bruce).


Period 1399-1485--

  James. _Agincourt_ (1415). Warne. -/6.

  Henty. _At Agincourt._ Blackie. 6/-.

  Mark Twain. _Joan of Arc_ (serious). Chatto & Windus. 6/-.

  Author of “Schönberg Cotta Family”. _Joan the Maid._ Nelson. 4/-.

  Andrew Lang. _The Monk of Fife_ (Joan of Arc). Longmans. 3/6.

  Mrs. Oliphant. _Joan of Arc._ Putnam. 5/-.

  Sir W. Scott. _The Fair Maid of Perth_ (Murder of Rothsay). Black.
  1/6.

  C. M. Yonge. _The Caged Lion_ (James I. of Scotland). Macmillan. 3/6.

  Miss Wilbraham. _For and Against_ (Wars of the Roses) (out of print).

  C. M. Yonge. _Grisly Grisell_ (Wars of the Roses). Macmillan. 3/6.

  Lady G. Fullerton. _A Stormy Life_ (Margaret of Anjou). Burns &
  Oates. 6/-.

  C. M. Yonge. _Two Penniless Princesses._ Macmillan. 3/6.

  Sir W. Scott. _Anne of Geierstein_ (Margaret of Anjou). Black. 1/6.

  Lytton. _Last of the Barons_ (Warwick the King Maker). Routledge. 3/6.

  H. Ainsworth. _The Star Chamber_ (Henry VII.). Various.

  Author of “The Spanish Brothers”. _Crushed yet Conquering_ (John
  Huss). Religious Tract Society. 6/-.

  Sir W. Scott. _Quentin Durward_ (Louis XI. and the Scottish Guard).
  Black. 1/6.

  G. P. R. James. _Mary of Burgundy_ (1477). Warne. -/6.


Period 1485-1603--

  Harrison Ainsworth. _The Star Chamber._ Routledge. 2/-.

  Everett Green. _Evil May Day_ (1517). Nelson. 2/6.

  -- _The Church and the King_ (Dissolution of the Monasteries).
  Nelson. 5/-.

  A. Manning. _The Household of Sir Thomas More_ (Diary of Margaret
  Roper). Hall. 2/6.

  Harrison Ainsworth. _Windsor Castle_ (Henry VIII.). Routledge. 2/-.

  C. M. Yonge. _The Armourer’s Prentices_ (Divorce). Macmillan. 3/6.

  Mark Twain. _The Prince and the Pauper_ (Edward VI.). Chatto. 3/6.

  Stanley Weyman. _Francis Cludde_ (Mary Tudor). Cassell. 6/-.

  Harrison Ainsworth. _Tower of London_ (Lady J. Grey). Routledge. 2/-.

  Kingsley. _Westward Ho!_ (Elizabeth’s Seadogs). Macmillan. 2/6.

  Sir W. Scott. _The Monastery_ (Murray’s Regency). Black. 1/6.

  -- _The Abbot_ (Loch Leven). Black. 1/6.

  -- _Kenilworth_ (Amy Robsart). Black. 1/6.

  Whyte Melville. _The Queen’s Maries_ (Mary of Scots). Longmans. 1/6.

  Eliza Pollard. _A Gentleman of England_ (Sir P. Sidney). Addison.
  5/-.

  C. M. Yonge. _Unknown to History_ (Mary of Scots in Captivity).
  Macmillan. 3/6.

  Everett Green. _Loyal Hearts and True_ (Queen Elizabeth). Nelson. 5/-.

  Henty. _Under Drake’s Flag._ Blackie. 6/-.

  -- _St. Bartholomew’s Eve._ Blackie. 6/-.

  Robert Leighton. _Under the Foeman’s Flag_ (Armada). Melrose. 3/6.

  Mrs. Marshall. _Penshurst Castle_ (Sir P. Sidney). Seeley. 5/-.

  Hon. E. Lawless. _With Essex in Ireland._ Smith, Elder. 6/-.

  -- _Maelcho_ (Irish Rising of 1579). Smith, Elder. 6/-.

  Kingsley. _Plays and Puritans_ (Essays). Macmillan. 3/6.

  Reed. _Sir Ludar_ (Ireland. Queen Elizabeth). Sampson Low. 2/6.

  Charles Reade. _The Cloister and the Hearth_ (for Picture of Middle
  Ages. Erasmus). Chatto. 3/6.

  Mrs. Charles. _The Schönberg Cotta Family_ (Luther). Nelson. 3/6.

  Author of “Mdlle. Mori”. _In the Olden Time_ (Peasant War in Germany,
  1525). Longmans. 2/6.

  C. M. Yonge. _The Dove in the Eagle’s Nest_ (Maximilian). Macmillan.
  3/6.

  G. Eliot. _Romola_ (Savonarola). Blackwood. 3/6.

  Yeats. _The Honour of Savelli_ (Cæsar Borgia). Sampson Low. 2/6.

  Grace Aguilar. _Vale of Cedars_ (Ferdinand and Isabella).
  Groombridge. 5/-.

  Gordon Stables. _Westward with Columbus._ Blackie. 5/-.

  Author of “Dark Year of Dundee”. _The Spanish Brothers_
  (Persecutions). Nelson. 4/-.

  Henty. _By Pike and Dyke_ (Netherlands). Blackie. 6/-.

  -- _By England’s Aid_ (Netherlands). Blackie. 6/-.

  Liefde. _The Beggars_ (Netherlands). Hodder. 3/6.

  Everett Green. _Shut In_ (Siege of Antwerp, 1585). Nelson. 5/-.

  Stanley Weyman. _The House of the Wolf_ (St. Bartholomew). Longmans.
  3/6.

  C. M. Yonge. _The Chaplet of Pearls_ (St. Bartholomew). Macmillan.
  3/6.

  Stanley Weyman. _A Gentleman of France_ (Henry III. and the League).
  Longmans. 6/-.

  James. _Henry of Guise_ (the States of Blois. League Times).
  Routledge. 2/-.

  Sir W. Scott. _Marmion_ (a tale of Flodden Field).

  -- _The Lady of the Lake_ (James V. and Douglas).

  -- _The Lay of the Last Minstrel_ (1557).

  Tennyson. _Columbus_: a poem.

  -- _Queen Mary_: a drama.

  -- _The Revenge_: a Ballad of the Fleet.


Period 1603-1660--

  Sir Walter Scott. _The Fortunes of Nigel_ (Court of James I.). Black.
  1/6.

  -- _A Legend of Montrose_ (Montrose and Argyle, 1645). Black. 1/6.

  -- _Woodstock_ (Cavaliers and Roundheads). Black. 1/6.

  Harrison Ainsworth. _Guy Fawkes._ Routledge. 2/-.

  Shorthouse. _John Inglesant_ (perfect Picture of Court of Charles
  I.). Macmillan. 3/6.

  Whyte Melville. _Holmby House_ (Cavaliers and Roundheads). Longmans.
  1/6.

  Edna Lyall. _To Right the Wrong_ (Cavaliers and Roundheads). Hurst &
  Blackett. 6/-.

  A. J. Church. _With the King at Oxford_ (Charles I.). Seeley. 5/-.

  J. S. Fletcher. _When Charles the First was King._ Bentley. 3 vols.
  31/6.

  Author of “The Schönberg Cotta Family”. _The Draytons and the
  Davenants_ (Civil Wars). Nelson & Sons. 3/6.

  Wilkie Collins. _Hide and Seek_ (Civil Wars). Chatto. 3/6.

  George Macdonald. _St. George and St. Michael_ (Civil Wars. Siege of
  Raglan Castle). Kegan Paul. 3/6.

  Rev. A. D. Crake. _Fairleigh Hall_ (Civil Wars). Mowbray. 2/6.

  M. and E. Lee. _Rosamond Fane_ (Escape of Duke of York). Griffith &
  Farran. 3/6.

  Anna Glyn. _A Pearl of the Realm_ (Civil Wars. Nonsuch Palace).
  Hutchinson. 6/-.

  Emma Marshall. _A Haunt of Ancient Peace_ (Little Gidding). Seeley.
  5/-.

  Edited by Canon Carter. _Nicholas Ferrar_ (not a story; account of
  Little Gidding). Longmans. 6/-.

  -- _Brave Dame Mary_ (Siege of Corfe Castle). S.P.C.K. 2/-.

  C. M. Yonge. _Under the Storm_ (Cavaliers and Roundheads). National
  Society. 3/6.

  Miss Holt. _Ashcliffe Hall_ (Cavaliers and Roundheads). Silver & Co.
  3/6.

  Harrison Ainsworth. _Boscobel._ Routledge. 2/-.

  Emma Marshall. _The White King’s Daughter_ (Charles I.). Seeley. 3/6.

  Emma Marshall. _Under Salisbury’s Spire_ (George Herbert). Seeley.
  5/-.

  Marryat. _The Children of the New Forest_ (Cavalier story for
  children). Routledge. 2/-.

  Author of “The Schönberg Cotta Family”. _On Both Sides of the Sea_
  (Commonwealth and Restoration). Nelson. 5/-.

  D. G. McChesney. _Miriam Cromwell’s Royalist._ Blackwood & Son. 6/-.

  Miss Manning. _Mary Powell_ (Diary of Milton’s Wife). Hall. 2/6.

  Field. _Ethne_ (Cromwell in Ireland). Wells, Gardner. 6/-.

  Alfred de Vigny. _Cinq Mars_ (in French. Richelieu). Calmann Levy. 2
  vols. 8 francs.

  G. P. R. James. _Richelieu._ Warne. -/6.

  Stanley Weyman. _Under the Red Robe_ (Richelieu). Methuen. 6/-.

  -- _My Lady Rotha_ (Thirty Years’ War). Innes. 6/-.

  Henty. _The Lion of the North_ (Gustavus Adolphus). Blackie. 6/-.

  Sir W. Scott. _Rokeby_ (Marston Moor).

  Browning. _Strafford._


Period 1660-1714--

  Sir Walter Scott. _Old Mortality_ (Lauderdale and Claverhouse).
  Black. 1/6.

  -- _Peveril of the Peak_ (Popish Plot). Black. 1/6.

  -- _The Bride of Lammermoor_ (1700). Black. 1/6.

  -- _The Black Dwarf_ (Jacobites). Black. 1/6.

  Austin Clare. _The Carved Cartoon_ (Plague and Great Fire). S.P.C.K.
  3/-.

  Henty. _When London Burned._ (Plague and Great Fire). Blackie. 5/-.

  Harrison Ainsworth. _Old St. Paul’s._ (Plague and Great Fire).
  Routledge. 2/-.

  Miss Manning. _Cherry and Violet_ (Plague and Great Fire). Nimmo. 6/-.

  Anthony Hope. _Simon Dale_ (Treaties of Dover). Methuen & Co. 6/-.

  Edna Lyall. _In the Golden Days_ (Algernon Sidney). Hurst & Blackett.
  6/-.

  Emma Marshall. _Winchester Meads_ (Bishop Ken). Seeley. 5/-.

  Conan Doyle. _Micah Clarke_ (Monmouth’s Rebellion). Longmans. 3/6.

  M. and C. Lee. _The Oak Staircase_ (Monmouth’s Rebellion). Griffith &
  Farran. 3/6.

  Blackmore. _Lorna Doone_ (Monmouth’s Rebellion). S. Low. 2/6.

  Walter Besant. _For Faith and Freedom_ (Monmouth’s Rebellion).
  Chatto. 3/6.

  Everett Green. _In Taunton Town_ (Monmouth’s Rebellion). Nelson. 5/-.

  A. E. Mason. _The Courtship of Maurice Buckler_ (1685). Macmillan.
  6/-.

  Mary Peard. _To Horse and Away_ (Charles II.). National Society. 3/6.

  Mary Rowsell. _Traitor or Patriot_ (Rye House Plot). Blackie. 3/6.

  Stanley Weyman. _Shrewsbury_ (a Romance of the Reign of William
  III.). Longmans. 6/-.

  Henty. _Orange and Green_ (B. Boyne). Blackie. 5/-.

  Emma Marshall. _Kensington Palace._ Seeley. 5/-.

  Anon. _The Last of the Cavaliers_ (1688). Bentley. 6/-.

  Henty. _The Bravest of the Brave_ (Peterbro in Spain). Blackie. 5/-.

  M. Rowsell. _Thorndyke Manor_ (Jacobite). Blackie. 3/6.

  Conan Doyle. _The Refugees_ (Revocation of the Edict of Nantes).
  Longmans. 3/6.

  Thackeray. _Esmond_ (Jacobites. Anne’s Reign). Smith, Elder. 1/6.


Period 1714-1815--

  Sir W. Scott. _Rob Roy_ (Rising of 1715). Black. 1/6.

  -- _The Heart of Midlothian_ (Porteous Riots). Black. 1/6.

  -- _Waverley_ (Rising of 1745). Black. 1/6.

  -- _Guy Mannering_ (1750). Black. 1/6.

  -- _Red Gauntlet_ (Jacobites, 1770). Black. 1/6.

  -- _The Antiquary_ (1798). Black. 1/6.

  Henty. _Bonny Prince Charlie._ Blackie. 6/-.

  -- _A Jacobite Exile_ (in service of Charles XII. of Sweden).
  Blackie. 5/-.

  -- _With Frederick the Great_ (Seven Years’ War). Blackie. 6/-.

  -- _Hold Fast for England_ (Siege of Gibraltar). Blackie. 5/-.

  -- _With Clive in India._ Blackie. 6/-.

  -- _With Wolfe in Canada._ Blackie. 6/-.

  -- _In the Reign of Terror._ Blackie. 5/-.

  -- _True to the Old Flag_ (War of American Independence). Blackie.
  6/-.

  -- _One of the Twenty-eighth_ (Waterloo). Blackie. 5/-.

  -- _With Moore at Corunna._ Blackie. 6/-.

  -- _Through Russian Snows._ Blackie. 5/-.

  Walter Besant. _Dorothy Forster_ (Rising of 1715). Chatto. 3/6.

  Thackeray. _The Four Georges._ Smith, Elder. 1/6.

  Andrew Lang. _Pickle the Spy_ (Young Glengarry. Ellibank Plot).
  Longmans. 18/-.

  Author of “Atelier du Lys”. _Mistress Beatrice Cope_ (Rising, 1745).
  Hurst & Blackett. 3/6.

  Harrison Ainsworth. _Preston Fight._ Routledge. 2/-.

  Thackeray. _The Virginians._ Smith, Elder. 5/-.

  Author of “The Schönberg Cotta Family”. _Diary of Mrs. Kitty
  Trevylyan_ (Wesley). Nelson & Sons. 3/6.

  -- _Against the Stream_ (End of 18th Century). S.P.C.K. 4/-.

  Dickens. _Barnaby Rudge_ (Gordon Riots). Chapman & Hall. 2/6.

  Walter Besant. _The Chaplain of the Fleet_ (Fleet Marriages). Chatto.
  3/6.

  Sarah Tytler. _The Huguenot Family_ (Refugees in England). Chatto.
  2/-.

  Fenimore Cooper. _The Last of the Mohicans_ (English and Americans).
  Routledge. 2/-.

  G. Parker. _The Trail of the Sword_ (French in America). Methuen. 6/-.

  Emma Marshall. _The Four Reigns_ (George III. to Victoria). Seeley.
  5/-.

  -- _In Colston’s Days_ (Old Bristol). Seeley. 5/-.

  -- _Under the Mendips_ (Hannah More). Seeley. 5/-.

  Dickens. _A Tale of Two Cities_ (French Revolution). Chapman & Hall.
  2/6.

  Stanley Weyman. _The Red Cockade_ (French Revolution). Longmans. 6/-.

  Author of “Mdlle. Mori”. _The Atelier du Lys_ (French Revolution).
  Longmans. 2/6.

  Harriet Martineau. _The Peasant and the Prince_ (French Revolution).
  Routledge. 1/6.

  M. E. Coleridge. _The King with Two Faces_ (Gustavus III. of Sweden.
  French Revolution). Edward Arnold. 6/-.

  Author of “Mdlle. Mori”. _On the Edge of the Storm_ (French
  Revolution). Warne. 3/6.

  Felix Gras. _The Reds of the Midi_ (French Revolution). Heinemann.
  3/6.

  Sarah Tytler. _Citoyenne Jacqueline_ (French Revolution). Chatto. 2/-.

  Whyte Melville. _Sister Louise_ (French Revolution). Ward, Lock. 2/-.

  C. J. A., author of “Good Fight of Faith”. _In Palace and Faubourg_
  (French Revolution). Nelson. 5/-.

  Author of “Atelier du Lys”. _A Child of the Revolution._ Longmans.
  2/6.

  F. M. Peard. _Mother Molly_ (Threatened Invasion of Napoleon). Bell.
  5/-.

  Conan Doyle. _Uncle Bernac_ (Napoleon). Smith, Elder. 6/-.

  -- _Brigadier Gerard_ (Napoleon). Newnes. 6/-.

  Tolstoi. _War and Peace_ (Napoleon’s Russian Campaign, for teachers).
  W. Scott. 4 vols. 2/6 a vol.


THE TEACHING OF ANCIENT HISTORY.

By MARY HANBIDGE, M.A. (Lond.).

[General scope.]

The importance of history as a school subject has been fully discussed
in an earlier section. But “history,” as taught in schools, too often
connotes merely English, or, at best, modern history. Hence the
necessity of asserting separately the claim of ancient history, though
in the very fact that it is not a separate subject, lies its importance.

The progressive development of the human race is a scientific axiom.
If we ignore the continuity of history, we tend to base our teaching
only on facts, rather than on the laws which form the bond of sequence
between them. Thus the sense of historical proportion is never
awakened; and the girl so trained may know in detail the history of
England, and the history of the Israelites, but has little idea of
their relation to the rest of the modern or ancient world. The child of
to-day cannot attain to a true understanding of the history and culture
of her own nation unless she has some ideas of the civilisation we
inherit. The Renaissance is a fact which every text-book emphasises,
and every schoolgirl knows; but what does she know of its spirit? How
little can she realise the enthusiasm that stirred those “spacious
times” if she is an utter stranger to the “glory that was Greece, and
the greatness that was Rome”! Again, in neglecting ancient history,
we lose sight of the homogeneity of the human race, that oneness which
Thucydides felt would make his history not merely a passing record, but
a prophecy ες το αει. And in truth the ancient city states grappled
with many of the social and political problems of to-day. They are
set before us in miniature, we see them in their entirety, and their
solution guides or warns us. The influence of capital in politics,
the depopulation of country districts, the dangers of a foreign corn
supply, the drifting of democracy to socialism, and the treatment
of subject races, were questions of as vital importance for Greece
and Rome as they are to-day. So true is Dr. Arnold’s paradox that
the ancient world is the most modern of all. Thus regarded, ancient
history forms a valuable mental training for upper forms, a training
which, in the case of girls, is especially useful, since women too
often do not realise the modern problems in which they are unconscious
factors. A further advantage is the accessibility of the original
authorities, even to a school class. Here at least they are not
dependent on retrospective theories, but can see how the history of the
day impressed the men who made it--a result not so easily obtainable in
other branches of history.

[General suggestions.]

To turn to the practical teaching of the subject. From the beginning,
the child must be trained to realise that the history of the world is
a whole. Throughout the school, ancient and mediæval history should be
taught side by side with that of England and Palestine. English history
may with advantage be taught in less detail, and time thus secured
for the sister subject. In French and German schools this system is
definitely adopted; we append a German scheme. If possible, the subject
should be in the hands of the same teacher, that the correlation of
interest may be duly emphasised. In classes where reading lessons are
given, poems, plays, etc., which bear upon the history, should be
chosen, and may suggest subjects for composition. A geography lesson
should precede the history course, and the importance of geography
throughout cannot be overestimated.

[Graduated scheme. Course A. Ages 9-10.]

With young children history proper is an impossibility, but an interest
in the life of the past may be awakened very early. The mental
development of the child epitomises that of the race, and in the record
of a nation mythology precedes history. In the lowest classes of the
Cheltenham Ladies’ College a course of stories from Greek mythology has
met with marked success. Quite little children know Jason, with his one
sandal, as well as they do Cinderella, and Athene is a familiar friend,
whose picture they recognise. Cavillers may say that we are only
teaching fairy tales, but the same children grown a little older see
their Athene the central point of all the glories of Periclean Athens,
and find themselves in a world they know.

Such a course will begin with a talk about the Greeks and their Gods,
pass on to the heroes, and end with the “Tale of Troy Divine,” the
wanderings of Odysseus, and the story of Thebes; of course these will
be stories pure and simple, not vehicles for any ætiological theory,
and the success will depend entirely on the descriptive power of the
teacher.

[Course B. Ages 10-12.]

We are now on the threshold of history, and since a child is naturally
anthropomorphic, the personal element must be made the most prominent.
This course will therefore consist of a series of biographies, but
biographies introductory to history. The men therefore whom we choose
must be men who make or mark a period, and their lives must be closely
connected. For this Greek history offers greater facilities than Roman,
where the personal element is weaker.

The following series is suggested:--

1. _Lycurgus_ (the dawn of history); revive knowledge of Atridæ;
new Peloponnesus, _cf._ Heptarchy; Lycurgus and his laws; rise of
Sparta. 2. _Solon_, lawgiver of Athens. 3. _Pisistratus_, the tyranny;
rise of free Athens. 4. _Crœsus_, Cyrus, Cambyses; Asiatic Greece,
connection with Bible history. 5. _Darius_ and his wrath against
Athens. 6. _Miltiades_ and Marathon. 7. _Themistocles_ and Salamis.
8. _Pausanias_, victor of Platæa; his insolence and fall. 9. _Cimon_,
expulsion of Persians from Ægean. 10. _Pericles_ and his Athens;
Sparta’s jealousy; the war. 11. _Brasidas_ and _Demosthenes_. 12.
_Nicias_ and the Sicilian expedition. 13. _Lysander_ and fall of
Athens. 14. _Socrates_ and degradation of Athens. 15. _Agesilaus_
and the fall of Sparta. 16. _Conon_ and the rebuilding of the walls.
17. _Epaminondas_, the humbling of Sparta. 18. _Philip of Macedon_
and his plans. 19. _Demosthenes_ and how he failed to stop them. 20.
_Alexander_.

In these two courses no text-books need be used or notes taken, but
the children should be required to tell the tale of the last lesson,
either _viva voce_ or in writing. The appended chart should be used
throughout this course, and will show the connection with Jewish
history.

[Course C.]

History of Rome to B.C. 31. We now come to history proper, necessarily
in outline. This must not be mere chronology, but a series of connected
pictures of events. Such dates as are given must be the dates of a
century. We suggest that Rome should form the subject of this course,
since in the story of the nations Rome follows Greece. Rome touches the
world the children already know, as mistress of Britain, and heir of
Alexander, while Pyrrhus and Philip V. of Macedon are connecting links
with the Hellenistic age, as a rule a _terra incognita_. Antiochus
and the Maccabees will connect it with Jewish history. For chart of
connection with Course A see end.

[Course D. Ages 13-14.]

Augustus to Charlemagne. The Germans recognise the importance of this
period. In England, forming as it does the link between ancient and
modern history, it is taught with neither, and yet it is the key to
the race question of modern Europe. We suggest a scheme whose two
connecting links are: the rise of Christianity and the barbarian
migrations. 1. Augustus; Tiberius; Claudius. 2. Nero; the Christians.
3. Vespasian; Titus; fall of Jerusalem. 4. Roman life; Pompeii. 5.
Britain and the expansion of the empire under Trajan. 6. Marcus
Aurelius; Christianity and Paganism; death of Oracles. 7. Diocletian;
last persecutions of Christians; barbarians; inroads. 8. Constantine,
first Christian emperor; Constantinople. 9. Julian; reaction against
Christianity; Franks; Strasburg (357). 10. Alaric and Visigoths (410).
11. Attila and Huns (450). 12. Fall of empire. 13. Alexandria. 14.
Theodoric and Ostrogothic kingdoms. 15. Clovis and Frankish kingdoms.
16. Descendants of Clovis; Brunhilda and Fredegond; extension of
Frankish kingdom. 17. Monastic age, Celtic and Roman; Gregory the
Great; rise of Papacy; Gregory and Brunhilda; Augustine. 18. Mahomet.
19. Caliphs; spread of Mahometanism in Asia, Africa, Spain. 20.
Saracens repulsed (732); Charles Martel. 21. _Fainéant_ kings; mayors
of palace. 22. Charlemagne. 23. Holy Roman empire.

[History for higher classes.]

In the higher classes of a school we may assume a fair knowledge of
outline history. Periods bearing on the classical reading should be
selected and read in detail. Typical periods as “The Empire of Athens
and the Age of Pericles,” and “The Age of Augustus”.

A standard history should be worked through, and other books, notably
the original historians, will be suggested. A lending library is
therefore essential. An essay subject will be set in connection with
each lecture to form a centre for reading.

[Illustrations.]

Throughout, the importance of concrete illustrations cannot be too
strongly insisted upon. In many places the lectures can be supplemented
by visits to local museums, Roman relics, etc. (_e.g._, Chedworth Villa
near Cheltenham, Gloucester Museum, Bath). For elder classes a visit to
the British Museum would obviously be helpful, but it is wonderfully
easy to interest even quite young children. A board schoolboy of
eleven, who was wandering aimlessly about the Elgin room, was delighted
when I showed him the Nemesis head and told him the story of the
Persian Invincible Armada, which never set up its trophy.

Invaluable help can also be obtained from the Educational Museum of the
Teachers’ Guild. A full catalogue is published, in which we specially
notice (1) illustrations of Greek dress, which might be copied by the
mythology class (Course A); (2) maps and plans, especially of Athens
and Rome (Holzel); (3) coins, museum reproductions; (4) portraits;
(5) lantern slides. Mention may also be made of views of the English
Photographic Co., Constitution Square, Athens, who send a priced
catalogue; the series of card reliefs, 6d. each, by Lecherchier, Barbe
et Cie., to be obtained from the Art Schools Association, 21 Queen’s
Square, Bayswater; card illustrations from Menge’s _Antike Kunst_.
These illustrations would be of double value were they the permanent
possession of the class-room; the class could then become really
familiar with each one. It would be a great boon if a central loan
collection could be formed by some such body as the Teachers’ Guild,
from which illustrations of special periods could be borrowed term by
term, a plan which at present is only adopted for lantern slides. This
would give access to a greater selection of pictures and models than
a single school can provide, and might lead to the development of the
historical side of the school museum, and the consequent formation of a
school archæological society.

[Maps.]

Kiepert’s wall-maps may be taken for granted. The list in the Teachers’
Guild catalogue is helpful, but a teacher must make her own period
maps. (White blind holland is an excellent material.)

[Books.]

1. Text-books. (_a_) Roman. Creighton’s _Primer_; E. S. Shuckburgh’s
_History of Rome for Beginners_ and _History of Rome_; Well’s _Short
History of Rome_ to the death of Augustus; How and Leigh’s _History of
Rome_; Mommsen’s _History of Rome_ (abridged for schools); Pelham’s
_Outlines of Roman History_ (Epoch Series); Bury’s _Student’s Roman
Empire_.

(_b_) Greek. Fyffe’s _Primer_; Oman’s _History of Greece_; Cox’s
_General History of Greece_ (Epoch Series); Butcher’s _Demosthenes_.

(_c_) Transition. Freeman’s _Europe_ (Primer); Freeman’s _General
Sketch of European History_.

2. Historical atlases. Student’s Kiepert.

3. Suggestions for school library in connection with junior courses.
Miss Gardner’s _Friends of the Olden Time_ and _Rome the Centre of the
World_; Church’s _Stories_; Cox’s _Tales of Ancient Greece_; Kingsley’s
_Heroes and Poems_; Macaulay’s _Lays_; Hawthorne’s _Tanglewood Tales_;
_Epics and Romances of the Middle Ages_ (Wagner and Anson); Lang,
Leaf and Myers’ _Iliad_; Butcher and Lang’s _Odyssey_; Worsley’s
_Odyssey_; Morris’ _Earthly Paradise_ and _Life and Death of Jason_;
Browning’s _Balaustion_ and Aristophanes’ _Apology_; Miss A. Swanwick’s
_Æschylus_; Tennyson’s _Œnone_, etc.; Milton; _Atlas of Classical
Portraits_--(_a_) Roman; (_b_) Greek (published by Dent); Baumeister’s
_Bilder aus dem Alterthum_.

_German Scheme for History Teaching_:--

1st year. Greek legends and German sagas.

2nd year. Pictures of ancient German and Prussian history, Cyrus to the
Emperor Frederick.

3rd year. German and Prussian history, from invasion of barbarians to
the Emperor Frederick.

4th year. Ancient history to invasions of barbarians (every fortnight,
one hour’s repetition of German and Prussian history).

5th year. German history, from invasion of barbarians to 1648.

6th year. From 1648 to the present day, with special stress on general
history of civilisation.

PARALLEL CHART FOR THE YOUNGER CLASSES.

  -----+-------------------+------------------------+-------------------
  Year.| Biblical History. |        Greece.         |       Rome.
  -----+-------------------+------------------------+-------------------
  1400 |                   |                        |
       |                   |                        |
  1300 |Exodus.            |Troy?                   |
       |                   |                        |
  1200 |                   |                        |
       |Samson.            |                        |
  1100 |                   |                        |
       |                   |                        |
  1000 |David.             |                        |
       |                   |                        |
   900 |                   |Homer?                  |
       |                   |                        |
   800 |                   |Lycurgus?               |
       |                   |                        |
   700 |                   |                        |Rome.
       |                   |                        |
   600 |Nebuchadnezzar.    |Solon.                  |
       |                   |                        |
       |Belshazzar.     Cyr|us. Pisistratus.        |
   500 |Temple rebuilt. Dar|ius.                    |Expulsion of Kings.
       |Esther.         Xer|xes. Miltiades.         |
       |                   |Themistocles.           |
       |                   |Pericles.               |
   400 |                   |Socrates.               |The Gauls.
       |                   |Epaminondas.            |
   300 |                   |Alexander.              |
       |                   |(Ptolemies.)       (Pyrr|hus.)
       |                   |                        |1st Punic War.
   200 |             (Antio|chus.)       (Philip of |Macedon. Hannibal.)
       |(Maccabees.)       |                    Poly|bius.
   100 |                   |                        |Corinth. Carthage.
       |                   |(Cleopatra.)            |{Cicero. Pompey.
       |                   |                        |{Julius Cæsar.
  A.D. |Herod the Great.   |                        |
       |Birth of Christ    |                        |Augustus.
  -----+-------------------+------------------------+-------------------

At the beginning of Course B, Column I. (except the names in brackets)
will be marked on the chart. Column II. as far as Alexander to be
filled in during Course B. Column III. and the brackets of Columns I.
and II. to be filled in during Course C.


TIME-MAPS.

By DOROTHEA BEALE.

The practice of representing to the eye by means of diagrams the facts
of science, physical and social, is becoming more common: we have
jagged lines indicating fluctuations in the winds or in the stocks.
In an American record which has been sent to me, there are coloured
squares representing the thousands of children who are regular in
their attendance at school, black squares standing for the defaulting
thousands. By such means we can see at a glance what the mind finds it
difficult otherwise to realise; it furnishes a framework into which we
can fit anything we wish to locate.

[Historical Charts.]

It is hardly necessary to say that for any orderly study of history it
is necessary to have some scheme into which we may fit the subjects
of study. As well might we expect by learning latitude and longitude
to understand the position of places on the earth’s surface, as by
learning dates to get a clear idea of the relative position of events
in time. We want some form of map which will represent the events to
the eye. Many excellent charts have been drawn up giving us parallel
histories, but the great difficulty is their prodigious size. Time is
one-dimensional, and if we give a small linear space to a century, and
try to represent a few thousand years, the mind fails to grasp the
picture; if the scale of the different periods varies, the proportion
is wrong. For this reason rivers and trees of time, etc., have been
more or less failures; they are useful and interesting, but the
objection is, that they are either too large and detailed to be carried
in the memory, or that the landmarks are too slight. The Méthode
Mnémonique Polonaise, which is much used in France, was introduced to
my notice, and first used by me at Queen’s College: it has the great
advantage of compactness--it is in form like a geographical map. It
can be adapted to various purposes, but I shall dwell now on its
applications as a record of time, and show the different ways in which
it can be used by little children, though it is equally well adapted
for Tom Brown at Oxford (who seems to have used it) and for the mature
student of history. It may be made for little ones into a system of
object-lessons, or hieroglyphics, if you will, which appeal to the
child’s imagination and help him to realise something of the proportion
of things, and whilst looking at the world, as each of us must, from
our own “pin-point,” yet see life in relation to the lives of others.
It is compact; it shows at a glance the relations of events. We can
have a world-map and give only the great landmarks, or we may by a map
of large proportions work out to any degree of detail a short period.
The plan is to make a square of ten represent a century, and each
horizontal line a decade. Thus:--

  ++----+----+----+----+----++----+----+----+----+----++
  ||  0 |  1 |  2 |  3 |  4 ||  5 |  6 |  7 |  8 |  9 ||
  ++----+----+----+----+----++----+----+----+----+----++
  || 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 || 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 | 19 ||
  ++----+----+----+----+----++----+----+----+----+----++
  || 20 | 21 | 22 | 23 | 24 || 25 | 26 | 27 | 28 | 29 ||
  ++----+----+----+----+----++----+----+----+----+----++
  || 30 | 31 | 32 | 33 | 34 || 35 | 36 | 37 | 38 | 39 ||
  ++----+----+----+----+----++----+----+----+----+----++
  || 40 | 41 | 42 | 43 | 44 || 45 | 46 | 47 | 48 | 49 ||
  ++====+====+====+====+====++====+====+====+====+====++
  || 50 | 51 | 52 | 53 | 54 || 55 | 56 | 57 | 58 | 59 ||
  ++----+----+----+----+----++----+----+----+----+----++
  || 60 | 61 | 62 | 63 | 64 || 65 | 66 | 67 | 68 | 69 ||
  ++----+----+----+----+----++----+----+----+----+----++
  || 70 | 71 | 72 | 73 | 74 || 75 | 76 | 77 | 78 | 79 ||
  ++----+----+----+----+----++----+----+----+----+----++
  || 80 | 81 | 82 | 83 | 84 || 85 | 86 | 87 | 88 | 89 ||
  ++----+----+----+----+----++----+----+----+----+----++
  || 90 | 91 | 92 | 93 | 94 || 95 | 96 | 97 | 98 | 99 ||
  ++----+----+----+----+----++----+----+----+----+----++

It will at once be seen that all the numbers in the first line of a
century are units, in the second tens, in the third twenties, and so
on; whilst, if we look down the vertical line, all the numbers in the
first row end with nought, in the second with one, and so on. The
thick line is intended to help the eye; we have forty and fifty on
each side of the horizontal thick line, four and five on each side of
the vertical. A few minutes’ practice will generally enable the pupil
to read off numbers rapidly from a blank square. He will then have to
learn the position of the marks in any century, as he would learn the
geography of a country, or the shape of a constellation. Take, for
example, the English history of the fourteenth century. We mark Edward
II., in 1307; Edward III., in 1327; Richard II., 1377; Henry IV., 1399.
The dates need not be learned; we have the picture of the century in
our mind and can read off the square.

  ++----+----+----+----+----++----+----+----+----+----++
  ||    |    |    |    |    ||    |    | ●  |    |    ||
  ++----+----+----+----+----++----+----+----+----+----++
  ||    |    |    |    |    ||    |    |    |    |    ||
  ++----+----+----+----+----++----+----+----+----+----++
  ||    |    |    |    |    ||    |    | ●  |    |    ||
  ++----+----+----+----+----++----+----+----+----+----++
  ||    |    |    |    |    ||    |    |    |    |    ||
  ++----+----+----+----+----++----+----+----+----+----++
  ||    |    |    |    |    ||    |    |    |    |    ||
  ++====+====+====+====+====++====+====+====+====+====++
  ||    |    |    |    |    ||    |    |    |    |    ||
  ++----+----+----+----+----++----+----+----+----+----++
  ||    |    |    |    |    ||    |    |    |    |    ||
  ++----+----+----+----+----++----+----+----+----+----++
  ||    |    |    |    |    ||    |    | ●  |    |    ||
  ++----+----+----+----+----++----+----+----+----+----++
  ||    |    |    |    |    ||    |    |    |    |    ||
  ++----+----+----+----+----++----+----+----+----+----++
  ||    |    |    |    |    ||    |    |    |    | ●  ||
  ++----+----+----+----+----++----+----+----+----+----++

Some children take much pleasure in making and painting illustrated
charts. I have one on a large scale of the sixteenth century, giving
the accession of Queen Mary--1553, and a picture of the Tower, to which
Northumberland and others were sent. A block in 1554 tells of the
executions consequent on Wyatt’s rebellion, and a dove with an olive
branch of Philip’s intercession for Elizabeth--1555; there is a picture
of a martyr at the stake, and a hand in the flames for Cranmer--1557; a
scroll stands for the first Covenant in Scotland, and a sword for the
war with France--1558; there is a heart with Calais written on it.

Here is a specimen of a chart with a key of the sixteenth century.[19]
It will be seen from this how events in contemporary history can be
introduced. Thus the first year, 1500, reminds us of the discovery of
America, and of the great jubilee, the precursor of the Papal downfall;
the _fleur de lys_ standing for the French kings and the cross for the
German Emperors, tell of the accession of Francis I. and Charles V.
Portraits are given of English sovereigns. We have later the massacre
of St. Bartholomew with daggers, a ship for the Armada, etc., etc.

  [19] It may be well to add that I am not ignorant of the discussions
  respecting the proper beginning of a century. Is the year 1800 the
  last year of the eighteenth or the first year of the nineteenth
  century? Our dates have been translated from the Latin ordinals,
  and we ought to say the eighteen-hundredth year, instead of the
  year eighteen-hundred. I have deliberately preferred to conform the
  chart to the vulgar tongue. If I did not, the numbers in the first
  line would contain nine units and one ten, instead of all units; the
  second line of tens would contain one twenty, and so on. If we are
  content to use the inaccurate language of daily life, bearing in mind
  that it requires correction, and making such corrections when we are
  engaged in important historical or astronomical calculations, we may
  well be content to do the same with the chart. I shall, therefore,
  consider the life of a century as that of a centenarian. We say of
  a child that he is in his 1st, 2nd, 3rd, etc., year, when he is
  0, 1, 2, etc., years old; so, also, a person is in his 100th year
  when he is 99 years old; and he has lived a century at the close of
  this year, for the cardinal marks the number of completed years,
  the ordinal the number of the year in progress. So 1799 is regarded
  as the closing year of the last century, 1800, 1801, as the first
  and second of this. For a learned and elaborate discussion on the
  subject, and a list of authorities for the view adopted, see _An
  Examination of the Century Question_, George Bell, Fleet Street, 1850.

[Illustration]

KEY TO SIXTEENTH CENTURY CHART.

  +-------------+------------+------------+------------+------------++
  |    1500.    |   1501.    |    1502.   |   1503.    |   1504.    ||
  |  Columbus   |            |            | Julius II. |            ||
  |  prisoner.  |            |            |            |            ||
  |  Jubilee.   |            |            |            |            ||
  |             |            |            |            |            ||
  +-------------+------------+------------+------------+------------++
  |    1510.    |   1511.    |   1512.    |   1513.    |   1514.    ||
  |             |            |            |  Flodden.  |            ||
  |             |            |            |   Leo X.   |            ||
  |             |            |            |            |            ||
  |             |            |            |            |            ||
  +-------------+------------+------------+------------+------------++
  |    1520.    |   1521.    |    1522.   |    1523.   |   1524.    ||
  |  Soleyman.  |  Diet of   |            |            |            ||
  |             |   Worms.   |            |            |            ||
  |             |            |            |            |            ||
  |             |            |            |            |            ||
  +-------------+------------+------------+------------+------------++
  |    1530.    |   1531.    |    1532.   |    1533.   |   1534.    ||
  |  Death of   |            |            |    Anne    |            ||
  |   Wolsey.   |            |            |   Boleyn.  |            ||
  |             |            |            |            |            ||
  |             |            |            |            |            ||
  +-------------+------------+------------+------------+------------++
  |   1540.     |   1541.    |    1542.   |    1543.   |   1544.    ||
  | Jesuits.    |            |Cath. Howard| Catharine. |            ||
  |  Anne       |            | beheaded.  |    Parr.   |            ||
  | of Cleves.  |            |            |            |            ||
  |Cath. Howard.|            |            |            |            ||
  +-------------+------------+------------+------------+------------++

  ++------------+------------+------------+------------+------------+
  ||    1505.   |   1506.    |   1507.    |   1508.    |    1509.   |
  ||            |            |            |            | Henry VIII.|
  ||            |            |            |            |            |
  ||            |            |            |            |            |
  ||            |            |            |            |            |
  ++------------+------------+------------+------------+------------+
  ||   1515.    |   1516.    |   1517.    |   1518.    |    1519.   |
  || Francis I. |            |            |            | Charles V. |
  ||            |            |            |            |            |
  ||            |            |            |            |            |
  ||            |            |            |            |            |
  ++------------+------------+------------+------------+------------+
  ||   1525.    |   1526.    |   1527.    |   1528.    |    1529    |
  ||  Prussia.  |  Baber.    |            |            |            |
  ||  Teutonic  |            |            |            |            |
  ||   Order    |            |            |            |            |
  ||secularised.|            |            |            |            |
  ++------------+------------+------------+------------+------------+
  ||    1535.   |   1536.    |   1537.    |   1538.    |   1539.    |
  || Fisher and |Anne Boleyn |            |            |            |
  ||    More    | beheaded.  |            |            |            |
  ||  executed. |   Jane     |            |            |            |
  ||            | Seymour.   |            |            |            |
  ++------------+------------+------------+------------+------------+
  ||   1545.    |   1546.    |   1547.    |   1548.    |    1549.   |
  || Council of |            | Edward VI. |            |            |
  ||   Trent.   |            | Henry II.  |            |            |
  ||            |            |            |            |            |
  ||            |            |            |            |            |
  ++------------+------------+------------+------------+------------+

[Illustration]

KEY TO SIXTEENTH CENTURY CHART.

  +------------+------------+------------+------------+------------++
  |   1550.    |    1551.   |    1552.   |    1553.   |    1554.   ||
  |            |            |            |    Mary    |            ||
  |            |            |            |  Spenser   |            ||
  |            |            |            |    born.   |            ||
  +------------+------------+------------+------------+------------++
  |   1560.    |    1561.   |    1562.   |   1563.    |    1564.   ||
  |Charles IX. |            |            |   Guise    |  Max. II.  ||
  |            |            |            |  assass.   |  Shakspere ||
  |            |            |            |            |    born.   ||
  +------------+------------+------------+------------+------------++
  |   1570.    |    1571.   |    1572.   |   1573.    |    1574.   ||
  |            |            |Massacre of |            |  Henry II. ||
  |            |            |  St. Bar-  |            |            ||
  |            |            | tholomew.  |            |            ||
  +------------+------------+------------+------------+------------++
  |   1580.    |    1581.   |   1582.    |   1583.    |   1584.    ||
  |            |            |            |            |   Orange   ||
  |            |            |            |            |  assass.   ||
  |            |            |            |            |            ||
  |            |            |            |            |            ||
  +------------+------------+------------+------------+------------++
  |   1590.    |   1591.    |   1592.    |   1593.    |   1594.    ||
  |  _Faerie_  |            |            |Shakspere’s | Hooker’s   ||
  |  _Queene_, |            |            |  Poems.    | _Eccles_.  ||
  |  3 books.  |            |            |            | _Polity_.  ||
  |            |            |            |            |            ||
  +------------+------------+------------+------------+------------++

  ++------------+------------+------------+------------+------------+
  ||   1555.    |    1556.   |   1557.    |   1558.    |   1559.    |
  ||  Persecu-  |   Cranmer. |            | Elizabeth. | Francis II.|
  ||  tions.    |            |            |Ferdinand I.|            |
  ||            |            |            |            |            |
  ++------------+------------+-------+----+------------+------------+
  ||   1565.    |    1566.   |   1567.    |   1568.    |   1569.    |
  ||            |            |            |            |            |
  ||            |            |            |            |            |
  ||            |            |            |            |            |
  ++------------+------------+-------+----+------------+------------+
  ||   1575.    |    1576.   |   1577.    |   1578.    |   1579.    |
  ||            | Rudolph II.|            |            |            |
  ||            |            |            |            |            |
  ||            |            |            |            |            |
  ++------------+------------+------------+------------+------------+
  ||   1585.    |    1586.   |   1587.    |   1588.    |   1589.    |
  ||            |            |   Mary     |  Armada.   | Henry IV.  |
  ||            |            | Queen of   |            |            |
  ||            |            |  Scots     |            |            |
  ||            |            | beheaded.  |            |            |
  ++------------+------------+-------+----+------------+------------+
  ||   1595.    |    1596.   |   1597.    |   1598.    |   1599.    |
  ||            |            |  Bacon’s   | Edict of   |            |
  ||            |            |  Essays.   |  Nantes.   |            |
  ||            |            |Shakspere’s |            |            |
  ||            |            |first Play. |            |            |
  ++------------+------------+------------+------------+------------+

In the charts I have published,[20] I have given only English kings;
when these are fixed in the memory, events of general history can be
gradually introduced, and paper ruled on any scale required.

  [20] _Students’ Chronological Maps_ (Bell & Sons, 3s. 6d.).

If the chart is studied as a whole, either in reference to English or
modern history, it is convenient to divide it into four periods, of
five hundred years each, corresponding to four lines in the chart, and
to characterise each century. Then on a larger scale, for which we have
sheets of paper ruled, we put in gradually certain landmarks, whilst
giving lessons on modern history, such matters being written in as the
teacher directs. The writer’s text-book of English and general history,
in which are given the sovereigns of the principal European countries,
notable persons and events, etc., can be used for lessons in connection
with the chart.[21]

  [21] For more complete lists of sovereigns and a selection of the
  more important dates, Beale’s _Student Text-book of English and
  Modern History_ may be referred to, and _Students’ Chronological
  Maps_ (Bell & Sons).

I subjoin a syllabus of a course of lessons on modern history:--

  +------------+------------+------------+------------+------------+
  |    1st     |     2nd    |     3rd    |     4th    |     5th    |
  |Christianity|    Good    |  Military  |Constantine |Fall of Rome|
  |            |  Emperors  | Despotism  |            |            |
  +------------+------------+------------+------------+------------+
  |    6th     |     7th    |     8th    |     9th    |    10th    |
  | Barbaric   |   Mahomet  | Charlemagne|   Alfred   |  Feudalism |
  |   Wars     |            |            |            |            |
  +------------+------------+------------+------------+------------+
  |   11th     |    12th    |    13th    |    14th    |    15th    |
  |Hildebrand  |  Crusades  |  Schoolmen |  Rise of   | Renaissance|
  |            |            |            |Middle-class|            |
  +------------+------------+------------+------------+------------+
  |   16th     |    17th    |    18th    |    19th    |    20th    |
  |Reformation | Religious  | Political  | Revolution |            |
  |            |    Wars    |    Wars    |            |            |
  +------------+------------+------------+------------+------------+

I.--In the first century we see Rome at the height of prosperity,
victorious on all sides. During the second, she maintains her position
fairly under the good emperors. The third is a period of trouble and
confusion, the empire is struggling for existence. In the fourth, the
firm government of Constantine maintained, for a short time after
his accession, comparative peace; but the removal of the seat of
government, and the subsequent division of the empire, facilitated
the barbaric triumphs of Radagaisus, Alaric, Attila and Genseric in
the fifth; and before its close, the Western empire had fallen, and
Theodoric the Ostrogoth was king of Italy. This line embraces in
Britain the 400 years of the Roman occupation, and a small portion of
the Anglo-Saxon period.

II.--In the second line we have the period of barbarian
settlements--tribes are changing into nations. The Anglo-Saxon
invasions, the unceasing contests amongst the numerous petty kings,
have terminated, by the middle of the tenth century, in the union of
the country under Athelstane, the first who can properly be called King
of all England. In France we have the union of the Franks under Clovis,
the constant civil wars, interminable divisions, and _fainéant_ kings
of the Merovingian period, the union of the country under Charlemagne,
the renewed civil strife, subdivisions, and _fainéant_ kings of the
Carlovingian line, and the accession of the third, or Capetian Dynasty.

In Germany, too, order is being developed out of confusion, and, in the
tenth century, the different nations have agreed to choose one king;
barriers are opposed to further invasion from without, free cities are
rising, feudalism is being rapidly developed, the spirit of chivalry is
felt, and the idea of a united Christendom, subject to the emperor as
temporal, to the pope as spiritual head, may be traced most distinctly
in the schemes of the Othos, and the attempt of Sylvester II. to rouse
the European nations for a crusade.

In Italy, so long a battlefield, the great republics are rising, and
the pope from time to time asserting his independence. In the East, in
Africa, in Spain, the Mahometan kingdoms have been established. During
so turbulent a period, we must expect to find many heroes, and from
these we may select Mahomet, Charlemagne and Alfred, as the central
figures of the seventh, eighth and ninth centuries.

III.---In the third line we have the formation of the states of modern
Europe. The great nations of the West are no longer isolated units,
for they have joined together in crusades against the East, they
acknowledge one head in the popes. The popes, mighty in the person
of Gregory VII. in the eleventh century, in Innocent III. in the
thirteenth, have sunk to the lowest depths of ignominy in the person of
Alexander VI. The Albigenses are almost exterminated in the thirteenth,
but Wickliffe has preached in the fourteenth. Huss and Jerome of Prague
have been martyred at Constance early in the fifteenth, but Luther
has begun to study the Scriptures. The middle classes, too, have been
growing in importance, citizens have triumphed over warriors. The power
of a turbulent chivalry has been destroyed by civil wars, the people
have risen to power. The invention of gunpowder has changed the aspect
of war, and the introduction of printing brought about a vast change
in education; great writers, as Chaucer and Dante, are beginning to
produce their works in the vulgar tongue. America has, at the close of
the period, been just discovered.

IV.--In the last line we have a period marked first by struggles
for religious, afterwards for political liberty, the long religious
wars of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. The oppression of the
aristocratic and papal powers during the preceding period led, in
some instances, to the exaggeration of the monarchical authority, and
to this are opposed the revolutions of the seventeenth, eighteenth
and nineteenth centuries, which have in some instances produced a
reaction in favour of despotism. The discovery of America has given
an extraordinary impulse to naval enterprise, to colonisation and
commerce; this, together with the diffusion of knowledge by printing,
has greatly stimulated intellectual activity, and the mathematical and
philosophical studies of the sixteenth century have prepared the way
for the practical triumphs of our own day.

Only a few leading dates have been marked in the published charts,
which are coloured for different periods, but these may be added to
indefinitely--sometimes by writing in additional signs or words to mark
contemporary sovereigns, etc., but it is better not to multiply these
too much; for many things no signs need be used, as persons and things
of minor importance will become associated in the memory with the more
important. Or again, suppose a special subject is taken up, as English
literature or the history of painting, the name of a leading author
or painter can be written across that portion of the century in which
his chief works appeared, and all who belong to his school of thought
will be easily remembered in connection with him. A chart of English
literature has been published on this plan by Baker, Clifton.

In the Chart of Ancient History, the numbers are read upwards and
backwards. Thus:--

  ++----+----+----+----+----++----+----+----+----+----++
  || 99 | 98 | 97 | 96 | 95 || 94 | 93 | 92 | 91 | 90 ||
  ++----+----+----+----+----++----+----+----+----+----++
  || 89 | 88 | 87 | 86 | 85 || 84 | 83 | 82 | 81 | 80 ||
  ++----+----+----+----+----++----+----+----+----+----++
  || 79 | 78 | 77 | 76 | 75 || 74 | 73 | 72 | 71 | 70 ||
  ++----+----+----+----+----++----+----+----+----+----++
  || 69 | 68 | 67 | 66 | 65 || 64 | 63 | 62 | 61 | 60 ||
  ++----+----+----+----+----++----+----+----+----+----++
  || 59 | 58 | 57 | 56 | 55 || 54 | 53 | 52 | 51 | 50 ||
  ++====+====+====+====+====++====+====+====+====+====++
  || 49 | 48 | 47 | 46 | 45 || 44 | 43 | 42 | 41 | 40 ||
  ++----+----+----+----+----++----+----+----+----+----++
  || 39 | 38 | 37 | 36 | 35 || 34 | 33 | 32 | 31 | 30 ||
  ++----+----+----+----+----++----+----+----+----+----++
  || 29 | 28 | 27 | 26 | 25 || 24 | 23 | 22 | 21 | 20 ||
  ++----+----+----+----+----++----+----+----+----+----++
  || 19 | 18 | 17 | 16 | 15 || 14 | 13 | 12 | 11 | 10 ||
  ++----+----+----+----+----++----+----+----+----+----++
  ||  9 |  8 |  7 |  6 |  5 ||  4 |  3 |  2 |  1 |  0 ||
  ++----+----+----+----+----++----+----+----+----+----++

We give, in conclusion, photographs of two charts prepared for the
Victorian Exhibition (1897) with a key.

The first gives the chief events of the Queen’s reign, the second the
chief scientific discoveries.

[Illustration]

KEY TO CHART No. I.

CHART OF THE QUEEN’S REIGN.

  1837. The Queen’s Accession. 1838. First Electric Telegraph.

  1840. Queen’s Marriage--Penny Postage. 1841. Birth of Prince of Wales.
        1842. Capture of Shanghai. 1846. Repeal of the Corn Laws. 1848.
        Death of Lord Melbourne--Chartist Revolt.

  1850. Death of Wordsworth and Sir Robert Peel. 1851. First Great
        Exhibition. 1852. Death of the Duke of Wellington. 1854. Crimean
        War. 1857. Indian Mutiny.

  1860. Death of Lord Aberdeen. 1861. Death of the Prince Consort. 1863.
        Prince of Wales’ Marriage. 1864. Birth of the Duke of Clarence.
        1865. Birth of the Duke of York--Death of Lord Palmerston. 1869.
        Death of Lord Derby.

  1871. Disestablishment of the Irish Church. 1876. Queen Proclaimed
        Empress of India. 1878. Death of Lord John Russell. 1879. Zulu
        War.

  1880. Lord Roberts’ Relief of Candahar. 1881. Death of Lord
        Beaconsfield. 1884. Soudan War. 1885. Death of Gordon--Bible
        Revised. 1887. Queen’s Jubilee. 1889. Death of Browning.

  1892. Death of Duke of Clarence. 1893. Marriage of Duke of York--Death
        of Tennyson--Home Rule Bill Rejected. 1894. Birth of Prince
        Edward. 1896. Jameson’s Raid. 1897. Queen’s Diamond Jubilee.

[Illustration]

KEY TO CHART No. II.

SHOWING PROGRESS IN SCIENCE DURING THE QUEEN’S REIGN.

  1837. First Telegraph. 1839. Photography--Daguerre.

  1841. Sewing Machine. 1842. Nasmyth’s Steam Hammer. 1843. Ross’
        Telescope. 1848. Planet Neptune Discovered. 1849. Joule’s
        _Mechanical Equivalent of Heat_--Anæsthetics.

  1851. The Great Exhibition. 1852. Ophthalmoscope. 1854. Armstrong Gun.
        1856. Tyndall’s Investigation of Glaciers. 1857. Atlantic Cable
        from Valentia to Newfoundland. 1858. The _Great Eastern_. 1859.
        Darwin, _Origin of Species_--Brunel’s Death.

  1860. Stellar Spectroscopy--Huggins. 1861. Aeronautic Experiments.
        1864. Clifton Suspension Bridge. 1865. Lister, Antiseptic
        Treatment. 1867. Death of Faraday. 1868. Suez Canal.

  1870. Torpedo. 1871. Huxley, _Anatomy of Vertebrates_. 1872. Daily
        Weather Chart first begun. 1876. _Challenger_ at
        Portsmouth--Bell’s Telephone. 1878. Electric Light on the
        Embankment. 1879. Phonograph.

  1880. Pasteur’s Cure of Hydrophobia. 1882. Sir W. Siemen’s Steel
        Process. 1885. Maxim Gun. 1888. Stellar Photography--Sir Isaac
        Roberts. 1889. Bicycles, The Pneumatic Tyre.

  1890. Forth Bridge. 1892. Tower Bridge. 1894. Argon, by Lord Rayleigh
        and Professor Ramsay. 1895. Röntgen Rays. 1896. Lord Kelvin’s
        Jubilee.


ECONOMICS FOR GIRLS.

By MARGARET BRIDGES.

[Changed attitude of public towards economics.]

Nothing strikes a student of economics more forcibly than the change
which has come over public opinion with regard to this subject during
the last few years. Until quite lately, it has been regarded, except by
scholars, with suspicion and dislike, accused of setting forth material
wealth as the supreme object of human desire, and of ignoring all that
is generous and disinterested in human nature. To-day things are very
different: indeed it might be said we are all economists now. Some
vestige, however, of the old prejudice still lingers in the minds of
those who ask: “What is the good of teaching economics to _Girls_?”

[Training given in accuracy.]

(1) The student of economics is trained to think exactly, to reason
closely, and to express herself clearly. No one surely would maintain
that such training is _less_ needed by girls than by boys. On the
contrary, we are often assured that women are less accurate than
men, and are constitutionally illogical. In any science, vagueness
of thought and looseness of expression are fatal to success, but the
student of economics has a peculiar difficulty to overcome, for he
finds no special vocabulary ready for his use. The terms used are for
the most part those familiar in everyday language, employed however in
a very definite and sometimes peculiar sense. Great care is needed in
distinguishing between the ordinary and the economic meaning of such
terms as utility, wealth, capital, value, and many others. And the
training in scientific precision of language thus given is no small
gain in these days of slip-shod English.

[Reasoning powers developed.]

(2) The study of economics tends to stimulate independent thought, and
to develop “mental muscle”. We take it for granted that the questions
set for home work require an application of the principles given,
and not a mere reproduction of notes. The girls _must_ think out the
problems for themselves, for, as they truly remark sometimes: “We
can’t find the answers in our books”. Political economy certainly does
not lend itself to cribbing or cramming--and we are thankful that our
text-books supply no ready-made solutions of problems.

[History rendered more interesting.]

(3) We find that the study of the industrial conditions of our country
gives an additional interest to history. To read it with economic eyes
is to read it afresh, whilst to study it _without_ them is to leave out
a very important factor.

[Interest shown by pupils in subject.]

[Diagrams supplied by pupils.]

[Illustrations drawn from daily life.]

(4) I would urge the great importance of giving our girls, especially
those engaged in philanthropic work, some knowledge of those economic
principles upon which such work must be based to do real good. We
have learnt that this is not easy, and that incalculable mischief may
be done by thoughtless benevolence, which is too often cruelty in
disguise. Mr. Loch, in speaking of charity organisation, has said:
“It is likely that we shall in the future draw our women secretaries
from the ranks of those who have taken the trouble to study political
economy”. Of course, there must be the training of the heart as well as
the head. Our theories, however perfect, will avail us little without
the sympathetic insight that love alone can give, but perhaps women
specially need to remember that sympathy itself must be guided by
reason. Still it may be asked: “Can political economy, dealing as it
does, for the most part, with dry abstractions, be made interesting to
girls?” My experience is, that in no branch of their studies are the
pupils more responsive or more ready to do their part of the work, and
indeed to give often more than is actually demanded. They particularly
enjoy the making of original diagrams (very original sometimes!),
and occasionally so elaborate as to cost the teacher some anxious
study. Much amusement may be got out of such seemingly unpromising
material as even the _Law of Diminishing Returns_ or Ricardo’s _Theory
of Rent_, when they are touched upon by an imaginative or artistic
girl. To past generations of pupils I owe many apt illustrations and
ingenious diagrams, which have been stored up for future use, because
they were much better than any I had thought of myself. I think our
lessons fail sometimes, because we work so hard ourselves, that we
leave our pupils nothing to do! Now in economics we are dealing to a
great extent with facts that are already familiar to them, so that we
can constantly appeal to their own experience and observation, and the
teacher will find that “interrogative lessons on the Socratic model”
are particularly suited to this subject. The daily newspapers will
furnish her with plenty of illustrations, and economic laws can be
shown to be working themselves out before our eyes. What better comment
on the Laws of Demand and Supply could we wish for than that supplied
by the recent “boom” and subsequent “slump” in the bicycle trade, or
the speculation in seats during the late Jubilee! The illustrations
furnished by the girls themselves, from their own experience, are
specially valuable. The daughters of Indian officers can testify to
the diminished purchasing power of the “vanishing rupee,” whilst Irish
girls are eloquent on the system of Land Tenure in their own country; a
banker’s daughter will supply us with skilfully forged bank notes and
bills of exchange, and on one occasion an Austrian pupil gave us some
interesting information on the working of the Metayer system abroad.

[Judicious use of text-books.]

[Economics as an examination subject.]

In teaching younger girls--say from fifteen to seventeen--a sparing
use should be made of text-books for home reading: paragraphs,
exemplifying or enlarging on the lesson given, may be selected,
but indiscriminate reading, for the average girl, at that age, is
pretty sure to result--as she will candidly tell you--in her getting
“hopelessly muddled”. Jevons’ _Primer of Political Economy_ is an
admirable introduction to the subject, but avowedly does not cover
the whole ground, and I regret to say that Professor Gonner’s very
helpful text-book is now out of print. To a great extent indeed the
teacher will find it necessary to form her own text-book, that is, to
collect her materials from many sources, and adapt them to the use
of her pupils. One feels in this, as in other subjects, that one
cannot hope to do much more, in the limited time at our disposal, than
awaken interest, and show what a wide field there is to be explored.
We are glad to know that the subject is often continued after school
days are over. Many of our pupils are preparing for the Senior Oxford
Examination, but economic lessons are given in non-examination classes
as well.

Some take up the subject again later for the Cambridge Higher Local,
and have to make themselves acquainted with Adam Smith, J. S. Mill,
and a host of more modern writers, hardly any of whom could have been
placed in their hands with advantage at an earlier age, although they
will unconsciously have imbibed much of their teaching and will find
that their year’s training in elementary economics will have helped
them a long way on their road.

[Ethical considerations. Enlarged sympathies.]

In conclusion, we would advocate the study of economics for girls,
because we believe that it helps them to live in a larger world, and to
take a more intelligent interest in the lives of those around them.

[Wealth an element in well-being.]

The “sordid science” is lifted into a higher plane when we regard it as
“a part of the study of man”--and look on wealth as a means to an end,
not an end in itself--valuable only so far as it facilitates a “growth
towards that higher and purer condition of society, for which alone we
care to strive”.


APPENDIX.

  I give a few extracts from papers received from old pupils, in answer
  to the request that they would say, quite simply and unofficially,
  what benefits they had derived from a course of economic study.

  “I think that learning economics has helped me to take a more
  intelligent interest in everyday matters.”

  “I consider I have benefited more by that subject than by any other.
  There are so many subjects you can take an interest in _if_ you
  understand economics, that if you do not, would appeal to you in no
  way whatever.”

  “It helps us to understand some of the most important subjects of the
  day, and gives us a clearer idea of the difficulties of the poor--and
  shows us the best way of helping them.”

  “The human sympathies cannot fail to be awakened, and narrow-minded
  and selfish views cannot long be entertained. Economics often shows
  the best methods in the relief of our less fortunate brothers and
  sisters.”

  “Living as I do, in Ireland, the study of this subject has widened
  my interests greatly. Now I can more fully understand the problem of
  landlord and tenant.”

  “Besides economics being useful, it is also very interesting.”

  “It tends to make one speak more exactly and to keep to the point.”

  Many more answers to the same effect might be given, but these
  are perhaps enough to show that the study of economics is neither
  uninteresting nor unpractical.


ENGLISH LITERATURE.

By AMY LUMBY.

[The general aim and method of the teacher.]

“All spirits upon which poetry falls,” says Shelley, “open themselves
to receive the wisdom which is mingled with its delight.” To remember
these words will help the teacher of literature to bear in mind her
double aim--to inspire delight and at the same time to impart wisdom.
It is impossible to lay down rules for accomplishing this aim, but we
may trace out a few principles by which to guide our course. Literature
appeals to the imagination, the faculty of the mind in which emotion
and intellect join, and a literature lesson should combine the two
elements of feeling and thought. Poetry needs to be enjoyed if it is
to be understood, for it is the expression, not of facts which can be
demonstrated, but of truth which can only be recognised by those who
care for it. So the first aim of the teacher must be to make her class
enjoy what they read. Dulness is a bad fault in any teacher; in the
teacher of literature it is high treason. No one ought to teach the
subject unless she thoroughly enjoys it herself and can communicate
her enjoyment. But in trying to inspire delight in her pupils, she
must be on her guard against the mental indolence of children who ask
only to be amused. In this age of trivial literature and comic papers
young people are apt to be impatient of serious reading, to find the
_Faerie Queene_ dull and the _Pilgrim’s Progress_ slow, but the teacher
must persevere in presenting to them as attractively as may be the very
best they are capable of relishing at all, and after a while a better
taste will destroy all desire for the worthless rubbish they once found
pleasure in.

When once the teacher has roused real enjoyment in her class, her part
becomes merely that of the interpreter. She must see to it that her
pupils understand the words they read, realise the images that are
called up before them, and follow as closely as they can the thoughts
that are presented to them. The subject does the rest. For the power
of intercourse with great and good thoughts is such that it enlarges
and lifts the mind insensibly to better things. If the spirit is but
rendered sensitive to poetry, wisdom enters hand in hand with delight.
We can give no rules for producing this effect. The power to do it
is the special gift required in the teacher of literature. She must
possess the faculty of kindling and stirring thought and feeling to
respond to the thought and feeling presented to them. Without this she
will never make her pupils feel anything of what poetry can teach. In
no subject does the mental attitude and the mental furniture of the
teacher matter so much.

[The earliest stage--the reading lesson.]

Assuming then a thorough enjoyment and appreciation of the subject,
we will consider a little more in detail the method in which it may
be treated in one or two typical cases. To begin with the simplest
form of literature--the reading lesson--we will suppose that we have
to read a poem, say “The Wreck of the _Hesperus_,” with a class of
young children. We shall have in our own minds a clear conception of
the qualities which make this one of the finest of modern ballads--the
extreme simplicity of the theme, the vigour and breadth of the
treatment, the pathos of the little human tragedy set against the
great background of Nature in storm and tumult. But we shall not
burden the children’s minds with this information; with a very few
words of preface to prepare them for what they are to expect, we shall
first read the whole poem through to them. The reading is a very
important point, for on this depends to a large extent the enjoyment
they will have in the poem. A harsh voice or a dull delivery is fatal
to pleasure; and monotonous reading fails to convey the point of the
story, and to suggest the atmosphere of the poem. Every teacher of
literature should be a trained reader.

The poem must next be taken verse by verse; the meaning of difficult or
unusual expressions, such as “veering flaw,” “lashed to the helm,” “she
stove and sank,” should be explained, while those that are peculiarly
apt should be noted with appreciation; for instance, “_fairy_ flax,”
“a _whooping_ billow,” the vessel “_swept_” towards the reef, and many
others. At the same time the class must be made to see the pictures
suggested, as they rise: the wintry sea, the skipper beside the helm,
the child lashed to the mast, the frozen ship rushing headlong to her
doom. And lastly, the whole drift and significance of the poem must be
kept before their minds by making them realise the situation; the happy
child so suddenly overwhelmed, helpless and at first bewildered, then
as calamities thicken, turning for help to prayer; hurried on with the
doomed vessel through night and storm, and sharing its fate among the
exultant breakers. And they should feel the calm of the close and the
survival of the human interest beyond the short-lived triumph of the
sea. Of course it will not be possible at first to make young children
feel all the force of a poem like this, but our aim must be to rouse
their imaginations by bringing the picture it presents vividly before
them, so that they gradually become more and more sensitive to the
stimulus of poetry.

[The second stage--the detailed study of one of Shakspere’s plays, or
some other work in detail.]

A course of reading lessons, graduated in difficulty from the simple
ballad to such poems as “The Forsaken Merman,” “Tithonus,” and the
“Ode to Duty,” will lead up to the next stage, the reading of a play
of Shakspere. Here we must cling very closely to our principle of
the importance of enjoyment. Very few people who have read their
first play at school are happy enough to have enjoyed it. And why is
this? Because a mistaken ideal has been before the teacher’s mind,
and a mistaken method has been used to attain it. Careful study and
exact understanding of the language of Shakspere is almost a liberal
education in itself; but it is not always borne in mind that the
understanding of the language is but a means to an end, and that
notes, whether philological or historical, are of value only when
they really throw light on the meaning of the text. It is worse than
useless to burden the memories of children with derivations of words
from languages with which they are absolutely unacquainted. When the
original or root-meaning of a word is really worth knowing, and a
knowledge of it tends to a more accurate use of the word, then it
should be learnt, but to make children learn Saxon or Welsh or Sanskrit
words simply because an English word is akin to them is a waste of time
and power, and this explaining of the vaguely understood by the totally
unknown is a subversion of all educational methods. The teacher should
exercise a wise discretion in the use of notes, and not disgust her
class with Shakspere altogether, as is too often done, by forcing upon
the children a mass of dry information which overloads their memories
without bringing a ray of illumination with it.

Some care will be needed with young children reading their first play
to see that they can really follow the story of it. The dramatic form
is puzzling to them; the absence of descriptive matter, together with
the constant change of scene, is apt to bewilder them, and it may be
necessary to read the story to them in Lamb’s _Tales from Shakspere_,
or some such form, before we launch into the play itself. With older
pupils this will not be required. With them the kind of preparation we
should give would be rather a very simple talk about those moral laws
of which Shakspere is the inspired teacher. Children of sixteen years
of age, or thereabouts, are easily interested in problems of character,
and it is well to explain to them something of what we understand by
character and how it may be built up or undermined, rousing their
consciousness to realise what their own moral experience has been,
so that they look into themselves for confirmation of the facts with
which the plays deal. Having done this, however, we must avoid tacking
any specific “moral” to a play. Shakspere teaches, like life, by
indirection, and we have to consider his plays as pictures of life, not
as tracts against particular vices.

In bringing before a class the characters of a play, we should first
form a clear conception of them ourselves. Shakspere’s people are
so complex that many different views can be taken of them, and no
thoughtful estimate is without its value. But it is most important that
no statement about a character should be unsupported by evidence from
the text. Adherence to this rule will save the teacher from making
fancy sketches of her own, and will also make her shun those little
text-books which give catalogues of qualities attached to each name,
bringing no image whatever before the mind, and destroying all true
realisation of the character. We should not be satisfied until we have
made the chief characters in the play we are reading so real to our
children that they would recognise them if they met them in the street.

When we have clearly realised the characters we shall be able to see
the drift and the force of the play, and to show our children how
the persons develop and change under the stress of circumstances and
according to the absolute decrees of the moral law. To convey this
teaching, all steeped in poetry of the richest kind, should be the
purpose of a Shakspere lesson; and the notes that are learnt should be
subordinate to that end. Our work must not be less thorough than it
usually is at present, but it may well be less pedantic.

The reading of a play usually takes up a course of lessons, so that
it is impossible in this space to give notes on any particular one,
but the same principles which guided us in our treatment of a simple
ballad will hold good here, and in the study of such longer poems
as may be chosen for the reading of our class. Here as there we must
first secure clear understanding of the language, then we must realise
the images called up by it, and lastly yield ourselves in intelligent
self-surrender to the poet’s thought, not obtruding our own personality
but letting him lead us where he will, feeling ourselves, and teaching
our class to feel, a deep reverence for what he has to say to us.

The reading of prose may be treated in much the same way, bearing in
mind the fact that the emotional element is less marked in prose, the
appeal being rather to reason than to feeling. Such prose as has become
a part of literature is, however, largely imaginative, and we have to
teach the children not only to follow closely a train of reasoning
and to criticise it, if need be, but also to appreciate the means by
which the writer makes his thought vivid to us, what figures he uses,
what light he flashes upon his subject. Some of Macaulay’s _Essays_,
Addison’s _Essays_, _Rasselas_, and similar works may well be read at
this stage for the sake of the training they give in the right use of
language, the first element of literary cultivation.

[The most advanced stage--the study of the history of literature.]

The teaching of a period of the history of literature is a matter
on which only broad general principles can be laid down. Children
of fourteen to sixteen can hardly be expected to realise clearly
differences in style or treatment, or to be able to write criticisms
on the poets of the period. With them, it will be best to make them
acquainted with the lives of the chief writers, as far as may be
necessary, and then to let them read as much as they can of their
works. We can teach them to love choice expressions, to recognise
beauty of thought, to appreciate true imagination. They may not be
able to say why they like these things, but they need not like them
the less for that. With older pupils, capable of taking in general
ideas as to the drift of thought in any particular age, the period to
be studied should be set against its historic background, the first
lessons being devoted to discussion of the stage of cultivation reached
at the time, and the influences which had tended to produce it. For
instance, a course on the Elizabethan period would require introductory
lessons on the Renaissance as it affected England, on the Reformation
in its bearing on education and freedom of thought, on the discovery
of America and the spirit of adventure connected with it, and on the
social and political conditions of the times. With clear conceptions on
these points to start from, it will be easy to follow the art movement
in poetry during the period, the growth of the drama, the development
of prose writing in its various branches, and the students will be
in possession of information which will help them to understand why
Spenser, Shakspere, Bacon and our Authorised Version belong to that
age and to no other. Then the chief authors should be read as far as
possible at first hand, and the very cheap editions which are published
of all our classics make it easy for the class to come provided with
their own books. It will not be possible to read many of the longer
works through with the class, but selection can be made of the choicest
passages, and these can be linked together by a short analysis of the
rest.

During this stage the sense of style should be carefully cultivated.
Differences in style may be shown by comparing examples of the
treatment of similar themes by different writers; for instance, in
poetry, “Lycidas,” Gray’s “Elegy,” Adonaïs, and Thyrsis, might be
studied with this aim, while in prose, selected essays of Bacon,
Cowley, Addison and Lamb might be used in the same way. Taste must also
be trained, and it should be made as catholic as possible; each author
should be enjoyed for his own special excellence, Dryden for his vigour
and common-sense, no less than Sir Thomas Browne for his “moth-like
flitting” in intellectual twilight.

A suggestion for reading-courses adapted for girls of different ages
is subjoined. It is not, and could not be, in any sense complete, but
it may serve to help those who have not yet had much experience to
estimate the character and scope of the reading that may be expected
from children of various ages. Except in the case of the youngest
children, the choice of books has been made so as to include prose and
poetry of different epochs, and thus make the intellectual outlook
wider than it could be if the reading were restricted to the works of
one particular age. A girl who had read through the books mentioned
in this course, or any drawn up on similar lines, would have a fair
all-round acquaintance with the best kind of literature by the time she
was eighteen.

   Age.
  10-12. _1st year._ Macaulay’s “Lays”; “Marmion”; Kingsley’s “Heroes”;
                     Keary’s “Heroes of Asgard”.

         _2nd year._ “Evangeline” and “Hiawatha”; “Enoch Arden”;
                     “Ancient Mariner”; Lamb’s “Tales from Shakspere”;
                     “Ivanhoe”.

  12-14. _1st year._ “Midsummer Night’s Dream”; “Lady of the Lake”;
                     “Deserted Village”; “Gulliver’s Travels”;
                     “Kenilworth”.

         _2nd year._ “Merchant of Venice”; “Childe Harold”; “Morte
                     d’Arthur”; “Vicar of Wakefield”; Essays from the
                     “Spectator”.

  14-16. _1st year._ “As You Like It”; “Henry V.”; Gray’s “Elegy”; “The
                     Princess”; “Esmond”; some of the “Essays of Elia”.

         _2nd year._ “Faerie Queene,” book i.; “Julius Cæsar”; Milton’s
                     “Minor Poems”; Macaulay’s Essays on “Clive” and on
                     “Mme. d’Arblay”; Ruskin’s “Sesame and Lilies”.

  16-18. _1st year._ “Macbeth”; “Paradise Lost,” books i. and ii.; “The
                     Holy Grail”; “Areopagitica”; Burke’s “Speeches on
                     America”.

         _2nd year._ “Hamlet”; “Essay on Man”; “Selections from
                     Wordsworth”; Bacon’s “Essays”; “Rasselas”; Carlyle,
                     “The Hero as Poet and the Hero as Man of Letters”.


PHILOSOPHY AND RELIGION.

By DOROTHEA BEALE.

The third division of Part I. has to do with man as subject, a person,
self-conscious, related to other persons and to One All-embracing
Personality in whom all live and move and have their being. I am to
treat the subject from an intellectual point of view--religion, ethics,
philosophy.

[Sphere of school instruction.]

No school, and especially no day-school for girls, is responsible for
the whole of the religious education. The school is the link between
infancy and mature life, between the home and the world, the secular
and the spiritual. The school has to systematise instruction, and bring
it to bear on the daily tasks, on the social life, on the developing
character; to make the secular and religious life one organic whole.

We have to teach our pupils, so that they may _know_ the truth, _feel_
nobly, and hence _act_ rightly. We have to cultivate the power of
thought by instruction, to purify the emotions by the teachings of
history and poetry including the Bible and the utterances of heroic and
saintly lives, to strengthen the character by the discipline of the
mind, heart, will.

[Relation of dogmatics to ethics.]

Emotion and action must be the expression of an intelligent belief. “He
that cometh to God must believe that He is, and that He is a rewarder
of them that seek Him.” We ought to offer the noblest gifts we can--a
“reasonable service,” a devotion of heart, which rests upon the truest
conception we can form; in the highest of all subjects there should
be that clearness of apprehension, that strong conviction, which is
necessary, if any truth is to become a practical power. We are so made
that we must, if we think at all, theorise, and our acts will depend
on our theories; no student of history can doubt this. Our sanitarians
have found that we may teach the poor about the value of cleanliness
and fresh air, but not until they understand the breathing functions do
they act upon it.

So in deeper things, it is ideas that govern the world. When the
Apostle would teach the most practical truths of family life and social
virtue, he began with the great doctrines of the indwelling Divine
life, of our brotherhood in Christ, of our citizenship in a spiritual
Kingdom, extending far beyond the regions of sense. We must found
Christian teaching upon definite beliefs accepted and felt to be true
by the highest reason. We must not be satisfied with cultivating the
affections only. There must be something more than an “enthusiasm of
humanity,” something which can embrace and fulfil it, else it will
blaze up like a bonfire, but soon die down, smothered under the ashes
of pessimism. None of our faculties can be isolated from the others;
each acts and reacts on each, the thought stimulating emotion, emotions
quickening thought, and the life acting and reacting upon both. Ethics
springs from dogmatics.

What do we mean by religion? Our age has been fertile in definitions.
May we not say it is the power by which we enter into conscious
_personal_ relation with the One, the Eternal, the Father of all?

[Religion as related to science and philosophy.]

Though it may be truly said that all knowledge of Nature is knowledge
of God, we feel that there is a difference between the teaching of
science and the teaching of religion--a distinction between the
knowledge of a thing, or an act, which we may know objectively, and the
knowledge of a person whom we know subjectively. We might know all the
movements of a machine, but we never speak of knowing a machine. It is
possible to know the works of God, and not know Him. It is personal
sympathetic knowledge which is the chief factor in the education of
character--the humanities are educative in a different sense from
mathematics and natural science. It is this personal relation to God
with which religious teaching has to do; its true end is to draw us
into sympathy with the All-Good.

Two things I would here insist on which are sometimes overlooked. 1st.
The child knows persons before things, and in the earliest exercises of
will-power, it is the will of another that rules his will. 2nd. Through
obedience to the higher intelligence, and trust in the love of another,
the child is enabled to acquire right habits.

Fröbel’s religious teaching is very beautiful, but he brings out less
clearly than Rosmini the priority of the personal; if Nature speaks
to a child of the All-Father, it is because he knows that all has to
come to him through persons, it is only much later that forces can
be hypostatised, and power, justice, spoken of apart from a person;
though this is, as Lotze has specially insisted, as inconceivable as is
quality without substance--attribute without subject.

[Piety in its double sense.]

First in the old sense of the word the child “worships” his parents
and those to whom he looks up, he is miserable when he feels the
displeasure of those with whom he is in sympathy, and their approbation
is the sunshine of his soul; thus is he early led to think of the
Father, to whom he and his parents owe all things, to whom they speak
in prayer and whose unseen presence they feel.

Hymns then and prayers, which express the feelings of a child to
a father, or the love to Jesus, and the desire to be like Him,
are suitable; such as give rather the consciousness of a penitent
reprobate, are sometimes heard at children’s missions, to the great
sorrow of those who know how dangerous it is to play with the emotions
and to excite terrors.

[Consciousness and self-consciousness.]

We must consider first that the conscious life is only gradually
developed; perceptions must become apperceptions by the controlling
power of attention; very gradual is the dawn of consciousness, marked
as Rosmini thinks by the first smile. So too there is an epoch at which
self-consciousness seems to awaken. Maurice and other philosophers have
marked the dawn of it by the use of the personal pronoun.

    The baby new to earth and sky,
        What time his tender palm is prest
        Against the circle of the breast,
    Has never thought that “this is I”:

    But as he grows he gathers much,
        And learns the use of “I” and “me,”
        And finds “I am not what I see,
    And other than the things I touch”.

    So rounds he to a separate mind
        From whence clear memory may begin,
        As thro’ the frame that binds him in
    His isolation grows defined.

Then, as in teaching science or language we first awaken the powers of
observation, and lead the child to reflect, so here, in the case of the
self-conscious subject, we help the child to interpret the facts of the
inner life as well as the outer.

Whilst recognising the danger of forcing the subjective in children, we
ought in this, as in other things, to follow the guidance of nature,
and surely our own experience, and that of most children, will show how
much they are occupied with their own feelings, with the struggles of
the higher to subdue the animal nature, and how through contest they
are developing the will-power, which is the only safeguard of later
life.

It is especially important early to correlate the subjective with the
objective in early teaching. Surely much irreligion results in later
life from the divorce of the two. As we guide the observing powers in
the outward life, so as the power of reflection develops we should do
with the inward life: the child is conscious of the pang which comes
to all of us, when we act against conscience: that pang which makes
our blood run cold, as we feel we have done wrong, is as much a fact
of experience, as real, as the sensation of heat, when we touch hot
iron. Would people grow up to deny the existence of the spiritual
consciousness, if they had been led to question their own experience? A
beautiful story is told by Parker and quoted by Armstrong.[22]

  [22] _Man’s Knowledge of God._ Swift.

[Conscience.]

“When a little boy in my fourth year, my father took me to the farm
and sent me home alone. I had to pass a pond. A rhodora attracted my
attention. I saw a spotted tortoise sunning himself in the shallow
water at the root of the flaming shrub. I lifted the stick I had, to
strike; though I had never killed any creature, I had seen boys destroy
birds, squirrels and the like, and felt a disposition to follow their
wicked example. All at once something checked my little arm, and a
voice within said clear and loud, ‘It is wrong’. I held my uplifted
stick in wonder at the new emotion, the consciousness of an involuntary
but inward check upon my action, till the tortoise and rhodora both
vanished from my sight. I hastened home to mother and asked what it was
that told me it was wrong. Taking me in her arms, she said: ‘Some men
call it conscience, but I prefer to call it the voice of God. If you
listen and obey it, it will speak clearer and clearer, but if you turn
a deaf ear, it will at last leave you in the dark without a guide: your
life depends on your obedience to its voice.’ No event in my life has
made so deep and lasting an impression.”

[A witness for the spiritual, the universal.]

The fact that we cannot get rid of the consciousness of wrong, shows
that there is a higher Self condemning the self, one other than
ourselves; we must not force answers on the child, but we can bring
into his consciousness the presence of the holy and righteous God.
We may help to make clear and permanent in his consciousness the
facts, which he will only later interpret--the conflict of the merely
individual, the selfish life, with the larger, the all-embracing life
of unselfish love.

We may appeal too to the experience of each child, who suffers
punishment rather than disobey conscience. Such victories establish
faith, convince us that we are more than creatures of time, that we
are sons of God. Every true and self-denying act that a child is able
to do is a ground of confidence; “I write unto you, young men, because
ye have overcome the wicked one”. Each time that the mere animal
desires are subdued by the love of truth and righteousness, we prove
that we transcend the things of time and space. These are the eternal
things, which eye sees not and thought cannot conceive, and yet for the
sake of these unseen and eternal things men live and die, and count
all earthly things as nought. Do not the hearts of all children “burn
within them” as we expound to them the Scriptures which tell of heroes
who have done battle, who laid down their lives for righteousness’
sake, of Him who triumphed from the Cross? We can appeal too to the
inward experience of those who are naughty; they do not in their inmost
heart wish to be so, but they try and fail; nothing is more touching
than the penitence of children, when they find that we have seen the
good which is hidden, and not only the evil that comes forth--that
we know, not only what is done, but what is resisted. We can, as in
the old myths, show that their deliberate choice is not for selfish
pleasure; they would if offered the things most delightful to the mere
animal, refuse all, if they could have it only on condition of becoming
wicked and cruel and deceitful. Hauff’s _Cold Heart_ is a beautiful
story on the subject. Thus should we base healthy religious experiences
upon facts, and foster habits of attention and obedience to the inward
voice.

Right ambitions too should be fostered, the desire to enter into the
Divine purposes in thought and word and deed, to be a fellow-worker
with God. This will take more definite form in the later idealising
period of life; still there will be developed sometimes at an early age
earnest desires to become wise and good and to do some special work.

[Order of teaching.]

For objective formal teaching the little ones would begin with the
stories of the world’s childhood. The lessons first given in a simple
form will be expanded in the higher classes. The child who has learned
to trust his father, will learn from Abraham’s sacrifice that we can
trust God; the higher classes will see how by the frustration of his
purpose Abraham learned the true meaning of sacrifice; the Psalms and
Prophets will carry on the subjective teaching, and the words of the
old prophets will become a fact of experience; “the word of the Lord
came unto me”.

The inner meaning of the sacred myths which had once been told as a
mere story will now be felt; the story of the flood as interpreted by
St. Peter, and quoted in our baptismal service, the deliverance from
the bondage in Egypt, typifying redemption from the slavery of sin,
the New Testament teaching of the synoptical gospels, especially the
parables, will have supreme educative power.

[Written work.]

It is essential that in this, as in other subjects, written exercises
which require thought be set, and corrected and criticised--this is
often the only subject in which pupils are not required to formulate
their thoughts--hence there exists a vast amount of current religious
phraseology to which no definite meaning is assigned; the words may be
true in themselves, but not true for the person using them. An American
writer tells of one who for years was a regular attendant at church,
and often encouraged him by her attentive and responsive expression;
when he came to know her later, he found to his surprise that she was
as ignorant of the fundamental truths as if she had been brought up in
a heathen land.

[Sceptical phases.]

The later period, that of ripening experience, of adolescence, will
give the maximum of reflective, as the earliest childhood, the maximum
of the sensitive power. As the mysteries of their own being are more
and more unfolded, the problems of philosophy and metaphysics have
an attraction which should not be disregarded: there is a desire to
be alone; the young feel that they must work out the problems for
themselves, and they resent the attempt to force on them other people’s
solutions. They must question ere they can fully believe; we must never
give utterance to the profane idea, that God is angry with those who
make mistakes in seeking truth, only show that truth like light is a
good, that we may not rest in an indolent agnosticism, for we cannot
grow vigorous and strong out of the sunlight; we must encourage them,
in this as in all studies, to be ever seeking a fuller knowledge of
truth, to live by the truth they have attained, and then they will gain
more and more, even through the mistakes. The function of the teacher
now is as Socrates described it, to be ready to give help, when needed,
to bring to the birth the great thoughts which oppress the soul.

[Need of leisure.]

Later the deep spiritual experiences of St. John and the arguments
wherewith St. Paul convinced himself, will come home to the religious
experience at least in some degree, and the words in which he describes
the vision of God as seen from the spiritual heights, which he had
reached in his later epistles. But there must be for the ripening of
the character time for quiet, and the incessant activities of to-day,
the filling up of every hour, the deprivation of quiet even on Sunday,
are much to be regretted, and all educators should see that those who
need time for spiritual thought, for working out the great questions
which come to every thoughtful person, should not be deprived of it,
because some would misuse it. There are two excellent articles in the
_Pedagogical Review_ for July, 1891, on the “Psychology and Pedagogy
of Adolescence,” by E. Lancaster, and another, a study in “Moral
Education,” by J. Street, both Fellows of Clark University; the second
article is especially emphatic on this subject.

[Systematic reading.]

In the highest classes, some systematic reading regarding the history
and foundations of philosophy in general and Christian philosophy in
particular should not, I think, be omitted: one cannot do better than
begin with Plato; taking the _Apology_, the _Crito_ and parts of the
_Phædo_, or the two volumes of selections by Professor Jowett, or some
less expensive edition. The _Memorabilia_ of Xenophon is obtainable
for 3d. Selections might be made from Aristotle’s _Ethics_, and some
good history of philosophy be made accessible, _e.g._, Schwegler’s,
edited by Dr. Hutchinson Stirling, which is not too long; and some
such inspiring book as Fichte’s _Vocation of the Scholar_ may be
recommended; other books I might mention, _e.g._, Henry Jones on
Browning; Professor Frazer’s selection from Berkeley; Mackenzie’s
_Social Philosophy_ and the series of small hand-books edited by
Professor Knight. There might be meetings for discussion and reading
under the presidency of one versed in such matters; this would give
definiteness to thought, and would at least lead to the kind of wisdom
which made the oracle pronounce Socrates the wisest of men; such
meetings would be specially useful for the staff. Some effort should be
made to establish the primary convictions which alone make life worth
living, enable one to possess one’s soul in patience, live in the faith
that each is working out the will of the All-Wise and All-Good--if
willingly, then with the fullest joy and reward.

[Higher teaching.]

The subject is not ignored at the University Colleges of the States,
and there is much of deep interest in the article to which I have
referred, _viz._, “Psychology of Adolescence”. In an article by Caswell
Ellis, the special training of teachers of religion is insisted on, and
the establishment of professorships. “A department of pedagogy cannot
be called complete that does not deal with this important part of its
field. Religious training is as much a problem for the pedagogue, as is
physical or mental training. Surely we cannot entirely separate them.
We have already at our command in the Universities, many helps in the
study of the Bible, of theology, of philosophy, of psychology, etc.;
why cannot there be found some man of broad culture, wide sympathies,
reverent spirit, to focalise these in a chair of religious pedagogy,
or whatever it may be called? it would give the opportunity while
in college to look at the larger phases of the problem of religious
training. No subject is more vital, and our best men need not leave
college ignorant of the problem or the possibility of its solution--and
find in the decline of life that (as editors, preachers, etc.) they
have been spending their energies on reformation, while the great work
of formation was never considered.”

[Foundations of faith.]

The means of giving a thorough and systematic teaching regarding
the strong foundations of faith, is one that should be considered
by all educators. It is true that the emotions and affections are,
as in the case of all personal relations, the appropriate means of
intercommunion; but the religious life, if it is not to become weak and
sentimental, needs the bracing power of intellectual study, and the
Scriptures, especially the writings of St. John and St. Paul, afford
such exercise.

I may perhaps summarise the lines on which the grounds of a rational
faith seem to be established, and which should surely be formulated,
as we formulate the principles on which we base our faith in matters
of science. They may be arranged under two heads--objective and
subjective:--

1. Sense compels us to recognise the existence of a universe, to which
we can set no bounds of _space_ or _time_. We find everywhere at work
forces adapted to produce results immeasurably greater, yet similar in
character, to those produced by our own exercise of thought and will;
we are unable to conceive of either except as ultimately proceeding
from a personal mind and will.

Since our mind interprets the phenomena of sense, which is the language
of Nature; since the intelligent mind is related to an intelligible
universe, the finite mind must be related to the infinite, man must be
the child of God.

The facts of history show us man in all ages renouncing all that the
animal craves for, for the sake of the ideal, the transcendent.

2. Man is self-conscious, he can become an object to himself; that
he can do this proves him to have a dual nature. The higher sits
in judgment on the lower, or animal nature (identified with the
individual), seeks to bring it into obedience to the universal. Since
we can identify conscience with the universal mind and will, we infer
that we are on the one side in communion with God, as on the other with
the universe.

Man has the power of sympathy. As we cannot conceive of light without
postulating an all-comprehending æther, through which all things are
related, so the fact that we are affected, actually feel physically
and mentally with others, is inconceivable without postulating one
all-embracing Personality.

The faith that good must ultimately triumph is an axiom of the moral
life; we find it impossible to believe the reverse.

These are some of the broad bases on which rest the Christian dogmas of
the relation of man to God the All-Father, which tell of a perfect Son,
and of the power given to all to rise through grace into the spiritual
life.

I have dwelt on the subject at some length, because it seems to me that
the intellectual relation to God has been too much ignored; we should
love with the mind as well as with the heart; with the developing
of the physical and psychical life, the soul craves to root itself
more firmly on the consciousness of the universal, it desires to be
at one with the All-Wise and the All-Good Father of spirits to work
out the purpose of its own existence. It seeks to be in harmony with
all who are living by the highest ideal; hence the impulse to work in
associations, specially in the spiritual life, for life must overflow
into action! It seeks evermore to be at one in its being, and to bring
the individual self into harmony with the all-embracing Spirit in whom
we are one.

I may recommend to teachers the recently published volume on _Religious
Teaching in Schools_, by Dr. Bell of Marlborough.


PART II. MATHEMATICS.


ARITHMETIC.

By DOROTHEA BEALE.

    Multiplication is vexation,
      Division is as bad,
    The Rule of Three doth puzzle me,
      And Practice drives me mad.

Never will such lines express the feelings of properly taught children.

It may be convenient to work out the process of teaching arithmetic on
strictly psychological principles.

[Concrete teaching first.]

(1) From the concrete to the abstract. Let the children learn to count
with the actual things.

Once the teacher would have set the child down to a slate, taught it
to count, and write down the figures, and work sums in addition and
subtraction, and then to learn the multiplication table. Now the child
has actual things--stones, coloured beads, sticks, bricks--anything but
marbles (which one of H.M. Inspectors recommends) or things which run
about freely. A box of china buttons, which cost only a few pence the
gross, is perhaps best.

(2) Associate doing and knowing. Let the child add actual things: Mary
has 3 buttons, Anna gives her 2, she now has 5.

(3) Put thoughts into words. Get the child to say exactly what addition
is--“giving to”--and let her find out from words she already knows
or may know, as donation, donor, etc., the meaning. The sign + for
addition may also be given.

Similarly, subtraction ought to be actually performed by drawing away,
and the word explained--its connection with drag, traction, tray, dray,
etc. Thus the common fault of writing “substraction” may be avoided. It
should be thought of as undoing addition. The signs - and = may now be
given.

[Analysis of numbers.]

(4) We learn by analysis and synthesis, _i.e._, to see the parts in
the whole, and the whole as made up of parts. It is very useful at
this stage to get children to group numbers, to think of 2, _e.g._,
as 1 + 1, of 3 as 1 + 1 + 1 and 1 + 2, of 8 as 1 + 7, 2 + 6, 3 + 5, 4
+ 4, 2 + 2 + 2 + 2. This is much insisted on in Germany and America.
In kindergartens there are many pictures which are used for grouping
numbers, thus, _e.g._, a seven-branched candlestick.

[Illustration]

We may give 7, as 3 + 1 + 3, as 1 + 2 + 2 + 2, as 1 + 6. This makes
numbers, so to speak, easily fall into their constituents, which will
be shown to be of use later. I knew a child who habitually thought of
the written figures as picturing the number. Children might arrange the
9 digits in various ways, thus, giving also the written figures:--

  ·  ··    ···  ····    ·····  ······    ·······
  1   2     3     4       5       6         7
     ·+·  ·+··  ·+···  ·+····  ·+·····  ·+······
     1+1   1+2   1+3     1+4     1+5       1+6
                 2+2     2+3     2+4       2+5
                                           etc.

At this stage the question would naturally arise why there are only
9 figures, and an historical digression could be conveniently made.
I give a sketch of such a lesson before coming to more difficult and
abstract things.

[Historical methods.]

Dogs are very clever. A collie will go with the shepherd and take care
that none stray. Suppose one has disappeared over a cliff when he
was not looking, would he know one was gone, would he count like the
shepherd? No, he will track out a lost sheep, by scent, as we cannot,
but I never heard of a shepherd setting the dog to count. If puss has
3 kittens and you take 1, she seems not to know. Some savage races
can count only a few numbers, but man carries a ready-reckoner in his
fingers, and most can easily count up to 5 or 10, or, if taking in the
toes, up to 20; all the higher races are marked out by their greater
power of doing long and difficult sums.

Now, suppose some great owner of sheep, as Abraham or Jesse, sent out
a shepherd with many sheep, how would he know each day whether they
were all right? Well, the simplest way would be to have two stones
for each--the master could have one bag and the man another, and then
they could calculate each night; _calculus_ is the Latin for a stone.
The shepherd would need a long bag for his stones. Was that how David
happened to have the one which he used as a sling to kill Goliath?

Suppose, however, the flock was very large, a bag of stones would be
heavy. Has a shepherd something else, which, instead of his exactly
carrying, seems to help to carry him? The shepherd’s staff. Could he
not put notches on this for his sheep? It would hold a good many; but
in days when people had to use stones for knives, it was not so easy to
cut a great many notches, and besides it would get used up with a large
flock. Could he not make a sign like a hand, V, for every 5 sheep? That
was what the Romans did, and next they said, why not have a sign for
two hands, X, and let that stand for 10? So, if they wanted to write
sixteen sheep, they would put XVI instead of sixteen strokes. You see
in the Bible the Roman numbers. The Greeks used letters, too, as the
Romans did, for numbers.

[Money.]

When people began to trade they wanted something more than tally sticks
and stones--something the value of which all knew. Amongst pastoral
people the most ready things to calculate by were sheep or cattle. A
piece of land would be sold for so many sheep, but it would be very
inconvenient to have to drive your money about, and so people seem
very early to have had pieces of metal which were reckoned to be equal
in value to sheep or cattle, and to save weighing, each piece had,
perhaps, a sheep scratched on it; and this was called in Latin (from
_pecus_, cattle) _pecunia_, _i.e._, the piece of metal representing the
value of cattle. This would be carried about and exchanged. Lawyers now
put in our wills “goods and chattels”; by the first they mean houses
and lands, which cannot be moved; by the latter, things which, like
cattle, can be moved. Then people could have larger and smaller pieces
of money, representing half or a quarter of a sheep, or many sheep.

[Account-keeping.]

You wonder, perhaps, that people did not have books to keep their
accounts in, as we do; but in early days people’s books were made of
clay, and were more like our slates, and they scratched on them with
a sharp instrument called a stylus, which looks something like our
stylograph, but had no ink inside, and they could not put these in
their pockets.

[Modern arithmetic.]

It was not till the beginning of the third century before Christ,
that the Greek Archimedes proposed a plan not altogether unlike ours,
because he was a very clever scientific man, and he wanted to do
difficult sums, which he could not with the old Greek system. And
something of the kind was used in India. But it was not introduced into
Europe until about 1000 years after Christ by the Arabs, who had made
many conquests. The first English book about it seems to have been
written in the reign of Edward III. Chaucer, who died in 1400, talks of
the “figures newe,” _i.e._, the figures we use now, instead of those
difficult Roman characters which we find in the Bible.

But I think that before that, people had begun to use some such plan as
ours. Have you ever heard of public-houses being called “The Chequers,”
and seen a painted board hung up covered with squares of different
colours? This was once a sign for a house of public entertainment,
where people could make reckonings, and the place where they reckoned
the money they paid was called a “counter,” and the court belonging
to the king where the people paid their taxes was called the Court of
Exchequer.

Suppose a man came into an inn, he would find the counter marked with
lines thus:--

     Score.     Dozen.      One.
  +----------+----------+----------+
  |          |          |          |
  |          |          |          |
  |          |          |          |
  |          |          |          |
  |          |          |          |
  +----------+----------+----------+

and he could have say 3 glasses of beer; the landlord would put a chalk
mark for each, but when he had had 12, one mark would be put instead in
the next row, or in the third row if he had had a score, _i.e._, 20,
and these marks would correspond with pieces of money. Thus we have
pence and shillings and pounds, and we put dots between instead of
lines to mark them off.

Here we will take _real_ pieces of money. Suppose £1 „ 14 „ 6 has to be
added to

  S.   D.
  7  „ 9.

I say 9 and 6 make 15 pence. I change the 12 pence into one silver
shilling, add that to the 14 shillings and the 7, and I get 22
shillings. 20 shillings is one pound, so I change that and leave the
2 shillings. Thus I get altogether £2 „ 2 „ 3. We can now write that
in figures and add, as before. Suppose I had to pay to A £1 „ 17 „
9, and I had £2 „ 14 „ 6. We can first do the sum with real money. I
find I have not enough pence to give 9, so I have to change one of the
shillings, then I shall have 18 pence, out of which I give 9, and write
down 9 left. Now, I have only 13 shillings, and I want to pay 17, so I
change one pound, then I have 33 shillings, out of which I take 17 and
have 16 left. When I have given the pound, I have none left, and there
remains in my purse

  S.   D.
  16 „ 9.

We can then also write it down thus--putting the money we have to take
away below, pounds under the pounds, shillings under shillings, etc.

  £   S.   D.
  2 „ 14 „  6
  1 „ 17 „  9
  -----------
      16 „  9

[Decimals.]

After a while people all agreed to have for general arithmetic what
we call the decimal notation, or reckoning by tens, and so lines were
drawn, and figures in the first row were worth one, in the second ten,
in the third ten tens, _i.e._, 100; after that would come figures
representing ten hundreds or a thousand, and then ten thousands,
and then a hundred thousands; and so we could go on to any length.
Ten seemed such a natural number to use, because we all have our
ready-reckoner in our ten fingers.

    hundreds     tens      units
  +----------+----------+----------+
  |          |          |          |
  |          |          |          |
  |          |          |          |
  |          |          |          |
  |          |          |          |
  |          |          |          |
  |          |          |          |
  |          |          |          |
  |          |          |          |
  |          |          |          |
  +----------+----------+----------+

[Addition.]

    th.   hun.   tens   units
  +-----+------+------+------+
  |  5  |      |  9   |   3  |
  |     |      |      |      |
  |  2  |  9   |      |   9  |
  +-----+------+------+------+
  |  8  |      |      |   2  |
  +-----+------+------+------+

We can have bags containing 10 buttons, 100 buttons, and then we can
get change. Sonnenschein’s box makes carrying very clear. Suppose I
want to put down 5 thousands, 9 tens and 3 units or ones. I should
write it thus, and if I wanted to add to this 2 thousands, 9 hundreds
and 9, I should write that below. Then I should say 9 units and 3 units
make 12 units. But this is equal to 1 ten and 2 units, so I should
carry on 10 to the second row, and write down 2 in the unit row. Then I
add the 1 to the 9, that makes 10, but 10 in the second row is the same
as 1 in the third, so I carry that on; 9 and 1 make 10, but 10 in the
third row makes 1 in the fourth, so I carry again, and get 5 + 2 + 1 =
8 thousands, and we should read it 8 thousands and 2.

[Subtraction.]

Then after a while people said, “Why need we have all the chequers?
suppose we put a nought when there is no number, just to mark that
there is a row, and all will come right;” so they wrote thus:--

  th. h. t. u.
   5  0  9  3
   2  9  0  9
  ------------
   2  1  8  4

And a little later they left off writing anything at the top of the
line, because every one knew. Here is a subtraction sum. We cannot take
9 units from 3 units, so we get change from the next row, that gives
13 units, from which we take 9, and have 4 left. We have nothing to
take from our 8 remaining tens, so we write 8. We have no hundreds,
so we cannot take away 9, but we change one of our thousands into 10
hundreds, and take away 9, leaving 1; lastly we take away 2 from our 4
thousands, and get 2--altogether 2184.

[Decimal fractions.]

Now would come in naturally the extension of this system of notation
to decimal fractions, marking the unit by a full stop. If numbers
decrease as we go from left to right, they might get smaller than one;
the next row to the right would be one-tenth of a penny or of an inch,
and the next one-hundredth, and so on. Sums in addition and subtraction
might be worked at this stage with decimal fractions. Then it should
be pointed out that to push the number a row farther from the point
which marks the unit row increases it tenfold, and pushing to the right
diminishes tenfold.

  hun. tens units   tenths hundth. thousandths
   1    3     2   .   7      9
        2     5   .   8      9          7
  --------------------------------------------

It is good practice and interests young children to work in different
scales of notation--one may suggest that Goliath would prefer the 6 or
12 scale.

It would be well now to give children some practice in counting
backwards, and in rapid _viva voce_ addition, which the exercises in
analysis of numbers will have made easy. _E.g._, 15 + 7, the number
naturally falls apart into 5 + 2, and we get 22; 29 + 7, it falls into
6 + 1, at the next step into 3 + 4.

[Multiplication.]

We should next proceed to continued addition or multiplication. Many
children come to school not knowing that multiplication is continued
addition, and still fewer have any idea that division is continued
subtraction. In entrance papers I have had sheets covered in reply to
such questions as “How often can 19 be subtracted from 584?”

   891
   891
   891
   891
  ----
  3564

A few multiplications should be worked with real things. Thus, we have
to give to 5 people 3 buttons each. We arrange them in parcels of 3 and
add 3 to our pile five times. Now, if we have 15 and want to know how
many times we can take away threes, we find we can do it five times
over; this is subtraction or undoing the addition. It is the same
as making little parcels of 3 each, and so continued subtraction is
called division. Some continued addition sums should be given, thus:
Find 4 times 891. It will be easily seen that such sums are done much
more quickly if we know by heart how much 4 nines come to, and how
much 4 eights; and so people learn their addition tables by heart, and
children make them out for themselves thus, generally up to 12 times,
some learn up to 20 times. Here is part of 7 times worked out:--

  +-------------------------------------+
  | 7 times 1 = 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 |
  |               7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 |
  | 7   „   2 =  14 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 |
  | 7   „   3 =    21 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 |
  | 7   „   4 =      28 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 |
  | 7   „   5 =        35 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 |
  | 7   „   6 =          42 7 7 7 7 7 7 |
  | 7   „   7 =            49 7 7 7 7 7 |
  | 7   „   8 =              56 7 7 7 7 |
  | 7   „   9 =                63 7 7 7 |
  | 7   „  10 =                  70 7 7 |
  | 7   „  11 =                    77 7 |
  | 7   „  12 =                      84 |
  +-------------------------------------+

The signs × and ÷ may now be given. All tables should be written out
and learned, and it is well to say both ways, 6 × 7 = 42, and 7 × 6 =
42. There are certain numbers that are easily remembered, others in
which children habitually make mistakes: it is a waste of time to hear
the tables therefore all through after a time, but these difficult
ones, 7 × 8, 6 × 9, 11 × 11, etc., should be insisted on; then,
finally, the whole heard through, and any about which there is the
slightest hesitation asked for daily. If children can learn up to 20
times without much trouble, it is an advantage.

We could next point out that this continued addition is called
multiplication, and all the numbers made up by continually adding
threes would be called multiples of 3, _i.e._, many times 3. So 12
would be a multiple of 2 or 3 or 4.

Then examples should be worked, but here let me say that at the early
stages concrete examples should abound. Many good books there are
containing miscellaneous examples of concrete quantities, such as,
There are 319 fruit trees planted in each field for making jam, and
there are 12 fields; how many fruit trees? Or, 7 labourers have to be
paid on Saturday £17 each; how much will they get in 12 weeks?

When children know the effect of pushing numbers to the left,
multiplication by two figures will be easy, but the child should be
accustomed to write at the end of each row the real sum, thus: 73 ×
25:--

    73
    25
  ----
  1460 = 20 times.
   365 =  5   „
  ----
  1825 = 25   „

and to work the same sum in a variety of ways, _e.g._, multiply by 5 ×
5; by 100, and divide by 4; by 30, and take off 5; by 10, halve and by
10 again and halve:--

    73
     5
   365 = 5 times.
     5
  ----
  1825 = 5 × 5 times.

  4 | 7300 = 100 times.
    +-----
      1825 = ¹⁄₄ of 100, or 25 times.

    73
    30
  ----
  2190 = 30 times.
   365 =  5   „
  ----
  1825 = 25   „

  2 | 730 = 10 times.
    +----
      365 =  5   „
     3650 = 50   „
     ----
     1825 = ¹⁄₂ 50 = 25 times.

It is well to accustom children to begin to multiply with the left-hand
figure, as we shall see later. Thus we get the most important part
first.

      874
    +----
  4 |3496
    +----

[Division.]

It should be insisted on that division is undoing multiplication--that
if we divide 63 by 9, we are finding a number 7 which when multiplied
by 9 gives 63. In working division sums it is better to put the
quotient over the dividend, and the children should be ready to explain
each step thus: Divide 3496 nuts amongst four schools equally. None
will get as many as 1 thousand. They will get, out of 34 hundreds, 8
hundreds each; of 29 tens, 7 tens each; of 16 units, 4 each.

Long division should be fully explained thus: Divide 43921 amongst 23
people. We see that no one will have as much as 1 ten-thousand. Out of
43 thousands, each can have 1 thousand, and there will be 20 thousands
left, that is, 200 hundreds; adding 9 we get 209 hundreds. We give 9 to
each and 2 hundreds or 20 tens are left. 22 tens do not give one each;
they equal 220 units. Of the 221 units we give 9 to each. Some dispense
with the written multiplication. This seems to me to strain too much
young children’s attention, and to lead to loss of time.

        1909
     +------
  23 ) 43921
       23
       -----
       209
       207
       -----
         221
         207
       -----
          14

[Factors, measures, multiples.]

Here, while continuing to work many miscellaneous examples, it may be
well to interpose some useful exercises on matters interesting and yet
puzzling to children, on factors and measures of numbers, and primes
and squares. If they get quite familiar with factors, they will not
have such difficulty as they do when they come upon the whole set
at once: factors, common factors, measure, common measure, G.C.M.,
multiple, common multiple, L.C.M.

Let us bring out the box of buttons once more and arrange the numbers,
finding the factors. 1, 2, 3 have only the number itself, and so these
are called primes, because they have no other factor than 1, the first
number.

  .  ..  ...  ....  .....  ......
               ..           ...
               ..           ...
                             ..
                             ..
                             ..


But 4 is not only 4 × 1, it is 2 × 2, and we may notice that the dots
form a square--it is a compound number. 5 is again a prime; 6 can be
arranged in three ways--in a row of ones, in three rows of 2 or two
rows of 3, but these are the same if we look at them a different way
round, _i.e._, 2 × 3 is 3 × 2. 7 is a prime, but for 8 we can have 2 ×
4 and 4 × 2, which are the same. 9 is again a square number; it has no
factors except 3. Here we might give the expressions 2² for 2 × 2, 3²
for 3 × 3 and 3³ for 3 × 3 × 3.

  .......  ........
           .. ....
           .. ....
           ..
           ..

      .........
        . . .
        . . .
        . . .


We might go on to pick out all the primes by what is called the sieve
of Eratosthenes, and to give all squares and cubes, say up to 100.
Sometimes we speak of measure of numbers; 4 can be measured into rows
of twos, 6 into rows of twos or threes, so 2 is said to be a common
measure of 4 and 6.

After working some examples in factors and measures, it will be well to
leave the matter, returning to the subject later. I should pass over
for girls the wearisome exercises in weights and measures, bills of
parcels, etc., very slightly. These things belong to the shop rather
than the school, and waste the time that should be given to learning
principles.

[Vulgar fractions.]

We may proceed at once to fractions. In nothing is the advice _Festina
lente_ more valuable than now. Once give the children a clear idea of
what a fraction is, how the two numbers represent respectively the
size of the pieces and the number taken, and all will be easy. They
are already familiar with ¹⁄₂d. and ³⁄₄d., so we can get from them
that the lower figure stands for the number of pieces into which the
penny is divided, and that the figure above shows the number of pieces
taken. Many fractions should be drawn by the children--⁵⁄₆ of a line, a
circle, a square, etc. The fraction may be

                5 numberer
  written thus: - --------,
                6  namer

     5 gives the number of pieces taken; is numberer or numerator;
  -------------------------------------------------------------------
  6 gives the number of pieces into which the whole is cut, the size,
                  the name, the denominator.

Let there be plenty of such questions as these: What is the effect
of increasing the numerator or the denominator? Of doubling each?
Of halving each? Notice that most things grow larger the larger the
number, but with a fraction the larger the denominator the smaller the
pieces. Children should not have books giving explanations. They must
discover these by the dialectic process, and then in their own words
answer questions, and sometimes explain every step in the sum they are
working. All we require in books are well-chosen examples. Those who
have not taught, have no idea how hard children find it to get really
hold of the nature of a fraction. Homely illustrations should not be
spared. For instance, there are two ways of getting much cake. To
take many pieces, that is have a large numerator,--or to look out the
biggest piece, that is have a small denominator.

[Multiplication and division by integers.]

We are now ready for multiplication and division by integers. Take
⁵⁄₁₂. There are two ways of making the fraction twice as large, that
is by taking twice as many pieces, that is ¹⁰⁄₁₂, or twice as large
pieces, ⁵⁄₆. The shortest way must always be insisted on. Similarly,
⁴⁄₅ may be divided by 2 in two ways. Many examples should be worked out
in detail thus:--

  ³⁄₁₄ × 7 ÷ 3 ÷ 4 × 5 ÷ 8.

  ³⁄₁₄ × 7 = ³⁄₂; ³⁄₂ ÷ 3 = ¹⁄₂; ¹⁄₂ ÷ 4 = ¹⁄₈; ¹⁄₈ × 5 = ⁵⁄₈; ⁵⁄₈ ÷ 8 =
  ⁵⁄₆₄.

Nearly all children will write thus: ³⁄₄ × 7 = ³⁄₂ ÷ 3, etc., and leave
the whole unreadable.

Next should come the proposition 7 is 8 times as large as ⁷⁄₈. (Some
pupils might be ready to use letters by this time, _a_ is _b_ times as
large as _a_⁄_b_. The teacher must be on the watch for such.) It is
very difficult for young children to see this, and also that ⁷⁄₈ is the
same as 7 ÷ 8. This should be illustrated by drawings in a variety of
ways.

[By fractions.]

On that would follow multiplication of fractions by fractions, which
is explained as making a mistake and correcting. Thus if we have to
multiply ⁵⁄₇ × ²⁄₃, we know how to multiply by 2, so we do that first:
⁵⁄₇ × 2 = ¹⁰⁄₇. But we have multiplied by a number three times too
large; to correct the mistake, we must divide by 3; ¹⁰⁄₇ ÷ 3 = ¹⁰⁄₂₁.
Similarly, we explain division. Not until some sums have been worked in
detail should pupils be allowed to get hold of the rules. They should
work with factors only, whenever possible.

[Reduction.]

Now we might return to the subject of multiples and measures. We have
¹⁶⁄₂₄. We want to have it in its simplest form. We divide it into
factors:

  16   2 ×  8
  -- = ------;
  24   2 × 12

2 is a common measure of both; the 2 above makes the fraction twice as
large, the 2 below twice as small, so both may be taken out. But we
might have said

  16   8 × 2
  -- = -----;
  24   8 × 3

8 is the largest number that will measure both, so it is called the
greatest common measure. I think it better not to give the ordinary
rule for finding G.C.M. until its proof can be given algebraically.
It is very seldom that children will fail in the attempt to analyse
numbers, and so find out all their common measures.

[G.C.M. and L.C.M.]

The common rules should now be given for finding at sight when a number
is commensurable by each digit, though the reason of these rules will
not perhaps appear yet. These children know at a glance whether a
number can be measured by 2, 4, 8, 3 or 9, and remove the common factor.

Suppose we have ⁸⁰⁰⁸⁄₉₀₀₉, we cannot see a common factor, but we can
proceed to break it up, one being commensurable by 8 and the other by
9. Then we get

  8 × 1001
  --------,
  9 × 1001

and the greatest common measure comes to light. We see that the
numerator of

  1176
  ----
  2205

is commensurable by 4 and 3, _i.e._, by 12, the denominator by 9:--

  1176   3 × 4 ×  98   3 × 4 × 2 ×  49
  ---- = ----------- = ---------------;
  2205   3 × 3 × 735   3 × 3 × 5 × 147

so the G.C.M. is 49 × 3, or 147.

I may here notice there is an ingenious table by Mr. Ellis, published
by Philip at 6d., showing graphically the common measures and multiples
of numbers up to 36, which makes this matter clear. I give a section of
it:--

         1  2  3  4  5  6  7  8  9 10 11 12
  Ones   ·  ·  ·  ·  ·  ·  ·  ·  ·  ·  ·  ·
  Twos      ·     ·     ·     ·     ·     ·
  Threes       ·        ·        ·        ·
  Fours           ·           ·           ·
  Fives              ·              ·
  Sixes                 ·                 ·
  Sevens                   ·
  Eights                      ·
  Nines                          ·
  Tens                              ·
  Elevens                              ·
  Twelves                                 ·

We find at a glance the primes.

Looking down the line we see the multiples thus, 12 is a multiple of 1,
2, 3, 4, 6. Looking horizontally and moving down, we come to all the
measures of each number.

It is also useful for teaching fractions.

[Common denominators.]

We should next proceed to bring fractions to a common denominator
preparatory to addition and subtraction. It is not always easy to
find a number that will do for all the denominators. We want a common
multiple, and of course the smallest we can have is the best. For this
we have only to break up the denominators into factors and make up a
number which shall contain all these. I would not let the pupils work
at first by the mechanical methods sometimes given:

   7     3    11
  --- + -- + ---.
  230   46   621

       { 230 = 2 × 5 × 23     } We want therefore
  Here {  46 = 23 × 2         } as the common
       { 561 = 3 × 3 × 3 × 23 } denominator

2 × 5 × 23 × 3 × 3 × 3, which is 6210.

[Addition of fractions.]

Suppose we want to add ²⁄₃ + ³⁄₄ - ⁷⁄₈ + ¹¹⁄₂₄. I should write what we
may call skeleton fractions below; I mean simply the line; next enter
the denominator 24. This is 8 times as large as 3, _i.e._, we have made
the pieces in the first 8 times as small, so we take 8 times as many.
Only after working a fair number of sums should children write all in a
single fraction thus:--

  16 + 18 - 21 + 22
  -----------------.
         24

If we have larger numbers, the pupils must never be allowed to make a
number of long-division sums, but work thus:

   7     3    11
  --- + -- + ---.
  230   46   621

They would factorise and put down

       7          3           11
  ---------- + ------ + --------------.
  2 × 5 × 23   2 × 23   3 × 3 × 3 × 23

To get the common denominator we see we must multiply the first by 3 ×
3 × 3; the second denominator by 5 × 3 × 3 × 3, the third by 5 × 2:--

  7 × 3 × 3 × 3 + 3 × 5 × 9 + 11 × 5
  ----------------------------------.
        2 × 5 × 23 × 3 × 3 × 3

I have not given a complete exposition, but touched on what seems
essential as regards the method and the order of teaching, derived from
my experience of children’s difficulties, some will think, I fear, at
unnecessary length.

In regard to the later rules for decimals, I need only make two
remarks: that the points should be always removed from the divisor,
_e.g._:--

                      ·35
  ·000035 ÷ 5·9623 = -----.
                     59623

and the point put in as soon as we reach the decimal fraction. In
working circulators it is well for a time to express the equations
thus: ·32̇94̇ = No.

  10,000 No = 3294·294, etc.
      10 No =    3·294, etc.
  --------------------------
    9990 No = 3291

            3291
     ∴ No = ----
            9990

[Proportion.]

As regards proportion, I need add little. But there is one vexed
question: Shall we let children work by the unitary method? I think
not, at least not those who are likely to go on to mathematics. We
cannot get the thought of proportion too ingrained, and the unitary
method evades it.

In compound proportion I would make pupils work out the double process
in detail, and then with factors only, _e.g._:--

If 5 men dig a trench 14 ft. long in 3 days, how long ought 12 men to
take to dig one 28 ft. long? Put in tabular form thus:--

  Men.  Long.  Days.
    5     14      3
   12     28      ?

First confine attention to the length of trench.

  Ft.    Ft.     Days.     Days.
   14  :  28  ∷    3    :    6

Now we have to consider the consequences of altering the men:--

         Men.   Days.
           5     6
          12     ?

  Men.    Men.   Days.   Days.
   12   :  5   ∷   6   :  2¹⁄₂.

But we could have arranged it thus and worked it out fractionally at
once:--

  14   28
  -- : -- ∷ 3 : x
  12    5

  3 x 28 x 5   3⃥ × 2⃥ × 1⃥4⃥ × 5   5
  ---------- = -------------- = - = 2¹⁄₂.
  14 x 12 1⃥4⃥       3⃥ × 4⃥        2
                      2

If practice sums are done, the meaning of each line should be marked at
the end thus:--

                                         £
                                        984      price at £1.
                                     +-----
  Price of 984 yds. at £2 „ 15 „ 6.  | 1968         „     £2.
                                     |  492         „     10s.
                                     |  246         „      5s.
                                     |   24 „ 12    „      6d.
                                     +----------
                                       2730 „ 12  at   £2 „ 15 „ 6
                                     ===========

[Approximations.]

Approximate methods should be practised, and for this reason it is well
to get the habit of multiplying by the larger number first.

Suppose we want a sum accurate, say to 3 decimal places. We remove the
point from one of the factors, pushing it, of course, an equal distance
in the other. We make the whole number reversed the multiplier, and
begin with the fourth decimal figure (one beyond the one we need).
This will give the fourth place as the first number, since we are
multiplying by units. In the next row we must take in the fifth
decimal, since we are multiplying by 10, and so on. Here is a sum
worked out at length and an abbreviated one:--

Find correct to 3 places of decimals 3·45 × ·00059692:

  3·45 × ·00059692 = 345 × ·059692
  ------------------------------------
      ·059692        ·059692
          345            543
     --------        -------
     17907600           2984
      2387680          23876
       298460         179076
     --------        -------
    20·593740        20·5936

In division we approximate by cutting off a figure each time from the
divisor as soon as we have come to the number which is one less than
the number of digits still to be found. Get correct to five places.

  454523 ) 145367·9 ( ·31982
           1363569
           -------
            901100
            454523
            ------
            446577
            409068
            ------
             37509
             36360
             -----
              1149
               908
             -----
               241

[Summary.]

I might summarise the order of teaching fractions thus:--

What a fraction is--mixed numbers, improper fractions.

Effect of increasing or diminishing numerator or denominator.

Multiplication and division by integers.

Proposition _a_ is _b_ times as large as _a/b_.

Multiplication and division by fractions.

Meaning of ²⁄₃ of ⁷⁄₈.

Measures, common measures, factors, common factors.

Reduction by inspection.

Meaning of common multiple, common measure, L.C.M. and G.C.M.

Bringing to common denominator.

Addition and subtraction.

[Exclusion of some subjects.]

There are interesting papers by Potts of Cambridge, 2d., published by
the National Society, giving the history of arithmetic. I have found
it throws much interest into the subject to teach it historically. It
seems to me that various things at present included in arithmetic books
should be deferred; _e.g._, present values, annuities, etc., which no
one would be likely to attempt who is unacquainted with algebra.

The Mathematical Conference called by the Committee of Ten,
U.S.A., writes as follows, and I quite agree with its view: “The
conference recommends that the courses in arithmetic be abridged and
enriched--abridged by omitting entirely those subjects which perplex
and exhaust without affording any really valuable mental discipline,
and enriched by a greater number of exercises in simple calculation and
in the solution of concrete problems. Among the subjects which should
be curtailed or omitted are compound proportion, cube root, abstract
mensuration and the greater part of commercial arithmetic. Percentage
should be reduced, and the needs of practical life--profit and loss,
bank discount, compound interest, with such complications as result
from fractional periods of time--are useless and undesirable. The
metric system should be taught in application to actual measurements,
and the weights and measures handled.

“Among the branches of this subject which it is proposed to omit are
some which have survived from an epoch when more advanced mathematics
was scarcely known in our schools, _e.g._, cube root, duodecimals;
so far as any useful principles are embodied in them, they belong to
algebra, and can be taught by algebraic methods with such facility,
that there is no longer any sound reason for retaining them in the
arithmetical course.”

I do not insist on algebra for all; it gives the same sort of mental
discipline that arithmetic does, and so, educationally, is not of
special value. Geometry, on the other hand, gives a different kind of
training--opens a different set of ideas. Many girls, therefore, do
not learn algebra, especially those who come late with no clear ideas
about arithmetic. Those who have been taught arithmetic well from the
beginning can be led on to use algebraic symbols and letters very early.

As soon as a pupil has gone through the course I have recommended,
she is ready to take up algebra in a systematic way--I shall suppose
she has already been familiarised with the use of letters as general
symbols.


MATHEMATICS.

By DOROTHEA BEALE.

How and when can we best introduce mathematical teaching? We have to do
at present in girls’ schools with many who have come to the age, say of
fifteen or sixteen, with no mathematical teaching except a very slight
knowledge of arithmetical processes. For these it seems to me more
important to give the mental training afforded by some initiation into
geometrical ideas and methods, than to teach algebra.

[Beginnings in the kindergarten.]

For the children (and they are happily a rapidly increasing number)
who have had good teaching in the kindergarten, one may frame a course
more approaching the ideal. Children can be quite early familiarised
with geometrical forms and figures, and learn some of their simpler
properties in connection with the drawing and modelling lessons.

[Practical geometry.]

The Conference on Mathematics, called by the Committee of Ten,
U.S.A., recommends that children from the age of ten should have some
systematic instruction in concrete or experimental geometry. “The mere
facts of plane and solid geometry should be taught, not as an exercise
in logical deduction and exact demonstration, but in as concrete and
objective a form as possible; the simple properties of similar plane
figures and solids should not be proved, but illustrated and confirmed
by cutting up and rearranging drawings and models. The course should
include the careful construction of plane figures by the eye and by the
help of instruments, the indirect measurements of heights and distances
by the aid of figures drawn to scale, and elementary mensuration plane
and solid.”

A small book by Paul Bert, _First Elements of Experimental Geometry_
(Cassell), is very suggestive, and would throw much interest into the
subject. Spencer’s _Constructive Geometry_ may be referred to, but
it is not altogether satisfactory. A useful and practical book is
_Geometry for Kindergarten Students_, by Pullar (Sonnenschein).

[Geometry before algebra.]

I consider that geometry should be preferred to algebra in order of
time, because, as I have said, arithmetic gives the same kind of mental
training as algebra, whereas from geometry the learner gains a unique
mental discipline.

[Its educational value.]

Thus the learner is taught to frame a definition; he has to put before
the imagination the abstract generalised idea, and then describe, in
words clear and precise, what is in the mind. Each proposition begins
with a general statement regarding what is to be proved, or to be done,
and compels us to have a clear idea of what we are going to talk about
before we begin. The sub-enunciation makes us bring the general into
the region of the particular, and infer the general from it. We must
for the demonstration select certain relations relevant to the subject
and omit all others, and we must be ready to give a reason for every
assertion. Thus geometrical teaching trains the judgment and forms
a most useful and logical habit of mind. One finds the tendency is
greatly checked to use words without any clear idea of their meaning,
to plunge into a subject without having set in order in the mind, what
is the matter to be discussed, or the problem to be solved, and order
is introduced into the general work in all other subjects of study.

[Leads up to the region of ideas.]

But geometry has still higher uses in the process of mental
development. It is, so to speak, the link between the real and the
ideal; as Professor Cayley has said, “imaginary objects are the only
realities, the οντως οντα, in regard to which the corresponding
physical objects are as the shadows in the cave”;[23] if, on the one
hand, it opens the gates of science, on the other it leads us to
philosophy, and so Plato is said to have placed over the door of the
Academy, “Let none enter here ignorant of geometry”.

  [23] Presidential Address, Brit. Assoc.

To study geometry is to enter a new path, and we do not see at first
to what heights it leads, upwards to the universe of ideas; ideas are
nothing for sense, and yet they are the most necessary things for the
everyday life we lead. Thus, a point, though it exists not, yet as a
thought-dynamic is--it moves and traces out lines which do not exist,
and yet give us direction, and are of most practical use; by them we
calculate the height of real things, we guide our ships, we find paths
in the heavens. Again, moving lines give us planes, and these, which
exist only in thought, as they move, form what we call solid figures,
_i.e._, something which occupies space.

[Forming definitions.]

Of course, no one who is grounded in the principles of real education,
would think of letting children begin by learning definitions; they
must be made to put their vague notions into words; and it will be
well for them to see how difficult this is, _e.g._, in the case of a
straight line, an angle, though the notion is quite clear to the mind’s
eye. It is surprising to those who have not taught the subject how long
it takes girls, who have not been trained to exactness, to bring out,
_e.g._, the definition of a circle. They will say, all lines drawn
from the centre are equal; or all lines drawn from the centre to the
circumference are equal.

No child should be allowed for a long time to see a Euclid. Each
proposition must be treated as a rider, and a copious supply of riders
provided in addition; the child helped to discover the solution or the
proof, then set to write it; if wrong it must be gone over again and
again; it will take a long time to get through a very few propositions
thus, but later all is easy.

[Methods of teaching.]

It appears from the report of the Oxford Local Examinations, August,
1897, that the methods of the dark ages still prevail in too many
schools; we read: “In many cases candidates who wrote out correctly all
propositions for the first six books sent up attempts at problems that
can only be described as grotesque, and showed their complete failure
to understand the subject, giving the unpleasing impression that all
they knew was learned by heart”.

[Euclid.]

As a formal introduction to Euclid for young pupils, I know nothing
better for the teacher to study and use than Bradshaw’s _First
Step_. Many others might be named. The Harpur _Euclid_ is good
(Longmans), and Books I. and II., by Smith and Bryant, may be specially
recommended. Still I regret that the text-book in England is Euclid;
its inconsistencies are manifest; we stand alone in keeping it. Yet a
good workman will make the best of his tools, and there are editions
which remedy many of the defects. One would, however, hope that some
day Societies for the Improvement of Geometrical Teaching and Reformed
Spelling will rejoice together. It does seem an anachronism not to
have an angle as large as 180°; to use the circle, and think of a
circumference, yet refer to no other loci, and work out in a cumbrous
manner the propositions of Books III. and IV.--to talk of lines
touching and not make use of limits. The more a teacher knows of the
higher mathematics, and looks forward for the pupil, the better will he
teach the rudiments. The treatment of the subject by Professor Henrici
(London Science Class-books, Longmans) seems excellent, but I do not
know how far it would answer for young beginners. I should be glad to
have the experience of some who have tried it. The professor derives
the notion of a point from a solid, particular figures from infinite
planes, and proceeds generally in an inverse direction from that of
Euclid; the nomenclature is admirably compact, and must result in a
large economy of thinking power--the notion of a locus is introduced
early, and the methods employed lead up to the modern or projective
geometry.

I once spent some time at Zurich, a town especially remarkable for its
intellectual activity, and chiefly for its mathematical school. Through
the kindness of Professor Kinkel and other friends, I easily obtained
permission to be present at various lessons in the Polytechnic and
Canton School. I found the method there similar to that which we
follow. The pupils used as a text-book Wolff’s _Taschen-buch_, a
duodecimo of less than 300 pages, which contains the principal results
in pure mathematics and the applied sciences, but no demonstrations.
I heard a lesson given in the Canton School. Professor Weileman first
read the proposition; it was the same as Euclid, XI. 2: to draw a
perpendicular to a plane from a given point without it. About a dozen
held out their hands to show they were ready to demonstrate. The
professor selected one, who took his place at the board, and, subject
to correction, worked the problem. The professor gave as little direct
instruction as possible, appealing rather to the class. I was much
struck with the eager interest that the class (I think it was Class
II. B) took in the work. The next proposition (in Wolff) afforded much
amusement. The demonstrator jumped to the conclusion that the lines
required to complete the construction would meet, and could not be made
to see he had assumed what required proof. Other members of the class
offered to take the matter up; he was accordingly superseded by No.
2, who having surmounted this difficulty, also broke down before he
reached the end. No. 3 therefore took his place at the board. Thus were
the reasoning and inventive powers of the boys developed, and a keen
interest awakened; there was no weariness, no apathy.

I make a few remarks on what may seem to some trivial matters, yet
which are of importance to beginners.

In giving the proof at the board, there is no need to use three
letters, and drag children by their help round every angle; we can
write a Greek letter or a number, as we constantly do in trigonometry,
or we could colour the angles; say the red is equal to the blue, and
let the children write out the propositions in an abbreviated form
first; or we might adopt the convenient and concise plan of Professor
Henrici: let capitals stand for points, small letters for lines, and
let angles be represented by the small letters with ∠ prefixed. Thus we
have line PQ or _a_; PR or _b_; and ∠ QPR or ∠ _ab_; anything to avoid
tediousness is good; children are so bored by verbosity.

[Illustration]

Riders need not be always mere lines without any human or scientific
interest. Suppose instead of saying--From two points to draw lines to
a given line, which shall make equal angles with the given line, we
say--Let CD be a mirror or a wall, a ray or a ball strikes it at P,
draw the direction it will take after--or, There is a big house A, and
a little house B, near a river--the man in B has to fetch water for A
daily, where should he draw the water so as to go the shortest possible
distance?

[Illustration]

The method of determining the distance of the moon can be made clear
long before a child is able to conceive the trigonometrical ratios,
and if we are able to arouse an interest in astronomy, we may excite
ardour in some which will make hard thought and work delightful. The
distant prospect of the mountain top has a wonderful power of leading
us on. The writer can never forget the joyful enthusiasm with which she
threw herself into the study of mathematics in consequence of hearing
courses of lectures on astronomy from Mr. Pullen of Cambridge, Gresham
Professor of Astronomy, and the late Vice-Chancellor of Cambridge has
described to her the power which the first realisation of the wonders
of the boundless universe had over him when a boy of fourteen.

Mr. Glazebrook has suggested that some insight may be given to those
who have no high mathematical ability into what seems so marvellous to
the uninitiated, the development of curves from equations.

[Algebra.]

The close relation between algebra and geometry becomes apparent
in Euclid, Book II., but this might be shown somewhat earlier by
methods such as those recommended by Mr. Wormell in the first pages of
_Plotting or Graphic Mathematics_. We can see by a figure that 1 + 2 +
3 + 2 + 1 = 3², and lead the pupil on to the general proposition which
is in constant use, when treating of falling bodies.

  +---+---+---+
  |   |   | * |
  +---+---+---+
  |   | * | * |
  +---+---+---+
  | * | * | * |
  +---+---+---+

Or we can show similarly that the sum of an arithmetical series equals

  _a_ + _l_
  ---------.
      2

    |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |
  --+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+--
  14| * | * | * | * | * | * | * | * | * | * | * | * | * | * |   |   |2
  --+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+--
  11| * | * | * | * | * | * | * | * | * | * | * |   |   |   |   |   |5
  --+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+--
   8| * | * | * | * | * | * | * | * |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |8
  --+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+--
   5| * | * | * | * | * |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |11
  --+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+--
   2| * | * |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |14
  --+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+--
    |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |

As regards the formal introduction of generalised arithmetic or
algebra, one cannot lay down any limit of age, owing to the very
untrained state in which girls come to secondary schools, but with
children who have been taught thoroughly the principles of arithmetic
up to fractions, it is easy to introduce literal symbols and so prepare
the way: this should be done much earlier than is usual.

Children well taught in arithmetic might perhaps begin the subject
formally about thirteen, and I think it well for the first term to
drop arithmetic altogether, so as to get as much time as possible for
overcoming the initial difficulties, and making use of the zeal which
a new study gives; but of course every good teacher of arithmetic will
train his pupils to use letters for numbers very much earlier. There
is a good deal put into arithmetic books, which would be much better
dealt with by algebraical methods, and should be postponed, _e.g._,
involution and evolution, and much time should be saved by omitting
long sets of examples on weights and measures, etc., and giving sums
to be worked out mechanically with large numbers. As in arithmetic,
it is extremely important to give an insight into the composition of
quantities, so that de-composition may be easy, subsequent mechanical
work in multiplication, division, involution, etc., minimised, and the
pupil reach sooner the more attractive branches of the subject, and
feel the power it gives.

[Mixed mathematics.]

If children have acquired early a fair knowledge of geometry and
algebra, they may, say at sixteen, be ready to pass on to those
branches in which the alliance of the two is most intimate, and which
are so closely correlated with all the teaching in mechanics and
physics. It takes most girls some time to assimilate the ideas of the
trigonometrical ratios, and it is fatal to hurry them.[24] Those who
are able to proceed further, and enter upon the study of co-ordinate
geometry, usually take great delight in it; and it is well, too, to
lead them gradually on by some such books as Proctor’s _Easy Lessons
in the Differential Calculus_, to form some idea of what a powerful
instrument the _Calculus_ is, before they actually make use of it or
formally study it; it takes time for a new method to infiltrate the
mind of an ordinary student.

  [24] I may add that there is an interesting chapter in Herbart’s _A B
  C of Sense-Perception_, in which he works out trigonometrical ratios
  on the basis of his philosophical system: this chapter would interest
  those teaching mathematics.

[Historical method.]

Finally, I would once more recommend that, whenever it is possible,
pupils should be led along the path of discovery pursued by original
investigators, both in physics and applied mathematics; I have found
the interest of logarithms greatly increased by this method.[25]

  [25] Professor Salford (_Monographs on Education and Health_) insists
  on the importance of teaching logarithms as a part of scientific
  arithmetic. “Often logarithms are first taught in connection with
  trigonometry, and the average pupil does not learn the difference
  between a logarithmic and a natural sine; there is no cure for this
  confusion but to teach logarithms where they belong and to apply
  them to purely arithmetical problems.” He advises the introduction
  of logarithms “as soon as the pupil has reached in algebra the
  proposition _a_^{_m_} × _a_^{_n_} = _a_^{_m_ × _n_}_, and he should
  be shown that the practical method of dealing with powers and roots
  is the logarithmic. Teachers will then abstain from annoying young
  pupils with difficult and needless problems solved in the antiquated
  manner; they will learn how to calculate a compound interest
  table, an excellent exercise in itself, as well as a labour-saving
  contrivance in arithmetic. The reason why logarithms are so little
  appreciated, is that teachers of arithmetic have not as a rule really
  learned their use; they go on wasting time in arbitrary exercises
  in evolution, interest, etc., done by tedious methods, and do not
  appreciate how instinctively the best calculators employ logarithms.”

Professor Lodge’s popular book, _Pioneers of Science_, is very much
appreciated by the young, and I may quote _à propos_ evidence given by
Dr. Bryce of Glasgow before the Royal Commission of 1864:--

“Pure mathematics cultivates the power of deductive reasoning, and
as soon as boys are capable of forming abstract ideas, and grasping
general principles, as soon as they have got correct notions of
numbers, and an accurate knowledge of the essential parts of
arithmetic, and have made some progress in geometry, then natural
philosophy may be advantageously taught. I speak on this matter
from experience. My relative and colleague, who had charge of the
mathematical department in the Belfast Academy, introduced natural
philosophy as part of the work of all the mathematical classes. After
these classes had gone a certain length in geography and algebra, he
took up the elements of natural philosophy two days in the week, as
part of the work of every mathematical class. He began with simple
experiments, and according as the progress of the boys in Euclid and
algebra admitted of it, more mathematical views of natural philosophy
were introduced. The great advantage of the study of physical science
is that, when properly taught, it interests boys in intellectual
pursuits generally. For instance, Newton’s great discovery, the
identity of the power which retains the moon in her orbit with
terrestrial gravity, was being explained to a class of from twelve to
eighteen boys. The teacher did not tell them the result; he enumerated
the phenomena by which Newton arrived at it, taking care to present
them in the order most likely to suggest it. As fact after fact was
marshalled before them, they became eager and excited more and more,
for they saw that something new and great was coming; and when at last
the array of phenomena was complete, and the magnificent conclusion
burst upon their sight, the whole class started from their seats with
a scream of delight. They were conscious that they had gone through
the very same mental operation, as that great man had gone through.
The consciousness of fellowship with so great a mind was an elevating
thing, and gave them a delight in intellectual pursuits. An unusual
proportion of those boys who passed through the Belfast Academy during
the twenty years that I was able to have natural and physical science
taught on those principles, have, as men, been distinguished and
successful; and they owe it, I am convinced, in a large degree to the
taste for intellectual pursuits thus formed.”


PART III. SCIENCE.

PSYCHOLOGICAL ORDER OF STUDY WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO SCIENTIFIC
TEACHING.

By DOROTHEA BEALE.

As Rosencranz expresses it, there may be distinguished three epochs:--

  I. The intuitive--I use the word with the German meaning of
  sense-perception.

  II. The imaginative, during which the developing mind is more
  accustomed to dwell on mental images, is less passive to impressions,
  more active in calling them up, in fashioning them anew.

  III. The logical, during which the impulse is to harmonise the world
  without and the world within, to fit all things into a scheme of
  space and time, of order and law.

Regarding these, we may ask what is the thought-material in which the
developing mind may best work successively--or if we take the same
material, in what varying way shall we deal with it? The near objects
which the children can touch and taste and see objectively, these are
the first things which call forth the attention, that self-activity
by which the mind fastens on its prey, and converts percepts into
concepts; as the jelly fish catches the floating prey in its tentacles,
and absorbs it into its substance, so the child stores up experiences
and memories which enrich all future percepts.

[Botany.]

What subject of systematic study can be better suited to the child
then, than that which calls out its sense of wonder and beauty, and
which in harmony with its own restless nature is ever changing; in
which is found endless variety with underlying order? Surely the world
of flowers is specially suited for teaching the little ones. How the
colours and forms delight them--has not the first sight of a flower
remained with many of us through life, “a joy for ever”? It is for us
to teach how to observe, so that the memories shall be not mere vague
impressions, but clear-cut, accurate, lasting: all the senses must
combine to give unity and completeness to the sense-concept, so that
the child may feel the beauty, enter into loving sympathy with Nature,
and perfect that “inward eye, which is the bliss of solitude”. Children
should be led to form collections, by which the first observations
may be repeated and fulfilled; they should also learn to draw, so
that not merely the individual, but the essential, the typical may be
brought into clearness; we should, too, encourage in them the desire to
co-operate with Nature in making the earth beautiful, and call out the
affections towards the Unseen Giver of all good things.

These are a few of the reasons why botany in its simplest forms is fit
nourishment for the child. The hard names, the intricate divisions
into classes and orders, the physiology of growing plants can be
touched on only lightly; but the power of observation can be greatly
developed, and the main facts of classificatory botany can be taught,
and teaching full of interest given as regards structure, growth, seed
distribution and relations to the insect world. Mrs. Bell’s Science
Ladders form a good introduction. When we have exhausted our material,
so far as the little child is capable of understanding, it is better
to turn to some fresh subject; we may later, when the mind is ripe for
these things, take the subject up again. Children whose eyes have been
opened, will be able to go into the country, and note down the things
they have seen. Diaries I have seen quite beautifully kept by poor
children taught at the House of Education at Ambleside. The children
knew the different buds as they came out on the trees, and watched the
delicate and deepening tints, saw the leaf-buds develop into leaves,
and the opening of the flowers.

[Zoology.]

Elementary botany should, I think, be followed by a year of zoology
(say at ten years old), treated in a simple way; the teacher should
dwell not upon the internal structure, but on what presents itself to
the eye, beginning with living creatures that the children are familiar
with, or can get to know--domestic animals, “beasties” from garden and
pond, caterpillars and birds, tadpoles and dragon-flies--they should
have their menageries, and watch the creatures’ habits. Especially
suited to women is the work of observing insect life, and there are
worlds for us to discover, if we, as we walk round our garden, have
eyes to see.

The animal world too is specially calculated to develop the affections
rightly. The character of the human being is too complex, too far
above the understanding of the child, and as long as he is dependent,
he should not be exercised in observing and chronicling the doings
of those whom he cannot yet understand. It is something to give
him objects, on which he can exercise his powers of criticism and
observation. So too the sense of responsibility may be fostered towards
those who depend upon him, and are in his power.

[Astronomy.]

These two sciences bring the child into contact with things on the
earth; he might next lift up his eyes to the heavens. It delights the
child to learn the names of the constellations, and trace their forms,
to notice the movements of the planets, the changing aspect of the
sky as the years go round. The sense of the greatness of the universe
gradually dawns on him, and the awe and reverence for that power and
wisdom which is revealed in the heavens, prepares the way for those
deeper teachings which belong to religion. Especially stimulating
is astronomy to the developing reflective powers, from the number
and variety of problems it suggests; and yet it is not altogether
baffling, for the child can be led on to draw conclusions respecting
the movements and distances of the heavenly bodies; very early he can
be shown how to solve such questions by simple processes, and thus the
mathematical passion awakened; surely most of us can remember the first
time that our soul really ascended into the seventh heaven. I have
heard a mathematician describe what it was to him--how at fourteen he
fled from the school into the fields to be alone.

[Physical geography.]

And what next? There is something near to the child, which he can
touch, which lies at his feet, a magic book with mysterious characters,
in which he reads of infinite time; let him open the pages of the great
rock-book, and gather the relics of the past. Geology will help him to
observe in a new way; astronomy and geology (I use it in the sense of
earth-history) are more suited than the two first to the beginning of
the reflective period, because there is nothing to be done to alter the
objects of the two last sciences--whereas we can do much, and observe
the effect of our doings on plants and animals.

Physiography, including geology and all that has to do with the
phenomena of Nature included under the head of physical geography,
would claim a two years’ course and unify the subjects already touched
on: the pupil will learn many facts on physical science.

And now the girl, say about fifteen, with an increasing power of
abstraction and reflection, and a greater knowledge of mathematics,
will be ready to receive more formal and definite instruction regarding
what we call matter and force--elementary physics; the subjects of
light and heat, electricity or chemistry might be selected; the
girl is becoming the woman--the reflective powers are gaining the
ascendant--she is longing to interpret more than to gain ever more
knowledge, she understands something of physics and chemistry; let
her return now to her first study and carry it still further, see the
mysteries of life revealed in the flower, take physiological botany,
the chemical changes produced by the physical processes, watch the
plants as they grow, and trace the relation of flower and insect, plant
and animal--recognise that all-embracing intelligence working in all,
which has harmonised not only the outward things, but the intelligence
of every living creature, and made each able more or less to know the
laws of their life and to obey them. The developing and deepening
religious instinct will find utterances from heaven in these earthly
things, hear the voice of God among the trees of the garden. Later
still we can pass into the inner temple, treat of physiology, show how
marvellous is the living tabernacle of the soul, how fitted for our
temporary abode.

It is objected by some that physiology should not be studied because
it involves the whole circle of sciences, whilst others regard it as
the most necessary and fundamental branch of instruction. Experienced
teachers know that much of great educative and practical value can be
given on the lines of Mrs. Bell’s _Laws of Health_, and brought home
to comparatively uneducated people by the tracts of the Ladies’ Health
Society, and we all know how important it is for those who are growing
into womanhood, that the subject should be treated with the wisdom and
judgment and reverence which it demands.

On the later stages of the teaching of natural science I do not
propose to dwell. Those who take up science as a speciality will have
to limit the field, and others will be guided by circumstances, but
whatever special line they may follow later, such a course of study
must surely have nourished the powers of the mind, developed the
sympathies, disciplined the character, enlarged the horizon beyond the
petty concerns which occupy the whole attention of the uneducated of
all sorts and conditions. The woman who has really thought about these
things, when she travels will see things with different eyes, she will
understand enough to profit by the companionship of able and thoughtful
men, and later perhaps to share it may be a man’s work as Miss
Herschel, and Mrs. Huggins, and Mrs. Proctor, and Mrs. Marshall, and
Mrs. Sidgwick and many more--to be the friend of her brothers and the
first teacher of her sons--and she will surely have learned the first
lesson of wisdom, the humility which knows that all we know is to know
that our knowledge is as nothing in the presence of the Infinite, that
if any man think that he knows, he knows nothing as he ought to know it.

I have worked out the order in detail in respect to science; it will
be enough to touch very briefly on the parallel teachings in other
subjects, which must also be taught scientifically.

Take, _e.g._, language. The child is ever observing and imitating;
restless activity characterises the child.

The teacher has to perfect the observing powers by insisting on right
pronunciation, as I have shown in another chapter, first in English,
then in another language; knowledge is first empirical.

Next will follow, not grammatical definitions and rules to be learned,
but the discovery of classification, just as in the case of botany,
through observation--the discovery of rules inductively; then, when
the need is felt for a shortening of the process, the collections
made by grammarians may be produced, as the book of dried specimens,
say of ferns, which the child had not time and opportunity to collect
for herself. Afterwards will come reading and reflection upon the
relationship of words, like the systems of scientific classification
of flowers, and later the age of poetry and philosophy. It is the
giving the grammatical abstractions to children who are at the stage
of observation merely, which creates the distaste for school learning;
it is the giving dead languages at a time when children are at the
active, intuitive age, and have not the powers of thought necessary to
disentangle the classical authors, that makes so much of our teaching a
failure.

So with history. First the simple tales, _e.g._, Jack and the
Giant--no complications of character there--good and bad, black and
white--stories of fairies and hobgoblins, beings so unlike ourselves,
that we are not troubled too much with moral scruples; they are like
dream people. Then old-world heroes, in whom the moral emerges--not
the priggish boys and girls, to cramp the character, but boys and
girls, writ large. Then passing from the individual to the general,
the specimen to the species, we have family life enlarged to the state
under a kingly constitution, as in ancient patriarchal times, the first
teachings of which are best gathered from the Old Testament. As in the
nature teachings we shall lead children to feel underlying all, the
sense as of an unseen presence, a King of Kings ruling the course of
this world, leading and guiding the mind of man to work with Him as
in the nature realm. And lastly in the highest teachings, which have
to do, not with the objective surroundings, but with the man himself,
with his thoughts and aspirations, with the expression of these in
literature, in art, in ethics, and politics, and philosophy, the
student will find enough to develop the highest powers of thought, as
he wrestles with the problems of life, when he has reached the later
period of study.

And the same order is observed in religion. The objective first--the
Divine acts seen in nature, in the acts of the good, in the punishment
of evil; at first the thought of God is more objective, since it must
be so in the early life of the child under parental government.
Later more subjective, through conscience. Sin is at first regarded
chiefly as an act against a loving person, later it is felt to be the
degradation of our nature, or that of others, by taking in a poison as
it were; or as ἁμαρτια, the frustration of the true ends of our being,
the exclusion from the light and life and joy of the Divine presence,
which is the soul’s sunlight, into outer darkness--the conceptions
formed will be different, the underlying truths one, the thoughts will
pass from the physical to the panpsychical, and later to the highest
conceivable by us--the anthropomorphic, stripped of the transitory and
the finite, but embracing all those eternal things by which we know
that we are more than creatures of time, since we gladly throw from us
all that would then be our highest good, for the things which eye sees
not and ear hears not, but which can come to us by revelation only of
the spiritual; things which all men, in all ages, have felt to be the
best, whatever their actions may have been, truth, love, righteousness,
justice, the eternal things.

    The worst man knows in his conscience more
    Than the best man does, whom we bow before.


THE TEACHING OF THE BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES.

By CHARLOTTE L. LAURIE.

[Introduction.]

The biological sciences deal with the manifestations of life. This
distinguishes them at once from the physical and chemical sciences;
not, indeed, that it is possible to understand the life of any organism
without some knowledge of physics and chemistry; thus to explain
intelligibly the circulation of the blood some acquaintance with
mechanics is necessary, but organisms have certain properties which
belong to them from the very fact of their being endowed with life; the
inherent properties of protoplasm, its contractility, irritability,
etc., are all vital properties due to the presence of life.

The first point then that a teacher of biology has to decide in order
to teach this subject rightly is: What is it possible to teach about
life? Is this nineteenth century with its marvellous electrical
discoveries any nearer the secret of life? Although it may fairly
be claimed that the manifestations of life are better understood,
yet scientists will be the first to confess that what life itself is
still remains a mystery; _therefore_ the teacher of biology must never
be satisfied without arousing in the minds of his pupils a growing
consciousness of the limitations of knowledge, the basis of true
reverence. Any teaching of science, not only of biology, which fails to
do this is defective.

[Development of observation (_a_) in class and home work.]

The teacher of biology then will desire first of all to develop a
reverent attitude of mind, so that the facts of life may be understood
aright. Observation of vital phenomena is by no means an easy thing;
it needs much accuracy, constant patience and minute attention to
detail. In school teaching the foundations of accurate observation
ought to be laid. Botany affords much scope for this. In planning
lessons, in choosing specimens for home work, the teacher should aim
at developing this faculty. A lesson on a buttercup may very well be
followed by home work on a marsh marigold. The two plants belong to
the same order and have great similarity in structure, but certain
important differences; the tendency of unobservant pupils will be to
conclude that the same description will apply to both, and possibly
nectaries will be described as present on the sepals of the marsh
marigold instead of on the carpels, etc. As a rule, home work should
demand original observation on the part of the pupils; it should not be
a mere repetition of what has been done in class; thus, supposing the
sweet-pea has been worked through in class, clover may be set for home
work, provided of course that the class is sufficiently advanced.

Then, as regards the observation of vital phenomena, it is possible
to show that plants, like animals, take in oxygen. The details of
“Garreau’s experiment” can be contrived even in schools where there is
no physiological laboratory; with a water plant such as _Anacharis_,
the evolution of oxygen in the making of starch can be demonstrated;
and with such a simple thing as yeast growing in sugar and water, it
is easy to show that carbonic acid gas is given off by fungi; more
elaborate experiments are necessary to demonstrate the evolution of
this gas by green plants. The teacher should always point out any
similarity of process in plants and animals; transpiration of plants
should be compared with the perspiration of animals, so that after a
few lessons on the physiology of plants, it is possible to indicate the
essential differences between plants and animals as far as they are
known.

In zoology, as in botany, the teacher should aim at developing the
power of observation, but zoology is a much more difficult subject
to teach well; for it is not always possible to get animals for
observation, consequently lessons in zoology are often dry; they are
wanting in that living interest which comes not from book study, but
from watching the animal itself. Where, however, this has been done,
keen interest is aroused. A teacher who has spent hours off the coasts
of Devonshire, pulling sea-anemones out of the crevices of the rocks,
or watching them expand their tentacles and draw them in, will give a
very different lesson from one who has merely read about a sea-anemone.

A class, having lessons in zoology, should have access to an aquarium,
which can be kept in the class-room, and in planning a course on
this subject, especially for young children, it is most important to
choose those types which can be observed. In a first year’s course for
children of ten or eleven, preference should be given to the habits
of the animals, and structure introduced only so far as is necessary
to explain habit. Living specimens for lessons may be obtained from
aquaria in Jersey, Birmingham and elsewhere.

[(_b_) By means of field work.]

It is not possible, however, to do all that ought to be done in
developing observation within the limits of an hour a week in a
schoolroom. The teacher of botany or zoology should be willing to
organise expeditions into the country for botanising or pond grubbing.
Here we have a Field Club, consisting of three or four sections:
botanical, geological, zoological, archæological. The teacher of each
subject is naturally the leader of the section, and is thus able to
arouse a keener interest than is possible in the class-room alone. A
yearly conversazione, when collections are exhibited, gives zest to the
working of the sections, brings all the members of the club together,
and affords an opportunity for obtaining a lecture from some original
worker. It is found that if 200 belong to a school society of this
kind, each member subscribing one shilling a year, a conversazione
can be held, and prizes for collections given out of the funds of the
society; each member bears in addition her share of the expense of an
expedition; but the less expensive and the nearer home these are, the
better.

[(_c_) Through a museum.]

An excellent means of arousing a real interest in science lessons, and
of developing the observation, is to have a school museum. That part
of the museum devoted to natural history should combine two functions;
it should have perfect specimens of the chief types of animal life
arranged morphologically; for instance, the covering organs, such
as scales of fishes, feathers of birds, hair of animals, should be
grouped together, so that the homology of these organs can be seen at
a glance; secondly, the museum should have surplus specimens specially
intended for teaching purposes. One specimen will not serve these two
purposes; for the only way of preserving any specimen in its perfection
is to keep it under lock and key in a glass case, which _must_ be air-
and dust-tight. As soon as a specimen is taken out and passed about
from teacher to teacher and from class to class, it will inevitably get
damaged, as the curator of many a school museum can testify.

What share can the pupils take in the museum work? They may furnish
specimens, but here the difficulty is to get them perfect enough;
children require to be trained to aim at a standard of perfection,
and in this particular the school museum may do valuable work; at
the same time if the curator demands too much, the ardour of the
children becomes damped; so it is sometimes well to accept an imperfect
specimen, and put it in the museum until a more perfect one is
forthcoming. Pupils can also do much useful work in making diagrams and
drawings; every specimen in the science portion of the museum should
be drawn, and parts explained by means of an accompanying diagram.
Reference may here be made to the scheme at the end of this paper
for a specimen museum case, illustrating the flowering plant. It has
been drawn up on the lines of the Natural History Museum at South
Kensington, where, as is well known, great attention is paid by Sir
William Flower to the homology of organs. This scheme has been carried
out in our museum; almost every specimen has been illustrated with a
drawing done by pupils, the scientific explanation being written by
the teacher. In the first instance, as the case was being arranged,
specimens and diagrams were merely _pinned_, not gummed, so that as the
work progressed it was possible to alter and improve upon the first
arrangement.

[(_d_) Use of microscopes.]

In connection with the development of observation, a word may be said
about the use of the microscope in schools. Every school should have
at least one microscope, if even it has only one or two powers; a
great deal can be done with a 1-inch and 2-inch objectives. At present
many girls take the course required by the University of Oxford for
the Senior Local without having seen a single structure under the
microscope. This ought not to be, especially now that microscopes are
so inexpensive (a microscope with 1-inch and ¹⁄₄-inch objectives can be
obtained for £3 6s.).

There is considerable difficulty in managing microscope work with large
classes; not more than two pupils, or at the most three, can work at
a microscope at the same time, and where there are only one or two
microscopes in a school, the simplest plan is for the teacher of botany
to have pupils out singly, whilst the rest of the class are doing paper
work at their desks. Lantern slides are an immense help in class work,
but they cannot altogether take the place of the microscope, and it
is very important that elder pupils likely to do anything at science
should learn to manipulate the microscope.

[Order of lessons.]

In no subject is it more necessary to plan lessons carefully than in
science, for not only does the development of the observing faculty
depend on a right sequence, but the scope of science is ever widening.

Biology alone includes at the present time subdivisions which hardly
existed thirty years ago. Teachers of botany now have to find time for
vegetable morphology, histology and physiology, for the life-histories
of plants as well as for the descriptions necessary to classification.
At the same time there are other considerations, besides a right
sequence, which must be borne in mind in planning a course.
Theoretically, it would be best in botany to begin with a description
of the plant as a whole; root, stem, leaf, flower, branch, and the
relation of these parts to each other, should be the subject of the
first lessons. But children of ten or eleven could hardly be expected
to be interested in learning that a leaf is a lateral appendage of a
stem, and a branch an axillary outgrowth, whereas they are fascinated
by flowers, and enjoy lessons about the visits of insects to flowers,
etc. Undoubtedly with young children it would be wiser to begin
with the flower and gradually lead up to the plant as a whole. The
teacher, too, must be guided to some extent at any rate by his own
individuality. In a subject as wide as botany some minds are attracted
by one part, some by another; one teacher can be so luminous in his
account of structure and its adaptation to function that the children
are in their turn interested, especially if minute structure is seen
through the microscope, and the delight of drawing forms part of the
lesson. Another teacher revels in classification, and loves to point
out the resemblances between plants of one order and those of another.

There must be, and it is almost impossible to over-emphasise this,
a certain sequence, a certain gradation, a definite plan, on which
the lessons are arranged; but this plan, this sequence should be the
teacher’s own, it should be the outcome of his own individuality; he
will best teach what most interests him, hence he had better follow
his own order than that of any text-book, however excellent. In higher
classes, where the work is arranged on examination lines, the teacher
has a definite syllabus for his guidance; but even in this case there
is play for his individuality, and nothing can dispense with this.
He must be always reading the new books on his subject; he must keep
himself in touch with the new work that is being done through visiting
museums, botanical gardens, working in laboratories, etc., so as to
be keen about his subject, otherwise his lessons will be dull and
lifeless, and the unforgivable sin in a teacher is dulness.

[Science cultivates the faculties of imagination and reasoning.]

Although teachers of biology will naturally attach much importance
to the development of observation, it is very necessary to remember
that observation is only a means to an end, not an end in itself. If
teachers aim only at cultivating the faculty of observation, they are
likely to produce pupils who will make good collectors (a work not
to be despised), but nothing more. The accurate observation of facts
is absolutely necessary, but it is by no means the only thing to be
done in science teaching. The power of generalisation, from the facts
collected, should follow if science is to advance at all. It may be
thought that this cannot be done in school work, but surely some
attempt should be made in this direction, for it is most necessary that
pupils should be taught to understand, to some extent at any rate,
when a generalisation is sound and when unsound. This is specially the
case in teaching physiology; for instance, pupils are most interested
in hearing something of the cell theory of the body, and can quite
appreciate the bearing of the discovery, that the walls of the
capillary blood-vessels are composed of cells, on this theory.

Science is not a matter merely of memory and accurate observation,
it needs considerable reasoning power and much imagination, for
without the power of seeing resemblances in facts, _i.e._, true
induction, progress is impossible. The theory of evolution, which has
revolutionised not only science, but the whole thought of the present
day, could never have been formulated had Darwin and Wallace been mere
observers, however accurate, and in this connection a science teacher
may be allowed to bear witness to the importance of the Humanities in
the training of the mind. As a scholar of Shrewsbury Grammar School,
Darwin had little training in science, but possibly without the mental
discipline of the classics, he would have been unable to accomplish
what he did for science in later life; for the higher walks of science
require much imagination. In science lessons pupils may be called on
to devise experiments for themselves, to invent diagrams, to find out
resemblances, to note dissimilarities, in order to develop the faculty
of imagination. Speaking very generally, in younger classes the aim of
the teacher will be to cultivate the faculty of observation, in the
upper to develop not only observation, but the imagination and power of
reasoning.


NOTES OF A SPECIMEN LESSON ON GROWTH OF SEEDLINGS FOR SENIOR OXFORD
CLASS.

_Time--one hour._

In a previous lesson the structure of the seed of bean, maize and
sunflower has been given.

Material required:--

  A. Seedlings of bean, maize and sunflower, ten days old; one of each
  kind for each pupil.

  B. Seedlings of the above, three weeks old.

  C. Seedlings grown in different media; water, sawdust, soil.

1. _The Seedlings of the Broad Bean_ should first be examined.

  (_a_) The radicle, observed in the seed, has given rise to the
  primary root, on which possibly lateral roots have begun to develop.
  This is an instance of a true tap root.

  (_b_) The plumule is beginning to form the stem.

  (_c_) The cotyledons are gradually getting smaller, for the seedling
  is feeding on them.

These points should be emphasised by means of the blackboard, the
pupils themselves drawing the seedlings as exactly as possible, always
naming each part.

2. _Seedlings of Sunflower._--These the pupils should describe as far
as possible by themselves. They should notice from the green colour
and absence of soil on the cotyledons that they are above ground, and
that there is a portion of the seedling between the cotyledons and
the beginning of the root; this the teacher tells them is called the
hypocotyledonary portion of the stem, and the pupils ought to be able
from previous lessons to explain the word, or even to make it up for
themselves.

3. _Seedlings of Maize._--Here the pupils will be able to describe by
themselves the endosperm and the primary root, provided that only one
root has shown itself. If the lateral roots have begun to develop, the
teacher must explain which are lateral and which primary, and point
out the difference between the primary root of this seedling and that
of the bean and sunflower. It should be noticed that there is only
one cotyledon, and here the point to emphasise is, that the bean and
sunflower live on the food contained in, or made by, the cotyledons;
the maize on the food present in the endosperm.

The seedlings three weeks old should then be compared with those
already observed, the differences in length of radicle and plumule
being noted.

The observation of these seedlings will naturally suggest the subject
of growth. What is growth? By judicious questioning the teacher will
show that it is impossible to define it, except by its manifestations
in plants and animals; it is associated with the taking in of food;
then by comparing the growth of a building or rock with that of a
plant and animal, it will be possible to give some idea of growth by
accretion as distinct from growth by assimilation; thus the mystery
of growth will be gradually approached, the teacher pointing out that
growth is only possible where there is life. This should be illustrated
in every possible way, _e.g._, growth of the body, of the mind, of a
school, a nation, etc.

Lastly, the effect of environment on growth will be illustrated by the
seedlings grown in different media.

The home work in connection with this lesson should consist of: (1)
Descriptions of seedlings; instead of maize, wheat may be given;
nasturtium instead of bean; these the teacher must have ready for
distribution; a drawing of each should be insisted on, with parts
named; (2) Short notes on the conditions of growth and its essential
nature.

The children should also be invited to grow seedlings for themselves;
these should be exhibited in subsequent lessons.


LIST OF BOOKS ON BOTANY.


(A) TEXT-BOOKS FOR CLASS USE.

  _Elementary Botany._ By Joseph Oliver. 2/-. Blackie. Useful for S.
  Kensington and London Matriculation.

  _Elementary Text-book of Botany._ By Edith Aitkin. 4/6. Longmans.
  This is specially suitable for Senior Oxford Course.

  _Student’s Introductory Handbook of Systematic Botany_ (Blackie’s
  Science Text-books). By Joseph Oliver. 4/6. This is one of the best
  text-books for Group E of Cambridge Women’s Examination.

  _Practical Elementary Biology._ By Bidgood. 4/6. Longmans. This gives
  most of the types, animal as well as vegetable, required for the
  Biology of Group E of Cambridge Women’s Examination.


(B) FOR TEACHERS.

  _Naked-eye Botany._ With Illustrations and Floral Problems. By F. E.
  Kitchener. 2/6. Percival & Co. Very useful for teachers of younger
  classes; it is most suggestive.

  _A Manual of Botany._ By Reynolds Green. Churchill. Vol. i.
  Morphology and Anatomy. 7/6. Vol. ii. Classification and Physiology.
  10/-. Very helpful for London Examination work.

  _The Natural History of Plants._ From the German of Kerner von
  Marilaun. Translated by F. W. Oliver. 4 vols. 12/6 each. Blackie.
  This is a very readable book, full of suggestion and beautiful
  drawings, and not too technical.

  _Handbook of the British Flora._ By Bentham. Vol. i., 10/6.
  _Illustrations of the British Flora_, vol. ii., 10/6. Reeve & Co.
  This is indispensable for the identification of species.

  _A Student’s Text-book of Botany._ By Vines. 21/-. Sonnenschein.

  _Practical Botany._ By Bower and Vines. 10/6. Macmillan. Both of
  these are very technical, suitable only for advanced work.


MUSEUM SPECIMEN CASE.

BOTANY.

ANGIOSPERMS OR FLOWERING PLANTS.


ROOT.

  Tap Root.--Seedling of Sunflower.

  Primary Root.--Seedling of Maize (not a tap root).

[Histology of root.]

  Drawing of transverse section of a dicotyledonous root, showing axial
  arrangement of bundles.

[Development of bundles.]

  Illustrated by drawings of transverse sections of young and old roots.

[Origin of lateral roots.]

  Drawing through long section of root, showing lateral roots arising
  from pericycle.

[Forms of roots.]

  Drawings of carrot, turnip, orchid, etc.


STEM.

  (_a_) Underground stems.

  Rhizome--Solomon’s Seal.

  Bulb--Long: Section of _Ranunculus bulbosus_.

  Corm--Long: Section of crocus.

  Tubers--Drawing of potato in different stages of growth.

  Runner--Drawing of strawberry.

  (_b_) Histology of stem.

  Drawings of transverse and longitudinal sections of monocotyledonous
  and dicotyledonous stems.

  Specimens of bast fibres of hemp, Mexican aloe, lace tree.

  (_c_) Axillary outgrowths of stem or modified branches.

  Tendrils--Sweet bryony.

  Thorns--Black thorn and gorse.


LEAVES.

  1. Drawing of poppy plant in five different stages, showing
  cotyledons, foliage and floral leaves, in illustration of Goethe’s
  generalisation, “all lateral appendages of the stem are leaves”.

  2. Cotyledons. Seedlings of mustard, cress, nasturtium, etc. Drawings
  of bean to show fleshy cotyledons. Seedling of maize.

  3. Covering leaves.

  (_a_) Bud scales from horse chestnut.

  (_b_) Bracts forming an involucre as in the wild carrot, black
  knapweed, acorn.

  4. Foliage leaves.

  A typical leaf with parts named.

  Drawing of transverse section.

  Arrangement of foliage leaves, alternate and whorled (including
  opposite).

  The chief types of “simple divided” and “compound” leaves should be
  mounted.

  Chief modifications of foliage leaves:--

  (_a_) Tendrils for climbing--Vetch.

  Petiole developed into tendril--Lathyrus aphaca (rare).

  (_b_) Spines--Barberry.

  (_c_) For food, _e.g._, carnivorous plants, sundew, pitcher plant,
  bladder-wort.

  (_d_) Modifications due to the medium in which the plant lives--Water
  crowfoot.


THE FLOWER.

  I. _Inflorescences._--A specimen and diagram of each.

  Racemose. (1) Capitulum, _e.g._, daisy; (2) raceme, _e.g._, lily of
  the valley; (3) spike, _e.g._, wheat.

  Cymose. 1. Dichotomous, _e.g._, most of the Caryophyllaceæ.

  2. Helicoid cyme. Forget-me-not.

  3. Scorpioid cyme. Rock-rose.

  4. Verticillaster. Dead nettle.

  II. _Flower._--Drawings (coloured alike throughout) to show
  hypogynous, perigynous and epigynous flower.

  Calyx--Spurred, larkspur; galeate, monkshood.

  Corolla--Papilionaceous, sweet-pea; bilabiate, dead nettle; rotate,
  convolvulus; cruciform, wall-flower.

  Andrœcium--Diadelphous, sweet-pea; monadelphous, mallow;
  didynamous, dead nettle; tetradynamous, wall-flower. Attachment of
  anthers--drawings.

  Ovaries--Diagram of monocarpellary and unilocular, tricarpellary
  and unilocular, polycarpellary and unilocular, polycarpellary and
  multilocular; free central.

  Ovules--Drawing of orthotropous, anatropous and campylotropous--each
  part of the ovule coloured the same throughout.


FERTILISATION.

  The two forms of primrose to show heterostylism.

  Drawing of figwort to show protogyny.

  Drawing of epilobium angustifolium to show protandry.

  Nectaries--Drawings of petal of buttercup, stamens of wall-flower,
  stamens of violet, carpel of marsh marigold, style of coltsfoot;
  nectaries coloured blue throughout.


FRUITS.

  A specimen and explanatory diagram of each.

    Dry Indehiscent.         Dry Dehiscent.           Succulent.
  Nut--                    Follicle--             Berry--
    Hazel.                   Marsh marigold.        Drawing of
    Acorn.                                          gooseberry.
  Achene--                 Legume--
    Corn buttercup.          Sweet-pea.
    Yellow goat’s beard.   Capsule--              Drupe--
    Clematis.                Thlaspi arvense.       Drawing of peach.
    Schizocarps--            Shepherd’s purse.
    Geranium and  Violet.
    umbelliferæ.           Porous Capsule--
                             Poppy.


SPURIOUS FRUITS.

  Pome--Apple; Hip--Rose; Haw--Hawthorn, etc., etc.

  Modes of Dehiscence of Fruits. Diagram of

  Septicidal--specimen of datura.
  Loculicidal--    „   „  horse chestnut.
  Septifragal--    „   „  cruciferæ.


SEED.

  Bean (_a_) with testa; (_b_) without testa.
  Maize (_a_) with pericarp; (_b_) without pericarp.
  Date cut through to show position of embryo.
  Coffee „    „    „    „      „    „    „
  Walnut to show cotyledons.


DISPERSION OF SEEDS.

  1. _Wings._-- Scale attached to seed of pinus.
                Wing attached to fruit of sycamore and ash.
                Seed of Bignonia alba.

  2. _Hairs._--_E.g._, silky hairs of seed of cotton and epilobium.
               Pappus of compositæ (fruit).
               Awns of clematis (fruit).

  3. _Hooks._-- Bristles of geum.


GEOGRAPHY.

By MARGERY REID, B.Sc. (Lond.).

[Aim in teaching.]

It is a vexed question how far the study of geography should be looked
upon as a training for the mind, or whether its primary function be not
to supply material on which the trained mind may work.

This difficulty may be to some extent solved by dividing the geography
teaching into two distinct branches--physical and general geography.

If this be not done it will be found that the general geography lesson
is overloaded with a mass of explanations of physical phenomena.

Thus, in a general lesson on the climate of India, it detracts from the
unity of the subject if the teacher is obliged to make a digression
to explain the theory of barometric pressures, but, presupposing this
scientific knowledge, references to the special application of it are
within the bounds of the lesson.

[Physical geography.]

The first course in physical geography should consist of lessons
requiring only observation of phenomena with which the children are
well acquainted.

[Observation and experiment.]

In a town like Cheltenham, situated within walking distance of the
source of the Thames, the subject of the watershed dividing the small
streams flowing into the Severn from those flowing into the Thames,
forms a much better subject for observation and reasoning than the form
and movements of the earth. Simple experiments also may be performed,
but artificial conditions should as far as possible be avoided. Thus
in a lesson on the principles of evaporation, the children may be made
to observe the gradual drying of a cloth, but if heat artificially
obtained be used to hasten the operation, the object-lesson loses the
greater part of its value.

[Style of written work.]

At the beginning of this course the work should be almost entirely
that of observation and simple reasoning, but it is well to insist
from the very first that exercises either spoken or written should be
good in form as well as in matter. The composition should be as terse
as is compatible with clearness, though this applies rather to the
description of experiments than observations, for in the case of an
observation, if we are to minimise the danger of overlooking the true
cause, all accidental circumstances must be carefully noted.

The difference between an observation and experiment should be
carefully explained, and the children should be shown that whereas in
an observation we have to listen to whatever Nature says, an experiment
is a question so framed that Nature will answer “Yes” or “No,” and that
we must only ask one question at a time. Thus we may ask the question:
“Is water-vapour lighter than air?” We boil water in a kettle and
the visible cloud appears above the spout showing that the invisible
vapour must have risen as it left the kettle. The question asked was
“Does water-vapour rise through the air?” and the answer is “Yes”. The
children should then write a description of the experiment with as
close attention to form as though it were a proposition of Euclid.

  _Experiment._ To prove that water-vapour is lighter than air.

  _Apparatus._ A kettle containing water and a spirit lamp.

  _Method._ Place kettle on spirit lamp, light lamp and boil the water.

  _Result._ Water-vapour issues from the spout in an invisible form and
  becomes visible as a cloud some little distance above the level of
  the spout.

  _Deduction._ That water-vapour is lighter than air.


_Subject-matter of the earliest course in Physical Geography._

This course should include lessons on the following subjects:--

[Subject-matter of early course in physical geography.]

1. Clouds: introducing the foregoing experiment to show why they occur
high up in the atmosphere and how they are produced.

2. Rain, snow, hail, etc.: the different conditions under which clouds
discharge their moisture.

3. Winds, with only such simple facts about their causes as can be
shown by the movements of air or draughts in a room. If tissue paper be
cut into fine strips, and held at different points in a room in which
is a fire, the draught towards the fire may be simply demonstrated and
also the draught up the chimney.

4. The sea: its saltness, the rising and the falling of the tide and
the fact that high tide is later by nearly an hour every day, also that
some tides rise higher and retire lower than others. (Causes of tides
should not be touched upon till later.) Waves and their causes.

[Definitions.]

As this course proceeds the children should be exercised in the making
of good definitions. It is a mistake to think that definitions must be
given by the teacher. It is well to ask one child what she means by
the word to be defined. Write the definition on the board, and then,
by means of a series of questions to the children, criticise all those
points which are superfluous in the definition given. Having eliminated
all these, let the teacher take the definition as it now stands, and by
giving examples of all the facts which come under it, show that it is
probably a great deal too wide, and draw from the children gradually
all the necessary limitations.

A definition so obtained will be easily remembered, and, as the
children get practice in framing them, they will appreciate the meaning
and neatness of a clear definition.

In the later part of this course the physical features of countries
may be introduced, and the children should get clear conceptions and
accurate definitions of terms commonly used in geography, such as
mountains, valleys, plains, islands, capes, etc., and they should both
be shown models and allowed themselves to make them.

The simpler facts concerning the work of rivers and other forces
modifying the surface of the land will also find a place among these
lessons.

The physical geography which should follow this preliminary work must
of course be modified to suit the age and intelligence of the pupils.

[Later course in physical geography.]

Physical and chemical experiments may now be introduced, and the
mathematical side of the subject will be more insisted upon as the
children begin to learn algebra and geometry.

The illustrations also need no longer be drawn from the child’s
immediate surroundings, but may be the result of reading, or of
description on the part of the teacher, and whereas in the lesson
general laws are arrived at from special cases, in the home work the
class should be encouraged to search for new cases illustrating the
laws.

These later courses should be preceded by simple work on the physical
and chemical properties of air and water. The form and movements of the
earth should be treated of, and with the help of a tellurium most of
the simple facts may be made clear, and the phenomena of the seasons
and the varying length of day and night may be demonstrated. The nature
of the proof of the earth’s movement round the sun is appreciated by
few, and the children should be encouraged to make for themselves some
of the observations on which it is based.

Thus they might be expected to keep an account of the groups of
stars seen due south every evening at a given hour. The change of
constellations will stimulate their curiosity, and it will not
be necessary to wait for the whole year before giving them some
explanation. Or they might be asked to keep a register of the varying
length of the shadow of a stick at noon for three months. The fact
could then easily be drawn from the children that the sun is at some
times higher in the heavens than at others, but they would almost
certainly have to be helped to find out the reason.

The meaning and use of the various lines ordinarily drawn on a globe
may now be given.

[The atmosphere: pressure and temperature.]

After this work on the earth as a planet, its gaseous envelope should
next be studied, _i.e._, the atmosphere, its composition, pressure
and temperature, and the instruments used for measuring them. In an
earlier course the instrument and its use will be enough to deal with;
in a course to older pupils the construction and correction of the
instruments may be considered.

The children might keep a chart of both temperature and pressure for
a month, and at the end of that time be taught to find the average
temperature for the month, and to understand the methods for showing
variations of the barometer used in the leading daily papers. The
nature of isobars and isotherms should also be explained, and the
isobars for July and January should be filled into two maps and kept
for use later. A map with isotherms filled in should also be given, and
the children encouraged to find reasons for the curves in any given
line.

[Winds.]

They will now be prepared to understand the laws treating of movements
of the atmosphere. With younger classes only the more important winds
should be taken, such as cyclones and anti-cyclones, land and sea
breezes, trade and anti-trade winds and monsoons, whilst the older
classes should be led to observe the local variations arising from
peculiar circumstances.

When the principles are grasped, an exercise might be given to indicate
with arrows the direction of the wind on the maps on which they have
already marked the isobars.

[Ocean depths.]

The water envelope of the world will next demand attention, _i.e._, the
depth of the ocean and its deposits. This at first sight will appear
to the children to be a subject about which they cannot possibly be
expected to have any knowledge, but by a short recapitulation of the
work of rivers treated in the preliminary course, the fact of the
necessary existence of a continental shelf may be drawn from them, as
also the fact that the breadth of this shelf will depend on the slope
of the continent in the immediate neighbourhood of the coast, and on
the amount of deposit made by rivers.

A wall map contoured to show depths in the Atlantic should be shown
to the class, and the instruments should be described used in
investigating depth and nature of the deposits on the ocean floor. With
an older class the nature of the evidence with regard to the belief in
the permanence of ocean basins may be touched upon.

Saltness of sea and causes regulating it. Various seas should be
compared with regard to their salinity.

[Tides.]

The tides. Their causes; spring and neap tides; reason for high tide
being fifty-four minutes later each day. The subject of the tidal
wave as experienced in England requires careful treatment, as many
text-books leave the impression on the minds of children that the tidal
wave in the North Sea travels from east to west, and that the shores of
the Baltic are experiencing low tide when the eastern coast of England
is having a high tide.

[Currents.]

Currents. Causes of currents should be sought in the movements of the
atmosphere. The class should be asked to indicate on the map showing
winds, which they drew to illustrate a previous lesson, the effects of
the trade and anti-trade winds in the production of currents. Attention
must then be drawn to the way in which the position of the land
modifies the currents so produced, and thus the class may gradually
evolve a chart of the currents of the Atlantic. For an exercise they
may be given a chart of the currents of the Pacific and asked for the
causes of the direction of the currents.

[Land.]

The teacher must then proceed to the more complex subject of the
physical features of the land.

Mountains produced by folding; their position with regard to the ocean.
Volcanoes and their distribution.

Hills produced by denudation.

Plains and valleys.

Rivers; their work and the various causes determining their volume,
velocity and course.

Springs.

Islands.

Climate. Temperature and rainfall.

Distribution of plants and animals.

       *       *       *       *       *

[General geography.]

The order of treatment of the general geography of various countries
does not vary, and consequently, notes of a first term’s course will
sufficiently indicate the lines of later work. Opinions differ as
to whether it is better to begin with the study of a continent or a
smaller division of land.

_Lesson I._ Before the actual course begins, the children should have a
preliminary lesson on the making of plans and the use of scales. A plan
of the schoolroom and of the immediate surroundings has now-a-days
generally been made by children whilst still in the Kindergarten, but
if so, a little recapitulation will do no harm before a first lesson on
the nature and meaning of a map.

The teacher’s preparation should be done several weeks in advance, so
that no point essential to a later lesson may be omitted in its proper
place.

[Position of places on earth’s surface.]

_Lesson II._ For the second lesson an outline map of the continent
or country to be studied is given to the children with the lines
of latitude and longitude. If the work has not already been done
in a physical course, the meaning of latitude and longitude should
be clearly explained. After having shown that the distance between
the equator and either of the poles is divided into 90 degrees, a
sphere may now be taken, and by rough measurement the two parallels
corresponding to those through the top and bottom of the given map
may be drawn upon it. After a short description of what we mean by
longitude, the longitude of the given country is then indicated on the
sphere, and the use of the two sets of lines to show exact position
on the earth will be appreciated. If it be not a first course, the
position of the given country may be compared with others equidistant
from the equator, or on the same meridian.

In this lesson may also be introduced a few words about the temperature
of the given country so far as it is dependent on latitude.

_Lesson III._ Height above sea level.

[Contouring.]

For this lesson the teacher should have drawn and painted for the class
a map of the continent being studied, with contour lines marked in
two different colours or with two different kinds of lines. (Too great
detail only tends to confuse the children.)

The first contour line should be drawn joining all places 500 feet
above the sea level, and the second joining all those places 1500 feet
above sea level. Each child should then be provided with one of these
maps, and a wall map similarly contoured and also coloured should be
hung on the wall.

The teacher then explains the nature of contour lines, and shows that
if that part of the map between the 500 contour line and the sea be
coloured green, the coloured part will represent all that part of the
land which is less than 500 feet high, that is, generally speaking,
the plains. That part between the 500 and 1500 contour lines is then
coloured light brown, and all those areas enclosed within the 1500
contour line a darker brown. When the maps are coloured, and each child
has her own, they may then be taught how to read a map so coloured.
The teacher will draw from the class that if the contour lines come
close together the ground slopes very rapidly, but that the slope is
more gradual when the contour lines are more widely separated--that the
greatest height of the land lies near the greater ocean, and that the
more gradual slope is towards the smaller ocean, and that this allows
of the development of larger but slower rivers than those flowing down
the steeper slope.

A raised model may then be shown to the class, and this may be coloured
in the same way as the maps, but the children must clearly understand
the disadvantages of a model, and be shown that the vertical heights
are always enormously exaggerated in proportion to the horizontal
distances.

In recapitulating, the children might be asked what they consider a
common slope for the sides of mountains. Their notions will always
be found to be extravagant, many of them thinking they have seen and
even climbed slopes of 60 degrees and upwards. By placing a piece of
india-rubber on the cover of a book, and gradually opening the book and
sloping the cover till the india-rubber rolls off, the children may be
shown how very small is the angle at which it is perfectly impossible
for anything to rest on a slope, and that therefore if we find stones
on the side of a hill, we know that the slope cannot be greater than 30
degrees. Examples may be drawn from any hill in the neighbourhood of
the school.

_Lesson IV._ A second lesson will be necessary on the contour of the
given continent, when the names of the mountain ranges and of the
plains may be given, short descriptions of them read, and exercise
given in filling them into a blank map from memory.

[Position of rivers.]

_Lesson V._ The teacher fills into a wall map, blank and uncontoured,
the principal rivers, and asks the class to put them in their contoured
maps. Many of the children will be found not to have appreciated the
meaning of contour lines, but will have drawn a river flowing from the
part coloured green to that part coloured brown. One such map will
form a good object-lesson, and the children can be brought to see the
absurdity of what they have done in representing a river as flowing up
a hill.

The properly contoured wall map may then be hung up, and the actual
position of the rivers followed. The meaning of watershed will now be
apparent, and the fact should be noted that it does not necessarily or
even generally correspond with the highest land.

The varying velocity of the river should be drawn from the children
from the nature and position of the contour lines, and from that, which
parts of its course are being sculptured and in which parts deposition
is taking place.

_Lesson VI._ If a physical course is given, the work of rivers will
already have been treated, but certain rivers in the continent should
be chosen for special description. From the contour line the children
will be able to say for how great a distance the rivers are probably
navigable, and the uses of the given rivers as a means of communication
and the position of towns on their banks may be discussed.

[Coast line.]

_Lesson VII._ Coast line. Sufficient knowledge will now have been
gained to render possible the appreciation of some of the causes
affecting coast line.

When rocks are hard and folded, producing mountains, then they will
also give rise to rocky promontories. Clays and sands, which inland
allow themselves to be worn into plains and valleys, will here produce
bays. Rivers, if still capable of erosion, will produce valleys,
which a slight subsidence will convert into narrow gulfs. Finally the
accessibility of various points on the coast may be considered, and the
position of the chief harbours and ports.

[Climate.]

_Lesson VIII._ Climate. This lesson may be treated deductively, as
the class is already familiar with those phenomena upon which both
temperature and rainfall are mainly dependent. The rainfall might be
given as an exercise, allowing the use of contoured maps, and the chart
of the prevailing winds.

_Lesson IX._ Distribution of vegetation, pastoral and agricultural
districts.

_Lesson X._ Distribution of minerals, centres of population.

At the end of this course a physical map of some country not already
studied by the children should be hung before them, and they should all
be asked to write an essay about the country from the facts that they
find in the map.

If they can do this, they will have learnt to read a map intelligently,
and one of the great ends of a course in geography will have been
attained, since they will not only have acquired many new facts, but
have also gained the power of searching for and assimilating facts for
themselves.

When England is the country being studied, this course must be
supplemented by more detailed work on the causes that have determined
the positions of cities and towns, and how these causes have operated
during the last 2000 years. The children should be shown that British
camps were generally on escarpments overlooking the surrounding
country. The district round was cultivated, and the inhabitants sought
safety in the camp in time of danger. After having been told that the
position of some of these “duns” or hill forts is still indicated by
such place-names as London, Dunstable and Dundee, the children might
be encouraged to suggest other places themselves. The number of camps
was greatly increased by the Romans, many of the sites being marked
by corruptions of the Latin word _castra_, as Chester, Colchester and
Winchester, and these camps were joined by well-made roads.

Later immigrants formed their centres either in the neighbourhood of
these roads, as the Saxons, who often formed villages at a point where
the road crossed a stream, as Hertford and Stamford on the Ermine
Street, or on sheltered bays and navigable streams, like the Norse and
Danes, whose towns and villages, ending in “ley,” “thorpe,” “wic,”
are never found except where there is a spring or other natural water
supply.

As the various races inhabiting England became amalgamated, and the
land was cleared, there was a tendency for towns and villages to spring
up over such districts as the Weald, the eastern counties, the central
plain and broad river valleys. But there was no great concentration
of population save in the south-east, where the neighbourhood of the
continent called into existence the Cinque Ports, and where iron
smelting was carried on by using the wood of the Wealden forests.

As the Cinque Ports declined, the growth of the navy and the increase
of fisheries and trade with the continent increased the size of other
ports, and the growing importance of the woollen trade called into
existence the large Norfolk towns, which flourished until vexatious
guild regulations induced many workers to leave the towns, and
form industrial villages as Manchester, Birmingham and Sheffield.
Settlements of foreigners, as the French silk weavers at Spitalfields,
also formed a nucleus for other industries.

At this point the children might be shown a geological map of England,
and also a map in which all those districts with a population of more
than 500 to the square mile are coloured red; they would notice that
almost all these red patches correspond with coal fields, and be
told that the period of beginning to work many of these coal fields,
corresponded with that at which America was being opened up; that
consequently such ports as Liverpool and Bristol on the west coast
became identified with the importing of cotton and sugar, and that
towns engaged in these industries sprang up in the neighbourhood of
these ports.

The use of steam power in various manufactures still further attracted
the cotton and woollen industries to the towns of Lancashire and
Yorkshire, and the working of iron, found in the neighbourhood of coal,
accounts for many other centres of population.

Another map may now be shown with the various manufacturing towns
marked, and attention called to the physical features which have caused
the location of the industry at that spot, as the presence of water
power, the possibility of water carriage, the neighbourhood of a port,
the presence of hard water used in beer-making, as at Burton.

When the internal growth of England has been considered, a lesson
should be given on her commercial supremacy, and the factors which
have determined it. England’s position in the centre of the great land
hemisphere, the climate, the indented character of the coast, and the
mineral wealth, should all be touched upon; nor in doing this should
points not geographical be omitted, as the needs of a continually
increasing population, the founding of colonies by a part of this
surplus population, and, above all, the character of the people, upon
which alone the greatness of an empire can rest.


PHYSICS.

By AGATHA LEONARD, B.Sc. (Lond.).

[Position of “physics” in scheme of science teaching.]

As a preliminary to any remarks on the teaching of physics, it will be
well to consider the place which the subject should hold in a general
scheme of science teaching. It is not the most suitable subject for
junior classes; for young children the sciences of botany and zoology
which cultivate the observing faculty, while making less demand upon
the reasoning powers, are preferable, but for children of thirteen
or fourteen a course of elementary physics affords valuable training
and arouses great interest. The subject must, of course, be treated
on purely experimental and non-mathematical lines, indeed the chief
value of physics at this stage is to teach the children the true use
and nature of experiment. They will probably begin with the idea that
the use of experiments in a lecture is somewhat the same as that of
illustrations in a story-book, to render it more entertaining, though
they might be dispensed with, and it takes time to make clear to them
that experiment is the very groundwork of all science, the careful
“questioning of nature” as to what effects follow upon certain causes.
These lessons on physics will lay an excellent foundation for a course
on physical geography, which may be taken for the next year’s work.

With girls of fifteen or sixteen either a second course of physics,
involving a knowledge of elementary mathematics, may be taken, or
chemistry may be begun; while with older classes the choice of a
subject will greatly depend on the nature of their previous work,
and on the facilities for laboratory work in chemistry or physics.
Physiology should not be taken with girls below sixteen; it is of less
educational value than either of the subjects above-mentioned, the
possibility of personal observation being less, and the whole as taught
in schools too often a matter of memory rather than of observation or
reasoning; if taught to elder girls it is rather for the practical
advantage of the information imparted than for scientific training.
Some such scheme of science teaching throughout a school as the
following might therefore be suggested:--

  Classes of average age 10 to 12    Botany or Zoology.
     „    „       „      13  „ 14    Elementary Physics.
     „    „       „      14  „ 15    Physical Geography.
     „    „       „      15  „ 16 {  Chemistry or Physics (Magnetism and
                                  {  Electricity or Heat and Light).
                                   { Chemistry or Physics or Botany;
  Senior Classes                   { Physiology and Hygiene (in addition
                                   { to one of the above).

The first course of physics (see end of chapter) may deal with some of
the chief forces of nature (gravity, cohesion, friction); the three
states of matter and their properties, under which head would come
lessons on atmospheric pressure; elementary ideas of work and energy;
and the simple phenomena of sound and heat. The subject of light is
better omitted until sufficient knowledge of geometry has been acquired
to allow of the laws of reflection and refraction, and the effect
of prisms and lenses being rather more adequately dealt with than is
possible at this stage. Magnetism and electricity also are better
postponed until a later course.

[Home-work.]

No text-book should be given to the children, as their home-work in
science should never take the form of learning from a book. Some
teachers, to avoid this, let the children take notes, and attempt
to reproduce the lesson, others give, either on the blackboard or
by dictation, a clear summary which the pupils take down verbatim,
but neither plan is satisfactory; the first leads to confusion and
inaccuracy, as the children are not old enough to take good notes,
while under the second all the work is done by the teacher. I have
found it best to end each lesson by setting some questions, framed
so as to bring out the chief points of the lesson, to be answered by
the children in their own words. The answers must be carefully looked
over and criticised at the next lesson, and a methodical account
of experiments insisted on, specifying in order the object of the
experiment, the apparatus employed, the method adopted, and the results
obtained and conclusion drawn. Specially good passages may be read to
the class, both as an encouragement to the writer, and as an example to
the rest of what can be done by one of themselves; and special censure
should be given to careless work, but great care must be taken to avoid
confusing mere mistakes with “bad work”; the children should be made
to feel that more value is attached to even faulty explanations or
descriptions, which show that their minds have worked on the subject,
than to the most perfect reproduction of the teacher’s exact words.

Besides the advantage of securing that the pupils and not the teacher
shall do the main part of the home-work, the teacher may gain most
valuable hints from the errors of the children; they will be found
often to arise from some misconception, the removal of which will
suggest a quite fresh method of explanation; indeed a teacher will be
unlikely to succeed in imparting clear scientific ideas to her pupils
who is not on the watch for any indications of what ideas, right
or wrong, they really have formed, and able therefore to see their
difficulties from their point of view.

[Definitions.]

The only case in which knowledge may perhaps with advantage be cast
into words not by the pupil alone but by the teacher, is that of a
definition, the construction of a concise and accurate definition being
in most cases beyond the child’s unaided powers. Even here, however,
the child should do as much as possible of the work herself, only it
should be done in class with the teacher’s help instead of at home
alone. Thus, suppose the lesson to be on the three states of matter, it
is better not to give a definition of each as the starting-point, and
then go on to illustrate and explain the same, but to start from the
undefined idea which every child possesses of a solid, a liquid, and
a gas, and develop from it by degrees the precise definition. Suppose
the class to suggest as definitions that substances in the solid
state are “hard,” in the liquid state “wet,” and in the gaseous state
“invisible,” they will be much interested in having the imperfection of
these definitions brought home to them by the help of the liquid metal
mercury, which does not “wet” glass or porcelain, and of the visible
gas chlorine, and in being led to find out the true distinctions
by observing the different behaviour of solids, liquids, and gases
respectively when placed in vessels of differing shapes and sizes.

[Science teaching not “authoritative”.]

It must indeed be a fundamental principle throughout these lessons
to tell as little as possible; not only should the children produce
unaided reports of their work, but the reports should be of what they
have themselves observed, not of what they have received on authority.
The worthlessness of authoritative science teaching is very generally
felt in these days, and some modern teachers are disposed to deny any
value at all to science lectures for young children, asserting that
_only_ by experimental work carried out by themselves, with as little
interference from the teacher as possible, can any really scientific
ideas be communicated to them. The value of personal practical work I,
of course, fully admit, but I am sure that really “scientific” training
may also be given in a “lecture” lesson, by a teacher who knows her
subject, and is skilful in the art of questioning, and in making her
children tell her what they really do see in an experiment, instead of
telling them what they ought to be seeing.

That observation may thus be trained, it is of importance to secure
that all experiments shown to young classes should “go”. With older
classes the occasional failure of an experiment may be no great matter,
they are capable of understanding that the conditions of the experiment
were not fulfilled and hence the failure, but with beginners in science
it is very undesirable to produce the impression that when Nature is
“questioned” she sometimes gives one answer and sometimes another.
Experiments that cannot be shown to the children should as a general
rule not be described, though when any principle is thoroughly grasped
and driven home by experiments performed before the class, there is
no harm in mentioning as additional illustrations such phenomena as
the falling of the mercury in a barometer tube on being carried up a
mountain, or the impossibility of making good tea at high altitudes
owing to the lowering of the boiling-point of water; but should the
want of apparatus prevent an experiment otherwise suitable for a
lecture from being performed it is generally better with beginners to
omit all mention of it.

[Apparatus for elementary course.]

For carrying out such a course as that now being considered very
simple and inexpensive apparatus is for the most part needed. The only
expensive piece really necessary is an air-pump; for the rest, an
ordinary pair of scales, a few glass beakers, flasks and funnels, some
glass tubing and rods, a little mercury, some wire gauze, some sheet
india-rubber, thermometers, a Bunsen burner, and a retort stand or two,
are all that is needed, though the addition of such pieces of apparatus
as the Magdeburg hemispheres will enable interesting experiments to be
shown.

[Practical work.]

As regards the children’s own practical work it is not always possible
to arrange in schools for laboratory work for beginners; the time at
disposal is often insufficient, and the class too large for a single
teacher to give the supervision needed by children so young; but where
the class can be taken in sections of not more than ten or twelve
pupils for an extra lesson, nothing so greatly rouses the children’s
interest and gives so real a grasp of principles as a course of
simple experimental work carried out by themselves. Accuracy must be
insisted upon from the very beginning; each experiment must have a
definite object, and a description of the experiment with the results
obtained must always be written out by the child. It is a good plan
to give as many experiments as possible in which the result aimed
at is quantitative, it is a great satisfaction to a child to obtain
a result whose correctness can be gauged, but it is not necessary
that the work should be exclusively of this type. The course may
begin with the careful measurement of lengths, employing different
methods, such as the direct application of the rule to the object, the
transference of distances by means of compasses, and obtaining the
lengths of curves by means of a string laid along them and afterwards
measured; and the children should be taught to make measurements on
the metrical system as well as in feet and inches, especially if they
already possess any knowledge of decimals. When they can measure as
accurately as their scales will allow, the vernier may be introduced,
its principle explained by the aid of a large-sized model, and practice
given in reading the verniers on barometer scales, etc. Then may
follow measurement of the area of rectangles, and, if the children’s
mathematical knowledge allow of it, of triangles and other rectilineal
figures, then the determination of the volume of rectangular solids
from their linear dimensions. The determination of mass may next be
taken up, and the pupils taught how to use a balance properly, the
C.G.S. unit being again employed as well as the pound; then they may
learn how to weigh in water, and how to prove experimentally that the
loss of weight of a body weighed in water is equal to the weight of
the displaced water; then the volume of a body may be determined by
finding the mass and hence the volume of the water it displaces; from
this they pass readily to the determination of specific gravities.
Experiments on air pressure may follow; the children may learn to read
the height of the barometer, and to make for themselves barometric
charts showing the variation of the height from day to day; this
affords a good opportunity of teaching them to use squared paper. There
are also many simple experiments in mechanics, such as the experimental
determination of the principle of the lever, the finding of the
position of the centre of gravity of a lamina, the finding of the
resultant of two parallel forces, etc., very suitable for such a class.
Then may come easy experiments and measurements in heat, the reading of
various thermometer scales, the filling of a thermometer and its rough
graduation, and experiments proving the fact of expansion and of the
force exerted by expanding or contracting bodies; measurements of the
amount of expansion are too difficult for this stage. Much supervision
is required; special care should be taken that children are not left
with unoccupied intervals during which they get listless and bored;
this requires careful previous planning out of sufficient experiments
for the whole class. It will stimulate interest if several children
in succession are allowed to make the same measurement, and then to
compare their results.

Even where no laboratory class is taken, the teacher can still take
opportunities of convincing the children that experiments can be
performed by themselves as well as by their class-teacher; they enjoy
being called up to perform an experiment in class, and will, if they
have any taste for the subject, take an interest in repeating any
possible ones at home; they can convince themselves of air-pressure by
private experiment with syringes, siphons, and inverted tumblers, or
can find centres of gravity, or experiment with sounding strings of
various lengths, but of course such desultory experiments, followed by
no careful writing out of results, do not give very valuable training
in scientific accuracy.

[Diagrams.]

I would insist also on the importance of requiring children from the
first to illustrate their work by diagrams; a little time is well spent
in criticising these, and in showing how they might be improved. Very
neat and serviceable diagrams may be produced even by children with no
natural taste for drawing, but they need to be shown how to work, and
perhaps to have the lines of a diagram suggested to them at first by a
rough blackboard sketch, or it may not occur to them that a few simple
lines will show all that is necessary better than a would-be realistic
sketch of apparatus, with impossible perspective and smudgy shading.

[Course of electricity and magnetism.]

I pass on now to somewhat higher classes. With pupils whose average age
is about fifteen, some one or two of the branches of physics may be
taken more in detail. Suppose electricity and magnetism to be chosen,
the aim throughout the course should be so to impart elementary ideas
that they may be a real help and not a hindrance to any future effort
to take in modern views of electricity. To this end attention should
from the very first be directed to the electric or magnetic “field”
about any charged or magnetised body and not exclusively concentrated
upon that body itself, and the pupils should be accustomed to attribute
the motions in such fields not to the “action at a distance” of a
charge, a pole, or a wire carrying a current, but to the special
condition of the medium immediately around the moving body. The idea
of a magnetic field is more readily grasped by beginners than the
corresponding idea in electrostatics, owing to the ease with which
the field may be mapped to the eye by means of iron filings, or by
marking down successive positions of a tiny magnetic needle; it seems
to me, therefore, well to begin with the study of magnetism, rather
than, as is common in text-books, with that of statical electricity.
From magnetism the more natural transition is to current electricity,
and it will be found a good plan to take the subjects in this order,
passing from the magnetic fields which surround permanent steel magnets
to those which are found to exist in the neighbourhood of a wire whose
ends have been joined to plates of zinc and copper immersed in a vessel
of dilute acid. The existence of such fields will be proved by the
magnetisation of iron round which the wire is coiled, and by the motion
of permanent magnets near which it is held, and the direction of the
lines of force will be inferred from the direction of such motion.
The existence of the magnetic field established, the term “current of
electricity” may be introduced; the children will readily understand
that it arose from the idea that it was something flowing through the
wire which gave it such strange properties, and that whether this is
the case or not, there is a practical convenience in retaining the old
terms.

Some of the practical applications of the magnetic effects of currents
may now be explained, _e.g._, the electric telegraph and electric
bells, and the use of a galvanometer as a current indicator. Simple
experiments on the induction of currents by motion of magnets, or
starting and stopping of currents may follow, it being carefully
pointed out that the one essential for such induction in a coil is some
change in the magnetic field in which it lies. The principle of dynamos
readily follows. The heating and decomposing effects of electric
currents may next be considered with their practical applications to
electric lighting, and electro-plating respectively, and the attention
of the children should be directed to the energy appearing as heat or
as chemical separation in the two cases. If they have gone through the
preliminary course they will know enough of the conservation of energy
to look for the disappearance of energy in some other form, and the
chemical action in the battery may now be pointed out. Some explanation
of “polarisation” and of the need for more complicated forms of battery
than the simple voltaic cell may be given.

Lessons on statical electricity will end the course; they may be
connected with the preceding lessons by first speaking of the discharge
of a Leyden jar, and that between the knobs of an induction machine as
instantaneous “currents,” and going on to the state of affairs in the
medium between the knobs or coatings when they are not sufficiently
near for the discharge to take place; this will be made clear by going
back to earliest facts known about electricity and following the
ordinary course of electrostatic experiments.

[Heat and light.]

Should “heat and light” be chosen instead of electricity for this
year’s course, the mode of treating the subject must depend very
much on the mathematical advancement of the pupils. It is probable
that their knowledge will not exceed the first two books of Euclid,
and algebra to simple equations, and it will therefore not carry
them very far in the treatment of geometrical optics; it will
enable the laws of reflection to be intelligibly explained, and the
position of the image in a plane mirror to be determined (the law
of refraction may also be made clear, as the children can easily
be made to understand the meaning of the term “sine”), but formulæ
connected with mirrors and lenses should be left to a later stage, the
changes in size and position of the image formed by a curved mirror
or a lens being determined experimentally and not by calculation. A
general explanation of the action of optical instruments, telescope,
microscope, spectacles, etc., can be given, without exact calculations,
and illustrated either by carefully drawn diagrams, or by models with
lenses of cardboard and rays represented by strings. The interest of
lectures on dispersion and the spectrum is greatly increased if they
can be illustrated by lantern experiments. The subject of heat lends
itself better to non-mathematical treatment, and is specially good for
practical work by the pupils themselves.

[Work of senior classes.]

[Independent reading.]

The work of senior classes, _i.e._, girls of seventeen or over, depends
so much upon circumstances, such as their previous training, their
mathematical knowledge, etc., that it is difficult to say much to the
point about it, but a word may be added on a very common fault of
such classes, a tendency to rely too much on their teacher and their
notes of lectures, and to read and think too little for themselves. The
practical work, which is an essential for such classes, does much to
encourage self-reliance, but besides this they should from time to time
be given some reading to do on points which have not been previously
made clear in lectures; difficulties met with in the reading should
be brought up at the next lesson, when the teacher will either solve
them or put the pupil in the way of doing so for herself. This kind of
work takes time, and is therefore apt to be crowded out from a full
time-table, but it is worth an effort to find a place for it.


LIST OF SOME BOOKS USEFUL FOR TEACHERS.


I. PRACTICAL PHYSICS.

  For Beginners--

  _Inductive Physical Science._ F. H. Bailey. Heath & Co., Boston,
  U.S.A.

  _Practical Lessons in Physical Measurement._ A. Earl. Macmillan. 5/-.

  _Exercise Book of Elementary Practical Physics._ Arranged according
  to Head Masters’ Association Syllabus. R. A. Gregory. Macmillan.

  For rather older Classes--

  _Elementary Physics._ Henderson. Longmans, Green & Co.

  _Elementary Practical Physics._ W. Watson. Longmans, Green & Co.

  _Intermediate Course of Practical Physics._ Schuster & Lees.
  Macmillan.

  For Senior Classes--

  _Practical Physics._ Stewart & Gee. Macmillan.

  _Practical Physics._ Glazebrook & Shaw. Longmans, Green & Co. 7/6.


II. THEORETICAL PHYSICS.

  _Primer of Physics._ Balfour Stewart. Macmillan. 1/-. (May suggest a
  course for beginners.)

  _Heat._ H. G. Madan. Longmans. 9/-. (A good course for junior
  classes.)

  _Elementary Treatise on Heat._ Garnett. Deighton, Bell & Co. 4/6. (A
  good course for rather more advanced students.)

  _Light._ A course on Experimental Optics. Lewis Wright. Macmillan.
  (Suggests good experiments, especially with lantern.)

  _Elementary Lessons in Electricity and Magnetism._ S. P. Thompson.
  Macmillan.

  For Senior Classes--

  _Theory of Light._ Preston. Macmillan. 15/-.

  _Theory of Heat._ Preston. Macmillan. 17/-.

  _Electricity and Magnetism._ Foster & Atkinson. (Based on Joubert.)
  Longmans, Green & Co. 7/6.

  _Theory of Heat._ Clerk Maxwell. Longmans, Green & Co. 4/6.


COURSE OF ELEMENTARY PHYSICS.


DEFINITION OF PHYSICS.

  Distinction between physical and chemical phenomena.--Iron heated,
  Iron rusted. Candle melted, Candle burnt, etc., etc.

  Motion. Force. Illustrations of familiar forces.--Muscular force.
  Force of stretched spring, etc., etc.

  Consideration of some particular forces.--Gravity. Friction. Cohesion.

  _Gravity._--Distinction between body’s weight and mass. Weight is the
  earth’s pull upon it. Might be different while body unaltered. Centre
  of gravity. Experimental determination for laminæ of various shapes.
  Stable, unstable and neutral equilibrium dependent on position of
  centre of gravity. Everyday illustrations. Stick balanced on finger,
  etc.

  _Friction._--Everyday instances. Effect if it were removed.

  _Cohesion._--Three states of matter. Solids. Liquids. Gases.
  Essential difference between them. Experiments showing retention of
  size and shape by solids, of size by liquids, of neither by gases.

  _Pressure of Liquids_--

  Transmitted in all directions. Effect of boring hole in side of
  vessel containing a liquid.

  Pressure increases with depth.--Experiment. Lower into jar of water
  cylinder closed at bottom by glass disc, the pressure of the water
  supports the disc. Pour water into cylinder till bottom falls, the
  lower the cylinder is sunk, the more water is required for this.

  Liquids find their level.--Experiment with communicating vessels of
  different sizes. Water level, spirit level. Water from reservoirs
  rising to tops of houses. Exception in case of very narrow tubes.
  Capillarity.

  Floating power, or buoyancy of liquids.--Experiments on weight of
  water displaced by bodies immersed and by floating bodies. Principle
  of Archimedes.

  Specific gravity.--Definition. Experimental determination (1) by
  catching and weighing displaced water; (2) by loss of weight in water.

  _Pressure of Air_--

  Experiments showing existence of atmospheric pressure [_e.g._,
  inverted jar of water, experiments with air-pump, suckers].

  Barometer.--Construct by filling long tube with mercury. Show by
  passing barometer tube through cork of receiver that mercury falls
  when air withdrawn from above mercury in cistern, rises if air is let
  in.

  Action of syringes. Pumps. Construction and working of air-pump.

  _Heat_--

  Temperature or hotness.--Sensation not reliable guide.

  Expansion.--Experiments to show in solids, liquids, gases. A few
  exceptions to law of expansion, _e.g._, water near freezing-point,
  ice forms on top of water. Force of expansion.

  Thermometers.--Construction and graduation.

  Fusion.--Temperature remains constant during fusion. Latent heat.

  Evaporation and boiling.--Latent heat of vaporisation.

  Boiling point depends on pressure.--Experiment of boiling water under
  air-pump.

  Conduction.

  Convection.--Heating of water in kettle; heating of houses by hot
  water.

  _Sound_--

  Sounding bodies always in vibration.--Bells, tuning-forks, metal
  plates (vibrations shown by means of sand), strings, etc.

  Mode of propagation. Illustrations. Air or other medium necessary for
  transmission; no sound through vacuum.

  Sounds differ in loudness, pitch, quality.

  Physical cause of loudness.--Violence of vibration.

  Physical cause of pitch.--Rapidity of vibration. Siren, or perforated
  disc.

  Strings.--Note given depends on length, thickness, tension and
  material. Experiments with monochord. Illustrate by violin strings.

  Harmonics.--Subdivision of strings. Experiment with riders on string.

  Physical cause of “quality”.--Intermixture of other notes with
  fundamental.

  Resonance.--Experiments with tubes of air and tuning-forks. Organ
  pipes.

  Velocity of sound.--How first determined. Calculate distance of
  thunderstorm.

  Reflection.--Echoes.

  _Work and Energy_--

  Work done when force overcome or yielded to through any distance.

  Gravity does work when body falls.--Work done against gravity in
  lifting a body. Foot-pound, unit of work.

  A body which has power to do work has “energy”.--May have in
  consequence of motion, or of position, or of being heated, etc., etc.

  Conservation of energy.--Transformation of energy.


THE TEACHING OF CHEMISTRY.

By CLARE DE BRERETON EVANS, D.Sc. (Lond.).

The committee appointed by the British Association in 1889 to inquire
into the “Present Methods of Teaching Chemistry,” gave it as their
opinion that “the high educational value of instruction in physical
science has never been exhibited to its full advantage in most of our
educational institutions,” and it will be admitted by the majority of
those who interest themselves in the teaching of chemistry in girls’
schools that in spite of the growing tendency towards more rational
methods of imparting the subject, the progress made in this direction
during the last eight years has not been great enough to warrant any
change in the above dictum.

After all that has been said and written about the difference between
instruction and education, it should be unnecessary to reiterate that
the object of our schools is not so much to develop the memories of the
children as their capabilities, their powers of reasoning and doing,
and although the attainment of this object is brought about chiefly
no doubt by the _method_ of teaching, it is also dependent upon the
subject taught.

[Elementary physical science as a basis for chemistry teaching.]

Natural science is specially valuable in calling into action at once
the logical and practical faculties, training simultaneously the mind,
the eye and the hand; but it is necessary in order to avoid teaching
the subject dogmatically to make the course progressive--to preface
lessons in chemistry, for example, by a preliminary ground-work of
physics sufficient to render the chemistry intelligible. Elementary
physics is the logical sequence of arithmetic, and may be taken up with
the greatest advantage as soon as the four simple rules of arithmetic
have been mastered; moreover the practical application of these
rules afforded by simple measurements of length, area and volume is
of immense use, not only because each pupil verifies for herself in
this way the rules she has learnt to apply on paper, but also because
arithmetic is thus shown to be of practical and not merely theoretical
value. If children were taught from the beginning to make practical use
of their arithmetic one of the greatest difficulties with which the
science teacher has to contend later on would be obviated, that namely
of explaining the application of mathematics to the solution of simple
chemical and physical problems.

[Educational advantages of a progressive chemistry course.]

Chemistry again is the logical outcome of physics, and should not
be attempted, because it cannot possibly be understood, until the
fundamental principles of physics have been mastered. It cannot be too
strongly insisted upon that chemistry should be preceded by elementary
physics; the sequence, practical arithmetic, elementary physics,
chemistry, being the only one which affords a satisfactory progressive
scientific course suitable for being carried on throughout a school
starting where the object-lessons of the kindergarten end; then by
the time examination classes are reached there need be left none of
those gaps in the understanding of the pupils, gaps with regard to
elementary principles, which are so usual as to be looked for as a
matter of course by the chemistry teacher, and which she is obliged
to span here and there by dogmatic assertions on which rests as a
rule all the physico-chemical knowledge required of the examination
student. A well-arranged course of this kind, moreover, possesses
the great advantage over others, botany or geology for example, that
it may be made free from technical language, a point of considerable
importance, not only because the tax upon the memories of the children
is thus lightened, but because they are at liberty to express their
observations in their own words. It has been truly said that “strange
words are non-conductors,” and it is unreasonable to suppose that
clear ideas on any subject may be imparted in a language which is only
partially intelligible.

[Need for early training in science.]

It is necessary of course to begin early if a sound basis of physics
is to be laid for the teaching of chemistry; the elementary physics
lessons should in fact be made to continue the work of the kindergarten
without any break, thus carrying out the aim of natural science
teaching, which should be to foster the powers of observation and
research which almost all young children possess to a very high degree;
nor are these the only faculties which benefit, since physical science
is specially fitted also to develop independence of thought, agility
of mind and hand and soundness of judgment; the simplest experiment
may be varied in a hundred ways to produce the same result, and it is
this possibility of variation which gives the individual pupil so much
opportunity for the exercise of originality, which cultivates quickness
of observation and encourages so largely the valuable quality of
self-reliance.

[“Practical” teaching.]

It is evident that a course of lectures unaccompanied by laboratory
work gives no scope for the educational possibilities of technical
subjects such as those with which we are dealing; the teaching must be
made “practical”. It is not sufficient that the teacher should perform
a number of illustrative experiments at her lectures, for it is rare
to find a child capable of grasping the meaning of such illustrations;
it is not even sufficient that the experiments shown by the lecturer
should be repeated subsequently by the pupils themselves; this is no
doubt good as far as it goes, for it breeds familiarity with apparatus
and gives practice in manipulation, but that is all; as to educating
the particular faculties which science is specially adapted to educate
it is useless, for the results of the experiments being already known
the reasoning powers are not required; on the contrary the performance
of the experiment on the lecture-table has led to the belief that there
is one stereotyped method of doing it, and consequently the child’s
memory alone is exercised in trying to remember every detail of the
apparatus used and the method of carrying it out.

For success in examinations it is now necessary to have a certain
amount of practical knowledge of chemistry, and examination classes are
therefore given some practical training, but this reform still remains
to be extended universally to the junior classes, which need even more
than the senior ones that the teaching should be objective: a child
may learn and repeat correctly a dozen times that water is composed
of oxygen and hydrogen, and the thirteenth time she will assure you
that its constituents are oxygen and nitrogen; but let her make the
gases for herself, test them and get to know them as individuals, and
mistakes of this kind will become impossible.

A further reason for giving practical instruction to juniors is that
examination students are generally pressed for time, being on this
account often obliged to do the necessary laboratory work out of school
hours; moreover they find it difficult as it is of a kind to which they
are unaccustomed. It would obviously be a great advantage to train the
children from the beginning in the use of apparatus during the years
when such work is a recreation and a real delight to them.

[A central idea in science teaching.]

There is one other point to be noticed. The science course may be begun
early and continued without intermission throughout the school career,
the teaching being of a sufficiently “practical” character, but the
result will not be a success unless there is a central idea running
through it. From the very beginning the experiments must be chosen in
illustration and explanation of the fundamental physical laws which
may thus be made perfectly familiar to the pupils. It is necessary,
however, that these experiments should be of the simplest character; to
quote the words of the British Association report above referred to,
“the lessons ought to have reference to subjects which can be readily
understood by children, and illustrations should be selected from
objects and operations that are familiar to them in everyday life”.

[Broad principles recommended.]

Briefly then, I would recommend that the following broad principles
should be adopted with pre-examination classes:--

[(1) Elementary physical training to be made continuous with
kindergarten teaching.]

(1) The course of elementary physical science which is then necessary
foundation for a sound knowledge of chemistry should be made
continuous with the object-lessons of the kindergarten, and should
form a progressive course extending over three or four years, passing
imperceptibly into elementary chemistry.

[(2) The elementary course to be entirely “practical”.]

(2) This course should be of an _entirely practical_ character and
should be carried out in a room very simply equipped for the purpose.
No text-books should be allowed and no notes dictated by the teacher,
but each pupil should subsequently to the lesson write out in her own
words an account of her own experiments, of which she is encouraged to
take notes at the time of doing them.

[Advantage of occasional lectures.]

Although all formal lessons on the simple subjects of investigation
serve only to prejudice the minds of the children, lectures given at
rare intervals on kindred subjects and profusely illustrated serve as a
healthy stimulus to the youthful appetite for experiment and research.

[(3) Choice of experiments.]

(3) The practical course should be so chosen that each experiment
illustrates in the simplest possible manner some fundamental principle
or “law” of nature. It is precisely here that a teacher has the
opportunity of educating the logical faculties of the pupils, each of
whom is required to solve independently the simple problem set before
her at the lesson and is thus placed in a position to deduce for
herself from her own experiment the principle involved. The children
are in fact placed, as Dr. Armstrong recommends, “in the attitude of
discoverers,” and it is astonishing how soon they learn to become
independent in their methods of attacking new problems if their minds
are not prejudiced by preconceived ideas of the results to be expected.

[(4) Size of classes.]

(4) As regards the size of the classes and the time to be allowed for
each, the Committee of the British Association recommends that “a
teacher should not be required to give practical instruction to more
than from fifteen to twenty pupils at one time, although the classes at
lectures and demonstrations might be somewhat larger”. For the course
indicated below one hour a week may be made sufficient at first, but
later on an hour and a half should be allowed for each practical class.

[(5) Accommodation.]

(5) As to accommodation, it is quite possible, at any rate at first, to
use an ordinary class-room, but as environment no doubt does exercise a
certain influence the use of a special room very simply equipped with
long tables supplied with water and gas is strongly advised.[26]

  [26] Full details of fittings and of the very simple and inexpensive
  apparatus required are given in the syllabus issued by the
  Incorporated Association of Head Masters, which can be obtained at
  the “Educational Supply Association,” 42 Holborn Viaduct.

The above recommendations are meant to apply to all classes up to the
time when the needs of public examinations demand a special course;
this must necessarily be given by means of set lectures, as it could
not otherwise be covered in the limited time which is generally
allotted to the subject; they are more or less in accordance with those
drawn up by Dr. Armstrong for the Committee of the British Association
of which mention has been made, and which were embodied in the Syllabus
of Physics and Chemistry issued by the Incorporated Association of Head
Masters in 1895; since this date they have been successfully carried
out in various boys’ schools. Owing to the enterprise of Miss L. E.
Walter a similar course was introduced at an even earlier date into
the Central Foundation School for Girls, where it is now in operation.
Appended is a very brief outline of the course there pursued, together
with a typical set of lessons in chemistry.

[Outline of a science course now in operation.]

On leaving the kindergarten the science teaching is confined to what
is really practical arithmetic and geometry, elementary measurements
being performed by the most ordinary methods. The children are thus
accustomed to the use of simple apparatus such as pipettes, burettes,
etc., also to the use of the balance, the simple numerical calculations
involved in weighing and measuring being performed in both the English
and decimal systems, which are thus made quite familiar.

The following example, quoted from Miss Walter’s paper,[27] gives a
clear idea of the sort of introductory teaching needed. This lesson,
although of the simplest character, had for its object to show the
necessity for, and to choose a unit of length. This is how it was done:
“I gave each girl but one a piece of string, all the pieces being the
same length; the one odd girl I kept by me, and _we_ had a _ball_ of
string. I asked the children to tell me how long their pieces were so
that I could cut a similar piece. Naturally they began by guessing--a
yard, half a yard; but as I had no yardstick, I feigned ignorance of
what a yard was. Soon one put the string along her slate and expressed
the length as a slate and three-quarters. Every one else followed
suit.... After each of the sensible measurements which they made ... I
did the same to my small comrade as they had done to themselves and cut
off a piece of string. Then they all watched with great interest to see
if my piece really did come like theirs.... This lesson may not sound
very exciting, but during the whole time _each of those children was
alive_, each was thoroughly interested in what she was doing.”

  [27] “The Teaching of Science in Girls’ Schools,” by L. Edna Walter,
  B.Sc., reprinted from _Education, Secondary and Technical_.

The preliminary course consists in its earlier stages of exercises in
the measurement of length, area and volume with the use of the balance;
this is followed by experiments on density, and subsequently some
work on heat is done, a simple thermometer and barometer being made
and graduated by each girl, who is encouraged to use them to record
the weather by means of curves showing variations of temperature and
pressure. It may have been completed by girls of about fourteen, who
will then be quite prepared to begin chemistry, having by that time
gained a very good idea of how to apply their arithmetic as well as
their knowledge of the fundamental physical principles to the solution
of practical problems.

It is important to point out that the system here advocated inverts
the usual order of teaching chemistry. This subject is divided into
“pure” and “physical,” and it is usual at the present time to begin
by teaching “pure” chemistry, that is to say, the preparations and
properties of a number of the commoner elements and compounds, this
part being considered easier than “physical” chemistry, which however
ought logically to precede it, since it treats of the fundamental laws
upon which “pure” chemistry depends.

A knowledge of simple physical chemistry is now required for all
chemistry examinations, candidates for which are expected to have a
working acquaintance with simple physical apparatus, to be familiar
with the barometer and thermometer, the effects of heat on solids,
liquids and gases, density and specific heat, etc., etc.; they
are liable moreover to be asked to solve any simple problems on
measurement. Now by giving precedence to “physical” chemistry, all this
is done and done thoroughly before examinations are thought of, so
that what is generally regarded by pupils at the present time as the
most difficult portion of their subject is made by this means its A B
C, and the time spent upon actual examination work can be considerably
curtailed.

“Pure” chemistry is introduced by the study of the methods of testing
all kinds of substances so as to be able to classify them roughly as
mineral or vegetable, organic or inorganic, etc. The chemistry course
suggested by Dr. Armstrong and adopted by the Incorporated Association
of Head Masters is strongly to be recommended, as it is drawn up
particularly with a view to imparting “not only information but chiefly
a knowledge of method”. It opens with “studies of the effect of heat on
things in general; of their behaviour when burnt,” and goes on to the
investigation of such familiar things as air and nitrogen, combustion
and oxygen, hydrogen and water. Formulæ and equations are rigidly
excluded, the aim being to give a broad introduction to the subject; on
the other hand quantitative experiments form a much larger part of the
curriculum than is usually the case, the previous training in physical
methods having prepared the way for teaching chemistry in a more exact
manner than is generally possible with beginners.

A girl who has gone through the scientific training outlined in the
preceding pages will possess an elementary knowledge of many subjects;
she will find little difficulty in mastering the information required
for the London Matriculation or any other preliminary examination in
physical science, the greater portion of the ground both in physics
and chemistry having already been covered during the preliminary
course indicated. It is certain that students who have undergone such
a systematic education without hurry and without pressure, and with
opportunities for reasoning out each step for themselves, will be in a
condition to derive the maximum of benefit from subsequent instruction
not only in chemistry but in all other branches of knowledge.


_Typical Lessons in Chemistry._

At the beginning of the lesson the problem to be solved is announced by
the teacher, who invites suggestions as to how it should be attacked.
A scheme of work is thus prepared which is carried into practice by
the pupils; every detail of manipulation is performed by the girls
themselves, who select their own apparatus, bend their own tubing,
etc., referring only occasionally to the teacher for help. The scheme
is elaborated as the investigation proceeds so as to form a piece of
consecutive reasoning which may extend over a series of lessons.

Problem. To discover the constitution of chalk.

[Typical lesson.]

Being familiar with simple methods of testing unknown substances, heat
and the action of acid are at once suggested by the pupils as a means
of investigation, and a preliminary examination is made showing that
heat does alter chalk in some way, whereas the addition of acid causes
the liberation of a gas. The next step is to find out whether the chalk
loses or gains anything by being heated; also to determine the nature
of the gas given off under the influence of acid.

Suggestions are again received from the girls, who are led to decide
that the first part of the question may be answered by submitting a
weighed quantity of chalk to a moderately high temperature, weighing
at intervals until the weight, if it changes at all, again becomes
constant.

They proceed therefore to weigh their empty crucibles with the usual
precautions and then to reweigh them after having put in some dry
chalk. The numbers obtained are carefully entered in the laboratory
note-book with which each girl is provided. The crucibles are then
placed in a “muffle” furnace, which the pupils are taught to manage for
themselves, and are only withdrawn at the end of the lesson and placed
in desiccators to be reweighed at the beginning of the next lesson,
when they will be again submitted to the same treatment until the
weight is constant.

While the crucibles are being heated preparations are made for finding
out the action of acid on chalk; the pupils are led to suggest a
simple form of apparatus for measuring the volume and weight of the
gas given off, and hence for determining its density. By the time this
is done the hour and a half allowed for the lesson will probably have
expired. At the next lesson, after a preliminary questioning as to what
each pupil has done and is going to do, the apparatus decided upon at
the previous lesson is carefully prepared; subsequently the actual
experiments to determine the quantity of gas given off are performed
and its density determined, and finally it is shown that the gas given
off from chalk under the action of heat is identical with that released
by acid, chalk being composed of this gas and the residue left after
heating it in a muffle furnace until the weight is constant.

It will be seen that this work involves a considerable amount of
weighing and calculation, but this is rendered easy by the previous
grounding in elementary physics, and a series of experiments such as
that described may be carried out intelligently by any properly trained
class of girls.


PART IV. ÆSTHETICS.


ART.

By DOROTHEA BEALE.

This part is one of great and perhaps increasing importance owing to
the development of musical education and of art and technical schools.

[Music.]

The power of music over the emotional life has ever been felt; in many
ways it is opposed to thought, if we regard it from the standpoint
of the listener, who yields himself up to its influence; on the
other hand, the performer, and still more the composer, can bring to
bear on the subject high intellectual gifts, and it may have a great
educational value. It is of the utmost importance, that in this as in
all æsthetics, a taste be cultivated for all that is true and pure and
lovely; not for low and false and sensuous music such as Browning has
described in the “Toccata of Galuppi,” but for the thoughtful, the
devotional, as given in the two companion poems, “Hughes of Saxe Gotha”
and “Abt Vogler”; and the learner should feel that she is studying
to express right feelings, as Mme. Schumann and Jenny Lind insisted,
not to show off her execution and make a display. It is greatly to
be regretted that the general education is often stopped in order to
specialise in music and art, before the mental equilibrium is fully
established; if, besides this, there is an uprooting from one’s home
and country, at the most impressionable and excitable period of life,
much danger is incurred.

Music is not only a powerful means of expression and of promoting
sympathy, it also draws people together for healthy recreation;
especially valuable for this purpose are orchestral and choral classes.
The power of the artist in music is far better understood than it was
fifty years ago. I remember Dr. Kinkel, the German poet, saying to
me about the year 1860, “the English will become a musical people,
they are learning”. We owe much to Mr. Hullah for this, and to the
Tonic-Sol-fa system. I subjoin a paper by a most able teacher of the
piano, one on the violin, two papers on singing and one on voice
production and elocution.

[Art historical.]

We are beginning now to study art in connection with the history and
literature of different periods and countries. In another section
I have touched on art in connection with history. We all know how
great has been in all ages the power of art in expressing and forming
religious ideas; we cannot but see that Fra Angelico and Dante
interpret one another. There is not space here to dwell on the subject;
the writings of Ruskin and Browning and the works of the Pre-Raphaelite
brotherhood have helped this generation to feel all that art may be in
our life. The educative power of great paintings has been practically
recognised by those who have gathered together great pictures in East
London--the Art for Schools Association recognises its importance; by
visits to galleries, by good reproductions, and occasional lectures,
children should if possible have their eyes opened to see what are the
higher teachings which painters and sculptors and architects have
expressed in their works; those who have heard Miss Harrison’s lectures
know how the statues, vases, friezes, etc., of old times help us to
make these live again for us; especially valuable is what those of our
own time have given us, for these utter what is most intrinsic in our
life. England is richer for such pictures as “The Light of the World”.

Mr. Thring used to insist much on schools being as beautiful as
possible, and that painted windows and all the surroundings should help
in the great work of education, the fulfilling of the human nature
with the sense of the spiritual underlying realities; it should be
the earnest endeavour of all educators to make, as Herbart has done,
æsthetics in its widest sense, a help in ethics, and to consecrate and
enrich the experiences and the teachings which come to us through sense.

[Drawing.]

Drawing as a mode of expression is a really necessary subject; it is a
form of writing; and modelling is another form of effective expression.
In their higher aspects these arts are ennobling, cultivating the taste
and leading up to the ideal. “Once,” writes Dr. Harris, “trained to
recognise the beautiful and graceful, the pupil has acquired a quality
of mind useful in every occupation and every station.”

[Painting.]

There is an admirable paper by Mr. Cooke, “The A B C of Drawing,”
in the volume of Reports just issued from the Education Office. All
who have heard Mr. Cooke lecture, must recognise that he has a real
genius for teaching. In schools we have to do chiefly with cultivating
the power of seeing things as they are, and expressing what we see.
The copying with the pencil of the Greek sculptures has been of much
educational value, but enough importance has not been attached to
modelling. I add an excellent paper on the subject.

[Other technical arts.]

Technical schools are so much the fashion of the day, that I may
perhaps add something more on the subject of manual training. All
students of Pestalozzi and Fröbel knew the great educational value of
manual work, but the general public, though they knew that mind acted
on muscle, did not realise the fact that muscle reacted on mind; when
this was recognised, many educational thinkers saw the importance of
giving to hand arts a more prominent place in school work. A great
reaction set in against mere book learning, and as I venture to think
an exaggerated and indiscriminating value was by some attached to
manual work. The enthusiasm of Herr Salomon brought to the front the
use of Sloyd. Political circumstances and the need of competing with
foreign countries have contributed to give a great impulse to education
in art, and to develop and improve the training which had never been
altogether neglected in girls’ schools.

I subjoin papers on various hand arts, including one on Sloyd.

At a meeting held at Washington in 1889, the matter was brought
before the department of Superintendence, and a volume was issued
from the Bureau of Education which contains a very full account of
the proceedings; it includes an admirable paper of about twenty pages
by Dr. Harris, Chief Commissioner of Education, from which I make
some extracts. The matter is considered in reference to “Educational
Value”. He begins by defining what is the main purpose of school
teaching, criticising the definitions which point to false or
ill-comprehended or crude ideals, which turn our thoughts to the means
rather than the ends of education, and which lead the educator away
from the essential idea of education by fixing attention on the “puny
individual” rather than on the “higher self” embodied in institutions;
the ideal man, whom we can see only as a member of the great human
family.

Education he defines as “the great preparation of the individual to
help his fellow-men, and to receive in turn and appropriate their
help”. Whilst conceding that manual training is educative, he shows why
it is much inferior to the usual subjects of school instruction.

“Man elevates himself above the brute creation by his ability to
withdraw his attention from the external world of the senses and give
attention to energies, forces, producing causes, principles. He can
look from the particular to the general; without losing the particular
he grasps together the whole realm of the particular in the general--in
mastering the cause of anything he grasps together and comprehends an
indefinite series of effects.

“A false psychology tells us that we derive all our knowledge from
sense-perception, but we do not by the senses learn the idea of causal
process. By this idea all the data of sense are transformed radically.
They are given us in sense-perception as independent realities. In
thinking them by the aid of causality, we make all these matters of
sense-perception into phenomena--or effects and manifestations of
underlying causes which are not visible or tangible.”

Dr. Harris shows how school studies are calculated to give general
principles, right ideals, and to exercise the powers in elaborating the
data of sense. “That the ordinary branches of instruction in school
relate to this function of elaboration of data into plans of action far
more than they relate to the mere reception of sense-impressions or
to the exercise of the motor nerves, is obvious. It is not desirable
that children shall be taught that rough hand labour is in itself as
honourable as the elaborative toil of thought, which gives rational
direction to the hand. The general who plans the battle, and directs
the movement of his troops so that they secure victory, is of course
the executive man in a far higher sense than the private soldier who
mechanically obeys what he is ordered to do. The general may use his
motor nerves only in issuing the words of command, while the private
soldier may exert to the utmost every muscle in his body--yet the
real executive is the general.” And he concludes that only in so far
as manual training is calculated to develop the higher faculties,
ought it to be regarded as a valuable branch of school education. The
pupils’ minds must not however be fixed on the acquisition of manual
dexterity, so that they think more of the “execution” than the musical
thought--more of mere copying than of interpreting nature or the
artist’s ideal.


PIANOFORTE TEACHING.

By DOMENICO BARNETT, of the Leipzig Conservatorium.

Like every branch of school education, the teaching of the pianoforte
requires consideration from two simultaneous points of view. Two
all-important questions have to be answered with clearness and
decision. What is, or what ought to be, the definite aim of the
teacher? And what is the most efficacious process for achieving this
aim?

As to the aim and purpose, we may happily dismiss, once and for
all, the old and imbecile notion of the piano as a conventional
“accomplishment”; in more accurate language an instrument of
unintelligent and repulsive mechanical drudgery, calculated to
eradicate from the pupil whatever modicum of _music_ Nature might have
bestowed on her. The cultivation of the piano for the sake of vain
display is not yet obsolete. But though this unacknowledged object
must inevitably continue to actuate many pupils and many parents,
the teacher, so far from indulging it, should set his face sternly
against it. It is true that it is his business to develop his pupils’
performing powers to the utmost of their varying capacities. But this
practical and visible result is but subordinate and auxiliary to one
which is infinitely higher. Not every pupil, however musically gifted,
has it in her to become a fine executant, any more than fine execution
implies, of itself, much beyond mere manual dexterity. But what the
properly qualified teacher can do for _all_ is to educate--that is to
say to _draw out_--all that Nature has put into them: to show them
what music means: to quicken and develop their musical feeling, be
it much or little, by rendering it intelligent: to give their taste
a foundation of right principle: to cultivate the ear and the brain
as well as the hand: to put them in the right road for pursuing and
perhaps specialising their studies after their school course is over:
in short, to make them musicians, so far as musicians can be made.

The study of the pianoforte, then, is an indispensable means to a
very large and serious end. There is no occasion to dwell upon the
peculiar suitability of the piano as the basis of musical study. As to
that, there are not, and cannot be, two opinions, even if universal
experience had not settled the matter. Nor is it needful to dwell upon
the qualifications to be required in a teacher. Every one knows the
requisite qualifications of all teachers of all subjects. But it so
happens that the teacher of the pianoforte, in any school where much
is--as it ought to be--expected, has to contend with a peculiarly
formidable list of preliminary difficulties, and to dispose of these
before he can proceed to build upon a properly prepared ground. With
these two topics, the preparatory and constructive portions of his duty
to his pupils, to himself, and to his art, I will proceed to deal in as
few words as the nature of so large a subject allows. And first, as to
the commonest of all his obstacles, which is--

_Previous Home Teaching_ (so-called).--Music, even more than with most
other branches of education, should begin with careful, intelligent
and systematic instruction at home. Yet how seldom does the teacher
find this to be the case! A truly appalling ignorance of the merest
rudiments is constantly found in girls of all ages on first coming to
school, after six or seven years of “lessons from a master” or “from a
lady”. In exceedingly few instances has any attempt been made to awaken
a love of music, much less to lay a foundation for its serious study.
Parents, one must presume, have not yet outgrown the delusion that
anybody is good enough to start a child’s musical education; whereas it
is precisely during the period preceding school life that instruction
generally produces the most lasting results for good or for evil; and
it is usually for evil. It may be that a certain--or uncertain--amount
of mechanical fluency has been acquired, but to the total exclusion of
all else; and this leads to a further grave difficulty for both teacher
and pupil--

_Insufficient Time._--There would be amply adequate time for musical
progress at school if the ordinary pupil had not so much to unlearn.
As things are, the inevitable strain upon a girl imposed by other
studies renders the comparatively short time allotted to music a period
of weariness of mind. The pupil, naturally enough, rebels against the
severity of a proper course of study; and it is long before the most
patient teacher can get his impatient pupil well in hand. He is thus
sorely tempted to make a--

_Compromise with Conscience._--This is not stating the matter a whit
too strongly. Handicapped by wrong preliminary training and its
consequences, the teacher, in order to render some result visible to
parents and school authorities, often sacrifices substantial education
to superficial display. How absolutely wrong this is, requires--it is
to be hoped--no argument. But, inexcusable as it is on every principle
of educational ethics, it is bound to be of constant occurrence
wherever the school authorities fail to understand a music master’s
duty, and to support him in doing it fearlessly and honestly, without
respect to the ignorant impatience of parents or pupils who have not
laid to heart the maxim of _sat cito si sat bene_.

In proceeding to the positive work of teaching, as distinguished
from the preliminary task of _un-_teaching, it will be the simplest
course to dismiss these only too formidable obstacles as non-existent
or overcome, and to consider at what a teacher should aim who
enjoys all the advantages that he can reasonably expect. Under the
most disadvantageous conditions he can at any rate aim as high as
circumstances allow. Let us suppose, then, that he has the inestimable
advantage of a pupil who is a complete beginner, with everything to
learn and nothing to unlearn. At the very outset--

_A Feeling for Well-marked Rhythm_ should receive cultivation. This is
perhaps most easily acquired where a kindergarten has been available,
by marching round to strongly-marked tunes or even to the beat of a
drum. This feeling--more or less instinctive with most, and seldom
beyond acquisition by any--should, as soon as possible, be reduced to
form and order by--

_A Knowledge of Time System and the Key-board_: that is to say, a
thorough acquaintance with the notes on the key-board, so that they may
be readily recognised by their shape, together with their equivalent
rests and other signs belonging to the time system. All this should
become instinctively familiar; and is followed in natural sequence by--

_A Knowledge of the Scale System._--The beginner should be able to
locate the several scales on the instrument and to understand their
formation. But time ought not to be wasted by insisting too much upon
scale practice, until the pupil’s hands are sufficiently strong.
It will be quite sufficient, at this period of a course, to gain a
thorough knowledge of the notes and fingering of the various scales
and chords, great care being taken at the same time to cultivate a
good position of hand and a proper use of the fingers themselves, by
way of foundation for a good and sound technique. In the case of older
and more advanced pupils who have been neglected in this direction,
it should be constantly impressed upon their minds that this process
is but a means to an end; that adequate interpretation of music is
impossible without this mechanical exercise of the fingers, which must
be trained to follow and express the most delicate _nuance_ of their
owner’s intention. On the other hand, such pupils--especially those
gifted with a natural dexterity--should be warned that manual skill has
nothing, as such, to do with _music_: that brilliant execution and the
triumph over difficulties are neither more useful nor more admirable
than dancing among eggs unless they are subordinate to the real sense
and meaning of a composition. Having fairly mastered the notes, time
and scale systems, the pupil is now in a position to be introduced to--

_A Methodical Selection of Exercises and Pieces Presenting Varied
Rhythmical Difficulty_, beginning with the simplest, and gradually
advancing to those of increased complexity. As the pupil advances,
easy duets, dances, marches, etc., sometimes if possible accompanied
by another instrument, may be given with advantage, insistence being
laid upon a _proper habit_ of _counting_ time. This should not be
done in a drawling, undecided manner, but with a clear, sharp and
decided utterance. It ought not to be--but is--necessary to add that
the production of a fine broad tone and proper touch should receive
attention from the outset; and meanwhile, even from the earliest moment
of her studies--

_No Bad Music should be given to a Pupil for any Purpose, or under any
Circumstances._--No doubt where a very bad state of taste exists, it
is a matter of necessity to start from a comparatively low level of
merit; because in respect of music, at any rate, a pupil should never
be given what she cannot possibly understand. Dr. Arnold, it is true,
used to say that if you only taught a boy what he could understand,
you would teach him very little. But large margins must be allowed to
large maxims, and had Dr. Arnold taught music, where the first and
foremost thing is taste, instead of language, where the first and
foremost thing is memory, he would have modified if not reversed his
dictum. Yet though the pupil’s taste and intelligence may be at a low
point, and require very simple fare, there is happily no lack of good
music adapted to every degree of intelligence, and even of appetite;
and under its influence it is surprising how soon any taste for the
positively bad will imperceptibly pass away. Of course, the teacher
will have to observe much thoughtful care in his selection of music in
each individual case of this kind, always remembering two things--to
give his pupil the best that she can comprehend, but never to surpass
her comprehension. To read Shakspere in a kindergarten would not be
worse waste of poetry and brains.

But it is not enough merely to avoid bad music--that can always be
done. There is good music which may be as unsuitable to certain
temperaments as it is suitable to others: and the teacher should
be something of a psychologist in order to exercise his judgment
prudently. Chopin’s would be _bad_ music if given in large doses to
a girl of sentimental and romantic temperament, though she would
probably excel in it. She needs something of a more robust and less
emotional character. Bach’s music, on the other hand, is always right
for all and cannot be too much employed. For studies, Mr. Franklin
Taylor’s judiciously selected _Progressive Exercises_ may be safely and
strongly recommended, as enabling the teacher to find, without trouble,
instances, from the best composers, of every kind of difficulty.

_The Musical Ear_ simultaneously demands attention. Some pupils have
a natural gift for discerning, without reference to the instrument,
the exact pitch of a musical sound. This is by no means a necessary
indication of great musical ability; but it is unquestionably a very
great advantage. Fortunately, it can to a considerable extent be
cultivated in many cases where it does not exist naturally: and for
this purpose there is nothing so efficacious as--

_The Elementary Singing Class_, which should be a portion of the
curriculum of every school, and should be compulsory for every student
of music. Properly conducted, this class cannot be valued too highly.
In it, rudimentary theory is taught in a systematic and practical
manner. Very few girls are able to think musically. To the best
informed among them a major third consists of so many semitones, and
can be found in so many scales; but when seen upon paper, the notes
convey no idea of their proper sound. Here then, the pupil will be
taught to recognise and sing all intervals and chords, and even to
write them down from dictation. As practical instruction in time and
rhythm forms an important portion of the lesson, the evil effects of
the defective sustaining power of the pianoforte can be in a measure
remedied. Franz Wüllner’s system is excellent.

Thus the mechanical portion of the pianoforte teacher’s work may be
very beneficially supplemented and extended, by being placed in fresh
lights under different conditions. The use and meaning of any study
are never so manifest as when it is seen to be applicable in several
directions.

Here concludes what may be regarded as the first period of instruction.
Given sufficient time for practice, fair average ability and no
physical defects to contend against, good results may reasonably be
looked for. As the pieces selected for study assume a more important
character, the pupil should be made to perceive how they are
constructed; how one portion grows out of another; and by what artistic
process a composition has obtained its symmetry and balance.

_The Study of Harmony_ should now be begun. In addition to the study
of part-writing and perhaps counterpoint, standard compositions should
be carefully analysed. This gives a power of comprehension and
appreciation quite apart from any capacity for interpretation, and
probably better worth acquiring. Many persons combine considerable
musical talent with a physical inability to achieve excellence as
performers. Such of these who have persevered to this point will have
learned to find an intellectual and sympathetic delight in the works of
the great masters, and an artistic pleasure in the performance of their
more gifted interpreters.

More successful executants may now proceed (when it is considered
desirable) to the _more serious study of scales and finger exercises_,
the teacher watching carefully for any signs of physical weakness.
Willing but weak hands are too often injured by overwork, and the
adoption of some means for strengthening them, suitable to each
individual case, should be made an essential part of their training.
Indeed the teacher would do well to make a careful study of the
peculiarities of hands, very great difference of treatment being
required in different cases. Some hands are so unfit for pianoforte
playing as to make it a question whether it is worth while, for any
reason, to continue the attempt. To return to scales and finger
exercises--it will not be going too far to say that they cannot be
practised too assiduously at this point. As a stimulus it may be
found advisable to allow the pupil to avail herself of the numerous
musical examinations so much in vogue at the present time. The plan
adopted by Mr. Oscar Beringer in his _Technical Studies_ is admirable,
and strongly recommended. _Musical memory_ should be assiduously
cultivated. No piece of music can be said to be learned until it has
been committed to memory. Any tendency of the process to impoverish the
power of sight-reading can be adequately guarded against by the daily
reading of new music.

_A Regularly Organised System of Sight-reading Classes._--No
school should be without such classes, and they should be for that
matter supplemented by a few minutes each day to be occupied in
playing through a new piece from beginning to end, without stop or
interruption, however wild the blunders may be. These will soon become
fewer and fewer. During the hours of solid practice, however, blunders
are quite another matter, and those unable to help themselves in this
respect require--

_The Attentive Superintendence of Practice._--The time allowed for
practice should be arranged to suit the requirements of the pupil,
and need never be excessive or interfere with the general course
of study. With care and thought, much good work may be done in a
short time. A large proportion of pupils of all ages are unable to
perceive their own faults, and the time for practice may thus become
a means of forming and confirming fresh bad habits as fast as the
old ones have been eradicated. Moreover, since the time allotted in
schools to practice must needs be short, every moment of it should be
utilised; and very clear explanations should therefore be given to
those who superintend it of what is required as well as to the pupils
themselves--explanations which should be punctiliously followed. There
are also many cases in which the instruction of the promising or
fairly well-trained young pupil may be almost entirely undertaken by a
competent assistant teacher, but subject to the careful supervision of
the master, who should be responsible for her proper progress.

Before closing these remarks, which have not been easy to render
systematic or consecutive, it would be inexcusable in these days to
omit all mention of--

_Examinations._--This is too large a subject to be dwelt upon in
relation to music alone. But it must needs be said that here again
the temperament of pupils must be considered. In some cases good work
is helped by examinations of one kind or another; in others it is
hindered. On this subject we all have our own views. However, if they
can be met easily and in the regular course of study, without forcing
or cramming, or interrupting solid work, let them be undergone by all
means. Otherwise their use becomes abuse, and frequently tends to
entirely false ideas of the proficiency of those who pass them. An
apparently low point may be substantially preferable to an apparently
high one.

But no matter what point is reached, let it be _thoroughly_ reached,
even though the time occupied in attaining thoroughness be apparently
deducted from what is required for further progress. The deduction is
but seeming--not in reality. School work is neither the end, nor the
whole, nor the largest, nor the most important portion of education.
Far better for a girl is it to leave school able to play fairly well
at sight, and to execute a moderately difficult or even easy piece
faultlessly, than with the _prestige_ of a brilliant performer which
will crumble to pieces for want of a foundation as soon as she is left
to her own resources. Another grand mistake, in the same connection,
is made by parents who send children abroad for the continuation or
completion of their musical education before, by having been properly
and systematically grounded, they are able to reap the slightest
benefit from foreign training. But, almost before all things, I would
insist upon a good general education for all who show marked musical
ability, and are thus justified in making music their special and
paramount subject of study. Music is so absorbing a pursuit that it
tends to narrowness by its own nature; and all that inclines to extend
the outlook and enlarge the mind during the impressionable period of
life, is even more important to the musician than to those who are
engaged in pursuits of a less exclusive order. The really cultivated
musician is a prize product of education; but the _mere_ musician, who
may be the mere executant, and nothing else, is the last sort of being
that one would wish any school to evolve.

To conclude, there is perhaps no royal road to the successful study
of anything; there is certainly none to the pianoforte. I have not
attempted so vain a task as to try to make one. What I have undertaken
is to point out the crags that must be faced with a stout heart, and
the best and safest path--which is not necessarily the shortest--to the
vast stores of intellectual pleasure and profit awaiting the aspirant
long before the whole journey’s end.


THE VIOLIN.

By LEWIS HANN.

The teaching of the violin in our schools has of late years attained a
high grade of efficiency. The progress of musical education generally
has been remarkable, but most especially so in the study of the violin,
and perhaps no branch of the art demands so much of the teacher. It
is not enough for him to be a good and brilliant performer; the real
gifts which constitute the successful teacher are great patience,
self-control, tact, discretion and a good knowledge of character.
It is not judicious to lay down hard and fast laws, and pursue a
certain beaten track in teaching, for no two pupils are constituted
alike, and it is often desirable, according to the disposition of
the pupil, to take a somewhat circuitous route to attain the desired
goal. With really talented pupils, of course, no trouble whatever is
experienced--it is the bringing into life hidden or dormant abilities
in the less gifted which proves the art, science and experience of the
teacher.

The establishment of a string orchestral or an _ensemble_ class, even
in a humble way, is of great advantage to violin students. Not only are
the practices a source of pleasure and delight to the pupils, but they
help greatly to improve them in the practice of sight-reading; and in
the study of _ensemble_ music they learn to give more serious attention
to the marks of expression and to observe the _nuances_. Also by
taking part themselves in the performance of important compositions
they learn to appreciate these properly when they hear them rendered
by great performers. It is well for the pupils to attend high-class
concerts as frequently as possible; the earnest, observant student will
derive great benefit and learn much that is invaluable from hearing
good works performed by sound artists.


CLASS-SINGING.

By FLORENCE MOSLEY, Pupil of Shakespeare.

[Class-singing.]

Class-singing is good for all; it educates not the voice only, but
ear, eye and memory. Classes of young children should not be composed
of less than fifteen or twenty; if the voice of a pupil is too audible
to herself and her neighbour, she becomes self-conscious and shy; in
a fairly large class the pupil merely swells a general body of sound.
In a class of thirty the teacher should be able easily to detect a
defaulter; she should not however correct by name, as this tends to
produce nervousness; she should indicate the direction from which
the faulty sound proceeds. A few voices should not be allowed to
predominate over the others, and care should be taken to prevent any
over-exertion of voice.

Position is very important; the pupils should stand upright, with
heels together and hands loosely clasped in front. Good order must be
maintained, and thorough attention exacted.

The classes for young children should not exceed half an hour in
length, but for elder pupils forty-five minutes to an hour is desirable.

[Notation.]

In each lesson a few test questions on notation should be given, and
in order to avoid the answers proceeding only from a few of the more
musical or quicker pupils, all answers should be written.

[Ear tests.]

Ear tests are best taught by taking the middle C as a starting-point,
the pupils being required to give the name of every note struck
within the octave, and also of the interval so formed; when they are
thoroughly familiar with all the sounds contained in that octave, the
process should be repeated with another note as the tonic. Having
written the ear tests, they should proceed to sing them, the conductor
striking a note upon the piano and requiring the class to pitch
any interval he mentions either above or below that note, without
assistance from the instrument. By this means the pupils become
familiar with the relation of one note to another, and so find no
difficulty in reading.

[Dictation.]

Musical dictation is another important means of training the ear; the
melody of a simple well-known tune--if possible within the compass of
an octave--should be played over; the key and starting-note being given
to the class, they should be required to write down the notes of the
melody from memory. At first it will be found necessary to play the
tune over several times, until the class becomes used to the exercise.
To more advanced classes more elaborate melodies can be given, and the
harmonies filled in.

[Rhythm.]

This is best taught by making each member of the class beat time, while
the conductor plays tunes of various measures on the instrument used
for accompanying the class. This enables the pupils to realise the
strong and weak beats.

Another way is to dictate the notes of a melody to the class, making
the pupils fill in the bar lines and time signature.

[Reading at sight.]

The pupils should first read unaccompanied single notes from the
blackboard, followed by easy exercises in unison, and then exercises in
two or three parts; the more advanced classes should read some oratorio
music and standard works.

[Voice production.]

Purity rather than volume of sound should be insisted upon; the former
can be satisfactorily obtained only by a series of diaphragm breathing
exercises, which will result in the throat being left free and open.
The first vocal exercises should consist of simple vowel sounds, sung
on every note from the middle C to the fourth space in the treble
clef. These should be followed by tuned consonants, “koo” being most
useful for bringing the tone forward. Sustained notes should then be
practised, also major, minor and chromatic scales.

[Singing in parts.]

On receiving the part-song the pupils should be called upon to give
the key, time and form of the composition. The simplest method of
teaching young children to hold their several parts is to give them
simple canons and rounds. In a two-part song the whole class should
first learn the seconds and then the firsts; when thoroughly conversant
with both parts, the class should be divided, the pupils being called
upon to sing either firsts or seconds at any time. When the notes have
been learnt the words should be committed to memory and the part-song
sung without copies of the music; we thus train the memory, enable
the pupils to stand in good position and to give full attention to
the conductor’s beat. Elder classes may be taught to sing in three or
four parts, but much care is needed in the selection of part-songs, as
it is difficult to get compositions with a small enough compass to
avoid straining either in the upper or lower registers of young and
untrained voices. I need hardly add how much choral singing helps to
promote a feeling of sympathy, a right kind of emulation, and a fuller
appreciation of beautiful compositions than can be gained by solo
singing or passive listening.


SINGING. TONIC SOL-FA.

By RHODA ROONEY, Certif. Fröbel Society, Cl. 1.

The Tonic Sol-fa system is one which gives every advantage for
producing good and accurate sight-singing, and this without the aid of
a piano or any other instrument. The pupils can test the notes as they
proceed by referring to the Doh from which they start, and which is
regarded as the governing note of the scale or piece.

The Doh is not necessarily middle C on the piano, but is the tonic of
any major scale, all the notes of which have a certain association with
each other and with the governing Doh. This relationship of sounds can
be felt by the pupils as they listen attentively to the first easy
patterns sung by the teacher for their imitation, thereby discovering
what is understood by the “_mental effect_ of sound”. Sufficient
practice of sounds with “the modulator” gives familiarity with the
notes of the scale, change of key, or pitch in any relation, and it
will be found that it becomes almost impossible for the class to sing
out of tune. The Tonic Sol-fa _hand-signs_ practised with the modulator
are a very considerable help, whether the class is composed of little
children or adults.

_Time_ is indicated by lines and dots. A perpendicular line is placed
before a strong beat or pulse, and a colon before a weak pulse. A
single dot divides the beat in half, and a comma is used to show the
division of a quarter beat. A horizontal line shows a tied note, or its
equivalent, and a rest is represented by a blank.

  Three-pulse measure--Doh is E.

[Music]

The great advantage of the Tonic Sol-fa system over any other is the
definite and graduated ear-training which the pupils must derive from
it, rendering the singing true and accurate, however poor the voices
may be.

It is also of great use in developing the voice and training the ear of
those who are older, and have for some reason neglected all musical and
vocal culture.

Books recommended--Curwen’s _Tonic Sol-fa Courses_ and _The School
Music Teacher_, by Evans and McNaught. Publishers, Curwen & Sons.


ELOCUTION.

By ROSE SEATON.

The speaking voice is often left to what we are pleased to call
“Nature”; but a natural voice and a fine speaker are like the language
of the race, the product of cultivation.

Weak and toneless voices are frequently the result of faulty
production. We may divide the vocal apparatus into three parts:
(1) Lungs; (2) Larynx; (3) Mouth. Consider the functions of each
separately, and afterwards their relations to one another.

Great care is needed to develop the lungs, that they may store the
requisite quantity of air and supply the waste of it constantly and
silently; breath control is of primary importance.

In reading aloud, teaching, lecturing, the air in the lungs should be
felt as an active force. All speech is uttered on the outgoing current
of breath. The vocal chords in the “voice box” or larynx close when
sound is made, and toneless or woolly voices show that the chords are
slack and the breath is passing through without being used for sound,
as when the bow of a violin passes over loosened strings. Note that the
larynx should never be tightened by the band or collar of the dress.

The three principal resonators for sound are: the bones of the chest,
the head bones, and the roof of the mouth.

Right position is very important. Both in standing and sitting the
muscles should support the body so that the lungs may expand easily.
To inhale and hold a deep breath is a silent and useful practice. It
strengthens the walls of the thorax, develops the lungs, steadies the
action of the heart, and consequently the voice.

The habit of bending the body over a desk or book, of sitting with the
spine curved outward and the chest collapsed, of standing with the
weight upon one foot, especially upon the heel, should be avoided. It
is not enough to speak, but to speak well.

All articulations are made in the mouth, and the sound must reach the
point where the letter is formed; the place of the letter in the mouth
must be understood, and the quality of it.

The alphabet is best divided into four groups: (1) Vowels; (2)
Explosive consonants; (3) Vibrative consonants; (4) Toneless letters.

Every word in English is complete in itself, and no letter must be
omitted or joined to another. The omission or slurring of the small
words constantly mars the sense; stress is not required, but distinct
utterance. A small voice, if the articulation is distinct, will travel
far, while a loud, ungoverned organ creates confusion of sound and
cannot be understood; nor should the speaker maintain a fixed pitch,
but allow the voice to pass through many gradations of sound, and
endeavour to express the language naturally and musically.


DRAWING, PAINTING, ETC.

By PAULINE M. RANDERSON,

  National Silver and Bronze Medallist (Painting); Art Master’s
  Certificates, I., II. and III., Science and Art Department;
  Teacher-Artist’s Certificate, Royal Drawing Society; Drawing Teacher
  to the Princesses Marie and Victoria of Edinburgh, 1884; Art
  Mistress, Cheltenham Ladies’ College.

[Natural drawing of children.]

[Brushwork.]

[Simple designs.]

[Line drawing.]

Mr. Ruskin says, “Accuracy and rapidity of perception ... are
especially what masters and schools can teach”. Also, that “All
qualities of execution are influenced by, and in a great degree
dependent on, a far higher power than mere execution--knowledge of the
truth”. With Fröbel’s teaching, and these thoughts in mind, we observe
the first attempts of children at drawing. They draw from memory, and
their drawings exhibit their knowledge of the things drawn. In the
first lessons we do not interfere with their own natural method, but we
help them to further investigation by encouraging them to look again
at the object, asking them questions about it, and drawing with them.
We give exercises for the hand, wrist and arm, by running the pencil
round cardboard shapes of simple geometric or ornamental forms; also
by repeating straight and curved lines on squared paper. We foster
their love of colour and train their inventive powers, by using the
brush. If we take a brush and fill it with colour, we can (without any
effort of drawing) produce two simple units or elements. If the point
only touches the paper, we have a dot; if the side, we have a form
determined by the size and shape of the brush. We use these elements
on a network of squares (of sufficient size), and find them capable of
producing the simplest possible designs. By adding short lines, both
straight and curved, drawn with the point of the brush, we increase
our power and variety. With the same elements we can approximately
imitate some very easy natural forms, but as “it does not train the
child to great accuracy,” we are very careful to choose such flowers,
leaves, insects, etc., as these simple means can most nearly represent.
We continue our practice in drawing lines on squares for two reasons,
_viz._, it is an easy method (greatly used by designers) of drawing
patterns, in which every variety of straight and curved lines may be
used and placed in all conceivable positions, hence great facility of
line drawing may be acquired, the influence of which will be felt in
the writing exercises, and new combinations may be made by the children
themselves; also, many simple drawings of objects may be done, with
the advantage of being true in their proportions, before any actual
training has been given in that particular. We do not allow the use of
india-rubber in this practice.

[Brushwork proper.]

Our next use of the brush is for real drawing; the matter for our
designs being no longer mere accidental forms, but such as require
actual drawing like those on Greek vases. The flexibility of the brush,
and natural movement of the wrist, render it easy to produce these
forms which are varied in shape and thickness by pressure. The network
of squares may be abandoned in favour of filling spaces (such as the
cardboard shapes previously mentioned) with ornamental arrangements.

[Proportions obtained with the ruler.]

We come at length to study proportions by the aid of the ruler.
Straight lines of various lengths are ruled; these are divided into
simple proportions. Exercises are given in judging the relative
lengths of lines drawn on the blackboard, etc. Squares and oblongs
are constructed. Simple flat objects with straight edges are used as
models; they are measured and drawn with the aid of the ruler. The
drawings are always of correct proportions though the size may be
varied, the measurements being reduced to ¹⁄₂, ¹⁄₄, ¹⁄₃, etc. The
relation of this work to arithmetic is apparent.

[Proportional measurements with the pencil.]

We give much time to teaching the use of the pencil for measuring
proportions thus: one eye is closed, the pencil is held up between the
eye and the object, at arm’s length away; the thumb indicates on the
pencil the apparent length of the part to be measured, which (by moving
the hand still kept at the same distance) can be compared with the
whole until its true relationship is ascertained.

[Memory drawing.]

[Object drawing.]

[Construction.]

We give exercises in drawing from memory all along the course, the
subjects being chiefly animal forms so interesting to children. We now
pass on to drawing from flat objects having some curved as well as
straight edges. Let us suppose we have chosen a Japanese hand-screen,
which we hang on the blackboard parallel to the class. The size of
the drawings is first determined. The proportions are thought out and
indicated. The model is handed round the class, attention being called
to its construction. When replaced in its original position, the curved
edges are compared with straight lines to ascertain their true nature.

A drawing is then made on the blackboard, the class following step by
step. When complete the drawings may be tinted with flat washes of
colour. The pattern may be drawn with the brush or a new one invented.

[Foreshortening.]

[Appearances.]

Mr. Taylor reminds us that “it required all the ages to the fifteenth
century of our era to master the laws of foreshortening”. To introduce
these “laws” we use straight-edged flat objects, such as a map or
picture on the wall. We sit, not now facing the model as before, but so
that one edge may be described as being nearer to us, another farther
from us, and two receding. We have to deal with appearances rather
than realities. The edges we know to be horizontal, no longer appear
so; we compare them with the pencil held horizontally until we realise
the angle they make with it. The width has apparently grown much less
and must be compared with the front edge. The farther edge, which we
know to be the same length as the nearer one, now looks shorter. Thus
we think out the apparent changes and make our drawing accordingly.
In the same way we draw the top of a table, and when able to do so
correctly we place flat objects with curved edges on the wall or table,
or diagrams with curved lines on them, and by comparing the curves with
straight lines we realise their apparent forms.

[Class and individual teaching.]

In consequence of the children having each a different view of the
model, it is more satisfactory to take a very small class, giving each
one as much personal attention as possible until they get accustomed to
the work.

It is well to have some work of a more popular nature to alternate with
these lessons in foreshortening. For instance, the brush may be used
for painting easy leaves, flowers, etc., direct from nature, or for
flat tinting of ornamental forms drawn from copies or the cast.

[Plane geometry.]

Exercises in drawing from written descriptions, involving knowledge of
simple geometric terms and figures, should also be given.

[Model drawing.]

[Perspective.]

[Individual tastes.]

We proceed to model drawing proper, working in the same way as in the
lessons on foreshortened planes; obtaining as accurately as possible
the angles at which lines appear to recede; measuring the widths of
receding planes and comparing distant lines with near ones. We have to
deal with perspective, “the science of appearances,” and we do this in
the most _practical_ way. We realise that it is only too possible to
teach this subject in a wrong manner, by putting _rules_ in the place
of accurate observation. We therefore evolve our perspective sketch
from the model and find it a great help to intelligent drawing. We
frequently draw our models from memory. Alternating with these lessons
we frequently take a course of elementary shading. We encourage the
child in its own natural preferences and mode of expression, having an
excellent opportunity for doing so in the work done at home during the
week, and especially during the vacation.

[Suggestive drawing.]

[Growth.]

We seek to modify the rather stiff and rigid kind of drawing hitherto
necessarily done, knowing that higher art demands a suggestive
treatment. We use such natural forms as fruit, flowers, foliage, of
which we draw such lines as seem best to interpret them. We study very
carefully their growth or development. We use also casts of animals,
human features, etc.

[Shading.]

We endeavour to make our shading course a good foundation for painting.
We give exercises in flat tinting and graduating to obtain power over
the material (chalk, charcoal, pencil or otherwise) and to ascertain
its possibilities. We draw from objects having flat planes such as a
cube, placed so as to receive a strong contrast of light and shade;
from cylindrical or other rounded objects, in which we study specially
the shaded side with its reflected light, and the position of the high
light. We work from groups of objects of various colours, trying to
obtain their relative tones, textures, etc.

[Sacrifice.]

[Mystery.]

We try to arouse interest in the light itself, showing (by working with
the class) how we must sacrifice minor details to emphasise its play on
the group; also in the mystery of shade, wherein reflected lights must
often be subdued and details lost. Pupils have to draw also from memory.

The figure or painting may follow.

No originality is claimed for the methods and course advocated. They
are founded on the desire to be educationally useful, interesting
to the pupil, and a good ground on which to build artistic work in
painting and designing for wood carving, china painting, needlework,
etc.


BRUSH DRAWING.

By MARY FARBROTHER, Cert. Fröbel Society.

All children take pleasure in drawing. Who has not seen a baby
make unintelligible strokes on a piece of paper, at the same time
exclaiming, “See, a chicken!” “a train!” “a gee-gee!” But the pleasure
caused by such productions is not to be compared with the delight with
which a child of three or four years old will handle a brush, dip it
in the paint, and then produce a coloured impression on the paper. The
happy laughter of the baby as he sees his flower or leaf appear will
not soon be forgotten by those who have put this magic wand into tiny
hands. And the interest derived from brush drawing does not pass away.
Each year the child will be able to obtain truer representations of
the objects he attempts to reproduce, and every fresh effort will give
pleasure anew to the child and the teacher.

Brush drawing may be regarded from an educational standpoint. Many
useful papers have been printed showing its educational value, and the
help it gives in developing the artistic sense, powers of observation,
etc.

With very little children it seems best to keep to the simplest
exercise for some time, and to let them represent any leaves, flowers
or insects, which can be made with the flat impression of the brush;
they will soon learn to hold the brush perpendicularly, and thus
obtain thin lines for stems and branches, and the finer parts of other
objects. Later on they will be able to represent the forms of various
animals, as well as an infinite variety of flowers and leaves.

It is most essential that the class should have the real object to
observe and copy, and whenever possible a specimen should be given to
each child, for, as Ruskin says, “The sight is more important than the
drawing”; and an earnest seeking after truth and accuracy must leave
its impression on the character.


PAINTING.

By ARTHUR RICHARDSON, Pupil of Bougereau, Paris.

Let beginners have real objects to draw from, or any plaster casts of
ornaments which can be made sufficiently interesting. An H.B. pencil
is the best to use at first, which may be changed for a B. or B.B.
as more shading is required, until the pupil is ready for the more
vigorous qualities of charcoal. Use the charcoal in stick on a rather
rough paper, with bread for correction and picking out lights; in fact,
use the bread as if it were a white paint. It is better to substitute
charcoal for chalk and stump as it is quicker in execution. For
complete representation, oil colour gives the fullest range of light
and shade possible.

Pupils should not spend time in elaborating and finishing, from which
little knowledge is gained; it is better spent in mastering new
difficulties than in making tidy an old drawing.

Let it be clearly grasped before beginning what sort of a drawing
is going to be made, and how the result is to be reached. One can
generally explain better by working on the pupil’s own drawing, but
one must encourage unaided effort. Each new study should present fresh
difficulties: one must insist on precision, especially in the drawing
and placing of shadows and bright lights. Learners should try to get
every touch right at first, and never knowingly paint or shade an
incorrect tone.

Perspective should be taught from real objects; a few simple rules are
sufficient: rules must be used to assist the eye in getting directions
right, not to take the place of looking to see how lines actually do
go. Though geometric models give all necessary problems in drawing
(till we come to study from the human figure), yet they are less
interesting than other things.

Let the first study for complete shading or painting be something that
has an evident brightest light and a fairly dark bit of shadow. A big
jug partly glazed is a capital subject. If the darkest and lightest
spots are got right first, the intermediate tones will come easily. So
long as colour is made harmonious, treat it as of secondary importance
to correct tone. Choose colours partly for tonic possibilities, say
red, blue and yellow, two of each, one dark and one light, rather
bright than otherwise. Groups of objects, or still life, are perhaps
the most interesting subjects till the pupil is ready to draw from
life. Drapery, a curtain or long cloak, thrown over the back of a chair
makes a good study.

A knowledge of the proportions of the skeleton is most useful when
drawing from life; more especially if only a draped model can be given.

A certain amount of drawing from the antique is necessary before
beginning from the human figure, which is the best and highest study
both for drawing, tone and colour.


FRESCO.

By EADIE REID, Pupil of Sir W. B. Richmond, R.A., K.C.B.

The value of drawing for decorative purposes has been neglected in the
past. An effort is being made to remedy this by the teaching of the
principles of ornament and the laws of decorative art-form. The study
of Greek Ceramic art shows the important part that the brush plays in
the formation of conventional form. It is therefore essential before
dealing with the theories of design or composition that a thorough
mastery over the brush be acquired. The shapes which the pressure of
the brush gives us, will enable us with ease to trace the evolution
of pattern from the primitive zig-zag or dot and line to the subtly
graceful scrolls and meanders of later times.

Before proceeding to more advanced problems in design we must confine
our attention to the filling of spaces, such as squares, oblongs
and circles, with these simple brush marks suggesting buds, leaves,
flowers, etc. For this purpose we can find no better models than the
Greek vase and the skilful brush renderings of Japanese art. When
the student has succeeded in arriving at something like an original
composition, we must be careful to insist upon the value of sound, well
understood growth running through the whole scheme, while simplicity of
line and originality of thought should be encouraged. The application
of the principles of design ought to be demonstrated by cartoons
showing the ornament designs of different races and ages. It would be
advisable to work these before the student, showing every line of their
construction, stage by stage, until we have a clear workmanlike drawing
upon a fairly large scale.

When the pupils can express themselves with freedom, an actual piece of
work should be taken in hand, such as panels for a cabinet or piano,
the designing of surface decoration, wall-papers, hangings; the use
of the stencil and frieze painting. Ladies can very well produce such
friezes on the walls of their houses; some in Cheltenham have been most
satisfactorily conceived and executed in _tempera_, while others are
designing panels and frieze decorations with a view to their execution
_in situ_.


CHINA PAINTING.

By MINNA CRAWLEY, Silver Medallist.

Any one possessing some knowledge of drawing or painting may acquire
the technique of china painting without either much difficulty or
expenditure of time.

China painting possesses many features of interest which make it both
a useful and attractive study for young people. It is one of the very
oldest forms of art--a fact interesting of itself. The revivals in
majolica, faience, and many other kinds of ware of late years, show how
widespread the appreciation of the factile art has become; and with the
desire for good form and substance has come that of the most suitable
decoration of it.

Much may be gained in the knowledge of design by the adaptation
of decoration to different styles, so as to suit the form to be
ornamented. This develops also originality and manual dexterity, and
tests patience; no work in this branch can be completed without the
process of “firing,” which assuredly “tries every man’s work”; for
while it brings to perfection the colours, and gives the necessary
strength and gloss, it also fixes and brings into strong relief every
error--and warns against future mistakes.

Vases, flower-pots, tiles for fire-places, dessert services, tea-sets
and many useful household articles can be ornamented; and thus taste
cultivated and the home beautified.


ART NEEDLEWORK.

By MINNA CRAWLEY.

The artistic faculty latent in so many women who perhaps have never
studied drawing or painting, has in this accomplishment been developed
quickly and more easily than in the higher class of art.

Art needlework cultivates the taste for design, colouring and general
effect; and is also interesting as an ancient revival.

The old historical tapestries, both English and foreign, have been
freshly studied of late, as well as the ecclesiastical work of the
fourteenth and fifteenth centuries; some of this beautiful work
has been equalled if not excelled in some of our modern schools
of needlework. There can be no doubt that needlework, from “high
art” embroidery down to the plain sewing and making of garments,
is excellent for girls, and it is to be hoped that the use of the
needle will never be given up in our schools or homes. Both art and
plain needlework are now being successfully carried on, even with the
very limited time that can be devoted to them, by the pupils of the
Cheltenham Ladies’ College.


WOOD-CARVING, ETC.

By M. S. LYNDON SMITH, Honours Certificate, Class I., School of
Wood-carving, South Kensington.

Wood-carving and kindred handicrafts, which can be used for forming
and beautifying the common objects in daily use, have much educational
value; they help to develop the æsthetic faculties, and give habits of
neatness and accuracy and dexterity, and although children at school
cannot be turned into finished artists, an incentive may be given at
school; and we may discover in seemingly dull children faculties which,
without manual instruction, would remain dormant.

Incidental teaching may be given to elder children in the history of
ornamental design, its uses, purposes and meaning; also its inseparable
connection with architecture explained, so that they may be the better
able to understand the beauties of our own cathedrals, and compare
these intelligently with the work of other countries and times. For
those who can never attain to great proficiency, an intelligent
interest may be awakened in the work of those to whom we owe the
renaissance of handicraft, which is so characteristic a factor of our
own century.


MODELLING.

By EVANGELINE STIRLING, National Gold Medallist for Modelling, Nääs
Certificate for Sloyd.

No better definition of modelling can be given than this: “As carving
is the art of cutting down, so modelling is the art of building up”.

Modelling develops the power of observation, for to imitate we must
observe closely, and only by close observation can we learn to
appreciate the beautiful which is enshrined in those grand specimens of
ancient Greek sculpture which have come down to us, and to which the
untrained eye is blind. The sense of touch is quickened to a remarkable
degree, for the subtle modelling of a surface necessitates not only
its close observation by the eye, but its perception by the hand. Also
the hand becomes cunning in dealing with the material, and the power
of construction is brought out. It is a sure foundation for drawing
and technical education, and instances are not wanting of its utility
in the higher branches of learning. Any plastic material may be the
medium, but clay is mostly used.

[Tools.]

The first and chief tools are the hands and fingers, but one or two
others, the shapes of which will be suggested by the necessities
of the work, may be added later on. A modelling board or slate, a
straight-edged piece of wood and a sponge are required.

[Teaching (class and individual).]

Beginning in the kindergarten, modelling should continue without a
break through the ordinary term of school life. In the elementary stage
class teaching is of the greatest value, but no such class should
contain more than eighteen pupils. The advanced stage will require most
individual teaching.

[Elementary.]

Studies should be chosen from a carefully graduated course, the
elementary stage beginning (after the kindergarten) with natural
objects such as simple fruits, some of which the pupils may have
already made, but which must now be modelled on a larger scale and
with more intelligence and accuracy. They should then pass on to more
difficult fruits, vegetables, leaves (taken singly and then on the
branch), then objects such as a worn slipper, etc., etc.

[Lesson to class.]

Each child should be provided with a duplicate of the object,
sufficient plastic material, a suitably shaped board and a sponge.
Equipped in like manner let the teacher build up a model in view of
the class, giving the reason for each step as she proceeds. The first
ten or fifteen minutes of a lesson following the completion of a work,
should be devoted to the modelling of a small memory sketch of the last
object executed.

[Advanced stage.]

In the advanced stage the objects of study should be chiefly casts and
natural foliage, flowers, simple drapery, casts of simple ornament of
bold design, but not too geometric: animals’ heads, or the enlarged
human features as Michael Angelo’s “David,” masks of antique heads,
hands, feet and whole heads.

[Note.]

Casts must always be of the best and those most approved for art
training. Natural objects must be such as lend themselves to artistic
representation. As a rule, the models should be executed in the round,
and only at the end of the course should bas-relief modelling (where
foreshortening must be resorted to) be allowed, for this is the most
difficult of all plastic work.

Should there be any marked artistic talent it will have shown itself
before the end of the course, when the pupil may be allowed to
specialise.


SLOYD.

By EVANGELINE STIRLING.

Sloyd, as taught at Nääs in Sweden, its headquarters, is the most
perfect educational system of handwork in wood which has yet been
produced. It is suitable for girls as well as boys of the ages of ten
and eleven and upwards.

Each child is required to make a series of useful articles called
models, in which round work and the square work of the carpenter are
duly alternated; and each model introduces, with the nicest regard to
the graduation of difficulties, some new tool or fresh exercise with a
tool. It is used as a means of developing physical power and of forming
character and habit, rather than of attaining utilitarian ends. The
tools are mostly those ordinarily used by a carpenter, with three or
four extra ones, _viz._, the knife, the axe, the draw-knife and the
spoon-iron. Specially shaped carpenters’ benches, adapted to the size
of work done, are also used.


CONCLUSION.

RELATION OF SCHOOL TO HOME.

By DOROTHEA BEALE.

So far we have spoken of the life of the child in the school. I now
enter on another branch of the subject no less important, which in a
book intended for teachers I shall treat from a teacher’s point of view.

I have spoken of the great change which has taken place during the
last fifty years. In the days of Locke, of Rousseau, of Sandford and
Merton, and of the Edgeworths, it was only possible to educate a
boy by a private tutor at home. Now the sons of the nobility are no
longer educated in their own homes, nor sent, as in earlier days, to
other families. A similar change has taken place in the education of
girls; every year more of those who would formerly have received their
education entirely from governesses and masters at home, or at most
gone to a very small boarding school, are studying as day-pupils at
large schools and colleges, or living in boarding-houses. The question
arises then, since the time is in the case of day-girls divided between
the school and the home, how shall the relations between the two be
adjusted? In the case of the day-girl, about eleven-twelfths of her
time are spent at home; in the case of the boarder, nearly a third of
the year. Everything must depend upon the harmonious working of the
home and the school, if the education is to be profitable, and the
problem requires the most careful attention. Teachers full of zeal
and devotion are eagerly seeking to deepen their knowledge, to widen
their experience, and when they have come to the conclusion that a
well-proportioned curriculum is necessary for mental development, that
early specialisation is harmful, that daily distractions are wasting
the nervous energy of the growing girl, they are aggravated by hearing,
“Mother thinks geometry is no good for a girl”; “Please, I am to drop
my English lessons, and give nearly all my time to music”; or, “I could
not do my lessons because I was at a bazaar”; or, “Friends invited me”;
or, “Mother does not approve of my working in the holidays”.

And then they are tempted to do what specialists in all ages have tried
to do--to set up a beneficent despotism, to say, “I am Sir Oracle,
and when I ope my lips, let no dog bark!” I once heard the Head of a
College address a body of teachers, advising them what to say to an
opposing mother: “My dear madam, I know what is best for your child”.
There are doctors who assume a dictatorial attitude, but what should
we say, if a mother let the child go on taking his medicine without
expostulation, when it seemed to be injuring the child; or, on the
other hand, refused to give the child medicine which was beneficial,
because the child did not like it? As the doctor needs to listen to
the experience of the mother, and the mother to carry out the advice
of the doctor, so do parents need to trust the children’s teacher in
matters of which an educational expert can form the best judgment,
and teachers, like doctors, need to profit by the experience of the
parent, and should be willing to give reasons for their advice, knowing
that the more their patient understands, the more intelligently will he
carry out the directions given.

But how shall this be? Well, as a quickened sense of the supreme
importance of education has been awakened in teachers, so has it in
parents. But mothers cannot in these days lead quiet lives, and devote
themselves to the home as they once could. The multiform external
activity, which we have noticed among women workers, has its good side
even as regards family life, for the family that lives for itself
alone can no more lead a healthy life than the individual, but it has
its dangers too. We all know how great are the claims of society, of
culture, of philanthropy, right in themselves, yet sometimes displacing
a higher claim. All of us, specially mothers and teachers, want to know
how to conciliate the rival duties, lest the words should be said to
us, “Thine own vineyard hast thou not kept”.

It is of the very greatest importance for the child’s character, that
there should be complete co-operation between home and school. Consider
the difference between home and school discipline; I may say that the
home government is personal--there is not strict system and unvarying
law. A girl comes down late to breakfast; or she is in the drawing-room
when she should be in the study. She chooses friends and books that the
mother disapproves, and there is irritation: the mother expostulates,
the child is provoked. In the school on the other hand there is
inexorable law, the consequence of neglect must be borne, there is no
scolding, no entreaty. It will be an advantage to the home to have a
little more rule, and to the school to have children brought up with
some of the freedom which must be theirs one day.

The child who sees the mother yield up her own power to law, bearing
inconvenience, denying herself pleasure, and what is harder still,
denying it to her child, will learn to respect duty, and impose laws on
herself.

Besides this, there are ways by which fuller co-operation may be
brought about. All professions find the advantage of meeting together
to discuss their special problems. There is the Teachers’ Guild on the
one hand, and a Parents’ Educational Union on the other. I have tried
in vain to bring these together here. The guild is too professional for
the parent; it does seem, however, as if the newly-established Child
Study Society might unite both. A fair number have joined the child
study evenings and given valuable help. In the _Pedagogical Seminary_
for July, 1897, which is a mine of valuable suggestions for parents
and teachers, there is an interesting account of the way in which
the school and the home have worked together in solving educational
problems.

The movement initiated by the able president of Clarke University,
U.S.A., for founding a science of education upon systematised
observation is a most important one; it will help to build up a true
philosophy upon facts, and so save us from the aimless talk of mere
theorisers who want to square circles, or to discover the philosopher’s
stone.

A good library, accessible to parents and teachers, which should
contain books and periodicals not written exclusively for the
profession, would be a great help. A niche in the general school
library might perhaps be reserved for parents.

I have found much advantage from throwing open such lectures as I
give in our large hall to parents and Heads of Houses. Many come
to a scripture lesson given to Division I. collectively, and to
literature lessons; some have joined our Plato or Browning readings,
and occasionally have been present at lectures given in the training
department. It is quite usual for mothers to accompany their daughters
to the “Cours” in Paris. Of course parents could not attend schools _ad
libitum_, but it need not be quite a _terra incognita_.

The head mistress in many schools sets apart certain hours for seeing
parents; could it not be arranged that each class teacher should have
some free time for seeing parents of her pupils, especially at the
beginning of a new year? There is much to be said against evening
visiting, and ordinary social meetings would be useless for the
purpose of discussing difficulties. It is a great matter to substitute
candid discussion for fault-finding to third parties; we shall not
always agree, but we shall learn to respect one another’s opinions, to
understand one another’s difficulties, and to work more effectually
with one another in the difficult, sacred task committed to us. So far
from finding parents generally anxious to interfere, I have difficulty
in persuading them that I earnestly desire they should tell me of
anything that needs attention.

The essential thing is that there should be co-operation and a sort of
concordat between the school and the home. Certain rules agreed on:--

  1. There must be a room for study and certain hours fixed for home
  work, which must not be altered without grave reason.

  2. Late parties, bazaars, theatricals, etc., etc., must generally be
  allowed only in the vacation.

  3. No absence from school, no coming back late, no excuses for
  unprepared lessons should ever be permitted, except for some very
  sufficient reason--never because pleasure was preferred to duty.

  4. If parents and teachers differ, that difference should be
  discussed by neither in the presence of the child.

  5. Parents should take interest in the school work; ask to see the
  written work; get to know the teachers and friends of their children;
  attend lectures, if possible, and supplement school lessons by home
  reading; perhaps join some common society, _e.g._, Teachers’ Guild,
  Parents’ Educational Union, or Child Study Society.

  6. Teachers should invite and welcome any communications from
  parents, should try to know something of the home life.

  7. Submission should be required in things lawful from the beginning,
  and the reins loosened as children grow up: the reverse method is
  fatal.

  8. Parents should not allow the children to read indiscriminately.
  Distaste for intellectual work is created by exciting novels;
  irreparable injury is done to the moral nature by letting children
  enter into sympathy in imagination with the base and impure.

  9. The only safeguard is to provide in the home good literature, and
  to read with the children. Especially should holidays be utilised as
  a means of learning how to spend time rightly in after-life, and some
  regular and independent study undertaken during long holidays.

  10. Health should never be sacrificed to fashion. High heels,
  tight-lacing, etc., etc., should be absolutely impossible. Woollen
  clothing, a carefully studied dietary, regular hours, sufficient
  sleep, well-ventilated bedrooms, daily baths, proper artificial
  light, suitable seats and tables, all these things which are studied
  in boarding-schools should be considered also in the home. Care
  should be taken in avoiding infection.

  11. In planning the studies and life-work of children, parents and
  teachers should be guided, not by the consideration of what they
  want the children to be, but of what they are; the special gifts of
  God are to be specially cultivated, and both should ask, “Lord, what
  wouldst Thou have me to do?” Pascal’s father forbade mathematics.
  Some parents insist on music unwisely.

  12. Especially should parents use Sunday rightly; the religious
  instruction of their children maybe given at school, but the home
  reading has much to do with this, and the example.

  13. Children should have a regular allowance of money from quite
  early years, and be trained to spend it rightly, and to keep accounts.

  14. Should it be impossible for the home supervision and training
  to be carried out in harmony with the day school, either a private
  governess should be engaged, or the children sent from home as
  boarders.




SECTION II.

THE MORAL SIDE OF EDUCATION.

By LUCY H. M. SOULSBY, of the Manor House School, Brondesbury Park.
N.W., late Head Mistress of Oxford High School.

    Lord, with what care hast thou begirt us round!
      Parents first season us: then schoolmasters
      Deliver us to laws; they send us bound
    To rules of reason.

    _George Herbert._


Many girls leave college with a vague idea that they had better take up
teaching, because it is the only way of earning a livelihood for which
they are in the least prepared. Unfortunately their preparation, too
often, consists merely in having been taught themselves. Having eaten
dinners is some preparation for the career of a cook, but not much;
and these young teachers may perhaps find an educational cookery-book
useful! The comparison does not hold good altogether, for almost every
woman has the instinct of motherhood in her, which makes her more or
less a born teacher, while it is only a few who are born cooks. Still,
every young woman finds help in talking to an older one, who has
had the same work, made probably the same mistakes, and has found a
practical way out of them. We all value practical experience; what else
is training but practical experience systematised? But it is not every
young teacher who has an experienced friend at hand, or who can afford
to be regularly trained. It is hoped that this book may be, in printed
form, such talk as she would welcome had she an experienced friend at
hand.

[The self-education of the teacher should include (_a_) Mental leisure.]

The high pressure at which most people live is not favourable to much
individual thought. A girl at college may well feel that her three
years there are the great opportunity of her life for taking in the
ideas of living leaders of thought, and for making friends with her
equals. She is hardly to be blamed if every moment of her day is
occupied with hard work, anxiety about her schools, and with the social
amusements which are part of the education of college life. Still, this
full and happy life involves a danger that should be guarded against,
a danger lest the girl should be so much occupied in living her own
life, that she has no leisure to stop and think out what should be
the principles and the aim to guide her in moulding--as every teacher
does--the lives of others.

[(_b_) Knowledge of the world.]

The moral thoughtfulness, which Dr. Arnold demanded of his VI. Form,
is the main requisite for a true teacher: no dexterity in imparting
knowledge will make her an educator if this is lacking. The study of
character and practical casuistry, though not on the list of “final
schools” at any university, is yet the most indispensable of all
“schools” for a teacher. It may well be that her opportunities of
gaining knowledge of the world are restricted by her circumstances.
College is her furthest flight, and this is a world of its own with
the disadvantage of being disproportionately peopled by too many of
one generation. Under ordinary conditions of family life, the rising
generation is kept in touch with maturer ideas by a fair proportion of
uncles and aunts, as well as by fathers and mothers; but, at college,
the niece’s world is narrowed (though this is not usually the light in
which it strikes them) by the exclusion of aunts! College undoubtedly
gives much knowledge of character to a thoughtful student, but its
experiences need to be brought into true proportion by comparison with
the larger world beyond.

There are many novels, essays and biographies which afford a good
substitute for knowledge of the world to the girl who has a quiet home,
besides the many books bearing directly on the study and formation of
character, which every teacher and mother and elder sister should read.
Such are: Sir Henry Taylor’s autobiography and letters, _The Memorials
of Miss Charlotte Williams Wynne_; all Sir Arthur Helps’ works and Mr.
Hutton’s essays. Miss Mozley has written two volumes of essays which
are full of delicate insight into character: one, _Social Essays_,
reprinted from _The Saturday Review_, can only be obtained second-hand,
but her _Essays from Blackwood_ are still in print. Sir Henry Taylor’s
_Notes on Life_, and Lord Chesterfield’s _Letters_ (selections)
will also be found very useful. Among the more directly educational
books, attention should be directed to _L’Education Progressive_, by
Madame Neckar de Saussure; _La Famille_, by the Comte de Gasparin;
_L’Education des Filles_, by Fénélon; _L’Education des Mères de
Familles_, by Aimée Martin; _Principles of Education_, _Notebook
of an Elderly Lady_, _Youth and Age_ (all three by Miss Elizabeth
Sewell); Miss Yonge’s _Womankind_, Miss Mason’s _Home Education_, Miss
Shirreff’s _Intellectual Education_, Mrs. William Grey’s _Thoughts for
Girls on Leaving School_, and Mr. Sidgwick’s _Form Discipline_.

Nothing can replace in a teacher the study of individual peculiarities
of character: the motives, the special hindrances, the growth of each
child in her class must be studied and individually met, if she is to
rise to the true level of her work.

[(_c_) Insight into character.]

This is assuming that the teacher feels the full responsibility of
being put in a position where, by the way in which she teaches French,
or mathematics, she can help or hinder the spiritual growth of each
of her pupils. But even supposing that this overruling underlying
motive of every true educator be put aside for the moment, and we
consider only the smaller question of more or less success in imparting
knowledge--still, this very success (other things being equal) will lie
with that teacher who has the insight into the peculiar disposition
of each child, who can bring to bear on each nature the motives which
appeal to it and who can foresee and obviate the difficulties, which
vary in each child, according to its mental, moral and physical
equipment. In all ways scholastic success is furthered by seeking first
something higher still. A great educator used to say: “If you teach
one boy arithmetic only and another boy arithmetic and religion, other
things being equal, the second boy will beat the first in arithmetic,
because his nature is more widely developed”.

[Moral responsibility of the teacher.]

But it may be thought that this is asking more of teachers than can
be fairly expected. A girl who has taken life from the outside, with
a comfortable, one might almost say, “wholesome” disregard of motives
and such-like complications, who looks forward to giving her lesson
in a special subject, and to then being free to be as untouched by the
“malady of thought,” as absorbed in games and the amusements of life,
as was rightfully her state at fifteen, may well feel that she is not
prepared to enter on teaching as a career combining the responsibility
of doctor and clergyman. If so, let her consider carefully before she
adopts the teaching profession.

A teacher is as much morally bound as any mother to consider the
principles of the inner life, to think out a clear conception of her
moral and intellectual aims for her children, and as such bound to feel
constant moral responsibility for what she does, and is, and for how
she improves herself.

It is true we see both mothers and teachers take up their responsible
positions in life without this moral thoughtfulness, and we sometimes
see the children turning out well in spite of it. But the fact that
Nature has wonderful curative and educative powers, does not lessen the
personal responsibility of those who should have used art to improve
nature. Children have been known to recover from illness in spite of
a doctor’s mistakes or neglect, but we do not therefore condone the
doctor’s carelessness.

If a girl is not prepared to take up the teaching profession
from its deepest, _i.e._, its only true side; if she wishes
to remain thoughtless, then let her choose some other form of
livelihood--millinery, clerkship, gardening--where outward diligence
will fairly meet all demands, so far as mere honesty to her employer is
concerned.

But let the teacher who shrinks from moral responsibility remember
that, in this side of her work alone, is to be found permanent
interest. All mechanical work must pall sooner or later, and teaching
is little better than mechanical, if it is of the external kind.
Elementary teaching is often called mechanical, because its subjects
and their extent are very limited, but Latin grammar in the high school
is, after a time, capable of becoming quite as dull as English Grammar
in the elementary school. Or, rather, both are equally capable of being
interesting if, and only if, the teacher cares supremely for what is
more important than any grammar, the development of each child who
learns from her.

[The teacher needs

(_a_) Knowledge of the circumstances and character of each pupil.]

For, no matter how large the class, the true teacher must study and
respect the individuality of each member of it. Though her class may
pass a most successful examination, yet, in examining herself, she must
mark down (against herself), as a failure, the name of each child who
has remained to her merely one of the crowd. The eyesight, the hearing,
the spine, the headaches, the home surrounding of each child, should
be known to its teacher, and should modify the demands made upon that
child.

Curvature of the mind is far more common than curvature of the spine,
and the teacher must have keen intellectual sympathy with each child’s
individual mental tangles. She must clear the ground of harmful
stumbling-blocks, and yet leave enough to exercise the mental muscles.
Surely if the difficulty of a task can fire enthusiasm, the teacher
should burn with zeal.

[(_b_) A right judgment and presence of mind.]

The moral temperament of each child is an even more complex study than
the mental peculiarities; praise, for instance, is a tonic for one
and poison for another. The teacher must have presence of mind to
criticise on the spur of the moment, with due regard to the child’s
moral digestion, to the abstract question of justice in the class as
a whole, and to maintaining a high, and yet not depressing, standard
of work. One child requires to be repressed and one to be encouraged
to do itself justice. One child has thoughtful difficulties which need
sympathetic unravelling; another suffers from mere inattention, and
requires decisive pulling together.

It stands to reason that, to appreciate all these shades of character
and to satisfy the needs of each, in such a manner as not to waste the
time of the class (and not to sin against the code of rough and ready
justice, to which the childish mind, quite rightly, owns allegiance),
is a very delicate task, and involves much of that moral thoughtfulness
which is the foundation of a good teacher.

[(_c_) Self-mastery.]

One reason for the supreme importance of this quality is that it not
only means insight into others, but also involves self-mastery without
which no _educative_ control of others is possible. _Forcible_ control
is quite possible to a severe or hot-tempered nature: children are
easily cowed, but they do not learn to control themselves if they are
subject to this martial law. If a mistress finds that her children are
good with her and tiresome with other people, she may rely on it that
her own discipline is defective. Probably she has allowed personal
affection for herself to be an admissible motive for good conduct,
whereas insubordination would be almost better for the child! This
last would be repented of, in time, as a fault, whereas many a girl
goes through life mistaking impulse for principle, because at school,
obedience “to please Miss So-and-so” was accepted, as equivalent
to obedience to duty. It may be that the teacher has mastered the
children’s tempers by dint of having a worse one herself; if so, the
children will recoup themselves, for the enforced restraint of her
presence, by licence in her absence; whereas the control exercised
by a serene, equable nature develops the element of self-control in
the child, and also a sense of self-respect which tends towards good
behaviour when with other teachers.

[The teacher must avoid

(_a_) Overstrain.]

This is one great reason why teachers should make it a matter of
principle, as well as of worldly prudence, to avoid overstrain. You
sometimes hear a young teacher boasting of the tax which she lays
on her constitution; she tells it, half as a grievance that she
should have so much to do, half in triumph that she is so peculiarly
constituted--just as poor people exult in ailments that mark them out
from the common herd! But these excesses of work (whether caused by
bravado, or by bad management, or by an ill-informed conscience) are
not a luxury of which she herself can defray the expense; the cost is
really borne by her home people, by her fellow-teachers, and, worst of
all, by her class, who all suffer from her overwrought nerves--in plain
English, from her temper. I say, worst of all her class, because she
may be a means of wholesome discipline to the other sufferers, but she
does distinct moral harm to the children. And do not let her imagine
that heroic efforts to control outward signs of temper will qualify
her to be a teacher: children are acutely sensitive to atmosphere, and
suffer even more under one who is elaborately controlling her temper,
than under one who frankly loses it and then is serene again. If a
teacher is to be worth her salt, she must have no temper! She must be
of a serene, sunny temperament which enjoys the children’s presence,
and her anger, when needed, must be of the impersonal kind which Fuller
describes as one of “the sinews of the soul”.

[(_b_) Injudicious reproofs.]

Of course scolding has to be done, but there should be no connection of
ideas in the child’s mind between a merited scolding and the teacher’s
temper. Mr. Arthur Sidgwick’s essay on _Form Discipline_ gives the
whole principle of the matter, but there are three suggestions I would
like to add for the use of women teachers. One I take from Mrs. Beecher
Stowe’s book on _Little Foxes_. She there describes two households in
each of which a young servant is being trained. In one, the mistress
looks at the dinner table and remarks that the salt is not what it
should be: in the other, the mistress, on coming to inspect the
table, exclaims, “Why, Sally, how bright your silver is, and you have
remembered everything to-day; the only thing that is not perfect is the
salt, and I am sure you will always look specially at that in future”.
There was no comparison between those mistresses as to success in
servant-training, and probably the teacher who blends praise and blame
will cultivate a hopeful energy of self-improvement in her children,
unknown in the class taught by one who coldly points out faults and
passes over merits.

My second suggestion is, as the Spanish proverb says to authors: “Leave
something in your inkstand”; underscold rather than overscold. A woman
usually has a power of statement that makes her take an artistic
pleasure in putting her case completely and convincingly. But children
have a fine sense of justice (until it is blunted by contact with
the world), and the culprit who undergoes one of these comprehensive
scoldings is apt to feel that full measure for the crime has been meted
out and so she thinks no more of it. Understate your case and that
same sense of justice will make her say to herself all that you leave
unsaid, and this self-condemnation will probably be the most effectual
part of the scolding. At all events, very little harm comes from
scolding too little, and irreparable harm often comes from scolding too
much. When the nail of reproof is once in, every additional blow of the
hammer tends to loosen it.

My third suggestion is, avoid scolding as much as possible when you
have reasonable cause for supposing your own nerves likely to be on
edge. There are times, _e.g._, the end of the summer term, when you are
not likely to see things in true proportion: at such seasons distrust
your own power of judging, and look the other way as often as possible,
for blunders are liable to be more severely dealt with in July, than
crimes in the fresher air of September!

Let us now pass on from the question of the state of mind desirable in
a teacher, to consider the aim and possibilities of her work with the
child.

[The teacher’s aim should be health--physical, mental and moral.]

During the whole of school life, a girl’s physical frame is so entirely
in the making that considerations of health should outweigh everything
else. She is building the house in which she is to live all the rest of
her life, and it is far more important what sort of house she builds
than how much she employs herself with the various occupations that
she can pursue at leisure, throughout her tenure of this “house”. Any
study can be followed up in later life, if health demand its cessation
during these growing years, but no after-study can repair early
impoverishment or damage of the physical frame.

Of course it stands to reason that the object of this house-building
is that the householder may be unhampered in after years and able
to lead a large and noble life. We should have small value for the
physical frame if it were tenanted by an imbecile mind, or a nature
without moral sense. Therefore, when we say that the body is the main
consideration in youth, we do so because soundness of body is the
surest means of securing moral and mental soundness. Fortunately, body,
mind and spirit are so intertwined that what is good for one is usually
good for all. We can hygienically insist on good hard mental work,
because it is essential to bodily health that there should be routine
and effort and concentration of mind. We can insist on self-denial
and self-control, for these are as essential to bodily health as to
spiritual. The teacher who believes herself to be an educator, not
merely an instructor, finds all the apparently conflicting elements
of a peculiar case, wonderfully harmonised by giving predominance to
the moral aim. If your first object in life is to increase a child’s
chance of becoming an even-tempered Christian woman, you will not let
considerations of examination successes tempt you to allow overstrain;
while, at the same time, you will be inexorable in demanding, as moral
training, the steady effort and the willing work, which will probably
bring the successes.

[The power of the teacher in moulding character.]

Do not let the day school teacher feel as if undue burden were being
laid on her, when we speak of the whole future of the child as thus
depending on the teacher’s breadth of aim. It is difficult to place
any limit to the possibilities of the teacher’s influence, even at a
day school, where she only has the child for four hours out of the
twenty-four. It is true that the mother and the home, during the first
six or seven years of the child’s life, have determined the main
elements of its nature; but in dealing with these elements, at a later
stage, there are endless possibilities of combination, of encouraging
some and repressing others. Though we teachers do not, as a rule, get
children at the early stage when most can be done with them, yet in
schoolroom days we find their brains still plastic enough for us to
work cheerfully and hopefully, in the teeth of the many hereditary
evils which would crush our efforts, were it not that we believe
education to be able to cope on fairly equal terms with heredity. Every
time we induce children to make an effort for the right, or to think
accurately, we make a groove in their brain which serves as a railway
line along which thoughts of the same kind will pass more easily next
time. Every time we excite a wrong feeling--irritation, obstinacy,
irreverence, or allow a deviation from some acknowledged standard of
duty--we lay cross lines of rail in the wrong direction, which will
hinder their progress in the right path, now and in the future.[28]

  [28] See Miss Mason’s _Home Education_.

[Bracing influence of school

(_a_) resulting from uniformity of treatment.]

The art of concealing art is nowhere more necessary than in this
incessant watchfulness required of the teacher, as it is very bad for
the child to feel that its little world turns on its own moral and
physical well-being. The chief good of school lies in the uniformity
of the routine, in the absence of special exemptions; it rests and
braces the child to feel under inexorable Laws of Nature which know no
favourites.

At the same time, while we in our larger world feel under fixed laws,
we yet believe in a special providence which arranges for our welfare,
even though we are unconscious of its action; the teacher should play
the part of unseen providence to the child.

It is perfectly possible in a high school to consider each individual
girl, and to arrange matters more or less for her interests, though
this possibility rests on the fact that exceptional cases are not
proper subjects for high school education. Even an ordinary child has
her peculiarities, which should be allowed for, but, in the main, it is
the regularity and uniformity of the school routine which make the most
valuable part of her education.

[(_b_) Wholesome competition.]

[(_c_) Concentration of faculties.]

The child learns at school to be unself conscious, to appreciate
others; to bear being surpassed without depression, and to stand
success without undue exultation; and she learns these valuable lessons
mainly through standing on the same platform with her companions,
and having to fight on equal terms. When parents beg that some of
the subjects taken by the rest of the class may be excused to their
child, they do not realise that, by interfering with the equal terms
of contest, they destroy half the value of school life. The value
of a high school lies not merely in its instruction (though this is
probably given by a trained specialist in each subject), but even
more, in “the give and take” on equal terms which teaches a child to
know her own powers and her own weaknesses. A child subject to undue
self-appreciation, or self-depreciation, would probably gain much from
going into the miniature world of a high school, as would also the
dreamy child; in the latter case particularly the value of the school
lessons lies in their difficulty, and children suffer if they are
excused or helped with a lesson because they have failed to understand
the teaching in class. Instant concentration of the faculties on the
matter in hand is one of the most valuable lessons learnt in school,
and to repeat information, or explanations, to the absent-minded child,
is to encourage a fatal weakness. Of course the blank in the child’s
mind (which makes a pitying mother beg that the lesson may be excused)
may be caused by irrelevancy or indistinctness of voice, or of mind, on
the teacher’s part. But if three-quarters of the class have followed
the lesson, it may be safely taken for granted that effort and practice
will bring success to the remaining quarter; a success which will mean
not merely the knowledge of the Euclid or geography in question, but
victory over a habit of mind that, if unchecked, will neutralise any
talent the child may possess.

[Dangers of school worldliness.]

[Marks do not necessitate rivalry.]

The child’s efforts after concentration of mind need careful
co-operation on the part of the teacher (who, from her own
carelessness, is apt to indulge the child’s carelessness), whereas the
equally valuable qualities of diligence and perseverance are almost
evolved of themselves by the competition of any school which has a
good working spirit. The teacher needs to be even more alert in
counteracting the mistaken forms which school diligence is apt to take,
than in rousing the spirit itself. Emulation, eagerness for marks,
putting school opinion before those of home--all these are very real
dangers. The better the school, the more acute the danger, and the
more need is there that the authorities should act as a drag on the
coach. Emulation is a natural quality in the child and a very useful
one to the teacher; but there is great danger in its degenerating
into personal rivalry. Something may be done to soften this spirit of
competition by setting before the children a fence which all may leap,
not a throne which only one can occupy. The fence can be as high as
you will, but if the opportunity of clearing it be open to all, the
class will exult in the number of successes, without any feeling in
the many of personal loss involved in the gain of the few. “Marks” can
be so arranged as to obviate the temptation to personal rivalry which
is often supposed to be inseparable from them. When the weekly marks
are added up, letters are in some schools assigned, according to the
percentage of marks gained, arranged in decades. The exact number of
marks is not brought before the child, but only the question to which
decade she belongs. A red A denotes 90 per cent., a black A 80 per
cent.; B means 70 per cent., and so on through the alphabet. Every
member of the class who deserves it can attain the “red A”. The same
system can be pursued in prizes; all who reach a certain standard of
marks in term work or in examinations, or in both combined, can gain
one. Thus _esprit de corps_ to some extent takes the place of personal
triumph--the whole class is proud of its number of “red A” members
and prize-winners, instead of suffering from the temptation to feel a
little bitter, which must exist when there is only one place of honour
to be had.

[Advantages of religious lessons in school.]

The value of moral and religious lessons in school is especially great
because of the almost universal disposition on the part of girls to
consider home exhortation as nagging. What is said in a school lesson
goes home to the conscience with no friction, because the teacher
cannot have known of that last peccadillo at home, and the mother is
not at hand to look the fatal phrase, “I told you so!”

[(_a_) They re-enforce home teaching.]

Mothers need not feel that the school lesson displaces theirs--rather
it enforces what they say, since the child probably listens with
increased interest to what they say when it is unconsciously echoed by
an outside authority.

[(_b_) Avoid the danger of personalities.]

It is very difficult at home not to omit certain sore points in these
moral lessons, for fear of seeming to aim at special children. In a
series of lessons at school, this difficulty is obviated and the victim
can feel that the arrow has hit home, without the indignity of being
watched by home eyes to see if it has taken effect.

[(_c_) Give large views of duty.]

It is easier, also, in speaking to a number to take larger views of
life and its duties, than might seem suitable in any individual family.
Social duties, good citizenship, high ideals of future usefulness can
be held up to elder girls at school as a part of religion; while such
faults as partisanship, political or otherwise, narrow-mindedness,
family selfishness can be discouraged without any danger of personality.

These moral lessons should serve a distinct purpose in the school by
imbuing the girls with high ideals; the fact of belonging to a large
public body such as a high school should assist them in assimilating
wider ideas of life. But it must not be forgotten that moral lessons
in no way supersede the necessity for definite religious instruction;
abstract ideals will have little power against future temptations
unless they are supported by sound Biblical knowledge and religious
belief.

[(_d_) Put school discipline on the true basis.]

From one point of view, it may be said that parents should feel
responsible for this instruction, but surely the teacher would not
be content to give up such a hold on the child as is furnished by
the religious lessons. It must be almost impossible to maintain real
control over the tone of the school, if the deepest part of the child’s
nature is left outside the school’s jurisdiction.

[(_e_) Give religion its right position in the curriculum.]

Besides, though the responsibility and the pleasure of this branch
of education do belong primarily to the parent, yet, when the claims
of school eat up so much of the day, it is very hard for the mother
to get enough time to deal fully with the subject. Also, the better
the school and the more fully it employs the mental faculties of the
child, and wins its allegiance, the more important it is that such a
great authority in the child’s world should proclaim itself supremely
interested in this branch of learning. Children often have to learn
music at school, merely because they only attend to their practising
when it is done for a school authority. Much as we may wish home to be
supreme in all cases, we must recognise that children often go through
a phase in which they yield more unquestioning submission to school
rules than to home wishes, and give keener energy to school lessons
than to the extra ones devised by the mother, and secretly resented by
the child as an unjust addition to its burden.

Besides, it is possible there may be homes, we will hope they are rare,
where religious teaching is not sufficiently attended to; certainly
our better-class children are often more ignorant of their Bibles than
those who have been to a good Sunday school.

Let us assume, therefore, that the school must have a definite and
fairly complete course of religious instruction, including Biblical
and moral lessons; church schools would of course add doctrinal and
prayer-book lessons.

[(_f_) Leaven the school life.]

But the Bible lesson is not only a subject in the curriculum, it should
be a leaven in the school. This can only be the case if the children
feel that, in spite of all imperfections and shortcomings, the Bible
lesson really is the truest outcome of the teacher’s own nature, that
it is to her the most interesting lesson of the week, bearing on the
whole of life, instead of being an isolated subject in one pigeon-hole
of her mind.

Let us take it as a principle that these lessons should have the first
and freshest hour of the morning given to them, that they may be felt
as a continuation of school prayers, as a further consecration of the
day, not as a mere lesson to be sandwiched in with French and algebra,
as if all were of equal importance.[29] Let the children realise that
religion comes first in arranging a time-table, and that no pressure of
examination work can be taken as a valid excuse for curtailing these
lessons. Children sometimes think that because no marks are given for
divinity it will pay to get an excuse for this, and to devote the time
to lessons which tell in their weekly class-list. This is only a crude
force of a temptation common to every stage of life, and it would be
one of the most valuable of all school lessons could such a child be
taught that religion, if real, must come first in Monday’s lessons as
well as in Sunday’s services.

  [29] If the exigencies of the time-table forbid the first hour, then
  let it be the last.

[Subjects for Bible lessons.]

It is easy enough to find matter for the Bible lessons;[30] the life of
our Lord, a three years’ course of Old Testament history, as arranged
in Mr. Glazebrook’s three volumes; the life of St. Paul, considered as
the setting of his Epistles, and including a general survey of each
of those Epistles; a special study of any one of the Prophets, giving
the gist of his message, viewed first in the light of his own times
and local surroundings, and then considered in its relation to our own
times; the women of the Bible; the Jewish feasts and ritual; any one of
these courses will provide interesting matter for a year’s lessons.

  [30] Full and detailed suggestions on this subject will be found
  in Mr. Bell’s invaluable little book on _Religious Education in
  Secondary Schools_.

A very useful book has recently been written called _Ad Lucem_,[31]
which gives Old Testament history, the Gospels, the Acts of the
Apostles and Church history up to the present day. Its object is to
show the history of the world as bearing on the Incarnation, and it is
enabled to cover so much ground by selecting and emphasising such facts
as bring out this point of view. It would be interesting to children of
about fifteen, and useful to any teacher, by helping her to focus her
own teaching.

  [31] By the Rev. A. B. Simeon; published by Wells Gardner.

[Requisites of a Bible lesson.]

Probably all teachers will say the difficulty lies rather in how to
treat this vast stock of material. There should be no difficulty in
making the children feel that the Bible is the most interesting book in
the world, quite apart from its religious importance.

So many books on Eastern manners and places are within the reach of
teachers that they should not be content till their own conceptions of
the Bible scenes and characters are as vivid as Tinworth’s terra cottas.

[(_a_) Vividness.]

Children have much in common with the old Scotch woman who was so
shocked at what seemed to her irreverence in Dean Stanley when he tried
to persuade her that Jerusalem was a real place which he had visited;
it is a new light to them to be made to realise that Bible heroes and
places are as real as those in English history. Doing this arrests
their attention, and they go on to perceive that the temptations and
virtues of those days were also like our own, that even the minor
Prophets, whom they have avoided as utterly alien to their world, speak
straight to ourselves in their warnings about wealth and labour and
luxury.

[(_b_) Practicality.]

[(_c_) Devoutness.]

Until we make Bible lessons practical for ourselves and for our
children, we must not be content: in old days the Bible was used only
as a storehouse of isolated texts for personal application; we realise
now that due reverence for the Word of God requires that we should
study it, and teach it, as exactly and reasonably and vividly as we do
any other history and literature, but we must not forget that if we
stop here, the old-fashioned unintellectual method of study infinitely
surpassed in wisdom our modern cleverness. Unless our lessons make
the Bible more profitable for doctrine and reproof, for amendment of
life and instruction of manners, they are failures, no matter how
much critical and geographical learning has been brought to bear on
them. Perhaps each lesson need not have a special ethical or spiritual
bearing (though it is a pity if it has not), and we should beware
against overdoing our moral instruction. A child’s mind is like a
narrow-necked bottle, and we often pour in too much at once.

[(_d_) Simplicity.]

Especially is this the case with illustrations; the teacher has had
their use so inculcated that a Bible lesson is too often a string of
anecdotes and pictures in which the central idea is hopelessly lost;
one truth, one picture, and one illustration are as much as any young
child can grasp in one lesson, and children of a larger growth would
often gain more if teachers were more economical in their explanations.

[(_e_) Careful treatment of difficulties.]

Keeping the spiritual aim in view would assist in dealing with some
of the critical difficulties which beset a thoughtful teacher. It is
most important not to give mature food to an immature mind, or to bring
before the child, who has not realised any difficulties, the critic’s
suspension of judgment, which is such a comfort to the teacher. But
though we should avoid giving an impression that facts and authorship
are moot points, still we can avoid putting up stones of stumbling
which will afterwards have to be cleared away. Children need the
old stories told in all simplicity, the stories of the childhood of
the race, but if we keep before them “the one far-off Divine event,”
towards which all those stories pointed, if we teach them Jewish
history in the light of the Divine education of the human race, instead
of treating the Flood and Jael and Joshua’s wars, etc., as finished
episodes which stand on their own merits, so to speak, surely then
there will be little or nothing in the best modern lines of thought to
upset their faith, and much to enrich it.

[Summary.]

To sum up shortly, the following are the main points I would seek to
impress on a young teacher, in considering the moral side of education.
First and foremost the heavy responsibility attached to the teacher’s
office--an office which combines the functions of clergyman, doctor
and instructor. Next, the personal qualifications required of the
teacher, holiness, serenity, insight into character, knowledge of the
world; then the aims of the teacher’s work, the building up a sound
mind in a sound body, by the help of the good habits arising from right
conditions of school life, most of all by the help of the Bible lesson,
which must be the inspiration of the whole school course.

I should like to end by quoting some words of William Law, the great
mystic of the last century, which put before us the true ends of
education. In his _Treatise on Christian Perfection_ he says: “Show
me a learning that makes man truly sensible of his duty: that fills
the mind with true light: that makes us more _reasonable_ in all our
actions: that inspires us with fortitude, humility and devotion”.




SECTION III.

CULTIVATION OF THE BODY.

  By JANE FRANCES DOVE, Certificated Student of Girton College,
  Cambridge, 1874; Head Mistress of Wycombe Abbey School, Bucks;
  previously Head Mistress of St. Leonard’s School, St. Andrews, N.B.

    So every spirit, as it is most pure,
    And hath in it the more of heavenly light,
    So it the fairer bodie doth procure
    To habit in, and it more fairely dight
    With chearefull grace and amiable sight;
    For of the soule the bodie forme doth take;
    For soule is forme, and doth the bodie make.

    _Spenser._


[The mistress as educator.]

As the object of school life, or rather of life at school, is not
merely teaching but education, and as education, whatever the
true derivation of the word may be, means the gradual drawing out
and development of all the faculties of which the human being is
capable, we shall speak in this chapter not of the “teacher,” but
of the “mistress” as the person who in school life takes the place
of authority analogous to that of the parent in the home, and upon
whom falls the responsibility for the time being of seeing that a due
balance is being maintained in the development of every faculty. The
importance of this harmonious development of the powers is manifest. We
do not desire girls to be brainless athletes any more than we wish that
they should be delicate or stunted blue-stockings, and either of these
exaggerated types is made doubly deplorable if, as sometimes happens,
there is a deficiency of moral power.

[Health conditions.]

The most important conditions for health are first of all a wholesome
environment; secondly, wholesome occupation for the mind; and thirdly,
proper exercise for the body.

The environment will be discussed later.

[Meaning of recreation.]

[Some forms of recreation more valuable than others.]

[Games essential to a healthy school life.]

The occupation of the mind will also come chiefly under the head of
mental training, but here it may be desirable to notice that the mind
must receive much of its training through the exercise of faculties
other than the intellectual. This truth is of course the foundation
of the whole idea of recreation, recreation consisting much more
in change of thought and a difference in the objects on which the
attention is fixed, than in the particular form of exercise through
which this object is attained. It is for this reason that games of
all kinds are so much more valuable than mere walking under ordinary
circumstances, because walking is so purely mechanical, especially
when exercised for limited periods among well-known surroundings, that
the mind continues to occupy itself with the thoughts, and possibly
with the intellectual problems, upon which it was before fixed. Better
than walking, as both an exercise and a recreation, I should count
riding, rowing or bicycling. In riding and bicycling there is the
great interest of managing the horse and propelling the bicycle, the
exhilaration and quickened circulation produced by passing rapidly
through the air, together with the refreshment gained through the
eye by the contemplation of new and varied scenes, especially if
they be beautiful. Every form of occupation or exercise that will
keep girls in the open air is for that reason alone valuable, because
there is no bodily want so imperious as the necessity of breathing
fresh, unvitiated air; but as a true recreation the first position
must undoubtedly be given to games, because in them there is always a
special interest upon which the mind must be concentrated, and which
therefore entirely prevents the possibility of the thoughts dwelling
upon the subject of the last lesson, and sends the girl back braced
and invigorated to overcome the intellectual difficulties that may be
required of her. I think I do not speak too strongly when I say that
games, _i.e._, active games in the open air, are essential to a healthy
existence, and that most of the qualities, if not all, that conduce
to the supremacy of our country in so many quarters of the globe, are
fostered, if not solely developed, by means of games.

[Games give exercise.]

[Games waste the minimum amount of material and can be played on
limited areas.]

I have said that games are essential to a healthy existence; of course
I mean that they are so under the circumstances of school life. Without
this proviso the assertion would be an exaggerated one. For I think
if it were possible, with a due regard for the necessities of their
training, to make girls cultivate a farm, or even do all the work
of a large garden, or build a house, or make a road, the interest
of performing a real work of utility, together with the exercise of
the muscles and other faculties, would give the necessary recreation
and muscular exercise; but the initial difficulty can hardly be
overcome, _viz._, that in building a house, or cultivating a farm, the
exigencies of the work must be considered rather than the training
of the workers. Hence it is that games have been invented as a means
of exercise in the open air, which will occupy varying numbers of
players, which can be dropped and resumed according to the exigencies
of the weather, varied according to the capacities of the players,
which possess endless interests, develop numberless faculties, and yet
which can be pursued upon limited spaces of ground, the possibilities
of which for the purpose are never exhausted, and without the using up
of valuable material. In fact for people who are to be intellectual
workers, games are the modern adaptation of the old command “to till
the ground,” which, like other laws of a fundamental nature, cannot
at any time of the world’s history be neglected. Efforts have from
time to time been made to carry out the injunction literally, as in
the attempts of Mr. Ruskin to inspire Oxford undergraduates to try
the experiment of road-making, or in the foundation of schools, which
are meeting with a considerable measure of success, in which the boys
perform, besides a certain proportion of indoor work, a good deal
of agricultural, including woodmen’s, labour. But for most schools,
with their limited possibilities as regards acres of land, trees
and materials, games are the only possible means of satisfying the
need. These ought to be as joyous and spontaneous as possible, and
therefore should be of every possible kind to suit different tastes.
The joyousness and spontaneity are so especially necessary for girls on
account of their extreme conscientiousness and devotion to duty. Boys,
for all I know to the contrary, may perform their duties equally well,
but they are rarely inclined to worry over them as girls do, and they
have such overflowing animal spirits that they always contrive to find
relaxation, by means of fun and activity of all kinds at odd times,
which either does not come naturally to girls, or which, if indulged in
by them as well as by boys, would make life an unbearable pandemonium
for their elders.

[Games for small numbers.]

Let us then have games of all kinds; every game, with, I should say,
the single exception of football, is suitable. Let us have lawn tennis,
fives, bowls, croquet, quoits, golf, swimming, skating, archery,
tobogganing, basket-ball, rounders and hailes, as many of these as can
be provided for, and some at one season of the year, others at another.
All these are useful, because only a small number of individuals,
one or two, or at the most four, is necessary to make most of them
enjoyable, and therefore they can fill up gaps of time when large
numbers are not available for organised games. Let these games also be
encouraged by means of tournaments and competitions held occasionally,
and let prizes or challenge cups be offered for success in these
competitions, and where there is a golf course arranged, let there be
an autumn and a spring medal.

[Their higher functions.]

Games, however, have a much higher function to perform in school
life than any I have yet mentioned. Here is a splendid field for the
development of powers of organisation, of good temper under trying
circumstances, courage and determination to play up and do your best
even in a losing game, rapidity of thought and action, judgment and
self-reliance, and, above all things, unselfishness, and a knowledge
of corporate action, learning to sink individual preferences in the
effort of loyally working with others for the common good.

[Necessity for the cultivation of corporate virtues.]

[In the life generally.]

[By means of organised games.]

Women have plenty of devotion and unselfishness of an individual
kind--that is to say, they can lose themselves entirely in the
interests of their particular friends or of their husbands and
children, but this personal devotion is quite compatible with what I
may call family selfishness, and they may be, and often are, quite
incapable of realising any interest whatever that is not bounded by
the four walls of their home. The effect of this narrowness is to make
their lives extremely mean and petty, and they have in consequence a
deteriorating effect upon every member of their families and upon all
society in which they mingle. It is true that the family is the unit
which lies at the base of all national existence, and which forms the
foundation stone for all teaching, moral and spiritual, but it is
essential to remember that it is only a unit, and that an aggregation
of such families or units forms a community, a nation, and that the
members of a family are likewise citizens of kingdoms, political and
spiritual. The woman who indulges in family selfishness is a bad
citizen. To be a good citizen, it is essential that she should have
wide interests, a sense of discipline and organisation, _esprit de
corps_, a power of corporate action. Now the schoolmistress is the
person who has the best opportunity of teaching these principles to
women, and I would have her fully recognise her privilege and her
responsibility. Men acquire corporate virtues, not only at school and
at college, but almost in every walk of life; whereas comparatively
few women ever find themselves members of an organised profession,
and the proportion, even of those who have the advantage of college
life, is still exceedingly small. It remains therefore for the school
to teach them almost all that they will ever have the opportunity of
acquiring of the power of working with others, and sinking their own
individuality for the common good. The opportunity must be made the
most of. Now girls are quite as susceptible as boys to the influences
of school life. Therefore let us see that the influences are such as
develop the best characteristics. Make them trustworthy by trusting
them, open and straightforward by taking it for granted that they
have nothing to hide. Give them beautiful surroundings; let the house
be well managed and comfortable but not luxurious; satisfy every
reasonable want liberally; do not keep their minds concentrated upon
themselves by having a multiplicity of minute and irritating rules, but
explain to them broad principles of conduct, and expect them to apply
these themselves to the _minutiæ_ of their own lives, pointing out
patiently again and again where the girls’ application of principles
clashes with the interests of the majority. Thus the principles of
corporate life are being imbibed every hour and minute of the day,
though nowhere more completely than in the playground, and in the
playground the large organised games, such as cricket, hockey and
lacrosse, are the most useful for this purpose.

[Area of playground.]

Of course it is exceedingly difficult to obtain space enough upon which
to play these games, but if a school is to be a residentiary school at
all in the full sense of the word, it must have several acres of ground
immediately surrounding it. I forbear to specify the minimum number
of acres, because though it may be desirable for the whole school to
be able to play at one time every day, it is not essential, as it is
possible by an expenditure of trouble on the part of the headmistress
to economise both playground and schoolroom accommodation by arranging
for each to be available in succession for the use of different
portions of the school. A very useful guide, however, is to be found in
the fact that, taking twelve well-known boys’ schools, the average area
of the sites is twelve acres for every hundred boys.

[Organisation of playground.]

There ought to be one ground levelled and turfed, about a hundred yards
by fifty, for every thirty or forty girls. It is rarely that more than
two and twenty, as in cricket, or twenty-four, as in lacrosse, are
required for a game; but out of the whole number there will always
be a few who are “not playing games to-day,” and the balance occupy
themselves usefully with some of the other smaller games previously
enumerated. The captain of the house or form, or whatever the
subdivision may be that has the use of the “ground,” must arrange that
every individual of the forty is put down to play in the organised
game three or four, or as many times as is possible, in the week. The
half-holiday will naturally be the day upon which foreign matches
are played, or home matches with other divisions, or scratch matches
arranged by the captain of the games. The captain of games and the
captains of divisions are of course girls, selected in the one case
by the whole school, and in the others by the girls of the division
over which she presides. Of course if the number of grounds available
is not as great as the number of suitable divisions, divisions must
have grounds allotted to them in turn, and this reduces seriously the
opportunities for practice. A good deal, however, may often be done
with great advantage on a smaller piece of ground in practising for the
game at the time in vogue, especially in cricket, where very useful
coaching is given at the nets. Often special varieties of a game are
developed by the local peculiarities of the only available spot for
playing it. Every Etonian knows the correct shape for a fives-court,
and how the peculiarity has been perpetuated from the balustrade of
the stone stair in the quadrangle which leads to the chapel. The old
Scottish game of hailes has likewise localised itself in the playground
of the Academy, Edinburgh. It is desirable that there should be a
mistress, whose special interest may be claimed by the girls in any
particular game, and whose advice may be sought by the captain of games
in the matter of answering challenges and providing the necessary
apparatus. The captain should also be supported by another girl as
secretary and treasurer, to collect subscriptions and keep the books.

[Cycle of games.]

The experience of many years has evolved the plan of choosing regularly
one game for each term, and always keeping to it. Thus lacrosse might
be taken in the September term, hockey in January, and cricket in
May, and if all schools adopt the same plan, outside matches are then
possible, and there are few things which tend so strongly to keep
up the _esprit de corps_ of a school as meeting other schools on the
playing-field.

[Lacrosse.]

There will be no difference of opinion as to the suitability of cricket
for the summer term, but many schools play hockey in September, and
carry it on for two terms. We have found, however, that there is not
really enough interest in the game itself to keep up enthusiasm for
such a long period, but inasmuch as it keeps nearly all the players
in constant movement and requires the minimum amount of arrangement
beforehand, and can therefore be begun at once on a cold day without
loss of time, it is the best game for the January term, during which
the most inclement weather of the year is usually experienced. Football
being quite out of the question, on account of its roughness, we have
fallen back upon lacrosse, a game which requires the same qualities of
combination, obedience, courage, individual unselfishness for the sake
of a side--a player who attempts to keep the ball instead of passing
it being absolutely useless--and is full of interest on account of the
various kinds of skill required, fleetness of foot, quickness of eye,
strength of wrist, and a great deal of judgment and knack. The game of
lacrosse well played is a beautiful sight, the actions of the players
being so full of grace and agility. The skill required, moreover, is so
great that the attempt to acquire it is a splendid training in courage
and perseverance.

[Hockey.]

Hockey is so well known that it is hardly necessary to say much
about it, excepting that it is a very great mistake to regard it as
essentially a rough game. All that is necessary to prevent roughness is
to have a strict rule against raising the stick above the waist, an
offence of this kind giving a free hit to the opposite side. Of course,
hard knocks are sometimes received, but is there no value in the lesson
of cheerful endurance that may thus be learned, and is it possible to
enjoy anything good in life or even to live at all, without running
some risk of bodily harm? Hockey has besides its special advantages
which I have already mentioned.

[Cricket.]

As regards cricket, I am well aware that most real cricketers would
laugh at the idea of girls attempting the game. I shall always remember
the remark made by the head master of a public school, after watching
the girls at play for some time with the keenest interest: “Yes, they
will never make cricketers, but they are having splendid exercise in
the open air”. This, however, was some years ago, and the girls have
worked hard and improved since then, and I venture to think that if the
same kindly critic could again see their play he would think somewhat
better of it. Indeed, I am often surprised at the real pleasure and
approbation expressed at what even to me seems our feeble attempts.
Granted, however, that the game in the hands of girls can never be
quite the same game that it is for boys, it is still a perfectly safe
game when played between elevens of tolerably equal strength. It is,
in my opinion, quite unsafe when played by men against women, or even
by big boys against little ones, but admirable from every point of
view so long as boys play boys and girls play girls of corresponding
size and strength. The amount of interest and variety in the game is
unsurpassed by any other, and it is so well known that an intelligent
interest in its details can be taken by almost any one. No roughness
is produced; all is gentleness and courtesy, combined with strength
and determination. The traditions of the game are such that girls
attempting to play it must throw themselves completely into it, and
cannot allow themselves to give way to idleness and ineffectiveness.
This is well illustrated by the remark of the captain of a team of
ladies who recently played an eleven from a well-known school, and were
beaten by them. She congratulated the head mistress, and said: “Your
girls play like gentlemen, and behave like ladies”.

[Deficiency of early muscular training.]

It is unfortunate that, broadly speaking, girls cannot throw and that
the bowling in a girls’ eleven is apt to be lamentably weak. I have
not been able to decide in my own mind whether this weakness is due to
physiological disabilities or to the want of early training, but I am
inclined to think the latter. It seems to be generally acknowledged
in the nursery that it is of no use to attempt to keep the boys in
strict control, that they must be allowed to have their fling, and
create an uproar, and climb, and throw stones, but the whole force of
the nurse’s authority is usually exerted to prevent the girls under
her charge from falling under the opprobrium, in nursery etiquette,
of being “unladylike”. I am the more inclined to this opinion, as I
observe that where parents have the good sense to allow their girls
the same facilities for activity, natural and necessary for the young
animal, as their boys, the girls do learn to throw equally well, and
attain the same easy gracefulness of movement which is natural to the
untrammelled boy. Such parents, I grieve to say, are still very rare,
with the result that not more than three or four per cent. of girls of
fourteen have any idea of throwing a ball, and much less of bowling.
This can scarcely be wondered at, seeing that “Sir B. W. Richardson
lately stated that in his student days it was taught in all sobriety by
anatomical authorities that the joint of a woman’s shoulder was more
shallow than a man’s, so that she was almost sure to dislocate it if
she threw a ball with force! Thus, comically, does preconceived theory
upset the scientific vision.” However, great strides have already been
made by girls in acquiring skill in games, and much greater strides
will be made in the future, to the enormous gain, not only physically
but mentally and morally, both of women in particular and of the nation
as a whole.

[Great value of Swedish gymnastics.]

[Severe games not safe without gymnastic training.]

[Dangers of over-exertion.]

We now come to the consideration of exercises, which though really
recreative in their tendencies, are much less so than games, and first
among these come gymnastics. Now no nation has more carefully thought
out the subject of physical education than the Swedes, and at the
Central Institute in Stockholm, under the superintendence of Professor
Törngren, professors of gymnastics, both preventive and curative,
are trained, who have a thorough scientific knowledge of their work,
and can produce results in the way of physical training second to no
others in existence. It has been my happiness for many years to watch
the results of the work produced by one of the professor’s pupils,
and I cannot speak too highly of the work she has accomplished. The
essence of her method is a systematic training of all the muscles.
She possesses a thorough knowledge of the structure of the human
frame, both muscular and nervous. By a carefully thought out series
of free exercises, supplemented by work upon the admirably devised
Swedish apparatus, the muscular system of her pupils is thoroughly
and harmoniously developed; and here let me say that, strongly as I
believe in out-door games, I do not consider it safe to allow girls to
indulge in them absolutely without restriction, nor at all, at least
in the severer games, unless they are receiving systematic muscular
training in the gymnasium and make a practice of changing all their
garments as soon as play is over. For this reason, the time during
which it is possible for girls to play hard is carefully cut down to a
maximum of an hour and a half. Also, no exemptions whatever are given
from gymnastic lessons. By this means hard games are made safe, whereas
otherwise there would be constant danger of overstrain, and mischief
might ensue which would perhaps not be apparent at the time, but might
seriously endanger a girl’s health in after years. There is nothing in
my opinion more dangerous for young people than physical and nervous
exhaustion. The harm is done in a gay, thoughtless moment, which may
not be overcome for years. This care is especially necessary in the
case of girls, both on account of physical organisation and because
their muscular system has, as a rule, been so imperfectly developed in
childhood. There is still another and very important reason. It has
already been stated that girls are so very good and conscientious.
One form which this characteristic takes is that they will quietly
attempt, and by pure nerve-force will perform, if the occasion seems
to require it of them, feats for which their muscular development is
entirely unfitted. This brings me to the reason why Swedish gymnastics
are so greatly superior to the ordinary form of gymnastics, which used
to be prevalent in boys’ public schools and army gymnasiums. In this
kind of gymnastics, the attention of the instructor is far too much
occupied in making his pupils perform feats, many of which are of an
acrobatic nature, rather than directed to the harmonious development of
the whole body; hence, in some cases, the shoulders become abnormally
broad and square, and other unsymmetrical effects are caused. In fact,
the amusement of the pupils is considered rather more than their
physical welfare.

[Physical defects discovered at gymnastics.]

[Curative gymnastics.]

[Defects often the result of ignorance, fashion or overwork.]

Then, since every girl must appear twice a week in the gymnasium as
long as she remains in the school, dressed in an easy-fitting costume,
consisting of knickerbockers and tunic, the gymnastic mistress has
every opportunity of noticing the physical development, and I have
found that she very quickly detects even the slightest curvatures
or other physical defects, and, with the parents’ consent, can give
curative treatment, which is very speedily efficacious in curing weak
or crooked backs, stoops, displaced shoulder blades, sprains and other
ailments. The mistress also gives the girls a good deal of useful
advice, according to their several needs. She notices how they sit or
what postures they take for different avocations, and tells them if
they are wrong, and why they are wrong. She does not undertake any
medical responsibility, but having had, so far as the bodily frame
goes, a thorough medical training, her work among a number of girls is
simply invaluable, and no physical features that ought to be noticed
escape her practised eye. It is well known to schoolmistresses, if not
to parents, what a serious difficulty these physical defects cause
in a girl’s moral training. Nothing is worse for a girl than to be
forced by circumstances to think much about her own health. Therefore,
it is our part to save them as much as we can from having to direct
their thoughts upon themselves more than is required by ordinary
common-sense. Think how hard it is for a girl who has a weak back, and
is ordered to lie down for certain hours in the day. She cannot lie
and do nothing, and therefore attempts reading as being apparently the
only possible occupation. The difficulty of fixing the book in the
right position and getting a proper light upon it is such that very
frequently the eyes are overstrained and a new difficulty is produced.
Now most weak backs can be strengthened by strengthening the proper
muscles. Muscle is strengthened by use, and the Swedish gymnast knows
what exercises, or what rubbings, will produce the desired results,
and proceeds to strengthen slowly and judiciously. The girl at the
same time is allowed plenty of fresh air and suitable games, and soon
recovers her normal condition, all the while pursuing the same kind of
life as the others, though probably with some relaxation in the way of
lessons. Such weak backs ought not to occur as often as they do, if
proper attention were paid from the first to the physical conditions
of life. I do not mean anything abstruse or difficult, but just the
ordinary commonplaces; that high-heeled shoes throw the body out of
its natural balance and overstrain some muscles; that hard, stiff
clothing pressing upon muscles weakens them by causing atrophy, a
frequent cause of weak backs; that a growing child must have abundance
of sleep, food, fresh air and exercise, and while living in cultivated
surroundings and being encouraged in intellectual pursuits, should not
be expected to spend more than three or four hours each day according
to age, in doing definite brain work. At the age of fourteen a healthy
girl may be expected to begin to work as much as five hours a day. So
much for gymnastics, the necessity for which it is to be hoped has been
sufficiently demonstrated.

[Dancing.]

Dancing is also a capital form of exercise, provided it is not pursued,
as is sometimes the case, to the point of physical exhaustion. The art
of fencing is also well worth acquiring. Also bicycle evolutions to
music, and even roller skating.

[Hours that may reasonably be spent in intellectual work.]

Having stated that three hours is enough for intellectual work for most
girls up to the age of eleven or twelve, four hours up to fourteen,
five up to sixteen, and that six is the utmost a girl of any age ought
to attempt; having also said that an hour and a half in the day is
enough for the organised games, it remains to fill up the rest of the
day, which, excluding sleep and meals, and the necessary time spent in
dressing, usually amounts to from two to three hours. The time-table of
every girl in the school may be different; I append, as examples, the
actual time-tables of twenty girls for a week, the total of forty-four
hours being made up of five days of eight hours and one day of four
hours.

SAMPLE TIME-TABLES.

  +-----+-----+------+-------------------------------------------------+
  |     |     |      |                                                 |
  |     |     |      |                                                 +
  |     |     |      |                                                 |
  |     |     |      |                                                 |
  |     |     |      |                                                 |
  |     |     |      |                                                 |
  |     |     |      |                                                 |
  |     |     |      |                                                 |
  |     |     |      |                                                 |
  |     |     |      |                                                 |
  |     |     |      |                                                 |
  |     |     |      |                                                 |
  |     |     |      |                                                 |
  |     |     |      |                                                 |
  |     |     |      |                                                 |
  |     |     |      |                                                 |
  |     |     |      |                                                 |
  |     |     |      |                                                 |
  |     |     |      |                                                 |
  |     |     |      |                                                 |
  |Form.|Name.| Age. |               Remarks.                          |
  +-----+-----+------+-------------------------------------------------+
  | VI. | _a_ |16·5  |}Anomalous; as not more than two languages should|
  |  „  | _b_ |18·416|}be studied at one time. Have not been long      |
  |  „  | _c_ |17·083|}enough in the school to work into the system.   |
  |  „  | _d_ |17·583|}                                                |
  |  „  | _e_ |18·333|Does ¹⁄₂-hr. curative gymnastics per day.        |
  |L. V.| _f_ |17·166|                                                 |
  |  „  | _g_ |16·5  |}Too many languages.                             |
  |  „  | _h_ |16·75 |}                                                |
  |  V. | _i_ |17·083|                                                 |
  |  „  | _j_ |14·25 |                                                 |
  |  „  | _k_ |14·5  |}Have more extra subjects than is wise.          |
  |  „  | _l_ |15·75 |}                                                |
  |L. V.| _m_ |16·   |                                                 |
  |  „  | _n_ |13·583|Has no engagement after 7 in the evening and goes|
  |     |     |      |early to bed.                                    |
  |  „  | _o_ |15·   |                                                 |
  |  „  | _p_ |16·166|                                                 |
  | IV. | _q_ |14·916|                                                 |
  |  „  | _r_ |14·75 |                                                 |
  |  „  | _s_ |14·   |                                                 |
  |  „  | _t_ |13·833|Goes early to bed.                               |
  +-----+-----+------+-------------------------------------------------+

  +-----+------------------------------------------------------------
  |     |                  Hours per week, including preparation.
  |     +----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+
  |     |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
  |     |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
  |     |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
  |     |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
  |     |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
  |     |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
  |     |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |  T |    |    |    |
  |     |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |  r |    |    |    |
  |     |    |    |    |    |    |  A |    |    |  i |    |    |  L |
  |     |    |    |    |    |    |  r |    |    |  g |    |    |  i |
  |     |    |    |    |    |    |  i |  G |    |  o |    |    |  t |
  |     |  E |    |    |    |    |  t |  e |  A |  n |  S |  H |  e |
  |     |  n |    |    |  G |  F |  h |  o |  l |  o |  c |  a |  r |
  |     |  g |  G |  L |  e |  r |  m |  m |  g |  m |  i |  r |  a |
  |     |  l |  r |  a |  r |  e |  e |  e |  e |  e |  e |  m |  t |
  |     |  i |  e |  t |  m |  n |  t |  t |  b |  t |  n |  o |  u |
  |     |  s |  e |  i |  a |  c |  i |  r |  r |  r |  c |  n |  r |
  |     |  h |  k |  n |  n |  h |  c |  y |  a |  y |  e |  y |  e |
  |Name.|  . |  . |  . |  . |  . |  . |  . |  . |  . |  . |  . |  . |
  +-----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+
  | _a_ | ...|7¹⁄₂|9   |3   |3   |1¹⁄₂|3   |3   | ...| ...| ...| ...|
  | _b_ | ...|7¹⁄₂|9   | ...|3   |1¹⁄₂|3   |3   | ...| ...| ...|3   |
  | _c_ | ...|7¹⁄₂|9   | ...|6   |1¹⁄₂|3   |3   | ...| ...| ...| ...|
  | _d_ | ...|7¹⁄₂|9   |7¹⁄₂|3   | ...| ...| ...| ...| ...|3   | ...|
  | _e_ | ...|7¹⁄₂| ...| ...|6   |1¹⁄₂|3   |3   |3   | ...| ...|3   |
  | _f_ | ...| ...| ...|7¹⁄₂|6   |1¹⁄₂|3   |3   | ...| ...|3   |3   |
  | _g_ | ...|7¹⁄₂|9   | ...|6   |1¹⁄₂|3   |3   | ...| ...| ...| ...|
  | _h_ | ...| ...|9   |7¹⁄₂|6   |1¹⁄₂|3   |3   | ...| ...| ...| ...|
  | _i_ | ...| ...| ...|6   |6   |3   |3   |3   | ...|3   | ...|1¹⁄₂|
  | _j_ | ...| ...|6   | ...|6   |3   |3   |3   | ...| ...| ...|1¹⁄₂|
  | _k_ | ...| ...|6   | ...|6   |3   |3   |3   | ...|3   | ...|1¹⁄₂|
  | _l_ | ...| ...| ...|6   |6   |3   |3   |3   | ...| ...| ...|1¹⁄₂|
  | _m_ | ...| ...|5   | ...|5¹⁄₂|2¹⁄₂|2¹⁄₂|2¹⁄₂| ...|2¹⁄₂| ...|1¹⁄₄|
  | _n_ | ...| ...|5   | ...|5¹⁄₂|2¹⁄₂|2¹⁄₂|2¹⁄₂| ...|2¹⁄₂| ...|1¹⁄₄|
  |     |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
  | _o_ | ...| ...|5   | ...|5¹⁄₂|2¹⁄₂|2¹⁄₂|2¹⁄₂| ...|2¹⁄₂| ...|1¹⁄₄|
  | _p_ | ...| ...| ...|5   |5¹⁄₂|2¹⁄₂|2¹⁄₂|2¹⁄₂| ...| ...|2¹⁄₂|1¹⁄₄|
  | _q_ |1¹⁄₄| ...|5   | ...|5¹⁄₂|3³⁄₄|2¹⁄₂| ...| ...|2¹⁄₂| ...|2¹⁄₂|
  | _r_ |1¹⁄₄| ...|5   | ...|5¹⁄₂|3³⁄₄|2¹⁄₂| ...| ...|2¹⁄₂| ...|2¹⁄₂|
  | _s_ |1¹⁄₄| ...|5   | ...|5¹⁄₂|3³⁄₄|2¹⁄₂| ...| ...|2¹⁄₂| ...|2¹⁄₂|
  | _t_ |1¹⁄₄| ...|5   | ...|5¹⁄₂|3³⁄₄|2¹⁄₂| ...| ...|2¹⁄₂| ...|2¹⁄₂|
  +-----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+

  +-----+---------+--++
  |     |         |  ||
  |     |----+----+  ++
  |     |    |    |  ||
  |     |    |    |  ||
  |     |    |    |  ||
  |     |    |    | T||
  |     |    |    | o||
  |     |    |    | t||
  |     |    |    | a||
  |     |    |    | l||
  |     |    |    | ,||
  |     |  S |    |  ||
  |     |  c |    | h||
  |     |  r |  H | e||
  |     |  i |  i | a||
  |     |  p |  s | d||
  |     |  t |  t | w||
  |     |  u |  o | o||
  |     |  r |  r | r||
  |     |  e |  y | k||
  |Name.|  . |  . | .||
  +-----+----+----+--++
  | _a_ |3   | ...|33||
  | _b_ |3   | ...|33||
  | _c_ |3   | ...|33||
  | _d_ |3   | ...|33||
  | _e_ |3   | ...|30||
  | _f_ |3   | ...|30||
  | _g_ |3   | ...|33||
  | _h_ |3   | ...|33||
  | _i_ |3   |4¹⁄₂|33||
  | _j_ |3   |4¹⁄₂|30||
  | _k_ |3   |4¹⁄₂|33||
  | _l_ |3   |4¹⁄₂|30||
  | _m_ |2¹⁄₂|3³⁄₄|28||
  | _n_ |2¹⁄₂|3³⁄₄|28||
  |     |    |    |  ||
  | _o_ |2¹⁄₂|3³⁄₄|28||
  | _p_ |2¹⁄₂|3³⁄₄|28||
  | _q_ |2¹⁄₂|2¹⁄₂|28||
  | _r_ |2¹⁄₂|2¹⁄₂|28||
  | _s_ |2¹⁄₂|2¹⁄₂|28||
  | _t_ |2¹⁄₂|2¹⁄₂|28||
  +-----+----+----+--++

  +-----++------------------------+----+---+---+----+----+----+--++--+
  |     ||     Extra Subjects.    |    |   |   |    |    |    |  ||  |
  |     ++----+----+----+----+----+    |   |   |    |    |    |  ||  |
  |     ||    |    |    |    |    |    |   |   |    |    |    | T||  |
  |     ||    |    |    |    |    |    |   |   |    |    |    | o||  |
  |     ||    |    |    |    |    |    |   |   |    |    |    | t||  |
  |     ||    |    |    |    |    |    |   | G |    |    |    | a||  |
  |     ||    |    |    |    |    |    |   | e |    |    |    | l||  |
  |     ||    |    |    |    |    |    |   | n |    |    |    | ,||  |
  |     ||    |    |    |    |    |    | P | e |    |    |    |  ||  |
  |     ||    |    |    |    |    |    | a | r |    |    |    | o|| G|
  |     ||    |    |    |    |    |  G | r | a |  N |    |    | c|| r|
  |     ||    |    |    |    |    |  y | t | l |  e |    |  G | c|| a|
  |     ||    |    |    |    |    |  m |   |   |  e |  W |  a | u|| n|
  |     ||    |    |  S |  D |  D |  n | S | R |  d |  o |  r | p|| d|
  |     ||    |  V |  i |  r |  a |  a | i | e |  l |  r |  d | a||  |
  |     ||  P |  i |  n |  a |  n |  s | n | a |  e |  k |  e | t|| T|
  |     ||  i |  o |  g |  w |  c |  t | g | d |  w |  s |  n | i|| o|
  |     ||  a |  l |  i |  i |  i |  i | i | i |  o |  h |  i | o|| t|
  |     ||  n |  i |  n |  n |  n |  c | n | n |  r |  o |  n | n|| a|
  |     ||  o |  n |  g |  g |  g |  s | g | g |  k |  p |  g | s|| l|
  |Name.||  . |  . |  . |  . |  . |  . | . | . |  . |  . |  . | .|| .|
  +-----++----+----+----+----+----+----+---+---+----+----+----+--++--+
  | _a_ || ...| ...| ...| ...| ...|1   |³⁄₄|3  |1¹⁄₂|3¹⁄₄|1¹⁄₂|11||44|
  | _b_ ||5¹⁄₄| ...| ...| ...| ...|1   |³⁄₄|...|1   |2   |1   |11||44|
  | _c_ ||5¹⁄₄| ...| ...|2¹⁄₂| ...|1   |³⁄₄|...| ...|1¹⁄₂| ...|11||44|
  | _d_ || ...|5¹⁄₄| ...| ...| ...|1   |³⁄₄|...|2   | ...|2   |11||44|
  | _e_ ||5¹⁄₄|3³⁄₄| ...| ...| ...|3¹⁄₂|³⁄₄|...| ³⁄₄| ...| ...|14||44|
  | _f_ ||5¹⁄₄| ...|3³⁄₄| ...| ...|1   |³⁄₄|...|1   |2¹⁄₄| ...|14||44|
  | _g_ || ...| ...| ...| ...| ...|1   |³⁄₄|3  |2¹⁄₄|2¹⁄₂|1¹⁄₂|11||44|
  | _h_ ||5¹⁄₄| ...| ...| ...|1¹⁄₂|1   |³⁄₄|...|1¹⁄₂| ...|1   |11||44|
  | _i_ ||5¹⁄₄| ...| ...| ...| ...|2   |³⁄₄|...| ...| ...|3   |11||44|
  | _j_ || ...|5¹⁄₄| ...|2¹⁄₂| ...|2   |³⁄₄|...| ...| ¹⁄₂|3   |14||44|
  | _k_ |}5¹⁄₄| ...| ...|2¹⁄₂|1¹⁄₂|1   |³⁄₄|...| ...| ...| ...|11||44|
  | _l_ ||5¹⁄₄|3³⁄₄| ...|2¹⁄₂|1¹⁄₂|1   |...|...| ...| ...| ...|14||44|
  | _m_ ||5¹⁄₄| ...| ...| ...| ...|2   |³⁄₄|...|1¹⁄₂|4   |2¹⁄₂|16||44|
  | _n_ || ...| ...| ...|2¹⁄₂| ...|2   |³⁄₄|...|1¹⁄₂|2¹⁄₂|3³⁄₄|13||41|
  |     ||    |    |    |    |    |    |   |   |    |    |    |  ||  |
  | _o_ ||5¹⁄₄| ...| ...|2¹⁄₂|1¹⁄₂|2   |³⁄₄|...|1¹⁄₂|2¹⁄₂| ...|16||44|
  | _p_ ||5¹⁄₄|3³⁄₄| ...| ...|1¹⁄₂|2   |³⁄₄|...|1¹⁄₂|1¹⁄₄| ...|16||44|
  | _q_ ||5¹⁄₄| ...| ...|2¹⁄₂|1¹⁄₂|2   |³⁄₄|...|1¹⁄₂|1¹⁄₂|1   |16||44|
  | _r_ || ...| ...| ...|2¹⁄₂|1¹⁄₂|2   |³⁄₄|...|3¹⁄₄|4   |2   |16||44|
  | _s_ ||5¹⁄₄| ...| ...|2¹⁄₂| ...|2   |³⁄₄|...|3   |1¹⁄₂|1   |16||44|
  | _t_ ||5¹⁄₄| ...| ...| ...|1¹⁄₂|2   |³⁄₄|...|1¹⁄₂| ...|2   |13||41|
  +-----++----+----+----+----+----+----+---+---+----+----+----+--++--+

[The true end of school life.]

[Occupations not purely intellectual.]

[Handicrafts.]

And here it is important to note that a great deal of the
training requisite to make a girl really useful, _i.e._, to make
her industrious, prompt, intelligent, thoughtful, thorough and
accurate, can quite as easily be given by means of work which is not
intellectual, thereby saving the poor brain, which we have often
strained to the uttermost in the past, from the weariness and fatigue
consequent upon overwork, and girls may be sent out from school not
anæmic and weak-backed, hating the sight of a book, but healthy
and vigorous, keenly alive to every opportunity that offers for
self-improvement, earnest and self-restrained, with trained powers
ready to devote themselves to the duties which offer. For the purposes
of training then, I would suggest a variety of handicrafts,[32] such as
bookbinding, needlework, the practising of various musical instruments,
part singing, drawing and gardening. In some cases time also is given
for general reading in the library--this may include English and other
modern languages--and is often valuable in keeping up a modern language
that has been acquired early, besides cultivating breadth of view and
literary taste. The whole school ought also to be organised as a Fire
Brigade and regularly drilled. It will be noticed at once that cooking,
dressmaking, domestic economy, sick nursing, physiology and hygiene
are omitted. These subjects are admirable at school age for girls who
intend to make them their work in life, but for our own girls, though
some of them suggest suitable holiday recreations, I believe that they
are best acquired by devoting six months or a year specially to the
purpose when school life is over. They do not seem to me to admit of a
sufficient amount of training, in proportion to the amount of time they
consume. The knowledge, so essential for the welfare of the individual,
of phenomena, such as the properties of air and water and the laws of
heat, is acquired and the practical applications are pointed out by
every intelligent teacher during the study of physics and chemistry;
and care of the health receives constant practical attention, so
that it is unnecessary to emphasise it during school life by special
lessons. Needlework is essential for every woman, and facility with the
needle is more easily acquired early, say from ten to fourteen, when
the fingers are really large enough to use such a delicate instrument
as a needle; but, as with everything else, having acquired the elements
thoroughly, it must be a matter of individual taste whether the worker
proceeds to acquire the higher branches of the art. The same may be
said of piano, violin and drawing. Bookbinding, woodcarving and joinery
give great scope for the development of neatness, accuracy and artistic
talent. An immense deal of interest may also be excited by gardening,
and much information of a practical and botanical kind, likely to be
useful in later life, may be obtained. Every girl who wishes it, should
have a small plot of garden to cultivate for herself.

  [32] It is to the admirable curriculum arranged by Miss Gray, the
  headmistress of St. Katharine’s School, St. Andrews, that I am
  indebted for my views on the subject of handicrafts and short hours
  for intellectual work.

[Swimming.]

Here it may be as well to mention that where facilities for bathing
exist, provided great care is exercised in only allowing girls in
perfect health to indulge in it, and then for not too long at a time,
no finer exercise exists than swimming. The necessary position of the
swimmer, with arms extended and head well thrown back, is an admirable
corrective to any tendency to stoop that may be acquired by bookwork.

[Importance of noting the weight and rate of growth.]

Before concluding this chapter on the cultivation of the body, it may
be useful to append tables of the heights and weights of girls at
different ages. These are compiled from careful measurements taken
regularly three times every year at St. Leonard’s School, St. Andrews,
during a period of nearly six years, an Avery’s weighing and measuring
apparatus being used. The girls were always weighed in their gymnastic
costume of the thickness worn in winter, and measured in their shoes.
A certain small percentage were usually found to have lost weight, the
proportion being larger in the summer time. We found, however, that
such losses were unimportant, unless persisted in. If, for example, a
growing girl did not increase in weight during a year, and was lighter
than the average for her age and height, then it would be high time to
send for the doctor and have her thoroughly overhauled. On the other
hand, if a girl was found to be persistently idle and inattentive,
though apparently in good health, on consulting the weight book it
would usually be found that she was underweight for her age, and a cure
was easily effected by cutting off some of her work, giving her extra
nourishment and more time for exercise in the open air. It is indeed
truly awful to reflect on the number of bad habits, that is, moral
faults, that may be induced and fostered in those under our charge by
neglect of suitable health conditions.

The tables are sound, so far as they go, but they do not go nearly far
enough, the basis upon which they are founded being too narrow, and it
is much to be wished that the Anthropometric Society could see its way
to organising a series of observations over a much wider area.

  I.--Table showing the average height and weight of British girls
  from the ages of nine to twenty, stating in each case the number
  of observations made. Also showing the average increase per annum
  deduced from the same observations taken three times in each year.

  +--------+---------+-----------+------------+---------------------+
  |        |         |           | Number of  |                     |
  | Ages.  | Height. |  Weight.  |observations|      Increase.      |
  |        |         |           |   made.    |                     |
  +--------+---------+-----------+------------+----------+----------+
  |        |         |           |            |In Height.|In Weight.|
  |From    |ft.  in. |st. lb. oz.|            |   in.    | lb. oz.  |
  | 9 to 10| 4  3·38 | 4   4  10 |     22     |          |          |
  |10 „  11| 4  5·763| 4  12  14 |     36     |  2·383   |  8   4   |
  |11 „  12| 4  8·403| 5   6   6 |     49     |  2·64    |  7   8   |
  |12 „  13| 4 11·509| 6   5   1 |     81     |  3·106   | 12  11   |
  |13 „  14| 5  1·639| 7   2   2 |    218     |  2·13    | 11   1   |
  |14 „  15| 5  3·128| 7  12   3 |    490     |  1·489   | 10   1   |
  |15 „  16| 5  3·972| 8   6   0 |    737     |   ·844   |  7  13   |
  |16 „  17| 5  4·451| 8  11   6 |    870     |   ·479   |  5   6   |
  |17 „  18| 5  4·666| 9   1   7 |    627     |   ·215   |  4   1   |
  |18 „  19| 5  4·804| 9   4  10 |    242     |   ·138   |  3   3   |
  |19 „  20| 5  5·267| 9   5   6 |     51     |   ·463   |     12   |
  +--------+---------+-----------+------------+----------+----------+

  +------------------------------++--------------------------------+
  |  II.--Table showing average  ||  III.--Table showing average   |
  | height for age, disregarding || weight for height, disregarding|
  |         weight.              ||             age.               |
  +------+----------+------------++-------+-----------+------------+
  | Age  |          | Number of  ||       |           | Number of  |
  | in   |  Height. |observations||Height.|  Weight.  |observations|
  |years.|          |   made.    ||       |           |   made.    |
  +------+----------+------------++-------+-----------+------------+
  |      |ft.   in. |            ||ft. in.|st. lb. oz.|            |
  | 9    | 4   1·35 |      5     || 3  10 | 3   3   8 |      1     |
  | 9¹⁄₂ | 4   3·739|     12     || 3  11 | 3   5   0 |      3     |
  |10    | 4   4·385|     12     || 4   0 | 3  10   4 |      1     |
  |10¹⁄₂ | 4   5·565|     21     || 4   1 | 4   2  10 |      3     |
  |11    | 4   6·481|     20     || 4   2 | 4   3   4 |     11     |
  |11¹⁄₂ | 4   8·322|     26     || 4   3 | 4   4   5 |     10     |
  |12    | 4  10·582|     35     || 4   4 | 4   5  12 |     12     |
  |12¹⁄₂ | 4  11·696|     44     || 4   5 | 4   8  14 |     12     |
  |13    | 5   1·458|     69     || 4   6 | 5   1  12 |     15     |
  |13¹⁄₂ | 5   1·728|    122     || 4   7 | 5   5   3 |     27     |
  |14    | 5   2·708|    192     || 4   8 | 5   9  12 |     28     |
  |14¹⁄₂ | 5   3·232|    256     || 4   9 | 6   0   8 |     42     |
  |15    | 5   3·72 |    349     || 4  10 | 6   8   1 |     56     |
  |15¹⁄₂ | 5   4·048|    389     || 4  11 | 7   3  15 |    118     |
  |16    | 5   4·263|    434     || 5   0 | 7   5  13 |    221     |
  |16¹⁄₂ | 5   4·488|    445     || 5   1 | 7  10   0 |    263     |
  |17    | 5   4·606|    376     || 5   2 | 8   1   0 |    309     |
  |17¹⁄₂ | 5   4·644|    296     || 5   3 | 8   5  14 |    564     |
  |18    | 5   4·671|    182     || 5   4 | 8  10  11 |    625     |
  |18¹⁄₂ | 5   4·797|     97     || 5   5 | 8  13   4 |    466     |
  |19    | 5   4·831|     40     || 5   6 | 9   4  12 |    274     |
  |19¹⁄₂ | 5   4·854|     12     || 5   7 | 9   7   9 |    217     |
  |20    | 5   4·89 |      8     || 5   8 | 9  11  10 |    125     |
  |      |          |            || 5   9 |10   2   5 |     54     |
  |      |          |            || 5  10 |10  10   8 |     12     |
  +------+----------+------------++-------+-----------+------------+


ENVIRONMENT.

We now pass to the inanimate surroundings.

The first essential is that the soil upon which the school is built
should be a dry and wholesome one. Gravel of course is the best, but
there are many other varieties of soil and subsoil which admit of
perfect drainage.

[Healthy situation.]

[Cheerful surroundings.]

The altitude is also a question to be taken into account. The greatest
altitude compatible with accessibility is as a rule the best, because
then the air will be fresh and abundant, and probably bracing. The
aspect is also of importance. This should be as sunny as possible, and
the girls’ sleeping and living rooms should be flooded with sunshine
for great portions of the day, whatever happens to the rest of the
establishment; as comparatively short hours are spent in schoolrooms,
the importance of sunshine in them is less great, though they must be
bright and attractive, for cheerful surroundings and associations help
to produce the cheerful minds which most easily conquer intellectual
difficulties. There must be no gloominess, with its depressing effects
upon youthful spirits, anywhere. The nature of the surroundings has
much to do in fact with the ideas, pleasurable or otherwise, which will
be associated with the recurrence of any given lesson, and will often
colour our recollections through life.

[Climate.]

It is desirable also to ascertain the rainfall. There are certain
portions of our island where the rainfall is very much heavier than in
others, and often places only a few miles apart may differ by being
either inside or outside a rainy band. Where outdoor exercise is as
important as it always must be for young people, it is absurd to start
a new school in a place where the games will be constantly interrupted
by rain, or where, when it has rained, the ground is of a nature which
does not quickly dry up. Of course what one really wants to know is
the average number of rainy days and the seasons of the year when
they chiefly occur, rather than the number of inches per annum of
the rainfall, but these are details which are not generally easy to
ascertain.

[Ventilation and warming.]

Having secured a suitable spot, with abundant space, a large portion of
it level for the purpose of play, see that the building is commodious,
well-built, well-lighted, and thoroughly dry, and have all the windows
hung top and bottom so that there may be plenty of fresh air, and have
good fireplaces. Fireplaces are decidedly the most healthy method of
warming for all living rooms, but hot-water pipes are unobjectionable,
and far more convenient and economical for schoolrooms.

[Arrangement of buildings and lighting.]

Every school of course has its own method of arrangement, but it is
preferable where possible to have a central building for teaching
purposes, containing schoolrooms, art-room, laboratory, workshops
and gymnasium, surrounded by houses of residence, each holding about
twenty-five girls. The houses should be warmed with fireplaces, the
school by means of any warming apparatus at the time in vogue. In both
school and houses it is most desirable to have electric light because
it does not vitiate the air.

The accommodation in the building will naturally be arranged in
accordance with the ideas of school organisation which it is intended
to carry out, different plans being suitable for different kinds of
schools.

[Water supply and drainage.]

An abundant and thoroughly wholesome water supply is absolutely
essential, and the drainage must be well planned and perfectly laid, so
as to stand the various customary tests, and must be properly trapped
and ventilated.

[Air and space.]

As regards area and cubic space and other minute details of a hygienic
kind, I cannot do better than refer mistresses to Dr. Clement Dukes’
admirable _Health at School_, published by Cassell & Co., which is a
complete compendium of the subject, merely premising that for a book
published in 1886 and republished in 1895, a less sweeping condemnation
of all girls’ schools might have been made.

I do not myself feel that there is danger of unwholesome crowding in
secondary residentiary schools, provided that there are separate living
and school accommodation, such as I have already indicated, and also
provided that every girl has her own cubicle fully furnished. The
smallest area upon which it is possible to arrange the usual cubicle
furniture with any degree of comfort, is sufficient to provide enough
cubic space of air in a room twelve feet high.

[Food must be abundant.]

[There must be variety.]

[Sugar and fruit necessary.]

[Disastrous effects of insufficient or unwholesome food.]

A chapter on the Cultivation of the Body seems hardly complete
without some mention of that without which the body cannot grow or
even continue to exist, namely, food. As will have been seen from the
tables given above, growth during the early years spent at a secondary
residentiary school is exceedingly rapid, and food is necessary to
support it; also every form of activity of any of the faculties of
the being causes waste of substance and necessitates recuperation,
which will be obtained chiefly by means of food and sleep. Food,
therefore, must be abundant; it must be of good quality, well cooked,
attractively served, and helped in a tempting manner. Plenty of time
should be given for partaking of the meal, but the girls should not
be kept sitting so long as to be bored, and conversation should be
freely indulged in. I do not myself think that solid meat should be
given except at the midday meal, but both at breakfast and at supper
there should always be a savoury dish, consisting of fish, eggs,
macaroni, rice or vegetables, with occasional admixtures of meat, ham,
tongue, etc., to ensure variety; porridge should also be provided for
breakfast. The great essential is variety. Besides these three meals
there should be a light luncheon consisting of hot soup and bread,
or cocoa, or milk, according to taste; and in the afternoon, after
games and changing, the refreshment of tea and bread and butter, now
and again varied with cake or a bun, before going into afternoon
school. Sugar in abundance and milk should always be upon the dinner
table, to be partaken of according to taste with the pudding, and jam
or marmalade and golden syrup should be provided for breakfast and
supper. In this way the quantity of saccharine matter, so essential for
a growing child, is supplied. Greediness is not induced because the
natural appetites are freely and wholesomely supplied, and the habit
of self-indulgence is kept in abeyance for the same reason, because
the ordinary diet is so satisfying that there is no craving for sweets
and other tuck-shop delicacies. But even so, it is desirable to give
sweetmeats occasionally after meals, rather than allow girls even to
fancy that they want to go and buy them for themselves. Fresh fruit
also is very good and wholesome and should be available when required
for health; it will often be needed if the water is at all hard, and
should occasionally be given in liberal quantities, say instead of
pudding. Vegetables too must never be forgotten. Some people will be
inclined to say that girls are not fed as well as this in their homes!
That may sometimes be possible, and indeed I have known of cases where,
from a terribly mistaken view of economy, or from a desire to teach
self-restraint, growing girls have been stinted in food, with most
lamentable results in after life. I am not, however, afraid that school
will ever enter into competition with the home, no matter how good
the puddings are; and it is natural that such things should be more
considered at school where it is realised that even such minor matters
as the bread and butter enter into the general scheme of education,
and may influence for good or evil the future lives of the pupils. In
some homes, on the other hand, girls receive food much too rich or
too stimulating, made dishes and late dinners not being conducive to
healthy digestion.

[Danger of over-stimulating the emotions.]

Before closing this chapter a word must be said about the emotions;
healthy bodily development is hindered or prevented if they are
too early encouraged, as it is also by want of food, rest, fresh
air, exercise and interest, or by the excess of either physical or
intellectual activity. The emotional nature is over-stimulated by
excessive time spent upon music, especially if the music is of a
certain kind. Much care is needed, more particularly if there is
decided musical taste, to begin with composers who appeal least to
the emotional nature, and not to specialise in music at all until
a thorough intellectual groundwork has been laid in the general
education. Latin, mathematics and vigorous games hold a far more
important part in the general scheme of a comprehensive education than
is always apparent.




INDEX.


  Absences from school, effect on class teaching, 34.
  Acton, Lord, on study of history, 126.
  Aim of education, 2, 67.
  Aim of school life, 414.
  Air and space in schools, 421.
  Algebra--
    Age for beginning, 247.
    Educational value, 237.
    Geometry and algebra, relation between, 246.
  Alphabet, 46.
    Books for teachers, 52.
  Alphabets, phonetic, 111.
  Ambition, intellectual, fostering, 40.
  Analysis of sentences, 60.
  Ancient history, 160.
    Books recommended, 166.
    Educational value, 159.
    Higher classes, history for, 164.
    Illustrations, models, etc., suggestions, 164.
    Junior classes, scheme of work, 161.
      Parallel chart, 167.
  Apparatus needed in teaching, 29.
  Arithmetic--
    Addition, 222.
    Approximations, 235.
    Decimal notation, 222.
    Division, 227.
    Exclusion of various branches, suggested, 237, 247.
    Factors, measures, multiples, 227.
    First teaching, 216.
    Fractions, 229, 232, 236.
      Decimals, 223, 233.
    G.C.M. and L.C.M., 231.
    Historical method of teaching, 237.
      Sketch of lesson, 218.
    Logarithms as part of scientific arithmetic, 248 _note_.
    Money, addition and subtraction of, 221.
    Multiplication, 224.
    Practice, 235.
    Proportion, 234.
    Subtraction, 223.
  Art in education--
    Beautiful surroundings in school, etc., 322.
    Drawing and painting [_see_ that title].
    Historical art, 321.
    [_See also_ various titles, Music, Drawing and painting, etc.]
  Art needlework, 361.
  Articulation, 347.
  Astronomy--
    Mathematics as stepping-stone to, 245.
    Psychological order of study, 254.
  Attendance at school, regular, necessity for, 34.

  Bacon on knowledge, 2.
  Bearder, Mr., on phonetic alphabet, 97.
  Beautifying schools, importance of, 322.
  Bedford college, opening, 4.
  Bible lessons [_see_ Religion and philosophy].
  Biological sciences, 260.
    Field work, 263.
    Microscopes, using, 265.
    Museum, school, arrangement of, 263, 272.
    Notes of lesson on seedlings, 269.
    Observation, developing, 261.
    Psychological order of study, 252, 255.
    Sequence of lessons should be outcome of teacher’s own
    individuality, 266.
    Text-books recommended for botany, 253, 271.
  Botany [_see_ Biological sciences].
  Brush drawing, 348, 349, 354.
  Bryce, Dr., on science teaching, 249.
  Buss, Miss, first high school established by, 4.

  Century question, 176 _note_.
  Character--
    Formation of, books on, 376.
    Insight into, essential for teachers, 376.
    Moulding, power of teacher in, 385.
  Charts, illustrated [_see_ Time maps].
  Cheltenham Ladies’ College, opening, 4.
  Chemistry--
    Method of teaching, need for improvement in, 307.
    Position in scheme of science teaching, 308.
    “Practical” training, importance of, 310.
    Pre-examination classes--broad principles recommended, 312.
    Preliminary course of elementary physics, 308, 312.
    “Pure” and “physical” chemistry, order of teaching, 315, 316.
    Technical language not required, 309.
    Typical lessons, 317.
  Child study society, 370.
  China painting, 360.
  Civilised nations, energy devoted to education by, 3.
  Class-singing--
    Dictation, 341.
    Ear tests, 341.
    Educational value, 340, 343.
    Length of lesson, 340.
    Notation, questions on, 340.
    Part-singing, 342.
    Rhythm, 341.
    Sight-reading, 342.
    Size of class, etc., 340.
    Tonic sol-fa system, 344.
    Value of, as supplement to pianoforte teaching, 332.
    Voice production, 342.
  Class teachers and specialists, comparison between, 21.
  Classical studies [_see_ Latin and Greek].
  Classification in any subject, method, 38.
  Committee of Ten, report--
    Arithmetic, exclusion of certain branches suggested, 237.
    English, teaching, 62.
    Geometry, instruction in, 239.
  Compayré on education, 17 _note_.
  Competition--
    Bracing influence of, 386.
    Personal rivalry, avoiding, 388.
  Composition--
    Committee of Ten, report, 63.
    Dale, Mr., on, 55.
  Conduct prizes, objections to, 33.
  Consonants, classification of, 47, 48.
  Corporate virtues, cultivating, 401.
  Corrections, giving in exercise books, etc., 27.
  Cricket, 404, 406.
  Curriculum for pupils of different ages, 10, 12, 20.

  Dale, Mr., on oral composition, 55.
  Dancing, 412.
  Davies, Miss, University privileges won for women by, 4.
  Dialects in English colonies, danger of developing into different
  languages, 110.
  Difficulties of teachers, remedy, 23.
  Diphthong table, 51.
  Discipline of home and school, 369.
  Distractions, avoiding, in teaching, 37.
  Drainage of school buildings, 420.
  Drawing and painting--
    Brush work, 348, 349, 354.
    Educational value, 322.
    Foreshortening, 351.
    Individual teaching, advantage of, 351.
    Individuality, encouraging, 352.
    Line drawing on squares, 349.
    Memory drawing, 350.
    Model drawing, 352.
    Mural decoration, 358.
    Natural drawing of children, 348.
    Object drawing, 350.
    Painting, 356.
      China painting, 360.
    Perspective, 352, 357.
    Plane geometry, 352.
    Proportional measurements, 350.
    Ruskin, quotation from, 348.
    Shading, 353.
    Suggestive drawing, 352.
  Dress, manner, etc., of teachers, effect of, 35.
  Duration of school-life, 15.

  Economics--
    Educational value, 186, 190, 191.
    Interest of pupils in, 188.
    Method of teaching, 188.
    Text-books, use of, 189.
  Education--
    Aim of, 2, 67.
    Books on, 38, 43, 376.
    Definition, 7, 324.
    Mistakes to be avoided, 17.
    Moral, aspect [_see_ Moral side of education].
    Reform in women’s education since 1848, 3.
  Electricity and magnetism, 299.
  Elocution, 346.
  Emotions, danger of over-stimulating, 423.
  English language, training in, 54.
    Books recommended, 66.
    Committee of Ten, report, 62.
    [_See also_ Grammar.]
  English literature--
    Aim and method of teaching, 192.
    Periods of literature, studying, 198.
    Poetry, reading, 194.
    Prose, reading, 198.
    Reading courses, suggested, 200.
    Shakspere, study of, 195.
    Style, sense of, cultivating, 199.
  Environment of a school, 418.
  Euclid [_see_ Geometry].
  Examinations--
    Internal and local, comparison between, 34.
    Value of, 33.
  Examiners, 34.
  Exercise--
    Dancing, fencing, etc., 412.
    Games [_see_ that title].
    Gymnastics [_see_ that title].
    Some forms more valuable than others, 397.
    Swimming, 415.
  Exercise books, corrections, giving in books, etc., 27.

  Faculty, definition of, 20.
  Family selfishness, women prone to, 401.
  Fearon, Mr., on analysis of sentences, 60.
  Fines, objections to, 33.
  Fire brigade, school should be organised as, 414.
  Fitch, Sir J., on study of history, 137.
  Food, suitable, for growing girls, 421.
  Foreign languages--
    Latin and Greek [_see_ that title].
    Modern languages [_see_ that title].
    Pronunciation, teaching, value of “Le Maître Phonétique,” 111.
  French--
    Books recommended, 101.
    Pronunciation, 49, 97.
    Rules, 102.
    Translation, 98, 100.
    [_See also_ Modern languages.]

  Games--
    Corporate virtues developed by organised games, 402.
    Cricket, 404, 406.
    Cycle of games, 404.
    Higher functions of, 400.
    Hockey, 405.
    Lacrosse, 405.
    Over-exertion, dangers of, 409.
    Playground, 403.
    Severe games not safe without gymnastic training, 409.
    Small numbers, games for, 400.
    Value of, as means of exercise, 398.
  Gardening, educational value, 415.
  Geography--
    Aim in teaching, 275.
    Course of lessons, notes, 282.
      England, supplementary work with reference to, 287.
    Physical geography [_see_ that title].
  Geology, psychological position in science teaching, 255.
  Geometry--
    Algebra and geometry, relation between, 246.
    Definitions, forming, 242.
    Educational value, 240.
    Euclid, objections to, 243.
    Kindergarten, beginning in, 239.
    Methods of teaching, 242, 244, 248.
    Practical geometry for young children, 239.
    Text-books recommended, 240, 242.
  German--
    Difficulties of the language, removing, 102.
    Literature, attractiveness of, 103.
    [_See also_ Modern languages.]
  “Girls’ Public Day Schools’ Company,” founding, 4.
  Gladstone, Dr., spelling reform, statistics, 107.
  Grammar, English, 59.
    Books recommended, 59, 66.
    Committee of Ten, report, 64.
    [_See also_ English language.]
  Greek and Latin [_see_ Latin and Greek].
  Gymnastics, Swedish--
    Physical defects, correcting, 410.
    Superiority of, to ordinary gymnastics, 410.
    Value of, 408.

  Habits, right, forming, 39.
  Hamilton, Sir W., on teaching, 134.
  Hand arts [_see_ Manual training].
  Harris, Dr.--
    Art in education, 322.
    History, definition of, 114.
    Manual work, views on educational value of, 323.
    Mistakes to be avoided in education, 17.
  Head mistresses and head masters, control exercised by, 22.
  Health--
    Book recommended, 421.
    Care of, during school years, 383.
    Necessary conditions, 397.
  Heat and light, 302.
  Height and weight of girls at different ages, 416, 418.
  Hieroglyphics, interesting children in, 45.
  High schools, first school established by Miss Buss, etc., 4.
  Higher education of women, reforms since 1848, 3.
  History--
    Ancient history [_see_ that title].
    Approaching subject, methods, 121.
    Definition, 114.
    Educational value, 114, 137.
    German scheme of teaching, 166.
    Junior class, history for, 121.
    Moral lessons from, 115.
    Political economy more important for girls than constitutional
    history, 120.
    Psychological order of study, 258.
    Senior classes, history for, 122, 124.
      Class library, forming, 130.
      Contemporary writings, studying, 131.
      Continuity of history, tracing, 126.
      Essay-writing, value of, 135.
      First-hand acquaintance with authorities desirable, 130, 131.
      Historical novels, etc., recommended, 133, 150.
      Maps, lack of, suggestions, 129.
      Pictures, etc., educative power of, 132, 321.
      Post-school work, 136.
      Previous knowledge to be assumed, 126.
      Sectional teaching, advantages, 127.
      Selection, principle of, 126.
      “Spirit” of the period, catching, 124.
      Syllabus of lessons, 128, 130, 138.
      Testing work, 134.
      Text-books recommended, 132, 145.
    Time maps [_see_ that title].
  Historical novels, value for elder classes, 122, 133.
  Hockey, 405.
  Home and school, relation between, 367.
    Rules for home government in connection with school work, 371.
  Humanities--
    Inclusion in course of study, importance of, 20.
    Teachers’ studying, necessity for, 9.
  Hygiene, school, book recommended, 421.

  Ideal, ultimate, or perfect development of individual, keeping in
  view, 41.
  Ideals, highest, encouraging, 41.
  Individual life, developing, 41.
  Inquiry, spirit of, awakening and sustaining, 40.
  Intellectual ambition, fostering, 40.
  Intellectual sympathy with pupil, necessity for, 38.
  Intellectual work, number of hours to be devoted to, 412.
  Interest, awakening, in pupils, 37.

  Judgment cultivated by study of history, 117.

  Knowledge of the world essential for teachers, 375.
  Known to the unknown, proceeding from, in teaching, 38.

  Lacrosse, 405.
  Laing, Mr., establishment of first high school, 4.
  Languages--
    Enjoyment of work essential for pupil, 104.
    Latin and Greek [_see_ that title].
    Methods of teaching compared, 69.
    Modern languages [_see_ that title].
    Order of teaching, 94, 257.
  Latin and Greek--
    Advanced work, methods, 77.
    Books recommended, 71, 75, 77, 78, 81, 82, 89.
    Composition, hints on teaching, 75, 80.
    Construing, lessons in, 72.
    Conversation, 72.
    Educational value of Latin, 68.
    Examples prefixed to exercises to be learnt by heart, 76.
    Greek accentuation, 83.
    Greek preferred to Latin, 104.
    Late learners, chance of success, 86.
    Methods of teaching compared, 69.
    Models and illustrations of classical life and history, suggestions,
    85.
    Position in girls’ education, 67, 94, 103.
    Pronunciation, 82.
    Reading to be begun as soon as possible, 71.
      Illustrative works to accompany reading, 79.
    Repetition, 77.
    Scheme of work, 87.
    Style, attention to, 80.
    Translations--
      Old English versions, value of, 84.
      Unseen translation, beginning, 76.
      Using, 79.
    Verse writing, 81.
    Weak points in girls’ work, 86.
  Law, William, on true learning, 395.
  “Le Maître Phonétique,” alphabet and specimens of writing from, 111.
  Learning by heart, value of, 54.
  Lectures, school, parents attending, 371.
  Leisure--
    Mental leisure required by teachers, 375.
    Ripening of character, need of leisure for, 210.
    Time table arranged by Miss Beale, 13.
  Length of lessons, 16.
  Letters, classifying, importance of, 50.
  Light and heat, 302.
  Lighting in schools, 420.
  Literature--
    English literature [_see_ that title].
    German literature, attractiveness of, 103.
  Logarithms as part of scientific arithmetic, 248 _note_.

  Magnetism and electricity, 299.
  Manual training--
    Educational value, 323, 414.
    Handicrafts, suggested, 414, 415.
    Modelling, 363.
    Needlework, 361, 415.
    Sloyd, 366.
    Wood-carving, etc., 362.
  Maps--
    Constant use of maps, importance of, 30.
    Historical maps, lack of, 129.
  Marks--
    Chart showing fluctuation in, 32.
    Inspection by head mistress, advantage of, 31.
    Personal rivalry, method avoiding, 388.
  Martineau, Dr., on history, 114.
  Mathematics--
    Algebra [_see_ that title].
    Books recommended, 248, 249.
    Geometry [_see_ that title].
    Historical method of teaching, advantage of, 248.
    Mixed mathematics, 248.
  Mazzini on “Solidarity of Man,” 120.
  Meiklejohn, spelling book, exhaustive nature of, 109.
  Mental state of pupil, teaching must be adapted to, 39.
  Method of teaching subject should be adapted to age of pupil, 19.
  “Méthode mnémonique polonaise” applied as a record of time, 169.
  Miall, Professor, on difficulties in education, 23.
  Microscopes, use of, in schools, 265.
  Mill, Mr., on study of history, 137.
  Milton, quotations from, on--
    Divine philosophy, 41.
    Education, 2 _note_.
  Mistakes in education, 17.
  Modelling--
    Educational value, 363.
    Individual and class teaching, 364.
    Studies, 364.
    Tools required, 363.
  Modern languages--
    Books recommended, 111.
    Composition, 101.
    Enjoyment of work essential for pupil, 104.
    Exercises, 99.
    First lessons should be oral, 96.
    Order of studying, 94, 257.
    Philology, value in teaching languages, 101.
    Phonetic system, success of, 96.
    Reform in method of teaching, necessity for, 96.
    Translation, 98.
    Vocabulary, forming, 99.
    [_See also_ titles French and German.]
  Money, origin of, 219.
  Moral side of school education--
    Competition, wholesome, benefit of, 386.
    Concentration of faculties, practice in, 387.
    Moral lessons in school, value of, 389.
    Religion and philosophy [_see_ that title].
    Responsibilities and qualifications of teachers [_see_ Teachers].
    School worldliness, danger of, 387.
    Uniformity of treatment, value of, 386.
  Müller, Professor Max, on English spelling, 106, 107.
  Mural decoration, 358.
  Museum, school, arrangement of, 263, 272.
  Music--
    Class-singing [_see_ that title].
    General education, necessity for, 337.
    Pianoforte [_see_ that title].
    Sending children abroad for musical education, 320, 336.
    Taste, cultivating, 320.
    Violin, 338.

  Needlework, training in, 415.
    Art needlework, 361.
  Newton on discovering truth, 40.
  Nineteenth century, illustrated charts, 182, 184.

  Observation, development of, value of biological sciences, 261.
  Occupations for training purposes which are not purely intellectual,
  414.
  Oral composition--
    Committee of Ten, report, 63.
    Dale, Mr., on, 55.
  Order of study--
    Importance of, 17.
    Psychological order, 19, 251.
  Organisation, power of, games developing, 400.
  Over-exertion in games, dangers of, 409.
  Overstrain, teachers avoiding, 381.

  Pagliardini, spelling difficulties, 109.
  Painting and drawing [_see_ Drawing and painting].
  Parents and teachers--
    Co-operation, means for securing, 370.
    Relations between, 368.
  Parker, anecdote on “conscience,” 206.
  Parsing exercises, usefulness questioned, 59.
  _Pedagogical Seminary_, extract from, on teachers, 35.
  Philology--
    Books recommended, 52, 66, 102.
    Knowledge of, value in teaching languages, 101.
  Philosophy and religion [_see_ Religion and philosophy].
  Phonetic system [_see_ Spelling reform].
  Physical defects in girls--
    Correcting, by Swedish gymnastics, 410.
    Frequent causes of, 411.
  Physical geography--
    Courses of lessons, subject-matter, 275, 277, 279.
    Definitions, forming, 278.
    Observation and experiment, 275, 276.
    Psychological position in science teaching, 254.
    Written work, style of, 276, 277.
  Physics--
    Books recommended, 303.
    Definitions, forming, 294.
    Diagrams, value of, 299.
    Electricity and magnetism, 299.
    Elementary course of lessons, 292.
      Apparatus, 296.
      Practical work, 296.
    Elementary physics as a basis for chemistry, 308, 312, 315.
    Heat and light, 302.
    Position in science teaching, 255, 291.
    Senior classes, 302.
    Syllabus of lessons, 304.
  Physiology--
    Books recommended, 256.
    Psychological position in science teaching, 256, 292.
  Pianoforte--
    Aim in teaching, 326.
    Difficulties of teachers, 327.
    Ear, cultivating, 332.
    Examinations, 334, 336.
    Gradation of study, 329, 333.
    Hands, treatment of, 334.
    Harmony, 333.
    Memory, cultivating, 334.
    Practice, superintending, 335.
    Selection of music, 331.
    Sight-reading, 335.
    Singing class, value of, 332.
    Studies recommended, 332, 334.
    Thoroughness, importance of, 336.
    [_See also_ Music.]
  Pitman, Mr.--
    Pitman alphabet, suggestion, 111.
    Spelling reform, 109.
  Place-taking in classes, disappearance of, 31.
  Playground, 403.
  Pleasant, lessons, making, 38, 104.
  Poetry, learning, 53, 54.
  Political economy, educational value, 120.
  Practical precepts for teachers, 37.
  Prizes, objections to, 32.
  Progress, promoting, 39.
  Psychological order of study, 19, 251.
  Punishments, nature of offence and suitable punishments, 33.

  Queen’s College, founding, 4.
  Questioning of pupils, judicious, 40.

  Rapport between teacher and class, importance of, 34.
  Reading, 44, 51.
    Books recommended, 47, 54, 66.
    [_See also_ Alphabet.]
  Recitation, value as moral training, 54.
  Recreation--
    Certain forms more valuable than others, 397.
    Games [_see_ that title].
    Meaning of, 397.
  Reform in women’s education since 1848, 3.
  Religion and philosophy--
    Bible lessons, 391.
    Books recommended, 211, 215.
    Conscience, 206.
    Consciousness and self-consciousness, 205.
    Definition of religion, 203.
    Dogmatics and ethics, relation between, 202.
    Foundations of faith, classification, 213.
    Historical art, educative power of, 321.
    Leisure for thought, 210.
    Personal element in child’s religion, 204.
    Position in time-table, 391.
    Psychological order of teaching, 206, 209, 258.
    Reading and discussion, 211.
    Religion in relation to science and philosophy, 204.
    Sceptical phases, dealing with, 210.
    School lessons--
      Advantages, 389, 390.
      Scope of, 202.
    Special training, for teachers, 212.
    Written work, importance of, 209.
  Reports, advantages of, 33.
  Reproofs, injudicious, avoiding, 382.
  Right habits, forming, 39.
  Ruskin, quotations from, 2, 348.

  Salford, Professor, on logarithms, 248 _note_.
  School and home, relation between, 367.
    Rules for home government in connection with school work, 371.
  School buildings--
    Beautifying, importance of, 322.
    Situation, 418.
    Ventilation, lighting, etc., 420.
  School life--
    Aim of, 414.
    Duration, 15.
  Science--
    Biological sciences [_see_ that title].
    Central idea in teaching, necessity for, 311.
    Chart showing progress during the Queen’s reign, 184.
    Early training essential, 309.
    Experiments, success with, importance of, 295.
    Historical method of teaching, 248, 249.
    History, supplementing, 115.
    Imagination and reasoning power, cultivating, 267.
    Introductory teaching, 314.
    “Lecture” lessons and “practical” work, 295, 312.
    Psychological order of study, 251, 308.
    Scheme, suggested, 292.
    Sequence of lessons, care in planning, 265, 266.
    Size of classes for “practical” instruction, 313.
  Shakspere--
    Illustrations from, in teaching history, 123, 133.
    Study of, 195.
  Shirreff, Miss, on education, 3.
  Silence rules, value of, 14.
  Singing--
    Class-singing [_see_ that title].
    Tonic sol-fa system, 344.
  Situation of school building, soil, rainfall, etc., 418.
  Sixteenth century--chart of historical events, 171, 174.
  Sloyd, 366.
  Soames, Miss, promoting phonetic system, 108, 110.
  Solitude, value of, for young people, 13.
  Sounds, classification of, 46.
  Space and air in schools, 421.
  Specialising in youth, results, 20.
  Specialists and class teachers, comparison between, 21.
  Spelling reform--
    Books recommended, 66.
    Foreign languages, acquiring--success of phonetic system, 96.
    Necessity for, 53, 106.
    Phonetic alphabets, 111.
    Present spelling condemned by philologists, 110.
    Soames, Miss, promoting, 108, 110.
  Spencer, Herbert, on education, 17 _note_.
  Spenser, quotation from, 396.
  Stubbs, Bishop, on study of history, 137.
  Study--
    Courses arranged for pupils of different ages, 10, 12, 16, 20.
    Hours to be spent in, 412.
    Subjects, classification of, 9.
  Sunday quiet for young people, necessity for, 14, 211.
  Swedish gymnastics [_see_ Gymnastics].
  Swimming, 415.
  Sympathies enlarged by study of history, 114.
  Sympathy, intellectual, with pupils, need for, 38.

  Teachers--
    Aim, 383.
    Circumstances and character of each pupil, knowing, 379.
    Class teachers and specialists, 21.
    Corrections, giving in exercise books, etc., 27.
    Difficulties of, remedy, 23.
    Externals, importance of, 35.
    Higher attainment, seeking, 6.
    Holding attention of class, 34.
    Humanities, study of, 9.
    Knowledge of the world essential, 375.
    Mental leisure, necessity for, 375.
    Moral responsibility of, 377.
    Overstrain, avoiding, 381.
    Practical precepts for, 37.
    Reproofs, injudicious, avoiding, 382.
    Right judgment and presence of mind, 379.
    Self-mastery, 380.
    Time-saving methods, 24.
  Teachers and parents--
    Co-operation, means for securing, 370.
    Relation between, 368.
  Teachers’ Guild, 370.
    Educational museum, 85, 165.
  Tenses, discriminating, 61.
  Time available for school teaching, 15.
  Time-maps, 168.
    Ancient history, 181.
    Illustrated charts, 171.
    Syllabus of lessons on modern history, 177.
  Time-saving methods for teachers, 24.
  Time-tables--
    Courses of study for pupils of different ages, 10, 12, 16, 20.
    Hours to be spent in intellectual work, 412.
  Tonic sol-fa system, 344.

  University education won for women, 4.

  Ventilation in schools, 420.
  Victorian era, illustrated charts, 182, 184.
  Violin, 338.
  Voice production, 53.
    Class-singing, 342.
    Elocution, 346.
  Vowels--
    Diphthong table, 51.
    Sounds, discriminating, 49, 97.

  Walter, Miss L. E., on preliminary science teaching, 314.
  Ware, Mr., on phonetic alphabet, 96.
  Warming school buildings, 420.
  Water supply in schools, 420.
  Weight and height of girls at different ages, 416, 418.
  Wood-carving, etc., 415.
    Educational value, 362.
  Woodward, Professor, on analysis of sentences, 60.
  Writing, preliminary teaching, 45.

  Zoology [_see_ Biological sciences].


[Illustration]




  Transcriber’s Notes


  Depending on the hard- and software used to read this text and their
  settings, not all elements may display as intended. The sections on
  phonetics and mathematics in particular contain characters that may
  not display properly.

  Some wide tables have been split; blank lines resulting from this
  split have not been deleted, so that the parts may be re-combined
  more easily.

  Where feasible, a graphic representation of illustrations has been
  provided; these are intended to give an impression only.

  Inconsistent and unusual spelling, hyphenation, capitalisation,
  etc. (including those of proper and geographical names) have been
  retained, except as listed below.

  Page 46, 47, symbols: for some symbols there is no real glyph, the
  ones given here are intended to give an approximation of the shapes
  only.

  Page 108, careful experiments have established 1): there are no
  subsequent numbers.

  Page 112, phonetics: as printed in the source document, even though
  there appear to be some mistakes, inconsistencies and omissions in
  the phonetics. There are several errors in the German text (Wenn wir
  uns ...), these have not been corrected.

  Page 129, 130, Sprüner: Karl Spruner von Merz.

  Page 147, Ranke. _History of England_, vol. ... endon Press: part of
  the text is missing from the source document; the publisher is the
  Clarendon Press, probably the reference is to volume ii.

  Page 221 ff., 235: the ditto marks/low double quote marks in amounts
  are present as such in the source document; they appear to be used as
  separators between the pounds, shillings and pence. The inconsistent
  use of S. and D. above the shillings and pence has been copied from
  the source document.

  Page 230, Nearly all children will write thus: ³⁄₄ × 7 = ³⁄₂ ÷ 3,
  etc.,: as printed in the source document, the first fraction should
  be ³⁄₁₄.

  Page 233, 561 = 3 × 3 × 3 × 23: the multiplication results in 621,
  which is the number required cf. the sum on the previous page.
  Calculation before “I have not given ...”: × 2 should be inserted
  after 11 × 5.

  Page 234, circulator example: “∴ No =” moved to more clearly reflect
  the division.

  Page 235, Suppose we want a sum ...: the calculation and accompanying
  explanation are given as printed; the decimal point in the last term
  (·059692) was not visible in the source document.

  Page 260, footnote [25]: a^{m} × a^{n} = a^{m × n} should be a^{m} ×
  a^{n} = a^{m + n}.


  Changes:

  Footnotes, tables, equations and illustrations have been moved
  outside text paragraphs. Sidenotes (in square brackets) have been
  moved to immediately before the paragraph to which they belong.

  Several ditto marks („) and abbreviations (Do.) have been replaced
  with the dittoed text.

  Some minor obvious typographical and punctuation errors have been
  corrected silently.

  Various pages: Frobël has been changed to Fröbel.

  Page 11: Erdknude has been changed to Erdkunde (2×).

  Page 43: Greard has been changed to Gréard.

  Page 81: “in despite of” has been changed to “in spite of”.

  Page 107: “which he puts most dearly and forcible” has been changed
  to “which he puts most clearly and forcibly”

  Page 108, second » inserted after “instructed on the old method.»”

  Page 201: “Essays of Ella” has been changed to “Essays of Elia”.