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[Illustration:

    _SKETCH OF THE SOURCES_
    OF THE
    MISSISSIPPI RIVER.

    _Drawn from Lieuᵗ. Allen’s observations
    in 1832, to illustrate_

    SCHOOLCRAFT’S INLAND JOURNEY
    TO ITASCA LAKE.

    De Count & Hammond Sᶜ.]


                               NARRATIVE
                                 OF AN
                              EXPEDITION
                     THROUGH THE UPPER MISSISSIPPI
                            TO ITASCA LAKE,
                   THE ACTUAL SOURCE OF THIS RIVER;
                               EMBRACING
               AN EXPLORATORY TRIP THROUGH THE ST. CROIX
                   AND BURNTWOOD (OR BROULE) RIVERS;
                               IN 1832.

                        UNDER THE DIRECTION OF
                         HENRY R. SCHOOLCRAFT.

                               NEW-YORK:
                    PUBLISHED BY HARPER & BROTHERS,
                         NO. 82 CLIFF-STREET.
                                 1834.

       Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1833,
                       By HENRY R. SCHOOLCRAFT,
          In the Clerk’s Office of the District of Michigan.

    GEO. L. WHITNEY, Printer, Detroit.




                          TO GEN. HUGH BRADY,
                      OF THE UNITED STATES ARMY.

SIR:

In prefixing your name to this volume, I am reminded that, while
indulging the gratification of personal friendship, I am addressing
a soldier, who early entered the field of western warfare under the
veteran Wayne; and who, for a period of upwards of forty years, during
the changing circumstances of war and of peace, has ever been found
faithfully, bravely, and honorably serving his country.

  With sentiments of respect,
  HENRY ROWE SCHOOLCRAFT.




                               PREFACE.


The circumstances under which the present expedition was undertaken,
are indicated in the following extracts from the letters of instruction.

                                            “_Detroit, Aug. 9, 1830._

  “SIR: I have been directed by the War Department to request you
  to proceed into the Chippewa country, to endeavor to put an end
  to the hostilities between the Chippewas and Sioux. The general
  route must be left to your discretion. Whether it will be necessary
  for you to go beyond Fond du Lac, you can best determine on your
  arrival there. From the limited means applicable to this object, I
  am apprehensive that your journey cannot be extended beyond that
  place. But in that event, it will be necessary to summon some of
  the principal Mississippi Chiefs to meet you, as without their
  concurrence no durable pacification can be effected.

   “Your object will be to impress upon them, the necessity
  of terminating their hostilities with the Sioux. And the
  considerations connected with the subject are so familiar to you,
  that I need not dwell upon them. You are perfectly acquainted with
  their useless and harrowing contests, and the miseries these have
  inflicted, and yet threaten to inflict upon them. But it will be
  well to state to them the result of the recent council at Prairie
  du Chien, that they may know what has been done by the other
  Indians, and that the Sioux, now freed from the pressure in other
  quarters, can direct their whole force against them.

  “In addition to the other considerations you may urge, I enclose a
  speech to be delivered to them, which you will please to accompany
  with a proper belt. I think it will be best for them to send a
  message to the Sioux without delay, stating their determination to
  refrain from hostilities in conformity with the wish of their great
  father the President, and their adhesion to the treaty of Prairie
  du Chien. This message should be sent while you are with them,
  and I recommend that one from you be likewise sent to the Sioux,
  explanatory of the matter.

  “You will proceed to the execution of this duty without delay, if
  the season be not too far advanced when you receive this letter.
  But I am apprehensive it will not reach you in season. Should
  it be so, you will please send a message to the chiefs stating
  your intention to visit them next summer, and recommending them
  to sit still until you can see them. It may have the effect of
  keeping them quiet. If, however, you cannot proceed this fall, it
  is probable that circumstances may require some change in these
  instructions before the next season, and your arrangements must
  therefore depend upon such as may be hereafter given.”

                        “Very respectfully, &c.
                                                          LEW. CASS.”

                          “DEPARTMENT OF WAR,                       }
                      _Office of Indian Affairs, 25th April, 1831_. }

  “Sir: Since writing the letter to you of the 5th instant, Gov.
  Cass has arrived here, and submitted to the Secretary of War
  his views, as to the propriety of directing you to proceed into
  Lake Superior and the Mississippi country, &c. These views have
  been approved, and I am accordingly directed to instruct you to
  proceed as soon as your arrangements can be made for the purpose,
  on the proposed expedition. The objects to be accomplished are so
  well known, and have also been so fully explained in the letter
  of Gov. Cass to you of the 9th of August last, that it is deemed
  unnecessary to give you any further instructions on the subject.

  “Orders will be issued through the proper department, to the
  Commanding Officer at the Sault Ste. Marie for a detachment of the
  troops, to form a part of the proposed expedition.

                        “Very respectfully, &c.
                                                 SAMUEL S. HAMILTON.”

                             “DEPARTMENT OF WAR,                    }
                         _Office of Indian Affairs, May 3rd, 1832_. }

  “Sir: Your letter of Feb. 13th has been received, and its general
  views are approved. The Secretary of War deems it important
  that you should proceed to the country upon the heads of the
  Mississippi, and visit as many of the Indians in that, and the
  intermediate region, as circumstances will permit.

  “Reports have reached the department, from various quarters, that
  the Indians upon our frontiers are in an unquiet state, and that
  there is a prospect of extensive hostilities among themselves. It
  is no less the dictate of humanity, than of policy, to repress this
  feeling, and to establish permanent peace among these tribes. It is
  also important to inspect the condition of the trade in that remote
  country, and the conduct of the traders. To ascertain whether the
  regulations and the laws are complied with, and to suggest such
  alterations as may be required. And finally to inquire into the
  numbers, standing, disposition and prospects of the Indians, and to
  report all the statistical facts you can procure and which will be
  useful to the government in its operations, or to the community in
  the investigation of these subjects.

   “In addition to these objects, you will direct your attention
  to the vaccination of the Indians. An act for that purpose, has
  passed Congress, and you are authorised to take a surgeon with
  you. Vaccine matter prepared and put up by the Surgeon General is
  herewith transmitted to you, and you will, upon your whole route,
  explain to the Indians the advantages of vaccination, and endeavor
  to persuade them to submit to the process. You will keep and report
  an account of the number, ages, sex, tribe, and local situation of
  the Indians who may be vaccinated, and also of the prevalence, from
  time to time, of the small pox among them, and of its effects as
  far as these can be ascertained.

                        “Very respectfully, &c.
                                                     ELBERT HERRING.”

In the execution of these orders, the summer season of two years was
devoted. All the bands of the Chippewa nation, located north of the
mouth of the Wisconsin, and some bands of the Sioux were visited.
Councils were held with them at various points, for the objects above
specified, and no opportunity was omitted to acquire statistical and
other information suited to aid in the formation of correct opinions
respecting their condition, and the policy to be pursued respecting
them.

The portion of country situated between the bands of Lake Superior
and the Mississippi, south of St. Anthony’s falls, occupied the
summer of 1831. The area extending thence north, to the source of
the Mississippi, and the Hauteur des Terres, forming the elevation
separating its waters, from the streams received by Hudson’s bay,
constituted the object of the expedition of 1832. So much of this area,
as lies north of a latitude line passing through Cass lake, and west
of about its parallel of longitude, comprehends the principal topic of
description in the following work. And it is thus distinguished, from
other portions of the western country, brought into discussion, in my
two previous volumes of travels.

                                                HENRY R. SCHOOLCRAFT.
  _Detroit, October 10, 1833._




                               CONTENTS


                               NARRATIVE
            OF AN EXPEDITION THROUGH THE UPPER MISSISSIPPI,
                            TO ITASCA LAKE.

                              CHAPTER I.

  _Introductory observations on the sources of the
  Mississippi.—Pike’s expedition in 1805, for exploring its course,
  and ascertaining its origin.—The expedition of Gov. Cass,
  directed to the same objects, in 1820.—Its extent, termination,
  and results.—Renewed efforts to ascend to its source, by the
  author, in 1831.—Diverted to the unexplored country lying in
  the area between Lake Superior and the Upper Mississippi, south
  of St. Anthony’s Falls.—Summary of the route.—The St. Croix and
  Chippewa Rivers.—Massacre of the Monomonees at Prairie du Chien, in
  1831.—Mine country.—Return to the Straits of St. Mary._

                              CHAPTER II.

  _Farther observations on the exploration of the Upper Mississippi,
  and the discovery of its source.—An expedition authorised by the
  United States government, in 1832.—Its organization, objects, and
  route.—Leaves St. Mary, and proceeds through Lake Superior.—Sketch
  of this lake.—Notice of the murder of Brunet, by an Indian, in
  1831.—Mission at Lapointe, or Chagoimegon.—The importance of this
  point in Indian history.—Mongozid, Wahbojeeg.—Meet Ozawindib, at
  the Brule.—Route to Sandy Lake, on the Upper Mississippi.—Portages
  on the St. Louis.—The Savanne portage.—Sandy Lake.—Assassination of
  Mr. Kay._

                             CHAPTER III.

  _General arrangements for the route of the expedition on the
  waters of the Upper Mississippi.—The width of this stream and
  Sandy Lake ascertained.—Notices of the ascent from that point by
  the Falls of Peckagama and Lake Winnipec, to Cass Lake.—Attack of
  a party of Mandans on the Chippewas at Pembina.—The route of the
  Bogottowa Lake.—Encamped at Winnipec House.—Inquiries respecting
  the opposition trade, and the traffic in ardent spirits.—Reach Cass
  Lake.—The width of the Mississippi, at its outlet.—Encamped on an
  island in this lake.—Yellow Head’s town; its population and hunting
  grounds.—Remarks on the Fur Trade.—North West, Hudson’s Bay, and
  American Fur Companies.—Lord Selkirk’s triumph.—Murder of Owen
  Keveny._

                              CHAPTER IV.

  _Brief detail of transactions at Cass Lake.—A select exploring
  party is organised here, for ascending to the actual source
  of the Mississippi.—Council with the Indians.—Speech of Oza
  Windib.—The Indians furnish canoes and guides.—Arrangement of the
  party.—Notice of a Warrior’s widow.—Scalp dance.—Facts respecting
  foreign interference in the trade of the Upper Mississippi.—The
  question of the use of ardent spirits in the trade.—Act of
  Congress of 1832, prohibiting it.—Departure of the exploring
  party.—Ascent to Pamitchi Gumaug, or Lac Travers.—Its elevation
  and size.—A Shingaba Wossin.—Image worship.—Bay.—Ultimate forks
  of the Mississippi.—Ascend the east fork.—Lake Marquette.—Lake La
  Salle.—Kubbakunna Lake.—Notices of the Natural History._

                              CHAPTER V.

  _Ascent of the east fork of the Mississippi, from Kubbakunna Lake
  to the Naiwa rapids.—Its productions.—Indians kill a deer; their
  mode of dissecting it.—Reach the foot of Naiwa rapids.—The Naiwa
  portage.—Copper-head snake.—Zoned agate.—Journey from thence to
  Ossowa Lake, the source of this branch of the Mississippi.—Mistake
  in the latitude.—Portage from the east to the west branch.—Hauteur
  des Terres.—The height of land between the Hudson’s Bay and Gulf
  of Mexico waters.—Geographical notices of its extent.—Its natural
  productions.—Its geology.—Arrival at Itasca Lake._

                              CHAPTER VI.

  _Outlines of Itasca Lake.—Its scenery and productions.—Forest
  trees, deer, fish, shells.—Width of its outlet.—Altitude above the
  ocean.—Length of the Mississippi.—Its course above Cass Lake.—Its
  origin south of latitude 47 deg. 16 minutes.—General observations
  on the Mississippi.—Erect a flag on the island in Itasca
  Lake.—Commence the descent of the West, or Itascan branch of the
  Mississippi.—Character of its channel.—Rapids and plateaux.—Falls
  of Kakábikons.—Portage.—Encamp at Pine Banks._

                             CHAPTER VII.

  _Continuation of the descent.—Velocity of the rapids.—One of the
  canoes is upset, and its contents carried over the falls.—Notices
  of the vegetation and zoology.—Fork-tailed hawk.—A novel species
  of lizard.—The Yellow Head’s failure in hunting.—Instinct of the
  saw-billed duck in preserving its young.—The river continues to
  exhibit a succession of rapids and plateaux, during its passage
  through the alpine region.—Purity and frequency of springs on
  its banks.—Influx of the Cano and Piniddiwin rivers.—Notice of
  an inroad and murder committed by the Sioux in former years.—A
  night descent.—Some of its incidents.—Reach the junction of the
  east and west forks.—Return to Cass Lake.—Observance of the
  Sabbath.—Missionary field of labor in the northwest.—Superstitions
  and idolatry of the Indians.—Their name for the Deity.—Its probable
  derivation._

                             CHAPTER VIII.

  _Council with the Chippewas at Cass Lake.—Speeches of Oza
  Windib, Neezh Opinais, and Wai Wain Jeegun.—Distribution
  of presents.—Geographical and Geological notices of Cass
  Lake.—Colcaspi Isle.—Allen’s Bay.—Pike’s Bay.—Heights and
  distances.—Tributary of Turtle River.—Turtle Lake.—Portage from
  Cass Lake to Leech Lake.—Hieroglyphic marks.—Moss Lake.—Reach
  Lake Shiba.—The source of the River Shiba flowing into Leech
  Lake.—Traverse Leech Lake at night, and encamp at Guelle Plat’s
  village.—Received by the Indians with respect.—Description of
  Leech Lake.—Its population and principal Chiefs.—Warlike character
  of the Pillagers.—Efforts made by them to defend the Chippewa
  frontiers.—Their warfare defensive._

                              CHAPTER IX.

  _Transactions at Leech Lake.—Notice of the Pillager band.—Their
  chief, Aish Kibug Ekozh, or the Flat Mouth.—He invites the agent
  and his interpreter to breakfast.—His address on concluding
  it.—Vaccination of the Indians.—A deputation from the Rainy Lake
  band is received, and a flag presented to their leader, The Hole
  in the Sky.—Council with the Pillagers.—Speech of Aish Kibug
  Ekozh, in which he makes an allusion to Gen. Pike.—He descants on
  the Sioux war, the Indian trade, and the interdiction of ardent
  spirits.—Personal notices of this chief._

                              CHAPTER X.

  _Observations on the Leech Lake Chippewas.—Data respecting
  the former state of the fur trade.—Their turbulent
  character.—Assassination of Relle by Puganoc.—Causes of the
  emigration of the North-western Indians.—The unsatisfactory
  character of their traditions.—Their language.—Brief synopsis of
  its grammatical structure._

                              CHAPTER XI.

  _Encampment on a peninsula in Leech Lake.—Departure for the
  portage to the source of the De Corbeau river.—Traverse a
  bay.—Commencement of the portage.—The mode of passing it.—First
  portage to Warpool Lake.—Pass successively Little Long Lake, the
  Four Lakes, Lake of the Mountain, Lake of the Island, and encamp at
  the Kagi Nogumaug or Longwater, the source of the De Corbeau.—Are
  visited by the Chief of the Pillagers, who performs a journey
  for that purpose.—Recognize in his attendant the murderer of
  Gov. Semple.—Narrative of facts leading to this event.—Commence
  the descent of the river De Corbeau, passing successively the
  Longwater, Little Vermillion, Birch Ple, Boutwell’s Vieu, Desert,
  Summit, Long-rice, Allen’s, Johnston’s, and Leelina Lakes.—Junction
  of the Shell River fork.—Encamp in a storm._

                             CHAPTER XII.

  _Further descent of the De Corbeau.—Remarks on its general course
  and character.—Junction of Leaf and Long Prairie Rivers.—The latter
  pursued by the Pillagers in their wars against the Sessitons and
  Yanktons.—Cause of the appellation of Mukkundwa.—Their robbery of
  Berti, and assertion of a belligerent principle.—Forest trees of
  the De Corbeau.—Monotony of its scenery.—Meeting with a Chippewa
  hunter.—Arrival at the mouth of the river, and entrance of the
  Mississippi.—Concourse of Indians assembled at that point.—Council
  with them.—Sketch of the speeches of Grosse Gueule, Soangikumig,
  and White Fisher.—Arrival of the Pierced Prairie.—First
  intelligence of the breaking out of the Sauc War.—Close of the
  Narrative.—Notice of the effects of the disuse of ardent spirits by
  the men, and the observance of the Sabbath._


                              EXPLORATION
                                OF THE
                    ST. CROIX AND BURNTWOOD RIVERS.

                              CHAPTER I.

  _Interval of the banks of the Mississippi, between the mouths of
  the River De Corbeau and St. Croix, adverted to.—Plains above St.
  Anthony’s Falls, agricultural.—Fact respecting the recession of
  the bison.—Geological change in the character of the Mississippi,
  in crossing 45 deg. parallel.—Fort Snelling.—Council.—Reach
  the mouth of the St. Croix.—Picturesque character of St. Croix
  Lake.—Traits of its natural history.—Encamp near a diminutive
  kind of barrows.—“Standing Cedars.”—An Indian trader.—Green-stone
  rock.—Falls of the St. Croix.—Traditionary account of an ancient
  Indian battle, fought at these falls by the Chippewas, Saucs,
  Foxes, and Sioux.—Wahb Ojeeg._

                              CHAPTER II.

  _Ascent of the St. Croix above the falls.—Direct the burning of
  illegal trading houses.—Snake River.—Its chief, Pezhicki.—Notices
  of Snake River.—Its population and trade.—A foreign trading
  company formerly located here.—Effects upon the Indian intercourse
  of the present day.—Anecdote of the former mode of using rum
  and tobacco.—Kettle Rapids.—Shell River.—A hunting party of
  Chippewa boys.—Pokanokuning, or Yellow River.—Its population
  and trade.—Notices of its natural history.—Shells.—Prairie
  squirrel.—Widow of a murdered Indian, called the Little
  Frenchman, declines having her son put to school.—Reach the
  forks of the St. Croix.—Notice of the Namakagon Branch.—The
  chief, Kabamappa.—Women’s Portage.—The Sturgeon Dam.—Kabamappa’s
  village.—Upper St. Croix Lake._

                             CHAPTER III.

  _Character of the St. Croix.—Its productiveness in wild
  rice.—Population and trade.—Condition of the Indians, and their
  prospect.—Portage to the Burntwood.—Marine sand formation.—Bass
  lake.—Character of the Burntwood river.—Arrival at its discharge
  into Fond du Lac of Lake Superior.—Indian friends.—Close of
  the Narrative.—Brief general remarks on the condition of the
  Chippewas.—Traits of character and government.—The institution of
  the Totem.—Tale of the origin of White Fish._

                               APPENDIX

                          I. NATURAL HISTORY

                          II. INDIAN LANGUAGE

                         III. OFFICIAL REPORTS




                               NARRATIVE
            OF AN EXPEDITION THROUGH THE UPPER MISSISSIPPI,
                            TO ITASCA LAKE.

                              CHAPTER I.

  _Introductory observations on the sources of the
    Mississippi.—Pike’s expedition in 1805, for exploring its course,
    and ascertaining its origin.—The expedition of Gov. Cass,
    directed to the same objects, in 1820.—Its extent, termination,
    and results.—Renewed efforts to ascend to its source, by the
    author, in 1831.—Diverted to the unexplored country lying in
    the area between Lake Superior and the Upper Mississippi, south
    of St. Anthony’s Falls.—Summary of the route.—The St. Croix and
    Chippewa Rivers.—Massacre of the Monomonees at Prairie du Chien,
    in 1831.—Mine country.—Return to the Straits of St. Mary._


American geography may be said to have had three important problems
to solve, in modern times. The first and second of these, related to
the source of the Missouri, and to the course and termination of the
Columbia. Both, were substantially resolved by the expedition of Lewis
and Clark, under the administration of Mr. Jefferson. It is to be
borne in mind, however, that but one of the three forks, up to which
the Missouri was traced, has been explored, that its two northwestern
branches have not been ascended, and that, consequently, we do not
actually know, which of its primary tributaries is the longest, or
brings down the greatest volume of water.

The true source of the Mississippi, which forms the third topic
of inquiry, was brought into discussion at the same period. And
immediately after the acquisition of Louisiana, the American government
sent an officer, with a suitable body of men, to determine it. Lieut.
Pike, who was selected for this service (who, nine years afterwards
lost his life as a general in the service, at the taking of York) did
not, however, set out early enough in the season (1805) to accomplish
the object. After the selection and purchase of the site, on which the
fort near the Falls of St. Anthony, is now situated, he encountered
delays in ascending the rapids characteristic of that part of the
Mississippi. Winter overtook him before reaching the junction of the De
Corbeau. He prepared for its severities by erecting a block house, for
the security of his provisions and men. He then proceeded with a small
detachment, on snow shoes to Sandy Lake, and Leech Lake; two points
of central influence, which were then occupied by the North West Fur
Company. As the partners of this company consisted of foreigners, and
their operations were continued after the legal transfer of the country
to the American government, Lieut. Pike would have been justified in
making a seizure of the valuable furs then in their possession. He
did not, however, adopt this course, and exhibited a magnanimity in
relation to it, which is in accordance with his subsequent acts of
disinterested intrepidity. He collected the geographical data, which
are embodied in his published map and journal, and returned from his
wintry station, on the opening of navigation in the spring.

No further effort was made to explore the sources of the Mississippi,
for several years. In 1820, Gov. Cass, then administering the
government of Michigan Territory and exercising jurisdiction over
Indian affairs, obtained the sanction of the general government to
visit the region. He left Detroit, with a party of thirty-eight men,
including the gentlemen composing his suit, during the latter part of
May. He was supplied for a journey of four months. After traversing
the coasts of Lake Huron, and visiting Michilimackinac, he proceeded
north-westward, by ascending the primitive summit at the Falls of St.
Mary, went through the extended and picturesque basin of Lake Superior,
and first struck the waters of the Upper Mississippi at Sandy Lake. To
this point he was accompanied by the military escort, and by the train
of larger canoes employed to transport stores and baggage. But the
fatigues which the men had undergone in crossing portages, added to the
low state of the water, induced him to form a permanent encampment at
this place. And he proceeded with a select party, in canoes to explore
the Mississippi.

It was the middle of July when the expedition reached Sandy Lake, and
the difficulty of subsisting so large a party in so remote a position,
with the constant claims of suffering and hungry tribes, who presented
themselves at every point, began to be severely felt. The exploring
party, which was now organized, went out, under a sense of these
circumstances, and with a feeling of the responsibility pressing upon
the claims of the expedition in other quarters, which limited the time
applicable to the ascent. They entered the Mississippi on the 17th
of the month, and found a strong current, with alluvial banks, and a
vegetation indicative of a fertile soil. For the distance of about
one hundred and fifty miles, above this point, the party found no
diminution in the average strength of the current, which was frequently
accelerated by rapids. The latter then assumed a more formidable aspect
for ten or a dozen miles, at the end of which they were terminated
by the falls of Peckágama. At this cataract, the river, which below
has its course through alluvial banks, densely wooded, is compressed
between rocks of granulated quartz, over which it rushes with a
velocity, which would seem to threaten destruction to any species of
craft that should attempt the descent. It became necessary, at this
point, to transport the canoes and baggage from two to three hundred
yards over land.

On reaching the Peckágama summit, the channel of the Mississippi
was found to flow more directly from the west, with a comparatively
sluggish current. But the most distinctive trait of this part of the
river was found to consist of a series of extensive savannahs, through
which the river displays itself in the most elaborate windings. The
junction of the Leech Lake branch takes place at this plateau, at the
computed distance of fifty-five miles above the falls. After passing
this point, the course of the river is again, generally, from the
north-west, about forty-five miles to Lake Winnipec, a handsome body
of clear water, estimated to be ten miles broad. The course of the
ascent is then west, for about fifty miles, at which distance the
river is found expanded into a more considerable lake, presenting
an area of limpid water of, perhaps, 120 square miles. This sheet,
which has subsequently been found to be the largest expansion of the
Mississippi, is since denominated Cass Lake. It was the highest point
reached. The party entered it on the 21st of July. The question of
pursuing the stream further, was then submitted by Gov. Cass, to the
gentlemen composing his party. Anxious as all were to see the actual
source of so celebrated a stream, their wishes were controlled by
circumstances. Inconveniences had been felt from leaving the supplies
at so considerable a distance below, and as the waters were found to
be low, and the preparations inadequate for a journey of indefinite
extent, a decisive opinion was expressed in favor of a return from this
point. This decision was immediately carried into effect.

From the best information that could be obtained, the Mississippi
was represented to have its origin in a lake called _La Biche_,
supposed to be sixty miles distant, in a north-west direction. Upon
this estimate, the length of the river was computed to be 3038 miles,
and by a series of approximate estimates, its altitude placed at 1330
feet above the Atlantic. Numerous rapids and lakes were, however,
stated to exist in this remote part of the stream, and a degree of
vagueness and uncertainty exhibited in relation to it, which evinced,
that the traders, who were relied on for information, either, had
seldom frequented it, or preserved an indefinite recollection of its
geographical features.

Such was the state of public information on this point in 1820. A
veil of obscurity was still cast about the actual source of the
Mississippi, which there was no further attempt to remove for ten or
eleven years. In 1830, the writer of these sheets was directed to
proceed into the Chippewa country, north-west of Lake Superior, in the
execution of duties connected with Indian affairs. But the instructions
were received so late in the season, that their execution became
impracticable until the next year. In the mean time, means for more
extensive observation were provided, a physician and botanist engaged,
and a small detachment of troops, under the command of a subaltern,
ordered to form a part of the expedition.

This expedition numbering twenty-seven persons, exclusive of guides and
Indian auxiliaries, employed on the portages, left St. Mary’s at the
foot of Lake Superior, late in June 1831. After entering, and coursing
around the shores of Lake Superior to Lapointe, it was found, from
every representation, that the low state of the water on the Upper
Mississippi, would render it difficult, if not impracticable, to reach
the bands at its sources, during the drought of summer. Public reasons
were, at the same time, urgent for visiting the interior bands, located
between the group of islands at the head of Lake Superior, and the
Mississippi—where a useless and harassing conflict was kept up between
the Sioux and Chippewa nations.

The expedition returned eight miles on its track, and entered the
mouth of Mushkigo, or Mauvais river of Lake Superior. This stream,
which carries down the waters of an extensive slope of highlands, is
embarrassed with permanent rafts of flood wood, and with numerous
rapids, presenting an arduous ascent. The axe, the canoe-pole, and the
carrying-strap, were alternately employed in the ascent, and they were
employed under the influence of the midsummer’s heat, and the annoyance
of the hordes of smaller insects, who are on the wing, in this secluded
valley, during the greater part of the twenty-four hours. This stream
was ascended one hundred and four miles, to the portage. The goods and
canoes were then carried 8¾ miles, across highlands, to a lake called
Kaginógumoc, or the Longwater; and thence by four separate portages,
and three intervening lakes, to the Namakágon river. The latter was
descended one hundred and sixty-one miles, to its junction with the St.
Croix, of which it is the right fork, and the channel of the latter
pursued to Yellow River. From this point, where a public council was
convened, the expedition re-ascended the Namakágon to the portage into
_lac Courtorielle_, or Ottawa Lake. This portage consists of a carrying
place of three miles and a lake, then another carrying place of 750
yards and a lake, from the latter of which there is a navigable outlet
into the Ottawa for canoes.

Ottawa Lake is a sheet of water about twelve miles long, having an
outlet into the Chippewa river of the Upper Mississippi. In order,
however, to visit certain hostile bands, a portage was made from this
outlet (after following it down about half a day’s journey,) of 3½
miles, into lac Chetac, the principal source of Red Cedar river. The
latter was then pursued, through four principal expansions, called
Wigwas, Warpool, Red Cedar and Rice Lakes, to its falls. A short
portage over horizontal sand-rock, interrupts the navigation, after
which there is a series of rapids, extending about 24 miles. Deep
and strong water was then found to its junction with the Chippewa
river, which it enters at the estimated distance of 40 miles from the
confluence of the latter with the Mississippi, (on its eastern bank.)

The entire line of country travelled by this interior route was 643
miles. The Mushkigo, the St. Croix, and the Chippewa, were the rivers,
which by their common origin and interlocking on the summit lands,
afforded this communication. Many bands of Indians were visited in
their fastnesses, where they had hitherto supposed themselves out of
the reach of observation. Councils were held at various points, and
presents distributed. And the pauses afforded by these assemblages,
and by the necessary delays of overland transportation, furnished
opportunities for preserving notes on the manner of living, among
those bands, and their population, traditions and resources, as well
as the geographical features and the natural history of the country.
On entering the Mississippi, the truth of the information, derived on
Lake Superior, respecting its depressed state, was verified. Extensive
portions of its outer channel and bars, were found exposed and dry. The
party encamped on a sand bar formed by the junction of the Chippewa,
which is usually several feet under water.

From the mouth of the Chippewa, the expedition descended the
Mississippi to Galena, in Illinois. While at Prairie du Chien, the
murder of twenty-six Monomonee men, women, and children, by a war
party of the Sacs and Foxes, which had transpired a few days previous,
was the subject of exciting interest. It was narrated with all its
atrocious circumstances. A flag waved over the common grave of the
slain, and several of the wounded Monomonees, who had escaped the
massacre, were examined and conversed with. This affray unparalleled
for its boldness and turpitude, having occurred in the village of
Prairie du Chien, in the hearing of its inhabitants, and in sight of
the fort, was made the subject of demand by the government for the
surrendry of the murderers, and produced the concentration of troops
on that frontier, which eventuated in the Indian war of 1832. Some
excitement was also felt at Galena, and its vicinity, in consequence of
the menacing attitude which the Sacs and Foxes had recently assumed,
in the vicinity of Rock Island, and a general mistrust felt of their
sincerity in the treaty concluded with the United States a short time
previous.

At Galena, the exploring party separated, part returning in canoes up
the Wisconsin, and part crossing the mine country, over the branches of
the Pekatolika, and by the way of the Blue Mounds, to fort Winnebago.
From this point, Fox River was descended to Green Bay, and the route of
the lake coast pursued northward to the straits, and to the Sault of
St. Mary.

A narrative of this expedition, embracing its principal incidents, and
observations on the productions of the country, is in preparation for
publication by one of the gentlemen of the party. In the mean time, the
official report transmitted to Government, and submitted to Congress by
the War Department, together with remarks in a series of letters on the
mine country, are subjoined in the appendix to this volume.




                              CHAPTER II.

  _Farther observations on the exploration of the Upper Mississippi,
    and the discovery of its source.—An expedition authorised
    by the United States government, in 1832.—Its organization,
    objects, and route.—Leaves St. Mary, and proceeds through Lake
    Superior.—Sketch of this lake.—Notice of the murder of Brunet,
    by an Indian, in 1831.—Mission at Lapointe, or Chagoimegon.—The
    importance of this point in Indian history.—Mongozid,
    Wahbojeeg.—Meet Ozawindib, at the Brule.—Route to Sandy Lake, on
    the Upper Mississippi.—Portages on the St. Louis.—The Savanne
    portage.—Sandy Lake.—Assassination of Mr. Kay._


Early in 1832, the plan of visiting the source of the Mississippi,
was resumed. And a memoir for its execution, accompanied by estimates,
forwarded to the Department of War, which received the sanction of the
Hon. L. Cass, then placed at the head of that department. An expedition
was accordingly organized, consisting of thirty persons, including
an officer of the army, detached, with ten men, for topographical
duty, a surgeon and geologist, an interpreter of the language, and a
missionary to the north-western Indians, who was invited to accompany
the exploring party. This expedition was based on a renewal of the
effort to effect a permanent peace with the two principal Indian
nations, who inhabit that region, and whose continued feuds, not only
weaken and harass each other, but embarrass the trade, interrupt
the execution of the intercourse laws, and involve the lives and
property of the frontier inhabitants. Additional weight was given
to these considerations, by the unquiet state of the Indians on the
Upper Mississippi, which broke out in open hostility during the year.
These reasons were connected with the supervision of the trade, the
acquisition of statistical facts, and the carrying into effect an act
of Congress of that year, for extending the benefits of vaccination
to the Indian tribes. To which end it was enjoined “to proceed to the
country on the heads of the Mississippi, and to visit as many Indians
in that, and the intermediate region, as circumstances would permit.”

This expedition, to the account of which the present volume is devoted,
left St. Mary’s on the 7th of June, 1832. As the route through
Lake Superior, and thence north-west, on the waters of the Upper
Mississippi, to Cass Lake, has been described in a “Narrative Journal
of Travels in the North-west,” of 1820, heretofore published by the
author, no details of the geography of the country then passed over
and described, or of the ordinary incidents of a journey through this
portion of the country, will be given. A brief sketch, however, of
the general route, will serve to refresh the memory of readers whose
attention has been before called to the subject, and cannot but prove
acceptable to all, who feel an interest in the development of its
natural features and character.

The village of the Sault of St. Mary’s is situated on the communication
which connects Lake Huron with Lake Superior, fifteen miles below
the foot of the latter. A strong and continued rapid, over shelving
sand rock, interrupts the navigation for vessels. The water has been
computed to sink its level, twenty two feet ten inches, at this place.
A portage exceeding half a mile, enables boats to proceed beyond.
The river above has a brisk current, which is imperceptibly lost on
entering between the two prominent capes, which form the opening into
Lake Superior.

This lake, which is called Igomi, Chigomi, and Gitchigomi, by the
Indians, as the term is more or less abbreviated, is remarkable for
its extent, its depth, and the purity of its waters. It lies in a
basin of trap rocks, with alternations of the granite and sand stone
series. No variety of calcareous rock is present,[1] and its waters
are consequently free from impregnations from this source. As it is
the largest and the purest of the series of lakes it is also the
highest in position; its altitude being computed at 640 feet above
the Atlantic. Its banks are diversified with mural precipices, with
extensive deposits of marine sand, and with beds of mixed detritus. Its
immediate margin is loaded with primitive boulders and pebble-stones,
alternating with shores of yellow and of iron sand. Several bold
mountains of primitive construction, stand near the central parts of
its south shores, which are in striking contrast with the ruin-like,
walled masses, of horizontal structure, which characterize other parts.
Among the detritus of its shores are still occasionally found masses of
native copper, which are now referred to the trap formation.

Of a body of water so irregular in its shape and imperfectly defined,
it may be vague to speak of its superficial area, but this may be
assumed to cover 30,000 square miles. It embraces numerous islands,
the largest of which are Grand, Royal, and Magdalen islands. It has
several noble harbors, bays and inlets, and receives numerous rivers.
It abounds with fish, the most noted of which are white-fish, sturgeon,
and salmon-trout. But by far the most valuable product of its present
commerce, is its furs and peltries. The Indian population of its
immediate shores, is not great. Exclusive of bands located on the heads
of its rivers, it does not exceed 1006 souls, to which may be added 436
for the American side of the St. Mary’s river. Their trade is conducted
by 15 clerks, licensed by the Indian department, employing 70 boatmen,
interpreters and runners. Recently a mission has been established on
Magdalen Island (_La Pointe_ of the traders,) by the American Board of
Foreign Missions, and the gospel began to be preached to the natives.
The estimated population which, in a comprehensive view, should be
added for the south shores, extending to the borders of the Winnebago
and Monomonee lands, and running west, to the Sioux line, is, for the
northern curve of Green Bay, 210; heads of the Monomonee and Wisconsin
rivers, 342; the Chippewa river and its tributaries, 1376; the St.
Croix and its tributaries, 895; Grand Portage, and Rainy Lake, 476;
to which latter may perhaps be added, 249, making, with the former
estimates, 5000 souls.

In travelling through this lake, in boats or canoes, the shores are
followed round. The distance from Point Iroquois to the entrance of the
St. Louis river of Fond du Lac, is estimated at 490 miles, exclusive
of the journey around the peninsula of Keweena, which is ninety miles
more. The general course is nearly due west, in consequence of which,
the climate is deemed to be decidedly more favorable to agriculture at
its head than at its outlet. Traders, who course round the peninsula
in boats, take, on an average, twenty-six days in the voyage. Fifteen
were employed on the present expedition. Indians were met at various
points, and wherever it was practicable, they were vaccinated. The
surgeon employed on that service reported 699 vaccinations on the
voyage through the lake, and experienced no difficulty in getting them
to submit to the process.

At the mouth of the Ontonagon, where the party arrived on the 19th
of June, a band of Indians was encamped on its way out, from Ottawa
lake. Mozojeed, their chief, confirmed a report of the murder of an
_engagé_, or under clerk, named Brunet, by a Chippewa, named Waba
Annimikee, or the White Thunder. He said that he had concurred with
the traders in apprehending the Indian, and bringing him out to be
delivered up to the Indian agent. But that he had effected his escape
on the Mauvais Portage. He promised to exert himself to re-apprehend
him, the following year. And he rigidly performed his promise. In July,
1833, the White Thunder was delivered by Mozojeed and his followers, to
the civil authorities. He was tried for the murder at the U. S. circuit
court holden at Michilimackinac, in that month. Counsel being assigned
to defend him, every advantage was secured to him that the laws
provide. His own confessions were proved, to substantiate the murder,
and on these he was convicted.

He made no defence whatever on the trial, silently submitting to the
determinations of his counsel. When judgment had been pronounced, he
arose, and, through an interpreter, stated to the judge the reasons
which had actuated him. He observed, that after aiding Brunet, on a
certain occasion, in carrying his goods to the banks of a river, he
had taken a canoe bound there, (being his _own_ canoe) to cross the
stream. For this Brunet threatened him, and _shook a tomahawk over his
head_. On another occasion, having sold Brunet a shaved deer-skin, he
asked him (as is customary after getting payment) for tobacco; but he
replied abusively, that he did not give tobacco to _such scaly dogs_.
Not long afterwards, being engaged in playing at the Indian game of
bowl, Brunet took him by the hair, _on the crown of his head_, and
shook him. Finally, on the morning of the day of the murder, Brunet had
struck him on the chin, with violence. This, together with the other
indignities, took place in the presence of the Indians, in whose eyes
he was, consequently, disgraced. In the afternoon of that day, Brunet
went back from the lake on which they were encamped, into the forest
to procure some birch bark for making flambeaux for fishing. The White
Thunder secretly followed him. He observed him tie up a roll of bark,
put it across his shoulders, and commence his return. He soon crossed
a log which lay in his path. The Indian quickly followed him, mounting
the same log, and, from this elevation, raised his gun and deliberately
shot him in the back. He fell dead.

At _La Pointe_, the party were introduced to Mr. and Mrs. Hall,
missionaries, who, with Mr. Ayer, had proceeded to this place, in 1831,
to establish a mission among the Chippewas. Mrs. Hall had presented to
her husband a daughter during their residence, which is believed to
be the first child of white parents, both by father and mother, ever
born within the precincts of this lake. The mission had encountered no
unforeseen obstacles in its first efforts. It has since been enlarged
in its means and the number of its laborers, and promises to exert a
happy influence in the region.

It is interesting to observe the dawning of the gospel at a spot,
which has been long noted as the scene of Indian trade, and the
rallying point of Indian war parties. It is at this place, the
Chegoimegon of early writers, that tradition places the ancient
council fire of the Chippewa nation. And here resided the presiding
chief, called Mudjikiwis, or Waishki, who exercised the sovereign
power over a rude confederation of local tribes, whose dissolution, or
separation into independent fragments, may be traced to the right of
each chieftain of declaring a negative to any decision, and silently
withdrawing his aid, for the time being. Personal influence and
authority may be supposed to have counteracted this defect, while
the tribe was small, as tradition represents it to have been when it
first migrated from _the east_, to this lake; but its increase and
spread over the adjacent country, would naturally destroy so feeble a
tie of political power, and must soon have left each local band as it
now remains, independent and sovereign in its acts. Yet the voice of
tradition refers to this era of the reign of the Mudjikiwis as one of
comparative splendor. Although republican in all that is left of their
institutions, the succession of the Mudjikiwis is said to have been
hereditary among the Chippewas, and the descendants of this magistrate,
who yet exist at Chegoimegon, evince a pride of ancestry which we
should only look for, among feudal or despotic nations. The last
person who may be said to have exercised this office was Mongazid, (or
Mamongazida,) who was in high favor with the French. He is represented
to have visited Quebec in the time of Montcalm, and to have been an
actor in the final battle in which that distinguished commander fell.
His son Wahbojeeg, or the White Fisher, succeeded him as the ruling
chieftain of the band, and eminently distinguished himself as a war
leader. He died in 1793, after having been greatly instrumental in
driving his cousins-german, the Foxes, from the Chippewa country. The
present chieftain, Chi Waishki, alias Pizhickee, or the Buffalo, is
the representative of this line. He said to the Indian Agent, who, by
direction of the commissioners at the treaty of Fond du Lac, in 1826,
invested him with a silver medal, “What need I of this! It is known
whence I am descended.”

But there is no space for these reminiscences. Many scattered parties
of Chippewas were encountered east of this point, interspersed with the
loaded boats of the traders, bringing out their annual returns. Some of
the parties were bound to the British post of Penetanguishine, others,
to St. Mary’s or Michilimackinac. Chi Waishki, the chief above alluded
to, was met at Keweena, on his way to visit the Agency. He expressed
his regret that the agent would not be there, evinced a strong interest
in the object of the expedition, and presented a peace-pipe, as the
evidence of his friendship. At the mouth of the river Brule, a small
party of the Chippewas was encountered, from the sources of the
Mississippi. It turned out to be the family of Ozawindib, one of the
principal Chippewas, from Cass Lake. He was persuaded to return, and
proved himself to be a trusty and experienced guide through the most
remote and difficult parts of the route.

The expedition entered the mouth of the St. Louis river on the
23d of June. The ascent of this stream is attended with separate
portages of nine, and of three miles. There is, finally, a portage
of six miles across a sandy tract, which separates the Lake Superior
from the Mississippi waters, making 18 miles of land carriage. The
other portions of the route consist of rapid water, much of which is
shallow and interspersed with sharp rocks, requiring both strength and
dexterity in the men to manage the canoes, and to repair them when
injured. A part of the summit portage, immediately after quitting the
Savanne river, consists of bog, the sod of which being cut through,
it becomes necessary to wade in a pathway of mud and water, portions
of which, are mid-thigh deep. The entire distance from Lake Superior
to the Mississippi, estimating from water to water, is 150 miles. The
expedition spent about ten days on this part of the route, and reached
the trading house of Mr. Aitkin, on the banks of the Mississippi, on
the 3rd of July. It remained there, until the evening of the 4th,
giving Lieut. Allen, who was in command of the troops, an opportunity
to fire a salute in honor of the day, to the no small gratification of
the Indians, who, being apprized of the occasion, thronged the banks of
the river to witness the ceremony.

Sandy Lake has been a post of importance in the fur trade from the
earliest French times, being one of the central seats of Indian
power on the Upper Mississippi. An assassination occurred here in
1785, which affords a striking illustration of the evils of using
ardent spirits in the Indian country. Mr. Kay, the victim of Indian
resentment on this occasion, was a gentleman of Montreal, who had
come out with an adventure of Indian goods, into this region. After
passing the winter on the waters of the Mississippi, he awaited the
assembling of his clerks at this place, and employed himself in closing
the spring business with the Indians, preparatory to his return to
Michilimackinac. On the 2nd of May, he was informed of the near arrival
of one of his clerks, and prepared to go and meet him. The sequel is
given in a translation of the words of an eye witness, whose manuscript
account is before the author.[2]

“Mr. Kay said that he would himself go, although somewhat fatigued by
the continual running of the Indians, the night previous. On parting
he told me to draw some rum, of which he took a stout drink. And as
he knew there was no rum at the post of Pine river, when he left Mr.
Harris, he thought a dram would be pleasing to him also; for which
reason he told me to fill one of the flagons of his liquor case, to
take with him. And he gave me orders to give the Indians no drink
during his absence, which was difficult, because they were already
tipsey.

“The Indians had given me the name of The Writer, which they are
accustomed to do to all whom they observe writing. As soon as Mr. Kay
had gone, I did not want for visits, his _savagesse_ remaining in
the tent with me. A great many Indians came in; among the number was
Katawabida and Mongozid, who said to me, “Writer, give us rum!” I told
them that I could not—that I was not master. They tormented me a long
time. Mongozid threw to me a pair of _metasses_, which he had got on
credit, and had not paid for, (for he was a poor paymaster,) demanding
rum for them. I told him, no! He then talked with Mr. Kay’s woman, who
was tired of them, as well as myself. She begged me to give them a
little, after which they went out of the tent.

“Within an hour after _Le Barrique Eau_ arrived, and told me that Mr.
Harris and Mr. Pinot had actually arrived at the fish-dam. The Indians,
one and all, set up a shout of joy, and ran to the beach to receive
them. They did not however, meet with a very good reception, the flagon
Mr. Kay had taken with him having intoxicated the whole party. They
debarked, and while Mr. Harris was getting his tent pitched, Mr. Kay
entered mine and took a glass in my presence. Mr. Harris was quite
noisy. To complete the scene, the ferocity of _Cul Blanc_[3] (an Indian
unfriendly to Mr. K.) had returned. He had persuaded _Le Cousin_ to
stab Mr. Kay, in the course of the winter, saying to him, that he had
not courage enough himself to do it. The other gloried in being equal
to the commission of a crime, which he had promised to perpetrate when
they came together.

“The Cul Blanc was sitting, with many others, on a hillock, before
the fire, smoking, directly before Mr. Kay’s tent. Le Cousin got up
and went towards the tent, at the entrance of which he met Mr. Kay.
Mr. Kay’s bed was placed across, opposite the pole supporting the
tail-piece of his tent. The barrel of rum was behind the bed, in the
bottom of the tent. Mr. Kay saw him coming, as he was going to take
a seat beside me on the bed. At this moment Le Cousin entered. He
tendered his hand, and asked for rum. Mr. Kay, who did not like the
man, answered, “No! You do not pay your credits! You shall have none!
Go out, immediately!” With this, he took him by the arm, and conducted
him out of the tent. On turning round to re-enter, the Indian, who
was armed with a knife, which he had concealed under a _mantelet de
calmande_, gave him a stab in the back of the neck. He then retired
towards the camp fire, which was surrounded by a great many Indians and
our men. I got up immediately, hearing the scream of his wife, whom I
perceived in front of me. “Have you been stabbed?” I inquired of Mr.
Kay. “Yes!” he replied, “but he shall pay for it.” So saying he put his
hand in the mess-basket and drew out a large, pointed table knife, with
which he sallied furiously from the tent, without my being able to stop
him. The Indians seeing the knife in his hand, asked the cause of it.
He said that Le Cousin had stabbed him, and that he was in search of
him to kill him. But Le Cousin had taken refuge in his own lodge which
was near our camp. Mr. Kay went towards the lodge. We ran after him to
prevent some fatal accident. The tumult was, by this time, very great.
Great numbers were collected from all sides, and all, both French and
Indians, bereft of their reason, for it was in the midst of a general
carouse. In a moment, every one seized his arms, and there was a motley
display of knives, guns, axes, cudgels, war-clubs, lances, &c. I found
myself greatly at a non-plus, for I had not before witnessed such
a scene. I saw so many preparations that I judged we should have a
serious time.

“Mr. Kay pursued Le Cousin, but before he could reach him, the passage
to his lodge was blocked up by the crowd. Le Cousin’s mother asked him
what he wanted. “Englishman!” said she, “do you come to kill me?” She
made her way among the crowd, armed with a small knife, and reached
the spot where Mr. Kay was standing, without any one’s observing the
knife, for she came in an humble attitude imploring Mr. Kay for the
life of her son. In a moment, Mr. Kay cried out, in a loud voice, “I am
killed,” and he fell. We entered, and found that she had struck him in
the side, making an incision of more than three inches. We now took him
to his tent, bathed in his blood. We laid him on his bed, which in a
moment, was soaking with his blood.

“At this moment his friend _Le Petit Mort_, (Jeebyains) who had been
tipsey and gone to sleep, started up. He ran to Mr. Kay’s tent, where
the first object he saw, was his friend pale and quivering. He went and
embraced him amidst a flood of tears, saying, “My friend, you are dead,
but I survive to revenge you.” In contemplating a calico night-gown
which Mr. Kay had on when he was wounded, and which was all bloody, he
could no longer restrain his anger. He took up the knife which Mr. Kay
had, at the time he was wounded, and which had been brought back by
his wife, who was present. He sallied out of the tent to seek revenge,
not of Le Cousin,—who was the instrument, but not the author of the
murder—but of Cul Blanc, who was sitting before the fire, smoking his
pipe. He seized him by the scalp-lock, drew his body back with one
hand, exclaiming, “Die, thou dog!” with the other hand, he plunged a
knife into his breast, Cul Blanc begging all the while for mercy.

“This scene of carnage put a stop to the drinking. The women spilled
out all the rum, of which there was still no small quantity in the
different lodges. The stab Cul Blanc had received did not prove mortal,
notwithstanding the ghastliness of the wound, the knife having passed
out through the flesh without penetrating any vital part. But the blood
issued copiously and disfigured his wife, who carried him off, trailing
his blood through the camp.

“This tragedy being finished, Le Petit Mort re-entered the tent. He
told his wife, who followed him, to go and search for certain roots,
which he chewed and formed into a cataplasm for the wound, after having
applied his mouth to it, and sucked out the extravasated blood, an
operation that caused Mr. Kay great pain. He enjoyed a little ease
during the remainder of the night and following day. Le Petit Mort
passed the night opposite to his bed. The next day he took off the
compress, and replaced it by another, after having once more sucked
out the blood and cleaned the wound. The patient became so exhausted
by this dressing, that for the space of half an hour he lost all
recollection. When he regained his senses he felt easier, and asked for
the Bras Casse, (the chief of the band,) who had not yet heard what had
happened, for the Indians had been occupied in drinking, and he had
been getting ready to depart, having only delayed a little, to give
some game to the Frenchmen. He came to the field of these atrocities,
entered Mr. Kay’s tent, and gave him his hand, saying, “My friend, your
misfortune has given me much pain. If I had been here, it would not
have taken place. One thing, however, consoles me. It is, that I had
not gone off; you may depend on my best efforts to restore you.” Mr.
Kay accepted his offer, having confidence in him, and in his skill in
the medical art, in which he was very expert. He resolved to take him
along with him on his route to Mackinac, to take care of him.

“On the third of May, the Bras Casse took him in hand, and began to
apply his medicines, which were found to be efficacious. After letting
him repose a little, he told him he would cure him, but in order to do
this he must consent to bridle his appetites. He must abstain from the
use of pepper and salt in his food; he must guard against drinking, _de
ne point toucher des femmes_. The next day Mr. Kay was a little better.
He sent for M. Harris and myself to come to his tent, to receive his
orders. He said to us: “Gentlemen, you see my situation. I do not know
whether God will spare my life or not. I have determined to leave you,
and at all hazards to set out for Mackinac with seven men, accompanied
by the Bras Casse and his wife, to take care of me on the road. Assort
the remainder of the goods, and ascend to Leech Lake, and wait there
for the return of the Pillagers, who are out on the prairies. In short,
complete the inland trade. Mr. Pinot is too feeble an opponent to do
you much injury. I confide in the capacity of you both.” A few moments
afterwards Mr. Harris went out, when he said to me particularly, taking
hold of my hands—“My dear friend, you understand the language of the
Chippewas. Mr. Harris would go with me, but he must accompany you. He
is a good trader, but he has, like myself and others, a strong passion
for drinking, which takes away his judgment. On these occasions, advise
him. I will myself speak to him before my departure. Prepare every
thing to facilitate our passage over the portages and along the lake. I
shall set out to-morrow. I find myself better every day.”

“I left him with his physician, and went to distribute the provisions
and lading for two inland canoes, one for Mr. Kay, and one for the four
men who were to take the furs from Pine river, consisting of 19 packs
of 80 lbs. each, and four packs of deer skins, to serve as seats for
Mr. Kay’s men. The next day Mr. Kay was a little better, which diffused
pleasure among us all. I constructed a litter (_un broncard_) for two
men to carry him over the portages, and he set out the same day, being
the 5th of May, about two o’clock, in the afternoon. Mr. Pinot also
departed the same day. Bras Casse and his wife departed about sun set.”

The sequel of this tale is briefly told. Mr. Kay reached Mackinac,
where Capt. Robinson, then in command, had a second operation performed
on him by the post surgeon. He afterwards closed his business, and went
to Montreal. A suppuration of his wound, however, took place at the
Lake of Two Mountains, which terminated his life on the 26th of August,
1785, three months and twenty-four days after receiving the wound.




                             CHAPTER III.

  _General arrangements for the route of the expedition on the waters
    of the Upper Mississippi.—The width of this stream at Sandy Lake
    ascertained.—Notices of the ascent from that point by the Falls
    of Peckagama and Lake Winnipec, to Cass Lake.—Attack of a party
    of Mandans on the Chippewas at Pembina.—The route of the
    Bogottowa Lake.—Encamped at Winnipec House.—Inquiries respecting
    the opposition trade, and the traffic in ardent spirits.—Reach
    Cass Lake.—The width of the Mississippi, at its outlet.—Encamped
    on an island in this lake.—Yellow Head’s town; its population and
    hunting grounds.—Remarks on the Fur Trade.—North West, Hudson’s
    Bay, and American Fur Companies.—Lord Selkirk’s triumph.—Murder
    of Owen Keveny._


At Sandy Lake the expedition made its general arrangements for the
route. Most of the Indians at that post being absent, with their
principal Chief, on the plains near the junction of the Des Corbeau,
it was determined to assemble them at that point, so as to meet the
expedition on its return down the Mississippi, and to deposit at Sandy
Lake House, the presents intended for distribution to this band,
together with the supplies required for the home route. These were
placed in charge of a trusty person, with directions to proceed down
the river with them, to the Isle Des Corbeau, in season to meet the
party at that place on the 24th July. Relieved of this portion of the
burthen of transportation, it was then settled that the expedition
should go up the Mississippi, through all its windings, to Cass Lake;
there make a final deposit of the remainder of its heavy baggage,
and fit out a select exploring party, in light canoes, to ascend to
its actual source. This point fixed, the party would again descend
to Cass Lake, thence, cross the interior, by a route, represented
to be practicable, to Leech Lake, and from the latter, strike
south-westwardly, falling on a series of portages and lakes leading to
the head of the great Des Corbeau, or Crow Wing River. This river it
was proposed to follow down its entire length, to its entrance into the
Mississippi, the point fixed on, for assembling the Sandy Lake, Pine
River, and Mille Lac Indians.

In conformity with these arrangements, the party left Sandy Lake House,
on the afternoon of the 4th of July, having previously ascertained the
width of the Mississippi, at that place, to be 331 feet. The evening
of this day and the two following days, were employed in reaching
the vicinity of the Peckagama Falls, against a brisk current, with
occasional rapids. They made a portage on the 7th over the Granular
Quartz ridge, producing the Falls, and encamped the same evening at
Point aux Chenes, in the savannahs above. The next day, being the
Sabbath, was passed at that point. While there, a French _engagé_
arrived from Leech Lake, being on his way to Sandy Lake. Advantage was
taken of this opportunity, to send directions for the hastening the
meeting of the Indians at _Isle Des Corbeau_, by the space of two days,
as the waters were found even more favorable, than had been anticipated.

This man, whose name was La Plante, confirmed reports which had
been current at Fond du Lac and at Sandy Lake, of the going out of a
strong war party of the Leech Lake Indians against the Sioux. But he
added, that the party, which had been headed by the popular Chief,
Aishkibugikozh, or the Geulle Platte, had returned, bringing, as a
trophy of their victory, three Sioux scalps. He also reported the
attack of a hostile party of Indians, supposed to be Sioux, on the
outskirts of the Pembina settlement, where they scalped a girl, in
open day, but were pursued by a party of Chippewas, overtaken in the
act of crossing a stream, and lost several men. It was found, by
subsequent information, of an authentic character, that the attacking
party, on this occasion, were Mandans, and that it consisted of forty
men. They crossed the river Pembina, at the point of its junction
with Red River, on a raft, went down the latter about four miles, and
concealed themselves in the vicinity of a trading house, at which there
were several lodges of Chippewas. After waiting a definite time, and
finding no opportunity to effect their purpose, they resolved to return
to the raft at the crossing of the river, leaving a select party to
make a sally upon the Chippewas. This party met the girl, tore off
her scalp in haste, and fled to rejoin their companions at the raft.
But as the girl was not killed, the alarm was immediately given. Nine
Chippewas started in the pursuit. They overtook and fired upon the
Mandans, killing one man, and driving them in to their main party. The
latter, in the mean time, had tied their guns together and laid them
on the raft, preparatory to crossing. Being suddenly roused by the war
whoop, in their midst, and without arms, they plunged into the Pembina,
and swam across. During this effort, they were fired upon by their
pursuers, who killed two more of their number. One of these succeeded
in gaining the opposite bank, and was carried a short distance by his
companions before he expired. His body was left. The remainder of
the party pursued their flight. But they were without the means of
subsistence, for they had lost their arms. A new calamity overtook
them. The Sioux (who were also their enemies, as well as the enemies of
the Chippewas,) fell upon them, and, in their defenceless state, killed
thirty-six men. The survivor reached his people on the Missouri to
narrate the disaster.

The expedition pursued its way on the 9th. The ascent of this part
of the river, being through a series of savannahs, the guides availed
themselves of an intimate knowledge of the country, and the high state
of the water, to avoid numerous curves, which would have consumed much
time in coursing around, and led the way through extensive fields of
reeds and grass, assuming the character of semi-lakes. Not far above
Oak Point, a side route was taken, through a lake called the Bogottowa,
or _Lac a le Crosse_. This lake, which is a clear and pleasant sheet of
water of some ten miles in extent, receives a small but narrow creek
at its head, noted for its helices, which is ascended to a small lake
terminating a few hundred yards east of the Little Winnipec Lake of the
Mississippi. The portage is through a fine forest. By taking this route
the circuitous south bend of the Mississippi, at the entrance of the
Leech Lake branch, was avoided, and the better part of a day’s travel
saved. Day light was still undiminished, when the party reached the
minor trading post of Winnipec House, where they encamped.

The following queries were put to the Clerk in charge of this post,
respecting the opposition trade, and the traffic in ardent spirits.

1st. Do the Hudson’s Bay Clerks cross the American lines from the post
of Rainy Lake, for the purposes of trade? Ans. No. They furnish goods
to Indians who go trading into the American territories.

2d. Do the Partners, or Clerks of the Hudson’s Bay Company, present
flags and medals to Indians? Ans. Yes.

3d. Do they give such flags and medals to Indians living within the
American lines? Ans. No. I have heard that they took away an American
flag given to an Indian on the United States’ borders of Rainy Lake,
tore it, and burnt it, and gave him a British flag instead.

4th. Was the Hudson’s Bay Company’s post on Rainy Lake, supplied with
ardent spirits last season? (i. e. 1831 and 1832.) Ans. It was. They
had about sixty kegs of highwines, which were shewn to some of our
Indians, who went there, and Mr. Cameron, the person in charge of the
post, said to them, that although their streams were high, from the
melting of the snows, they should swim as high with liquor if the
Indians required it.

5th. What is the usual strength of the highwines? Ans. One keg is
reduced to four.

6th. Have the Indians sent on _derwin_ by the Hudson’s Bay Company,
approached near to your post? Ans. They have come very near—having been
on the Turtle Portage, with goods.

7th. Did they bring liquor thus far? Ans. No. The liquor is kept at
Rainy Lake, to induce the Indians to visit that place with their furs.

8th. Did the disposition made of the liquor, which the Secretary of War
permitted the principal Factor of the Fond du Lac Department, to take
in last year, (1831,) embrace the post of Winnipec? Ans. It did not.
It was kept chiefly at Rainy Lake, and on the lines, to be used in the
opposition trade.

Another trader, inquired of, in the country below, observed that five
Chiefs had been invested with medals and flags, by the British trader
at _Lac le Pluie_.

The party traversed Lake Winnipec on the morning of the 10th, and
entered and passed up the sand-hill bordered valley of the Mississippi,
to Cass Lake, the entrance to which they reached about one o’clock,
being eleven days earlier in the season than this lake had been
visited by the light canoes of Gov. Cass, twelve years previous. The
outlet of this lake, was ascertained to be 172 feet in width, with an
estimated depth of eight feet; being over half the width of the river,
immediately _below_ the inlet of the Sandy Lake branch.

At this point, being the _ultima Thule_ of previous discovery,
our narrative may assume a more personal character. The day was
characterised by the striking warmth of the month of July in this
latitude. The fore part of it had been spent in a diligent ascent
of the Mississippi from Lake Winnipec; and the party reached the
point of entrance, with a feeling of gratification, arising from the
accomplishment of one of its objects. We halted a few moments, to allow
the hindmost canoes to come up, so as to enter the Lake together. Oza
Windib, or the Yellow Head, our Chippewa guide, had preceded the party
a little, as he often did, to get the first glance of little bays and
inlets, where water fowl are usually found. He had put his canoe ashore
behind a small point, where he met a party of the Cass Lake band. Of
this he kept us ignorant till turning the same point, that he might
surprise us with an unexpected salute. The Indians then approached
in their canoes in a body, with a welcome, which could hardly have
been more cordial, had we been old friends. They represented their
residence to be on a large island, bearing south-west from the entrance.
And for this island we set forward, with every appliance. The Indians
accompanied us, imparting a spirit of emulation to the men, by shouts
and firing. In making this traverse, we left the mouth of Turtle river,
(the spot of Gov. Cass’ landing in 1820,) on our right, and did not
come near enough to the shore, distinctly to recognise its features.
We were upwards of an hour in reaching the island, which is called
Grand Island, or Colcaspi. On approaching it, a number of Indians
were observed, running across an elevation, and pointing, with wild
gestures, to a bay beyond. It was the best place of landing. They were
assiduous in directing the men to the spot. They ranged themselves
along the shore, fired a salute, and then came eagerly to the water’s
edge, giving each one a hand, as he alighted from the canoe. He, who
has formed his estimate of an Indian from the reading of books, in
which he is depicted as cruel and morose, without any insight into his
social character, need only to be ushered into a scene like this, to be
convinced that he has contemplated an overshadowed picture. We found
these Indians to be frank, cheerful, and confiding.

[Illustration: CASS LAKE
  2978 miles above the Gulf of Mexico.]

On ascending the elevation before referred to, it was found to be the
site of an abandoned village, now covered partially with corn-fields,
and overgrown, in other parts, with sumac and other shrubbery. The
cutting down too much of the forest, and the consequent exposure to
winds, had probably been their reason for removing the village to
a more southerly and sheltered part of the island. An Indian town,
all America over, is nothing but an assemblage of wigwams, built,
exclusively to suit the particular convenience of the occupant, without
right angled streets, for which (as they have no carts or waggons)
they have no occasion, and they get thereby the additional advantage
of having no clouds of dust blown up from the denuded surface. There
is (as we should say) a public _square_, or rather, an open grassy
spot, where councils and dances are held, and the ceremonies of the
wabeno and medicine society performed. Hillocks and elevated grounds
are selected for erecting their lodges on; and clumps of small trees
and shrubs are sought. Large trees are avoided, for the simple reason,
that they often loose a limb during windy weather, and are liable to be
blown down by tempests. But the whole circular opening, constituting a
town plat, is surrounded with forest, to shelter them, in summer and
winter. Gardens are variously located, and generally without fences, as
there are no domesticated cattle. Such, at least, was the town of Oza
Windib, situated nearly a mile from the spot of our landing, to which
he was welcomed, on his return, by groups of men, women, and children.
The total population, as counted during our stay, was 157, and it does
not, probably, at any time, exceed 200 or 250. They rely, in the main,
on hunting for a subsistence, deriving considerable aid, as the season
shifts, from fishing, the gathering of wild rice, and the products of
small fields of corn and potatoes, cultivated by the women. We were
assured that the corn crop was always relied on, and that seed corn
is preserved from year to year, and has not been known to fail. About
sixty miles northwest, at Red Lake, corn is stated by the traders, to
be a profitable crop, and it is among the singularities of the fur
trade, that this article has, within a few of the last years, been
furnished in considerable quantity, from that lake, to the posts on the
Upper Mississippi, and even as far east as Fond du Lac.

The hunting grounds of Yellow Head’s band, embrace the extreme sources
of the Mississippi, and his village is the last fixed location in the
ascent. Part of them go to Lac Travers, and encamp there, for the
purpose of making the winter hunt. And from this point, they ascend
southerly, which carries them still further into the red deer and stag
and hind country of (the absolute head of the Mississippi,) Itasca
Lake. The furs and skins collected, are exchanged for goods with
traders, who visit them annually in the fall, and remain during the
winter. These goods are brought in canoes from Michilimackinac, an
estimated distance, as travelled, of 1120 miles. Of this distance there
are only 18¾ miles land carriage, separated into five portages, at
distant points.

We may observe in this singular facility of internal water
communication, one of the primary reasons of the heads of the
Mississippi, being supplied with Indian goods at first from Montreal,
and afterwards from New-York. Not only were these facilities early
found to exist, but it was the track of interior discovery, while
the Mississippi itself opposed an obstacle to the trade, by its
difficult navigation, and the unhealthiness of the climate of its lower
latitudes. Political considerations, also, entered into the earlier
arrangements. Indeed, whoever is curious to examine into this matter,
will find the history of the fur trade in north-western America, to be
intimately blended with the civil history of the country, for about
two hundred and fifty years after its discovery. Dating this discovery
from the arrival of Jaques Cartier in the gulf of St. Lawrence, in
1534, (the first well settled era,) the traffic then commenced with
the natives, and, soon assuming an engrossing character, may be traced
through various modifications, up to the surrender of the lake posts
to the American government in 1796. This momentous interval of two
hundred and sixty-two years, is fraught with incidents of a deeply
interesting character, which it will be sufficient here, to allude to.
Through every change of things the fur trade continued to be, not only
cherished, but formed one of the cardinal interests in the policy of
the government which France and Great Britain successively exercised
over this portion of North America. Under the French government the
system was intimately connected with military and with missionary
efforts, in a manner which was peculiar to that government. Licences
to trade were granted by the governor general to superannuated
officers, and other servants of the crown, by whom they were sold out
to enterprising individuals. These persons went inland to exchange
their goods for furs, and first drew upon themselves the epithet of
_Couriers du Bois_. Great irregularities, however, existed. Civil and
ecclesiastic power were alternately exerted to restrain them. And an
order to prohibit the traffic in the article of brandy was issued by
one of the French governors.

Under English rule, local agents were authorised, in the name of the
king, to oversee Indian affairs, grant licences, and exercise a general
supervision over the trade. Serious difficulties arose in acquiring the
confidence of the northern Indians after the fall of Quebec. But, after
an interruption of four or five years, (say from ’59 to ’64,) including
the period of Pontiac’s war, the trade gradually resumed its healthful
action. French enterprise had spread it through the region of Lake
Superior and the Upper Mississippi, to the banks of the Saskatchawine.
Scottish intrepidity carried it to the mouths of the Mackenzie, and the
Columbia.

The date of American authority in the lake country, may be placed
in 1796. It was, however, but feebly felt in its influence on the
northwest fur trade, for several years. Congress first legislated on
the subject in 1802, but four years afterwards Lieut. Pike, on reaching
the Upper Mississippi, found it in the exclusive possession of the
North West Company. The Indians were then as much attached to the
English, as they had been to the French, in 1759. It cost the British
crown the expenses of a war to gain this ascendancy, and the Americans
were not permitted to succeed them, as the sovereign power over Indian
territory, at a less hazard. The war of 1812, found all the northern
tribes confederated with the English. Tecumseh had risen to re-act the
part which Pontiac had failed to accomplish, fifty-two years before,
namely, driving back the infringing power. This happened, in 1759, to
be Great Britain; but in 1812, it was the United States. With less
sterling capacity to organise and command, however, than his great
predecessor had, and with the powerful resources of England to back
him, he utterly failed. It was not till after this failure, and the
re-establishment of American garrisons at Detroit and Michilimackinac,
that the Jeffersonian Indian code of 1802, began to be put into effect
in the north-west. In 1816, a law was passed by Congress to exclude
foreigners from the trade. In 1819 St. Peter’s was established. In
1820, Gov. Cass personally visited the tribes, and in 1822, a military
post was advanced to St. Mary’s Falls, the most northern point occupied
by the United States army.

Although the North West Company had now transferred to an American
company, organised by Mr. Astor, all their posts south and west
of the lines of demarcation, they maintained, however, an active
trade along the lines, and waged one of the most spirited and hard
contested oppositions against the Hudson’s Bay Company, which has ever
characterised a commercial rivalry. Lord Selkirk had now placed himself
at the head of the Hudson’s Bay Company, and staked his character and
resources on the maintenance of its territorial and commercial rights.
It is no part of our object to go into details. Let it suffice, that
he took Fort William on the 13th of August, 1816, carried his power
over the region of Red river, where he planted a colony, and, after
losing the lives of several of his most zealous agents and officers,
(including the governor of his colony,) finally triumphed in asserting
the rights of the Hudson’s Bay Company, and quieted, by an amalgamation
of stocks, the claims of his intrepid rivals.

One of the most painful atrocities which arose, in the course of this
rivalry, was the murder of Owen Keveny. As the facts were subsequently
detailed in a court of justice, they may be succinctly narrated. Mr.
Keveny, a gentleman in the service of the Hudson’s Bay Company, was
taken prisoner by the North West Company, in the summer of 1816; and
ordered to be sent out from Red river to Montreal. On ascending the
river Winnipec, (northwest of the Lake of the Woods,) he was finally
put in charge of a couple of _engagés_, named Faye and La Point, in a
canoe, with an Indian guide, called Joseph, Son-of-the-White-Pratridge,
with directions to take him to Rainy Lake. By these he was landed on
an island below the Dalles, where they slept. Next morning Keveny
complained of being ill, and asked Faye to bring him some warm water.
The latter, on coming to the beach, found that La Pointe, and the
Indian, had put out into the stream. On being called, they came ashore
and took in Faye, and all then went down the river together, abandoning
Keveny on the island. A few days afterwards one of the _engagés_ in
the canoe, quarrelled with the Indian, and the latter left them. They
then turned about and began to ascend the river, but, having lost their
guide, could not find their way, and soon encamped on a small island,
resolved to wait till some canoe should pass. Four or five days had
elapsed, when their expectations were answered, by the arrival of a
light canoe, with two partners of the North West Company, and Charles
de Reinhard, a clerk, and a _Boisbrulè_, named Mainville, besides the
Indian, Joseph, Son-of-the-White-Partridge, who had fled from Faye and
La Pointe, below. After a short halt, during which Mr. M‘Lellan, (a
partner of the North West Company,) beat the two men with a canoe-pole,
all embarked for Rainy Lake. The same day they met other canoes, from
which they learned, that Keveny, whose life had been threatened by de
Reinhard and others, had left the island, where he was first abandoned,
and gone up the river five or six leagues, to another island situated
above the Dalles. He was now the subject of engrossing interest and
conversation. On reaching this, they found Keveny, as expected. Mr.
Grant, one of the partners, landed, with others, and shook hands with
him. They then embarked, leaving de Reinhard, Mainville, and Joseph,
Son-of-the-White-Partridge, on the island with Keveny. After going two
or three leagues further up the river, they encamped. Some time after
landing, the report of a gun was heard in the direction they came from.
In half an hour’s time, a canoe came from the same direction, having
in it de Reinhard, Mainville, and Joseph, Son-of-the-White-Partridge.
It had much blood in it, together with the trunks, and clothes worn by
Keveny, but Keveny himself was not there. On examining the coat, there
was perceived to be a ball hole, and an incision, in different parts
of it. Keveny’s trunks were then landed, unlocked, and a division made
of his clothes, linen, and other effects. De Reinhard wiped the blood
from his sword, declaring in the hearing of the men, as if glorying in
the perpetration of the act, that he had killed him, and was entitled
to the best apparel, which he accordingly appropriated to himself.
Mainville took the perforated coat.

The facts of this foul deed appeared to be these. Keveny, with the
three persons left with him, by the Northwest partners, embarked in
a small Indian canoe, to ascend the river. He complained of being
unwell, and was landed at a certain spot. De Reinhard, Mainville, and
Joseph, waited at the beach. De Reinhard stood near the canoe as Keveny
re-embarked, and suddenly drawing a short sword, thrust it into his
body. Keveny doubled down under the blow, but being a tall and powerful
man, (although weakened by disease,) he recovered himself, seized the
blade of the sword, and would have wrenched it away and overpowered the
assassin, had he not called to Mainville to fire. The latter obeyed.
The ball passed through Keveny’s neck, and he instantly fell. It does
not seem that the Indian participated in the act. The body was stripped
and left on shore, unburied. Two years after (i. e. 1818,) De Reinhard,
who had, it seems, been a subaltern officer in one of the disbanded
foreign regiments, was tried for the murder at Quebec, proved guilty,
(by his own confessions to the men at the encampment,) and sentenced to
the gallows. Mainville escaped.




                              CHAPTER IV.

  _Brief detail of transactions at Cass Lake.—A select exploring
    party is organised here, for ascending to the actual source
    of the Mississippi.—Council with the Indians.—Speech of Oza
    Windib.—The Indians furnish canoes and guides.—Arrangement of the
    party.—Notice of a Warrior’s widow.—Scalp dance.—Facts respecting
    foreign interference in the trade of the Upper Mississippi.—The
    question of the use of ardent spirits in the trade.—Act of
    Congress of 1832, prohibiting it.—Departure of the exploring
    party.—Ascent to Pamitchi Gumaug, or Lac Travers.—Its elevation
    and size.—A Shingaba Wossin.—Image worship.—Bay.—Ultimate forks
    of the Mississippi.—Ascend the east fork.—Lake Marquette.—Lake La
    Salle.—Kubbakunna Lake.—Notices of the Natural History._


Having determined to organise a select party at this lake, to explore
the source of the river, measures were immediately taken to effect
it. A council of the Indians was assembled, and the object declared
to them. They were requested to delineate maps of the country, and to
furnish the requisite number of hunting canoes and guides. Oza Windib,
said, “My father, the country you are going to see, is my hunting
ground. I have travelled with you many days.[4] I shall go with you
farther. I will myself furnish the maps you have requested, and will
guide you onward. There are many rapids in the way, but the waters are
favorable. I shall consult with my band about the canoes, and see who
will step forward to furnish them. My own canoe, shall be one of the
number.”

Before night the maps were completed, and five different individuals,
including Oza Windib, brought each a canoe of the proper size and laid
it down. Two young men expressed their willingness to go, as additional
guides. Seven _engagés_ and a cook, were added to this number, making,
with Lieut. J. Allen, (who declared he could push his men no farther,
Doct. Douglass Houghton, the Reverend Wm. T. Boutwell, Mr. George
Johnston, and myself,) sixteen persons. These, with their travelling
beds, were distributed among five canoes, with provisions for ten days,
a tent and poles, oil cloth, mess basket, tea-kettle, flag and staff,
a medicine chest, some instruments, an herbarium, fowling pieces, and
a few Indian presents. The detachment of infantry was left in their
encampment on the island, under the command of their non-commissioned
officer. The remainder of the party, with the baggage and travelling
equipment, was placed in charge of Mr. Le Default, a clerk of one of
the upper posts of trade, who was attached to the expedition from Fond
du Lac, and obligingly undertook the acquisition of certain points of
information, during the contemplated absence.

While these arrangements were in process, a mixed group of men,
women, and children, from the Indian village, thronged our encampment.
Among them I observed the widow of a Chippewa warrior, who had been
killed some three or four weeks previous, in the foray of the Leech
Lake war party, in the Sioux country. She was accompanied by her
children and appeared dejected. I asked one of the Indians the place
of her residence. He replied, here; that her husband had been a brave
warrior, and went, on the call of the Leech Lake chief, with a number
of volunteers, to join the party. I asked him, of what number the party
consisted? He replied, about one hundred. Who had led them? The Gueuile
Platte. Where they had met the enemy? South of the head of Leaf river.
What had been the result of the action? They were victorious, having
taken three scalps on the field, and lost but one, being the husband
of the widow referred to. The action had however, been at long shots,
with frequent changes of position, and the enemy had finally fled to
a village for reinforcement. The Chippewas took this opportunity to
retreat, and, after consultation, returned, bringing back the three
scalps, as memorials of their prowess. These trophies had, we learned,
been exhibited in the customary dances at Leech Lake, after which one
of them was forwarded to Oza Windib’s band, to undergo a like ceremony.
And it was finally presented to the widow.

It was now exhibited by the young men, in her behalf, for a purpose
which was certainly new to me. Although I knew that this people were
ingenious in converting most circumstances, connected with both
fortune and misfortune, into a means of soliciting alms, I had never
before seen the scalp of an enemy employed as a means of levying
contributions. Such, however, was the purpose for which it was now
brought forward. It was exhibited with all the circumstances of
barbarian triumph. Shouts and dancing, intermingled with the sounds
of the rattle, and Indian drum, form the conspicuous traits of such
a scene. Short harangues, terminated by a general shout, fill up the
pauses of the dance, and at this moment the drums cease. It was an
outcry of this kind that first drew my attention to a neighboring
eminence. I observed some of the simple bark enclosures, which mark the
locality of a Chippewa burial ground. Near them, was erected a sort
of triumphal arch, consisting of bent and tied saplings, from the arc
formed by which, depended an object, which was said to be the remains
of decaying scalps. Around this, was gathered a crowd of dancers,
moving in a circle. The fresh scalp was suspended from a rod. Every
time it waved, a new impulse seemed to be given to the shouting. The
widow and her children were present. And the whole group of spectators,
Canadians as well as Indians, appeared to regard the ceremony with an
absorbing interest. In the brief pause, which separated each dance,
presents were thrown in. And all that was given was deemed the property
of the widow. This was the scalp dance.

Other incidents of the sojourn of the expedition on this island will
be mentioned on the return of the party to it. A few may be added here.

Representations having been made to the Department, on the subject of
foreign interference in the trade of the Upper Mississippi, a number
of queries were addressed to an American trader, well acquainted with
its geography and resources. I inquired of him, whether the American
traders on that border, were strenuously opposed in their trade by the
inhabitants of the Red river colony, or by the partners and clerks of
the Hudson’s Bay Company. He replied that the inhabitants of Pembina,
were in the habit of making temporary voyages of trade to Voleuse, or
Thief river, south of the parallel of forty-nine degrees, but that
they had not built or made a permanent stand there. He said, that
the open nature of the country about the Red river settlement, gave
great facilities for making short excursions into the Indian country,
on horseback and in carts. But he did not know any place to which
permanent outfits had been sent, except the river Souris, west of Red
river. He believed that this traffic was carried on, exclusively, by
the inhabitants of the colony and not by the Hudson’s Bay Company.

I asked him whether the Indians of the Lake of the Woods visited
the post of Red Lake, and whether our traders were annoyed in their
trade in that quarter by the servants of the Hudson’s Bay Company.
He replied, that the Lac du Bois Indians came across to Red Lake
ordinarily; that it is a three day’s journey; but that no annoyance is
experienced in the trade of that part from the Hudson’s Bay factors.
He was of opinion that they do not send outfits into any part of the
territory south or west of the national boundary, beginning at _Portage
des Rats_ on the Lake of the Woods.

A quite different aspect was put upon the temper of this opposition
by the Principal of this department of trade, who was met below. He
complained of the influence which the Hudson’s Bay Company exert across
the lines, and the moral character of the means which were resorted
to, to induce the American Indians to go to their posts. He said that
in 1831, (I think) one of his petty clerks had been induced to abscond
with his outfit, and had been well received by one of the partners
of the Hudson’s Bay Company. On inquiry, I found this clerk to be
Mainville, one of the murderers of Keveny. He said that high wines was
the great power of the supremacy of the Hudson’s Bay Company on the
lines, and brought forward the usual arguments of those persons, who
either deem ardent spirits essential to the success of the trade, or
justify its temporary use on the principle of expediency.

It may here, in brief, be observed, that all such arguments plausible
as they may appear, are founded on a false principle. They assume the
existence of an evil, which is alleged to be so fixed, that it is
better to tolerate it, than to run the risk of uprooting it; as if it
were better to submit to a disease, than to attempt its cure, by a
removal of its causes. No trader, will however, deny the existence of
the _evil_, as an abstract question. Neither is it denied, that ardent
spirits is a tax upon the trade, in the exact ratio of its entire cost,
doubled, and trebled, and quadrupled, as this cost is by the expense
of interior transportation. But the question is, “Who shall begin to
give up its use?” This is a question internally, between trader and
trader, externally, between company and company. As such it has been
bandied between New-York and London, the seats of commercial power.
But neither side has felt the requisite degree of confidence, to risk
the experiment of a voluntary arrangement for its entire exclusion
_from the lines_.[5] Congress has terminated this question, so far
as it respects American citizens, by an act of the 9th of July, of
the present year, (1832,) which contains this provision: “That no
ardent spirits shall be hereafter introduced, under any pretence, into
the Indian country.” The enforcement of this act, has been rigidly
enjoined, and it is in the process of successful execution. Posterity
will probably regard this measure as reflecting more honor upon our
national legislation, than if we had decreed a hundred monuments to
fallen greatness. But we are writing a homily, where we intended to
offer a few hints, and must hie to the labor of the journey before
us. Every arrangement being completed on the evening of the 10th,
we embarked, at the island, at three o’clock the next morning. Our
course lay westward, through a strait, formed by the approach of a
part of the island, to a part of the main shore. We then passed two
islands, called Garden and Elm islands. The morning was too hazy to
give us any extensive prospect of the lake, or its shores. We had been
a little more than an hour in motion, when we found ourselves nearing
the western head of the lake, and the men soon shoved our canoes upon
a sandy beach, with the exclamation of _un portage_. We found this
portage to extend about fifty yards, over a plain of sand, bearing
pine, and terminating on the banks of a small lake. Through this lake
the Mississippi has its course, and the two lakes are connected by a
circuitous channel, which might, perhaps, have occupied a half, or
three quarters of an hour, to ascend. The lake, for which we heard
no name, is several miles in extent. We passed it transversely, and
entered the channel of the river on its western border. It presents a
still current, with an edging of savannah, which, at no great distance
above, is again expanded around the margin of another lake, called
Tascodiac.[6] Hills of sand, covered with yellow pines, here present
themselves, and the river exhibits for several miles above, either a
sand bank, or a savannah border. Time is the only measure of distance,
which we had the means of referring to. About eight o’clock, rapid
water was encountered, and at this point, which may be fifteen miles
above Cass Lake, the meadow lands cease. Boulders, of a primitive
character, are found on the rapids. The rapids are such, in their force
and inequality of depth, as to require the men frequently to wade, and
pull up the canoes. There are, say, ten of these principal rapids, in
the ensuing twenty or twenty-five miles, at which distance, we reach
the most northern point of the Mississippi, which is marked by the
fine expanse of the Pamitchi Gumaug, or Lac Travers. This lake may be
fifty feet above the level of Cass Lake. It is about 12 miles long,
from north to south, and six or seven broad, with elevated shores,
presenting to the eye a beautiful vista of hard wood groves.

We landed a few moments, on the right hand shore in entering it,
to examine an object, which the men had been conversing of on the
way, namely, a Shingaba Wossin. It proved to be a boulder of gneiss
rock, water worn, so as to present the figure of a rude shaft, with
an entablature, but not exceeding in weight, the maximum of a man’s
strength. One of the canoe-men lifted it. It had been set up, on its
base, and was decorated with a ring of red paint. The name may be
freely translated Image Stone, and has no reference to the composition
of the mass, any farther than that the name is usually found to be
applied to rocks of the primitive kind, both from the liability of
this class of rocks to assume these forms, and from their hardness,
which has enabled them to endure the power of attrition. Offerings are
usually left at such rude altars, and they afford, perhaps, the nearest
approach to idol worship, in its grosser forms, which an examination
of our Indian customs, present. The soil, at this spot, appeared to be
rather rich, bearing a growth of elm, soft maple and white ash.

We were an hour in crossing the lake south-westwardly, and were
impressed with the extent and beauty of the prospect. On gaining the
opposite shore, we found the Mississippi flowing with a brisk and
deep current into it, and exhibiting a width of, perhaps one hundred
and fifty feet. In landing, a few moments, at this point, we found
the beach strewed with small shells, both uniones, and helices. A
log house, used as a winter trading camp, stood a few hundred yards
northwardly. And this may be referred to, as the most advanced trading
location on the main waters of this river.

Lac Travers is separated by a short channel, from a bay or lake
of moderate dimensions, which is, from its proximity, considered
a part of the main lake, although the current of the separating
channel, indicates the latter to be rather a _river_ than a strait.
It will be convenient to refer to it, as it is from this point that
the Mississippi, which has now been pursued to its utmost northing,
is ascended directly south. About four miles above this bay, the
Mississippi has its ultimate forks, being formed of an east and
west branch, of which the west branch is decidedly the largest, and
considerably the longest. Reasons indicated by our guide, induced him
to conduct us up the east branch, which we soon found expanded into a
small lake, denoted Marquette, and not far above, into another, denoted
La Salle. We were twenty-four minutes in passing through the last, and
on leaving it, found the stream strikingly diminished in volume, with a
limited depth, and a vegetation of a more decidedly alpine character.
About four miles above the latter, the stream expands into a lake some
six or seven miles in length, and about half that distance in width.
This lake, which is called Kubbakunna, The Rest in the Path, presented
a pleasing aspect, after the sombre vegetation, we had passed below.
Rushes, however, were abundant toward its head, and we found the
ground too low and wet for encamping. After ascending the river, for a
distance, we put ashore for the night, at a point of woods extending
into the marsh-land, constituting the river margin. The soil at this
place, appeared to be of the most frigid character. A carpet of moss
covered it, which the foot sank deep into, at every step. The growth
was exclusively small grey pine, with numerous dead branches below, and
strikingly festooned with flowing moss. Nearer the margin of the river,
alder, tamarack, and willow, occupied the soil. As night approached it
commenced raining, which served to add to the natural gloom of the spot.

Notices of the natural history of the country, during this day’s
journey are meagre. The principal growth of forest trees, out of the
immediate valley, is pine. The plants appear to present little variety,
and consist of species peculiar to moist, cold, or elevated situations.
Water fowl are abundant, and were frequently shot. Among the number
brought in from the different canoes, in the evenings, were the duck
and mallard, wood-duck, and saw-bill. One of the latter species, had a
unio firmly attached to its lower mandible, having been in the act of
opening it when shot.




                              CHAPTER V.

  _Ascent of the east fork of the Mississippi, from Kubbakunna Lake
    to the Naiwa rapids.—Its productions.—Indians kill a deer; their
    mode of dissecting it.—Reach the foot of Naiwa rapids.—The
    Naiwa portage.—Copper-head snake.—Zoned agate.—Journey from
    thence to Ossowa Lake, the source of this branch of the
    Mississippi.—Mistake in the latitude.—Portage from the east to
    the west branch.—Hauteur des Terres.—The height of land between
    the Hudson’s Bay and Gulf of Mexico waters.—Geographical notices
    of its extent.—Its natural productions.—Its geology.—Arrival at
    Itasca Lake._


We resumed the ascent at five o’clock in the morning, (12th.) The
course of this branch of the river, above the Kubbakunna Lake,
resembles a thread wound across a savannah valley. A species of coarse
marsh-land grass, covers the valley. Clumps of willow fringe this
stream. Rushes and Indian reed are gathered in spots most favorable
to their growth. The eye searches in vain, for much novelty in the
vegetation. Wherever the stream touches the solid land, grey pine,
and tamarack are conspicuous, and clumps of alder here take the place
of willow. Moss attaches itself to almost every thing. And there is
a degree of dampness and obscurity in the forest, which is almost
peculiar to the region. Water fowl seem alone to exult in their
seclusion, and evince the infrequency of intrusion by flying a short
distance, and frequently alighting within gun-shot.

After we had gone on a little more than an hour, the Indian in the
bow of the forward canoe, fired at, and killed a deer. We all landed
to look at the animal. Although fairly shot through the fore part of
the body, it ran several hundred yards before it fell. The Indian
traced it by its blood, and found it quite dead. He brought it to the
banks of the river, before skinning it. We stood in astonishment at
the dexterity with which this operation was performed. In a very few
minutes it was disrobed of its skin, quartered and dissected. The owner
presented me the quarters. He gave the _moze_ to our guide. This term
comprehends all parts of the carcass except the four quarters, head
and entrails. Nothing was, however, thrown away; and we had occasion,
at night to observe, that the aid of fire enables them, with very
little of the culinary art, to despatch those parts of the animal,
which, it might be inferred, were most in need of preparation. Signs of
this animal were frequently seen, and had the objects of the journey
permitted delay, it might have been often killed.

Our progress through the savannahs, was rendered more unpleasant than
it would otherwise have been, by frequent showers of rain, which gave,
as is usual, a peculiar activity and virulence to the musquito. When
the usual hour of landing for breakfast had arrived, the banks were too
marshy to admit of it, and we went on until a quarter past twelve. We
then again renewed a labor with little variety of incident.

At half past five we came to an elevated sand-hill on the right shore,
covered with yellow pine, and presenting a naked face towards the
river. As one of the canoes required mending, I directed the men to
land at this spot, for that purpose. Oza Windib, who was a little in
the rear, at the moment, said, on coming up, that we were within a few
hundred yards of the junction of the Naiwa, the principal tributary
of this fork; that a series of rapids commenced at that point, which
would render it necessary to make a portage the whole extent of them,
and that it was better to commence the portage at this place, as the
river so ran, that we might go directly back through the forest, and
strike its channel. He said that the Naiwa, which came in on the left,
was a stream of considerable length, and originated in a lake which
was infested by copper-head snakes, to which its name has reference. I
observed that the soil at this place was of a diluvian character, and
embraced pebbles, and small boulders of syenite, trap rock, and quartz,
and other debris of primitive and secondary rocks. One of the party
picked up a well characterised piece of zoned agate.

While the mending of the canoes was in progress, the baggage was put
in portable order, and as soon as all was ready, the men moved on
with the canoes and effects, which were so arranged that all could be
carried at one load, and it did not require them to go back. This was
a point originally kept in view, in the curtailment of the baggage
at the island, and it was an object of the highest importance to the
speed and success of the trip. Each canoe and its apparatus, with some
of the lighter pieces was carried by one man. The guide led off the
men, with no slight burden on his own shoulders, first scrambling up
the sandy acclivity, and then striking through a growth of scrub oak
and pines. The showers of the morning had so thoroughly wet the grass
and shrubbery, that a few moments walking through it, was sufficient
completely to saturate both pantaloons and stockings. I walked out a
few hundred yards from the trail, towards the left which brought me
into the curve of the river, in view of the rapids. There appeared
to be a series of small rapids, with intervening shallows. The noise
of falling water and the white wreaths of foam, induced me to think
there might be distinct falls, but I could discern nothing entitled to
the name. The average descent of the river, at this series of rapids,
appeared to be, however, considerable, and might perhaps be estimated
at forty-eight feet. I rejoined the party at the spot they had selected
for their first pause, somewhat to their relief, probably, as guns
had been fired by them, under the belief of my having missed the way.
We first came in sight of the river again, on the brow of an elevated
sand-hill, precipitous towards the water. The guide halted to inquire
whether it would not be preferable to encamp at this spot, as we
should suffer less from insects than if we encamped in the valley of
the river, at the termination of the portage. As the day light was not
gone, and some distance still remained, I deemed it better to go on,
that we might have nothing to do in the morning, but to put our canoes
in the water. On reaching the bank of the stream, we found its current
placid, and our guide informed us that we had now surmounted the last
rapids.

A fog prevented our embarking until five o’clock in the morning,
(13th) and it was then impossible to discern objects at a distance. We
found the channel above the Naiwa, diminished to a clever brook, more
decidedly marshy in the character of its shores, but not presenting
in its plants or trees, any thing particularly to distinguish it from
the contiguous lower parts of the stream. The water is still and
pond-like. It presents some small areas of wild rice. It appears to be
a favorite resort for the duck and teal, who frequently rose up before
us, and were aroused again and again by our progress. An hour and a
half diligently employed, brought us to the foot of Ossowa Lake. We
halted a moment to survey it. It exhibits a broad border of aquatic
plants, with somewhat blackish waters. Perch abound in it. It is the
recipient of two brooks, and may be regarded as the source of this fork
of the Mississippi. We were precisely twenty minutes in passing through
it. We entered one of the brooks, the most southerly in position. It
possessed no current and was filled with broad leaved plants, and a
kind of yellow pond-lily. We appeared to be involved in a morass, where
it seemed equally impracticable to make the land, or proceed far by
water. In this we were not mistaken; Oza Windib soon pushed his canoe
into the weeds and exclaimed, _Oma, mikunna_, (here is the portage.) A
man who is called on for the first time, to debark, in such a place,
will look about him to discover some dry spot to put his feet upon. No
such spot however existed here. We stepped into rather warm pond water,
with a miry bottom. After wading a hundred yards, or more, the soil
became firm, and we soon began to ascend a slight elevation, where the
growth partakes more of the character of a forest. Traces of a path
appeared here, and we suddenly entered an opening affording an eligible
spot for landing. Here our baggage was prepared for the portage. The
carbonaceous remains of former fires, the bones of birds, and scattered
camp poles, proved it to be a spot which had previously been occupied
by the Indians. The prevailing growth at this place, is spruce, white
cedar, tamarack and grey pine. We here breakfasted.

Having followed out this branch of the Mississippi to its source, it
may be observed, that its existence, as a separate river, has hitherto
been unknown in our geography. None of the maps indicate the ultimate
separation of the Mississippi, above Cass Lake, into two forks. Little
surprise should therefore be manifested that the latitude of the head
of this stream, is found to be incorrect. It was not however to be
expected that the inaccuracy should be so great as to place the actual
source, an entire degree south of the supposed point. Such however is
the conclusion established by present observations.

The portage from the east to the west branch of the river, is
estimated to be six miles. Beginning in a marsh, it soon rises into a
little elevation of white cedar wood, then plunges into the intricacies
of a swamp matted with fallen trees, obscured with moss. From this,
the path emerges upon dry ground. It soon ascends an elevation of
oceanic sand, having boulders, and bearing pines. There is then
another descent, and another elevation. In short, the traveller now
finds himself crossing a series of deluvial sand ridges, which form
the height of land between the Mississippi Valley and Red River. This
ridge, is locally denominated Hauteur des Terres where it is crossed
in passing from Lac Plaie to Ottertail Lake, from which point it
proceeds northward, separating the tributaries of the River des Corbeau
from those of Red River. It finally subtends both branches of the
Mississippi, putting out a spur between the east and west fork, which
intersects the portage, crosses the west or Itascan fork about the
point of the Kakábikonce, or Little Rock Falls, and joining the main
ridge, passes northeastwardly of Lac Travers and Turtle Lake, and is
again encountered in the noted portage path from Turtle Lake to Red
Lake. It is, in fine, the table land between the waters of Hudson’s Bay
and the Mexican Gulf. It also gives rise to the remotest tributaries of
the river St. Louis, which, through Lake Superior and its connecting
chain, may be considered as furnishing the head waters of the St.
Lawrence. This table land, is probably, the highest in North-western
America, in this longitude.

In crossing this highland, our Indian guide, Oza Windib, led the way,
carrying one of the canoes, as his portion of the burden. The others
followed, some bearing canoes, and others baggage. The whole party
were arranged in Indian file, and marched rapidly a distance—then put
down their burthens a few moments, and again pressed forward. Each of
these stops is called a _posè_ by the voyageurs, and is denominated
Opugid-jiwunon, or a place of putting down the burthen, by the Indians.
Thirteen of these rests, are deemed the length of the portage. The
path is rather blind, and requires the precision of an Indian eye to
detect it. Even the guide was sometimes at a loss, and went forward
to explore. We passed a small lake occupying a vale, about midway of
the portage, in canoes. The route beyond it, was more obstructed with
underbrush. To avoid this, we waded through the margins of a couple
of ponds, near which we observed old camp poles, indicating former
journies by the Indians.

The weather was warm and not favorable to much activity in bird or
beast. We saw one or two species of the falco, and the common pigeon,
which extends its migrations over the continent. Tracks of deer were
numerous, but travelling without the precaution required in hunting,
we had no opportunity of seeing this animal on the high grounds. It
was observed in the valleys of the river, on both branches. Ripe straw
berries were brought to me, by the men, at one of the resting places.
I observed a very diminutive species of the raspberry, with fruit, on
the moist grounds. Botanists would probably deem the plants few, and
destitute of much interest. Parasitic moss is very common to the forest
trees, and it communicates a peculiar aspect to the grey pine, which is
the prevailing growth on all the elevations.

To the geologist, the scene is one of interest. The boulders of
granite, and other primitive strata, occurring on the surface, remind
him of the original position of these masses, in the system of nature
and indicate revolutions affecting the earth’s surface, which have
widely changed both the position and form of these solid materials.
When the soil itself is examined, it adds further evidences of such
changes. We may refer its sand to consolidated strata of this mineral
which have been broken down by oceanic action, and distributed in
the remarkable ridges and elevations, which now characterise the
face of the country. In whatever light the subject is viewed, it
seems difficult to resist the conclusion, that water has been the
cause, under providence, in effecting these changes, and that the
highest grounds in this region, have been subjected to the peculiar
influence which this element alone exerts in the work of attrition
and deposition of strata, solid or diluvial. It might be interesting
to inquire, in what manner this agent of change was withdrawn, and
whether a current was created toward either of the cardinal points. It
would aid this inquiry to observe, in which direction the debris and
soils were deposited in the heaviest masses? How far granite boulders
had been carried from their beds? And whether wood, bones, and other
organic remains had been subjected to like removals? We think these
accumulations are abundantly witnessed in casting the eye down the
Mississippi valley, with a measured decrease in the size and weight
of the pulverised masses, in proceeding from the head to the mouth of
this river. It is thus evident, that the heaviest boulders are found
on its upper branches, while they become rare in its central plains,
and disappear altogether, long before its entrance into the deltas at
its mouth. And this remark may be coupled with the accounts given by
travellers of the bleak, and denuded, and sterile character of the
northern rock formations.

But we have no leisure to devote to this investigation, and must
proceed with the narrative that is before us. Every step we made in
treading these sandy elevations, seemed to increase the ardor with
which we were carried forward. The desire of reaching the actual source
of a stream so celebrated as the Mississippi—a stream which La Salle
had reached the mouth of, a century and a half (lacking a year) before,
was perhaps predominant; and we followed our guide down the sides
of the last elevation, with the expectation of momentarily reaching
the goal of our journey. What had been long sought, at last appeared
suddenly. On turning out of a thicket, into a small weedy opening, the
cheering sight of a transparent body of water burst upon our view. It
was Itasca Lake—the source of the Mississippi.

[Illustration: ITASCA LAKE

(the source of the Mississippi River, 3160 miles from the Balize.)]




                              CHAPTER VI.

  _Outlines of Itasca Lake.—Its scenery and productions.—Forest
    trees, deer, fish, shells.—Width of its outlet.—Altitude above
    the ocean.—Length of the Mississippi.—Its course above Cass
    Lake.—Its origin south of latitude 47 deg. 16 minutes.—General
    observations on the Mississippi.—Erect a flag on the island
    in Itasca Lake.—Commence the descent of the West, or Itascan
    branch of the Mississippi.—Character of its channel.—Rapids and
    plateaux.—Falls of Kakábikons.—Portage.—Encamp at Pine Banks._


Itasca Lake, the _Lac la Biche_ of the French, is, in every respect,
a beautiful sheet of water, seven or eight miles in extent, lying
among hills of diluvial formation, surmounted with pines, which
fringe the distant horizon, and form an agreeable contrast with the
greener foliage of its immediate shores. Its greatest length, is from
south-east to north-west, with a southern prolongation, or bay, which
receives a brook. The waters are transparent and bright, and reflect
a foliage produced by the elm, lynn, maple, and cherry, together with
other species more abundant in northern latitudes. The lake itself is
of irregular form, which will be best illustrated by the accompanying
sketch. It has a single island, upon which we landed, after an hour’s
paddling from the spot of our arrival and embarkation. We found here,
the forest trees above named growing promiscuously with the betula and
spruce. The bones of fish and of tortoise, found at the locality of
former Indian camp fires, indicate the existence of these species in
the lake. We observed a deer, standing in the margin of the lake. And,
here, as well as throughout the lakes of the region, found the duck,
teal and loon, in possession of their favorite seclusions. Innumerable
shells, (a species of small helix,) were driven up on the head of the
island. Other parts of the lake yield small species of the unio, which
were found strewing the bed of the outlet. And it may here be remarked,
that this shell exists, in the largest and heaviest species heretofore
known, in the lower parts of this stream—the Mississippi having its
origin here.

The outlet of Itasca Lake, is perhaps ten to twelve feet broad, with
an apparent depth of twelve to eighteen inches. The discharge of water
appears to be copious, compared to its inlet. Springs may, however,
produce accessions which are not visible, and this is probable both
from the geological character of the country, and the transparency and
coolness of the water.

The height of this lake, above the sea, is an object of geographical
interest, which, in the absence of actual survey, it may subserve
the purposes of useful inquiry, to estimate. From notes taken on the
ascent, it cannot be short of one hundred and sixty feet above Cass
Lake. Adding the estimate of 1330 feet, submitted in 1820, as the
elevation of that lake, the Mississippi may be considered to originate
at an altitude of 1490, say 1500 feet, above the Atlantic. Its length,
assuming former data as the basis, and computing it, through the
Itascan, or west fork, may be placed at 3160 miles, one hundred and
eighty-two of which, comprises an estimate of its length above Cass
Lake. Its general course, in _ascending_, above the latter point, is
north of west, as far as Lac Travers. Then south to its primary forks
which is continued, following up the east fork to Kubbakunna Lake,
and for some distance further. It then varies a short distance, north
and north-west, then south-west and south, and finally south-west, to
its main source in Ossowa Lake. The portage thence to Itasca Lake,
is west south-west. Both these lakes appear to rise in springs, on
the height of land. They are separated by about six miles of country.
Their latitude, we had no means of accurately determining. From daily
notes of the courses and distances, kept by Lieut. J. Allen, as
indicated by a compass and watch, their position is, however, shown to
be _south-west_, and not, as heretofore supposed, _northwest_, of Cass
Lake. They are, in fact, a little south of west from Leech Lake, which
is placed, on our best maps, in forty-seven degrees sixteen minutes.
The highest northing attained by the Mississippi, is on the great
diluvial plateau, containing the contiguous waters of Lakes La Salle,
Marquette and Travers, which cannot vary more than a few minutes, from
forty-eight degrees. These facts will explain the error of the elder
geographical writers, who supposed that the parallel of forty-nine
degrees would intersect the Mississippi. Its origin in the remote and
unfrequented area of country between Leech Lake and Red river, probably
an entire degree of latitude south of Turtle Lake, which still figures
on some of our maps as its _source_, throws both the forks of this
stream out of the usual route of the fur trade, and furnishes, perhaps
the best reason why its actual sources have remained so long enveloped
in obscurity.

The Mississippi river traverses more degrees of latitude than any
other river in America, and the remark might, perhaps, be extended
to the habitable globe. The extremes of its changes in climate and
vegetable productions, are, consequently, very great. It occupies more
than three thousand miles of the distance between the arctic circle
and the equator. Long as it is, however, it has a tributary longer
than itself, (the Missouri.) Like the Niger, its mouth was discovered
by expeditions down its current, but unlike that stream, which has so
long held the geographical world in suspense, its sources have been
also sought from its central parts. Its entire course is, at length,
known. And we may now appeal with full certainty to the Balize and to
Itasca Lake, as its most extreme points. At the latter, it is a placid
basin of transparent spring water. At the former, it is as turbid as
earth in suspension can make it, and carries a forest of floating trees
on its bosom. Below the junction of its primary forks, it expands at
very unequal distances, into eight sheets of clear water, each of which
has features worthy of admiration. Four of these, Lac Travers, Cass
Lake, Winnepec, and Lake Pepin, are lakes of handsome magnitude, and
striking scenery. The number of its tributaries of the first, and the
second and the third class, is so large, that it would furnish a labor
of some research, to determine it. The Missouri, the Ohio, and the
Arkansas, are of the noblest class. Whoever has stood at the junction
of these streams, as the writer has done, must have been impressed with
an idea of magnitude and power, which words are incapable of conveying.
The broadest parts of its channel lie in the central portions of its
valley. Its depth is great in all its lower parts, and increases as it
flows on to the Gulf, and its general descent and velocity are such
as to appear very striking characteristics.[7] Noble views arrest
the eye of the observer, in every part of its diversified course.
Originating in a heavy and extensive bed of diluvial soil, superimposed
upon primitive strata, it soon wears its channel down to the latter,
and after running over them for several hundred miles, plunges at
length, at the Falls of St. Anthony, over the carboniferous limestone
formation, which is so prevalent and so valuable for its mineral
deposits, below that point. This is finally succeeded by diluvial and
alluvial banks, the latter of which are semi-annually enriched by fresh
deposits, and exhibit a delta as broad and as exuberant as the Nile.
Like the latter, it has its cataracts in the Falls of St. Anthony and
Pukaigama, and in numerous lesser leaps and cascades, where its current
is tossed into foam and threatens destruction to the navigation.
Such are its physical traits, and there is enough in their character,
magnitude, and variety to lead our contemplations irresistibly “through
nature up to nature’s God.”

Having gratified our curiosity in Itasca Lake, we prepared to leave
the island, but did not feel inclined to quit the scene without leaving
some memorial, however frail, of our visit. The men were directed to
fell a few trees at the head of the island, thereby creating an area,
for the purpose of erecting a flag staff. This was braced by forked
stakes, and a small flag hoisted to its place. Taking specimens of the
forest growth of the island, of a size suitable for walking canes, and
adding its few species to our collections of plants and conchology, we
embarked on our descent. The flag which we had erected continued to be
in sight for a time, and was finally shut out from our view by a curve
of the lake. We found this curve drawn out in such a manner as to form,
with the opposite shore, the channel of the outlet. We soon felt our
motion accelerated by a current, and began to glide, with velocity,
down a clear stream with a sandy and pebbly bottom, strewed with
shells and overhung by foliage. Ten feet would, in most places, reach
from bank to bank, and the depth would probably average over a foot.
The water was not, however, equally distributed. A strong and winding
channel, made it a labor of active watchfulness for the canoe-men, to
keep our frail vessels from being dashed against boulders, or torn in
pieces by fallen timber or overhanging trees. Chopping with the axe,
was frequently necessary to clear the passage, and no small labor was
imposed by getting through the drift wood, piled up at almost every
sudden bend. We were almost imperceptibly drawn into a series of
rapids and petty falls where the stream was more compressed, and the
water deepened; but the danger rendered tenfold greater by boulders of
blackened rocks, and furious jets of the stream. We were rather hurled
than paddled through these rapid passes, which increased in frequency
and fury as we advanced. After being driven down about twelve miles of
this species of navigation, during which the turns are very abrupt,
the river displays itself, so to say, in a savannah valley, where the
channel is wider and deeper, but equally, or more circuitous, and
bordered with sedge and aquatic plants. This forms the first plateau.
It extends eight or nine miles. The river then narrows and enters
another defile, beset with an almost continued series of rapids. The
sensation, in going down these, where the channel is free from stones,
can be compared to nothing so aptly, as the emotion which every one has
felt as the enterprise of youth has buoyed him up, in directing his
tiny sled down a snow covered declivity. The brevity of the emotion
takes away nothing from the truth of the comparison. The frowing rock,
often rears its dark head to dispute the passage, and calls for the
exertion of every muscle, in the canoe-men, to avoid, by dexterity of
movement, a violent contact. Often it became necessary for them to step
into the channel, and lead down the canoes, where the violence of the
eddies made it impracticable otherwise to guide them. At a place called
Kakábikons, or the Little-rock falls, we made a short portage. Two of
the canoes, however, made the descent, but not without imminent peril,
and a delay eventually greater, than if they had been carried across
the portage. We descended this second series of rapids a distance of
about nine miles, and encamped, at a late hour, on a high fine bank,
having come altogether about thirty-two miles below Itasca Lake.
Wearied with the continued exertion, the frequent wettings, and the
constant anxiety, sleep soon overshadowed the whole party, “with his
downy pinions.”




                             CHAPTER VII.

  _Continuation of the descent.—Velocity of the rapids.—One of the
    canoes is upset, and its contents carried over the falls.—Notices
    of the vegetation and zoology.—Fork-tailed hawk.—A novel species
    of lizard.—The Yellow Head’s failure in hunting.—Instinct
    of the saw-billed duck in preserving its young.—The river
    continues to exhibit a succession of rapids and plateaux, during
    its passage through the alpine region.—Purity and frequency
    of springs on its banks.—Influx of the Cano and Piniddiwin
    rivers.—Notice of an inroad and murder committed by the Sioux
    in former years.—A night descent.—Some of its incidents.—Reach
    the junction of the east and west forks.—Return to Cass
    Lake.—Observance of the Sabbath.—Missionary field of labor in the
    northwest.—Superstitions and idolatry of the Indians.—Their name
    for the Deity.—Its probable derivation._


We were in motion again a little before five o’clock, in the morning,
(14th.) The rapids continued. The branches of large trees often hung
so near to the water, that if we were not in peril of being entangled,
like the jewish rebel king, we were in a more continual danger of
having every moveable article swept from the canoes. An accident
occurred to one of the canoes, about six o’clock in the morning, which
might have had a fatal termination. My men had paused a few moments at
the head of a formidable rapid, to determine the best place of going
down it. Lieut. Allen, who, with his canoe, was behind at the moment,
soon came up. His bowsman caught hold of my canoe to check his own
velocity. It produced that effect, but the stern of his canoe swung
across the stream, so that the steersman caught hold of a branch to
prevent its being carried broadside over the rapid. Being thus rendered
tense between bank and bank, the velocity of the water poured over
the gunnel, and it was instantly reversed, with all its contents.
This whole occurrence could not have occupied half a minute. It was
impossible to render assistance, and Mr. Allen was hardly conscious
of the matter, till he found himself in the stream. With no little
exertion, he recovered himself, so as to be able to keep his feet,
against the pressure of the current. The water was breast high. The
canoe-compass was irrecoverably lost. He fetched up his fowling piece
himself. Other articles went over the falls.

The character of the stream, made this part of our route a most rapid
one. Willing or unwilling we were hurried on. But we had every reason
to desire rapidity. Less time was given to the examination of objects
than might otherwise have been devoted. Yet I am not aware that any
important object was neglected. Where there is much sameness in natural
features, frequent landings are unnecessary, and whoever has devoted
his time in going thus far up the Mississippi, will have made himself
so familiar with its plants, soil and productions, that “he who runs
may read.” The pine, in its varieties, is the prevailing tree; and
whenever we get out of the narrow alluvions of the valley, arenaceous
plains appear. Among the plants that border the river, the wild rose,
which is so conspicuous on all the streams northwest of Lake Superior,
is very often seen. The salix, so common to the lower Mississippi, and
so uniformly infested with mosquitoes, presents itself on the first
plateau, and is afterwards one of the constant shrubs on the savannahs.

The Indian reed first shews itself distinctly, about the mouth of the
Piniddiwin, and is here associated with wild rice. The stag and hind
appear to be the species of deer, which were most frequently seen, and
were several times fired at by the party, along this branch of the
river. We also observed the _falco furcatus_, or swallow tailed hawk,
a species not heretofore, thought to inhabit the continent, so far
north. A small animal of the amphibious kind was here brought to our
notice, under the name of _Ocaut Ekinabic_, or legged snake, a species
of lizard, striped blue, black, and white, with a disproportionate
length of tail. It is thus readily distinguished from ordinary species.
Its most striking peculiarity of habit, is its extreme activity and
swiftness of motion.

The Yellow Head landed, during the morning, to fire at a deer,
which was seen grazing on a meadow, at some distance. He approached
cautiously, but was unsuccessful in the shot he fired. What most
excited our surprise, was the rapidity with which he reloaded and
fired again, before the deer had got without the range of his shot.
This was effected without the use of wadding to separate the powder
from the ball. It did not, however, arrest the deer, who pursued
his flight. The Indian returned to his canoe with a look of marked
disappointment. Frequent opportunity was given in the course of the
day, for firing at the various species of water fowl which resort to
this stream. The saw-billed duck,[8] which is a common species, has an
art of protecting its young, which we had frequent opportunities of
observing. When the mother is surprised with a brood, she affects to
have a wing broken, and flaps awkwardly on the water, as if unable to
rise. By thus attracting notice to herself, the young, who are unable,
at this season, to fly, have an opportunity to screen themselves: and
the mother then boldly rises from the stream, and puts an end to the
pursuit.

The river continues to descend in steps. The second series of rapids
was followed by a second level, or plateau, in which the channel
assumes a width nearly, or quite, double to that which it presents on
the rapids. On this level, the Cano river comes in, as a tributary
on the right shore. The volume of water is perceptibly increased by
it. This plateau may extend nine miles. It is succeeded by rapids
of a milder character, below which the river again displays itself
in savannahs, with a comparatively wide, winding channel. These are
finally terminated by short and easy rapids, which bring the river
out of what, we may designate as its alpine passes. We landed for
the purpose of breakfast, on an open pine bank, (left shore,) near
the termination of the third plateau. Several beautifully clear and
cool springs were observed running from its base into the river. It
requires, indeed, but a bare recollection of observed facts, to make
it evident that the waters of both branches of the Mississippi, have
their origin in springs of bright and pure water. It may be farther
observed, that although the Upper Mississippi receives a number of
colored tributaries, all its larger rivers are pure, and it is itself
essentially a clear stream, when not in flood, as far as its junction
with the Missouri.

At four o’clock, we came to the junction of the Piniddiwin, a
tributary from the left, having its origin in a lake, and entering the
Mississippi amidst an extensive marsh of rice, reeds, and rushes, which
give it rather the appearance of a marsh than a lake. It is, however,
called _Lac la Folle_. This spot was estimated to be one hundred and
four miles below Itasca Lake. The name of the river employed above,
is an abbreviation of the phrase _Tah-pinuniddewin_, the place of
violent deaths, in allusion to an inroad and murder committed at this
place, in former times, by the Sioux. A party of this tribe, had
previously entrenched themselves on the river above, at a spot which
concealed their position and gave them command of the river channel.
After waiting here for a time, without success, they proceeded lower,
and discovered a Chippewa lodge, not far below the entrance of this
river. It was cautiously approached, assaulted, and all its inmates
killed, without distinction of age or sex. This event happened at an
early period. No persons are now living who were contemporary with the
victims. And it may be regarded as one of the occurrences which marked
the Chippewa conquest of this portion of the country.

About eighteen miles below the junction of the Piniddiwin, we debarked
for the purpose of cooking supper, and preparing our canoes for a
night descent, as the channel of the river was now sufficiently broad,
deep, and equable to justify it. An _Ocaut Ekinabic_, was killed at
this place. Lieut. Allen, wishing day light, to finish tracing the
river to its junction with the east fork, encamped here. By the time
we were ready to embark, clouds had overcast the moon, which afforded
a clear light before. But we trusted to our experienced guide, on a
part of the river familiar to him, and we had no cause to repent of our
confidence. Several shots were fired during the night at deer, standing
in the edge of the water. The men landed at one spot, and pursued
an animal, supposed to have been wounded. We found ourselves at the
junction, about half past one o’clock in the morning, (15th.) Having
given notices of our ascent of the river thus far, it is unnecessary
to add to them. We were borne along with the double force of current
and paddles, and with no care of topographical observation to delay
our progress. The night air became very damp and chilly. To defend
ourselves from it, we disposed of our travelling cloaks and blankets
in the best manner possible. Neither sleep nor rest were, however,
truly attainable, in a confined position where there was not room
enough to extend the body, and every limb was so hampered as to make
it impracticable to afford the relief of a change of position. Day
light broke upon us in our descent from Lac Travers, and we reached our
permanent encampment on the island in Cass Lake, at nine o’clock in the
morning. We had been eleven hours and a half in our canoes. Mr. Allen
did not rejoin us till four o’clock in the afternoon.

The day being the Sabbath, the Reverend Mr. Boutwell, devoted a part
of it, as he had done on the previous Sabbaths of our route, in giving
religious instruction. As three of the soldiers of the party were
christians, and two of our canoe-men could sing Indian hymns; singing,
both in English and in Indian, became practicable. Mr. Johnston’s
readiness in scripture translation, put it in the power of Mr. B. to
address them on the leading doctrines of the gospel. With what effects
these exhortations were listened to, on this, or on other occasions,
cannot be fully stated. Strict attention appeared to be paid by the
Indians, during these little forest meetings, which were generally held
under some spreading tree, or on the grassy area of some sheltered
glade, contiguous to the camp. Incredulity and bold cavilings, were
more observable, I think, at the most remote points of our route; and
most interest manifested in the subject, in the villages situated
nearest the frontier posts. Whatever were the results, it is to be
hoped that no circumstances will prevent Mr. B. from communicating his
observations to the christian public, at an early period.

The field for missionary labor, in all the region northwest of St.
Mary’s and Michilimackinac, is certainly a very extensive and important
one. And the incitements to its occupancy, at the present era, may be
said to be decidedly greater, than they have been at any time, since
the discovery of the country. No very strong barriers appear to stand
in the way of the introduction of christianity among the northern
tribes. Their institutions, moral and political, are so fragile, as to
be ready to tumble on the application of the slightest power. They are
not worshippers of the sun, or the moon. They have no list of imaginary
gods, of the horrid character, which belong to the idolatrous nations
of Asia and Africa. A Hindoo worshipper would hardly be able to impose
his tale of multiform incarnations, and transmigratory existence,
upon their belief. And a votary of Juggernaut, would verily be looked
on by them, as little better than a mad man. It is not, however, to
be inferred that because these gross forms of idolatry do not exist,
they have no idolatry at all. Their _medicinism_, is nothing more
nor less than a species of idolatry. They impute supernatural powers
to certain material substances, which are preserved and guarded with
religious care. These objects, which are often taken from the mineral
kingdom, are carried about in sacks, and are appealed to under every
form of solemnity, to perform cures, and to grant deliverances, which
would require a miracle. Their lesser _monedos_, of which the number
is endless, are expected to operate through these idol-medicines. And
although they do not bow down to them, nor appear to place an implicit
confidence in them, they remain in a state of mental alarm, which often
impels them to resort to their influence. Nothing is more common,
however, on conversing with them, than to find individuals, who are
ready to acknowledge, the insufficiency of these means, and who appear
to be prepared to abandon them, and embrace the doctrine of the Savior,
the moment the fear of popular opinion among _their own people_, can
be removed. No dead man has been deified by them, and they have not
a name or word in their language, so far as known, which represents
a god, but that of “Monedo.” This word, I am inclined to think, is
itself, a derivative from one of the forms of the active verb, Momo,
to take. But, like other Chippewa verbs, it is so buried and clogged
with adjuncts, in the nature of prefix and suffix, that it might often
require a Champollion to decipher it. And here, it may be observed,
that Indian verbs, have not only the active and passive forms, but
these forms are indicated by separate words. Thus, momo, verb active
to take. Odápin, verb passive, to take. Each verb has the animate and
inanimate forms. As most verbs are transitives, and their simplest
forms indicate the third person singular of the imperative mood, the
following conjugations of the verb, to take, result:

    Momih, verb active, animate, take him.
    Momon, verb active, inanimate, take it.
    Odápin, verb passive, animate, take him.
    Odapinun, verb passive, inanimate, take it.




                             CHAPTER VIII.

  _Council with the Chippewas at Cass Lake.—Speeches of Oza
    Windib, Neezh Opinais, and Wai Wain Jeegun.—Distribution
    of presents.—Geographical and Geological notices of Cass
    Lake.—Colcaspi Isle.—Allen’s Bay.—Pike’s Bay.—Heights and
    distances.—Tributary of Turtle River.—Turtle Lake.—Portage from
    Cass Lake to Leech Lake.—Hieroglyphic marks.—Moss Lake.—Reach
    Lake Shiba.—The source of the River Shiba flowing into Leech
    Lake.—Traverse Leech Lake at night, and encamp at Guelle Plat’s
    village.—Received by the Indians with respect.—Description
    of Leech Lake.—Its population and principal Chiefs.—Warlike
    character of the Pillagers.—Efforts made by them to defend the
    Chippewa frontiers.—Their warfare defensive._


Health, and a peaceable intercourse with the natives, had, under
Providence, preserved our party at the island in Cass Lake, and we
rejoined them in their encampment, with mutual pleasure. The day
following our arrival, being Monday, was devoted to the formalities of
a council with the Indians. I stated to them the objects of my visit
to the region, so far as these related to them—the desire felt by
the Government for their welfare, and its anxiety to cultivate their
friendship—and endeavored to impress upon their minds, the importance
of terminating their warfare with their hereditary enemies, the Sioux.

Oza Windib spoke in reply. Thanks, he said, were all they had to
offer me, and through me, to the Great Chief of America, for the
charitable feelings which had led to my visit, and the good counsels
he had received. He should remember these counsels. They would be
kept in his heart. He would endeavor to act by them. And although not
himself a Chief, or the son of a Chief, he would exert the influence
he possessed, to induce his people to live in peace, and to listen to
the voice of counsel. He rejoiced to see the American flag displayed
at this remote point, and should the master of life preserve him
till another year, it was his fixed purpose to visit the Agency at
Michilimackinac.

The son of Neezh Openais, or the Twin Birds, followed him. He said
his father had received his medal from the American Chief, (the
present Secretary of War, Hon. Lewis Cass.) who had visited, this
lake, thirteen summers before. His father was now at Red Lake, but in
going there, he had carried with him his friendship for the American
Government, and he had directed him to express it to me, and to unite
in the promotion of any good measure proposed. He assented to the
sentiments uttered by Oza Windib. He approved of the advice. He would
act by it. He thanked me, as being the bearer of it, and he looked to
me to direct the Chippewas in their affairs, and to make them prosper.

A deputy from the band at Red Lake, then delivered a peace pipe, with
its garnished stem, decked with feathers, from Wai Wain Jeegun, a War
Chief of that lake. He had sent it, it was declared, as a token of
his friendship—his remembrance of the power that permitted traders to
come into their country to supply them with goods, and his hope and
expectation, that his remote position, and limited authority, might not
operate, to render his present unwelcome. It had been prepared by his
own hand. Although he had wielded the war club, it was in self defence,
and to prevent others from saying he is a coward. The peace pipe he
offered, he smoked, however, with his heart.

The distribution of presents to the promiscuous assembly of men,
women, and children, the payment of those who had furnished canoes,
and the rewarding of the guides, closed the business of the council. I
invested Oza Windib with a flag and the President’s medal, delivered
a flag into the hands of Neezh Openais, for his father, and sent a
message, with an acknowledgment and presents, to Wai Wain Jeegun. These
things dispatched, we prepared to embark for the portage to Leech Lake.
But previous to quitting this lake, it may be proper to subjoin a few
particulars respecting it, which, from a desire to gain a more perfect
knowledge of it, were omitted, on first entering it.

Cass Lake occupies a position on the American continent, and
particularly in relation to the Upper Mississippi, which makes it
desirable to acquire more accurate details and observations than it
fell to our lot to be enabled to make. But in the absence of such
data, such facts as our means permitted, may be substituted. We were
impressed with its extent, the picturesque character of its islands,
and the diversified appearance of its very irregular woodland shores.
Its geological features are similar to those of Leech Lake and Lake
Winnipec, being a basin of diluvial formation, spotted with islands,
occupying a position on the great marine sand district of the Upper
Mississippi. This district abounds in pure springs, and is so
impervious in its lower strata, that it has probably retained to the
present day, more water in the character of lakes, large and small,
than any other part of the world. The greatest expanse of the lake
appears to lie in the direction from north to south. Its length is from
northeast to south-west. From the time consumed in passing through it,
it cannot fall short of sixteen miles. It has four islands, the largest
of which Colcaspi or Grand Island, which is itself of a most striking
shape, occupying a large area in its centre and presenting its green
forests of elm and oak in striking contrast with the bright expanse of
waters. Allen’s Bay[9] is, properly the head of this lake, receiving
the Mississippi from the west. Nothing, however, in the mere figure of
the lake, is so characteristic as the noble bay which puts out from its
southern shore, presenting an expanse of clear and deep water which
we were an hour, with every exertion, in crossing transversely. This
bay was visited on the ice by the late General Pike, in his search
of the sources of the Mississippi in the winter of 1806, and it may
be appropriately named after a man, who, both as a traveller and a
soldier, has so fair a claim to remembrance.

Cass Lake has been estimated to be within a few miles of 3,000 from the
Gulf of Mexico, and to lie at an elevation of 1,330 feet above that
point of the Atlantic waters; its distance northwest of Sandy Lake, is
about two hundred and seventy miles, and of Fond du Lac, four hundred
and twenty miles. Estimates make it one hundred and eighty-two miles
below the true source of the Mississippi in Itasca Lake, and sixty
south of Red Lake. It receives Turtle River on its northern shore.
This river is ascended through eleven small lakes, a distance of about
thirty-eight to forty miles to its origin in Turtle Lake, once deemed
to be the source of the Mississippi.[10] There is a portage from the
lake, for light packages of goods, across the summit level of the
Mississippi valley into Red Lake, and the fertile valley of Red river.
The latter embraces the settlements planted by the Earl of Selkirk,
the inhabitants of which maintained their existence for several years
against the strenuous opposition of the North West Company, and they
appear now to be in a state of comparative prosperity under the
direction of a local governor, council, and clergy.

The portage from Pike’s Bay, (where we arrived at twelve o’clock in
the morning, after a two hours journey from the island,) commences
on the edge of an open pine forest, interspersed with shrub oak. The
path is deeply worn, and looks as if it might have been used by the
Indians, for centuries. It lies across a plain presenting the usual
aridity of similar formations, and exhibiting the usual growth of
underbrush and shrubbery. I observed the alum root, harebell and sweet
fern, scattered through the more prevalent growth of wortle berry, L.
latifolia, &c. Markings and hieroglyphic characters were pointed out to
us on the pines, some of which were said to be so ancient as to have
been made by the people who occupied the country before the Ojibwais.
Of the truth of this assertion there did not appear to be any certain
means of judging. A blaze on the pinus resinosa, if made upon a matured
tree, may be considered as comparatively permanent, from the fact that
the outer bark is not apt to close over it, while the gum that exudes
over the wounded surface, has some of the properties of a varnish. How
long the rude drawings of birds and animals, made with charcoal would
thus be preserved, is mere matter of conjecture, and must depend upon
observations which we had no means of making.

A portage of nine hundred and fifty yards brought us to the banks
of a small lake, called Moss Lake, which we were but a short time in
crossing. The water being clear, large masses appeared to rise from
the bottom, which had very much the aspect of boulders. On reaching
down, however, the men brought up on their paddles, a species of moss
of a coarse fibrous character. And this moss seemed to be quite a
characteristic trait of the lake. There is a slight relief, to both
mind and body, in these changes from land to water transportation,
even where the distance is very short; and the men resume their labor,
in carrying, with greater alacrity. We found it so on the present
occasion. No change however appeared in the general character of the
country. We crossed a bog of perhaps fifty or sixty yards in extent,
where the water appeared to have some motion towards the left. All the
rest of the way consists of an unvaried sand plain, which is sometimes
brushy, but generally open, presenting facilities for travelling. A
walk of four thousand and one hundred yards, or about two and a half
miles brought us out to the edge of Lake Shiba,[11] a body of clear
water, of moderate dimensions, which has its outlet into an arm of
Leech Lake. There is a portage path from its southern side which the
Indians use when they are passing with light canoes.

The day was well nigh spent, by the time the men brought up all the
baggage to the banks of this lake. And the fatigue of the route itself
might have justified our encamping. But whoever has a definite point
to reach in a given time, will find that the loss of a single hour, or
half hour of an evening’s journey, on sundry days, will soon combine
to waste an entire day, which may be the exact time necessary to
accomplish the route. Besides, when the question of going on, is at a
spot where a _land_ is to be exchanged for a _water_ journey, there
is a sensible relief to the men, in the position of sitting and being
freed from the pressure of the head-strap, or _apicun_, by which they
carry. And north-men thus embarked, in a state of fatigue, will soon
resume their strength and gaiety. I felt this, on the present occasion,
and directed them not to lose a moment in getting afloat. We crossed
the lake, with but little effort, and entered its thread-like outlet,
so tangled and wound about, in a shaking savannah, covered with sedge,
that every point of the compass seemed to be alternately pursued. In
this maze it was joined, from the right by a tributary of its own size,
very welcome for its accession of waters, but not aiding to straighten
the channel. Another tributary flows in directly opposite the Indian
portage before referred to. This tributary appears to be the outlet of
a contiguous, narrow and long lake, which can be, in part observed. The
channel is suddenly enlarged by it, and it is soon after still further
swelled by a similar inlet. Both these inlets are referred to by the
Indians, by the phrase, “Kapucka Sagitowag.” The stream is so enlarged
by them, as not only to assume the character of a river, but it is a
river of handsome magnitude, broad and deep but without strong current.
Its shores assume a low and marshy character, and they are fringed
with extensive fields of wild rice. Amidst these, the river opens
into an arm of Leech Lake. The last glimpses of day light here left
us. We pursued our way by moonlight for a time. The sky was overcast
before we effected our first traverse. Sometime previous to landing
it became quite dark. Even with the knowledge of an Indian guide, it
was necessary to fire guns, to ascertain the position of the principal
village. It was ten o’clock, on our landing, and it was an hour later
before the military canoes came up. Salutes were separately fired by
the Indians through the top openings of their lodges. In the morning,
(17th,) a more formal salute was given. Fresh fish and wortle-berries
were brought in: and an invitation to breakfast sent from the presiding
chief.

Leech Lake is one of the most irregular shaped bodies of water that
can be conceived of. It is neither characteristically long, spherical,
or broad, but rather a combination of curves, in the shape of points,
peninsulas, and bays, of which nothing short of a map can convey an
accurate idea. The Indians, whom I requested to draw a sketch of it,
began by tracing an oblong as large as half a sheet of foolscap would
admit of. They filled it up by projecting points inwardly, or extended
it by tracing bays outwardly. Ten islands were drawn in different
parts of it, and seven rivers and creeks made to enter it. Its outlet
is called by them the great river, and is towards the northeast. The
lake cannot be less than twenty miles across the extreme points of
the waters. Its principal peninsula resembles in shape the letter
T. Ottertail Point is a part of its northern shore. Its waters are
deep and clear in all its central parts, and yield the white-fish and
other species. Its numerous and extensive bays abound in wild rice,
and attract in the proper season, a great variety of water fowl. The
pelican, swan, brant, and cormorant, are the largest of the species
that annually visit it. Its shores yield the deer and bear. Beavers
were formerly abundant, but they have, in a great measure, disappeared.
The muskrat and marten are now the principal items of its fine furs.
The subjoined sketch is from the notes of Lieut. Allen.

[Illustration: LEECH LAKE]

“My intercourse with the Indians at this lake occupied the day
after my arrival. The population was reported at eight hundred and
thirty-two souls. Seven eights of this number, are of the band called
Mukkundwais, or Pillagers, a term derived from occurrences in their
early history. The remainder are locally denominated the Bear Island
Indians. The principal chiefs are Aish Kibug Ekozh, or The Gueule
Plat, and The Elder Brother, and Chianoquot. This band appear to have
separated themselves from the other Chippewas, at an early day, and to
have taken upon themselves the duty which Reuben, Gad, and Menasseh
assumed, when they crossed the Jordan. They have “passed armed before
their brethren,” in their march westward. Their geographical position
is one, which imposes upon them the defence of this portion of the
Chippewa frontier. And it is a defence in which they have distinguished
themselves as brave and active warriors. Many acts of intrepidity are
related of them which would be recorded, with admiration, had white men
been the actors. Perfectly versed in the arts of the forest, they have
enjoyed the advantage of concealment in the progress of a war, which
has been directed against the Sioux, a powerful assemblage of tribes,
who live essentially in plains, but who aim to make up the disadvantage
of this exposure, by moving habitually in larger bodies. It seems,
however, indisputable, that, with fewer numbers, the Chippewas have not
hesitated to fall upon their enemies, and have routed them, and driven
them before them, with a valor and resolution, which in any period of
written warfare, would have been stamped as heroic. It is not easy, on
the part of government, to repress the feelings of hostility, which
have so long existed, and to convince them, that they have lived into
an age when milder maxims furnish the basis of wise action. Pacific
counsels fall with little power upon a people situated so remotely
from every good influence, and who cannot perceive in the restless
spirit of their enemies, any safeguard for the continuance of a peace,
however formally it may have been concluded. This fact was adverted to
by one of their chiefs, who observed that they were compelled to fight
in self defence. Although the Sioux had made a solemn peace with them
at Tipisagi in 1825, they were attacked by them that very year, and
had almost yearly since, sustained insidious or open attacks. He said,
“his own son, his only son,” was among the number, who had been basely
killed, without an opportunity to defend himself.”




                              CHAPTER IX.

  _Transactions at Leech Lake.—Notice of the Pillager band.—Their
    chief, Aish Kibug Ekozh, or the Flat Mouth.—He invites the agent
    and his interpreter to breakfast.—His address on concluding
    it.—Vaccination of the Indians.—A deputation from the Rainy Lake
    band is received, and a flag presented to their leader, The Hole
    in the Sky.—Council with the Pillagers.—Speech of Aish Kibug
    Ekozh, in which he makes an allusion to Gen. Pike.—He descants on
    the Sioux war, the Indian trade, and the interdiction of ardent
    spirits.—Personal notices of this chief._


The domestic manners and habits of a people, whose position is so
adverse to improvement, could hardly be expected to present any thing
strikingly different, from other erratic bands of the northwest. There
is indeed a remarkable conformity in the external habits of all our
northern Indians. The necessity of changing their camps often, to
procure game or fish, the want of domesticated animals, the general
dependence on wild rice, and the custom of journeying in canoes, has
produced a general uniformity of life. And it is emphatically a life of
want and vicissitude. There is a perpetual change between action and
inanity, in the mind, which is a striking peculiarity of the savage
state. And there is such a general want of forecast, that most of their
misfortunes and hardships, in war and peace, come unexpectedly. None
of the tribes who inhabit this quarter, can be said to have, thus far,
derived any peculiarities from civilized instruction. The only marked
alteration which their state of society has undergone, appears to be
referable to the era of the introduction of the fur trade, when they
were made acquainted with, and adopted the use of, iron, gunpowder,
and woollens. This implied a considerable change of habits, and of the
mode of subsistence; and may be considered as having paved the way
for further changes in the mode of living and dress. But it brought
with it the onerous evil of intemperance, and it left the mental
habits essentially unchanged. All that related to a system of dances,
sacrifices, and ceremonies, which stood in the place of religion,
still occupies that position, presenting a subject which is deemed the
peculiar labor of evangelists and teachers. Missionaries have been
slow to avail themselves of this field of labor, and it should not
excite surprise, that the people themselves are, to so great a degree,
_mentally_ the same in 1832, that they were on the arrival of the
French in the St. Lawrence in 1532.

    “Unknown the measured joys of peaceful art,
     Love, hatred, pity, storm, by turns, the heart,
     And all the evils of the savage state,
     Arise from false conceits of being great.”

Partial exceptions in the acquisition of civil information, are to be
found; and the incident I am about to relate, is the more remarkable
as connected with the history of a chief, who has passed his life in
so very unfrequented a part of the continent, with only the advantages
of occasional short visits to the posts of St. Mary’s, St. Peter’s and
Michilimackinac. Aish Kibug Ekozh, or the Guelle Plat, is the ruler
of the Pillager band, exercising the authority of both a civil and
war chief. And he is endowed with talents which certainly entitle him
to this distinction. Complying with European customs, he directed his
young men to fire a salute on the morning of my arrival. Soon after he
sent one of his officials to invite me to breakfast. I accepted the
invitation. But not knowing how the meal could be suitably got along
with, without bread, I took the precaution to send up a tin dish of
pilot bread. I went to his residence at the proper time, accompanied by
Mr. Johnston. I found him living in a comfortable log building of two
rooms, well floored, and roofed, with a couple of small glass windows.
A mat was spread upon the centre of the floor, which contained the
breakfast. Other mats were spread around it, to sit on. We followed
his example in sitting down after the eastern manner. There was no
other person admitted to the meal but his wife, who sat near him, and
poured out the tea, but ate or drank nothing herself. Tea cups, and tea
spoons, plates, knives and forks, of plain manufacture, were carefully
arranged, and the number corresponding exactly with the expected
guests. A white fish, cut up and boiled in good taste, occupied a dish
in the centre, from which he helped us. A salt cellar, in which pepper
and salt were mixed in unequal proportions, allowed each the privilege
of seasoning his fish with both or neither. Our tea was sweetened
with the native sugar, and the dish of hard bread seemed to have been
precisely wanted to make out the repast. It needed but the imploring of
a blessing, to render it essentially a christian meal.

This chief brought me a letter from the interior some years ago,
at St. Mary’s, in which he is spoken of as “the most respectable
man in the Chippewa country.” And if the term was applied to his
mental qualities, and the power of drawing just conclusions from
known premises, and the effects which these have had on his standing
and influence with his own band, it is not misapplied. Shrewdness
and quickness most of the chiefs possess, but there is more of the
character of common sense and practical reflection, in the Guelle
Plat’s remarks, than, with a very extensive acquaintance, I recollect
to have noticed in most of the chiefs now living, of this tribe.[12] He
is both a warrior and a counsellor, and these distinctions he holds,
not from any hereditary right, for he is a self-made man, but from the
force of his own character. I found him ready to converse on the topics
of most interest to him. And the sentiments he uttered on the Sioux
war, the fur trade, and the location of trading posts and agencies,
were such as would occur to a mind which had possessed itself of facts,
and was capable of reasoning from them. His manners were grave and
dignified, and his oratory such as to render him popular with his tribe.

During the repast, the room became filled with Indians, apparently the
relatives and intimate friends of the chief, who seated themselves
orderly and silently around the room. When we arose, the chief assumed
the oratorical attitude, and addressed himself to me.

He expressed his regret that I had not been able to visit them the
year before, when I was expected.[13] He hoped I had now come, as I
came by surprise, to remain some days with them. He said, they lived
at a remote point, and were involved in wars with their neighbors, and
wished my advice. They were not insensible to advice, nor incapable of
following it. They were anxious for counsel, and desirous of living at
peace, and of keeping the advice which had heretofore been given them.
They had been told to sit still on their lands, but their enemies would
not permit them to sit still. They were compelled to get up, and fight
in self defence. The Sioux continued to kill their hunters. They had
killed his son, during the last visit he had made to my office. They
had never ceased to make inroads. And he believed there were white men
among them, who stirred them up to go to war against the Chippewas. He
named one person particularly.

It was necessary, he continued, to take some decisive steps to put a
stop to these inroads. This was the reason why he had led out the war
party, which had recently returned. This was the reason why I saw the
stains of blood before me.

He alluded, in the last expression, to the flags, war clubs, and
medals, which decorated one end of the room, all of which had vermilion
smeared over them to represent blood. I replied, that I would assemble
the Indians at a general council, at my camp, as soon as preparations
could be made; that notice would be given them by the firing of the
military, and that I should then lay before them the advice I came to
deliver from their Great Father, the President, and offer, at the same
time, my own counsel, on the subjects he had spoken of.

During the day constant accessions were made to the number of Indians,
from neighboring places. And before the hour of the council arrived,
there could have been but little short of a thousand souls present.
Most of the warriors carried their arms, and were painted and drest
in their gayest manner. And they walked through the village with a
bold and free air, in striking contrast with the subdued and cringing
aspect, which is sometimes witnessed in the vicinity of the posts
and settlements. Many applications were made for the extraction of
decayed teeth, and for blood letting, the latter of which appears to
be a favorite remedy among the northern Indians. Most of the time of
the surgeon, (Dr. Houghton,) was however employed in the application
of the vaccine virus, which constituted one of the primary objects
of the visit. Among the number vaccinated by him, one was past the
age of eighty, several between sixty and eighty, and a large number
under the age of ten. Little difficulty was found in getting them to
submit to the process, and wherever there was hesitancy or refusal, it
seemed to arise from a distrust of the protective power of the disease.
None had been previously vaccinated. Of the younger classes, it was
remarked here, as at other places, that the boys evinced no fear on the
display of the lancet, but nearly every female child, either came with
reluctance and entreaty of the parents, or was absolutely obliged to
be held, during the process. The ravages made by the small pox in this
quarter, about the year 1782, were remembered with the distinctness
of recent tradition, and had its effects in preparing their minds,
generally, not only to receive the vaccine virus, but in imparting a
solicitude that all might be included, so as to ensure them from the
recurrence of a pestilence, which they regard with horror. Their name
for this disease, of Ma Mukkizziwin, suggests the disfiguration of the
flesh and skin produced by it.

Among the number of Indians who arrived here, during the day, were a
party of nine Rainy Lake Indians under the leadership of a man named
Wai Wizhzhi Geezhig, or The Hole in the Sky. He represented himself and
party as part of a small band residing at Springing-bow-string Lake,
in the middle grounds between Lake Winnipec and Rainy Lake. He said,
they had heard of my passing the post of Winnipec, with an intention
of returning through Leech Lake. This was the cause of his visit.
They lived off from the great lake, and seldom saw Americans. He came
to express his good will, hoping to be remembered, as he now saw his
father, among his children, &c. I presented him, publicly, with my own
hand, with a flag, and directed to be laid before him an amount of
presents, committing to him, at the same time, a short address to be
delivered to the American portion of the Rainy Lake Indians.

The hour for the council having arrived, and the Mukkundwa, or
Pillagers, being present with their chiefs and warriors, women and
children, I caused the presents intended for this band, to be displayed
in bulk, on blankets spread on the grass, in front of my tent. I
called their attention to the subjects named in my instructions,
the desire of the government for the restoration of peace, and its
paternal character, feelings, and wishes in relation, particularly, to
them—reminded them of their solemn treaty of peace and limits with the
Sioux, at Prairie du Chien in 1825, enforcing the advantages of it,
in its bearings on their hunting, trade, and well being. The presents
were then delivered to the chiefs, as an earnest of good will and
sincerity on the part of the government, and were by them directed to
be immediately divided and distributed.

Aish Kibug Ekozh, or the Guelle Plat, was their speaker in reply. He
called the attention of the warriors to his words. He thanked me for
the presents, which reminded him, in amount, of the times when the
British held possession in that quarter. He pointed across an arm of
the lake, in front, to the position formerly occupied by the North West
Company’s fort. He said many winters had now passed since the Americans
first sent one of their chiefs to that post, (alluding to the visit of
Pike.) He remembered that visit. I had now come, it appeared, to remind
them that the American flag was flying in the land, and to offer them
counsels of peace. He thanked me for them. He had hoped that I was to
spend more time with them, that they might consult on a reply, but as
they must speak on the instant, (orders had been given for embarking
that evening) they would not lose the opportunity of declaring their
sentiments.

He had before heard the Americans say, peace, peace! But he thought
their advice resembled a rushing wind. It was strong and went soon.
It did not abide long enough to choke up the road. At the treaty of
Tipisagi,[14] it had been promised that the aggressors should be
punished; but that very year they were attacked by the Sioux; and
almost yearly since, some of their nation had been killed. They had
even been fired on by the Sioux, under the walls of the fort at Ishki
Buggi Seebi,[15] and four of their number had been killed. He had,
himself, been present. He here asked one of his subordinates for a
bundle of sticks, which he handed to me saying, it is the number of
the Leech Lake Chippewas who have been killed by the Sioux, since they
signed the treaty of Tipisagi. The number was forty-three.

He then lifted up four silver medals, attached by a string of wampum,
and smeared with vermilion. Take notice, he said they are bloody. I
wish you to wipe off the blood. I am unable to do it. I find myself
irretrievably involved in a war with the Sioux. I believe it has been
intended by the creator that we should be at war with this people. I
am not satisfied with the result of the last war party. My warriors
are not satisfied. They are brave men. It is to them I owe success,
and not to myself. Both they, and I, have heretofore looked for help
where we did not find it. (He alluded to the American government.) We
are determined to revenge ourselves. If the United States does not aid
us, I have it in mind to apply for aid elsewhere. (He alluded to the
British government.) My warriors are in a restless state. I have sent
my pipe and invitations to my friends around, to continue the war.
Circumstances control me. I cannot avoid it. My feelings are enlisted
deeply in the contest. When the enemy killed my son, I resolved never
to lay down the war club. I have sought death in battle but have not
met it. All I now can say is this, that perhaps I shall not lead out
the next war party.

Other parts of his speech on the war are omitted. This is, however, the
thread, although a broken thread of his argument, omitting frequent and
glowing appeals to his warriors, who expressed their approbation at
every pause.

He proceeded to accuse persons on the waters of the Upper Mississippi,
of giving advice to the Sioux to go to war against the Chippewas. He
said it was the interest of persons in the trade to induce the Sioux
to extend their hunting grounds across the boundary lines. He evinced
a familiarity with persons and places. He boldly accused, not only
traders, but even some persons holding offices under government, of
participating in this course of mal-advice.

He complained of the traders. He criticised their conduct with
severity. He declared their prices to be exorbitant, and said they were
so intent on getting furs, that they did not deem it necessary to use
much formality in their dealings. He complained of the exclusion of
ardent spirits, but at the same time admitted, that formerly it was
brought in to buy up their wild rice—a practice which left them at the
beginning of cold weather, in a destitute situation.

Much of the sentiment of this address appeared to be uttered for
popular effect. There was a marked difference between the tone of his
private conversation, and his public address, of which more will appear
in the sequel. Such parts of it, as required it, were replied to, and
the simple truths, political and moral, dictating the visit to them,
brought clearly before their minds, so as to leave definite impressions.

So far as related to the traders withdrawing the article of whiskey
from the trade, I felt it due to say, that no hard feelings should be
entertained towards them. That it was excluded by the Indian Office.
They should, therefore, in justice, blame me or blame the government,
but not the traders. I was satisfied, I added, that the use of whiskey
was very hurtful to them, in every situation of life, and felt
determined to employ every means which the control of the agency of the
northwest gave me, to exclude the article wholly, and rigidly from the
Chippewas, and to set the mark of disapprobation upon every trader who
should make the attempt to introduce it.

It was near the hour of sunset when the council closed. Minor duties
employed some time after. And while these were in the progress of
execution, the Guelle Plat, who had been the principal actor during
the day, gave us occasion to observe, that if he had studied effect in
speaking, he was also a judge of propriety in dress. At a dinner to
which I invited him, at my tent, and also during the public council
following it, he appeared in his native costume. But after the close
of the council and before we embarked, he came down to the lake shore,
to bid us fare well, dressed in a blue military frock coat, with red
collar and cuffs, with white underclothes, a linen ruffled shirt, shoes
and stockings, and a neat citizen’s hat. To have uttered his speeches
in this foreign costume, might have been associated in the minds of
his people, with the idea of servility; but he was willing afterwards
to let us observe, by assuming it, that he knew we would consider it a
mark of respect.

This chief appears to be turned of sixty. In stature he is about
five feet nine or ten inches, erect and stout, somewhat inclined to
corpulency. He is a native of this lake, of the _totem_[16] of the
Owásissi, a kind of fish. He observed at my table, at St. Mary’s, four
years ago, that he had been twenty-five times on war parties, either
as leader or follower, and had escaped without a wound. He was once
surrounded by a party of Sioux, with only three companions. They cut
their way out killing two men. He was early drawn into intercourse with
the British at Fort William, on Lake Superior, where he received his
first medal. This medal was taken from him by Lieut. Pike, in 1806. I
renewed it, by the largest class of solid silver medals, July 19th,
1828.

Reciprocating the customary compliment in parting, we embarked and
encamped on a contiguous part of the coast, where we could procure fire
wood, and be sure of making an early start on the morrow.




                              CHAPTER X.

  _Observations on the Leech Lake Chippewas.—Data respecting
    the former state of the fur trade.—Their turbulent
    character.—Assassination of Relle by Puganoc.—Causes of the
    emigration of the North-western Indians.—The unsatisfactory
    character of their traditions.—Their language.—Brief synopsis of
    its grammatical structure._


Leech Lake has been one of the principal posts of trade in the
northwest since the region was first laid open to the enterprise of
the fur trade, and it has probably yielded more wealth in furs and
skins, than one of the richest mines of silver would have produced.
European goods were extremely high at the period referred to, at the
same time, that furs were abundant, and the ability of the Indians to
pay, consequently, ample. The standard of value and computation in
this trade, is an abiminikwa, or prime beaver, called _plus_ by the
French. A plus, tradition states, was given for as much vermilion as
would cover the point of a case knife, and the same price was paid
respectively for four charges of powder, or four charges of shot, or
fifteen balls, or two branches of wampum. It is related that an outfit
of six bales of goods, worth, say $2000, brought from Athabasca,
ninety-six packs of beaver, each of which would weigh ninety pounds,
at a time when prime beaver was worth four dollars per pound. A fine
gun, worth ten guineas, was sold to a chief at one of the northern
posts, for one hundred and twenty pounds of beaver, say four hundred
and eighty dollars. The post of the Pic, alone, is said to have yielded
one hundred packs of beaver, during a single season. From the MSS.
of M. Perrault, now before us, referred to in a previous part of our
narrative, the rates at which furs were reduced to the plus, at this
lake, in 1784, were the following. A bear was estimated to be one plus,
an otter, three martens, a lynx, fifteen muskrats, respectively, one
plus. A buffalo robe, two plus. A keg of mixed rum, which was then
the kind of spirits used in the trade, was sold at thirty plus, and
the Indians, when they commenced trading, first put out the furs they
intended as pay for their liquor.

The Leech Lake Indians were then stated to be numerous, although, in
common with other northern bands, they had also suffered from the
general ravages of the small pox, in this region, two years previous.
They were, however, then, as now, deemed a turbulent band, and such was
the fear of giving additional excitement to their passions, that the
liquor which was sold to them, was put in _cache_ at the entrance of
the river, that it might not be delivered to them, until the traders
had finished their traffic, (which on that occasion, occupied but
a _single_ day,) and embarked on their return for Michilimackinac.
Besides the original robbery of a principal trader, which drew upon
them the name of Pillagers, their intercourse with the traders has been
of a character to require perpetual caution to avoid the recurrence
of serious difficulties. It is but two years ago that they confined
a trader to his lodge, and threatened him, in such a manner, that he
was happy to escape from the country with his life, and has not since
returned to it.

During the winter of 1821-22, a man named Relle, who was employed at
Leech Lake, to collect credits, as it is termed, entered the lodge
of a hunter named Puganoc i. e. Nutwood, and without much ceremony,
obtained the Indian’s furs. He had as he conceived, got consent which
the Indian afterwards withdrew. Relle, however, whose business it was
to collect furs for his employer, and who had, from long usage, become
expert in that employment, did not pay that deference to the Indian’s
wishes, which he probably would have done, could we suppose that he
considered them to indicate any more, than a mere reluctance to part
with the furs. On this point we are without particular information.
Be this as it may, Relle took up the furs, and proceeded homewards.
Puganoc followed him but without any demonstrations of anger. It might
be supposed that he intended in make a friendly visit to the post, for
the purpose of further trading, and Relle evidently so considered the
circumstance of his accompanying him, for he was wholly unsuspicious of
latent revenge. Silent as this passion was kept, it burned, however, in
the Indian’s breast, and, in crossing a lake, on the ice, the Indian
treading in the hindmost step, (a practice in walking with snow shoes,)
he suddenly discharged his piece. The ball entered his victim’s back
below the shoulders. He fell dead. Puganoc then drew his knife, cut
off two of the voyageur’s fingers, to make it appear that he had been
struggling with an adversary, then threw down the knife on the snow,
and returned with a report that the man had been killed by the Sioux.

It may be interesting to notice the fate of Puganoc. Attempts for his
surrender to the civil authorities were made, but without success.
Meantime he was regarded as having forfeited his life by a young
Chippewa of his own band, a relative, perhaps, of the deceased
voyageur’s Indian wife. While assembled to amuse themselves by firing
at a mark, this young man, as it became his turn to fire, saw Puganoc
lifting the cloth door of his tent, and wheeling half a circle in his
aim, fired his ball through the neck of the assassin, and killed him on
the spot.

Pride, and the desire of personal distinction, as in other tribes
which have not the light of christianity to guide them, may be
considered as lying at the foundation of the Indian character. For
there are no tribes so poor and remote as not to have pride. And this
passion seems always to be coupled with a desire of applause, and with
the wish on the part of its possessors to be thought better than they
really are. We have found pride in the remotest Indian lodge we ever
visited, and have hardly ever engaged in ten minutes conversation with
a northern Indian, without discovering it not only to exist, but, where
there was moral energy at all, as constituting the primary motive to
action. It has always been found, however, unaccompanied by one of its
most constant concomitants, in civilised life—namely, the desire of
wealth.

The workings of this principle may, indeed, be looked upon as the
chief motive of Indian emigration, and as causing tribe to secede
from tribe, and leading to that multiplication of petty nations, each
with some peculiarities of language, which marks the face of the
northern regions. Did we possess any thing like a clear and connected
tradition of these migrations, even for a few hundred years, we should
perhaps have cause to blush that so many blunders had been committed
in assigning so many primitive stocks, when, in fact, there is great
reason to believe, that the primitive stocks are few.

Tradition does not reach far, where there is neither pen nor pencil
to perpetuate the memory of events. People who are constantly and
habitually concerned, how they shall subsist, and what they shall wear,
will soon forget, in the realities before them, occurrences which can
no longer produce fear or excite hope. And were it otherwise,—were
they as prone to reflect as they are to act, the very misery in which
they live, would take away the pleasure of historical reminiscence.
Oral history is very uncertain at best. Every repetition varies the
language at least, and it must be a very stoical people, indeed,
who, in repeating their own story, do not add to the coloring, if
not the number of circumstances, which serve to give pleasure or to
flatter pride. Unfortunately such appears to have been the state of
the north-western Indians, as far as we know any thing of them, that
they could not, in strict truth, repeat very little of their history,
without giving pain, or exciting feelings, often of pity, and often
of humiliation. The few favorable points would naturally grow by the
process of repetition, out of all proportion. And fiction would often
be called on, to supply lapses. Hence it is, perhaps, that in looking
over our printed materials for Indian history, we are so apt to find
that every tribe arrogates to itself the honor of being original,
great, brave, magnanimous, above its neighbors. Indeed we regard all
unrecorded Indian tradition, referring to events beyond the close of
the sixteenth century, as entitled to no confidence.

The names the Indians bestowed upon themselves, contain no clue to
their early history. They were, for the most part purely accidental, as
they are at this day. They do not refer to their origin. They do not
in some cases, even signify their peculiarities. This is, we think,
emphatically true of the various tribes of Algonquins. To part of the
people composing this stock, who were settled in a country abounding
in lakes and streams, they gave the local name of Nipissings, i. e.
People of the Place of Waters. Part, who lived on the north shore of
the Gulf of St. Lawrence, subsisting on fish, they called Popinoshees,
alluding to a kind of fish. Those who dwelt in swampy grounds, (as
between that point and Lake Superior,) were called Mushkeegos, from the
name for swamp. Those who lived in plains, south-west of Lake Michigan,
Muscotins, from plain. Others having a peculiarity of intonation, were
called Ojibwas, or Chippewas; a band who lit up a council fire for
themselves, Pottawattomies; another band, given to trading. Ottawas;
another who inflicted cruelties in their northern wars, Kenistonos;
another who lived inland, Nopimings. Others might be added to the list.
These were all identical people; but not one of the name referred to
their origin. The French, on their arrival increased the confusion,
by bestowing a new name upon each, rendering the thread of history
more entangled, and utterly confounding all attempts to trace their
affiliation by etymology. They called the first band whom they found
speaking this language, on the St. Lawrence, Algonquins, probably
because they subsisted on the oga. This term has become generic. But
there is no light thrown by it on the history of the race. Nay, there
is not a particle of proof that the Indians had bestowed it upon
themselves, or that it was not given like all their other appellations,
as a mere _nom de guerre_. No wonder should therefore be expressed,
that classifications founded on etymological proofs should have been
found defective.

But we shall not pursue the subject. The Leech Lake Indians, like
others of the stock, derive their distinctive appellation from a
mere accident. They are not, however, separated by any distinctive
feature, from the rest of the more favorably located Chippewas. Their
prominent manners and customs, ceremonies and opinions, are the same.
They migrated by the same track, adopted the same means of living,
sought the attainment of the same general objects, and speak the same
language. There are minor peculiarities of speech in most of the bands
of this nation, separated by a few hundred miles. But they consist
mostly in accent, with some interchanges of the labial and liquid
consonants. The vowel sounds are identical. Whatever remarks could be
made, therefore, on the principles of the language, would be equally
applicable to the current language of other Chippewa bands.

This language covers an extensive area in the west, and the
north-west. It is emphatically the _court language_ of the Indians,
being the medium of communication, in all general councils. Its
copiousness and freedom from the barbarities which disfigure many of
the native languages, were remarked at an early day, and have led
to its being more studied and spoken, than perhaps any other native
American language. The regret has been expressed, that where so many
good points exist, there should be found any defects to mar them. In
its grammatical structure, it exhibits some peculiarities, which do
not, perhaps, admit of being strictly classed with other transpositive
languages, although it has most features in coincidence with them.
Originally, simple in its character, and consisting of scarcely any
distinctions of speech, beyond the verb and substantive, and the
pronominal and other primary particles, the tendency of usage and
invention has been, to increase the length of words by combination,
rendering them formidable to the eye, and pompous to the ear. These
combinations assume almost every shape, in which words can be made
to coalesce. And the primitives when thus united, are still further
compounded by inflections for time and person, for number and quality,
and sometimes to indicate other circumstances, as if it were the chief
scope of the speaker to concentrate all the offices of speech in a
single word, or a single expression. But in this process of accretion,
as might be expected, clearness and simplicity are often sacrificed to
sound, and the distinctions of person, and number, and tense, are not,
perhaps, always accurately preserved. So many letters, and even whole
syllables, are also dropped, to effect the purposes of a harmonious
coalescence, agreeably to the Indian ear, that it becomes extremely
difficult to trace analogies, and one of the usual helps to comparison,
is thus withdrawn. Number is entirely wanting in the third person of
the declension of their pronouns and nouns, and in the conjugation
of their verbs. Nor is there any distinction to mark the sex of the
third person, although the first and second persons, are uniformly and
scrupulously thus marked. He and she, him and her, are expressed by the
same word, or the same pronominal sign. Although there is a positive
and a conditional future, in the conjugation of their verbs, the
compound tenses, are generally thought to be defective.

Notwithstanding these deficiencies, the language admits of many fine
turns of expression, and pointed terms of irony, and in its general
simplicity, and nervous brevity, will admit of a comparison with some
terms of scripture phraseology. Among its grammatical forms, there
are several, which exhibit beautiful and succinct modes of conveying
thought. All its active verbs can be multiplied as often as there
are distinct objects of their action, and they are conjugated both
negatively, as well as positively. Substantives admit of adjective
terminations, and adjectives of substantive terminations. Both can
be turned into verbs, and both are endowed with number. Pronouns are
inflected for time, and in this shape, supply the want of our auxiliary
verbs. The verb, to be, may be said to characterize this language,
as differing from some of the Indian languages, although its use is
restricted, and there is no declarative existence indicated in the
ordinary conjugation of verbs. As all nouns assume verbal terminations,
they undergo all the modifications of other verbs. Possession is
indicated by an inflection analogous to, but differing from case.
Locality, diminution, and derogation, may be, either separately, or
all together, denoted by inflections of the noun. Particles, are very
copiously used. And this part of speech is very important, making
the use of words definite or exact, which without these adjuncts,
would often lack both coherence and exactitude. Adverbs are liberally
employed, and by their help, the degrees of comparison are formed.
There is but one degree of comparison formed by an inflection of the
substantive. There is a numerous list of prepositions, which are not,
however, disjunctively used, but always as the prefixed syllable or
syllables, to substantives. Conjunctions, of which the language has
a number, are not thus restricted, and cannot thus be used. The most
important distinction, however, which belongs to the language, and
that which most rigidly pervades its forms, is the separation of words
into two classes, distinguished as _animate_ and _inanimate_, or
personal and impersonal, carrying also, the idea of noble and ignoble.
This principle, merges the ordinary distinctions of gender, and
imparts a two-fold character to the verb, substantive, and adjective,
and consequently creates the necessity of double conjugations and
declensions. This results from the transitive character of the whole
language, and its habitual application to material objects. The verb
which would be used to imply vision, is made to indicate the presence
or absence of vitality, creating the distinction of the _animate_ and
_inanimate_ forms. The same principle interdicts the promiscuous use
of adjectives. A strong man and a strong house, require different
modifications of the word strong. All its concords are directed to the
upholding of this rule. This novel and curious principle, appears to
lie at the foundation of the syntax, and imparts to the language its
most marked characteristic feature. Whatever modifications other rules
require, they all coincide in this. It is a point which every good
speaker pays attention to. And as the rule may be arbitrarily employed,
it enables him to invest the whole inanimate creation with life, and
thus to throw a charm over the most barren waste; an advantage which is
very freely resorted to, in their oral tales and mythological fables.

In contemplating such a language, it is impossible to avoid the
observation of many beauties and many defects. But its beauties do
not appear to be of a character to entitle them to the enthusiastic
encomiums which have been bestowed upon some of our Indian languages;
nor do its defects and barbarisms merit the depreciating terms
which have been applied to others. Truth, in this, as in many other
metaphysical investigations, will be found to lie in a mean. If there
are forms and expressions suited to call forth the applause of the
speculative philologist, there are also many features for him to
rectify or condemn. Like the character of the people by whom it is
spoken, its principles are perpetually verging to extremes. There is
either a redundancy of forms creating distinctions, not, in all cases,
of very obvious utility, or an absolute want of them. And the inquirer
is often led to wonder, how a people who require the nice distinctions
in the one case, should be able to dispense with distinctions
altogether in the other.

From this vacillation between barbarism and refinement, poverty and
redundance, a method strictly philosophical or purely accidental,
there might be reason to infer that the people themselves, by whom the
language is spoken, were formerly in a more advanced and cultivated
state. And that a language once copious and exact, partaking of the
fortunes of the people, degenerated further and further into barbarism
and confusion, as one tribe after another separated from the parent
stock. Change of accent would alone produce a great diversity of sound.
Accident would give some generic peculiarities: and that permutation
of the consonants, which we see among the Algonquin bands, would, in
the end, leave little besides the vowel sounds, and the interchangeable
consonants, to identify tribes long separated by time and by distance,
without means of intercommunication, without letters, and without
arts. If compared by these principles there is reason to believe,
philologists would find the primitive languages of America extremely
few, and their grammatical principles, either identical or partaking
largely of the same features. And to this result, the tendency of
inquiry on this side the Atlantic is slowly verging, however it may
contravene the theories of learned and ingenious philologists in
Europe. The inquiry is fraught with deep interest to the philosophical
mind; and it offers a field for intellectual achievement, which it
may be hoped will not be left uncultivated by the pens of piety,
philosophy, or genius.




                              CHAPTER XI.

  _Encampment on a peninsula in Leech Lake.—Departure for the
    portage to the source of the De Corbeau river.—Traverse a
    bay.—Commencement of the portage.—The mode of passing it.—First
    portage to Warpool Lake.—Pass successively Little Long Lake,
    the Four Lakes, Lake of the Mountain, Lake of the Island, and
    encamp at the Kagi Nogumaug or Longwater, the source of the
    De Corbeau.—Are visited by the Chief of the Pillagers, who
    performs a journey for that purpose.—Recognize in his attendant
    the murderer of Gov. Semple.—Narrative of facts leading to this
    event.—Commence the descent of the river De Corbeau, passing
    successively the Longwater, Little Vermillion, Birch Ple,
    Boutwell’s Vieu, Desert, Summit, Long-rice, Allen’s, Johnston’s,
    and Leelina Lakes.—Junction of the Shell River fork.—Encamp in a
    storm._


On leaving the Gueule Plat’s village, the Surgeon and Interpreter,
with Lieut. Allen’s command, were left behind to complete the
vaccination of the Indians, while the rest of the party went forward a
couple of leagues, to form the night’s encampment. It was after seven
o’clock before they came up, and we waited some time after supper,
which is generally a late meal in voyaging, for the arrival of the
Indian guides, who had been promised to conduct us next day, to the
landing of the portage to the river De Corbeau. Morning, however,
came without them, and we embarked, (18th,) and proceeded towards the
southern shore of the lake, under the hope of being able to find the
portage, from the descriptions which had been given of it. Our course
lay, for a distance, along the peninsula, on which we had encamped.
Its trending too far to the east, induced us to hold a southerly
course across a spacious bay. On gaining its centre, doubts arose,
as to the proper course. A separation of the party was made. Part of
the canoes took a south, and part, a south-east course, having agreed
to concentrate on the firing of a gun, a signal which was eventually
given, by the southern canoes under Mr. Johnston and Lieut. Allen.
They had discovered a path, having every appearance of a portage,
being in the required direction. Examination served to confirm this
opinion. The baggage was immediately landed, the loose articles put
in a portable shape, and the order of march on a portage, taken up.
For this purpose, every article of the outfit, is originally put up
in the most compact and convenient form, not exceeding ninety pounds
weight. Pork is packed in kegs, flour in sail cloth bags, groceries
in wooden or tin canisters, goods in corded bales. These are carried
on the back, by a strong strap of leather passed around the forehead,
and tied by its tapering ends, to the bag, or other article, forming
the first, or lower piece. This is swung over the shoulders, and other
pieces laid on, to the number of two, or sometimes three, according to
the carrier’s strength. He then bends strongly forward, and proceeds
at a half trot. He goes on the length of a _pause_, say half a mile,
where the burden is put down, the strap untied, and the carrier, after
a few moments rest, briskly returns, for another load. This process is
continued till all the goods, are brought up to the first _pause_. The
canoe and its apparatus, are then brought up, when the men commence
making the second _pause_, and this order is repeated at every _pause_.
This is a severe labor, and requires able bodied men, well practiced.
And where the ground is low or swampy and often travelled, it soon
becomes a perfect bed of mire.

The present portage, however, was found to lie across a pine plain,
offering a clean beach of sand to debark on, and a dry smooth path to
travel. A portage of 1,078 yards, brought us to the banks of a small
lake, after crossing which we came to the entrance of a small clear
brook, having not over two or three inches depth of water, spread over
a bed of yellow sand. It seemed impossible to ascend it, especially
with the larger canoe, but by the men’s first carrying the lading, by
widening the channel in cutting down the banks with paddles, and then
by walking in the stream and lifting the canoe by its gunnels, they
succeeded in getting it up to another lake, called Little Long Lake. We
were twenty-four minutes in crossing this latter lake, and found its
inlet to be connected with four other small lakes of a pondy character,
redolent with nymphæ odorata, through which we successively passed,
and debarked at the head of the last lake on a shaking bog, being the
commencement of portage _Ple_. This portage is quite short and dry,
lies over a hill-prairie, and terminates on the banks of a transparent,
bowl-shaped lake, with elevated shores, where we made our breakfast,
at twelve o’clock. This lake, which we may refer to as the Lake of the
Mountains, notwithstanding the liveliness and purity of its waters, has
no visible outlet, a characteristic of which it partakes in common with
a very great number of the small lakes of this quarter, which may be
supposed to lie in aluminous strata. Next, in the order of travelling
south of it, is the Mountain Portage, appropriately so called. Its
extent is nine hundred and ten yards. The elevation is considerable,
but no rock strata appear in situ. The soil is diluvial, with boulders.
The growth, yellow pine, with small maples and underbrush. It
terminates on the Lake of the Island. There is then a portage of two
pauses, or 1,960 yards into another lake, quite pond-like, where it is
first entered, but assuming a clear and bright surface after turning a
prominent point. There is then a further portage of one pause, a part
of it, through a morass, but terminating on highlands, surrounding
the head and shores of a handsome and comparatively extensive sheet
of water called Kagi Nogumaug, or The Long Water, where we encamped
for the night. This day’s journey was a hard and fatiguing one, to
the men. The Gueule Plat, who with one of the minor chiefs from Leech
Lake, overtook us on the banks of the Lake of the Island, expressed his
surprise that, with all our baggage and heavy canoes, we had pushed
on so far. It was, however, a definite point in the journey. We were
now on the source of the Kagági, or De Corbeau river. To have stopped
short of it, would have seriously broken in on the labors of the
following day; and the knowledge that the series of portages terminated
there, and the downward passage commenced, buoyed up the men to make
exertions. The day was particularly severe upon the soldiers, who were
less accustomed to this species of fatigue. Never were the shadows
of night more grateful to men, who had employed the morning, and the
noon, and the evening of the day, in hard labor. We had now reached
the _fourth_ source of the primary rivers of the Mississippi, and all
heading on the elevation of the Hauteur des Terres, within a circle
of perhaps seventy miles. These sources are Itasca Lake, its primary,
Ossowa, east fork, Shiba Lake and river, source of Leech Lake, and the
present source, The Long Water, being the source of the De Corbeau, or
Crow-wing river.

Gueule Plat, with his Indian secretary, so to call him, or Mishinowa,
and their families, came and encamped with us. The chief said that he
had many things to speak of, for which he had found no time during my
visit. I invited him to sup with the party. Conversation on various
topics ensued, and the hour of midnight imperceptibly arrived, before
he thought of retiring to his own lodge. I was rather confirmed in the
favorable opinions I have before expressed of him, and particularly
in the ordinary, sober routine of his reflections, and the habitual,
easy manner, which he evinced of arriving at correct conclusions. I
could not say as much for his companion and pipe-lighter, Maji Gabowi,
a very tall, gaunt, and savage looking warrior, who appeared to be
made up, body and mind, of sensualities. And although he appeared to
be quiet and passive, and uttered not a single expression that implied
passion or vindiction, I could not divest my mind of the recollection
that I was in company with the murderer of Gov. Semple. Whoever has
given much attention to north-western affairs, will recollect that
this event occurred in the fierce strife carried on between the North
West and Hudson’s Bay Company. And that, in the desperate struggles
which these corporations made for the possession of the fur trade, the
Indians often became the dupes of whichever party appeared, at the
moment, to possess the power of influencing them. The event referred
to, took place near the close of a long struggle in which the spirit of
opposition had reached its acme, in which company was furiously arrayed
against company, charter against charter, and agent against agent. A
period, at which, like the increasing energies of two powerful bodies
moving towards each other, they were destined to come into violent
contact, and the destruction of one, or both, seemed inevitable. The
dispute respecting territory which imbittered the strife, appeared to
be carried on, not so much from political ambition or the intrinsic
value of the soil, as to decide which party should have the exclusive
right of gleaning from the lodges of the unfortunate natives, the only
commodity worth disputing for—their furs and peltries. A question, in
which the Indians, in reality, had no other interest, but that which a
serf may be supposed to feel on an exchange of masters, in which he has
neither the right to choose nor the power to reject. Whichever party
prevailed, they were sure to loose or gain nothing, if they kept aloof
from the contest, or if they had any hopes from its effects upon their
condition, they arose more from a prolongation, than a termination of
the rivalry, as they were sure to fare better, both “in script and
store,” so long as they possessed the option of rival markets.

Semple had accepted a governorship, which the late John Johnston, Esq.
had the forecast to refuse. He appeared to be a man zealously devoted
to the objects of the company (the Hudson’s Bay) whose interests were
committed to him. But he does not appear clearly to have perceived
the great difference which circumstances had interposed between a
magistracy in an English or Scottish county, and the naked solitudes
of Red River. He sallied forth himself, with a considerable retinue,
to read the riot act, to a disorderly and threatening assembly of all
kinds of a northwest population, on the plains. The agents and factors
of the North West Fur Company, were accused of being at the bottom
of this uproar, and it is certain that some of their servants were
engaged, either as actors or abettors. It is among the facts recorded
in a court of justice, that when certain of the clerks or partners of
the North West Company heard of the tragic result of this sally, they
shouted for joy.[17]

While the act was in the process of being read, one of the rioters
fired his piece. This was taken as a signal. A promiscuous and
scattering firing commenced. Semple was one of the first who received a
wound. He was shot in the thigh, and fell from his horse. He was unable
to sit up. At this moment a rush was made by the Indians in the North
West interest, and a total and most disastrous route of the Hudson’s
Bay party ensued. Panic, in its wildest forms, seized upon Semple’s
men. He was himself one of the first victims despatched. Maji Gabowi,
(one of our guests this evening) coming up, struck his tomahawk in his
head. He was then scalped.

We embarked at sunrise, on the 19th, bidding adieu to the Leech Lake
chief and his companion, who returned from this point, after having
requested, and received a lancet, with directions from Dr. Houghton,
for vaccinating such of his people as had not been present on the 17th.
We were forty minutes in passing the Kagi Nogumaug, which is a handsome
sheet of pure water presenting a succession of sylvan scenery. Its
outlet is a narrow brook overhung with alders. It may average a width
of six feet, but the bends are so extremely abrupt, and the channel so
narrowed with brushwood, that it became necessary to dig down the acute
points, and to use the axe in cutting away branches, to veer about a
canoe thirty-two feet in length. We were just half an hour in clearing
this passage, when the stream opened into another lake, denominated on
our travelling map, Little Vermillion Lake. The growth on the banks
of this lake is birch and aspen, with pines in the distance. We were
twenty minutes in passing it. The outlet is full doubled in width, and
free from the embarrassments encountered above. Tamarack is a frequent
tree on the shores, and the pond lily, flag and Indian reed, appear in
the stream. This outlet is followed about eight miles, where it expands
into a small lake, called Birch Lake, which we were only thirteen
minutes in passing. Its outlet exhibits a pebbly bottom, interspersed
with boulders, which produce so much inequality in the depth, that the
men were obliged often to wade. Not more than seven or eight minutes
were thus occupied, in the course of which we passed through a broken
fish-dam, when we entered another expanse called _Lac Ple_.

Lac Ple is about three and a half, or four miles long. Vegetation here
appears to show a more southerly character. Part of its shores are
prairie, interspersed with small pines. It is particularly deserving
of notice, as being the point, from which a series of portages is made
to Ottertail Lake. A map of these furnished by the traders, who often
use this route, exhibits the following features. First, a portage of
four pauses, to Island Lake, then a portage of one pause, into a small
lake, which has an outlet, through another small lake into Lake Lagard,
having a transverse position. Thence half a pause, into a small lake, a
pause and a half into another small lake, and thence four pauses into
Migiskun Aiaub, or Fish-line Lake. Thence one pause into Pine Lake, and
five into a small river which falls into Scalp Lake. The latter has
an outlet which expands into three lakes, at nearly equal distances
apart, and is finally received by Lac Terrehaut, on the Height of Land.
The outlet of the latter is twice expanded into the form of a Lake,
the last of which is, from its peculiarities called the Two Lakes,
and is finally discharged west of the Height of Land, into Ottertail
Lake. I had designed to come down this route, or down Leaf river, had
circumstances favored my going into Red river, from the sources of the
Mississippi. But these sources were found so much further south, than
it had been supposed, and so considerably removed from any practicable
route into Red river that I found it would be a consumption of time
altogether disproportionate to the anticipated results; and it was,
therefore, given up.

On going out of Lac Ple, the channel exhibits numerous fresh water
shells driven up against the shore, or lodged against inequalities
in the bottom.[18] And these productions are afterwards seen in all
the subsequent outlets which connect the numerous lakes of this
river. But little variety was, however, noticed among the species,
although greater attention than we could bestow, might elicit new
characteristics. Generally, they were small, or middle sized, often
decorticated and broken. Soon after entering this channel, one of my
men fired at, and brought down, a fork-tailed hawk, a species which
had before been noticed on the wing, but we had now an opportunity of
closer scrutiny. We did not observe any characteristics in which it
differed from the described species. And if we except the numerous
species of duck, the colomba migratoris, catbird, and some other land
species almost equally common, this constitutes the substance of our
observations, on the birds of this river. We saw the deer, of which
there are apparently two species. And we had frequent occasion to
observe the antlers and bones of these animals around deserted camps,
evincing their abundance in this part of the country.

We had been three fourths of an hour in descending this outlet,
when we entered a lake called Boutwell, with banks of rather sombre
vegetation, which we were nineteen minutes in passing. Its outlet, of
a spreading, sandy, shelly character, is about a mile and a half in
extent, at which distance it expands into Lac Vieux Desert, or the Lake
of the Old Wintering Ground, where we halted long enough to prepare
breakfast. This lake we were twenty-six minutes in passing through.
Its outlet is about two miles long, where it again expands into a lake
of about two and a quarter miles extent, which may, from its position,
be denominated Summit Lake. The course, which, from the Kagi Nogumaug,
is thus far generally south-west, here suddenly veers to the east and
northeast, and after a striking circuit, comes round to the south-east,
and eventually again to the south-west, before its junction with Shell
River. And the stream which thus far seems to have its course on a
level or summit, is here deflected into a valley, and is beset with
rapids, and by the flood wood lodged upon its banks, and their partial
denudation, puts on the appearance of a stream which must sometimes
assume the fury of a torrent. It probably, at such times, is a turbid
stream, but was now clear with a gravelly bottom. We were hurried along
through this channel for the space of two hours and fifteen minutes,
when it expanded into Long-rice Lake. We were thirty-five minutes in
passing this lake. Shortly below it, the channel expands again into a
lake, which from Lieut. Allen’s exploring it, we called Allen’s Lake.
It is probably the largest of the series below the Kagi Nogumaug. It
receives a tributary from the northwest, which was visited by Lieut.
Allen.

The atmosphere had for some time admonished us of a storm, and it
broke upon us, on entering this lake. Dark clouds rolled over each
other, until the light of day was sensibly and suddenly obscured. We
have seldom known an equal quantity of the electric fluid discharged
in so short a space of time, or with the incessant repetition of an
electric light, so subtle and painful to be endured. The rain fell in
a heavy and continued torrent, and it began with gusts of wind which
threw the canoe-men into alarm. They veered the canoe for the nearest
shore, but before reaching it, the tempest settled, and the rain fell
less violently. We therefore, continued our way without landing, and
passed out of the lake. A short channel, on the banks of which the
elm and oak appeared conspicuously, terminated in a moderate sized
lake of handsomely elevated hard wood and pine shores, for which, as
our maps afforded neither Indian nor French name, we made use of the
circumstance of Mr. Johnston’s landing to fire at a deer, to name it
after him. On going out of this lake, we had our attention excited
by an unextinguished fire, on the banks of the outlet. But no person
appeared, nor was there any canoe ashore, nor lodge-poles, which there
would have been, in the case of a travelling Chippewa family. These
evidences were deemed conclusive by the canoe-men, of the presence of
Sioux, who, it is supposed, perceiving the character of the party,
had concealed themselves. And the circumstance was suited to alarm
a class of men, who, being of the Gallic-Chippewa race, retain very
strong attachments to the Chippewas, and have imbibed with very little
abatement, all the prejudices which this people feel for a powerful
hereditary enemy.

An hour’s voyage from this spot brought us to the entrance and merely
to the entrance of the eleventh, and last lake of the series called
Kaichibo Sagitowa, or the Lake which the River passes through one End
of, or Lake Leelina. Not many miles below this point, the river forms
its first forks, by the junction of Shell river, a considerable stream
of nearly equal size with itself. Below this point, there is always
water enough, although the channel exhibits numerous rapids, and is
often spread over a wide bed, giving rise to shallows. We descended
about fourteen miles below the junction, and encamped. It was after
eight o’clock when we put ashore. The rain had fallen, with steadiness
for some hours previous. And the flashes of lightning, which lit up the
sombre channel of the stream, excited a feeling of no very pleasant
kind. We landed wet, cold and cheerless. The rain continued to fall.
But the cheerfulness and activity of our canoe-men did not desert them.
They searched among the prostrate vegetation, to discover dry fibres,
or the unwetted parts that could be pulled from the nether rind of
fallen trees. They ignited the mass with spunk, and soon sent up the
gladdening flames of an ample camp fire. To pitch the tent, arrange
its interior furniture, and place the heavy baggage under oil-cloths,
secure from rain, or night dews, is the work of a few moments with
these people—and he who would travel fast over an intricate interior
route and be well served on the way, should not fail to prepare himself
with a canoe _allége_ and a crew of _voyagèurs_. They will not only
go, when they are bid to go, but they will go unmurmuringly. And after
submitting to severe labor, both of the night and day, on land and
water, they are not only ready for further efforts, but will make them
under the enlivening influence of a song.




                             CHAPTER XII.

  _Further descent of the De Corbeau.—Remarks on its general
    course and character.—Junction of Leaf and Long Prairie
    Rivers.—The latter pursued by the Pillagers in their wars
    against the Sessitons and Yanktons.—Cause of the appellation of
    Mukkundwa.—Their robbery of Berti, and assertion of a belligerent
    principle.—Forest trees of the De Corbeau.—Monotony of its
    scenery.—Meeting with a Chippewa hunter.—Arrival at the mouth
    of the river, and entrance of the Mississippi.—Concourse of
    Indians assembled at that point.—Council with them.—Sketch of the
    speeches of Grosse Gueule, Soangikumig, and White Fisher.—Arrival
    of the Pierced Prairie.—First intelligence of the breaking out of
    the Sauc War.—Close of the Narrative.—Notice of the effects of
    the disuse of ardent spirits by the men, and the observance of
    the Sabbath._


The ensuing portion of our voyage down this stream, occupied a day and
a half, during which we probably descended a hundred and twenty miles.
Its general course, from the forks, is south-east. It is swelled by
two principal tributaries from the west, called Leaf and Long Prairie
rivers, each of which brings in an ample volume, and both bear the
impress of draining an extensive area. On the other bank, it is joined
by the Kioshk, or Gull River, a stream of inferior size. Lesser streams
or creeks, were noticed at several points, on either shore, by which
the mass of water is considerably augmented. Altogether it is a stream
of noble size, and is driven on through a diluvial formation, with a
velocity indicating no small ratio of descent. There is no part of it,
which can be called still water; much of it is rapid. For about seventy
miles below the junction of Shell River, there is a regular series of
distinct rapids, in each of which, the descent is several feet, and
it requires dexterity to avoid running against the boulders, or “lost
rocks,” which shew themselves above the water. Below the junction
of Leaf River, this characteristic becomes less noticeable, and it
disappears entirely, below the entrance of the Long Prairie branch.
Its banks are elevated, presenting to the eye, a succession of pine
forests, on the one hand, and an alluvial bend, bearing elms and soft
maple, on the other. There is a small willow island about eighteen
miles below the junction of Shell river, and several small elm islands
in its central parts; but nothing at all comparable, in size, soil and
timber, with the large and noted island, called _Isle De Corbeau_,
which marks its junction with the Mississippi.

Long Prairie River is the avenue through which the Chippewas ascend, in
their war excursions against the Sessitons and Yanktons. And many tales
are related of mishaps and adventures on this stream, and the plains
contiguous to it. Some of these it may be supposed, are _tales_ merely.
Others are the events of Indian history. But truth and fiction appear
to be so blended in the accounts, that the separation of the one, from
the other, must be often difficult, if not impossible. The recent war
party, of which we saw one of the trophies, while encamped on the
island of Colcaspi, went up this river in canoes. They encountered the
Sioux, as they affirm, coming out against them. A fight ensued in the
prairies, and was continued with changes of position throughout the
day. Three Sioux and one Chippewa fell. The Sioux withdrew to a more
remote position near their village. And the Chippewas returned to exult
over the scalps of their enemy, and to meditate another blow. We saw
several traces of this war party in our descent of the De Corbeau, in
their places of hasty encampment, and also in remains of very small
fires, tracks in landing on an open sand bank, and abandoned canoes,
stranded and partly sunk, on the shores.

This war, between the Chippewas and Sioux, appears to be of ancient
origin. It is at least coeval with the discovery of the country.
Although the Chippewas are confessedly conquerors of the country they
possess on this border, the conquests are of remote date. For the
French, in exploring northward, found them already seated here. The
part the Leech Lake Indians have played in this war, has rendered
them conspicuous in their nation, and as before indicated, led to
the appellation of Mukkundwais, or Pillagers, by which they are
distinctively known. The circumstances which imposed upon them this
name, are these.

Tradition asserts that in the interval which happened between
the first attack on the French power in Canada, and the final
acknowledgment of English supremacy, great irregularities existed
in the fur trade in this quarter. The French were loved by the
Indians, and naturally retained their influence to the last. And when
the English entered the field of the trade, they were essentially
dependent upon French clerks, and wholly so, on French or Canadian
boatmen. During this era, a Mr. Berti entered the country, with a
large assortment of goods. He took his station at the mouth of the De
Corbeau, where he carried on a lucrative trade with the Chippewas. He
had, however, more goods than these had furs to purchase, and among
them, guns and ammunition, which he very well knew would find a ready
sale among the Sioux. But, the Leech Lake Indians, forbid his going
into the Sioux country, alleging that the Sioux were their enemies, and
that the putting of guns and powder in their hands, would be to join
their cause. Mr. Berti did not probably consider these declarations
as absolutely final, for he proceeded towards the mouth of the Long
Prairie River, in order to go to the Sioux. The result, however, was
most disastrous to him. This band arrested his progress, and with arms
in their hands, robbed him of all his goods without discrimination, but
spared his own life and the lives of his men, who were suffered to go
back, with their private effects. Mr. Berti was probably overwhelmed by
this misfortune, for he never returned from the country, but soon after
this event, died a natural death, and was buried in the region about
Sandy Lake.

The forest of this fork of the Mississippi, abounds in almost every
variety of the pine family. We observed the sugar maple less frequently
on our whole route, than would be inferred from the knowledge,
that this tree is spread over the sources of the Mississippi, and
flourishes, even in its most northern latitudes; and that the sugar
made from it, is relied on by the Indians, as one of the regular of the
minor means of their subsistence. This may be accounted for, perhaps
satisfactorily, from knowing that river alluvions, and low grounds
generally, are unfavorable to its growth. Its true position is the
uplands, to which the Indians are known to resort, in the season of
sugar making. Other species of the maple, frequently exhibited their
soft foliage, over the stream, together with the elm, and the ash, and
some varieties of the oak. Pine is, however, by far the most abundant
and valuable timber tree, disclosed along the immediate banks of this
river, and it affords a repository of this species, which will be
much resorted to, when the agricultural plains above the falls of St.
Anthony, shall teem with their destined population.

The mere exhibition of woods and waters, however inspiring in their
effects, is not sufficient to keep the attention from flagging, if
there be no striking succession of variety in their character. It
seems not less a physical, than a moral truth, that “uniformity will
tire, though it be uniformity of excellence.” The eye is perpetually
searching for something new, and however it may have been with other
explorers, I think we may venture to say, that with us, novelty has
been a far more constant or immediate passion, than utility. The
“lightning splintered” pine, which raises its dead arms, amid the
living foliage, is suited to call forth a remark. The waterfowl with a
tuft, or the shell with a deep cicatrice or a pearly interior, gives
occasion for interrupting the silence, that plainer species would have
left unbroken. And it is this search for something distinctive or
peculiar, that gives an edge to the zeal of discovery.

On the third day of our voyage down this river, towards noon the
monotony of its incidents, was relieved by descrying an Indian canoe,
ascending the channel before us. A simultaneous yell of recognition,
both from it, and from our men, shewed the accuracy, with which each
could identify, on a first glance, and at a distance, the approach of
friends, for it proved to be a Chippewa with his family. Our flag-staff
was instantly placed in its socket, in the stern of the canoe, and the
distance between us and them, made to appear less, under the influence
of _un chanson du voyageur_. The Indian, who, on reaching him, seemed
pleased, informed us that we were at no great distance from the mouth
of the river, where the Sandy Lake and Mille Lac bands were assembled,
awaiting our arrival. And that the count, by which they were assured of
the day appointed for meeting them, would be finished with the setting
of this day’s sun. We had pushed forward to attain the object, and were
highly gratified, that it had pleased a favoring Providence, to enable
us to keep our word, with them. Every face in this canoe, appeared to
wear a smile, and the _maja! maja!_ which the owner of it uttered on
parting, conveyed with a truth, which could hardly be mistaken, the
equivalent English sentiment of “God speed you!”

The remainder of the distance was easily despatched. We reached
the parting of the channels, which encloses the large island of _De
Corbeau_, about twelve o’clock. On issuing out of the upper channel,
and entering the broad current of the majestic Mississippi, we beheld
the opposite shore lined with Indian lodges, with the American flag
conspicuously displayed. The Indians commenced firing a salute the
instant we hove in sight, and continued it, with yells of joy, to the
moment of our landing. A throng then crowded the banks, among whom I
recognized the two principal chiefs, who, with their retinue, evinced,
both by word and act, the gratification they felt; not only at the
meeting, but the punctuality with which it had been observed. We were
gratified on being told, within a few hours of our arrival, that our
canoe, with the goods and supplies from Sandy Lake, was in sight; and
soon found the event verified, in the safe arrival of the men, and the
landing of the packages.

Being thus enabled to proceed with the council, it was determined
immediately to assemble the Indians, and state to them, in a more full
and formal manner than had been done at Sandy Lake, the objects of the
visit. On closing the address, the presents and provisions designed
for these bands, were issued to them. Kwiwizainsish, or the Grosse
Gueule, Soangikumig, or the Strong Ground, White Fisher, and the son of
Pugusainjigun, were the principal speakers in reply. The peculiarities
in the speech of each, may be adverted to.

The Grosse Gueule, observed, that, as the line was a question between
the Chippewas and Sioux, a firm peace could never exist, until the line
was surveyed and marked, so that each party could see where it ran.
This was wanted in the section of country, immediately west of them.
The Sioux, were in the habit of trespassing on it. And when their own
hunters went out, in the pursuit of game, they did not like to stop
short of the game, and they saw no marked line to stop them. He said
that it had been promised at the treaty at Prairie du Chien, that
the line should be run, and he wished me to convey his words on the
subject, to the President. He was in favor of peace now as he had been,
when he had met the Government in council at Tipisagi, and at Fond du
Lac.

Soangikumig,[19] said, through his brother, that he had taken a part in
defending the lines. He hoped that they might be made plain, so that
each party could see them. As it was, a perpetual pretence was given,
for crossing the path, (or lines.) It must be expected that the peace
would often be broken, when it could be, so easily.

Wabojeeg, or the White Fisher, stated that he had given his influence
to peace counsels. He had been present at the treaty of Fond du Lac.
The Sandy Lake Indians had been lately reproached, as it were, for
their pacific character, by hearing the Leech Lake war party passing
so near to them. (This party went up Long Prairie River.) He hoped the
same advice given to Chippewas, would be given to Sioux. If the Sioux
would not _come_ over the lines, they, (the Chippewas,) would not
_go_ over them. He thought the lines might have been differently run.
Their hunters always came out of Sauc river, which had been given up
to the Sioux. But as they had been agreed to, by their old Chiefs, who
were now gone, (he referred particularly to the late Katawabida, and
Babisikundadi,) it would be best to let them remain.

Nittum Egabowa, or the Front Standing Man, confined his speech to
personal topics. He said the medal he wore, and by virtue of which, he
claimed the Chieftainship, had been presented to his deceased father,
at the treaty of Prairie du Chien. He presented a pipe.

Ascertaining the trading house of a Mr. Baker to be near our
encampment, after closing the council, we embarked and descended the
Mississippi about eighteen miles to _Prairie Piercée_. Intelligence had
reached this place a few days before, by way of St. Peter’s, of open
hostilities among the Saucs and Foxes, and we here saw a western paper,
giving an account of an action with the militia on River Rock, the
murder of St. Vrain, the agent for these tribes, and other particulars
indicating the frontier to be irretrievably plunged into an Indian war.

At this point, (i. e. the mouth of the De Corbeau) a remote point
in our north-western geography, the route, of which the preceeding
sketches give an outline, intersects that of the expedition to the
sources of the Mississippi, under the direction of the present
Secretary of War, Gov. Cass, in 1820. And in order that no part of the
present volume may be considered as going over grounds pre-occupied by
the details embraced in our “Narrative Journal of Travels,” the account
of the present expedition is here terminated.

In submitting it to the public, it is conceived suitable to remark,
that it has been accomplished, from beginning to end, without the use
of so much as a drop of ardent spirits, of any kind, either by the
men upon whom the fatigues of the labor fell, or by the gentlemen who
composed the exploring party. This fact itself might be deemed an empty
annunciation, were it not in my power to add the gratifying result,
that no diminution of the strength or capacity of the men to perform
their labor has been, at any time experienced; nor has any sickness
at all supervened. At no stage of the journey, have the men, who were
originally engaged with a distinct understanding on this point, asked
for or required any liquor, or evinced any murmuring that it had been
excluded from the supplies. But even, where the labor was most severe,
on portages, in morasses, or in crossing highlands, they have evinced
a readiness, a cheerfulness, and an ability for sustaining continued
fatigue, which has often been the subject of remark and commendation by
the party. Often when the day’s work was done, when they had labored
hard at the paddle or carrying-strap, and sometimes when even a portion
of the night had been added to it, they showed a joyful spirit in
the encampment. And they frequently went to gather wood, after such
fatigues, for supplying the night fires, with the boatman’s song.

Another fact, may, with equal pleasure, be recorded, and it seems
intimately connected, in its influence with the preceeding. No Sabbath
day was employed in travelling. It was laid down as a principle, to
rest on that day, and wherever it overtook us, whether on the land,
or on the water, the men knew that their labor would cease, and
that the day would be given them for rest. Such of them as felt the
inclination, had the further privilege of hearing a portion of the
scriptures read, or expounded, or uniting in other devotional rites.
There were but a few hours of a single morning and a few hours of a
single evening, of separate Sabbaths, at distant points, which were
necessarily employed in reaching particular places. And the use of
these appeared to be unavoidable under the particular circumstances of
our local position. It may, perhaps, be thought, that the giving up of
one seventh part of the whole time, employed on a public expedition
in a very remote region, and with many men to subsist, must have, in
this ratio, increased the time devoted to the route. But the result
was far otherwise. The time devoted to recruit the men, not only gave
the surgeon of the party an opportunity to heal up the bruises and
chafings they complained of, but it replenished them with strength;
they commenced the week’s labor with renewed zest, and this zest was,
in a measure, kept up by the reflection, that the ensuing Sabbath
would be a day of rest. It was found by computing the whole route,
and comparing the time employed, with that which had been devoted on
similar routes, in this part of the world, that an equal space had been
gone over, in less time, than it had ever been known to be performed,
by loaded canoes, or (as the fact is) by light canoes, before. And the
whole expedition, its incidents and results, have been of a character
furnishing strong reasons for uniting in ascriptions of praise to that
Eternal Power, who hath been our shield from “the pestilence that
walketh in darkness, and from the destruction that wasteth at noon-day.”




                           EXPLORATORY TRIP
                              THROUGH THE
                        ST. CROIX AND BURNTWOOD
                          (OR BRULÉ) RIVERS.


[Illustration: _Sᵗ. CROIX AND MISACODA OR BURNTWOOD RIVERS._]




                        INTRODUCTORY MEMORANDA.


  The principal points at which the waters of the Mississippi river
  communicate, by interlocking rivers and portages, with the lakes,
  are the following, proceeding from south to north, namely,

  1. By the Illinois and Chicago Creek, (with Lake Michigan.)

  2. By the Wisconsin and Fox Rivers, (with Green Bay.)

  3. By the Chippewa and Mushkee (or Mauvais) Rivers, (with Lake
  Superior.)

  4. By the St. Croix and Burntwood (or Brulé) Rivers, (do.)

  5. By the Savanne and St. Louis Rivers, (do.)

  The routes by the Illinois, and by the Wisconsin, were first
  laid open by French enterprise, and have been used for canoes
  and flat-bottomed boats in their natural state, and without any
  practical improvement which as yet, facilitates the communication,
  about a hundred and sixty years. They are so familiar in our
  geography, have been so much explored, and are so well appreciated,
  as prominent points for effecting canal and railroad routes, that
  it is only to be desired that early and efficient measures should
  be taken for opening them.

  The route of the Chippewa (or Sauteaux) River, is imperfectly
  known, and has never been fully and accurately delineated and
  described. It is a long river, having a number of fingered
  branches, which spread over a large area of interior midland
  country. They are connected, at distant points, with the principal
  sources of the St. Croix and the Wisconsin of the Mississippi; with
  the Mushkee, the Montreal, and the Ontonagon of Lake Superior; and
  with the Monomonee, and the North Branch of Fox River of Green Bay.
  The portages are of no great length, but being at considerable
  altitudes above both the Mississippi and the lakes, and remote from
  either, they are impracticable for boats.

   In 1766 or ’67, J. Carver ascended the Chippewa River to the
  Ottawa Fork. He ascended it no higher, and his delineations of
  it, on the map which accompanied his original work, published in
  London, cannot now be referred to. Dr. Douglass Houghton, and
  Lieut. Robert E. Clary, U. S. A. delineated this stream, in 1831,
  to the junction of the Red Cedar Fork, and up that fork to its
  source in Lac Chetac; they continued the delineation of the route
  thence, by portages, into the Ottawa Fork of the Chippewa, up that
  river to Lac Courtorielle, or Ottawa Lake, and thence by a series
  of short portages, to the Namakagon Branch of the St. Croix, and up
  that branch, to the commencement of the series of portages, which
  connect it with the Mushkee or Mauvais River of Lake Superior.
  The latter river was delineated in its entire length. These
  topographical observations, were commenced at the most easterly
  point of the route. They remain in manuscript. Duplicates of them
  have been communicated to the government.

  The route of the St. Croix and Brulé, describes a shorter line
  between Lake Superior and the Mississippi, than the preceeding; and
  it is one, that has been, and continues to be, much used by the
  traders and by the resident Indian population. We cannot refer,
  however, to any accurate delineation of it, or to any printed
  account of the country. Carver, in his way to the Kiministiquoia,
  or Grand Portage, visited the upper forks of the St. Croix, and
  descended the Burntwood, or Brulé, to which he gave the name of
  Goddard’s River.

  The channel of communication which exists through the Savanne and
  St. Louis Rivers, was delineated by Capt. D. B. Douglass, as a
  member of the expedition sent into that quarter by the government
  in 1820. But the result of his observations, has not been given to
  the public. The route has been again delineated with care, in its
  whole extent, from Fond du Lac to Sandy Lake, during the present
  year, by Lieut. James Allen, of the U. S. Army, and will with his
  other delineations, be transmitted for the use of the Topographical
  Bureau at Washington.

  Lieut. Allen’s delineations, also, embrace the St. Croix and
  Burntwood Rivers, in their whole length; and exhibit the first
  actual survey of these streams, which the topographical history of
  the region, presents.

   Portions of these surveys have been prepared by the officer
  making them, to illustrate the present volume, together with the
  octavo sketches, which accompany the Narrative to Itasca, Cass and
  Leech Lakes.




                              EXPLORATION
                                OF THE
                    ST. CROIX AND BURNTWOOD RIVERS.

                              CHAPTER I.

  _Interval of the banks of the Mississippi, between the mouths of
    the River De Corbeau and St. Croix, adverted to.—Plains above St.
    Anthony’s Falls, agricultural.—Fact respecting the recession of
    the bison.—Geological change in the character of the Mississippi,
    in crossing 45 deg. parallel.—Fort Snelling.—Council.—Reach
    the mouth of the St. Croix.—Picturesque character of St. Croix
    Lake.—Traits of its natural history.—Encamp near a diminutive
    kind of barrows.—“Standing Cedars.”—An Indian trader.—Green-stone
    rock.—Falls of the St. Croix.—Traditionary account of an ancient
    Indian battle, fought at these falls by the Chippewas, Saucs,
    Foxes, and Sioux.—Wahb Ojeeg._


That portion of the Upper Mississippi, lying between the junction
of the De Corbeau and St. Anthony’s Falls, presents to the eye a
succession of prairie and forest land, which has the characteristics
of a valuable agricultural country. It is difficult in passing it, to
resist the idea, that it will, at some future day, sustain a dense
population. It is so elevated above the bed of the Mississippi, as to
be out of the reach of its periodical floods. The banks are rendered
permanent by resting upon a basis of fixed rocks, (the primitive,)
which appear in the channel of the river. The soil is arable upland,
apparently light, but of that ferruginous character, which has
turned out so durable and fertile in Michigan. Like the prairies of
the latter, the plough might be set in motion, without the labor of
clearing and grubbing, and a farm reclaimed with no additional labor
but that of fencing. Wood is often wanting on the immediate margin
of the river. It is not always so; and when thus wanting, forests
may be observed on the hilly grounds, at a distance. Wild hay might
be cut in any quantity. It is among the facts which mark the natural
history of the region, that the buffalo, or more strictly speaking,
the bison, which fed on these plains, in 1820, has not appeared here
since. The Virginia deer and the elk are, however, still abundant. The
absence of lime stone will probably prove the most formidable bar to
its settlement. Nothing of this kind is found except in its southern
borders. There appears to be no formations of rock elevated above the
soil, but the limited district called the _Pètites Roches_. And the
strata here are exclusively referable to the primitive series.

The entrances of a small river called Nokassippi, about two hundred
miles above St. Anthony’s Falls, may be considered as the termination
of this tract. Above this point, although the Mississippi has some rich
alluvions, as at the mouth of Sandy Lake River, its vegetation assumes
generally an alpine character, and a large portion of the wide area of
its valley, is traversed by pine ridges, with innumerable intervening
lakes, and extensive tracts of, what the natives denominate, mushkeegs.

On crossing through the forty-fifth parallel of latitude, the
Mississippi exhibits a change in the materials of its banks preparatory
to its entering the limestone region. This is first rendered strikingly
visible on the rapids immediately above the Falls of St. Anthony. The
fall itself is an imposing exhibition of geological scenery. The river
here sinks its level about forty feet, in the distance of, say 1,500
yards.[20] Sixteen feet of this has been estimated to consist of a
perpendicular fall, reaching, with irregularities from shore to shore.
Debris is accumulated in rude masses below, and the rapids are filled
with fallen or rolled rocks which impart a character of wildness to the
scene. We made a portage of 1,250 yards, having descended nearer to
the brink of the fall than is common. Fort Snelling is situated at the
estimate distance of nine miles below the falls, at the junction with
the river St. Peter’s. It occupies a commanding position, and exercises
it may be inferred, an important influence over the contiguous Indian
tribes, and the Indian trade. We reached this post on the 24th of
July. Capt. Jouett, the commanding officer, promptly afforded every
facility for communicating the object of the visit to the Sioux, and
requesting their concurrence, which was promised by the chiefs, in a
council convened at the Agency House. We refer to the subjoined report
for its results. No recent details of the progress of the Sauc war, had
been received. Having accomplished the object we proceeded down the
Mississippi, and reached the mouth of the St. Croix, at three o’clock
in the afternoon of the 26th, five days before the decisive action of
Gen. Atkinson with the combined Saucs and Foxes below.

The River St. Croix has one peculiarity, to distinguish it from all
other American rivers. It has its source and its termination in a
lake, and each of these bears the same name with itself. The lake at
its mouth is not less than thirty miles in length, and is, probably,
no where, much over a mile wide. Its banks are high and afford a
series of picturesque views, which keep the eye constantly on the
stretch. The country is an upland prairie, interspersed with groves
and majestic eminences. The waters are beautifully transparent, and
the margin exhibits a pebbly beach, so cleanly washed, that it would
scarcely afford earth enough to stain the fairest shoe. If “Loch
Katrine” presents a more attractive outline of sylvan coast, it must be
beautiful indeed. We went up it, turning point after point, with the
pleasure that novelty imparts, aided by the chanting of our canoe-men.
We were in hourly expectation of reaching its head for our night
encampment; but we saw the sun set, casting its golden hues and its
deep shadows over the water, and going down in a gorgeous amphitheatre
of fleecy clouds. The moon almost imperceptibly shone out, to supply
its place, creating a scene of moonlight stillness, which was suited to
fix a living impression of

    “The silence that is in the starry sky,
     The sleep that is among the lonely hills.”

Nothing could present a greater contrast, to the noisy scene of horses
and horsemen, war and bloodshed, which, we were then unconscious,
was about being acted, so near to us. We allude to the pursuit and
destruction of the Black Hawk’s army.

We encamped at a late hour, near a lofty eminence, which exhibited
on its summit, a number of small mounds or barrows strongly relieved
by the moonlight, which shone across the eminence, and left us in
the shade. We resumed our way again, before the hour of five in the
morning, (27th) and were still something more than two hours in
reaching the head of the lake. In going out of this beautiful sheet
of water, we would revert to some traits in its natural productions
which serve to distinguish it, as well as its prominent scenery,
although there are none equally distinctive. The great carboniferous
limestone formation,[21] which fills the Mississippi valley, also
reaches here, although there is now reason to believe that it reaches
but little farther north. Its vegetation has little that is peculiar.
The red cedar is found, hanging from some of its craggy shores on the
lower part. Some fresh water shells, generally thin and small, with
primary and lateral teeth wanting, characterize the sandy portions of
its shore. There are some willow islands at the point where the River
St. Croix enters it. And this point of the ingress of a large stream,
presents the characteristics of what have been, not inaptly, called
_drowned lands_, i. e. land bearing trees permanently standing in the
water.

The St. Croix above this point exhibits the appearance of a wide,
deep, ample river, with prominent banks, and forests of hard wood, and
pine species. Its islands consist of rich alluvions, heavily timbered
and subject to inundations. About two o’clock we passed the “Standing
Cedars,” a point called so, in the treaty of limits between the Sioux
and Chippewa tribes, and described in the inexact phraseology of the
Indians, to be “about a day’s paddle, in a canoe, above the lake.”
Howbeit, we were but a few minutes over nine hours, in performing the
distance, with a strong crew of _engagés_, however, in light canoes,
and with every appliance in pushing forward.

As evening approached, we encountered a man descending the river,
having four canoes in company, with several Frenchmen and their Indian
families. It turned out to be a Mr. B. who had been engaged in trade,
in the Chippewa country. We examined his papers to determine whether
he had been legally licensed, and caused a search of his canoes in
quest of whiskey. None of this article, or strong drink of any kind was
discovered. Little doubt had been felt, from information, which was
not, however proved, of his having used this article in the course of
his trade; whether with or without permission, could not be determined.
We revoked his license for the unexpired part of the time specified in
it, and permitted him to proceed out of the country, with the canoes
and the very trifling property which he possessed, which seemed,
indeed, to be essential to the mere subsistence of the numerous persons
with him.

The narrowing of the valley, and increased rapidity of the current,
had, for some time, admonished us of our approach to the falls. About
six o’clock we entered through a defile, formed by perpendicular walls
of rock on either shore. Its seamed and mossy surface did not permit us
to determine its character, without getting a fresh fracture. It proved
to be greenstone. We were in the midst of a formation of this rock, and
for two hours, urged our way up rapids and swift channels, made by the
broken and angular character of this stratum. We reached the foot of
the falls, and encamped there at eight o’clock in the evening.

The word “falls,” as applied here, is but another name for
impracticable rapids. The river tears its way through a vast bed of
greenstone, whose black and square masses, stand on either side, and
in the bed of the stream. Common quartz, imperfectly chrystalized, is
seen in the mass, and is the sole mineral apparent, although a more
attentive search may disclose others. A portage of four hundred yards
is made to avoid the falls. But there is still a series of rapids,
extending, with short interruptions, several miles above.

The physical character of this spot is such as to arrest a passing
attention; but it is inferior to the moral interest arising out of it.
It is the battle ground of Wahb Ojeeg, a celebrated Chippewa war chief
of the last century, and testifies to an event in Indian tradition,
which is not so remote as to be added to the events of the oblivious
years of their residence upon this continent. We have neither time nor
space to enter into details of this kind, and can merely advert to the
incident we have named. Like most of the incidents of Indian warfare
in the region, it is connected with the restless spirit, erratic
adventure, and ambitious daring of the tribes who are, this season,
(1832,) arrayed in hostility to the settlements on the Wisconsin. It
is one of the links of the curious chain of history, of the Sauc and
Fox tribes, who have fought their way from the St. Lawrence, thus
far across the continent, and been successively embroiled, with each
of the white powers, and, perhaps with some exceptions, with each of
the Indian tribes of the north. They appear, by their language and
traditions, to be Algonquins, and may be traced, as a starting point,
to the north shores of Lake Ontario. They appear to have been driven
thence for perfidy. They attacked the fort of Detroit, unsuccessfully.
They lived long at, and gave name to Sagana. They went to the Fox
River of Green Bay which is named after them, and here embroiled
themselves with the Monomonees, the Chippewas and the French. They were
finally driven thence by force of arms. They fled to the Wisconsin
where Carver speaks of their villages in 1766, thence to their recent
residence on Rock River, and by the last tragic act in their history,
are confined to a limit commencing west of the Mississippi. We speak
of the Saucs and Foxes as connected, in the gauntlet-like warfare they
have maintained, for they appear to have been intimate allies from the
earliest times. The Indian name of the one tribe signifies, Those who
went out of the land, (Osaukee,) and the other, Redearths, (Miskwakee,)
known by the _nom de guerre_, of Foxes.

While resident at Green Bay, they occupied also Lac du Flambeau, and
extended themselves to Lake Superior, and south-west of its shores, to
the Sauc and Little Sauc Rivers, above the Falls of St. Anthony. While
thus located, they appear to have fallen out with the Chippewas, their
cousins-german, and leagued with the Sioux, whom they have, of late,
so strenuously fought. With the aid of the latter, at first covertly
given, they maintained the possession of the rice lakes and midland
hunting grounds. But they were finally overthrown in a general defeat,
at these falls, by the combined Chippewa bands of Lake Superior.
The latter came down the St. Croix, by its Namakagon branch. They
were led by Wahb Ojeeg. Their spies reached the falls without having
encountered an enemy, but they unexpectedly found the Foxes, (whom
they call Ootaigahmees,) with their allies, encamped at the other end
of the portage. A partial action ensued. It was rendered general by
the arrival of the whole Chippewa force. It was a fierce and bloody
action. The Foxes made a resolute stand. But they were overpowered and
fled. And they have not since re-appeared in the region. Among the
slain several Sioux were found, and this is said to be the first actual
testimony of the Sioux being leagued with them, in the war against the
Chippewas. But this assertion is hardly reconcileable with the date of
the war in other places.

Wahb Ojeeg, or the White Fisher, who is noticed as the leader on this
occasion, is said to have led out seven other expeditions against the
Foxes and Sioux. He died at Chegoimegon, in Lake Superior, in 1793.




                              CHAPTER II.

  _Ascent of the St. Croix above the falls.—Direct the burning
    of illegal trading houses.—Snake River.—Its chief,
    Pezhicki.—Notices of Snake River.—Its population and trade.—A
    foreign trading company formerly located here.—Effects upon
    the Indian intercourse of the present day.—Anecdote of the
    former mode of using rum and tobacco.—Kettle Rapids.—Shell
    River.—A hunting party of Chippewa boys.—Pokanokuning, or
    Yellow River.—Its population and trade.—Notices of its natural
    history.—Shells.—Prairie squirrel.—Widow of a murdered Indian,
    called the Little Frenchman, declines having her son put to
    school.—Reach the forks of the St. Croix.—Notice of the Namakagon
    Branch.—The chief, Kabamappa.—Women’s Portage.—The Sturgeon
    Dam.—Kabamappa’s village.—Upper St. Croix Lake._


We pursued our way as early on the morning (28th) as the clearing up
of the fog would permit. Soon after reaching the head of the series of
rapids, we observed a couple of buildings of logs, upon the left shore,
and landed to examine them. They proved to be deserted cabins which had
been occupied by traders, with their doors open, and containing nothing
of value. As these had been erected contrary to decisions of the Indian
office, made under the law of Congress regulating trading posts, and at
a point where the Sioux and Chippewas are thus improperly brought into
contact, we directed them to be burned. The remainder of the day was
diligently employed in the ascent. The following day being the Sabbath,
was devoted to rest. The water in the river appeared to be very low,
and was momently falling. We removed our place of encampment in the
evening, about ten miles. A Chippewa whom we met with his family, in a
canoe, informed us that Snake River was baishoo, a term denoting near
at hand.

The next morning, (30th,) after about three hours paddling, we reached
the mouth of the Kinábic, or Snake River. We found Pezhicki, (or the
Buffalo,) the principal chief of that place, and his band, encamped
on the small peninsula which is formed by the junction. They fired a
salute, and crowded down to the shore, to welcome us. This chief was
one of a delegation who visited Washington, some years ago. He came
back with a profusion of ornaments, and a sword and tassels. These were
of no real utility, and have long since disappeared. The visit had
the effect to shew him the strength and resources of the Americans.
With little force of character, he has been pacific, so far at least,
as relates to white men. He was present at the treaties of Prairie du
Chien, and Fond du Lac. He is not the war chief of the Snake River
band. We know not, that he encountered in his journey, any teacher or
preacher to inform him that there was a savior.

Official business occupied a part of the morning. We found not the
slightest evidence of any participation, or disposition to participate,
in the hostile schemes of the Saucs and Foxes. Pezhicki approved of the
requests made by the Chippewas of the Upper Mississippi, for having
their lines surveyed, and united strongly in the measure. He said that
the Sioux had manifested a disposition to claim the country above the
Standing Cedars, and that they had, and still continued to trespass on
it. He said, that they had this season, crossed through the Chippewa
hunting grounds on the St. Croix to go against the band at Rice Lake
on the Red Cedar Fork of the Chippewa River. He cheerfully promised to
assist the military canoes, in their ascent and immediately sent three
young men for that purpose.

Snake River is an important tributary of the St. Croix. It constitutes
an established post of trade, for which licences are granted by the
Indian department. Its Indian population is reported at three hundred
and one souls. Persons of the mixed cast, thirty-eight. This river is
connected, by an easy portage, with Rum River, a route much used by
Indians going to the Mille Lac and Sandy Lake borders. Masses of native
copper have been brought out of its bed by the Indians, who report
the existence of further indications of its presence. The North West
Company formerly held a post on this river, and it remained for several
years, a central place of trade for the Indians of the lower St. Croix.
The influence of this company over the Indians was every where visible,
and so far as this influence was connected with political feelings, it
was, as a matter of course, exerted in favor of the British government.
As not more than twenty years have elapsed, since the authority of the
American government began at all to be exercised in this quarter, and
a much shorter period must be assigned for any active influence from
its posts and agencies, it should not excite surprise that the elder
Indians should, as they do, feel an attachment for that government.
Nor is it strange, that ambitious and designing men among them, should
occasionally form combinations for open resistance, of the character of
that which has recently been witnessed among the Saucs and Foxes. Time,
and judicious counsels, will afford the surest corrective.

In looking back to the condition of the trade, as it existed here,
fifty years ago, some striking changes have supervened. A Mr. Harris,
who is still living at the age of about eighty-four, informed me, that
about the close of the American war, when he first came to this river,
rum was an article in high request among the Indians. When they had
purchased a keg of it, it was customary to pour it out into a large
kettle and place it over a fire. A hand of tobacco was then put in.
After being heated and stirred about for a time, the mixture was drank.

The distance from Snake River to Yellow River is about thirty-five
miles. We employed the 30th, from about eleven in the morning till
eight at night, and the 31st until eight o’clock in the morning, in
performing this distance. The water was very low, and it frequently
required the men to get out and wade. The Kettle Rapids, nine miles
in extent, are, however, the most formidable obstacle. The St. Croix
receives, in this distance, the Akeek or Kettle River, from the left,
and the Aissippi, or Shell River, from the right. The latter takes
its rise in a lake, which is noted for the number and large size of
its fresh water shells. Hence its name. We met a number of Indians,
on this day’s journey who evinced a friendly feeling. We encamped at
eight o’clock, with a party of Indian boys, who had come down the river
hunting. They were rejoiced on seeing us approach, and spent much of
their ammunition in saluting us, which a colder feeling of foresight,
might have induced them to reserve for the chase. And they offered us
some of the scanty products of their evening’s labour, thus evincing
the truth of the remark,

    “Yet is he free; a morsel though his fare,
     That morsel will he, unrepining, share;
     A kind companion, and a liberal friend,
     Not prone to hoard, nor cautious to expend,
     Thence, often poor; but not that craven kind,
     The low-born meanness of a stingy mind.”

One of the canoe-men lacerated his foot on the angular masses of
greenstone, which form a shore of angular pebbles, near Snake River.
And this rock appeared again distinctly, in place, on the Kettle
rapids. Masses of it, were frequently seen in the bed of the river
and incumbering its shores, below that point. They were observed to
decrease in size and frequency above these rapids, from which it may be
inferred, that the rapids themselves are situated near the limits of
the formation.

At Yellow River, we found a considerable assembly of Indians, who, as
they saw our approach for some distance, ranged themselves along the
shore, and fired a formal salute. I had visited this place, the same
month and nearly the same day, in 1831, and then entered the mouth of
the river to form my encampment. But on attempting again to reach the
same spot, the water was found so low, that it was impracticable, and
I came to the landing in front of a naked eminence, which, the Indians
call Pokonokuning, of Place or the Hip Bone,[22] a term by which the
river itself is (by them) designated.

This river is a post of trade, containing a population estimated at
three hundred and eighty-two souls. The lands are fertile, and afford
in connection with Ottawa Lake, and the adjacent country, a good
location for a mission and school. The river originates near the head
of Long River of the Red Cedar Fork of the Chippewa, to which there
is a canoe portage. It expands at unequal distances, beginning at its
source, into Lac Vaseux, Rice Lake, and Yellow Lake. Wild rice is one
of its productions, and is among the means of subsistence on which the
natives rely. Its natural history is further deserving of remark, as
yielding abundantly, univalve shells of a fine size. The purple winged
unio is found in abundance; and the natives make use of this species,
for spoons, by rubbing off the alatæ and rounding the margin—a process
by which they are rendered of no value as specimens of the species.
The copper-head snake is said to exist in the waters of this river.
Its banks afford much of the open grounds which are favorable to the
thirteen striped, or prairie squirrel, (S. tredecem, of Mitchill.)
The Indians exhibited to me the skin of this little animal, which is
peculiarly marked with alternations of stripes and spots.

We observed among the group of Indians at this place, the widow and
children of Waimit-Egozhains, a Chippewa, having an admixture of
white blood, who, with three others, was murdered by the Sioux while
descending the lower part of the St. Croix, in a canoe, in the fall of
1830. We directed the interpreter to say to her, that as providence
had removed her natural protector, and her means of subsistence must
be small, the elder of her boys, who was present, would be taken and
sent to school, and also taught the arts of an industrious life, if she
would direct him to embark in one of our canoes. She appeared to be
pleased but at the same time embarrassed. She consulted with a brother
who was one of the Indians present, and then replied that the boy was
not altogether useless in aiding her to get a support, as he could fish
and kill partridges. She did not feel willing thus suddenly to part
with him, but observed that she would send him out in the spring.

We were five hours and a half in going from Yellow River to the Forks
of the St. Croix. The distance is probably not over thirteen miles.
These data will show how slowly we proceeded, with every exertion,
against the obstacles of a very low state of water. And at this spot we
knew that we were to lose, at least, one half of the entire volume. The
loss is indeed greater, for the Namakágon, or right hand fork, which we
were here to leave, is decidedly the largest of the two.

The Namakágon Branch has its rise in a lake, which the Indians call
Mattedhair Lake, very near the source of the Mushkee or Mauvais River
of Lake Superior. Neither of these streams can, however, be ascended
to their sources. There is a portage across the intervening grounds,
interspersed with small lakes which is practicable for canoes and
packages of goods, carried after the northwest manner. The Namakágon
has another portage, at a lower point to Ottawa Lake, the source of
one of the navigable branches of the Chippewa River. This river, after
running about one hundred and seventy miles, joins the northwest branch
at the Forks of the St. Croix, and from this point, the joint volume,
increased by a number of tributaries is carried on, to swell the mass
of the Mississippi.

We found the chief Kabamappa, with others, encamped at the Forks. They
evinced the same feeling of welcome, and pleasure we had met from the
Chippewas on the lower part of the stream. Kabamappa said that nothing
had been very recently heard from the direction of Lac du Flambeau and
the borders of the Sauc disturbances. He readily communicated many
facts respecting the existing difficulties, and the means taken to
enlist the Indians in a general war. He said, that the confederacy, as
it is, had been reported to consist of nine tribes, whom he named.[23]
With respect to a permanent peace with the Sioux, he cordially
approved it. He had, he observed, given much of his thoughts and his
time to that object, and particularly so since our previous visit. It
was, primarily, through the influence of this chief that a general
peace-council had been held by the Sioux and Chippewas, during the fall
of 1831, on Snake River.

As to the state of the water his expression was, “iscutta! iscutta!”
indicating an exhausted state. He added, that though we had encountered
difficulties on the stream below, they would be multiplied on the
branch we were about to ascend. Even within sight of his lodge, he
pointed to shallows, where it would be impossible to ascend without
wading in the stream and carrying all the baggage. The river, he
said, was uncommonly low for the season, and was daily getting lower.
Under these circumstances, we had no time to lose. We employed the
remainder of the day in going about seven miles, and encamped after
dark at a place called the Women’s Portage. Just before encamping,
and when we were seeking a spot along the thick brushy shore, to
debark at, Kabamappa suddenly appeared standing on the bow of his
canoe, and pointing onwards, guided us to the spot of our encampment.
Daylight had completely disappeared and it was barely possible, in a
dark atmosphere, to discern contiguous objects. As the tall and gaunt
form of the chief glided by, with his spear-pole elevated in the
direction we were to go, it might have needed but little power of the
imagination, to transform him into a spirit of supernatural power.
Owing to the darkness we found it difficult to procure fire-wood for
the night. It was sought with torches. The chief joined us at our
evening meal. We were pleased with his urbanity.

A fog detained us at our encampment until after daylight, (1st Aug.)
We were enabled to proceed at five o’clock. Our first labor was
the ascent of a rapid, our _second_, our _third_, and our _fourth_
labors, were also rapids. In short, rapid succeeded to rapid, and with
such short intervals, that it would be impracticable from any notes
preserved of the route, to speak of this part of the stream, in any
other light than as a continued series of rapids. We often thought
ourselves above them but we as often found, in the language of our
canoe-men, “_encore un_.” About two o’clock in the afternoon we came to
still waters with sedgy shores, and at seven in the evening reached and
landed at Kabamappa’s village. The distance may be twenty-five miles
above the Women’s Portage. We encamped here.

The village is situated on a part of the river called Namai Kowagon,
or Sturgeon Dam. It occupies an eligible prairie bank, and exhibits in
the style of the lodges and gardens, considerable industry and regard
to comfort. It would seem to be no difficult effort to induce Indians,
who had proceeded thus far in fixed industry, to labor on their lands
more extensively and effectually. The lodges represent, on the ground
plan, oblongs enclosed with strong elm bark, sustained on a frame
work of saplings, tied on posts firmly set in the ground. They have a
moveable piece or door, at each end, and an opening in the centre of
the lodge, in the place of a chimney. Corn and potatoe fields, covered
the surrounding grounds. The corn was in tassel, but the wilting of
its blades, indicated, that they had been touched by a slight frost.
Its effects were particularly apparent in some vines near one of the
lodges. Although the lodges had been carefully closed, the chief said
during his absence, a wolf had broken into his lodge and committed
depredations. He observed, in speaking of game, that the red deer was
found on the adjoining plains. In order to hunt the moose an animal
formerly abundant in the region, he observed that it was necessary
to go to one of the remote forks of the Burntwood or Brulé River. He
represented the population of his village at eighty-eight souls, of
whom twenty-eight were men, This estimate was understood to include the
minor chief Blackbird and his followers, who are sometimes referred to
as a distinct band. We asked the chief, while sitting at the camp-fire
in the evening, whether he did not feel tired, having observed that
during the day, he had alone, with the aid only of his wife, poled up
his canoe and managed to keep ahead, so as to guide, our canoe with
seven men. He was evidently fatigued, but replied, smiling, no.

We parted with this chief, who has become respectable for his
influence in this part of the country, at four o’clock on the next
morning, (2d.) We had now got above all the strong rapids, and attained
very nearly the height of land. The river, above this point, receives
the Clearwater and Buffalo Rivers, as tributaries on the right bank. It
is finally traced to Lake St. Croix, a handsome sheet of clear water,
about six miles long. This lake has an island[24] which is the site of
a small village. Its head is perhaps ten or eleven leagues distant from
the Namai Kowagon.




                             CHAPTER III.

  _Character of the St. Croix.—Its productiveness in wild
    rice.—Population and trade.—Condition of the Indians, and their
    prospect.—Portage to the Burntwood.—Marine sand formation.—Bass
    lake.—Character of the Burntwood river.—Arrival at its discharge
    into Fond du Lac of Lake Superior.—Indian friends.—Close of
    the Narrative.—Brief general remarks on the condition of the
    Chippewas.—Traits of character and government.—The institution of
    the Totem.—Tale of the origin of White Fish._


On entering lake St. Croix we were favored with a fair wind, and made
use of our sails in passing it. As we approached its head, we found the
swell formidable, but were able, nevertheless, to keep the lake. We
debarked, on a marshy margin at its head, being the commencement of the
portage to the Brulé. As the river St. Croix has its origin here, a few
general remarks on its geographical features, may be subjoined.—This
stream is an important tributary to the Upper Mississippi, originating
on elevated grounds, and consequently, having a rapid mean descent.
Although not remarkable for its length, its waters spread in a lateral
line, an unusual distance. It has many tributaries, connecting it,
on the north, with Rum river, on the south, with Chippewa river,
and towards the east with the Mauvais and the Brulé rivers of Lake
Superior. The main channel may be estimated, by its windings, at two
hundred miles. The length of its Namakagon fork, is estimated to be
one hundred and seventy miles, while that of its northern branch does
not probably exceed sixty-five miles. Both branches, together with its
lower tributaries, and their numerous lakes, yield the northern rice
plant. The abundance of the plant, has led to the local term of the
Folle Avoine country, a name by which it is particularly known in the
transactions of the Fur Trade.

It has a comparatively mild climate, and rich soil, and in addition to
the small fur bearing animals, on the sale of which the Indians rely
for their woollens, arms, and ammunition; it affords the spontaneous
means of subsistence, more fully, perhaps, than most other parts of
the northwest regions. Its present aggregate population has been
estimated the present year, at eight hundred and ninety-five, say nine
hundred souls, numbering those only who are permanently located in
its valley.—What quantity of furs and peltries is annually got from
it, and what amount of Indian goods are required to pay for them,
are questions which might be ascertained, with general accuracy, by
consulting official records. But it is sufficient for the purposes of
moral enquiry, to remark, that both the supplies and the returns, are
less than they were in former years, and that there is a declension in
the trade, which must at length produce a migration of the Indians, or
induce them to become agriculturists. The fate that has overtaken other
tribes, enjoying a more southerly position, must inevitably overtake
these bands. And the period will probably arrive earlier, than it might
be anticipated. They occupy a portion of the Mississippi valley, which
is adapted for agriculture. Many parts of it, possess a rich soil,
and are well timbered. Other portions are prairie land, suited for
pasturage. Its most arid tracts abound in pine, and there is hardly a
stream, of its many tributaries which does not afford numerous eligible
seats for saw and grist mills. Hunting seems the only occupation, which
cannot be a permanent one. But,

    “While thus the chase declines, and herds depart,
     And heaven in prospect, dooms his favorite art,
     No care of lands or flocks prepares his mind,
     To mend his fortunes, and to save his kind.”

The portage from the St. Croix to the Burntwood, begins at the head
of (the Upper) lake St. Croix. It lies over an elevated sandy pine
ridge, which divides the two streams. The distance which the canoes and
packages require to be carried, is 3,350 yards, or nearly two miles. On
the left hand, in carrying from the St. Croix, there is a deep tamerac
valley, which is said to afford the head springs of both streams. On
the right, is seen, at some distance, a small lake, which is stated
to yield the black bass, and to have no outlet. Its existence in a
sand formation, indicates perhaps, coral rag, hardpan, or some firmer
material below. This sand is apparently of marine deposition, and
agrees, in this respect, with the extensive formations at the sources
of the Mississippi.

The goods after being carried this distance, are put down, on the
banks of a sandy bottomed brook of very clear cold water, overhung
with alders. Any other person, but one who had become familiar with
northwest portages, would be apt to say, on being ushered to this
secluded spot, “well, this is certainly an eligible spot to quench
one’s thirst at, but as for embarking on this rill, with a canoe and
baggage, the thing seems to be preposterous.” And so it certainly
appeared, on our arrival.—There was not an average depth of water of
more than two to four inches. But by going some distance below, and
damming the stream, it rose in a short time, high enough to float a
canoe, with a part of its lading. The men walking in the stream, then
led the canoes, cutting away the brush to veer them, and carrying such
parts of the lading as could not, from time to time, be embarked. We
did not begin the descent, till six o’clock, in the evening, and went
about a mile during the first hour and a half. It then became so dark,
that it was necessary to encamp. And to encamp in such a place, seemed
impossible. We could not, however, hesitate. There was no alternative,
we could neither advance nor recede, and we were surrounded with a
shaking bog. We slept on a kind of bog, which the men, call _têtes
des femmes_. Some rain fell during the night, but we were happily
relieved from the fear of inundation, by the showers passing off.
The next morning brought with it, a resumption of the toil of the
evening. Tho canoes were sent on entirely empty. All the baggage was
carried about a mile, at which distance the stream is perhaps doubled
in width, and more than doubled in depth. The next mile rendering the
going quite easy. At this point, say three miles from the portage, we
embarked all our baggage, and after this, found no want of water, till
we came to the rapids. These, commence about twenty-four miles below
the portage, and they extend with intervals of smooth water, “few
and far between,” to within three or four miles of the point of the
entrance of the river, into Lake Superior. The entire length of this
river may be estimated at one hundred miles, more than eighty miles of
this distance consists of rapids. It has been said that there are two
hundred and forty distinct rapids. At most of these, there is several
feet fall. At some of them eight to ten feet. Four of them require
portages of short extent. Six or seven hundred feet would not appear to
be an extravagant estimate for the entire fall. The river itself is a
perfect torrent; often on looking down its channel, there are wreaths
of foam constituting a brilliant vista, overhung with foliage. It would
never be used at all, for the purposes of the trade, were it not, that
there is much water on the rapids, so that experienced men can conduct
loaded canoes both up and down them. The river might appropriately
be called Rapid, or Mad River, or almost any thing else, but by its
popular name of _Brulé_. This is, in fact, rather a departure, than a
derivative from the Indian, Wisákoda, i. e. burnt-pines, or burnt-wood,
in allusion to a signal destruction of its pine forests, by fire. We
were two days, and part of an evening, in effecting the descent, and
regained our outward track, at the point of its discharge into the Fond
du Lac of lake Superior. We reached this point on the fourth of August,
late at night, having gone later than usual, from the fact of finding
ourselves below the rapids, and consequently knowing that we must be
near the lake. Our first certain indication of our proximity to it,
was, however, given by hearing the monotonous thump of an Indian drum.
We soon after came in sight of camp fires, with Indian forms passing
before them.—And we found ourselves, on landing, in the midst of former
Indian acquaintances. Among them were Mongazid (Loon’s Foot,) the
second Chief of Fond du Lac, and Chamees, (Pouncing Hawk,) a young man
who had first recommended himself to notice in 1820, by guiding a part
of Governor Cass’ expedition above the Knife Portage, and who evinced
the same disposition, during the forepart of the present summer, by
acting as a guide to the party, between Fond du Lac and Sandy Lake. We
were pleased on observing the military boat, used by Lieutenant Allen
on the lake, safely moored, with its sails and tackle, within the
mouth of the river, having been brought down, agreeably to promise, by
Mongazid, who had faithfully remained in charge of it.

The day following, being the Sabbath, was spent at this place. And the
narrative of our route from the Mississippi, may here be appropriately
closed. Some remarks arising from observations on the condition of the
Indians, among whom we have passed, it may be proper to add; but from
the little leisure we can command, they are necessarily few and brief.

The Chippewas are spread over a very large area in the north, divided
into local bands, and separated by extensive tracts which are, in great
part, sterile. They are not fixed in their habitations at any point,
during the whole of the year, being compelled to go in search of the
game, fish, and other spontaneous productions, on which they depend.
The space which each band periodically traverses, in this effort, is
extensive, and subjects them to casualties, which they would otherwise
escape. Their condition is still further imbittered by hostilities
with the Sioux tribes, who occupy the whole line of their western
frontier. They cover the entire north-western angle of the United
States, extending down the Mississippi valley on both banks, as low
as the Wadub, being the first stream above Sac river. At this point
their territorial line crosses from the west to the east banks of the
Mississippi, pursuing a southerly course, at the distance of about
forty miles from it, until it intersects the lands of the Winnebagoes,
north of the Wisconsin. This portion of the territory affords decidedly
the largest and best body of farming lands in their possession, and
will, probably, hereafter yield them, either by the proceeds of its
sale, or cultivation, a more sure reliance at a period when the land
becomes divested of game. The climate of this area is comparatively
mild, and the Indians who inhabit it, notwithstanding their partial
losses from wars, have evidently increased in population. They might
be concentrated here, could the agricultural be substituted for the
hunter life—a result which may be expected to follow, but cannot in
any reasonable estimate be expected to precede, their conversion to
christianity.

This tribe offer no prominent obstacles to the introduction of the
gospel. We have before adverted to the slender frame work of their
native religion, which seems to be made up, primarily of certain
superstitious ceremonies, winding themselves about the subject of
medicine. It appears to occupy that void in the barbaric mind, which
the soothsayers and magii of other lands, pressed forward, in the
absence of revelation, to fill. But we do not know that the ritual
has any striking features in common. The principal obstacle which
missionaries will have to contend with, is a want of the knowledge
of their language. And to surmount this is a labor which they cannot
too early begin nor too zealously persevere in. The language itself,
as we have before indicated, (vide Chap. X.) presents a copious
vocabulary, and is capable of being made the medium of religious
instruction. It has some defects which will require to be supplied, and
some redundancies which will demand curtailment, when it comes to be
written. But they offer very slight obstacles to oral communication.
It is obviously better suited to convey narrative than disquisitive
matter. And has been so long applied to corporeal objects, that it
requires caution and a familiar knowledge of its idioms, in the
conveyance of intellectual and still more of spiritual conceptions.

In mere externals, the Chippewas are not essentially different from
other tribes of the Algonquin stock in the western country. And the
points in which a difference holds, may be supposed to have been, for
the most part, the effects of a more ungenial climate. They are, to a
less extent than most of the tribes, cultivators of the soil, and more
exclusively hunters and warriors. Living in a portion of the continent,
remarkable for the number of its large and small lakes, they find a
common resource in fish, and along with this, enjoy the advantage of
reaping the wild rice.

Their government has been deemed a paradox, at the same time
exercising, and too feeble to exercise power. But it is not more
paradoxical than all patriarchal governments, which have their tie in
filial affection, and owe their weakness to versatility of opinion.
War and other public calamities bring them together, while prosperity
drives them apart. They rally on public danger, with wonderful
facility, and they disperse with equal quickness. All their efforts are
of the partizan, popular kind. And if these do not succeed they are
dispirited. There is nothing in their institutions and resources suited
for long continued, steady exertion.

The most striking trait in their moral history is the institution
of the Totem—a sign manual, by which the affiliation of families is
traced, agreeing, more exactly, perhaps, than has been supposed, with
the armorial bearings of the feudal ages. And this institution is kept
up, with a feeling of importance, which it is difficult to account for.
An Indian, as is well known, will tell his specific name with great
reluctance, but his generic or family name—in other words, his _Totem_,
he will declare without hesitation, and with an evident feeling of
pride.

None of our tribes have proceeded further than the first rude steps
in hieroglyphic writing. And it is a practice in which the Chippewas
are peculiarly expert. No part of their country can be visited without
bringing this trait into prominent notice. Every path has its blazed
and figured trees, conveying intelligence to all who pass, for all
can read and understand these signs. They are taught to the young
as carefully as our alphabet, with the distinction, however, that
hieroglyphic writing, is the prerogative of the males. These devices
are often traced on sheets of birch bark attached to poles. They are
traced on war-clubs, on canoe paddles, bows or gun stocks. They are
often drawn on skins, particularly those used as back dresses, by
warriors. They have also other hieroglyphic modes of communicating
information, by poles with knots of grass attached to them, or rings of
paint. and often by antlers, or animals’ heads suspended by the banks
of rivers.

The following tale is added as an example of the kind of imaginative
lore indicated by it.


                       ORIGIN OF THE WHITE-FISH.

  In ancient times when the Indians were better than they now are,
  when their laws were enforced by the chiefs, and when every crime
  was promptly punished, there lived a noted hunter and a just man,
  at a remote point on the north shore of Lake Superior. He had a
  wife and two sons, who were usually left in the lodge, while he
  went out in quest of the animals upon whose flesh they subsisted.
  As game was then abundant, his exertions were well rewarded, and
  he lived in the enjoyment of every blessing. But there was at
  this time a venom preparing for his heart, which was not the less
  poisonous, because it was for a time kept in secret. His two little
  sons had observed the visits of a neighboring hunter, during the
  absence of their father, and they ventured to remonstrate with
  their mother on the propriety of receiving clandestine visits,
  but she was in no temper to be reasoned with. She rebuked them
  sharply, and finally, on their intimation of disclosing the
  secret, threatened to kill them if they made any disclosure They
  were frightened into silence. But observing the continuance of an
  improper intercourse, kept up by stealth as it were, they resolved
  at last to disclose the whole matter to their father. The result
  was such as might be anticipated. The father being satisfied with
  the infidelity of his wife, took up a war club at a moment when he
  was not perceived, and with a single blow despatched the object of
  his jealousy. He then buried her under the ashes of his fire, took
  down his lodge, and removed to a distant position.

  But the spirit of the woman haunted the children who were now
  grown up to the estate of young men. She appeared to them in the
  shadows of evening. She terrified them in dreams. She harassed
  their imaginations wherever they went, so that their life was a
  life of perpetual terrors. They resolved to leave the country, and
  commenced a journey of many days towards the south. They at length
  came to the Poiwateeg falls. (St. Mary’s.) But they had no sooner
  come in sight of these falls, than they beheld the skull of the
  woman (their mother) rolling along the beach after them. They were
  in the utmost fear, and knew not what to do, to elude her, when one
  of them observed a large crane sitting on a rock in the rapids.
  They called out to the bird. “See, Grandfather, we are persecuted
  by a spirit. Come and take us across the falls so that we may
  escape her.”

  This crane was a bird of extraordinary size and great age. And
  when first descried by the two sons, sat in a state of stupor, in
  the midst of the most violent eddies of the foaming water. When he
  heard himself addressed, he stretched forth his neck, with great
  deliberation, and then raising himself on his wings flew across to
  their assistance. “Be careful” said the crane, “that you do not
  touch the back part of my head. It is sore, and should you press
  against it, I shall not be able to avoid throwing you both into
  the rapids.” They were, however, attentive on this point, and were
  both safely landed on the south side of the river. The crane then
  resumed its former position in the rapids.

  But the skull now cried out. “Come Grandfather and carry me over,
  for I have lost my children, and am sorely distressed.” The aged
  bird flew to her assistance, but carefully repeated his injunction,
  that she must by no means touch the back part of his head, which
  had been hurt, and was not yet healed. She promised to obey, but
  she soon felt a curiosity to know, where the head of her carrier
  had been hurt, and how so aged a bird could have acquired such
  a bad wound. She thought it strange, and before they were half
  way over the rapids, could not resist the inclination she felt
  to touch the affected part. Instantly the crane threw her into
  the rapids. The skull floated down from rock to rock, striking
  violently against their hard edges, until it was battered to
  fragments, and the sons were thus happily and effectually relieved
  from their tormentor. But the brains of the woman, when the skull
  was dashed against the rocks, fell into the water, in the form of
  small white roes, which soon assumed the shape of a novel kind
  of fish, possessing a whiteness of color peculiar to itself; and
  these rapids have ever since been well stocked with this new and
  delicious species of fish.

  The sons meantime took up their permanent abode at these Falls,
  becoming the progenitors of the present tribe, and in gratitude to
  their deliverer adopted the Crane[25] as their Totem.




                               APPENDIX.

                          I. NATURAL HISTORY.




                               APPENDIX.

    1. LIST OF SHELLS COLLECTED BY MR. SCHOOLCRAFT, IN THE WESTERN
                      AND NORTH-WESTERN TERRITORY.

                          BY WILLIAM COOPER.


                                HELIX.

1. HELIX ALBOLABRIS, _Say_. Near Lake Michigan.

2. HELIX ALTERNATA, _Say_. Banks of the Wabash, near and above the
Tippecanoe. Mr. Say remarks, that these two species, so common in the
Atlantic states, were not met with in Major Long’s second expedition,
until their arrival in the secondary country at the eastern extremity
of Lake Superior.


                              PLANORBIS.

3. PLANORBIS CAMPANULATUS, _Say_. Itasca (or La Biche) Lake, the source
of the Mississippi.

4. PLANORBIS TRIVOLVIS, _Say_. Lake Michigan. These two species were
also observed by Mr. Say, as far east as the Falls of Niagara.


                               LYMNEUS.

5. LYMNEUS UMBROSUS, _Say_. Am. Con. iv. pl. xxxi. fig. 1. Lake
Winnipec, Upper Mississippi, and Rainy Lake.

6. LYMNEUS REFLEXUS, _Say_. 1. c. pl. xxxi. fig. 2. Rainy Lake, Seine
River, and Lake Winnipec.

7. LYMNEUS STAGNALIS. Lake a la Crosse, Upper Mississippi.


                               PALUDINA.

8. PALUDINA PONDEROSA, _Say_. Wisconsin River.

9. PALUDINA VIVIPARA, _Say_. Am. Con. i. pl. x. The American specimens
of this shell are more depressed than the European, but appear to be
identical in species.


                               MELANIA.

10. MELANIA VIRGINICA, _Say_. Lake Michigan.


                               ANODONTA.

11. ANODONTA CATARACTA, _Say_. Chicago, Lake Michigan. This species,
Mr. Lea remarks, has a great geographical extension.

12. ANODONTA CORPULENTA, _Nobis_. Shell thin and fragile, though
less so than others of the genus; much inflated at the umbones,
margins somewhat compressed; valves connate over the hinge in perfect
specimens; surface dark brown, in old shells; in younger, of a pale
dingy green, and without rays, in all I have examined; beaks slightly
undulated at tip. The color within is generally of a livid coppery hue,
but sometimes, also, pure white.

Length of a middling sized specimen, four and a half inches, breadth,
six and a quarter. It is often eighteen inches in circumference, round
the border of the valves, with a diameter through the umbones of three
inches. Inhabits the Upper Mississippi, from Prairie du Chien to Lake
Pepin.

This fine shell, much the largest I have seen of the genus, was first
sent by Mr. Schoolcraft, to the Lyceum, several years ago. So far as I
am able to discover, it is undescribed, and a distinct and remarkable
species. It may be known by its length being greater in proportion to
its breadth than in the other American species, by the subrhomboidal
form of the posterior half, and, generally, by the color of the nacre,
though this is not to be relied on. It appears to belong to the genus
SYMPHYNOTA of Mr. Lea.


                             ALASMODONTA.

13. ALASMODONTA COMPLANATA, _Barnes_. SYMPHYNOTA COMPLANATA, _Lea_.
Shell Lake, River St. Croix, Upper Mississippi. Many species of shells
found in this lake grow to an extraordinary size. Some of the present
collected by Mr. Schoolcraft, measure nineteen inches in circumference.

14. ALASMODONTAB RUGOSA, _Barnes._ St. Croix River, and Lake Vaseux,
St. Mary’s River.

15. ALASMODONTA MARGINATA, _Say_. Lake Vaseux, St. Mary’s River: very
large.

16. ALASMODONTA EDENTULA? _Say._ ANODON AREOLATUS? _Swainson._ Lake
Vaseux. The specimens of this shell are too old and imperfect to be
safely determined.


                                 UNIO.

17. UNIO TUBERCULATUS, _Barnes_. Painted Rock, Upper Mississippi.

18. UNIO PUSTULOSUS, _Lea_. Upper Mississippi, Prairie du Chien, to
Lake Pepin.

19. UNIO VERRUCOSUS, _Barnes_, _Lea_. St. Croix River of the Upper
Mississippi.

20. UNIO PLICATUS, _Le Sueur_, _Say_. Prairie du Chien, and River St.
Croix.

The specimens of U. PLICATUS sent from this locality by Mr. Schoolcraft
have the nacre beautifully tinged with violet, near the posterior
border of the shell, and are also much more ventricose them those found
in more eastern localities, as Pittsburgh, for example; at the same
time, I believe them to be of the same species. Similar variations
are observed in other species; the specimens from the south and west
generally exhibiting a greater development.

21. UNIO TRIGONUS, _Lea_. From the same locality as the last, and like
it unusually ventricose.

22. UNIO EBENUS, _Lea_. Upper Mississippi, between Prairie du Chien and
Lake Pepin.

23. UNIO GIBBOSUS, _Barnes_. St. Croix River, Upper Mississippi.

24. UNIO RECTUS, _Lamarck_. U. PRÆLONGUS, _Barnes_. Upper Mississippi,
from Prairie du Chien to Lake Pepin, and the River St. Croix. The
specimens collected by Mr. Schoolcraft, vary much in the color of the
nacre. Some have it entirely white, others, rose purple, and others
entirely of a very fine dark salmon color. This species inhabits the
St. Lawrence as far east as Montreal.

25. UNIO SILIQUOIDEUS, _Barnes_, and U. INFLATUS, _Barnes_. Upper
Mississippi, between Prairie du Chien and Lake Pepin. Large, ponderous,
and the epidermis finely rayed.

26. UNIO COMPLANATUS, _Lea_. U. PURPUREUS, _Say_. Lake Vaseux, St.
Mary’s River. Lake Vaseux is an expansion of the River St. Mary, a
tributary of the upper lakes. This shell does not appear to exist in
any of the streams flowing into the Mississippi.

27. UNIO CRASSUS, _Say_. Upper Mississippi, Prairie du Chien.

28. UNIO RADIATUS, _Barnes_. Lake Vaseux. The specimen is old and
imperfect, but I believe it to be the U. RADIATUS of our conchologists,
which is common in Lake Champlain and also inhabits the St. Lawrence.

29. UNIO OCCIDENS, _Lea_. U. VENTRICOSUS, _Say_, Am. Con. U.
VENTRICOSUS, _Barnes_? Wisconsin and St. Croix Rivers, and Shell Lake.
Epidermis variously colored, and marked with numerous rays.

30. UNIO VENTRICOSUS, _Barnes_. Upper Mississippi, from Prairie du
Chien to Lake Pepin and Shell Lake. The varieties of this, and the
preceding pass insensibly into each other. Those from Shell Lake are of
extraordinary size.

31. UNIO ALATUS, _Say_. SYMPHYNOTA ALATA, _Lea_. Upper Mississippi, and
Shell Lake. Found also in Lake Champlain, by the late Mr. Barnes.

32. UNIO GRACILIS, _Barnes_. SYMPHYNOTA GRACILIS, _Lea_. Upper
Mississippi, and Shell Lake. The specimens brought by Mr. Schoolcraft
are larger and more beautiful than I have seen from any other locality.




 2. LOCALITIES OF MINERALS OBSERVED IN THE NORTHWEST IN 1831 AND 1832.

                       BY HENRY R. SCHOOLCRAFT.


          CLASS I. _Bodies not metallic, containing an acid._

1. CALCAREOUS SPAR. Keweena Point, Lake Superior. Imbedded in small
globular masses, in the trap rock; also forming veins in the same
formation. Some of the masses break into rhombic forms, and possess
a certain but not perfect degree of transparency; others are opaque,
or discolored by the green carbonate of copper. Also in the trap rock
between Fond du Lac and Old Grand Portage, Lake Superior, in perfect,
transparent rhombs, exhibiting the property of double refraction. Also,
at the lead mines, in Iowa county, in the marly clay formation, often
exhibiting imperfect prisms, variously truncated.

2. CALCAREOUS TUFA. Mouth of the River Brulé, of Lake Superior. In
small, friable, broken masses, in the diluvial soil. Also, in the gorge
below the Falls of St. Anthony. In detached, vesicular masses, amidst
debris.

3. COMPACT CARBONATE OF LIME. In the calcareous cliffs of horizontal
formation, commencing at the Falls of St. Anthony. Carboniferous.

4. SEPTARIA. In the reddish clay soil, between Montreal River, and
Lapointe, Lake Superior.

5. GYPSUM. In the sandstone rock at the Point of Grand Sable West, Lake
Superior. In orbicular masses, firmly imbedded. Not abundant. Granular,
also imperfectly foliated.

6. CARBONATE OF MAGNESIA. Serpentine rock, at Presque Isle, Lake
Superior. Compact.

7. HYDRATE OF MAGNESIA? With the preceding.


        CLASS II. _Earthy compounds, amorphous or crystalline._

8. COMMON QUARTZ. Huron Islands, Lake Superior, also the adjoining
coast. In very large veins or beds. White, opaque.

9. GRANULAR QUARTZ. Falls of Peckagama, Upper Mississippi. In situ.

10. SMOKY QUARTZ. In the trap rock Keweena Point, Lake Superior,
crystallized. In connection with amethystine quartz.

11. AMETHYST. With the preceding. Also, at the Pic Bay, and at
Gargontwa, north shore of Lake Superior, in the trap rock, in perfect
crystals of various intensity of color.

12. CHALCEDONY. Keweena Point, Lake Superior. In globular or orbicular
masses, in amygdaloid rock. Often, in detached masses along the shores.

13. CARNELIAN. With the preceding.

14. HORNSTONE. In detached masses, very hard, on the shores of Lake
Superior. Also, at Dodgeville, Iowa county, Mich. Ter. in fragments or
nodular masses in the clay soil.

15. JASPER. In the preceding locality. Common and striped, exceedingly
difficult of being acted on, by the wheel. Not observed in situ.

16. AGATE. Imbedded in the trap rocks of Lake Superior, and also
detached, forming a constituent of its detritus. Variously colored.
Often made up of alternate layers of chalcedony, carnelian, and
cacholong. Sometimes zoned, or in fortification points. Specimens not
taken from the rock are not capable of being scratched by quartz or
flint, and are incapable of being acted on by the file; consequently
_harder_ than any of the described species.

17. CYANITE. Specimens of this mineral, in flat, six-sided prisms
imbedded in a dark primitive rock, were brought out from Lac du
Flambeau outlet, where the rock is described as existing in situ. The
locality has not been visited, but there are facts brought to light
within the last two or three years, to justify the extension of the
primitive to that section of country.

18. PITCHSTONE. A detached mass of this mineral, very black and
lava-like, was picked up in the region of Lake Superior, where the
volcanic mineral, trachyte, is common among the rolled masses. Neither
of these substances have been observed in situ.

19. MICA. Huron Islands, Lake Superior. In granite.

20. SCHORL. Common. Outlet of Lac du Flambeau. Also, in a detached mass
of primitive rock at Green Bay.

21. FELDSPAR. Porcupine mountains, Lake Superior.

22. BASALT. Amorphous. Granite Point, Lake Superior.

23. STILBITE. Amygdaloid rock, Keweena Point, Lake Superior.

24. ZEOLITE. Mealy. With the preceding.

25. ZEOLITE. Radiated. Lake Superior. This mineral consists of fibres,
so delicate and firmly united as to appear almost compact, radiating
from a centre. Some of the masses produced by this radiation, measure
2.5 inches in diameter. They are of a uniform, pale, yellowish red.
This mineral has not been traced in situ, being found in detached
masses of rock, and sometimes as water-worn portions of radii. Its true
position would seem to be the trap rock.

26. ASBESTOS. Presque Isle, Lake Superior. In the serpentine formation.

27. HORNBLENDE. Very abundant as a constituent of the primitive rocks
on the Upper Mississippi, and in the basin of Lake Superior. Often in
distinct crystals.

28. DIALLAGE, GREEN. Lake Superior. In detached masses, connected with
primitive boulders. _Harder_ than the species.

29. SERPENTINE, COMMON. Presque Isle, Lake Superior.

30. SERPENTINE, PRECIOUS. With the preceding. Color a light pistachio
green, and takes a fine polish. Exists in veins in the common variety.

31. PSEUDOMORPHOUS SERPENTINE. With the preceding. This beautiful green
mineral constitutes a portion of the veins of the precious serpentine.
Its crystalline impressions are very distinct.

32. ARGILLITE. River St. Louis, northwest of Lake Superior. Nearly
vertical in its position.


                      CLASS III. _Combustibles._

33. PEAT. Marine sand formation composing the shore of Lake Superior,
between White-fish Point and Grand Marrais. Also, on the island of
Michilimackinac.


                     CLASS IV. _Ores and Metals._

34. NATIVE COPPER. West side of Keweena Point, Lake Superior. Imbedded
in a vein with carbonate of copper, and copper black, in the trap rock.

35. COPPER BLACK. With the preceding.

36. CARBONATE OF COPPER, GREEN. With the preceding.

These two minerals (35 and 36) characterize the trap rock of the
peninsula of Keweena, Lake Superior, from Montreal Bay, extending to,
and around its extremity, west, to Sand-hill Bay. The entire area may
be estimated to comprise a rocky, serrated coast of about seventy-five
miles in length, and not to exceed seven or eight miles in width. The
principal veins are at a point called _Roche Verd_, and along the coast
which we refer to as the Black Rocks. At the latter, native copper is
one of the constituents of the vein.

Green and blue carbonate of copper, was also observed in limited
quantity, in small rounded masses at one of the lead diggings near
Mineral Point, Iowa county.

38. CHROMATE OF IRON. Presque Isle, Lake Superior.

39. SULPHURET OF LEAD. Lead mines of Iowa county, Michigan Territory.

40. EARTHY CARBONATE OF LEAD. Brigham’s mine, Iowa county, Mich. Ter.
Also, in small masses, of a yellowish white, dirty color, and great
comparative weight, at several of the lead mines (diggings) in the more
westerly and southern parts of the county.




         3. LOCALITIES OF PLANTS COLLECTED IN THE NORTH-WESTERN
                     EXPEDITIONS OF 1831 AND 1832.

                      BY DOUGLASS HOUGHTON, M. D.
                      SURGEON TO THE EXPEDITIONS.


The localities of the following plants are transcribed from a catalogue
kept during the progress of the expeditions, and embrace many plants
common to our country, which were collected barely for the purpose of
comparison. A more detailed account will be published at some future
day.

  _Aster tenuifolius_, Willdenow. Upper Mississippi.
     “  _sericea_, Nuttall. River de Corbeau, Missouri Ter.
     “  _loevis?_ Willdenow. St. Croix River, Northwest Ter.
     “  _concolor_, Willdenow. Fox River, Northwest Ter.
     “  (_N. Spec._) Sources of Yellow River, Northwest Ter.
  _Andropogon furcatus_, Willdenow. do.
  _Alopecurus geniculatus_, Linneus. Sault Ste Marie, M. T.
  _Aira flexuosa._ Sault Ste Marie, M. T.
  _Allium tricoccum_, Aiton. Ontonagon River of Lake Superior.
     “   _cernuum_, Roth. River de Corbeau to the sources of the Miss.
     “   (_N. Spec._) St. Louis River of Lake Superior.
  _Amorpha canescens_, Nuttall. Upper Mississippi.
  _Artemesia canadensis_, Mx. Lake Superior to the sources of the Miss.
      “     _sericea_, Nuttall. Keweena Point, Lake Superior.
      “     _gnaphaloides_, Nuttall. Fox River, Northwest Ter.
  _Arabis hirsuta_, De Candolle. Upper Mississippi.
     “   _lyrata_, Linn. Lake Superior to the source of the Miss.
  _Arundo canadensis_, Mx. Lake Superior.
  _Arenaria lateriflora_, Linn. Lake Superior to the sources of the Miss.
  _Alnus glauca_, Mx. St. Croix River to the sources of the Miss.
  _Alliona albida_, Walter. Yellow River, Northwest Ter.
  _Aronia sanguinea._ Lake Superior to the sources of the Miss.
  _Alectoria jubata._                   do.
  _Aletris farinosa._ Prairies of Michigan Ter.
  _Bidens beckii_, Torrey. St. Croix River to the sources of the Miss.
  _Bunias maritima_, Willdenow. Lake Michigan.
  _Baptisia coerulea_, Michaux. Fox River, Northwest Ter.
  _Blitum capitatum._ Northwest Ter.
  _Betula papyracea_, Willdenow. Lake Superior to the sources of the Miss.
  _Betula glandulosa._ Savannah River, Northwest Ter.
  _Bartramia fontana._ Lake Superior.
  _Bromus canadensis_, Michaux. Upper Mississippi.
  _Batschia canescens._ Plains of the Mississippi.
      “        “ Var. (or _N. Spec._) Lake Superior.
  _Carex paucifolia._ Sault Ste Marie. Mich. Ter.
     “  _scirpoides_, Schkuhr. do.
     “  _limosa_, Linn. do.
     “  _curata_, Gmelin. do.
     “  (apparently _N. Spec._ allied to _C. scabrata_.) Sources of the Miss.
     “  _washingtoniana_, Dewy. Lake Superior.
     “  _lacustris_, Willdenow. do.
     “  _oedere_, Ehrhart. Leech Lake.
     “  _logopodioides_, Schkuhr. Savannah River, Northwest Ter.
     “  _rosea_, Var. Lake Superior.
     “  _festucacea_, Schkuhr. St. Louis River of Lake Superior.
  _Cyperus mariscoides_, Elliott. Upper Mississippi.
      “   _alterniflorus_, Schwinitz. River St. Clair, Mich. Ter.
  _Cnicus pitcheri_, Torrey. Lakes Michigan and Superior.
  _Coreopsis palmata_, Nuttall. Prairies of the Upper Mississippi.
  _Cardamine pratensis._ Lake Superior to the sources of the Miss.
  _Calamagrostis coarctata_, Torrey. Lake Winnipec.
  _Cetraria icelandica._ Lakes Superior and Michigan.
  _Corydalis aurea_, Willdenow. Cass Lake, Upper Mississippi.
      “     _glauca_, Persoon. Lake Superior.
  _Cynoglossum amplexicaule_, Michaux. Sault Ste Marie.
  _Cassia chamoecrista._ Upper Mississippi.
  _Corylus americana_, Walter. Lake Superior to the sources of the Miss.
      “   _rostrata_, Willdenow. do.
  _Cistus canadensis_, Willdenow. do.
  _Cornus circinata_, L’Heritier. do.
  _Cypripedium acaule_, Aiton. do.
  _Cymbidium pulchellum_, Swartz. do.
  _Corallorhiza multiflora_, Torrey. Lake Superior.
  _Convallaria borealis_, Willdenow. Lake Superior to the sources of the Mississippi.
       “      _trifolia_, Linn. Lake Superior.
  _Cenchrus echinatus_, Linn. Upper Mississippi.
  _Cerastium viscosum_, Linn. Lake Superior.
      “     _oblongifolium_, Torrey. Michigan Ter.
  _Campanula acuminata_, Michaux. St. Louis River of Lake Superior.
  _Chrysosplenium oppositifolium._ Lake Superior to the Mississippi.
  _Cinna arundinacea_, Willdenow. Upper Mississippi.
  _Drosera linearis_, Hooker. Lake Superior.
     “    _rotundifolia._ Lake Superior to the sources of the Miss.
     “    _americana_, Muhlenberg. do.
  _Dracocephalum virginicum_, Willdenow. Red Cedar River, Northwest Territory.
  _Delphinum virescens_, Nuttall. Upper Mississippi.
  _Danthonia spicata_, Willdenow. Mauvais River of Lake Superior.
  _Dirca palustris_, Willdenow. Ontonagon River of Lake Superior.
  _Equisetum limosum_, Torrey. Lake Superior.
      “     _palustre_, Willdenow. do.
      “     _variegatum_, Smith. Lake Michigan.
  _Erigeron integrifolium_, Bigelow. Falls of Peckagama, Upper Miss.
      “    _purpureum_, Willdenow. do.
      “    (_N. Spec._) Sources of St. Croix River, Northwest Ter.
      “    _heterophyllum_, Var. or (_N. Spec._) do.
  _Eryngium aquaticum_, Jussieu. Galena, Ill.
  _Euphorbia corollata_, Willdenow. Red Cedar River.
  _Eriophorum virginicum_, Linn. Lake Superior.
       “     _alpinum_, Linn. do.
       “     _polystachyon_, Linn. do.
  _Empetrum nigrum_, Michaux. do.
  _Erysimum chiranthoides_, Linn. do.
  _Eriocaulon pellucidum_, Michaux, do.
  _Euchroma coccinea_, Willdenow. Lake Superior to the Mississippi.
  _Elymus striatus_, Willdenow. St. Croix River, Northwest Ter.
     “   _virginicus_, Linn. do.
  _Festuca nutans_, Willdenow. Lake Winnipec.
  _Glycera fluitans_, Brown. Savannah River, Northwest Ter.
  _Gyrophora papulosa._ Lake Superior.
  _Gentiana crinita_, Willdenow. Lake Michigan.
  _Geranium carolinianum_. Lake Superior to the Mississippi.
  _Galium lanceolatum_, Torrey. Red Cedar River to the Mississippi.
  _Gerardia pedicularis_, Fox River, Northwest Ter.
      “    _maratima_, Rafinesque, Lake Michigan.
  _Galeopsis tetrahit_, Var. Falls of St. Mary, Mich. Ter.
  _Gnaphalium plantaginium_, Var. Source of the Mississippi.
  _Goodyera pubescens_, Willdenow. Lake Superior.
  _Hippophae canadensis_, Willdenow. do.
      “     _argentea_, Pursh. do.
  _Hedeoma glabra_, Persoon. Lake Michigan to the sources of the Miss.
  _Hydropeltis purpurea_, Michaux. Northwest Ter.
  _Hippuris vulgaris._ Yellow River to sources of the Mississippi.
  _Hudsonia tomentosa_, Nuttall. Lake Superior.
  _Hypericum canadense._ do.
      “     _prolificum_, Willdenow. Lake Michigan.
  _Hieracium fasciculatum_, Pursh. Pukwaewa Lake, Northwest Ter.
  _Hierochloa borealis_, Roemer & Schultes. Lake Superior.
  _Holcus lanatus._ Savannah River, Northwest Ter.
  _Houstonia longifalia_, Willdenow. St. Louis River of Lake Superior.
  _Heuchera americana_, Linn. do.
  _Hypnum crista-castrensis._ Source of the Mississippi.
  _Hordeum jubatum._ Upper Red Cedar Lake.
  _Helianthus decapetalis._ Northwest Ter.
       “     _gracilis_, Torrey. Upper Lake St. Croix, Northwest Ter.
  _Hyssopus anisatus_, Nuttall. Upper Mississippi.
  _Hyssopus scrophularifolius_, Willdenow. Upper Mississippi.
  _Inula villosa_, Nuttall. Upper Mississippi.
  _Ilex canadensis_, Michaux. Lake Superior.
  _Juncus nodosus._ St. Mary’s River.
     “   _polycephalus_, Michaux. Lake Superior.
  _Koeleria nitida_, Nuttall. Lake Winnipec.
  _Lycopodium dendroideum_, Michaux. Lake Superior to the sources of the Mississippi.
       “     _annotinum_, Willdenow. do.
  _Lonicera hirsuta_, Eaton. Lake Superior to the sources of the Miss.
      “    _sempervirens_, Aiton. Lake Superior.
  _Lechea minor._ Upper Mississippi.
  _Linnea borealis_, Willdenow. Lake Superior to the sources of the Miss.
  _Lathyrus palustris._ Lake Superior.
      “    _decaphyllus_, Pursh. Leech Lake.
      “    _maritimus_, Bigelow. Lake Superior.
  _Lobelia kalmii_, Linneus. do.
      “   _claytoniana_, Michaux. Upper Mississippi.
      “   _puberula?_, Michaux. Yellow River, Northwest Ter.
  _Liatris scariosa_, Willdenow. Upper Mississippi.
      “   _cylindrica_, Michaux. do.
  _Lysimachia revoluta_, Nuttall. Lake Superior.
       “     _thyrsifolia_, Michaux, do.
  _Ledum latifolium_, Aiton. Lake Superior to the sources of the Miss.
  _Myrica gale_, Willdenow. Lake Superior.
  _Malva_ (_N. Spec._) Upper Mississippi.
  _Monarda punctata_, Linneus. Upper Mississippi.
      “   _oblongata_, Aiton. do.
  _Microstylis ophioglossoides_, Willdenow. Lac la Biche.
  _Myriophyllum spicatum._ Lake Superior.
  _Mitella cordifolia_, Lamarck. do.
  _Menyanthes trifoliata_, Lake Superior to the sources of the Miss.
  _Myosotis arvensis_, Sibthorp. St. Clair River, Mich. Ter.
  _Nelumbium luteum_, Willdenow. Upper Mississippi.
  _Oenothere biennis_, Var. Bois Brulé River of Lake Superior.
      “     _serrulata_, Nuttall. Upper Mississippi.
  _Psoralea argophylla_, Pursh. Falls of St. Anthony.
  _Primula farinosa_, Var. _americana_, Torrey. Lakes Huron and Superior.
      “   _mistasinica_, Michaux. Keweena Point Lake Superior.
  _Pingwicula_ (N. Spec.) Presque Isle, Lake Superior.
  _Parnassia americana_, Muhlenberg. Lake Michigan.
  _Pedicularis gladiata_, Michaux. Fox River.
  _Pinus nigra_, Lambert. Lake Superior.
    “   _banksiana_, Lambert. Lake Superior.
  _Populus tremuloides_, Michaux. Northwest Ter.
      “   _loevigata_, Willdenow. Upper Mississippi.
  _Prunus depressa_, Pursh. Lakes Superior and Michigan.
  _Petalostemon violaceum_, Willdenow. Upper Mississippi.
  _Petalostemon candidum_, Willdenow. Upper Mississippi.
  _Potentilla tridentata_, Aiton. Lake Superior.
      “      _fruticosa_, Linneus. Lakes Superior and Michigan.
  _Pyrola uniflora._ Mauvais River of Lake Superior.
  _Polygonum amphibium_, Linneas. St. Croix River.
      “     _cilinode_, Michaux. Lake Superior.
      “     _articulatum_, Linneus. do.
      “     _coccinium_, Willdenow. St. Croix River.
  _Polygala polygama_, Walter. Northwest Ter.
  _Phlox aristata_, Michaux. Upper Mississippi.
  _Poa canadensis._ do.
  _Pentstemon gracile_, Nuttall. Upper Red Cedar Lake.
      “      _grandiflorum_, Nuttall. Falls of St. Anthony.
  _Physalis lanceolata_, Var. (or _N. Spec._) Lac la Biche.
  _Quercus coccinea_, Wangenheim. Upper Red Cedar Lake.
      “   _obtusiloba_, Michaux. Upper Mississippi.
  _Ranunculus filiformis_, Michaux. Falls of St. Mary, Mich. Ter.
      “      _pusillus_, Pursh. Mich. Ter.
      “      _prostratus_, Lamarck. Lake Superior to the Mississippi.
      “      _lacustris_, Beck & Tracy. Upper Mississippi.
  _Rudbeckia hirta_, Linneus. Upper Mississippi and Michigan Ter.
      “     _digitata_, Aiton. Upper Mississippi.
  _Rubus parviflorus_, Nuttall. Lake Superior to the sources of the Miss.
    “   _hispidus_, Linneus. Lake Superior.
    “   _saxatilis_, Var. canadensis, Michaux. Lake Superior.
  _Rosa gemella_, Willdenow. Lake Superior.
    “  _rubifolia_, Brown. Michigan Ter.
  _Ribes albinervum_, Michaux. Sources of the St. Croix River.
  _Saururus cernuus_, Linneus. Upper Mississippi.
  _Streptopus roseus_, Michaux. Lake Superior.
  _Sisymbrium brachycarpum_, Richardson. Lake Superior.
      “      _chiranthoides_, Linneus, do.
  _Swertia deflexa_, Smith. Bois Brulé River of Lake Superior.
  _Silphium terebinthinaceum_, Elliott. Michigan Territory to the Miss.
      “    _gummiferum._ Fox River to the Mississippi.
  _Stachys aspera_, Var. Michaux. Lake Superior.
  _Sterocaulon paschale._ do.
  _Struthiopteris pennsylvanica_, Willdenow. Lake Superior.
  _Scirpus frigetur?_ Lake of the Isles, Northwest Ter.
     “    _palustris_, Linneus. Lake Superior to the Mississippi.
  _Salix prinoides_, Pursh. Mauvais River of Lake Superior.
     “  _longifolia_, Muhlenberg. Upper Mississippi.
  _Spiraea opulifolia_, Var. tomentella, De Candolle. Lake Superior.
  _Sorbus americana_, Willdenow. Lake Huron to the head of Lake Superior.
  _Smilax rotundifolia_, Linneus. Lake Superior to the Mississippi.
  _Silene antirrhina_, Linneus. Lac la Biche.
  _Saxifraga virginiensis_, Michaux. Lake Superior.
  _Scutellaria ambigna_, Nuttall. Upper Mississippi.
  _Solidago virgaurea_, Var. _alpina_. Lake Superior.
  _Stipa jencea_, Nuttall. Usawa R.
  _Symphora racemosa_, Michaux. Source of the Miss. R.
  _Senecio balsamitae_, Var. Falls of Peckagama, Upper Miss.
  _Sagittaria heterophylla_, Pursh. Upper Miss.
  _Tanacetum huronensis_, Nuttall. Lakes Michigan and Superior.
  _Tussilago palmata_, Willdenow. Lake Michigan.
  _Tofeldia pubens_, Michaux. Lake Superior.
  _Triglochin maritimum_, Linneus. do.
  _Thalyctrum corynellum_, De Candolle. St. Louis River.
  _Triticum repens_, Linneus. Leech Lake.
  _Troximon virginicum_, Pursh. Lake Winnipec.
  _Talinum teretifolium_, Pursh. St. Croix River.
  _Tradescantia virginica_, Upper Miss.
  _Utricularia cornuta_, Michaux. Lake Superior.
      “       _purpurea_, Walter. Lac Chetac, N. W. Ter.
  _Uraspermum canadense_, Lake Superior to the Miss.
  _Viola lanceolata_, Linneus. Sault Ste Marie.
     “  _pedata_, Var, (or _N. Spec._) Lac la Biche, source of the Miss.
  _Virburnum oxycoccus_, Pursh. Lake Superior.
      “     _lentago_, do.
  _Vernonia novoboracensis_, Willdenow. Upper Miss.
  _Verbena bracteosa_, Michaux. do.
      “   _stricta_, Ventenat. do.
  _Zapania nodiflora_, Michaux. Galena, Illinois.
  _Zigadenus chloranthus_, Richardson. Sandy shores of Lake Michigan.
  _Zizania aquatica_, Pursh. Illinois to the sources of the Miss.




                         II. INDIAN LANGUAGE.

[The following observations are part of a course of lectures on the
grammatical structure of the Indian languages, delivered before the St.
Mary’s Committee of the Algic Society.—H. R. S.]


               I. LECTURES ON THE CHIPPEWA SUBSTANTIVE.

                              LECTURE I.

  _Observations on the Ojibwai Substantive. 1. The provision of the
    language for indicating gender—Its general and comprehensive
    character—The division of words into animate and inanimate
    classes. 2. Number—its recondite forms, arising from the terminal
    vowel in the word. 3. The grammatical forms which indicate
    possession, and enable the speaker to distinguish the objective
    person._

Most of the researches which have been directed to the Indian
languages, have resulted in elucidating the principles governing the
use of the verb, which has been proved to be full and varied in its
inflections. Either, less attention has been paid to the other parts
of speech, or results less suited to create high expectations of
their flexibility and powers, have been attained. The Indian verb has
thus been made to stand out, as it were in bold relief as a shield
to defects in the substantive and its accessories, and as, in fact,
compensating, by its multiform appendages of prefix and suffix—by
its tensal, its pronominal, its substantive, its adjective, and its
adverbial terminations; for barrenness and rigidity in all other parts
of speech. Influenced by this reflection, I shall defer, in the present
inquiry, the remarks I intend offering on the verb, until I have
considered the substantive, and its more important adjuncts.

Palpable objects, to which the idea of sense strongly attaches, and
the actions or condition, which determine the relation of one object
to another, are perhaps, the first points to demand attention in the
invention of languages. And they have certainly imprinted themselves
very strongly, with all their materiality, and with all their local,
and exclusive, and personal peculiarities upon the Indian. The noun and
the verb not only thus constitute the principal elements of speech, as
in all languages; but they continue to perform their first offices,
with less direct aid from the auxiliary parts of speech, than would
appear to be reconcileable with a clear expression of the circumstances
of time and place, number and person, quality and quantity, action and
repose, and the other accidents, on which their definite employment
depends. But to enable the substantives and attributives to perform
these complex offices, they are provided with inflections, and undergo
changes and modifications, by which words and phrases become very
concrete in their meaning, and are lengthened out to appear formidable
to the eye. Hence the polysyllabic, and the descriptive character of
the language, so composite in its aspect and in its forms.

To utter succinctly, and in as few words as possible the prominent
ideas resting upon the mind of the speaker, appear to have been
the paramount object with the inventors of the language. Hence
concentration became a leading feature. And the pronoun, the adjective,
the adverb and the preposition, however they may be disjunctively
employed in certain cases, are chiefly useful as furnishing materials
to the speaker, to be worked up into the complicated texture of the
verb and the substantive. Nothing, in fact, can be more unlike,
than the language, viewed in its original, elementary state,—in a
vocabulary, for instance, of its primitive words, so far as such a
vocabulary can now be formed, and the same language as heard under its
oral, amalgamated form. Its transpositions may be likened to a picture,
in which the copal, the carmine and the white lead, are no longer
recognized as distinct substances, but each of which has contributed
its share towards the effect. It is the painter only who possesses the
principle, by which one element has been curtailed, another augmented,
and all, however seemingly discordant, made to coalesce.

Such a language may be expected to abound in derivatives and
compounds; to afford rules for giving verbs substantive, and
substantives verbal qualities; to concentrate the meaning of words upon
a few syllables, or upon a single letter, or alphabetical sign; and to
supply modes of contraction and augmentation, and, if I may so say,
_short cuts_, and _by paths_ to meanings, which are equally novel and
interesting. To arrive at its primitives, we must pursue an intricate
thread, where analogy is often the only guide. We must divest words of
those accumulated syllables, or particles, which, like the molecules
of material matter, are clustered around the primitives. It is only
after a process of this kind, that the _principle of combination_—that
secret wire, which moves the whole machinery can be searched for, with
a reasonable prospect of success. The labor of analysis is one of
the most interesting and important, which the subject presents. And
it is a labor which it will be expedient to keep constantly in view,
until we have separately considered the several parts of speech, and
the grammatical laws by which the language is held together; and thus
established principles and provided materials wherewith we may the more
successfully labor.

1. In a general survey of the language as it is spoken, and as it
must be written, there is perhaps no feature which obtrudes itself
so constantly to view, as the principle which separates all words,
of whatever denomination, into animates and inanimates, as they are
applied to objects in the animal, vegetable, or mineral kingdom.
This principle has been grafted upon most words, and carries its
distinctions throughout the syntax. It is the gender of the language;
but a gender of so unbounded a scope, as to merge in it the common
distinctions of a masculine and feminine, and to give a two-fold
character to the parts of speech. The concords which it requires,
and the double inflections it provides, will be mentioned in their
appropriate places. It will be sufficient here to observe, that animate
nouns require animate verbs for their nominatives, animate adjectives
to express their qualities, and animate demonstrative pronouns to
mark the distinctions of person. Thus, if we say, I see a man; I see
a house, the termination of the verb must be changed. What was in the
first instance wâb imâ, is altered to wâb indân. Wâb, is here the
infinitive, but the root of this verb is still more remote. If the
question occur, Is it a good man, or a good house, the adjective,
which, in the inanimate form is onishish-í, is, in the animate
onishish-in´. If the question be put, Is it this man, or this house,
the pronoun this, which is mâ bum, in the animate, is changed to mâ
ndun, in the inanimate.

Nouns animate embrace the tribes of quadrupeds, birds, fishes,
insects, reptiles, crustaceæ, the sun and moon and stars, thunder and
lightning, for these are personified; and whatever either possesses
animal life, or is endowed, by the peculiar opinions and superstitions
of the Indians, with it. In the vegetable kingdom, their number is
comparatively limited, being chiefly confined to trees, and those only
while they are referred to, as whole bodies, and to the various species
of fruits, and seeds, and esculents. It is at the option of the speaker
to employ nouns, either as animates or inanimates: but it is a choice
seldom resorted to, except in conformity with stated exceptions. These
conventional exceptions are not numerous, and the more prominent of
them, may be recited. The cause of the exceptions it is not always
easy to perceive. It may, however, generally be traced to a particular
respect paid to certain inanimate bodies, either from their real
or fancied properties,—the uses to which they are applied, or the
ceremonies to which they are dedicated. A stone, which is the altar of
sacrifice to their Manitoes; a bow, formerly so necessary in the chase;
a feather, the honored sign of martial prowess; a kettle, so valuable
in the household; a pipe, by which friendships are sealed and treaties
ratified; a drum, used in their sacred and festive dances; a medal, the
mask of authority; vermillion, the appropriate paint of the warrior;
wampum, by which messages are conveyed, and covenants remembered. These
are among the objects, in themselves inanimates, which require the
application of animate verbs, pronouns, and adjectives, and are thereby
transferred to the animate class.

It is to be remarked, however, that the names for animals, are only
employed as animates, while the objects are referred to, as whole and
complete species. But the gender must be changed, when it becomes
necessary to speak of separate numbers. Man, woman, father, mother, are
separate nouns, so long as the individuals are meant; but hand, foot,
head, eye, ear, tongue, are inanimates. Buck, is an animate noun, while
his entire carcass is referred to, whether living or dead; but neck,
back, heart, windpipe, take the inanimate form. In like manner, eagle,
swan, dove, are distinguished as animates, but beak, wing, tail, are
arranged with inanimates. So oak, pine, ash, are animate; branch, leaf,
root, inanimates.

Reciprocal exceptions, however, exist to this rule,—the reasons for
which, as in the former instance, may generally be sought, either
in peculiar opinions of the Indians, or in the peculiar qualities
or uses of the objects. Thus the talons of the eagle, and the claws
of the bear, and of other animals, which furnish ornaments for the
neck, are invariably spoken of, under the animate form. The hoofs and
horns of all quadrupeds, which are applied to various economical and
mystic purposes; the castorum of the beaver, and the nails of man,
are similarly situated. The vegetable creation also furnishes some
exceptions of this nature; such are the names for the outer bark of all
trees, (except the birch,) and the branches, the roots, and the resin
of the spruce, and its congeners.

In a language, which considers all nature as separated into two
classes of bodies, characterized by the presence or absence of life;
neuter nouns, will scarcely be looked for, although such may exist
without my knowledge. Neuters are found amongst the verbs and the
adjectives, but it is doubtful whether they render the nouns to which
they are applied, neuters, in the sense we attach to that term. The
subject in all its bearings, is interesting, and a full and minute
description of it, would probably elicit new light respecting some
doubtful points in the language, and contribute something towards a
curious collateral topic—the history of Indian opinions. I have stated
the principle broadly, without filling up the subject of exceptions,
as fully as it is in my power, and without following its bearings
upon points, which will more properly come under discussion, at other
stages of the inquiry. A sufficient outline, it is believed, has been
given, and having thus met, at the threshold, a principle deeply laid
at the foundation of the language, and one which will be perpetually
recurring, I shall proceed to enumerate some other prominent features
of the substantive.

2. No language is perhaps so defective, as to be totally without
number. But there, are, probably, few which furnish so many modes of
indicating it, as the Ojibwai. There are as many modes of forming
the plural, as there are vowel sounds, yet there is no distinction
between a limited and unlimited plural; although there is, in the
pronoun, an _inclusive_ and an _exclusive_ plural. Whether we say man
or men, two men or twenty men, the singular, inin´i, and the plural
inin´iwug, remains the same. But if we say we, or us, or our men, (who
are present,) or we, or us, or our Indians, (in general,) the plural
we, and us, and our—for they are rendered by the same form—admit of
a change to indicate whether the objective person be _included_ or
_excluded_. This principle, of which full examples will be given under
the appropriate head, forms a single and anomalous instance of the use
of particular plurals. And it carries its distinctions, by means of the
pronouns, separable and inseparable, into the verbs and substantives,
creating the necessity of double conjugations and double declensions,
in the plural forms of the first person. Thus, the term for Our Father,
which, in the inclusive form, is Kôsinân, is, in the exclusive, Nôsinân.

The particular plural, which is thus, by the transforming power of the
language, carried from the pronoun into the texture of the verb and
substantive, is not limited to any fixed number of persons or objects,
but arises from the operations of the verb. The general plural is
variously made. But the plural, making inflections take upon themselves
an additional power or sign, by which substantives are distinguished
into animate and inanimate. Without this additional power, all nouns
plural, would end in the vowels a, e, i, o, u. But to mark the gender
the letter g, is added to animates, and the letter n, to inanimates,
making the plurals of the first class, terminate in âg, eeg, ig, ôg,
ug, and of the second class in ân, een, in, ôn, un. Ten modes of
forming the plural are thus provided, five of which are animate, and
five inanimate plurals. A strong and clear line of distinction is thus
drawn between the two classes of words, so unerring indeed, in its
application, that it is only necessary to inquire how the plural is
formed, to determine whether it belong to one, or the other class. The
distinctions which we have endeavored to convey, will perhaps, be more
clearly perceived, by adding examples of the use of each of the plurals.


                            Animate Plural.

  a. Ojibwâi,    a Chippewa.           Ojibwaig,    Chippewas.
  e. Ojee,       a Fly.                Ojeeg,       Flies.
  i. Kosénân,      Our father, (in.)   Kosenân-ig,  Our fathers, (in.)
  o. Ahmô,       a Bee.                Ahm-ôg,      Bees.
  u. Ais,        a Shell.              Ais-ug,      Shells.


                           Inanimate Plural.

  a. Ishkôdai,    Fire.    Ishkôdain,    Fires.
  e. Waddôp,      Alder.   Waddôp-een,   Alders.
  i. Adetaig,     Fruit.   Adetaig-in,   Fruits.
  o. Nôdin,       Wind.    Nôdin-ôn,     Winds.
  u. Meen,        Berry,   Meen-un,      Berries.

Where a noun terminates with a vowel in the singular, the addition
of the g, or n, shows at once, both the plural and the gender. In
other instances, as in peenai, a partridge—seebi, a river—it requires
a consonant to precede the plural vowel, in conformity with a rule
previously stated. Thus, peenai, is rendered peenai-wug—and seebi,
seebi-wun. Where the noun singular terminates in the broad, instead
of the long sound of a, as in ôgimâ, a chief ishpatinâ, a hill, the
plural is ogim-ag, ishpatinân. But these are mere modifications of two
of the above forms, and are by no means entitled to be considered as
additional plurals.

Comparatively few substantives, are without number. The following may
be enumerated.

  Missun´,       Fire wood.
  Pinggwi,       Ashes.
  Méjim,         Food.
  Kôn,           Snow.
  Mishk´wi,      Blood.
  Ukkukkuzhas,   Coals.
  Ussáimâ,       Tobacco.
  Naigow,        Sand.
  Ahioun,        Mist.
  Kimmiwun,      Rain.
  Ossâkumig,     Moss.
  Unitshimin,    Peas.

Others may be found, and indeed, a few others are known. But it
is less an object, in this lecture to pursue exceptions into their
minutest ramifications, than to sketch broad rules, applicable, if not
to every word, to at least a majority of words in the language.

There is, however, one exception from the general use of number, so
peculiar in itself, that not to point it out, would be an unpardonable
remissness, in giving the outlines of a language, in which it is an
object, neither to extenuate faults, nor to overrate beauties. This
exception consists in the want of number in the _third person_ of
the declensions of animate nouns, and the conjugation of animate
verbs. Not, that such words are destitute of number, in their simple
forms, or when used under circumstances requiring no change of these
simple forms—no prefixes and no inflections. But it will be seen, at
a glance, how very limited such an application of words must be, in a
transpositive language.

Thus mang and kâg (loon and porcupine) take the plural inflection wug,
becoming mang wug and kag wug (loons and porcupines.) So, in their
pronominal declension—

  My loon         Ni mang   oom
  Thy loon        Ki mang   oom
  My porcupine    Ni gâg    oom
  Thy porcupine   Ki gâg    oom
  My loons        Ni mang   oom  ug
  Thy loons       Ki mang   oom  ug
  My porcupines   Ni gâg    oom  ug
  Thy porcupines  Ki gâg    oom  ug

But his loon, or loons, (o mang oom un) his porcupine or porcupines,
(o gâg oom un) are without number. The rule applies equally to the
class of words, in which the pronouns are inseparable. Thus, my father
and thy father, nôs and kôs, become my fathers and thy fathers, by
the numerical inflection ug, forming nôsug and kôsug. But ôsun, his
father or fathers is vague, and does not indicate whether there be
one father or twenty fathers. The inflection un, merely denotes the
_object_. The rule also applies equally to sentences, in which the
noun is governed by, or governs the verb. Whether we say, I saw a
bear—ningi wâbumâ mukwah, or a bear saw me—mukwah ningi wâbumig, the
noun, itself, undergoes no change, and its number is definite. But ogi
wâbum-ân muk-wun, he saw bear, is indefinite, although both the verb
and the noun have changed their endings. And if the narrator does not
subsequently determine the number, the hearer is either left in doubt,
or must resolve it by a question. In fine, the whole acts of the third
person are thus rendered questionable. This want of precision, which
would seem to be fraught with so much confusion, appears to be obviated
in practice, by the employment of adjectives, by numerical inflections
in the relative words of the sentence, by the use of the indefinite
article, paizhik, or by demonstrative pronouns. Thus, paizhik mukw_un_
ogi wâbum_ân_, conveys with certainty the information—he saw _a_ bear.
But in this sentence both the noun and the verb retain the objective
inflections, as in the former instances. These inflections are not
uniformly un, but sometimes een, as in ogeen, his mother, and sometimes
ôn, as in odakeek-ôn, his kettle, in all which instances, however, the
number is left indeterminate. It may hence be observed, and it is a
remark which we shall presently have occasion to corroborate, that the
plural inflection to inanimate nouns, (which have no objective form,)
forms the objective inflection to animate nouns, which have no number
in the third person.

3. This leads us to the consideration of the mode of forming
possessives, the existence of which, when it shall have been indicated
by full examples, will present to the mind of the inquirer, one of
those tautologies in grammatical forms, which, without imparting
additional precision, serve to clothe the language with accumulated
verbiage. The strong tendency to combination and amalgamation,
existing in the language, renders it difficult, in fact to discuss
the principles of it, in that elementary form which, could be wished.
In the analysis of words and forms we are constantly led from the
central point of discussion. To recur, however, from these collateral
unravelings, to the main thread of inquiry, at as short and frequent
intervals as possible, and thus to preserve the chain of conclusions
and proofs, is so important that without keeping the object distinctly
in view, I should despair of conveying any clear impressions of those
grammatical features, which impart to the language its peculiar
character.

It has been remarked that the distinctions of number, are founded
upon a modification of the five vowel sounds. Possessives are likewise
founded upon the basis of the vowel sounds. There are five declensions
of the noun to mark the possessive, ending in the possessive in âm,
eem, im, ôm, um, oom. Where the nominative ends with a vowel, the
possessive is made by adding the letter m, as in maimai, a woodcock, ni
maimaim, my woodcock, &c. Where the nominative ends in a consonant, as
in ais, a shell, the full possessive inflection is required, making nin
dais-im, my shell. In the latter form the consonant d, is interposed
between the pronoun and noun, and sounded with the noun, in conformity
with a general rule. Where the nominative ends in the broad, in lieu
of the long sound of a, as in ogimâ, a chief—the possessive is âm. The
sound of i, in the third declension, is that of i in pin, and the sound
of u, in the fifth declension, is that of u in bull. The latter will be
uniformly represented by oo.

The possessive declensions run throughout both the animate and
inanimate classes of nouns, with some exceptions in the latter—as
knife, bowl, paddle, &c.

Inanimate nouns are thus declined.

Nominative, Ishkôdai, Fire.

                { My,     Nin  Dishkod-aim.
                { Thy,    Ki   Dishkod-aim.
                { His,    O    Dishkod-aim.
  Possessive.   { Our,    Ki   Dishkod-aim-inân. (in.)
                { —       Ni   Dishkod-aim-inân. (ex.)
                { Your,   Ki   Dishkod-aim-iwâ.
                { Their,  O    Dishkod-aim-iwâ.

Those words which form exceptions from this declension, take the
separable pronouns before them, as follows.

  Môkoman,      A Knife.
  Ni môkoman,   My Knife.
  Ki môkoman,   Thy Knife.
  O môkoman,    His Knife, &c.

Animate substantives are declined precisely in the same manner as
inanimate, except in the third person, which takes to the possessive
inflections, aim, eem, im, ôm, oom, the objective particle un, denoting
the compound inflection of this person, both in the singular and
plural, aimun, eemun, imun, ômun, oomun, and the variation of the
first vowel sound, âmun. Thus, to furnish an example of the second
declension, pizhik’i, a bison, changes its forms to nim, bizhik-im, my
bison—ke bizhik-im, thy bison, O bizhik-imun, his bison, or bisons.

The cause of this double inflection in the third person, may be left
for future inquiry. But we may add further examples in aid of it. We
cannot simply say, The chief has killed a bear, or, to reverse the
object upon which the energy of the verb is exerted, The bear has
killed a chief. But, ogimâ ogi nissân mukwun, literally, _Chief he has
killed him bear_, or, mukwah ogi nissân ogimân, _Bear he has killed
him chief_. Here the verb and the noun are both objective in _un_,
which is sounded ân, where it comes after the broad sound of a, as in
nissân, objective of the verb to kill. If we confer the powers of the
English possessive, (’s) upon the inflections aim, eem, im, ôm, oom,
and âm respectively, and the meaning of _him_, and of course he, her,
his, hers, they, theirs, (as there is no declension of the pronoun,
and no number to the third person) upon the objective particle un, we
shall then translate the above expression, o bizhik-eemum, _his bison’s
hisn_. If we reject this meaning, as I think we should, the sentence
would read, His bison—him—a mere tautology.

It is true, it may be remarked, that the noun possessed, has a
corresponding termination, or pronominal correspondence, with the
pronoun possessor, also a final termination indicative of its being
the _object_ on which the verb exerts its influence—a mode of
expression, which, so far as relates to the possessive, would be deemed
superfluous, in modern languages; but may have some analogy in the
Latin accusatives am, um, em.

It is a constant and unremitting aim in the Indian languages to
distinguish the actor from the object, partly by prefixes, and partly
by inseparable suffixes. That the termination _un_, is one of these
inseparable particles, and that its office, while it confounds the
number, is to designate the object, appears probable from the fact,
that it retains its connexion with the noun, whether the latter follow
or precede the verb, or whatever its position in the sentence may be.

Thus we can, without any perplexity in the meaning say,
_Waimittigôzhiwug ogi sagiân Pontiac-un_, Frenchmen they did love
Pontiac him. Or to reverse it, _Pontiac-un Waimittigôzhiwug ogi
sagiân_, Pontiac, he did Frenchmen he loved. The termination un in both
instances, clearly determines the object beloved. So in the following
instance, _Sagunoshug ogi sagiân Tecumseh-un_, Englishmen, they did
love Tecumseh, or _Tecumseh-un Sagunoshug oji sagiân_, Tecumseh, he did
Englishmen he loved.

In tracing the operation of this rule, through the doublings of the
language, it is necessary to distinguish every modification of sound,
whether it is accompanied, or not accompanied by a modification of
the sense. The particle un, which thus marks _the third person and
persons_, is sometimes pronounced _wun_, and sometimes _yun_, as the
harmony of the word to which it is suffixed, may require. But not the
slightest change is thereby made in its meaning.

Wâbojeeg ogi meegân-ân nâdowaisi-wun.

Wâbojeeg fought his enemies. L. W. he did fight them, his enemy, or
enemies.

O sâgi-ân inini-wun.

He, or she loves a man. L. He, or she, loves him-man, or men.

Kigo-yun waindji pimmâdizziwâd.

They subsist on fish. L. Fish or fishes, they upon them, they live.

Ontwa o sagiân odi-yun.

Ontwa loves his dog. L. O. he loves him, his dog, or dogs.

In these sentences the letters w and y are introduced before the
inflection un, merely for euphony’s sake, and to enable the speaker
to utter the final vowel of the substantive, and the inflective
vowel, without placing both under the accent. It is to be remarked in
these examples, that the verb has a corresponding inflection with the
noun, indicated by the final consonant n, as in sagiâ-n, objective
of the verb to love. This is merely a modification of un, where it
is requisite to employ it after broad a (aw,) and it is applicable
to nouns as well as verbs whenever they end in that sound. Thus, in
the phrase, he saw a chief, O wâbumâ-n O gimâ-n, both noun and verb
terminate in n. It is immaterial to the sense, which precedes. And this
leads to the conclusion, which we are, in some measure, compelled to
state, in anticipation of our remarks on the verb. That verbs must not
only agree with their nominatives in number, person and _gender_ (we
use the latter term for want of a more appropriate one,) but also with
their objectives. Hence the objective sign n, in the above examples.
Sometimes this sign is removed from the ending of the verb, to make
room for the plural of the nominative person, and is subjoined to the
latter. Thus,

    O sagiâ(wâ)n.
    They love them, him or them.

In this phrase the interposed syllable (wâ) is, apparently, the
plural—it is a reflective plural—of _he_—the latter being, indicated
as usual, by the sign O. It has been observed, above, that the
deficiency in number, in the third person, is sometimes supplied “by
numerical inflections in the relative words of the sentence,” and this
interposed particle, (wâ) affords an instance in point. The number of
the nominative pronoun appears to be thus rendered precise, but the
objective is still indefinite.

When two nouns are used without a verb in the sentence, or when two
nouns compose the whole matter uttered, being in the third person, both
have the full objective inflection. Thus,

  Os-(un.) Odi-(yun.)

His father’s dog. L. His father—his dog or dogs.

There are certain words, however, which will not admit the objective
_un_, either in its simple or modified forms. These are rendered
objective in een, or ôn.

O wâbumâ-(n,) ossin-(een.)

He sees the stone. L. He sees him—stone or stones.

O wâbumâ-(n) mittig o mizh-(een.) L. He sees him, tree or trees.

He sees an oak tree.

O mittig wâb (een,) gyai o bikwuk-(ôn.)

His bow and his arrows. L. His bow him, and his arrows him or them.

Odyâ | wâ | wâ (n,) akkik-(ôn.)

They possess a kettle. L. They own them, kettle or kettles.

The syllable wâ, in the verb of the last example included between bars,
(instead of parentheses,) is the reflective plural _they_, pointed out
in a preceding instance.

I shall conclude these remarks, with full examples of each pronominal
declension.

a. First declension, forming the first and second persons in _aim_, and
the third in _aimun_.

  Nominative.  { Pinâi, a partridge.
               { Pinâi-wug, partridges.

               { My    Nim Bin-aim.
               { Thy   Ki Bin-aim.
     1 & 2d P. { Our    Ki Bin-aim inân. Inclusive plural.
               { Our   Ni Bin-aiminân. Exclusive plural.
               { Your  Ki Bin-aim wâ.

     3rd P.    { His   O Bin-aim, (un.)
               { Their O Bin-aim iwâ (n.)

e. Second declension forming the first and second persons in _eem_, and
the third in _eemun_,

               { Ossin, a stone.
  Nominative.  { Ossineen, stones.

               { My    Nin Dossin-eem.
               { Thy   Ki Dossin-eem.
     1 & 2 P.  { Our   Ki Dossin-eeminân. (in.)
               { Our   Ni Dossin-eeminân. (ex.)
               { Your  Ke Dossin-eemewâ.

     3rd P.    { His   O Dossin-eem(un.)
               { Their O Dossin-eemewâ (n.)

i. Third declension forming the first and second persons in _im_, and
the third in _imun_.

  Nominative. {Ais, a shell.
              {Ais-ug, shells.

              {My Nin Dais-im.
              {Thy Ki Dais-im.
  1 & 2d P.   {Our Ki Dais-iminân. (in.)
              {Our Ni Dais-iminân. (ex.)
              {Your Ki Dais-imiwâ.

  3rd P.      {His O Dais-im (un.)
              {Their O Dais-imewâ (n.)

o. Fourth declension forming the first and second persons in _ôm_, and
the third in _ômun_.

  Nominative. {Monidô, a Spirit.
              {Monidôg, Spirits.

              {My Ni Monid-ôm.
              {Thy Ki Monid-ôm.
  1 & 2 P.    {Our Ki Monid-ôminân. (in.)
              {Our Ni Monid-ôminân. (ex.)
              {Your Ki Monid-ômiwâ.

  3rd P.      {His O monid-ôm (un.)
              {Their O Monid-ômewâ (n.)

u. (oo) Fifth declension forming the first and second persons in _oom_,
and the third in _oomun_.

  Nominative. {Môz, a Moose.
              {Môzôg, Moose.

              {My Ni Môz-oom.
              {Thy Ki Môz-oom.
  1 & 2 P.    {Our Ki Môz-oominân. (in.)
              {Our Ki Môz-oominân. (ex.)
              {Your Ki Môz-oominân. (in.)

  3rd P.      {His O Môz oom (un.)
              {Their O Môz oomiwa (n.)

aw. Additional declension, required when the noun ends in the broad,
instead of the long sound of a, forming the possessive in _âm_, and the
objective in _âmun_.

        Nominative. {Ogimâ, a Chief.
                    {Ogimâg, Chiefs.

                 {My    Ni Dôgim âm.
                 {Thy   Ki Dôgim âm
        1 & 2 P. {Our   Ki Dôgim âminân. (in.)
                 {Our   Ni Dôgim âminân. (ex.)
                 {Your  Ki Dôgim âmiwâ.

        3 P      {His   O Dôgim âm (un.)
                 {Their O Dôgim âmiwâ (n.)

The abbreviations, _in._ and _ex._ in these declensions, mark the
inclusive and exclusive forms of the pronoun plural. The inflection
of the third person, as it is superadded to the first and second, is
included between parentheses, that the eye, unaccustomed to these
extended forms, may readily detect it.

Where the inseparable, instead of the separable pronoun is employed,
the possessive inflection of the first and second person is dispensed
with, although the inflection of the third is still retained.

                              Os: Father.

    _S. singular._
  Nos.      My father.
  Kos.      Thy father.
  Os-un,    His father. _Sing. and plural._
  Nos-inân. Our father. (ex.)
  Kos-inân. Our father. (in.)
  Kos-iwâ.  Your father.
  Os-iwân.  Their father. _Sing. and plural._

    _S. plural._
  Nos-ug.      My fathers.
  Kos-ug.      Thy fathers.
  Os-un.       His fathers. _Sing. and plural._
  Nos-inân ig. Our fathers. (ex.)
  Kos-inân ig. Our fathers. (in.)
  Kos-iwâg.    Your fathers.
  Os-iwân.     Their fathers. _Sing. and plural._

The word dog, and this word alone, is declined in the following manner.

                           Annimoosh: a Dog.

    _S. singular._
  Nin   Dy (or Di)  My dog.
  Ki    Dy          Thy dog.
  O     Dy-un       His dog or dogs.
  Ki  Dy-inân    Our dog (in.)
  Ni  Dy-inân    Our dog (ex.)
  Ki  Dy-iwâ     Your dog.
  O   Dy-iwân    Their dog, &c.

    _S. plural._
  Nin  Dy-ug     My dogs.
  Ki   Dy-ug     Thy dogs.
  O    Dy-un     His dogs, &c.
  Ki   Dy-inânig Our dogs (in.)
  Ni   Dy-inânig Our dogs (ex.)
  Ki   Dy-iwâg   Your dogs.
  O    Dy-iwân   His dogs, &c.

The word _Dy_ which supplies this declension is derived from _Indyiàm_
mine. _pron. an._—a derivative form of the word, which is, however
exclusively restricted, in its meaning, to the dog. If the expression
Nin Dy or N’ Dy, is sometimes applied to the horse, it is because it
is thereby intended to call him, my dog, from his being in a state of
servitude similar to that of the dog. It must be borne in mind, as
connected with this subject, that the dog, in high northern latitudes,
and even as far south as 42 deg. is both a beast of draught and of
burden. He is compelled during the winter season to draw the _odàban_,
or Indian sleigh; and sometimes to support the burden upon his back, by
means of a kind of drag constructed of slender poles.

A review of the facts which have been brought together respecting the
substantive, will show that the separable or inseparable pronouns under
the form of prefixes, are throughout required. It will also indicate,
that the inflections of the first and second persons which occupy
the place of possessives, and those of the third person, resembling
objectives, pertain to words, which are either primitives, or denote
but a single object, as moose, fire. There is, however another class of
substantives, or substantive expressions, and an extensive class—for
it embraces a great portion of the compound descriptive terms—in the
use of which, no pronominal prefixes are required, The distinctions
of person are, exclusively, supplied by pronominal suffixes. Of this
character are the words descriptive of country, place of dwelling,
field of battle, place of employment, &c. The following example will
furnish the inflexions applicable to this entire class of words.

Aindâd: Home, or place of dwelling.

    _S. singular._
  Aindâ-yân.   My home.
  Aindâ-yun.   Thy home.
  Aindâ-d.     His home.
  Aindâ-yâng.  Our home. (Ex.)
  Aindâ-yung.  Our home. (in.)
  Aindâ-yaig.  Your home.
  Aindâ-wâd.   Their home.

    _S. plural._
  Aindâ-yân-in.   My homes.
  Aindâ-yun-in.   Thy homes.
  Aindâ-jin.      His homes.
  Aindâ-yâng-in.  Our homes. (ex.)
  Aindâ-yung-in.  Our homes. (in.)
  Aindâ-yaig-in.  Your homes.
  Aindâ-wâdjin. Their homes.


                              LECTURE II.

  _Further Remarks on the Substantive. Local, diminutive, derogative,
    and tensal inflections. Mode in which the latter are employed
    to denote the disease of individuals, and to indicate the past
    and future seasons. Restricted or sexual terms. Conversion of
    the substantive into a verb, and the reciprocal character of the
    verb, by which it is converted into a substantive. Derivative and
    compound substantives. Summary of the properties of this part of
    speech._

In the view which has been taken of the substantive in the preceding
lecture, it has been deemed proper to exclude several topics,
which, from their peculiarities, it was believed, could be more
satisfactorily discussed in a separate form. Of this character are
those modifications of the substantive by which locality, diminution, a
defective quality, and the past tense are expressed; by which various
adjective and adverbial significations are given; and finally, the
substantives themselves converted into verbs. Such are also the mode
of indicating the masculine and feminine (both merged, as we have
shown, in the animate class) and those words which are of a strictly
_sexual_ character, or are restricted in their _use_ either to males
or females. Not less interesting is the manner of forming derivatives,
and of conferring upon the derivatives so formed, a _personality_,
distinguished as either animate or inanimate, at the option of the
speaker.

Much of the flexibility of the substantive is derived from these
properties, and they undoubtedly add much to the figurative character
of the language. Some of them have been thought analogous to case,
particularly that inflection of the noun which indicates the locality
of the object. But if so, then there would be equally strong reasons
for establishing an _adjective_, and an _adverbial_, as well as a
_local_ case, and a plurality of forms in each. But it is believed
that no such necessity exists. There is no regular declension of
these forms, and they are all used under limitations and restrictions
incompatible with the true principles of case.

It is under this view of the subject, that the discussion of these
forms has been transferred, together with the other accidents of the
substantive just adverted to, and reserved, as the subject matter of a
separate lecture. And in now proceeding to express the conclusions at
which we have arrived touching these points, it will be an object so to
compress and arrange the materials before us, as to present within a
small compass, the leading facts and examples, upon which each separate
position depends.

1. That quality of the noun, which, in the shape of an inflection,
denotes the relative situation of the object, by the contiguous
position of some accessory object, is expressed in the English
language, by the prepositions _in_, _into_, _at_, or _on_. In the
Indian they are denoted by an inflection. Thus the phrase, In the box,
is rendered in the Indian by one word, _mukukoong_. Of this word,
mukuk, simply, is box. The termination _oong_, denoting the locality,
not of the box, but of the object sought after. The expression appears
to be precise, although there is no definite article in the language.

The substantive takes this form, most commonly, after a question has
been put, as, Anindl ni môkoman-ais? where is my penknife? Mukukoong,
(in the box,) addôpowin-ing, (on the table,) are definite replies
to this question. But the form is not restricted to this relation.
Chimân-ing n’guh pôz, I shall embark in the canoe; wakyigun n’guh izhâ,
I shall go into the house, are perfectly correct, though somewhat
formal expressions, when the canoe or the house are present to the
speaker’s view.

The meaning of these inflections has been restricted to _in_,
_into_, _at_, and _on_. But they are the more appropriate forms of
expressing the three first senses, there being other modes beside
these of expressing the preposition _on_. These modes consist in
the use of prepositions and will be explained under that head. The
choice of the one, or the other, is, however, with the speaker.
Generally, the inflection is employed, when there is some circumstance
or condition of the noun, either concealed, or not fully apparent.
Thus, Muzzinyigun-ing, is the appropriate term for _in the book_, and
_may_ also be used to signify _on the book_. But if it is meant only
to signify _on_ the book, something visible being referred to, the
preposition _ogidj_ would be used, that word indicating with certainty
_on_, and never _in_. Wakyigun-ing indicates with clearness, _in
the house_; but if it is necessary to say _on the house_, and it be
meant at the same time to exclude any reference to the interior, the
expression would be changed to _ogidj wakyigun_.

It will be proper further to remark, in this place, in the way of
limitation, that there is also a separate preposition signifying
_in_. It is _pinj_. But the use of this word does not, in all cases,
supersede the necessity of inflecting the noun. Thus the expression
_pindigain_, is literally _walk in_, or enter. But if it is intended
to say, walk in the house, the local, and not the simple form of house
must be used; and the expression is—Pindigain waky´igun-ing, _Enter in
the house_,—the verbal form which this preposition pinj puts on, having
no allusion to the act of _walking_, but merely implying position.

The local inflection, which in the above examples, is _ing_ and _oong_,
is further changed to _aing_ and _eeng_, as the ear may direct—changes
which are governed chiefly by the terminal vowel of the noun. Examples
will best supply the rule, as well as the exceptions to it.

      SIMPLE FORM.                   LOCAL FORM.

  a. First inflection in _aing_.

  Ishkodai      Fire     Ishkod-aing       In, &c. the fire.
  Muskodai      Prairie  Muskod-aing       In, &c. the prairie.
  Mukkuddai     Powder   Mukkud-aing       In, &c. the powder.
  Pimmedai      Grease   Pimmid-aing       In, &c. the grease.

  e. Second inflection in _eeng_.[26]

  Seebi         River    Seeb-eeng         In, &c. the river.
  Neebi         Water    Neeb-eeng         In, &c. the water.
  Miskwi        Blood    Miskw-eeng        In, &c. the blood.
  Unneeb        Elm      Unneeb-eeng       In, &c. the elm.

  i. Third inflection in _ing_.

  Kôn           Snow     Kôn-ing           In, &c. the snow.
  Min           Berry    Meen-ing          In, &c. the berry.
  Chimân        Canoe    Chimân-ing        In, &c. the canoe.
  Muzziny´egun  Book     Muzziny´egun-ing  In, &c. the book.

  o. Fourth inflection in _oong_.

  Azhibik       Rock     Azhibik-oong      In, &c. the rock.
  Gizhig        Sky      Gizhig-oong       In, &c. the sky.
  Kimmiwun      Rain     Kimmiwun-oong     In, &c. the rain.
  Akkik         Kettle   Akkik-oong        In, &c. the kettle.

                Throw it in the fire.
              1. Puggidôn ishkod-aing.
                Go into the prairie.
              2. Muskôdaing izhân.
                He is in the elm.
              3. Unneeb-eeng iâ.
                It is on the water.
              4. Nib-eeng attai.
                Put it on the table.
              5. Addôpôwin-ing attôn.
                Look in the book.
              6. Enâbin muzziny´igun-ing.
                You stand in the rain.
              7. Kimmiwun-oong ki nibow.
                What have you in that box.
              8. Waigonain aitaig mukuk-oong.
                Put it in the kettle.
              9. Akkik-oong attôn, or Pôdawain.
                My bow is not in the lodge; neither is it in the canoe,
                nor on the rock.
              10. Kâwin _pindig_ iâsi ni mittigwâb; kâwiuh gyai
                chimân-_ing_; kâwin gyai âzhibik-_oong_.

An attentive inspection of these examples will show, that the
local form pertains either to such nouns of the animate class, as
are in their nature inanimates, or at most possessed of vegetable
life. And here another conclusion presses upon us—that where these
local terminations, in all their variety, are added to the names of
animated beings, when such names are the nominatives of adjectives or
adjective-nouns, these words are converted into terms of qualification,
indicating _like_, _resembling_, _equal_. Thus, if we wish to say to
a boy, he is like a man, the expression is, Inin-ing izzhinâgozzi;
or if to a man, he is like a bear, Mukk-oong izzhinâgozzi; or to a
bear, he is like a horse, Pabaizhikogâzh-ing izzhinâgozzi. In all
these expressions the word _izzhi_, is combined with the pronominal
inflection _â_ (or nâ) and the animate termination _gozzi_. And the
inflection of the nominative is merely an adjective correspondence
with _izzhi_:—a term indicative of the general qualities of persons
or animated beings. Where a comparison is instituted or a resemblance
pointed out between inanimate instead of animate objects, the
inflection _gozzi_, is changed to _gwud_, rendering the expression,
which was, in the animate form, izzhinâ_gozzi_, in the inanimate form,
izzhinâ_gwud_.

There is another variation of the local form of the noun, in
addition to those above instanced, indicative of locality in a more
general sense. It is formed by _ong_ or _nong_—frequent terminations
in geographical names. Thus from Ojibwai, (Chippewa), is formed
Ojibwai_nong_, Place of the Chippewas. From Wamittigozhiwug, Frenchmen,
is formed Wamittigozhi_nong_, Place of Frenchmen. From Ishpatinâ hill,
Ishpatinong, Place of the hill, &c. The termination _ing_, is also
sometimes employed in this more general sense, as in the following
names of places.

  Monomonikân_ing_. In the place of wild rice.
  Moninggwunikân_ing_. In the place of Sparrows.
  Ongwashagoosh_ing_. In the place of the fallen tree.  &c.

2. The diminutive forms of the noun are indicated by ais, eas, ôs,
and aus, as the final vowel of the word may require. Thus Ojibwai,
a Chippewa, becomes Ojibw-ais, a little Chippewa: Iniṅ´i, a man,
inin-ees, a little man: Amik, a beaver, amik-ôs, a young beaver: Ogimâ,
a chief, ogim-âs, a little chief, or a chief of little authority.
Further examples may be added.

          SIMPLE FORM.   DIMINUTIVE FORM.

                        —ais.
  A woman         Eekwâ             Eekwâz-ais.
  A partridge     Pinâ              Pin-ais.
  A woodcock      Mâimâi            Mâim-ais.
  An island       Minnis            Minnis-ais.
  A grape         Shômin            Shômin-ais.
  A knife         Môkoman           Môkoman-ais.

                        —ees.
  A stone         Ossin             Ossin-ees.
  A river         Seebi             Seeb-ees.
  A pigeon        Omimi             Omim-ees.
  A bison         Pizhik´i          Pizhik-ees.
  A potatoe       Opin              Opin-ees.
  A bird          Pinâisi           Pinâish-ees.

                        —ôs.
  A moose         Môz               Môz-ôs.
  An otter        Nigik             Nigik-ôs.
  A reindeer      Addik             Addik-ôs.
  An elk          Mushkôs           Mushkos-ôs.
  A hare          Wâbôs             Wâbôs-ôs.
  A box           Mukuk             Mukuk-ôs.

                        —aus.
  A bass          Ogâ               Og-âs.
  A medal         Shôniâ            Shôni-âs.
  A bowl          Onâgun            Onâg-âns.
  A bed           Nibâgun           Nibâg-aûns.
  A gun           Pâshkizzigun      Pâshkizzig-âns.
  A house         Wakyigun          Wakyig-àns.

In the four last examples, the letter n, of the diminutive, retains its
full sound.

The use of diminutives has a tendency to give conciseness to the
language. As far as they can be employed they supersede the use
of adjectives, or prevent the repetition of them. And they enable
the speaker to give a turn to the expression, which is often very
successfully employed in producing ridicule or contempt. When applied
to the tribes of animals, or to inorganic objects, their meaning,
however, is, very nearly, limited to an inferiority in size or age.
Thus, in the above examples, pizhik-ees, signifies a calf, omim-ees, a
young pigeon, and ossin-ees, a pebble &c. But inin-ees, and ogim-âs,
are connected with the idea of mental or conventional as well as bodily
inferiority.

1. I saw a little chief, standing upon a small island, with an inferior
medal about his neck.

Ogimâs n’gi wâbumâ nibowid minnisainsing onâbikowân shoniâsun.

2. Yamoyden threw at a young pigeon.

Ogi pukkitalwun omimeesun Yamoyden.

3. A buffalo calf stood in a small stream.

Pizhikees ki nibowi sibeesing.

4. The little man fired at a young moose.

Ininees ogi pâshkizwân môzôsun.

5. Several diminutive looking bass were lying in a small bowl, upon a
small table.

Addôpowinaising attai onâgâns abbiwâd ogâsug.

Some of these sentences afford instances of the use, at the same
time, of both the local and diminutive inflections. Thus the word
minnisainsing, signifies literally, _in the little island_; seebees
ing, _in the little stream_; addôpowinais ing, _on the small table_.

3. The preceeding forms are not the only ones by which adjective
qualities are conferred upon the substantive. The syllable _ish_
when added to a noun indicates a bad or dreaded quality, or conveys
the idea of imperfection or decay. The sound of this inflection is
sometimes changed to eesh oosh, or aush. Thus, Chimân, a canoe, becomes
Chimânish, a bad canoe; Ekwai, a woman, Ekwaiwish, a bad woman; nibi,
water, becomes nibeesh, turbid or strong water; mittig, a tree, becomes
mittigoosh, a decayed tree; akkik, a kettle, akkikoosh, a worn-out
kettle. By a further change, wibid, a tooth, becomes wibid_âsh_, a
decayed or aching tooth, &c. Throughout these changes the final sound
of _sh_ is retained, so that this sound alone, at the end of a word, is
indicative of a faulty quality.

In a language in which the expressions bad-dog, and faint-heart are
the superlative terms of reproach, and in which there are few words
to indicate the modifications between positively good, and positively
bad, it must appear evident, that adjective inflections of this kind,
must be convenient, and sometimes necessary modes of expression. They
furnish a means of conveying censure and dislike, which though often
mild, is sometimes severe. Thus if one person has had occasion to
refuse the offered hand of another—for it must be borne in mind, that
the Indians are a hand-shaking people, as well as the Europeans—the
implacable party has it at his option in referring to the circumstance,
to use the adjective form of hand, not _onindj_, but oninj_eesh_,
which would be deemed contemptuous in a high degree. So also, instead
of odâwai winini, a trader, or man who sells, the word may be changed
to odâwai winini-_wish_, implying a bad or dishonest trader. It is
seldom that a more pointed, or positive mode of expressing personal
disapprobation or dislike is required, for, generally speaking, more is
implied by these modes than is actually expressed.

The following examples are drawn from the inorganic as well as organic
creation, embracing the two classes of nouns that the operation of
these forms may be fully perceived.

                      SIMPLE FORM.      ADJECTIVE FORM.
  —ish—    A bowl       Onâgun           Onâgun-ish.
           A house      Wakyigun         Wakyigun-ish.
           A pipe       Opwâgun          Opwâgun-ish.
           A boy        Kweewizais       Kweewizais-ish.
           A man        Inini            Ininiw-ish.
           Water        Neebi            Neeb-ish.
  —eesh—   A stone      Ossin            Ossin-eesh.
           A potatoe    Opin             Opin-eesh.
           A fly        Ojee             Oj-eesh.
           A bow        Mittigwâb        Mittigwâb-eesh.
  —oosh—   An otter     Neegik           Neegik-oosh.
           A beaver     Ahmik            Ahmik-oosh.
           A reindeer   Addik            Addik-oosh.
           A kettle     Akkeek           Akkeek-oosh.
           An axe       Wagâkwut         Wagâkwut-oosh.
  —aush—   A foot       Ozid             Ozid-âsh.
           An arm       Onik             Onik-âsh.
           An ear       Otowug           Otowug-âsh.
           A hoof       Wunnussid        Wunnussid-âsh.
           A rush mat   Appukwa          Appukw-âsh.

These forms cannot be said, strictly, to be without analogy in the
English, in which the limited number of words terminating in _ish_, as
saltish, blackish, furnish a correspondence in sound, with the first
adjective form.

It may subserve the purposes of generalization to add, as the result of
the foregoing inquiries, that substantives have a diminutive form, made
in ais, ees, ôs, or âs; a derogative form, made in ish, eesh, oosh, or
âsh; and a local form, made in aing, eeng, ing, or oong. By a principle
of accretion, the second, or third, may be added to the first form, and
the third to the second.

                               EXAMPLE.

  Serpent, s.                   Kinai´bik.
  ——s. diminutive        ——ôns, implying Little serpent.
  ——s. derogative        ——ish,       “  Bad serpent.
  ——s. local             ——ing,       “  In (the) serpent.
  ——s. dim. & der.       ——ônsish     “  Little bad serpent.
  ——s. dim. & lo.        ——ônsing     “  In (the) little serpent.
  ——s. dim. der. & lo.   ——ônsishing, “  In (the) little bad serpent.

4. More attention has, perhaps, been bestowed upon these points, than
their importance demanded, but in giving anything like a comprehensive
sketch of the substantive, they could not be omitted; and if mentioned
at all, it became necessary to pursue them through their various
changes and limitations. Another reason has presented itself. In
treating of an unwritten language of which others are to judge chiefly
from examples, it appeared desirable that the positions advanced
should be accompanied by the data upon which they respectively rest—at
least, by so much of the data employed, as to enable philologists to
appreciate the justice or detect the fallacy of our conclusions. To the
few, who take any interest in the subject at all, minuteness will not
seem tedious, and the examples will be regarded with deep interest.

As much of our time as we have already devoted to these lesser points
of inquiry, it will be necessary, at this place, to point out other
inflections and modifications of the substantive, to clear it from
obscurities, that we may go into the discussion of the other parts of
speech, unencumbered.

Of these remaining forms, none is more interesting than that, which
enables the speaker by a simple inflection, to denote that the
individual named has ceased to exist. This delicate mode of conveying
melancholy intelligence, or alluding to the dead, is effected by
placing the object in the past tense.

Aiekid-ôpun aieko Garrangula-bun.

So the deceased Garrangula spoke.

The syllable _bun_, in this sentence, added to the noun, and _ôpun_
added to the verb, place both in the past tense. And although the death
of the Indian orator is not mentioned, that fact would be invariably
inferred.

Names which do not terminate in a vowel sound, require a vowel prefixed
to the tensal inflection, rendering it _ôbun_, or _ebun_. Inanimate, as
well as animate nouns take these inflections.

    PRESENT.                PAST FORM.
  Tecumseh,               Tecumsi-bun.
  Tammany,                Tamani-bun.
  Skenandoah,             Skenandoa-bun.
  Nôs, (my father)        Nos-êbun.
  Pontiac,                Pontiac-ibun.
  Waub Ojeeg,             Waub Ojeeg-ibun.
  Tarhe,                  Tarhi-bun.
  Mittig, (a tree)        Mittig-ôbun.
  Akkik, (a kettle)       Akkik-ôbun.
  Môz, (a moose)          Môz-ôbun.

By prefixing the particle _Tah_ to these words, and changing the
inflection of the animate nouns to _iwi_, and the inanimates to _iwun_,
they are rendered future. Thus Tah Pontiac-iwi: Tah Mittig-iwun, &c.

The names for the seasons only come under the operation of these rules,
when the year before the last, or the year after the next, is referred
to. The last, and the ensuing season, are indicated as follows.

            _Present._      _Last._        _Next._
  Spring,    Seegwun,    Seegwun-oong,    Segwun.
  Summer,    Neebin,     Neebin-oong,     Neebing.
  Autumn,    Tahgwâgi,   Tahgwâg-oong,    Tahgwâgig.
  Winter,    Peebôn,     Peebônoong,      Peebông.

              I spent last winter in hunting.
              Ning`i nunda-wainjigai peebônoong.
              I shall go to Detroit next spring.
              Ninjah izhâ Wâwiâ´tunong seegwung.

5. Sexual nouns. The mode of indicating the masculine and feminine,
having been omitted in the preceding lecture, as not being essential to
any concordance with the verb or adjective, is nevertheless connected
with a striking peculiarity of the language—the exclusive use of
certain words by one or the other sex. After having appeared to the
founders of the language, a distinction not necessary to be engrafted
in the syntax, there are yet a limited number of words, to which the
idea of sex, so strongly attaches, that it would be deemed the height
of impropriety in a female to use the masculine, and in male to use the
feminine expressions.

Of this nature are the words _Neeji_, and _Nindongwai_, both signifying
my friend, but the former is appropriated to males, and the latter
to females. A Chippewa cannot therefore say to a female my friend,
nor a Chippewa woman to a male, my friend. Such an interchange of
the terms would imply arrogance or indelicacy. Nearly the whole of
their interjections—and they are numerous—are also thus exclusively
appropriated; and no greater breach of propriety in speech could
be committed, than a woman’s uttering the masculine exclamation of
surprise _Tyâ!_ or a man’s descending to the corresponding female
interjection _N’yâ!_

The word _neenimoshai_, my cousin, on the contrary, can only be
applied, like husband and wife, by a male to a female, or a female to a
male. If a male wishes to express this relation of a male, the term is
_Neetowis_: and the corresponding female term _Neendongwooshai_.

The terms for uncle and aunt, are also of a two-fold character, though
not restricted like the preceding in their use. Neemishomai is my
uncle by the father’s side: Neezhishai, my uncle by the mother’s side.
Neezigwoos is my paternal aunt, neewishai my maternal aunt.

There are also exclusive words to designate elder brother, and younger
brother: But what would not be expected after the foregoing examples,
they are indiscriminately applied to younger brothers and sisters.
Neesgai, is my elder brother, and neemissai my elder sister. Neeshemai,
my younger brother, or younger sister, and may be applied to any
brother or sister except the eldest.

The number of words to which the idea of sex is attached, in the usual
acceptation, is limited. The following may be enumerated.

          _Masculine._                       _Feminine._
  Irin´i,        A man.           Ekwai´,          A woman.
  Kwee´wizais,   A boy.           Ekwa´zais,       A girl.
  Oskinahwai,    A young man.     Oskineegakwai,   A young woman.
  Akiwaizi,      An old man.      Mindimô´ed,      An old woman.
  Nôsai,         My father.       Nin Gah,         My mother.
  Ningwisis,     My son.          Nin dânis,       My daughter.
  Ni ningwun,    My son-in-law.   Nis sim,         My daughter-in-law.
  Ni nâbaim,     My husband.      Nimindimôimish,  My wife.
  Nimieshomiss,  My grandfather.  Nôkômiss,        My grandmother.
  Ogimâ,         A chief.         Ogemâkwâ,        A chiefess.
  Addik,         A reindeer.      Neetshâni,       A doe.
  Annimoosh,     A dog.           Kiskisshâi,      A bitch.

The sex of the brute creation is most commonly denoted by prefixing the
words _Iâbai_, male; and _nôzhai_, female.

6. Reciprocal changes of the noun. The pronominal particles with which
verbs as well as substantives, are generally encumbered and the habit
of using them in particular and restricted senses, leaves but little
occasion for the employment of either the present or past infinitive.
Most verbs are transitives. A Chippewa does not say, I love, without
indicating, by an inflection of the verb, the object beloved; and thus
the expression is constantly, I love him, or her, &c. Neither does the
infinitive appear to be generally the ultimate form of the verb.

In changing their nouns into verbs, it will not therefore be expected,
that the change should uniformly result in the infinitive, for which
there is so little use; but in such of the personal forms of the
various moods as circumstances may require. Most commonly the third
person singular of the indicative, and the second person singular of
the imperative, are the simplest aspects under which the verb appears;
and hence these forms have been sometimes mistaken for, and reported
as the present infinitive. There are some instances, in which the
infinitive is employed. Thus, although an Indian cannot say, I love,
thou lovest, &c. without employing the objective forms of the verb
to love: yet he can say I laugh, I cry, &c. expressions in which the
action being confined to the speaker himself, there is no transition
demanded. And in all similar instances the present infinitive, with the
proper pronoun prefixed, is employed.

There are several modes of transforming a substantive into a verb. The
following examples will supply the rules, so far as known, which govern
these changes.

                             Indicative.             Imperative.
  Chimân, a canoe.        Chimai, he paddles.      Chimain, paddle thou.
  Pashkizzigun, a gun.    Pashkizzigai, he fires.  Pashkizzigain, fire thou.
  Jeesidyigun, a broom.   Jeesidyigai, he sweeps.  Jeesidyigain, sweep thou.
  Weedjeeagun, a helper.  Weedôkagai, he helps.    Weedjeei-wain, help thou.
  Ojibwâi, a Chippewa.    Ojibwâmoo, he    }       Ojibwâmoon, speak }
                          speaks Chippewa. }          thou Chippewa. }

Another class of nouns is converted into the first person, indicative
of a pseudo declarative verb, in the following manner.

  Monido,    A spirit.         Ne Monidôw,     I (am) a spirit.
  Wassaiâ,   Light.            Ne Wassaiâw,    I (am) light.
  Ishkodai,  Fire.             Nin Dishkodaiw, I (am) fire.
  Weendigô,  A monster.        Ni Weendigôw,   I (am) a monster.
  Addik,     A deer.           Nin Daddikoow,  I (am) a deer.
  Wakyigun,  A house.          Ni Wakyiguniw,  I (am) a house.
  Pinggwi,   Dust, ashes.      Nim Pinggwiw,   I (am) dust, &c.

The word am, included in parentheses, is not in the original, unless we
may suppose the terminals, ow, aw, iw, oow, to be derivatives from Iaw.
These changes are reciprocated by the verb, which, as often as occasion
requires, is made to put on a substantive form. The particle _win_
added to the indicative of the verb, converts it into a substantive.
Thus—

  Keegido,         He speaks.       Keegidowin,         Speech.
  Pâshkizzigai,    He fires.        Pashkizzigaiwin,    Ammunition.
  Agindasoo,       He counts.       Agindasoowin,       Numbers.
  Wahyiâzhinggai,  He cheats.       Wahyiazhinggaiwin,  Fraud.
  Minnikwâi,       He drinks.       Minnikwâiwin,       Drink.
  Kubbâshi,        He encamps.      Kubbâishiwin,       An encampment.
  Meegâzoo,        He fights.       Meegâzoowin,        A fight.
  Ojeengai,        He kisses.       Ojeendiwin,         A kiss.
  Annôki,          He works.        Annôkiwin,          Work.
  Pâpi,            He laughs.       Pâpiwin,            Laughter.
  Pimâdizzi,       He lives.        Pimâdizziwin,       Life.
  Onwâibi,         He rests.        Onwâibiwin,         Rest.
  Annamiâ,         He prays.        Annamiâwin,         Prayer.
  Nibâ,            He sleeps.       Nibâwin,            Sleep.
  Odâwai,          He trades.       Odâwaiwin,          Trade.

Adjectives are likewise thus turned into substantives.

  Keezhaiwâdizzi,   He generous.       Keezhaiwâdizziwin,   Generosity.
  Minwaindum,       He happy.          Minwaindumowin,      Happiness.
  Keezhaizeâwizzi,  He industrious.    Keezhaizhâwizziwin,  Industry.
  Kittimâgizzi,     He poor.           Kittimâgizziwin,     Poverty.
  Aukkoossi,        He sick.           Aukkoossiwin,        Sickness.
  Kittimishki,      He lazy.           Kittimishkiwin,      Laziness.
  Nishkâdizzi,      He angry.          Nishkâdizziwin,      Anger.
  Baikâdizzi,       She chaste.        Baikâdizziwin,       Chastity.

In order to place the substantives thus formed, in the third person,
corresponding with the indicative from which they were changed, it is
necessary only to prefix the proper pronoun. Thus, Ogeezhaiwâdizziwin,
his generosity, &c.

7. Compound substantives. The preceding examples have been given
promiscuously from the various classes of words, primitive and
derivative, simple and compound. Some of these words express but
a single idea, as, ôs, father—gah, mother—môz, a moose—kâg, a
porcupine—mang, a loon—and appear to be incapable of further division.
All such words may be considered as primitives, although some of them
may be contractions of dissyllabic words. There are also a number of
dissyllables, and _possibly_ some trisyllables, which, in the present
state of our analytical knowledge of the language, may be deemed both
simple and primitive. Such are neebi, water; ossin, a stone; geezis,
the sun; nodin, wind. But it may be premised, as a principle which our
investigations have rendered probable, that all polysyllabic words, all
words of three syllables, _so far as examined_, and most words of two
syllables, are compounds.

The application of a syntax, formed with a view to facilitate the
rapid conveyance of ideas by consolidation, may, it is presumable, have
early led to the coalescence of words, by which all the relations of
object and action, time and person, were expressed. And in a language
which is only spoken, and not written, the primitives would soon become
obscured and lost in the multiform appendages of time and person,
and the recondite connexion of actor and object. And this process of
amalgamation would be a progressive one. The terms that sufficed in
the condition of the simplest state of nature, or in a given latitude,
would vary with their varying habits, institutions and migrations. The
introduction of new objects and new ideas would require the invention
of new words, or what is much more probable, existing terms would be
modified or compounded to suit the occasion. No one who has paid much
attention to the subject, can have escaped noticing a confirmation
of this opinion, in the extreme readiness of our western Indians to
bestow, on the instant, names, and appropriate names—to any new object
presented to them. A readiness not attributable to their having at
command a stock of generic polysyllables—for these it would be very
awkward to wield—but as appears more probable, to the powers of the
syntax, which permits the resolution of new compounds from existing
roots, and often concentrates, as remarked in another place, the entire
sense of the parent words, upon a single syllable, and sometimes upon a
single letter.

Thus it is evident that the Chippewas possessed names for a living
tree _mittig_, and a string _aiâb_, before they named the bow
_mittigwâb_,—the latter being compounded under one of the simplest
rules from the two former. It is further manifest that they had named
earth _akki_, and (any solid, stony or metallic mass) _âbik_, before
they bestowed an appellation upon the kettle, _akkeek_, or _akkik_,
the latter being derivatives from the former. In process of time these
compounds became the bases of other compounds, and thus the language
became loaded with double and triple, and quadruple compounds, concrete
in their meaning and formal in their utterance.

When the introduction of the metals took place, it became necessary to
distinguish the clay from the iron pot, and the iron, from the copper
kettle. The original compound, _akkeek_, retained its first meaning,
admitting the adjective noun _piwâbik_ (itself a compound) iron,
when applied to a vessel of that kind, piwâbik akkeek, iron kettle.
But a new combination took place to designate the copper kettle,
_miskwâkeek_, red-metal kettle; and another expression to denote the
brass kettle, _ozawâbik akkeek_, yellow metal kettle. The former is
made up from miskôwâbik, copper (literally _red-metal_—from miskwâ,
red, and _âbik_, the generic above mentioned) and _akkeek_, kettle.
Ozawâbik, brass, is from _ozawâ_ yellow, and the generic _âbek_—the
term akkeek, being added in its separate form. It may, however, be
used in its connected form of wukkeek, making the compound expression
_ozawâbik wukkeek_.

In naming the horse paibâizhikôgazhi, i. e. the animal with solid
hoofs, they have seized upon the feature which most strikingly
distinguished the horse, from the cleft-footed animals which were
the only species known to them at the period of the discovery. And
the word itself affords an example, at once, both of their powers
of concentration, and brief, yet accurate description, which it may
be worth while to analyse. Paizhik, is one, and is also used as the
indefinite article—the only article the language possesses. This word
is further used in an adjective sense, figuratively indicating, united,
solid, undivided. And it acquires a plural signification by doubling,
or repeating the first syllable, with a slight variation of the second.
Thus, Pai-baizhik, denotes not _one_, or _an_, but several; and when
thus used in the context, renders the noun governed, plural. Oskuzh, is
the nail, claw, or horny part of the foot of beasts, and supplies the
first substantive member of the compound _gauzh_. The final vowel is
from _akwaisi_, a beast; and the marked o, an inseparable connective,
the office of which is to make the two members coalesce, and harmonize.
The expression thus formed becomes a substantive, specific in its
application. It may be rendered plural like the primitive nouns, may be
converted into a verb, has its diminutive, derogative and local form,
and in short, is subject to all the modifications of other substantives.

Most of the modern nouns are of this complex character. And they
appear to have been invented to designate objects, many of which were
necessarily unknown to the Indians in the primitive ages of their
existence. Others, like their names for a copper-kettle and a horse,
above mentioned, can date their origin no farther back than the period
of the discovery. Of this number of nascent words, are most of their
names for those distilled or artificial liquors, for which they are
indebted to Europeans. Their name for water, _neebi_, for the fat of
animals, _weenin_, for oil or grease, _pimmidai_, for broth, _nâbôb_,
and for blood, _miskwi_, belong to a very remote era, although all but
the first appear to be compounds. Their names for the tinctures or
extracts derived from the forest, and used as dyes, or medicines, or
merely as agreeable drinks, are mostly founded upon the basis of the
word _âbo_, a liquid, although this word is never used alone. Thus—

  Shomin-âbo      Wine        From Shomin, a grape, âbo, a liquor.
  Ishkodai-âbo    Spirits     From Ishkôdâi, fire, &c.
  Mishimin-âbo    Cider       From Mishimin, an apple, &c.
  Tôtôsh-âbo      Milk        From Tôtôsh, the female breast, &c.
  Sheew-âbo       Vinegar     From Sheewun, sour, &c.
  Annibeesh-âbo               From Annibeeshun, leaves, &c.
  Ozhibiegun-aubo             From Ozhibiêgai, he writes, &c.

In like manner their names for the various implements and utensils
of civilized life, are based upon the word _Jeegun_, one of those
primitives, which, although never disjunctively used, denotes, in its
modified forms, the various senses implied by our words instrument,
contrivance, machine, &c. And by prefixing to this generic, a
substantive, verb, or adjective, or parts of one or each, an entire new
class of words is formed. In these combinations, the vowels e, and o,
are sometimes used as connectives.

  Keeshkeebô-jeegun   A saw              From Keeshkeezhun, v. a. to cut.
  Seeseebô-jeegun     A file             From Seesee, to rub off, &c.
  Wassakoonen-jeegun  A candle           From Wassakooda, bright, biskoona, flame, &c.
  Beeseebô-jeegun     A coffee-mill      From Beesâ, fine grains, &c.
  Minnikwâd-jeegun    A drinking vessel  From Minnekwâi, he drinks, &c.
  Tâshkeebôd-jeegun   A saw mill         From Taushkâ, to split, &c.
  Mudwâiabeed-jeegun  A violin           From Mudwâwâi, sound, âiâb, a string, &c.

Sometimes this termination is shortened into _gun_, as in the following
instances.

  Onâ-gun           A dish.
  Tikkina-gun       A cradle.
  Neeba-gun         A bed.
  Puddukkyi-gun     A fork.
  Puggimmâ-gun      A war-club.
  Opwâ-gun          A pipe.
  Wassâitshie-gun   A window.
  Wakkyi-gun        A house.
  Pôdahwâ-gun       A fire-place.
  Sheema-gun        A lance.

Another class of derivatives is formed from _wyân_, indicating,
generally, an undressed skin. Thus—

  Muk-wyân      A bear skin     From Mukwah, a bear, and wyaun, a skin.
  Wazhusk-wyân  A muskrat skin  From Wazhusk, a muskrat, &c.
  Wabôs-wyân    A rabbit skin   From Wabôs, a rabbit, &c.
  Neegik-wyân   An otter skin   From Neegih, an otter, &c.
  Ojeegi-wyân   A fisher skin   From Ojeeg, a fisher, &c.
  Wabizhais-ewyân, a martin skin, from wabizhais, a martin, &c.

Wâbiwyan, a blanket, and bubbuggiwyan, a shirt, are also formed
from this root. As the termination _wyân_, is chiefly restricted to
undressed skins, or peltries, that of _waigin_, is, in like manner,
generally applied to dressed skins, or to cloths. Thus—

  Monido-waigin  Blue cloth, strouds  From Monido, spirit, &c.
  Misk-waigin    Red cloth            From Miskwâ, red, &c.
  Nondâ-waigin       Scarlet.
  Peezhiki-waigin    A buffalo robe    From Peezhiki, a buffalo, &c.
  Addik-waigin       A cariboo skin    From Addik, a cariboo, &c.
  Ozhauwushk-waigin  Green cloth       From Ozhâwushkwâ, green.

An interesting class of substantives is derived from the third person
singular of the present indicative of the verb, by changing the
vowel sound of the first syllable, and adding the letter d to that
of the last, making the terminations in aid, âd, eed, id, ood. Thus,
Pimmoossâ, he walks, becomes pâmoossâd, a walker.

  aid— Munnissai        He chops       Mânissaid         A chopper.
        Ozhibeigai       He writes      Wâzhibeigaid      A writer.
        Nundowainjeegai  He hunts       Nândowainjeegaid  A hunter.
  âd—  Neebâ            He sleeps      Nâbâd             A sleeper.
        Kwâbahwâ         He fishes }    Kwyâbahwâd        A fisher,  }
                  (with scoop net) }                (with scoop net.)}
        Puggidowâ        He fishes }    Pâgidowâd         A fisher,  }
                        (with sein)}                     (with sein.)}
  eed— Annokee          He works       Anokeed           A worker.
        Jeessakea        He juggles     Jossakeed         A juggler.
        Munnigobee       He pulls bark  Mainigobeed       A bark puller.
  id—  Neemi            He dances      Nâmid             A dancer.
        Weesinni         He eats        Wâssinid          An eater.
        Pimâdizzi        He lives       Paimaudizzid      A living being.
  ood— Nugamoo          He sings       Naigumood         A singer.
        Keegido          He speaks      Kâgidood          A speaker.
        Keewonimoo       He lies        Kâwunimood        A liar.

This class of words is rendered plural in ig,—a termination, which,
after d final in the singular, has a soft pronunciation, as if written
_jig_. Thus, Nâmid, a dancer, nâmidjig, dancers.

The derogative form is given to these generic substantives by
introducing ish, or simply sh, in place of the d, and changing
the latter to _kid_, making the terminations in ai, aishkid, in
â, âshkid, in e, eeshkid, in i, ishkid, and in oo, ooshkid. Thus,
naindowainjeegaid, a hunter, is changed to naindowainjeegaishkid, a bad
or unprofitable hunter. Naibâd, a sleeper, is changed to naibâshkid, a
sluggard. Jossakeed, a juggler, to jossakeeshkid, a vicious juggler.
Wâsinnid, an eater, to wâssinishkid, a gormandizer. Kâgidood, a
speaker, kâgidooshkid, a babbler. And in these cases the plural is
added to the last educed form, making kâgidooshkidjig, babblers, &c.

The word nittâ, on the contrary, prefixed to these expressions, renders
them complimentary. For instance, nittâ naigumood, is a fine singer,
nittâ kâgidood, a ready speaker, &c.

Flexible as the substantive has been shown to be, there are other forms
of combination that have not been adverted to—forms, by which it is
made to coalesce with the verb, the adjective, and the preposition,
producing a numerous class of compound expressions. But it is deemed
most proper to defer the discussion of these forms to their several
appropriate heads.

Enough has been exhibited to demonstrate its prominent grammatical
rules. It is not only apparent that the substantive possesses number,
and gender, but it also undergoes peculiar modifications to express
locality and diminution, to denote adjective qualities and to indicate
tense. It exhibits some curious traits connected with the mode of
denoting the masculine and feminine. It is modified to express person
and to distinguish living from inanimate masses. It is rendered
possessive by a peculiar inflection, and provides particles, under the
shape either of prefixes or suffixes, separable or inseparable, by
which the actor is distinguished from the object—and all this, without
changing its proper substantive character, without putting on the
aspect of a pseudo adjective, or a pseudo verb. Its changes to produce
compounds, are, however, its most interesting, its most characteristic
trait. Syllable is heaped upon syllable, word upon word, and derivative
upon derivative, until its vocabulary is crowded with long and pompous
phrases, most formidable to the eye.

So completely transpositive do the words appear, that like chessmen
on a board, their elementary syllables can be changed at the will of
the player, to form new combinations to meet new contingencies, so long
as they are changed in accordance with certain general principles and
conventional rules; in the application of which, however, much depends
upon the will or the skill of the player. What is most surprising—all
these changes and combinations, all these qualifications of the object,
and distinctions of the person, the time, and the place, do not
supersede the use of adjectives, and pronouns, and verbs, and other
parts of speech woven into the texture of the noun, in their elementary
and disjunctive forms.


2. A VOCABULARY OF WORDS AND PHRASES IN THE CHIPPEWA LANGUAGE.

  A.

  A. a. to express the sound of a, in father, ah in Jehovah. Amo, a
    Bee.

  A. â.    “    “    “    “     a, in fall, au in auction, aw in law.
    Tyâ, Lo!

  A. a.    “    “    “    “     a, in hat. Aki, Earth.

  Ai. ai.  “    “    “    “     a, in fate, ai, in aim, ay, in way, e,
    in obey.  Ais, a Shell.

  A or An, Pai´zhik. (see one.)

  To abash, v. Agud´ji.
    Verbs are inserted in the most simple of their concrete forms,
    being the third person singular of the indicative present, in all
    cases where not otherwise expressed.

  Abdomen, s. Omissud´.
    See acorn for examples of the diminutive, derogative, and other
    regular forms of the substantive.

  Abed, ad. Nibâ´guning.
    Local form of the word bed.

  Abide thou, imp. mood. Abin´.

  Able, a. Gushkitô´n.
    As adjectives are declined with person and mood, they are inserted
    under the same rule indicated for verbs.

  Abode, s. Aindâd.

  Aboard, ad. Pindô´nug.

  Aborigines, s. Unishinâ´bai. (Plural in g.)

  Above, prep. Ogidjy´ei.

  Above, ad. Ishpiming.
    Local form of the adjective high.

  Above ground, Ogidâ´kumig.

  Abroad, ad. Kood´uging.

  Abcess, s. Minwi´wi.

  To abscond, v. Ozhimoo´.

  Absent, a. Ondain´di.

  To abound, v. inan. Wâ´nadud.

  To abound, v. an. Wâ´nadizzi.

  To accept, v. Odâ´pinun.

  Accepter, s. Wai´dâpinung.

  To accompany, v. Owi´jiewân.

  Accompanier, s. Wa´jiewaid.

  To accost, v. Kunôzh´.

  Account, to make an account, v. Muzziny´igai.

  Accounter, s. Muzziny´igaid.

  Account book, s. Muzziny´igun.
    (See Book.)

  To accuse, v. Una´modum.

  Accuser, s. Ain´amodung.

  Acid, a. Shi´wun.

  Acid liquor, Shiwunâ´bo.

  Acorn, s. Mittigomin.

  Acorn, s. dim. Mittigominais, equivalent little acorn.

  Acorn, s. der. Mittigôminish, eq. bad acorn.

  Acorn, s. lo. Mittigomining, eq. in the acorn.

  Acorn, s. dim. & der. Mittigominaisish, eq. little bad acorn.

  Acorn, s. dim. der. & lo. Mittigominaisishing, eq. in the little bad
    acorn.

  Acquaintance, s. Kaikain´imind.
    One who is known.

  Across, ad. Azhiwyei.

  To act, v. Tô´dum.

  Action, s. Tôdumowin.

  Actor, s. Aindô´dung.

  Active, a. inan. Kizhinzhow´ita.

  Active, a. an. Kizhinzowizzi.

  Adder, s. Kinai´bik.

  Adder, s. dim. Kinaibikons.

  Adder, s. der. Kinaibikish.

  Adder, s. lo. Kinaibiking.

  Adder, s. dim. & der. Kinaibikonsish.

  Adder, s. dim. der. & lo. Kiniabikonsishing.

  Adder’s tongue, a plant, Mônawing.
    E. dens canis.

  Address, s. Kigidô´win.

  Addresser, s. Kâgidood´.

  To adhere, v. Agookai´.

  To adopt, v. Wangô´ma.

  An adopted person, Wyangô´mind.

  Adopter, s. Wyangôn´gaid.

  To adore, v. Annamiâ´.
    This word is exclusively applied to christian worship.

  Adorer, s. Ainnamiâd´.

  To adorn, v. Sussai´ga.

  Adroit, a. Minwi.

  Adrift, ad. Waiba´tun.

  To advance, v. Pida´simôsai.

  Advancer, s. Pada´simôsaid.

  To adventure, v. Ienâdizzi.

  Adventurer, s. Aienâdizzid.

  To advise, v. Kuggi´kwai.

  Advice, s. Kuggikwai´win.

  Adviser; s. Kaiggi´kwaid.

  Adult, s. Kizhigi.

  Adultery, s. Kimô´jeiddiwin.

  Afar, ad. Wa´suh.

  Affable, a. Ona´nigooni.

  Affectionate, a. Gizhawâ´dizzi.

  Affection, s. Gizhawâ´dizziwin.

  Afloat, Waiba´tun.

  Afore, prep. Nigan´.

  Aforetime, ad. Maiwinzk´uh.

  Afraid, a. Sai´gizzi.

  After, prep. Ish´kwaiyong.

  Afternoon, Una´gooshi,

  Again, ad. Min´awâ.

  Aged, a. Appi´tizzi.

  Age, s. Appi´tizziwin.

  Agréeable, a. Minwaindâ´goozzi.

  Agreeableness, s. Minwaindâ´goozziwin.

  Agriculture, s. Gittigai´win.

  Agriculturist, s. Gait´tigaid.

  Ah, interj. Tyâ.

  Ahead, Nigan. (See Before.)

  To aid, v. Widôkazoo.

  Aider, s. Wadôkazood.

  To ail, v. Akooz´zi.

  Ailment, s. Akooz´ziwin.

  To aim, v. Odozhiân.

  Aimer, s. Wyaizhiewaid.

  Air, a soft breeze, s. Ayâ´.

  Air, wind, s. Nôdin.

  Alarm, s. Sassa´kwaiwin.

  To alarm, v. Sasa´kwai.

  Alarmer, s. Syâsa´kwaid.

  Alder, s. Waddôp´.

  Alder, s. dim. Waddôpons.

  Alder, s. der. Waddôpish.

  Alder, s. lo. Waddôping.

  Alder, s. dim. der. & lo. Waddôponsishing.

  Alike, ad. Tib´ishkô.

  Aliment, s. Mi´jim.

  Alive, a. Pimâdizzi.

  All, a. Kukin´uh.

  Alliance, s. Inuhwain´diwin.

  To allot, v. Oonaô´ki.

  Allotment, s. Oonaô´kiwin.

  Allotter, s. Wainaôkeed.

  To allure, v. Shôbiewai.

  Almond, s. Pugân´.

  Almost, ad. Kai´go.

  To give alms, v. Shaiwainingai.

  Alms, s. Shaiwainingaiwinun.
    This substantive phrase, which is rendered plural in _un_, and this
    being a plural of inanimate bodies, is thereby shown to be things
    given, is based on the verb to pity.

  Almsgiver, s. Shaiwamingaid.

  Along shore, Tiddibaiw´.

  Alone, a. Nizhik´ai.

  Already, ad. Pabigai´.

  Also, ad. Gyai´.

  To alter, v. inanimate, Anjitôn´.

  Alterer, s. Ianjitôd´.

  Altercation, s. Iâsiminid´aiwug.
    This is a plural expression indicating a personal tumult; a hubbub.

  Always, ad. Moozh ug.

  Am, I am, Nin, Dyâ. See to be.

  Amen, ad. Kunnagai´kunna.

  Amidst, prep. inanimate, Nasowiei.

  Amidst the town, or village, Nasowôdainuh.

  Ammunition, s. Pashkizzigaiwin.
    This is one of the comparatively modern compounds, being based on
    the verb to fire, which see. It is made a substantive in _win_.

  Ample, a. mai’tshâ.

  To amuse, v. Oombukumigi´zzi.

  Amusement, s. ————win.

  Amuser, s. Waibukumigizzid.

  An, art. Pai´zhik.

  Ancestor, s. Ogitizimun.

  And, conj. Gyai.

  Andiron, s. Shaigwukinzhaiegun.

  Angry, a. Nishkâdizzi.

  Anger, s. Nishkâdizziwin.

  Anguish, s. Wisugain´dum, a compound from the words _bitter_ and
    _mind_.

  Animal, s. Awais´i.
    Animate substantives have their plural in g.

  Ankle, s. Obikoo´guna.

  Annually, ad. Aindasopibôn.

  To annoint, v. Nominun.

  Anointer, s. Naiminiwaid.

  Another, a. Bukan´.

  To answer, v. Nuhkoodum.

  Answer, s. Nuhkoodumowin.

  Ant, s. Ainigo´.

  —   s. dim, ——os.

  —   s. der, ——oosh.

  —   der. local, ——ooshing.

  Antler, s. Aish´kun.

  — s. dim. ——ais.

  — s. der. ——ish.

  — s. loc. ——ing.

  — s. dim. & der. ——ainsish.

  — s. dim. der. loc. ——ainsishing.

  Anus, s. Ojeed.

  Apparel, s. Pasikumingin. Plural.

  Apparition, s. Ji´by. Plu. in _ug_.

  —— s. dim. —— ais.

  To appear, v. Nâgoozzi.

  To applaud, v. Mumikwa´zhowai.

  Applause, s. —— win.

  Applauser, s. Maimikwazhowaid.

  Apple, s. Mishi´min. Plu. in ug.

  ——   s. dim. ——ais.

  ——   a. der. ——ish.

  ——   s. dim & der. ——aisish.

  ——   s. loc. ——ing.

  Apple tree, Mishi´minâ´tig.

  Apple liquor, Mishi´minâ´bo. See cider.

  To approach, v. Piezha.

  Approacher, s. Puhizhad.

  April, s. Paibokâidagiming Gizis.

  Archer, s. Ainuhaid.

  Ardent spirits. See Brandy.

  To arise from lying posture, Onish´ka.

  To arise from a sitting posture, Puzzigwi.

  Arm, of the body, Onik´.

  Arms, weapons, Oshwi´winun. Plu.

  Armband, s. Gitchi´waibizzoon.

  Around, ad. Kiwitâ´jei.

  To arrive, by land, Tak´wishin.

  To arrive, by water, Miz´hugâ.

  Arrow, blunt headed, Bik´wuk.

  Arrow, spear pointed, Ussowân´.

  Art, thou art, Ki Dyâ.

  Artichoke, s. Ushkibwâ´.

  Ash tree, s. Wisugâk´. Bitterwood.

  Ashes, s. Pingwi´. This word is without number.

  Ashamed, a. Agudji.

  To ascend, v. Ukwan´dowai.

  Ashore, put ashore, Kikubâ.

  Ashore, near the shore, Chigâ´bik.

  To ask, v. Kugwai dwai.

  Asker, s. Kai´gwaidwaid.

  Aspect, of things animate, Aizhinâ´goozzi.

  Aspect, of things inanimate, Aizhinâ´gwuk.

  Aspen, s. Aizâ´di.

  Assassin, s. Naizhiwaid.

  Assemblage, s. Mamawiedding.

  Assent, s. Nuh koodum.

  To assent, v. E kido.

  To assist, v. Widôkâ´zoo.

  Assistant, s. Waidokâ´zood.

  At, prep. Cheeg.

  Atmosphere, s, Gi´zhig.

  Atom, s. Bâpish.

  To attack, v. Mow´inai.

  To attain, v. Gushkiai´wizzi.

  Attainment, s. ——win.

  Attire, s. See apparel.

  Avaricious, a. Suzzai gizzi.

  Avarice, s. —— win.

  To avenge, v. Azhitow´iewai.

  Avenger, s. Iazhitowiewaid.

  August, s. Monô´mini, Gizis. Rice Moon.

  Aunt, uncle’s wife, or father’s sister, Nizhigwoos´.

  Aunt, mother’s sister. Ninwishai´.

  Aurora borealis, Jiby nimi iddiwug. Dancing ghosts.

  Autumn, s. Tagwâ gi.

  Next autumn, Tagwâgig´.

  Last autumn, Tagwâgoong´.

  To authorize, v. Inugimâ´.

  Authority, s. ——win.

  Awake, a. Gooshkooz´zi.

  Away, ad. Ningood´ji.

  Awkward, a. Namu´nji.

  Awl, s. Migôs´.

  —— s. dim. —— ais.

  —— s. der. —— ish.

  —— s. local, —— ing.

  —— s. dim. & der. —— aisish.

  —— s. dim. der. & loc. —— aisishing.

  Axe, s. Wagâ´kwut.

  —— s. dim. —— ais.

  —— s. der. —— ish.

  —— s. local, —— ing.

  —— s. dim. & der. —— aisish.

  —— s. dim. der. & loc. —— aisishing.


  B.

  To babble, v. Ozâmidôn, or Kâgidooshkai.

  Babble, s. Ozâmidôniwin, or Kâgidooshkaiwin.

  Babbler, s. Kâgidooshkid.

  Babe, baby, Abbinôji.
    This is the term for child. A _male_ child is usually denominated
    Pinai´shi, (bird,) during its infancy.

  Bachelor, s. Pizhishigôwizzi.
    This term being in the animate form, is not indicative of sex, and
    strictly indicates an unmarried, (or uncoupled) person.

  Back, s. Opik´wun.

  Backbone, s. Tuttagâ´gwun.

  Backwards, ad. Uzhai.

  To step backwards, v. Uzhaigâ´bôwi.

  Bacon, s. Kôkôsh Wiôs. Hog flesh.

  Bad, a. animate, Mud ji.

  — a. inanimate, Monâ´dud.

  Badger, s. Missukâkud´jish.

  Bag, s. Mush´kimoot.

  — s. dim, —— ais.

  — s. dim & der, —— aisish.

  — s. local, —— ong. Implying in the bag.

  Bait, for animals, Mijimikunjigun.

  Balance, s. Tibâbishkôjigun.
    A compound derivative from the words _equal_, _cord_, and
    _instrument_.

  Baldheaded, Wâshkain´dibai.

  Bald Eagle, Wabizhuk´wai.

  Ball, metallic, Unwi´.

  — wooden, Pikwâ´kwut.

  Balsam of fire tree, Shingooban´dug.

  Balsam, s. Pigiuan´dug.

  Band, s. Pizoon´.

  Banner, s. Kikiwai´aoon.

  Bank of earth, Ishpakum´iga.

  Bandy legged, Wawushkigâ´dai.

  To baptise, v. Siginun´dowâ.

  Bare, (in body,) a. Pingwashâ´giddi.

  Barge, or boat, s. Millig´ôchiman, or Nabug´ôchiman.
    Any vessel intermediate in size and mode of construction, between
    a bark canoe and a ship. The first term is a derivative from tree
    and canoe, the second, from _plank_ or _board_, and canoe.

  To bark, v. Migih´.
    This is a generic word for barking. The eagle derives its name from
    this word.

  Bark, of the birch tree, Wig´wos.

  Bark, of the bass, Wigood.

  Bark, of any other species, Wunagaik´.

  Bark dish, s. Onâ´gon.
    Applied to crockery.

  Bark sap dish, Nimibâ´gun.

  Bark box, s. Mukkuk´.
    Applied to any box, trunk, barrel, &c. also with a prefix, to a
    coffin.

  Bashful, a. Bakâdizzi.

  Basin, s. Onâgon.

  ——, s. dim. Onâgons
    Other terminations regular.

  Basket, s. Wadub´imukkuk´.
    A derivative from the word for cedar root, and box. Diminutive in
    ons.

  Bass tree, s. Wigoobimizh.
    A derivative from base bark, and the generic for plants.

  Bat, s. Apukwunaji.

  Battle, s. Migâ´diwin.

  Battle field, Katapin´uniding.

  Battle club, Pugamâ´gun.

  To bathe, v. Pugizzoo.

  Bay, s. Wikwaid´.

  — s. dim.——ôns.

  To bawl, v. Mowi´.

  Bayonet, s. Shimâ´gun.

  — s. dim. Shimâgons´.

  — s. der. Shimâ´ganish.
    This is the term for soldier.

  — s. lo. Shimâguning.
    Duplications of these terminations as in other nouns.

  To be, v. s. Iâ.

  Beach, s. Sheezhodaiw.

  Bead, s. Minais.
    This is the diminutive form of berry, which see.

  Beak, or bill, s. Okôzh´.
    The term for hog, appears to be a derivative from this and the verb
    lo cut.

  Bean, s. Miskôdi´simin.
    This is manifestly a description of the bean that bears a red
    flower, but the word has become generic.

  Bear, s. Mukwa´.

  — s. dim. Mukôns´. A cub.

  — s. dim. & der. Mukons´ish. A bad cub.

  Bear skin, Mukwy´an.

  Bear’s meat, Mukôwias.

  Bear’s oil, Mukôpimi´dai.

  Bear’s paw, Mukôzid.

  Beard, s. Mizhidonâ´gon.

  Beast, a quadruped, Awai´si.

  To beat, v. an. Pukitai´. To beat him.

  — v. inan. Pukitaiun´. To beat it.

  Beau, s. Mumundâ´ginin´i. A fine, or gay dressed, man.

  Beaver, s. Amik´.

  — s. dim. ——ôns.
    Derogative, in ish, local, in ing. &c.

  Beaver dam, Amikoweezh.

  Beaver skin, Abim´inikwai.

  Beaver robe, Muttatos´.
    This was an article formerly worn, but now seldom seen. It consists
    of from six to ten finely dressed skins, sewed together. The word,
    if a compound, does not appear to have reference to a modern era.

  Beaver, paired in rutting time, Pukai´mik. Plural in ôg.

  Beaver, in lodge in rutting time, Amun´amik. Plural in ôg.

  Beautiful, a. an. Bishigaindâ´goozzi. A beautiful person.

  —— a. inan. Bishigaindâ´gwud. A beautiful object.

  Bed, s. Nibâ´gun.

  — s. dim. Nibâgons.

  — s. lo. Nibâgunish. Implying in or on the bed.

  Bedstead, s. Nibâgunâk.

  Bedbug, s. Nibâ´gunnimonitôs´. Bed insect.

  Bees, s. A´mo. Plural in g.

  Beehive, s. Amowuziswun.

  Beech tree, s. Ozhawaimizh.

  Beef, s. Wi´ôs.

  Before, prep. Nigan´.

  To Beg, v. See to ask.
    There is no word of the precise meaning of beg.

  To beget, v. Odônijanisinun.

  To begin, begin, thou, Ki nit´tum.

  Beginning, in, or at the beginning, Wyaish´kud.

  Begone, interj. Awuss. To dogs.

  Behave, be quiet, Pizzan´.

  Behaviour, s. Izhiwai´bizziwin.

  To behead, v. Okeeshkigwaiwân.

  Behead thou, imp. Keeshkigwai.

  Behind, prep. Agâwy´ei.

  Behind the house, Agâwi´gumig.

  Behind the tree, Agâwâ´tig.

  Behind the hill, Agâwudjoo´.

  Behold, interj. Tyâ´.

  To believe, v. Taibwai´tum.

  Belief, s. ——owin.

  Bell, horse or cow bell, Shinowaiô´jigun.

  Bell, church bell, Gittôtâ´gun.

  Belle, s. Mamundâgikwai. Fine, or gay dressed woman.

  To bellow, v. Nôndâ´goozzi, or Muzzitâ´goozzi.
    These words are not strictly an equivalent for bellow. They
    indicate also the sounds uttered by all quadrupeds, except the dog,
    and hence imply to bleat, to neigh, to bray, &c.

  Bellows, s. Pôdadishkôdawân.
    A derivative from the word to blow, and fire.

  Belly, s. Omissud´.

  Below, prep. Nisye´ei.

  Below the earth, Nisâ ki.

  Below stream, Nisâ´jiwun.

  Below the tree, Nisâ´tig.

  Belt, s. Pizoon´.

  To bend, v. an. Wâgin´.

  —— v. inan. Wâginun.

  Bend of a river, Pukai´gumâ.

  To bend the bow, v. Nabâ bishim.
    A derivative from cord, &c.

  Beneath, prep. Unamye´i.

  Beneath the ground, Unumâ´kumig.

  Benevolent, a. Gizhiwâ´dizzi.

  Benevolence, s. ——win.

  Berry, s. inan. Min. Meen.
    A primitive word. It takes the usual terminations. Plural in _un_.

  Beside, prep. See by, at.

  To bestow, v. imp. Mizh.

  Between, prep. Nasowye´ei.

  Between the trees, Nasowâ´tig.

  Between the rocks, Nasowâ´bik.

  Between the buildings, Nasowakyi´gun.

  To bewail, v. Mowi´.

  To bewitch, v. Ogimidaikundawân.

  To bewitch, v. t. Kimidaikundawâ.

  Beyond, prep. Aishkwaitaig.

  Beyond the place, Aishkwaising.

  Beyond yonder, Awuss´wai´dai.

  Beyond the mark, (in shooting) Kiunnicuibidai

  Bifid, a. Tâshkôshkunzhi.
    Split hoof. Der. from split and hoof.

  Bifurcated, a. Nâzhoshtigwong.
    Two headed. Der. from two and head.

  Big, a. ânim. Mindidô´.

  Big, a. inanim Maitshâ, or Mitshâ.

  Bile, s. Wi´zoob.

  Bill, s. Okôzh´.

  Billow, s. Ti´goo.

  To bind, v. infin. Tidibupi.

  To bind, v. an. infin. Tidibupizh, bind him or her.

  —— v. inan. “ Tidibupidôn, bind it.

  Biped, Nizhogâ´dai. Two legged.
    Derivative from two and leg.

  Birch tree, Wigwasâtig, bark wood.

  Birch bark, Wigwas.

  Birch bark canoe, Chimân´.
    Diminutive in _ais_, derogative in _ish_, local in _ing_.

  Bird, s. Pinai´si. Plural in _wug_.

  — s. dim. Pinaishains.

  — s. dim. &. der. —— ish.

  — s. local. —— ing.

  — s. dim. der. & loc. Pinaishain. sishing.

  Bird’s nest, Pinai´siwuziswun´.

  Bird’s foot, Pinai´wizid.

  Birth, Undâ´dizzi.

  Bison, s. Pizhik´i.
    Applied also to the domestic cow.

  —— s. dim. Pizhikins´. Calf.

  To bite, v. an. Takwum. To bite him or her.

  —— v. inan. Takwundun. To bite it.

  Biter, s. Taikwungaid.

  Bitter, a. an. Wisugizzi´.

  — a. inan. Wisugun´.

  Bittern, s. Mushkowizzi. Marsh bird.

  Bitch, s. Kiskishai´.

  Black, a. animàte, Muk´kudaiwizzi´.

  —— a. inanimate, Muk´kudaiwâ´.

  Blacksmith, s. Awish´twiâ.

  Blacksmith’s shop, —— wigumig.

  Blackberry, s. Duttogâ´gomin.

  Blackbird, s. Ossig´inok. The true species.
    Wâb Ossiginok, spotted head, small.
    Bwoin Ossiginok, red wing.
    Mukkudai Pinais, a generic, vaguely applied.

  Blackman, s. Mukkudai´ Wios. Black flesh.

  Black Eagle, Ininun´zi.

  Black duck, Mukkudaishib.

  Black rock, Mukkudaiwâbikud.

  To blacken, v. an. Mukkudairohi.

  —— v. inan. Mukkudaiwatôn.

  Bladder, s. Omô´di. Applied also to bottle, which see.

  Blanket, s. Wâbiwyan´. A derivative from white & skin, or robe.

  Blast of wind, Puguma´nimud.

  To blaze, v. Biskâ´koonai.

  Blaze, s. Biskoonai.

  To bleat, v. Nôndâgoozzi. See bellow.

  To bleed with a lancet, Pashkik-wai´egai.

  Blind, a. Kuggibin´gwai.

  To blindfold, v. Kuggibingwain.

  To blister, v. a. Ubishkwaibigizzi. To blister by medical means.

  To blister, v. ina. Ubishkwaibigud. To blister by work, fire, &c.

  Block, s. Gishkigy´igun.

  Blood, s. Miskwi´.

  Bloody, a. Miskwi´wi.

  Bloodsucker, s. Suguskwâ´jimai.

  Blossom, s. Wâ´bigoon.

  To blow, v. an. Pôdâzh´.

  —— v. ina. Pôdâ´dun.

  Blue, a. Ozhâ´wushkwâ.

  Blue sky, Mizhâ´kwut.

  Blue water, Ozha´wushkwâgumi.

  Blue bird, s. Oshâ´wun.

  To blush, v. Miskwingwaisi.

  Board, a board, s. Nabug´sug.

  To boast, v. Wowizhâ´jimoo.

  Boaster, s. Waiwizhâjimood.

  Boat, s. See barge.

  Boatmen, rowers, Aizhaibwiai´jig. Plural.

  Boatmen, paddlers, Chaimai´jig. Plural.

  Body, s. Ow?
    Ni ow, my body.
    Ki ow, thy body.
    Wi ow, his, or her body.

  Bog, s. Mushkig´.

  Bogberry, Mushki´gimin. The cranberry.

  To boil, v. an. Oonzoo´. To boil him.

  To boil, v. in. Oondai´. To boil it.

  To boil the kettle, Kizhâ´gumiz.

  Bold, a. Sôngidaiai.

  Bondman, s. Apâni´ni.

  Bondwoman, s. Apânikwai´.

  Bone, s. Okun´.

  Bone awl, Namung´.

  Book, s. Muzziny´igun.

  Book, s. dim, Muzziny´gons.

  Book, s. dim & der, Muzziny´gonsish.

  Book, s. local, Muzziny´guning.

  Book, s. dim, der, & loc, Muzziny´gonsishing.

  To book, v. Muzziny´igai.

  Boot, s. Mukazin´.

  Boot, s. dim, —— ais.

  Born, part. pass. Ni´gi.

  Bosom, s. Okâ kigun.

  Bottle, s. Omôdi.

  Bottle, s. dim. Omôdins. Aphial.

  Bough, s. Wudikwon´.

  Boulder stone, Mushkosiswâbik.

  Bounteous a. Kishaiwâ dizzi.

  Bow. s. Mittigwâb´. Dim in ais.

  Bowstring, s. Utshâb´.

  To bow, v. Shugushki.

  Bowels, Onugizh´.

  Bower, s. Uguhwâ´taioon.

  Bowl, s. Onâgon.

  Bowl, s. dim, Onâgons´.

  Bowl, s. dim. & local, Onâgoning.

  Box, s. Mukkuk´.

  Box, s. dim. Mukkukais. Little box.

  Box, s. der, Mukkukish. Bad box.

  Box, s. local, Mukkuking. In the box.

  Box, s. dim, der, & local, Mukkukaisishing. In the little bad box.

  Boy, s. Kwi´wizais.

  Boy, s. der, Kwi´wizaisish. Bad boy.

  Bracelet, s. Pizoon´.

  Brain, s. Winindib.

  Branch of a plant, Wudikwon.

  Branch of a tree, Ningitow itig´.

  Branch of a river, Ningitow itig-wyâ´.

  Brand, a torch, Wuswâ´gun.

  Brandy, s. ´Shkôdaiwâ´bô, or Ish-kôdaiwâ´bô. Any strong liquor, from
    fire and liquor.

  Brass, s. Ozawâbik. Yellow metal.

  Brass kettle, Ozawâbikwukik.

  Brave, a. Sôngidaiai.

  Bread, s. Bukwai´zhigun. That, that is cut.

  Bread, s. dim. Bukwai´zhigons. Biscuit, cake.

  To break, v. a. Pigoobizh. To break him.

  To break, v. in. Pigoobidôn. To break it.

  Breast, s. Tôtôsh. Plural in un.

  Breast liquor. Tôtôshâ´bô.

  Breast bone, Odusinakai.

  To breath, v. Naisai.

  Breath, s. Naisaiwin.

  Breechcloth, A´ziân.

  Breeze. Nowoi´a.

  Brethren, s. Nikâ´nisidoog. A general term.

  Bride, s. Nân´gunikwai´.
    Applied also to daughter-in-law.

  Brier, s. Agâ´wuzh.

  Bright light, Wassaiâ.

  Bright metal, Washkaiâ.

  Brimstone, Ozâ´wussin.

  Brindled, a. Kidugizzi.

  Brisk. See Active.

  Brittle, a. Kâ´pun.

  Brittle axe, Kápá´bikud.

  Brittle ice, Kâpizzigwai.

  Brittle stone, Kâpâ´bik.

  Bristle, s. Obi´wy.

  Broad, a. an. Mungudaizi.

  —— a. inan. Mungudaiâ.

  Broadcloth, s. Monidowâi´gin. Spirit cloth, or skin.

  To bring, v. an. Pizh. To bring him.

  —— v. inan. Pidôn´. To bring it.

  Brooch, s. Sugâkwuhoon.

  Brook, s. Sibins.
    Diminutive of river.

  Brook trout, Mâzhimâg´woos.

  Broom, s. Jishud´yigun.
    Jishudyigai, To broom, to sweep.

  Broth, s. Nâbôb´.

  Brother, s. Osyai´emâ.

  My elder brother, Nisyai´.

  My younger brother or sister, Nishimai´.

  Brush, s. Shôshkwy´igun.

  Brute, s. Awai´si.

  Buckskin, s. Iâbiwai´gin.

  Bucket, s. Nimibâgun.

  Buckle, s. See brooch.

  Bud, s. Wunamik.

  Buffalo, s. See bison.

  Buffalo robe, Pizhihiwai´gin.

  Bug, s. Monitôs´.

  To build, (a house or fort,) Wakyi´gai.

  Builder, (of a house, &c.) Waiakyigaid.

  Building, s. Wakyigun.

  To build, (a lodge, &c.) Ozhigai´.

  Builder, &c. s. Waizhigaid.

  Bugle, s. Mudwaiwai´chigun.

  Bullet, s. Unai´.

  Bullrush, s. Onâ´gonushk.

  Bullfrog, s. Dain´dai.

  Bundle, s. Ningoodwupidai.

  Buoy, (of a net) Kundi´kund.

  Bur, s. Wazhuskwai´do.

  Burthen, s. Obim´iwunân.

  To burn, v. n. Châ´gi.

  To burn, v. an. Châ´gizoo.

  To burn, v. inan. Châ´gidai.

  Burner, s. an. Chyâgizzoowaid.

  Burner, s. inan. Chyâgidaid.

  Burrow, s. Wâzh.

  To Bury, v. Niugwâ´.

  Bury him, Ningwuh.

  Bury it, Ningwâun.

  Bush, s. Sugikobâ´.

  Bustard, s. Mississai´.

  But, conj. Unishâ´.

  Butter, s. Pimmidai´.

  Butterfly, s. Mâimai´ngwâ.

  Butterfly, s. dim. Mainiaingwâs.

  To buy, v. an. Gish´pinudôn.

  To buy, v. in. Gish´pinuzh.

  Buzzard, s. Winon´gai.

  By, prep. Chig. Cheeg.

  By (the) tree, Chigâ´tig.

  By (the) rock, Chigâ´bik.

  By and by, Pâ´nimâ´.

[Circumstances prevent the insertion of the remainder of this
vocabulary.]




                        III. OFFICIAL REPORTS.


                           OFFICIAL REPORTS.

  1. Letter to E. Herring, announcing the return of expedition.

  2. Letter to Gov. Porter, subject of Sauc disturbances.

  3. Letter to E. Herring, transmitting report on vaccination.

  4. Letter to E. Herring, transmitting report on population and trade.

  5. Statistical tables of population, &c.

  6. Report on the political state of the Indians on the U. Mississippi.

  7. Dr. Houghton’s report on vaccination.


                               ADDENDA.

  1. Letter to the Dept., transmitting plan and estimates for the
     Expedition of 1832.

  2. Instructions.

  3. Letter to Gen. Street, Indian Agent at Prairie du Chien.

  4. Report of the previous Expedition of 1831, as laid before
     Congress.

  5. Speech of six Chippewa chiefs on the Sioux war.


[In the arrangement of the above reports and letters, the order of
dates is observed.]


                           OFFICIAL REPORTS.

                                  I.

                               OFFICE INDIAN AGENCY                 }
                             _Sault Ste. Marie, August 15th, 1832_. }

  ELBERT HERRING, ESQ.,
      Office of Indian Affairs, Washington.

SIR: I hasten to inform you that I yesterday returned from my
expedition to the northwest. On reaching the Mississippi I found
the state of the water favorable for ascending. No difficulty was
experienced in reaching the highest point, to which this stream has
hitherto been explored. At this point, I procured canoes of the
smallest class, and ascended, with Indian guides, to its actual source
in Itasca Lake.

Upwards of two thousand Chippewas have been met in council, in
their villages, or in detached parties on the way. At every point,
vaccinations have been made, under the authority of the act of the
last session of Congress. No opportunity has been omitted to enforce
the objects of the instructions respecting their hostilities with each
other, and to point out and make clear to their comprehension, their
true relation to the United States. The efforts made to procure the
assent of the Chippewas to the advice given them on this head, were
stated to the Sioux in a council to which I invited them at the Agency
of St. Peter’s.

The acquisition of data respecting the trade and population, and the
geographical distribution of the bands, has been, with other details,
resulting from my instructions, at all times, kept in view. I shall
devote the earliest attention I can spare from the accumulated duties
of the office, in drawing up a detailed report.

                                    I am, Sir,
                                        very respectfully,
                                            your ob. serv’t,
                                                HENRY R. SCHOOLCRAFT.


                                  II.

                                  OFFICE INDIAN AGENCY,             }
                                _Sault Ste. Marie, August 15, 1832_.}

  His Excellency GEORGE B. PORTER,
    Governor of the Territory of Michigan,
      and Superintendent of Indian Affairs, Detroit.

SIR: I have the honor to inform you that I returned from my visit to
the Chippewa bands on the Upper Mississippi, yesterday evening. The
state of feeling among them, partakes of the excitement growing out of
a knowledge of the disturbances existing near their southern boundary.
But their friendly position with respect to the United States,
is not altered by events, thus far. Such of them as had received
invitations to join in the Sauc league, have refused their assent.
And notwithstanding the complacency with which some of the bands
regard the hostile efforts of a people, with whom they are connected
by the ties of language, and the decided preference others feel, and
have expressed, for the counsels and government of Great Britain,
as exercised in the Canadas, I feel a confidence in pronouncing the
nation, as a whole, uncommitted in any negotiations with the hostile
Indians, and satisfied to remain in their present pacific attitude.
Several of their most influential chiefs are quite decided in this
policy, and would view it as foolish and desperate in the extreme, to
entertain propositions to give aid to the enemy.

The only portion of them, of whom there were reasons to apprehend
hostilities, are the villages of Torch Lake, comprising the Chippewa
population on the heads of the Wisconsin, Ontonagon, and Chippewa
rivers. These bands murdered four of our citizens at Lake Pepin, in
the spring of 1824. Several of the persons implicated were imprisoned
at Mackinac, whence they escaped. And it has not been practicable to
carry into effect the measures of punishment, which were determined
on. Their position, on the head waters of remote streams, is an almost
inaccessible one, and the offence has ceased to be the subject of any
further efforts by the Department. They have never, however, been
relieved from the fears entertained on this account, and these fears
have confined them very much to their particular villages and hunting
grounds.

A war message was transmitted to the Torch Lake (or du Flambeau)
Indians by the Black Hawk, or his counsellors, in 1830. This message
was repeated in 1831, and again in 1832. They were reminded by it,
of their affinity by blood, their ancient alliance, and their being
arrayed as common enemies of the Sioux. It was addressed to the
whole Chippewa nation, and they were invited to take up arms. It is
not known that this message has been accepted. The recent death of
Mozobodo, their first chief, and a man of understanding, has diminished
my confidence in his band. It has been stated to me, very lately,
by neighboring chiefs, that the Lac du Flambeau Indians were not in
alliance with the malcontent tribes. That section of country has not
been within the track of my recent journey. I have seen and conversed
with some of the Indians, including one of the minor chiefs. Little, or
no definite information has, however, been obtained.

I feel convinced that should the Black Hawk pursue his flight thither,
he would, from obvious circumstances, be received with, at least,
negative friendship. He would be allowed to recruit his followers and
succor himself upon their hunting grounds towards the Mississippi
borders, where there is a comparative abundance of deer and elk. And it
is not improbable that some of the young men would follow his fortunes.
I think, however, the policy of Black Hawk has been to bend his course
westward after passing the Wisconsin, with the view of crossing the
Mississippi, at some point where this stream is wide and shallow, (say
between the Painted Rock and Lake Pepin,) and withdrawing to the plains
of the Des Moines, where he has resources.

I have found the Chippewas, generally, not inclined to be communicative
on the subject of the disturbances. But in cases where information
has been obtained, it evinces a full knowledge of passing events.
Kabamappa, a decidedly friendly and respectable chief of the St. Croix,
informed me that the league consisted originally of nine tribes. I
requested him to name them. He commenced by mentioning Saucs, Foxes,
and Iowas, and added cautiously, and with a pause that allowed
him to double down a finger at each count, Kickapoos, Flatheads,
Earthlodges,[27] Pottawattomies, Winnebagoes, and after some inquiry of
the interpreter, Osages. Another Indian met on Lake Superior, said that
the hostile Indians claimed to have killed 200 persons, since the war
commenced.

Evidence has been furnished to me, that the Saucs who appear to be
the principals, have taken much pains to form a league against the
government,—that several tribes have assented to it, who have not
boldly joined his standard, and that information favorable to their
success, has been rapidly spread by them, among the northern Indians.
This information they are prone to credit. Even the Sioux, whom I met
in council at St. Peter’s, on the 25th of July, have been accused of
being lukewarm in the contest, and rather favoring, than opposed to
their active enemies. This, the Petite Corbeau, their venerable chief,
pointedly denied. He said the insinuation was untrue—that the Sioux,
who went to the theatre of the war, had not returned from friendly
feelings to the Saucs; and that they stood ready to go again, if
officially called on.

The British band of Chippewas near this place were formally invited to
unite in the war. A painted war club and pipe accompanied the message.
It was transmitted by the Saucs, and given, by one of their emissaries
to one of the northern Chippewas at Penetanguishine. It was received
here (St. Mary’s) by the Little Pine, (alias Lavoire Bart) a chief
who co-operated with Tecumseh, in the late war, by leading a party
of warriors from this quarter. He determined not to accept it, and
communicated the fact to me in January last. He said the message was
very equivocal. It invited him to aid them in fighting their enemies.
He said he did not know whether the Sioux or Americans were intended.

Visits from the Indians within our lines to the British posts in Upper
Canada, continue to be made. The Ottawas of L’arbre Croche, and the
British band of the Chippewas of Lapointe, Lake Superior, have made
their usual journey to Penetanguishine, during the present season. More
than the ordinary numbers from this vicinity, have joined them.

                                  I have the honor to be, Sir,
                                      very respectfully,
                                          your ob’t servant,
                                              HENRY R. SCHOOLCRAFT,
                                                  U. S. Indian Agent.


                                 III.

                                OFFICE INDIAN AGENCY,               }
                              _Sault Ste. Marie, October 20, 1832_. }

SIR:

I herewith transmit a report for Dr. Douglass Houghton, who was
employed to vaccinate the Indians, in the progress of the recent
expedition to the sources of the Mississippi. I refer you to its
details for the manner in which, so much of the instructions under
which I acted, as relate to the subject, has been carried into effect,
trusting that the result will prove as satisfactory to the Department,
as it is to me.

                                    I am, Sir,
                                        very respectfully,
                                            your ob’t serv’t,
                                                HENRY R. SCHOOLCRAFT.

  E. HERRING, ESQ.
    Office Indian Affairs,
      War Department,
        Washington.


                                  IV.

                               OFFICE OF INDIAN AGENCY,             }
                             _Sault Ste. Marie, November 21, 1832_. }

SIR:

In obedience to such parts of the instructions of the third of May
last directing me to proceed to the country on the heads of the
Mississippi, as relates to the Indian population, and to the condition
of the fur trade, I have the honor herewith to enclose a series of
statistical tables which exhibit the geographical distribution of the
lands, the name of each village or permanent encampment, its course
and distance from the seat of the agency, the number of men, women and
children, expressed in separate columns, the number of the mixed blood
population, and the total population of districts. Also, the names and
position of the trading posts established under the act of Congress of
May 26th, 1824, the number and names of the clerks, and the number of
interpreters and boatmen employed in the trade under licences from the
Indian office, the amount of goods bonded for, agreeably to duplicates
of the invoices on file, together with an estimate of the capital
vested in boats and provisions, or paid out in men’s wages, and an
estimate of the returns in furs and peltries, based on the outfits of
1832.

An examination of these tables will shew, that the entire Indian,
mixed and trader population, embraced within the consolidated agency of
St. Mary’s and Michilimackinac, is 14,279, of which number 12,467 are
Chippewas and Ottawas, 1553 persons of the mixed blood, and 259 persons
of every description engaged in the fur trade. That this population is
distributed in 89 principal villages, or fixed encampments, extending
by the route of Lakes Huron and Superior, through the region of the
Upper Mississippi, to Pembina on Red River. That 302 of the whole
number live in temporary encampments, or rather, migrate, along the
bleak shores of Lake Huron west of the 2nd, or Boundary Line Detour;
436 occupy the American side of the straits and river St. Mary’s; 1006
are located on the southern shores of Lake Superior between the Sault
of St. Mary’s and Fond du Lac; 1855 on the extreme Upper Mississippi,
between Little Soc River, and the actual source of this stream in
Itasca Lake; 476 on the American side of the Old Grand Portage, to
the Lake of the Woods; 1174 on Red River of the North; 895 on the
River St. Croix of the Mississippi; 1376 on the Chippewa River and its
tributaries, including the villages of Lac du Flambeau and Ottawa Lake;
342 on the heads of the Wisconsin and Monominee rivers; 210 on the
northern curve of Green Bay; 274 on the north-western shores of Lake
Michigan between the entrance of Green Bay, and the termination of the
straits of Michilimackinac, at Point St. Ignace; and 5,674, within the
peninsula of Michigan, so far as the same is embraced within the limits
of the Agency. The latter number covers an estimate of the Ottawa and
Chippewa population indiscriminately.

For the accommodation of these bands, there have been established
thirty-five principal trading posts, exclusive of temporary trading
stations, occupied only in seasons of scarcity. These posts are
distributed over six degrees of latitude, and sixteen degrees of
longitude, and embrace a larger area of square miles, than all the
states of central Europe. Much of it is covered with water, and such
are the number and continuity of its lakes, large and small, that it
is probable that this feature, constitutes by far, its most striking
peculiarity. Its productions are fish, wild rice, and game. But such
are the precariousness and dispersion of the supply as to keep the
whole population of men, women, and children, in perpetual vacillation,
in its search. The time devoted in these migrations, is out of all
proportion, to the results obtained by agriculture, or by any other
stated mode of subsistence. And the supply is after all, inadequate.
Seasons of scarcity and want are the ordinary occurrences of every
year; and a mere subsistence is the best state of things that is looked
for.

Traders visit them annually with outfits of goods and provisions, to
purchase the furs and peltries, which are gleaned in their periodical
migrations. These persons purchase their outfits from capitalists
resident on the frontiers, and make their payments during the spring or
summer succeeding the purchase. They employ men who are acquainted with
the difficulties of the route, and with the character and resources of
the people amongst whom they are to reside. These men act as boatmen
and canoe-men on the outward and inward voyage; they erect the wintering
houses, chop wood, fish, cook for the _bourgois_, and are employed on
_durwin_, or as runners during the hunting season. Much of the success
of a trading adventure depends on their efficiency and faithfulness.

In the prosecution of this trade, the laws which have been prescribed
by Congress for its regulation, are substantially observed. I am of
opinion, however, that more efficiency would be given to the system,
if a general revision of all the acts pertaining to this subject, were
made. A legislation of thirty years, some of it necessarily of a hasty
character, has multiplied the acts, which it is made the duty of Indian
Agents to enforce, and the number of clauses which are repealed and
modified, leave the original acts mutilated, and they do not, present
as a whole, that clearness of intent, which is essential to their due
and prompt execution. Some of the provisions have become obsolete;
others are defective. A thorough and careful digest of the entire
code, including the permanent treaty provisions, would present the
opportunity for consolidation and amendment, and while leaving the laws
easier of execution, adapt them more exactly to the present condition
of the Indians, and to a just supervision of the trade.

The unconditional repeal by Congress, of every former provision
relating to the introduction of ardent spirits, is a subject of
felicitation to the friends of humanity. Of all the acts which it
was in the power of the government to perform, this promises, in
my opinion, to produce the most beneficial effects on the moral
condition of the north-western tribes: And its enforcement is an
object of the highest moral achievement. My recent visit, as well
as former opportunities of remark, has afforded full proofs of the
entire uselessness of ardent spirits as an article of traffic with the
Indians, and I beg leave to add my voice, to the thousands which are
audible on this subject, that the government may put into requisition
every practicable means to carry into effect the act.

                              I have the honor to be, Sir,
                                  very respectfully,
                                      your obedient servant,
                                             HENRY R. SCHOOLCRAFT.

  E. HERRING, ESQ.
    War Department, Washington.

  V. STATISTICAL TABLES of the Indian population, comprised within
  the boundaries of the consolidated Agency of Sault Ste Marie and
  Michilimackinac, in the year 1832, together with the number of
  Trading Posts established under the act of Congress, of May 25,
  1824, and other facts illustrating the condition and operations of
  the Fur Trade. Prepared under instructions of the War Department of
  the 3d May, 1832, for visiting the sources of the Mississippi.

      NATURE AND GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF THE POPULATION.

---------+-----------------------------+-----+-----+-----+------+------+------
         |   NAME OF THE VILLAGE OR    | No. | No. | No. |No. of| Popu-|Popu-
 GEOGRA- |   PERIODICAL ENCAMPMENT.    |  of | of  | of  | per- |lation|lation
 PHICAL  |                             | Men.| wo- |chil-| sons |  of  |of
DISTRICT.|                             |     |men. |dren.|of the| vil- |geogra-
         |                             |     |     |     |mixed |lages,|phical
         |                             |     |     |     |blood |  &c. |dist-
         |                             |     |     |     | all  |      |ricts.
         |                             |     |     |     |ages &|      |
         |                             |     |     |     |sexes.|      |
---------+-----------------------------+-----+-----+-----+------+------+------
  N. W.  {Michilimackinac              }   18|   29|   51|  146 |  238}|
  COAST  {  (_See note A._)            }     |     |     |      |      |
   OF    {St. Martin’s Islands         }     |     |     |      |     }|
  LAKE   {Chenos                       }     |     |     |      |     }|
  HURON  {Drummond Island                  16|   18|   23|    7 |   64}|  308
                                             |     |     |      |      |
   ST.   {Mineeshco river (_B._)       }     |     |     |      |      |
 MARY’S  {Muscoda Sagi (_C._)          }     |     |     |      |      |
 RIVER,  {Sugar Island                 }   58|   73|  144|  161 |  436 |  436
_American{Little Rapids                }     |     |     |      |      |
  side_. {  Kinibitunoong (_D._)       }     |     |     |      |      |
         {Sault Ste Marie (_E._)       }     |     |     |      |      |
                                             |     |     |      |      |
         {Misconabies Creek            }     |     |     |      |      |
         {Tacquimenon                  }     |     |     |      |      |
         {Heart’s blood Lake           }     |     |     |      |      |
         {Manistic River               }   42|   46|   98|      |      |
         {White Fish Point (_F._)      }     |     |     |      |      |
         {Shelldrake River (Onzig)     }     |     |     |      |      |
         {Two hearted River            }     |     |     |      |      |
         {Grand Marais                 }     |     |     |      |      |
SOUTHERN {Miner’s River and                  |     |     |      |      |
 SHORES  {  Pictured Rocks                   |     |     |      |      |
 OF L.   {GRAND ISLAND                      7|    6|   23|   14 |   50 |
SUPERIOR.{Presque Isle and Granite Point    4|   54|   12|   20 |      |
         {Huron Bay                         4|    6|    4|   14 |      |
         {Keweena Bay (_G._)               31|   38|   43|   28 |  140 |
         {Ontonagon (_H._)                 29|   32|   76|   15 |  152 |
         {Mouth of Montreal River      }     |     |     |      |      |
         {Mauvais River                }     |     |     |      |      |
         {Lapointe of Chegoimegen(_I._)}   32|   40|  113|   28 |  213 |
         {Fond du Lac (_K._)           }   44|   46|  103|   38 |  231 | 1006
                                             |     |     |      |      |
         {Sandy Lake.                      70|   83|  127|   35 |  315 |
         {Pine River and Red Cedar Lake    20|   19|   33|    6 |   78 |
         {Pierced Prairie and                |     |     |      |      |
         {  Noka Seepi (_L._)              22|   26|   52|   12 |  112 |
 EXTREME {Peckagama Falls  (Mississippi.)   4|    6|   14|      |   24 |
  UPPER  {Lake Winnepec (_M._)             20|   18|   41|   10 |   89 |
  MISS-  {Turtle Lake                      20|   21|   44|   14 |   99 |
 ISSIPPI.{Cass Lake (_N._)             }   40|   51|   66|   11 |  168 |
         {Lac Traverse and Itasca      }     |     |     |      |      |
         {  Lake(_O._)                       |     |     |      |      |
         {Leech Lake.  Mukkundwas (_P._)  139|  194|  373|   34 |  730 |
         {Bear Island of Leech Lake        26|   32|   44|      |  102 |
         {Mille Lac                    }   38|   43|   57|      |  138 | 1855
         {Rum River (_Q._)             }     |     |     |      |      |
                                             |     |     |      |      |
OLD GRAND{Old Grand Portage (_R._)         12|   11|   27|      |   50 |
PORTAGE  {Rainy Lake                       38|   40|   65|   16 |  159 |
TO THE L.{Vermillion Lake                  37|   40|   48|    7 |  132 |
 OF THE  {Lake of the Woods                31|   34|   61|    9 |  135 |  476
 WOODS,  {                                   |     |     |      |      |
_American{                                   |     |     |      |      |
  side_. {                                   |     |     |      |      |
                                             |     |     |      |      |
RED RIVER{Red Lake                         84|   74|  100|   32 |  290 |
 OF THE  {Pembina (_S._)                  142|  150|  288|  304 |  884 | 1174
 NORTH.  {                                   |     |     |      |      |
                                             |     |     |      |      |
         {Falls of St Croix            }   80|   88|  133|   38 |  339 |
ST. CROIX{Snake River                  }     |     |     |      |      |
RIVER OF {Yellow River (_T._)          }     |     |     |      |      |
THE UPPER{Rice Lake and Lac Vaseux     }  106|  114|  120|   42 |  382 |
  MISS-  {Nama Kowagun                     30|   32|   33|      |   25 |
 ISSIPPI.{Lake of the Cross of               |     |     |      |      |
         {  the Namakagun                   6|    6|   14|      |   26 |
         {Pukwaewa (Odabossa’s V.)         11|   14|   28|      |   53 |  895
                                             |     |     |      |      |
 CHIPPEWA{Rice Lake of Red Cedar fork      46|   38|   58|      |  142 |
  RIVER  {Red Cedar Lake of Lac Chetac     19|   20|   31|      |   70 |
 OF THE  {Lac Courtoreille (Ottowa L.)    117|  136|  195|   56 |  504 |
  UPPER  {Red Devil’s band of the            |     |     |      |      |
  MISS-  {  Ochasowa.                      49|   37|   66|      |  152 |
 ISSIPPI.{Lac du Flambeau                 112|  137|  168|   50 |  457 |
                                             |     |     |      |      |
 SOURCES {Trout Lake and Tomahawk Lake     15|   15|   21|      |   51 | 1376
 OF THE  {La Lac or Upper Wisconsin.(_U._) 30|   30|   60|      |  120 |
WISCONSIN{Plover Portage and Post Lake     18|   23|   36|      |   77 |
   AND   {Metawonga                        28|   30|   43|   10 |  111 |
MONOMONES{White Clay Portage                8|    9|   14|    3 |   34 |  342
 RIVERS. {                                   |     |     |      |      |
                                             |     |     |      |      |
NORTHERN {Bay de Nocquet               }   29|   34|   60|   15 |  138 |
CURVE OF {Wcequaidons                  }     |     |     |      |      |
GREEN BAY{White Fish Creek                 16|   18|   38|      |   72 |  210
                                             |     |     |      |      |
         {Mouth of Manistic            }     |     |     |      |      |
  N. W.  {Mille au Coquin              }     |     |     |      |      |
  COAST  {Choiswa                      }   46|   54|  120|   14 |  234 |
 OF LAKE {Straits of Michigan          }     |     |     |      |      |  274
MICHIGAN.{Point St. Ignace             }     |     |     |      |      |
                                             |     |     |      |      |
         {River au Sable (Arenac.)           |     |     |      |      |
         {Thunder Bay                        |     |     |      |      |
         {Cheboigon                          |     |     |      |      |
PENINSULA{L’Arbre Croche, Upper and          |     |     |      |      |
   OF    {  Lower(_V._)                  1350| 1566| 2384|  374 | 5674 | 5674
MICHIGAN.{Grand Traverse Bay                 |     |     |      |      |
         {Rivière au Becsie                  |     |     |      |      |
         {Maskegon                           |     |     |      |      |
         {Grand River                        |     |     |      |      |
                                        -----+-----+-----+------+------+------
                                        3,144|3,571|5,752|1,553 |14,020|14,020


              STATISTICAL FACTS RESPECTING THE FUR TRADE.

=========+==========================+=======+======+========+=======+==========+
         |                          |Trading|Number| Number | Total |Amount of |
         |                          | posts |  of  |   of   |number |  goods   |
 GEOGRA- |  NAME OF THE VILLAGE OR  |estab- |clerks| inter- |  of   |  bonded  |
 PHICAL  |  PERIODICAL ENCAMPMENT.  |lished | lic- |preters,| white |   for,   |
DISTRICT.|                          |  by   |ensed |boatmen |persons|agreeably |
         |                          |Indian |  to  |  &c.   |engaged|    to    |
         |                          | Dept. |trade.|employed|in the |duplicates|
         |                          |       |      | by the |trade. |  of the  |
         |                          |       |      |clerks. |       | invoices |
         |                          |       |      |        |       | on file  |
         |                          |       |      |        |       |  in the  |
         |                          |       |      |        |       |  Agency  |
         |                          |       |      |        |       | Office.  |
=========+==========================+=======+======+========+=======+==========+
  N. W.  {Michilimackinac,          }       |      |        |       |          |
  COAST  {St. Martin’s Islands,     }       |      |        |       |          |
   OF    {Chenos,                   }       |      |        |       }          |
  LAKE   {Drummond Island,                1 |    1 |      3 |     4 }          |
  HURON  {                                  |      |        |       }          |
                                            |      |        |       }          |
   ST.   {Mineeshco river,          }       |      |        |       |          |
 MARY’S  {Muscoda Sagi,             }       |      |        |       |          |
 RIVER,  {Sugar Island,             }       |      |        |       |          |
_American{Little Rapids,            }       |      |        |       |          |
 side_.  {  Kinibitunoong,          }       |      |        |       |          |
         {Sault Ste Marie,          }       |      |        |       |          |
                                            |      |        |       |          |
         {Misconabies Creek,        }       |      |        |       |          |
         {Tacquimenon,              }     1 |    1 |      4 |     5 |          |
         {Heart’s blood Lake,       }       |      |        |       |          |
         {Manistic River,           }       |      |        |       }          |
SOUTHERN {White Fish Point,         }     1 |    3 |     19 |    22 }          |
 SHORES  {Shelldrake River, Onzig.  }       |      |        |       } $5,701,59|
  OF L.  {Two hearted River,        }       |      |        |       |          |
SUPERIOR.{Grand Marais,             }       |      |        |       |          |
         {Miner’s River &           }       |      |        |       |          |
         {  Pictured Rocks,         }       |      |        |       |          |
         {Grand Island,                   1 |    2 }      8 |    10 {          |
         {Presque Isle & Granite            |      }        |       {          |
         {  Point,                          |      |        |       }          |
         {Huron Bay,                        |      }        |       {          |
         {Keweena Bay,                    1 |    3 }     16 |    19 {          |
         {Ontonagon,                }     1 |    1 }     10 |    11 {          |
         {Mouth of Montreal river,  }     1 |    1 }      3 |     4 {          |
         {Mauvais River,            }       |      }        |       {          |
         {Lapointe or Chegoimegon,  }     1 |    2 }      4 |     6 {          |
         {Fond du Lac,              }     1 |    1 }        |       {          |
                                            |      |        |       |          |
         {Sandy Lake,                     1 |    1 }        |       |          |
         {Pine River and Red Cedar          |      |        |       |          |
         {  Lake,                         1 |    1 }        |       |          |
         {Pierced Prairie & Noka            |      |        |       |          |
         {  Seepi,                        1 |    1 }        |       |          |
         {Peckagama Falls,                  |      |        |       |          |
 EXTREME {  (Mississippi.)                  |      }        |       |          |
  UPPER  {Lake Winipec,                   1 |    2 }        |       |          |
  MISS-  {Turtle Lake,                      |      }     74 |    88 |$13,817,00|
ISSIPPI. {Cass Lake,                }       |      }        |       |          |
         {Lac Traverse & Itasca     }       |      }        |       |          |
         {  Lake,                   }     1 |    2 }        |       |          |
         {Leech Lake, (Mukkundwas.) }     1 |    5 }        |       |          |
         {Bear Island of Leech Lake,        |      }        |       |          |
         {Mille Lac,                }       |      }        |       |          |
         {Rum River,                }     1 |    2 }        |       |          |
                                            |      |        |       |          |
  OLD G. {Old Grand Portage,              1 |    1 }        |       |          |
 PORTAGE {Rainy Lake,                     1 |    3 }        |       |          |
TO THE L.{Vermillion Lake,                1 |    1 }        |       |          |
 OF THE  {Lake of the Woods,              1 |      }        |       |          |
 WOODS,  {                                  |      |        |       |          |
_American{                                  |      |        |       |          |
 side_.  {                                  |      |        |       |          |
                                            |      |        |       |          |
RED RIVER{Red Lake,                       1 |    1 |        |       |          |
 OF THE  {                                  |      |        |       |          |
 NORTH.  {Pembina,                        1 |    1 |        |       |          |
         {                                  |      |        |       |          |
                                            |      |        |       |          |
         {Falls of St. Croix,       }       |      }        |       |          |
ST. CROIX{Snake River,              }     1 |    2 }      8 |    10 |          |
RIVER OF {Yellow River,             }     1 |    1 }      4 |     5 |          |
THE UPPER{Rice Lake & Lac Vaseux,   }     1 |    1 }      2 |     3 |          |
  MISS-  {Nama Kowagun,                     |      |        |       |          |
ISSIPPI. {L. of the Cross of the            |      |        |       |          |
         {  Namakagun,                      |      |        |       |          |
         {Pukwaewa, (Odabossa’s V.)         |      |        |       |          |
                                            |      |        |       |          |
         {Rice Lake of Red Cedar            |      |        |       |          |
         {  Fork,                           |      |        |       |          |
CHIPPEWA {Red Cedar Lake of Lac             |      |        |       |          |
  RIVER  {  Chetac,                       1 |    1 |      3 |    4  |          |
 OF THE  {Lac Courtoreille,                 |      |        |       |          |
  UPPER  {  (Ottowa L.)                   1 |    2 |      9 |   11  |          |
  MISS-  {Red Devil’s band of the           |      |        |       |          |
ISSIPPI. {  Ochasowa,                       |      |        |       |          |
         {Lac du Flambeau,                1 |    1 |      7 |    8  |          |
         {Trout Lake & Tomahawk Lake,       |      |        |       |          |
                                            |      |        |       |          |
 SOURCES {La Lac Or Upper Wisconsin,      1 |    1 |      4 |    5  |          |
 OF THE  {Plover Portage & Post Lake,       |      |        |       |          |
WISCONSIN{Metawonga,                      1 |    1 |      6 |    7  |          |
   AND   {White Clay Portage,               |      |        |       |          |
MONOMONES{                                  |      |        |       |          |
 RIVERS. {                                  |      |        |       |          |
                                            |      |        |       |          |
NORTHERN {Bay de Nocquet,           }       |      |        |       |          |
CURVE OF {Weequaidons,              }       |      |        |       |          |
GREEN BAY{White fish Creek,                 |      |        |       |          |
                                            |      |        |       |          |
         {Mouth of Manistic,        }     1 |    1 |      4 |    5  |  $1000,00|
  N. W.  {Mille Au Coquin,          }       |      |        |       |          |
  COAST  {Choiswa,                  }       |      |        |       |          |
 OF LAKE {Straits of Michigan,      }       |      |        |       |          |
MICHIGAN.{Point St. Ignace,         }       |      |        |       |          |
                                            |      |        |       |          |
         {River au Sable, (Arenac.)       1 |      |        |       |          |
         {Thunder Bay,                      |      |        |       |          |
PENINSULA{Cheboigon,                        |      |        |       |          |
   OF    {L’arbre Croche, Upper &           |      |        |       |          |
MICHIGAN.{  Lower,                        1 |      |        |       |          |
         {Grand Traverse Bay,               |      |        |       |          |
         {Rivière au Becsie,                |      |        |       |          |
         {Maskegon,                       1 |    1 |      4 |    5  |   $994,00|
         {Grand River,                    1 |    5 |     14 |   19  |  $5000,00|
                                         ---+------+--------+-------+----------+
                                         35 |   53 |    206 |  259  |$26,512,59|

=========+==========================+==========+==========+==========+========+
         |                          |Estimated |Aggregate |Estimated |Computed|
         |                          |  amount  |amount of |amount of |distance|
 GEOGRA- |  NAME OF THE VILLAGE OR  |vested in | capital  |returns in| of the |
 PHICAL  |  PERIODICAL ENCAMPMENT.  |  boats,  |vested in | furs and |trading |
DISTRICT.|                          | or paid  |the trade | peltries |  Post  |
         |                          | in men’s |  within  | computed |from the|
         |                          |  wages,  |   the    | on the   |seat of |
         |                          |   &c.    | Agency.  |outfits of|  the   |
         |                          |          |          | 1832, at |Agency. |
         |                          |          |          |the quoted|        |
         |                          |          |          | New-York |        |
         |                          |          |          |prices of |        |
         |                          |          |          |  1831.   |        |
=========+==========================+==========+==========+==========+========+
  N. W.  {Michilimackinac,          |          |          |          | Miles. |
  COAST  {St. Martin’s Islands,     |          |          |          |        |
   OF    {Chenos,                   |          |          |          |     12 |
  LAKE   {Drummond Island,          |          |          |          |     40 |
  HURON  {                          |          |          |          |        |
                                    |          |          |          |        |
   ST.   {Mineeshco river,          |          |          |          |        |
 MARY’S  {Muscoda Sagi,             |          |          |          |        |
 RIVER,  {Sugar Island,             |          |          |          |        |
_American{Little Rapids,            |          |          |          |        |
 side_.  {  Kinibitunoong,          |          |          |          |        |
         {Sault Ste Marie,          |          |          |          |        |
                                    |          |          |          |        |
         {Misconabies Creek,        |          |          |          |        |
         {Tacquimenon,              |          |          |          |    120 |
         {Heart’s blood Lake,       |          |          |          |        |
         {Manistic River,           |          |          |          |        |
SOUTHERN {White Fish Point,         |          |          |          |    130 |
 SHORES  {Shelldrake River, Onzig.  | $5,701,59| $11,403,1|$15,204,24|        |
  OF L.  {Two hearted River,        |          |          |          |        |
SUPERIOR.{Grand Marais,             |          |          |          |        |
         {Miner’s River &           |          |          |          |        |
         {  Pictured Rocks,         |          |          |          |        |
         {Grand Island,             |          |          |          |    180 |
         {Presque Isle & Granite    |          |          |          |        |
         {  Point,                  |          |          |          |        |
         {Huron Bay,                |          |          |          |        |
         {Keweena Bay,              |          |          |          |        |
         {Ontonagon,                |          |          |          |    500 |
         {Mouth of Montreal river,  |          |          |          |    410 |
         {Mauvais River,            |          |          |          |    479 |
         {Lapointe or Chegoimegon,  |          |          |          |    500 |
         {Fond du Lac,              |          |          |          |    590 |
                                    |          |          |          |        |
         {Sandy Lake,               |          |          |          |    740 |
         {Pine River and Red Cedar  |          |          |          |        |
         {  Lake,                   |          |          |          |    800 |
         {Pierced Prairie & Noka    |          |          |          |        |
         {  Seepi,                  |          |          |          |    940 |
         {Peckagama Falls,          |          |          |          |        |
 EXTREME {  (Mississippi.)          |          |          |          |        |
  UPPER  {Lake Winipec,             |          |          |          |        |
  MISS-  {Turtle Lake,              |$13,817,00|$27,634,00|$36,845,33|        |
ISSIPPI. {Cass Lake,                |          |          |          |        |
         {Lac Traverse & Itasca     |          |          |          |        |
         {  Lake,                   |          |          |          |        |
         {Leech Lake, (Mukkundwas.) |          |          |          |        |
         {Bear Island of Leech Lake,|          |          |          |        |
         {Mille Lac,                |          |          |          |        |
         {Rum River,                |          |          |          |        |
                                    |          |          |          |        |
  OLD G. {Old Grand Portage,        |          |          |          |        |
 PORTAGE {Rainy Lake,               |          |          |          |        |
TO THE L.{Vermillion Lake,          |          |          |          |        |
 OF THE  {Lake of the Woods,        |          |          |          |        |
 WOODS,  {                          |          |          |          |        |
_American{                          |          |          |          |        |
 side_.  {                          |          |          |          |        |
                                    |          |          |          |        |
RED RIVER{Red Lake,                 |          |          |          |        |
 OF THE  {                          |          |          |          |        |
 NORTH.  {Pembina,                  |          |          |          |        |
         {                          |          |          |          |        |
                                    |          |          |          |        |
         {Falls of St. Croix,       |          |          |          |        |
ST. CROIX{Snake River,              |          |          |          |        |
RIVER OF {Yellow River,             |          |          |          |        |
THE UPPER{Rice Lake & Lac Vaseux,   |          |          |          |        |
  MISS-  {Nama Kowagun,             |          |          |          |        |
ISSIPPI. {L. of the Cross of the    |          |          |          |        |
         {  Namakagun,              |          |          |          |        |
         {Pukwaewa, (Odabossa’s V.) |          |          |          |        |
                                    |          |          |          |        |
         {Rice Lake of Red Cedar    |          |          |          |        |
         {  Fork,                   |          |          |          |        |
CHIPPEWA {Red Cedar Lake of Lac     |          |          |          |        |
  RIVER  {  Chetac,                 |          |          |          |        |
 OF THE  {Lac Courtoreille,         |          |          |          |        |
  UPPER  {  (Ottowa L.)             |          |          |          |        |
  MISS-  {Red Devil’s band of the   |          |          |          |        |
ISSIPPI. {  Ochasowa,               |          |          |          |        |
         {Lac du Flambeau,          |          |          |          |        |
         {Trout Lake & Tomahawk Lake|          |          |          |        |
                                    |          |          |          |        |
 SOURCES {La Lac Or Upper Wisconsin,|          |          |          |        |
 OF THE  {Plover Portage & Post Lake|          |          |          |        |
WISCONSIN{Metawonga,                |          |          |          |        |
   AND   {White Clay Portage,       |          |          |          |        |
MONOMONES{                          |          |          |          |        |
 RIVERS. {                          |          |          |          |        |
                                    |          |          |          |        |
NORTHERN {Bay de Nocquet,           |          |          |          |        |
CURVE OF {Weequaidons,              |          |          |          |        |
GREEN BAY{White fish Creek,         |          |          |          |        |
                                    |          |          |          |        |
         {Mouth of Manistic,        |  $1000,00|    $2,000| $2,666,66|        |
  N. W.  {Mille Au Coquin,          |          |          |          |        |
  COAST  {Choiswa,                  |          |          |          |        |
 OF LAKE {Straits of Michigan,      |          |          |          |        |
MICHIGAN.{Point St. Ignace,         |          |          |          |        |
                                    |          |          |          |        |
         {River au Sable, (Arenac.) |          |          |          |        |
         {Thunder Bay,              |          |          |          |        |
PENINSULA{Cheboigon,                |          |          |          |        |
   OF    {L’arbre Croche, Upper &   |          |          |          |        |
MICHIGAN.{  Lower,                  |          |          |          |        |
         {Grand Traverse Bay,       |          |          |          |        |
         {Rivière au Becsie,        |          |          |          |        |
         {Maskegon,                 |   $994,00| $1,988,00| $2,650,66|        |
         {Grand River,              |  $5000,00|$10,000,00|$13,333,33|        |
                                    +----------+----------+----------+--------+
                                    |$26,512,59|$53,025,18|$70,700,22|        |

=========+==========================+======+==========================+========
         |                          |Course| Names of the persons who | Total
         |                          |of the|have received licences to | popu-
 GEOGRA- |  NAME OF THE VILLAGE OR  | post |trade, and executed bonds,| lation
 PHICAL  |  PERIODICAL ENCAMPMENT.  | from |with sureties, under the  |resident
DISTRICT.|                          | the  |several acts of Congress, |within
         |                          | Ag-  |   regulating trade and   |  the
         |                          |ency. |   intercourse with the   | agency
         |                          |      |Indian tribes, during the |in 1832,
         |                          |      |          year.           |exclud-
         |                          |      |                          |  ing
         |                          |      |                          | inhab-
         |                          |      |                          | itants
         |                          |      |                          |of M. T.
         |                          |      |                          |at Sault
         |                          |      |                          |  Ste.
         |                          |      |                          |Marie &
         |                          |      |                          |Michili-
         |                          |      |                          |mackinac
=========+==========================+======+==========================+========
  N. W.  {Michilimackinac,          |      |                          |
  COAST  {St. Martin’s Islands,     |      |                          |
   OF    {Chenos,                   | N.E. |                          |
  LAKE   {Drummond Island,          | N.E. |                          |
  HURON  {                          |      |                          |
                                    |      |                          |
   ST.   {Mineeshco river,          |      |                          |   306
 MARY’S  {Muscoda Sagi,             |      |                          |   436
 RIVER,  {Sugar Island,             |      |                          |
_American{Little Rapids,            |      |                          |
 side_.  {  Kinibitunoong,          |      |                          |
         {Sault Ste Marie,          |      |                          |
                                    |      |                          |
         {Misconabies Creek,        |      |                          |
         {Tacquimenon,              |N.N.E.|William Johnston.        }|
         {Heart’s blood Lake,       |      |Edward Cadotte.          }|
         {Manistic River,           |      |Ecstache Raussain.        |
SOUTHERN {White Fish Point,         |N.N.E.|Samuel Ashman.           }|
 SHORES  {Shelldrake River, Onzig.  |      |Richardson May.          }|  1087
  OF L.  {Two hearted River,        |      |William Johnston         }|
SUPERIOR.{Grand Marais,             |      |                          |
         {Miner’s River &           |      |                          |
         {  Pictured Rocks,         |      |                          |
         {Grand Island,             |N.N.W.|Louis Nolin. B. Marvin.   |
         {Presque Isle & Granite    |      |                          |
         {  Point,                  |      |                          |
         {Huron Bay,                |      |John Holiday.             |
         {Keweena Bay,              |      |William Holiday.          |
         {Ontonagon,                | N.W. |Jean Bᵗ. Dubay.           |
         {Mouth of Montreal river,  | N.W. |George Bartlet. J. Brown. |
         {Mauvais River,            | N.W. |Michael Cadotte, jun.     |
         {Lapointe or Chegoimegon,  | N.W. |L.M. Warren. M. Cadotte.  |
         {Fond du Lac,              | N.W. |W. Aitkin. W. Davenport.  |
                                    |      |                          |
         {Sandy Lake,               | N.W. |                          |
         {Pine River and Red Cedar  |      |                          |
         {  Lake,                   |W.N.W.|John H. Fairbanks.        |
         {Pierced Prairie & Noka    |      |                          |
         {  Seepi,                  |W.N.W.|Benjamin F. Baker.        |
         {Peckagama Falls,          |      |                          |
 EXTREME {  (Mississippi.)          |      |                          |
  UPPER  {Lake Winipec,             | N.W. |Alfred Aitkin.           }|
  MISS-  {Turtle Lake,              | N.W. |Jean Bt. Belonger.       }|
ISSIPPI. {Cass Lake,                | N.W. |James Ermatinger.         |
         {Lac Traverse & Itasca     |      |                          |
         {  Lake,                   |      |                          |
         {Leech Lake, (Mukkundwas.) | N.W. |Pierre Cota.             }|
         {Bear Island of Leech Lake,|      |J. W. Abbott. G. Bungo.  }|
         {Mille Lac,                |      |Charles Chabattio.       }|
         {Rum River,                |      |A. Morrison. Jean Bt. Roy |  1870
                                    |      |                          |
  OLD G. {Old Grand Portage,        |N.N.W.|Ambrose Davenport.        |
 PORTAGE {Rainy Lake,               |      |J. Cadotte. S. Lecomble. }|
TO THE L.{Vermillion Lake,          |N.N.W.|V. Roy. [P. Craphesa.    }|
 OF THE  {Lake of the Woods,        |N.N.W.|F. Brunet & A. Belonger.  |   481
 WOODS,  {                          |      |                          |
_American{                          |      |                          |
 side_.  {                          |      |                          |
                                    |      |                          |
RED RIVER{Red Lake,                 | N.W. |J. Bt. Dejardin.         }|
 OF THE  {                          |      |L. Dufault.              }|
 NORTH.  {Pembina,                  | N.W. |David Aitkin.             |  1250
         {                          |      |                          |
                                    |      |                          |
         {Falls of St. Croix,       |W.S.W.|                          |
ST. CROIX{Snake River,              |W.S.W.|Thomas Connor.            |   349
RIVER OF {Yellow River,             |W.S.W.|Souvraign Dawnee.         |
THE UPPER{Rice Lake & Lac Vaseux,   |W.S.W.|Louis Ladabouche.         |   387
  MISS-  {Nama Kowagun,             |W.S.W.|                          |    95
ISSIPPI. {L. of the Cross of the    |      |                          |
         {  Namakagun,              |W.S.W.|                          |    26
         {Pukwaewa, (Odabossa’s V.) |W.S.W.|                          |    53
                                    |      |                          |
         {Rice Lake of Red Cedar    |      |                          |
         {  Fork,                   |W.S.W.|                          |   142
CHIPPEWA {Red Cedar Lake of Lac     |      |                          |
  RIVER  {  Chetac,                 |W.S.W.|Louis Corbin.             |    74
 OF THE  {Lac Courtoreille,         |      |                          |
  UPPER  {  (Ottowa L.)             |W.S.W.|Benjamin Cadotte.         |   515
  MISS-  {Red Devil’s band of the   |      |                          |
ISSIPPI. {  Ochasowa,               |W.S.W.|                          |   152
         {Lac du Flambeau,          |W.S.W.|Charles H. Oaks.         }|   465
         {Trout Lake & Tomahawk Lake|W.S.W.|Paul Grignon.            }|    51
                                    |      |                          |
 SOURCES {La Lac Or Upper Wisconsin,| S.W. |G. D. Cameron.            |   125
 OF THE  {Plover Portage & Post Lake| S.W. |                          |    77
WISCONSIN{Metawonga,                | S.W. |                          |   118
   AND   {White Clay Portage,       | S.W. |                          |    34
MONOMONES{                          |      |                          |
 RIVERS. {                          |      |                          |
                                    |      |                          |
NORTHERN {Bay de Nocquet,           | S.W. |                          |
CURVE OF {Weequaidons,              | S.W. |                          |
GREEN BAY{White fish Creek,         | S.W. |                          |   210
                                    |      |                          |
         {Mouth of Manistic,        |  S.  |Joseph Troque.            |
  N. W.  {Mille Au Coquin,          |  S.  |                          |
  COAST  {Choiswa,                  |  S.  |                          |   239
 OF LAKE {Straits of Michigan,      |  S.  |                          |
MICHIGAN.{Point St. Ignace,         | S.E. |                          |    40
                                    |      |                          |
         {River au Sable, (Arenac.) | S.E. |                          |
         {Thunder Bay,              | S.E. |                          |
PENINSULA{Cheboigon,                |  S.  |                          | 5,698
   OF    {L’arbre Croche, Upper &   |      |                          |
MICHIGAN.{  Lower,                  |  S.  |                          |
         {Grand Traverse Bay,       |  S.  |                          |
         {Rivière au Becsie,        |  S.  |                          |
         {Maskegon,                 |  S.  |George Campeau.           |
         {Grand River,              |      |Rix Robinson.            }|
                                    +------+Joseph Daily.            }|
                                    |      |Francis Lacroix.         }|
                                           |William Lesley.          }|
                                           +--------------------------+--------
                                                                       14,279


                          EXPLANATORY NOTES.

(_A_) Michilimackinac is the seat of justice for Mackinac county,
Michigan Territory, is 300 miles NW. of Detroit, has a U. S. circuit
court, a population of 1053, by the census of 1830, has a military
post, an Indian agency, a collector’s office, a flourishing missionary
school, &c.

(_B_) This river enters the head of Muddy Lake, and is partly the
boundary between Michilimackinac and Chippewa counties.

(_C_) This is a tributary of the south branch of the St. Mary’s, and is
much resorted to by the Indians in their periodical fishing and hunting
excursions.

(_D_) Indian gardens at this place, two miles below St. Mary’s.

(_E_) This place is the site of Fort Brady, is ten miles below the
foot of Lake Superior, and ninety by water NW. of Mackinac. The Indian
Agency of Vincennes, Indiana, was removed to this place, in 1822, and
consolidated with the agency of Mackinac, in 1832. It is the seat of
justice for Chippewa county, M. T. and has a population, by the census
of 1830, of 918.

(_F_) The trading post, at this place, is occupied as a fishing
station, during the autumn, by persons who proceed with boats and nets,
from St. Mary’s. Bonds are taken by the Indian Office, and licences
granted in the usual manner, as a precaution against the introduction
of ardent spirits.

(_G_) It is thirty leagues from Keweena Post to Ontonagon, by the most
direct water route, but seventy-five leagues around the peninsula.

(_H_) The population enumerated at this post, includes the villages of
Ocogib, Lake Vieux Desert, Iron River and Petite Peche Bay.

(_I_) The Chippewas of La Point have their gardens on this river, and
reside here periodically. This is a good fishing station. A mission
family has recently been located here.

(_K_) This is the most western bay of Lake Superior.

(_L_) Replaces the post of the Isle des Corbeau, which is abolished.

(_M_) The route of Rainy Lake, begins at the post on this lake, which
is an expansion of the channel of the Mississippi, about ten miles
across. Clear water and yields fish.

(_N_) This lake has been so named in honor of the present Secretary of
War, who terminated his exploratory journey there, in 1820.

(_O_) Itasca Lake is the actual source of the Mississippi, as
determined by myself, in the expedition, which furnishes occasion for
this report.

(_P_) This is a very large expanse of water, clear and pure in its
character, and yields fine white fish. It was deemed the head of the
Mississippi by Pike, who visited it in the winter of 1806, but it is
not even _one_ of the sources, as it has several large tributaries.

(_Q_) Named Rum River by Carver, but called _spirit_ river by the
Indians, not using this word in a physical sense.

(_R_) This route from Old Grand Portage to the Lake of the Woods, is
chiefly used by the British traders, and the gentlemen connected with
the Hudson’s Bay government; but has fallen into comparative disuse, as
a grand channel of traders since the introduction of goods direct from
England into the Hudson Bay.

(_S_) The estimate of population at Pembina, includes all who are
believed to be south of latitude 49 deg. and therefore within the
limits of the United States.

(_T_) Embraces all the population of the Fork of St. Croix, connected
by a portage with the Brulé River of Lake Superior.

(_U_) The Indians on these streams, rely much on wild rice. Their
encampments are temporary. They come into contact with the Winnebagoes
and Monomonees, who are their neighbors on the south.

(_V_) The Indian population of the peninsula of Michigan, consists of
Ottawas, Chippewas and Pottawattomies, who are not widely separated by
language and habits. The Ottawas are however the most agricultural. No
Pottawattomies are included in the estimate, and only that portion of
Ottawas and Chippewas living north of Grand River, and northwest of
Sagana, as the limits of the Mackinac and St. Mary’s joint agency, do
not extend south of these places.

☞ The data respecting the fur trade, in the schedules, excludes the
business transacted on the Island of Michilimackinac, and the village
Sault Ste. Marie, these places being on lands ceded to the United
States, and over which the laws of the Territory of Michigan, operate.
They also exclude any amount of trade that may have been carried on, by
the white inhabitants of Red River settlement, who may be located south
of the national boundary on the north, as this place is too remote to
have been heretofore brought under the cognizance of our Intercourse
laws.

              Office of Indian Agency, Sault Ste. Marie,
                                       November 21, 1832.

                                  HENRY R. SCHOOLCRAFT, Indian Agent.


                                  VI.

                                               OFFICE INDIAN AGENCY,}
                               _Sault Ste. Marie, December 3, 1832_.}

  ELBERT HERRING, ESQ.,
      Office of Indian Affairs, Washington.

SIR:

The condition of the Indians, situated in the area of country traversed
by the St. Croix and Chippewa Rivers, has not essentially varied
since the date of the report, which I had the honor to address to the
Department, on the 22nd of September, 1831.[28] I beg leave now to
solicit your attention to the observations made during my recent visit
to the bands living northwest of that point in our geography.

From a very early period, war has existed between the Chippewas and
Sioux, and although the condition of independent bands, separated by
local position and local interests, has produced internal discord among
themselves, they have united as nations, in defending their respective
frontiers, and have not hesitated to make inroads, into the hunting
grounds of each other, whenever circumstances have favored them.

The Chippewas assert, that their warfare has been one of self defence,
and that their inroads have been the inevitable consequence of the
determination to maintain their territorial rights. The Sioux complain
that their hunting grounds have been intruded on, and that they cannot
restrain their warriors. Each party lays claim to forbearance and
generosity. Neither appears to omit any opportunity of inflicting
injury on the other. Every blow is a fresh invitation to aggression. A
state of perpetual insecurity and alarm is the consequence. Time has
exasperated their feelings. And much of the severity of their present
condition, is directly owing to the pertinacity with which the contest
has been kept up.

In this state, the Chippewas, who are particularly the object of this
report, were found by our government in 1806, who had, the year before,
directed the late General Pike, to visit the Upper Mississippi. Owing
to their remote position, little attention was, however, bestowed
upon them till the summer of 1820, when the present Secretary of
War, who then administered the government of Michigan, conducted an
expedition through the country. By his recommendation a military post
and agency were established on the avenue of their trade, at the foot
of Lake Superior, and the usual means adopted to regulate the trade
and intercourse of our citizens with them. They were counselled to
remain at peace, to intermit their visits to the Canadian posts, and to
pursue their usual occupations on their own lands. It was immediately
found, however, that the force of their hostilities fell upon their
western frontiers, where they border on the Sioux, and where the
dispute respecting territorial boundaries gave scope to continual and
afflicting aggressions.

In 1825 the Chippewas were invited to meet the other tribes in a
general council at Prairie du Chien, which, after a full discussion,
resulted in a treaty of territorial limits. This treaty was fully
assented to, by the northern Chippewas convened at the treaty of
Fond du Lac in 1826. The following year, deputations of this nation
attended, and became one of the parties at the treaty of Bude des
Morts. At this treaty the subject of boundaries was finally carried and
adjusted between themselves and the Monomonees and the Winnebagoes.
With the latter tribes there has been no subsequent controversy
respecting limits. But the delineation on paper of the extensive line
between them and the Sioux, without an actual survey and marking of
it, gave rise to further difficulties. What could not be plainly seen,
might be easily disputed, and the pretext was thus given for renewed
aggressions. Several instances of this have constituted the subject of
specific reports to the Department. The hardships of a people destitute
of resources, were not only thus increased, but those of our citizens
who had been licensed to trade among them complained of losses and want
of protection. Many of the Indians, and several of the traders fell,
either in actual conflict, or the consequences deducible from them.

During the summer of 1830, I was directed by the Department personally
to visit the Indians, to endeavour to restore peace. The instructions
were not, however, received until late in the year, and it was not
practicable to carry them into effect until the following year. It
was employed in visiting the bands situated intermediate between Lake
Superior and the Mississippi, being south of St. Anthony falls. It was
found impracticable to visit the more northern bands. Instructions were
however received for this purpose in the spring of 1832. I immediately
organized an expedition, and employed the summer season in visiting
the remotest bands on the Upper Mississippi, and I will now proceed to
detail such of its results, not heretofore communicated, as pertain to
the present condition of the Indians.

It will be recollected that during the previous visit, general councils
were held with the Chippewas at Chegoimegon on Lake Superior, and at
Yellow River, Lac Courtorielle, and Rice Lake, in the region of St.
Croix and Chippewa Rivers: that the subject of the treaty of peace and
limits of 1825 was distinctly brought home to the chiefs, and their
promise obtained to use their influence in keeping their warriors at
peace: that messages were despatched by them to the principal Sioux
chiefs, expressive of these sentiments, accompanied by messages from
myself: that a Chippewa war party was encountered, and its object
frustrated: and the subject of limits on the Red Cedar fork presenting
itself as an obstacle to a firm peace on this border, was amicably
referred by them to the President, with a request, by them, that
he would use his influence to keep the Sioux at peace. From which
auspicious results were anticipated.

I had the satisfaction to find, in the progress of this year’s visits,
that these measures had been productive of good effects; that the fall
and winter of 1831 had passed, without any war party’s going out of
the region of the Chippewa and St. Croix, and that a peace-council had
been held by the Chippewas of the Folle Avoine, and the Sioux of the
Petite Corbeau’s band, which was also attended by the Upper Snake River
Indians, and by deputations of the Mille Lac and Fond du Lac Chippewas,
and that my counsels and admonitions had been extensively spread.

Other facts disclosed on my passing through Lake Superior may be
adverted to. On casually meeting a party of Indians and traders at
the Portail (June 11th), I heard of the existence of a feud at Lac
Courtorielle, which had, during the previous winter, resulted in the
murder of a Canadian named Brunet at Long Lake, and the murder of an
Indian boy by the son of Mozojeed, the chief of the band. That the
murderer had been apprehended by the Chippewas and traders, and brought
out as far as the carrying-place on the head of the Mauvais River,
where he had escaped.

On reaching the trading post at Kewena Bay (14th), I met Pezhicki,
the chief of La Pointe, with several men going out to visit me at the
sault. There was also, at this place, the speaker Mizi, being on his
way, with a considerable retinue, to Penetanguishine, the British post
on Lake Huron. I here learned the death of Mozobodo, the chief of Lac
du Flambeau, and that his brother the White Crow, a man of inferior
merit, had succeeded to the chieftainship, and was forming a war-party
to descend the Chippewa River against the Sioux.

I reached the Ontonegon on the 19th, and found at this place
Mushcoswun, or the Moose’s Tail, an elder brother of the White Crow of
Lac du Flambeau, and Mozojeed, the chief of Lac Courtorielle, encamped
with their followers, being all on their way to visit me at the sault.
No further information was obtained of the state of affairs at Lac du
Flambeau, except that a trader had clandestinely visited that post from
the Mississippi with whiskey. Being nearest the theatre of the Sauc
disturbances, I felt much anxiety to be particularly informed of the
state of feeling in this numerous, warlike, and hitherto disaffected
band. This I was, however, left to infer from the studied silence, or
affected ignorance of Mushcoswun.

Mozojeed gave me reason to be satisfied that the Chippewas of his
quarter were quite friendly, and that no disposition was felt to
sanction, far less to aid, the confederated Saucs and Foxes in their
schemes. He regretted, he said, the murders which had taken place in
his vicinity, during the winter, which, he affirmed, arose wholly from
private jealousies and bickerings. He said, he lamented the folly of
the young men of his village who had committed the murders. He could
not prevent it. He could not see through the distant forests, alluding
to the difficulty of foreseeing and governing the acts of people at
a distance. He could not absolutely govern those in his own village;
but these murders were committed at Long Lake, and not at Ottowa Lake,
where he lived.

He said that the murderer of Brunet had been apprehended, by the
joint advice of himself and those who had grown old in wearing medals
(meaning the elder chiefs). But he had escaped on the Mauvais portage.
From that point the chief called Misco Monedo, or the Red Devil, and
his people had returned, saying that they would punish the fugitive.

With respect to the murder committed by his son, he said that he had
come out to give himself up for it, to be dealt with as might be
dictated. He stood ready to answer for it. And he awaited my decision
respecting it, as well as the other murder. He concluded his address by
presenting a pipe.

Soon after passing Presque Isle river (20th), we met Mr. Warren,
a trader, and his brigade of boats, on his annual return from his
wintering ground. He confirmed the reports heard from the Indians,
and added, that a trader from the Mississippi had entered the St.
Croix River, and introduced ardent spirits among the Chippewas of
Snake River. Mushcoswun followed me, with others, to Chagoimegon,
or Lapointe, became a sharer in the presents distributed there, and
expressed himself during the council in a speech of decidedly friendly
terms.

At the mouth of the River Broule I encountered Ozawondib, or the Yellow
Head, and Mainotagooz, or the Handsome Enunciator, two Chippewas from
the Cassinian source of the Mississippi, being on their way to visit me
at the seat of the agency. They reported that the Indians of Leech Lake
had raised a war-party, and gone out against the Sioux of the Plains.
Both these Indians returned with me to Cass Lake. The former afterward
guided me from that remote point to the source of this river.

On reaching Fond du Lac (23d), I found the Indians of that post
assembled, preparatory to the departure of the traders of the Fond du
Lac department. Mr. Aitkin represented that the Hudson’s Bay clerks had
been well supplied with high-wines, during the season of trade, which
were freely used to induce our Indians to cross the boundary in quest
of it, and that if the American government did not permit a limited
quantity of this article to be taken by their traders, that part of
their hunts would be carried to their opponents. His clerks from Rainy
Lake presented me a pipe and ornamented stem, accompanying a speech
of general friendship from Aissibun, or the Racoon, and another, with
similar testimonials, from the son of the late chief Ainakumigishkung,
both of the Rainy Lake band.

Mongazid, or the Loon’s Foot, the second chief and speaker of the Fond
du Lac band, confirmed what I had previously heard, of a peace council
having been held on the St. Croix, with the Petite Corbeau’s band of
Sioux. He said that Kabamappa was at the head of the Chippewa party,
and had been the prime mover in this pacific attempt. That he had
himself been present, with a deputation of eleven men of the Fond du
Lac band, including the elder chief Chingoop.

Dr. Borup, a clerk in the A. F. Company’s service, added, in relation
to affairs on the Rainy Lake border, that five chiefs have been
invested with medals and flags, by the _British traders_ of Rainy Lake.
That eighty kegs of high-wines were exhibited to the Indians at that
post during the last season—that it was freely sent over the American
lines, even within _a few hours’ march_ of Leech Lake—having been sent
_west_ of the portage into Turtle Lake.

We had now reached the head of Lake Superior. Our route thence to the
Mississippi was up the river St. Louis, and across the Savanne portage.
We reached the trading-house at the junction of Sandy Lake River with
the Mississippi during the afternoon of the 3d of July, and remained
at that place until 6 o’clock in the evening of the 4th. The Indians
have confirmed the reports of a war-party’s having gone out from Leech
Lake. All accounts from that quarter indicated a state of extreme
restlessness on the part of that band, and also among the Yanktons
and Sessitons. Inineewi, or the Manly Man, acted as the speaker at
the council which I held on the west banks of the river. He mingled,
as is common, his private affairs with his public business. He said
that he was not possessed of the authority of chieftainship, but that
his father Kabigwakoosidjiga, had been a chief under the English
government; that Chingoop, the chief of Fond du Lac, was his uncle,
and Chamees, our guide, his nephew. He said that the Grosse Guelle,
and most of the chiefs and hunters of the place, had dispersed from
their encampment, and were now passing the summer months in the country
near the mouth of L’aile de Corbeau, or Crow-wing River. That he would
forthwith convey my message to them, &c.; confirming his words with the
present of a pipe.

Having determined to ascend the Mississippi from this point, and
being satisfied from my Indian maps that I could make a portage from
Cass Lake into Leech Lake, and from the latter into the source of the
Crow-wing river, so as to descend the latter to its junction with the
Mississippi, I transmitted a message to the Grosse Guelle to meet
me, with the Sandy Lake Indians, at Isle de Corbeau, in twenty days,
counting from the 4th. I then deposited the provisions and goods
intended for distribution at the council at Isle de Corbeau, with the
person in charge of Mr. Aitkin’s house, making arrangements to have the
articles sent down the Mississippi, in exact season to meet me there.

Relieved of this portion of the burden of transportation, we proceeded
with more alacrity. We passed the falls of Pukaiguma on the 7th, and
encamped at the trading-post at Lake Winnipec, above the savannas, on
the 9th, having pursued the side route through Bogotowa Lake. While
encamped at Point aux Chenes, in the savannas, a Frenchman arrived from
Leech Lake, on his way to the post at Sandy Lake. He reported that the
war-party had returned to Leech Lake, bringing three Sessiton scalps,
having, in their engagement, lost one man, a brother-in-law of the
Guelle Plat’s. That the Guelle Plat had led the party, and encountered
the Sioux coming out against them. He also reported, that the Sioux
had scalped a Chippewa girl near Pembina. That they were immediately
pursued by a party of Chippewas, overtaken in the act of constructing a
raft to cross a stream, and four of the number killed and scalped.[29]

Finding the waters favourable for ascending, and that our progress had
been much accelerated thereby, I sent a verbal message by this man, to
have the canoes with supplies destined for Isle de Corbeau set forward
two days earlier than the time originally fixed.

The clerk in charge of the trading-post of Lake Winnipec, communicated
a number of facts respecting the location and number of the Indians
living in the middle grounds between that post and Rainy Lake. I
proposed to him the following questions, to which I have annexed his
answers.

1. Do the Hudson’s Bay clerks cross the American lines from the post
of Rainy Lake, for the purposes of trade? _Ans._ No. They furnish goods
to Indians who go trading into the American territory.

2. Do the partners or clerks of the H. B. Co. present flags and medals
to Indians? _Ans._ Yes.

3. Do they give such flags and medals to Indians living within the
American lines? _Ans._ No. I have heard that they took away an American
flag given to an Indian on the U. S. borders of Rainy Lake, tore it,
and burnt it, and gave him a British flag instead.

4. Was the H. B. Co.’s post on Rainy Lake supplied with ardent spirits
last season? _Ans._ It was. They had about 60 kegs of high-wines, which
were shown to some of our Indians, who went there, and Mr. Cameron, who
was in charge of the post, said to them, that, although their streams
were high from the melting of the snow, they should, swim as high with
liquor, if the Indians required it.

5. What is the strength of the high-wines? _Ans._ One keg is reduced to
four.

6. Have the Indians sent out on _derwin_ by the H. B. Co. approached
near to your post? _Ans._ They have come very near, having been on the
Turtle portage with goods.

7. Did they bring liquor thus far? _Ans._ No. The liquor is kept at
Rainy Lake, to induce the Indians to visit that place with their furs.

8. Did the disposition made of the liquor, which the Secretary of War
permitted the principal factor of the Fond du Lac department, to take
in last year, embrace the post of Winnipec? _Ans._ It did not. It
was kept chiefly at Rainy Lake, and on the lines, to be used in the
opposition trade.

On reaching Cass Lake, or _Lac Cedar Rouge_ (July 10th), I found a
band of Chippewas resident on its principal island. They confirmed
the reports of the murder and subsequent affray at Pembina, and of
the return of the war-party which went out from Leech Lake. Some of
the warriors engaged in the latter were from the island in Cass Lake,
including the person killed. His widow and her children attended the
council, and shared in the distribution of presents which I made there.
While encamped on this island, two of the Sioux scalps, which had been
brought in as trophies on the late excursion, were danced with the
ceremonies peculiar to the occasion, on an eminence adjacent to, and
within sight of, my encampment. This painful exhibition of barbaric
triumph was enacted without consulting me.

Finding it practicable, in the existing state of the waters, to visit
the principal and most remote source of the Mississippi, above this
lake, I determined to encamp my men, and leave my heavy baggage and
supplies on the island, and to accomplish the visit in small canoes,
with the aid of Indian guides. As the details of this expedition afford
no political information of a character required by my instructions,
beyond the observation of some evidences of a Sioux inroad in former
years, and the statistical facts heretofore given, they are omitted.
It will be sufficient to remark that the object was successfully
accomplished, under the guidance of Oza Windib. I planted the American
flag on an island in the lake, which is the true source of the
Mississippi, 149 years after the discovery of the mouth of this stream
by La Salle. I was accompanied on this expedition by Mr. Johnston of
the Department; Dr. D. Houghton; Lieut. Allen, U. S. A.; and the Rev.
W. T. Boutwell.

On returning to my encampment on the island in Cass Lake, I explained
to the Indians, in a formal council, the object of my instructions
from the Department, so far as these relate to their hostilities with
the Sioux. I invested Oza Windib with a flag and medal, finding him
to be looked up to as the principal man in the band, and there being,
at present, no one who claimed, or appeared to be as well entitled,
to the authority of chieftainship. Neezh Opinais, or the Twin Birds,
who received a medal from Gov. Cass, through the intervention of his
principal guide, in 1820, was formerly resident at this lake, but
is now incorporated with the band at Red Lake. I sent him a flag,
accompanied with a formal message, by his son, and acknowledged the
receipt of a peace pipe and stem, from Waiwain Jigun of Red Lake, sent
out by him through another hand. These attentions to the ceremonial
messages of the Indians are of more importance, so far as respects
their feelings and friendship, than might be inferred.

Cass Lake is about 15 miles long, in the direction that the
Mississippi passes through it, and may be estimated to be twelve miles
wide, exclusive of a spacious prolongation or bay, in the direction
to Leech Lake. It is the second large lake below the primary forks of
the Mississippi, and is decidedly the largest expanse assuming the
character of _a lake_, in its entire length, covering a greater square
superficies than Lake Pepin.

The Mississippi is but little used by traders going North West, and not
at all beyond Lac Traverse. It is found to take its rise south of west
from Cass Lake. In consequence, its source has seldom been visited,
even by the traders, whose highest point of temporary location is
Pamitchi Gumaug, or Lac Traverse, estimated to be forty miles W.N.W. of
Cass Lake. And this point has been found to be the extreme N.W. point
attained by its waters.

Representations having been made to the Department, on the subject of
foreign interference in the trade on this frontier, I have addressed a
number of queries on the subject to a clerk[30] engaged in the American
trade, who has been many years a resident of Red Lake, and is well
acquainted with the geography and resources of the adjacent country.
I inquired of him, whether the American traders on that border were
strenuously opposed in their trade by the inhabitants of the Red River
colony, or by the partners and clerks of the Hudson’s Bay Company. He
replied, that the inhabitants of Pembina made temporary voyages of
trade to Voleuse, or Thief River, south of the parallel of 49°, but
that they had not built, or made a permanent stand there. He said,
that the open nature of the country about the Red River settlements
gave great facilities for making short excursions into the Indian
country, on horseback and in carts. But he did not know any place where
permanent outfits had been sent, except to Rivière Souris, or Mouse
River, west of Red River. He believes that this traffic was carried on
exclusively by the inhabitants of the colony, and not by the Hudson’s
Bay Company,

I asked him, whether the Indians of the Lake of the Woods visited the
post of Red Lake, and whether our traders were annoyed in their trade
from that quarter, by the servants of the H. B. Company. He replied,
that the Lac du Bois Indians came across to Red Lake ordinarily; that
it is a three days’ journey, but that no annoyance is experienced in
the trade of that post from the H. B. Co. factors. He is of opinion,
that they do not send outfits into any part of the territory south of
the national boundary, beginning at Rat Portage, on the Lake of the
Woods.

Assurances being given by the Indians that the portages of the overland
route from Cass Lake to Leech Lake were not only practicable for my
canoes and baggage, but that by adopting it a considerable saving
would be made both in time and distance, I determined on returning
by it. The first portage was found to be 950 yards. It lies over a
dry sand plain. A small lake, without outlet, is then crossed; and a
second portage of 4100 yards terminates at the banks of another small
lake, which has a navigable outlet (for canoes) into an arm of Leech
Lake. We accomplished the entire route, from the island in Cass Lake
to the Guelle Plat’s village in Leech Lake, between ten o’clock A.
M. and ten P. M. of the 16th July. Although the night was dark, and
the Indians had retired to their lodges, a salute was fired by them,
and an eligible spot for encampment pointed out. It was so dark as to
require torches to find it. The next morning, I found myself in front
of a village, numbering, when all present, upwards of 700 souls. They
renewed their salute. The chief, Guelle Plat, sent to invite me to
breakfast. During the repast, the room became filled with Indians, who
seated themselves orderly around the room. When we arose, the chief
assumed the oratorical attitude, and addressed himself to me.

He expressed his regret that I had not been able to visit them the
year before, when I was expected. He hoped I had now come, as I had
come by surprise, to remain some days with them. He said they lived
remote, and were involved in wars with their neighbours, and wished my
advice. They were not insensible to advice, nor incapable of following
it. They were anxious for counsel, and desirous of living at peace, and
of keeping the advice which had heretofore been given to them. They
had been told to sit still on their lands. But their enemies would not
permit them to sit still. They were compelled to get up and fight in
defence. The Sioux continued to kill their hunters. They had killed
his son during the last visit he had made to my office. They had never
ceased to make inroads. And he believed there were white men among the
Sioux who stirred them up to go to war against the Chippewas. He named
one person particularly.

It was necessary, he continued, to take some decisive steps to put
a stop to their inroads. This was the reason why he had led out the
war-party which had recently returned. This was the reason why I saw
the stains of blood before me.

He alluded, in this expression, to the flags, war-clubs, &c. which
decorated one end of the room, all of which had vermilion smeared on
them, to represent blood. I replied succinctly, stating the reasons
which would prevent my making a long visit, and notified him, that in
consequence of the length of my route yet to perform, I would assemble
them to a general council at my camp as soon as I could be prepared,
that notice would be given them by the firing of the military, and that
I should then lay before them the advice I came to deliver from their
great father the President, and offer them at the same time my own
counsel on the subjects he had spoken of.

During the day, constant accessions were made to the number of Indians
from neighbouring places. Among them were a party of nine Rainy Lake
Indians, under the leadership of a man named Wai-Wizh-Zhe-Geezhig,
or the Hole-in-the-Sky. He represented himself and party as resident
at Springing-bowstring Lake; said that he had heard of my passing
Lake Winnipec, with an intention to return by Leech Lake, and came to
express his good will, in the hope that he would not be overlooked,
&c. I presented him publicly with a flag, and clothing and tobacco for
himself and party, committing to him a short address to be delivered to
the Rainy Lake Indians.

The Muk Kund Wai, or Pillagers, being present, with their chiefs and
warriors, women and children, I displayed the presents intended for
this band, on blankets spread out on the grass in front of my tent. I
called their attention to the subjects named in my instructions, to the
desire of the government for the restoration of peace to the frontiers,
and its paternal character, &c.; reminded them of their solemn treaty
of peace and limits with the Sioux, signed at Prairie du Chien in 1825;
enforced the advantages of it in relation to their hunting, their
trades, &c. &c. I presented the presents, in bulk, to the chiefs, who
immediately directed their distribution.

Aish Kee Buggi Kozh, or the Guelle Plat, was their speaker in reply.
He called the attention of the warriors to his words. He thanked me
for the presents, which reminded him, in amount, of the times when the
British held possession in that quarter. He pointed across an arm of
the lake in front to the position occupied by the North-West Company’s
fort. He said many winters had now passed since the Americans first
sent a chief to that post to visit them—alluding to Lieutenant Pike’s
visit in the winter of 1805-6. He remembered that visit. I had come to
remind them that the American flag was flying in the land, and to offer
them counsels of peace, for which they were thankful. They had hoped
I was to spend more time with them, to enter more fully into their
feelings, but as they must speak on the instant, they would not lose
the opportunity of declaring their sentiments.

He thought that the advice of the Americans resembled a rushing wind.
It was strong and went soon. It did not abide long enough to choke up
the road. He said, that at the treaty of Tipisagi, it had been promised
that the aggressor should be punished. But that they had even that very
year, and almost yearly since, been attacked by the Sioux, and some of
their nation killed. He said that they had even been fired on under the
walls of the fort at Ishki Buggi Seepi,[31] and four of their party
killed. He had himself been present. He handed to me a small bundle of
sticks, which, he said, exhibited the number of Leech Lake Chippewas
who had been killed by the Sioux since they had touched the quill[32]
at Tipisagi. The number was forty-three.

He lifted up four American medals, attached by a string of wampum,
and smeared with vermilion. He said they were bloody. He wished me to
wipe off the blood. He said he was himself unable to do it. He found
himself irretrievably involved in a war with the Sioux. He said he
believed that it had been intended by the Creator that they should be
at war with this people. He was not satisfied with the result of the
late war-party. His warriors were not satisfied. He complimented their
bravery. He disclaimed any merit himself. He said that they had looked
for help where they did not find it. They were determined to revenge
themselves. If the United States did not aid them, he had it in mind to
apply elsewhere for aid. He clearly referred to, but did not name, the
English government in Canada. His warriors were in a restless state.
He had sent out his pipe and invitations to the neighbouring bands to
continue the war. Circumstances controlled him. He could not avoid it.
His own feelings were enlisted deeply in the contest. When the enemy
killed his son, he had resolved never to lay down the war-club. He had
sought for death in battle, but had not met it. All he now could say
was, that perhaps he should not lead the next war-party. He thought
some other person would.

He accused persons on the waters of the Upper Mississippi, of giving
advice to the Sioux to go to war against the Chippewas. He said it was
the interest of persons in the trade to induce the Sioux to extend
the territorial boundary. He evinced a familiarity with persons and
places. He did not exempt some persons officially connected with the
general government in that quarter, from participating in the course of
mal-counsel.

He complained of the traders. He criticised their conduct with
severity. He thought their prices exorbitant, and said that they were
so intent on getting furs, that they did not deem it necessary to use
much formality in their dealings with the Indians. He complained of
the exclusion of ardent spirits, but at the same time admitted, that
formerly it was brought in to buy up their wild rice—a practice that
left them, at the beginning of cold weather, in a destitute situation.

Much of the sentiment of this address appeared to be uttered for
popular effect on the young warriors, who stood an eager, gazing group
around, and made loud responses of approbation at every pause. Such
parts of it as were not given as a reply to my remarks, or contained
allusions entitled to notice, I replied to, aiming to keep their
attention fixed on the leading principles of the pacific policy which
dictated my public instructions; and not meaning that they should
forget them, nor mistake them, in any bursts of feeling, or appeals
to the passions or prejudices of the young men, who only looked to
the war-path as the avenue of personal distinction. I brought these
principles back to their minds, and enforced them by obvious appeals
to facts. I told the chief that his political sentiments should be
faithfully reported to the government, whose object it was, in the
employment of subordinate officers, to accumulate facts, which might
form the basis of future action.

So far as related to the traders withdrawing the article of whiskey
from the trade, I felt it due to say that no hard feelings should be
entertained towards them. That it was excluded by the office. That
the Indians should, in justice blame me, or blame the government, and
not the traders. I was satisfied that the use of whiskey was very
hurtful to them in every situation, and felt determined to employ every
means which the control of the Agency of the North-West gave to me,
to exclude the article wholly and rigidly from the Chippewas, and to
set the mark of disapprobation upon every trader who should make the
attempt to introduce it.

Having an engagement to meet the Sandy Lake Indians on the 22d
(after a lapse of five days), and an unknown route to explore, I
terminated the council by the distribution of provisions to the
Rainy Lake Indians, guides, and chiefs, requested fresh guides for
the route into the Ka Ga Gee, or De Corbeau River, and immediately
embarked. We encamped on the southern shore of Leech Lake. During the
following day (18th), we accomplished the whole route from this lake
to the head waters of the De Corbeau. It consists of five portages of
various length, separated by ten small lakes and ponds. The last of
the portages terminates on the handsomely elevated banks of a lake
called Kagi Nogum Aug. This lake is the source of this fork of the
Mississippi. The Guelle Plat, with the secondary chief of his band,
overtook me at the commencement of the fourth portage, and accompanied
me to my encampment. He said he had many things which he still wished
to consult me on, and spent the evening, until twelve o’clock, in
conversation. I found him to possess a reflective intelligent mind.
He stated to me his opinions on the Sioux war, the boundary line, the
trade, location of trading-posts. &c. He evinced the gratified feelings
created by the circumstances of my visit to his people, and said he
should visit me at the agency, next year, if his life and health were
spared.

We commenced the descent of the De Corbeau on the 19th. The channel is
at first small and winding. It expands successively into eleven lakes,
of various dimensions, and acquires considerable breadth and velocity
before it forms its upper forks, by the junction with Shell River. We
encountered in this distance no Indians, but observed, as we had the
previous day, traces of the recent war-party. In passing out of the
tenth of the series of lakes, the men observed a camp-fire on shore,
but no person appeared. It was conjectured to indicate the presence
of Sioux, who, perceiving the character of the party, had fled and
concealed themselves.

The next day afforded no certain evidences of a fixed population. We
observed continued traces of the recent war-party, and other signs of
temporary occupancy, in the standing camp-poles and meat racks which
frequently met the eye in our descent. We passed the entrance of Leaf
River, a large tributary from the right, having its source near the
banks of Otter Tail Lake; and the next day, had our attention directed
to the entrance of Prauie River, on the same shore. The latter is
also a tributary of the first class. It is the war-road, so to say,
between the Chippewas and Sioux, having its source in a lake, which is
designated in the treaty of Prairie du Chien as one of the points in
the boundary line between these two nations.

The day following (21st), the monotony of vegetable solitude was
broken by meeting a Chippewa and his family in a canoe. He informed me
that we were within a few hours’ journey of the mouth of the river—that
the Sandy Lake and Mille Lac Indians were assembled there, awaiting my
arrival, and that they expected me this day. I found this information
to be correct. We entered the Mississippi about noon, and saw the
opposite shore lined with lodges, with the American flag conspicuously
displayed. The long-continued firing and shouts of the Indians left me
no reason to doubt that my arrival was both anticipated and desired. I
was gratified on being told, within three hours of my arrival, that the
canoe, with the goods and supplies from Sandy Lake, was in sight. And
in a few moments found the event verified, in the safe arrival of the
men, and the landing of the packages.

I determined to lose no time in assembling the Indians in council,
addressed them on the objects of the expedition, and caused the
presents to be prepared and distributed. I was addressed, in reply, by
the elder chief, Gross Guelle, and also by the brother of the Strong
Ground, by Waub Ojeeg, and by a young man called Nitum E’gabo Wai.
Peculiarities in the address of each only require to be adverted to.

The Gross Guelle deemed it important that the line between them and
the Sioux should be surveyed and marked. He said that much of it was a
land line, and it could not be told by either party where it ran. This
was true of it, in the section of country immediately west of them.
The Sioux were in the habit of trespassing on it; and when their own
hunters went out in the pursuit of game, they did not like to stop
short of the game, and they saw no marked line to stop them. He said
that it had been promised at the treaty that the line should be run,
and he wished me to refer the subject to the President. He was in
favour of peace now, as he had been at Tipisagi, and at Fond du Lac.

Soangikumig, or the Strong Ground, expressed his sentiments through the
medium of his brother, who was the more ready speaker. He said he had
taken a part in defending the lines, and he hoped that they might be
made plain, so that each party could see them. As it is, a perpetual
pretence is given for crossing the lines. It must be expected that
peace would often be broken when it could be so easily done.

Waub Ojeeg, or the White Fisher, said that he had given his influence
to peace counsels. He had been present at the treaty of Fond du Lac.
But the Sandy Lake Indians had been lately reproached, as it were,
for their pacific character, by hearing of the Leech Lake war-party’s
passing so near to them. He hoped that the same advice that was given
to them would be given to the Sioux. If the Sioux would not _come_
over the lines, the Chippewas would promise not to _go_ over them. He
thought the lines might have been differently run, but as they had been
agreed to by their old chiefs, who were now gone, it would be best to
let them as they do. Their hunters, however, always came out of the
mouth of Sauc River, which had been given up to the Sioux.

The young man said that he was the son of Pugu Sain Jigun, who had
died recently at Sandy Lake. He said that the medal which he wore had
been given to his father by me, at the treaty of Prairie du Chien in
1825, in exchange for a British medal, surrendered by him. He did not
profess to have any experience in political affairs. He had inherited
his medal, and hoped to be considered by me worthy of it. He expected
the respect due to it. He expressed his friendship, and confirmed his
speech with a pipe.

Ascertaining the trading-house to be near my encampment, after closing
the council, I descended the Mississippi about eighteen miles, and
encamped at Prairie Piercée.

The distance from the mouth of the De Corbeau to St. Anthony’s Falls,
may be computed to exceed 200 miles. The line between the Chippewas
and Sioux crossed from the east to the west of the Mississippi, so as
to strike and follow up the Wadub, or Little Soc River, which is the
first river on the west banks of the Mississippi, above the mouth of
Soc River. We passed several Chippewa hunters, with their families,
along this part of the Mississippi, but encountered no Sioux, even on
that portion of it lying south of their line. I was informed that they
had in a measure abandoned this part of the country, and I observed no
standing Sioux camp-poles, which are, with the people, a conspicuous
sign of occupancy, and which were, in 1820, noticed to extend as high
up the river as Little Rock. (_Les Petite Roches_).

I passed the portage of the Falls of St. Anthony, and reached Fort
Snelling on the 24th July. There being no agent, nor sub-agent
present, Captain Jouett, the commanding officer, on whom the charge of
the agency had temporarily devolved, afforded me every facility for
communicating to the Sioux the object of my visit to the Chippewas, and
requesting their concurrence in its accomplishment. For this purpose
the Wahpeton Sioux were called together, at the agency-house, on the
25th. I stated to them the object of the visit, and the means which
had been used to persuade the Chippewas to give up war, and to confine
themselves within their lines. I reminded them of the anxiety of their
great father the President, to bring about a firm peace between them
and the Chippewas, and of the numerous proofs he had given them of
this anxiety, by calling them together at several councils, which had
this object particularly in view. They had men of wisdom among them,
and they would quickly see how utterly useless it would, however, be
for the Chippewas to remain quiet, during any single season, if the
Sioux did not also, at the same time, sit still. I appealed to them to
resolve on peace; to take the resolution now; to take it sincerely, and
to adhere to it firmly and for ever.

I stated to them the request made by Grosse Guelle, and other Chippewa
chiefs, respecting the marking out of the lines, and invited them to
express their opinion on this subject.

I announced to them the exclusion of whiskey.

The aged chief Petite Corbeau uttered their reply. I recognised in
this chief one of the signers of the grant of land made at this place
26 years ago, when the site of the fort was first visited and selected
by the late General Pike. He adverted to the agency, which he had
exercised for many years, in managing the affairs of his people. They
lived upon the river. They were constantly in sight. They were in
the habit of being consulted. His ears had always been open to the
Americans. He had listened to their counsels. He would still listen
to them, although they were, at present, in a depressed situation.
He adverted particularly to the existing war with the Saucs, and the
accusations which had been thrown out against the Sioux party, who had
gone down to join the American standard, but had returned. He denied
that they felt any friendship for the Saucs and Foxes. He said they
were willing to go against them again, if requested by the commanding
officer.

He spoke on the subject of the Chippewa wars at some length, adverting
to a time when this people did not approach so near to the river—when
they dared not to approach so near to it. He thought the lines were
drawn too close upon them, on the St. Croix—that the young men
could not go out hunting, but quickly they found themselves beyond
their lines. He thought they might even now be driven back, were it
undertaken in earnest.

He said the chief of Leech Lake was wrong to appeal to me to wipe the
blood off his medal. He ought to be able to wipe it off himself. It
was pitiful to make this appeal, for men who were able to do a thing
themselves. He referred to the late Chippewa war-party, and said that a
relative of his had been killed. Blood would call for blood. He did not
rule the Lessitons. He thought they would repay the blow.

His own advice had been pacific. He had received my wampum last year,
and smoked the pipe with the St. Croix Chippewas. They were their
neighbours. They were now at peace. They wished to remain so. They
would act by my advice. He thanked me for the advice.

He warmly approbated the proposition to run out the lines. He said
it had been mentioned at the treaty. And although the lines were not
adjusted to the full satisfaction of all, perhaps they could never be
settled better. He therefore united in requesting that the President
might be asked to direct white men to establish them. It would be
necessary, however, to have both parties by.

He again adverted to the difficulties between them and the Chippewas.
He thought that these difficulties were kept alive by the visits of the
Chippewas to their post. He said it put bad feelings into the hearts
of the Sioux, to see the Chippewas share the bounties of government,
which the Sioux believed the government intended exclusively for them.
Besides, it was difficult to restrain their feelings of hostility
when they came together. Both parties were mistrustful. It was only
necessary to look back a few years, to perceive what the consequences
had been. He believes that these tribes ought to be kept apart. And one
of the best means of keeping them apart was to draw their lines plain,
and to order presents to be given out on their own lands, and not on
each other’s lands.

He spoke against the location of any trading-post on the St. Croix,
which should be fixed so near to the lines as to bring the Sioux and
Chippewas into contact. He also stated reasons why a post at the mouth
of the St. Croix, which is exclusively in the Sioux country, was
not necessary.[33] He wished to keep his band together, and not to
give them excuses for going hither and yon. He requested me to stop
at his village, and to use my influence in persuading his people to
live in one village, and not to continue, as they now were, in two
distinct villages, which were not, in consequence, so fully under his
control.[34]

Wamidetunkar, or the Black Dog, followed him in a speech containing
sentiments not at variance with those expressed by the Little Crow. Its
distinguishing feature was, however, a reference to the indulgences
formerly granted to the Sioux at this post. He thought it hard that
these indulgences should be withdrawn, or curtailed. And he could not
comprehend how such a course could be consistent with professions of
friendship on the part of officers of the U. States. He referred,
particularly, to indiscriminate visiting at the fort, and the purchase
of ardent spirits from the settlers.

Cohmokar said that he had been present with the Petite Corbeau at
the signing of the treaty of cession at St. Peters, and it was owing
to this act that the American flag was now displayed there. He had
sustained this chief in his public acts, and he concurred with him
in what he had uttered about the Chippewa war, and also the existing
troubles with the Black Hawk. He repelled the idea that the Sioux were
friendly to the Saucs and Foxes in the present controversy. They were
a people who were never at ease. They had often struck the Sioux.
The Sioux war-club had also been often lifted against them, and it
was ready to be lifted again. They were ready to hear the commanding
officer, who was sitting present, say strike.

The details of my route through the St. Croix and Burntwood Rivers,
do not essentially vary the aspect of North Western Indian affairs
given above. Facts communicated expressive of the then existing state
of feeling respecting the said disturbances, were promptly reported to
his excellency George B. Porter, governor of Michigan, in a letter, of
which I have the honour herewith to furnish a copy. The proposition
of running out and marking their territorial lines, as a means of
preserving peace, was approved; the recent meetings on the St. Croix,
for the purpose of renewing pledges of peace, declared to be sincere
on the part of the Chippewas; and sentiments of friendship to the
government, and welcome to myself, expressed at each of the councils
which I held with them.

In submitting to the Department this summary of facts, resulting from
my visit to the source of the Mississippi, I take the occasion to
remark, that whatever may be the present state of feeling of the tribes
on that stream, above Prairie du Chien, respecting the government of
the United States, causes are in silent, but active operation, which
will hereafter bring them into contact with our frontier settlements,
and renew, at two or three separate periods in their history, the
necessity of resorting to arms to quell or pacify them. The grounds
of this opinion I need not now specify, further than to indicate that
they exist in the condition and character of opposite lines of an
extensive frontier population, which will inevitably impel the one to
press, and the other to recede or resist. This process of repulsion and
resistance will continue, if I have not much mistaken the character
of that stream, until the frontier shall have become stationary about
five hundred miles above the point I have indicated. I advert to this
topic, not in the spirit of exciting immediate alarm, for there are
no reasons for it, but for the purpose of calling the attention of
the Secretary of War, through you, sir, to the importance of keeping
up, and not withdrawing or reducing, the north western posts and
agencies. And to express the opinion, that the advice and influence of
the government upon these tribes would fall nearly powerless, without
ready and visible means upon the frontiers of causing its counsels to
be respected. Christianity, schools, and agriculture will do much to
meliorate their condition and subdue their animosities, but it is a
species of influence which has not yet been felt in any general effects
in this quarter. Among the means of securing their friendship, and
preserving peace, I have the honour to suggest, that beneficial effects
would result from following out the system of exploratory visits, by
extending it to the region of Lac des Flambeau, and to that portion of
the peninsula of Michigan lying north of Grand River. A deputation of
the Chippewas from the sources of the Mississippi and Lake Superior to
the seat of government, would also be advantageous.

So far as respects the state of hostilities among the Sioux and
Chippewas, it must be expected that continued efforts will be necessary
effectually to check it. Nothing could, perhaps, now be done, which
would tend so directly to promote this end, as the surveying of the
lines agreed on between themselves at the treaty of Prairie du Chien of
1825.

                                         I am, sir, very respectfully,
                                            Your obedient servant,
                                                HENRY R. SCHOOLCRAFT.


                                 VII.

                                  _Sault Ste. Marie, Sept. 21, 1832._

             H. R. SCHOOLCRAFT, ESQ.   }
  U. S. Indian Agent, Sault Ste. Marie.}

SIR:

In conformity with your instructions, I take the earliest opportunity
to lay before you such facts as I have collected, touching the
vaccination of the Chippewa Indians, during the progress of the late
expedition into their country; and also “of the prevalence, from time
to time, of the small-pox” among them.

The accompanying table will serve to illustrate the “ages, sex, tribe,
and local situation” of those Indians who have been vaccinated by me.
With the view of illustrating more fully their local situation, I
have arranged those bands residing upon the shores of Lake Superior;
those residing in the Folle Avoine country (or that section of country
lying between the highlands south-west from Lake Superior, and the
Mississippi River); and those residing near the sources of the
Mississippi River, separately.

Nearly all the Indians noticed in this table were vaccinated at their
respective villages; yet I did not fail to vaccinate those whom we
chanced to meet in their hunting or other excursions.

I have embraced, with the Indians of the frontier bands, those
half-breeds, who, in consequence of having adopted more or less the
habits of the Indian, may be identified with him.

-------------------------------+--------------------------------+-------
       CHIPPEWA INDIANS.       |            MALES.              |
-------------------------------+-----+-----+-----+----+----+----+------+
                               |Under| 10  |  20 | 40 | 60 |Over|Males.|
                               | 10  | to  |  to | to | to | 80 |      |
                Bands.         |     | 20  |  40 | 60 | 80 |    |      |
                               +-----+-----+-----+----+----+----+------+
            {Sault Ste. Marie,    93 |  22 |  19 |  8 |  2 |  1 |  145 |
            {Grand Island,        17 |   9 |   7 |  2 |    |    |   35 |
LAKE        {Keweena Bay,         23 |  11 |  10 |  6 |  1 |    |   51 |
SUPERIOR.   {Ontonagon River,      7 |   8 |  10 |  3 |    |    |   28 |
            {La Pointe,           37 |  32 |  40 |  6 |  2 |  1 |  118 |
            {Fond du Lac,         50 |  21 |  45 | 10 |  2 |    |  128 |
                                     |     |     |    |    |    |      |
            {Lac du Flambeau,      6 |   2 |   6 |  1 |  1 |    |   16 |
            {Ottowa Lake,         11 |   4 |   8 |  1 |    |    |   24 |
FOLLE       {YELLOW RIVER,        11 |   2 |   6 |  1 |    |    |   20 |
AVOINE      {Nama Kowagun of   }     |     |     |    |    |    |      |
COUNTRY.    {  St. Croix River,}   4 |   1 |   2 |  1 |    |    |    8 |
            {Snake River,         14 |   3 |   7 |  4 |  1 |  1 |   30 |
                                     |     |     |    |    |    |      |
SOURCES     {Sandy Lake,          75 |  21 |  47 | 10 |  2 |    |  155 |
OF THE      {LAKE WINNIPEG,        4 |   4 |  10 |  3 |    |    |   21 |
MISSISSIPPI {Cass or Upper Red }     |     |     |    |    |    |      |
RIVER.      {  Cedar Lake,     }  18 |   5 |  11 |  6 |    |  1 |   41 |
            {Leech Lake,          76 |  43 |  73 | 16 |  4 |  1 |  213 |
                                -----+-----+-----+----+----+----+------+
     Lake Superior,              227 | 103 | 131 | 35 |  7 |  2 |  505 |
     Folle Avoine County,         46 |  12 |  29 |  8 |  2 |  1 |   98 |
     Sources of the Mississippi, 173 |  73 | 141 | 35 |  6 |  2 |  430 |
                                -----+-----+-----+----+----+----+------+
     Total,                      446 | 188 | 301 | 78 | 15 |  5 | 1033 |

-------------------------------+--------------------------------+-------------
       CHIPPEWA INDIANS.       |           FEMALES.             |
-------------------------------+-----+-----+-----+----+----+----+------+------
                               |Under|  10 |  20 | 40 | 60 |Over| Fe-  |Total.
                               |  10 |  to |  to | to | to | 80 |males.|
                Bands.         |     |  20 |  40 | 60 | 80 |    |      |
                               +-----+-----+-----+----+----+----+------+------
            {Sault Ste. Marie,    75 |  28 |  21 | 10 |  3 |  1 |  138 |  283
            {Grand Island,        12 |   5 |   7 |    |    |    |   24 |   59
LAKE        {Keweena Bay,         20 |  12 |  17 |  5 |  2 |  1 |   57 |  108
SUPERIOR.   {Ontonagon River,     13 |   5 |  12 |  6 |  1 |    |   37 |   65
            {La Pointe,           38 |  25 |  28 | 12 |  2 |    |  106 |  224
            {Fond du Lac,         41 |  18 |  35 | 13 |  6 |  2 |  115 |  243
                                     |     |     |    |    |    |      |
            {Lac du Flambeau,      2 |   3 |   4 |  2 |  2 |    |   13 |   29
            {Ottowa Lake,         10 |   7 |   3 |  2 |    |    |   22 |   46
FOLLE       {YELLOW RIVER,        11 |   3 |   6 |  2 |  1 |    |   23 |   43
AVOINE      {Nama Kowagun of   }     |     |     |    |    |    |      |
COUNTRY.    {  St. Croix River,}   4 |     |   3 |  2 |    |    |    9 |   17
            {Snake River,         25 |   3 |  12 |  1 |  1 |    |   42 |   72
                                     |     |     |    |    |    |      |
SOURCES     {Sandy Lake,          86 |  19 |  48 | 23 |  6 |  2 |  184 |  339
OF THE      {LAKE WINNIPEG,        1 |   1 |   1 |  2 |    |    |    5 |   26
MISSISSIPPI {Cass or Upper Red }     |     |     |    |    |    |      |
RIVER.      {  Cedar Lake,     }  18 |   3 |   8 |  5 |  1 |  1 |   36 |   77
            {Leech Lake,          96 |  41 |  61 | 25 |  2 |  1 |  226 |  439
                                -----+-----+-----+----+----+----+------+------
     Lake Superior,              199 |  93 | 120 | 46 | 14 |  5 |  477 |  982
     Folle Avoine County,         52 |  12 |  32 |  9 |  4 |    |  109 |  207
     Sources of the Mississippi, 201 |  64 | 118 | 55 |  9 |  4 |  451 |  881
                                -----+-----+-----+----+----+----+------+------
     Total,                      452 | 169 | 270 |110 | 27 |  9 | 1037 | 2070

But little difficulty has occurred in convincing the Indians of the
efficacy of vaccination; and the universal dread in which they hold the
appearance of the small pox among them, rendered it an easy task to
overcome their prejudices, whatever they chanced to be. The efficacy of
the vaccine disease is well appreciated, even by the most interior of
the Chippewa Indians, and so universal is this information, that only
one instance occurred where the Indian had never heard of the disease.

In nearly every instance the opportunity which was presented for
vaccination was embraced with cheerfulness and apparent gratitude;
at the same time manifesting great anxiety that, for the safety of
the whole, each one of the band should undergo the operation. When
objections were made to vaccination, they were not usually made because
the Indian doubted the protective power of the disease, but because he
supposed (never having seen its progress) that the remedy must nearly
equal the disease which it was intended to counteract.

Our situation, while travelling, did not allow me sufficient time to
test the result of the vaccination in most instances; but an occasional
return to bands where the operation had been performed, enabled me, in
those bands, either to note the progress of the disease, or to judge
from the cicatrices marking the original situation of the pustules, the
cases in which the disease had proved successful.

About one-fourth of the whole number were vaccinated directly from the
pustules of patients labouring under the disease; while the remaining
three-fourths were vaccinated from crusts, or from virus which had
been several days on hand. I did not pass by a single opportunity for
securing the crusts and virus from the arms of healthy patients; and
to avoid as far as possible the chance of giving rise to a disease of
a spurious kind, I invariably made use of those crusts and that virus,
for the purposes of vaccination, which had been most recently obtained.
To secure, as far as possible, against the chances of escaping the
vaccine disease, I invariably vaccinated in each arm.

Of the whole number of Indians vaccinated, I have either watched the
progress of the disease, or examined the cicatrices of about seven
hundred. An average of one in three of those vaccinated from crusts has
failed, while of those vaccinated directly from the arm of a person
labouring under the disease, not more than one in twenty has failed
to take effect—when the disease did not make its appearance after
vaccination, I have invariably, as the cases came under my examination,
revaccinated until a favourable result has been obtained.

Of the different bands of Indians vaccinated, a large proportion of
the following have, as an actual examination has shown, undergone
thoroughly the effects of the disease: viz. Sault Ste. Marie, Keweena
Bay, La Pointe, and Cass Lake, being seven hundred and fifty-one in
number; while of the remaining thirteen hundred and seventy-eight,
of other bands, I think it may safely be calculated that more than
three-fourths have passed effectually under the influence of the
vaccine disease: and as directions to revaccinate all those in whom
the disease failed, together with instructions as to time and manner
of vaccination, were given to the chiefs of the different bands, it is
more than probable that, where the bands remained together a sufficient
length of time, the operation of revaccination has been performed by
themselves.

Upon our return to Lake Superior I had reason to suspect, on
examining several cicatrices, that two of the crusts furnished by
the surgeon-general in consequence of a partial decomposition, gave
rise to a spurious disease, and these suspicions were confirmed when
revaccinating with genuine vaccine matter, when the true disease was
communicated. Nearly all those Indians vaccinated with those two
crusts, have been vaccinated, and passed regularly through the vaccine
disease.

The answers to my repeated inquiries respecting the introduction,
progress, and fatality of the small-pox, would lead me to infer that
the disease has made its appearance, at least five times, among
the bands of Chippewa Indians noticed in the accompanying table of
vaccination.

The small-pox appears to have been wholly unknown to the Chippewas
of Lake Superior until about 1750; when a war-party, of more than one
hundred young men, from the bands resident near the head of the lake,
having visited Montreal for the purpose of assisting the French in
their then existing troubles with the English, became infected with
the disease, and but few of the party survived to reach their homes—It
does not appear, although they made a precipitate retreat to their own
country, that the disease was at this time communicated to any others
of the tribe.

About the year 1770, the disease appeared a second time among the
Chippewas, but unlike that which preceded it, it was communicated to
the more northern bands.

The circumstances connected with its introduction are related nearly as
follows.

Some time in the fall of 1767 or 8, a trader, who had ascended the
Mississippi and established himself near Leech Lake, was robbed of his
goods by the Indians residing at that lake; and, in consequence of his
exertions in defending his property, he died soon after.

These facts became known to the directors of the Fur Company, at
Mackinac, and each successive year after, requests were sent to
the Leech Lake Indians, that they should visit Mackinac, and make
reparation for the goods they had taken, by a payment of furs, at
the same time threatening punishment in case of a refusal. In the
spring of 1770 the Indians saw fit to comply with this request; and a
deputation from the band visited Mackinac, with a quantity of furs,
which they considered an equivalent for the goods which had been taken.
The deputation was received with politeness by the directors of the
company, and the difficulties readily adjusted. When this was effected,
a cask of liquor and a flag closely rolled were presented to the
Indians as a token of friendship. They were at the same time strictly
enjoined neither to break the seal of the cask nor to unroll the flag,
until they had reached the heart of their own country. This they
promised to observe; but while returning, and after having travelled
many days, the chief of the deputation made a feast for the Indians of
the band at Fond du Lac, Lake Superior, upon which occasion he unsealed
the cask and unrolled the flag for the gratification of his guests. The
Indians drank of the liquor, and remained in a state of inebriation
during several days. The rioting was over, and they were fast
recovering from its effects, when several of the party were seized with
violent pain. This was attributed to the liquor they had drunk; but the
pain increasing, they were induced to drink deeper of the poisonous
drug, and in this inebriated state several of the party died, before
the real cause was suspected. Other like cases occurred; and it was not
long before one of the war-party which had visited Montreal in 1750,
and who had narrowly escaped with his life, recognised the disease as
the same which had attacked their party at that time. It proved to be
so; and of those Indians then at Fond du Lac, about three hundred in
number, nearly the whole were swept off by it. Nor did it stop here,
for numbers of those at Fond du Lac, at the time the disease made its
appearance, took refuge among the neighbouring bands, and although it
did not extend easterly on Lake Superior, it is believed that not a
single band of Chippewas north or west from Fond du Lac escaped its
ravages. Of a large band then resident at Cass Lake, near the source of
the Mississippi River, only one person, a child, escaped. The others
having been attacked by the disease, died before any opportunity for
dispersing was offered. The Indians at this day are firmly of the
opinion that the small-pox was, at this time, communicated through the
articles presented to their brethren, by the agent of the Fur Company
at Mackinac; and that it was done for the purpose of punishing them
more severely for their offences.

The most western bands of Chippewas relate a singular allegory of
the introduction of the small-pox into their country by a war-party,
returning from the plains of the Missouri, as nearly as information
will enable me to judge, in the year 1784. It does not appear that, at
this time, the disease extended to the bands east of Fond du Lac; but
it is represented to have been extremely fatal to those bands north and
west from there.

In 1802 or 3, the small-pox made its appearance among the Indians
residing at the Sault Ste. Marie, but did not extend to the bands west
from that place. The disease was introduced by a voyager, in the employ
of the North West Fur Company, who had just returned from Montreal;
and although all communication with him was prohibited, an Indian
imprudently having made him a visit, was infected with and transmitted
the disease to others of the band. When once communicated, it raged
with great violence, and of a large band scarcely one of those then at
the village survived, and the unburied bones still remain marking the
situation they occupied. From this band the infection was communicated
to a band residing upon St. Joseph’s Island, and many died of it; but
the surgeon of the military post then there succeeded, by judicious and
early measures, in checking it, before the infection became general.

In 1824 the small-pox again made its appearance among the Indians at
the Sault Ste. Marie. It was communicated by a voyager to Indians upon
Drummond’s Island, Lake Huron; and through them several families at
Sault Ste. Marie became infected. Of those belonging to the latter
place, more than twenty in number, only two escaped. The disease is
represented to have been extremely fatal to the Indians at Drummond’s
Island.

Since 1824, the small-pox is not known to have appeared among the
Indians at the Sault Ste. Marie, nor among the Chippewas north or
west from that place. But the Indians of these bands still tremble at
the bare name of a disease which (next to the compounds of alcohol)
has been one of the greatest scourges that has ever overtaken them
since their first communication with the whites. The disease, when
once communicated to a band of Indians, rages with a violence wholly
unknown to the civilized man. The Indian, guided by present feeling,
adopts a course of treatment (if indeed it deserves that appellation),
which not unfrequently arms the disease with new power. An attack is
but a warning to the poor and helpless patient to prepare for death,
which will almost assuredly soon follow. His situation under these
circumstances is truly deplorable; for while in a state that even,
with proper advice, he would of himself recover, he adds fresh fuel
to the flame which is already consuming him, under the delusive hope
of gaining relief. The intoxicating draught (when it is within his
reach) is not among the last remedies to which he resorts, to produce
a lethargy from which he is never to recover. Were the friends of the
sick man, even under these circumstances, enabled to attend him, his
sufferings might be, at least, somewhat mitigated; but they too are,
perhaps, in a similar situation, and themselves without even a single
person to minister to their wants. Death comes to the poor invalid, and
perhaps even as a welcome guest, to rid him of his suffering.

By a comparison of the number of Indians vaccinated upon the borders
of Lake Superior, with the actual population, it will be seen that the
proportion who have passed through the vaccine disease is so great as
to secure them against any general prevalence of the small-pox; and
perhaps it is sufficient to prevent the introduction of the disease to
the bands beyond, through this channel. But in the Folle Avoine country
it is not so. Of the large bands of Indians residing in that section
of country, only a small fraction have been vaccinated; while of other
bands not a single person has passed through the disease.

Their local situation undoubtedly renders it of the first importance
that the benefits of vaccination should be extended to them. Their
situation may be said to render them a connecting link between the
southern and north-western bands of Chippewas; and while on the south
they are liable to receive the virus of the small-pox from the whites
and Indians, the passage of the disease through them to their more
northern brethren would only be prevented by their remaining, at that
time, completely separated. Every motive of humanity towards the
suffering Indian, would lead to extend to him this protection against
a disease he holds in constant dread, and of which he knows, by sad
experience, the fatal effects. The protection he will prize highly, and
will give in return the only boon a destitute man is capable of giving;
the deep-felt gratitude of an overflowing heart.

                             I have the honour to be,
                                 Very respectfully, sir,
                                     Your obedient servant,
                                         (Signed,) DOUGLASS HOUGHTON.


                              ADDENDA—I.

                                           OFFICE OF INDIAN AGENCY, }
                             _Sault Ste. Marie, February 13, 1832_. }

      ELBERT HERRING, ESQ.,             }
  Office of Indian Affairs, Washington. }

SIR,

Events growing out of the political condition of the Indian tribes
on the head waters of the Mississippi, call for the continued
interposition of the friendly influence of the government on that
remote part of our north-western frontier. It has been long known
that desperate and deep-rooted feuds continue to harass the tribes
whose local position brings them into frequent contact. These contests
operate to divert their attention from hunting, and to abstract their
minds from objects essential to their well-being. They embarrass every
effort to better their condition. They repel the advance of teachers.
They deaden the effect of counsel. And by keeping the Indian mind in a
state of perpetual alarm, destroy its capacities of healthful action.
Every year is giving new proofs of the inveteracy of their hatred for
each other, and the deteriorating effects of cultivating, as they do,
the passion for warlike achievement. It is destructive to the industry
of the young, and paralyzing to the counsels of the old.

The effect of the expedition ordered by the government last year, into
the country of the Chippewas, is believed to have been efficacious in
checking this spirit of predatory warfare, and impressing upon their
minds the true character of our government, its benevolent intentions
towards them, and its watchfulness, power, and resources. It was not
practicable, however, to go over the whole area proposed to be visited,
the effect of the expedition having been directed exclusively to the
bands located south of the latitude of St. Anthony’s Falls. It is
believed that a similar mission to the tribes of the Upper Mississippi,
living north of that point in our geography, would result in effects
equally useful to them and to the government. And I therefore submit to
the Department the propriety of authorizing it.

Additional weight is given to the reasons applicable to this subject,
by the increased hazards at which the trade of our citizens is
conducted in that quarter, and the influence they have to contend with,
from the proximity of a foreign and a rival frontier. The agents of
the Hudson’s Bay Company are wakeful and active opponents, and there
is reason to believe that the measure of control which they exercise
over the Indian population, is irrespective of an imaginary territorial
line. At any rate, our traders complain loudly of infractions and
losses from this source. Merely to visit the Indians and the traders at
their posts, will be to encourage and to sustain them.

It is proposed to perform the journey in a single canoe, manned by
_engages_, accompanied with an escort of soldiers, and with such
auxiliary aid from the native population as may be necessary. It would
give additional utility to the effort, if the Engineer Department
should judge proper to subjoin an officer to take observations
for latitude, and to collect the materials for a correct map. The
moral condition of the native population is such as to render it an
interesting field for evangelical observation, and I propose to offer
to a clergyman in the service of the A. B. F. Missions, now on the
frontier, the opportunity of exploring it.

The route from the head of Lake Superior will extend, through the River
St. Louis and its connecting waters, to the Mississippi at Sandy Lake,
and by the way of Leech Lake to the sources of the Mississippi. From
the point where navigation is checked a portage is proposed to be made
into Red Lake (a remote tributary of Hudson’s Bay). And the route by
Ottertail Lake, and the river De Corbeau, will be pursued so as to
re-enter the Mississippi at the confluence of the latter. Thence by
the Falls of St. Anthony to St. Peters, and through the St. Croix, the
Chippewa, or the Wisconsin, to the lakes. Circumstances may require
changes in this programme.

The extent of the country to be traversed requires an early departure
from this place, and the toil of interior transportation makes it
desirable that as little baggage, and as few men, should be taken,
as may suffice for the certain accomplishment of the object. Under
this view of the subject, I have prepared a detailed estimate of
expenditures, on an economical scale, which is herewith submitted.

                                               I have the honour, &c.


                                  II.

                                         DEPARTMENT OF WAR,         }
                              _Office Indian Affairs, May 3, 1832_. }

SIR,

Your letter of February 13th has been received, and its general
views are approved. The Secretary of War deems it important that you
should proceed to the country upon the heads of the Mississippi, and
visit as many of the Indians in that, and the intermediate region, as
circumstances will permit. Reports have reached the Department from
various quarters, that the Indians upon our frontiers are in an unquiet
state, and that there is a prospect of extensive hostilities among
themselves. It is no less the dictate of humanity than of policy, to
repress this feeling, and to establish permanent peace among these
tribes. It is also important to inspect the condition of the trade
in that remote country, and the conduct of the traders. To ascertain
whether the laws and regulations are complied with, and to suggest
such alterations as may be required. And generally to inquire into the
numbers, situations, dispositions, and prospects of the Indians, and
to report all the statistical facts you can procure, and which will be
useful to the government in its operations, or to the community in the
investigation of these subjects.

In addition to these objects, you will direct your attention to
the vaccination of the Indians. An act for that purpose has passed
Congress, and you are authorized to take a surgeon with you. The
compensation fixed by law is six dollars per day, but this includes all
the expenses. As the surgeon with you must necessarily be transported
and subsisted at the public expense, the whole sum of six dollars
per day will be allowed for this service, but of that sum only three
dollars per day will be paid to the surgeon, and the residue will be
applied to the expenses of the expedition.

Vaccine matter, prepared and put up by the surgeon-general, is herewith
transmitted to you; and you will, upon your whole route, explain to
the Indians the advantages of vaccination, and endeavour to persuade
them to submit to the process. You will keep and report an account of
the number, ages, sex, tribe, and local situation of the Indians who
may be vaccinated, and also of the prevalence, from time to time, of
the small-pox among them, and of its effects as far as these can be
ascertained.

The following sums will be allowed for the expenses of the expedition,
&c.

                                             Very respectfully,
                                                 Your obedient servant,
                                                     ELBERT HERRING.

  HENRY R. SCHOOLCRAFT, Esq.,     }
  Indian Agent, Sault Ste. Marie. }


                                 III.

                                         _St. Peters, July 25, 1832._

    GEN. JOSEPH M. STREET,        }
  Indian Agent, Prairie du Chien. }

SIR,

I arrived at this place yesterday from the sources of the Mississippi,
having visited the Chippewa bands and trading-posts in that quarter.
Much complaint is made respecting the conduct of the persons licensed
by you last year, who located themselves at the Granite Rocks, and
on the St. Croix. No doubt can exist that each of them took in, and
used in their trade, a considerable quantity of whiskey. And I am now
enabled to say, that they each located themselves at points within the
limits of my agency, where there are no trading-posts established.
My lowest trading-post on the Mississippi, is the Pierced Prairie,
eighteen miles below the mouth of the De Corbeau. It embraces one mile
square, upon which traders are required to be located. On the St.
Croix, the posts established and confirmed by the Department are Snake
River and Yellow River, and embrace each, as the permanent place of
location, one mile square. I report these facts for your information,
and not to enable you to grant licenses for these posts, as the
instructions of the Department give to each agent the exclusive control
of the subject of granting licenses for the respective agencies.

Much solicitude is felt by me to exclude ardent spirits wholly from
the Chippewas and Ottowas, the latter of whom have, by a recent order,
been placed under my charge. I am fully satisfied that ardent spirits
are not necessary to the successful prosecution of the trade, that
they are deeply pernicious to the Indians, and that both their use and
abuse is derogatory to the character of a wise and sober government.
Their exclusion in every shape, and every quantity, is an object of
primary moment; and it is an object which I feel it a duty to persevere
in the attainment of, however traders may bluster. I feel a reasonable
confidence in stating, that no whiskey has been used in my agency
during the last two years, except the limited quantity taken by special
permission of the Secretary of War, for the trade of the Hudson’s Bay
lines; and saving also the quantity clandestinely introduced from
Prairie du Chien and St. Peters.

I know, sir, that an appeal to you on this subject cannot be lost, and
that your feelings and judgment fully approve of temperance measures.
But it requires active, persevering, unyielding efforts. And in all
such efforts, judiciously urged, I am satisfied that the government
will sustain the agents in a dignified discharge of their duties. Let
us proceed in the accomplishment of this object with firmness, and
with a determination never to relinquish it, until ardent spirits are
entirely excluded from the Indian country.

                                    I am sir,
                                        Very respectfully,
                                            Your obedient servant,
                                                HENRY R. SCHOOLCRAFT.

P.S. Capt. Jouett, commanding at this post, has recently seized
sixteen kegs of high-wines. His prompt, decisive, and correct conduct
in this, and other transactions relating to Indian affairs, merit the
approbation of government.

The Petite Corbeau has requested that no trader may be located at the
month of the St. Croix.


                                  IV.

  _Letter from the Secretary of War, transmitting, in obedience to
    a resolution of the House of Representatives of the 24th ultimo,
    information in relation to an expedition of Henry R. Schoolcraft
    into the Indian country._

                                                 DEPARTMENT OF WAR, }
                                             _March 7, 1832._       }

SIR,

In compliance with the resolution of the House of Representatives of
the 24th ultimo, directing the Secretary of War to furnish that House
with “copies of any reports which may have been received at the War
Department, communicating an account of the recent expedition of Henry
R. Schoolcraft into the Indian country,” I have the honor to transmit,
herewith, the documents required.

  I have the honor to be,
  Very respectfully,
  Your obedient servant,
  LEW. CASS.

      Hon. ANDREW STEPHENSON,                }
  _Speaker of the House of Representatives_. }

_Documents transmitted to the House of Representatives, in compliance
  with a resolution of February 24, 1832._


                                No. 1.

                                 _Sault Ste. Marie, October 1, 1831._

  His Excellency GEORGE B. PORTER, _Governor of_   }
  _Michigan, and Superintendent of Indian Affairs_.}

SIR,

I have now the honor, through your intervention, to forward to the
Department my report of the late tour through the Huron Territory.
It has not been possible to prepare the map referred to in season to
accompany the report, but it will be forwarded as soon as it can be
completed. In the mean time, I send a sketch of portions of the country
intermediate between Lake Superior and the Mississippi, from which you
will be enabled to trace my particular route, and the location of the
principal streams, lakes, and villages. The imperfect state of public
information respecting the geography of this region, and the numerous
errors which still continue to characterize our maps, render something
of this kind essential.

With the limited means assigned for the accomplishment of the object,
it became necessary that every moment of time should be used in
pushing forward. This will account for the great space travelled in a
comparatively short time. I am of the opinion, however, that little
or nothing has been lost from the efficacy of the movement by its
celerity. Lakes, rivers, and villages succeeded each other, with short
intervals. But, in ascending each river, in crossing each lake and
portage, the object of the expedition was definitely impressed upon the
natives who witnessed our progress; and it was acquiesced in by the
chiefs and warriors, at the several councils which I held with them.
For a general detail of these councils, the report may be consulted.

It will be perceived that new topics for discussion arose from a
recent misunderstanding between the Chippewas and Menomonies; and from
the uncertainty as to the spot where the boundary line between the
Chippewas and Sioux strikes the falls on the Red Cedar fork, agreeably
to a just construction of the treaty of Prairie du Chien of 1825. With
respect to the first, I am of opinion that time will only serve to
increase the difficulty of restoring a perfect understanding.

The line on the Red Cedar is important, as opposing an obstacle to a
firm peace between the Sioux and Chippewas; and I doubt whether any
steps could be taken by the government to induce them to live peaceably
near each other, with so little cost of time and money as the taking
post, with a small military force, on the frontier in dispute, at some
suitable point between Prairie du Chien and St. Peters. With this
impression, I have brought the subject to the consideration of the
Secretary of War; and I shall be gratified, if, on a review of it, you
shall concur in opinion with,

                                           Sir, very respectfully,
                                               Your obedient servant,
                                                   H. R. SCHOOLCRAFT.


                                No. 2.

                                  _Sault Ste. Marie, Sept. 21, 1831._

      To ELBERT HERRING, ESQ.                 }
  _Office of Indian Affairs, War Department_. }

SIR,

In compliance with instructions to endeavour to terminate the
hostilities between the Chippewas and Sioux, I proceeded into the
Chippewa country with thirteen men in two canoes, having the necessary
provisions and presents for the Indians, an interpreter, a physician
to attend the sick, and a person in charge of the provisions and other
public property. The commanding officer of Fort Brady furnished me
with an escort of ten soldiers, under the command of a lieutenant;
and I took with me a few Chippewas, in a canoe provided with oars, to
convey a part of the provisions. A flag was procured for each canoe. I
joined the expedition at the head of the portage, at this place, on the
25th of June; and, after visiting the Chippewa villages in the belt of
country between Lake Superior and the Mississippi, in latitudes 44° to
70°, returned on the 4th of September, having been absent seventy-two
days, and travelled a line of country estimated to be two thousand
three hundred and eight miles. I have now the honor to report to you
the route pursued, the means employed to accomplish the object, and
such further measures as appear to me to be necessary to give effect
to what has been done, and to ensure a lasting peace between the two
tribes.

Reasons existed for not extending the visit to the Chippewa bands
on the extreme Upper Mississippi, on Red Lake, and Red River, and
the river De Corbeau. After entering Lake Superior, and traversing
its southern shores to Point Chegoimegon and the adjacent cluster
of islands, I ascended the Mauvaise River to a portage of 8¾ miles
into the Kaginogumac or Long Water Lake. This lake is about eight
miles long, and of very irregular width. Thence, by a portage of 280
yards, into Turtle Lake; thence, by a portage of 1,075 yards, into
Clary’s Lake, so called; thence, by a portage of 425 yards, into Lake
Polyganum; and thence, by a portage of 1,050 yards, into the Namakagon
River, a branch of the river St. Croix of the Upper Mississippi. The
distance from Lake Superior to this spot is, by estimation, 124 miles.

We descended the Namakagon to the Pukwaewa, a rice lake, and a
Chippewa village of eight permanent lodges, containing a population
of 53 persons, under a local chief called Odabossa. We found here
gardens of corn, potatoes, and pumpkins, in a very neat state of
cultivation. The low state of the water, and the consequent difficulty
of the navigation, induced me to leave the provisions and stores at
this place, in charge of Mr. Woolsey, with directions to proceed (with
part of the men, and the aid of the Indians) to _Lac Courtorielle_ or
Ottowa Lake, and there await my arrival. I then descended the Namakagon
in a light canoe, to its discharge into the St. Croix, and down the
latter to Yellow River, the site of a trading-post and an Indian
village, where I had, by runners, appointed a council. In this trip
I was accompanied by Mr. Johnson, sub-agent, acting as interpreter,
and by Dr. Houghton, adjunct professor of the Rensselaer school. We
reached Yellow River on the 1st of August, and found the Indians
assembled. After terminating the business of the council (of which I
shall presently mention the results), I re-ascended the St. Croix and
the Namakagon to the portage which intervenes between the latter and
Lac Courtorielle. The first of the series of carrying-places is about
three miles in length, and terminates at the Lake of the Isles (_Lac
des Isles_); after crossing which, a portage of 750 yards leads to _Lac
du Gres_. This lake has a navigable outlet into Ottowa Lake, where I
rejoined the advanced party (including Lieutenant Clary’s detachment)
on the 5th of August.

Ottowa Lake is a considerable expanse of water, being about twelve
miles long, with irregular but elevated shores. A populous Chippewa
village and a trading-post are located at its outlet, and a numerous
Indian population subsists in the vicinity. It is situated in a
district of country which abounds in rice lakes, has a proportion of
prairie or burnt land, caused by the ravages of fire, and, in addition
to the small fur-bearing animals, has several of the deer species. It
occupies, geographically, a central situation, being intermediate,
and commanding the communications between the St. Croix and Chippewa
Rivers, and between Lake Superior and the Upper Mississippi. It is
on the great slope of land descending towards the latter, enjoys a
climate of comparative mildness, and yields, with fewer and shorter
intervals of extreme want, the means of subsistence to a population
which is still essentially erratic. These remarks apply, with some
modifications, to the entire range of country (within the latitudes
mentioned) situated west and south of the high lands circumscribing the
waters of Lake Superior. The outlet of this Lake (Ottowa) is a fork of
Chippewa River, called Ottowa River.

I had intended to proceed from this lake, either by following down
the Ottowa branch to its junction with the main Chippewa, and then
ascending the latter into _Lac du Flambeau_, or by descending the
Ottowa branch only to its junction with the North-West fork, called
the Ochasowa River; and, ascending the latter to a portage of sixty
_pauses_, into the Chippewa River. By the latter route time and
distance would have been saved, and I should, in either way, have
been enabled to proceed from _Lac du Flambeau_ to Green Bay by an
easy communication into the Upper Ouisconsin, and from the latter
into the Menomonie River, or by Plover Portage into Wolf River. This
was the route I had designed to go on quitting Lake Superior; but, on
consulting my Indian maps, and obtaining at Ottowa Lake the best and
most recent information of the distance and the actual state of the
water, I found neither of the foregoing routes practicable, without
extending my time so far as to exhaust my supplies. I was finally
determined to relinquish the _Lac du Flambeau_ route, by learning
that the Indians of that place had dispersed, and by knowing that a
considerable delay would be caused by reassembling them.

The homeward route by the Mississippi was now the most eligible,
particularly as it would carry me through a portion of country occupied
by the Chippewas, in a state of hostility with the Sioux, and cross the
disputed line at the mill. Two routes, to arrive at the Mississippi,
were before me—either to follow down the outlet of Ottowa Lake to its
junction with the Chippewa, and ascend the latter to its mouth, or
to quit the Ottowa Lake branch at an intermediate point, and, after
ascending a small and very serpentine tributary, to cross a portage of
6,000 yards into Lake Chetac. I pursued the latter route.

Lake Chetac is a sheet of water about six miles in length, and it has
several islands, on one of which is a small Chippewa village and a
trading-post. This lake is the main source of Red Cedar River (called
sometimes the _Folle Avoine_), a branch of the Chippewa River. It
receives a brook at its head from the direction of the portage, which
admits empty canoes to be conveyed down it two _pauses_, but is then
obstructed with logs. It is connected by a shallow outlet with Weegwos
Lake, a small expanse which we crossed with paddles in twenty-five
minutes. The passage from the latter is so shallow, that a portage of
1,295 yards is made into Balsam of Fir or _Sapin_ Lake. The baggage
is carried this distance, but the canoes are brought through the
stream. Sapin Lake is also small; we were thirty minutes in crossing
it. Below this point, the river again expands into a beautiful sheet
of water, called Red Cedar Lake, which we were an hour in passing; and
afterward into _Bois Francois_, or Rice Lake. At the latter place,
at the distance of perhaps sixty miles from its head, I found the
last fixed village of Chippewas on this stream, although the hunting
camps, and other signs of temporary occupation, were more numerous
below than on any other part of the stream. This may be attributed to
the abundance of the Virginia deer in that vicinity, many of which we
saw, and of the elk and moose, whose tracks were fresh and numerous
in the sands of the shore. Wild rice is found in all the lakes. Game,
of every species common to the latitude, is plentiful. The prairie
country extends itself into the vicinity of Rice Lake; and for more
than a day’s march before reaching the mouth of the river, the whole
face of the country puts on a sylvan character, as beautiful to the eye
as it is fertile in soil, and spontaneously productive of the means of
subsistence. A country more valuable to a population having the habits
of our North-Western Indians, could hardly be conceived of; and it is
therefore cause of less surprise that its possession should have been
so long an object of contention between the Chippewas and Sioux.

About sixty miles below Rice Lake commences a series of rapids, which
extend, with short intervals, 24 miles. The remainder of the distance,
to the junction of this stream with the Chippewa, consists of deep
and strong water. The junction itself is characterized by commanding
and elevated grounds, and a noble expanse of waters. And the Chippewa
River, from this spot to its entrance into the Mississippi, has a depth
and volume, and a prominence of scenery, which mark it to be inferior
to none, and superior to most of the larger tributaries of the Upper
Mississippi. Before its junction, it is separated into several mouths,
from the principal of which the observer can look into Lake Pepin.
Steamboats could probably ascend to the falls.

The whole distance travelled, from the shores of Lake Superior to
the mouth of the Chippewa, is, by estimation, 643 miles, of which
138 should be deducted for the trip to Yellow River, leaving the
direct practicable route 505 miles. The length of the Mauvaise to the
portage is 104; of the Namakagon, from the portage, 161; of the Red
Cedar, 170; of the Chippewa, from the entrance of the latter, 40. Our
means of estimating distances was by time, corrected by reference to
the rapidity of water and strength of wind, compared with our known
velocity of travelling in calm weather on the lakes. These estimates
were made and put down every evening, and considerable confidence is
felt in them. The courses were accurately kept by a canoe compass. I
illustrate my report of this part of the route by a map protracted
by Dr. Houghton. On this map our places of encampment, the sites and
population of the principal Indian villages, the trading-posts, and the
boundary lines between the Sioux and Chippewa, are indicated. And I
refer you to it for several details which are omitted in this report.

The present state of the controversy between the Sioux and the
Chippewas will be best inferred from the facts that follow. In
stating them, I have deemed it essential to preserve the order of my
conferences with the Indians, and to confine myself, almost wholly, to
results.

Along the borders of Lake Superior, comparatively little alarm was
felt from the hostile relation with the Sioux. But I found them well
informed of the state of the difficulties, and the result of the
several war-parties that had been sent out the last year. A system of
information and advice is constantly kept up by runners; and there is
no movement meditated on the Sioux borders, which is not known and
canvassed by the lake bands.

They sent warriors to the scene of conflict last year, in consequence
of the murder committed by the Sioux on the St. Croix. Their sufferings
from hunger during the winter, and the existence of disease at Torch
Lake (_Lac du Flambeau_), and some other places, together with the
entire failure of the rice crop, had produced effects, which were
depicted by them and by the traders in striking colours. They made
these sufferings the basis of frequent and urgent requests for
provisions. This theme was strenuously dwelt upon. Whatever other gifts
they asked for, they never omitted the gift of food. They made it their
first, their second, and their third request.

At Chegoimegon, on Lake Superior (or La Pointe, emphatically so
called), I held my first and stated council with the Indians. This is
the ancient seat of the Chippewa power in this quarter. It is a central
and commanding point, with respect to the country lying north, and
west, and south of it. It appears to be the focus from which, as radii
from a centre, the ancient population emigrated; and the interior bands
consequently look back to it with something of the feelings of parental
relation. News from the frontiers flies back to it with a celerity
which is peculiar to the Indian mode of express. I found here, as I
had expected, the fullest and most recent information from the lines.
Mozojeed, the principal man at Ottawa Lake, had recently visited them
for the purpose of consultation; but returned on the alarm of an attack
upon his village.

The Indians listened with attention to the message transmitted to them
from the President, and to the statements with which it was enforced.
Pezhickee, the venerable and respected chief of the place, was their
speaker in reply. He lamented the war, and admitted the folly of
keeping it up; but it was carried on by the Chippewas in self-defence,
and by volunteer parties of young men, acting without the sanction
of the old chiefs. He thought the same remark due to the elder Sioux
chiefs, who probably did not sanction the crossing of the lines, but
could not restrain their young men. He lived, he said, in an isolated
situation, did not mingle in the interior broils, and did not deem
himself responsible for acts done out of his own village, and certainly
not for the acts of the villages of Torch Lake, Ottawa Lake, and the
St. Croix. He had uniformly advised his people to sit still and remain
at peace, and he believed that none of his young men had joined the
war-parties of last year. The government, he said, should have his
hearty co-operation in restoring peace. He referred to the sub-agency
established here in 1826, spoke of its benefits, and wished to know why
the agent had been withdrawn, and whether he would be instructed to
return? In the course of his reply, he said, that formerly, when the
Indians lived under the British government, they were usually told what
to do, and in very distinct terms. But they were now at a loss. From
what had been said and done at the treaty of Fond du Lac, he expected
the care and protection of the American government, and that they
would advance towards, instead of (as in the case of the sub-agency)
withdrawing from them. He was rather at a loss for our views respecting
the Chippewas, and he wished much for my advice in their affairs.

I thought it requisite to make a distinct reply to this point. I
told him that when they lived under the British Government, they
were justified in shaping their course according to the advice they
received; but that, on the transfer of the country, their allegiance
was transferred with it. And when our government hoisted its flag
at Mackinac (1796), it expected from the Indians living within our
boundaries the respect due to it; and it acknowledged, at the same
time, the reciprocal obligations of care and protection. That it always
aimed to fulfil these obligations, of which facts within his own
knowledge and memory would afford ample proofs. I referred him to the
several efforts the government had made to establish a lasting peace
between the Chippewas and Sioux; for which purpose the President had
sent one of his principal men (alluding to Gov. Cass), in 1820, who
had visited their most extreme north-western villages, and induced
themselves and the Sioux to smoke the pipe of peace together at St.
Peters. In accordance with these views, and acting on the information
then acquired, the President had established an agency for their
tribe at Sault Ste. Marie, in 1822. That, in 1825, he had assembled
at Prairie du Chien all the tribes who were at variance on the Upper
Mississippi, and persuaded them to make peace, and, as one of the best
means of ensuring its permanency, had fixed the boundaries of their
lands. Seeing that the Chippewas and Sioux still continued a harassing
and useless contest, he had sent me to remind them of this peace and
these boundaries, which, I added. you, Perikee, yourself agreed to, and
signed, in my presence. I come to bring you back to the terms of this
treaty. Are not these proofs of his care and attention? Are not these
clear indications of his views respecting the Chippewas? The chief was
evidently affected by this recital. The truth appeared to strike him
forcibly; and he said, in a short reply. that he was now _advised_;
that he would hereafter feel himself to be advised, &c. He made some
remarks on the establishment of a mission school. &c., which, being
irrelevant, are omitted. He presented a pipe, with an ornamented stem.
as a token of his friendship, and his desire of peace.

I requested him to furnish messengers to take belts of wampum and
tobacco, with three separate messages, viz. to Yellow River, to Ottawa
Lake, and to Lac du Flambeau, or Torch Lake; and also, as the water
was low, to aid me in the ascent of the Mauvaise River. and to supply
guides for each of the military canoes, as the soldiers would here
leave their barge, and were unacquainted with the difficulties of
the ascent. He accordingly sent his oldest son (Che-che-gwy-ung) and
another person, with the messages, by a direct trail. leading into the
St. Croix country. He also furnished several young Chippewas to aid
us on the Mauvaise, and to carry baggage on the long portage into the
first intermediate lake west of that stream.

After the distribution of presents, I left Chegoimegon on the 18th
July. The first party of Indians met at the Namakagon, belonging to a
Chippewa village called Pukwaewa, having, as its geographical centre
and trading-post, Ottowa Lake. As I had directed part of the expedition
to precede me there, during my journey to Yellow River, I requested
these Indians to meet me at Ottowa Lake, and assist in conveying the
stores and provisions to that place—a service which they cheerfully
performed. On ascending the lower part of the Namakagon, I learned that
my messenger from Lake Superior had passed, and on reaching Yellow
River, I found the Indians assembled and waiting. They were encamped
on an elevated ridge, called Pekogunagun, or the Hip Bone, and fired
a salute from its summit. Several of the neighbouring Indians came in
after my arrival. Others, with their chiefs, were hourly expected. I
did not deem it necessary for all to come in, but proceeded to lay
before them the objects of my visit, and to solicit their co-operation
in an attempt to make a permanent peace with the Sioux, whose borders
we then were near. Kabamappa, the principal chief, not being a speaker,
responded to my statements and recommendations through another person
(Sha-ne-wa-gwun-ai-be). He said that the Sioux were of bad faith;
that they never refused to smoke the pipe of peace with them, and
they never failed to violate the promise of peace thus solemnly made.
He referred to an attack they made last year on a band of Chippewas
and half-breeds, and the murder of four persons. Perpetual vigilance
was required to meet these inroads. Yet he could assert, fearlessly,
that no Chippewa war-party from the St. Croix had crossed the Sioux
line for years; that the murder he had mentioned was committed within
the Chippewa lines; and although it was said at the treaty of Prairie
du Chien that the first aggressor of territorial rights should be
punished, neither punishment was inflicted by the government, nor had
any atonement or apology thus far been made for this act by the Sioux.
He said his influence had been exerted in favour of peace; that he had
uniformly advised both chiefs and warriors to this effect; and he stood
ready now to do whatever it was reasonable he should do on the subject.

I told him it was not a question of recrimination that was before us.
It was not even necessary to go into the inquiry of who had spilt the
first blood since the treaty of Prairie du Chien. The treaty had been
violated. The lines had been crossed. Murders had been committed by
the Chippewas and by the Sioux. These murders had reached the ears of
the President, and he was resolved to put a stop to them. I did not
doubt but that the advice of the old chiefs, on each side, had been
pacific. I did not doubt but that his course had been _particularly_
so. But rash young men, of each party, had raised the war-club; and
when they could not go openly, they went secretly. A stop must be put
to this course, and it was necessary the first movement should be
made _somewhere_. It was proper it should be made here, and be made
at this time. Nothing could be lost by it; much might be gained; and
if a negotiation was opened with the Sioux chiefs while I remained, I
would second it by sending an explanatory message to the chiefs and to
their agent. I recommended that Kabamappa and Shakoba, the war-chief
of Snake River, should send jointly wampum and tobacco to the Petite
Corbeau and to Wabisha, the leading Sioux chiefs on the Mississippi,
inviting them to renew the league of friendship, and protesting their
own sincerity in the offer. I concluded, by presenting him with a flag,
tobacco, wampum, and ribands, to be used in the negotiation. After a
consultation, he said he would not only send the messages, but, as he
now had the protection of a flag, he would himself go with the chief
Shakoba to the Petite Corbeau’s village. I accompanied these renewed
offers of peace with explanatory messages, in my own name, to Petite
Corbeau and to Wabisha, and a letter to Mr. Taliaferro, the Indian
agent at St. Peter’s, informing him of these steps, and soliciting his
co-operation. A copy of this letter is hereunto annexed. I closed the
council by the distribution of presents; after which the Indians called
my attention to the conduct of their trader, &c.

Information was given me immediately after my arrival at Yellow River,
that Neenaba, a popular war-leader from the Red Cedar fork of Chippewa
River, had very recently danced the war-dance with thirty men at Rice
Lake of Yellow River, and that his object was to enlist the young men
of that place in a war-party against the Sioux. I also learned that my
message for Ottowa Lake had been promptly transmitted through Neenaba,
whom I was now anxious to see. I lost not an hour in re-ascending the
St. Croix and the Namakagon. I purchased two additional canoes of
the Indians, and distributed my men in them, to lighten the draught
of water, and facilitate the ascent; and, by pushing early and late,
we reached Ottowa Lake on the fifth day in the morning. Neenaba had,
however, delivered his message, and departed. I was received in a very
friendly and welcome manner, by Mozojeed, of the band of Ottowa Lake;
Wabezhais, of the Red Devil’s band of the South Pukwaewa; and Odabossa,
of the Upper Namakagon. After passing the usual formalities, I prepared
to meet them in council the same day, and communicate to them the
objects of my mission.

In the course of the conference at this place, I obtained the
particulars of a dispute which had arisen between the Chippewas of this
quarter, which now added to their alarm, as they feared the latter
would act in coincidence with their ancient enemies, the Sioux. The
reports of this disturbance had reached me at the Sault, and they
continued, with some variations, until my arrival here. The following
are the material facts in relation to this new cause of disquietude: In
the summer of 1827, Okunzhewug, an old woman, the wife of Kishkemun,
the principal chief of Torch Lake, a man superannuated and blind;
attended the treaty of Butte des Morts, bearing her husband’s medal.
She was treated with the respect due to the character she represented,
and ample presents were directed to be given to her; among other
things a handsome hat. The latter article had been requested of her
by a young Menomonie, and refused. It is thought a general feeling
of jealousy was excited by her good reception. A number of the
Menomonies went on her return route as far as the Clover Portage,
where she was last seen. Having never returned to her village, the
Chippewas attributed her death to the Menomonies. Her husband died
soon after; but she had numerous and influential relatives to avenge
her real or supposed murder. This is the account delivered by the
Chippewas, and it is corroborated by reports from the traders of that
section of the country. Her singular disappearance and secret death
at the Clover Portage, is undisputed; and whether caused or not by
any agency of the Menomonies, the belief of such agency, and that of
the most direct kind, is fixed in the minds of the Chippewas, and
has furnished the basis of their subsequent acts in relation to the
Menomonie hunting-parties who have visited the lower part of Chippewa
River. Two women belonging to one of these parties were killed by a
Chippewa war-party traversing that part of the country the ensuing
year. The act was disclaimed by them as not being intentional, and
it was declared they supposed the women to be Sioux.[35] On a close
inquiry, however, I found the persons who committed this act were
relatives of Okunzewug, which renders it probable that the murder was
intentionally perpetrated. This act further widened the breach between
the two hitherto fraternal tribes; and the Chippewas of this quarter
began to regard the Menomonie hunting-parties, who entered the mouth
of the Chippewa River, as intruders on their lands. Among a people
whose means of verbal information is speedy, and whose natural sense of
right and wrong is acute, the more than usual friendship and apparent
alliance which have taken place between the Menomonies and Sioux, in
the contest between the Sacs and Foxes, and the murder by them jointly
of the Fox chief White Skin and his companions at a smoking council,
in 1830, have operated to increase the feeling of distrust; so much
so, that it was openly reported at Chegoimegon, at Yellow River, and
Ottowa Lake, that the Menomonies had formed a league with the Sioux
against the Chippewas also, and they were fearful of an attack from
them. A circumstance that had given point to this fear, and made it
a subject of absorbing interest, when I arrived at Ottowa Lake, was
the recent murder of a Menomonie chief by a Chippewa of that quarter,
and the demand of satisfaction which had been made (it was sometimes
said) by the Indian agent at Prairie du Chien, and sometimes by the
commanding officer, with a threat to march troops into the country.
This demand, I afterward learned from the Indians at Rice Lake, and
from a conversation with General Street, the agent at Prairie du Chien,
had not been made, either by himself or by the commanding officer;
and the report had probably arisen from a conversation held by a
subaltern officer in command of a wood or timber-party near the mouth
of the Chippewa River, with some Chippewas who were casually met. Its
effects, however, were to alarm them, and to lead them to desire a
reconciliation with the Menomonies. I requested them to lose no time
in sending tobacco to the Menomonies, and adjusting this difference.
Mozojeed observed that the murder of the Menomonie had been committed
by a person _non compos_, and he deplored the folly of it, and
disclaimed all agency in it for himself and his band. The murderer, I
believe, belonged to his band; he desired a reconciliation. He also
said the measures adopted at Yellow River, to bring about a firm peace
with the Sioux, had his fullest approbation, and that nothing on his
part should be wanting to promote a result in every view so wise and so
advantageous to the Indians. In this sentiment, Wabezhais and Odabossa,
who made distinct speeches, also concurred. They confirmed their words
by pipes, and all the assembly made an audible assent. I invested
Mozojeed with a flag and a medal, that he might exert the influence
he has acquired among the Indians beneficially for them and for us,
and that his hands might thus be officially strengthened to accomplish
the work of pacification. I then distributed presents to the chiefs,
warriors, women, and children, in the order of their being seated, and
immediately embarked, leaving them under a lively and enlivened sense
of the good-will and friendship of the American government, on this
first official visit to them, and with a sincere disposition, so far as
could be judged, to act in obedience to its expressed and known wishes.

The Indians at Torch Lake being dispersed, and my message to them
not having been delivered, from this uncertainty of their location,
I should have found reasons for not proceeding in that direction,
independent of the actual and known difficulties of the route at that
time. I was still apprehensive that my appearance had not wholly
disconcerted the war-party of Neenaba, and lost no time in proceeding
to his village on the Red Cedar fork. We found the village at Lake
Chetac, which in 1824 was 217 strong, almost totally deserted, and the
trading-house burnt. Scattering Indians were found along the river. The
mutual fear of interruption was such that Mr. B. Cadotte, sen., the
trader at Ottowa Lake, thought it advisable to follow in our train for
the purpose of collecting his credits at Rice Lake.

While at breakfast on the banks of Sapin Lake, a returning war-party
entered the opposite side of it: they were evidently surprised, and
they stopped. After reconnoitring us, they were encouraged to advance,
at first warily, and afterward with confidence. There were eight
canoes, with two men in each; each man had a gun, war-club, knife,
and ammunition bag: there was nothing else except the apparatus for
managing the canoe. They were all young men, and belonged to the
vicinity of Ottowa Lake. Their unexpected appearance at this place gave
me the first information that the war-party at Neenaba had been broken
up. They reported that some of their number had been near the mill,
and that they had discovered signs of the Sioux being out in the moose
having been driven up, &c. In a short conference, I recited to them
the purpose of the council at Ottowa Lake, and referred them to their
chiefs for particulars, enjoining their acquiescence in the proposed
measures.

I found at Rice Lake a band of Chippewas, most of them young men,
having a prompt and martial air, encamped in a very compact form, and
prepared, at a moment’s notice, for action. They saluted our advance
with a smartness and precision of firing that would have done honour
to drilled troops. Neenaba was absent on a hunting-party; but one of
the elder men pointed out a suitable place for my encampment, as I
intended here to put new bottoms to my bark canoes. He arrived in the
evening, and visited my camp with forty-two men. This visit was one of
ceremony merely; as it was late, I deferred any thing further until the
following day. I remained at this place part of the 7th, the 8th, and
until 3 o’clock on the 9th of August. And the following facts present
the result of several conferences with this distinguished young man,
whose influence is entirely of his own creation, and whose endowments,
personal and mental, had not been misrepresented by the Indians on my
route, who uniformly spoke of him in favourable terms. He is located
at the most advanced point towards the Sioux borders, and, although
not in the line of ancient chiefs, upon him rests essentially the
conduct of affairs in this quarter. I therefore deemed it important
to acquire his confidence and secure his influence, and held frequent
conversations with him. His manner was frank and bold, equally free
from servility and repulsiveness. I drew his attention to several
subjects. I asked him whether the sawmill on the lower part of the Red
Cedar was located on Chippewa lands? He said, Yes. Whether it was built
with the consent of the Chippewas? He said, No; it had been built, as
it were, by stealth. I asked him if any thing had been subsequently
given them in acknowledgment of their right to the soil? He said,
No; that the only acknowledgment was their getting tobacco to smoke
when they visited the mill: that the Sioux claimed it to be on their
side of the line, but the Chippewas contended that their line ran to
a certain bluff and brook below the mill. I asked him to draw a map
of the lower part of Chippewa River, with all its branches, showing
the exact lines as fixed by the treaty at Prairie du Chien, and as
understood by them. I requested him to state the facts respecting the
murder of the Menomonie, and the causes that led to it; and whether he
or any of his band received any message from the agent or commanding
officer at Prairie du Chien, demanding the surrender of the murderer?
To the latter inquiry he answered promptly, No. He gave in his
actual population at 142; but it is evident that a very considerable
additional population, particularly in men, resort there for the
purpose of hunting a part of the year.

The day after my arrival, I prepared for and summoned the Indians to
a council, with the usual formalities. I opened it by announcing the
objects of my visit. Neenaba and his followers listened to the terms
of the message, the means I had adopted to enforce it, and, finally,
to the request of co-operation on the part of himself and band, with
strict attention. He confined his reply to an expression of thanks;
allusions to the peculiarity of his situation on an exposed frontier;
and general sentiments of friendship. He appeared to be mentally
embarrassed by my request to drop the war-club, on the successful use
of which he had relied for his popularity, and whatever of real power
he possessed. He often referred to his young men, over whom he claimed
no superiority, and who appeared to be ardently attached to him. I
urged the principal topic upon his attention, presenting it in several
lights. I finally conferred on him, personally, a medal and flag, and
directed the presents intended for his band to be laid, in gross,
before him.

After a pause, Neenaba got up, and spoke to the question, connecting
it with obvious considerations, of which mutual rights, personal
safety, and the obligation to protect the women and children, formed
the basis. The latter duty was not a slight one. Last year the Sioux
had killed a chief on the opposite shore of the lake, and, at the same
time, decoyed two children, who were in a canoe, among the rice, and
killed and beheaded them. He said, in allusion to the medal and flag,
that these marks of honour were not necessary to secure his attention
to any requests made by the American government. And after resuming
his seat awhile (during which he overheard some remarks not pleasing
to him, from an Indian on the opposite side of the ring), he finally
got up and declined receiving them until they were eventually pressed
upon him by the young warriors. Every thing appeared to proceed with
great harmony, and the presents were quickly distributed by one of
his men. It was not, however, until the next day, when my canoes were
already put in the water, that he came with his entire party, to make
his final reply, and to present the peace-pipe. He had thrown the
flag over one arm, and held the war-club perpendicular in the other
hand. He said, that although he accepted the one, he did not drop the
other; he held fast to both. When he looked at the one, he should
revert to the counsels with which it had been given, and he should aim
to act upon those counsels; but he also deemed it necessary to hold
fast the war-club; it was, however, with a determination to use it
in defence, and not in attack. He had reflected upon the advice sent
to the Chippewas by the President, and particularly that part of it
which counselled them to sit still upon their lands; but while they
sat still, they also wished to be certain that their enemies would
sit still. And the pipe he was now about to offer, he offered with a
request that it might be sent to the President, asking him to use his
power to prevent the Sioux from crossing the lines. The pipe was then
lit, handed round, the ashes knocked out, and a formal presentation
of it made. This ceremony being ended, I shook hands with them, and
immediately embarked.

On the second day afterward, I reached the sawmill, the subject of
such frequent allusion, and landed there at 7 o’clock in the morning.
I found a Mr. Wallace in charge, who was employed, with ten men, in
building a new dam on a brook of the Red Cedar, the freshet of last
spring having carried away the former one. I inquired of him where the
line between the Sioux and Chippewas crossed. He replied that the line
crossed above the mill, he did not precisely know the place; adding,
however, in the course of conversation, that he believed the land in
this vicinity originally belonged to the Chippewas. He said it was
seven years since any Sioux had visited the mill; and that the latter
was owned by persons at Prairie du Chien.

The rapids of the Red Cedar River extend (according to the estimates
contained in my notes) about twenty-four miles. They commence a few
miles below the junction of Meadow River, and terminate about two
miles below the mills. This extension of falling water, referred to
in the treaty as a fixed point, has led to the existing uncertainty.
The country itself is of a highly valuable character for its soil,
its game, its wild rice, and its wood. We found the butter-nut among
those species which are locally included under the name of _Bois
franc_ by the traders. The land can, hereafter, be easily brought
into cultivation, as it is interspersed with prairie; and its fine
mill privileges will add to its value. Indeed, one mile square is
intrinsically worth one hundred miles square of Chippewa country, in
some other places.

The present sawmills (there are two), are situated 65 miles from
the banks of the Mississippi. They are owned exclusively by private
citizens, and employed for their sole benefit. The boards are formed
into rafts: and these rafts are afterward attached together, and
floated down the Mississippi to St. Louis, where they command a good
price. The business is understood to be a profitable one. For the
privilege, no equivalent has been paid either to the Indians or to the
United States. The first mill was built several years ago, and before
the conclusion of the treaty of Prairie du Chien, fixing boundaries to
the lands. A permit was given for building, either verbal or written,
as I have been informed, by a former commanding officer at Prairie
du Chien. I make these statements in reference to a letter I have
received from the Department since my return, but which is dated June
27th, containing a complaint of one of the owners of the mill, that
the Chippewas had threatened to burn it, and requesting me to take the
necessary precautionary measures. I heard nothing of such a threat, but
believe that the respect which the Chippewas have professed, through
me, for the American government, and the influence of my visit among
them, will prevent a resort to any measures of violence; and that they
will wait the peaceable adjustment of the line on the rapids. I will
add, that _wherever_ that line may be determined, in a reasonable
probability, to fall, the mill itself cannot be supplied with logs for
any length of time, if _it is now so supplied_, without cutting them on
Chippewa lands, and rafting them down the Red Cedar. Many of the logs
heretofore sawed at this mill, have been rafted, _up stream_, to the
mill. And I understood from the person in charge of it, that he was now
anxious to ascertain new sites for chopping; that his expectations were
directed up the stream, but that his actual knowledge of the country,
in that direction, did not embrace a circumference of more than five
miles.

The line between the Chippewa and Sioux, as drawn on the MS. map of
Neenaba, strikes the rapids on Red Cedar River at a brook and bluff a
short distance below the mill. It proceeds thence, across the point
of land between that branch of the main Chippewa, to an island in the
latter; and thence, up stream, to the mouth of Clearwater River, as
called for by the treaty, and from this point to the bluffs of the
Mississippi valley (where it corners on Winnebago land), on Black
River, and not to the “_mouth_” of Black River, as erroneously inserted
in the 5th article of the treaty; the Chippewas never having advanced
any claims to the lands at the mouth of Black River. This map, being
drawn by a Chippewa of sense, influence, and respectability, an exact
copy of it is herewith forwarded for the use of the Department, as
embracing the opinions of the Chippewas on this point. The lines and
geographical marks were drawn on paper by Neenaba himself, and the
names translated and written down by Mr. Johnston.

It is obvious that the adjustment of this line must precede a
permanent peace on this part of the frontiers. The number of Chippewas
particularly interested in it is, from my notes, 2,102; to which,
911 may be added for certain bands on Lake Superior. It embraces 27
villages, and the most influential civil and war chiefs of the region.
The population is enterprising and warlike. They have the means of
subsistence in _comparative_ abundance. They are increasing in numbers.
They command a ready access to the Mississippi by water, and a ready
return from it by land. Habits of association have taught them to look
upon this stream as the theatre of war. Their young men are carried
into it as the natural and almost only means of distinction. And it
is in coincidence with all observation, to say that they are now, as
they were in the days of Captain Carver, the terror of the east bank of
this river, between the St. Croix and Chippewa Rivers. No other tribe
has now, or has had, within the memory of man, a village or permanent
possession on this part of the shore. It is landed on in fear. It is
often passed by other nations by stealth, and at night. Such is not
an exaggerated picture. And with a knowledge of their geographical
advantages, and numbers, and distribution, on the tributary streams,
slight causes, it may be imagined, will often excite the young and
thoughtless portion of them to raise the war-club, to chant the
war-song, and follow the war-path.

To remove these causes, to teach them the folly of such a contest,
to remind them of the treaty stipulations and promises solemnly made
to the government and to the Sioux, and to induce them to renew those
promises, and to act on fixed principles of political faith, were
the primary objects committed to me; and they were certainly objects
of exalted attainment, according as well with the character of the
government as with the spirit and moral and intellectual tone of the
age. To these objects I have faithfully, as I believe, devoted the
means at my command. And the Chippewas cannot, hereafter, err on the
subject of their hostilities with the Sioux, without knowing that the
error is disapproved by the American government, and that a continuance
in it will be visited upon them in measures of severity.

Without indulging the expectation that my influence on the tour will
have the effect to put an end to the spirit of predatory warfare, it
may be asserted that this spirit has been checked and allayed; and
that a state of feeling and reflection has been produced by it, which
cannot fail to be beneficial to our relations with them, and to their
relations with each other. The messages sent to the Sioux chiefs, may
be anticipated to have resulted in restoring a perfect peace during the
present fall and ensuing winter, and will thus leave to each party the
undisturbed chase of their lands. The meditated blow of Steenaba was
turned aside, and his war-party arrested and dispersed at the moment it
was ready to proceed. Every argument was used to show them the folly
and the insecurity of a continuance of the war. And the whole tenor and
effect of my visit has been to inform and reform these remote bands.
It has destroyed the charm of their seclusion. It has taught them that
their conduct is under the supervision of the American government;
that they depend on its care and protection; that no other government
has power to regulate trade and send traders among them; finally, that
an adherence to foreign counsels, and to antipacific maxims, can be
visited upon them in measures of coercion. That their country, hitherto
deemed nearly inaccessible, can be penetrated and traversed by men and
troops, with baggage and provisions, even in midsummer, when the waters
are lowest; and that, in proportion as they comply with political
maxims, as benevolent as they are just, will they live at peace with
their enemies, and have the means of subsistence for an increased
population among themselves. The conduct of the traders in this
quarter, and the influence they have exerted, both moral and political,
cannot here be entered upon, and must be left to some other occasion,
together with statistical details and other branches of information not
arising from particular instructions.

It may be said that the Indians upon the St. Croix and Chippewa
Rivers, and their numerous branches, have been drawn into a close
intercourse with government. But it will be obvious that a perseverance
in the system of official advice and restraints, is essential to give
permanence to the effects already produced, and to secure a firm and
lasting peace between them and the Sioux. To this end the settlement
of the line upon the Red Cedar fork is an object which claims the
attention of the Department; and would justify, in my opinion, the
calling together the parties interested, at some convenient spot near
the junction of the Red Cedar River with the Chippewa. Indeed, the
handsome elevation, and the commanding geographical advantages of this
spot, render it one which, I think, might be advantageously occupied as
a military post. Such an occupancy would have the effect to keep the
parties at peace, and the point of land, on which the work is proposed
to be erected, might be purchased from the Sioux, together with such
part of the disputed lands near the mills as might be deemed necessary
to quiet the title of the Chippewas. By acquiring this portion of
country for the purposes of military occupancy, the United States
would be justified in punishing any murders committed upon it; and
I am fully convinced, that no measure which could, at this time, be
adopted, would so certainly conduce to a permanent peace between the
tribes. I therefore beg leave, through you, to submit these subjects
to the consideration of the honorable the Secretary of War, with
every distrust in my own powers of observation, and with a very full
confidence in his.

                          I have the honor to be, sir,
                              Very respectfully, your obedient servant,
                                  H. R. SCHOOLCRAFT.


                                No. 3.

                                        _Yellow River, Aug. 1, 1831._

  LAWRENCE TALIAFERRO, ESQ.,   }
  _Indian Agent at St. Peters_.}

SIR:

It is in accordance with the instructions under which I am acting,
to solicit your co-operation in keeping the Sioux and Chippewas at
peace, and to induce them to adhere, in good faith, to the articles
of the treaty of Prairie du Chien. Blind to their true interests,
these tribes continue a warfare as hopeless in its termination as it
is inglorious in its results. Notwithstanding every pains which has
been taken by the government to convince them of the erroneous policy
of such a contest, and to inspire in them fidelity to their public
treaties with each other, restless and ambitious young men, on either
side, continue to lead war-parties into the territories of the other,
and to waylay the unsuspecting. I am satisfied that the authority of
the chiefs is not always sufficient to restrain the incursions of these
young warriors, who are led on by the thirst of fame, and stimulated by
hereditary animosity. Such a course is not surprising among savages.
But it is the dictate of humanity to restrain this false ardor, and to
make use of every practicable means to put a stop to scenes at which
the heart sickens. It is but recently that a Mr. Cadotte, a young
half-breed of the Sault Ste. Marie, another young man of mixed blood,
called the Little Frenchman, living as an Indian, and two Chippewas,
one a female, travelling down the St. Croix in a canoe, were fired upon
from an ambush by the Sioux, and killed. And this injury still remains
unredressed.

The Chippewas complain of this mode of warfare, which it would be an
idle affectation to designate by any other term than murder. They
say the Sioux are indeed ready to smoke the pipe of peace with them,
and never fail to do so when it is presented to them; but that a
confidence, on their part, in these smoking councils, is paid with the
loss of lives.

I have despatched a message to the Sioux chief, Petite Corbeau, and
another to Wabisha, reminding them of their treaty engagements with
the Chippewas, and of the recent violation of them above referred to,
and requesting them to use their influence efficaciously to terminate
further inroads. These messages are accompanied by others from Shakoba
and from Kabamappa, Chippewa chiefs on the St. Croix and Snake Rivers.

                                       I am, sir,
                                           Very respectfully,
                                               Your obedient servant,
                                                   H. R. SCHOOLCRAFT.


                                No. 4.

         _Mozobodo’s speech, in relation to the murder of the
                           Menomonie woman._

My father at the Sault Ste. Marie: I have not forgot what was told me
at Prairie du Chien, Fond du Lac, and Butte des Morts. I have kept
always what you told me until the last summer. My young men were
foolish, and went to war.

My father: The war-club was sent to them from Lac Chetac twice, before
they accepted it. They did not go to war of their own accord. I did all
I could to prevent them.

My father: They did not kill our friends intentionally. They supposed
them to be their enemies, and killed them accidentally.

My father: This pipe I send to you in token of peace. My young men will
hereafter keep quiet.

My father: I hope you will not take our traders away from us. If you
do, our little children will suffer; and not only they, but all of us.

                                                            MOZOBODO.

  _Lac du Flambeau, May 28, 1831._
  Interpreted by Charles H. Oaks.


                                No. 5.

      _Report of Doctor Houghton on the Copper of Lake Superior._

                                _Fredonia, N. Y., November 14, 1831._

  Hon. LEWIS CASS, _Secretary of War_.

SIR:

In fulfilment of the duties assigned to me in the late expedition
into the Indian country, under the direction of H. R. Schoolcraft,
Esq., Indian agent, I would beg leave to transmit to you the following
observations relative to the existence of copper in the country
bordering on the southern shore of Lake Superior.

It is without doubt true that this subject has long been viewed with
an interest far beyond its actual merit. Each mass of native copper
which this country has produced, however insulated, or however it
may have been separated from its original position, appears to have
been considered a sure indication of the existence of that metal in
beds; and hence we occasionally see, upon maps of that section of our
country, particular portions marked as containing “copper mines,” where
no copper now exists. But while it is certain that a combination of
circumstances has served to mislead the public mind with regard to the
geological situation and existing quantity of that metal, it is no less
certain that a greater quantity of insulated native copper has been
discovered upon the borders of Lake Superior, than in any other equal
portion of North America.

Among the masses of native copper which have engaged the attention of
travellers in this section of country, one, which from its great size
was early noticed, is situated on the Ontonagon River, a stream which
empties its waters into the southern part of Lake Superior, 331 miles
above the falls of the Ste. Marie. The Ontonagon River is, with some
difficulty, navigable by bateaux 36 miles, at which place by the union
of two smaller streams, one from an easterly, and the other from a
westerly direction, the main stream is formed. The mass of copper is
situated on the western fork, at a distance of six or eight miles from
the junction.

The face of the country through the upper half of the distance from
Lake Superior is uneven, and the irregularity is given it by hills of
marly clay, which occasionally rise quite abruptly to the height of
one or two hundred feet. No rock was observed _in situ_, except in one
place, where, for a distance, the red sandstone was observed, forming
the bed of the river.

The mass of copper lies partly covered by water, directly at the foot
of a clay hill, from which, together with numerous boulders of the
primitive rocks, it has undoubtedly been washed by the action of the
water of the river. Although it is completely insulated, there is much
to interest in its examination. Its largest surface measures three and
a half by four feet, and this, which is of malleable copper, is kept
bright by the action of the water, and has the usual appearance of that
metal when worn. To one surface is attached a small quantity of rock,
singularly bound together by threads of copper, which pass through
it in all directions. This rock, although many of its distinctive
characters are lost, is evidently a dark colored serpentine, with small
interspersed masses of milky quartz.

The mass of copper is so situated as to afford but little that would
enable us to judge of its original geological position. In examining
the eastern fork of the river, I discovered small water-worn masses of
trap-rock, in which were specks of imbedded carbonate of copper and
copper black; and with them were occasionally associated minute specks
of serpentine, in some respects resembling that which is attached to
the large mass of copper; and facts would lead us to infer that the
trap formation which appears on Lake Superior east of the Ontonagon
River, crosses this section of country at or near the source of that
river and at length forms one of the spurs of the Porcupine Mountains.

Several smaller masses of insulated native copper have been discovered
on the borders of Lake Superior, but that upon Ontonagon River is the
only one which is now known to remain.

At as early a period as before the American revolution, an English
mining company directed their operations to the country bordering
on Lake Superior, and Ontonagon River was one point to which their
attention was immediately directed. Traces of a shaft, sunk in the clay
hill, near a mass of copper, are still visible, a memento of ignorance
and folly.

Operations were also commenced on the southern shore of Lake Superior,
near the mouth of a small stream, which, from that circumstance, is
called Miners’ River. Parts of the names of the miners, carved upon
the sandstone rock at the mouth of the river are still visible. What
circumstance led to the selection of this spot does not now appear.
No mineral traces are at this day perceptible, except occasional
discolorations of the sandstone rock by what is apparently a mixture of
the carbonate of iron and copper; and this is only to be observed where
water, holding in solution an extremely minute portion of these salts,
has trickled slowly over those rocks.

It does not, in fact, appear that the red sandstone, which constitutes
the principal rock formation of the southern shore, of Lake Superior,
is in any instance metalliferous in any considerable degree. If this
be true, it would require but little reflection to convince one of the
inexpediency of conducting mining operations at either of the points
selected for that purpose; and it is beyond a doubt true, that the
company did not receive the least inducement to continue their labors.

In addition to these masses of native copper, an ore of that metal has
long been known to the lake traders as the green rock, in which the
characteristic substances are the green and blue carbonate of copper,
accompanied by copper black. It is situated upon Keweena Point, 280
miles above the falls of the Ste. Marie. The ore is embraced by what
is apparently a recently formed crag; and although it is of a kind,
and so situated as to make an imposing appearance, there is little
certainty of its existence in large quantities in this formation. The
ore forms a thin covering to the pebbles of which the body of the rock
is composed, and is rarely observed in masses separate from it. The
crag is composed of angular fragments of trap-rock; and the formation
is occasionally traversed by broad and continuous belts of calc. spar,
here and there tinged with copper. Although the ore was not observed in
any considerable quantity, except at one point, it apparently exists
in minute specks through a greater part of the crag formation, which
extends several miles, forming the shore of the lake.

This examination of the crag threw new interest upon the trap
formation, which had been first observed to take the place of the
sandstone at the bottom of a deep bay, called Montreal Bay, on the
easterly side of Keweena Point. The trap-rock continues for a few
miles, when the crag before noticed appears to lie directly upon it,
and to form the extremity of the point; the crag, in turn, disappears,
and the trap-rock is continued for a distance of six or eight miles
upon the westerly side of the point, when the sandstone again reappears.

The trap-rock is of a compact granular texture, occasionally running
into the amygdaloid and toadstone varieties, and is rich in imbedded
minerals, such as amethystine quartz, smoky quartz, cornelian,
chalcedony, agate, &c., together with several of the ores of copper.
Traces of copper ore in the trap-rock were first noticed on the
easterly side of Keweena Point, and near the commencement of the trap
formation. This ore, which is an impure copper black, was observed in
a vein of variable thickness, but not in any part exceeding 2½ inches;
it is sufficiently compact and hard to receive a firm polish, but it
is rather disposed to break into small irregular masses. A specimen
furnished, upon analysis, 47.5 per cent. of pure copper.

On the western side of Keweena Point, the same ore appears under
different circumstances, being disseminated through the body of
the trap-rock, in grains varying in size from a pin’s head to a
pea. Although many of these grains are wholly copper black, they
are occasionally only depositions of the mineral upon specks of
cornelian, chalcedony, or agate, or are more frequently composed,
in part, of what is apparently an imperfect steatite. The ore is so
connected with, and so much resembles in colour the rock, of which
it may be said to be a constituent part, that they might easily,
during a hasty examination, be confounded. A random specimen of the
rock furnished, upon analysis, 3.2 per cent. of pure copper. The rock
continues combined with that mineral for nearly the space of three
miles. Extremely thin veins of copper black were observed to traverse
this same rock; and in enlargements of these were discovered several
masses of amorphous native copper. The latter mineral appeared in two
forms—the one consisting of compact and malleable masses, carrying from
4 to 10 ounces each; and the other, of specks and fasciculi of pure
copper, binding together confused masses of copper green, and partially
disintegrated trap-rock: the latter was of several pounds’ weight.
Each variety was closely embraced by the rock, although the action of
the water upon the rock had occasionally exposed to view points of the
metal. In addition to the accompanying copper green, which was in a
disintegrated state, small specks of the oxyd of copper were associated
in most of the native specimens.

Circumstances would not permit an examination of any portion of the
trap formation, except that bordering directly upon the lake. But facts
would lead us to infer that that formation extends from one side of
Keweena Point to the other, and that a range of thickly wooded hills,
which traverses the point, is based upon, if not formed of, that rock.
An Indian information which, particularly upon such a subject, must be
adopted with caution, would sanction the opinion that the prominent
constituents are the same wherever the rock is observed.

After having duly considered the facts which are presented, I would not
hesitate to offer, as an opinion, that the trap-rock formation was the
original source of the masses of copper which have been observed in
the country bordering on Lake Superior; and that at the present day,
examinations for the ores of copper could not be made in that country
with hopes of success, except in the trap-rock itself; which rock is
not certainly known to exist upon any place upon Lake Superior, other
than Keweena Point.

If this opinion be a correct one, the cause of failure of the mining
company in this region is rendered plain. Having considered each
insulated mass of pure metal as a true indication of the existence
of a bed in the vicinity, operations were directed to wrong points;
when, having failed to realize their anticipations, the project was
abandoned without further actual investigation. We would be induced to
infer, that no attempts were made to learn the original source of the
metal which was discovered, and thus, while the attention was drawn to
insulated masses, the ores, ordinary in appearance, but more important
_in situ_, were neglected; and perhaps from the close analogy in
appearance to the rock with which they were associated, no distinction
was observed.

What quantity of ore the trap-rock of Keweena Point may be capable of
producing, can only be determined by minute and laborious examination.
The indications which were presented by a hasty investigation are here
imbodied, and, with deference, submitted to your consideration.

                                        I have the honor to be,
                                            Sir, your obedient servant,
                                                DOUGLASS HOUGHTON.


                                  V.

   _Speech of Six Chippewa Chiefs[36] on the Sioux War, delivered at
                   Michilimackinac, in July, 1833._

MY father: listen to your children. Look upon the blood that is shed
by our enemies. I hold in my hand the wampum belt, and the articles of
the treaty of Prairie du Chien. This belt is stained by blood. It has
passed through all our bands. We have all taken hold of it with our
hands. So have we in our hearts taken hold of the words of the treaty.
You have told us to sit still, and we have done it. But what have our
enemies done? Six times we have been attacked by them. Twice on Sioux
land and four times on our own. Look on us, father; our mouths are full
of blood. You are the cause of this. It is owing to our listening to
your advice. You bade us sit still. You told us that your arm was _long
and strong_, and that you would reach it out and pull back any that
crossed the lines. We believed it. We remained quiet. Even when struck,
we ceased to revenge ourselves, as we formerly revenged ourselves.

We have been again struck. Our people have been killed on their own
lands. Yet we are told to keep quiet. We have been killed while relying
upon your flag, thinking our enemies came to smoke the pipe of peace.
Father, think not that we are fools. We have right hearts. We cannot
sit with our eyes shut. But we will keep them open. They are looking
upon the lines. They are looking upon you. We will wait one summer
more, in hopes that our voices will reach you.[37]

                                No. IV.

     _Remarks on the Lead Mine Country on the Upper Mississippi._

          [Addressed to the Editors of the New-York Mirror.]

  GENTLEMEN:

Time admonishes me of my promise to furnish you some account of my
journey from Galena to Fort Winnebago. But I confess, that time has
taken away none of those features which make me regard it as a task.
Other objects have occupied so much of my thoughts, that the subject
has lost some of its vividness, and I shall be obliged to confine
myself more exclusively to my notes than I had intended. This will
be particularly true in speaking of geological facts. Geographical
features impress themselves strongly on the mind. The shape of a
mountain is not easily forgotten, and its relation to contiguous
waters and woods is recollected after the lapse of many years. The
succession of plains, streams, and settlements is likewise retained in
the memory, while the peculiar plains, the soils overlaying them, and
all the variety of their mineral and organic contents, require to be
perpetuated by specimens and by notes, which impose neither a slight
nor a momentary labor.

Limited sketches of this kind are furthermore liable to be
misconceived. Prominent external objects can only be brought to mind,
and these often reveal but an imperfect notion of the pervading
character of strata, and still less knowledge of their mineral
contents. Haste takes away many opportunities of observation; and
scanty or inconvenient means of transporting hand specimens, often
deprive us of the requisite data. Indeed, I should be loath to describe
the few facts I am about to communicate, had you not personally
visited and examined the great carboniferous and sandstone formation
on the Mississippi and Wisconsin, and thus got the knowledge of their
features. The parallelism which is apparent in these rocks, by the
pinnacles which have been left standing on high—the wasting effects of
time in scooping out valleys and filling up declivities—and the dark
and castle-looking character of the cherty limestone bluffs, as viewed
from the water, while the shadows of evening are deepening around, are
suited to make vivid impressions. And these broken and denuded cliffs
offer the most favorable points for making geological observations.
There are no places inland where the streams have cut so deep. On
gaining the height of land, the strata are found to be covered with so
heavy a deposite of soil, that it is difficult to glean much that can
be relied on respecting the interior structure.

The angle formed by the junction of the Wisconsin with the Mississippi
is a sombre line of weather-beaten rocks. Gliding along the current,
at the base of these rocks, the idea of a “hill country,” of no very
productive character, is naturally impressed upon the observer. And
this impression came down, probably, from the days of Marquette, who
was the first European, that we read of, who descended the Wisconsin,
and thus became the true discoverer of the Mississippi. The fact that
it yielded lead ore, bits of which were occasionally brought in by the
natives, was in accordance with this opinion; and aided, it may be
supposed, in keeping out of view the real character of the country. I
know not how else to account for the light which has suddenly burst
upon us from this bank of the Mississippi, and which has at once proved
it to be as valuable for the purposes of agriculture as for those of
mining, and as sylvan in its appearance as if it were not fringed, as
it were, with rocks, and lying at a great elevation above the water.
This elevation is so considerable as to permit a lively descent in the
streams, forming numerous mill-seats. The surface of the country is
not, however, broken, but may be compared to the heavy and lazy-rolling
waves of the sea after a tempest. These wave-like plains are often
destitute of trees, except a few scattering ones, but present to
the eye an almost boundless field of native herbage. Groves of oak
sometimes diversify those native meadows, or cover the ridges which
bound them. Very rarely does any rock appear above the surface. The
highest elevations, the Platte mounds, and the Blue mound, are covered
with soil and with trees. Numerous brooks of limpid water traverse the
plains, and find their way into either the Wisconsin, Rock River, or
the Mississippi. The common deer is still in possession of its favorite
haunts; and the traveller is very often startled by flocks of the
prairie-hen rising up in his path. The surface soil is a rich, black
alluvion; it yields abundant crops of corn, and, so far as they have
been tried, all the cereal gramina. I have never, either in the west or
out of the west, seen a richer soil, or more stately fields of corn and
oats, than upon one of the plateaux of the Blue mound.

Such is the country which appears to be richer in ores of lead than
any other mineral district in the world—which yielded forty millions
of pounds in seven years—produced a single lump of ore of two thousand
cubic feet—and appears adequate to supply almost any amount of this
article that the demands of commerce require.

The river of Galena rises in the mineral plains of Iowa county, in
that part of the North-Western Territory which is attached, for the
purposes of temporary government, to Michigan. It is made up of clear
and permanent springs, and has a descent which affords a very valuable
water-power. This has been particularly remarked at the curve called
Millseat-bend. No change in its general course, which is south-west, is
I believe apparent after it enters the north-west angle of the state
of Illinois. The town of Galena, the capital of the mining country,
occupies a somewhat precipitous semicircular bend, on the right (or
north) bank of the river, six or seven miles from its entrance into the
Mississippi. Backwater, from the latter, gives the stream itself the
appearance, as it bears the name, of a “river,” and admits steamboat
navigation thus far. It is a rapid brook immediately above the town,
and of no further value for the purpose of navigation. Lead is brought
in from the smelting furnaces, on heavy ox-teams, capable of carrying
several tons at a load. I do not know that water _has been_, or that it
_cannot_ be made subservient in the transportation of this article from
the mines. The streams themselves are numerous and permanent, although
they are small, and it would require the aid of so many of these, on
any projected route, that it is to be feared the supply of water would
be inadequate. To remedy this deficiency, the Wisconsin itself might be
relied on. Could the waters of this river be conducted in a canal along
its valley from the portage to the bend at Arena, they might, from
this point, be deflected in a direct line to Galena? This route would
cut the mine district centrally, and afford the upper tributaries of
the Pekatolika and Fever River as feeders. Such a communication would
open the way to a northern market, and merchandise might be supplied by
the way of Green Bay, when the low state of water in the Mississippi
prevents the ascent of boats. It would, at all times, obviate the
tedious voyage, which goods ordered from the Atlantic cities have to
perform through the straits of Florida and Gulf of Mexico. A railroad
could be laid upon this route with equal, perhaps superior advantages.
These things may seem too much like making arrangements for the next
generation. But we cannot fix bounds to the efforts of our spreading
population, and spirit of enterprise. Nor, after what we have seen in
the way of internal improvement, in our own day and generation, should
we deem any thing too hard to be accomplished.

I set out from Galena in a light wagon, drawn by two horses, about
ten o’clock in the morning (August 17th), accompanied by Mr. B. It had
rained the night and morning of the day previous, which rendered the
streets and roads quite muddy. A marly soil, easily penetrated by rain,
was, however, as susceptible to the influence of the sun, and in a much
shorter period than would be imagined, the surface became dry. Although
a heavy and continued shower had thoroughly drenched the ground, and
covered it with superfluous water, but very little effects of it were
to be seen at this time. We ascended into the open plain country, which
appears in every direction around the town, and directed our course
to Gratiot’s Grove. In this distance, which on our programme of the
route, was put down at fifteen miles, a lively idea of the formation
and character of the country is given. The eye is feasted with the
boundlessness of its range. Grass and flowers spread before and beside
the traveller, and on looking back, they fill up the vista behind him.
He soon finds himself in the midst of a sylvan scene. Groves fringe
the tops of the most distant elevations, and clusters of trees—more
rarely, open forests—are occasionally presented. The trees appear to be
almost exclusively of the species of white oak and roughbark hickory.
Among the flowers, the plant called rosin-weed attracts attention by
its gigantic stature, and it is accompanied, as certainly as substance
by shadow, by the wild indigo, two plants which were afterward detected
of less luxuriant growth on Fox River. The roads are in their natural
condition, they are excellent, except for a few yards where streams are
crossed. At such places there is a plunge into soft, black muck, and it
requires all the powers of a horse harnessed to a wagon to emerge from
the stream.

On reaching Gratiot’s Grove, I handed letters of introduction to Mr.
H. and B. Gratiot. These gentlemen appear to be extensively engaged in
smelting. They conducted me to see the ore prepared for smelting in
the log furnace; and also the preparation of such parts of it for the
ash furnace as do not undergo complete fusion in the first process.
The ash furnace is a very simple kind of air furnace, with a grate so
arranged as to throw a reverberating flame upon the hearth where the
prepared ore is laid. It is built against a declivity, and charged by
throwing the materials to be operated upon, down the flue. A silicious
flux is used; and the scoria is tapped and suffered to flow out, from
the side of the furnace, before drawing off the melted lead. The latter
is received in an excavation made in the earth, from which it is ladled
out into iron moulds. The whole process is conducted in the open air,
with sometimes a slight shed. The lead ore is piled in cribs of logs,
which are roofed. Hammers, ladles, a kind of tongs, and some other
iron tools are required. The simplicity of the process, the absence of
external show in buildings, and the direct and ready application of the
means to the end, are remarkable, as pleasing characteristics about the
smelting establishment.

The ore used is the common sulphuret, with a foliated, glittering and
cubical fracture. It occurs with scarcely any adhering gangue. Cubical
masses of it are found, at some of the diggings, which are studded over
with minute crystals of calcareous spar. These crystals, when examined,
have the form of the dog-tooth spar. This broad, square-shaped, and
square-broken mineral, is taken from _east and west leads_, is most
easy to smelt, and yields the greatest per centum of lead. It is
estimated to produce fifty per cent. from the log furnace, and about
sixteen more when treated with a flux in the ash furnace.

Miners classify their ore from its position in the mine. Ore from _east
and west leads_, is raised from clay diggings, although these diggings
may be pursued under the first stratum of rock. Ore from _north and
south leads_, is termed “sheet minerals,” and is usually taken from
rock diggings. The vein or sheet stands perpendicularly in the fissure,
and is usually struck in sinking from six to ten feet. The sheet varies
in thickness from six or eight inches, in the broadest part, to not
more than one. The great mass found at “Irish diggings,” was of this
kind.

I observed among the piles of ore at Gratiot’s, the combination of
zinc with lead ore, which is denominated _dry bone_. It is cast by as
unproductive. Mr. B. Gratiot also showed me pieces of the common ore
which had undergone desulphuration in the log furnace. Its natural
splendor is increased by this process, so as to have the appearance of
highly burnished steel. He also presented me some uniform masses of
lead, recrystallized from a metallic state, under the hearth of the
ash furnace. The tendency to rectangular structure in these delicate
and fragile masses is very remarkable. Crystallization appears to
have taken place under circumstances which opposed the production
of a complete and perfect cube or parallelogram, although there are
innumerable rectangles of each geometric form.

In the drive from Gratiot’s to Willow Springs, we saw a succession
of the same objects that had formed the prominent features of the
landscape from Galena. The platte mounds, which had appeared on our
left all the morning, continued visible until we entered the grove that
embraces the site of the springs. Little mounds of red earth frequently
appeared above the grass, to testify to the labors of miners along this
part of the route. In taking a hasty survey of some of the numerous
excavations of Irish diggings, I observed among the rubbish small
flat masses of a yellowish white amorphous mineral substance of great
weight. I have not had time to submit it to any tests. It appears too
heavy and compact for the earthy yellow oxide of lead. I should not be
disappointed to find it an oxide of zinc. No rock stratum protrudes
from the ground in this part of the country. The consolidated masses
thrown up from the diggings, appear to be silicated limestone, often
friable, and not crystalline. Galena is found in open fissures in this
rock.

We reached the springs in the dusk of the evening, and found good
accommodations at Ray’s. Distance from Galena thirty miles.

The rain fell copiously during the night, and on the morning
(eighteenth) gave no signs of a speedy cessation. Those who travel
ought often, however, to call to mind the remark of Xenophon, that
“pleasure is the result of toil,” and not permit slight impediments
to arrest them, particularly when they have definite points to make.
We set forward in a moderate rain, but in less than an hour had the
pleasure to perceive signs of it mitigating, and before nine o’clock
it was quite clear. We stopped a short time at Bracken’s furnace. Mr.
Bracken gave me specimens of organic remains, in the condition of
earthy calcareous carbonates, procured on a neighbouring ridge. He
described the locality as being plentiful in casts and impressions
such as he exhibited, which appeared to have been removed from the
surface of a shelly limestone. At Rock-branch diggings, I found masses
of calcareous spar thrown from the pits. The surface appears to have
been much explored for lead in this vicinity. I stopped to examine
Vanmater’s lead. It had been a productive one, and affords a fair
example of what are called east and west leads. I observed a compass
standing on the line of the lead, and asked Mr. V. whether much
reliance was to be placed upon the certainty of striking the lead by
the aid of this instrument. He said that it was much relied on. That
the course of the leads was definite. The present one varied from a due
east and west line but nine minutes, and the lead had been followed
without much difficulty. The position of the ore was about forty feet
below the surface. Of this depth about thirty-six feet consisted of the
surface rock and its earthy covering. A vein of marly clay, enveloping
the ore, was then penetrated. A series of pits had been sunk on the
course of it, and the earth and ore in the interstices removed, and
drawn to the surface by a windlass and bucket. Besides the ore, masses
of iron pyrites had been thrown out, connected with galena. In stooping
to detach some pieces from one of these masses, I placed my feet on the
verge of an abandoned pit, around which weeds and bushes had grown.
My face was, however, averted from the danger, but on beholding it, I
was made sensible that the least deviation from a proper balance would
have pitched me into it. It was forty feet deep. The danger I had just
escaped fell to the lot of Mr. B.’s dog, who, probably, deceived by the
growth of bushes, fell in. Whether killed or not, it was impossible to
tell, and we were obliged to leave the poor animal under a promise of
Mr. V., that he would cause a windlass to be removed to the pit, to
ascertain his fate.

At eleven o’clock we reached Mineral Point, the seat of justice of Iowa
county. I delivered an introductory letter to Mr. Ansley, who had made
a discovery of copper ore in the vicinity, and through his politeness,
visited the locality. The discovery was made in sinking pits in search
of lead ore. Small pieces of green carbonate of copper were found on
striking the rock, which is apparently silico-calcareous, and of a very
friable structure. From one of the excavations, detached masses of
the sulphuret, blue and green mingled, were raised. These masses are
enveloped with ochery clay.

In riding out on horseback to see this locality, I passed over
the ridge of land which first received the appellation of “Mineral
Point.” No digging was observed in process, but the heaps of red marly
clay, the vigorous growth of shrubbery around them, and the number
of open or partially filled pits, remain to attest the labour which
was formerly devoted in the search for lead. And this search is said
to have been amply rewarded. The track of discovery is conspicuously
marked by these excavations, which often extend, in a direct line,
on the cardinal points, as far as the eye can reach. Everywhere the
marly clay formation appears to have been relied on for the ore,
and much of it certainly appears to be _in situ_ in it. It bears no
traces of attrition; and its occurrence in regular leads, forbids the
supposition of its being an oceanic arrangement of mineral detritus.
At Vanmater’s, the metalliferous clay marl is overlaid by a grayish
sedimentary limestone. Different is the geological situation of what is
denominated _gravel ore_, of which I noticed piles, on the route from
Gratiot’s. This bears evident marks of attrition, and appears to have
been uniformly taken from diluvial earth.

On returning to the village from this excursion, I found Mr. B. ready
to proceed, and we lost no time in making the next point in our
proposed route. A drive of five miles brought us to the residence of
Colonel Dodge, whose zeal and enterprise in opening this portion of our
western country for settlement, give him claims to be looked up to as a
public benefactor. I here met the superintendent of the mines (Captain
Legate), and after spending some time in conversation on the resources
and prospects of the country, and partaking of the hospitalities
politely offered by Colonel D. and his intelligent family, we pursued
our way. The village of Dodgeville lies at the distance of four miles.
Soon after passing through it some part of our tackle gave way, in
crossing a gully, and I improved the opportunity of the delay to visit
the adjacent diggings, which are extensive. The ore is found as at
other mines, in regular leads, and not scattered about promiscuously
in the red marl. Masses of brown oxide of iron were more common here
than I had noticed them elsewhere. Among the rubbish of the diggings,
fragments of hornstone occur. They appear to be, most commonly,
portions of nodules, which exhibit, on being fractured, various
discolorings.

Night overtook us before we entered Porter’s Grove, which is also
the seat of mining and smelting operations. We are indebted to the
hospitality of Mr. M., of whom my companion was an acquaintance, for
opening his door to us, at an advanced hour of the evening. Distance
from Willow Springs, twenty-five miles.

There is no repose for a traveller. We retired to rest at a late
hour, and rose at an early one. The morning (19th) was hazy, and we
set forward while the dew was heavy on the grass. Our route still
lay through a prairie country. The growth of native grass, bent down
with dew, nearly covered the road, so that our horses’ legs were
continually bathed. The rising sun was a very cheerful sight, but
as our road lay up a long ascent, we soon felt its wilting effects.
Nine miles of such driving, with not a single grove to shelter us,
brought us to Mr. Brigham’s, at the foot of the Blue Mound, being
the last house in the direction to Fort Winnebago. The distance from
Galena is sixty-four miles, and this area embraces the present field
of mining operations. In rapidly passing over it, mines, furnaces,
dwellinghouses, mining villages, enclosed fields, upland prairies (an
almost continued prairie), groves, springs, and brooks, have formed
the prominent features of the landscape. The impulse to the settlement
of the country was first given by its mineral wealth; and it brought
here, as it were by magic, an enterprising and active population. It
is evident that a far greater amount of labor was a few years ago
engaged in mining operations; but the intrinsic value of the lands has
operated to detain the present population, which may be considered
as permanent. The lands are beautifully disposed, well watered, well
drained by natural streams, and easily brought into cultivation. Crops
have everywhere repaid the labors of the farmer; and, thus far, the
agricultural produce of the country has borne a fair price. The country
appears to afford every facility for raising cattle, horses, and hogs.
Mining, the cardinal interest heretofore, has not ceased in the degree
that might be inferred from the depression of the lead market; and
it will be pursued, with increased activity, whenever the purposes
of commerce call for it. In the present situation of the country,
there appear to be two objects essential to the lasting welfare of
the settlements:—first, a title to their lands from Congress; second,
a northern market for the products of their mines and farms. To
these, a _third_ requisite may be considered auxiliary, namely, the
establishment of the seat of territorial government at some point west
of Lake Michigan, where its powers may be more readily exercised, and
the reciprocal obligations of governor and people more vividly felt.

Mr. Brigham, in whom I was happy to recognise an esteemed friend,
conducted us over his valuable plantation. He gave me a mass of a
white, heavy metallic substance, taken as an accompanying mineral, from
a lead of Galena, which he has recently discovered in a cave. Without
instituting any examination of it but such as its external characters
disclose, it may be deemed a native carbonate of lead. The mass from
which it was broken weighed ninety or one hundred pounds. And its
occurrence, at the lead, was not alone.

From the Blue Mound to Fort Winnebago is an estimated distance of
fifty-six miles. The country is, however, entirely in a state of
nature. The trace is rather obscure; but, with a knowledge of the
general geography and face of the country, there is no difficulty in
proceeding with a light wagon, or even a loaded team, as the Indian
practice of firing the prairies every fall has relieved the surface
from underbrush and fallen timber. After driving a few miles, we
encountered two Winnebagoes on horseback, the forward rider having
a white man in tie behind him. The latter informed us that his name
was H., that he had come out to Twelve-mile Creek, for the purpose of
locating himself there, and was in pursuit of a hired man, who had gone
off, with some articles of his property, the night previous. With this
relation, and a _boshu_[38] for the natives, with whom we had no means
of conversing, we continued our way, without further incident, to Duck
Creek, a distance of ten miles. We here struck the path, which is one
of the boundary lines, in the recent purchase from the Winnebagoes. It
is a deeply marked horse path, cutting quite through the prairie sod,
and so much used by the natives as to prevent grass from growing on it;
in this respect, it is as well-defined a landmark as “blazed tree,”
or “saddle.” The surveyor appointed to run out the lines, had placed
mile-posts on the route, but the Winnebagoes, with a prejudice against
the practice which is natural, pulled up many, and defaced others.
When we had gone ten miles further, we began to see the glittering of
water through the trees, and we soon found ourselves on the margin of
a clear lake. I heard no name for this handsome sheet of water. It is
one of the four lakes, which are connected with each other by a stream,
and have their outlet into Rock River, through a tributary called the
Guskihaw. We drove through the margin of it, where the shores were
sandy, and innumerable small unio shells were driven up. Most of these
small species appeared to be helices. Standing tent-poles, and other
remains of Indian encampments, appeared at this place. A rock stratum,
dark and weather-beaten, apparently sandstone, jutted out into the
lake. A little farther, we passed to the left of an abandoned village.
By casting our eyes across the lake, we observed the new position which
had been selected and occupied by the Winnebagoes. We often assign
wrong motives, when we undertake to reason for the Indian race; but, in
the present instance, we may presume, that their removal was influenced
by too near a position to the boundary path.

We drove to the second brook, beyond the lake, and encamped.

Comfort in an encampment depends very much upon getting a good fire.
In this we totally failed last night, owing to our having but a small
piece of spunk, which ignited and burned out without inflaming our
kindling materials. The atmosphere was damp, but not sufficiently
cooled to quiet the ever-busy musquito. Mr. B. deemed it a hardship
that he could not boil the kettle, so as to have the addition of tea to
our cold repast. I reminded him that there was a bright moon, and that
it did not rain; and that, for myself, I had fared so decidedly worse,
on former occasions, that I was quite contented with the light of the
moon and a dry blanket. By raising up and putting a fork under the
wagon tongue, and spreading our tent-cloth over it, I found the means
of insulating ourselves from the insect hordes, but it was not until I
had pitched my musquito net within it that we found repose.

On awaking in the morning (20th), we found H., who had passed us the
day before in company with the Winnebagoes, lying under the wagon. He
had returned from pursuing the fugitive, and had overtaken us, after
twelve o’clock at night. He complained of being cold. We admitted him
into the wagon, and drove on to reach his camp at Twelve-mile Creek.
In crossing what he denominated Seven-mile Prairie, I observed on our
right a prominent wall of rock, surmounted with image-stones. The rock
itself consisted of sandstone. Elongated water-worn masses of stone
had been set up, so as to resemble, at a distance, the figures of men.
The allusion had been strengthened by some rude paints. This had been
the serious or the sportive work of Indians. It is not to be inferred
hence, that the Winnebagoes are idolaters. But there is a strong
tendency to idolatry in the minds of the North American Indians. They
do not bow before a carved image, shaped like Dagon or Juggernaut; but
they rely upon their guardian spirits, or personal manitos, for aid in
exigencies, and impute to the skins of animals, which are preserved
with religious care, the power of gods. Their medicine institution is
also a gross and bold system of semi-deification connected with magic,
witchcraft, and necromancy. Their jossakeeds are impostors and jugglers
of the grossest stamp. Their wabenos address Satan directly for power;
and their metais, who appear to be least idolatrous, rely more upon the
invisible agency of spirits and magic influence, than upon the physical
properties of the medicines they exhibit.

On reaching Twelve-mile Creek, we found a yoke of steers of H., in
a pen, which had been tied there two days and nights without water.
He evinced, however, an obliging disposition, and, after refreshing
ourselves and our horses, we left him to complete the labours of a
“local habitation.” The intermediate route to Fort Winnebago afforded
few objects of either physical or mental interest. The upland soil,
which had become decidedly thinner and more arenaceous, after reaching
the lake, appears to increase in sterility on approaching the
Wisconsin. And the occurrence of _lost rocks_ (primitive boulders),
as Mr. B. happily termed them, which are first observed after passing
the Blue Mound, becomes more frequent in this portion of the country,
denoting our approach to the borders of the north-western primitive
formation. This formation, we have now reason to conclude, extends in
an angle, so far south as to embrace a part of Fox River, above Apukwa
Lake.

Anticipated difficulties always appear magnified. This we verified in
crossing Duck Creek, near its entrance into the Wisconsin. We found
the adjoining bog nearly dry, and drove through the stream without the
water entering into the body of the wagon. It here commenced raining.
Having but four miles to make, and that a level prairie, we pushed on.
But the rain increased, and poured down steadily and incessantly till
near sunset. In the midst of this rain-storm we reached the fort, about
one o’clock, and crossed over to the elevated ground occupied by the
Indian Department, where my sojourn, while awaiting the expedition, was
rendered as comfortable as the cordial greeting and kind attention of
Mr. Kinzie, the agent, and his intelligent family could make it.

A recapitulation of the distances from Galena makes the route as
follows, viz. Gratiot’s Grove, fifteen miles; Willow Springs, fifteen;
Mineral Point, seven; Dodgeville, nine; Porter’s Grove, nine;
Blue Mound, nine; Duck Creek, ten; Lake, ten; Twelve-mile Creek,
twenty-four; Crossing of Duck Creek, eight; and Fort Winnebago, four;
total, one hundred and twenty miles.



                                ERRATA.

  Page 12, line 5. For Koginogumoc read Kaginogumoc.
   “   12,   “   12. For Courtonelle read Courtorielle.
   “   25,   “   4. For Feebyains read Jeebyains.
   “   27,   “   16. For troncard read broncard.
   “   28,   “   2. For and read at.
   “   36,   “   16. For Saskatchawino read Saskatchawine.
   “   41,   “   28. For Goulle read Gueule.
   “   44,   “   3 of Note. For t read not.
   “   60,   “   24. For these read there is.
   “   64,   “   34. For Ocant read Ocaut.
   “   66,   “   35.    Do.        Do.
   “   66,   “   18. For Jah read Tah.
   “   77,   “   7. For Guella read Gueule.
   “   81,   “   8. For broiled read boiled.
   “   96,   “   5. For separated read separately.
   “  103,   “   32. For and read or, and for country read county.
   “  106,   “   19. For Colamba migratons read Colomba migratoris.
   “  106,  Note.  For asmadonta read alasmadonta.
   “  115,   “   24. For Pipisagi read Tipisagi.


  +------------------------------------------------------------------+
  |                           FOOTNOTES:                             |
  |                                                                  |
  |  [1] Detached pieces of calcareous tufa were found, imbedded in  |
  |      the soil, at the mouth of the river Brule, in 1832.         |
  |                                                                  |
  |  [2] Relation des traverses et des aventures d’un Marchand       |
  |      Voyageur dans les territoires Sauvages de l’Amérique        |
  |      Septentrionale, parti de Montreal, le 28 de Mai, 1783. Par  |
  |      Jean Baptiste Pérault.                                      |
  |                                                                  |
  |  [3] Wabidea.                                                    |
  |                                                                  |
  |  [4] He had returned with the Expedition, from Lake Superior.    |
  |                                                                  |
  |  [5] It is believed that the American Fur Company, did, however, |
  |      submit such a proposition to the Directors of the Hudson’s  |
  |      Bay Company in London, which was not acceded to by the      |
  |      latter.                                                     |
  |                                                                  |
  |  [6] Or Pami-tascodiac.                                          |
  |                                                                  |
  |  [7] From the data, above given, the descent of the Mississippi, |
  |      will average a fraction over five inches, per mile, a       |
  |      result not essentially different from that furnished by the |
  |      data, which I submitted in my Narrative Journal in 1820,    |
  |      but which was differently stated from haste and             |
  |      inadvertence. For a prompt notice of the error, I feel      |
  |      indebted to Hamilton Fulton, Esqr., who, soon after the     |
  |      appearance of the work, wrote to my publishers, on the      |
  |      subject.                                                    |
  |                                                                  |
  |  [8] Onzig, of the Chippewas.                                    |
  |                                                                  |
  |  [9] So called in honor of Lieut. James Allen, U. S. A. who, on  |
  |      his return down the Mississippi, was the first to explore   |
  |      it.                                                         |
  |                                                                  |
  | [10] A few years ago, a Mr. Beltrami, returning from the         |
  |      settlement of Pembina, by the usual route of the traders    |
  |      from Red Lake to Turtle Lake, published at New Orleans, a   |
  |      small 12mo volume under the title of “La découverte des     |
  |      sources du Mississippi, et de la Rivière Sanglante,” a work |
  |      which has since been expanded into two heavy 8vo volumes by |
  |      the London press.                                           |
  |                                                                  |
  | [11] Composed of the initials of the names of the gentlemen of   |
  |      the party.                                                  |
  |                                                                  |
  | [12] Among the dead, Wahb Ojeeg, Cadiwabida, or the Brèche,      |
  |      Chingaba Wossin, and Mozobodo, are the Chippewa patriarchs  |
  |      of modern days.                                             |
  |                                                                  |
  | [13] It has been stated in the “Preliminary Observations,”       |
  |      that it became impracticable to visit these bands, during   |
  |      the expedition of 1831.                                     |
  |                                                                  |
  | [14] Prairie du Chien.                                           |
  |                                                                  |
  | [15] St. Peter’s.                                                |
  |                                                                  |
  | [16] Family mark, or coat of arms—a kind of surname.             |
  |                                                                  |
  | [17] Report of the proceedings connected with the disputes       |
  |      between the Earl of Selkirk and the North West Company, at  |
  |      the assizes held at York in Upper Canada, Oct. 1818.        |
  |      Montreal. 8vo. 564 p.                                       |
  |                                                                  |
  | [18] Genera Unio, Anodonta, alasmadonta.                         |
  |                                                                  |
  | [19] This Chief attacked a Sioux war party, which imprudently    |
  |      ventured in the vicinity, in the fall of this year, (1832,) |
  |      and achieved a victory, in which he killed forty persons,   |
  |      and lost not a single man.                                  |
  |                                                                  |
  | [20] The total descent of the river at these falls, including    |
  |      the rapids above and below them, is stated in my “Narrative |
  |      Journal of Travels to the Sources of the Mississippi,” at   |
  |      65 feet, an estimate which it is believed may exceed the    |
  |      actual aggregate descent, and certainly does so, in the     |
  |      hasty estimate which is given of the perpendicular fall.    |
  |                                                                  |
  | [21] I am not certain that I fully comprehend the brevity        |
  |      of Mr. Eaton’s division of this formation of the English    |
  |      geologists; but if I do so, he deduces from it, or from     |
  |      its equivalent in American geology, 1. Second graywake, 2.  |
  |      Calciferous sand-rock, 3. Silicious lime rock, 4.           |
  |      Metalliferous limerock.                                     |
  |                                                                  |
  | [22] Alluding to a mound on an eminence at the mouth of the      |
  |      river.                                                      |
  |                                                                  |
  | [23] Vide Letter to his Excellency Gov. Porter, in the Appendix. |
  |                                                                  |
  | [24] This island has been the scene of a subsequent murder, in   |
  |      which an Indian was excited to kill his father-in-law.      |
  |                                                                  |
  | [25] The Crane is the totem of the reigning chiefs of the band   |
  |      of Sault Ste. Marie.                                        |
  |                                                                  |
  | [26] The double vowel is here employed to indicate the long      |
  |      sound of i, as i in machine.                                |
  |                                                                  |
  | [27] Perhaps Aurikerees, and Ornapas.                            |
  |                                                                  |
  | [28] Vide sequel.                                                |
  |                                                                  |
  | [29] See this reported, as modified by subsequent accounts.      |
  |                                                                  |
  | [30] Louis Dufault.                                              |
  |                                                                  |
  | [31] St. Peters.                                                 |
  |                                                                  |
  | [32] Signature is expressed by the ceremony of making their      |
  |      mark.                                                       |
  |                                                                  |
  | [33] On my arrival at the Petite Corbeau’s village his people    |
  |      fired a salute with ball, and after making further remarks  |
  |      on the state of their affairs, he presented me a peace-pipe |
  |      and stem.                                                   |
  |                                                                  |
  | [34] I enclose the copy of a letter on the subject of posts,     |
  |      &c., addressed by me to Gen. S. M. Street, Agent at Prairie |
  |      du Chien.                                                   |
  |                                                                  |
  | [35] I annex the speech of Mozobodo, chief of Torch Lake, on     |
  |      this subject.                                               |
  |                                                                  |
  | [36] Buffalo, of Folle Avoine.                                   |
  |      Chäcopi, of Snake River.                                    |
  |      Nodin, of     do.                                           |
  |      Läbaince, of Yellow River.                                  |
  |      The Little Frenchman, of Folle Avoine.                      |
  |      Keeshkitowug, of Yellow River.                              |
  |                                                                  |
  | [37] The Indians personify the government in the agent,          |
  |      commissioner, &c. they are addressing.                      |
  |                                                                  |
  | [38] This term is in use by the Algic or Algonquin tribes,       |
  |      particularly by the Chippewas. The Winnebagoes, who have no |
  |      equivalent for it, are generally acquainted with it,        |
  |      although I am not aware that they have, to any extent,      |
  |      adopted it. It has been supposed to be derived from the     |
  |      French _bon jour_.                                          |
  +------------------------------------------------------------------+




      *      *      *      *      *      *




Transcriber’s note:

  - Blank pages have been removed.

  - Obvious typographical errors have been silently corrected.

  - Table of contents added.

  - All errata have been applied.

  - Tables split to fit column width.

  - The book cover image was created by the transcriber and is placed
    in the public domain.