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                THE TRUSTEES OF THE JOHN F. SLATER FUND

                        OCCASIONAL PAPERS, NO. 6




                       OCCUPATIONS OF THE NEGROES


                                   BY

                             HENRY GANNETT,
                _of the United States Geological Survey_


                               BALTIMORE
                       PUBLISHED BY THE TRUSTEES
                                  1895




                         MEMBERS OF THE BOARD.


                             _Appointed._
    1882. RUTHERFORD B. HAYES, of Ohio.                    [1]1893.
    1882. MORRISON R. WAITE, of the District of Columbia.  [1]1888.
    1882. WILLIAM E. DODGE, of New York.                   [1]1883.
    1882. PHILLIPS BROOKS, of Massachusetts.               [2]1889.
    1882. DANIEL C. GILMAN, of Maryland.
    1882. JOHN A. STEWART, of New York.
    1882. ALFRED H. COLQUITT, of Georgia.                  [1]1894.
    1882. MORRIS K. JESUP, of New York.
    1882. JAMES P. BOYCE, of Kentucky.                     [1]1888.
    1882. WILLIAM A. SLATER, of Connecticut.

                              _Elected._
    1883. WILLIAM E. DODGE, JR., of New York.
    1888. MELVILLE W. FULLER, of the District of Columbia.
    1889. JOHN A. BROADUS, of Kentucky.                    [1]1895.
    1889. HENRY C. POTTER, of New York.
    1891. J. L. M. CURRY, of the District of Columbia.
    1894. WILLIAM J. NORTHEN, of Georgia.
    1894. ELLISON CAPERS, of South Carolina.               [2]1895.
    1894. C. B. GALLOWAY, of Mississippi.
    1895. ALEXANDER E. ORR, of New York.

Footnote 1:

  Died in office.

Footnote 2:

  Resigned.

From 1882 to 1891, the General Agent of the Trust was Rev. A. G.
HAYGOOD, D. D., of Georgia, who resigned the office when he became a
Bishop of the Methodist Episcopal Church, South. Since 1891, the duties
of a General Agent have been discharged by Dr. J. L. M. CURRY, of
Washington, D. C., Chairman of the Educational Committee.




                             ANNOUNCEMENT.


The Trustees of the John F. Slater Fund propose to publish from time to
time papers that relate to the education of the colored race. These
papers are designed to furnish information to those who are concerned in
the administration of schools, and also to those who by their official
stations are called upon to act or to advise in respect to the care of
such institutions.

The Trustees believe that the experimental period in the education of
the blacks is drawing to a close. Certain principles that were doubted
thirty years ago now appear to be generally recognized as sound. In the
next thirty years better systems will undoubtedly prevail, and the aid
of the separate States is likely to be more and more freely bestowed.
There will also be abundant room for continued generosity on the part of
individuals and associations. It is to encourage and assist the workers
and the thinkers that these papers will be published.

Each paper, excepting the first number (made up chiefly of official
documents), will be the utterance of the writer whose name is attached
to it, the Trustees disclaiming in advance all responsibility for the
statement of facts and opinions.




                      OCCUPATIONS OF THE NEGROES.


The statistics of occupations used in this paper are from the Census of
1890, and represent the status of the race on June 1 of that year. The
Census takes cognizance only of “gainful” occupations, excluding from
its lists housewives, school children, men of leisure, etc. Its
schedules deal only with wage-earners, those directly engaged in earning
their living.


                          GENERAL STATISTICS.

In 1890, out of a total population of 62,622,250, 22,753,884 persons, or
34.6 per cent., were engaged in gainful occupations. Of the negroes,
including all of mixed negro blood, numbering 7,470,040, 3,073,123, or
41.1 per cent., were engaged in gainful occupations. The proportion was
much greater than with the total population. This total population,
however, was composed of several diverse elements, including, besides
the negroes themselves, the foreign born (of which a large proportion
were adult males), and the native whites. The following table presents
the proportions of each of these elements which were engaged in gainful
occupations:

                       _Proportion._   _Per Cent._
                      Total population        34.6
                      Whites                  35.5
                      Native whites           31.6
                      Foreign born            55.2
                      Negroes                 41.1

The diagram No. 1 sets forth these figures in graphic form. The total
area of the square represents the population. This is sub-divided by
horizontal lines into rectangles representing the various elements of
the population, and the shaded part of each rectangle represents the
proportions engaged in gainful occupations.

The proportion was greatest among the foreign born because of the large
proportion of adults, and particularly of males, among this element.
Next to that, the proportion was greatest among the negroes, being much
greater than among the whites collectively and still greater than among
the native whites.

Classifying the wage-earners of the country in respect to race and
nativity, it appears that 64.5 per cent. were native whites, 22 per
cent. were of foreign birth, and 13.5 per cent. were negroes.

Analyzing the statistics of occupation by sex, it is discovered that the
proportion of native white males who had occupations was 53.4 and of
females 9.4 per cent. The corresponding proportion of male negroes was
56.3 per cent. and of female negroes 26.0 per cent. The male negroes
were slightly more fully occupied than were the native whites, while
among females the proportion of wage-earners was much greater. The
difference between native whites and negroes in the proportion of
wage-earners was, therefore, due mainly to the fuller occupation of
women. To put it in another form: Out of every hundred native whites who
pursued gainful occupations, 85 were males and 15 were females. Of every
hundred negroes, 69 were males and 31 were females. Indeed, a larger
proportion of women pursued gainful occupations among negroes than in
any other class of the population.


                     CLASSIFICATION OF OCCUPATIONS.

The primary classification of occupations made by the Census recognized
five great groups, as follows: 1. Professions; 2. Agriculture; 3. Trade
and transportation; 4. Manufactures; 5. Personal Service. These titles
are self-explanatory, with the possible exception of the last class,
which is mainly composed of domestic servants.

[Illustration:

  Proportion of the Population and its elements, which were engaged in
    gainful occupations in 1890.

  Diagram No. 1.
]

[Illustration:

  Classification of the Wage-earners by Race and Nativity and by
    Occupations.

  Diagram No. 2.
]

The following table shows the proportion of the negro wage-earners
engaged in each of these groups of occupations. In juxtaposition, for
comparison, are placed similar figures for the native whites and the
foreign born.

                           _Native White._ _Foreign Born._  _Negro._
                             _Per Cent._     _Per Cent._   _Per Cent._
  Professions                          5.5             2.2         1.1
  Agriculture                         41.0            25.5        57.2
  Trade and transportation            17.0            14.0         4.7
  Manufactures                        22.9            31.3         5.6
  Personal service                    13.6            27.0        31.4
                                     —————           —————       —————
                                     100.0           100.0       100.0

Similar facts are shown by diagram No. 2. In this the total area of the
square represents the number of persons in the country pursuing gainful
occupations. This is divided into rectangles by horizontal lines, the
rectangles being proportioned respectively to the numbers of the native
whites, the foreign born, and the negroes. The sub-division of these
rectangles by vertical lines indicates the proportion in each group of
wage-earners.

The most striking facts brought out by this table and diagram are that
only a trifling proportion of the negroes were in the professions, that
much more than one-half were farmers, and nearly one-third were engaged
in personal (mainly domestic) service. Indeed, over seven-eighths of
them were either farmers or servants. The proportions engaged in trade
and transportation and in manufactures were very small. In respect to
the farming class, they contrasted sharply with the foreign born. In
trade and transportation and in manufactures the contrast was even
greater, in the contrary direction. The foreign born contained a much
larger proportion of professional men.

Comparing the negroes with the native whites, equally interesting
contrasts appear. Professional men were much more numerous among whites
than among negroes. The proportion of the farming class, although much
smaller, was nearer that of the negroes than was the same class among
the foreign born. In trade and transportation and in manufactures the
native whites had much greater proportions, while in personal service
the proportion was much less than that of the negroes.


                     MALE AND FEMALE WAGE-EARNERS.

It will be interesting to analyze these figures further. The following
table classifies negro wage-earners by occupation and by sex, giving for
each sex the percentage engaged in each group of occupations:

                                        _Male._ _Female._
               Professions                  1.2       0.9
               Agriculture                 63.4      44.0
               Trade and transportation     6.8       0.2
               Manufactures                 7.0       2.8
               Personal service            21.6      52.1

These figures are also illustrated by diagram No. 3, the area of which
represents all negro wage-earners. The two rectangles into which it is
divided represent the males and females; each of these is sub-divided
into rectangles representing the number in each group of occupations. Of
the male negro wage-earners, more than three-fifths were farmers and a
little less than one-fourth were servants. The two classes jointly
accounted for nearly 85 per cent. of all.

Of the females, considerably less than one-half were farmers and more
than one-half were servants—the two classes together accounting for 95
per cent. of all. This large proportion of female negro farmers was
doubtless made up in the main of women and female children employed in
the cotton fields.


                        NUMBER OF WAGE-EARNERS.

The following table, abstracted from the Census publications, shows the
number of negroes in all occupations and in each of the five great
groups of occupations by sex and by states and territories:

[Illustration:

  Classification of Negro Wage-earners by Sex and Occupation.

  Diagram No. 3.
]

                                NEGROES.

      ─────────────────────┬───────────────────┬───────────────────
                           │ All Occupations.  │   Agriculture,
                           │                   │  Fisheries, and
                           │                   │      Mining.
      ─────────────────────┼─────────┬─────────┼─────────┬─────────
                           │ Males.  │Females. │ Males.  │Females.
      ─────────────────────┼─────────┼─────────┼─────────┼─────────
         THE UNITED STATES.│2,101,233│  971,890│1,329,584│  427,835
      ─────────────────────┼─────────┼─────────┼─────────┼─────────
       1. Alabama          │  192,322│  101,085│  146,361│   66,123
       2. Alaska           │         │         │         │
       3. Arizona          │    1,091│       71│       29│
       4. Arkansas         │   86,861│   30,115│   68,219│   19,069
       5. California       │    4,301│    1,041│    1,084│       14
       6. Colorado         │    2,765│      792│      180│        4
       7. Connecticut      │    4,064│    1,964│      879│        1
       8. Delaware         │    9,334│    3,016│    4,157│       34
       9. Dist. of Columbia│   21,238│   18,770│      553│       16
      10. Florida          │   46,302│   19,071│   23,690│    7,629
      11. Georgia          │  246,913│  122,352│  172,496│   54,073
      12. Idaho            │       83│       23│       16│        1
      13. Illinois         │   19,270│    4,713│    4,323│      134
      14. Indiana          │   14,648│    4,210│    3,273│       37
      15. Iowa             │    3,615│      730│      973│       11
      16. Kansas           │   13,889│    3,400│    4,171│      110
      17. Kentucky         │   76,411│   31,255│   38,456│    1,013
      18. Louisiana        │  159,180│   83,978│  111,820│   49,428
      19. Maine            │      409│      145│      104│        2
      20. Maryland         │   63,166│   32,642│   29,516│      743
      21. Massachusetts    │    7,593│    3,435│      601│        4
      22. Michigan         │    5,065│    1,329│    1,458│       45
      23. Minnesota        │    1,719│      383│       72│        2
      24. Mississippi      │  198,531│  105,306│  167,995│   77,925
      25. Missouri         │   43,940│   16,715│   15,757│      324
      26. Montana          │      971│      140│       41│
      27. Nebraska         │    3,741│      959│      242│        3
      28. Nevada           │      130│       22│       41│        1
      29. New Hampshire    │      242│      107│       60│
      30. New Jersey       │   16,143│    7,738│    4,166│       29
      31. New Mexico       │      888│      156│      163│        3
      32. New York         │   23,272│   13,664│    3,031│       25
      33. North Carolina   │  148,370│   68,220│  106,493│   33,796
      34. North Dakota     │      146│       23│       35│
      35. Ohio             │   28,085│    7,791│    6,201│      108
      36. Oklahoma         │      958│      125│      635│       17
      37. Oregon           │      536│       99│      106│        2
      38. Pennsylvania     │   37,534│   15,704│    4,602│       29
      39. Rhode Island     │    2,337│    1,362│      270│        2
      40. South Carolina   │  186,714│  102,836│  149,915│   73,588
      41. South Dakota     │      284│       43│       33│        1
      42. Tennessee        │  121,016│   44,701│   72,316│   12,510
      43. Texas            │  123,395│   46,691│   85,824│   20,758
      44. Utah             │      298│       51│       21│
      45. Vermont          │      322│      109│      112│        1
      46. Virginia         │  169,343│   71,752│   93,745│   10,164
      47. Washington       │      902│      153│      250│        2
      48. West Virginia    │   11,478│    2,623│    4,790│       50
      49. Wisconsin        │      855│      205│      168│        4
      50. Wyoming          │      563│       75│      141│
      ─────────────────────┴─────────┴─────────┴─────────┴─────────

      ─────────────────────┬───────────────────┬───────────────────
                           │   Professional    │   Domestic and
                           │     Service.      │ Personal Service.
                           │                   │
      ─────────────────────┼─────────┬─────────┼─────────┬─────────
                           │ Males.  │Females. │ Males.  │Females.
      ─────────────────────┼─────────┼─────────┼─────────┼─────────
         THE UNITED STATES.│   25,171│    8,829│  457,002│  505,898
      ─────────────────────┼─────────┼─────────┼─────────┼─────────
       1. Alabama          │    1,471│      491│   25,426│   33,380
       2. Alaska           │         │         │         │
       3. Arizona          │        3│         │    1,034│       67
       4. Arkansas         │    1,226│      238│   11,226│   10,506
       5. California       │       86│       21│    2,316│      897
       6. Colorado         │       75│       13│    1,702│      715
       7. Connecticut      │       61│       10│    1,925│    1,781
       8. Delaware         │       97│       32│    3,631│    2,878
       9. Dist. of Columbia│      390│      335│   12,680│   16,734
      10. Florida          │      776│      223│   13,229│   10,421
      11. Georgia          │    2,122│      958│   39,294│   65,025
      12. Idaho            │         │         │       57│       21
      13. Illinois         │      486│      116│   10,865│    4,061
      14. Indiana          │      330│      126│    7,950│    3,849
      15. Iowa             │       78│       11│    1,966│      672
      16. Kansas           │      357│       69│    6,898│    3,077
      17. Kentucky         │    1,406│      420│   22,649│   28,916
      18. Louisiana        │    1,251│      355│   31,609│   31,292
      19. Maine            │        8│        2│      174│      128
      20. Maryland         │      640│      275│   21,014│   30,406
      21. Massachusetts    │      162│       57│    4,296│    2,914
      22. Michigan         │      115│       39│    2,495│    1,102
      23. Minnesota        │       57│       13│    1,286│      315
      24. Mississippi      │    1,970│      775│   17,209│   25,729
      25. Missouri         │      897│      337│   18,899│   15,614
      26. Montana          │       25│        4│      815│      122
      27. Nebraska         │       63│        7│    2,743│      881
      28. Nevada           │         │         │       67│       18
      29. New Hampshire    │        5│         │       81│       84
      30. New Jersey       │      287│       82│    7,715│    7,339
      31. New Mexico       │       10│         │      651│      150
      32. New York         │      571│      135│   13,151│   12,445
      33. North Carolina   │    1,619│      565│   20,580│   31,393
      34. North Dakota     │        7│         │       90│       22
      35. Ohio             │      617│      246│   14,814│    6,955
      36. Oklahoma         │       22│        3│      231│      102
      37. Oregon           │       23│        5│      328│       81
      38. Pennsylvania     │      584│      197│   22,505│   14,297
      39. Rhode Island     │       38│       18│    1,161│    1,169
      40. South Carolina   │    1,543│      506│   18,554│   26,213
      41. South Dakota     │        1│        2│      115│       35
      42. Tennessee        │    1,736│      592│   25,606│   30,333
      43. Texas            │    2,031│      563│   23,360│   24,840
      44. Utah             │        1│         │      248│       48
      45. Vermont          │        3│         │      143│      102
      46. Virginia         │    1,654│      911│   39,425│   55,941
      47. Washington       │       16│        2│      480│      134
      48. West Virginia    │      166│       63│    3,515│    2,462
      49. Wisconsin        │       27│       11│      481│      161
      50. Wyoming          │       58│        1│      313│       71
      ─────────────────────┴─────────┴─────────┴─────────┴─────────

      ─────────────────────┬───────────────────┬───────────────────
                           │     Trade and     │ Manufacturing and
                           │  Transportation.  │    Mechanical
                           │                   │    Industries.
      ─────────────────────┼─────────┬─────────┼─────────┬─────────
                           │ Males.  │Females. │ Males.  │Females.
      ─────────────────────┼─────────┼─────────┼─────────┼─────────
         THE UNITED STATES.│  143,350│    2,399│  146,126│   26,929
      ─────────────────────┼─────────┼─────────┼─────────┼─────────
       1. Alabama          │    9,147│      140│    9,917│      951
       2. Alaska           │         │         │         │
       3. Arizona          │       13│         │       12│        4
       4. Arkansas         │    2,787│       27│    3,403│      275
       5. California       │      457│        3│      358│      106
       6. Colorado         │      406│        5│      402│       55
       7. Connecticut      │      634│        7│      565│      165
       8. Delaware         │      633│       21│      816│       51
       9. Dist. of Columbia│    4,776│      195│    2,839│    1,490
      10. Florida          │    4,106│       52│    4,501│      746
      11. Georgia          │   16,397│      372│   16,604│    1,924
      12. Idaho            │        8│         │        2│        1
      13. Illinois         │    1,994│       41│    1,602│      361
      14. Indiana          │    1,426│       23│    1,669│      175
      15. Iowa             │      289│        1│      309│       35
      16. Kansas           │    1,148│       20│    1,315│      124
      17. Kentucky         │    7,381│       66│    6,519│      840
      18. Louisiana        │    6,045│      129│    8,455│    2,774
      19. Maine            │       68│        2│       55│       11
      20. Maryland         │    7,538│      144│    4,458│    1,074
      21. Massachusetts    │    1,402│       34│    1,132│      426
      22. Michigan         │      448│        6│      549│      137
      23. Minnesota        │      216│        5│       88│       48
      24. Mississippi      │    5,671│       74│    5,686│      803
      25. Missouri         │    4,862│       44│    3,525│      396
      26. Montana          │       45│        1│       45│       13
      27. Nebraska         │      323│        4│      370│       64
      28. Nevada           │       17│        1│        5│        2
      29. New Hampshire    │       24│         │       72│       23
      30. New Jersey       │    2,111│       25│    1,864│      263
      31. New Mexico       │       40│         │       24│        3
      32. New York         │    4,231│       54│    2,288│    1,005
      33. North Carolina   │    7,564│      106│   12,114│    2,360
      34. North Dakota     │       10│         │        4│        1
      35. Ohio             │    3,027│       40│    3,426│      442
      36. Oklahoma         │       28│        1│       42│        2
      37. Oregon           │       42│        1│       37│       10
      38. Pennsylvania     │    5,213│      104│    4,630│    1,077
      39. Rhode Island     │      546│        3│      322│      170
      40. South Carolina   │    6,860│      188│    9,842│    2,341
      41. South Dakota     │      121│        1│       14│        4
      42. Tennessee        │   10,954│      125│   10,404│    1,141
      43. Texas            │    6,386│       69│    5,794│      461
      44. Utah             │       14│        1│       14│        2
      45. Vermont          │       33│         │       31│        6
      46. Virginia         │   15,655│      253│   18,864│    4,483
      47. Washington       │       69│         │       87│       15
      48. West Virginia    │    2,080│        7│      927│       41
      49. Wisconsin        │       74│        1│      105│       28
      50. Wyoming          │       31│        3│       20│
      ─────────────────────┴─────────┴─────────┴─────────┴─────────

[Illustration:

  Proportion of Negro Wage-earners to Negro Population.

  Diagram No. 4.
]

[Illustration:

  Grouping of the States and Territories.

  Diagram No. 5.
]

[Illustration:

  Proportions of Male and Female Wage-earners.

  Diagram No. 6.
]


               PROPORTION OF WAGE-EARNERS TO POPULATION.

The foregoing diagram No. 4 shows by the length of the bars the
proportion which the negro wage-earners bore in 1890 to the negro
population of each state. This proportion was greatest in the states and
the territories of the west. Following these are the northeastern
states, while the lower part of the column is made up of the states in
the upper Mississippi valley and those of the south.


                    OCCUPATIONS BY GROUPS OF STATES.

The distribution of wage-earners among the five occupation groups
differed widely in different parts of the country. To study it, it will
be sufficient to group the states and analyze the statistics of each
group.

The groups which will be used here are those which have been in use in
the last two censuses—namely, the northeastern and southeastern, north
central and south central, and western groups. The states and
territories of which each group is composed are shown in map No. 5.

Examination of the states forming the above groups will show that the
groups are in many respects very characteristic. The southeastern and
south central groups contain nine-tenths of the negroes of the country.
These states may be said to constitute the home of the negro, while in
the northern and western states he is an immigrant.


                  OCCUPATIONS BY SEX AND STATE GROUPS.

Diagram No. 6 shows the distribution by sex and by groups of states of
the negro wage-earners. It appears that in the northeastern,
southeastern, and south central groups two-thirds of the wage-earners
were males and one-third were females, while in the north central and
western groups about five-sixths were males and one-sixth only were
females. This is in part due to the disproportionate number of males in
these parts of the country.

Diagram No. 7 shows the distribution of the negro wage-earners,
classified by sex, among the five occupation groups and by groups of
states. The length of each bar represents 100 per cent., and each bar is
divided proportionately among the different occupation groups. Thus from
it we read that in the northeastern states 15 per cent. of the male
wage-earners were engaged in agriculture, 56 per cent. in personal
service, 16 per cent. in trade and transportation, 12 per cent. in
manufactures, and 2 per cent. in the professions.

It is seen that a far larger proportion of male wage-earners were
engaged in agriculture in the southern states than in the northern and
western states, the proportion in the two groups of the former states
being 64 and 71 per cent., while in the northeastern states only 15 per
cent. were engaged in agriculture, in the north central states 26 per
cent., and in the western states 17 per cent.

In trade and transportation the highest proportion was found in the
northeastern states, where it was 16 per cent.; in the north central
states it was 14 and in the western states 10 per cent., while in the
southeastern states it was 7 per cent. and in the south central states 7
per cent.

Of course, the magnitude of the proportion in the northeastern states is
due to the fact that this is the commercial and manufacturing section of
the country, where a large proportion of all the population is engaged
in these avocations. The same is the case, though in less degree, in the
north central states, while the southern states are almost purely
agricultural. The figures relating to manufacturing occupations show
similar characteristics. It will be noted that in the northern and
western states the occupations of the negroes were more diversified than
in the southern states. Agriculture and personal service in the
northeastern states occupied but 71 per cent. of all wage-earners, in
the north central states they occupied 75 per cent., and in the western
states 81 per cent., while in the southeastern states these two
occupation groups comprised 84 per cent. and in the south central 88 per
cent. of all.

[Illustration:

  Distribution of Occupations by Sex and Sections of the Country.

  Diagram No. 7.
]

[Illustration:

  Proportions of Males and Females among the Negro Wage-earners.

  Diagram No. 8.
]

The diagram shows in a similar manner the distribution of the female
negro wage-earners. There were engaged in agriculture in the northern
and western states but a trifling proportion of negro women, while in
the southern states as a whole nearly one-half of the female negro
wage-earners were engaged in that avocation. On the other hand, personal
service occupied fully nine-tenths of the female wage-earners in the
northern and western states, while in the southern states less than
one-half were engaged in it. Indeed, 94 per cent. of the female
wage-earners of the west were engaged in personal service, 91 per cent.
in the northeastern states, and 87 per cent. in the north central
states. In trade and transportation the proportion was trifling, and in
manufactures it was small, although much larger in the north and west
than in the south.

Here, also, we see that agriculture and personal service occupied nearly
all wage-earners—91 per cent. in the northeastern states, 96 per cent.
in the southeastern states, 89 per cent. in the north central states, 97
per cent. in the south central states, and 95 per cent. in the western
states. Occupations were slightly more diversified in the north and west
than in the southern states, as was the case with the males.


                         OCCUPATIONS BY STATES.

It will now be of interest to extend this study in detail by states,
but, in doing so, the study will be confined to the southern, the former
slave states, which are, in a sense, the home of the negro, and in which
more than nine-tenths of them live. In most of the northern states the
number of negroes is so small that any conclusions drawn from statistics
regarding them are worthless and are likely to be misleading.

Diagram No. 8 shows the distribution by sex of the negro wage-earners of
these southern states. The total length of the bar represents in each
case all the wage-earners, the white portion representing the males and
the shaded portion the females.

This diagram shows that the greatest proportion of female wage-earners
is in the District of Columbia, where it is nearly one-half of all negro
wage-earners, and the least in West Virginia, where it is less than
one-fifth of all. In most of the cotton states it ranges from one-fourth
to one-third of all negro wage-earners.

Diagrams Nos. 9 and 10 present the proportion of male and of female
negro wage-earners who are engaged in agriculture, personal service, and
other occupations in the southern states.

The first of these diagrams, representing male wage-earners, shows that
agriculture and personal service accounted for from 63 to 94 per cent.
of all male wage-earners. Indeed, excluding the District of Columbia
from consideration, from 73 to 93 per cent. were accounted for by these
two occupations.

Again excluding the District of Columbia, which is not a farming
community, the male wage-earners who were farmers constituted in the
different states proportions varying from 36 per cent. in Missouri to 85
per cent. in Mississippi. The proportion of farmers was highest in the
cotton states and decidedly less in the border states. On the other
hand, the proportion of males engaged in personal service was least in
the cotton states and increased decidedly in those further north.

The second diagram, illustrating the occupations of female wage-earners,
has certain features in common with that relating to males, but these
features are more accented. In the cotton states a large proportion of
the female wage-earners worked in the fields, and was therefore reported
as engaged in agriculture, while in the border states but a small
proportion was found there. On the other hand, domestic service claimed
nearly all female wage-earners in the border states, but in the cotton
states a relatively small proportion.

Both the diagrams, and especially the first, show an important feature.
In the cotton states wage-earners were almost entirely either farmers or
those engaged in personal service, but in the states farther north these
classes were relatively smaller and occupations were somewhat more
varied.

[Illustration:

  Proportions of Male Negro Wage-earners engaged in Agriculture,
    Personal Service and other occupations.

  Diagram No. 9.
]

[Illustration:

  Proportions of Female Negro Wage-earners engaged in Personal Service,
    Agriculture, and other Occupations.

  Diagram No. 10.
]


                     OWNERSHIP OF FARMS AND HOMES.

The statistics of farm and home ownership and of mortgage indebtedness
of the Eleventh Census throw some light upon the pecuniary condition of
the negro race.

The total number of farms and homes in the country in 1890 was
12,690,152, of which the negroes occupied 1,410,769, or 11.1 per cent.
The proportion of negroes to the total population was at that time 12.20
per cent., showing a deficiency in the proportion occupying homes and
farms when compared with the population.

The number of farms in the country was 4,767,179. Of these, 549,642, or
11.5 per cent., were occupied by negroes, being a proportion greater
than that of farms and homes combined.

The number of homes, as distinguished from farms, in the country was
7,922,973, of which 861,137, or 10.9 per cent., were occupied by
negroes, being a proportion less than that of farms and homes combined.

Of the 549,632 farms in the country occupied by negroes, 120,738, or
22.0 per cent., were owned by their occupants. The corresponding
proportion for whites was 71.7 per cent. Of course, as regards tenants,
the reverse was the case, the proportions being for whites 28.3 per
cent, and for negroes 78.0 per cent. More than three-fourths of the
farms occupied by negroes were rented; in other words, more than
three-fourths of the negro farmers were tenants, while less than
one-fourth of the white farmers were tenants.

Of the farms owned by the negroes, 90.4 per cent. were without
incumbrance. Of those owned by whites, 71.3 were without incumbrance,
showing a much larger proportion encumbered than among those owned by
negroes.

Of 861,137 homes occupied by negroes in 1890, 143,550 were owned by
their occupants and 717,587 were rented, the proportions being 19.0 per
cent. and 81.0 per cent. Corresponding proportions for whites were 39.4
per cent. and 60.6 per cent. Of the houses owned by negro occupants,
126,264, or 87.7 per cent., were free and 12.3 encumbered. Corresponding
figures for whites were 71.3 and 28.7 per cent., showing, as before, a
much greater proportion of free holdings among negroes than among
whites.

Diagrams Nos. 11 and 12 summarize the above facts in graphic form. The
total areas of the squares represent the number of farms and homes
respectively, those occupied by whites and negroes respectively being
represented by the rectangles into which the squares are divided by
horizontal lines. The vertical lines sub-divide these rectangles into
others proportional to the numbers occupied by owners without and with
incumbrance, and by renters.

The male negroes occupied in agriculture numbered, in 1890, 1,329,584.
Of these, 510,619 occupied farms, the remainder, 818,965, being
presumably farm laborers. The negro farmers, _i. e._, occupants of
farms, constituted 38.3 per cent. of the male negroes engaged in
agriculture, leaving 61.7 per cent. of the number as laborers. The
corresponding figures for whites were 60.4 per cent. and 39.6 per cent.
The proportion of negroes engaged in agriculture who were farmers—_i.
e._, occupied farms—was, therefore, much smaller than that of the
whites. In spite of this low comparative showing, however, it must be
agreed that, considering all the attendant circumstances, the proportion
of negro farm occupants—more than one-third of all negroes engaged in
agriculture—is unexpectedly large.

Summing up the salient points in this paper, it is seen that in the
matter of occupations the negro is mainly engaged either in agriculture
or personal service. He has, in a generation, made little progress in
manufactures, transportation, or trade. In these two groups of
occupations, males are in greater proportion engaged in agriculture and
females in domestic service. They have, however, during this generation,
made good progress toward acquiring property, especially in the form of
homes and farms, and, in just so far as they have acquired possession of
real estate, it is safe to say that they have become more valuable as
citizens. The outlook for them is very favorable as agriculturists, but
there is little prospect that the race will become an important factor
in manufactures, transportation, or commerce.

[Illustration:

  FARMS.

  Diagram No. 11.
]

[Illustration:

  HOMES.

  Diagram No. 12.
]


                      JOHN MURPHY & CO., PRINTERS,
                               BALTIMORE.

------------------------------------------------------------------------




                          TRANSCRIBER’S NOTES


 1. Silently corrected typographical errors and variations in spelling.
 2. Enclosed italics font in _underscores_.





End of Project Gutenberg's Occupations of the Negroes, by Henry Gannett