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THE DABISTÁN,

OR

SCHOOL OF MANNERS.




MADAME VEUVE DONDEY-DUPRÉ,
Printer to the Asiatic Societies of London, Paris, and Calcutta.
46, rue St-Louis, Paris.




THE

DABISTÁN,

OR

SCHOOL OF MANNERS,

TRANSLATED FROM THE ORIGINAL PERSIAN,

WITH NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS,

BY

DAVID SHEA,

OF THE ORIENTAL DEPARTMENT IN THE HONORABLE EAST INDIA COMPANY’S
COLLEGE;

AND

ANTHONY TROYER,

MEMBER OF THE ROYAL ASIATIC SOCIETIES OF GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND,
OF CALCUTTA AND PARIS, AND OF THE ETHNOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF PARIS;

EDITED, WITH A PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE, BY THE LATTER.


VOLUME II.


PARIS:

PRINTED FOR THE ORIENTAL TRANSLATION FUND OF GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.

SOLD BY

BENJAMIN DUPRAT, BOOKSELLER TO THE BIBLIOTHÈQUE ROYALE.

7, RUE DU CLOITRE SAINT-BENOIT.

AND ALLEN AND CO., LEADENHALL-STREET, LONDON.

1843.




THE DABISTÁN,

OR

SCHOOL OF MANNERS.




CHAPTER II.


THE SECOND CHAPTER OF THE DABISTAN describes in twelve sections the
religious systems of the Hindus:

_Section_ 1. Concerning the tenets of the _Búdah-Mímánsa_, the
followers of which are also called _Samártikan_ (_Smártís_), or
“legalists,” and are orthodox Hindus.

_Sect._ 2. Records some of their opinions relative to the creation:
their _Purans_ (_Tarikhs_), or “histories,” treat of the same subject.

_Sect._ 3. The religious ceremonies and acts of the _Smártís_, and
their orthodoxy.

_Sect._ 4. Treats of the followers of the _Vedanta_, who form the
philosophers and Súfís of this sect.

_Sect._ 5. Concerning those who profess the _Sankhya_ doctrines.

_Sect._ 6. Treats of the _Jogís_ and their doctrines.

_Sect._ 7. Describes the tenets of the _Saktíán_.

_Sect._ 8. The opinions and ceremonies of the worshippers of _Vishnú_.

_Sect._ 9. Treats of the _Chárvákián_.

_Sect._ 10. Describes the system of the _Tárkikán_, who are profound
investigators and deep thinkers in theology.

_Sect._ 11. On the tenets held by the followers of _Búdah_ (_Buddha_).

_Sect._ 12. On various religious systems professed by the people of
India.

       *     *     *     *     *

SECTION THE FIRST――CONCERNING THE ORTHODOX HINDOO SYSTEM. As
inconstant fortune had torn away the author from the shores of Persia,
and made him the associate of the believers in transmigration and
those who addressed their prayers to idols and images and worshipped
demons, therefore the tenets held by this most subtle class of
reasoners come to be considered next after those of the Parsees. It is
however necessary to premise, that among the Hindus there are many
systems of religion, and innumerable creeds and ceremonies: but there
is one principal class of this people (as will be shown in the tenth
chapter), and its rank and dignity will be brought into evidence.

Like Zardusht and the sages of antiquity, they have recourse to
metaphorical and enigmatical figures of speech, as will appear evident
in the course of this narration. Long before the present work, the
author had from books ascertained their various systems, according to
a plan which he now voluntarily abandons; as in the year of the
Hejirah 1063 (A. D. 1653), whilst sojourning at Srikakul, the capital
of Kalinga,[1] certain eminent persons who were the author’s intimate
friends, had travelled in that direction for the purpose of visiting
their holy stations; one day a conference took place, on which the
author reviewed anew what he had before heard, and with the pen of
accuracy drew the line of erasure over all that was doubtful; so that
there was found a wide difference between the first and second work on
these points.


SUMMARY OF THE DOCTRINES CONTAINED IN THE BUDAH MIMANSA.[2] The whole
world is not governed by the orders of a real Lord, and there is in
truth no reality in his actual existence. Whatever of good or evil,
reward or punishment, attaches to created beings, is entirely the
result of their acts, deeds, and words; mortals are altogether captive
in the trammels of their own works, and confined in the chains of
their own deeds: without previous acts they are liable to no
consequences. The sovereign, _Brahma_, the creator of all things; the
angelic _Víshnu_, their preserver; and _Mahesh_, or _Siva_, the
destroyer of existences, attained to this exalted eminence through
means of righteous acts and holy deeds; nay, Brahma, through the
efficacy of worship, the power of obedience, the might of his
religious austerities, and by his good actions, created the world;
agreeably to the express declaration of the _Véda_,[3] which according
to the belief of the Hindus is a celestial revelation, every dignity
of the celestial orders is inseparably connected with meritorious
works and holy deeds; and as the intellectual soul is of the same
nature as the angelic essence, the possessor may, by the exercise of
angelic qualities, become one of those exalted dignities, and during a
lengthened but definite period, be invested with power and glory. For
instance, the human spirit, which in knowledge and good works has
attained to a degree accounted worthy of the rank of Brahma, is, on
the termination of the period of sovereignty assigned to the present
Brahma, appointed to that predestined dignity: the same principle also
applying to the other angelic degrees.

This tenet therefore leads to the same inference as the opinions
entertained by the distinguished Parsee sages, namely: that the
spirits of men, on attaining complete perfection, become united to the
heavenly bodies, and after many revolutions, the celestial souls are
blended with the divine intelligences. According to the Mobed:

   “The cup-bearer poured into the goblet the wine of the celestial
      soul,
    And filled the nine empyreal domes with the beverage of human
      spirit.”

The world has neither beginning nor ending; moreover all spirits are
enchained in the bonds of their own acts and deeds; so that the spirit
of high rank which adopts the practices of the inferior, cannot attain
to the sublime rank peculiarly assigned to exalted conduct; and the
inferior spirit, sedulously given up to the works of those eminent in
dignity, is enabled to obtain that glorious pre-eminence; so that
their meritorious works confer on them knowledge; and the purity of
their intellects, in proportion to their elevation, conducts them to
high degrees and praiseworthy deeds. The dominion obtained by an
animal body over the human soul arises from works; as in their
members, physical structure, and senses, all men are fashioned after
one model; but through the cause of becoming or unbecoming deeds, one
is a sovereign ruler, and another a destitute dependent. Thus, through
the influence of praiseworthy acts, one is honored and opulent; and
owing to a subservience to foul deeds, another lives degraded and
indigent; the high and dignified agent of opulence and honor falls not
into the depths of poverty, nor does the wretched slave to acts of
covetousness and avarice ever attain the dignity of honor and riches.
The world is the root and productive soil of works, and time is their
developer; because, when their time comes, it brings the fruit, just
as every season produces the flowers, sweet-scented plants, and fruits
suitable to the period; in like manner, the result of every act,
whether deserving of praise or censure, is made to adhere to its
agent, in whatever revolution that may be proper for it. Works are
divided into two kinds: those which are to be performed; the other,
those which are to be avoided: under the first, come those acts, the
performance of which is enjoined in the Vedas, or the celestial
revelation, such as the established worship and the requisite acts of
obedience which prevail among the Hindoos; under the second head come
those acts, the committing of which is forbidden by the text of the
celestial code; such as shedding blood, theft, immoral practices, and
other similar acts there enumerated. The supreme Lord stands not in
need of our adoration and obedience, nor is he in any want of us for
the performance of the above-mentioned duties at our hands; but the
results of our acts and deeds, in reference to rewards and
punishments, accrue and adhere to us. For instance, if the invalid
should adopt habitual moderation, he obtains that health which is the
object of his wishes, and his existence is thereby rendered happy; but
should he, from a bias to reprehensible pleasures, the concomitants of
disease, withdraw from the restraints of abstinence, his life becomes
embittered; the physician, in either case, being totally independent
of the patient’s welfare and sufferings. Moreover, the world is the
abode of disease, and human beings are the patients: if they acquit
themselves in the most perfect manner of their prescribed duties, and
strenuously avoiding what ought not to be done, they attain the state
of health, the most elevated degree of which is liberation from this
degraded body, and union with the ambrosial sweets of paradise; which
state is called _Mukti_ by this sect; and the mode of attaining the
highest degree of Mukti is not being immersed in the pleasures of this
world, plucking away the heart from the gratifications of sense, being
content with mere necessaries, abstaining from food, breaking the fast
with viands not relished by the vile appetite, and such like: just as
in sickness, for the sake of dissolving the morbid matter, it becomes
necessary to fast one day, and to swallow bitter draughts.

Such is the substance of the tenets professed by the sect entitled
Budah-Mimansá, which coincide exactly with those of the Yezdáníáns,
except that the latter admit the being of the self-existent God, the
sole and true object of adoration; regarding the acts and deeds
performed in this world as the means of elevation and degradation in
the next; holding the angelic dignities to be imperishable; and
esteeming human perfection to consist in attaining to the society and
service of the sublime assembly in the court of heaven; whilst the
followers of the Budah Mimansa do not admit the existence of the
eternal and infinite Lord; but according to them, the term “Almighty”
signifies the human soul, acts, and deeds. They also assert, that the
blessings of paradise are transitory, and that the angelic dignities
are liable to perish. However, the orthodox opinion, which is most
prevalent at this time, is this: they admit the being of the
truly-existing God, by whom the world subsists; but account his holy
essence altogether exalted, and exempt from whatever effects created
beings. They also believe that human beings are confined by the yokes
of their own works, and enchained by their deeds, in the manner before
stated.


     [1] The name of a country: this name is applied in the
     Puranas to several places, but it usually signifies a
     district on the Coromandel coast, extending from below
     Cuttack to the vicinity of Madras.――D. S.

     [2] بوده ميمنس is the reading of the edition of Calcutta;
     the same spelling of _Budh_, or _Budah_, is found when the
     name of the legislator, properly _Buddha_, is introduced, as
     in p. 175 of the same edition, and elsewhere. But _Budah_
     may also signify “past, gone,” and therefore “prior;” on
     that account D. Shea rendered the above name by _Purva_ (or
     “prior”) _Mimansa_. According to Colebrooke and Mr. Wilson,
     मीमांसा _Mímánsá_, signifies one of the philosophical
     systems of the Hindús, or rather a two-fold system, the
     first part of which is the _Purva Mímánsá_, or _Mímánsá_,
     simply; the second part, the _Uttara Mímansa_. “The prior
     Mímánsá, founded by Jaimini, teaches the art of reasoning,
     with the express view of aiding in the interpretation of the
     Vedas. The _Uttara_, or “latter,” commonly called the
     _Vedanta_, and commonly attributed to Vyasa, deduces from
     the Vedas a refined psychology, which goes to the denial of
     a material world.”――(_Colebrooke’s Essays._)

     But the above account of the Dabistán is not strictly and
     fully in accordance with this definition of the first
     Mímánsá, because it exhibits more of the Puranic than of the
     Vedáic doctrine, not without some particular notions. It
     appeared therefore best to adhere to the reading of the
     original text.――A. T.

     [3] Védá, the generic term for the sacred writings, or
     scriptures, of the Hindús. See a subsequent note about the
     four Védas.


SECTION THE SECOND TREATS OF CERTAIN OPINIONS ENTERTAINED BY THIS SECT
CONCERNING THE CREATION: A SUBJECT WHICH IS ALSO DISCUSSED IN THEIR
PURANAS OR HISTORIES.――In the second part of the Bhagavat, one of
their most esteemed Puránás, it is recorded that the Almighty Creator,
in the beginning, first placed the mantle of existence on the bosom of
_Prakriti_,[4] or “nature,” and produced the fourteen _Bhuvanas_,[5]
or “worlds.” The first sphere is that of the earth, which has been
estimated by some of the ancients at five Kotes (50 millions) of
Yojans,[6] each Kote being equal to one hundred Lakhs (10 millions)
and each Jojun to one Parasang and one-third; above the terrestrial is
the aqueous sphere; above which is that of fire; beyond which is the
aërial, over the celestial; beyond which is the _Ahankar_,[7] or that
of “consciousness;” and higher than this is the _Mahat-tat_
(_Mahat-tatwam_)[8] or “essence,” which is equal to ten of those below
it; and Prakrit having enveloped it, intelligence penetrating through
all the things before said, rises above: on earth it becomes
knowledge; by means of water, there is taste; by means of fire, form;
by means of air, the touch of cold and dry; by means of the heavens,
there is the perception of sound; and the organs of perception, are
the exterior senses; and the internal sense is the seat of
consciousness. In the same part of the Bhagavat it is stated that, by
nature, the heavens are the vehicle of sounds; and consequently, the
nature of the air gives the perception of sound and touch; in all
other bodies the air is spirit, and from it arises the energy of the
senses. To the nature of fire belongs the perception of sound, touch
and form; to the nature of water, that of sound, touch, form, and
savor; and to the nature of earth, that of sound, touch, form, savor,
and odor.

Of the fourteen created spheres, seven rise above the waist of the
Almighty, and the remaining seven correspond with the lower part of
his body; according to which enumeration the _Bhú-lok_,[9] or the
earth and terrestrial beings form “his waist;” the _Bhúvanlok_,[10] or
the space between the earth and sun, “his navel;” the _Surlok_,[11]
“his heart;” the _Mehrlok_,[12] “his breast;” the _Jonlok_,[13] “his
neck;” the _Tapalok_,[14] “his forehead;” the _Satyolok_,[15] “his
head;” the _Atellok_,[16] “his navel and podex;” the _Batellok_,[17]
“his thigh;” the _Sotollok_,[18] “his knee;” the _Talátellok_,[19]
“the calf of the leg;” the _Mahátollok_,[20] “the heel;” the
_Rasatollok_,[21] “the upper part of the foot;” the _Pátállok_,[22]
“the sole of the foot.”

There is another division limited to three spheres: the _Bhúlok_, “the
sole of the Almighty’s foot;” the _Bhuvarlok_, “his navel;” the
_Súrlók_, “his head;” the whole fourteen gradations in detail are thus
reduced to three, signifying a mighty personage, the same as the
Deity.

In the same section of that volume it is also stated, that from the
Almighty sprang _Svabhávah_,[23] “the self-existing;” that is, Nature
and Time; from Nature and Time proceeded forth _Prakrit_, which
signifies _Símáí_, “universe;”[24] from Prakrit came forth
_Mahat-tat_;[25] and from this latter, which is the same as _Mádah_,
“mental exaltation,” issued the three _Ahankárs_, or modes of
consciousness, “personality, egotism,” _Satek_, _Rajas_, _Tamas_.[26]
_Satek_, “goodness,” means “the intellectual energy;” _Rajas_, or
passion, “the attraction of vile propensities,” or “sensual pursuits;”
and _Tamas_ (darkness), “the repelling of what repugns,” in Arabic,
_Ghazab_, or “wrath.” From _Rajas_ issued forth the senses; from
_Satek_, the lords of nature and the servants of the existing beings;
and from _Tamas_ came forth _Shaid_, “enchantment;” _Shuresh_,
“confusion;” _Rup_, “form;” _Darsan_, “sight;” and _Gandah_,
“smell;”[27] that is, hearing, touch, sight, taste, and smell; from
which five were produced the heavens, air, fire, water, and earth.
Also from the three above-mentioned properties (_gunás_) the three
mighty angels, _Vishna_, _Brahma_, and _Mahísh_, came into the area of
the creation.[28] Moreover, for the purpose of creation, eight other
Brahmas were also impressed by the first Brahma with the characters of
existence, and these became the various gradations of the spiritual,
corporeal, the high, the low, the mineral, vegetable, and animal
kingdoms.

In some of their treatises, God is the same as time, works, and
nature; whilst, according to others, these are regarded as the
instruments of his majesty.

In other treatises, the Almighty is held to be light, surpassingly
great and splendid, of exceeding brilliancy and radiance, corporeal,
invested with members.

Other descriptions represent him as pure light, abstract being, simple
existence, unconfined by place, exempt from transmigration, free of
matter, without parts, uncompounded, divested of the attributes of
accidents, and the creator of the world, and all therein contained.
According to other dissertations, God is the producer of beginning and
end, exhibiting himself in the mirror of pure space, containing the
higher and lower, the heavenly and terrestrial bodies.

It is stated in the first part of the Bhagavat, that the
truly-existing is an abstract being, one without equal or opposite,
who in the various languages amongst the human race has denominations
suited to the belief of his worshippers, and that the mode of
attaining union with him depends on eradicating wrath, extirpating
bodily gratifications, and banishing the influence of the senses. This
holy essence is called _Naráyan_,[29] whose heads, hands, and feet
exceed all number.

At the period when this world and all it contains were buried under
the waters, _Tot_, or “intellect” lay reclined in the sleep of unity,
on the head of _Adsesh_,[30] the supporter of the earth. From the
navel of this exalted being appeared the lotus flower, called by the
Hindoos _Kawal_;[31] out of which arose _Brahma_, from the members of
whose mighty existence all created beings hastened into the area of
visibility.

It is recorded in other treatises of this sect, that they give the
name of _Naráyan_, or “the majesty without color,”[32] that is,
“without the qualities of accidents,” to the absolute essence and
abstract being of God, who is in pure space. They say, moreover, that
his essence, which is devoid of all forms, made a personage called
_Brahma_, who was constituted the medium of creation, so that he
brought all other existences from behind the curtain of nonentity into
the luminous area of being. In like manner that sublime essence
manifested itself in the soul of Vishnu, so that he became an
_Avatár_, and to him is confided the preservation of whatever Brahma
created. That glorious essence next called up Mahadeo, for the purpose
of destroying Brahma’s creation, whenever infinite wisdom requires the
transformation of the visible into the invisible world; from which
three agents arises the arrangement of all things in the universe.[33]
They say that _Brahma_ is an aged man with four heads; _Naráyan_, or
_Vishnu_, holds in his hand the _Chakra_, or _Disk_, “a sort of
weapon;” he always assumes the _Avatárs_, or “incarnations;” of which
ten are greatly celebrated. _Avatár_[34] means appearance or
manifestation; _Karan_[35] signifies cause; Brahma, Vishnu, and
Mahadeo are called _Trikaran_, or the three causes.

In the Satya-Jog there was a Rakshas[36], named _Sámak Asur_, who
performed such great religious austerities, that he became enabled to
work miracles; he having taken the Anant-Ved[37] which was in Brahma’s
possession, and from which are derived the four Vedas given to
mankind, fled into the water; on this, Vishnu, on the fifth day of the
fifth month, _Chét_,[38] “March-April,”[39] in the _Kishn Bichah_,
having assumed the _Matsyávátar_, or “the form of a fish,” plunged
into the water, slew the Rakshas, and recovered the Veda: this was the
first Avatar.

The second was the _Kurmávátar_, or “that of the tortoise.” _Anant
Ved_ signifies “the numberless Vedas;” _Matsya_, “a fish;” _Avatár_,
“descent,” or “manifestation;” _Chét_, “the fifth solar month;” _Kishn
Bicheh_, “that portion of the month which is without moonlight and
when the nights are dark.”

On the twelfth of _Chét_, in the _Kishn Bicheh_, he assumed the
_Kurmávátár_, or “that of the tortoise.” They say that the Angels and
Deeves (Asurs), taking the serpent _Vásukir_,[40] formed with him a
cord, and fastening this to a lofty mountain called _Mandára_,[41]
made with it a churn-staff, which they moved about in the mighty
ocean, whilst Naráyan remained under the mountain to prevent it from
falling; and by this agitation they procured the water of life. In the
kingdom of _Kalinga_, they have formed the image of a tortoise, and
among the wonderful sights of that region is the following miraculous
event: if they cast the bones of a Brahman or a cow into the adjacent
reservoir, in the course of a year one half of it becomes stone, and
the other half remains unchanged. It is worthy of remark, that some
Persian astronomers represent the constellation Cancer by a tortoise,
nay call it by that name, instead of _Kharchang_, or “crab.” Ferdúsi,
the sage, thus expresses himself:

   “The lunar lord beheld the ascendancy of the tortoise.”

And as they account Cancer the ascendant sign of the world, it is
therefore likely that the ancient Hindú philosophers represented this
constellation[42] under the figure of the _Kurma_, or “tortoise;” also
by the _Matsya_, or “fish,” is meant the constellation _Hút_, or
“Pisces.”

The third was the _Baráh_, or “boar Avátar,” when a Rakshas, named
_Karanyáksha_, having taken away the earth and carried it under the
water, Vishnu, on the sixteenth of Chet in the _Shakl Pacheh_,[43] or
“bright half of the moon,” assumed the form of a boar, slew the demon
with his tusks and brought out the earth.

The fourth was the _Narsinha_, or “man-lion Avátar.” There was a
Rakshas named _Kiranya Kashípú_, whose son, _Prahláda_, worshipped
Vishnu, and as his father persecuted him on that account, Vishnu,
therefore, on the fourteenth of _Baisakh_,[44] in the _Shakl Pacha_,
or “bright half of the moon,” having assumed the form of the Narsingh,
whose head and claws were those of a lion joined to a human body, slew
the demon Kiranya Kashipú.

The fifth was the _Vá-mana_, or “dwarf Avatar.” When the Rakshas, Bali
daitya, through his religious exercises and austerities had become
lord of the three worlds, that is, of all above the earth and below it
and the heavens, so that the angels were hard pressed and deprived of
their power; Vishnu, therefore, on the twelfth of _Bhadun_[45] in the
_Shakl Pachah_, descended in the _Vámanah Avátár_, and coming into the
presence of Bali, requested as much of the earth as he could traverse
in three steps: to this Bali consented, although _Sukra_, or “the
planet Venus,” the director and guardian of the demons, exhorted him
not to grant the request, saying: “This is Vishnu, who will deceive
thee.” Bali replied: “If he come to me as a suitor, what can answer my
purpose better?” Vishnu, on this, included the whole earth in one
step, the heavens in the second, and in the third, rising up to his
navel, said to Bali, “Whither can I pass?” Bali, on this, presented
his head; on which Vishnu, who saw this, having placed his foot, sent
_Bali_[46] below the earth, where he has ever since continued to reign
with sovereign power, during many hundred thousands of years. It is to
be noted, that _Vá-mana_ means a dwarf, as he was a diminutive
Brahman.

The sixth Avátar was _Paras u Rama_.[47] The _Chatri_, or “military
caste,” having become evil doers, in consequence of this, Vishnu, on
the seventh of _Bhadun_, in the _Shakl pachah_, or “bright half of the
moon,” assumed the Avátar of _Parasúram_, who was of the seed of the
Brahmans. In this incarnation he exterminated the Chettri class so
utterly, that he even ripped open their females and slew the fœtus.
According to the Hindus, _Parasuram_ is always living; they call him
_Chirangivah_, or “long-lived.”

The seventh is the _Ram Avátar_:[48] when the tyranny of the Rakshas
_Rávana_, sovereign of the demons, had exceeded all bounds, Vishnu, on
the ninth of Chet in the Shaklpachah, becoming incarnate in Rama, who
was of the Chettri caste, overthrew at that time Rávána, chief of the
demons of _Lanka_, (Ceylon). Now Lanka is a fort built of golden
ingots, situated in the midst of the salt ocean. He also recovered
Sita,[49] the wife of Rama, who had had been taken away by the
Rokshas, which is a name given by the Hindoos to a frightful demon.

The eighth was the _Krishn Avátar_. When Vishnu, in the _Dwapar-Jog_,
on the eighth of Bhádún, in the Kishn pachah, having assumed the
Avátar of _Krishna_, slew _Kansá_. Krishna was also of the Chettri or
“military caste.”

The ninth was the _Budh avatar_. When ten years only of the
_Dwapar-Jog_ remained,[50] Vishnu, in order to destroy the demons and
evil genii, the causers of night, assumed the Avátar of _Buddha_, on
the third of _Baisakh_, in the Shakl pacheh.

The tenth Avátar is to occur at the expiration of the _Kali-jug_, for
the purpose of destroying the Mlechas, or “enemies of the Hindoos.”
The _Kalki Avátar_ is to take place on the third of Bhádún, in the
Shakl Pachah, in the city of _Sumbul_, in the house of a Brahman named
_Jasa_. _Kalki_ is also to be of the Brahman caste. He will destroy
the corruptions of the world, and all the Mlechas, that is,
Muhammedans, Christians, Jews, and such like, are to be entirely
extirpated: after which the Satyog, or “golden age,” is to return.

They moreover maintain, that the contingently-existing inhabitants and
beings of earth are unable to penetrate into the presence of the
necessarily-existing sovereign, and that the essence of the Creator is
too exalted for any created beings to attain to an acquaintance with
it, notwithstanding the high knowledge and piety with which they may
be adorned: it therefore seemed necessary to the Almighty God to
descend from the majesty of abstractedness and absolute existence, and
exhibit himself in the various species of angels, animals, man, and
such like, so as to enable them to attain to some knowledge of
himself. They therefore assert, that for the purpose of satisfying the
wishes of his faithful servants, and tranquillizing their minds, he
has vouchsafed to manifest himself in this abode, which manifestation
they call an Avátar and hold this to be no degradation to his essence.
This tenet has been thus interpreted by Shidosh, the son of Anosh:
According to the Súfís, the first wisdom is the knowledge of God, and
of the universal soul, his life; and in this place they have
expatiated upon the attributes of the Almighty; thus by Brahma they
mean his creative power; and by the old age of Brahma is implied his
perfection: philosophers also call the first intelligence, the
intellectual Adam, and the universal soul, the intellectual Eve. The
sage Sunai has said:

   “The father and the mother of this gratifying world,
    Know, is the soul of the word,[51] and the sublime wisdom.”

By Vishnu is meant his attribute of divine love, and also the
universal soul; and they give the name of Avátar to the spirit derived
from the soul of the first heaven; in which sense they have said:
“Avátars are rays issuing from Vishnu’s essence.”

But these sectaries do not mean that the identical spirit of Rám, on
the dissolution of its connection with his body, becomes attached to
the body of Krishna; for they themselves assert that Parsurám (the
sixth Avátar) is immortal, and his body everlasting.

When Rámachandra became incarnate, he encountered the other; and
Parsurám, having posted himself on the road with hostile intentions,
Rámachandra said: “Thou art a Brahman and I a Chettri: it is incumbent
on me to show thee respect:” then applying the horn of his bow to
Parsurám’s foot, he deprived him of all power. When Parsurám who is
now along with his wife in the heavens, enrolled among the stars: he
was the instructor of Rama, and brought him to the knowledge of
himself; and his counsels to Ráma have been collected by the Rishi
Valmiki in the History of Ráma, called the _Ramáyana_, and the name of
_Jog-Vashishta_, given to them, which they call _Indrazaharájóg
Vashishta_.[54] Some parts of these tales were selected by a Brahman
of Kashmir, and afterwards translated into Persian by _Mulla
Muhammed_, a Súfí. To resume: Ráma, on hearing this expression from
Parsurám, said: “My arrow, however, errs not:” he then discharged some
arrows which have become the janitors of paradise, and do not permit
Parsurám to enter therein. This parable proves that they are by no
means taken for Avátars of Naryáan; as, although Pursurám and Rám were
two Avátárs of Vishnu, yet they knew not each other. Again, it is an
established maxim among philosophers, that one soul cannot be united
in one place with two distinct bodies. Besides, it is certain that
they give the name “Avatárs of Naráyan” to the souls which emanate
from the universal soul; and that they call Naráyan the soul of the
empyreal, or the fourth heaven. As to their assertions that Naráyan is
God, found himself destitute of strength, he asked his name, and on
learning that it was Ramachandra, he was greatly astonished, and said:
“Has Rámachandra’s Avátar taken place?” and Rámachandra having replied
“Certainly,” Parsurám said: “My blow is not mortal, I have taken away
thy understanding.” On this account it happened that Rámachandra
possessed not intelligence in his essence, and was unacquainted with
his true state, wherefore they style him the _Mudgha_, or stupid
Avátar.[52]

Vasishta, one of the Rishies,[53] or “holy sages,” and their
acknowledging his Avátars as God, and their saying that the Almighty
has deigned to appear under certain forms, all this means that a
Naráyan is the same with the universal soul, which the Súfees entitle
“the life of God.” As life is an attribute of the Almighty, and the
perfection of attributes constitutes his holy essence, consequently
the souls which emanate from the universal soul, or that of the
empyreal heaven, which is the life of God, know themselves, and
acquire the ornaments of pure faith and good works; and also, on being
liberated from body, they become identified with the universal soul,
which is Vishnu, or the life of God, agreeably to this saying: “_He
who knows his own soul, knows God_:” that is, he becomes God.

As to their acknowledging the fish, tortoise, and boar to be
incarnations of the divinity, by this they mean, that all beings are
rays emanating from the essence of the Almighty, and that no
degradation results to him therefrom, according to this narration of
the _Mir Sáíd Sharif_, of Jarjan (Georgia).

As a Súfí and rhetorician were one day disputing, the latter said: “I
feel pain at the idea of a God who manifests himself in a dog or hog:”
to which the Súfee replied: “I appeal from the God who displays not
himself in the dog.” On this, all present exclaimed: “One of these two
must be an infidel.” A man of enlightened piety drew near, and showing
them the exact import of these expressions, said: “According to the
belief of the rhetorician, the dignity of God is impaired by his
manifesting himself in the dog; he is therefore distressed at the idea
of a God thus deficient. But, according to the Súfee, the
non-appearance of God in that animal would be a diminution of his
dignity, he therefore appeals against a God deficient in this point:
consequently, neither of them is an infidel.” So that, in fact, the
Súfís and these sectaries entertain the same opinions.

The author of this work once said to Shídósh: “We may affirm that by
the fish is meant the lord, or conservative angel, of water;” as,
according to their mythology, a demon having taken the Vedas under
that element, was pursued and slain by Vishnu, and the Vedas brought
back: thus their mention of a fish originated from its inseparable
connection with water. By the tortoise is meant the lord, or
conservative angel, of earth; as their mythology relates, that the
Avátar of the tortoise occurred for the purpose of the earth being
supported on its back, as is actually the case; they have also
especially mentioned the tortoise, as it is both a land and aquatic
creature, and that after water comes earth. By the boar are meant the
passions and the propagation of living creatures; and as to the
tradition of a demon having stolen away the earth and taken it under
the water, and of his being pursued by Vishnu under the form of a
boar, and slain by his tusks, its import is as follows: the demon
means dissolute manners, which destroyed the earth with the deluge of
sensuality; but on the aid of the spirit coming, the demon of
dissoluteness was overthrown by the tusks of continence: the boar is
particularly mentioned, because its attribute is sensuality; and it
was reckoned an Avátár, because continence is virtue. The _Narsinh_,
or “man-lion,” is the lord, or conservative angel of heroism; and as
this constitutes a most praiseworthy quality, they said, that the
Narsinh was a form with a lion’s head and a human body, for when they
spoke of impetuous bravery in a man, they made use of the term “lion.”
By _Vámana_, or “dwarfish stature,” they meant, the lord of reason,
strength of reflection, and an intellectual being; the dwarfish
stature implying that, notwithstanding a diminutive person, important
results may be obtained through him; as in almost a direct allusion to
this, people say: “An intelligent man of small stature is far superior
to the tall blockhead.” By Rajah _Bali_, they typify generosity and
liberality.

Shidósh was delighted at this interpretation, and said: “They have
also recorded that Krishna had sixteen thousand wives; and when one of
his friends who thought it impossible for Krishna to visit all of
them, said to try him: ‘Bestow on me one of thy wives,’ Krishna
answered: ‘In whatever female’s apartment thou findest me not, she is
thine.’ His friend went into the different apartments, but in every
one of them he beheld the god engaged in conversation with its
mistress.” This story implies, that the love of Krishna was so rooted
in their hearts, that they cared for none besides, having his image
present to their eyes, and dwelling every moment on his beloved idea.

The tradition of Vishnu’s always bearing the Chakra in his hand (a
kind of military weapon), alludes to the knowledge and decisive
demonstration which are unattainable without the aid of soul.

In Mahadeo, they allude to our elementary nature by the serpent twined
round his neck; they mean anger, and the other reprehensible qualities
which result from corporeity; by his being mounted on a bull, the
animal propensities; by the tradition of his place of repose being the
site for burning the dead, is signified, the total dispersion of the
particles of bodies and the perishable nature of things. Mahadeo’s
drinking poison is also to the same purport. In this sense they also
say that Mahadeo is the destroyer of all worldly things; that is,
elemental nature imperatively requires the dissolution of combination
(connection), and that ultimately death comes in the natural course.

They also hold that every angel has a wife (female energy), of a
similar generic constitution, and originally derived from Brahma; and
as we have before stated, the philosophers call the first intelligence
the True Sire, and the universal soul, Eve; and thus he is the head
and the wife the shoulder; the universal soul is the body of the
empyreal heaven; and in like manner the other celestial souls and
bodies have wives of the elementary nature; as they give the
appellation of wife, or energy, to whatever is the manifest source of
action.

Moreover the established doctrine held by these sectaries is, that
each class should worship a particular angel, and the wife or female
energy of that angel; the worshipper regarding the object of his
adoration as God, and all others, as created beings; for example, many
believe Naráyan to be the supreme God; several others, look up to
Mahadéo, and many to the other male and female divinities; and thus,
pursuant to the four Védas, which according to their common belief are
a celestial revelation, they do not hold any angel who is the object
of their praise as distinct from God: by which they mean that God, who
is without equal, having manifested himself under innumerable modes of
appearance, contemplates the glorious perfection of his essence in the
mirrors of his attributes; so that, from the most minute atom to the
solar orb, his holy and divine essence is the source of all that
exists.

  “To whatever quarter I directed my sight, thou appearedst there;
   How widely art thou multiplied, even when thy features are unseen!”

The Fakir Arzú says: the above interpretation is confirmed by this
tradition of the Hindus, that _Agasti_,[55] a star, was formerly a
holy man, who once collected all the waters in the palm of his hand,
and swallowed the whole; which means that Agasti is the same as
Sohail, a star adjacent to the south pole, on the rising of which, all
the water that has fallen from heaven is dried up, agreeably to the
Arabic saying:

  “_When Suhail ascends, the torrents subside._”

Many enigmatical and figurative expressions of a similar description
occur in their writings; for example, _Mahésh_ or _Mahadeo_, is an
angel with matted locks and three eyes, which are the sun, moon, and
fire; he has also five heads; his necklace is formed of a serpent, and
his mantle of an elephant’s hide. There are nine Brahmas, eleven
Rudras or Mahadeos, twelve suns, and ten regions, viz.: east, west,
south, north, zenith, _Nadir_, _Akni_, “between east and south;”
_Níreti_, “between south and west;” _Dayab_, “between west and north;”
and _Isan_, “between north and east.” The angels are in number
thirty-three Kotes, or three hundred and thirty millions, each Kote
consisting of one hundred Laks, or ten millions. These angels have
spiritual wives, who produce a spiritual offspring. They likewise hold
human spirits to be an effulgence proceeding from the divine essence;
if to knowledge they add good works, with a clear perception of
themselves and of God, they return to their original source; but
should they not know themselves and God, and yet perform praiseworthy
acts, they dwell in Paradise, where they remain during a period of
time proportioned to their meritorious works; on the expiration of
which period they are again sent down to this lower world, and again
to receive a recompense proportioned to their deeds.

The actions even of the inhabitants of Paradise undergo an
investigation, and are attended with reward or punishments duly
graduated. They also hold that all those persons who are not
sufficiently worthy of entering into paradise, but who have observed
religious ordinances in order to obtain dominion and worldly
enjoyments, shall acquire their object in a future generation. They
also say, in respect to any great personage, in whose presence the
people stand girt with the cincture of obedience, that the rewards and
results are, that this person continues in a suppliant attitude
devoted to the service of God and those individuals who prostrate
themselves before him, are in fact humbling themselves in adoration of
the Almighty; in short, they hold all splendor and greatness as the
rewards of alms and good works; thus they relate that whilst the
incarnation of Rámchandra abode in the desert, he sent his brother
Lachman to bring some roots of herbs in order to break his fast; but,
notwithstanding a diligent search, he being unable to find any,
returned and represented this to Rámchand, who replied: “The earth
abounds in food and drink; but in a former generation, on this very
day, I omitted the performance of an act which would have been well
pleasing in the sight of God, namely, that of contributing to the
sustenance of indigent Brahmans.”

They moreover believe that evil-doers, after death, become united to
the bodies of lions, tigers, wolves, dogs, swine, bears, reptiles,
plants, and minerals, in this world, and receive under these forms
their well merited punishment; but that those who have been guilty of
aggravated crimes are hurried off to the infernal regions, where they
remain suffering torture during a period of time proportioned to their
evil deeds; and when they have undergone the destined punishment, they
again return to this world. They also believe that there is in
paradise a sovereign, named Indra, and that whoever offers up a
hundred _Aswamédas_,[56] becomes Indra. When his appointed time in
paradise, in the full enjoyment of sovereign power has passed, he is
on the expiration of that period to descend to the lower world, and
there obtains a recompense proportioned to his acts. Moreover, Indra’s
spouse is named Sachí Devi, and falls to the share of the person who
attains the rank of Indra. Note: by Aswaméda is meant the sacrifice of
a horse of a certain color, and according to certain established
rites. However, by Aswaméd, their learned doctors understand
“abnegation of the mind:” for imagination is a fierce charger, the
sacrifice of which is an imperative duty on the religious ascetic; or
it may allude to the destruction of the animal passions.

They also believe that angelic beings are subject to concupiscence,
and wrath, and the cravings of hunger and thirst; their food
consisting of perfumes and incense, sacrifices, meat and drink
offerings, with the alms and oblations made by mankind; and their
beverage, the water of life.

They also assert that the stars were holy personages, who, on leaving
this world of gloom, through the efficacy of religious mortifications
became luminous bodies, ascending from the lower depths of this abode
of the elements to the zenith of the crystalline sphere; nay, their
birth-place, name, family, with the names of their fathers and
grandfathers, are carefully enumerated in the sacred volumes of this
sect. Thus they say that Sanicher (the slow-traveller) or Saturn, is
the son of the glorious Luminary; and Mirrikh or Mars, the son of the
Earth; the world-enlightening sun, the issue of _Kashyapa_, the son of
Maríchí, the son of Brahma; Zóhrah (or the regent of Venus) the son of
_Bhrigu_; and _Utáred_ (Mercury) the son of _Kamer_ (the regent of the
moon). Some however maintain the moon to be the son of Attri the Holy,
but, according to others he is sprung from the sea of milk.

[57]*These opinions contain a marked allusion to the tenets held by
the distinguished Parsi sages, namely, that the intellectual soul has
a relation to that sphere with which its good actions are connected:
they consequently apply the denomination of Sun to the spirit of one
united to the sun, and his father is entitled “the father of the
Sun.”*

The writer of this work once observed to Shídósh, the son of Anosh:
“Perhaps they mean by the sires of the stars, their presiding
intelligences, as in the technical language of philosophers, the name
of sires is also given to the intelligences, on which account Jesus
called the Almighty ‘Father.’”

According to them the elements are five in number, the fifth being the
Akas (or ether), which word in its common acceptation means “the
heavens;” but according to the learned it implies empty space, or
space void of matter. One of their distinguished doctors, _Sumitra_,
son of the Ray of Kalinga, holds that _Akas_, which the Greek
Platonists call _space_, is simple and uncompounded. Damudar Das Kaul,
a learned Brahman of Kashmir, also holds Akas to signify _space_; and
space is understood by the Platonists among the Yonian to be an extent
void of any substance (a vacuum), which may be divided into parts,
_the totality_ of which _parts_ may be equivalent to that extent of
the general vacuum which is congruous and equal to it, in such a
manner as to comprise every particle of that extent which is the space
in every _particular_ division of the general space. There is an
extent interposed between two things, and this extent is void and free
of matter. According to their account, no better interpretation of
_Akas_ than that which is conveyed by the word space, can be
offered.[58]

They moreover assert that the heavens have no existence, and that the
constellations and stars are fixed in the air. According to them there
are seven _samudras_, that is oceans, on this earth: the salt sea,
that of sugar-cane juice, the sea of spirituous liquors, that of
clarified butter, the sea of curds, the lacteal, and lastly, that of
sweet waters. They also say that there rises above the earth a
mountain called _Su-Meru_[59] entirely formed of the purest gold, on
which the angelic beings reside, and around which the stars revolve.
There are nine spheres, namely: those of the seven planets, with those
of _Rás_ and _Zanab_ (the head and tail of the dragon), which are also
borne along in their celestial vehicles. _Rás_ and _Zanab_ are two
demons who drank the water of life, whom Vishnu, at the suggestion of
the sun and moon, smote with a weapon called the _Chákra_, or disk,
and rent open their throats; in revenge for which, the moon is
devoured by _Rás_, and the sun by _Zanab_; but as their throats are
rent open, whatever is taken in at the mouth issues at the aperture in
the throat: by this allegory they allude to the lunar and solar
eclipses.[60]

Brahma dwells in a city called _Rást Lok_;[61] Vishnu in a region
called _Vaikanth_; and Mahadeo on a mountain of silver named
_Káilasa_. They also maintain that the fixed stars have no actual
existence, but that the objects which shine by night are couches of
gold set with diamonds and rubies, on which the inhabitants of
paradise repose. [62]*On this Shidosh remarks: “It is agreed that
paradise means the heavens, and also that the fixed stars are in the
eighth heaven; so that, consequently, the heavens constitute the
couches of the souls.”*[63]

They esteem the majesty of the great light as the supreme of angelic
beings, and on a careful investigation of their books, acknowledge no
existence as superior to him in dignity; as the constitution of
elemental compounds, and the existence of all beings is dependent on
and connected with his auspicious essence. They moreover regard
Brahma, Vishnu, and Mahesh, the radiance and reflexion of his light;
saying, it is his majesty alone which, by its acts and operations, is
called by these three names. They represent him as a sovereign, in the
human form, seated in a chariot which signifies the fourth heaven, to
which are attached seven horses, with angels and spiritual beings,
accompanied by royal trains and gorgeous pomp, continually passing
before his majesty. They also esteem him as the source of existence
and as universal existence. *They also believe the earth to be the
skin of a Raksh or evil genius, who was put to death, and his skin
stretched out: the mountains are his bones; the waters his blood; the
trees and vegetables his hair. By Raksh they mean a demon, which here
implies the material elements on this earth, which according to them
is supported on four legs; alluding in this to the nature and number
of the elements, each of which rests on its own centre.

According to them Saturn limps, which typifies his long period of
revolution; and _Bhúm_, or _Maríkh_, “Mars,” is a demon, on which
account they ascribe to him a malignant influence.* _Zoharah_, or “the
regent of Venus,” is the director of the demons, and to this planetary
spirit they ascribe the sciences and religions of the barbarians, and
the creeds of foreign nations.

The Muhammedan doctors say, that Islamism is connected with this
planet, from which source proceeds the veneration paid by them to
Friday, or the day of Venus. _Múshteri_, “Jupiter,” is accounted the
director of the angels, and the teacher of the system of Brahma, which
is conveyed in a celestial language, not used at present by any beings
of elemental formation: thus, although the Koran is a divine
revelation, the language of it is in general use among the Arabs; but
the four Véds which the Hindus account a celestial volume, is written
in Sanskrit, a language spoken in no city whatever, and found in no
book, save those of a particular sect: it is called by them “the
speech of angelic beings.” The Véda was given to them by Brahma, for
the due arrangement of human concerns. By angels or divine beings,
they mean eloquent speakers, and learned authors, who, being
illuminated by the effulgence of primitive wisdom, interpreted
whatever was revealed to them. It is to be remarked, that every one
who pleases may derive from the Védas arguments in favour of his
particular creed, to such a degree, that they can support by clear
proofs the philosophical, mystical, unitarian, and atheistical
systems, faith, and religion; Hinduism, Judaism, Christianity,
fire-worship, the tenets of the Sonites, or those of the Shíâs, etc.;
in short, these volumes consist of such ingenious parables and sublime
meanings, that all who seek may have their wishes fulfilled.

They say that the Almighty is a great body, and that all other beings
are in his belly; which resembles the opinions maintained by the
venerable Shaikh Shahbáb ud deen Maktúl, whose tomb may God sanctify!
namely, that the universe is one body, which contains all others in
existence, and is called the universal body. It has one spirit, which
comprehends all others, and is called the universal soul; and one
single object of intelligence, from which they derive all
intelligences, calling it the universal intelligence. It is stated in
the Mujmal al Hikmat, or Compendium of Philosophy, that the Almighty
is the spirit of spirit; and according to _Azar Húshangian_, “the
intellect of intellect.” _Shaikh Bó Ali_[64] (whose place of repose
may God illuminate!) thus speaks:

  “The Almighty is the soul of the universe, and the universe the
     reunion of all bodies;
   The different angelic hosts are the senses of this frame;
   The bodies, the elements, and the three kingdoms are its members;
   All these are comprehended in the divine unity; all other things
     are illusion.”

This sect gives the appellation of _Rakshas_, which means evil genii
or demons, to all those who do not profess their faith, and who
perform not good works.

Time, in Hindawi _Kal_, is a measure of the movement of the great
sphere, according to the philosophers of Greece and Persia. The author
has also heard from the Brahmans, and in conformity to the opinions
ascribed to the most distinguished persons of their caste, it is
stated in the work entitled _Muadan Ushshaffai Iskandari_ (a selection
taken from several Hindi medical treatises), that time, according to
the Hindu philosophers, is a necessarily-subsisting immaterial
substance, durable, incorporeal, that will ever last, and admits not
of annihilation. Time has been divided into three kinds, namely, past,
present, and future; but, as in their opinion time admits neither of
alteration nor extinction, these divisions are not in reality its
attributes, although correctly used when applied to acts performed in
time. According to the succession of acts, they figuratively describe
time as past, present, and future; as in reference to the solar
revolutions and phases, they call it by the names of days, nights,
months, years, and seasons: in short, they have so many intricate
distinctions of this same nature, that the mere attempt to enumerate
them would fill several volumes. They all agree that this world is to
continue for four ages: the first, the _Rast yug_, “the
righteous,”[65] which lasted one million seven hundred and
twenty-eight thousand common years; during which, all human beings,
high and low, exalted and humble, princes and servants, adhered to the
practice of righteousness and truth, passing their glorious existence
in a manner conformable to the divine will, and devoted to the worship
of the Almighty; the duration of human life in this age extended to
one hundred thousand common years. The second, the _Treta Yug_,[66]
which lasted one million two hundred and ninety-six thousand common
years: during this period, three-fourths of the human race conformed
to the divine will, and the natural duration of life extended to ten
thousand years. The third was the _Dwapar Yug_,[67] which lasted eight
hundred and sixty-four thousand ordinary years, during which one half
the human race performed good works and their life was limited to a
thousand years. The fourth is the _Kali Yug_,[68] or “iron age,” which
is to last four hundred and thirty-two thousand years, during which
three-fourths of the human race will be immersed in sin, infatuation,
and evil works, and the term of human life reduced to a hundred and
twenty ordinary years. These four ages (4,320,000 years) they call a
_Chakra_, and seventy-one Chakras a _Manwantar_; on the expiration of
seventy-one Chakras, there elapses one day of the life of India, the
ruler of the upper world; and on the expiration of fourteen
Manwantars, reckoned according to the preceding calculation, one day
of Brahma’s life is terminated.

They say, that the Almighty, having united himself with Brahma’s body,
created the world through his medium: Brahma thus became the Creator,
and brought mankind into existence, making them of four classes,
namely: the _Brahman_, _Chattriya_, _Vaisya_, and _Sùdra_. To the
first were assigned the custody of laws and the establishment of
religious ordinances; the second class was formed for the purposes of
government and external authority, being appointed the medium for
introducing order into human affairs; the third was composed of
husbandmen, cultivators, artisans, and tradesmen; and the fourth for
every description of service and attendance. All races not comprised
in one of these four divisions are not accounted of human origin but
of demoniacal descent: however the demons or Rakshas, through the
practice of religious austerities, attained to such dignity that
Brahma, Vishnu, and Mahesh (Siva) became their attendants. Thus
Rávan,[69] through the efficacy of religious mortification, became
lord of the world and its inhabitants; Brahma was reader of the Vedas
at his court; the sun filled the office of cook; the clouds were his
cup-bearers, and the wind his chamberlain.

[70]Finally, according to the sectaries, the life of Brahma lasts a
hundred extraordinary years of three hundred and sixty days, with
nights corresponding to the days,[71] so that up to the present time,
that is, the period of composing this work, in the year of the Hejira
1055 (A. D. 1645), there have elapsed four thousand seven hundred and
forty-six years of the Kali-Yug. So many Brahmas have appeared, that
the sums of their years exceed the limits of human comprehension; they
have merely a tradition that one thousand Brahmas have successively
appeared and been annihilated; so that the present is the thousand and
first, of whose life fifty years and half a day are expired, which
commences the half-day of the fifty-first year. As soon as the age of
Brahma terminates, according to the preceding calculation, or amounts
to the destined number, he then forms twelve blazing suns, whose heat
and splendor consume alike both earth and water, so that there remains
not a vestige of this world or its productions, and mankind plunge
beneath the waters, which catastrophe is called _Pralaya_, in Hindawi:
after this event, another Brahma appears and creates the world anew,
which process of dissolution and reproduction continues to all
eternity. The _Hakim Umr Khakani_ says:

  “Those who adorn the heavens, which are a particle of time,
   Come, and depart again, re-appear on the same stage――
   For, in the skirts of heaven and the robe of earth, there is
   A creation which is successively born as long as God exists.”

By the prolonged periods of duration ascribed to these celestial
personages, they allude to the antiquity of the world, which is so
immensely great that it cannot be comprised in numbers. The man of
spiritual attributes, Shídosh, the son of Anosh, says: “On the
termination of the great cycle, human creatures reappear, and the
water enveloping the terrestrial globe becomes of the same radical
constitution as the waters on high; again, through the intense heat of
the luminary, the water disappears, and twelve suns are formed: from
the ascent of vapors and the blending of exhalations, the celestial
disks are enveloped, when the tailed comets, which the Persians call
‘minor suns,’ and the Arabs _Shamseyat_, or ‘smaller solar
bodies,’[72] * consume alike the humid and the dry: such is the
necessary termination of that cycle: the world and its inhabitants
will be created anew.” * Mulla Ismail Suffi, of Isfahan, says:

      “The world which is one, the creator, and the creation,
       Both these worlds are like the scum of his cup;
       This revolution of time resembles a painted lantern,
  Which, notwithstanding its motion, remains in the same position.”

The assertion “that only the four classes above enumerated are of
human race,” implies that this denomination is attached to the
professors of humanity, virtue, and discrimination; superior to which
is showing mercy to the animal creation; also the knowledge of one’s
self and of the Creator; nay, the person destitute of these
characteristics has no share of the nature of man. Thus the sage
Ferdusi says:

  “Whoever deviates from the path of humanity
   Is to be accounted a demon, and not of human race.”

According to these sectaries, the worship offered to the forms of
Mahadeo and Naráyan, and to the statues of the other spiritual beings,
is highly to be commended. Strangers to their faith suppose them to
look upon the idol as God, which is by no means the case, their belief
being as follows: “The idol is merely a Kiblah, and they adore under
that particular form, the Being who has neither accident nor form.”

Moreover, as mankind is an assemblage composed of superiors and
inferiors, they have made images of the directors of the people, and
constituted them their Kiblah: besides, as all things exhibit the
power of the Almighty, they form images according to their similitude.
They also say, that as the Avátars are radiant emanations of the
divine essence, they therefore make images on their likeness, and pay
them worship: so that, whatever is excellent in its kind, in the
mineral, vegetable, or animal world, is regarded with veneration, as
well as the uncompounded elementary substances, and the starry
spheres. Rai Manuhar Kuchwáhhah has said:

  “O Moslem! if the Kâbah be the object of thy worship,
   Why dost thou reproach the adorers of idols?”


     [4] प्रकृति _Prakriti_, or मूल प्रकृति _Mula Prakriti_, “the
     root or Plastic origin of all;” termed प्रधान _Pradhána_,
     “the chief one; the universal material cause;” identified by
     the cosmogony of the Puránás with _Maya_, or “illusion;” and
     by mythologists with _Bráhmí_, “the power or energy of
     Brahmá” (_Colebrooke’s Essays_).

     _Prakriti_, in philosophy, “the passive or material cause of
     the world,” as opposed to the active or spiritual; and in
     mythology, a goddess united to the primeval male, and the
     genitress of the world (_Wilson_).――D. S.

     [5] The quotations of our author are too general for being
     referred to particular parts or passages of the Hindú books.
     The above doctrine is contained in a great number of their
     treatises. In the _Vedanta sara_, or “Essence of the Vedanta
     doctrine” (p. 16, Calcutta edit.), we find mentioned the
     fourteen भुवनानि _Bhuvanáni_, or “worlds.”――A. T.

     [6] योजन _Yojana_, or _Jojun_, “a measure of distance” equal
     to four Crosas, which at 8,000 cubits or 4,000 yards to the
     Crosa, or Cas, will be exactly nine miles: other computations
     make the Yojana but about five miles, or even no more than
     four miles and a half (_Wilson’s Dict._).――D. S.

     [7] More properly of egotism, which is the literal sense of
     the term: its peculiar function is अभिमान _Abhimana_, or
     “selfish conviction; a belief that in perception or
     meditation _I_ am concerned; that the objects of sense
     concern _me_; in short, that _I_ am” (_Colebrook’s
     Essays_).――D. S.

     [8] Derived from _Mahat_, “great,” महत् also the
     intellectual principle and तत्व _Tatva_, “essential
     nature――the real nature of the human soul, considered as one
     and the same with the divine spirit animating the universe;”
     the philosophical etymology of this word best explains its
     meaning, _Tat_, “that; that divine Being;” and त्वं _Twam_,
     “thou:”――“that very God art thou.” _Tatva_ also means
     “reality, truth, substance,” opposed to what is illusory or
     fallacious (_Wilson_).――D. S.

     [9] भूर्लोक _Bhúrlóka_.

     [10] भुवर्लोक _Bhuvarlóka_.

     [11] सुरलोक _Suralóka_, “the heaven of Indra, and residence
     of the celestials.”

     [12] महर्लोक _Maharlóka_, “a region;” said to be one Crore,
     or a million of Yojanas above the polar star, and to be the
     abode of those saints who survive the destruction of the
     world.

     [13] जन लोक _Jana-lóka_, “the region where the sons of
     Brahmá and other pious men reside.”

     [14] तप लोक _Tapa-lóka_, “the abode of Ascetics.”

     [15] सत्य लोक _Satya-lóka_, “the abode of Brahma and of
     truth.”

     [16] Here begin the seven divisions of the infernal
     regions:――अतल लोक _Atala-lóka_, “the region immediately
     below the earth.”

     [17] वितल लोक _Vitala-lóka_, “the second region in descent
     below the earth.”

     [18] सुतल लोक _Sutala-lóka_, “the third region in descent,”
     etc.

     [19] तलातल लोक _Talátala-lóka_, “the fourth region,” etc.

     [20] महातल लोक _Mahátala-lóka_, “the fifth region in descent
     below the earth,” inhabited.

     [21] रसातल लोक _Rasátala-lóka_, “the sixth region,” etc; the
     residence of the Nágás, Asuras, Dáityas, and other races of
     monstrous and demoniacal beings, under the various
     governments of Sécha, Bali, and other chiefs.

     [22] पाताल लोक _Pátála-loka_, “the seventh infernal region,”
     the abode of the _Nágas_, or “serpents.”――A. T.

     [23] स्व भाव _Svabháva_: derived from _Sva_, “own,” and
     _Bháva_, “property.”

     [24] मिम _Sima_, “all,” “entire.”

     [25] (See note, p. 11). Another internal spirit, called
     _Mahat_, or “the great soul,” attends the birth of all
     creatures imbodied, and thence in all mortal forms is
     conveyed a perception either pleasing or painful. Those two,
     the vital spirit (_Jivatman_) and reasonable soul, are
     closely united with the five elements, but also connected
     with the supreme spirit, or divine essence, which pervades
     all beings, high and low (_Menu_, b. 12., sl. 13 and
     14).――D. S.

     [26] सत्तवः, रजः, तमस् _satvas_, _rajas_, _tamas_, “truth”
     or “existence;” “passion” or “foulness;” and “darkness” or
     “ignorance,” are called the three great गुणाः _gunás_, or
     properties of all created beings.――A. T.

     [27] Of these five words, the two first are Persian, the
     other three Sanskrit: the text is probably corrupt.――A. T.

     [28] According to the _Vayu-purana_ (chapt. v.) Vichnu
     proceeded from Satva, Brahma from Rajas, and Mahadéva, or
     Siva, from Tamas.――A. T.

     [29] The latter part of this sentence is according to the
     reading of the manuscripts.――D. S.

     In the edit. of Calcutta it is placed in the next line, and
     connected with the contents of the world, as if these had
     been with numberless heads, hands, and feet.――A. T.

     [30] शेष _Sésha_, “the king of the serpent-race;” “a large
     thousand-headed snake;” “the couch and canopy of Vishnu;”
     and “the upholder of the world, which rests on one of his
     heads.”――D. S.

     [31] कुवल _kuvala_, from _ku_, “earth,” and _vala_, “to
     cover.”――A. T.

     [32] This etymology is founded upon a wrong spelling of the
     name _Na-rang_, or _No-rang_, “no color,” instead of
     Naráyana.――A. T.

     [33] The definitions contained in the remainder of this
     sentence are in the original incorporated with the text. In
     the present, as in every similar instance, that arrangement
     has not been disturbed.――D. S.

     [34] अवतार _avatára_, from _ava_, “down, off,” and _tri_,
     “to cross;” signifying “descent,” “translation.”

     [35] करण _karana_.

     [36] An evil spirit, a demon, a vampire, a fiend, but who
     appears to be of various descriptions; and is either a
     powerful Titan or enemy of the gods, in a superhuman or
     incarnate form, as Ravana and others; or an attendant on
     Kuvera and guardian of his treasures; or a mischievous and
     cruel goblin or ogre, haunting cemeteries, animating dead
     bodies, and devouring human beings. The Asurs are also
     demons, and of the first order; the children of Diti, by
     Kasyapa, engaged in perpetual hostility with the gods.
     According to Hindoo mythology, Kasyapa is the name of a
     _Muni_, or “deified sage;” who is the father of the
     immortals――gods and devils (_Wilson_).――D. S.

     [37] अनन्त वेद _ananta veda_, “the eternal Veda.”

     [38] चैत्र _Cháitra_.

     [39] कृष्ण पक्ष _Krishna paksha_, “the dark half of a month;
     the fifteen days during which the moon is in the wane.”

     [40] वासुकि _Vasuki_, “the sovereign of the snakes;” from
     _Vasu_, “a jewel,” and _Ka_, “the head” (_Wilson_).――D. S.

     [41] The mountain with which the ocean was churned by the
     Surs and Asurs after the deluge, for the purpose of
     recovering the sacred things lost in it during that
     period.――D. S.

     [42] The most ancient division of the Zodiac consisted of
     twelve signs, namely: मेष _Mesha_, the Ram; वृष _Vrisha_,
     the Bull; मिथुन _Mithuna_, the Pair; कर्कट _Karkat´a_, the
     Crab; सिंह _Sinha_, the Lion; कन्या _Kanya_, the Virgin;
     तुला _Tula_, the Balance; वृश्जिक _Vriśchica_, the Scorpion;
     धनु _Dhanu_, the Bow; मकर _Makara_, the sea-monster; कुम्भ
     _Kumbha_, the Ewer; मीन _Mina_, the Fish.

     Sripeti, the author of the _Retnamálá_, has described them
     in Sanscrit verse, of which the verbal translation is
     annexed:

          “The Ram, Bull, Crab, Lion, and Scorpion have the
          figures of those five animals respectively; the Pair
          are a damsel playing on the vina, and a youth wielding
          a mace; the Virgin stands on a boat, in water, holding
          in one hand a lamp, in the other an ear of rice corn;
          the Balance is held by a weigher, with a weight in one
          hand; the bow by an archer, whose hinder parts are like
          those of a horse; the Sea-monster has the face of an
          antelope; the Ewer is a water-pot borne on the shoulder
          of a man who empties it; the Fishes are two, with their
          heads turned to each other’s tails, and all these are
          supposed to be in such places as suit their separate
          natures” (_Sir W. Jones_, vol. I. p. 336).――D. S.

     [43] सुक्ल पक्ष _súklapakcha_, “the light half of a month;
     the fifteen days of the moon’s increase; or from new to full
     moon.”――A. T.

     [44] वैशाख _Váisákha_, “the month in which the moon is full
     near the southern scale” (April-May); the first month in the
     Hindu calendar.――A. T.

     [45] भाद्र _bhadra_, “the month when the moon is full near
     the wing of Pegasus” (August-September).――A. T.

     [46] Vámana was so small, that in his journey, when he got
     to the side of a hole made by a cow’s foot, and which was
     filled with water, he thought it was a river, and entreated
     another Brahman to help him over it. On coming into Bali’s
     presence, he petitioned only for as much land as he could
     measure by three steps; and the king ordered his priest,
     notwithstanding his remonstrances, to read the usual
     formulas in making such a present. Vámana then placed one
     foot on India’s heaven, and the other on the earth; when lo!
     a third leg suddenly projected from his belly, and he asked
     for a place upon which he might rest his third foot. Bali
     then, by his wife’s advice, gave his head for Vámana to set
     his foot upon; Vámana next asked for a Dakshina, “a small
     present which accompanies a gift;” but Bali was unable to
     comply, as he had now lost every thing: in this dilemma he
     offered his life, which Vishnu declined taking, as he had
     promised Prahláda not to destroy any of his race. He
     therefore gave him his choice of ascending to heaven, taking
     with him five ignorant men; or descending to Patála, the
     world of the hydras, with five wise men. Bali chose the
     latter, as Vishnu promised to protect him against suffering
     punishment there for his crimes on earth.
                   (_Ward on the Hindoos_, vol. I. p. 7.)――D. S.

     [47] परशु राम or “Ráma with an axe.” He was the son of the
     Muni Jamadagni, born at the commencement of the second or
     Tréta-yug.――A. T.

     [48] This is the Rama-chandra, the son of Daśarat´ha,
     king of Ayodhya, or the modern Oude, and born at the
     close of the second age.――A. T.

     [49] Sitá, the daughter of the king of Mithila (the modern
     Tirhut) was taken away by Rávána himself, who had come from
     Lanka to the Indian peninsula, in order to revenge so many
     Rakshasas, his relations, who had been destroyed by the
     bravery of Ráma. This hero, having allied himself with
     Hanuman and Sugriva, two chiefs of savage tribes,
     represented as monkeys, conquered with their assistance the
     island of Lanka, overthrew and slew in battle Rávaná, and
     recovered his wife. The narration of these events forms one
     of the most interesting parts of the Rámáyana, an ancient
     and sacred poem relating the history of Ráma-chandra.――A. T.

     [50] The beginning of the Kali-yug, succeeding the
     Dvapar-yug, being fixed 3102 years B. C., Buddha would have
     appeared 3112 years B. C.――A. T.

     [51] The author, if even no Zoroastrian, seems to allude
     here to _Honover_, “pure desire,” a general name for “the
     word of Ormuzd;” it existed before all the good and evil
     beings created by Ormuzd and by Ahriman; it was by
     pronouncing it that the first triumphed over the latter, and
     continued to extend and to protect the creation
     (_Zend-Avesta_, I. 2 P. pp. 85. 138. 140. 412. II. 347. 348.
     and elsewhere).――A. T.

     [52] The Sri Bhagavat mentions the birth of this celebrated
     sage in the Satya Yog, in the heaven of Brahma, from whose
     mind he was born; the Kalika puranah gives an account of
     another birth in the Padma Kalpa, when his father’s name was
     Mitra Varúna, and his mother’s Kúmbha. The Ramáyana mentions
     him as priest to the kings of the solar race for many ages.
     This philosopher taught in substance the doctrines of the
     Vedanta school. He is said to have had ten thousand
     disciples.
                (_Ward, on the Hindoos_, vol. IV. p. 19.)――D. S.

     [53] Rĭshi, a kind of saint; that holy and superhuman
     personage which a king or man of the military class may
     become by the practice of religious austerities. Seven
     classes of Rishis are enumerated: the _Dévarshi_,
     _Brahmarshi_, _Maharshi_, _Paramarshi_, _Rájarshi_,
     _Kándarshi_, and _Srutarshi_: the order is variously given,
     but the Rájarshi is inferior to the four preceding ones, and
     the two last appear to be the inspired saints of the Hindoo
     mythology.――D. S.

     The simple name is especially applied to seven sages of the
     Bráhmarshi order, contemporary with each of the seven Menus;
     those of the present Manvantara are: _Marichi_, _Atri_,
     _Angiras_, _Pulastya_, _Pulaha_, _Kratu_, and _Vasishta_.
     The names of each series differ: those specified also form,
     in astronomy, the asterism of the Greater Bear
     (_Wilson_).――A. T.

     [54] This name, repeated in the Dabistán (see hereafter the
     chapter upon the Nanak Panthians), never occurred to me
     elsewhere.――A. T.

     [55] The name of a saint celebrated in Hindu mythology, more
     usually entitled _Agastya_, the son of both _Mitra_ (the
     sun) and _Varuna_ (the lord of waters) by _Urvasi_ (a nymph
     of heaven); he is represented of short stature, and is said
     by some to have been born in a water-jar: he is famed for
     having swallowed the ocean, when it had given him offence;
     at his command also the Vindhya range of mountains
     prostrated itself, and so remains; hence his present
     appellation: he is also considered as the regent of the star
     Canopus――(_Wilson’s Dictionary_, _sub voce_).――A. T.

     [56] अश्वमेध _aśvamédha_, from _aśva_, “a horse,” and
     _médha_, “a sacrifice.” Colebrooke, in his Essay on the
     Védas (_As. Res._, VIII., ed. Calc.) states, that the horse
     is “avowedly an emblem of _Viráj_, or the primeval and
     universal manifested being. In the last section of the
     _Taittiríya Yajurvéda_, the various parts of the horse’s
     body are described as divisions of time and portions of the
     universe: morning is his head; the sun, his eye; air, his
     breath; the moon, his ear; etc. A similar passage in the
     fourteenth book of the _Sátapat´ha bráhmańa_, describes
     the same allegorical horse for the meditation of such as
     cannot perform an Aśvamédha; and the assemblage of living
     animals, constituting an imaginary victim at a real
     Aśvamédha, equally represent the universal Being, according
     to the doctrines of the Indian scripture. It is not however
     certain, whether this ceremony did not also give occasion to
     the institution of another, apparently not authorized by the
     Védas, in which a horse was actually sacrificed.” That this
     was really the case, we may infer from the frequent mention
     of such sacrifices, made in the historical poems of the
     Hindus and from the analogous instances of them found among
     the Western nations. The Massageti and the Persíans
     sacrificed horses to the sun; the Magians also to the rivers
     (see _Herod._, l. I. VII.; _Xenoph._, l. VIII. See also upon
     the sacrifice of a horse, _Exposé de quelques-uns des
     principaux articles de la Théogonie des Brahmes_, par M.
     l’abbé Dubois, ci-devant Missionnaire dans le Meissour.
     Paris, 1825).――A. T.

     [57] The passage between the asterisks is not in the
     manuscripts.――D. S.

     [58] This passage, relative to space, is as obscure as the
     subject itself is metaphysical. The notions here expressed
     are in accordance with the Vedanta doctrine, by which
     _akas_, or “pure ether,” is the universal space, including
     all, and the vacuum between the separate objects therein.
     There is a vacuum unconnected with every thing, and in it
     these particular vacuums are absorbed. This appears
     conformable enough with modern philosophy, but the Hindus
     applied it to the divine spirit itself: thus, they say that
     there is a perfect spirit, in which individual souls and the
     aggregation of all souls take refuge, and so Brahma and the
     individuated spirits are one: both pure life. We may here
     recollect that sir Isaac Newton, in attempting to define
     space, compared it to “Something like the organ of
     divinity.” According to the Vedanta-sara, there is no
     difference between the all-ruling spirit and that of the
     sage; as there is none between the forest and the trees and
     the inclosed atmosphere; or between the lake and the parts
     of the water, and the image of the sky which falls in it. We
     are informed by Damascius, an author of the sixth century of
     our era, who quotes Eudemos, a disciple of Aristotle
     (_Wolfií Anect. Græca_, t. III. p. 259), that the united
     intellectual all is called “space” by the Magians and by the
     whole race of the Arians, which name may be applied to the
     nations inhabiting the countries situated to the East and
     West of the Indus.――A. T.

     [59] The earth according to the Hindus is circular and flat,
     like the flower of the water-lily, in which the petals
     project beyond each other: its circumference being four
     thousand millions of miles. In the centre is mount Sumeru,
     ascending six hundred thousand miles from the surface of the
     earth, and descending one hundred and twenty-eight thousand
     below it. It is one hundred and twenty-eight thousand miles
     in circumference at its base, and two hundred and fifty-six
     thousand wide at the top. On this mountain are the heavens
     of Vishnu, Siva, Indra, Agni, Yama, Noirita, Varúna, Váyú,
     Kúvéra, Isha, and other gods. The clouds ascend to about
     one-third of the height of the mountain: at its base are the
     mountains Mandara, Gundha-mádana, Vipúla, and Súpárshwa, on
     each of which grows a tree eight thousand eight hundred
     miles high (_Ward’s Hindoos_, vol. III. p. 3).――D. S.

     [60] According to the Máhábharat, when the _Súras_ and
     _Asúras_ (the gods and _Dáityas_, or “demons”) had, by the
     whirling of the ocean, obtained the _Amrita_, or “the nectar
     of immortality,” a fierce dispute arose among them about the
     possession of it; but Vishnu succeeded in obtaining it for
     the Súras. Ráhu, a demon under the disguise of a Súra, was
     about to drink it, when, informed of it by the sun and the
     moon, the god just mentioned, by a blow with his chakra,
     struck off the demon’s head, which, flying up to heaven,
     since keeps an inextinguishable hatred against the two
     luminaries who had betrayed him, and now and then swallows
     the sun or the moon.――A. T.

     [61] The name of Brahma’s heaven is properly सत्य लोक _satya
     loka_, “the world of truth.”

     [62] The words between the asterisks are not in the
     manuscripts.――D. S.

     [63] Not in the manuscripts.――D. S.

     [64] A particular account of the Muhammedan doctors is to be
     given hereafter.――A. T.

     [65] In Sanskrit कृत युगं _Krita-Yugam_ and सत्य युगं
     _Satya-Yugam_, “the righteous age.”――D. S.

     [66] त्रेतायुग from त्रै _trai_, “to preserve.”

     [67] द्वापर युग _Dwapar_, from _dwa_, “two,” and _par_,
     “after, subsequent.”

     [68] The beginning of the Kali Yug is placed about 3001
     years anterior to the Christian era.――D. S.

     [69] For a more detailed account of the occupations of the
     several deities, male and female, see _Moore’s Hindu
     Pantheon_, p. 333; and also plates, 52 and 54.――D. S.

     [70] A month of mortals is a day and a night of the
     _Pitris_, or patriarchs inhabiting the moon; and the
     division of a month being into equal halves, the half
     beginning from the full moon is their day for actions; and
     that beginning from the new moon is their night for slumber.

     A year of mortals is a day and a night of the gods, or
     regents of the universe, seated round the north pole; and
     again their division is this: their day is the northern, and
     their night the southern, course of the sun.――D. S.

     [71] Learn now the duration of a day and a night of Brahma,
     and of the several ages which shall be mentioned in order
     succinctly: Sages have given the name of Krita to an age
     containing four thousand years of the gods; the twilight
     preceding it consists of as many hundreds, and the twilight
     following it of the same number.

     In the other three ages, with their twilights preceding and
     following, are thousands and hundreds diminished by one.

     The divine years, in the four ages just enumerated, being
     added together, their sum, or twelve thousand, is called the
     age of the gods.

     And by reckoning a thousand such divine ages, a day of
     Brahma may be known: his night also has an equal duration.

     The before-mentioned age of the gods, or twelve thousand of
     their years, being multiplied by seventy-one, constitutes a
     Manvantara, or the reign of a Menu.

     There are numberless Manvantaras: creations also, and
     destructions of worlds innumerable: the Being supremely
     exalted performs all this with as much ease as if in sport;
     again and again for the sake of conferring happiness
     (_Haughton’s Menu_, p. 11. 12. 13).――D. S.

     [72] The manuscript omits all the words after “smaller solar
     bodies,” observe the asterisks.――D. S.

       *     *     *     *     *

SECTION THE THIRD, CONCERNING THE RELIGIOUS OBSERVANCES AND CEREMONIES
OF THE SAMARTAGANS (SMARTAS), OR ORTHODOX OF THE HINDUS.――According to
this class, there are two kinds of birth: the first, on quitting the
maternal womb; the second, on the day of assuming the _Munji_[73] or
_Zanar_, and repeating the established forms of prayer; as, until a
person has scrupulously performed both these rites, he is not regarded
as orthodox, nor an observer of their institutes. Under this are
contained the _Shodásán-Karmáni_,[74] “sixteen heads,” commencing with
the woman being purified from periodical illness; her attachment to
her husband; the forms of prayer necessary to be used on the occasion,
and observed until the moment of death; and the acts of charity
enjoined to be performed after the person’s decease.

Of their laudable customs are the following: 1. the _Garbh-ádhána-karma_,[75]
or delivering the likeness of a son, that is, giving up a daughter to
her husband; 2. the _Pungsavana_,[76] or reciting at the proper season
the prayers enjoined to be said, that a virtuous offspring may be
born; 3. the _Símantonnayana_,[77] that is, in the sixth month of a
woman’s pregnancy, the recitation of the proper forms of prayer and
giving a feast to Brahmans; 4. the _Játakarma_,[78] or the rites to be
practised by the father on the birth of a son, in regard to ablution;
_Hóm_, or burnt offerings; _Jap_, or devout meditation and acts of
charity; 5. the _Náma-karana_,[79] when, on the eleventh day after the
child’s birth, they give it a name and repeat the necessary forms of
prayer; 6. on the fourth month they bring out the child, which they
call the _Nish-kramana_;[80] 7. giving the child suitable food and at
a propitious moment, which they call _Anna-prásanna_;[81] 8. at the
age of three years they shave the child’s head and bore its ears,
which rite they call _Chúd´á-karana_,[82] or the ceremony of forming
the crest at the first tonsure of a Hindu. They are strictly enjoined
to observe the above eight ceremonies; and if the child be of the
female sex, they practise the same rites, but without the stated forms
of prayer; excepting at the time of her marriage, when they are bound
to recite the forms appropriated to that ceremony. 9. In his fifth
year, they bind around the child’s waist a string which they call
_Sútram_;[83] this rite they call _Mungi_;[84] the string is to be
made of the bark of the _Darbha_;[85] 10. three days after investing
the boy with the Sutra, they should put the Zanar, or “sacrificial
thread,”[86] about his neck, which they call the _Yajnópavíta_;[87]
11. on assuming the Brahmanical thread they are, by way of charity, to
bestow a cow on the Brahmans, which act they call _Gódán_;[88] 12. is
the ablution of the body with milk, curds, clarified butter, honey,
and sugar, which they call the _Ashnan-panjah_ and _Paraish-chat_;[89]
13. when the boy reaches his fifteenth year, they make him master of a
household; this they call _Viváhah_,[90] or “matrimony;” 14. the son,
after the decease of his father, performs the requisite charities and
donations, which they call _Pind-pradán_;[91] 15. on the 7th of the
month _Mágha_,[92] when the majesty of the great luminary is in
Aquarius, they are to present the Brahmans with pulse, barley, wheat,
black rice, sesamé, gold, and suchlike; this is called _Dán-phal_;[93]
16. on the _Shiva-rátri_,[94] or “night of Siva,” the 21st of the
_Bhágan_ (Phágan, or Phálgun) they present to the Brahmans a serpent
of silver, with red rice, which they call _Phani_.[95]

The above are the sixteen ceremonies. It is moreover necessary that a
Brahman’s son should be invested with the Munji at the age of eight,
the Chatriyas at eleven, and the Vaisyas at twelve, after which
ceremony the boy is to be sent to school.

A Brahman must, whilst performing the offices of nature, fasten the
Munji securely on the right ear, turning his face to the north, but at
night to the south. After performing these offices, he is to take his
instrument, and going three paces farther he is to apply to his hands
water, which is to be in a vessel, and with which earth has been
blended, and this is to be continued until there remains no
disagreeable odour. He is after this to perform his ablution in a
clean place,[96] and seat himself in such a manner that his hands
should be under his knees, with his face to the north or east; next,
whilst repeating the prescribed forms of prayer, he is to put a little
water three times successively into the palm of the right hand,[97]
which he is to swallow without reciting any prayers; he is then to
cleanse the mouth with the back of the left hand, and having taken
into the palm of his hand other water, and dipped the other fingers
into it, he is to apply them to his nose, eyes, and ears; the water
must be pure, without foam or bubble. On this occasion the Brahman is
to swallow so much water that the moisture may extend to his breast;
the Chattri such a quantity as to extend to his throat; the Vaisya
sufficient to moisten the inside of his mouth; the cultivator, women,
and children who have not assumed the Munji, are to apply a little
water to the lips, then immerse the head, and having repeated the
proper forms of prayer, to sprinkle the head several times. The
Brahman is next to compress the nostrils, so that the passage of
inhalation and exhalation should be closed up, and recite the prayers
prescribed on the occasion; then he is to stand for some time, turning
his face towards the great luminary, and repeat the necessary formulæ.
Every morning, on rising up and performing duly the offices of nature,
he is to go through the necessary rites which they call _Sandhya_,[98]
the observance of which, three times every day, is equally imperative
on both Brahman and Chattriya: 1. every morning, or from the dawn of
day until the rise of the world-illuminating solar orb; 2. at midday,
from the sun’s meridian altitude to his declination; 3. at evening, or
from one hour before the setting of the world-enlightening sun until
the rising of the stars. These rites are to be accompanied by
_Ghasal_, or “ablution,” except on the Sandhya of the latter part of
the day, when, if it be impossible, the established prayers only are
to be recited. On performing this ablution, the head is to be several
times sprinkled with water in such a manner that it may fall in drops
on it; after which, having gone through the indispensable forms of
prayer, he is to make the _Homa_, that is, he is to light the holy
fire on a pure spot, and place on it thin and fine pieces of wood, and
having chosen the still more delicate splinters of it, and moistened
them with water, he drops pure rice upon them. The fire being thus
lighted, he addresses prayers to his spiritual guide or his
instructor, father, and elders, and laying his head on the ground,
solicits their benedictions; pronouncing during this adoration his own
name, so that it may be heard by them, after this manner: “I, who am
such a one, in profound adoration address my prayers to you, and
prostrate myself in your presence:” the same prostration must also be
performed to his mother. He then repairs to his master, before whom he
stands in an humble attitude and receives instruction: but after this
form, that the instructor should say of himself, “I am now at
leisure:” he is not to command him, which would be accounted great
rudeness. When the pupil waits on his master, he is to appear before
him dressed in costly clothing; but if both master and pupil should be
in indigent circumstances, the latter is to solicit alms, and thus
procure subsistence for his master and himself: he is moreover to
remain silent at table.

The boy, when invested with the Brahminical thread, is called a
_Brahmachari_, until he enters into the marriage state; after which,
if through the necessity of his own family he derives his daily
support from another quarter, he is not to eat at one place only, but
go round to several doors, and receiving something at each, convey the
whole to its proper destination; but the person, whose father and
mother charge themselves with his annual support, and who can discover
no other Brahman beside himself in that district, is allowed to
satisfy his appetite at one place. Until the time of his marriage, the
Brahmachari eats not honey, never applies collyrium to the eyes, nor
oil nor perfumes to the body; and never eats the viands left at table,
except his master’s; he never utters a rejoinder with harshness or
severity; avoids female intercourse; and never looks at the great
luminary when rising or setting; he is a stranger to falsehood, and
never uses an expression of ill omen; nor holds any one in
detestation, or regards him as an object of reproach; above all, he
shows exceeding veneration to his preceptor.

The ancients commanded that boys should be engaged in the study of the
Veds, or “religious sciences,” from five years of age to twelve. They
have also said: “A Brahman should study the four Védas;” but as the
acquisition of the whole is impossible, their learned men are
consequently satisfied with the knowledge of small portions of each.
The first is the _Rigvéda_, which treats concerning the knowledge of
the Divine essence and attributes; the mode of creation; the path of
righteousness; of life and death. The second, or _Yajúsh-véda_, treats
of the rules prescribed for religious ceremonies, faith, burnt
offerings, and prayers. The third is the _Sámavéda_, which treats of
the science of music, the proper mode of reading the Védas, and the
portions selected from them; from this source are also derived vocal
and instrumental harmony. The fourth is the _Atharva-véda_, which
includes the rules of archery, the prayers proper to be recited when
encountering the foe and discharging arrows against them. If a person
acquainted with this system and form of prayer discharge a single
arrow, it becomes a hundred thousand arrows, some of which contain
fire, others wind, storm, dust, and rain; others vomit forth golden
stones and huge bricks; whilst some assume the forms of tremendous
wild beasts and ferocious animals, which strike terror into the
boldest hearts. Many are the extraordinary modes and wonderful devices
unfolded in this Véda for the total destruction of one’s enemies. Such
is the Atharva Véda, and such the artifices, magic practices,
incantations, spells, and devices contained in it.[99]

The _Brahmachárí_ is of two kinds: one as already described, whom the
Brahmans call Brahmachari, until the period of his becoming a
householder and taking a wife; the second is he who in the course of
this life never enters into the married state, pays no attention to
worldly cares, and continues the devoted servant of his instructor, on
whose death he pays the same attention to his survivors. If the
disciple should happen to die in his master’s house or that of his
successor, it is accounted far more meritorious than in any other
place; and if his decease should not occur, he is carefully to worship
the fire which is made for the purpose of the Hom, or “burnt-offering,”
and diminishing every day the quantity of his food.

Having thus given some statements concerning the Brahmachárí, it now
becomes proper to mention the various modes of contracting marriage
among the Hindus: thus it is related in the first part of the
_Mahábhárat_, that a woman who has lost her husband may lawfully take
another; for when Parasu-Rama had exterminated the Chattris, their
wives held intercourse with the Brahmans and bare them children. It is
also permitted to a wife deprived of her husband, to attach herself to
another; thus _Yojanagandhá_[100] was first the wife of _Paraśara_, by
whom she had a son, the celebrated sage _Vyása_,[101] and she
afterwards became the wife of a king named _Santana_.[102] In the same
work it is also recorded, that a woman may, by her husband’s consent,
maintain intercourse with another; thus, on the arrival of Raja Bali,
a Brahman named _Tamma_, sent him his wife and obtained a son. In like
manner, Raja _Pándu_, who abstained from all intercourse with woman,
permitted his wife _Kuntí_[103] to keep company with others, and she,
by force of his prayers, mixing with angels, had sons. In like manner
it is permitted that the son be separated from the father, but remain
with the mother, and that, on the decease of a brother, another
brother by a different father but the same mother, may marry the widow
of the deceased: thus _Vyása_, the son of _Yojangandha_ by
_Párasaru_,[104] visited the wives of _Vichitra-Virya_, who was born
of the same mother, Yojangandha, by king Santanu, and there was born
to him _Dhritaráshtra_, Raja _Pándu_, and _Vidúra_. It is also allowed
that several individuals of the same race and religion may among them
espouse one wife: thus _Draupadí_, daughter of _Drúpada_, Rája of
_Pánchála_,[105] was married to the five Pandava princes; and
_Ahalyá_,[106] the daughter of _Gautama_, to seven persons; and the
daughter of another holy person, was married to ten husbands. The
Yezdanians ascribe the seclusion of women, and their not choosing
husbands for themselves, to litigation, corruption, and the family
perplexities. It is recorded also in the Mahábhárat, that in ancient
times there was no such practice as the appropriation of husband and
wife; every woman being allowed to cohabit with whomsoever she thought
proper, until once the wife of a holy personage being in the society
of another, Swétakéta, the holy man’s son, feeling indignant at such
conduct, pronounced this imprecation: “Let the woman who approaches a
stranger be regarded as a spirit of hell!” and at present the brute
creation, which possess in common with us, immaterial souls, act
according to the ancient law: many, also, of the northern nations
follow the same practice. In the same work it is also stated, that the
sage Vyása was born of the daughter of a fisherman, whom the sage
Paraśara espoused, from which it follows that the issue of such a low
connection is not to be held as a low or degraded character. Thus far
has been extracted from the Mahábhárat.

According to the Smarttas, there are two kinds of wives: the first is
the legitimate wife, who is degraded by holding intercourse with any
man save her husband: the second are those on whom no restraints are
imposed; of whom there are numbers at the disposition of their chief
men. The princes of ancient times, to all appearance, established this
description of females for the purpose of receiving travellers and
pilgrims, an act which they regarded as productive of great blessings.

Moreover, on account of the increase of the male population, they held
not as a criminal act the holding an intercourse with these females;
but regarded guilt to consist in being intimate with a woman who has a
husband: they moreover esteemed it a base act to defraud the licensed
class of their hire. Tradition records that, in former times, the
_Lulees_, or “dancing women,” who inhabited the temple of the Tortoise
in the city of Kalinga, at first gave their daughters to a Brahman, in
order to conciliate the favor of the Almighty and insure future
happiness; but that afterwards they gave them from selfish purposes,
and exposed them from mercenary motives; even at present, although
they have entirely given up every pious purpose, yet they do not
associate with any save those of their own religion. However, Shir
Muhammed Khan, who was appointed military governor of that province
under the first sovereign, Abdálláh Kuteb Shah, forced them to repair
to the houses of the Moslem: notwithstanding which, the Lulees of the
temple of Jagganath, to this very day hold no intercourse with the
Muhammedans. In Gaya and Soram, when they take a wife, she must be of
noble and honorable descent, and of graceful carriage; and must not
previously have been affianced to any other person; she is not to be
related, in the remotest degree, to the stock or family of her
husband, she ought to have brothers, and her lineage and family for
ten generations are to be publicly known among her contemporaries. Her
relations also make strict inquiries into the merits and demerits of
the bridegroom, particularly as to the state of his health and
stamina. Some writers assert, that a Brahman may occasionally demand
in marriage the daughter of a Chattri, merchant, or cultivator, but on
this condition, that they do not join their husband in partaking of
food or drink.

Among the Hindus there are five modes of contracting marriage;[107]
the first, or _Viváha_, after this form: the damsel’s father looks out
for a son-in-law, to whom he presents money and goods in proportion to
his means, and gives him his daughter, which is the most legitimate
mode.[108] The second is the _Asurvívahah_, when without the consent
of the father or mother, by employing force and violence, or the
influence of money, the damsel is forcibly taken by the bridegroom
from her parents’ house to his own, and there married to him. The
third is the _Gandharviváhah_, when the bridegroom takes the damsel
away with her consent, but without the approbation of her parents, and
espouses her at his own house. The fourth is the _Rákshasa-viváha_,
when the parties on both sides are at the head of armies, and the
damsel, being taken away by force, becomes the victor’s bride.

The fifth is the _Písácha-viváha_, when the lover, without obtaining
the sanction of the girl’s parents, takes her home by means of
talismans, incantations, and such like magical practices, and then
marries her. Písách, in Sanscrit, is the name of a demon, which takes
whatever person it fixes on, and as the above kind of marriage takes
place after the same manner, it has been called by this name.

On espousing a damsel, the intelligent Brahman, having taken the
bride’s hand into his own, must go through the established forms
prescribed by his faith, and move seven steps in advance.[109] When he
espouses the daughter of a Chattrí, at the time of solemnizing the
marriage, an arrow is to be held at one extremity by the bridegroom,
and at the other by the bride; on contracting an alliance with a
merchant’s daughter, the bride and bridegroom are to hold a scourge or
some similar object in the same manner; on his marriage with the
virgin daughter of a cultivator, the parties mark their union by a
token of secret intimacy. When they deliver the bride to her husband,
if her father be not alive, or her paternal grandfather, or if her
brothers be not forthcoming on the occasion, then the most respectable
person of the tribe or family is to perform the necessary ceremonies;
and if the relations be not intelligent, then the damsel’s mother.

It is to be remarked, that when a girl attains the proper age for
entering into the married state, if her parents, notwithstanding their
ability, do not provide a husband for her, they commit a great sin. If
a distinguished suitor should not present himself, they are however to
provide a husband of a good family; this they are to perform only once
in their lives, as on the husband’s death it is unlawful for the widow
to become the wife of another person: after her husband’s decease, she
is obliged to pass the rest of her life in his house. If, previous to
advancing the seven steps prescribed at the time of contracting the
marriage, there should present himself a more distinguished suitor
than the former, it is allowed to take the damsel from the former and
give her to the latter, as before advancing the seven paces, the
matrimonial contract is not binding. Should a wife prove to be
immoral, all intercourse with her must terminate; but putting her to
death or turning her out of doors, are also forbidden: she is to be
confined to a small and dark chamber, clad in a coarse dress, and to
receive food but once a day.

The period of a woman’s illness, according to the Brahmans, extends to
sixteen days: on the four days following the first day of the
symptoms, all intercourse with her is forbidden. Women are strictly
enjoined to show the greatest respect to their husbands, parents,
brothers, and relations, and to use every possible exertion for the
preservation of their husbands’ property. When he goes on a journey,
she is not to deck her person, nor appear cheerful and smiling; she is
not to go to entertainments, to the houses of her acquaintances or
relations, nor invite them to hers.

As long as a girl is unmarried, it is necessary to guard her with the
closest attention; but, when married, this would be highly improper,
with this restriction however, that it is by no means fitting that a
female, from her tenderest years to the period of her maturity, should
be allowed unlimited liberty: on the contrary, she is to be ever
submissive and obedient to her father, husband, and relations: but if
these should not be in existence, the actual rulers are to take care
of her state.

When the husband is on a journey, the wife is not to remain alone in
the house, but is to repair to the dwelling of her parents, brethren,
or relations; and if, on her husband’s death, she become not a
_Sattee_, that is, burn herself with the deceased, she is then to
reside with his relations, devoting herself to rigid abstinence and
the worship of the Almighty. They say that when a woman becomes a
_Sattee_, the Almighty pardons all the sins committed by the wife and
husband, and that they remain a long time in paradise:[110] nay, if
the husband were in the infernal regions, the wife by this means draws
him from thence and takes him to paradise; just as the serpent-catcher
charms the serpent out of his hole. Moreover the Sattee, in a future
birth, returns not to the female sex; but should she reassume the
human nature, she appears as a man; but she who becomes not a Sattee,
and passes her life in widowhood, is never emancipated from the female
state. It is therefore the duty of every woman, excepting one that is
pregnant, to enter into the blazing fire along with her deceased
husband; a Brahman’s wife in particular is to devote herself in the
same fire with her husband; but others are allowed to perform the rite
in a separate place. It is however criminal to force the woman into
the fire, and equally so to prevent her who voluntarily devotes
herself.[111]

The enlightened doctors say, that by a woman’s becoming a Sattee is
meant that, on her husband’s decease, she should consume in the fire
along with him all her desires, and thus die before the period
assigned by nature; as in metaphysical language woman signifies
“passion,” or in other words, she is to cast all her passions into the
fire; but not throw herself into it along with the deceased, which is
far from being praiseworthy. A respectable woman must not from vanity
expose herself to the gaze of a stranger, but she is to wear a dress
which will completely cover her to the sole of the foot.

It is to be noted, that the son of a Brahman by a Chattri female is
not of the father’s caste, but a superior Chattri. It is moreover laid
down as a rule that a Brahman, on becoming a Brahmachárí, should
regularly worship the fire, which fire he is to discontinue at the
time of the marriage contract; but on that occasion he is bound to
light another fire and to recite the prescribed prayers, so that it
may be as a witness of the compact entered into between husband and
wife: also, after the celebration of the marriage, they are to repeat
the prayers prescribed at the time of lighting the fire which they are
ever after to worship daily.

The Brahman is moreover to offer up _Hóma_, or burnt offerings, at the
rising and setting of the great luminary, and to partake of food
twice; once during the day on the expiration of two watches (midday);
the second time at night, on the expiration of one watch: he is also
to assist with food and clothing, to the utmost of his power, the
indigent, and friends who come to his house.

The Chattri is to learn the Védas and Shasters, or the divine
revelations and sciences, but he is not to teach them to another; he
is likewise to perform Hóma, or “burnt-offerings.” His occupation
consists in governing and protecting the human race, for which reason
all monarchs were anciently of the Chattri class, the more effectually
to establish the righteous decrees of Brahma, and the institutions of
the Brahmans.

To the Bakkál, or “merchant caste,” appertains the profession of
buying, selling, and commercial transactions, the protection of
animals, and agriculture, which is attended with profit.

The cultivator, who is called _Dalmah_, or _Kumbí_, is enjoined to
engage in service, to practise tillage, or any employment within his
capacity by which he can gain a maintenance; there are in fact no
limits prescribed as to the nature of his occupations.

All four classes are strictly enjoined not to injure any living being
whatever, especially not to deprive any one arbitrarily of life; to
speak the truth, to act uprightly, and as long as they live not to
defraud a fellow-creature of his wealth.

Every Brahman is obliged once a year to celebrate the established rite
of _Yajna_, or “sacrifice:” if he be in indigent circumstances, he is
to go round to his brethren, and expend whatever he collects in the
Yajna, which is thus performed: there are three _Kundams_,[112] or
“fire-pits” to be formed, in front of which is fixed a wooden post;
then a rope made of Durva grass (in Sanskrit, _Kúsá_) is thrown around
the neck of a black he-goat, and fastened to that post; _Hóm_ is then
offered up during five days; on the first day, the sacrificer and his
wife both perform their ablutions, nine Brahmans at the same time
going through the rite of washing their heads and persons; of these
nine, one is looked upon as Brahma himself, all present obeying his
commands, and the remaining eight Brahmans waiting obsequiously on
him. In addition to these, sixteen more Brahmans are required, who are
to recite by themselves the _Mantra_, or “forms of prayer,” at the
moment of the _Hóm_, or “burnt-offering.” In order to light the fire,
they bring small pieces of a wood which in Sanscrit they call
_Arana_,[113] in Hindi, _Ak_ (asclepias gigantea); and also for the
same purpose another kind, in Sanskrit, _Khandíra_,[114] in Telinga,
_Chandaru_; for the Homa, a wood in Sanskrit called _Pámárak_, in
Telinga, _Utarini_, in Dakhani _Akhárah_, of which they make
tooth-picks; also a wood, in Sanskrit _Udámvarah_[115] (ficus
racemosa), in Telinga, _Miri_, in Dakhani, _Kular_, in Parsi _Anjir
dasti_, or “wild fig;” and another wood, in Sanskrit _samí_,[116] and
in Telinga, _Khammi_; also a grass, named in Sanskrit _Dúrvá_,[117] in
Telinga, _Kargi_, in Dakhani, _Haryálí_; also another sort, called
_Darbas_: altogether nine are required. The eight Brahmans first
mentioned having repeated the proper incantation, lay hold of the goat
in such a manner that they make it lie down on a bed formed of the
leaves and branches of the tree _Khartarhari_, or _Karshartari_, in
Sanskrit, _Kaliśakha_,[118] in Telinga, _Balsúkúma_, and in Dakhani
_Karankabánta_. In the next place, the sixteen Brahmans, having
recited the formula, or appropriate Mantra, stop up all the animal’s
orifices, so that he can neither exhale nor inhale, and keep him in
that position until he dies. Then one of the sixteen Brahmans, cutting
off the head at one blow, flays the carcase and cuts it up into small
pieces, throwing away all the bones to some distance, and then mixes
up clarified butter with the flesh. The eight Brahmans next lay it
piece by piece on the fire, whilst the other sixteen are employed in
throwing on the above mentioned kinds of wood, and pouring clarified
butter on them. The eight Brahmans eat of the meat thus roasted; the
person who offers the sacrifice also partakes of it; after which he
gives among all the officiating Brahmans one hundred and one cows with
their calves, along with a _dakshinah_, or “presents of money.” Hóma
must also be performed on the second day, and gifts presented to the
Brahmans; on the three following days, they recite the appropriate
Mantras, and light up the fire in the manner before described, but lay
no meat upon it; in short, during the whole five days, they entertain
all Brahmans who present themselves, offering up perfumes and giving
presents to each of them. On the expiration of the five days, they
completely fill and stop up two of the fire-receptacles, leaving the
third, which they do not close up until they have removed the fire it
contains to their dwelling: as the fire on this occasion had been made
outside the city, they erect there a house which they burn down on the
completion of the ceremony. When they have taken the fire to their
dwelling, they deposit it in a peculiar receptacle excavated for the
purpose; they offer up the _Hóma_ daily, never suffering this fire to
go out: they also make a covering for it, which they remove at the
time of offering up the Hóma.

The manner of offering the _Hóma_ is as follows: the sacrificer having
performed his ablution and made the _tilek_, or “inaugural mark,” on
the forehead with ashes from the fire receptacle, then celebrates the
Hóma; the rites must be performed by a Brahman, as it is of no avail
when performed by any other. If the officiating Brahman be a
_Vaishnavah_, “worshipper of Vishnu,” he performs the _Yajna_, or
“sacrifice,” in the same manner, excepting that, instead of a goat, he
employs the figure of a goat formed of flour, over which he goes
through the established ceremonies. When one goat is sacrificed, it is
called _Agnishtóma_, or “sacrifice to Agni;”[119] where two are
offered, _Yúnyíkam_;[120] the sacrifice of three is called
_Wajpéya_;[121] the sacrifice of four is called _Jyotishtóma_;[122]
and the sacrifice of five is named _Panjáham_.[123] When they
sacrifice a cow after this manner, it is called the _Gomédha_; the
sacrifice of a horse, _Aswamédha_; that of a man, _Narmédha_.

The _Yajna_, or “sacrifice” is to be offered in the months of _Mágha_,
“January,” _Váisháka_, “April,” or _Márga-sirsha_,[124] “August.”
Every person performs the Yajna once; but he sacrifices a goat every
year; or, if in indigent circumstances, the figure of a goat formed of
flour; and if he be a follower of Vishnu, the goat is to be a figure
formed of the same materials, as among that sect cruelty towards the
animal creation is reckoned as impiety. In their Smriti, or “sacred
writing,” it is thus laid down: “Let that person put animals to death
who has the power of reanimating them, as the victim thus sacrificed
must be restored to life.” Moreover, their pious doctors have said
that, by the sacrifice of a sheep, is meant the removal of ignorance;
by that of a cow, the abandoning low pursuits; by that of the horse,
the curbing of the mind; as according to the Hindus, Manah, or “the
heart,” from which proceed all phantasies and internal sense, is a
fiery and unbroken steed; finally, shedding man’s blood in sacrifice,
implies the eradication of all reprehensible human qualities. It is
also to be highly commended in a Brahman not to devote himself to
lucrative pursuits, but to repair to the abode of his co-religionists,
and being satisfied and grateful for the portion of grain he receives
from them, to give up the rest of his time to devotion; nor is he to
collect so much food as to have any remaining for the next day.
Vessels of gold are esteemed more pure than those of any other metal.
Whenever a Brahman sees an idol-temple, a cow, or a holy personage, he
is to walk reverentially round each. He is not to perform the offices
of nature in running water, nor in a cow-shed, nor in ashes; before a
Brahman, or a cow, or in sight of the great luminary; when he retires
to any place for this purpose, he is not in that state of nudity to
look towards the stars; neither is he to go out naked in rain, nor
sleep with his head to the west; he is not to cast saliva, blood, nor
semen into water, nor extend his feet towards the fire for the purpose
of warming them; he is not to leap on fire, nor drink water with both
hands. It is also wrong to awake, unless in case of necessity, one who
is in a profound sleep; nor is it allowed to sit on the same couch
with a sick person. It is not right to enter upon any undertaking to
which a suspicion of evil consequences is attached. Great care must
also be taken to remove to a distance from the smoke of a dead body on
the funeral pile. No one is to return to his home, whether in a city
or village, except by the public gate. A Brahman must not receive a
gift from a mean and sordid monarch, or from an avaricious person of
degrading pursuits, as in the future investigation, punishment
certainly awaits such conduct: in short, he never accepts any thing
from the impure or base. He is not to look at his wife when sneezing,
yawning, or gaping; when she is seated in privacy at her ease; or when
applying collyrium to her eyes, or anointing her hair.[125] He ought
not to sleep naked in his bed-room, nor in an empty house without a
companion; he ought not to throw water about in play, with the palm of
his hand or with his foot, nor to blow out fire with his breath,
without using any instrument.

It is to be known, that the astronomers among the Brahmans, in their
computation, divide the month into two parts; from the beginning to
the fifteenth day they reckon one part, and call the sixteenth day
_Púrva_, that is, one entire part; and the rest, to the end of the
month, is the other part; in like manner, they have in each month
twice twelve and six days; which they distinguish by the denomination
_dvádásí_, “the twelfth,” and _chachtí_, “the sixth, day” of the lunar
fortnight.

Nobody ought to put his feet upon the shade of a Dív, that is, of the
image of a celestial being, of a king, a preceptor, a saint, and a
married wife of another. It is not right to look with contempt upon a
Brahman. One may beat a delinquent on account of a fault, or a pupil
by way of chastisement, but his blows must not hurt the upper parts of
the body. No man ought to dispute or wrangle with one higher in rank
than himself, nor with a widow, nor with a man without connexion, an
old woman, a beggar, nor with children. Let him feign ignorance with
respect to a mandate upon a woman, and towards a person who should be
aware of the bad conduct of his wife. He is never to take his meal
upon the same table-cloth with a man without religion, a butcher, and
one who sells his wife. The master of the house ought never, with a
loud voice, to invite another to his board, because this looks like
ostentation.

Nine stars are to be worshipped for the increase of wealth, the
accomplishment of our wishes, and the union with the divinity; namely,
Saturn, Jupiter, Mars, the sun, Venus, Mercury, the solstice, and the
descending node. Let the pious distribute to the Brahmans and to the
wise men what is prescribed of corn, raiment, and jewels that may suit
them. The king is to possess dignity, wisdom, and affability towards
young and old; he is to be just towards the complainants; at court,
condescending to all, mild and liberal, knowing the truth,
understanding the wishes of men, respectful to the pious and the
saints, and showing deference to the lords of the faith, and the
secluded from the world; he is to be humble and command his ambition;
and in whatever may occur, pleasure and pain, fortune and misfortune,
let his conduct never be mutable and inconsistent.

Whoever runs away in battle, renders himself highly guilty, and all
the merit which he might have acquired before, falls to the share of
another who stood firm in the field of battle.[126] A king who, with
the laudable qualities before described, exerts himself in the
maintenance of his laws, the distribution of justice, and the welfare
of the cultivators, shares the recompense of all the good actions
which the inhabitants of the country have performed.[127] The exercise
of justice is imposed as a necessity upon a king; in order that, if a
son, brother, uncle, brother-in-law, preceptor, or any other friend,
commit a crime, he may immediately, according to the established code
of laws, order their chastisement, terrify, reprimand, or subject them
to retaliation.

In the Hindu Institutes which are called _Smriti_, it is said to be
established that, after the worship of the Supreme God, they ought to
venerate the subordinate divinities, and perform the prescribed rites.
To eat flesh, and to put to death some animals, is therein not
prohibited, excepting the cow; he who kills, or even hurts, this
animal, shall never enjoy the sight of heaven; and they say that he
only who can restore to life, may put to death, an animal; this is
necessary: who destroys a living being must vivify it again; if he be
not able to do this, he ought to forbear from that act, because he
shall not escape punishment for it. According to their learned
interpreters, the killing of certain animals which is permitted in
their sacred books, signifies the eradicating and destroying of such
blameable qualities as are proper to these animals.

In ancient times, it was the custom among the Brahmans and the wise
among them, when they had become householders and begotten a son, to
withdraw from society, and when they had established their sons, to
separate from them, and having retired into a desert, to devote
themselves to the worship of God; and when the sons had children in
their house, their father and mother did not visit each other in the
desert, but lived separate from each other, at the distance of several
farsangs.

The religious austerity of this people is very great; thus they
practise perpetual standing upon their legs, hanging themselves up,
abstaining from conversation, keeping silence, cutting themselves
asunder, leaping down from a rock, and such like. Women used to burn
themselves alive with their dead husbands: this is according to the
_Smriti_,[128] which is ascribed to Brahma, and believed to be eternal
truth.

Of this people, the author of this book saw in Lahor, the capital of
the sultan, a Brahman, called Sri Manu Rama, who would not accept any
nourishment from the Musulmans, nor keep society with strangers. It
was said, that an Umra of the Mahommedans had offered him three lacs
of rupees, which he refused to take. Pursuant to his religion, he
abstained from animal food. Kesayi Tívárí is one of the Brahmans of
Benáres, and well conversant with the science of his class. Having
left his house, he settled on the bank of the river Ravi, which passes
near the garden Kamran, at Lahór: given up to devotion, he seeks no
protection against rain and sun; he lives upon a little milk; and
whatever he has collcted during several months, he spends in the
entertainment of the pious Brahmans whom he invites.


     [73] _Munji_, a sort of grass, from the fibres of which a
     string is prepared, of which the triple thread worn by the
     Brahman should be formed (_Saccharum munja Rox._)――(_Wilson’s
     Sanskrit Dictionary._)――D. S.

     [74] Ward enumerates only ten _Sanskara_, or “ceremonies:”
     _Garbhádhána_, _Púngsavana_, _Simonton-nayana_,
     _Játa-karma_, _Nishkramana_, _Náma-karana_, _Anna-práshana_,
     _Chúra-karana_, _Upanayana_, and _Viváha_ (vol. III. p. 71).

     [75] The above interpretation is not correct; the name of
     the ceremony गर्भाधान is derived from _Garbha_, “the fœtus,”
     and _adhan_, “taking;” according to Wilson’s Dictionary, a
     ceremony performed prior to conception; but, according to
     Ward, a ceremony to be performed four months after
     conception, including a burnt sacrifice, the worship of the
     Shálgráma, and all the forms of the Nándí-Múkhí-Shrádda. The
     Shalgrama (from _Shal_, “to move, to shake,” and _Grama_, “a
     village”) the _ætites_, or “eagle-stone,” black, hollow, and
     nearly round, said to be brought from mount Gandaki, in
     Nepaul――an emblem of Vishnu (see Ward, vol. I. p.
     283-4-5).――D. S.

     [76] पुंसवन. A religious and domestic festival, held on the
     mother’s perceiving the first signs of a living conception:
     from _pung_, “a male,” and _shu_, “to bear.”

     _Nándi-Mukha-Sráddha_, funeral obsequies performed on joyous
     occasions, as initiation, marriage, etc., in which nine
     balls of meat are offered to the deceased father, paternal
     grandfather, and great grandfather; to the maternal
     grandfather, great grandfather, and great great grandfather;
     to the mother, paternal grandmother, and paternal great
     grandmother: from _Nandi_, “good fortune,” and _Mukha_,
     “principal.”

     [77] सीमन्तोन्नयन a purificatory and sacrificial ceremony
     observed by women, on the fourth, sixth, or eighth month of
     their pregnancy: from _Simanta_, “a portion of the hair,”
     and _Unnayana_, “arranging;” this forming an essential part
     of the ceremony――(_Wilson_).

     [78] जात कर्म from _Jata_, “born,” and _karma_, “an act
     practised at the moment of birth,” in which the Shrádaha,
     “the burnt sacrifice,” and other ceremonies, which occupy
     about two hours, are performed, and then the umbilical cord
     is cut――(_Ward_, vol. III. p. 73).

     [79] नामकरण from _Náman_, “a name,” and _Kri_, “to
     make”――(_Ward’s Glossary_).

     The first part of a Brahman’s compound name should indicate
     holiness; of a Chatriya’s, power; of a Vaisya’s, wealth; and
     of a Sudra’s, contempt. Let the second part of the priest’s
     name imply prosperity; of the soldier’s, preservation; of
     the merchant’s, nourishment; of the servant’s, humble
     attendance. The names should be agreeable, soft, clear,
     captivating the fancy, auspicious, ending in long vowels,
     resembling words of benediction――(_Haughton’s Menu_, p. 25).

     [80] निष्क्रमण from _Nir_, “forth,” and _Kram_, “to step:”
     carrying the child out of the house to see the sun, and
     offering up petitions for the long life and prosperity of
     the child.

     [81] अन्न प्राशन from _Anna_, “food,” and _práśanna_,
     “feeding” (_Ward’s Vocabulary_).――“In the sixth month, he
     should be fed with rice; or that may be done which, by the
     custom of the family, may be thought most propitious”
     (_MS._, p. 25).――For the goddess Anna Perenna of the Romans,
     the Anna-purna of the Hindus, from _Anna_, “race,” and
     _purna_, “to fill” (see _As. Res._, vol. VIII. p. 69. 85).

     [82] चूडाकरण from _Chúd´a_, “a single lock of hair left on
     the crown of the head at the ceremony of the first tonsure,”
     and _Karana_, “the act of making.”

     [83] सूत्र _Sútra_, “a thread in general; a string, or
     collection of threads,” as that worn by the three first
     classes――(_Wilson_).

     [84] मुञ्ज _Munja_, “a sort of grass” from the fibres of
     which a string is prepared, of which the triple thread worn
     by the Brahman should be formed (_Saccharum
     Munja_)――(_Wilson_).

     [85] दर्भ _Darbha_, _Cúsa_, or “sacrificial grass”――(_Wilson_).

     The girdle of a priest must be made of Munja in a triple
     cord, smooth and soft; that of a warrior must be a
     bow-string of Murva; that of a merchant, a triple thread of
     Sana. If the Munja be not procurable, their zones must be
     formed respectively of the grasses Cusa Asmantaca, valvaja,
     in triple strings, with one, three, or five knots, according
     to the family custom――(_MS._ p. 26).

     [86] The sacrificial thread of a Brahman must be made of
     cotton, so as to be put on over his head, in three strings;
     that of a Chatriya, of Sana thread only; that of a Vaisya,
     of woollen thread――(_MS._ p. 27).

     [87] The यज्ञोपवीत or “sacrificial cord,” originally worn by
     the three principal casts of Hindus; at present, from the
     loss of the pure Chatríya and Vaisya casts in Bengal,
     confined to the Brahmanical order: from _Yajna_, “a
     sacrifice,” and _Upavíta_, “a thread.”

     [88] गो दान _Go-dána_, from _Go_, “a cow,” and _Dána_, “a
     gift.”

     [89] Probably अशन पञ्च or पञ्च तन्त्र _asana pancha_, or
     _pancha tantra_, “five things.”

     [90] विवाह.

     [91] पिण्ड प्रदान _Pinda-pradána_, from _pinda_, “a funeral
     cake;” an oblation to deceased ancestors, offered at the
     several _Sraddhas_, by the nearest surviving relation, and
     _prádán_, “the act of giving.”

     [92] माघ _Magha_, the name of a Hindu month commencing when
     the sun enters Capricornus. (January-February).

     [93] दान फल _Dána-phal_, from _Dána_, “a gift,” and _phal_,
     “fruit.”

     [94] शिव रात्रि _Shiva-ratri_, from _Shiva_, “Siva, the
     deity,” in his character of destroyer and reproducer; the
     third person of the Hindu triad, and _ratri_, “night,” being
     the night of the fourteenth day of the moon’s wane, in the
     month _Magha_, or _Magha-phalguna_, a rigorous fast with
     extraordinary ceremonies in honour of the _Sivalinga_, or
     _Phallus_.
                                 (_As. Res._, vol. III. p. 274.)

     [95] फणी _Phani_, from _Phana_, “the expanded hood or neck
     of the _Cobra di Capello_”――(_Wilson_).

     [96] For a more detailed account, see _Ward on the Hindoos_,
     vol. II. p. 29, etc.――The abstract given in the Dabistán is
     inaccurate, agreeing neither with _Manu_ nor _Ward_: in
     _Manu_, it is as follows (l. II. sl. 58): Let a Brahman at
     all times perform the ablution with the pure part of his
     hand, denominated from the Veda, or with the part sacred to
     the Lord of creatures, or with that dedicated to the gods:
     but never with the part named from the _Pitris_. (sl. 59)
     The pure part under the root of the thumb is called
     _Brahma_; that at the root of the little finger, _Cáya_;
     that at the tips of the fingers, _Daiva_; and the part
     between the thumb and index, _Pitrya_. (sl. 60) Let him sip
     water thrice; then twice wipe his mouth; and lastly, touch
     with water the six cavities (or his eyes, ears, and
     nostrils), his breast, and his head. (61) He who knows the
     law and seeks purity, will ever perform his ablution with
     the pure part of his hand, and with water neither hot nor
     frothy, standing in a lonely place, and turning to the east
     or north. (62) A Brahman is purified by water that reaches
     his bosom; a Chatríya, by water descending to his throat; a
     Vaisya, by water barely taken into his mouth; a Sutra, by
     water touched with the extremity of his lips.――D. S.

     [97] This rite is called _Achamana_, performed by taking up
     water in the palm of the right hand three times, and
     drinking it as it runs towards the wrist; then, with the
     right hand, the Brahman is to touch his lips, nose, ears,
     navel, breast, forehead, and shoulders, repeating an
     incantation; wash his hands again, and perform _achamana_;
     repeat an incantatian; then sitting to the N. or E., before
     sunrise, cleanse his teeth with the end of a green stick,
     about six or seven inches long. If he clean his teeth after
     sunrise, in the next birth he will be born an insect feeding
     on ordure. He must now wash from his face the mark on his
     forehead made the day before. Lastly, he puts a dry and
     new-washed cloth round his loins and sitting down, let him
     cleanse his poita by rinsing it in the water; then taking up
     some earth in his hand and diluting it with water, put the
     middle finger of his right hand in this earth, and make a
     line botwixt his eyes up to the top of his forehead; then
     draw his three first fingers across his forehead; make a
     round dot with his little finger in the centre at the top of
     his head; another on the upper part of his nose; and another
     on his throat; etc., etc. (_Ward_, vol. II. p. 31).――D. S.

     [98] _Sandhya._ The Brahman must offer up many prayers; pour
     out water to different gods; repeat certain forms of prayer
     in honor of the sun, which he must worship; and repeat the
     Gáyatrí; then take up water with his Kosha (small copper
     cup), and pour it out to his deceased ancestors; after which
     he must return home and read some part of the Veda――(_Ward_,
     vol. II. p. 31-32).

     The _Gáyatrí_ here means a sacred verse from the Vedas, to
     be recited only mentally: this is usually personified and
     considered as a goddess, the metaphorical mother of the
     three first classes, in their capacity of twice-born;
     investiture with the sacred and distinguishing string, viz.:
     being regarded as a new birth. There is but one Gayatri of
     the Vedas; but, according to the system of the Tantricas, a
     number of mystical verses are called Gáyatrís, each deity
     having one in particular. From _Gaya_, “who sings;” and
     _Trai_, “to preserve.”――D. S.

     [99] We read in Colebrooke’s Treatise on the Védas (_As.
     Res._, vol. VIII. p. 370) what follows: “It is well known,
     that the original Véda is believed by Hindus to have been
     revealed by Brahma, and to have been preserved by tradition,
     until it was arranged in its present order by a sage, who
     thence obtained the surname of _Vyása_, or _Véda Vyaśa_,
     that is, ‘compiler of the Védas.’ He distributed the Indian
     scripture into four parts, which are severally entitled
     _Rich_, _Yajush_, _Sáman_, and _At´harvańa_; and each
     of which bears the common denomination of Véda.”

     After having discussed the question whether the fourth Véda
     be more modern than the other three, the celebrated
     Indianist concludes (p. 372): “That the three
     first-mentioned Védas are the three principal portions of
     the Véda; that the _At´harvańa_ is commonly admitted as a
     fourth; and that divers mythological poems, entitled
     _Itihása_ and _Puránás_, are reckoned a supplement to the
     scripture, and, as such, constitute a fifth Véda.” He says
     further (_ibid._, p. 378): “Each Véda consists of two parts,
     denominated the _Mantras_ and the _Bráhmańas_, or ‘prayers’
     and ‘precepts.’ The complete collection of the hymns,
     prayers, and invocations belonging to one Véda is entitled
     its _Sanhita_. Every other portion of Indian scripture is
     included under the general head of divinity (_Bráhmańa_).
     This comprises precepts which inculcate religious duties;
     maxims, which explain those precepts; and arguments, which
     relate to theology.――The theology of the Indian scripture,
     comprehending the argumentative portion entitled _Védanta_,
     is contained in tracts denominated _Upanishads_.”――A. T.

     The Hindus have, besides, _Upavédas_. _Upa_ is a preposition
     importing resemblance in an inferior degree; and _Véda_,
     from _Vida_, “knowledge.” The four Upavedas comprise the
     _Ayu_, on the science of medicine, drawn from the Rig Veda;
     the _Gandharva_, on music, from the Sama-Véda; the _Dhanu_,
     on military tactics, from the Yajush; and the _Silpa_, on
     mechanics, from the Atharvańa.

     Hindu learning has six divisions, called _Angas_, that is,
     “parts,” or “members.” The six Angas are: _Sikshya_, on
     pronunciation; _Kalpa_, on ceremonies; _Vyákarana_, on
     grammar; _Chanda_, on prosody and verse; _Jyotisha_, on
     astronomy; and _Nirukta_, an explanation of difficult words,
     etc., in the Véda. These divisions, as dependant upon the
     Védas, are also called _Védangas_. The Hindus count besides
     four secondary portions of science, called _Upangás_: these
     are: the _Puranas_, or poetical histories; the _Náya_, on
     ethics; the _Mímánsa_, on divine wisdom and on ceremonies;
     and the _D’harma s astra_, or the civil and canon laws (_Ward_,
     vol. IV. p. 55).――D. S.

     [100] Yojanagundhá (_Wilson’s Dict._) is a name of
     Satyavati, the mother of the sage and poet Vyása.

     [101] The great epic poem, _Mahábhárat_, is ascribed to
     Vyása, on the wars between the Kurus and the Gandus, when
     more than seven millions of men perished. Of the birth of
     Vyasa, who divided the Véda into eighteen parts, wrote
     eighteen _Puranas_, the eighteen _Upapuranas_, the
     _Kalkipurana_, the _Mahabhagavata_, the _Ekámrapurana_, the
     _Vedanta darshana_, and founded the _Vedanta_ sect, an
     account is given, by himself, in the Mahabharat.――(_Ward_,
     vol. III. p. 12).――D. S.

     [102] Santanu, the fourth prince in succession from
     Sambarana, the son of Riksha, whose reign began at the
     commencement of the Kali Yug.
                            (_Ward_, vol. III. p. 21-22).――D. S.

     According to Sir W. Jones (_Works_, IV. p. 32) and to
     _Wilson’s Dict._ (_sub voce_), Sántanu was the twenty-first
     sovereign of the lunar race in the third age; he was the son
     of _Pratípa_, and grandson of _Riksha_ (see also
     _Vichnupurana_. _Wilson’s transl._, p. 457.)――A. T.

     [103] Kuntí was mother of the five Pandava princes, by as
     many gods; the names of the princes were _Yud´hisht´hira_,
     _Bhíma_, _Arjúna_, _Nakuĺa_, and _Sahadéva_. Pandu was
     interdicted by a curse from connubial intercourse, and
     obtained the above five sons through his two wives Kuntí and
     Madrí (_Ward_, vol. III. p. 22).――D. S.

     [104] _Parásaru_: this philosopher is described as a very
     old man, in the dress of a mendicant. He is charged with an
     infamous intrigue with the daughter of a fisherman; to
     conceal his amour with whom, he caused a heavy fog to fall
     on the place of his retreat. Veda Vyasa, the collector of
     the Vedas, was the fruit of this interview (_Ward_, vol. IV.
     p. 40).――D. S.

     [105] One of the thirty-eight divisions of Central India
     (_Ward_, vol. III, p. ix.)――D. S.

     [106] _Ahalyá_ (_Vichnupurana, Wilson’s transl._, p. 454)
     was the daughter of _Bahwaśwa_, and the wife of Gautama.――A.
     T.

     [107] In the _Institutes of Manu_ (l. III. sl. 21.) eight
     forms of marriage are enumerated, viz.: the marriage form of
     _Brahma_, of the _Dévas_ (gods), of the _Rishis_ (saints),
     of the _Praja patis_ (creators), of the _Asúras_ (demons),
     of the _Gandharvas_ (celestial musicians), of the
     _Rákshasas_ (giants), and of the _Pisáchas_ (vampires). The
     six first in direct order are by some held valid in the case
     of a priest; the four last in that of a warrior; and the
     same four, except the _Rakshasa_ marriage, in the cases of a
     merchant and a man of the servile class. Some consider the
     four first only as approved in the case of a priest; one,
     that of _Rakshasas_, as peculiar to the soldier; and that of
     _Asuras_ to a mercantile and a servile man; but in this code
     three of the five last are held legal, and two illegal: the
     ceremonies of _Pisáchas_ and _Asuras_ must never be
     performed.――A. T.

     [108] According to Mr. Wilson, it is when the bridegroom
     gives to the bride, her father, and paternal relations, as
     much as he can afford. According to Ward, it is when money
     is received in exchange for a bride. Where a present is made
     to the father of the girl, the caste of the boy is not very
     respectable. In the most respectable marriages, the father
     not only gives his daughter without reward, but bears the
     expenses of the wedding, and presents ornaments, goods,
     cattle, and money to the bridegroom (_Ward_, vol. III. p.
     163-168). Ward mentions eight kinds of marriage: 1.
     _Bráhma_, when the girl is given to a Brahman without
     reward; 2. _Daíva_, when she is presented as a gift at the
     close of a sacrifice; 3. _Arsha_, when two cows are received
     by the girl’s father; 4. _Prájápatya_, when the girl is
     given at the request of a Brahman; 5. _Asura_, as above; 6.
     _Gandharva_; 7. _Rákshasha_; 8. _Piśhácha_ (_Ward,
     ibidem_).――D. S.

     [109] See for the marriage customs of the Hindus: _On the
     religious ceremonies of the Hindus and of the Brahmans
     especially_, Essay III. by H. T. Colebrooke, Esq.; _As.
     Res._, vol. VII. p. 288. Calcutta edit.; and also: _Mœurs,
     institutions et cérémonies des peuples de l’Inde_, par M.
     l’abbé J. A. Dubois, vol. I. chap. VI. pp. 284-326. Paris.
     1825.

     [110] This passage is nearly a literal translation from the
     Hetopades, p. 79:

          “Three crores and a half are the hairs on a man;
           So long a time shall she live in paradise who follows
             her lord.
           As a snake-catcher forcibly draws up a snake from his
             hole,
     In the same manner she, having taken her husband, is exalted
       to heaven.
     The affectionate wife, who on the funeral pile has embraced
       her inanimate
     Husband, abandons indeed her own body:
     But taking up her husband, who has committed many sins――even
       a hundred times
     A hundred thousand――she shall obtain the mansions of the gods.”
                                                         ――D. S.

     [111] It is known that the sacrifice of widows was abolished
     in the year 1834, in all the Indian provinces under the
     government and influence of the English authorities, by lord
     William Bentinck, governor-general of India.――A. T.

     [112] कुण्डं a hole in the ground for receiving and
     preserving consecrated fire.――(_Wilson._)

     A part of the sacrifice, called _Yajna_, but it is often
     performed separately. The things offered are clarified
     butter, sesamum, flowers, rice, boiled in milk and sweetened
     in honey, Durva grass, vilwa leaves, and the tender
     branches, half a span long, of the _ashwatta_ (ficus
     religiosa), the _dumvara_ (ficus racemosa), the _palasha_
     (butea frondosea), the _akunda_ (asclepias gigantea), the
     _sharni_ (mimosa albida), and the _kladira_ (mimosa catechu)
     (see _Ward_, vol. II. p. 58).――D. S.

     [113] अरणि _arani_, the plant of which especial use is made
     for kindling fire, is the _Premna spinosa_ (_Wilson’s
     Dict._).

     [114] Perhaps खदिर _khadira_, (mimosa catechu).

     [115] उडम्वर _udamvara_, “glomerous fig-tree” (ficus
     glomerosa, Rox.).

     [116] शमी _samí_ (acacia suma, Rox.).

     [117] दूर्वा bent grass, commonly dub (Panicum dactylon)
     (_Wilson’s Dict._).

     [118] Probably a tree with black blossoms, perhaps काल
     स्कन्ध _kála-shandha_, a sort of ebony; or the _tamála_,
     bearing dark blossoms.

     [119] अग्निष्टोम According to Wilson’s Dict., a sacrifice,
     or rather a series of offerings, to fire, for five days, to
     be celebrated in the spring, from _Agni_, “the deity
     presiding over fire,” and _Stoma_, “an offering.”

     [120] Perhaps युग्मकं _yugmakam_, “couple.”――A. T.

     [121] वाजपेय from _waj_, “the acetous fermentation of meal
     and water,” and _pèya_, to be drunk (by the gods).

     [122] ज्योष्टिोम from _jyotish_, “light,” and _stóma_, “an
     offering;” a particular sacrifice, at which sixteen priests
     are required.

     [123] पञ्जहोम From _panja_, “five,” and _hóma_, “a burnt
     offering.”

     [124] The months are so called from certain Nakshatras, or
     the twenty-seven stellar mansions, two and one quarter of
     which make up each sign of the zodiac. The sun passes
     through those signs in twelve months, and the moon through
     each sign in two days and a quarter. _Mágha_ is so called
     from the tenth Nakshatra Mágha, represented by a house;
     _Vaiśaka_, from Viśakha, the sixteenth, represented by a
     festoon; and _Márgaśirsha_, from the fifth Mriga-siras, or
     the antelope’s head.――D. S.

     [125] Here terminates the translation of the late D. Shee,
     p. 201, l. 9, of the Calcutta edition.

     [126] According to the _Institutes of Manu_ (chap. VII. sl.
     94-95): “The soldier who, fearing and turning his back,
     happens to be slain by his foes in an engagement, shall take
     upon himself all the sin of his commander, whatever it be:
     and the commander shall take to himself the fruit of all the
     good conduct which the soldier who turns his back and is
     killed, had previously stored up for a future life.”
                                    (_Transl. of Sir W. Jones._)

     [127] _Manu_ (_ibid._, ch. VIII. sl. 304-305) determines the
     recompense or punishment of good or bad kings as follows: “A
     sixth part of the reward for virtuous deeds, performed by
     the whole people, belongs to the king who protects them;
     but, if he protect them not, a sixth part of their iniquity
     lights on him.” The legislator redoubles the amount of
     punishment to a bad king in a subsequent _sloka_ (308):
     “That king who gives no protection, yet takes a sixth part
     of the grain as his revenue, wise men have considered as a
     prince who draws to him the foulness of his people.”

     [128] It is to be regretted that the author has not
     indicated the precise place of the Smriti, which enjoins the
     sacrifice of the widows.

       *     *     *     *     *

SECTION THE FOURTH, OF THE FOLLOWERS OF THE VEDANTA (THE
VEDANTIANS).――This sect belongs to the most learned and wise of this
people. We shall give the substance of their creed. They say: The
explanation regarding the only really existing Being (God) resembles a
science from which a faint likeness of his grandeur may be perceived;
this being and his qualities are pure of all imperfections and
contradictions; he oversees all beings; he discovers all that is
hidden; his existence comprehends all things; decay and deficiency
have no access to the boundless area of his existence; he is the lord
of life, the greatest of spirits endowed with pure qualities, and this
holy Being, this sublime object, they call _Brahma uttama_,[129] “the
most excellent Brahma,” that is, the supreme soul and the most exalted
spirit; and the evidence of this meaning, that is, of his existence,
is the created world; because a creation without a creator will not
come forth from the veil of non-entity into the field of evidence, and
the maker of this work is he, the Lord. This explanation is to be
supported in the field of certainty by the wise arguments of sagacious
people, and by the testimonies of the text of the Véda, that is, of
the heavenly book. The truly existing Being (God) has exhibited this
world and the heavens in the field of existence, but he has nothing
like an odor of being, nor has he taken a color of reality; and this
manifestation they call _Máyá_[130], that is, “the magic of God;”
because the universe is “his playful deceit,” and he is the bestower
of the imitative existence, himself the unity of reality. With his
pure substance, like an imitative actor, he passes every moment into
another form, and having again left this, appears in another dress. It
is he alone who, coming forth in the forms of Brahma, Vishnu, and
Mahadeva, exhibits the true unity in a trinity of persons, and who,
manifesting his being and unity in three persons, separate from each
other, formed this universe. The connexion of the spirits with the
holy Being (God), is like the connexion of the billows with the ocean,
or that of sparks with fire; on that account, they call the soul and
the spirits _jívátmá_.[131] The soul is uncompounded and distinct from
the body and from the material senses; but by the power of selfishness
it fell into a captivity from which the soul strives to be
liberated.[132] The soul has three conditions or states: the first is
the state of being awake, which they call _jágaravast´ha_,[133] and
in this state the soul enjoys quietly the pleasures of nature and
bodily delights, such as eating and drinking, and the like; and it
suffers from the privation of these just-mentioned enjoyments; that
is, it suffers from hunger and thirst, and similar pains; the second
state is that of sleep, called _svapna avast´ha_,[134] and in this
state the soul is happy in the possession of what it wishes and
desires, such as collecting in dreams gold and silver, and similar
things; it is distressed by the want of them; the third state is known
by the name of _Su svapna avast´ha_,[135] that is, “the state of
good sleep,” and in this state there is neither gladness nor sadness
from possession or privation of what is desired, but freedom from
pleasure and pain. It is to be known that they hold sleep to bestow a
prophetic sight of events, and the vision is called _rúyá_ in Arabic:
in this third state however, which they call sleep by excellence, no
events are seen, but it is being plunged in a profound sleep, and this
people do not take it simply for sleep, but they distinguish it as a
sort of lethargy, which they call _su svapna_. They believe the souls
to be imprisoned in these three states, and wandering about in a
circle. The soul in these conditions, although united with a body,
yet, by a number of meritorious deeds, and a virtuous conduct, attains
to the station of knowing itself and God: it then breaks the net of
illusion,[136] and it is the characteristic of saints whom they call
_Jnání_;[137] that, whatever they see in the state of being awake,
they reckon to be a vain illusion, as if presenting itself to men in a
dream. The saint thinks even a man awake to be deceived by a dream;
like one who, from inadvertency, takes a rope for a snake; but it is a
rope, not a snake: he knows the world to be a delusion, which, from
want of knowledge, is thought to be the universe, although, in truth,
it has no reality. This state is called by them _Tarbá avast´há_.[138]

When the saint becomes free from the ties and impediments of the
world, and from the chains of its accidents, then he enters into the
region of freedom, which they call _mukt_.[139] This mukt, according
to them, is divided into five parts: the first is, when the sanctified
man, having attained the dignity of freedom, in the city of the
subordinate divinities (angels), becomes one of them; as in this city
are the residences of the deities, such as the city of Brahma, of
Vishnu, of Mahadéva, and this part is called “the mukt of the pious.”
The second part is, when the devotee, a neighbour and companion of the
gods, is surrounded by an abundance of favor, and the society of the
celestial beings; and this division of the mukt they call _Svámi
prémá_.[140] The third part is, when the pious assumes the form of the
inferior divinities without union with their persons, that is,
whichever of the gods he chooses, it is his shape which he
appropriates to himself, and this part they name _Sára préma_.[141]
The fourth part of the mukt is, when the pious becomes united with one
of the gods, like water with water, that is, when he coalesces with
whichever of the gods he chooses, and this is entitled _svayukti_.[142]
The fifth part is, when the soul of the pious, called _jívátma_,
becomes one with the great spirit whom they call _paramátmá_,[143] and
recognise as the only real being, in such a manner that there remains
no room for a second to rise between, and this they distinguish by the
name of _Jnánam uttamam_.[144]

This is the substance of the creed of the Védantian: whoever possesses
this science is called _Inání_ by the Hindus, and all the principal
men among them are conversant with the doctrine of this sect. The
sublime discourses and wise histories delivered by Vasishta for the
instruction of Rama chandra, are entitled _Vasíshta yog_; and the
speeches which fell from the tongue of Krishna, when he was bestowing
advice upon Arjuna, who was one of the Pandus, go under the name of
_kathá_. Sankara Acharya, who ranks highest among the later learned
men of India, has written much about this doctrine. The dogmas of this
class are as follow: the world and its inhabitants are appearances
without reality, and God is but one necessary and self-existing being,
whom they call _Parama atma_; they say, this appearance and diversity
of form, this order and aspect of heavens, are like the vapor
resembling the sea upon the surface of sandy plains, and like the
vision of a dream; good and bad, pleasure and pain, adoration and
worship of God, are but objects of imagination, and these various
images are illusions;――the deepest pits of hell, the vaults of heaven,
the return to earth after death, transmigration, and the retribution
of actions, all that is but imagination, and variety of imagination.

QUERY Should one say, a principle of life acts in us; there is no
doubt of it; consequently the one is learned, the other ignorant; the
one is happy, the other distressed. How can that be mere imagination,
and appearance?

THE ANSWER they give to it is――If not in a dream, thou wouldst not see
thyself a king issuing mandates, a servant, submissive, imprisoned,
free, a slave, a master, sick, healthy, distressed, merry, melancholy,
and so on. How often in a dream didst thou not feel pleasure and
happiness, or wast overwhelmed by fear, and terror, and anguish? there
is no doubt but all this is mere illusion and empty appearance,
although the dreamer holds it all to be real truth.

Rayi-Rup, who is reckoned among the learned Rajahs, asked the author
of this book: “After having dreamt to have received any wound
whatsoever upon my body, if, as soon as I rise from sleep, I do not
find the least mark of it, I know that it was an illusion; but if in a
dream I converse with a woman, at my waking, I may perhaps not be able
to deny the visible effect of it: why should this happen in the second
case?”

To this question the following answer was given: “What thou thinkest
the state of being awake, this, in the opinion of the enlightened, is
also dreaming; and as it often happens that, thinking in a dream to be
awake, I perceive whatever appears as if I were really awake, whilst I
see it in a dream: in like manner, the usual state of being awake is
held by the wise to be nothing else but a dream. Hast thou not heard
what Kámyáb Samrádí has said in the Samrád námeh? A man had seven
noble sons, each of whom felt the ambition to command in the six parts
of the world. With such a desire, they addressed their devotion to
God. One day they laid their head upon the pillow of repose, and each
had a bright dream. It appeared to each, that he had left his body,
and was born again in a king’s house; after the death of the father,
each placed the crown upon his head, and bore dominion from east to
west; in the seven regions there was no king equal to him, and the
reign of each lasted one hundred thousand years; at the time of his
passing to the other world, he delivered the empire to his son, and,
leaving the body, took his flight to heaven. When they awoke, the
dinner which they had been preparing was not yet ready. Afterwards,
each of them related what happened to him; each of them pretended to
have possessed the seven regions during one hundred thousand years,
and each named such and such a town as the capital of his empire.
Although awake, they resolved then to go each to his kingdom, and to
see that capital, whether true or not. They went first to the town
which was the residence of the eldest brother; there they found his
son king, and the father knew his palace; in this manner they visited
the kingdoms of the other brothers, and saw their sons. Afterwards,
the seven returned to their native-place, and said to each other:
‘Each of us was in his dream king of the seven regions, and had no
other above himself; being awakened, we heard the same from the men of
those towns which we have visited for ascertaining that we had
possessed such rank and power in the world.’ Thus it is certain that
we are even now in a dream, and that the world is nothing else but an
illusive vision.”

This sect interpret the whole religion of the Hindus according to
their own belief, and they state that, pursuant to the Védas, to
confound during the worship all the subordinate divinities with the
one whose existence is necessary, means nothing else but that, in
truth, they all emanate from this one; further that it is but he who
manifests himself in the form of any deity, and that no _Serosh_ has
an existence of his own, but that in Brahma, Vishnu, and Mahadéva, who
appeared above, are evidenced the three attributes of God, namely, in
Brahma, the creator; in Vishnu, the preserver; and in Mahadéo, the
destroyer. Moreover they say, that these three attributes are the mind
or intellect, which they call _manas_, and it is the action of the
interior sense which they distinguish particularly by the name of
_manas_.[145] Besides they entertain this belief about the interior
sense, that, if the mind wishes, it forms the image of a town; it
becomes then _Brahma_, who has as much as created it; as long as the
mind wishes, it preserves its work, on which account it becomes
_Vishnu_, who is its guardian; further, if it wishes, it throws it
off, in which sense the mind becomes _Mahadeo_. Their belief is also,
that religious austerity consists in the conviction of the pious, that
the world is an appearance without reality, and that, what exists, is
in truth God; and that, except him, every thing is but an illusion
which comes from him, but in truth has no reality. In their opinion,
whoever is desirous of this faith, and does not possess the required
knowledge, may by self-application, or by the lessons of a master, or
by the instruction of a book, become a proficient in it. The
conviction that the world does not exist, may also be acquired by
pious exercise; and the perfect therein know, that by means of
religious austerity one may acquire what he wishes to learn, and as
long as he tends towards it, he has not yet known himself, as he is
himself a choice part of the divine being. The pious man, who by dint
of austerity renders himself perfect, they call a _Yogí_,[146] that
is, one who by self-mortification attains his aim. The pious, who by
mental application, by the instruction of a master, by the study of
books, or by any effort not appertaining to religious exercises,
raises himself to any perfection, him they name _Rája-yogí_, that is,
one who attains sovereignty.

Among the Hindus are recommended as pious exercises, _Mantra_,[147]
_Homa_,[148] and _Dandavat_.[149] _Mantra_ signifies prayer; _Homa_ is
throwing clarified butter and like things into the fire, and reciting
prayers, in order to render propitious a certain divinity; _Dandavat_
is, when one prostrates himself like a stick before the object of
adoration, and touches the ground with the forehead. A person asked
Bhartari,[150] who was one of those adepts whom they call _Jnánis_:
“Dost thou recite mantras?” He replied: “I do.” That person asked
again: “What mantra?” He answered: “My breath, going out and in, is my
mantra.” That man continued to ask: “Dost thou perform Hóm?” The
answer was: “I do.” To the question, “And how?” the reply followed:
“By what I eat.” That person further inquired: “Dost thou practise the
Dańdavat?” After affirmation, being asked “At what time?” he said,
“When I sleep, stretched out to rest.” And this speech reminds me of
this sentence:

     “_The sleep of the wise is preferable to the adoration of
         the ignorant._”

The Hindus call _Déva árcháká_[151] the worshipper of an idol, that
is, one who is devoted to a divinity: which this people interpret to
be performing whatever rite a man himself chooses; because the deity
is the intellectual soul; to render it obsequious, is to perform the
act which it commands, that is, whenever it wills, to see with the
eyes, to hear with the ears, to smell with the nose, and so on, in
order to please one’s self. According to their account of the revealed
unity of God, all is _HE_. To say so is liable to censure; but it is
permitted to assert: “all is _I_.” Should one not attain to this
height of philosophy, he may choose the former thesis. The author of
the _Gulchén raz_, “the rose-garden of mystery,” says:

       “Egotism belongs to God alone,
  For he is the mystery; think him also the hidden source of illusion.”

This people are masters of themselves in their speeches and actions;
they know their origin and their end; and, occupied with themselves,
they are imprisoned in the gaol of the world. Sankara Atcharya, who is
distinguished among the Brahmans and the Sanyasis, professed this
doctrine, and to whatever side he turned his face, contentment
followed him. One day the adversaries and deniers of this creed
resolved to drive an elephant against him; if he do not fly but remain
firm, he is a saint; if otherwise, a bad man. When they had impelled
the animal against him, Sankara fled; then they said to him: “Why
didst thou fly before an illusion?” He replied: “There is no elephant,
nor I; and there was no flight: you saw it in a dream.” All the great
men among the Hindus are of this creed, and they agree that, in truth,
there is no faith but this, without regard to Avátars and Rakshasas:
all the enlightened Pandits have ranged themselves upon this side.

A _Jnaníndra_ is called one of the Brahmans of Kachmir;[152] this
class is, in the language of Kachmir, entitled _Guruvagurinah_, and
said to be the fathers of the Jnanían. One whose name was Chívarína,
knew well how to keep in his breath; one day he informed the
inhabitants of Náu chaher, which is upon the road of Kashmír, that on
the morrow he intended to leave his human frame. The next day, the
people assembled; Shívarina conversed with them until he arrived at
the place where wood had been piled up, on the top of which he sat
down with his legs crossed under him (which in the Persian language is
called _bahín neshisten_, and the description of which I gave in the
chapter about the imprisonment of breath practised by the Yezdaníán);
he left then the human body, and when the people saw that the bird of
life had taken his flight from the cage of the body, they set the wood
on fire.

Another Jnani practised the subduing of the breath in his youth, and,
mastering his soul by means of religious austerity, he attained to
that point that, although possessed of little natural capacity, he
undertook to read all the books of the Hindus, and understood all
their sciences better than the other Pandits, as they all agreed. He
now holds the first rank among the learned of his town, and acquired
such an independent manner of thinking, that he feels neither pain
from the loss, nor pleasure from the increase, of wealth, and holds
alike friend, enemy, stranger, and relation; he is not depressed by
the insult, nor elated by the praise of whomsoever; wherever he hears
the name of a Durvísh, he calls on him, and, if he conceives a good
opinion of him, he then frequents him and cultivates his friendship,
and never lets him be afflicted and sorrowful; he converses about
God’s unity, and cares about nothing else nor busies himself about any
other concern, and he visits no other persons but Durvishes. Sodarshan
is the name of his sister’s son, who is also connected with him as his
pupil; he left wife, son, and the house of this friend, and lives on
the little which his disciples bring to him. When the Jnaní wishes to
go out, the disciple puts his coat on him: because, inattentive to
every thing exterior and to what may be grateful about him, he is
never occupied with any thing else but with books.

It is known that the Hindus, that is, the legalists attached to the
Smriti (holy scripture), light up a fire, and with it sacrifice a
sheep, not without reciting spells and prayers; which they call
performing _Hóm_. The Jnánindra says: “Our fire is piety, and in it I
burn the wood of duality; instead of a sheep, I sacrifice egotism:
this is my _Hóm_.” Thus he interprets the whole religion of the
Hindus, and a great number of men became his disciples. He has a
nephew, called _Gangu_, ten years old, and younger than Sádarshan. One
day, Gangu was crying from anger; the author of this book said to him:
“Yesterday thou saidst: ‘The world and what it contains are but
illusion;’ now, why dost thou cry?” He replied: “If the world is
nothing, then my crying has no reality; I am not in contradiction with
myself.” So saying, he continued to cry.

     “_The socíety of good men renders good._”

Jaganath, eight years old, is the son of a Jnáníndra; he brought a
puppy into a house where an idol was worshipped, put him there in the
idol’s place, and drew the mark of cast on his head. The boy was
asked: “What art thou doing?” He answered: “The stone has no life; why
should you not rather worship the puppy than this idol? Besides, each
person worships what he finds agreeable. Because this worship is a
play, I play with this dog.” And none of the people of the house
raised a hand on account of the boy’s liberty, but uttered blessings
upon him.

In the year 1049 of the Hejira (1639 A. D.) the author of these pages
visited in Kachmir a Jnáníndra, and was delighted with his society. He
called him his _atma_, that is, his “intellectual soul.” The Jnáníndra
was asked: “Who is thy disciple?” He answered: “It is he who, having
arrived to the self-existent God, knows and sees himself to be nothing
else but God.”

At the time when the writer of this book was walking with a Hindu
pious man on the border of the lake of Kashmir, a Sanyási who had
pretensions to independence, joined us. There, a meal was brought to
us, and the Sanyási eat with that pious man. After this, he began to
boast: “Hitherto I have not eat any flesh: it is but now that I have
tasted some.” The Jnání offered a cup of wine to him, who drank it for
the sake of discarding care. He then reassumed the theme of
self-praise. The pious philosopher had some bread of the bazar, which
according to the Hindu faith is still more prohibited than wine,
brought upon the table-cloth. The Sanyási broke a bit of the bread,
eat it, and again praised himself without measure: “Now,” said he, “am
I free of all bonds.” The wise smiled, and said: “Nothing remains but
to eat cow-flesh.” The Sanyási, as soon as he heard this, left the
company.

Of the distinguished disciples of the Jnáníndrás, whom the author of
this work saw, are: _Shankar bhat_, _Kanésh bhat_, _Sudarshan Kal_,
_Adab bhat_, _Máhatápindra_, and _Avat_, known under the name of
_Kopál Kúl_. A goldsmith asked Shankar bhat, one of the disciples just
mentioned: “Why do the Jnáníndras, with all their pretensions to
independence, still worship idols?” Shankar said: “Why dost thou work
in gold?” The goldsmith replied: “This is my profession for gaining my
livelihood.” The answer to this was: “And worship too is a trade and a
means to procure food.”

Mulla Shídáyi, a Hindu, who has a name amongst the poets, and
possessed a very impressive eloquence, went one day with the author of
this book to the house of a Jnáníndra, and conversed with him; he saw
his disciples, and having observed the manners of the people of the
house, he was struck with astonishment, and said: “My whole life
passed in devotedness to pious persons; but my eyes never beheld such
independence, and my ears never heard any thing comparable to the
speeches of those emancipated men.”

Hara Ráma púrí was a Sanyási, and one of the Jnánís possessing the
perfection of independence. When he came to Kashmír, being vexed by
the length of his hair, which was like ropes, he cut it off, on the
bank of a river near a house called Bhat jatáyi. Sri Kant Bhat, a
Pandit and Hindu judge, saw it and said: “Whenever thou cuttest off
thy hair, thou shouldst do it in a _tirth_, that is, in ‘a house of
worship.’” Hara answered: “There is a place in the most holy of
mansions, where the heart gets delighted, and on the spot where the
dead are burnt, all obscure points are terminated.” In the year 1051
of the Hejira (1641 A. D.) he went to Kichtovar,[153] and settled in a
plain called _chawgan_, where they played at ball, practised
equitation, and burnt the dead. Maha Singh, the son of Baháder Singh,
Rája of Kishtovár, became his disciple, and by devotion he rendered
himself free of the bonds of exterior things; now he likes the society
of the pious; he is young and conversant with poetry. In the year 1052
of the Hejira (1642 A. D.) a war broke out in Kishtovar, between the
Rája and the rebels of this country. When they made resound the drum
of battle, a general carnage began on both sides of the combatants;
Hara Rámapúrí, having got upon the top of an elevated ground, was
occupied with the sight of it, and at the uproar of the warriors and
the sound of pipes, and clarions, and kettle-drums, he began to dance,
and in the midst of his transport his foot stumbled; he fell headlong
from the mountain, and in rolling down received from a great stone a
head-wound, of which he died. Mirza Rafíah says:

  “When the darkness of my heart became enlightened by the knowledge
     of wisdom,
      Whatever speeches were proffered as her arguments,
      They bore upon some errors of my desires;
   Thus the whole road was rendered winding from my stumblings.”

Sathrah and Jadú were two fakírs. Sathrah drew in Nagarikot[154] the
mark of the cast on his forehead, and threw the zunar on his neck; he
ate however roasted cow-flesh, with bread of the bazar, and indulged
himself in pleasure-walks. Some Hindus arrested him by force, and
brought him before the judge. The judge said to him: “If thou art a
Hindu, it becomes thee not to eat cow-flesh and bread of the bazar;
and, if thou art a Muselman, wherefore the mark of the cast and the
zunar?” The answer was: “The mark of the cast is of safran and
sandal-wood; the zunar is a woven thread; the cow-flesh comes from
grass and barley; bread from corn, and the oven from earth and water:
if thou considerest things according to truth, thou wilt find that all
is composed of four elements, which are neither Muselmans nor Hindus;
as to the rest, let thy commands be conformable to law.” The judge set
him at liberty. Jadú was one of his disciples, and went to Balkh, the
dome of Islam. He appeared in the mosque with the mark of the Hindu
cast, and with the zúnar, and, arrested, was brought before the judge,
who saluted him as a Muselman. Jadú replied: “If thou givest me a wife
and settlest me in a house, I will be a Muselman.” The judge gave him
a beautiful widow for a wife, and Jadú, having become a Muselman, went
into her house. After the lapse of a few days, he said to the woman:
“Give me the daughter whom thou hast had with thy late husband, in
order that I may sell her, and spend the price that I receive for her
for my subsistence. When we shall have another child, I will dispose
of it in the same manner, by selling; for this is my profession, and
except this I know no trade.” The woman dismissed him. Jadú, being at
liberty, went to Kabul;[155] he put a feather on his head, as
messengers used to do, fastened a bell round his waist, and, with a
loose belt on his shoulder and a striped coat, he appeared in the
bazar. The messengers arrested him, and said: “Why hast thou taken our
dress?” Jadú answered: “The crown and feather are upon the head of the
nightingale and of other birds, and the bell hangs upon the neck of
the sheep and of the cow; reckon me too one of them.” The messengers
began to handle him roughly; Jadú asked: “What is your desire?” They
said: “Thou art now to exercise with us the nimble pace of a courier.”
Jadú did not refuse: he ran with them, and gained so much over them
that at the morning dawn not one of the couriers remained near him.
During seven days and nights he neither ate nor drank any thing,
practising running. Jadú acquired the habit of religious austerity; in
the year 1052 of the Hejira (1642 A. D.), having convoked his friends
in Jelálabad,[156] between Peshaver[157] and Kabul, he took leave from
them and resigned his life.

Pertábmal Chadah (Chadah is a tribe of Kshatriyas) is a Jnání, that is
a pious man; his native country is Síál kut; he attained to perfection
in the exercise of virtue; he is not confined to any faith or
religion; but knows that every religion is a road leading towards God;
he sees in every face a friend revealed. One day he joined, on account
of an affair, Davárah, a man who was one of the chiefs appointed by
the government of Hargovínd, a successor of Nanak;[158] he became his
disciple, and declared himself as his adherent. Davárah washed his
feet, and the water thereof was drank by all the present followers of
the faith, which they did to every body whom they had gained over to
their religion. At last, a dispute arose between Pertábmal and
Davárah; the latter said to the other: “But yesterday I washed thy
feet (that is, made thee my disciple), and to-day thou makest war upon
me?” Pertábmal answered: “Oh weak-minded man! the Jats always wash my
feet as thou hast done: my own hand never touches my feet.” [The Jats
are a low class of the Hindus.]

It is an established custom among the followers of Nának to present,
when they pursue a desire, a few direms to the chief of their master,
or to their master, and solicit his favor. Pertábmal offered some
dírems to Kábelí, who was a religious chief appointed by Harigovind,
and then in Kabul; he said with his hands joined: “I wish to convoke
for prayer, according to their custom, all the followers of Nának; let
that be granted.” Kabeli, before giving his agreement, asked: “Thou
wishest perhaps to see Haragovind?” Pertábmal said: “I wish something
more precious.” Kabeli asked: “What is this?” The answer was: “I wish
the arrival of all the buffoons, dancers, and musicians from Péshawar
to Kabul, that we may see their actions, arts, and tricks.”

In the house of Pertábmal was an idol which the Hindus worship. A
mouse having made a hole in his furniture, he put the whole idol,
instead of a lump of earth, into the mouse-hole, in order to shut the
passage. The Hindus said: “What art thou about?” He answered: “The
deity who cannot obstruct the road of a mouse, and settle any thing
with a mouse, how will he protect me, and preserve me from the tyranny
of the Muselmans?” In like manner Pertábmal had in his house a
Sivalingam, which is a post of stone which the Hindus venerate: having
carried this lingam out of his house, like a post, he tied a dog to
it.

A Muselman said to him: “Two persons only of all unbelievers, namely,
Nushirvan and Hatam, will go to heaven.” Pertábmal replied: “According
to your faith, two persons only of the unbelievers will go to heaven;
but our belief is that not one of the Muselmans will go to heaven.”

Azadah (this was his adopted title) is a Brahman. One day he ate at
table with some Muselmans and drank wine. They said to him: “Thou art
a Hindu, and thou takest thy meal in common with Muselmans? Your
people never eat but with persons of their religion.” Azádah replied:
“I did not suppose that you were Muselmans; hereafter I will at eating
and drinking keep myself separate from you.” Another day he found
himself again drinking wine in company with them, and did not turn his
head from the meal; during the repast they said to Azádah: “Yesterday
we made ourselves known to thee as Muselmans.” He answered: “I knew
that you were joking with me. God forbid that you should be
Muselmans.”

Binaváli is the son of Híráman, a Káyastha.[159] The Káyasthas are a
tribe of the fourth cast which Brahma has created; among the
illustrious poets his name was Walí;[160] from his childhood he liked
very much the society of durvishes; and in his tender age he was with
the religious chief, named Ularváh, a great durvish, whose continual
exclamation was: “God, thou art present, thou art one, God, I attest
this.” In the year of the Hejirah 1045 (A. D. 1634) he associated with
the durvishes of India, and enjoyed the fruit of it; he came to
Kashmir in the service of Mulla Shah Budakhshí, and acquired the
desired knowledge. The Sufí is by no necessity bound to a creed; no
faith nor religion fetters his choice; he befriends the idol and the
temple of the idol, and is no stranger to the mosque; by the power of
ecstacy, not by any external knowledge, he utters loud sublime
speeches. In the year 1050 of the Hejira (1640 A. D.) the doors of
friendship opened between him and the author of this work; from the
refulgencies of his mind are the following lines:

  “We are not ourselves that what we are; we are that what thou art;
        Thou art without a mark; we are thy mark.
        These marks are the marks of thy being;
   They are the manifestations and the splendor of thy qualities,
   Thou art pure of our care, and of our imagination;
        O thou, who art manifest in this our garment;
        Manifestations of thee are all things.
   Thou art independent of the relation of ‘thou and we,’ and thyself
     art ‘thou and we.’

        Thy being comes forth in thy qualities,
        Thy nature is the spring of thy being, O Lord!
        We are all nothing; whatever is, is thou!
        O thou! who art free of notion, imagination, and duality,
        We are all billows in the ocean of thy being;
        We are a small compass of the manifestations of thy nature.”

Azadah and Binaválí appear in the dress of Hindus, and profess the
belief of the Jnánís, to which they are reckoned to belong.

Mehir chand is a native of the Panjab, and belongs to the class of the
goldsmiths of Guzerat; he comes from the school of the disciples of
Akamnath, whose opinions he adopted. Akamnath is a Yógí, “a saint,”
and possessed of inspiration; according to the belief of his
followers, two thousand years of his life have elapsed.

     “Like the azure heavens, a sage never dies;
   The intellectual principle is free from storms, and from all that
     is perishable.”

One day Akamnath came before the great emperor Jehangír, who is in
heaven; the celebrated monarch asked him: “What is thy name?” The sage
answered _Sarvat anga_, that is, “All the beings are my members.” In
the assembly, before the sovereign, a book was read; the king, having
taken the book from the reader, gave it into the hand of Akamnath,
saying: “This is thy saying, read it;” Akamnath returned the book to
the reader, bidding him to read on; but when this man began, the king
addressed Akamnath: “To thee have I said, read.” His answer was: “I
have at the beginning declared, that all things in the world are my
members; I am therefore reading by the tongue of that man.” Vásúl
Khaznúyi says:

  “So free is my spirit that the creation is my body,
   And that fire, and air, and earth, are my dwelling.
   This celestial sphere, with all its globes,
   Revolves only because it is my wish.”

Soon after a sparrow passed, flying from the water. Akamnath declared
before the king: “If with this body, which is near thy majesty, I
should attempt to go upon the water, I could but sink, but under the
form of a bird I passed.” The great Mouláná Jamí says:

  “The world, with all spirits and bodies,
   Is a certain person whose name is ‘_World_.’”

They say, that Akamnath went to the Kâbah (of Mecca) and saw the
house; he asked somebody: “Where is the master of the house?” That
person remained astonished. They opened the door of the house of God;
Akamnath repeated the question without receiving an answer from them;
he then called out: “There is no master of the house in this edifice:
this place is unsafe.” Finally, he inquired from the people, why the
images which had been in this house, have been thrown out; one
answered: “Because an idol is the work of the hand of a man; and
because the forms of men, who are created, ought not to be
worshipped.” Akamnath observed: “This house, too, is the work of men,
and any form therein is that of a man, and the work of men who are
created; should it be worshipped?” Having heard this speech, they
imprisoned him; but the next morning they found no prisoner: Akamnath
was gone. At last, those who returned from the pilgrimage saw him in
Hindostan.

  “Perhaps shall we find him there in an idol-temple,
   That friend whom we missed in a monastery.”


     [129] क्षानं उत्तमं The supreme Brahme, in the most
     extensive acceptation, is with the Hindus a neuter noun
     (Brahme or Brahma); and the same term (Nom. Brahmá), is one
     of the three gods who constitute one person.

     [130] माया.

     [131] जीवात्मा The vital principle or spirit.

     [132] The text says: “on that account to be liberated from
     it,” they use the word نفس _nafs_ probably نا فساد _na
     fesad_, “no corruption:” this of course applies to the
     Persian, but not to the Sanskrit term.

     [133] जागरावस्था.

     [134] स्वप्नावास्था state of dreaming applied especially to
     life, or ignorance of worldly illusion.

     [135] सुस्वप्नावस्था The fantastical conceptions of the
     Hindus about the states or conditions of the embodied soul
     are of course not always expressed in the same manner. “They
     are chiefly three: waking, dreaming, and profound sleep; to
     which may be added for a fourth, that of death; and for a
     fifth, that of trance, swoon, or stupor, which is
     intermediate between profound sleep and death (as it were
     half-dead), as dreaming is between waking and profound
     sleep. In that middle state of dreaming, there is a fanciful
     course of events, an illusory creation, which however
     testifies the existence of a conscious soul. In profound
     sleep, the soul has retired to the supreme one by the route
     of the arteries of the pericardium” (_Colebrooke on the
     Philosophy of the Hindus, Transact. of the R. A. S. of Great
     Brit. and Irel._, vol. II. part I. p. 25).

     [136] The author uses here and elsewhere the Arabic word
     غفلت _ghafalat_, which, besides the significations
     enumerated in the dictionary, of “neglect, indolence,
     imprudence, forgetfulness, inadvertency,” etc., seems to
     have also that of ignorance, illusion; all these are
     comprehended in the Sanskrit word _maya_, to render which
     was, I can scarce doubt, the intention of the author.

     [137] ज्ञानी _jnani_.

     [138] तबोवस्था “the moving state,” from _tarba_, “to move.”
     This denomination does not commonly occur in the writings of
     the Vedantists about this subject.

     [139] मुक्ति “final beatitude.”

     [140] स्वामिप्रेमा.

     [141] सारप्रेमा.

     [142] स्वायुक्ति.

     [143] परमात्मा.

     [144] ज्ञानम उत्तमं

     [145] नमः.

     [146] योगी a devotee, an ascetic in general.

     [147] मन्त्रः

     [148] होमः

     [149] दण्डवत्

     [150] Perhaps _Bhartrihari_.

     [151] देवार्चक.

     [152] _Kachmir_, a province of North Hindostan, situated
     principally between the 34h and 35th degree of north
     latitude.――(_Hamilton’s E. India Gazeteer._)

     [153] _Kishtovar_, a town in the province of Lahore, named
     also _Triloknath_, situated close to the southern range of
     the Kashmere hills, and 94 miles E. S. E. from the city of
     Kashmere. Lat. 34° 7´ N., long. 75° 20´ E.――(_Hamilton’s E.
     India Gazetteer_).

     [154] _Nagarikot_, or Cote Caungra (Cata-Khankhara), a
     strong fortress in the province of Lahore, 122 miles E. N.
     E. from the city of Lahore. Lat. 32° 20´ N., long. 73° 42´
     E.

     [155] _Kabul_, the capital of the province of Kabul, in
     Afghanistan. Lat. 34° 31´ N., long. 68° 34´ E.――(_Hamilton’s
     E. India Gazetteer_).

     [156] _Jelalabad_, a town in the province of Kabul, 73 miles
     E. S. E. from the city of Kabul. Lat. 34° 6´ N., long. 69°
     46´ E.――(_Hamilton’s E. India Gazetteer_).

     [157] _Peshaver_, “the advanced post,” an Afghan town in the
     province of Kabul. Lat. 33° 22´ N., long. 76° 37´
     E.――(_Ibid._)

     [158] See, about Nanak, the subsequent pages.

     [159] कायस्थ, this is commonly the writer caste, proceeding
     from a Kshattriya father and a Súdra mother.――(_Wilson_).

     [160] Shah Wáli Ullah, or Shems Wáli Ullah is the author of
     Hindustan poems, the original text of which was published in
     1834, and a French translation of a part of them in 1836, by
     M. Garcin de Tassy. According to this learned Indianist (see
     preface to the text, pp. x. xi) Wáli was born in Surat; he
     wrote about the middle of the 18th century, and was known in
     India, Iran, and Turan. Is he the same with the above
     mentioned Wáli? So much only can be said, till better
     informed, that the ono was a contemporary of the other.

       *     *     *     *     *

SECTION THE FIFTH: CONCERNING THOSE WHO PROFESS THE SÁNK’HYÁ[161]
DOCTRINES.――They say that there are two things in the existence, or
that the existence is divided into two parts: the one is truth, which
they interpret by _purusha_;[162] the other is illusion, named by them
_Prakrit_.[163] _Prakrit_ is the cause of the world, and purusha,
being from want of knowledge and confusion of the intellect mixed with
Prakrit, is in the world encircled, and penetrated by this
incongruity. Five imperfections are held to adhere to the purusha,
which they call _pancha kalusháni_,[164] “the five failings, or sins.”
These are: 1. _avidya_;[165] 2. _ishmatá_;[166] 3. _rága_;[167] 4.
_dvésha_;[168] 5. _avivèchaná_.[169] _Avidya_ signifies with them that
they believe the body and the senses to be the soul; _avidya_ knows of
no beginning nor origin; _ishmata_ means personality, individuality,
and selfishness; _rága_ is the propensity to what is agreeable;
_dvésha_, “hatred,” consists in adhering to one’s own opinion, and
condemning that of others as vicious; _avivèchaná_ relates to acting
or not acting with passion. The five failings just enumerated keep
_Purusha_, “the embodied soul,” in distress: but when the mind becomes
pure, these five pains are banished. After the purification of the
heart, all the qualities which are bad and wicked acquire purity, and
the qualities, called by them _vrittaya_,[170] are of four different
kinds: the first, _mitrata_;[171] the second, _karuna_;[172] the
third, _mada_;[173] the fourth _upèkshá_.[174] _Mitrata_ is friendship
for the well doers, and benevolence for the men of probity; _karuna_
means to be anxious for the good of the friendly-minded, and to
relieve the oppressed; _mada_ consists in enjoying the quiet happiness
of all the creatures of God; _upèksha_ signifies, not to use harsh
words against those who do ill. These are called _chatur vrittayá_, or
“four qualities,” which keep the heart under subjection, and prevent
it from seeing any thing else; and it is from the existence of these
four manners that the five pains before mentioned are annihilated, as
well as every thing that attracts them, and the fortunate man who is
liberated from these five sicknesses, attains the _satya loka_. And
thus is interpreted the appearance of the forms of Prakrit and Purusha
in the heart; the professor of this condition knows how to separate
them from each other, and becomes wise: by this knowledge Prakrit
disappears, after which, having found Purusha, or the true knowledge
of himself, which is understood of the soul, man becomes satisfied and
happy. According to the opinion of this sect, the five elements are
deduced from Prakrit.

This is the substance of the belief of the _Sánkhyán_.[175] In Little
Guzerat, a district of the Panjab, the author of this work saw
Atmáchand, and Máhádéo, who said to belong to the Sánk’hyán. According
to their opinion, Prakrit is nature, and God is the manifestation of
nature, and all the terrestrial and heavenly bodies exist by him, and
they said: “What affords verdure to the heads of thorns, is it not
nature?”


     [161] A system of philosophy, in which precision of
     reckoning is observed in the enumeration of its principles,
     is denominated _Sánk’hyá_; a term which has been understood
     to signify _numeral_, agreeably to the usual acceptation of
     _Sánk’hyá_, “number:” and hence its analogy to the
     Pythagorean philosophy has been presumed. But the name may
     be taken to imply that its doctrine is founded in the
     exercise of judgment; for the word from which it is derived
     signifies “reasoning,” or “deliberation;” and that
     interpretation of its import is countenanced by a passage of
     the _Bhárata_, where it is said of this sect of
     philosophers: “They exercise judgment (_Sánk’hyá_), and
     discuss nature and other twenty-four principles, and
     therefore are called _Sánk’hyá_” (_Colebrooke on the
     Philosophy of the Hindus_)――(_Transact. of the R. A. Soc. of
     Great Br. and Irel._, vol. I. P. I. p. 20).

     [162] _Parusha_, pursuant to the Institutes of Manu (l. I.
     sl. 11), is taken for the “divine male,” or Brahma himself;
     it signifies in general the embodied soul.

     [163] प्रकृत्ति _Prakritti_ is a word of the highest import
     with the Hindu philosophers. In its precise sense, it means
     “that which is primary,” “that which precedes what is made;”
     from _pra_, “before,” and _kri_, “to make.” The Prakritti of
     the Sánk’hyás is a primary, subtile, universal
     substance, undergoing modification through its own energy,
     and for a special motive, by which it is manifest as an
     individual and formal substance, varied according to the
     predominance of qualities which are equipoised and inert in
     the parent, and unequal and active in the progeny (see
     _Sánk’hyá Kárika_, translated by Colebrooke,
     commented by Profess. Wilson, pp. 80-83). The author of The
     Dabistán in the above passage attributes to _Prakritti_ the
     meaning belonging to _máyá_, “illusion.” The _Sánk’hyás_ do
     not commonly confound the signification of these two words,
     for they maintain the reality of existing things: but the
     _Vedantis_ and the _Pauranikas_ (or followers of the
     Puranas) regard creation as a delusion, or as a sport of the
     creator, that is, as the _máyá_. Prakritti is translated by
     Colebrooke “nature,” sometimes “matter.” Professor Lassen
     renders this word by “procreatrix.”

     [164] प्ञ्चकलुषानि.

     [165] The Persian text has اوديا, _audíjà_.

     [166] اسمتا _ismatá_, perhaps इष्मता “desire,” from इष “to
     desire.”

     [167] राग mental affection in general.

     [168] The original has دويش _davish_.

     [169] The edit. of Calc. reads ابہویشہ _abhvèsha_. I am
     induced to substitute for it _avivèchana_ अविवे चना and must
     remark that the original text appears here, in its
     denominations and definitions, rather more incorrect than in
     other places. According to the well known doctrine of the
     Sánk’hyá, the obstructions of the intellect here meant to be
     indicated are “error, conceit, passion, hatred, and fear;”
     which are severally denominated obscurity, illusion, extreme
     illusion, gloom, and utter darkness (_Transact. R. A. S._,
     vol. I. p. 33).

     [170] वृत्तयः

     [171] मित्रत “friendship.”

     [172] करुण “tenderness, pity.”

     [173] मद “joy, pleasure.”

     [174] उपेक्षा “endurance, patience.”

     [175] This account of the Sánkhyá philosophy will appear
     very incomplete as to the whole, and incorrect in the few
     particulars given. I shall enumerate the principal
     categories of this philosophy, which are, with little
     variation, adopted by all the schools of Hindu philosophy,
     and perpetually alluded to.

         _Mula-prakritti_                             1
              “NATURE,” the root of all, no production.

          PRINCIPLES                       PRODUCTIONS:
  _Which are productions and_     _Productions of Ahankára are_:
         _productive:_
  Produced by nature is:         T  {The 5 organs of perception:
    _Buddhi_, or _Mahat_,        h  {   The ear,
      “intellect.”               e  {   ―― skin,
  Produced by Buddhi:               {   ―― eye,
    _Ahankára_, “egotism.”       1  {   ―― tongue,
                                 1  {   ―― nose.
                                    {The 5 organs of action:
                                 o  {   The voice,
                                 r  {   ―― hand,
                                 g  {   ―― foot,
                                 a  {   ―― organs of excretion,
                                 n  {   ――  ――――  ―― generation.
                                 s: {The mind.

  The five subtile elements, producing    The 5 gross elements:
            Sound  ―― ――                        Ether,
            Touch  ―― ――                        Air,
            Form   ―― ――                        Light, or Fire,
            Flavor ―― ――                        Water,
            Odor   ―― ――                        Earth.
   ――――――――――――                  ――――――――――――――   ――――――――――――――
   7 PRINCIPLES                 + 16 PRODUCTIONS = 23 CATEGORIES.
  _Purusha_, “the soul,” neither
     a production nor productive                    1
                    TOTAL                          25 _Tatwas_,
     That is, physical and metaphysical categories of the
     Sánk’hyá philosophy.

     (See the work quoted, the _Sánk’hyá Kárika_, translated by
     Colebrooke, and commented by Professor Wilson, pp. 16-17,
     and elsewhere.)

       *     *     *     *     *

SECTION THE SIXTH: ON THE JOGÍS AND THEIR DOCTRINES.――This sect
believe that _Isvára_, or the necessary being exists, one, the
principle of intellect, without an equal, without decrease nor
increase. In the language of the Hindus _Is a_[176] signifies “lord,”
and without Iśa all is but _jíva_,[177] that is “casualties;” in their
language _jiva_ means “life;” they hold Is a to be the maker of the
whole world, and the creator of all the elements; his holy being is
free from care, sickness, and want, and placed out of the circle of
work and agency; that is, that this holy being neither wants nor urges
any religious rites, such as ablution and the like; his knowledge
soars above and comprehends all being; he is the Lord, and none
besides him invested with supreme power; death and pain never approach
his existence, which has no limits. _Jíva_, “life,” they call what is
in the fetters of cares, in the bonds of infirmities, under the
pressure of pain, and in the prison of works and doings, and subjected
to the control of others, without command over itself. This life is in
truth not material nor corporeal; it is by ignorance only that it is
thought to be one with the body; and the body is supposed by them to
be revolving in the circle of material forms: by the necessity of
times and seasons, life abandons the works of the body, and passes
into another frame: and in this manner it migrates. Without the
_abhásayóga_,[178] the soul cannot be freed of the bonds of the
material world, and from the prison of what is corporeal, and
_yóga_,[179] in the language of the learned Hindus, signifies “union,”
or “acquisition;” and _abhyása_,[180] “the dominion of the eternal
sphere,” that is, possessing the enjoyment of a desired object; and
the purport of the _yóga_ is, that the heart be constantly kept in the
remembrance of God, and that no foreign object be permitted to enter
into that Jerusalem, that is, the house of God. The professor of this
union with the desired object reckons eight parts, which are: 1.
_yama_;[181] 2. _niyáma_;[182] 3. _ásana_;[183] 4. _pránáyáma_;[184]
5. _pratyáhára_;[185] 6. _dháraná_;[186] 7. _dhyána_;[187] 8.
_samadháraná_.[188] Yama is composed of five parts: the first is
_Ahinsá_,[189] that is, doing injury to nothing, and to kill no other
but the great wild beasts; 2. _Satyam_,[190] or “truth;” 3.
_Astéyam_,[191] that is, not stealing nor robbing; 4. _Brahma
tchárí_,[192] or to keep away from women, and all intercourse with
them, and to sleep upon the bare ground; 5. _Apragraha_,[193] which
is, not to ask any thing from any body, and never to take but what is
brought unasked. _Niyáma_, the second of the eight parts, is divided
also into five kinds: the first, _tápasa_,[194] that is, “devout
austerity;” 2. _japa_,[195] or “devotion by means of beads, stripes of
cloth, ejaculations, mental or loud repetition of the names and
attributes of God;” 3. _Sama_,[196] which is, “tranquillity and
satisfaction;” 4. _Suchi_,[197] or “purity, sanctity, perfection;” 5.
_Iśa-pútcha_,[198] “worshipping and praising God.” _Asana_, the third
of the eight parts of the yoga, means “sitting in some particular
posture,” various kinds of which are used among them. _Pránáyama_, the
fourth part, consists in “drawing in and letting out the breath,
according to an established mode and fixed rule.” _Pratyá hára_, the
fifth part, signifies “withdrawing the heart from all the desires and
attractions of the five senses; and keeping away from all sorts of
lust, the sight of beauty, the odor of the rose and of sandal, and
from all material and exterior enjoyments.” _Dhárana_,[199] the sixth
part, implies that, “in the heart of the cone-bearing tree, which is
the centre of the bosom, and which the people of India have compared
to the flower of a pond (_lotus_), the heart holds a fixed habitation;
that is, they guard it in that place.”

_Dhyána_, the seventh part, is the remembrance of God the Almighty.
_Samadhárana_, the eighth part, signifies that the heart, attached to
the work of God, forgets the work of the world, in such a manner that
in his presence, turned towards him, it remains absorbed in him, and
feels itself lightened of all exterior sense and satisfied. The wise,
who carries these eight parts to a high degree of perfection, hears
and sees from afar; his pure knowledge elevates him; and he becomes
strong in the science of Yog, which is the science of the union with
the desired object; the all-bounteous God regards him with pity, and
discards all pains, all sicknesses, all wants, and all deficiencies
from his existence. According to this sect, it is by attaining to
these eight conditions, that _Mukt_, which signifies “emancipation,”
is acquired.

This is the substance of the doctrine of the Yogís; now, I will relate
something of the opinions and actions of these sectaries, who have
been noticed in this time as professing the doctrine of the _Yog_. The
Yogís are a class well known in India, and _yóga_, in the Sanskrit
language, means “union;” they believe that they unite with God, whom
they call _Alíka_,[200] and according to their creed he is the
divinity by excellence; moreover his being is to be venerated under
the name of _Gorakhnáth_;[201] in like manner, _Mach’henáernáth_[202]
and _Chórengínáth_[203] are great personages or saints.

They believe Brahma, Vichnu, and Mahadeva to be subordinate
divinities, but they are, as followers and disciples, addicted to
Gorakhnath; thus, some devote themselves to the one or the other of
the deities.

This sect is divided into twelve classes, which are as follow:[204]
_Satyanath_, _Ayípanthi_, _Kaśyapa_, _Vairag_, _Nátírí_, _Ardhanarí_,
_Náyari_, _Amara nath_, _Kam-híbdás_, _Jóli handi_, _Tarnaknath_,
_Jágar prarág_: these are called panthi nék, “good sects,” and
_panthi_ signifies “a tribe, a sect.”[205] According to their opinion,
the chiefs of all religions, sects, and creeds proceed as disciples
from the prophet and saint Gorakhnath, and what they found, they have
found it from him. Their belief is that Muhammed (to whom be peace)
was also a pupil and disciple of Gorakhnath, but, from fear of the
Muselmans, they dare not declare it; they say, that Bábá Rin Háji,
that is, Gorakhnath, was the foster-father of the prophet, who, having
received the august mission, took the mode of Yog from the sublime
road of true faith; and a great many of them agree with the Muselmans
in fasting and in prayers, and perform several acts according to the
religion of that people. The sect of Yogís know no prohibited food;
they eat pork as the Hindus and the Naźárains, and cow-flesh, like the
Muselmans, and so on; they also kill and eat men, according to the
custom of the Akmían, as will be related hereafter; and they drink
wine like the Guébers. There are some of this sect, who, having mixed
their excretions and filtered them through a piece of cloth, drink
them and say, that such an act renders a man capable of great affairs,
and they pretend to know strange things. They call the performer of
this act _Atílía_ and also _Akhórí_. Although they have all originated
from Gorakhnath, and adhere to him in the generality of their faith,
yet some follow the road of those who attached themselves to the
twelve divisions of the Yoga.

Among them, the restraining of the breath is held in great esteem,
such as it was practised among the Parsian by Azar Hushang, and by the
kings of that people. It is stated in the Bastán namah, that Afrasíab,
the son of Pashang, was strong in restraining his breath, and it was
on account of this qualification that, when he had escaped from the
sling of Aâbid, he kept himself concealed in the water. This history
is known.[206] Among the Hindus and the Parsian Yezdanián, nothing is
esteemed higher than this. I have said something of this custom in the
article upon the Parsian Sipasían: in this place I shall state more of
it.

This science of the breath is an imaginary one. The Yogis, the
Sanyásies, the Hindus, and the Tapasís, say that, when one has the
intention of mastering his breath, he most strictly abstains from
intercourse with women, from eating salt and any thing bitter and
sour, as well as from toil; then, tending towards this purpose, he
will know that from the place of sitting to the summit of the head
there are seven divisions of the body, which the Azarián call _haft
khán amèkhi_, “the seven places of union,” and the Yogís, _sapta
chakra_,[207] “seven circles.” The first is the region about the
pubis, similar to a flower with four leaves; the Hindus call it
_muládhára_.[208] In the middle of this originates a member, which the
Hindus call _manthar_,[209] and the Arabians ذكر _zicker_, and this is
the second region. The third is the navel, from the centre of which
proceeds a fire-colored vein, entitled by the Hindus _nábhi
chakra_.[210] The fourth region is that of the heart, called by the
Hindus _manipuram_,[211] and that is like a flower with twelve leaves.
The fifth is the windpipe, in the language of the Hindus
_kant´a_.[212] The sixth comprehends the interval between the two
eyebrows, in Sanskrit _bhruva_.[213] The seventh region is that of the
head, which is called by the Hindus _brahmanda_.[214] It is to be
known that in these regions there are many veins, among which three,
as the principal, are to be distinguished: the one is on the right
side, “the solar vein;” the other in the middle, “the earthen;” the
third on the left side, “the lunar;” these veins are named in the
language of the Hindus _áditya_, _pankila_, and _somana_;[215] in the
Persian language, _mahna_, _míná_, and _máná_.[216] One of the three
veins is the greatest, that, namely, which running from the middle of
the back to the right of the back bone, divides beyond it into two
branches, the one of which attains to the right, the other to the left
of the nostrils; the breath and the wind comes from them, and the air
which proceeds from these veins extends, during a man’s being awake,
to twelve, during sleep to thirty-two, and during coition to
sixty-four fingers: this air and breath they hold to be the foundation
of life, and a great importance is attached to this subject by the
learned Sipásian and Hindus. They believe the wind to be of ten kinds;
but what according to them is essential to know, is the superior and
inferior winds, which by the Hindus are called _Prána_ and
_Apána_;[217] by the Persians, _Alayi_ and _Pásáyi_. These two winds
attract each other mutually, and in pronouncing “_han_,” the breath
goes out, in pronouncing “_sa_,” it goes within; and this takes place
during prayers, without the aid and the motion of the tongue; when
they fix upon a name, it becomes _hansa_, and they say also _hamsa_:
the Hindus call it _ajapa_,[218] that is, it is pronounced without the
aid of the tongue; and in Persian it has the name of _damáníbád_, or
“sound of the wind.” Thus there is, above the channel of the region of
the pubis, a most subtile vein; from the summit of the shank a flower,
bright and similar to gold in redness, expands itself from eight
roots, and after having from this origin raised its head, and taken
the high direction to the top of the head, it is there closed: this
the Hindus call _Kundelí_,[219] “a snake;” and the Persians _Ruhen
mar_, and _Ráushibár_: and the path of the vein of the head is a
middle one. When the Kundeli awakes to draw breath from a high
feeling, it rises to the summit of the head; in like manner as a
thread passes through the eye of a needle, it goes through the said
opening to the top of the head. If thou knowest this mode well, thou
understandest the modes of sitting; of these we mentioned one in the
section upon the Sipasián; in this place we shall give a further
account of this subject. The most approved mode of sitting is that
which in the Hindu language is called _Maha ásana_,[220] and _Sáda
ásana_,[221] that is “sitting as the High, the mature of age, and the
accomplished,” which in Persian is termed _sánishín_. The mode of this
is as follows: the heel of the left foot is placed at the orifice of
the anus, and the heel of the other foot raised up straight to the
pubis, and to the bust; the eyes, without twinkling, are directed to
the middle of the eyebrows, then the part about the pubis is put in
motion; the inferior wind is drawn with the superior towards the upper
parts, and raised by degrees until it reaches the head. We have
explained the mode of drawing up the breath in the section upon the
Sipasían. At the time of drawing it up, the beginning is made on the
side of the left, for emission through the right, of the nostrils;
when drawn up on the right it is also passing through the right, and
the inferior wind emitted: this performance is called _Pránáyama_,[222]
by the Hindus, and _Aferasdam_, that is, “raising of the breath,” by
the Persians. The devotee, on drawing up the breath at the left side,
forms the image of the moon; that is, he places the disk of the moon
to the left, and to the right that of the sun. Some of the Sipásian
place the image of one of the seven planets at every stage of their
devotion. This mode is held in great esteem among the Hindus at all
prayers and religious exercises; they say, the adept in it has the
power of flying; he never falls sick, is exempt from death, and from
hunger and thirst; it is stated in the Ramzsitán of the Persian, that
by means of this power Kái Khusro is still alive. The Sipásían and the
historians relate, that whoever carries this process to perfection,
rises above death; as long as he remains in the body, he can put it
off and be again reunited to it; he never suffers from sickness, and
is fit for all business. They say that Kaí Khusró, when he had
acquired perfection in this devotion, felt his heart estranged from
existence in this world; he chose retirement from men, and having
separated from this body, he associated with the incorporeal beings,
and found eternal life. The Hindus hold that, whenever a man has
perfected himself in this act, Brahma, Vichnu, and Mahadéva have no
command over him, but he rules over them. According to a great number
of the Hindus, it is this perfection which is personified in the three
deities, namely, Brahma, Vichnu, and Mahadéva; and it is the belief of
many, that whoever becomes master of this process of devotion,
coalesces with God himself. Much has been said and written upon this
subject by the Hindus and by the Persians. The Sipásíans have a book
entitled _Sányal_, which contains a great deal on this subject, and
there exists no better book about it. Other writings are those of
Zardúsht, as well as the _Sarud i-mastan_, and the like, in great
numbers, which I have seen. Among the Hindus similar works abound,
such as that composed by _Atmá Ráma_, a Yogí, who is known under the
name of _Bahet Barváng_, and the book of Gorakh Singh, which has been
composed by Gorakhnath, and that of _Ambaret Kant_. The author of the
Dabistán says: “I saw Ambaret Kant, who has also translated his work
into Persian, under the title _Huz ul Hayat_. Therein are the sayings
of Gorakhnath, supposed to proceed from the prophet Khizar, and
Machinder Yónas; but these speeches, pursuant to Ambarat Kant, are not
original; they are in fact those of Gorakhnath; as, according to the
Yogís, Brahma came and went some hundred thousand times, but
Gorakhnath remained.” Relatively to the Yoga, this book gives no
further explanation.

Balik Nátha, they say, a penitent, was of royal extraction, and
attained great perfection in the Yoga; he restrained his breath during
one week, and after having passed one hundred and twenty years of his
life, he had not lost his strength. I have heard from the Mobéd
Hushíar, the author of several books, that in the year 1028 of the
Hejira (1618 A. D.), he brought me to him, and requested him to bless
me; Balik nath pronounced then upon me: “This boy shall acquire the
knowledge of God.”

Serud nath, descending from Humayún, was of a noble origin. Having in
his youth attained to the mastership of that sect, he could restrain
his breath for two days. In the year 1048 of the Hejira (1638 A. D.),
the author of this work saw him in Lahore.

Sanjá náth, of the sect of Ayí, was a man accomplished in restraining
the breath; the people numbered him among the saints, and said, that
seven hundred years of his life had elapsed without his hair having
yet become white: he was, in the last mentioned year, seen in Lahore.

Súraj nath made great proficiency in mastering the breath; for several
years, he has chosen his retirement in Pesháver, and is occupied with
his own concern. The people think his age scarce less than that just
before stated. The writer of this work visited him in the year 1055 of
the Hejira (1645 A. D.), and saw several of the Yogies, an account of
whom cannot find place in this book.

It is an established custom among the Yogís that, when malady
overpowers them, they bury themselves alive. They are wont also, with
open eyes, to force their looks towards the middle of their eyebrows,
until so looking they perceive the figure of a man; if this should
appear without hands, feet, or any member, for each case they have
determined that the boundaries of their existence would be within so
many years, months, or days. When they see the figure without a head,
they know that there certainly remains very little of their life; on
that account, having seen the prognostic, they bury themselves.
However the Jnánís of India hold this figure to be an illusion, and an
appearance without a trace of reality.

As the Sanyásis are also pious men, I will join an account of them to
that of the Yogís. The Sanyásis make choice of abnegation and
solitude; they renounce all bodily enjoyments; some, in order that
they may not be invested with another body, and migrate from body to
body; a great number, in order to go to heaven; and a multitude, in
order to acquire dominion, that is, to become kings, or very rich men.
When a man becomes a Sanyási, he must give up all desire to return
again into the world. They are distinguished by names, and divided
into ten classes, namely: _Ban_, _Áran_, _Tírthah_, _Áshram_, _Kar_,
_Parbatah_, _Sákar_, _Bhárthy_, _Perí_, and _Sarsatí_. They are
frequently holy men, and abstain from eating flesh, and renounce all
intercourse with women. This class follow the dictates of Datáteri,
whom they also venerate as a deity, and say that he is an incarnation
of Naráyan, and in the retaining of breath attained to such a degree
that he is exempted from death. When he came into the presence of
Gorakhnath, who is the chief of the Yogís, and according to the
opinion of the Sanyásis, an incarnation of Mahádéo, Datáterí, for the
sake of trial, smote Gorakhnath on the head, who took the appearance
of iron. Datáteri told him: “Thou hast not done well; there is no
striking iron.” When Gorakhnath himself bade him to combat, Datáteri
glided off from the body, in the same manner as water glides off, and
reunited safely again. In this sense Śabur Mashedi says:

  _“The whole body became water, withhold thy hand from killing me,
        As often as thou strikest a blow, my body reunites.”_

Afterwards, Gorakhnath disappeared in the water; Datáteri, having
found and recognised him in the shape of a frog, brought him forth.
When Datáteri concealed himself in the water, Gorakhnath, in spite of
all his searching, could not succeed in discovering him, because he
was mixed with the water, and water cannot be distinguished from
water. Mirzá Baki Alí says:

  “When a drop is united with the sea, it becomes sea,
   In substance, the bubble and billow are water: solve this riddle.”

Another says:

  “From apprehension I became water: it is useless to strike water:
   I am astonished that he assailed my fortune.”

There are two classes of Sanyásis: the one, the _Dandaheri_,[223] do
not wear long hair, and are attached to the precepts and regulations
of the _smriti_, or of the law: the second are the _Avadhútas_;[224]
they are like the other class; they wear the zunar, and drink water
mixed with ashes; but, contrary to the Dandahar, they let their hair
grow so that it becomes like ropes, and this they call _juta_;[225]
they do not bathe every day, and rub their head and body with ashes,
which they call _bhabút_;[226] at the time of death, the two classes,
having tied the body in a bag full of salt, throw it into the water,
where, by its weight and that attached to it, it remains a few days
sunk in the bottom, until they bury it in the earth.

The head of the second class is Sankara acharya; Saha dèva, the rája
of Kachmir, who in the year 750 of the Hejira (1349 A. D.) pulled off
the garment of the world, chose him for his teacher. Sankara acharya
was a learned Brahman, of a very independent mind; the Hindus say that
when the learned did not understand the Vedanta-śastra, Mahádéva,
having incarnated himself, appeared in the shape of Sankara acharya,
for the purpose of interpreting the Vedanta doctrine, upon which
subject many books have been written. _Sastra_[227] signifies, in the
Sankrit language, “science,” and _Véda_, the “heavenly book,” as has
been said; _anta_,[228] is “end, the accomplishment;” that is, “the
accomplishment of the intended object;” and the intent of the Veda is
the knowledge of God and of one’s self. On that account this science,
which consists in the knowledge of the union of God, as it is to be
derived from the text of the Veda, has been entitled _Veda-anta_, “the
accomplishment of the Veda.” Sankara acharya was a _Jnáni_, “a saint,
a divine,” professing the unity of God; his speeches and actions
became the code of the Jnánis.

One of these, called _Chatúr Vapah_, belongs to the class of the
_Dandahars_; he descends from the Brahmans of Guzerat, whom they call
_Nága-Brahmans_; his father, of the order of jewellers, enjoyed great
consideration and opulence. Chatúr Vapah, having acquired great
perfection in the worship of God, abandoned wife, father, mother, and
children; and chose the condition of a Sanyási; he devoted himself to
the practice of restraining the breath, and at last attained great
reputation, but never relaxed in his religious austerity; he ate no
more than three handsful; they say that sometimes he tasted nothing
but salt, and contented himself with three pinches of it; the nature
of his manners is so well known among the Sanyásis, that it is not
required to say more of it in this book. They say besides that, on
account of his perseverance in the beforesaid practice, and on hearing
the voice of God, a sound similar to that of a harp issued from his
veins. A Durvish, native of Persia, gave the following information:
“In the year 1045 of the Hejira (1635 A. D.), one night Chatur Vapah
came to me, and said: ‘Rise, that we may take a walk together;’ I went
with him and arrived at a deep water. Chatur Vapah, having put his
feet upon the surface of the water, walked upon it so as not to raise
a sprinkling; he then called me; going along the border of the pond, I
joined him, who until my arrival awaited me upon an elevated block of
stone which was near the pond. When I had seated myself near him, he
pointed to the block, and said: ‘Dost thou guess whose work this is?’
Having considered the bulk of the stone, which was not less than ten
cubits in length, I was struck with astonishment, and said: ‘This may
be the work of a deity.’ Chatur Vapah replied: ‘One of my friends
dwelt here, and endeavored to shape this block into his habitation,
and having brought the huge stone upon his shoulder from the high
mountain, began to work it. The people, astonished at the bulk of the
stone, sat down at night in a lurking-place, so that they saw the
Sanyásí with the great stone on his shoulder. On that account they
represented to him: What is the reason of undergoing such labour?
Command, and we will bring the stone down from the mountain, and shape
it right, provided the block be not too large. The Sanyási got angry,
and left the village.’ Chatúr Vapah afterwards added: ‘Rise, and let
us go to see him:’ we went there. Sitting cross-legged, he was
occupied with himself. Chatúr Vapah said to him: ‘This Durvish is my
friend; call the musician.’ He replied: ‘Raise thou the light up.’ At
these words, Chatur Vapah directed his looks to the field, and an
immense torch burst forth, lighted from the mysterious region, and
threw its scattered refulgence wide about, and the sound of many
musical instruments came upon the ear. At day-break we took leave of
him, and returned by the road which we came to our resting place.”
Khája Hafiz says right:

  “When the chief of the wine-cellar became my preceptor, what
     disparity is there in it?
        There is no place which is not the place of God.
        In the cell of the hermit, in the circle of the Sufís,
        There is no principal place of the worshipper but
        The extremity of the arch of thy two eyebrows.”

The Hakim Kamrán of Shíraz says: “We were in Benares with Chatúr
Vapah. One of the principal Muselmans who visited him asked him: ‘What
dost thou say of the truth of our prophet?’ He answered: ‘You say that
he is a legate of God, and a leader of the way to the people to which
the King of truth has sent him; but it is not becoming for those who
are companions of the Monarch of the world to take orders from him.’”
The inhabitant of heaven, Nuraddin Jehangír (may the light of God
illume his grave!) believed and placed a suitable confidence in him.
Abdár rahim of the Khánkhan prostrated himself before him. In the year
1033 of the Hejira (1623 A. D.), the author of this work, then in his
infancy, came with his friends and relations from Patna to the
capital, Akbár abad, and was brought in the arms of the Mobéd Hushíar,
the odor of whose excellent qualities is diffused about, to Chatur
Vapah. The pious man rejoiced at it, and bestowed his blessing on me,
the writer of this work; he taught me the mantra of _Súrya_, that is,
of the sun; he then enjoined Ganéśa-man, one of his disciples who were
present on this day, that he should remain with me until the age of
manhood, when I should be able to manage my affairs myself. Ganéśa-man
remained attached to me: he was a pupil of Chatur Vapah, and practised
the restraining of the breath assiduously. The Mobéd Hushíar says, he
once saw him when, sitting cross-legged, he restrained his breath so
that his belly, filled with wind, extended beyond his knees. The
Gosáin Chatur Vapah travelled to the everlasting kingdom in the year
1047 of the Hejira (1637 A. D.).

The author of this book saw, in the year 1053 of the Hejira (1643 A.
D.), Kalían Bharatí in Karitpúr in the Kohistan of the Panjab, which
was the country of the rája Tarachandra. Kalían was a religious man,
and kept his breath for two watches, or six hours. The Bháratís are a
class of Sanyásis. From Ferzánah Khushí, who is a pious man of the
Yezdanían, was received the information, that Kalíán Bhárati used to
drink, first, oil of lamps, and then milk, both which he emitted again
in such a manner that the color of each was preserved, and no mixture
had taken place. Kalin Bhárati always praised Persia; the author of
this work told him: “You have no connection in India; you should go
there.” He answered: “I went to Iran, but when I saw the king of the
country, Shah Abas Ibne Sultan,[229] who ought to be a servant of God,
I found him to be full of years, and although highly intelligent, yet
merciless, a shedder of blood, covetous, a word-breaker, a friend to
jesting, and admirer of buffoonery. In his country it was promulgated
that wherever a boy or girl gifted with beauty could be found, they
should be brought before the king. The Sufís of the tribe Kazelbásh
brought boys and girls to the king, that he might indulge himself in
any shameful act of his liking. I asked myself whether, if such a
behaviour were conformable to their religion, I could remain in this
town? When I inquired about it from their learned men, they denied it.
I further asked, whether the king approves of such deeds? They said:
‘These are deeds, customary with men of our faith.’ I then again said
to myself: the king is the substitute of God; if he himself goes
astray, is not firm in his faith, and does not disavow any part of
this religion, then it is not advisable to remain in this town.” Kalin
Bharati also said: “I cannot bear seeing a man who is not firm in his
faith; one who professes no religion at all is, at least, his own
guide; the professor of any faith who does what he says, and is fixed
in it, deserves not to be blamed.”

The writer of this book found, in the year 1048 of the Hejira (1638 A.
D.), Aisha Girda, in Kashmir. Ferzanah Khushí says, that he kept his
breath during three watches, or nine hours, and he found Maden Kir
equal to him. This was a man skilled in all sorts of magic and sleight
of hand: whenever well disposed, he scattered bread and salt about,
brought milk forth from bones, cut bones in two with a hair, and
passed birds’ eggs through the narrow neck of a bottle, and exhibited
such like tricks.

Other Sanyásis remain twelve years standing upon one leg, and this
class is called _Thávésar_.[230] Those who keep continual silence are
called _Máunínas_.[231] Many other, like these, are mentioned in Hindu
books, which the author of this work perused, but has no room for
describing them all in these pages; some of this class are men of
consideration and opulence, and are escorted by files of elephants;
they have carriages, fine apparel, courtiers, servants, on foot and
horseback.


     [176] ईश.

     [177] जीव

     [178] अभ्यासयोग the practice of frequent and repeated
     contemplation of any deity, or abstract spirit, repeated
     recollection, etc.

     [179] योगः among a great number of significations has that
     of “religious exercise.”

     [180] अभ्यास means, properly, “constant, eternal
     repetition.”

     [181] यम religious restraint, or obligation.

     [182] नियम or नियाम any religious observance voluntarily
     practised.

     [183] आसन sitting in some particular posture, as is the
     custom of the devotees; eighty-four kinds are enumerated.

     [184] प्राणायामः breathing in a peculiar way through the
     nostrils, during the mental recitation of the names or
     attributes of some deity.

     [185] प्रत्याहारः abstraction; insensibility; restraining
     the organs so as to be indifferent to disagreeable or
     agreeable excitement.

     [186] धारणं fortitude; keeping the mind collected, the
     breath suspended, and all natural wants restrained; steady
     immoveable abstraction.

     [187] ध्यानं meditation; reflection; mental representation
     of the personal attributes of the divinity to whom worship
     is addressed.

     [188] समधारण see _dhárana_; _sama_ is an intensitive.

     [189] अहिंसा harmlessness, one of the cardinal virtues of
     most Hindu sects.

     [190] सत्यं.

     [191] अस्तेयं.

     [192] ब्रह्मचारी a religious student, an ascetic of a certain
     class.

     [193] अप्रग्रह.

     [194] तापस.

     [195] जाप muttering prayers.

     [196] शाम.

     [197] शुाचि.

     [198] ईशपूजा.

     [199] See the signification of _dhárana_, as taken from
     Wilson’s Dict., and given in note 6, p. 125.

     [200] अलोक Heaven.

     [201] गोरखनाथ a name adopted by a class of Yógis――(_Wils.
     Dict._, sub voce, _nátha_.)

     [202] Perhaps मचर्चिक नाथ _macharchika nátha_, “lord of
     excellence,” or “happiness.”

     [203] Probably चूडाङ्कनाथ _chúdánka nátha_, “lord of the
     ornament of the crest.”

     [204] Professor Wilson (see his Sketch of the Religious
     Sects of the Hindus, in the XVIth vol. of the _As. Res._, p.
     1-136) has enumerated the religious divisions of the Hindus
     as they have been described by the author of the _Sankara
     Vijaya_, probably in the 8th century of our era, to which
     enumeration he added that of the present divisions of this
     people, comprised in three great classes: the _Vaichnavas_,
     the _Sâivas_, and the _Saktas_. Very few names of these
     sects are to be found in The Dabistán, although both works
     agree in general in the account of the opinions, rites, and
     customs of the different sectaries; the outlines of their
     systems appear to have remained the same during at least the
     last thousand years, whatever alterations the details may
     have undergone.

     [205] _Panthi_ is derived from the Sanskrit पन्थिन्
     _panthin_, “who goes the road.” This term occurs only in the
     word परिपन्थिन् _pari-panthi_, “an adversary.”

     [206] According to the Shah-nameh, Afrasiab, after many
     battles, succombed to the fortune of Kaí-Khusro. The king of
     Turan fled to the mountains of Berdah, where he concealed
     himself in a cavern. It so happened that Hum, a descendant
     of Feridun, lived as a hermit in the same desert: there he
     heard by night a voice of complaint, which he soon
     recognised to be that of Afrasiab. The hermit had not
     extinguished the vindictive passion in his breast; he seized
     and bound the fugitive king, and conducted him to be
     delivered into the hands of Káí Khusró. On the bank of a
     large river, Hum, visited by a feeling of pity, loosened the
     fetters of his prisoner, who profited by these few moments
     of liberty to escape, and dived into the water, where he
     remained concealed, as is said above, so that he could not
     be discovered. Káí Khusró, having in the mean time arrived
     to receive himself the great captive, Hum advised the king
     to subject Gorshivez (Afrâsiab’s brother) who was also a
     prisoner in his hands, to severe tortures, in order that the
     lamentations of the sufferer might draw Afrasiab out of the
     water. This stratagem succeeded, and Afrasiab was killed by
     the sword of Káí Khusró.

     [207] सप्त चक्राः In the best treatises of the Hindu
     philosophers, we find only six chakras, or “circles,”
     enumerated; these are as follow: 1. _Muládhára_, “the parts
     about the pubis;” 2. the _Swádishthánam_, or “umbilical
     region;” 3. the _Manipúram_, “pit of the stomach,” or
     “epigastrium;” 4. _Anáhatam_, “the root of the nose;” 5.
     _Visuddham_, “the hollow between the frontal sinuses;” 6.
     _Ajnyákhyam_, “the fontenelle, or union of the coronal and
     sagittal sutures.” To these circles, or divisions, are
     attributed various faculties and relations with divinities
     and physical elements.

     [208] मूलाधार.

     [209] मन्थर “a churning stick.”

     [210] नाभिचक्र.

     [211] मणिपुर.

     [212] कण्ट.

     [213] भ्रुव.

     [214] ब्रह्माण्ड signifies “Brahma’s egg,” to which the
     earth is compared, and probably, as above, the head.

     [215] आदित्य, पङ्किल, सोमन.

     [216] These words have, in the Persian dictionary, a
     signification different from that which is above attributed
     to them, and seem to be technical terms belonging to the
     doctrine of a sect.

     [217] प्राण _prána_ is breath, expiration, and inspiration;
     अपान _apána_ is flatulence, _crepitus_. Besides these two
     winds, the Hindus name three other winds, namely: _Jamána_,
     eructation, supposed to be essential to digestion; _Udána_,
     passing from the throat into the head; it is the pulsation
     of the arteries in the head, the neck, and temples; _Vyána_,
     expanding through the whole body; it is the pulsation of the
     rest of the superficial arteries and occasional puffiness of
     external parts, indicating air in the skin (see _Vedanta
     Sara_, edit. Calc., p. 9; and _Sánkhyá Kárita_, work quoted,
     p. 105).

     [218] अजप is a particular mantra, or mystical formula,
     employed by the Tantrikas, the essence of which is the
     letters _H_ and _S_, whence it is termed the _Hansa-mantra_.

     [219] कुण्डली.

     [220] मह आसन.

     [221] साद आसन

     [222] See, on it, vol. I. p. 80.

     [223] दणिडी a mendicant carrying a staff.

     [224] अवधूत.

     [225] जूट.

     [226] भस्म _bhasma_, “ashes,” भस्मीभूत _bhasmíbuta_,
     “becoming ashes.”

     [227] शास्त्र _sástra_, from शास _sása_, “to govern,” an
     order, command, institutes of religion, science, etc.

     [228] अन्त.

     [229] The king of Persia above mentioned was probably Abbas,
     the son of Shah Muhammed Mirza. He began to reign in 1585,
     and died in 1628, in his 70th year. He was called “the
     Great,” although his character and life were stained by
     vices but too common to Oriental princes. To him succeeded
     his grandson Shah Súfí, in 1627, and died in 1641; then the
     son of the latter, Abbas II, not yet ten years old, was
     proclaimed king; at the date above mentioned, viz. 1643, he
     was about twelve years old, and could therefore not be the
     king characterised by Kalin Bharati, who could very easily,
     but fifteen years before the epoch above mentioned, have
     seen Abbas “the Great,” then, as he says, “full of years.”

     [230] Probably स्थातारस् _sthátáras_.

     [231] मौनिनस्.

       *     *     *     *     *

SECTION THE SEVENTH DESCRIBES THE TENETS OF THE SÁKTÍAN.――The belief
of this sect is as follows: Síva, that is Mahádeva, who in their
opinion with little exception is the highest of the deities, and the
greatest of the spirits, has a spouse whom they call _Máyá
saktí_;[232] this spouse shows first one color, and then another, that
is, something else than what really exists: for instance, water like
wine. This spiritual and material principle has three natures and
three qualities, namely: _rajas_,[233] that is, “dominion and desire;”
_sattva_,[234] which is “rectitude and wisdom, and the power to
control the senses, not to be subject to them;” and _tamas_,[235] or
“violence, passion, besides eating, gluttony, and sleeping.” With the
Hindus, Brahma, Vichnu, and Mahadeva are personified as proceeding
from these three conditions,[236] or as the powers of the three
qualities mentioned. This Máyá is the maker of the productions of this
world and of its inhabitants, and the creator of the spirits and of
the bodies; the universe and its contents are born from her: from
respect of the said productions and of the mentioned effects, she is
entitled _Jagat-ambá_,[237] or “mother of the universe;” non-entity
finds no access to this creator; the garment of perishableness does
not sit right upon the body of this fascinating empress; the dust of
nothingness does not move round the circle of her dominion; the real
beings of heaven, and the accidental creations of the nether world,
are equally enamoured and intoxicated of desire before her; bound by
these ties of deceit in this revolving world, whoever rebels feels the
desire of _mukt_, that is, of emancipation, independence, and
happiness; nevertheless, from carelessness, he pays obedience and
worship to this world-deceiving queen, and never abandons the path of
adoration of this bewitching lady. This goddess, that is the spiritual
principle, exists in all living beings in six circles, which they call
_shat chakras_,[238] as the fibres in the stalk of a water-lily, in
which there are six divisions: 1. the _Muládhára_, or “the
sitting-place;” 2. the _Manipúram_, that is, “the navel;” 3. the
_Swadhishtanam_,[239] “the firm place, and which commands the upper
region of the navel;” 4. _Hrid_,[240] or “the heart;” 5. _Sáda_,[241]
that is, “the purified mansion and the place of purification,” and
this proceeds from the upmost part of the breast; 6. _Agni
tchakra_,[242] or “the circle of the fire,” and this is that of the
eye-brows. These are the six circles, and above them is _Indra_, that
is the window of life, and the passage of the soul, which is the top
and middle of the head; and in that place is the flower of the back of
one thousand leaves: this is the residence of the glorious divinity,
that is, of the world-deceiving queen, and in this beautiful site
reposes her origin. With the splendour of one hundred thousand
world-illuminating suns, she wears, at the time of rising, manifold
odoriferous herbs and various flowers upon her head and around her
neck: her resplendent body is penetrated with perfumes of various
precious ingredients, such as musk, safran, sandal and amber, and
bedecked with magnificent garments: in this manner, as was just
described, she is to be represented. The worship of her form and
appearance, the adoration and submission, ought to be internal and
true; and the exterior veneration, to be paid before her image;
moreover, all that has been divided into five sections and explained
in the Yoga śastra, is to be performed with assiduity. The interior
worship consists in representing her image, and in keeping her
remembrance every where; the possessor of such an imaginative faculty
and devotedness is called _bhakta_,[243] that is, “a possessor of
gladness and of the mansion of perfect delight, and of _mukt_, or
‘liberation’ to be enjoyed in this mansion of a permanent happy
existence.” The mode of this worship is contained in the _Agama_,[244]
and the whole sect conform themselves to it. With them, the power of
Mahadeva’s wife, who is Bhávání, surpasses that of the husband. The
zealous of this sect worship the _Síva-linga_, although other Hindus
also venerate it. _Linga_[245] is called the virile organ, and they
say on behalf of this worship that, as men and all living beings
derive their existence from it, adoration is duly bestowed on it. As
the linga of Mahadeva, so do they venerate the _bhaga_,[246] that is,
the female organ. A man very familiar with them gave the information
that, according to their belief, the high altar, or principal place in
a mosque of the Muselmans, is an emblem of the _bhaga_. Another man
among them said that, as the just-named place emblems the bhaga, the
minar, or turret of the mosque represents the linga: on which account
both are found together. In many places and among a great number of
the Hindus, this worship exists: a great many follow the Agama, in
which wine drinking is approved, and if, instead of a common cup, a
man’s skull (which they call _kapála_[247]) be used, the beverage is
much more agreeable. They hold the killing of all animals, even of
man, to be permitted, and call it _bala_.[248] At night they go to the
places which they call _śmaśána_,[249] and where the dead bodies are
burnt; there they intoxicate themselves, eat the flesh of the corpses
burnt, and copulate before the eyes of others with women, which they
name _śakti púja_:[250] and if the devoted woman be that of another,
the good work is so much the more valuable, and it is certain that
they offer their wives to each other; the disciples bring their wives
and daughters to their preceptor; they unite with their mothers,
sisters, paternal and maternal aunts, which is against the custom of
the Hindus, who do not take daughters of their near relations. The
author of this work saw one of the learned men of this sect, who read
to him a book of modern composition upon their customs, and therein
was stated that it is permitted to mix with every woman except one’s
daughter. This man began to abuse the work, saying that the text was
contrary to the old customs of this class, and that no such thing is
to be found in the ancient books, and declared it at last to be a
mistake of the copyist. They say that the woman exists for the sake of
being desired; she may be a mother or a daughter. In their opinion,
there is no enjoyment higher that that of love; the Hindus call it
_kámada_;[251] and say that, when a woman and a man are in close
conversation, whoever disturbs them is worthy of God’s malediction,
because they both therein share a state of happiness. The Agama favors
both sexes equally, and makes no distinction between women; they may
belong to whomsoever: men and women compose equally humankind, and
whatever they bring forth makes part of it. This sect hold women in
great esteem, and call them _śaktis_ (powers); and to ill treat a
_śakti_, that is, a woman, is held a crime. The high and low value the
Lulís (public girls) very high, and call them _deva kanya_,[252]
“daughters of the gods.”

Among them, it is a meritorious act to sacrifice a man, which they
call _naramédha_;[253] then the _gómédha_,[254] or sacrifice of a cow;
further, the _asvaméda_,[255] and finally, any other animal. When they
perform a sacrificial ceremony, which they call Kála-dek
(_kaladéya_)[256], they unite the blood of as many animals as possible
in a large vase, and place therein the man whom they bring over to
their creed, and they drink with him from that blood. Whenever the
worship of a god, or of the wife of a god is performed, the ceremony
is called _ishtam_,[257] and the master of the ceremony _ishta_. The
creed of this sect is, that any god or wife of a god may be worshipped
in two ways: the one is called _bhadram_,[258] which consists in
abstaining from shedding blood, and in being pure; the other, termed
_vakam_,[259] which admits spilling blood, commerce with women, and
neglect of purity; but they think this second preferable, and say that
each deity, male or female, has a form under which he or she is to be
represented; but that the worship of a female divinity affords a
greater recompense. When they have an intimate connection with their
own or another’s wife, they behold in her the image of the goddess,
and think to personate the god, her husband, and at this time they
sing a prescribed song, which to entune at the very moment of the
closest junction, they believe to be most recommendable. There is a
deity whose praise they sing with unwashed hands;[260] and another
whom they worship with the mark of their cast drawn with dirt on their
forehead. Some of these goddesses are by them called “queens,” and
others “servants;” and the worshipper of a woman is also termed
“servant.”

The author of this work saw a man who, singing the customary song, sat
upon a corpse which he kept unburied until it came to a state of
dissolution, and then ate the flesh of it; this act they hold
extremely meritorious. They say that the desires of this and of the
other world attain their accomplishment by means of the worship of a
god or of a goddess. The followers of this sect send their barren
wives, in order that they may become pregnant, to the performers of
such acts, and these men use the women before the eyes of their
husbands: whoever does not send his wife to his master, renders in
their opinion the purity of his faith very doubtful.

The Gossain Tara lochana, a Brahman, was of this sect, and devoted to
the worship of Káli, a female deity. Having gone to Kachmir in the
year 1048 of the Hejira (1638 A. D.), he practised pious austerity; at
last, as is usual, he chose a concubine, for which, they say, five
things are requisite: fish, wine, the wife of another man, flesh (if
human flesh so much the better) and a mantra, that is, a song. The
Hindus used to distinguish fish from flesh. Finally, having
accomplished the act of a Gosain, Tara lochana became the friend of
Ahsen Ulla, named Zafer Khán ibne Khájá, Abul hasen Taramzi, who was
the governor of Kachmir: this took place by the interest of the
confidential servants of the lord’s house, who were well disposed to
be directed by a perfect Gósain. The said lord wished Taralochana to
procure him victory over the Tibetans; the Gosain promised it to him,
provided he should conform himself to his directions: Zafer Khan
consented to it, and a convention was concluded between them. Tara
lochana said: “Appoint a great number of Lúlían who are never to
separate from me, because in our religion the intercourse with these
is preferable to that with other women, on which account they are
entitled _Déva-Kanyá_, ‘the daughters of the gods;’ my meal must never
be destitute of wine and other intoxicating liquors; to begin, let a
sheep be killed for me, and the necessaries and materials of repast be
prepared.” Zafer Khan did all the Gosain demanded; when he made his
expedition to Tibet, he obtained a remarkable victory, and returned
triumphant. At last, a disagreement took place between the Gosain and
Zafer Khan; the former quitted the latter, who soon after, on account
of a dispute between the Sonní and the Shiâh of Kachmir, lost his
consideration, and being obliged to retire, went to Kabul; there
Muhammed Tafer, one of his relations, gave him some fatal stabs with a
poniard, in consequence of which he lay sick for some time. Soon after
he lost his office and property, and remained long in Lahore without a
situation. The author of this book saw in the year 1055 of the Hejira
(1645 A. D.) in Gujerat, a district of the Panjab, Tara lochana, who
told him “It was on account of his difference with me that so great a
misfortune befel Zafer Khan.” Urfi of Shiraz says:

  “The bounty of the Eternal does not reject the unbeliever,
   Provided he acquire perfection in the adoration of his idol.”

Shédosh, the son of Anosh declared: that, according to the explainers
of the law, there must be observed in any pursuit a due relation and
correspondence to the intended purpose: further, in the pursuit of a
virtuous spirit, sanctity and purity are required; but in the pursuit
of a base spirit, nothing of purity enters, and may be dispensed with.
This subject has been treated in the second section of the work
thereupon.

The writer of this book saw in the same year, and in the place
beforesaid of Guzerat, a man called Mahadéo, who at night was always
sitting upon a dead body. I also saw Sadánand, of the same sect, who
said to one of his disciples: “I wish to perform a rite, called the
worship of the hair.” The disciple brought his own daughter, and
Sadánanda gazed at her hair, kissed her face, and in that way enjoyed
her before the eyes of her father. I saw besides a person who brought
his wife to him, saying: “I have no son in my house.” It is the belief
of this class that, if in such a manner any one has intercourse with a
barren woman, she obtains whatever she desires; on that account, some
of the women, at the moment of intimate junction, demand from the
perfect man the gift of _mukt_, that is, union with God Almighty, and
emancipation from this body. It was for that reason, that Sadánanda
used the woman before the eyes of her husband. One day, Sadánanda sat
in a burying place, naked, with one of his friends, and drank wine,
when one of the orthodox Brahmans passed that way, and saw these men.
The disciples said: “This Brahman will tell the people what he saw,
and expose us to ridicule.” Sadánanda replied: “It does not matter.”
When the Brahman came home, he died.

When in the year 1059 of the Hejira (1649 A. D.) the author of this
work happened to be in the district of Kalinga, he saw in every
village of this country the image of a god, or of a spirit called by
some particular name, and each of these spirits is supposed to be the
author of some sickness or misfortune, for the removing of which they
offer their prayers to him. One of these spirits is _Anamberam_; and
when a person gets a pimple, he brings an animal, commonly a domestic
bird, to the chapel, and sacrifices it. In the work _Khálasa al
hayat_, “the essence of life,” composed by Mulla Ahmed Tatvi, is
stated, that upon the sepulchre of _Asefnívas_,[261] a sage of Greece,
they used to sacrifice a bird, and they say that, in the book which
treats of the ceremonies of pilgrimage to the before-named deities,
three kinds of sacrifices are enumerated: agreeable perfumes, sweet
cakes, and beverages; besides Mulla Ahmed Tatvi mentions in his work
just before quoted, that _Herámes_ (that is Idris)[262] has
established fumigations and wine of grapes for the use of sacrifices.

Among the great idols of the country or Kaling is _Gang-Durgá_.[263]
They say, Ramachandra déo, one of their great Rájas, descendant of the
celebrated family of Kaśyapa, ruled in Orissa. This Rája, having
called a goldsmith, gave him the mass of gold which he demanded for
making an image of Durga. The goldsmith, having carried the gold home,
intended to form the goddess of copper and to purloin the gold,
thinking that, as to break into pieces an idol is not permitted among
the Hindus, he could keep the gold without fear of discovery. With
this project he went to sleep. When he awoke, he saw that one half of
the gold remained on the spot, and that the other half was formed into
the image of Durgá; having carried this with the remaining gold to
Ramachandra déo, and told the story, the Rája gave him the residue of
gold, and carried the idol, in his house and in his travels,
constantly with him. They say that, after the death of Kaśyapa the
Great, Makandéo assembled under his sceptre the nations of this
country, and that Vichnunath déo Sukra conquered the town Sri
Kakul,[264] from the Rája Nanda. Ramchandra déo moved his army towards
Sri Kakul, and took the fort; Vichnu-náth, being informed of it,
marched against him; Ramchandra déo, unable to resist his force, fled;
Ganga Durga was by her guardians thrown away in a village, from whence
she fell into the hands of a Brahman, who flung her into the barn of a
villager. This man, having taken her up, carried her to his house. The
goddess appeared to him in a dream, and said: “Offer me in sacrifice
thy eldest son, and I will make thee Rája.” After a certain time, the
villager told this secret to Vishnu-náth déo, who, having taken the
idol from him, gave him a horse ornamented with gold, and a
magnificent dress, and carried the goddess to Naránya púr, his
residence. As she demanded from him also the sacrifice of a man,
Vichnu-náth déo killed every year one of the thieves and like sorts of
men before her altar. After the death of Vichnu náth déo, his sons did
the same. When Vikramajet déo, who descended from Vichna nath déo, was
killed, and the country disturbed by insurrections, then Dasvent-ráu,
who was one of the grand-children of Vichnu-náth déo, having taken up
Durga, fled from fear of the army, commanded by Jalil ul Khader Tulají
Khan Bég, to Márkúl. Bhúpati, the Rája of Márkul, being also afraid of
the attack of the famous general, sent him the goddess Durga, on
Monday, the ninth day of the month Rabish ul avel, of the year 1062 of
the Hejira (September, 1651, A. D.). The idol was of gold, in the form
of a female, with limbs very well proportioned, four arms, in two of
her right hands carrying a three-pointed pike, which the Hindus call
_Trisúla_,[265] and with which the goddess was striking _Mahisha
Asura_, a demon under the form of a buffalo; he was beneath her right
foot; in another hand she had a white ball, and in the fourth, the
chakra, or discus, which is a circular weapon peculiar to the Hindus;
under her left foot was a lion, and beneath him a throne. When they
weighed the image, they found it equal to four panchiri, measure of
the Dekhan. Even now, they sacrifice in every village of the Kohistan
of Nanda-púr, and country adjacent, a man of good family.

Another idol, called _Mávelí_,[266] is in the town of Bister.[267] The
belief of the people there is that, when an hostile army comes to
attack them, the divinity, under the form of a woman selling
vegetables, goes into the camp of the enemy, and whoever eats what she
offers, dies; and during the night she appears like one of the public
girls, and whoever finds her charming, and calls her, meets with
death. They relate many strange and wonderful things about her. When
in the year of the Hejira 1069, A. D. 1658-9, the famous general
Tavaljí Khan Beg besieged and took the fort Kot Bahar, which is
stronger than the fort of Bister, there died so many men and beasts of
various maladies and the particular effects of climate, that their
number exceeds all computation; and this the inhabitants of the fort
of Bister attributed to the power of the goddess.

There is another class of followers of Síva, that is, of Sáktían,
whose creed is quite different from that just before stated: they
never have intercourse with the wife of another; they drink no wine.
The adorers of Síva are obliged to drink wine in the _Síva-ratra_,[268]
which is a sacred night: because it is written in their books that
they ought then to fill a cup with wine and to drink it; as, according
to the rule of this sect, it is not a matter of choice to drink wine;
many who cannot get it, having procured a draught of syrup, mix a
little of a fermented liquor with it to render it like wine, and take
it for such, calling it _pána_.[269]

Sri Kanta, a Kachmirian, is conversant with many sciences of the
Hindus; he knows the sástras, that is, the sástras of the Pandits,
namely, the _Smríti sastra_,[270] or “the written law;” the
_Kavi-sástra_,[271] “poetics;” the _Tarka-sástra_,[272] “logic and
dialectics;” the _Váidyá vidyá_,[273] “the medical science;” the
_Jyótisha_,[274] “astronomy;” and the _Pátanjala_,[275] that is, the
restraining of the breath; he knows besides very well the Vedanta, or
metaphysics, etc. In the year 1049 of the Hejira (1639 A. D.) the
author of this book saw him in Kachmir; he is one of the saints of the
Hindus. Sri Kant was invested by the inhabitant of heaven, Núr-ed-din
Mahommed Jehangír Pádshah, with the dignity of a judge of the Hindus,
in order that they may be tranquillised, and in every concern have
nothing to demand from the Muselmans: as it has been established in
the code of Akbar, that the tribes of mankind, high and low, with the
existing diversity of creeds and difference of customs, which are all
under the trust of a beneficent lord, ought to dwell in the shade of
protection of a just king, and persevere in the performance of their
worship and the exigencies of their devotion, so that, by the
authority derived from the chiefs, the sons of the age may not stretch
the hand of oppression over the condition of the people.

The belief of the Hindus is as follows: all the _tírths_,[276] that
is, “places of pilgrimage,” which are in the world are in imitation of
the fixed model _Haratírth_, which is in Kachmir; for, after having
visited the holy place of Kachmir, there is no desire to see that of
any other country; and they call it the great place of pilgrimage,
likewise _prayága_,[277] which is celebrated at Máhábád; there are
Shah abad ed-din púr, and Gangavara, Lárasún, and Kisâlíhazra. There
are many miraculous things in Kachmir; one of them is _Sandebár_, and
they relate: In ancient times, a holy Brahman dwelt in a cavern of the
mountain, where he devoted himself to the worship of the Almighty God.
Once every year, he went to the Ganges to bathe. After having passed
several years in that way, Gangá said to the Brahman: “Thou measurest
always such a length of road, on which thou dost set aside the worship
of God: my convention with thee is this: that, when the sun reaches
the constellation of the Bull, I will three times a-day come to thy
resting-place.” From this time, when the great luminary throws his
effulgence towards the constellation of the Bull, the water of the
river springs up boiling from the basin of the fountain, which is near
the place of his devotion. _Sundeberari_, in the cavern of the
mountain, became celebrated: it is a square basin, and has on its
eastern wall an open cavity, from which, as well as from several other
vents and holes in the sides of the basin, the water springs up.
However steadfastly one may look, the bottom cannot be discovered. And
in the middle of the eastern side, there are seven holes, which the
people of Kachmir call _Saptarshi_,[278] “the seven Rishis;” on the
northern side is an issue, which they call _dama bhaváni_;[279] when
the world-illuminating sun begins to enter the constellation of the
Bull, the water appears there in the following manner: it springs up
first from the large cavity, then from the _Saptarshi_: so the Hindus
call seven rakshasas, and give their name to the constellation of the
Great Bear. Further, the water comes up from the _dama bhaváni_, that
is “the mansion of _Bhaváni_, the wife of Mahadéo.” When the cavity is
filled, then the water, passing over the borders, runs out; the
Sanyásis and other Hindus, who had come from distant places, throw
themselves into it, and the people who find no room, carry water from
it. Afterwards, the ebullition declines in such a manner, that there
remains not the least trace of the water. In this month the water
boils up three times a-day, namely, in the morning, at mid-day, and in
the afternoon, at the hour of prayer. After the lapse of this month,
no more water is seen, until the sun enters again into the sign of the
Bull.

  “Certainly, every thing announces God,
   And offers the proof that there is but He.”[280]

The historians of the times know Sandeberarí among the wonders
described by the ancient learned men of Kachmir. The ignorant among
the Muselmans of Kachmir say, that Sandeberari is the well of _Abu
Ali_, and believe it to be the work of _shaikh Arráis_; the truth is,
that _Hajet ul hak_ never came to Kachmir: as it is evident from the
concurring testimony of history.


HISTORY OF THE ILLUSTRIOUS SHAIKH ABU ALÍ HUSSAIN, THE SON OF ABDULLAH
SINA (GOD BLESS HIS GRAVE!)[281]――The father of Abu Alí was a native
of the environs of Balkh, and his mother was Sitára. Abu Alí was born
in the year 333 of the Hejira (944 A. D.)[282] When he had attained
his eighteenth year, he was conversant with all the liberal sciences.
They relate, that Amír Nuh, the son of Manzur Sámáni,[283] in a grave
malady, when the doctors knew no remedy, was restored to health by the
salutary power of the songs of Abu Ali. When the Sámánían were in
distress, he directed himself towards Khórasan, the king of which
country, Alí, the son of Mámun Massar, received Abu Ali with perfect
favour. When Abu Ali was accused before the Sultan Mahmud Sabak
tegín,[284] of being opposed to the religion and creed of the ancient
wise men, and when the Sultan showed a disposition to apprehend him,
the Shaikh was alarmed and fled to Abyúverd; the satellites of the
Sultan followed him with pictures and descriptions of his person,
which were well drawn, and sent by the Sultan to all parts of the
kingdom, in order that the magistrates and head men of office, by
means of this picture might bring the fugitive before the Sultan. The
Shaikh, informed of it, fled towards Jorjan (Georgia). By means of the
remedies of the Shaikh, many sick were cured. Shamsen ul mâlí Kábús,
the son of Vashamger,[285] had a nephew on his sister’s side on a
sick-bed, all the remedies applied by the physicians proved useless;
by order of Kabus, they brought the Shaikh to the pillow of the sick;
but, in spite of all his cares and observations, the learned physician
could not discover the cause of his illness. The Shaikh said to
himself: “This young man may be in love, and from exceeding pudicity
keep his secret unclosed.” On that account he ordered the names of all
the places and towns to be written, and one after another to be read
before the patient, whilst the Shaikh held his finger upon the pulse
of the young man. When they pronounced the name of the abode of the
beloved, the motion of the pulse of the enamoured was perceptible; the
Shaikh ordered also the names of all the private houses to be read; at
that of the object of his desires, the pulse of the desirous became
disturbed; moreover they began to read the names of the inhabitants of
the houses; when they arrived at that of his idol, the pulse of the
adorer again beat higher. Mazheri of Kashmir says:

  “The pulse of the loving beats higher, agitated only at the
     name of the beloved.”

Thus, the perfect science of Abu Alí found the true remedy: he said to
one of the head men near Shams ul mâlí: “This young man is in love
with such a girl, in such a house, and there is no remedy but the
gratification of his desire.” After trial, the truth of these words
was found.[286]

When the Umras and the ministers of state withdrew from the obedience
of Kábus, whom they imprisoned, the Shaikh retired into the country.
Some time after, he betook himself to Ráí.[287] Majed-dóulah Abu Táleb
Rustam, the son of Fakher ed dóulah Dalímí, the Hakim (governor) of
Rái,[288] showed him great regard and honor; the Shaikh restored Majed
ud-dóulah from the malady of melancholy to good health.

When Shams ed-dóulah made war upon Helál,[289] son of Bader, son of
Hasnávíah, who came from the capital of the right faith (Mecca), he
defeated the army of Bâghdad. The Shaikh went from Rái to Kazvín,[290]
and from thence to Hamdan.[291] Shams ed-dóulah was cured of a colic
by the remedies of the Shaikh, whom he then raised to the dignity of a
Vizír. The chiefs of the army conspired against the life of Abu Ali;
he fled, and remained concealed during forty days. Meanwhile, the
malady of Shams ed-doulahreturned; the Shaikh, having come forth from
his place of concealment, delivered the Sultan from his illness, and
was again raised to the Vizirat. After the death of Shams ed-doulah,
the throne was filled by Bahá ed-dóulah, the son of Táj ed
dóulah.[292] The Umrahs requested Abu Alí to accept the Vizírat, but
he refused his consent. About this time, Aláded-dóulah, the son of
Jâfer Kakyuah,[293] sent from Iśfahan an invitation to the venerable
Shaikh to join him; but the Shaikh declined to come, and concealed
himself in the house of Abu Táleb, a dealer in perfumes. Without the
example of any other work before his eyes, he composed his work,
entitled _Shafá_, “remedy,” treating the whole of physics and
metaphysics.[294]

Tájed doulah, having assumed the name of Alaved-dóulah, kept the
Shaikh, by this assumption, employed in a continual succession of
affairs. When Alawed dóulah conquered the country of Tájed ud dóulah,
he brought the Shaikh to Iśfahán.[295] Towards the end of his life, a
disease of the bowels seized the Shaikh, and gained strength, on
account of his active life in the service of Alawed dóulah, and of the
expeditions of his enemies. The patient was carried in a covered
chair. When Aladed-dóulah came to Hamdán, the Shaikh felt that nature
had exhausted her strength, and could not resist the force of the
malady; on that account, having desisted from applying any remedy, he
took a bath, and having distributed his property in alms to the poor,
the indigent, and the necessitous, he turned his mind to God and the
elect of the divinity; at last, on a Friday, in the month of Ramzán,
of the year 427 of the Hejira (1035 A. D.), he passed from this
deceitful world to the residence of happiness.[296] A great man said:

  “From the globe of black clay to the summit of Venus,
   I traversed all the difficulties of the world;
   Every tie which was fastened around me, on account of deceit and
     illusion,
   Was loosened――except that of death.”

The extraordinary and astonishing actions performed by Abu Alí have
been described in the book about the application of remedies in
several histories[297], few of which are reproduced in these pages;
and so much only with the intention to prove shortly to the candid
reader, that Shaikh Abu Alí never came to Kachmir, about which
intelligent and ingenious men in all countries agree.

     “There is no house which may not be the house of God.”


     [232] माया शक्ति.

     [233] रजस् “foulness,” according to the interpretation of
     Colebrooke and Wilson.

     [234] सत्त्वं “goodness.”

     [235] तमस् “darkness.”

     [236] According to the Vayu-Purana (ch. V.), Brahma proceeds
     from _rajas_; Vichnu from _sattvam_; and Siva or Mahadeva
     from _tamas_. According to the Sánkhyá Kárika (sl. xiii):
     “Goodness (sattvam) is considered to be alleviating and
     enlightening; foulness (rajas), urgent and versatile;
     darkness (tamas), heavy and enveloping. Like a lamp, they
     co-operate for a purpose (by union of contraries).”

     [237] जगद् अम्बा.

     [238] षट् चक्राः See the six circles or regions of the human
     body enumerated (p. 131, notes); here the denominations of
     the three last divisions are different from the former.

     [239] स्वाधिष्ठानं.

     [240] हृद्.

     [241] साद.

     [242] अग्नि चक्र.

     [243] भक्त.

     [244] आगम a work on sacred science in general, and in
     particular a Tantra, or any work, inculcating the mystical
     worship of Siva and Sakti.

     [245] िलङ्ग The Phallus, or Síva, under that emblem; it
     signifies also nature, or _Prakritti_, according to the
     Sánk hya philosophy, which considers this as the active
     power in creation.

     [246] भग.

     [247] कपाल.

     [248] बलं “rigor, severity, blood, strength, power.”

     [249] श्मशानं “a cemetery.”

     [250] शक्ति पूज.

     [251] कामद, “giving what is wished; granting one’s desire.”

     [252] देव कनयाः

     [253] नर मेद.

     [254] गो मेप.

     [255] अश्व मेद.

     [256] काल देयं.

     [257] इष्टं, “an act of sacrifice, an oblation,” etc.; from
     इष _isha_, “to wish;” substituted for यज्ञ  _yadjna_, “to
     sacrifice.”

     [258] भद्रं “pure, pious, virtuous.”

     [259] वकं “to be crooked, depraved, wicked.”

     [260] This reminds us of the _Selli_, dwelling about Dodona,
     where Jupiter was adored, and, by whose spirit moved, they
     prophesied (ἀνιπτόποδες) “_with unwashed feet_.”――(_Hom._,
     _Iliad_, XVI. v. 235.)

     [261] اسفنيوس. I am at a loss to find the true name of the
     Greek sage. In our days a class of Hindus, pursuant to an
     ante-brahminical worship, venerate spirits, called _Vetals_,
     to whom in sickness they make vows, to be paid on recovery.
     The votive offering is generally a cock, the same that the
     Greeks used to give to Æsculapius, when they thought their
     cure owing to his sanatory powers――(See the Journal of the
     A. R. S. of Great Britain and Ireland, No. IX. p. 194.)

     [262] The prophet Enoch.

     [263] Perhaps ख दुर्गा _Kha Durga_, “the heavenly Durga.”

     [264] The names of the country of Kalinga and of the town
     Sri Kakul occur at p. 3 of this volume. The town now called
     Cicacole, in the northern Circars, once the capital of an
     extensive district, is situated in lat. 18° 21´ N., long.
     83° 57´ E.

     [265] ित्शूूूलं a trident, a three-pointed pike, or spear,
     especially the weapon of Síva.

     [266] It is, perhaps, _Mahèsvarí_.

     [267] The name which I find nearest approaching to that
     above is _Bidzergur_, a town in the province of Allahabad,
     lat. 24° 37´ N., long. 83° 10´ E., with a fort on a high and
     steep mountain in the midst of an unhealthy country.

     [268] िवरात्रिश is a celebrated festival in honor of Síva,
     on the fourteenth of the moon’s wane, or dark fortnight in
     Mágha (January, February).

     [269] पानं drinking in general.

     [270] स्मृतिशास्त्रं.

     [271] कविशास्त्रं.

     [272] तर्कशास्त्रं.

     [273] वैद्यविद्या.

     [274] ज्योतिषं mathematical, astronomical, and astrological
     science.

     [275] पातञ्जलं The Yoga-system of philosophy, from
     Patanjeli, the sage by whom it was first taught.

     [276] तीर्थ.

     [277] प्रयाग signifies “sacrifice, oblation;” in compositon
     it is applied to many places of reputed sanctity, situated
     at the confluence of two rivers, as _Déva-prayága_,
     _Rudra-práyaga_, _Karna práyaga_, and _Nanda-prayága_, in
     the Himála mountains, which with Prayága, or Allahabad,
     constitute the five principal places so termed――(_Wilson’s
     Dict._, _sub voce_).

     [278] सप्तर्षि.

     [279] दम भवानी _dama_ signifies, in the Védas, “the hall of
     sacrifice.”

     [280] This verse is taken from the Arabic work entitled “The
     Birds and the Flowers,” composed by Azz-ed-din Almoka dési,
     published with a translation and notes by M. Garcin de
     Tassy.――(See p. 8 of the text, and p. 131 of the notes).

     [281] The merely cursory mention made of Abu Ali in the
     foregoing lines, is sufficient for inducing the author to
     interpose between the Sactis and the Vaishnavas, the account
     of a man who neither belonged to the Hindus, nor professed
     their religion.

     The name of this celebrated personage is _Abu Alí Husain Ben
     Abdallah, Ben Sina, Al Shaikh Al ráis_; he is commonly
     called _Ibn Sina_; the Jews name him _Arabisans Aben Sina_;
     and the Christians _Avisenna_.

     Herbelot gives an account nearly similar to that of the
     Dabistán, of the astonishing learning of Abu Alí and of his
     flight before the persecutions of the Sultan Mahmud, and the
     cure which the famous doctor performed upon the nephew of
     the king of Georgia.

     [282] According to Abulfeda and other authors, he was born
     in the town of Bokhara, in 370 of the Hejira (980 A. D.).

     [283] Mansur I, son of Abdelmalek, was the sixth king of the
     Samánís: this dynasty derived their name from Sámán, whose
     father is unknown. Sámán, a robber, had a son, Assad, who
     quitted the infamous profession of his father, and educated
     his sons in a manner which enabled them to rise to the
     highest dignities under the Khalif Al-Mamon and his
     successors. Ismâil, a grandson of Assad, founded the
     princely dynasty in Mavaralnahar (Transoxana), to which
     other provinces were annexed. Nine Samanian kings ruled from
     the year of the Hejira 261 to 388 (A. D. 874-998).

     [284] The first of the dynasty of the Ghasnavis. According
     to the author of Nighiaristan, quoted by Herbelot, Avisenna,
     when at the court of Mamon, king of Khorasan, was called by
     Mahmúd to his own capital; the refusal of the Shaikh to obey
     drew upon him Mahmud’s persecutions.

     [285] Kabus, a prince of the Dilámi dynasty, ruled in the
     provinces of Giorgian, Ghitan, Mazinderan, and Tabaristan,
     upon the western and southern shores of the Caspian sea.

     [286] The sagacity of Avisenna can but remind us of that
     with which Eristratus, a disciple of Chrysippus and grandson
     of Aristotle, discovered the secret cause of the mortal
     malady of Antiochus, son of the Syrian king Seleucus: the
     young prince was in love with his stepmother, Stratonice.
     But Kabus, for preserving the life of his nephew, was
     subject to no personal sacrifice; Seleucus saved his son by
     the cession of his own wife.

     [287] Ráí is a town in Irak Ajemí, or Persian Irak.

     [288] Majed-doulah, the eighth prince of the Búyí dynasty,
     reigned in Isfahan and ín Persian Irak, during his minority
     under the tutelage of his mother, Seidát; at his majority he
     confided the vizirate to Avisenna, on which account an open
     war broke out between him and his mother. Seidát defeated
     and took in a battle, before the town of Rái, her son, and
     reassumed the government, but afterwards resigned it to him,
     satisfied to guide him by her counsels, much to his
     advantage, until her death; after which the weak prince
     delivered himself into the hands of his conqueror Mahmud
     Sabak tegin.

     [289] Shams-ed-doulah (according to Herbelot, Samsameddulah),
     son of Adhadededdulat, was the tenth prince of the Búyi
     dynasty.

     [290] Kazvin, a town in Persian Irak.

     [291] Hamdan, a town in Persian Irak, to the west of Kazvin,
     about 450 miles N. W. of Isfahan.

     [292] Herbelot states Baha-ed-Doulah to be son of
     Adhad-doulat, and brother of Samsameddulat.

     [293] Herbelot says, that Abu Alí entitled his great work
     _Canun fil thebi_, “Rule of Medicine;” this book has been
     abridged and commented by Said Ben Hebatallah, by Razi Ben
     al Khatib, and by another author, who has composed the
     _Mugiaz fil theb_.

     [294] We read in Abulfeda’s history (vol. III. p. 64): “In
     the year of the Hejira 414, A. D. 1023, Ala-ed-daula Abu
     Jafar, commonly called son of Kakuyah, took Hamdam from one
     of the Búyís, say Sama-ed-doulah Abúl Hasan, son of
     Shams-ed-Doulah.”

     [295] The biography of Avisenna involves a variety of events
     which cannot be here sufficiently developed for removing the
     obscurity attending the short account of our author. The
     name of Tájet-ud-doulah is not found in Abulfeda’s and
     Herbelot’s notice of the Shaikh Avisenna.

     [296] Adopting as true the year of his birth, as stated in
     the Dabistán (see p. 169), Abu Ali, according to the above
     date of his death, would have died in his ninety-first year.
     According to Abulfeda (see vol. III. p. 92), he died in his
     fifty-eighth year; Herbelot says, he died in the year of the
     Hejira 428, A. D. 1036, in the fifty-sixth year of his life.

     [297] Herbelot says that Avisenna wrote his biography
     himself; the French author mentions a life of the celebrated
     Muhammedan doctor, composed by doctor Giorgiani.

       *     *     *     *     *

SECTION THE EIGHTH: OF THE VICHNUIAN (VA ISHNAVAS) WORSHIPPERS OF
VICHNU.――Vichnu, who, according to the belief of the followers of the
Smriti, is a subordinate divinity, is held by the Vichnuian to be the
preserver of all things. The Vedantían maintain him to possess the
qualities of virtue and of order, and to be the lord of the five
senses; not subject however to the said senses, nor to their influence
in any way. According to the Vichnuían, he is the first cause and
author of the universe; they believe him endowed with a body, like
mankind; he has a wife. Brahma, a deity, is the creator of things; and
Mahádéo, another divinity, the annihilator of beings; both are
creators of Vichnu, and distinct from his holy being, because the path
of union is closed between the creature and the creator; they say,
that every body has a soul, but that the soul is not distinct from,
but a part of, the body; the body has two forms, the male and female,
and the creator and author of their being is the holy nature of
Vichnu; the body is composed of five elements; men, conformably with
their actions and works, are invested either with animal or human
forms; the soul is always confined in the gaol of ignorance and in the
fetters of avidity. Further, the spirits are divided according to
three qualities, which are: 1. _sattvam_; 2. _rájas_; and 3. _tamas_:
the explanation of these three qualities has been before given. The
_Satya_ (virtuous) tends towards _mukt_, that is, “emancipation;” for
by the power of this laudable quality, he makes the _bakhti_, that is,
“the worship of Vichnu,” his pursuit; and this _bakhti_ raises him to
the highest state, that is, to that of “emancipation;” according to
the interpretation of this sect, _mukt_ consists in this: that, after
having left the _sthúla sarira_,[298] or “elementary body,” and the
_linga sarira_,[299] that is, “the visional body,” which has fallen
into a vision of appearances, and after having been transformed into
the primitive shape, which is either male or female, one enters the
_Váikunt_,[300] that is, “the heaven of beatitude of the Gods,” and
the mansion of real life. _Rájas_, that is, the possessor of this
quality, is liable to recompense or punishment; to the consequence of
virtue or crime, according to an impartial appreciation of both. Now
he holds the price of virtue, another time that of crime; and
conformably to his merits or demerits, he migrates invested with a
body, and for reward is associated with the blessed, or for punishment
suffers witth the damned. Whoever does not, from the circle of the
world, reach the shore of those who are united with salvation, he
shall certainly never attain to the state of the desired emancipation.
_Tamas_, that is, the possessor of this quality, is an adversary to
_mukt_, and an enemy to liberation; his present and future condition
is this: that, having left the _sthúla saríra_, that is, “his
elemental body,” and the _linga purusha_,[301] or “his visional body,”
and having returned to his primitive form, either male or female, he
will be tormented in the world of darkness, which they call
_andhatamasa_;[302] from this place of manifold torments he never
returns. This is the substance of the creed of the worshippers of
Vichnu, called Madhu Acháris.[303]

The belief of another sect of the Vichnavas, called _Rámánandis_,[304]
is in substance as follows: the quality of _Satwa_ tends towards the
attainment of the high state of _mukt_, or “emancipation;” the way of
acquiring it is, to lay aside all praises of another divinity; to
abstain from the rites of any other sect; and to shun any other
worship except that of the holy being of Vichnu, to whom alone all
thoughts, all prayers, are to be directed, and whose remembrance is
always to be kept. In the same manner as it is not permitted to a
husband to desire the wife of another, in the same way they hold it
wrong to think of any other deity but of Vichnu. The difference
between the beforesaid and this sect is, that the former associates to
the worship of Vichnu that of other angels, of the creatures,
servants, and companions of this God, which they maintain as
meritorious, and perform with magnificence; whilst the latter sect
considers the other deities as deformed and hideous.

The characteristical mark of the Rámánandis is a triangle drawn upon
their forehead;[305] they never eat their meal before persons of
another sect. The _Madhu Achárís_[306] wear two short strokes of red
clay near each other upon the forehead; they do not associate with
persons of another creed, but they eat before Brahmans who are not of
their own peruasion.

A third sect is that of the _Harbayántís_.[307] They drink with
Brahmans of another persuasion from the same cup, and wear a circle as
a mark on their foreheads.

A fourth sect is that of the _Rádhá-Vallabhis_;[308] these are bound
by nothing; they observe no fast on the eleventh day of the month;
they deliver their wives to the disposition of their preceptors and
masters, and hold this praiseworthy.

In Hindostan it is known that whoever abstains from eating meat and
hurting living animals, is esteemed a Vaishnava, without regard to the
doctrine beforesaid. Some of them take the name of Rama, who is also a
manifestation of Vichnu; others choose the title of Kishen (Krichna),
another incarnation of Vichnu. The reputation of continence and purity
prevails in favor of those who are called after Rama; whilst those who
take their title from Krishna are ill-famed for sensuality and
libidinousness. It happened one day that a worshipper of Rama met with
an adorer of Krishna; the former repeated perpetually “Ram, Ram;” the
latter was occupied with the praise of Krichna, to whom the worshipper
of Rama said: “Why dost thou repeat without end the name of a man who
was devoted to sensuality, the name of Krichna?” He answered: “Because
this name is better than that of a man who knew not even how to be
certain of the honor of one woman.” This was said in allusion to
Râma’s having banished his wife, named Sitâ, at the end of the
fire-ordeal which she underwent to prove her purity.[309] Some of the
pious of this sect eat no sort of turnips or carrots which in eating,
by taste or color, may remind of flesh. The writer of this work heard
from Hansa rádja, a Brahman, that it is written in ancient books of
this class, that Brahmans used to fly in the air and to walk upon the
water, when, on account of having polluted their lips by eating flesh,
they lost this power. As the Vairágis, too, profess to be Váishnavas,
I will treat of them in the following article.

       *     *     *     *     *

OF THE VAIRÁGIS.――_Virág_ is in the dictionary interpreted
“aspiring.”[310] This sect renounces the world; their liturgy is in
verse, and comprehends the worship of Vichnu and his incarnations, as
Rama, Krichna, and the like, and these verses they call _Vichnu
padam_. They make pilgrimages to the holy places dedicated to Vichnu,
and wear around their necks rosaries of _tutasí_,[311] which they call
_malá-tulasí_. Tulasí is an Indian shrub. Whoever among the Hindus,
Muselmans, or others, wishes, is received into their religion; none
are rejected, but, on the contrary, all are invited. It is said that
some Muselmans also worship Vichnu, because in “_Bismilla_,” they
confound _Bisem_ with _Bishen_ (or Vichnu), and most of them agree
about the purity and infinity of Vichnu’s being; in truth, they think
he is incorporeal; the spirits proceed like rays from the light of his
being, and all bodies from the shadow of his existence; but they say
that when he wills he shows himself, as it happened, with four arms,
and they agree about his having manifested himself in ten
incarnations. They abstain from eating flesh. They are divided into
four classes: _Rámánujas_, _Nimánujas_, _Madhuacháris_, and _Radha
Vallabhis_, as before said:[312] these four classes they call _chár
sampardá_ (_sampradáya_).[313]

Kabir,[314] a weaver by birth, celebrated among those Hindus who
professed their belief in the unity of God, was a Váiragi. They say
that, at the time when he was in search of a spiritual guide, he
visited the best of the Muselmans and Hindus, but did not find what he
sought. At last, somebody gave him direction to an old man of bright
genius, the Brahman Rámánanda. This sage never saw the face of a
Muselman, nor of any other religionist. Kabir, knowing that Rámánand
would not converse with a weaver, dug a hole upon the accustomed road
of the Brahman, and placed himself therein. Towards the night Rámánand
used to go to bathe on the border of a river, and at the time when, to
wash his body and purify his soul with the water of sanctity, he bent
his steps towards a house of prayer, he arrived on the border of the
hole made by Kabir, who, coming forth, clasped the feet of Rámánanda.
As the Brahman harboured in his mind no other thought but that of God
the highest, under the name of Rámá, he called out: “Rám!” When Kabir
heard “Rám” from the tongue of Rámánand, he withdrew his hands from
the Brahman’s feet, and ceased not to repeat the word “Rám, Rám!” so
that no other object but that was hovering before his eyes, as before
those of Rámánanda; and he discoursed about the unity of God in
sublime speeches, such as are heard only from the most learned men.
Kabir, having acquired reputation, people said to Rámánand: “There is
a weaver in this town who wishes to be your disciple; it is to be
regretted that you cannot be connected with a weaver, who is a man of
a low caste.” Rámánand answered: “Call him to me,” which was done.
When Kabir’s eye fell upon that of Rámánanda, the former exclaimed:
“Rám, Rám!” the latter repeated “Rám, Rám!” and clasped Kabir fast in
his arms, to the great astonishment and wonder of the people around,
who asked the reason of such a favor. Rámánand replied: “Now Kabir is
a Brahman, because he knows Brahma, that is, the supreme Being.”

It is said, that a class of learned Brahmans, sitting on the border of
the river Ganga, praised its water, because it washes away all sins.
Whilst so speaking, one of the Brahmans wanted water; Kabir, who had
heard their speeches, jumped up from his place, and having filled a
wooden cup which he carried with water, brought it to the Brahman.
Kabir, a weaver by birth, being of a low caste, from the hands of whom
Brahmans can neither eat nor drink, the water was not accepted, upon
which Kabir observed: “You have just now declared, that the water of
the Ganga purifies the body and the soul from the pollution of sins,
and from the foulness of evil actions, and makes them all disappear;
but if this water does not render pure this wooden vase, it certainly
does not deserve your praises.”

Among the Hindus it is an establised custom to bring flowers to God at
the time of worship. One day Kabir saw a gardener’s wife who collected
flowers for the image of a deity; he said to her: “In the leaves of
the flower lives the soul of vegetation, and the idol to whom thou
offerest flowers is without feeling, dead, without consciousness, in
the sleep of inertness, and has no life; the condition of the
vegetable is superior to that of the mineral. If the idol possessed a
soul, he would chastise the cutter, who, when dividing the matter of
which the image is formed, placed his foot upon the idol’s breast: go,
and venerate a wise, intelligent, and perfect man, who is a
manifestation of Vichnu.”

Kabir showed always great regard for the Fakírs. One day, a number of
Durvishes came to him; he received them with respect in his house; as
he possessed nothing to show his generosity and munificence to them,
he went from door to door to procure something, but having found
nothing, he said to his wife: “Hast thou no friend from whom thou
mayst borrow something?” She answered: “There is a grocer in this
street who threw an eye of bad desire upon me; would I from this
sinner demand something, I should obtain it.” Kabir said: “Go
immediately to him, grant him what he desires, and bring something for
the durvishes.” The woman went to the lewd grocer, and requested the
loan of what she required; he replied: “If thou comest this night to
me, thy request is granted;” the woman consented, and swore the oath
which he imposed upon her to come; after which the grocer gave her
rice, oil, and whatever these men might like. When the Fakírs, well
satisfied, went to rest, a heavy rain began to fall, and the woman
wished to break her engagement; but Kabir, in order to keep her true
to her word, having taken her upon his shoulder, carried her in the
dark and rainy night, through the deep mud, to the shop of the bad
grocer, and placed himself there in a corner. When the woman had
entered into the interior part of the house, and the man found her
feet unsullied, he said to her: “How didst thou arrive without thy
feet being dirty?” The woman concealed the fact. The grocer conjured
her by the holy name of God to reveal the truth; the woman, unable to
refuse, said what had taken place. The grocer, on hearing this,
shrieked and was senseless. When he had recovered his senses, he ran
out and threw himself at Kabir’s feet. Afterwards, having distributed
among the poor whatever he had in his shop, he became a Virágí. Shaikh
Mahmud said:

     “When lust seizes the heart of man, God now and then renders
        vain his intent.”

It is said that when Kabir left his elemental body, the Muselmans
assembled in order to give him a burial, because they supposed him to
have been of the right faith; and the Hindus too crowded in order to
burn his body, because they thought him to have professed their
religion. At last a Fakír stept in the midst of them, and said: “Kabir
was a holy man, independent of both religions; but having during his
life satisfied you, he will also, after death, meet with your
approbation.” Having then opened the door, they did not find Kabir’s
body, and both parties remained astonished and bewildered.

       “O friend, live so that, after thy death,
  Thy friends may bite their finger (from joyous astonishment).”

In Jagernath, at the place where they burn the dead, is the form and
simulacre of a tomb which they call Kabir’s.[315]

       “Live so with good and bad that, after thy death,
   The Muselman may wish to bury, and the Hindu to burn thee (according
     to their rites).”

Another of the celebrated Virágis was _Dáyú_. One day, when Brahmans
and Bánians (that is, traders) were assembled in a temple of Vichnu,
they drove Dáyú out of it, as not worthy of being among their
congregation. Dáyú, having gone out, sat down at the back of the
temple, which soon after turned about towards the side where Dáyú was.

_Perah Káivan_, a Yezdánian, is one of the accomplished saints, and
shows himself in the dress of every sect. When in that of a Vairági,
he was in Guzerat for the sake of a pleasure-walk, he saw some of the
Váirágis who came from a place of pilgrimage, and had a mark impressed
upon their hand and arm: because, whoever makes a pilgrimage to the
holy place of Krichna, gets the form of the God’s weapon (the diskus)
imprinted upon his body by means of a hot iron. Kaivan Perah said to
the Vairágis: “Why this wound?” they answered: “This is the mark of
Vichnu; whoever has it is by the God recognised as being his.” Kaivan
Perah observed: “When the soul is separated from the body, they burn
the corpse; no mark of it remains; whilst the soul is not perishable,
and has no mark: how will then Vichnu recognise it?”――When he came to
Ahmed-abad, which is the capital of Guzerat, he saw a crier who, from
the top of a mosque, chanted his prayer; when he had come down, Káivan
Perah asked him: “Hast thou received an answer?” the crier said: “From
whom?” Kaivan replied: “From him to whom thou hast been calling.”
Lubhaní says:

  “They call loud to God seeking him,
   This people think him, perhaps, to be far off.”

When he came to the harbour of Surat, which is one of the principal
ports of Hindostán, he met with a Háji (a pilgrim from Mecca) who had
come by sea to the harbour; Kaiván Perah asked him: “Whence dost thou
come?” He answered: “From the house of God.” Kaiván said further:
“Hast thou seen God?” The reply was “No.” “He was perhaps not at
home,” rejoined Kaiván, and the Háji remained astonished.

The Vairágis are not devoted to a particular worship; they say, the
name of Vishnu suffices for the acquisition of _mukt_, or “the union
with God.” This sect was formed during the Káli yúg, and call
themselves also Váichnavas: they renounce the world, and say: “Our way
is opposite to that of the Vêdas and of the Koran: that is, we have
nothing to do either with Muselmans or Hindus.” A great number of
Muselmans adopted their creed, such as Mirza Salah, and Mirza Háider,
two noble Muselmans who became Vaíragis. Of this sect was _Naráin
Dásí_, who sided with _Rámánandis_, which is one of the _Sampradayas_,
that is the first of the four classes before mentioned. The author of
this book saw him in the year 1052 of the Hejira (1642 A. D.) in
Lahore. He was one of those who are freed from the affections of the
world; he honored whomever he saw, and said: “Every body belongs to
the divinity; that is, every body is the house of God.”

  “Without thee there is nothing that is in the world:
   From thyself demand whatever thou wishest: for it is thyself.”

Píránah Kohely was of the sect of Vairagis, and Kohelí is a tribe of
Kshatriyas; he withdrew from all the affections and troubles of the
world. Having left the Guzerat of Panjab, which is his native place
and the seat of his ancestors, he went to Vizírábád, a city built by
Hakím Ilam eddín, named _Buzín khan_, and chose to settle not far from
the above mentioned Guzerat. He had no faith in pious austerity. He
said, the saints are men who, in a former existence, have brought
affliction upon other men, and on that account do penance in this
world; every pious act joined to some austerity is a requital of their
deeds; those who are fasting have, in a former state, let hunger and
thirst afflict the low and feeble; those who watch at night have, in
his opinion, prevented the servants from sleeping; the Sanyásis,
called Thádéser, who remain years standing upon one leg, he thinks to
be a class of spirits who have not permitted the servants to sit down;
and those who suspend themselves, and others who perform their
devotion in an inverted or strained posture, are a class who used to
suspend their inferiors; and those who visit celebrated places and
sacred mansions of pilgrimage, are a set who, for trifling reasons,
have without pity sent about couriers to different places, without
paying them their hire; the _játis_,[316] that is, those who abstain
from intercourse with women, and from sensual indulgence, are an order
of spirits, who have not provided for their sons and daughters the
subsistence and furniture requisite for the marriage state, and
prohibited to them this enjoyment, for which reason they now are
subjected to retaliating penance.

This sect do no harm to any living being; which is common to all
Vairágis, as well as to neglect devotion; but, in opposition to the
creed of the Vairágis, they do not admit the _Avatars_, and say that
God is exempt from transmigration and union; and, according to those
who profess the belief in the unity and solitariness of the supreme
being, he is not susceptible of (what we call) intimate friendship.
Being asked about the history of Krichna, Píránah said: “He was a
Rája, devoted to licentiousness, and oppressing mankind.” The writer
of these pages saw Píranah in the year 1050 of the Hejira (1640 A.
D.), in Vizirábád, and in the same year and in the same place he saw
Ananta, who was of the same creed as Píránah, but particularly
addicted to the belief of the singleness of God.

Ananta did not advise abstinence to the sick. One of his friends being
attacked by a diarrhœa, Ananta gave him substantial and sweet food,
until he left this elemental body. One of his disciples wanted to have
a vein opened; Ananda, having been informed of it, expressed himself
strongly against this operation and prevented it. Thus, the author of
these pages saw, in the year of the Hejira 1050 (A. D. 1640) in
Guzerat of the Panjab, another of this sect, called _Mían Lál_, who
was venerated by a great number of his sectaries; he abstained from
eating any sort of animal food, and showed politeness to every body;
like Píránah, he never cleansed his patched garment from vermin, and
used to say: “These insects have an assignment for their daily
subsistence written upon my body.” Váirágis are also called
_Mundís_;[317] because they shave four parts of their bodies, and one
shaved is called _Mundí_.[317] There arose a dissension between this
sect and the Sanyásis; in the year 1050 of the Hejira (1640 A. D.) a
battle was fought at Hardwar,[318] which is a holy place of the
Hindus, between the Mundís and the Sanyásis, in which the latter were
victorious and killed a great number of the Mundís: these men threw
away their rosaries of Tulasi wood which they wear about their necks,
and hung on their perforated ears the rings of the Jógís, in order to
be taken for these sectaries.


     [298] स्थूलशरीर.

     [299] लिङ्गशरीर called also शुच्मशरीर _sukshma sarîra_ or
     “subtile body.”

     It is essential to know the exact meaning which the Hindus
     attach to the three words, _linga_, _linga śarîra_, and
     _sthula śarîra_.

     I must premise that, according to them, the soul is incased
     as in a sheath, or rather in a succession of sheaths. The
     first, or inner case, is _the intellectual one_: it is
     composed of the pure, or simple, elements, uncombined, the
     archetypes of elementary matter (तन्मात्र _tanma tra_), and
     consists of the intellect (_buddhi_), joined with the five
     senses. The next is the _mental sheath_, in which mind is
     joined with the preceding. A third sheath comprises the
     organs of action and the vital faculties, and is termed the
     _organic_ or _vital case_.

     These three sheaths (कोषाः _kóshas_) constitute the subtile
     frame, _s ukshma śarîra_, or _linga-śarîra_, “the rudimental
     body which attends the soul in its transmigration.”

     _Linga_ is “the naked rudiment;” the word expresses
     “designating, apprising,” synonimous with “characteristic,”
     rendered also by “mergent,” and by “subtile.” The linga and
     linga-śarîra are ordinarily, though perhaps not properly,
     confounded, the linga consisting of thirteen component
     parts, namely (see the table of categories, p. 122): of
     intellect, egotism, and the eleven organs; whilst the
     linga-s arîra adds to these a bodily frame, made up of the
     five rudimental elements. In this form however they always
     coexist; and it is not necessary to consider them as
     distinct.

     The “gross body,” _sthúla śarîra_, is composed of the coarse
     elements formed by the combination of the simple elements in
     a particular proportion, which the Hindus determine with an
     acuteness, their own (see _Vedanta sara_, edit. of Calc., p.
     11), but which is not necessary here to adduce. This
     exterior case, composed of elements so combined, is the
     “nutrimentitious sheath,” and being the scene of coarse
     fruition, is therefore termed “the gross body.” This is
     however animated from birth to death, in any step of its
     transmigration, by the interior rudiment confined to the
     first-mentioned inner case, which is called कारणशरीर
     _kárańa-śarîra_, “the causal frame”――(See Colebrooke on the
     Phil. of the Hindus in the Transact. of the R. A. Soc., Vol.
     II. Part I. pp 35, 36, etc., and _Sankhya Karika_, p. 129).

     [300] वैकुणटं is the Paradise, or world of Vichnu; its site
     is variously described, either as in the northern ocean, or
     on the eastern peak of Meru.

     [301] Here the same as linga sáríra. Parusha means generally
     “a subtile body;” it is unconfined, too subtile for
     restraint, hence termed अतिवाहिक _ativáhika_, “surpassing
     the wind in swiftness,” incapable of enjoyment until it be
     invested with a grosser body, affected, nevertheless, by
     sensations.

     [302] अन्धतमसं “great darkness.”

     Without entering here into the details of metaphysical
     refinements which the Hindus exhibit in their various
     systems of philosophy, we may content ourselves to state
     that, in general, they adopt two kinds of bodies or persons,
     a subtile, and a substantial or grosser one. The first
     transmigrates through successive bodies, which it assumes as
     a mimic shifts his disguises to represent various
     characters. In the Bhagavad gita, it is intimated, that soul
     retains the senses and mind in the intervals of migration:
     “At the time that spirit obtains a body, and when it
     abandons one, it migrates, taking with it those senses, as
     the wind wafts along with it the perfumes of the flowers.”
     The grosser body, propagated by generation, is perishable.
     According to Manu (XII. 16): “After death, another body,
     composed of the five rudimental elements, is immediately
     produced, for wicked men, that they may suffer the tortures
     of the infernal regions.” This concords with what is said
     above.

     [303] They are also called _Brahma Sampradáyis_. The founder
     of this sect was Madhwácharya, a Brahman, born in the
     Saka-year 1121 (A. D. 1199), in Tuluva, on the western coast
     of the Indian peninsula; he died in his seventy-ninth year.
     He was early initiated into the order of Anchorets, and
     devoted to Vichnu; he composed thirty-seven works, built
     eight temples, and founded as many _maths_, or “monasteries”
     of his particular sect, which is one of the four great
     sects. The superiors, or “Gurus” of it are Brahmans and
     Sanyásis; their lay-votaries are members of every class of
     society except the lowest; they profess perpetual celibacy.
     These sectaries reside now chiefly in the peninsula, and are
     altogether unknown in Gangetic Hindostan. To what is above
     said of their doctrine, I shall add, that they distinguish
     the principle of life from the supreme Being, or they deny
     the absolute unity of the Deity, and the possibility of
     absorption into the universal spirit, and the loss of
     independent existence after death.――(See an explicit account
     of this sect, by Professor Wilson, _As. Res._, vol. XVI. p.
     100-108.)

     [304] Rámánanda, the founder of this sect, lived about the
     end of the 13th century, according to some accounts;
     Professor Wilson is disposed to place him not farther back
     than the end of the 14th, or beginning of the 15th century.
     His residence was at Benares, in a _math_, or “monastery.”
     The especial object of the worship of the Rámánandis is
     Vichnu, in his incarnation of _Rámachandra_, on which
     account they are called _Rámawats_. The mendicant members of
     this sect, numerous even in our days, are usually known as
     Váîragis or Viraktas, and consider all form of adoration
     superfluous beyond the incessant invocation of Krichna and
     Rama. The school of Rámánand admits disciples of every
     caste; it abrogates, in fact, the distinction of caste
     amongst the religious orders: this seems the proper import
     of the term _Avad’huta_, which Rámánanda affixed to his
     followers. It does not appear that any work exists
     attributed to Rámánand himself; those of his followers are
     written in the provincial dialects. The ascetic and
     mendicant followers of Ramánand are by far the most numerous
     class of sectaries in Gangetic India; some of them acquired
     a great celebrity; among these are reckoned _Kabir_, of whom
     hereafter, and _Jayadiva_, the author of the beautiful poem
     _Gîta govinda_, well known by the translations made of it
     into English, by Sir W. Jones; into Latin, by Professor
     Lassen (who places however Jayadéva in the year 1150); and
     into German, in the metre of the original, by Mr.
     Ruckert.――(See, on the Rámánandis, the work quoted, pp.
     36-52).

     [305] According to Professor Wilson (work quoted, pp. 32 and
     43), the marks of the Rámánandis are two perpendicular white
     lines, drawn from the root of the hair to the commencement
     of each eyebrow, and a transverse streak connecting them
     across the root of the nose; in the centre is a
     perpendicular streak of varied colours, besides other marks
     on the breast and each upper arm.

     [306] The marks of the Madhwácharis, according to the same
     authority (p. 103), are the impress of the symbols of Vichnu
     upon their shoulders and breasts, stamped with a hot iron,
     and the frontal mark, which consists of two perpendicular
     lines, made with _Gopi chandana_, or the sacred clay from
     Dwaraka, the city of Krichna, and joined at the root of the
     nose; a straight black line is drawn down the centre with
     the charcoal from the incense offered to Náráyana,
     terminating in a round mark with turmeric.

     [307] This name, perhaps very corrupted, is not to be found
     among those enumerated in Professor Wilson’s Treatise on the
     Religious Sects of the Hindus.

     [308] See the work quoted, p. 125-129. The members of this
     sect consider a teacher named Hari Vans as their founder.
     This person settled at Vrindavan, and established a math, or
     “convent,” there, which exists to our days, and in 1822
     comprised between forty and fifty resident ascetics. He also
     erected a temple there that still exists, and indicates by
     an inscription over the door that it was dedicated to Sri
     Rádhá Vallabha by Hari Vans, Samvat 1641, or A. D. 1585.
     Rádha, the favourite mistress of Krishna, is the object of
     adoration to these sectaries, who worship Krishna as
     _Rádhá-Vallabah_, “the lord or lover of Rádhá,” whose
     adoration Mr. Wilson thinks an undoubted innovation in the
     Hindu creed. He says (_ibid._, p. 125): “The only Rádhá that
     is named in the Mahábharat is a very different personage,
     being the wife of Duryodhana’s charioteer, and the nurse of
     Karna. Even the Bhagavat makes no particular mention of her
     amongst the Gopis of Vrindhavan, and we must look to the
     Brahma Váivarta Purána (Krishna Janana Khanda) as the chief
     authority of a classical character, on which the pretensions
     of Rádhá are founded.” We know the difference of opinion
     which exists among the Indianists about the antiquity to be
     attributed to the Puranas, and which has not yet found a
     positive decision. It is probably from the last mentioned
     Púráná that Jayadéva (see note, p. 180) took the theme of
     his admirable poem, in which the love of Krichna and Rádhá
     is described in the most glowing colours.

     [309] Rama, obliged to cede the throne to his brother
     Bharatta, having on that account been banished by his
     father, lived with his wife Sitá, and his younger brother
     Lakshmana upon the mountain Chitra Kotá, in Bundelkand,
     whence he descended towards the south into the woods of
     Dandakam. Every where he protected the Rishis, destroying
     their enemies, the Rakshasas. The head of these was Rávaná,
     king of Lanka (Ceylon), who, in order to take revenge of
     Rama, carried away by a successful stratagem, Ráma’s beloved
     consort, Sîtá. The unfortunate husband, to release his wife,
     concluded an alliance with Hanuman and Sugriva, chiefs of
     the savage inhabitants, called monkies, of southern India,
     and by their aid passed over to the island, took its
     capital, Lanka, and killed the tyrant, Rávańa, in a
     battle. Sitá was released, but, for proving her purity
     preserved, she underwent the ordeal of fire: it proved
     satisfactory; her innocence was manifest to the multitude,
     but, it appears, not quite so to the mind of her husband,
     who separated from her.

     [310] This is not correct: विराग _virága_ is interpreted
     “the absence of desire or passion; the disregard of all
     sensual enjoyments, either in this or the next world.”

     [311] तुलसी _Tulasí_, a small shrub held in veneration by
     the Hindus, “holy basíl” (_ocymum sanctum_――_W._).

     [312] This is not quite exact: for the author has not yet
     mentioned the _Ramanujas_, nor the _Nîmanujas_, of whom he
     says nothing hereafter.

     Rámánuja Acharya was born at Perumbar, in the south of
     India, about the end of the 11th century; his fame as a
     teacher was established about the first half of the 12th
     century; he was a great supporter and propagator, nay, the
     chief author, of the later Váishnava faith; he founded 700
     maths, or “convents,” of which four only remain; but other
     establishments of this sect are still numerous in the
     Dekhan.

     The worship of the followers of Rámánuja is addressed to
     Vichnu and to Lakchmî, his wife, and to their respective
     incarnations, either singly or conjointly; wherefore they
     are also named Srí Váichnavas, consisting of several
     subdivisions. The chief religious tenet of the Rámánujas is
     the assertion that Vichnu is Brahma; that he was before all
     worlds, and was the cause and the creator of all. They
     maintain three predicates of the universe comprehending the
     deity: it consists of _chit_, “spirit;” _achit_, “matter;”
     and _Iśwára_, “God.”

     These sectaries are not allowed to eat in cotton garments,
     but, having bathed, must put on woollen or silk, and their
     meal, whilst they are eating, must not attract the eyes of a
     stranger, or it becomes instantly spoiled, and should be
     buried in the ground. The marks of the Rámánujas are the
     same as those of the Rámánandis, before described (see note,
     p. 181), excepting that the central perpendicular streak on
     the forehead is red, made with red sanders or roli, a
     preparation of turmeric and lime. Besides other marks on
     their bodies, not enumerated here, they wear a necklace of
     the wood of tulasi, and carry a rosary of the seeds of the
     same plant, or of the lotus――(See, for a further account of
     this sect, the work quoted, pp. 27-36).

     [313] सम्प्रदाय a sect, a schism, a particular doctrine, and
     exclusive worship of one divinity.

     [314] The most celebrated of the twelve distinguished
     disciples of Rámánandra (see note, p. 180) was _Kabir_. I
     omit the miraculous circumstances of his birth. He was taken
     up near Benares, a foundling, by the wife of a weaver, named
     _Nimá_, and brought up by her and her husband _Nuri_. Such
     is the uncertainty prevailing about Kabir’s time, that he is
     placed by different authors within the space of not less
     than three centuries, that is, from 1149 to 1449. According
     to Professor Wilson, he flourished probably about the
     beginning of the 15th century. The philosophic and religious
     notions of the Kabir Panthir are in substance the same as
     those of the Pauranic sects, especially of the Váichnava
     division. They admit but one God, the creator of the world,
     and, in opposition to the Vedanta notions of the absence of
     every quality and form in him, they assert that he has a
     body formed of the five elements of matter, and that he is
     endowed with the three _gunas_, or qualities of being, of
     course of ineffable power and perfection.

     The works attributed to Kabir himself, or to his disciples,
     are written in the usual form of Hindi verse; twenty of them
     are enumerated in Professor Wilson’s account of this sect
     (pp. 58 and 59), and appear very voluminous.

     This sect is very widely diffused in India, and split into a
     variety of subdivisions. At a great meeting near Benáres, no
     fewer than 35,000 Kabir-Panthis of the monastic and
     mendicant class are said to have been collected. A place
     called “the Kabir Cháura,” at Benares, is an establishment
     pre-eminent in dignity, and constantly visited by wandering
     members of this sect, as well as by those of other kindred
     heresies: its _Mahant_, or Superior, receives and feeds
     these visitors whilst they stay; the establishment itself is
     supported by the occasional donations of its lay-friends and
     followers――(See the work quoted, pp. 53-75).

     [315] According to Professor Wilson’s account (pp. 56-57),
     in the midst of the dispute respecting the disposal of his
     corpse, Kabir himself appeared amongst them, and having
     desired them to look under the cloth supposed to cover his
     mortal remains, immediately vanished; on obeying his
     instructions, they found nothing under the cloth but a heap
     of flowers; one half of them the Hindus burnt in Benáres,
     and deposited the ashes in a spot now called _Kabir Chaura_,
     whilst the Muselmans erected a tomb over the other portion
     at _Magar_, near Gorakhpur, where Kabir died.

     [316] In Sanskrit यति _yati_, called also _Séwra s_; they
     are a body of pious mendicants, who live in celibacy, and in
     general employ their time in the cultivation of medicine,
     astrology, and divinity――(See _On the Jainas of Guzerat and
     Marwar_, by Lieut.-Col. W. Miles. Transact. R. A. Soc., vol.
     III. p. 335).

     [317] मुण्ड shaved, bald.

     [318] Hardwar, or _Hara-dwara_, “the gate of Hara,” is a
     place in the province of Delhi, situated on the west side of
     the Ganges, where this river issues from the northern hills.
     Lat. N. 29º 57´; long. E. 78º 2´. The event above stated
     took place in the 12th year of the reign of the emperor Shah
     Jehan, who mounted the throne in the year 1628, and resigned
     it to his son Aurengzeb in 1658.

       *     *     *     *     *

SECTION THE NINTH: ON THE CREED OF THE CHA RVAK.[319]――This sect call
_rupa skandha_[320] whatever is perceived and understood by means of
the senses. What is ascertained by the perception of the senses is
named _vidyá[321] skandha_. Personality, consciousness, egotism, have
the denomination of _jnaná skandha_.[322] The knowledge of animal
nature is termed _jnapti skandha_.[323] Whatever enters the interior
part, that is, the mind, is entitled _sanskára skandha_.[324] They
say, out of these five skandhas just mentioned, there is no other
living principle, neither in man nor brutes;[325] the world and its
inhabitants have no creator, and there is no maker: this is clear:
because whatever has not entered into the field of manifestation, and
has not broken into daylight, cannot have the color of reality, and to
be high or low, proceeds from the nature of the universe; whatever is
written in the Vedas is not made public, and besides may be a lie
which rests upon no foundation; and a lie certainly proceeds from the
Vedas, inasmuch as they perform _hóm_, which is a ceremony in which
they throw rice and like matters into the fire, and recite prescribed
prayers, saying that this goes to the gods: now, whatever we throw
into the fire, after cremation, becomes ashes――how do these go to the
gods? It is also written in the Vedas, that they are to make an
offering of cooked meal to a dead man――who is to enjoy it? For
instance, when a person is gone from village to village, from one town
to another, and in his absence a meal destined for him is presented to
another person, the stomach of the former will not be filled. In the
same manner, when any thing is offered to a dead person, who,
according to the assumption of the followers of the Vedas, has been
translated to another world, what honor and profit will accrue from it
to him?

Thus is it also among the revelations of the Vedas, that the depraved
and criminal will be punished, and the virtuous and holy associated to
quietness and satiated with prosperity: the one and the other is a
lie: because the vicious man is freed and alleviated from the hardship
of fasting, of bathing in cold water, of subjection to pious
practices, and other inconveniences; whilst the virtuous, according to
the Vedas, is bound to all these troubles; further, the wise ought to
take his share of all the pleasures and cultivate his happiness,
because, once reunited with earth, he will no more return.

     “There is no return for thee; once gone, thou art gone.”

However, nobody is to hurt living beings, as by it he is liable to
cause some harm to himself. It is agreed by the wise that no injury is
to be done to another; by the observance of which men may be set at
ease, their numbers increased, and cultivation be promoted. This is
the substance of the belief of the Charvák.

We will explain it more clearly; their creed is as follows: As the
creator is not manifest, and the comprehension of mankind cannot
attain to any certain knowledge about him, why should we submit to the
bondage of an object doubtful, imaginary, if even wished for, yet not
found; and why should we, in temples and monasteries, rub our
foreheads on the ground, and present offerings to deities whose
reality, as all agree, will not stand trial? And why, for the promise
of heaven and of future beatitude should we, like blockheads, abstain
from the abundance of desirable things, from conveniences and
blandishments? A wise man will not give ready money for an adjourned
good, and deliver up place and power upon the lying accounts of books,
which eloquent men call Vedas, or heavenly books; it is upon their
authority that they extinguish all desires in themselves, and press
the necks of men, like those of animals, in halters. We ought not to
be deceived; we ought not to believe what is not evident. The frame of
the body is composed of four elements, which by the necessity of
nature are united harmoniously together; as long as the constitution
is firm and health flourishing, it is proper to enjoy whatever is
desirable by its nature, provided no harm to living creatures arises
from it; when the frame falls asunder, the state to which the element
returns can only be the element; after the disjunction of the bodily
structure, there is no ascent to a higher mansion, no beatitude or
quietness, no descent, or fire, or hell. These sectaries, when they
hear the Vedas recited, say jokingly: “These are sick persons in a
painful fit, or hired journeymen in an uproar.” When they behold the
zunar (sacred thread) upon the neck of a Brahman, they say: “A cow
will not be without a rope.” When they find a pious person watching by
night, they say: “He aspires to the dignity of an owl.” When they
encounter a hermit upon a mountain, they remark: “He strives to outdo
a bear.” When a person practises the restraining of breath, they
observe: “He wishes to imitate a snake.” Of a person in a bath, they
say: “He chooses the dwelling of a fish or a frog.” Moreover, when the
Hindus relate that Brahma, Vichnu, and Mahadéo, their three great
divinities, are the creator, the preserver, and the destroyer of the
world, they reply: “They represent nothing else than the sexual
organs.”[326] Upon Vichnu’s having four arms, they gloss: “At the time
of sexual intercourse, each man and woman has as many.” To the praise
of Mahadéo, from whose head the river Ganges flowed, they subjoin the
interpretation, that “this means the virile organ in its natural
functions.”[327] They meet the statement of Brahma’s being the creator
of things, with the reply: “That this is an emblem of the birth of
children:” and they proffer many other speeches of a similar import.


     [319] चार्वाकः a philosopher, a sceptic in many matters of
     Hindu faith, and considered by the orthodox as an atheist or
     materialist.

     [320] रूप स्कन्धः _Skandha_ signifies “a book, a section,”
     also “the five objects of sense.”

     [321] विद्या स्कन्धः

     [322] ज्ञान स्कन्धः

     [323] ज्ञप्ति स्कन्धः

     [324] संस्कार स्कन्धः

     I shall subjoin from Colebrooke’s treatise _On the
     Philosophy of the Hindus_ (Transact. R. A. S., vol. I. part
     I. p. 561) the more correct denominations and definitions of
     the five skandhas:

     1. _Rúpa-skandha_, comprehending organs of sense and their
     objects, considered in relation to the person, or the
     sensitive and intelligent faculty which is occupied with
     them.

     2. _Vijnnyána-skandha_ consists in intelligence (_chitta_),
     which is the same with self (_átman_) and (_vijnyána_)
     knowledge. It is consciousness of sensation, or continuous
     course and flow of cognition and sentiment. There is not any
     other agent, nor being, which acts and enjoys; nor is there
     an eternal soul; but merely succession of thought, attended
     with individual consciousness abiding within the body.

     3. _Védaná-skandha_ comprises pleasure, pain, or the absence
     of either, and other sentiments excited in the mind by
     pleasing or displeasing objects.

     4. _Sanjnya-skandha_ intends the knowledge or belief arising
     from names or words: as ox, horse, etc.; or from indications
     or signs, as a house denoted by a flag, and a man by his
     staff.

     5. _Sanskára-skandha_ includes passions; as desire, hatred,
     fear, joy, sorrow, etc.; together with illusion, virtue,
     vice, and every other modification of the fancy or
     imagination. All sentiments are momentary.

     [325] Charvaka and his followers recognise perception as the
     only source of knowledge. They know of no more than four
     elements, namely, earth, water, fire, and wind, or air; and
     maintain that from a particular aggregation of them in
     bodily organs there results sensibility and thought, as the
     inebriating property is produced by the fermenting of
     several ingredients; they deny the soul to be other than
     body.

     [326] Veretrum cum duobus testiculis.

     [327] Veretrum, urinam vel semen emittens.

       *     *     *     *     *

SECTION THE TENTH: ON THE SYSTEM OF THOSE WHO PROFESS THE DOCTRINE OF
TARK.[328]――_Tark śastra_ is the science of dialectics; it is divided
into sixteen parts, as follow: THE FIRST, _Pramána_;[329] this is the
application of the science, which is subdivided into four parts: 1.
_Paríkshá_;[330] that is, evidence, which with them is the sense of
discriminating what is particular and well defined; 2. _Anumána_;[331]
that is, after having perceived the mark of an object, to infer its
existence; thus shall I call a mountain _igni-vomous_, on account of
the smoke which proceeds from it; 3. _Apamána_;[332] that is
“resemblance;” thus I shall say: such as is a cow, such is also an elk
(or gayal);[333] although I may not have seen an elk, but only heard
that it is like a cow; 4. _Sabda_;[334] that is, “sound:” by these
they mean speeches which people adopt as sacred; such “as the Hindus
have the Vedas, and the Muselmans the Koran.” These are the four parts
which constitute the _Pramána_.

THE SECOND of the sixteen divisions of the Tark sastra is
_Pramiti_,[335] that is, the comprehension of what is conjoint and
concomitant. This division is subdivided into twelve parts, namely, 1.
_Atmá_,[336] that is “spirit;” and means something which is distinct
from what is material and sentient; something everlasting, eternal,
very subtile in all bodies; 2. _Sarírá_,[337] that is “body;” and this
they define to be the seat of sensuality and of maladies; 3.
_Indriya_,[338] “the exterior senses;” and these they call the organs
of perception; 4. _Artha_,[339] and this they declare to be “the
earthly existences;” 5. _Buddhi_,[340] which they term “knowledge;” 6.
_Manas_,[341] “or the interior sense, which with the Hindus is the
heart,” and that is enough; 7. _Pravritti_,[342] and this consists in
justice or injustice; 8. _Dósha_,[343] that is “sinful error,” and
this is subdivided into three parts, viz.: _Rága_, and this is
“sensual lust;” _Dvèsha_, that is, “hate, enmity;” _Muha_,[344] and
this is “gross ignorance;” 9. the ninth of the twelve subdivisions is
_Prétyabháva_,[345] which is “the reproduction either of the tree from
the seed, or of the animal from the sperma;” 10. _Phal_,[346] or “the
good consequence of the good, or the bad consequence of the bad,”
which means “retribution;” 11. _Dukh_,[347] or “pain;” and 12.
_Apavarga_,[348] that is, “delight,” or the satisfaction of truth,
from which they derive emancipation, or _mukt_, in the language of
their learned men. Whoever is in full possession of it banishes far
from himself twenty-one maladies which they enumerate, namely: 1.
_Saríra_,[349] or “the body;” 2. _Shadindriya_,[350] that is, “the six
senses,” five of which are exterior, and the sixth is, according to
the Hindus, the interior sense, except which they know of no other;
they say, the _mind_ is the lord of the exterior senses; 3.
_Shad-darsa_,[351] that is, “the six particular objects of the six
senses;” so as seeing with the eye, hearing with the ear, smelling
with the nose, tasting with the tongue, touching with the hand, and
perceiving with the mind; he who sees is one, and that which is seen
is another; so that there is a seeing eye and a seen object, whatever
is seen, heard, smelled, tasted, touched, and impressed upon the mind,
corresponds respectively to each of the six senses; and whatever is
found by these six senses, or the six objects, are called
_Shad-darsas_; these six, with the six former senses, and the saríra,
or “body,” make thirteen; add to these six buddhaya, or “powers of
comprehension;” further, _sukhá_,[352] or “sensual delight;” and
finally, _dukh_, or “pain,” and you have the twenty-one affections
before mentioned.

THE THIRD of the sixteen parts of the Tarka is the _sanśaya_:[353]
this consists in pondering whether a certain object be such a thing or
another, as when a person sees from a distance an object and is not
certain what it is, whether it be a mineral or a man.

THE FOURTH PART is the _Prayójana_,[354] that is, “motive,” which they
explain thus: as when one by order goes to find something either good
or bad.

THE FIFTH PART is the _Drishtánta_;[355] that is, “comparison by way
of illustration;” so when they compare a mountain and a kitchen, that
is: the mountain contains fire, and so does the kitchen, and both
indicate it by the smoke which they emit.

THE SIXTH PART is the _Siddhanta_;[356] and this is knowing something
with certainty.

THE SEVENTH PART is _Avayava_,[357] “dividing a subject into minute
parts;” for instance, when they say: “he mountain contains fire on
account of smoke,” so is, in this question, the first part termed
_pratijnya_, or “proposition,” _the mountain contains fire_; the
second part, called _hètu_, or “cause, reason;” in this thesis is: _on
account of the smoke which it emits_.

THE EIGHTH PART is _Tarka_,[358] that is, “arguing:” so when they say:
“the mountain contains no fire,” it may be replied: “consequently it
also emits no smoke.”

THE NINTH PART is _Nirnéya_;[359] which is to find the truth
immediately.

THE TENTH is _Váda_,[360] or “discussion;” that is, to raise questions
about God and the saints.

THE ELEVENTH is _Jalpa_:[361] that is, “wrangling;” when one, in the
establishment of what is right, endeavors to conquer his adversary.

THE TWELTH PART is _Vitandá_;[362] which means that one pays no
attention to his own position, but combats that of other persons.

THE THIRTEENTH PART is _hètwàbhása_;[363] or “fallacious argument;” so
when one says: “sound is eternal;” because what may be seen by the eye
is like the sky, and just as the sky is perceived by sight, so is
sound the perception of the ear.

THE FOURTEENTH PART is _Ch’hala_,[364] “deceit;” this is when one
substitutes one meaning for another: so as the Persian word _náu
kambil_[365] means “a new cover,” or “nine covers,” it may give
occasion to equivocation.

THE FIFTEENTH PART is _Játi_[366] “futile argument;” and this may be
applied to a lying purpose: so when one says that “sound is eternal,”
because it is created, as is the sky; both are the works of a
divinity; and whereas the sky is eternal, sound is everlasting.

THE SIXTEENTH PART is _Nigraha_,[367] or “subjugation;” that is, when
one wishes to be a conqueror at the end of a dispute with another.

These are the sixteen parts of the Tarka.[368] The followers of this
doctrine judge and affirm that, as this world is created, there must
be a Creator; the _mukt_ or “emancipation,” in their opinion means
striving to approach the origin of beings, not uniting like the warp
and the web, the threads of which, although near, are nevertheless
separate from each other. This was related to me by the Imám Arastú,
who was a chief of the learned and said to me that he had derived it
from an old treatise upon logic, the precepts of which were without
explanation, and to have bestowed on it that arrangement under which
it now exists amongst the learned: he meant, probably, that the maxims
are the same as those extracted from the Tarka. The same doctrine was
taught in Greece: in confirmation of this, the Persians say, that the
science of logic which was diffused among them was, with other
sciences, translated into the language of Yonia and Rumi, by order of
king Secander, the worshipper of science, in the time of his conquest,
and sent to Rúmi.


     [328] तर्कः: “discussion, reasoning, argument, reduction to
     absurdity.”

     [329] प्रमाणं.

     [330] परीक्षा.

     [331] अनुमान.

     [332] उपमानं.

     [333] Bos gavæus vel frontalis.

     [334] शब्द.

     [335] प्रमितिः true knowledge, or knowledge derived from the
     senses, inference, analogy, or information.

     [336] आत्मा.

     [337] शरीरं.

     [338] इन्दियं.

     [339] अर्थाः objects of sense.

     [340] बुद्धिः apprehension, conception, intelligence. It is
     twofold: notion and remembrance.

     [341] मनस्.

     [342] प्रवृत्तिः activity, occupation. It is determination,
     the result of passion, and the cause of virtue, and is vice,
     or merit and demerit, according as the act is one enjoined
     or forbidden. It is oral, mental, or corporeal; not
     comprehending unconscious vital functions. It is the reason
     of all worldly proceedings.

     [343] दोष.

     [344] मुह.

     [345] प्रेत्य भावः is the condition of the soul after death;
     which is transmigration: for the soul being immortal, passes
     from a former body, which perishes, to a new one, which
     receives it. This is reproduction (_punar ut patli_).

     [346] फलं.

     [347] दुःखं.

     [348] अप वर्गः final beatitude, the delivery of the soul
     from the body, and exemption from further transmigration.

     [349] शरीरं.

     [350] षद् इन्द्रियाणिः

     [351] षदे् दर्शाः

     [352] सुखं.

     [353] संशयः

     [354] प्रयोजनं is that by which a person is actuated or
     moved to action; it is the desire of attaining pleasure or
     of shunning pain; or the wish of exemption from both: for
     such is the purpose or impulse of every one in a natural
     state of mind.

     [355] दृष्टान्तः

     [356] सिद्धान्तः demonstrated truth is of four sorts; viz.:
     universally acknowledged; partially so; hypothetically;
     argumentatively (or _è concessa_).

     [357] अवयवः A regular argument, or complete syllogism
     (_nyáya_), consists of five members, or component parts: 1.
     the proposition, प्रति ज्ञा _pratijnyá_; 2. the reason हेतु
     _hetu_ (as above said); 3. the instance (_udáharańa_); 4.
     the application (_upanaya_); 5. the conclusion,
     (_nigamana_). Ex.: 1st, the hill is fiery; 2nd, for it
     smokes; 3d, what smokes is fiery; 4th, accordingly, the hill
     is smoking; 5th, therefore it is fiery.

     [358] तर्कः not to be confounded with doubt, to which there
     are two sides; but to this but one; that is, reduction to
     absurdity.

     [359] निर्नेयः ascertainment or determination of truth; the
     result of evidence and of reasoning.

     [360] बादः discussion defined as the speech of one desirous
     to know the truth.

     In Gotama’s arrangement, THE TENTH is called _Kat´ha_,
     disputation, or conference of interlocutors, maintaining
     adverse positions.

     [361] जल्पः debate of disputants contending for victory.

     [362] वि तण्ड cavil, or controversy, wherein the disputant
     seeks to confute his opponent, without offering to support a
     position of his own.

     [363] हेत्वाभास semblance of a reason; it is the _non causa
     pro causa_ of the logicians.

     [364] छलं perversion and misconstruction; it is of three
     sorts: 1. verbal misconstruing of what is ambiguous; 2.
     perverting, into a literal sense, what is said in a
     metaphorical one; 3. generalising what is particular.

     [365] نوكنبل. In the Persian text an example of it is given,
     which I have not thought necessary to translate.

     [366] जातिः a futile answer, or self-confuting reply. No
     less than twenty-four are enumerated.

     [367] निग्रह It is the termination of a controversy. Of
     this, likewise, no fewer than twenty-two distinctions are
     specified.

     [368] These are in substance the very same as the sixteen
     categories of _Gótama_, exhibited in Colebrooke’s treatise
     _On the Philosophy of the Hindus_, _Transact. R. A. Soc._,
     vol. I. pp. 95-118.

       *     *     *     *     *

SECTION THE ELEVENTH: ON THE TENETS HELD BY THE FOLLOWERS OF
BUDDHA.――These sectaries are also called _Jatis_.[369] They have no
belief in incarnations or Avatárs of the Deity, but they admit the
transmigration of the soul into different bodies; they deny several
other dogmas of the Hindus; in their opinion, nothing is more
detestable than the doctrine of the Brahmans, and when a misfortune
befals any one of them, they say: “Hast thou perchance done some good
to a Brahman,” or drunk some water of the _bone devourer_: so they
call the Ganges, because the Hindus, after the burning of the dead,
throw their bones into that river, and think it a meritorious act. The
Jatis take the greatest care of not hurting a living being; on which
account they do not like to pass through water, for fear that an
animal might come under their feet. They eat no animal food, never put
their feet upon grass, and when they drink water, they filter it first
through a handkerchief or a piece of cloth, that no living animal may
remain in it, and then steep this piece of cloth awhile in water, in
order that, if a living being stick thereto, it may be separated, and
take its place in the liquid. A great number of the Baníans or traders
are of this sect; for the most part they sell corn, and some get a
livelihood as servants. The durvishes of this class are called
_Srivaras_ and _Jatís_.[370] They pluck the hair of their head and
beard by means of tweezers.[371] When they travel, they carry a besom
of the bark of a soft tree with them, and out of regard for the life
of animals, they sweep the road with it before they put down their
feet, that no living insect may be destroyed. When they speak, they
hold a handkerchief before their mouth, not to swallow a fly or other
insect.

They are frequently learned, and pass their life in celibacy and
sanctity; these they call _Jatis_, who never behold the face of a
woman. Those of this sect who are married, called _Grihast’ha_,[372]
show great regard for the Jatis, before whom, by a refinement of
respect, they scarce dare bend their body. Whenever they receive a
Jati in their house, they do whatever he orders, according to their
power. They are divided into two classes: the _Lunugí_ and _Pujáris_.
The first are those who adore God as one, and think him free from all
imperfections and contradictions, descents and conjunctions, and who
worship no idol. The _Pujáris_ venerate the image of a deity, and have
temples for it. The durvishes of both classes, called Jatis, at the
time of taking meals, go into the houses of friends, and take only as
much food as may not cause a privation to the people of the house:
thus they visit several houses until they get satiated. They drink no
cold water, but go from place to place, and wherever any body has warm
water for bathing, they take a little of it, and having thus collected
sufficient water, they let it cool and then drink it.

Similar to the durvi hes of both classes is a third sect, called
_Mahá-átma_; they have the dress and appearance of Jatis; only they do
not pluck their hair with tweezers, but cut it. They accumulate money,
cook their meal in their houses, drink cold water, and take to them a
wife. Farzánah Khushí says: I saw, in Guzerat of the Panjab, a
Śrivara, and requested him to give me a full account, which may be
deemed true beyond any doubt, of the people of his sect. He related as
follows: “The men of my faith may live retired from the world, or
devoted to business; they do no harm to any body; but there are many
of them eager for science, and as many bereft of knowledge.” One of
the Maha-átmas was a learned man; the wife of a rich man devoted
herself to his service; one day she complained to him of the
unkindness of her husband; the Śrivara gave no answer; wherefore the
woman said: “Another time I will not wait on thee, because thou takest
no interest in me.” The Śrivara rejoined: “If even thy visit were
agreeable to me, it would be of no service to thee.” He then took up a
bit of grass, and having breathed upon it, gave it to the woman,
saying: “Put on a clean garment, and having ground the grass, rub it
upon thy garment until thy husband becomes kind to thee.” The woman
returned to her house, and having ground the grass upon a stone,
intended to rub it upon her garment, when the husband entered into the
room, therefore the grass she had ground remained upon the stone. When
night fell in, they shut the door of the house. The stone at every
moment jumped from its place, knocked against the board of the door,
and fell back: the woman and her husband were astonished. The man
asked his wife the reason of it, and she, from fear, told him what had
taken place. The man rose and opened the door of the house; the stone
was set in motion, and rolled on until it reached the house of the
Mahá-átma. Many other similar stories are told of the Srívaras. Khushi
said that he had seen the Jati just mentioned, who by the power of
incantation put stones into motion; he praised him, but declared that
this man was really a Jati, but not a Mahá-átma.

The author of this book affirms he has seen a great number of Srivaras
and their followers. From them he knew _Meher chand_, a _Lúnú_, in the
year 1056 of the Hejira (1646 A. D.), in Dotárah, which is under the
dominion of Jodpur Márawár, he found also Síva rama, a Pujári, in
Mírta, which place belongs to Marawar, and one named _Jagna_, a
Banian, in Ráwel Pandi: he was adorned with all the good qualities of
Jatis. When he saw a bird in the hands of a fowler, he bought it of
him and set it free. This sect do whatever they can for the liberation
of living beings. Many of them are rájas in several places and
countries. When one brings a goat which he has bought somewhere, and
is disposed to kill it, they come from their shops and buy the animal
at a high price; thus it has been seen that, having assembled from all
hands a great number of sheep, they appointed a person to take care of
them. It is said, that in Guzerat lived a Banian who was a Jati; one
day, a Muselman Durvish sat down before his shop, and having picked
vermin from his coat, was about to kill it; the Banian interposed; the
Durvish said: “If thou wilt give me something, I may spare it;” the
Banian offered a _pie_;[373] the other wanted more and more, until the
bargain closed with the sum of one hundred rupees, which the Banian
paid for the liberation of the offensive insect. Hafiz Shirázi says:

  “Avoid hurting any living animal, and do whatever thou likest,
   For in my book of laws there is no crime but this.”


     [369] More correctly Yatis. See note, p. 195. This section
     appears to apply more properly to the _Jainas_, that is, to
     one of the great divisions of the followers of Buddha. The
     Jainas are subdivided into a great number of tribes and
     religious sects, a long series of which is enumerated in the
     work quoted by Lieut.-Col. Miles (p. 351-363).

     [370] In the note, p. 195, are mentioned the _Jatis_, or
     _Yatis_, also called _Sévras_ among the Jainas of Guzerat
     and Marwar. According to the same authority (Transact. R. A.
     S., vol. III. p. 344), these are distinguished from the
     _Sravakas_, as the laity of the Jainas are called in that
     country. According to Major de la Maine (work quoted, vol.
     I. p. 413), the Sravacs are the only considerable part of
     the earlier Jains or Arhats. “Sravakas,” says Doctor
     Buchanan Hamilton (_ibid._, p. 531), “is the name given to
     the Jains in the districts of Bahar and Patna.” The three
     authors just quoted agree in stating that the priests of the
     Sravakas are called Yatis. The Dabistan reads سريوره,
     _Srivarah_, which may be correct श्री वर “the elect of
     happiness.”

     [371] _Lunchîta-kéśa_, “hair-pluckers,” is one of the
     nicknames given to the _Swétámbaras_, “clad in white,” a
     sect of the Jainas――(_Colebrooke_, work quoted, p. 551).

     [372] “A householder.”

     [373] The natives reckon 64 pies to the rupee.

       *     *     *     *     *

SECTION THE TWELFTH: ON VARIOUS RELIGIOUS SYSTEMS PROFESSED BY THE
PEOPLE OF INDIA.――It is to be recollected that, as has been stated,
there are Samradíán, Khodaníán, Radián, Shíderangíán, Pâikeríán,
Mílánían, Aláríán, Shídábíán, Akhshían, and Mazdakían, who are
dispersed in Iran and Turan, and all appear in the dress of Muselmans,
although in secret they follow each the path of their own chosen
faith; in the same manner various sects are also established in India,
but they do not appear in the dress of Muselmans. It is to be known,
that the fundamental rule in the creed of the Hindus is the _Smriti_,
that is, the “law,” and that all Rakshasas, that is, “devotees,”
follow this way; the Véda, to them the heavenly book, prescribes the
acts, and is a text, from which every sect may derive proofs of its
particular belief, and all may agree in some points.

I have already given an account of their religion, but I must here
remind the reader of some points. They say Naránaya, that is, “the
deity,” in the origin was alone; a flower, namely, the lotus, having a
thousand leaves, rose from his navel, from which Brahma came forth,
Brahma _chatur mukha_,[374] or “four faced;” one of these faces was
cut off by Máhadéo; Brahma is also _ashta báhu_,[375] that is “eight
armed;” in his navel was also a flower of five hundred leaves, from
which Vichnu proceeded; Vichnu _chatur báhu_, or “four armed;” he
carries in one hand a spear; in the other, the _chakra_, “the discus,”
a weapon peculiar to the Hindus; in the third hand, the _gadá_, or
“club;” and, in the fourth, the lotus flower. In the navel of Vichnu
was a lotus of one hundred leaves, from which sprang Mahadéo, who is
_ashtamukha_, or “eight faced” and “eight armed;” he rides upon a
bull, his neck is surrounded by a snake, the hide of an elephant
envelops him, and his body is rubbed with ashes; _chandra_, “the
moon,” _surya_, “the sun,” and _agni_, or “fire,” are his three eyes.
The sect of _Sáivas_ adore Mahadéo, and his wife is worshipped by the
_Akmían_ and _Ashnían_, as before shown.

Another sect is that of the Sanyásis, who are praised in the Smriti;
they distinguish themselves by long and entangled hair, which is
called _jata_.[376] The Saiva-Sanyásis are also called _Avadutas_;
their numbers increased during the Kaliyug; they are very pious,
intrepid, and charitable. At one time, a war broke out between them
and the Sófís: the former were victorious.

Another sect is that of the _Jangaman_; these also cut the hair off
their heads, they rub dust upon their bodies, and praise Mahadéo, to
whom they attribute a real existence. They are divided into several
classes. They say, among the celestial spirits are nine Brahmas, who
are the _anśus_,[377] that is, “the rays” of Brahma. There are one
thousand Vichnus, rays of Vichnu, who is also called _Naráyana_; there
are eleven _Rudras_, rays of Rudra, which is a name of Mahádeo; they
reckon twelve suns,[378] rays of the great luminary; sixteen
_kalas_,[379] that is, parts or rays of the moon; and they divide the
effulgence of that body into sixteen parts, and enumerate eight and
twenty of its mansions, or _nakshatras_,[380] and seven planets,
besides the head and tail of the dragon. Ganesa is to them a god with
the head of an elephant. They distinguish eight quarters of the world,
besides the zenith and nadir, and call them _asht dísa_,[381] in the
following order: _purva_, “east;” _paśchima_, “west;” _dakchina_,
“south;” and _uttara_, “north;” between south and east, _agni_;
between south and west, _náirrita_; between north and west, _váyu_,
between north and east, _íśána_. Among the deities are _Bhaírava_[382]
and _Hanuman_, and among female spirits _asht Durgás_, or “eight
Durgás,” in the following order: _Kálaká_, _Chandra Kálanjarí_,
_Káumarí_, _Váichnaví_, _Bábhraví_, _Chamundá_,[383] _Bhavání_, and
_Parvati_.[384] _Maha Lakchmî Sarasvatí_ is the wife of Brahma.
_Rakshasas_ are termed the pious men of the Satya yug; _Kaśyapa_ is
the father of the sun; _Vaśishta_, the preceptor of Ram-avatár;
_Viśvamitra_, a Kshatría, who by dint of pious austerity became a
Brahman; _Valmiki_ is the author of the poem Ramayána, which contains
the history of Ráma; _Angirasah Ihr Vyása_ composed the historical
poem Mahabharata; Bhazadvája Jamadagni existed in the Dwapara yug;
_Gotama_, _Kapah_, (_Kapila_?) _Parására_, _Narada_, in the Kali yug;
_Chonah_, _Apravanah_, _Aurdah_, _Jamed Kapeh_, these are for ever
living;[385] _Saptarchaya_, that is, seven Richis, or “saints,” are:
_Kaśyapa_, _Uttara_, _Bhardvája_, _Viśvamitra_, _Gotama_, _Jamadagni_,
and _Vaśis’hta_.[386]

It is to be known that there is a class among the Hindus who give
themselves the term of Muselman-sofis, and really agree in several
tenets and opinions with the Sufís. Thus, in the first place, they
devote themselves to celibacy. As they have heard that there are ten
classes of Sanyásís, and twelve of Yogís, they also pretend to be
divided into fourteen classes; when they meet together, the questions
which they ask are: Who are the four sages, and which are the fourteen
noble families? and they impose upon their disciples many years of
service, before they reveal to them the four sages and the fourteen
families; they say: The sage of sages is the illustrious Muhammed (may
the peace of God be upon him!); after him, devoted to godliness, Ali
(may the blessing of God be upon him!); from him the khalifat devolved
upon Imam Hossain; then Khaja Hossen, of Basora, also was his disciple
and a khalif: these four personages are the four sages. They say
besides, from Khaja Hossen, of Basora, sprang two branches: the first
was that of the khalif Hossen Basorí Habíb Ajemí, from whom nine
families proceeded, named as follows: the _Jíbíán_, _Táikeríán_,
_Kerkhíán_, _Sikatíán_, _Jenídíán_, _Gazrúníán_, _Túsíán_,
_Ferdusíán_, and _Soherwardíán_. From the second khalifat of Hossen
Basori, which was that of the Shaikh Abdul Wahid Zaid, came forth five
families with the following titles: the _Zebírían_, _Aiáśían_,
_Adhamían_, _Habírían_, and _Cheshtíán_: and these are the fourteen
noble families. It is said, that there exists a congregation of pious
sectaries, who do not adhere to the prophet Muhammed, although they
acknowledge him to be a blessed gatherer of the harvest of virtuous
perfection: they relate, that one day the prophet was taking a
pleasure-walk under the guidance of Jabríl, and came to a place where
a great tumult was heard. Jabril said: “This is the threshold of
pleasure: enter into the house.” The prophet consented to go in, and
there he saw sitting forty persons as naked as they came from their
mother, and a band busy serving; but whatever service the prophet
requested them to command him to do, they did not comply, until the
moment to grind _bang_[387] arrived. When they had ground it, they had
no cloth through which they could strain and purify it; then the
prophet, having taken his turban from his head, purified through it
the juice of the bang, the color of which remained on the turban;
whence the garment of the Biní Hashem is green. When the prophet
rendered them this service, they were glad, and said among themselves:
“Let us give to this messenger of God, who is always running to the
door of the ignorant, a little of the bang, that he may obtain the
secrets of the Almighty power:” so they gave the remains of the juice
to the prophet. When he had drunk it, he became possessed of the
secrets of the angel of destiny, and whatever men heard from him, came
through the means of this bounty.

There is a great number of this sect in Hindostan, and among the most
celebrated of them are, in the first line, the _Madárían_, who, like
the Sanyásís _Avadhuts_, wear the hair entangled; and the ashes which
they and the Sanyásis rub upon their bodies are called _bhasma_;[388]
besides, they carry iron chains on their heads and necks, and have
black flags and black turbans; they know neither prayers nor fasts;
they are always sitting at a fire; they drink a great deal of bang;
and the most perfect among them go about without any dress, in severe
cold, in Kabul, and Kachmir, and such places. These also consume much
bang, and to the praise of one of their sect they say: “Such a one
takes two or three _seers_[389] of bang.” When they sit together, they
relate, that in the night, when the prophet ascended through the seven
stages of heaven, he received the command of God to wander through the
heavens. When he arrived at the door of paradise, he found the
entrance as narrow as the eye of a needle; the porter made him a sign
to enter; the prophet said: “With this body, how shall I enter through
this passage?” Jabríl replied: “Say: _dam madar_,” (“the breath of
Madar,” a particular ejaculation of this sect). The prophet said so,
upon which the narrow door opened, and he entered heaven.

They say, when Badih eddin Madar[390] came to Hindostan, he became a
Yogi, whom the Hindus held in great esteem, and who had a great number
of followers. Madar took a house; he sent a little boy, whose name was
Jamen, with the order to fetch some dry cowdung with which he wanted
to kindle a fire. It so happened that Jamen fell in with an assembly
of Yogis, who, supposing him a Muselman, killed, cut into pieces, and
devoured the boy. Some time after, not receiving any thing to light up
his fire, Madár went in search of Jamen, and found the assembly of
Yogis, to whom he said: “What have you done with my good little boy?”
They answered: “We have not seen him.” Madár called him loud by his
name, and the members of Jamen, from within the bodies of the
assembled Yogis, answered “_Dam madar_.” Madár then said to the Yogis:
“Shall I bring forth Jamen from you all, or from one only of you?”
They replied: “From one body only.” By the power of Madár, the limbs
of the boy having united, in a manner that no body perceived any thing
of it, in the belly of the principal Yogi, Jamen fell out from the
nose of the same, so that neither the nostril of the Yogi’s nose was
enlarged, nor the boy’s limbs diminished:[391] whereupon the Yogis
chose to run away. Madár settled at this place, which till now is
known by the name of _Makanpúr_.[392] The Madarían come, as many as
possible, from all parts of the world, once a year, on a fixed day, to
Makanpur, and say that the blind and lame find their cure in that
place.

They relate also, that _Chistápá_, the wife of Baharam Gul, in order
to put to the test the Muhammedan and Indian durvishes and saints,
came once among them who were assembled, and said: “Whoever will
loosen the bracelet of beads (called _Sámran_) upon my arm, without
betraying the least symptom of lust, he is a perfect saint.” All the
pretenders to perfect sanctity, Muselmans and Hindus, presented
themselves, but at the sight of Chistapa, they all were maddened with
love, such was the beauty of her face: at last the turn came to Jamen,
who approached her, and loosened the bracelet in a manner which, at
the same time, evinced his manly strength, and his complete command
over himself.[393] On that account, Jamen was proclaimed victorious
over all the Muselmans and Hindus. And they have a great number of
other similar stories.

Another sect, the _Jelalían_, are disciples of _Said Jelal_, of
Bokhára;[394] his sepulchre is in the village _Auch_, in the district
of _Sind_; these sectaries profess to be Shíáhs, whilst the Medárían
are _Sunís_, on which account they revile each other. The former know
of neither prayers nor fasts, nor any other practices of piety with
which the Sufís are occupied; they take a great deal of bang, and used
to eat snakes and scorpions. When the adepts among them see a snake,
they put it whole into their mouth and swallow it, saying: “This is a
fish of the holy Alí;” in eating a scorpion they remark: “This is a
prawn of Alí:” and the worms which are found in the water, they call
the little crabs of Alí. Like the Medárian, the Jelalían go naked, and
even in the severely cold season, wear no garment; they sit before the
fire like the Medárian, but do not wear matted hair; frequently they
shave four parts of their body, and lead a wandering life in the
world. Some of them bring every thing that they gain to their master,
and when they go for instruction to a preceptor, they deliver to him
whatever they possess in ready money and other property; after which
he presents them with a turban, and his list of saints; they wear that
on their heads, and hang this on their necks. They believe that, when
Jzráíl comes to take their soul, the turban, descending, covers their
eyes so that they may not behold the face of the angel of death, which
is exceedingly terrific. Their master looks every day for a new
connexion with a woman; whenever he knows of a fine girl among his
disciples, he orders trumpets to be blown, goes on horseback, and
betaking himself to their house, uses his own discretion with the
girl, whom he now and then takes to his own house, but never marries.
The author of this book asked one of the Jelális: “Hámed Mahommed,
your master, does he take the daughter of one of his disciples without
marrying her?” He answered: “The Safavian kings too take wives,
daughters, and sons of their disciples, who are highly pleased with
it, why should not Hámed Mahommed, who is truly the Khalif
(substitute) of Alí, do the same?” This act is a sign of sovereignty,
and a prerogative of the family of the prophet. In this country are
many of his disciples, and he is a very great friend to hunting.

There is another sect who call themselves without tie and food; it is
a laudable conduct with them to take nothing from any body beyond the
required food and drink; and for their indispensable clothing, from
the shreds which they find in the streets to stick together a coat,
which they call _kherka_; and when they ask something from any body,
they first revile him and call him bad names, wherefore they often
receive bad treatment from the people. They say, God is a spirit, and
Muhammed his body; his four friends are his two arms and two feet;
_dam mádar_, that is, Mádar, is the breath and the spirit of God. They
drink many sorts of spirituous and intoxicating liquors. They believe
the unity of the divine being, and some of them are also pious men.
Their master was _Gada Naráyana_. The three just mentioned sects never
shed the blood of animated beings.

Another sect, called _Kakan_, is in Kachmir; celibacy is their law,
and their belief the unity of the divine being. They use much bang; a
number of them is devoted to piety; their name of “Kakan” is derived
from that of their master, who was Ibrahim Kakak. He lived, they say,
in the time of the Pádshah Jehangír, who inhabits heaven, and drew to
him whomever he chose; his very sight was such an attraction, that he
on whom it fixed was irresistibly thrown at his feet; thus he attached
to himself a great number of disciples, Hindus and Muselmans, none of
whom he induced to change his religion; that is to say, to the Hindu
he did not expound the Koran, nor propose circumcision; and to the
Muselman he did not make an obligation of the Zunar, and of the mark
of caste upon the forehead; neither the praise of Muselmans nor the
blame of Hindus came ever upon his tongue; he never pronounced either
the name of the prophet or that of an Avatar, which are the great
objects of veneration to the Muselmans and to the Hindus; but he
uttered _Ruma_, or _Alla_, or _Khoda_. He did not sleep at night, nor
did his disciples, who sat back to back until morning before him. At a
place of Kachmir, he said to his followers: “A great number of men
laid down; let us do the same.” The followers answered: “Let it be as
you say:” he then first laid himself down to sleep, and the friends
did the same. One day he heard the voice of a crier from the top of a
minaret, and said: “This is the voice of God;” at this moment one of
his companions broke wind; he subjoined: “This too is God; this too
the divine tongue.” A student present said to him: “Do not blaspheme.”
He replied: “The one and the other is an undulation of the air, and
the air is subject to God.” The student reassumed: “But the bad smell,
with the noise, what is it?” The answer was: “This proceeds from the
association of ‘_thou and I_.’” The student said farther: “Drink no
bang, because the bang-drinkers shall not pass over the bridge of
judgment (_sarat´h_).” Kakak replied: “Great is the number of
bang-drinkers; let us, on this side of the bridge, build a town and
call it _Bang pur_, and not think of passing the bridge.” Goya Kásem
composed a ludicrous account of these drunken sectaries. When the king
_Kásem Anwar_ (distributor of splendors) was near the habitation of
excellence, he recited the following verses:

  “He (God) distributes the light; I distribute bang,
   He is the distributor of splendors; I, the distributor of secrets.”

A great number of men in India think as these sectaries. The Sanyásis
assembled once in one of the sacred places of pilgrimage revered by
the Hindus; by accident, an army of naked Jelális and Madáris came
there at the same time, and having brought a cow, wanted to kill it;
the Sanyásis bought the cow from them; they came a second time, with
another cow, which the Sanyásis again, not without entreaties,
purchased. These men, barefoot and bareheaded, having become insolent
by their numbers, brought a third cow and killed it; the Sanyásis,
indignant at this, attacked them, and a battle ensued, in which the
Sanyásis at last obtained the victory, and killed seven hundred of the
naked Jelális and Madáris; they educated the boys of these fanatics,
whom they made prisoners on this occasion, in their own religion. The
Sanyásis were frequently seen engaged in war.

Another class of the Hindus are the _Yógis_, who pretend to a high
antiquity; an account of them has already been given.

Other sects, such as the _Sankhyan_, and the _Patanjálís_,[395] are
devoted to piety, and practise the _yóga_, and other pious
austerities; also the _Charvakíán_, who believe the four classes of
their sect to be very ancient: we have already treated of them, as
well as of the _Játis_ and _Vairágis_; the _Nanak Panthíán_ will be
introduced hereafter.

The _Narayaníán_ are a sect of the Hindus, which holds its creed from
_Gosáin Haridas_. He was of the tribe of _Játs_, from the village
_Kaníra_, in the district of _Saválik_; he was a servant of _Nabidás
Sanyálá_; which last name is that of a tribe of the numerous Rájaputs.
Haridas, when hunting, shot an arrow at a deer which was with young,
and brought down a fawn, which had also been pierced by the arrow. At
the sight of this event, Haridas broke his bow and arrows, tore his
garment into pieces, weeping and bewailing, and during twelve years
had no intercourse with the society of men. Afterwards, he assembled
many disciples about him. He died in the year 1055 of the Hejira (1645
A. D.). This sect know nothing of idols, nor of temples, nor of the
Kâbah, nor of any sort of worship; they do nothing towards obtaining
the knowledge of, or union with, God; they confine themselves to the
veneration of _Naráyan_, or “the supreme Being,” from which they
derive the name of _Naráyanían_. They do not occupy themselves with
the affairs of the world; abnegation and solitude is their law. Some
have an earthen cup to drink water in; some dispense even with this;
they hurt no living being; they never pull up any grass or green
herbs; they burn nothing; cook no meal; and when hungry, they go into
the houses of the Hindus, and accept some food, but no flesh of any
sort of animal. When one of them is about to die, he is asked: “Shall
we burn thy body, or throw it into the water, or bury it in the
earth?” Whichever he desires is done.

Another sect is that of the _Dádu Panthians_. Dádu was one of the
cotton carders in the village Naráina, in the district of Marwar. In
the time of the Padshah Akbár (who inhabits heaven!) Dádu devoted
himself to the state of a Durvesh, and assembled many disciples about
him. He prohibited his followers to worship idols, to eat the flesh of
any animal, or to hurt any living being; but he did not order them to
abandon woman and wife, or to withdraw from all business of the world;
but he left it free to any one to give up, or to cultivate, the
connection and intercourse with men. When one of them dies, they place
his corpse upon the back of a quadruped, and send it into the desert,
saying: “It is now better that rapacious and other animals may be
satiated with it.”

The _Píára panthíán_ hold their creed from _Bábá Píára_; at the time
of begging, they stand before the shops and houses, without looking at
any body or saying any thing; they demand nothing with the tongue;
they accept what is given, and go away when nothing is offered. The
Mobed says:

  “The demand without the tongue is made by the eyes;
   How can that which is heard be equivalent to what is seen?”

They take no notice of the Muselmans, although they so call
themselves.

The sect of the Vishnavas follow the doctrine of Gosáin Jáni. We hold
the information from Jogendas, that they called their master _Jehan_,
and his followers, composed of Hindus and Muselmans, adopted the creed
of Vishnavi. This is as follows: they hurt no living being; they avoid
fellowship with men of another creed among the Hindus and Muselmans;
they pray five times a-day, with their face towards the east; they
have the names of God, of the divinities, of the prophet upon their
lips, such as _Allah_, _Míkáíl_, _Jzráíl_, _Jibrail_, _Muhammed_,
_Jl_, and others; they bury their dead; they confer benefits upon
others to the extent of their power; a number of their Durvishes
pretend to be afflicted with maladies and beg alms, and whatever they
so collect they distribute to the blind and lame, and to people of
that description.

Further to be noticed is the sect of the _Surya-mak-han_,[396] that
is, of “the worshippers of the sun.” These derive their origin from an
ancient nation of Hindus, and are divided into two classes. The one of
them says: The great luminary is one of the divinities of the first
rank; he has _átmá_ and _buddhi_, that is, “soul and intellect;” the
light of the stars and the splendor of the universe proceeds from him;
he is the _asht bhuvana loka_,[397] that is, “the origin of the eight
worlds,” and of all earthly beings; the _sarva prabhá deva_,[398] “the
God of all radiance,” the chief and ruler of all divinities, the deity
of heavens, the king of the stars; the _Mahajyóti_,[399] or “the great
light,” worthy of praise; and of _namaskara_,[400] that is “respectful
salutation,” and of adoration; and of _hóm_, or “sacrificial
perfumes.” When the sun rises with his pure body, they stand opposite
to him, and after adoration recite a Sanskrit prayer, the paraphrase
of which is as follows:[401] “Whatever beautiful light and high
splendor thou possessest overflows the eyes from the excessive bounty
of thy manifestation; thou art that light which is not surpassed by
any other in the display of splendors; thine is the first prayer, for
thou art the substitute of God, and we place our hope in thy bounty;
to thee we address the prayers of our wants, that we may experience
and loudly proclaim thy mercy. When this light is thy face, whatever
we can say of the splendor, the beauty, and perfection of the supreme
intellectual soul and of the pure wisdom, is but that one light which
we recognise above in thy bountiful being, which thou temperest and
displayest; this light derives its glory from thee, and supplication
is due to this light. Give us thy assistance in the abnegation of
worldly pleasures; render us equal to thyself in the purity of light,
and by thy knowledge grant us union with thee; the wish of all
virtuous hearts is, that they may, far removed from all sensual
delights, be made happy in the communion with those who are like thee:
we abandon all worldly delights, that we may become similar to thee in
splendor, and arrive to thee, and remain with thee.”

The other class of the _Suryamakhan_ say: Whatever exists in the
_Swargaloka_[402] and in the _Bhúloka_,[403] that is, in the upper and
lower world, draws its origin from the sovereign great luminary; by
his glorious appearance we fill our _lojáni_,[404] or “eyes,” with
_kalyanum_,[405] or “auspicious light;” and we hear the
_Sanákáras_,[406] that is, “the incorporeal beings;” by him we acquire
_buddhi_, that is “intellect,” the professor of which attaches his
heart to nothing exterior: on that account they call the sun _natha_,
“a sovereign, or divine being,” and pay worship to him. Both classes
abstain from hurting living beings, and are on that account called
_jiva dayá_,[407] “compassionate of life;” they do good to others as
much as they can, wherefore they are termed _punyavantas_,[408]
“virtuous;” they keep far away from falsehood and iniquity, for which
they are entitled _dharmamayás_,[409] “righteous.” The _gríhastha_, or
“householder,” contents himself with one _strí_,[410] or “wife.” They
divide the sun into several parts, which they call _dyuvá
murtayas_,[411] “figures of the sun;” but the first class reckons
among the _Pandits_, or “learned,” an order of men who have a system
about _ákása_,[412] “ether,” _girayas_,[413] “mountains,” _tárá
phal_,[414] “starry firmament;” about the rising of heavenly bodies
and the prognostics which are connected with them; they possess
perfectly the canons of the _Véda anga_, “sacred science,” in which
the medical is comprised; and they set a great value upon _buddhí_,
“intellect;” and _áharanam_,[415] that is, “the application of the
thinking faculty;” and they say, that this is the mediator between
what is _sankhyanam_,[416] “rational,” or probable, and
_sadhanam_,[417] “substantiated,” which last is the form of things
perceived; and the right appreciation of probabilities is attained by
dint of _buddhi_ and _aharanam_, that is, by high intelligence; this
is fixing the thought of contemplation; or arriving at the science of
what is perceived and what is probable or rational; this comprehends
properly two sciences which are possessed by the _jitèndriya
loka_,[418] that is, “by those sages who have subdued the senses.”

There is a class of durvishes who practise _tapasya_,[419] or “devout
austerity,” and who, by great and difficult penances, banish every
illusion from them, so that in their sleep they may not have
unbecoming dreams, which they say are produced by the influence of the
imagination; and they guard their eyes from the wounds and impressions
which also proceed from the imagination. They climb up to the tops of
walls, without fear of falling down, and go to such places as are not
easily accessible, which they say is a triumph over illusion; they
pretend to have the power to cause rain to fall or to cease; to
attract whomever they like, and to render him obedient to their will;
to give information of whatever is concealed, and to reveal the
secrets of the heart; to possess the knowledge of the good and the bad
hidden in the minds; as well as that of the relations and history of
the world; and upon the mirror of their hearts are reflected the
lights of secrets, the _djoti mandalam_,[420] “the splendor of the
universe.” When a misfortune happens, all the pious men assemble and
hold council about the removal of it; they investigate the strange and
astonishing events; they keep day and night their eyes shut, and,
pondering, exercise their sagacity: these are called _Dhyani_.[421]
Those who are not occupied with exterior things are called
_tyagî_,[422] and others who shun all intercourse with women and have
no wife, take the title of _Yatis_; and there is a class who, with the
same abnegation as the former, never mix with the people of the world,
and never ask more from them than a small quantity of food: these are
called _Vaíragîs_,[423] or _Udasîs_.[424] Others live in deserts and
upon mountains, satisfied with fruits; the savage animals do them no
harm; they are named _Vanyasîs_.[425] When, among them, a child is
born or a marriage takes place in the house of a family-man, they do
not offer him their congratulation; and when a misfortune occurs, such
as the death of a friend, they do not grieve or take mourning. A
desire for generation, and a relish for meat and drink, inasmuch as
may be requisite, is permitted, but beyond this prohibited; and
whoever desires more is excluded from their society. This order of men
among them is called _Grihasta_; another division of them is formed by
the _Avach’háta_,[426] “emaciated by abstinence,” who are the adepts
of this sect; if I were to relate every thing of them, several volumes
would not be sufficient to contain my account.

In the Nababship of Kalinga exists a sect called _Sûrwar_ (Sûryar),
and another entitled _Gundwar_. They pay no tribute to any body; they
worship the sun; from simplicity, they prefer brass and copper to
gold, on account of bad smell. When one of them dies, they seize a
stranger and kill him. They say that, as the Rái (prince) of Gund sits
upon the ground, the lower people sit upon chairs, he being the lord
of the earth and the others are not so.

The _Chandra bakta_,[427] or “worshippers of the moon,” call this
planet one of the principal divinities, worthy of adoration and of
worship; the regulation of the nether world is committed to his care;
by the increase and decrease of the light of this heavenly body, the
hours of night and day may be known; after the sun it is the greatest,
and borrows its light from this great luminary, the access to which
may also be obtained by the moon’s mediation.[428] These sectaries
form an image of the moon, and worship it as an object of their
devotion: they never hurt a sentient being.

Another sect venerates other stars. There is one who pays homage to
_Agni_, or fire, and says that fire is the pure essence of God, who is
the sun himself: these are called _Agni Pramána_;[429] “the professors
of fire.” They believe also the other stars proceed from its radiance,
and that the earthly fire is an emanation of its rays; they venerate
every sort of fire, through the mediation of which they think access
to the sun may be obtained.

Another sect, the _Pavana bhakta_,[430] or “worshippers of the wind,”
believe that the substance of God is air, and this also the
intellectual soul.

The _Jala bhakta_,[431] or “worshippers of water,” hold water to be
the representative of the being of God, on which account they pay
veneration to the rivers and flowing streams.

The _Prithivi bhakta_[432] are “worshippers of the earth,” which they
believe to be the substance of God worthy of their adoration.

Another sect, called _Tripújas_,[433] worship the three kingdoms of
nature, in which every place and whatever presents itself to their
view, becomes an object of their veneration.

The _Manushya bhakta_,[434] or “worshippers of mankind,” recognise the
being of God in man; they know no being more perfect than mankind, and
think that it contains nothing of a bad nature.

A particular sect is to be found in Kashíal, a place in the
mountainous province of Kachmir. They worship idols; the son takes the
property acquired by his father to himself; but leaves whatever he
gains to his sons, so that it may be the firewood belonging to his
father that may burn his body. When one of them dies, a barber from
without the house goes before the dead, and then brings the message
that such a one wants something for a meal, upon which they go to work
to prepare it; and this society is kept up for some days; then, they
burn the dead; after cremation, they erect over his ashes an image of
stone, one half of which is male, and the other female; and when no
son of his remains, they marry his wife with a column of the house,
and whoever comes upon a visit of condolence, has intercourse with the
woman until a son be produced, and to him the inheritance is bestowed.
This sect have no regard for the life of animals.

Another sect exists in the mountains of Kachmir, with the name of
_Durds_. Among them it is customary for brothers to have but one wife;
occasionally they sell house, land, wife, and children; whoever buys
the house owns all these; they also pawn their wife. Some of them,
even when they become Muselmans, still adhere to this custom. They
also do not spare animals.

Further to be noticed in Hindostan is the tribe of _Dhaids_, one of
the lowest classes of men; they eat every thing but men; they worship
the sun. The author of this book met one day in Sikakul, in the
district of Kalinga, one of these men, whose name was Nága, and asked
him: “Who are the best men among all the tribes?” The man answered:
“The _Dhaids_,” and subjoined: “When they leave the body, they unite
with God; when a Brahman dies, he becomes a cow; when a Muselman
expires, he is transformed into a plant.” I enquired further: “If the
Dhaids be so highly favoured by God, why should they eat every thing
which they find, the flesh of cows, horses, mice, and the like?” The
man replied: “It is because God loves this tribe that he gave them
this command: ‘Eat whatever you like.’”

The _Choharas_ are now to be mentioned, known in Hindostan as cleaners
of privies and sweepers of the ground; and in the exercise of this
profession they visit the houses. They say, their master was Shah
Jhuna; he, in one hand a besom of gold, and in the other a basket of
silver, cleans now in the fourth heaven the house of God, and sweeps
the apartments of the Highest. This tribe too eat every thing as the
Dhaids.

The Nânac-Panthians,[435] who are known as composing the nation of the
Sikhs, have neither idols nor temples of idols. _Nânac_ belonged to
the tribe of Bédíans, who are Kshatriyas. His reputation rose in the
time of Zehir-ed-din Baber Padshah[436] (who inhabits heaven).
Before the victory of this king over the Afghans, Nânac was a
grain-factor[437] of Daulet khan Lodi,[438] who ranked among the
distinguished Umras of Ibrahim Khan, the sovereign of Hindostan.

A durvish came to Nânac, and subdued his mind in such a manner that
he, Nânac, having entered the granary, gave away the property of
Daulet-Khan, and his own, whatever he found there and in his house,
and abandoned his wife and children. Daulet Khan was struck with
astonishment at hearing this, but, recognising in Nânac the mark of a
durvish, he withheld his hand from hurting him.[439] In a short time
Nanac made a great progress in piety; at first he took little
nourishment; afterwards he allowed himself but to taste a little
cow-milk; next a little oil; then nothing but water, and at last he
took nothing but air: such men the Hindus call _pavana haris_.[440]

Nanac had a great number of disciples. He professed the unity of God,
which is called the law of Muhammed, and believed the metempsychosis,
or transmigration of the soul from one body to another. Having
prohibited his disciples to drink wine and to eat pork, he himself
abstained from eating flesh, and ordered not to hurt any living being.
After him, this precept was neglected by his followers; but _Arjun
mal_, one of the substitutes of his faith, as soon as he found that it
was wrong, renewed the prohibition to eat flesh, and said: “This has
not been approved by Nânac.” Afterwards, Hargovind, son of Arjunmal,
eat flesh, and went to hunt, and his followers imitated his example.

Nanac praised the religion of the Muselmans, as well as the Avatars
and the divinities of the Hindus; but he knew that these objects of
veneration were created and not creators, and he denied their real
descent _from heaven_, and their union _with mankind_. It is said that
he wore the rosary of the Muselmans in his hand, and the Zunar, or the
religious thread of the Hindus, around his neck.[441] Some of his
distinguished disciples report of him more than can here find room.

One of these reports is, that Nanac, being dissatisfied with the
Afghans, called the Moghuls into the country, so that in the year 932
of the Hejira (A. D. 1525) Zehir ed-din Baber padshah (who is in
heaven) gained the victory over Ibrahim, the king of the Afghans.[442]
They say also that Nanac, during one of his journeys,[443] finding
himself one night in a fort, was absorbed in a vision of God. Children
played around him, and some put their hands upon his body, without any
motion being perceived in him; they sewed his eye-lids, his nostrils,
and his flesh together, and tied his hands fast. When Nanac recovered
his senses, he found himself in this state, and went to a neighbouring
house, at the threshold of which he called out: “Ho! is there any body
in the house who may free my eye-lids sewed together and my hands?” A
handsome woman, having conducted him into the house, untied his hands
and tore the threads by which his eye-lids were sewed together with
her teeth asunder, on which account the color of the mark of the
woman’s caste remained upon Nanac’s forehead. After his having left
the house, the neighbours saw the mark, and supposed his having had an
intimate connexion with the woman; wherefore she was abused by the
people and repudiated by her husband.

This woman came one day to Nanac, and said: “I have, upon the way of
God, rendered thee a service, and now they revile me for it.” Nanac
answered: “To-morrow will the gate of the fort be shut, but shall not
be opened unless thou appliest thy hand to it.” The next day, in spite
of all efforts to open the gate, they could not succeed, and remained
in great consternation. Men and beasts, far from water, could not go
out to fetch it. The inhabitants addressed themselves to all men who
had a reputation for sanctity, but their prayers were in vain. At last
they had recourse to Nanac, and said: “O durvish, what is there to be
done?” He answered: “The gate shall not be opened except by the hand
of a woman who never lost her virtue with a stranger.” The inhabitants
brought all the women who had a reputation for chastity to the gate of
the fort, but it remained shut: on that account they sat down
hopeless. At the time of evening prayer came at last the friend of
Baba Nanac to the gate. The people laughed at her; her husband and her
relations were ashamed and abused her. The woman, without listening to
the speeches of the people, struck the gate with her hand and it
opened. All men were astonished and ashamed: they fell at the feet of
the woman.

The _báni_,[444] that is to say the poems, of Nânac, are, as it were,
perfumed with devotion and wisdom, still more can this be said of his
speeches about the grandeur and sanctity of God. All is in the
language of the _Jats_ of the Panjab, and _Jat_ in the dialect of the
Penjab, means a villager or a rustic.

Nânac’s disciples are not conversant with the Sanscrit language. The
precepts and regulations which Nânac established among them will be
explained hereafter.

Nânac said in his poems that there are several heavens and earths; and
that prophets, and saints, and those that are supposed to have
descended from above (avatárs), and persons distinguished by piety,
obtain perfection by zeal in the service of God; that whoever devotes
himself to the veneration of God, whatever road he may choose, will
come to God, and that the means to this is, to avoid hurting any
living being.

       “Be true and thou shalt be free;
   Truth belongs to thee, and thy success to the Creator.”[445]

Nánac left children in the Penj-ab,[446] they are called _Kartaris_;
but according to the opinion of some, he had no offspring. They say
that, after Nánac’s decease, his place was by his order occupied by
the Guru _Angad_, of the Srín tribe of Kshatriyas; next succeeded the
Guru _Amaradas_, of the tribe of the Bholáyí-Kshatriyas; after him
came the Guru _Ráma-das_, who was of the Sódahí-Kshatriyas, and also
called the Srí-guru. Ráma-das, dying, left his dignity to his son
_Arjunmal_. During the life of this Guru, the Sikhs, that is to say,
his followers grew great in number and in faith. They said, Bábá Nânac
is a god, and the world his creation; but Nánac in his poems reckons
himself a servant of God, and he calls God _Naránjen_ (Naráyana),
_Parabrahma_, and _Permaisher_ (Paramésvara), who is without a body,
and has nothing corporeal, nor deigns to be united with a bodily
frame. The Sikhs say that Nánac, in the same manner, had been without
a real body, but visible by the power of his individuality,[447] and
they believe that, when Nânac expired,[448] his spirit became
incarnate in the person of _Angad_,[449] who attended him as his
confidential servant. Angad, at his death, transmitted his soul into
the body of _Amara das_;[450] and thus Guru, in the same manner,
conveyed his spirit into the body of _Ráma-das_;[451] whose soul
transmigrated into the person of _Arjunmal_;[452] in short, they
believe that, with a mere change of name, Nânac the First became Nânac
the Second, and so on, to the Fifth, in the person of Arjunmal. They
say, that whoever does not recognise in Arjunmal the true Bábá Nânac,
is an unbeliever; they have a number of tales about the founder of
their sect, and assert that Bábá Nânac, in a former world, was the
radja Janak.[453]

When Sakha-daiv (Saha déva),[454] the son of Baiás (Vyasa), a
rakhaisher (rakshasa), came to Janak, in order to learn from him the
path of God, he found the rája, who had thrown one of his feet into
the fire; men on foot and on horseback formed a file; Nawabs and
Vizirs were busy about the affairs of the state; elephants and horses
presented themselves to the view. Saha dév thought in his mind that
such occupations and worldly concerns were unbecoming so pious a man.
The rája, who was skilled in penetrating the hearts of others, found
it out, and employing the power of magic, he caused fire to fall upon
the houses, so that at last all the horses and fine palaces were
burnt. The rája seemed neither to hear, nor to see, nor to care any
thing about what happened, until the fire reached the house where he
and Saha dév were. Janak did not throw one look upon it. The fire fell
upon the wooden cup, which they call there _kermandel_,[455] and which
Saha dév used for drinking water. He now, senseless, jumped from his
place, and took hold of his kermandel. The rája smiled, and said to
him: “All my people, and all this, my property, were burnt; my heart
was not bound to them; wherefore I let them be consumed, and feel no
pain about them; but thou, on account of thy kermandel, jumpedst
senseless from thy place. It is now clear whose heart is bound to the
things of this world.” Saha dèv was ashamed of his having been
disturbed. This tale was heard from the followers of Nânac.

The history of Janak and of Saha dév is contained in the _Jog
bashest_,[456] which is one of the principal books of the Hindus, in
the following manner: Bisvámiter (Viśvamitra)[457] in presence of the
Rakshasas addressed this speech to Ráma chander: “O Rama chander,
venerate thy father and mother; thou who issuedst from them so
beautiful, thou hast accomplished thy task; by the goodness of thy
nature and by the purity of thy character, thou hast polished the
mirror of thy heart, and given it such a brightness, that the
perfection o God is manifest in it; the success which a zealous
disciple obtains, after many difficulties and pious exercises under
the direction and instruction of a Rakshasa, during a long period of
time, that success became thy share without trouble; thine became the
science to be acquired; and thine is, even in this life, the
emancipation in the form of Saha dèv, the son of Vyása. He, thy
father, on account of the excellence of his pure form and of his
divine nature, having come forth wise from the womb of his mother,
without any assistance manifested his perfection, and on account of
the clearness of his intellect, whatever on the way of his journey,
was accessible to wisdom and excellence, was open to his looks, and no
veil nor curtain remained before him; nevertheless, even with such
advantages, he was inquisitive with Rakshasas and wise men in matters
of theology, so that these personages, or pious penitents, gave him
directions and lessons, and offered him their advice with alacrity.
Thus am I ready to give thee some instruction, and communicate some
precepts of wisdom to thee.” Therefore Rámachander inquired of
Visvámiter: “As Saha dèv brought the full measure of wisdom from the
body of his mother, and as his nature was endowed with such
perfection, my prayer is, that you may favor me with an explicit
account of him, and explain to me by what means he procured to himself
the advice of the wise, and in what manner the Rakshasas imparted
instruction to him.” Visvámiter replied: “O Rama chander, thy
condition is as fortunate as that of Saha dèv; such was his dignity
and excellence, that men, by listening to his tale, feel themselves
emancipated, and are no more subject to be born again. O Ramachander,
he too was impressed with the idea that in no condition this world is
permanent, but that all that is seen changes every moment, and passes
from one state to another. One guest arrives and comes into the world,
another dies and goes out of the world; the one is agitated with
distress, the other is quiet; the one exulting, the other overcome
with grief; in short, whoever and whatever exists in this world is
liable to change; there is not the least hope of firmness and
steadiness, and nothing is worthy to bind our hearts. But that which
is firm and steady, deserves that we attach our hearts to it, and that
we perpetually are mindful of, and fix our thoughts and meditate upon
it. Nothing however is firm and steady but the pure being of _Brahma_,
that is to say, the supreme and true entity of God. Moreover, whoever
directs his mind solely towards the divinity, will attain the
knowledge of it, and render himself perfectly free from the desires of
the heart, and from the pleasures of the body, which tend to swell and
to fetter the soul. And like the bird _Pápîhá_,[458] which is fond of
the water which falls from the cloud _Náisán_,[459] and does not taste
of any other liquid from river or well, but thirsting only for drops
from the cloud Náisan, is taken up with the search for them; thus Saha
dév, having made himself independent and free from all desires and
allurements, was always immersed in the contemplation of Brahma, and
having dissolved his own being in the reality of God, he knew Brahma,
and attained the state of absolute repose and quietness. When he thus
became a master of excellence, and as perfect as other rakshasas, then
he felt the desire of his heart accomplished, and with a mind more
splendid than the moon of a fortnight, he passed through the troubles
of life, according to the words of the prophet: ‘With a heavenly mind
upon the carpet of eternity.’”

One day, during a pleasure excursion in this world, he happened to
reach the mountain Sumair,[460] that is _Alburz_, which in Arabia, is
called _Káf_.[461] Upon the top of this mountain, he saw his father
Vyása, who in a cavern was occupied with the contemplation of Brahma.
Having saluted his father according to the custom of the Hindus, he
asked him: “My worthy father, you who possess the knowledge of the
supreme being, inform me in what manner this knowledge of the unity of
God is diffused in the multitude, in what way the creatures of this
world obtain their forms, to what period their existence is extended,
what is the cause of their duration, and how their existence happens
to be renewed several times, in order that I may possess proper
notions of the state of this world, and that I may unravel this
mystery to myself.”

Vyása, according to the desire of his son, explained the original
state of the creation in clear words; but as the mind of the sage was
involved in his own thoughts, and occupied with the contemplation of
Brahma, he gave only a short account of the creation and of the
development of this world to Saha dév, who did not derive an entire
satisfaction from it. Vyása knew his thoughts, and said: “O son, my
mind being immersed in the study and in the contemplation of God, I
cannot, for want of time, impart to thee at present distinctly the
account which thou desirest; but I will put thee in the way by which
thou mayst arrive at the satisfaction of thy heart, and I will send
thee to a man who will gratify thee. Know then, that in the country of
Tirhut[462] is a town called Míthila, and there resides Janaka, the
Rája, who is an excellent man, and possesses incomparable knowledge.
Go to him, and engage him to satisfy thy heart. He will give thee an
explicit account of the creation of the world from beginning to end.”
Saha dév, according to the direction of his father, having left him,
went into Tirhut, to the town of Mithila. He saw a city populous, and
delightfully built; the soldiers content with the Rája, and the rayots
(country people) happy and satisfied. Nobody complained at that time
of his lot: in the evening every one laid down in his corner, and at
day-break attended the court of Rája Janaka. The guards at the door
observed Saha dév, _tapasí_, that is, a pious adorer of God, the son
of Vyása, who stood at the gate and asked entrance. The rája Janaka,
before he received the report of it, knew from inward knowledge and
from the light of his mind, the purpose of Saha-dév’s mind; but in
order to try his character, and to put his sincerity and his
individuality to the test, he took no notice of the appearance of the
stranger. Saha-dév, who had come near him, remained there one day and
one night. On the next day, Janaka set about his business; the great
and the vulgar appeared before him. This day too, and the following
eight days and eight nights the rája did not address any question to
Saha dév, who remained in his place without saying a word to any body.
The eighth day, the rája Janak, when he saw that Saha-dév stood the
test by shewing the mark of excellence and betraying no unsteadiness,
he ordered that the stranger should be introduced into the interior of
the palace and into the private apartments. Beforehand, he enjoined
the maids of the bed-chamber and all the people of the palace that, on
Saha-dév’s arrival, they should place before him all sorts of
exquisite viands and agreeable perfumes, and whatever might allure the
mind, and that they should endeavour to fascinate and to madden him.
When Saha dév, by order of the rája Janaka, had entered the private
apartments, handsome women brought before him from all sides delicious
meats, and garments, and every thing that was attracting, and showed
him great respect; after humble prostrations, they placed him in an
elegant apartment. During other seven days and nights the rája did not
appear before him. The people of the inner apartments, according to
the rája’s orders, did what they could in a thousand different ways to
please him: they approached him, clasped their hands with his, rubbed
his hands and feet; they served and tempted him by four principal
means, namely: first, by the splendour of handsome maids; secondly, by
offering him whatever may charm the senses; thirdly, by tokens of
respect, and fourthly, by rubbing his hands and feet. Their intent
was, if there remained any human feeling in him, to rouse it up. Saha
dév, like a mountain that is not moved by any wind, stood firm; he
took notice of nothing, and threw not even a look upon the beautiful
moon-faced damsels about him. The rája Janaka, when informed that not
the least trace of human feeling, lust, or desire had remained in the
young man, and that he had freed himself from the fetters of error and
sensuality, ran without hesitation from the place where he was, and
touched the feet of Saha dév, saying: “Be thou happy, O rakshasa! who
art united with the supreme spirit, and in whom has remained no trace
of the qualities of water, earth, and of human nature, thou, who hast
acquired whatever may be desirable to thy regeneration: for thou
possessest the knowledge of God. Now, tell me, with what intention
didst thou come to me, and what dost thou expect from our meeting?”
Saha dév replied to the rája: “My intention in coming here was to
obtain from thee a true account of the creation; in what manner this
world came forth from the unity of the divine being, and how from him,
the One, proceeded the duality and multiplicity of forms. Explain this
to me, and impress it distinctly upon my mind. Although I received
from my father some true notion of the creation of this world, and
although, from the interior light and from the purity of heart which I
have acquired by my devotion, the truth of the great question presents
itself to my mind, yet I desire instruction from thee, and hope to
receive it from thy tongue.” The rája Janak revealed to Saha dév,
according to his wish, the history of the creation of the world. After
that Saha dév said again to the rája: “O king! it is certain that
between steady, wise, and learned men there is no contradiction; so
does the account of the origin of the world, which I have heard from
my father Vyása, and which I have well impressed upon my mind, agree
with that which thy tongue has communicated to me. The substance of it
is, that the creation of the world and the existence of its
inhabitants took place by the will and by the disposition of Brahma,
and according to the purpose of the supreme being, and that, when it
is the desire of Brahma, the world is created, and when the supreme
being finds it right to withdraw hímself from the circle of beings,
the world returns to nothing, and its inhabitants are again enveloped
with the veil of nothingness and voidness, and nothing remains but
God. In like manner is the existence of all bodies connected with the
will of the divine spirit, so that every being in dependence upon this
will, and in conformity with the principles of its own nature, each
time comes into, and goes out of, the world, or is born and dies. It
is when the worldly desires, connections, and concerns are
annihilated, that a man no more returns to nor leaves this world;
birth and death upon this earth no more concern him, because the ties
formed by his desires are broken.” Saha dév continued: “O rája, what
thou hast said, is impressed upon my mind; but tell me, if there
remains any thing, however minute it may be, of the account of this
world; this too I wish to hear.” The rája Janaka said: “The account of
the world is such as thou hast heard. That holy being, without a name,
without a mark, without an equal, is pure and free from lust and
desire, and his providence brings forth this world. He, the one
perfect being, in what a multitude of beings does he not manifest
himself! And if he removes from this creation the support of his will
and of his providence, nothing remains but himself, the only being. O
Saha dév, thou who hast purified thy heart from the attachments of
this body, and liberated it from all desires and seductive
propensities, thou hast convinced thyself of the trut that, whatever
appears before our eyes, is nothing, and has neither reality nor
substance; what was to be performed, thou hast accomplished it; what
was to be known, thou hast acquired it, and thou hast proved thyself
true; on that account thou art, even in thy life-time, possessed of
_mukt_ (emancipation); that is to say: as a person, when the soul has
left his body, is freed from the want of aliment, so hast thou,
although still in the state of life and health, been liberated from
all bodily wants.[463] Happy be thy life! blessed be thy age, O Saha
dév!”

Viśvamitra continued: “O Ramachander, thou hast acquired the same
knowledge as Saha dév; in the same manner as he abandoned all desires,
subdued all the appetites of his five senses, and possessed perfect
freedom, in the same manner thou must not permit any sort of desire to
enter in thy heart.[464] There is no other means of _mukt_ but this:
to this thou must tend.”[465]

After that he addressed the rakshasas and all those who were present,
in the following speech: “O rakshasas! and you who seek the road of
God, know that, as Ramachander, by the purity of his nature and by the
goodness of his disposition, raised himself to the highest dignity,
not less ought to be the excellence of all the wise who are destined
to the acquisition of _mukt_; thirsting for the knowledge of the
highest, they ought to listen to the speeches of all those who devote
themselves to God; nay, the truth and the faith, which Ramachander
possessed, ought to be common, and productive of the same consolation
and tranquillity to all those who, not in vain, aspire to wisdom and
sanctity. I have imparted to Ramachander what I knew to be the best;
now is the time of _Bashest_ (Vas ishta), who attained such a
perfection of a rakshasa, that nothing that is, was, and will be, is
concealed to him, and he has no equal in the world.” So far goes the
text of _Jog bahest_.[466]

The Guru Nánac, according to the belief of his followers, was in
former times the rája called Janak, and united the dignity of a king
with that of a saint. He called mankind to God. The author of this
work heard from distinguished Sikhs that, when Bába Nánac appeared in
the Sat-jog, a great number of Sikhs assembled around him. He sent a
cow into the kitchen. When prepared, it was brought into the assembly;
some ate of it, others were afraid to do so. The Guru prayed to God
that the cow might rise again, and all those who had been afraid,
beholding this miracle, approached him praying: “Now we shall eat
whatever you order.” Nánac answered: “Not now be it so: mine and your
engagement prevails in the Trèta-Jog.” Afterwards, at the revolution
of the Trèta-jog, the Guru appeared. The disciples assembled; then a
slaughtered horse was brought into the assembly in the manner before
said. Some ate of it; others abstained from it. The Guru prayed, and
the horse was brought to life. Those who had been afraid prayed as
before. He replied again: “Your word and mine are engaged for the
Dwápar-jog.” In this age they brought a slaughtered elephant into the
assembly of his followers. The same happened as I said before, and he
appointed them for the Kali-jog. In this age, they say, a man was
brought into the assembly; whoever ate, became free; who abstained
from it, remained subject to durance, and some of the Sikhs call Nánac
the slave of God.

It is also related that, when Nânac died, in the Sat-jog, two roads
opened before his soul: the one led to heaven, the other to hell.
Nânac chose the latter, and having descended below, he brought all the
inhabitants out of hell. The Lord God said to him: “These sinners
cannot enter heaven; you must return into the world and liberate
them.” On that account Nânac came to this world, and his followers are
the former inhabitants of hell; the Guru comes and goes, until that
multitude shall have found their salvation.

Except the zealots among the Sikhs, no man else believes Bábá Nânac a
god. As to the rest, Nânac’s followers condemn idolatry, and believe
that all their Gurus are Nânacs, as was said before. They do not
recite the mantras of the Hindus, they do not venerate their temples,
nor do they esteem their Avatárs. The Sanscrit language, which
according to the Hindus is the language of the gods, is not held in
such great estimation by the Sikhs. Whatever it be, the number of
these sectaries increased every where, so that, in the time of the
Guru Arjunmal it became very considerable, and at last there was no
place in any country where Sikhs were not to be found. They make no
difference between Brahmans and Kshatriyas, for Nânac was a Kshatriya,
and none of their Gurus was a Brahman, as stated above. Thus they
subjected the Kshatriyas to the tribe of Jats,[467] who are an
inferior caste of Baisas (Viśas). The deputies of the Gurus are
besides frequently Jats. They honour equally Brahmans and Kshatriyas.
The Guru is chosen at the discretion of his followers. It should be
known that, in the time of the Afghan sultans, the Umras were called
successors or deputies of Ali; finally, for the sake of brevity, the
name of deputy (masnad) alone was used by the Hindus. The Sikhs call
_masnad_, and also _Rámadas_, the Guru whom they esteem as a king of
the true faith.

Before the fifth period no tribute was exacted from the Sikhs, but
presents were given by them according to their own discretion, to
their Gurus. Arjunmal sent in his time a person to the Sikhs of each
town in order to collect a tribute; in that manner, the Sikhs
accustomed themselves to the government of a masnad, or deputy. Their
principal deputies, of whom there was a great number, elected on their
part deputies, so that such substitutes were to be found in every
place. The Sikhs created their Gurus, and established that an
_audasi_,[468] or one that has abandoned the world, is not to be
esteemed higher than any other man. On that account, some of their
Gurus are inclined to agriculture, others to commerce, and to various
trades and occupations. Each of them brings every year something,
according to his means, to his Guru; the deputy receives a present
without exacting it; others collect what is destined every year to the
deputy, and deliver it to the chief man of the Guru, who disposes of
it for his own maintenance and for other contingencies; no body incurs
blame on account of presents (or contributions): being raised from all
quarters, they are forwarded to the Guru.

In the month of February, when the sun is in the sign of the Bull, the
subordinate Gurus come to their chief with those of their followers
who choose to accompany them. At the time of taking leave, each
receives a turban as a present from the deputy.

Having recorded truly something of the Sikhs in general, I will now
give an account of the chiefs of this tribe whom I have known myself.
In the sixth period lived Sri Guru Har-govind, the son of the Guru
Arjun mal. The Padshah Nur-ed-din Jehangir,[469] now an inhabitant of
heaven, called to his court Arjun-mal, on account of his having
offered prayers for the king’s son Khusro, who had rebelled against
his father. Khusro having been taken, the king ordered the
imprisonment of Arjun-mal, and wanted to extort a large sum of money
from him. The Guru was helpless; they kept him a prisoner in the sandy
country of Lahore, until he died of the heat of the sun and of ill
treatment. This happened in the year 1015 of the Hejira (A. D.
1606).[470] In like manner the king banished from Hindostan the Shaikh
Nezam Thánasír, because he had been connected with, and had prayed
for, his son Khusro.

After Arjunmal followed his brother Baratha,[471] whom his followers
called “the benevolent Guru.” Now, in the year 1055 of the Hejira (A.
D. 1645), the Guru _Harjayi_ occupies his place. They both professed
the adoration of one God. The disciples of the Guru Har-govind, son of
Arjunmal, called these Gurus Mainá [472](نمينا) which among them is an
oprobrious name. After the decease of Arjunmal, his son, Har-govind,
also made pretensions to the khalifat (deputyship), and obtained the
place of his father.[473] Hargovind was always attached to the stirrup
of the victorious Jehangir. He became involved in many difficulties;
one of them was, that he appropriated to himself the pay due to the
soldiers in advance; he carried also the sword against his father; he
kept besides many servants, and was addicted to hunting. Jehangir, on
account of the money due to the army, and of the mulet imposed upon
Arjunmal (as was said before), sent Har-govind to the fort of
Gwalior,[474] where he remained imprisoned twelve years. He was not
permitted to eat a good meal. During that time the deputies and other
Sikhs used to come and bow before the walls of the fort. At last,
moved by pity, the king granted him liberty. After Jehangir’s death,
Har-govind entered the service of his majesty Amír-ul Múnenîn
Abu-ul-muzafer shaháb ed-din Muhammed saheb Keran sani shah Jehan, the
victorious king. When the Guru returned to Batnesh, which is a
district of the Penjab, he attached himself to Yar Khan, the eunuch,
who held the office of a Foujdar[475] in the Nawabí of the Penjab, and
whom he assisted in the administration. Har-govind returned to
Rámadaspúr, where the Gurus Rámadas and Arjun-mal had built great
edifices and dug tanks. There he sustained an attack of the army which
Shah jehan, the shadow of God, sent against him, and the Guru’s
property was then plundered. From thence he fled to Kartarpúr; there
too war reached him, and on this occasion Mír Badherah, and Páindah
Khan, the son of Fattah Khan Ganáida, found their death. Before and
after this, he encountered great dangers of war, but with the aid of
God he escaped unhurt, although he lost his property. It is related by
one, Sadah by name, that in this war a man aimed a blow at the Guru,
who parried it, and struck him with his blade, saying: “Not in that
manner, but so the sword is used;” and with one blow he made an end of
his foe. One of the companions of the Guru asked the author of this
work: “What was the purport of the words by which the Guru accompanied
his blow?” I said: “It was to give instruction, as it belongs to a
Guru to teach also how to strike a blow with a sword; for a Guru is
called a teacher: he did not strike out of anger, which would have
been blameable.” At last he retired from the war of Kartarpúr to
Bhagwárah, and because there, in the vicinity of Lahore, he met with
difficulties, he betook himself from thence in haste to Gerait púr,
which lies in the mountainous district of the Penjab, and was then
dependent upon the rája Tárachand, who had never paid homage to the
pádsháh Shah Jehan. The inhabitants of this country adore idols. Upon
the summit of a fortified mountain, they raised an image of the Déva,
named _Nâina_ (Naráyana). Rájas and other eminent persons made
pilgrimages to this place. At the time when the Guru came there, one
of the Sikhs, called Bhairo, who accompanied him, entered the temple
and struck off the nose of the idol. The rájas, having been informed
of it, came to the Guru to complain of the act, and named the man who
did it. The Guru called Bhairo before him. The Sikh denied the deed.
The servants of the rájas declared: “We know the man.” He replied: “O
rájas, ask you the god: if he tells you my name, kill me.” The rájas
said: “You blockhead! how shall the god speak?” Bhairo laughed and
answered: “Now it is clear who is the blockhead: if the god cannot
defend his head, nor point out the man who struck him, what benefit do
you expect from him, and why do you venerate his strength?” The rájas
remained silent and confounded. From this time, the disciples of the
Guru increased considerably, and in this mountainous country, as far
as the frontiers of Thibet and Khota, the name of Muselman was not
heard.

The author of this work heard what follows from the tongue of Guru
Har-govind: “A mighty rája exists in the north or this mountainous
country. One day he sent me an ambassador who asked information,
saying: ‘I have heard that there is a town named Delhi; what is the
name of its rája, and whose son is he?’ I was astonished to hear that
he did not know even the name of Amír ul Múmenín saheb Karan sáni
(Jehangír).” The Guru had eight hundred horses in his stable, three
hundred troopers on horseback, and sixty men with fire-arms were
always in his service. Among these some carried on commerce, and other
trades and occupations. Whoever was a fugitive from his home took
refuge with him.

The Guru believed but one God. A person desired from him some account
of the creation and the constitution of this world. The Guru said:
“The universe is an appearance without reality, and an unsubstantial
manifestation of God, the highest being; and all bodies, as well as
gods, are an idle illusion. I will tell thee, said he, a story of old
times: There was a king who went to hunt the _hátah jori_, which in
the Turkish language is called _kamer ghah_, and in Persian _barah
shikar_, ‘a fawn of the chace.’ A deer came into the circle of the
hunting party. The king said: ‘On whose side the deer will come forth,
let him not return before me until he has taken it with his hand.’ By
fate, the animal came out on the side of the king. Khusro run after it
until he was far from the army, and reached a place where, on account
of thick wood, he could not find a path. The king was glad to think
the deer would now return towards him; but when he came near it, there
was a small opening through which the game escaped. The king sharply
pushed on his horse, which, contracting itself, passed through the
thicket; but the pádsháh was taken by two branches, and his arms and
feet fastened so as if it had been purposely brought about. He
remained two days in such a state, until two persons, a man and a
woman, who were gathering wood, arrived near him. The woman said to
her husband: ‘Look! the king has hanged a thief.’ The man replied:
‘This is not a place for hanging; we must examine it nearer.’ When
they had approached, they saw and recognised the king, and said to
each other: ‘If we release him, it will be of use to us.’ The woman
observed: ‘He is the king; once made free, what advantage will he
grant us for it? If he promises to marry our daughter, we will release
him.’ They said so to the king, who promied what they desired. After
that, they liberated him, brought him to their house, and gave him
their daughter. He remained there some time, and then joined his army.
When he wanted to enter his palace, the door-keeper struck him with
his stick; the king was seized with a trembling and awoke. He saw the
high throne and the servants before him waiting for his orders. By
this dream he was aroused from the emptiness of his illusion; he knew
that the world is but an appearance without reality; and that,
whatever we experience, being awake, is likewise nothing more than a
dream. He found that the diversity of forms and of distinct bodies is
but an image of existence, and that in truth there is but one real
being, one praiseworthy, and raised above all others by superlative
excellence.”

One of the Brahmans was called Déva, and counted himself among the
wise. He visited the Guru, and seated himself one day upon the bed of
Bába Jév, who was the son of a Guru. The people said: “Do not sit
there.” He asked: “Why not?” They answered: “This is the place of the
Guru.” He said: “Is perhaps the figure of a Guru not that of a man, or
have I not a rational soul manifest in me? or can I not enjoy what
another eats or drinks?” This speech came to the ears of the Guru
Hargovind. He called that man before him, and said: “O Déva! it is not
the whole world but one being?” He replied: “It is.” The Guru pointed
to an ass, and asked: “Do you know what this is?” Déva replied: “You
are one with God, therefore you are also this.” The Guru laughed, and
was not at all angry. Déva wished to marry his own sister; the people
said: “This is forbidden.” He answered: “If it were forbidden, the
junction of the sexual parts would be impossible. Thus, because it is
not God’s will that we should rise up in the air, he withheld from us
the faculty of flying.”

The Sikhs venerated the Guru Har-govind as a god, and believed that he
has passed through six incarnations. Perah Kaivan, a Yazdanian, was
moved by the reputatation of the Guru, and came to visit him.

The Guru recognised him, and showed him great respect. Upon that
account Perah Kaivan left him. A week had scarcely passed after he was
gone, when Har-govind died, on a Sunday, the third day of the
Moherram, in the year 1055 of the Hejirah (A. D. 1645). When they had
placed his corpse upon the pyre, and when the fire rose up in high
flames, a ràjapút called Rájarama, who had been his servant,
precipitated himself into the fire, and walked several paces in the
midst of the flames, until he reached the feet of the corpse, and
having laid his face upon the soles of the Guru’s feet, he did not
move until he expired. After him, the son of a Jat, who was in the
service of Har-govind’s son-in-law, leaped into the fire. Many other
Sikhs wished to follow his example, but the Guru Har rayi forbade it.
Dáulet Khan Kaksal says:

      “Of a hundred sayings of my master, I remember one:
  The world never becomes a desert, nor the wine-house a prayer-house.
       What can my soul give more than my heart can bear?
  Whatever the soul gives, and whatever the heart bears, the one and
    the other is god-given.”

The Guru Har-govind, in a letter to the author of this work, gave
himself the title of Nânac, which was his right distinction. I saw him
in the year 1053 of the Hejirah (A. D. 1643) in Kirtpúr. The Guru
Har-ráyi was the grandson of the said Guru;[476] his father was Garuta
(or Guru daitya), who is known under the name of Bábá Jév. The Guru
Har-govind wished first to transmit his place to his son Garuta, or
Bábá Jév; but the Guru Nághura, one of the Sikhs, brought his daughter
to Bábá Jév. The Bábá wished to send her to his private apartments.
His wife, the mother of Har-ráyi, complained of it to Har-govind, her
father-in-law, who, having heard her, said to Bábá Jév: “Having given
to Nághura the name of my son, I own him as such, and his daughter
cannot go to you, my son.” Nághura refused to take back his daughter;
nor would Bábá Jév give her up. The Guru Har-govind then said: “May
neither happiness nor success ever attend this husband and his wife!”
Upon that, the same day, Bábá Jév threw away his nuptial dress, and
sent the daughter of the Guru Nághura untouched back to her house. In
consequence of this event, Har-govind showed a more particular esteem
for his grandson Har-ráyi,[477] the son of Bábá Jév; he gave him the
name of his father, Bábá Jév, and appointed him his successor.
Invested with this dignity, Har-rayi remained one year in Kirtpúr.
When in the year of the Hejirah 1055 (A. D. 1645) Najábet Khan, the
son of Sharogh Mirza, by order of the pádsháh Shah-jehan, invaded with
an army the land of the rája Tarachand, and made the rája a prisoner,
the Guru Har-ráyi betook himself to Thapal, which town is situated in
the district of the rája Keramperkás, not far from Sirhind.

The Sikhs call Har-ráyi the seventh Guru. He was a great friend of the
author of this work. I will therefore give an account of some among
the principal chiefs whom I knew, as well as of some customs of this
people. The Sikhs distinguish also the deputies of their Gurus by the
name of Rámdais, that is to say, “servants of God, or of an idol.”
_Jahandas_ was one of the pretenders to the dignity of a Guru; he was
a man high and proud in his speeches, not agreeable to any,
indifferent to good and bad that might happen to him. One day he got a
wound on his foot. Har-govind told him: “Do not envelop _too much_,
and raise your foot.” According to this injunction, he suspended and
uncovered his foot during three months. When the Guru was informed of
it, he said to him: “Cover your foot; what I told you was intended for
the healing of your wound: do not rest on your foot for some days.”
One day the Guru said to him: “Tell the Sikhs to bring wood into the
kitchen, that they may gain some remuneration.” Jahandas did not
appear the next day, as if he had not during one day and a half awoke
from sleep. The people, suspecting some derangement of his brain,
thought he had absented himself. When they, with the Guru, looked
after him, they found him with a bundle of wood on his shoulder. The
Guru said: “I have not ordered you to bear that.” He replied: “You
gave your orders to the Sikhs; a Sikh am I, and know not to be any
thing higher than they are.” Another day the Guru went into a garden,
and said to Jahandas: “Remain at the door.” By accident, the Guru
returned home by another door; Jahandas remained three days on his
feet, until Hargovind, who was informed of it, called him away.

Har-govind had a disciple called _Badhata_, who sent a person to bring
corn from a field where it was lying cut. This man gave every thing
away, and then said to Badhata who had sent him: “You distributed
every thing, as a father, to the poor; I did the same in imitation of
your example, and dispense you from the remuneration which I should
have gained by bringing the corn to you.” Badhata was at first a
thief, and his disciples exercised later the profession of thieving;
they showed themselves very obedient to the orders of their master,
and believed that stealing for him deserved praise and recompense.
Har-govind, according to the Sikhs, declared that on the day of the
last judgment, his disciples will not have to account for their
actions.

_Sadah_, a disciple of the Guru, went by his orders to bring horses
from Balkh to Irak. He had a son who had fallen sick. They said to
him: “You are now in the town of Balkh, and but one day’s journey from
home: go to see your son.” He answered: “If he should die, there is
wood enough in the house to burn him: I went about the Guru’s
business, and will not return.” The son died, but he did not return.
At last he bought three capital horses of Irak; but Khalíl Bég, a
tyrant, took hold of them, which fell hard upon him. In the same year,
he lost his only son and heir, and saw himself deprived of strength
and honor. Sadah was a man neither gladdened by good nor afflicted by
bad fortune. The author of this work was once his companion on a
journey from Kabul to the Penjab. The belt of my coat broke; Sadah
gave me immediately his zunnar to serve me as a belt. I said to him:
“Why do you this?” He answered: “To tie the zunnar purports an
engagement to serve another; as often as I render some service to
friends, may I resign my zunnar for it.”

       “This thread serves to tie every thing:
   In a cloister it is a rosary; in a temple of idols a zunnar.”

A Sikh asked the Guru Har-govind: “In the absence of my Guru, what
other shall I find?” He replied: “Whichever of the Sikhs comes to your
house under the name of a Guru, him you may take for yours.” It is the
custom among the Sikhs that, whatever demand they have, they can state
it in the assembly of the Sikhs to the Guru, to whom they offer
whatever present they have, or a coin, and in so doing they join their
hands together, and proffer prayers to him, that he may be favorable
to them. The Guru states then his demand in the _Sangat_
(_Sangátí_),[478] that is to say, in the assembly of the Sikhs. This
custom exists also among the _Sipásian_, or _Izedanian_. The belief of
this people is, that an assembly is certainly capable of achieving
every thing, inasmuch as the minds act with their united strength.

Among the Sikhs there is nothing of the religious rites of the Hindús;
they know of no check in eating or drinking. When _Pertábmal_, a
_Jnání_, “wise,” Hindu, saw that his son wished to adopt the faith of
the Muselmans, he asked him: “Why dost thou wish to become a Muselman?
If thou likest to eat every thing, become a Guru of the Sikhs, and eat
whatever thou desirest.”

The Sikhs believe that all the disciples of a Guru go to heaven.
Whoever takes the name of Guru is received in the house of a Sikh. It
is related, that a thief introduced himself once under the title of
Guru, in the house of a Sikh, and was treated as such. In the morning
the Sikh went out to prepare something better for his guest. The thief
saw many jewels worn by the wife of the Sikh, and having killed her
immediately, and taken the precious things, he fled. Upon his way he
met with the master of the house, who by force brought him back. The
Sikh, when they returned to the house, found his wife dead. The thief,
seeing every thing discovered, confessed the truth. The Sikh replied:
“You have done well.” He then shut the door of the house, and said to
his neighbours: “My wife is sick: she ate nothing of the meal which
she had prepared.” Urging the thief to be gone, he did not take the
jewels from him, but made him a present of them. He finally burnt his
wife.

They also relate what follows: a kalender was in the house of a Sikh.
One day the kalender said to the wife of the Sikh: “For the sake of a
Guru, satisfy my desire.” The woman replied: “I am the property of
another; have patience.” The kalender, out of fear, did not return to
the house of the Sikh, who asked: “Why does the durvish not visit me
any more?” The woman told him what had happened. The Sikh said: “Why
did you refuse to yield to his desire?” The woman went out, and having
brought the kalender back, permitted every thing to him. When, in the
month of February, the Sikhs assembled at the house of the Guru (who
lived before the time of Har-govind), he threw an angry look at the
kalender, and said: “Him have I struck.” The kalender was stigmatised.

The following anecdote is moreover reported. A Guru saw a speaking
parrot, and praised him much. A Sikh heard this, and went immediately
to the proprietor of the parrot, who was a soldier, and asked him for
the bird. The soldier said: “If you give me your daughter, you may
have the parrot.” The Sikh consented. The soldier laughed, and added:
“Give me your wife too, and take the bird.” The Sikh did not refuse;
he conducted the soldier to his house, and delivered his wife and
daughter to him. When the soldier came home, and told his wife what
had happened, she was so angry with him that he left the parrot in the
hands of the Sikh, to whom he returned his wife and daughter. The
Sikh, joyful, lost no time to gratify the Guru. Such customs prevailed
among the Sikhs before the time of Har-govind.[479]


     [374] चतुर्मुखः

     [375] अष्ट बाहुः

     [376] जटा the hair matted, as worn by the god Síva, and by
     ascetics; the long hair occasionally matted together, and
     brought over the head so as to project like a horn from the
     forehead; at other times allowed to fall carelessly over the
     back and shoulders.

     [377] अंशुः

     [378] The Hindus have twelve _ádityas_, that is, “forms of
     the sun:” these appear to represent him as distinct in each
     month of the year.

     [379] कला a digit, or 16th part of the moon’s diameter.

     [380] नक्षत्र The Pauránic and popular enumeration of those
     mansions, or constellations is twenty-seven; Abhijit, the
     twenty-seventh, being considered as formed of portions of
     the two contiguous asterisms, and not distinct from
     them.――(_Wilson’s Dict._)

     [381] अष्ट दिशाः These eight cardinal points have each their
     regent, viz.:
          पूर्व  its regent is Indra, इन्द्रः
          पश्चिम      ――      Varuna, वरुणः
          दक्षिण      ――      Yama, यमः
          उत्तर       ――       Kuvéra, कुवेरः
     Between S. and E. the regent is अग्नि or वड्निः
        ――   S. and W.     ――        नैरॄतः
        ――   N. and W.     ――        वायुः
        ――   N. and E.     ――        ईशानः

     [382] भैरव “the formidable,” a name of Síva, but more
     especially an inferior manifestation or form of the deity,
     eight of which are called by the common name _Bhái ravas_,
     and have each a particular name, all alluding to terrific
     properties of mind or body.

     [383] The edit. of Calcutta adds to Chamunda _Set mantra_.

     [384] These are personified energies of the Gods, called
     Mátris, viz.: क्यलक, कालञ्जरी, कौमारी, वैष्णवी, बाभ्रवी,
     चमुण्डा, भवानी, पार्वती.

     [385] I cannot hope to have restored every name of the
     Persian text to its correct original form.

     [386] If the seven Richis, who are supposed to abide in the
     constellation of the Great Bear, are meant, their names
     differ very much from those commonly given, which are as
     follows: Marichi, Atri, Angiras, Pulustya, Kratu, and
     Vás ishta.

     [387] _Bang_ is an inebriating, maddening draught, made of
     hemp-leaves, henbane, opium, or masloe.――(_Richardson’s
     Dict._)

     [388] Black is the color of the Sunnites. This supports
     Professor Wilson’s _Statement_, agreeing with the Dabistan
     (see _As. Trans._, N. S. p. 75), that the Madárián are
     Sunnites. But, considering the descent of their founder, and
     the concurring account of several Asiatic authors, we may be
     disposed to denominate them Shiâhs, or Jsmámiahs, although
     the latter have adopted green as the distinguishing color of
     their sect, which is also that of the followers of the
     prophet.

     [389] One _seer_ = 2 lbs. 6 oz.; French weight, 933.005
     grammes; 40 seers make a _maund_; one maund, in English Troy
     weight is 100 lbs.; French grammes, 27,320.182――(_Useful
     Tables_, edited by James Princep, Esq., Part I. p. 63).

     [390] Badih-eddin, “the marvel of religion,” was the son of
     Saíd Alí, and his origin is traced up to the Imám Hossaín,
     son of Alí. He was born in the year of the Hejíra 442, A. D.
     1050-1. Under the reign of Ibrahim Sherkey, he came to
     India, where he died in 1433 A. D., according to the dates
     of his birth and death 383 years old, but 395 and even 400
     years old, according to the legend of this saint, who owed
     his longevity to the power of keeping his breath. Under the
     simple name of Madár, he is held in great veneration in
     India, where an annual feast is celebrated in his honor, and
     his tomb visited by numerous pilgrims, even in our days. He
     is said to have had 1442 sons, say spiritual children or
     disciples――(See for Madar, _Mémoire sur les particularités
     de la Religion musulmane dans l’Inde, par M. Garcin de
     Tassy_, pp. 54-62).

     [391] This tale reminds us of a similar story related in the
     Mahábharat (Adhi-parva, Sambhava-parva, Adyaya 75, 76, edit.
     Calc., vol. I. p. 115). _Kacha_, the son of Vrihaspati, who
     was killed three times by the Asuras (the first time
     swallowed by jackals; afterwards, cut to pieces and thrown
     into the sea; and, finally, pulverised and swallowed by
     Çukra, the preceptor of the dáityas) and each time brought
     to life in a miraculous way.

     [392] This a village near Firezabad, in the province of
     Agra.

     [393] Armillam membro suo aperuit erecto.

     [394] These sectaries worship the more terrible attributes
     of the Deity. Said Jelál, or Jelál-eddin Bokhárí was born in
     the year of the Hejira 707 (A. D. 1307); he died in 775 (A.
     D. 1374), and is buried in the town of Auch, in the province
     of Multan.――(See the work of M. Garcin de Tassy, quoted pp.
     69-70).

     [395] The founder of this sect was Patanjali, born in
     Havriti-varcha, he taught in Bhagabhandara. His school is
     theistical, called _sa Jswara Sankhya_, or “philosophy with
     the Lord.” God is the supreme ruler, a spirit or a soul,
     distinct from other spirits or souls, untouched by those
     evils to which these are subject; indifferent to all good or
     bad actions and their consequences, as well as to all
     transitory conceptions; he is omniscient; teacher of the
     earliest things which had a beginning that is, of all
     mythological divinities; himself infinite, and illimited by
     time. Patanjali insists upon austere religious practices,
     exterior and interior, to which he ascribes wonderful
     effects.

     [396] सूर्य मखाः

     [397] अष्ट भुवन लोकः

     [398] सर्व प्रभादेव.

     [399] महाज्योतिः

     [400] नमस्कारः

     [401] The Dabistán (p. 269, edit. of Calc.) affords a
     curious specimen of a Sanskrit prayer transcribed in Persian
     characters; this prayer is here restored to its original
     form in Devanagari. The literal translation of it,
     subjoined, shows that it is composed of a series of epithets
     encomiastical of the sun; these epithets have been most
     freely amplified in the paraphrase which the author of the
     Dabistán has given of the original prayer:

          महज्योतिः उत्तमोदयः नृस्वादः लोकनः आहारः सुदर्शनः दृष्टिः मिथनः
          महावतारः उत्तमप्रकासः पथ्वी स्मरणः महादातामुक्तसङ्गः आत्मदाता
          शरीरज्योतिः स्व आत्म वुधनाथः सर्व ज्योतिः आतपः प्रकाशः औपमिकः
          स्वर्ग दाता देवसहायः

     “_Thou art_ the great light――most gloriously rising――the
     delight of men――resplendent――_granter of_ food――agreeable to
     sight――the eye _of heaven_――the promoter of union――the great
     incarnation――the most excellent manifestation――mindful of
     the earth――the chief bestower of the devotion to
     emancipation――the dispenser of life――the light of
     bodies――the lord of intellect and of interior life――all
     illuming――the radiance of the day――the effulgency――the
     supreme light――only like thyself――the donor of heaven――the
     companion of the gods.”

     [402] स्वर्ग लोकः heaven.

     [403] भूलोकः

     [404] लोजानि.

     [405] कल्याणं.

     [406] The Dict. gives only सनकाः and सनत्कुमाराः the four
     sons of Brahma, inhabiting the Janaloka.

     [407] जीव दय.

     [408] पुण्यवन्त्.

     [409] धर्ममयास्.

     [410] स्वी.

     [411] द्युव मुर्तयस्.

     [412] आकाश.

     [413] गिरयश्.

     [414] तारा फलं also तारा पथः _ta ra patha_.

     [415] आहरणं means literally “taking, seizing;” in logical
     language, “compassing, comprehending,” that is applying an
     organ to the object to which it is adopted. This is the
     special function of the organs or instruments of action. We
     have (see note, p. 122) enumerated “intelligence, egotism,
     and mind;” these are the three internal organs; and “five
     organs of perception, with five organs of action,” the ten
     external organs. Those of action, _compass_, and _maintain_;
     those of perception, _manifest_: therefore “compassing,
     maintaining, and manifesting,” are the functions of the
     thirteen-fold instrument――(See the work quoted, _Sank’hya
     Karika_, 32. p. 110).

     [416] सङ्ख्यानं.

     [417] साधन.

     [418] जितेन्द्रिय लोक.

     [419] तपस्या.

     [420] ज्योति मण्डलं.

     [421] ध्यानी.

     [422] त्यागी.

     [423] वैरागीः

     [424] उदासीः

     [425] वन्यासीः

     [426] अवछातः

     [427] चन्द्र भक्ताः

     [428] This passage seems to allude to the Hindu creed about
     the souls’ journey from the earth to the uppermost heaven.
     According to this, a hundred and one arteries issue from the
     heart, one of which passes to the crown of the head. By that
     passage, the soul of the wise issues and meets a solar ray,
     by which it proceeds to the realm of fire, and by several
     other stages to the _moon_; thence to the region of
     lightning, and higher up, through Varuna’s watery region, to
     the realm of Indra, so as to reach at last the abode of
     Brahma.――(Transact. R. A. Soc., vol. II. pp. 31. 32.)

     [429] अग्नि प्रमाणाः

     [430] पवन भक्ताः

     [431] जल भक्ताः

     [432] पृथ्वी भक्ताः

     [433] त्रि पूजाः

     [434] मनुष्य भक्ताः

     [435] Nânac was born A. D. 1469, in a small village called
     _Talwandi_, now _Raya-pur_, on the banks of the _Béyah_, the
     ancient _Hyphasis_, in the district of _Bhatti_, in the
     province of _Lahore_. He was the only son of _Kalu_, of the
     Kshatriya caste, and the _Vedi_ tribe of the Hindus――See
     vol. XI. of the _As. Res._, pp. 197-292, edit. Calc. _a
     Sketch of the Sikhs_, by Brigadier-General Malcolm. The
     learned author, whilst with the British army in the Penjab,
     in 1805, collected materials that would throw light upon the
     history, manners, and religion of the Sikhs. He succeeded in
     obtaining a copy of the _Adi granth_, the sacred book of the
     Sikhs, and of some historical tracts, the most essential
     parts of which were explained to him in Calcutta, by an
     intelligent Sikh priest of the _Nirmala_ order. Dr. Leyden
     enriched this stock of materials by supplying the general
     with a translation of several tracts written by Sikh authors
     in the Penjabi and Duggar dialects, upon the history and
     religion of their nation. We may therefore believe we
     possess quite satisfactory information about the Sikhs in
     General Malcolm’s _Sketch_. I shall mark the references to
     this work in my notes by G. M. The Dabistán, never quoted in
     the said _Sketch_, furnishes some additional, and
     corroborates the principal, information derived from other
     sources.

     [436] Zehir-ed-din Muhammed Baber, the son of Umer Shaigh
     Mirza, descended on the father’s side from the great Tâimur
     Beg, and on the mother’s, from Gengis Khan. He was born A.
     D. 1483, and succeeded, in the 12th year of his age to his
     father, as king of Ferghana, a small country between
     Samarkand and Kashgar. Driven by his enemies from his
     paternal kingdom, he became the founder of one of the
     greatest empires in the world.――(See _Memoirs of
     Zehir-ed-din Muhammed Baber, emperor of Hindustan_, written
     by himself in the Jaghatai Turki, and translated partly by
     the late John Leyden, Esq., M.D., partly by William Erskine,
     Esq. London, 1826.)

     [437] Nânaki, the sister of Nânac, was married to a Hindu of
     the name of _Jaya-Ram_, who was employed as a grain-factor
     of Dâulet Khan Lodi, a relation of the reigning emperor of
     Delhi. Nânac attended at the granary of Daulet Khan, which
     was in charge of Jaya-ram, at Sultan-púr――(G. M. p. 200.)

     [438] Dâulet Khan Lodi, an Afghan by birth, was formerly
     private secretary to Mah-Toghluck, the eighth king of Delhi
     of the Tartarian dynasty, called Toghluck, which reigned
     from 1321 to 1412 A. D. At that time Dâulet Khan was placed
     at the head of the empire, but, at the end of one year and
     three months, he was obliged to yield his power to Khizer
     Khan, who founded the dynasty of Sadat, in Delhi. This
     dynasty, after thirty-eight years, made room for that of the
     Afghan princes of Lodi. Dâulat Khan established himself in
     the Penjab. In the general disorders of the empire, this
     Afghan chief, being attacked by other Afghans, connected
     himself with Baber, the Tartarian invader of Hindostan, in
     1534, against Ibrahim Lodi, the Afghan king of Delhi, and
     after the victory of Baber, continued to rule the Penjab.

     [439] Jaya-Rama was put in prison by Dâulet Khan, on the
     charge of having dissipated his property, but was justified
     by Nânak’s confessions――(G. M. p. 204).

     [440] पवनाहारि “wind-eater.”

     [441] He was one day lying on the ground with his feet in
     the direction of the temple of Mecca: “How darest thou,
     infidel,” called out a Muhammedan priest, “turn thy feet
     towards the house of God?” “How can I turn them,” answered
     Nânac, “in a direction where the house of God is not?”――(G.
     M. p. 274.)

     [442] The first expedition which Baber undertook towards
     India was, according to Ferichta, in 1505; from Cabul, which
     he had conquered the year before, he pushed to, and along,
     the Indus. He attempted, later, three times to invade India,
     namely, in the years 1519, 1521, and 1522; but, being
     engaged in war, on one side with the Usbeck Tartars, and on
     the other with the Afghans, he did not completely succeed,
     till his fourth attempt in 1525, and in 1526 having
     overthrown Ibrahim Lody, in a great battle near Panniput, he
     destroyed the Afghan dynasty, three kings of which had
     reigned 74 years in Delhi. It was probably about this time
     that Nânac happened to be introduced to Baber, before whom
     he maintained his doctrine with great firmness and
     eloquence. The Tartarian conqueror, pleased with the Sikh
     reformer, ordered an ample maintenance to be bestowed on
     him, who refused it, saying, that he trusted in him who
     provided for all men――(G. M. p. 206).

     [443] Nânac (G. M. p. 204) travelled throughout India, and
     went also to Mecca and Medina, teaching his doctrine every
     where with a due regard to that of others. He showed great
     moderation, and even courtesy, in his intercourse with the
     public teachers of other religions. When he visited in
     Multan the Muhammedan Pîrans, or “old wise men,” he said: “I
     come, like the sacred Ganga to visit the ocean.”

     [444] बाणि _báni_, speech.

     [445] “A hundred thousand Muhammeds,” said Nánac (G. M. p.
     275) “a million of Brahmas, Vichnus, and a hundred thousand
     Ramas, stand at the gate of the most High. These all perish.
     God alone is immortal. Yet men who unite in the praise of
     God are not ashamed of living in contention with each other,
     which proves that the evil spirit has subdued all. He alone
     is a true Hindu whose heart is just, and he only a good
     Muhammedan whose life is pure.”

     [446] Nánac (G. M.) had two sons. There is in our days still
     a tribe among the Sikhs, called the Nánac-páutras, or
     “descendants of Nánac,” a mild inoffensive race; if not, as
     is generally the case, mendicants, they are travelling
     merchants.

     [447] خوديمانى _khudimaní_ is the _ahankára_ of the Indians,
     rendered in English by “consciousness, egotism,
     individuality.”

     [448] Nánac died in Kirti púr Dehra, on the banks of the
     Rávi, the ancient Hydraotes of the Greek geographers. Kirti
     púr continues to be a place of religious pilgrimage and
     worship.

     [449] Nánac (G. M. p. 208-9) bequeathed his succession to a
     Kshatriya of the Tréhun tribe, called Lehana, who had been
     attached to him, and whom he had initiated in the sacred
     mysteries of his sect, and honored with the name of _Angad_,
     perhaps _anga_, which word in Sanskrit signifies “body.”
     This Angad wrote some chapters of the Adi-grant´ha. He
     died in 1552, at Khandur, a village about 40 miles east of
     Lahore.

     [450] Amaradas (G. M.), a Kshatriya of the tribe of Bhalé,
     died A. D. 1574, at the village of Gondaval, in the province
     of Lahore.

     [451] Rámadas (G. M.) was the son-in-law of Amaradas; to
     Rámadas some Sikh authors ascribe the foundation of the town
     Rámpur, or Rámdáspur, but falsely, as it was a very ancient
     town, known formerly under the name of Chak. He however
     contributed much to its increase, and dug a tank or
     reservoir of water, which is celebrated to our days under
     the name of _Amrita Sara_, “the lake of the water of
     immortality.” Rámadás died, in 1581, at Amrita Sara, leaving
     two sons, Arjunmal and Bharatamal, the former of whom
     succeeded him.

     [452] Arjunmal (G. M. p. 212) is celebrated for having
     compiled the Adi-granth from the writings of his
     predecessors, not without his own additions and
     commentaries. Thirteen authors after him contributed to the
     work as it now is. The Adi-granth is, like the rest of the
     books of the Sikhs, written in the Gurumukh characters,
     which are a modified species of the Nagari character.
     Arjunmal was put to death in 1606, by the intolerance of the
     Muhammedans.

     [453] Janaka was a sovereign of Mithila, and father of Sitá,
     the wife of Rámachandra. The name of Janaka became a general
     name of all Mâithila kings.

     [454] In the Indian genealogies, several Sahadevas are
     mentioned. As we are evidently upon fabulous ground, we may
     be excused from attempting to establish that the Sahadeva of
     the text is the son of Pandu, or another.

     [455] Probably कर मण्डलं _kara mandalam_, from _kara_,
     “hand,” and _mandalam_, “an orb, a round cup.”

     [456] I have not yet ascertained the correct Sanskrit title
     of this book of the Hindus; but _Bashest_ is Vasishta, a
     celebrated Muni, who rivalled and vanquished Visvamitra.

     [457] Visvamitra, a Muni, the son of Gádhi, originally of
     the military order, but who became by long and painful
     austerities a Brahmarshi, in which character he appears in
     the Rámáyaná, as the early preceptor and counsellor of Ráma.

     [458] The Pápîha is believed to be the _falio nisus_, also a
     kind of cuckoo (_luculus radiatus_); possibly the _chátaca_
     of the Hindus, supposed to drink no water but
     rain-water――(See _Megda duta_, “the Cloud-Messenger,”
     translated from Sanskrit into English, by H. H. Wilson,
     Esq., p. 14). The Papîha is celebrated in Indian romance for
     his fidelity to his mate. Kalá, having been separated from
     Kamrup (see the Adventures of Kamrup, translated from the
     Hindustanee into French, by M. Garcin de Tassy, p. 96) says:
     “Le Papîha erre-t-il dans la forêt sans celle à qui l’unit
     l’amour?”

     [459] _Náisán_ means a Syrian month, which corresponds to
     April; the drops of Náisán, or of spring-rain, are believed
     to produce pearls, if they fall into shells, and venom if
     they drop upon serpents.

     [460] सुमेरु _Suméru_, the sacred mountain _Méru_, on the
     summit of which Brahma resides.

     [461] A fabulous mountain, anciently imagined by the
     Asiatics to surround the world, and to bound the horizon on
     all sides.

     [462] Tyrhoot, a district in the province of Bahar, situated
     principally between the 27th and 28th degrees of north
     latitude.

     [463] The author of the Dabistán adds here the following
     words: “And such a person is called in _Persian_ ‘a freeman,
     in the state of higher freedom;’” he forgets that the
     conversation takes place between two _Indian_ sages.

     [464] The author amplifies this idea, so often repeated,
     here again in four lines, which I did not think necessary to
     translate.

     [465] A similar repetition, running through three lines in
     nearly the same words, is omitted in this translation.

     [466] The philosophy of the Hindus has been more fully
     explained in the foregoing chapters, to which several
     passages of the present section relate.

     [467] The Jats inhabited in very ancient times the borders
     of the Indus in the lower parts of Multan. There they were
     known to the Greek and Latin writers, under the name of
     Calhæi, Malli, Oxidracæ as being without a king,
     “_arattas_,” and divided into seven communities, who, united
     by a common danger, resisted Alexander. In the same country
     they opposed, 1300 years after the Macedonian invader, the
     irruption of Sultan Muhammed, the Ghaznavid, by whom they
     were beaten near Multan on the Indus. Inhabitants of
     mountains as well as of plains, they acted a part in the
     many wars which took place on the western frontiers of
     India, either as predatory hordes, or as allies, or as
     mercenaries of the belligerant parties. During the ensuing
     disorders of the Indian empire, they extended themselves
     towards the east of India, and became masters of the
     mountainous district which is limited, on the east by the
     rivers Thambul and Jumna; on the west, by the kingdom of
     Jâipur, which to the south extends as far as twenty coss
     from Agra; and to the north borders on the province of
     Delhi. It is not necessary to pursue here the history of the
     Jats in all its various vicissitudes; I shall only add that,
     in the year 1707, Thuraman, one of their leaders, laid the
     foundation of the fortress of Bhurtpúr, 20 miles N. W. from
     Agra, and that this became celebrated, to our days, as the
     capital seat of the Jats. They are Hindus of the fourth
     great caste of Sudras.

     [468] उदासो _udásí_, one who has no passion, nor affection
     for any thing; in popular acceptation, a religious mendicant
     in general, or one of a particular order.

     [469] The reign of Jehangir lasted from A. D. 1605 to 1628.

     [470] This date agrees with that given by Ferishta of the
     rebellion and the imprisonment of Khusro.

     [471] According to the Sketch of the Sikhs by General
     Malcolm, Arjunmal was immediately succeeded by his son
     Har-govind, whilst the Dabistán mentions his brother as his
     successor. There appears an hiatus, or some confusion in our
     text; so much however is indicated clearly enough, that
     there was a contest about the succession between the brother
     and the son of Arjunmal.

     [472] The dictionary gives no satisfactory interpretation of
     the word, as relating to the text.

     [473] Har-govind (G. M. p. 213) was a warlike Guru, or
     priest militant, and wore two swords in his girdle. Being
     asked why he did so: “The one,” said he, “is to revenge the
     death of my father; the other to destroy the miracles of
     Muhammed.” His character appears in the Dabistán less
     advantageously with respect to the religious customs of his
     sect, from the austerity of which he is said to have greatly
     relaxed, and he permitted the promiscuous use of flesh of
     all animals except that of the cow: his military character
     however is maintained in all accounts of him.

     [474] Gwalior is situated in the province of Agra, eighty
     miles travelling distance south from the city of Agra.

     [475] Foujdar, an officer of the police in Hindostan, and
     chief magistrate, who takes cognizance of all criminal
     matters.

     [476] Hargovind had five sons, the eldest of whom was Guru
     daitya, the father of Har ráyi.

     [477] Rayi is a title a little inferior to that of Rája,
     generally applied to the Hindu chief of a village or small
     district.

     [478] सङ्गतिः

     [479] The author of the Dabistán does not carry the account
     of the Sikhs further than to the time of Harrayi, a
     peaceable Guru, who died in 1664. After a contest between
     his sons, or, as some Sikh authors relate, between his son,
     _Har Krichna_, and his grandson, _Ram Ray_, the former was
     chosen. He died in 1664, and was succeeded by his uncle,
     _Tégh Bahader_, in spite of the opposition of his nephew,
     Ram Ray. Tégh Bahader was imprisoned and put to death by the
     Muhammedans, in 1675. After his death, the sect appeared
     crushed, but under his son, _Gura Govind_, the Sikhs rose
     again, no more as a sect, but as a nation endeavouring to
     establish their independence. Guru Govind is considered by
     them as the founder of their national greatness; he is the
     tenth, that is, their last acknowledged religious ruler; he
     is the author of the _Dasama Pádsháh-ka grantha_, or “the
     book of the tenth king;” he changed the name of his
     followers from Sikhs to _Singhs_, “lions,” who distinguished
     themselves by a blue checkered dress; he first instituted
     the _Guru-mata_, or “great council,” among them, and
     established the _Akalis_, or “the immortals,” who preserved
     their name and consideration until our days; in short, he
     sanctioned, and confirmed by institutions, the doctrine
     taught by his predecessors, who endeavoured to separate the
     Sikhs from the mass of the Hindus. Indeed “the admission of
     proselytes, the abolition of the distinction of casts, the
     eating all kinds of flesh except that of cows, the form of
     religious worship, and the general devotion of all Sikhs to
     arms, are ordinances altogether irreconcileable with Hindu
     mythology”――(G. M. p. 268).

     Guru Govind is supposed to have died in 1708, at Naded in
     the Deccan. After him, _Bandu_, a Váiragí, or ascetic,
     united the Sikhs under his banners: during some time
     successful and formidable, he fell at last before the power
     of the Muhammedans. Without pursuing the later history of
     the Sikhs, I shall content myself with stating that they
     succeeded in forming in our times, under their late Rája,
     Ranjet Singh, the kingdom of Lahore, of four millions of
     inhabitants, dispersed over a surface of 70,000 square
     miles, exclusively of the province of Kachmir, annexed to
     their dominions.

     See also upon the Sikhs _The Sigar-ul-Mutakherin_, by Mir
     Gholain Hussein-Khan, translated from the Persian into
     English by General John Briggs, London, 1832, vol. I. p.
     109, etc.




CHAPTER III.

OF THE RELIGION OF THE KERÁ TABITIAN.


According to one of their treatises, they call God _Kajak_,[480] and
believe him to be one, infinite, all mighty; they maintain his
manifestation under three forms, as the Hindus; they say, if any one
finds God, he converses with him without the aid of a palate and of a
tongue: this is the condition of a prophet. They declare moreover that
the spirit is eternal, and that spirits are sent down; the soul, if it
knows itself and God, ascends to the upper world; if not, it remains
in the nether world. The author of this book heard from one of their
distinguished personages that, when the rational soul separates from
this body, it goes to the upper world; and from the heavens it rises
further; and above this there is a sea, in which is a mountain; and on
its top God, the supreme Lord, resides. If that soul has been
virtuous, the divinity manifests itself to it under a pleasing form;
so that from its aspect the soul derives superlative delight, which no
tongue can express, and remains eternally without change, happy and
blissful in its contemplation. But if the soul has been iniquitous,
God appears to it under a strange and terrific figure, than which none
can be more repulsive and hideous, so that from terror it throws
itself from the heavens down, and becomes confined in dust. Among
these sectaries was a man called _Pawn Pishna_, exceedingly pious. Of
this saint’s miracles they relate that, having jumped upon a stone,
the trace of his foot remained impressed upon it, and now they perform
pilgrimages to it. They say further that, when this perfect man
reaches the term of his life, he convokes the people about him, and
out of the crowd he chooses one, to whom in their presence he delivers
his books and his effects, and says: “I will come to thy house;” after
that, his soul leaves the body, which is buried according to their
customs. The wife of this guardian then brings forth a son, whose
tongue develops itself so as to speak in one year, or sooner; he
convokes witnesses, and in their presence he takes the things which
are counted to him by the guardian, to whom he then remits them again,
and utters not a word until the _usual_ age of speech. When he attains
the period of adultness, he takes the state of a durvish. They say
that such an elect man comes into the world for the conversion of
wicked men. These sectaries have temples of idols, which they call
_Chetharten_,[481] and in which they perform their worship. According
to their custom, when a man has two sons, he destines one of them to
become a durvish; and the king himself, having two sons, makes one of
them a durvish. They believe that there are two mansions; the first of
this, the second of the other, world; the son who becomes a durvish
takes possession of the latter, the son who associates with people of
business acquires the portion of the nether world; when the body of
the father and mother become weak and tottering from age, it is the
worldly son who tenders them his services; but when the soul of the
parents separates from the body, it devolves upon the son who is a
durvish to serve them. When a great number of such young durvishes
assembles, then the son of the king, or of any other chief becomes
their head, and they go to _Bármîánek_, which is a magnificent temple
of theirs. When they return from this pilgrimage, they become _Lámas_,
that is, _Hájís_, “pilgrims.” The Lámas abstain from eating flesh and
from women, and keep remote from all worldly affairs; they wear their
hair entangled, and eat from the skull of a man; they carry joints of
human hands filed together upon a string, instead of a rosary;[482]
and instead of horns for trumpets, they keep bones of human
forearms;[483] they say: “We are dead; and dead men have nothing to do
with the things of the living.”

  “We are gone, and we took a separate corner of a sepulchre,
   That our bones might not be a burden to any body’s shoulder.”

This class of men have not their equals in enchantments, juggling,
spells, and magic. Their king, if his mother be not of royal blood, is
by them called _Arghún_, and not considered their true king; whoever
of this sect belongs to the worldly people, does not abstain from
killing animals, eating flesh and meats forbidden by religion, and
associates with every body in eating. When the author of this book
conversed with a learned man of this sect by means of an interpreter,
whenever a question about some subtilty occurred, the translator could
not always by his interpretation satisfy him.

     “Without possessing the tongue, it is strange to make a
        friend by means of the tongue.”


     [480] (T)_kon_(M)_tchog_, “the chief of the rarity, the
     rarest being, God.”――(Dict. Tibetan and English, by
     Alexander Csoma de Körös, p. 66, col. 2, l. 13.)

     [481] [(M)_tchod_-(R)_ten_, “a chapel, a temple.”――(Dict. of
     Csoma de Körös.)

     [482] We find in a treatise entitled “The Sage and the
     Fool,” making part of the Kahgyur, one of the principal
     religious works of the Tibetans, that a brahman, not
     satisfied with his disciple, and desirous of causing his
     ruin, gives him the following advice: “Keep thyself pure
     during seven days; cut off the heads of a thousand men; take
     a single finger of each, to make thyself a rosary; and thou
     shalt undoubtedly, after thy death, be born again in the
     substance of Brahma.”――(See Mr. Schmidt’s Tibetan Grammar.)

     [483] We read in “Turner’s Embassy to Tibet,” that, at a
     religious ceremony, a priest played a sort of flute made of
     the bone of a man’s leg.――(French Transl., p. 61.)

            *     *     *     *     *

     The last four notes have been obligingly furnished to me by
     M. Foucaud, professor of the Tibetan language in Paris.





CHAPTER IV.


From the book _the Dabistán_, a short account of the religion of the
Yahuds, contained in two sections.

_Section the first_, the information received from the tongue of
Mohammed Sâíd Sarmed.

_Section the second_, upon the translation of the page of Adam, which
is the beginning of the book of Moses (the Pentateuch).


SECTION THE FIRST.――The author of this book never happened to have
intercourse with learned and distinguished men among the Yahuds; and
he set no value upon what he found in the books of foreigners about
their religion: because envy is a corrosion and a fire, which attacks
the enemy. But in the year of the Hejira 1057 (A. D. 1647), when I
came to Hyder abad, I contracted friendship with _Mohammed Sâid
Sarmed_, who was originally from a family of learned Yahuds, of a
class whom they call Rabánián (Rabbins); after an investigation into
the faith of the Rabbins and the perusal of the Mosaic books, he
became a Muselman; he read the scientific works of the wise men of
Iran, such as Mulla Sader, and Mír Abu-’l Kásem, of Kazer sak, and
many others: at last, for the sake of commerce, he undertook by sea
the voyage to Hindustan. When he arrived in the town _Tata_,[484] he
fell in love with a Hindu boy, called Abhi Chand, and, abandoning all
other things, like a Sanyási, naked as he came from his mother, he sat
down before the door of his beloved. The father of the object of his
love, after having found by investigation the purity of the attachment
manifested for his son, admitted Sarmed into his house, and the young
man too met him with an equal affection, so that he could no more
separate from him, and he read the book of Moses, the psalms of David,
and other books with Sarmed. The following verses are the composition
of this young Hindu:

  “I submit to Moses’ law; I am of thy religion, and the guardian of
     thy way:
        I am a Rabbi of the Yahuds, a Kafir, a Muselman.”

The learned rabbis say, according to their belief, among the sons of
Israel it was not required that women should wear a dress, and Sarmed
said that Ishâiá, the prophet, himself used to go naked in his last
days. Sarmeda was a good master of poetry. Here follow some of his
verses:

                         RABAAI, QUATRAIN:

  “Sarmed, whom they intoxicated from the cup of love,
   Whom they called, exalted, and depressed,
   Asked for wine, worship of God, and wisdom:
  (But) they intoxicated him, and made him a worshipper of idols.”

In the praise of the prophet, we find what follows:

                             QUATRAIN:

  “O thou, by whose cheek is wounded the mind of the red rose,
   Internally is the whole blood of the heart, externally the red rose;
   Thou camest so late after Joseph, who was in the garden expecting
     thee,
   That the rose (of his cheek) became first yellow (from vexation)
     and at last (from pleasure) a red rose.”

                         ANOTHER QUATRAIN:

  “This existence has, without the azure sphere, no reality,
   This existence is confined; for, except the absolute being, nothing
     has reality.
        Is God ever in vain? No! God is not in vain.
   This existence is real only with respect to its origin, but whatever
     is derived has no reality.”

                         ANOTHER QUATRAIN:

  “When God weighed in the balance of destiny with the sun,
   The being endowed with every excellence, _Muhammed_,
   This was so heavy that it moved not from its place;
   The other was so light that it flew up to heaven.”

                            A DISTICH.

       “Sarmed, who is a nightingale, has no desire of gold;
   (But) his friend is the rose, and the rose has need of a handful
     of gold.”

                         ANOTHER DISTICH.

  “In the Kâbah and in the idol temple is his stone _the symbol of male
     energy_, and his is _the symbol of female productiveness_;[485]
   In one place it is the black stone _of the temple of Mecca_; in
     another place an idol of the Hindus.”

In the eulogy of Shaikh Mohammed Khan, who was the chief minister of
the illustrious Dara, Sultan Abed Ullah Kat´eb, we find the
following quatrain:

  “O thou, who art the circumference of greatness to the centre of
     the throne!――
   Thou, to whose service a hundred persons are devoted, as is the
     firmament _to the universe_――
   Make thou to me, who am a stranger, my evening equal to midday,
   If at the side of Kateb[486] thou art as happy as at midday.”

The Shaikh desired the society of Sarmed. The author of this book was
one day among the persons present; he said to one called Jerán, who
made the eulogy of the Shaikh: “In a short time the Shaikh will, with
whatever he may have acquired, turn towards the voyage of the other
world, and Mîr Mohammed Sâid Mîr will take complete possession of the
dignity of government;” and the same year the Shaikh undertook to set
out _for Mecca_ from Hyderabad. In the year of the Hejira 1059 (A. D.
1649), in the harbor of Fahardanish, he passed from this bodily ark to
the circle of freedom. Hafiz says:

  “The paradise of eternity is in this cell the share of the durvishes;
   The Kâbah of the universe is the dominion of the durvishes;
   O my heart, be there with reverence: for the sultan and the country
   All are in the service of the majesty of the durvishes.”

Sarmed gave the information that, according to the Yahuds, God, the
Almighty, is corporeal; and that his body is after the image of
mankind, and similar to it; that, during the course of time, he is
dispersed in the same manner as splendor is dissipated. Sarmed
moreover said, that it is mentioned in the Mosaic book and in the holy
writings, that the spirit of the divine body is beauty itself, and
manifests itself under a human form; that punishment and recompense of
the other world are already experienced in this state; that life lasts
one hundred and twenty years; after that, man’s whole life may be
considered as one day, which, when he dies, is followed by night; that
his body assumes partly the form of a mineral, partly that of a
vegetable, and partly that of an animal, and the like; when one
hundred and twenty years have elapsed, night comes to an end, and the
morning appears again; if an atom of his bodily dust be in the east
and another atom in the west, they unite in one place, and life is
renewed to last again one hundred years, as we have said, when night
returns. Punishment and recompense are solely for this world. They
maintain that whatever is, bears eternally the form of mankind,
composed of water and earth.

The Yahuds agree in denying the appearance of _Aisia_ (Jesus) _as a
prophet_; they say that he was a deceiver; and they reject what the
_Aisuyan_, “Christians,” adduce from the Old Testament about the
appearance of Aísya; they maintain that the prophet Ishâía spoke of
himself the words[487] which have been applied to Aísya. They assert
that Ibrâhím was no prophet, but a holy man, and they esteem a holy
man higher than a prophet. They say that, in the Mosaic book, no
mention is made of Pharâún’s pretensions to be a god; but they relate
that this king was a tyrant who oppressed the children of Israel,
wherefore Musiâ (Moses) rose, and protested against his tyranny. As
Pharâún did not attend to his words, he met with his fate. They also
say that it is not to be found in the sacred book that Harun (Aaron)
was joined to Musiâ in the divine mission, although he acted as his
substitute. They agree in saying that Dáúdâ (David) sent Urîa to be
killed, because the king coveted the possession of that man’s wife,
whom he took afterwards, and hence Solíman was begotten. They further
insist that Aísia was no prophet, as the Nazaréans believe. Dáudâ
said: “My hands and feet will fall, and my bones have been counted;”
all this was fulfilled at the time when Aísia suffered death; but they
assert that Dáúda spoke those words of himself, and in such manner all
things which the Nazáréans set forth about Aísia, the Yahuds interpret
clearly in another sense. It is besides written in their sacred book
that, when the children of Isráîl shall perform iniquitous acts,
Muhammad will appear. About this, Sarmed said that, although the name
of the prophet is in the sacred book, yet another meaning may more
evidently be attached to it; but if even the prophet’s very name be
insisted upon, it has no other import but that it exhorts the children
of Isrâíl to convert themselves to his religion, and, in such an
endeavour, carried beyond all bounds, he said many other things.

The Yahuds receive no stranger into their community; circumcision is
the law of their prophet, not that of others. They say also that a
prophet is always living and present, to be the propagator of the law
which is contained in the sacred book. _Abhî Chand_, having translated
a part of the Mosaic book, the author of this work revised it with
Sarmad; they corrected it completely, affixed their mark to it, so
that it became a correct copy, from which is the following:

       *     *     *     *     *

SECTION THE SECOND: ON THE BOOK OF ADAM.

The Dabistan gives here a Persian translation of the Genesis, from the
beginning to chapter VI, verse 8; at the end of which the author says
that this is the only portion of the sacred book of the Jews which he
had an opportunity of examining. According to Eichhorn (see Einleitung
in das alte Testament, 4th edit., vol. II. p. 329) the five books of
Moses were translated into Persian by the rabbi Jacob, son of Joseph,
after the ninth century; the translation contained in the Dabistan is
said to have been executed by Abhi Chand; we cannot say whether it was
made from the Hebrew original, or from the Arabic, or any other
language. We are informed by the baron Hammer-Purgstall (see
Gemaldesaal moslimisher Herrsher, p. 57) that Werka ben Nafil, a
cousin of Khadija, Muhammed’s wife, and a Christian priest, translated
the Old and New Testament from the Hebrew into Arabic; this
translation appears however to have been but little known. Eichhorn
says (loco citato, p. 231), that the first certain traces of a
translation of the Hebrew sacred books into Arabic are to be found in
the tenth century. Pocock mentions (pp. 34, 361) Sâadias, a learned
Jew, who lived from 892 to 941 A. D., as translator of all the books
of the Old Testament into Arabic; and another Jew (not named) who made
a version of the book of Kings into the same language.

The Persian translation of the fragment under our consideration was
revised by the author of the Dabistan, and by Sarmed, who was a Jew
and a Rabbin, converted to Muhammedism, most probably in the first
half of the seventeenth century. As it was undoubtedly executed from
another original copy than that which had served to the translators in
Europe, it appeared interesting enough to examine whether the Persian
version of the Dabistan differs in any material point from the
translations known in Europe. For that purpose I have consulted the
following copies of the Bible:

  I. The polyglot Bible, printed at Paris, 1645, in which I
     chiefly compared the Arabic translation.

  II. The Persian translation, published by the Bible Society
     in 1825.

  III. The German Bible, translated by Martin Luther.

  IV. The English Bible, appointed to be read in Churches, 1837.

  V. The English translation from the original Hebrew, by John
     Bellamy, 1818.

  VI. The French translation from the original Hebrew, by S.
     Cahen, 1831.

  VII. The French translation, by Messrs. Glaire and M. Frank,
     1835.

Here follow some variations which I have remarked in the Persian
translation compared with the text of the versions just enumerated.
(References are made to the respective copies, by repeating the Roman
numbers prefixed to each.)


GENESIS, CHAP. I.

  V. 2. II. III. IV. V. VI. read: “the spirit of God;” I. the
    Arabic translation has “the winds of God;” VI. “un vent
    violent (divin) agitait la surface des eaux;” the Dabistan,

     وباد خدا مى وزيد بہ روي آب

    “And the _wind of God_ blew upon the face of the water.”

  VV. 6. 7. 8. I. the Arabic translation has جلد, _jeld_, “a
    skin, a volume;” II. پرده, _perdah_, “veil, curtain, fence;”
    both Arabic and Persian, only figuratively “heaven;” III.
    German, “veste;” IV. English, and VI. French, “firmament;” V.
    English, “expanse;” VII. French, “étendue” (atmosphere); the
    Dabistan رفيعه, “an elevation.”

  V. 26. V. Mr. Bellamy objects to the translation of this verse
    by the words: “Let us make man in our image” (in which all
    the other versions agree), and he substitutes for it: “We
    will make man;” in the Dabistan we find, in support of Mr.
    Bellamy, بكنم آدم, “I will make man.”


CHAP. II.

  V. 6. All the translations have: “a vapor _watered_ the face of
    the earth;” the Dabistan says: “covered, decked.”

  V. 7. All the copies agree in: “he breathed _into his nostrils_
    the breath of life;” the Dabistan translates: “into his body.”

  V. 8. Every where we read: “God planted a garden _eastward in
    Eden_;” in the Dabistan: “from old times in Eden;” Mr. Cahen
    remarks that Onkelos (a Hebrew commentator before our era)
    interprets in the same manner: “in former times.”

  V. 11. We read generally: “Pison: _that is it which compasseth
    the whole land of Havilah, where there is gold_;” Messrs.
    Glaire and Frank add: “l’or _de ce nom_;” in the Dabistan:

     زمين حوملارا کہ آنجاست بلور و سذك يشب

    “The land Havemla, where there is the beryl (also crystal)
    and the stone jasper (especially a whitish kind found on
    mount Imaus).”

  V. 12. is not in the Dabistan.

  V. 13. In the Dabistan are omitted, after the name of Gihon,
    the words: “the same is it that compasseth the whole land of
    Ethiopia.”

  V. 14. The Dabistan reads, after the name of the river Hîdîkel,
    رونده پيش طايفه يشراو, “running towards the _people of
    Ashur_;” other versions have “towards the east of Assyria.”

  V. 23. VII. Messrs. Glaire and Frank translate: “qu’elle soit
    nommée _Ischâ_ (femme), parce qu’elle a été tirée de _Ish_”
    (homme). This analogous derivation for man and woman does not
    exist in other languages; we find however, in the old Latin,
    _vir_ and _vira_, which words are used in the Latin
    translation of the Samaritan text; in the Arabic version we
    find امرعه for “virago,” and امريه for “virilitas;” the
    translator, in the Dabistan, endeavored to reproduce the same
    derivation, by _ânsán_ and _ânsn_:

     از ابراي همين كَفته ميشود انسان كه كرفته شده است ار اسن

  V. 24. The version in the Dabistan deviates from the other
    translations by the word
          ميخسپند بزنش
    “he will _sleep_ with his wife,” instead of “cleave unto, or
    adhere to, his wife.”


CHAP. III.

     Offers no variation to be pointed out.


CHAP. IV.

  V. 13. The translation in the Dabistan deviates from IV. VI.
    VII. which have: “my _punishment_ is greater than I can
    _bear_;” it agrees with I. II. III. and V. which say: “great
    is my _iniquity_ to be _forgiven_;”

        بزرك است كناه من از برداشتن

  “Great is my _crime_ to be _overlooked_” (disregarded).

  V. 16. There is coincidence between I. II. III. IV. VI. and
    VII. which have: “he dwelt in the land _of Nod_, on the east
    of Eden.” V. Mr. Bellamy translates: “he dwelt in the land
    _wandering_ eastward of Eden;” in the Dabistan:

       نشيست در زمين اواركي ييش عدن

    “He dwelt in the land of vagrancy, before Eden.”


CHAP. V.

  V. 25. All translations have: “Methuselah lived _a hundred
    eighty and seven_ years, and begat Lamech;” in the Dabistan
    we read only “eighty-seven years.”

  V. 27. All versions agree in the words: “All the days of
    Mathuselah were _nine hundred sixty and nine_ years;” in the
    Dabistan we find: “the whole life of Manusalah was eight
    hundred and fifty-nine years” (according to its own text it
    ought to be 869).

  V. 30. According to all versions: “Lamech lived after he begat
    Noah _five hundred ninety and five_ years;” according to the
    Dabistan, only “five hundred years.”

  V. 31. Pursuant to all translations: “the days of Lamech were
    _seven hundred seventy and seven_ years;” pursuant to the
    Dabistan: “six hundred eighty and two years.”


CHAP. VI.

  V. 3. In the Dabistan we read: “My spirit shall not always
    _take patience_ with man;” other versions have: “shall not
    always remain,” or “strive with man.”

  V. 5. is omitted in the Dabistan.

The notice given in the Dabistan of the opinions of the Jews will be
found very incomplete and inaccurate, inasmuch as it is exhibited
without a due distinction of the different Jewish sects, to which they
may be attributed. For a far better account of the Jews, see that of
Makrisi, given in the “Chrestomathie arabe” of Silvestre de Sacy (vol.
I. pp. 284-369), with the various explanatory notes of that celebrated
orientalist.


     [484] Tata is a town belonging to the Amírs of Sind, the
     capital of a district of the same name, and situated near
     the banks of the Indus about 130 miles, by the course of the
     river, from the sea; lat. 22° 44´ N. long. 68° 17´
     E.――(Hamilton’s _East India Gazetteer_.)

     [485] See pp. 152-153.

     [486] _Katéb_, the name of the sultan, signifies the north
     pole; hence the author plays with the words _kateb_,
     “north,” _naśif nahar_, “midday,” and _shám_, “evening.”

     [487] The author leaves us in a total uncertainty about the
     words to which he alludes; if to those of Isaiah, chap.
     LIII, vv. 2-12, the prophet would have predicted his own
     sufferings. According to the learned Jew, Isaac Orobio (see
     _Israel vengé, ou Exposition naturelle des Prophéties que
     les Chrétiens appliquent à Jésus, leur prétendu Messie_),
     the words of Isaiah, chap. LIII, are not to be referred to a
     single individual, but to the whole people of Israel.




CHAPTER V.


Of the religion of the Tarsá[488], containing three sections.

  _Section I_――an account of the Lord Aisíá (Jesus).
  _Section II_――of the creed of the Nasárá.
  _Section III_――of the works of the Tarsá.

Of the Tarsá I saw several learned individuals, such as the Padrî
Fransaî, who is highly esteemed by the Portuguese in Goa, and by those
who are in Surat, a maritime place in India. In the year of the Hejira
1057 (A. D. 1647) the author of this book found him in the port of
Surat.


SECTION THE FIRST: AN ACCOUNT OF THE LORD AISIA (JESUS).――They say
that the birth of the Lord Mesîah took place in the year 3199 of the
creation of the world,[489] 2957 after the deluge of Noah,[490] 2015
years after the birth of Ibráhím,[491] and 1510 from the coming of
Mosîah (Moses);[492] and when the children of Israél were in the 65th
week, which the prophet Dáníel had announced, 752 years after the
building of Rome,[493] in the 42nd year of the reign of Cæsar
_Tiberius_. When Aísía appeared, the high priest said: “We charge
thee, upon thy oath by the living God, say, art thou the son of God?”
The blessed and holy Lord Aísîâ replied to him: “I am what thou hast
said. Verily, we say unto you, you shall see the son of man seated at
the right hand of God, and he shall descend in the clouds of heaven.”
They said: “Thou utterest a blasphemy, because, according to the creed
of the Yahuds, God never descends in the clouds of heaven.” Ishâîá the
prophet has announced the birth of Aîsîá in words the translation of
which is as follows: “A branch from the root of Ishaî shall spring up,
and from this branch shall come forth a flower in which the spirit of
God shall dwell: verily, a virgin shall be pregnant and bring forth a
son.” Isháî is the name of the father of Dávid. When they had
apprehended Aisîa, they spit upon his blessed face and smote him.
Ishâa had predicted it: “I shall give up my body to the smiters, and
my cheek to the diggers _of wounds_; I shall not turn my face from
those who will use bad words, and throw spittle upon me.” When Aflátes
(Pilatus), a judge of the Yahuds, scourged the Lord Aîsiâ in such a
manner that his body from head to foot became but one wound, so was it
as Ishâía had predicted: “He was wounded for our transgressions; I
struck him for his people.” When Pilatus saw that the Yahuds insisted
upon the death and the crucifixion of Jesus, he said: “I take no part
in the blood of this man; I wash my hands clean of this blood.” The
Yahuds answered: “His blood be on us and on our children.” On that
account, the Yahuds are oppressed and curbed down, in retribution of
their iniquities. When they had placed the cross upon the shoulder of
Aísiá, and led him to die, a woman wiped with the border of her
garment the face, full of blood, of the Lord Aîsîa; verily, she
obtained three images of it, and carried them home: the one of these
images exists still in Ispániah, in the royal town which is situated
within the country of the king of Portugal; and is shown there twice
every year:[494] the other is in the town of Milan, in the country of
Italy, and the third in the city of Rome.


     [488] _Tarsa_ is derived from _tarsiden_, “fearing, timid, a
     Christian, an infidel, a pagan, a worshipper of fire.”

     [489] Upon the epoch of the creation of the world we have,
     according to Riccioli, 70, according to Dortous de Mairan,
     75 or 90, and according to the marquis de Fortia d’Urban,
     108 different systems, to which many more may be added.
     These epochs vary from 6984 to 3619 years; that of the
     Dabistan, 3199, is the lowest known to me.

     [490] The deluge is placed:
           By the Septuaginta       2250 years before Christ.
             ――   Archbishop Usher  2348  ――     ――     ――
             ――   Others            3882  ――     ――     ――

     [491] The above epoch differs 94 years from that given by
     Archbishop Usher, viz.: 1921 years before Christ.

     [492] The above epoch differs 19 years from that given by
     Archbishop Usher, viz.: 1510 years before Christ.

     [493] The date of the birth of Christ, as given by our
     chronologers, varies from 747 to 754 years after the
     building of Rome, or is uncertain within seven or six years
     (see Chronologie de Jésus-Christ par M. le marquis de
     Fortia, p. 102-103, Paris, 1830).

     [494] The viscount of Santarem, to whose most extensive
     learning in history and geography, I fortunately had an
     opportunity in Paris of applying for information upon the
     above mentioned fact, gave me the following notice: “In no
     town of Portugal do I find any indication of the existence
     of these relics. I think that there is, in the statement of
     the Dabistán, an error and a confusion with the fact related
     by Brandâo, in 1643, viz.: the famous Portuguese prince don
     Pietro, son of John I., having, on his return from Jerusalem
     to Spain, in 1428, married in the town of Alcoba in
     Catalonia, the countess Isabella, daughter of D. Jayme,
     count of Urgel, gave to the bishop of Valenza an image of
     our Saviour, taken by St. Veronica. These relics were still
     preserved in the cathedral of Valenza in Spain, called by
     distinction ‘the royal town,’ in the year 1643.” It was a
     few years after this (see p. 305), that the author of the
     Dabistán might have received from father Francia, the
     Portuguese missionary, the account above stated.

       *     *     *     *     *

SECTION THE SECOND: OF THE CREED OF THE AI SU YAH (CHRISTIANS). They
say that, in the name of God the Father, God the Son, and of the Holy
Ghost, every one ought to bear in his heart and to keep perpetually on
his tongue the Lord Jesus, the Son of God, and never to deny him, if
even it were at the peril of his head.[495] The holy cross is the sign
of the Christians. They reckon fourteen parts of their creed: seven of
which relate to God the Almighty, and seven to the human nature of the
Lord Jesus. The first seven are as follow: 1. to confess that God is
omnipotent and supreme; 2. to believe that he is the Father; 3. to
believe that he is the Son; 4. that he is a pure spirit; 5. that he is
the Creator; 6. that he bestows heaven; 7. that he grants
salvation.[496] The seven other articles, which relate to the human
nature of Jesus are the following: 1. to believe that he is the Son of
God, by the power of the Holy Ghost, born in the body of Maria; 2.
that he was born of Maria, the virgin, and without detriment to her
virginity; 3. that for our sake he was crucified, died, and was
buried; 4. that he shall descend from heaven, and raise up the former
generations, who there anxiously expected his blessed arrival; 5. that
he resuscitated on the third day; 6. that he ascended to heaven, and
sits at the right hand of the Father, the omnipotent and supreme God;
7. that he shall come at the end of the world to judge the living and
the dead, and to reveal their good and bad actions. They call God a
father, because he is bountiful to his servants as a father to his
children. They maintain that, although God has three different
persons, yet, in truth, he is but one being; in such a manner that the
persons are the Father, the Son, and the Holy Ghost, without the unity
of the blessed entity being affected by it, and this peculiarity
belongs to the divinity; in no creature is such an attribute to be
found. Jesus is in truth the Son of God; it is only metaphorically
that other holy personages are called the sons of God; it is in an
abstract sense,[497] inasmuch as, being God, that Jesus came forth in
heaven from the Father, not from the mother; in a similar manner, in
an abstract sense, inasmuch as, being a man upon earth, he has a
mother, but no Father. Jesus did not die, but, having a perfect love
for the sons of Adam, he sacrificed himself for the people, that they
may be liberated again from all sins. They say further, that below the
earth there are four places: the undermost of all is hell, which is
the place of severe punishment for the Satans and the iniquitous.
Another place, above this, is that which they call _purgatory_, that
is, a place of purification for good men, as some of the disobedient
who have rebelled, when they shall have there been purified, go to
heaven. A third place, higher than the last, is called the _limbus_,
in which are children under age; except that of being deprived of the
sight of the Lord Almighty, they are there exempt from all other
suffering. The fourth place is the most elevated of all; they call it
“the House of Ibrahîm,” that is, the dwelling of the souls of the
prophets and holy men: these were formerly not quite happy, because
they expected anxiously the arrival of the Saviour, the Lord Jesus;
when Jesus left the body which was buried, he descended to this fourth
place, and when he rose from the grave, he brought the pure souls with
him, leaving the souls in the three other places where they were.
When, after having been put to death, he was restored to life, his
soul was reunited to his body, and he remained forty days with his
disciples; he then, before their eyes and those of others, ascended to
heaven, and, in the highest place, seated himself at the side of God
Almighty. They declare: “When we say that Jesus is seated at the right
side of God, his Father, we mean not to say that God has a body and is
any thing corporeal. No! the Divine Being has neither right nor left
side. By such a description we intend to be intelligible _to the
vulgar_; for Jesus, in the abstract sense of being the son of God,
possesses the same greatness and power which his Father has, and in
the abstract sense of his being a man, he dwells in the most glorious
and most excellent place, which is in heaven.” They declare further:
“When we say that Jesus shall come on the last day of the world to
judge the dead and the living, and to give their due to all men, we
mean not to imply that all men will then be alive, but by the living
we denote the good men, and by the dead, the wicked.” Except
Christians, nobody else will be found pure and holy. On the day of
resurrection, all men shall live and their souls shall be reunited to
their bodies, and none will ever more die.


     [495] Here the author shows how the Latin word “_filius_” is
     to be written in Arabic or Persian characters.

     [496] Here the author shows how the Latin word “_Deus_” is
     to be written in Arabic or Persian characters.

     [497] I render here, by “abstract sense,” the Persian word
     حيثيت _hâysîyat_, which in the Dictionary is interpreted
     “ubiquity, universality, capacity, merit, conditional
     proposition, examination, etc.”

       *     *     *     *     *

SECTION THE THIRD: OF THE WORKS OF THE CHRISTIANS.――Ten commandments
are established in the Gospel; three of them relate to God, and seven
others to the servants of God: 1. thou shalt love the Lord thy God
above all things; 2. thou shalt not swear by the name of God for the
sake of an argument, that is, thou shalt accustom thyself to the
truth; when this quality shall be manifest in thee, thou wilt never
have occasion for an oath. The wise master of secrets, the king Naser
Khusró says:

     “At any time speak nothing else but truth, that thou mayst
        not have need of an oath.”

3. keep the holy days, that is the Sunday and the other sanctified
days; 4. honor thy father and thy mother; 5. thou shalt not kill: this
means, evidently, thou shalt not kill a living being at all; but they
have interpreted it that only the animal which is a _private_ property
ought not to be killed, such a one as is serviceable, and in life, or
after death, may be of use. The true sense is, that we ought not only
not to kill our brother (and such is any son of Adam), but even not
hurt him by any deed or word; 6. thou shalt not commit fornication,
that is, with a woman not thy own, be she married or without a
husband; 7. thou shalt not steal; 8. thou shalt not calumniate nor
lie: in this command enters that, if any thing bad concerning somebody
be a secret, although we know it as a certainty, we ought nevertheless
to keep it concealed, and not to divulge it, except the bad thing were
against religion and faith, or tended against the king; 9. thou shalt
not covet another’s wife; 10. thou shalt not covet another’s good.

The other five commandments, which are less imperative, are: 1. to
hear mass on Sunday, and on other holy days; and this is a rite of
devotion which a padri performs; and every body ought in solitude to
turn his whole mind towards the remembrance of the sufferings of
Jesus; 2. every one ought to go to confession at least once a year.
The confession implies three conditions: the first is truth; the
second, contrition; the third, completeness; that is, to recount
humbly one’s own sins without diminution or addition, to speak out,
and to beg absolution; 3. it is necessary that every one should take,
yearly, the communion at the Easter feast, that is, when Jesus
attained to manhood and made his testament, establishing the rule of
the holy sacrament, which is a worship; 4. let every man keep the fast
at Christmas, and other fasts, except a person be excused; 5. it is
obligatory to pay the tithes, that is, the tenth part of whatever
grows from the earth, or comes forth from an animal, is to be given to
God.

At the time of prayer, they say, God is to be invoked as our Father;
he loveth us just as a father loveth a son, and his own Son says and
orders that we should call him a father. We ought then to abstain from
sins, that he may enable us to be his children. And when we say to
God: “thou art in heaven,” it is because we think he has chosen
heaven, and for that reason we raise our hearts from the earth
upwards, if even God has no dwelling so as to be beheld in heaven.
Besides, in their prayer, they do not demand bread from God, because
he is displeased at our wanting to-day the necessaries of life for a
future day, but because he wills us to be contented, and to feel no
anxious care about to-morrow. They say, that we ought to pardon the
mischief that we receive from others, in order that God Almighty may
also pardon our transgressions. They offer likewise prayers in praise
of the glorious Mary, saying that the Lord God diffuses abundantly his
grace in any place in which the image of the blessed Lady Mary be
present. In the same manner they consider the image of the Lord Jesus,
and that of the holy cross.

There are seven sacraments, which consist in submissive prayers and
invocations for remission of sins from God the Almighty: 1. _Baptism_;
that is, an external ablution in the name of God, of his Son, and of
the Holy Ghost; for this act any sort of water that may be procured is
acceptable; by this act the soul is purified from the contamination of
all sins; this rite may be performed by the first padri who may be
present, and if none are at hand, by any individual among the
Christians; 2. _Confirmation_; that is, a friction with holy oil,
given in the name of God; and the giver, that is, a padri of
known merit, bestows it on all Christians of an adult age;
_Sanct-Eucharisty_: this, they say, is the holiest of all the
sacraments, as it presents the Lord Jesus under the form of bread,
that he may become the power of the soul. Three conditions are
required in this act: the first is a true faith; the second,
abstinence from sins; the third, to fast, and eat nothing until taking
the sacrament; the time of taking it is Christmas; 4. _Penitence_;
which consists of two conditions that the Lord Jesus has imposed
therein: the first is confession; that is the avowal made by the
sinner of his sins, and the absolution of the padri, as of one who is
the substitute of Jesus, and whose forgiveness is the absolution of
Jesus. Then, it is necessary that the sinner should give a detailed
account of his concealed and open crimes, and to this he must add two
things; the one is an aversion to, and a repentance of, every action
which he may have done without the approbation of God; the other is a
sincere resolution of never undertaking any blamable acts; to execute
faithfully the penance imposed upon him by the padri, as Jesus ordered
a return for every crime. Further, whatever sins, venial or capital,
may have struck the ear of the padri, he ought never, even at the
peril of his head, to reveal or publish them; 5. _Sacrament of extreme
unction_; this is a friction by which they anoint a Christian with
holy oil, and they bestow this sacrament with some words which the
Lord Jesus has spoken. The above five sacraments are obligatory to
every adult Christian; 6. _Ordination_; this sacrament is taken by
devoting one’s self by free choice to the worship of God, which
vocation the Christians recommend; 7. _Matrimony_; this is an
agreement which a man and a woman take together at the time of their
binding themselves in wedlock, that during the whole of their life
they will keep faith to each other. This is peculiar to the adults.
This act is allowable to women frequently at the age of twelve years;
to men at that of fourteen. The man is not permitted to take more than
one wife, and the woman is bound to a single husband. The padri who
gives this sacrament, after having ascertained that there is no
objection to the marriage, and the compact being made before
witnesses, unites both to each other in wedlock according to the
conditions of matrimony.

The Christians say that faith is something by which we know a religion
to be certainly true, and that, whenever God, the Almighty, has sent
his message, however hard and difficult, and out of the natural mode
and rule it may appear, we know that God cannot tell a lie. The truth
is found in the book of God, by means of the evidence given by him who
is the substitute of the Lord Jesus, and whom they call _Pope_. It is
certain that he throws nobody into an error, because the Lord Jesus
has in the holy Gospel, made an arrangement with him to that effect.
It should be known that the life of man depends upon these laudable
qualifications. To search and to acquire knowledge is a laudable
intention, in every business and profession; on that account it is by
method and virtue that affairs find a proper arrangement; knowledge is
the master of things; it is like salt in meat, it is the eye of the
body; and as the sun in heaven. _Justice_ consists in using moderation
in the manifold transactions of men, and in keeping men in peace and
in mutual satisfaction: if therefore every body were contented with
his share, and entertained no desire for more, there would be no war
and contention. _Fortitude_ is something by means of which one obtains
superiority over the difficulties which obstruct the life of men, and
the business of fortitude is to triumph over terror and fear, which
Iblis (Satan) throws into the heart, in order to retain us from acts
which are to be done. _Continence_ is a faculty which bestows measure
and order in sensual pleasures; the business of continence is to
prevent men from being carried away by the delights of the world; we
ought to tend in this life towards godliness; blessed are those who
feel hunger and thirst after God. It is required that, in our devotion
to God there enters no other desire but that of the beatitude to see
the Divine Being; on that account blessed are those whose hearts are
pure, because the sight of God shall be their reward in heaven, and
even in this world they shall in a certain way see God: because those
whose eyes are pure, behold things of _superlative_ beauty; it is
required that we carry strife to a peaceful end, and accomplish our
virtuous endeavors. Those who are in a state of opposition to this,
take with efforts and struggles the road of misery. On that account
blessed are the peace-makers, for they shall be called the children of
God.

There are fourteen gifts of God, the all merciful; seven of them are
bodily, and seven spiritual. The seven bodily gifts are: 1. to satiate
the hungry; 2. to quench the thirst of the thirsty; 3. to clothe the
naked; 4. to harbor the stranger; 5. to inquire after the sick, and to
console the captive; 6. to procure liberty to prisoners; 7. to bury
the dead. The spiritual acts are as follow: 1. to instruct the
ignorant; 2. to advise the poor _in spirit_; 3. to comfort the heart
of the mourners; 4. to admonish the sinners; 5. to forgive injuries
inflicted; 6. to show forbearance to the deformities of nature; 7. to
offer pious prayers for the living and the dead. The Christians say
that every necessitous individual is worthy of charities, to whatever
religion or sect he may belong, but the person of the same faith, or a
relative, is more deserving of favor. It is a sin, when by choice we
perpetrate an action which is in opposition to the pleasure of God,
and when we abandon an act which we are commanded to perform. A
capital sin is it for a man, by his own choice, to commit an
abominable act and deed, such as the unrighteous spilling of blood,
and whoredom. Of venial sins seven are enumerated: such as stealing
some slight thing without a perfect concurrence of the will in it. The
summary of the capital sins is as follows: pride, avarice, lust,
anger, gluttony, envy, and sloth.

Pride consists in esteeming one’s self higher than others, whence
proceed petulance, which displays itself in vaunting one’s self and
despising others, and in dispute, and disobedience. The remedies to be
applied to it are trust, submission, and obedience to another; these
are suitable means by which the hateful mind may be subdued.

Avarice is a desire without measure of the brittle things of the
world, and the bad consequences which result from it are theft,
deception in buying and selling, lies, and perjury: the remedies for
it may be good works and liberality.

Lust is an unbounded desire of sensual pleasures; but the way and
scandalous display of it is the defilement of women: the remedy to be
sought for counteracting it is chastity.

Anger is a desire without measure of vengeance upon somebody, and the
display of it is hatred of God’s creatures, insulting speeches against
men, contentions, and a total want of mildness: the remedies for it
are patience, forbearance, and the reflection that, for our crimes and
shameful acts, we are deserving of the adversity which comes upon us,
and to keep before our sight the Lord Jesus and his apostles, who
showed nothing but mercy and kindness to those very men who caused
their distress and affliction.

Gluttony is a desire without measure of eating and drinking; the
offspring of this is sensuality, rejection of fasts, slowness in
worship, and all sorts of diseases ruining the body: the remedies for
this are abstinence, moderation in eating and drinking, in order that
a becoming attention to divine favor be excited, the constitution
restored to health, and a return from all extravagance accomplished.

Envy is a pain and sadness derived from the good condition of the
affairs of other people; whence proceeds the jealous intention to find
fault and occasion for detraction. It displays itself by rejoicing at
the distress of one’s neighbors, when related by other tongues, by
reviling certain people, and by leading an unprofitable life: the
remedy for it is affection for mankind on account of their being God’s
creatures, and to consider that happiness and welfare are bestowed
upon them by the mercy of God, and that it is an exceeding offence
against good morals to be afflicted on account of the works and
effects which result from _divine_ disposition.

Sloth is negligence in the worship of God and in good behaviour. It
displays itself by a frequent deficiency in laudable and obligatory
actions, and in always letting slip out of our hands the expedients of
spiritual and material life: the remedy for it is activity and
alacrity.

Hell is a place a worse than which cannot exist, and in this abode one
is imprisoned to all eternity, on account of commission of sins for
punishment, more severe than which none can be imagined. Heaven is a
place full of all sorts of delight; the happiness of this place
manifests itself for all ages by jubilation and pleasure.

Jesus told his disciples: “After me, a great number of men will set
forth pretensions to divine mission, but all will be deceivers: remain
you persevering and steady in your adherence to me, until my coming.”

The Gospel has been translated from the tongue of Jesus into different
languages; namely, into Arabic, Greek, Latin, which last is the
language of the learned among the Firang; into Syriac, and this all
men of letters know.




CHAPTER VI.

  Of the religion of the Muhammedans, or of the people of Islám (right
    faith), consisting of two sections: the first treats of the religion
    of the _Sonnites_, the second of the religion of the _Shiâs_.


SECTION THE FIRST: OF THE RELIGION OF THE SONNITES.――The author of
this book was informed by respectable persons of the Sonnites (the
mercy of God be upon them!) and saw in their books, namely, in the
doctrine presented by the imam _Mohammed Sheh eristanî_,[498] where it
is said, that in sign of revelation the verses of the high prophet
(upon whom be blessing!) show the right faith; that his religion will
divide into seventy and three sects,[499] and that of this number one
shall obtain salvation, and the rest shall share darkness and
perdition. It was asked: “Upon what people shall the sun of salvation
shine?” He answered: “It shall shine upon the people of the
_Sonat_[500] and _Jamáât_.”[501] It was further asked: “Who are the
people of Sonat[502] and Jamáât?” He said: “Those who walk the road
upon which I am to-day a traveller, and by which my successor shall
proceed.” The same book treats also of the _Sifátîah_,[503] a great
number of which sect has from all times acknowledged the greatness of
the divine nature, whose attributes are omniscience, power, life,
hearing, sight, providence, command, majesty, bounty, profuse
liberality, greatness, and magnificence; they make no difference
between the _essential attributes_ and the _attributes of operation_;
because in logic, according to their definition of the words, both
these attributes are but one; they maintain that some of the
attributes are proclaimed by the evidence of the blessed revelation;
and these they call _attributes declarative_: for instance, the hand,
the countenance; these they do not interpret in a particular sense,
but they say, these attributes are found mentioned in the sacred book,
on which account these attributes are called _declarative_. Whereas
the sect called the _Mâtazalah_[504] deny the attributes, and the
ancients maintain them by arguments; the latter are called _Sifátiah_,
and the Mâtezalah are entitled _Mâtalah_; but these last employ
exaggeration in their arguments to such a degree that they approach
the boundary of a mere image. Some use more restriction with respect
to the attribution, which is indicated by the actions _of God_.
Information derived from the sacred book devolved equally to both
sects; but some interpret these words in a manner that they may appear
probable, whilst others are firm in their interpretation, saying: “We
know by the application of the intellect that nothing can be like the
Lord’s divine power, and that at all times nothing of what is created
can be like him, and firmly convinced of it, we think these words are
to be considered as a mere simile, such as: ‘_God seated upon his
throne_,’ or such as ‘_I created you with my hand, and I preserve
you_.’ Except these words, which are to be considered as a mere
simile, we know no other meaning, and to know _thoroughly_ the meaning
and interpretation of it, we feel ourselves perplexed; but, in spite
of this perplexity, we deny the likeness of the created beings and the
Creator, on account of the extent of the divine power.”

The sect called _Jamáâtî_, which belongs to the moderns, amplified
what the ancients had maintained, and said, that necessarily an
evident sense is to be ascribed to these words, and by means of a
commentary an agreement was obtained upon the proper bearing which the
text of the sacred book has, so that we may without difficulty
interpret it, or establish the evident meaning of it. They always fell
into a pure simile, and in such an acceptation, they are in opposition
to the ancients. Whatever, as a pure simile, is taken from the sacred
book of the Jews, this is also not received by all the Jewish tribes,
although the readers of the Koran, having found some such words in the
Old Testament, employ the simile as an argument, and in this belief
are the _Shîâh_. Some fell upon the side of excess, and some upon that
of deficiency; but others of the sect, which by exaggeration[505]
exceeded all bounds, declared as vain any comparison with the Lord
Almighty, whilst the sect which happened to take the side of
deficiency and error compared something which is created to the Lord
God. When the _Mâtazalah_ and the _Matakalmán_,[506] “scholastics,”
appeared, then some openly turned their face from exaggeration and
deficiency in which they were, and became _Mâtazalah_. And some of the
ancients, inasmuch as they attached themselves to the imagery of
certain words which are to be considered as a mere simile, fell into
an error; but the sect of the ancients in general did not oppose the
interpretation of those words, and made themselves no objects of
contention and blame on account of the simile. It was the example of
the theologians and of the Imáms of the right faith, the Imám _Ans_
Ebn _Málik_,[507] (the peace of God be upon him!) who said that the
words: “_God was seated upon his throne_,” are evident; the attribute
is unknown, and the faith to be placed in it is necessary. The
question thereupon being a novelty, and carried to such a state, the
Imáms _Ahmed Hanbal_[508] and _Dáúd Jśfaháni_,[509] (the mercy of God
be upon them!) and the Jamáâtî, who followed them, came to a final
conclusion, until the time of _Abd-Alah Kalabî_, and _Abî al Abas
Kalánasî_, and _Háres Jben Asad Mahásebi_.[510] Although these were of
the ancients, it happened that, by devoting themselves to scholastic
theology, they became inflamed with it, but were not able to expound
the creed of the ancients; in such a manner as to impart, by means of
arguments, clearness to the fundamentals of theology, and their fervor
and activity became doubled and increased, until by the intervention
of the Shaikh _Abu ’l Hasen Asharî_[511], and by his instruction in
the precepts of rectitude and perfection an opposition appeared, and a
dispute arose, and enmity displayed itself. Ashâri inclined to their
side, and by opening roads to the fundamentals of theology, he lent
strength to their endeavors, and this creed became the religion of the
_Sonnites_ and the _Jamáât_. The title of _Sifátíah_, which they bore
as a title of honor, was changed, and they called themselves _Ashârî_.
As the _Ashârîáh_ and _Keramiah_[512] are among the establishers of
the divine attributes, they are acknowledged as two sects of the
totality of the Sifátîah. The principal point among the precepts of
the Ashârîs is, that every being that may _really_ exist must be
perfect, that it may answer its own purpose; perfection is a necessity
of existence, and the Lord Almighty is the _real_ being: the necessity
of the Lord God is always right, and the law by him is a salvation
acquired, so that the faithful believers shall in the other world, by
a beneficent necessity, become exalted:

     “God said: ‘Some countenances shall on that day look towards
        their Lord.’”[513]

They say besides, that if he gave access to heaven to all creatures,
or sent them to hell, it would not be unjust; because tyranny can be
exercised every where except in his empire. They maintain also, that
the office of an Imam becomes firm by union and election, not only by
manifestation and establishment: because, if there was manifestation,
it did not remain occult, and the excitements occasioned by the report
of it were abundant. Upon the plank of the children of Sáâdah[514]
they united to elect _Abubeker_; after having established Abubeker,
they chose _Omar_; and after consultation _Osman_, and afterwards
their choice fell upon _Alî_ (the blessing of God, the Highest, be
upon them all!). The order of their succession in the office of Imam
was according to the order of their excellence.

An example of what was said about the ancients is to be found among
the possessors of the sacred sayings, the Imam Ahmed Hanbal[515] and
Dáúd Ebn Ali Muhammed Jsfahánî[516] and the Jamáâtî of the ancients
(the blessing of God be upon them!) who proceeded as leaders upon the
high road of the ancients, such as Málik Ans and Makábil Ben Solîman,
and persevered upon the high road of peace, saying: “We made oath by
the book and the Sonna, and we were no opposers to the interpretation;”
therefore they placed confidence in the book of God, and the Sonnites
said: “We know that the Lord Almighty is not like any thing that is
created, and none of the created beings is like the Lord Almighty;”
and they were very careful of the simile, and said: “Whoever makes a
motion with his hand in reciting these words:

     ‘I created with my hands,’

“or extends his finger, repeating these words of the sacred sayings:

     ‘The heart of the believer is between two fingers of God the
        Merciful.’

“it shall be necessary to cut off his hand.” They said besides: ”We
persevere in the interpretation of it, because there is a remedy for
the heart, which remedy proceeded from the heavenly revelation;
namely,

       “They whose hearts are inclined to error will follow that
     which is parabolical therein (the Koran), out of love of
     schism and a desire of the interpretation thereof; yet none
     knoweth the interpretation thereof, except God. But they who
     are well grounded in knowledge say: ‘We believe therein the
     whole is from our Lord.’[517]

“And we are safe from doubt, and the interpretation of the command is
fixed in our thought; by common consent the word about the attributes
of God Almighty, interpreted according to opinion, is not to be
depended upon; it may sometimes happen that we interpret it contrarily
to the will of the Lord God; we always fall into doubt and some
deviation from truth; but we say what the men firm in knowledge say:
that the whole is from the Lord, the Almighty God; we manifested this
belief externally, and internally we acknowledged it as true; we
consign it to the Lord, the Almighty God, and we are not perplexed by
the abstruseness of this knowledge, because to possess it, is not
imposed upon us by the law of the faith.” Some have carried
scrupulousness to that degree, that they do not interpret in Persian
the words “hand, countenance, and strength;” but, like the _Hashaviyat
Ashâriah_, they enjoined that whatever is contained in the Koran about
strength, both hands, countenance, arrival, meeting, supremacy, and
the words in the sacred sayings, such as:

     “God created Adam after his own image.”

and other expressions therein of a similar sort, are to be read in the
very terms of the original, so that the words which there openly bear
upon solid bodies, are understood by them in such a manner as to
answer the belief of the religious sects and the attribution.

The author of this book heard, in the year of the Hejira 1048 (A. D.
1638) in the royal capital of Lahore, from _Mulla Adel_, of Kashghar,
that he (the Mulla) has read in the revered book of his faith, and
also the _lord Mawlána Abd al rahmen Jámî_[518] has stated, in his
noble verses, that by the right faith it is necessary to believe in
our heart, and to confess with our tongue, that the author of
existence is independant, absolute, and without wants; and that his
being is free of matter and without a form, and that he is better than
whatever can be imagined; he existed primitively whilst the beings
were in the mansions of nothingness; after which, as an object
everlasting, he remained firm, and no other being but he is always,
and one; but his greatness, his attributes, and his names are without
measure and number, although in a thousand parts he is but one; in
these however he is not confined; the qualities of his majesty are not
perceived by the eye; and no being but he has life inherent in his
qualities; but he lives neither by his spirit, nor breath, nor body,
although he be living by himself. He is another universe, endowed with
such a knowledge that the world has no superiority over him, and his
omniscience comprehends the totalities and the parts, the inhabitants
and the places, and the town of existence, in such a manner that not a
grain of sand is without his knowledge; he is the author of every
thing by his will, and the actions of all things may be voluntary,
such as the doings of mankind; or natural, such as the inclination of
a stone, and are all produced by his will.

  “Not a thorn pricks without his will;
   Not a thread is broken without his direction.”

He is strong, and possesses a perfect power; without the help of
instruments he performs every thing; from nothingness he brings forth
beings; he hears without an ear; he sees without an eye:

  “He hears the petition from afar and near:
   He sees, be there light or darkness.”

He speaks, but his speech comes not from his throat, nor from the
tongue and the palate; but what he announces or withholds is nothing
more than his speech; and his silence is eloquence.

  “When God, the Almighty, without words and letters
   Spoke to nothingness sublime mysteries,
   Nothingness was moved by delight at these speeches,
   Dancing through the area of existence.”

The emergencies of the world, good or bad, are all from his
disposition; and the actions pleasing or repulsive, are all his
creation.

  “The good and evil, if they be the necessities of predestination,
   The one is contrary, the other conformable, to his pleasure.
   He does what he likes, and knows of no hinderance nor favor;
            Who is possessed of power like his?
            Justice and virtue tend towards him,
            Injustice is foreign to his actions.”

       *     *     *     *     *

AN ACCOUNT OF THE ANGELS.

The angels are neither females nor males, and are pure of all
depravity and sins. Some of the first rank among them are entranced in
the contemplation of the divine perfection which they witness, so that
they are not aware of God Almighty having created the world and
mankind. The second order of angels are the ministers of bodies and
gigantic forms; the revolution of the heavens is their office; and
with every drop of rain an angel comes down, and no leaf appears
without an angel fostering it. But among the angels four are
distinguished, namely: _Jabrîl_, _Isráfîl_, _Mâîkáíl_, and _Azráîl_.
The message of revelation is the business of Jabrîl; to sound the
trumpet belongs to Isráfîl; the surety of professions is Mâikáil’s;
and Azráil seizes the souls. Four angels are the appointed guardians
of mankind, and write down the good and the bad; two of them are
occupied with this business during the day, and two during the night.
The writers of the good keep the right side, those of the bad the
left. The angels can in some form appear to men;

       “Especially to the eyes of the guides of the ways,
  From among the possessors of constancy,[519] the prophets and
    apostles.”

The prophets are the select of God from among all the children of Adam
and of the exalted angels, and the spirit of Satan can never hurt
them, if, by an extraordinary emergency, one of them commits a fault,
it is reckoned to be for giving good advice.

  “Adam, at the moment when he tasted wheat,[520]
   Received the seed for the propagation of mankind;
   From the grain which he ate sprang up a tree;
   Life in me and in thee is its fruit.”

Although there be among the prophets, as compared with each other, a
higher and a lower rank in their exaltation, yet Muhammed the Arabian
(may the blessing of God, the high and omnipotent, be upon him!) is
the noble and excelling prophet, who unites all virtues and
perfections.

  “Before the intelligent, there is no messenger
   But Muhammed for all mankind.”

He is the seal of God’s prophets, and after him no other shall come,
and when at the end of time the Messiah shall descend, he shall adopt
the law of Muhammed; he shall convoke the nations to his religion; the
law of the prophet shall cancel all other laws.

  “If the decision of the law of the sovereign (Muhammed) happens to be
        Corresponding with another law,
        There is no obedience whatever due to the latter,
   Except from the circumstance of its being right according to the
     law of the prophet.”

The ascent of the prophet[521] with his body happened during his being
awake, as far as the mosque _Aksa_; there he mounted on the back of
_Borák_,[522] and passed above the heavens. He saw all the prophets,
and the stories of the heavens and the hells; in the heavenly mansion
of Jabrîl (God be praised!) the angel remained behind him; then, by
means of the arch he proceeded further.

      “There was no confident but God;
  He saw what was to be seen, he heard what was to be heard;
  From thence he turned his face towards his dwelling;
  His place of repose had not yet become cold.”

If this supernatural event was associated with the claim of prophecy,
so was it a miracle, and if not, so was it divine favour; in the
existence of the Lord prophet (the blessing and peace of God be with
him) was a great number of miracles attesting his mission to the
nations, and such ones as are not to be found with other prophets.
There are many books attributed to God Almighty, and in their whole
number one hundred and four are approved; but they are not confined to
this number, and some of those which are known, are not praised.

            “Every book which God has sent,
  Is received by the believing as revealing God’s perfection.
  Such is the _Tawrit_ (the Old Testament) this book of the Merciful,
  Which by tradition and writing came to Ibrahim.
       Another is the Gospel, which came down
       By the Messiah, and the psalms by Dáúd.
       A summary of all these four is the Koran,
       Which Muhammed has composed,
       The sense and the text of which is a wonder.
       When the eloquent men of Arabia united
       Breathe enchantment into the sounds of words,
       They become weak, defective, and vile
       Altogether, in comparison with the shortest Súrah.”[523]

As the book of God contains divine words, it is ancient, and the
letters and sounds are new; the novelty of an old meaning is like a
dress.

       “If the dress be perpetually with the heart,
  How can the person who possesses the dress be disturbed?”

The Muhammedan religion is among the most excellent and most noble
religions, and the father of this religion, the prophet of Arabia, is
the best and the most eminent among the saints of the religions; there
is a number of prophets, particularly the friends and the posterity of
the prophet, but none is higher than he, the prophet.

       “Among them all there was, in truth,
  None more apt for the khalifat than Sidík (Abu beker);
  And to succeed him, there was among the noble
  None more worthy of the office than Fárúk (Omar);
  After Fárúk, from none more than Zo-ul Narain (Osman)
  Did the state of religion find ornament;
  After them all, by knowledge and faith,
  Was Asad Allah (Ali) the seal of the khalifs.[524]
  Do not bestow veneration upon other names but theirs;
  To none offer greater honors than to them.”

When thou findest one of the people of the Kibla (the true faith) in a
sin and fault, accuse him not of infidelity, and number him not among
the people of damnation; in like manner, consider not a fit and good
man, although he be removed from sins, as belonging to the inhabitants
of heaven.

       “Whoever is an unbeliever with a zunar,
   Do not consider him for certain as belonging to the inhabitants
     of hell.”

Having found the happy tidings that ten personages[525] have entered
into heaven, do not however include him in their number.

  “Because they are all formed of the pure offspring,
   They received also the happy tidings of going to heaven.”

When any body is placed in the tomb, then two angels of a frightful
appearance ask him: “Who was thy God, thy prophet, what thy creed?” If
he give a right answer, then they keep his grave open, and make a
window from heaven to it, that he may behold his future dwelling. But
if his answer does not prove satisfactory, they beat his face soft
with a club, and close the grave so tight upon him, that a noise
issues from the compression of his sides; they also open a window from
hell to him, so that he may there see his fate and his habitation.
When the period of the world shall be terminated, the name of God
shall not be pronounced by any tongue; then, by God’s orders, shall
Israfíl sound the trumpet, and extinguish all like lamps; afterwards,
during ages, there shall be no motion upon the face of the earth,
until Israfíl shall again, at God’s order, by a blast of the trumpet
blow the souls into the dispersed parts of their bodies, so that all
shall revive. Afterwards, at the last judgment, the angels shall place
the journal of actions recorded at the right hand of the virtuous, and
at the left of the iniquitous. If the balance is weighed down by the
good actions of a person, he goes to heaven; but if the scale, heavy
with sins weighs down the other, hell awaits the sinner. This being
brought to a close, an invisible bridge is thrown over hell; this
bridge is sharper than the edge of a sword and thinner than a hair,
and the believers and unbelievers are to be driven over it.

  “When any unbeliever puts his foot upon it,
   The abyss of hell shall be his habitation.”

The believer also shall, according to his knowledge and his actions,
sooner or later pass over it; a weak faith shall not easily cross it.

  “But he shall find salvation at the end of the business,
   Although he may see many difficulties.”

There are fifty stations in the space on which the obedient and the
rebels shall stop: upon each station another question is asked:

      “He who gives a right answer
       Crosses each station with rapidity.
  But if not, in each, from a distressing condition,
  He suffers pain and grief during one thousand years.”

The unbeliever shall suffer the torment of hell eternally; and the
iniquitous believer shall remain in it, according to the estimation of
his crimes.

       “Either the entreaty of the intercessors
  Shall liberate him from the retribution and punishment,
  Or if, by intercession, the door of liberation does not open,
  The most merciful of the merciful shall bestow salvation.”

When they come out of hell, they wash themselves clean of smoke in the
_Kawser_.[526] There are eight gradations, or steps, in heaven; and
every man, according to his knowledge and conduct, shares a place in
them, and enjoys eternal beatitude. The highest of blessings is the
sight of God, the Almighty, whom the good behold as the moon of
fourteen nights. This is upon the authority of the lord Mulána Abd-ul
rahmen Jami.[527] It is written in an esteemed book, that there are in
hell eight steps, in which men are placed according to the estimation
of their sins.

Here is a short account of what I have learned from the speeches of
intelligent men of the right faith. It is contained in their books
that the first being created was the spirit of Muhammed.

  “The first creature of God was my soul.”

To this allusion is made in the words quoted from the Koran. Then all
the spirits of mankind were brought forth; these, before being united
with bodies, remained four thousand years in the vicinity of the grace
of the most high God:

  “God created the souls four thousand years before the bodies.”

The heavens are understood to be the heavenly bodies of the sphere
which is over our heads, and this has seven circles; the earth is the
cover of the tortoise which is beneath our feet. There are seven
earths:

  “Who created seven heavens and earths like them.”

In each earth there are creatures, and amcng these creatures
propagating inhabitants. The width of each earth is five hundred
journeys of travel. The compartments of heaven are round; but in the
middle of the circle is the tent of majesty; and in each sphere is an
order of angels occupied with the worship and adoration of the
divinity; one troop standing somewhat erect; another multitude
inclined (with their hands on their knees); a number prostrated, with
the forehead touching the ground; others sitting; some carry the
throne of God; and every angel has a place and a post determined,
which he cannot leave.

  “Their place is a place known.”

From sphere to sphere there is a distance to be traversed in five
hundred years of travelling; in each heaven is one of the seven
planets, all the other stars are in the first heaven, which is the
next to the world of mankind.

  “We have adorned the inferior heaven with the ornament of stars,
     And we have preserved it from all obstinate demons.”

The borders of heaven are upon the mount Kaf, and the throne of
God[528] is higher than the seven spheres.

     “He created the heavens and the earths.”

Above the throne of God is the ninth sphere (ârsh).

     “He created the heavens and the earths in ten days, and then
     took rest upon his throne.”

The throne of God, the seven stories of heaven, and the seven
_âshîánah_ (nests, houses) of the earth are firm, and having taken
their rest, do not move in any way, and are absolutely without motion.

All that has been enumerated did not exist in the beginning; the
Almighty God created them without elementary matter by the action of
his wisdom and absolute power. When the day of resurrection arrives,
he shall fold together the heavens, and change the earth for another
earth, and plunge the heavenly sphere and the earth into nothing. The
earth of the resurrection will be like an earth of pure silver, and in
this earth nobody shall have committed a crime. As the happy Abd ullah
says:

     “On the day when the earth shall be changed for another
     earth, that is, shall be changed for an earth of white
     silver, where no blood shall be shed, and no crimes shall be
     committed.”

On the day of resurrection, heaven and hell shall be made ready; the
dispersed members shall again form their body and be reunited; and the
soul shall again take possession of them. Some shall be carried to
heaven, others to hell. The first of mankind who was created was Adam;
he was the father of men; his body was of earth; Adam was the father
of all bodies, and Muhammed the father of all spirits.

     “I was a prophet and a man, between water and earth;”

and all existence was brought forth according to, and in dependance
upon, the existence of the prophet Muhammed.

The angels have wings to fly, with which they cross in one minute a
distance of one thousand years’ journey. Satan was brought forth from
fire, and was accursed on account of disobedience.[529]

This is the greatest part of the creed professed by the people of
Islam. They are divided into many sects. According to the account of
some belonging to the persuasion of the Sonna and the Jamáât, the
Mulla Muhammed Mâsúm, of Kashghar,[530] was a learned and virtuous
man, and one of those who followed the doctrine of Hanefí, to whom he
attached himself so much as to choose him for his master. His origin
was from Badkahshán, and his name Shaikh Hossan; he always studied the
Koran, the traditions, and other books of religion and law, and
regulated his conduct after them; in such way he passed the day; he
kept frequent fasts, never read poems nor listened to stories, and if
any body uttered before him speeches of worldly people, he became
angry. He was very cautious with the Shiâhs, and admitted them not to
his house. The author of this book asked him, in Lahore: “What is the
cause of the aversion which you always show to the Shiâhs.” He
replied: “I was originally a Shiâh, and therefore conformed myself to
that creed. One night I saw in a dream the lord Imâm Hossen, the son
of the lord Alí, the son of Abí Taleb, and asked him about the real
truth of religion; he enjoined me: ‘Be a Sonni, and keep away from the
inconstant, for they are heretics and idolators of my person, and then
utter unbecoming words against the heads of religion, Abubekr, Omar,
and Osman, and by such an illusion they lost the right way: the way of
truth is the doctrine of the Sonnites and the Jamáât.’”

Here follows what I have learned from the Shaikh Hossen, as well as
from Mulla Aádil. A Shiâh is no Muselman, and when he brings forth his
faith, it is not right, according to the saying of the prophet:

  “Reviling the two shaikhs is an infidelity without
     repentance (remission).”

I heard from Mulla Yâkub Tarfánî, that these words for restraining the
tongue exceed all bounds, and are an exaggeration in the veneration of
the two Shaikhs (the grace of God be upon them); that yet repentance
(remission) is admitted; he said besides that it is agreed, reviling
is no infidelity.

Shaikh Manśur Máterîdî[531] became a follower of the lord Imám Abú
Hanífa of Kufa, and _Hujjet ul islam_, “the proof of Islam,” the Imám
Muhammed Ghazáli,[532] who was a traveller on the same road with the
lord Jmám Sháfâyat[533] (the peace of God be upon them!) said in their
literary compositions, and in books we read, that the root and the
foundation of the seventy and two branches of religion are six
doctrines, namely: the _Tashbíah_, _Tâtîl_, _Jaber_, _Kadr_, _Rafs_,
and _Naseb_.[534]

In the _âmedat ul mâtekad_, “the pillar of believers,” composed by
_Shaháb ul hak_, “flame of truth,” Shaikh of Islamism and of the
Muselmans, _Abu abd ulla Faselella_, son of the Imám, the blessed,
whom God has taken in his mercy, and whose sins are forgiven, _Taj
eddin_, “the crown of the faith,” _Abu Sâid al Hassan_, son of
_Hassan_, son of _Yúsef al Súrí_, is to be found, that the
_Tashbîhîan_, “assimilators,” have attached to the most high God
improper and unsuitable attributes, inasmuch as they have connected
his creation partly with an elementary principle, and partly with
accidents. The _Tâtîlîan_, “the indifferent,”[535] have denied God and
his attributes. In the before-mentioned book we find, the creed of
this sect is, that the world has no Creator, and that it always was
such as it is, and that, except what is surely perceived, there is no
other existence.

We have also heard from Shaikh Hossen, that the _Tât´íl_ maintain
what some philosophers asserted, that God is the cause of things, and
that the matter of the world was always in him. We learned also from
Azîzî, that, according to this sect, God, the Almighty, when he
created the world, attached its destiny to every thing that appeared,
and that now, without God’s taking any active part in it, every thing
exists or perishes.[536]

The sect of the _Jaberiah_, “the compelled,” having given up, and
denying, freedom of action in men, attach all their deeds to God.[537]

The _Kadariah_, “the powerful,” affect God in themselves, and reckon
themselves the creators of all their actions.[538]

The _Rafs_, “heretics,” profess their devotion to Alí (the peace of
God be with him!), and in the exaggeration of their affection, they
make an unbecoming use of their tongue in reviling the illustrious
Abu-bekr, Omar, and Osman (the peace of God be upon them!); they
rebelled, and went so far that, whoever did not, after the prophet of
Arabia, without hesitation acknowledge the supremacy of Alí (the grace
of God be with him!) and profess his being the chief of the faith and
substitute of the prophet, was not reckoned by them among the
Muselmans.

The _Nawaséb_, “enemies,” are devoted to Abu-bekr and Omar, and having
prevailed in this devotion, they rejected Alí (the mercy of God be
upon him!) and proceeded so far that, whoever did not, after the great
prophet, plainly and decidedly acknowledge Abubekr and Omar (the grace
of God be with them!) as khalifs of the prophet, and as Imáms, was by
them excluded from the circle of the right faith.

Each of these six sects was subdivided into twelve, whence seventy and
two sects arose.[539] All are in the fire _of hell_, by the precepts
of the sayings of the prophet:

  “My nation is divided into seventy and three sects, who are
     all in the fire _of hell_, except one.”

And those only who are without these seventy and two sects belong to
the people of salvation, because they are of the true religion and
upon the right road; but the true religion is that which is not to be
found among the sects mentioned, and in which those six religions are
not likely not to be, because these six religions did not exist in the
time of the prophet and in the last will of the apostle. After him
innovations took place, so that it is not unknown, in what time, and
in what place or town, and by whom they became manifest, and from what
cause they originated. By concordance of the people of Islam, the
right road and the true religion is that which Muhammed (blessing be
upon him!) and after him the noble companions professed, and this
faith is that of the Sonnites and the Jamáât. This is in substance the
creed of Shaíkh _Mansúr_, and of _Hajet ul islám Abu Abd’ulla_:[540]
We are informed by the learned of the Hanefî persuasion, and by Mulla
_Yakúb Turkhanî_, who was an assistant and companion of Mulla _Adil_,
that the religion of the Sonnites and the Jamâát is divided into four
branches, which are the four sides of the city of the law of Muhammed,
namely, the _Hanefîah_, _Málkîah_, _Sháfâya_, _Hambalîah_,[541] and
the wanderer in these four religions is liberated.

       *     *     *     *     *

AN ACCOUNT OF THE UMAVIYAH AND YEZIDIAH CONNECTED WITH THE
ALI-ILAHIAN.

In the east of Kohistan is a tract of country known by the name of
_Shekúnah_, and the lord of it is Malek Yakúb, who boasts of having
issued from the family of the lord of the believers, Mâaviah Ebn Abi
Safîan. The inhabitants of that country are brave, warlike, pious, and
abstemious. They have many commentaries, and knowledge of law and
religion, and religious books. They acknowledge the divine mission of
Muhammed (the blessing of God be upon him!) as well as the office of
Imám and the khalifat of Abu-bekr and Omar, and of the lord of
believers Mâaviah, and they revile Alî for having pretended to a
divine rank. His belief was that they ought to possess all kinds of
grain;[542] his followers worshipped him as divine; this he insinuated
to them by this prayer, which he pronounced himself in the sermons,
related as his saying:

     “I am God; I am the merciful; I am the bountiful; I am the
     high; I am the creator; I am the provider of the necessaries
     of life; I am the most compassionate; I am the most
     propitious; I am he who bestows a form to the drop of the
     sperm in the wombs.”[543]

and the like; these words are of Pharâún and Nimrod,[544] and like
these are many of their sayings. They are besides fond of bloodshed,
and cruel. They say improper things about the prophet, as of one who
did not always behave with decency. So it happened once, that eating
dates in company with other persons, the prophet threw the stones of
the dates towards Alí, and then said: “O Alí! thou hast eaten a great
many dates, because all the stones are before thee;” Ali answered,
“Thou hast swallowed them with the stones;” and they say this passage
is in the sacred book:

     “There are men whose speeches about the present life will
     astonish thee, and who will take God for witness of what is
     in their heart, whilst they are the most quarrelsome of
     adversaries.”

And they are approving Ebn Maljám,[545] and say Maljám is among them:

     “There are some men who rescue their soul, desiring in this
     manner to perform the will of God.”

They assert that the two Hasáîn are not of the family of the prophet,
according to this verse of the Koran:

     “Muhammed is not any thing else but one of us; he is yet the
     prophet of God, and the seal of the Apostles.”

They say that Yazîd killed Hasan, the son of Alí, in his house, and
did not bring him forth from the corner where he was concealed.[546]
He was come for subduing the country of Bîrak; on that account he was
put to death. On the tenth day of the Moheram, they go on horseback
upon a wide field which is before their town; there they make, of
earth, an image of Hosain who was killed; against him they dash their
horses, and think fortunate those who can say, that they have been
riding against the bodies of the martyrs of Kerbala;[547] this they
call a day of victory, and on this day they make a greater show of
festivity and rejoicing, because the Imám of the time, that is, Yazîd,
was upon the field of victory. And on Fridays and festivals they
revile from their pulpits the lord Alí and his offspring. Among them
is one sect in particular which act in this manner, and, with their
swords drawn, curse Alí and his sons, and in this way they pass one
day: they are called _Sîáf_, “fencers.”

The same say that the prophet and his offspring, and particularly
their prophet, had the power of recalling to life and putting to
death, of creating and annihilating any being; and that they did
whatever they wished. But this mode of acting was no more allowable to
their successors, such as that of the prophets to destroy the living,
which power they possessed on account of their having also that of
recalling to life; but it is not one of our attributes to render
lifeless the living, because we have not the power of restoring them
to life; also because the creatures have not been made on our account;
besides, the prophet took whatever mate he liked, because the world
was his share, whilst it is not permitted to us to take the woman of
another man. It is however right, making it our profession, to wage
war against the opposers of faith, and to fight the enemies of
religion for the protection of the law. This people kill no living
beings in the country of Shekúnah. Their usual food is animal juice,
such as honey, butter, and the like; they use no intoxicating liquors,
nor that prepared from the palm-tree, nor opium.

Among the _Maksud chep_, who are a more intelligent people, the author
of this book found himself in the house of one of them. There a man
called _Hushíar Refik Nikarindah_, asked him: “If it were not
permitted to drink intoxicating liquors, how was it that the former
prophets, and some of the khalifs, the sons of Ommiah,[548] drank
wine?” He answered: “The wine could not overcome their understanding;
with us, it is not so.” Hushiar said again to the author of this work:
“If the khalifs, after the prophet, possessed the power to create and
to annihilate lives, why did they not render the heretics dumb?” The
answer was: “A king sent a phial of deadly poison to the Amir of the
believers, Omar (the grace of God be with him!) that he may give it to
an enemy; the khalif said: ‘I have no greater enemy than my own
spirit,’ and he drank the whole phial, from which however his sacred
body received no harm; now, the gentle-minded personage, who could
drink poison, how would he not hear the abuse of mistaken men? So
represent to thyself the other khalifs.” The _Cheps_ are a tribe of
the people of Shekunah.


     [498] Sheheristâni is the surname of _Al Fath Mohammed Ben
     Abdalkerim_, one of the most celebrated doctors of the
     Ashârian sect, an account of which is to follow. He died in
     the year of the Hejira 548 (A. D. 1153). He composed several
     works upon metaphysics and the scholastic theology of the
     Muselmans, and among others that which is entitled _Nehajat
     alekdam fi êlm al Kelam_, and on account of which he is
     entitled _Mâtakellam al-Ashari_, “the scholastic of the
     Ashârian.” We have also from him a book called _Al Melal u
     alnahal_, “the means of curing wearisomeness and
     melancholy.”――(Herbelot.)

     [499] According to Sheheristani, quoted by Pococke (p. 211,
     1st edit.), the Magians were divided into seventy sects; the
     Jews into seventy-one; the Christians into seventy-two; and
     the Moslem into seventy-three. Among the sects there was
     always one to be saved.

     The baron de Hammer says (Journ. As., juin 1825, p. 321,
     Tableau généalogique des soixante-treize sectes de Islam):
     “The best information which we have yet upon the sects and
     the heresies of Islam are those given by Pococke,
     Marraccius, and Sale, according to Sheheristânî, and the
     Commentary of Mewakif. Pococke (Specimen historiæ Arabum,
     Oxoniæ, 1650, pp. 194 and 210), Marraccius (Prodromus), and
     Sale (Engl. transl. of the Koran) trace the principal
     classes of the genealogical table of the heresies; but their
     catalogue is not quite exact, and still less complete. This
     subject, interesting for the history of religions, and above
     all for that of the Islamitic heresies, is treated
     fundamentally in the Commentary of the great scholar Jorjani
     upon the _Mewakif_, that is to say, the metaphysics of Adhad
     eddin al Ijí, a valuable work in more than one respect,
     which work was printed in Constantinople” (in folio, of 635
     pages, in the year of the Hejirah 1039, A. D. 1824). The
     baron de Hammer treated this subject summarily in the number
     of the journal quoted, pp. 321-335, and in the subsequent
     number for July, 1825, pp. 32-46.

     [500] The points of faith in dispute among the schoolmen are
     reducible to four general heads, called the four bases or
     great fundamental articles. The first relates to the
     attributes of God, and his unity consistent therewith; the
     second regards predestination and the justice thereof; the
     third concerns the promises and threats; the fourth treats
     history and reason, and also the mission of prophets, and
     the office of Imâm, or chief pontiff. About all these heads
     the Muhammedans are divided into different sects, which may
     be classed under two principal sorts: the _orthodox_ and the
     _heretical_; the former, by a general name, are called
     _Sonnites_, or “Traditionists:” the latter _Shiâts_ (see
     note, vol. I. p. 101).

     [501] Jamaât signifies properly the _assembly_, or as we may
     say, the _church_ of Muselmans. This name is assumed by the
     Ashârian, who, as Sheheristâni contends (see Pococke, p.
     211), were the sect whom the prophet indicated as selected
     for salvation.

     [502] The Sonnites, just mentioned, are divided into four
     sects, the founders of which I shall mention, in the order
     as they occur, in the text of the Dabistán.

     [503] The Sifátiah are one of the orthodox sects; they
     maintain the existence of the eternal attributes of God, and
     are on this account named _Sifátiah_, or “Attributists.”

     [504] The _Mâtazalah_, or “Separatists,” were the followers
     of _Wasel Ebn Ata_. He was the disciple of Hassan al Baśri,
     of whom hereafter. When he separated from his master, the
     latter exclaimed: _Kad êttazal amma Wassel_, “Wassel
     separates from us:” hence is derived the name of his
     followers, _Mâtazalah_――(See Herbelot). They entirely
     rejected all eternal attributes of God, saying that eternity
     is the proper or formal attribute of his essence; that God
     knows by his _essence_, and not by his _knowledge_, and the
     same they affirmed of his other attributes, and hence this
     sect were also named _Mâtalah_, or _Mâtalites_, from their
     _divesting_ God of his attributes, in which they place the
     unity of God. They denied also all vision of God in paradise
     by the corporeal eye, and rejected all comparison or
     similitude applied to God. They established further, that
     the word of God is created; that God is necessarily holden
     to the observation of justice in his decrees, to the
     rewarding of good and the punishment of the wicked. Moreover
     they refuted the dogma of absolute predestination,
     maintaining that God was not the author of evil, but of good
     only, and that man was a free agent: on which account they
     are also called _Kadarian_, from _kadr_, “destiny.” They are
     subdivided into twenty sects, taxing each other with
     infidelity――(See _Sale’s Koran_, vol. I. Prelim. Discourse,
     pp. 211-212). The latter are to be particularly mentioned in
     these pages hereafter.

     [505] There is a sect among the _Shiîtes_, or “the
     Dissidents,” called the _Gholats_, or “the Exaggerators.”

     [506] متكلم _Matkallem_, according to Richardson’s
     Dictionary, Johnson’s edition, signifies “a speaker, orator,
     declaimer, advocate;” but, according to Pococke (_vide_ pp.
     195, 198 1st edit.), _Al Motacalmín_ are those who
     investigate and dispute. _Al Kalem_ signifies “scholastic
     theology,” synonymous with _Al mantik_, “logic.” According
     to Eben al-Kossai, quoted by Pocock, _Al Kalem_ is a science
     by which disquisitions are made about the essence and
     attributes of God, and the condition of possible things,
     about creation and restitution, pursuant to the canons of
     Islamism. Others define it the science of legal principles
     which belong to the articles of faith, and are acquired by
     positive demonstrations. Further, conformably with the
     author of _Al Mawakef_, “stations, or rather theses of
     metaphysics,” who himself composed a system of this science,
     it is a doctrine by which one is rendered capable of
     confirming by demonstrations the articles of religion, and
     of solving doubts.

     [507] _Mâlik Ebn Ans_ (see Sale’s Koran, vol. I. p. 206),
     was born at Medina, according to different accounts, in the
     years of the Hejira 90, 93, 94 or 95 (A. D. 708, 711, 712,
     or 713), and died there in the years of the Hejira 177, 178,
     or 179 (A. D. 793, 794, or 795). This doctor and head of his
     sect, is said to have paid great regard to the traditions of
     Muhammed. He was distinguished by the humble confession of
     his ignorance. Being asked his opinion as to forty-eight
     questions, his answer to thirty-two of them was, that he did
     not know.

     [508] _Ahmed Ebn Hanbal_ (see Sale’s Koran, vol. I. p. 208)
     was born in the year of the Hejira 164 (A. D. 780) at Meru,
     in Khorasan, according to some, or according to others in
     Baghdad, where he died in the year of the Hejira 241 (A. D.
     855). He could repeat no less than a million of Muhammed’s
     traditions. Refusing to acknowledge the Koran to be created,
     he was, by order of the Khalif Al Mótasem, severely scourged
     and imprisoned.

     _Ahmed Hanbal_ was the contemporary and friend of _Muhammed
     Ebn Edris al Shâfei_, the founder of the sect of the
     _Shafâites_. The latter was born in the year of the Hejira
     150 (A. D. 767-8) either at Gaza or at Ascalone, in
     Palestine, and died in the year of the Hejira 204 (A. D.
     819-20), in Egypt. He is said to have been the first who
     discoursed of jurisprudence, and reduced that science into a
     method (_ibid._, p. 207).

     To the names of the three founders of sects just mentioned,
     I am to add the name of _Abu Hanîfa al Noman Ebn Thabet_,
     who was born at Cufa, in the year of the Hejira 80 (A. D.
     699), and died in the year 150 (A. D. 767). He is the
     founder of the sect called the _Hanefites_. This sect is
     reckoned, in the order of time, the first of the four
     orthodox sects of the Sonnites, distinguished by the title
     of “_the followers of reason_,” whilst the other three are
     called “_the followers of traditions_.” Of these three last,
     the sect founded by Mâlik Ebn Hans is the second; that
     instituted by Muhammed Ebn Edris al Shâfei, the third; and
     that of the followers of Ahmed Ebn Hanbal, the fourth of the
     orthodox sects, acknowledged by the Sonnites.

     [509] _Dáúd Isfahâni_ was born in Cufa, in the year of the
     Hejira 202 (A. D. 817); he died A. H. 270 (A. D.
     883)――(_Abulfeda_, vol. II. p. 261); he was the chief of one
     of the _six_ orthodox sects of the Muhammedans (see
     hereafter the enumeration of these sects).

     [510] Mahásebi died in the year of the Hejira 243 (A. D.
     875).――_Abulfeda_, II, p. 201.

     [511] _Abul ’l Hasan al Ashari_ was first a Mótazalite, and
     the disciple of _Abu Ali al Jobbai_, from whom he disagreed
     in opinion as to God’s being bound (as the Mótazalites
     assert) to do always that which is best, or most expedient;
     on which account he left his master, and founded a new sect,
     called the _Ashárian_, who are a subdivision of the
     Sifatian. Their opinions were, that they allowed the
     attributes of God to be distinct from his essence, yet so as
     to forbid any comparison being made between God and his
     creatures. They further assert, after their master, that all
     the actions of men are subject to the power of God, being
     created by him, and that the power of man has no influence
     at all on that which he is empowered to do, but that, both
     the power and what is subject thereto, fall under the power
     of God. Manifold are the subtle distinctions in this
     abstruse subject; those who appear the least obscure, use
     this form: There is neither compulsion nor free liberty, but
     the way lies between the two; the power and will in man
     being both created by God, though the merit or guilt be
     imputed to man. Yet, after all, it is judged the safest way
     to follow the steps of the primitive Moslems, and, avoiding
     subtle disputations and too curious inquiries, to leave the
     knowledge of this matter wholly unto God.――(See Sale’s
     _Koran_, vol. I. pp. 219-225.) Abul Hasan died in Baghdad in
     the year of the Hejira 324 or 329 (A. D. 935 or
     940).――(Herbelot.)

     [512] The _Keramian_ are followers of _Muhammed Ebn Kerâm_;
     (who died in the year of the Hejirah 255 (A. D. 868))
     (_Abulfeda_, vol. II. p. 229), they are also called
     _Mojassemian_, or “Corporealists,” who not only admitted a
     resemblance between God and created beings, but declared God
     to be corporeal. The more sober among them, indeed, when
     they applied the word “body” to God, would be understood to
     mean that he is _a self-subsisting being_, which with them
     is the definition of a body: but yet some of them affirmed
     him to be finite and circumscribed, and others allowed that
     he might be felt by the hand or seen by the eye.

     [513] The Koran, ch. LXXV. v. 23.

     [514] Sáâdah is the name of a tract of Arabia.

     [515] See page 328, note 2.

     [516] See page 329, note 1.

     [517] The Koran, chap. III. v. 5.

     [518] Abd al rahmen Ben Ahmed received his surname _Ja mi_
     from a place called Jám, very near Herat, in Khorasan, where
     he was born; he lived under the reign of sultan Hossain Bai
     kara, who issued from the family of Tamerlan, and whose
     capital Herat was. Jâmî is one of the most celebrated
     Persian poets, author of a Divan, which contains the whole
     mystical theology of the Muselmans; of the Baharistan, or
     “the spring,” a composition mixed with prose and verse; and
     of the romance Yúsef and Zuláikha, a most favourite poem of
     the Orientals. Jâmî died in the year of the Hejira 888 or
     891 (A. D. 1483 or 1486).

     [519] This title is more particularly applied to Noah,
     Abraham, Moses, Jesus, and Muhammed.

     [520] According to some rabbins and to some Muselmans, wheat
     was the forbidden fruit which Adam eat.――(See upon this
     subject, _Les Oiseaux et les Fleurs, allégories d’Azz-eddin
     el Mocadessi_, publiées en arabe avec une traduction
     française par M. Garcin de Tassy, p. 167, notes.)

     [521] Muhammed, in the fifty-second year of his age and the
     twelfth of his preaching (A. D. 621), whilst lying asleep
     between the mountains Al Safa and Merva, in the vicinity of
     Mecca, had a vision in which he proceeded from earth through
     the seven heavens to the throne of God. Muhammed himself
     alludes to it twice in the Koran, the seventeenth chapter of
     which is entitled “the night journey;” but he mentions
     nothing else but a vision: it was the fanaticism of his
     followers which wrought the most strange circumstances into
     an absurd fable, according to which their prophet was
     visited by the angel Gabriel, and in his company carried
     first from Mecca to Jerusalem, and then, upon a ladder of
     light, to the presence of God.

     [522] For the just mentioned miraculous journey, Gabriel had
     brought with him the sacred animal on which the prophets
     used to ride when executing a divine command; it was called
     _Al borak_, “flashing as lightning,” in shape resembling an
     ass of a larger size, with a face like that of a man, the
     eyes brighter than the star Aldebaran, the ears of an
     elephant, the neck of a camel, the body of a horse, with the
     tail of a mule and hoofs of a bull; the breast of the animal
     shone like rubies, his legs like pearls, and a silken
     caparison of Paradise bedecked his back.――(See hereafter on
     the _Borak_, in chapter XI, the section “on the miracles of
     the prophet.”)

     [523] Surah means a chapter of the Koran.

     [524] See note, vol. I. pp. 99-100.

     [525] These ten personages are the four khalifs: I. Abubekr;
     II. Omar; III. Osman; and IV. Ali; then V. Talha; VI. Zohair
     ben Awam; VII. Saad ben Abu Wakkas; VIII. Abdur rahmen ben
     Auf; IX. Abu Obaida ben Jarrah; and X. Saad ben Zaid. These
     are called the ten evangelists, to whom the Muhammedans add
     Hamzah and Jafar, and account them the twelve apostles of
     Muhammed.――(See _Eucologe musulman_, par M. Garcin de Tassy,
     Paris, 1840, p. 200.)

     [526] كوثر _Kawser_ is a river of paradise, mentioned in the
     Koran (chap. CVIII). According to a tradition of Muhammed,
     the water of this river is whiter than milk or silver,
     sweeter than honey, smoother than cream, and more
     odoriferous than musk; its banks are of chrysolithes. This
     river supplies in two pipes the pond of the prophet, who
     describes it to be an exact square of a month’s journey in
     compass. The cups to drink this water are of silver, and are
     set around as numerous as there are stars in the
     firmament.――(See Sale’s _Koran_, vol. I. Prelim. Disc., p.
     126; vol. II. p. 514.)

     [527] See pp. 334-335, note 1.

     [528] Kersi: this is the crystaline or the empyrean heaven,
     as being supposed the throne of God.

     [529] Satan, or Iblis was cursed for refusing to worship
     Adam at God’s command. This will be further developed in a
     note, vol. III. chapter VII.

     [530] A city in Turkistan.

     [531] _Mâterídí_ was the surname of _Abu Mansúr Muhammed al
     Hanefí_. He was a doctor of the Hanefian sect, to whom the
     praise and title of _Imám al hada_, “the Imám, the
     director,” was given. He died, and was buried in the year of
     the Hejirah 333 (A. D. 944-5) in the town of Samarkand, a
     native of which he was; _Mâterídí_ is a quarter of this town
     whence he had his surname. This doctor was a _Motkalin_,
     that is, a great metaphysician and scholastic theologian; he
     composed, among many other works, a book entitled: _Bian
     vahem al Mâtazalah_, against the Mâtazale.――(_Herbelot sub
     voce Matridi_).

     [532] _Muhammed Ghazáli_, his full name is _Abú Hamed
     Muhammed Ebn Muhammed_, surnamed _Hajjet ul islam Zain eddin
     al Tusí_, born at Tus, n Khorasan, in the year of the Hejira
     450 (A. D. 1058-9), the son of a merchant of cotton thread,
     _ghazal_, whence his surname _ghazáli_; he died in 504 or
     505 (A. D. 1110-11). In the latter half of his life, which
     extended very little beyond the half of a century, he
     composed more than one hundred works, several of which are
     thick volumes in folio, such as the most celebrated amongst
     them entitled _Jhyá al âlum eddín_, “the revival of the
     sciences, concerning faith;” upon which the judgment was
     passed, that, were the Islam destroyed with all its works
     except this, from this alone it could be restored in all its
     perfection. This great dogmatic, ethic, and philosophic work
     was nevertheless, during the author’s life, condemned as
     heretical and consigned to the flames, by the Academy of
     Cordova, in Spain, the western Baghdad, or seat of
     Muhammedan learning. This composition of Ghazáli has been
     abridged by _Abul Faśel Ahmed ben Mussa al Arbeli_, under
     the title _Ruh al Ihyá_, “the spirit of the book entitled
     Ihyá.” See _Pocock Spec. Hist. Arab._, p. 371; _Herbelot sub
     voce Ghazálí_; _Hammer’s Gemäldesaal grosser moslimischer
     Herrsher, III^{ter} Band, S._ 182, 1837. By the last
     mentioned author was published a Biography of Ghazáli, as
     introduction to the text and translation of a treatise of
     Ghazali, under the title: “_O Kind! die berühmteste ethishe
     Abhandlung of Ghazáli_,” Vienne, 1838.

     [533] See page 329.

     [534] The sects may be distinguished by the names of their
     founders, and called _Hanefites_, _Asharian_, _Keramían_,
     _Shafeites_, etc.; or by the nature of their doctrine, and
     named _Sefatian_, “attributists;” _Matazalah_,
     “separatists;” _Mashabian_, or _Tasbiah_, “assimilators,”
     etc.; or by their relation to some established doctrine or
     community, and then entitled _Rafs_, “heretics;” _Navaseb_,
     “enemies;” finally, these sorts of distinctions may be
     mixed. No doubt, these various classifications burden the
     memory with a great number of names which may create
     confusion. I am sparing in introducing others than those
     which are in the text of the Dabistan. According to those
     distinctions, their number may be diversely stated. We have
     already seen the principal sects reckoned to be _four_; here
     above are reckoned _six_; the author of _Sharh-ol Mowakef_
     (Pocock, p. 209) enumerates _eight_ principal sects.

     [535] From تعطيل _tâtíl_, “neglecting, causing to be
     unemployed, rendering useless, vacation.” Rigorously they
     are perhaps not to be declared atheists, as above: for their
     creed consists rather in denying the attributes of God, and
     in presenting him as inaccessible to human intelligence and
     strange to the government of the world, than in denying
     positively his existence.――(See _Chrestomathie Arabe_, tome
     II. p. 96, by _Silvestre de Sacy_.)

     [536] The scholastics among the Muhammedans employ in their
     discussions principally two words: القضا, _al ka[:z]a_,
     and القدر, _al kadr_, necessarily annexed to each other, but
     still distinct by a nice sense particular to each: _al
     ka[:z]á_ signifies God’s universal and eternal judgment or
     decree, by which the particular things are created and
     disposed so as they are to remain to all the ages of
     eternity; _al kadr_ means God’s will in bringing forth, at a
     determined time and by a determined cause, things in their
     proper measure and fixed proportion with regard to their
     essence as well as to their condition.――(_Pocock_, first
     edit., pp. 207-209.)

     [537] There are three principal opinions about the decrees
     of God, and the power of man with regard to his actions,
     among the Muhammedans.

     The first is that of the _Motazalahs_, according to which
     man is the agent in good and evil, in faith, and infidelity,
     in obedience and rebellion; all his actions are his; for it
     could not be said to man, “Act,” if he had not the faculty
     of acting. Evil and iniquity can by no means be attributed
     to God; an infidel is composed of a man and of infidelity:
     God created the first, but not the latter.

     The second opinion is that of the _rigid Jabariahs_,
     followers of _Jahmi Ebn Sefwan_, whose sect flourished about
     the middle of the eighth century. According to them there is
     no action but in God; man acts, without power his own,
     without will or choice, exactly as a tree produces fruits,
     as water runs, as a stone moves. Reward and punishment are
     likewise proceeding from necessity, as well as the
     imposition of orders comes from necessity.

     The third opinion is that of the _moderate Jabariahs_, and
     also that of the Asharian, who maintain that God creates the
     actions of man, good as well as bad, but that man _acquires_
     them: that is to say, God creates the power by, under, and
     with, which man acts, but man wills the action, and prepares
     himself to it, which is called كسب _kasb_, “acquisition;” an
     action therefore, with respect to creation, belongs to God,
     but with respect to production, by which it is manifested,
     that is, by “acquisition,” it depends upon man, and falls
     under his power. Abul Hasan of Isfahan says, that what makes
     an impression upon a fact, are the power of God and the
     power of man _jointly_. When man applies his mind to
     obedience, God creates in him the action of obedience, and
     when he applies his mind to transgression, God creates in
     him the action of transgression; and in that respect it is
     man who brings into existence or produces his action,
     although in reality he be not the producer.――(See on this
     abstruse subject, Pocock, pp. 243-251, with quotations from
     several authors.)

     [538] The _Kadariahs_ or _Kadarian_ belong to the Motazalah
     (Abul Faraj, p. 20). The Kadarian have been compared to the
     Magians, inasmuch as they acknowledge two principles, light
     and darkness, or good and evil; the first of which they
     ascribe to God, the other to man and to the devil;
     nevertheless, every thing belongs to God, as created by his
     will; that is, with respect to creation; but the actions
     belong to the actors.――(_Pocock_, pp. 234, 235, etc.)

     [539] We have already seen, p. 323, that Muhammed has
     predicted the division of his followers into seventy-three
     sects (and not seventy-two, as above). Why seventy-three? It
     was (see _Pocock_) to make Muhammedism have one sect more
     than Christianism, which had seventy-two, counting one more
     than Judaism, which, to have seventy-one, had added one to
     the seventy sects of Magism.

     [540] See p. 349, notes 1 and 2.

     [541] See the names of the founders of the four principal
     sects, notes, pp. 324-5, 328-9.

     [542] The meaning of this passage appears to me to be that
     Alí wished the Muselmans to apply to agriculture, which the
     Arabs generally despise or neglect.

     [543] According to the most probable account of historians,
     it never was Alí who pretended to be a God, but _Abdallah_,
     son of _Wahab_, son of _Saba_, a Jew converted to Islamism,
     who was the first instigator of the seditious movements to
     which Omar fell a victim, promulgated the doctrine, that a
     particle of divinity resided in Alí, the true Imám, that he
     is not dead, but only for a time withdrawn from the eyes of
     men; that he would reappear one day upon the earth, and fill
     it with justice, in the same manner as it is now filled with
     iniquities. This doctrine served as a foundation to the
     different sects which admitted the transmission of the
     Imamate to the descendants of Alí, by right of succession,
     and spread in the east and west of Asia, in Africa, and in
     Spain.

     [544] Nimrod and Pharáun maintain, in the Koran and in the
     traditions of the Muhammedans, the same character as in the
     Bible of the Hebrews, for tyranny against men and
     presumption towards God; the first was the enemy of Abraham,
     the other of Moses: both were punished by God.

     [545] _Ebn Maljam_, “the son of Maljam,” was _Abd-ur-rahman_,
     who assassinated Alí.

     [546] We have already (see vol. I. p. 100, note) touched
     upon the enmity which existed between the family of Alí and
     that of Moaviah, the son of Abu Sofian and of Hinda, a woman
     famous for her animosity against Muhammed, the prophet.
     Nevertheless Moaviah became one of the secretaries of
     Muhammed, after whose death he was appointed to the
     government of Syria by Omar, and confirmed in that station
     by Osman. After the violent death of this khalif, Moaviah
     declared himself the avenger of his protector, and would not
     submit to Alí, upon whom he waged war during four years, and
     after whose death he opposed with equal ardour Hasan, who
     succeeded his father in the khalifat. Surrounded by
     rebellion in his own camp, Hasan could not resist, but
     resigned his right and person to Moaviah. He died in Medina
     of poison given him, as some say, by his wife, Jáda, or by
     his minister, at the injunction of Moaviah (see _Elmacin,
     trad. Erpenii_, p. 56); according to others, in concordance
     with the Dabistán, by the fraud of Moaviah’s son, Yazid, who
     seduced Jáda, and instigated her to poison her husband,
     promising to marry her, but after the perpetration of the
     act, rejected, with scorn, the woman supplicating for the
     price of her deed. I shall add, according to _Abulfeda_
     (_edit. of Reiske_, p. 350), that in Hasan terminated (A. D.
     661) the legitimate khalifat, or the succession of chiefs
     whom the free consent of the Muslims called and established,
     and thus was fulfilled the prediction of the prophet, which
     from the mouth of Safina, his freeman, is recorded in the
     traditions as follows: “Thirty years after his decease shall
     last the true and legitimate khalifat, and then be succeeded
     by tyranny.”

     [547] After Moaviah’s death, A. D. 679, Yazid, his son,
     assumed the khalifat, but Hosain, another son of Alí, still
     lived, and was invited by the inhabitants of Kufa to their
     town for receiving their oath of allegiance. Yielding to
     their invitation, he set out from Mecca, where he had
     concealed himself, with thirty-two horsemen and forty men on
     foot. Not far from Kerbela, in an arid tract of country in
     Jrak Arabi, he was encountered by five or ten thousand men,
     sent by Yazid to destroy him. The son of Alí bravely fought
     this superior force during one-half of the day, but at last
     fell, with four of his brothers, as many of his own sons,
     and all his surrounding friends, seventy-two in number. The
     survivors, his women, were conducted to Damascus, where
     Hosain’s head, severed from his body, rejoiced the savage
     eyes of Yazid, now fixed in the khalifat. Hosain’s relics
     (as mentioned vol. I. p. 48) lie buried at Kerbela. The
     anniversary of his death, the 30th September, A. D. 680, is
     still celebrated by the Shiâhs, with every imaginable
     demonstration of grief about the fate of Alí’s posterity,
     and of execration of their oppressors.

     [548] Ommiah, according to Herbelot (_sub voce_) is the name
     of a respectable personage among the Arabians, who was the
     son of _Abd-ul-shems_, and whose posterity bears the title
     of _benu Ommiah_, “the children of Ommiah.” But their
     celebrity begins with the before mentioned Moaviah; he was
     the first of fourteen khalifs of this family, who reigned in
     succession ninety-one years. The last of them was _Mervan
     Muhammed ben Mervan, ben Hakem_, and after him there
     remained of this family but _Abd-ur-rahmen_, who escaped
     from the hands of the Abbasides, and later (in 756 A. D.)
     established the dynasty of the Ommiades in Spain, where
     fifteen of them held successively the government during
     nearly two hundred years, until 986 A. D., when the Alides
     seized the sovereignty of that country.

      *     *     *     *    *

SECTION II: AN ACCOUNT OF THE SECOND SECT OF THE PEOPLE OF ISLAM,
WHICH SECT IS KNOWN UNDER THE NAME OF SHÍAHS.――The author of this book
was informed, by the learned of this sect, that they agreed to
attribute the office of Imám and the khalifat, with the title of Amir
of the believers, in particular to Alí (the peace of God be with him!)
that he was established by clear tradition, or by manifestation or by
testament; and they maintain that the khalifat was not alienable from
the descendants of his highness, and if such a transgression happened,
it can have been only by violence and by tyranny; they also said, that
the office of an Imám is not to be given by the decision of a council,
which may depend upon the choice of the vulgar, so that the Imám may
be appointed by their injunction, but the true decision is that which
derives its origin and support from the pillars of the faith; and the
dignity of the prophetic asylum, _Muhammed_ (may the benedictions of
God be upon him!) does not deserve that there be negligence used or
carelessness shown in such a matter, or that it be committed to the
multitude. They argue thus upon the condition necessary for the
appointment of an Imám, upon its establishment and stability, which
requires to be defended by the inferior and higher people. These are
the opinions in which they agree about opposing or appointing an Imám,
about words or deeds in the state of religion.

Some however, called _Zaydiyat_,[549] opposed them in what was said;
and there is among the Shiâhs a great difference of opinion about the
establishment of the Imám’s office, and at all times, before us until
later days, there was much discoursing about it: they differ widely
about the number of the Imáms. They are divided in different sects,
and we shall in this book give an account of what we have seen of them.

       *     *     *     *     *

OF THE TWELVE SECTS OF THE SHIAHS.

The author of this book relates what he has learned from Mulla
Muhammed Mâsúm, from Muhammed Múmin, and from Mulla Ibrahim, who in
the year of the Hejira 1053 (A. D. 1643) were in Lahore, and from
others. The Mulla Ibrahim had great faith in his religion, and had a
great aversion to the followers of the Sonna and the Jamaât, whom he
never approached at meals; he did not during six months taste any
butter in Lahore, because it happened to be a Hindu or Sonnite who was
selling it. He said: “In the beginning of my manhood, I once slept in
a field, and saw in a dream a great host of luminous beings, who said
to me: ‘Be a Muselman.’ I answered: ‘Such is my inclination.’ They
said again: ‘Take care of not being a Sonnite;’ and they added much
about this subject to dissuade me from it. When they had disappeared,
I asked their followers: ‘Who were they?’ They replied: ‘Imáms.’ When
I awoke, from that moment I never associated with the Sonnites.”

With this sect there is but one Lord God, and no other: he is one,
living, omniscient, self-acting, almighty, hearing and seeing every
thing, and the first of speakers; they acknowledge his power, not only
over possible, but even impossible things; they consider God Almighty
as possessed of qualities necessarily inherent in his essence; they
hold the servant of God to be master of his own actions. With them the
word of God is not ancient, but it is a novelty, because its meaning
is understood from sounds. They adduce the words of _Abu Jâfr
Túsî_[550] (the mercy of God be with him!), who says that,
fundamentally considered, the seventy and three sects are only two
religions, namely: _Navá seb_, “the enemies of Alí,” and _Ravafés_,
“heretics” (the Shiâhs), because on the day on which Muhammed (the
peace of God be upon him!) left the _mortal_ garment, there were forty
thousand companions present, who all acknowledged, with approbation
and satisfaction, Abubekr as khalif, except eighteen persons, who were
attached to Alí (the peace of God be with him!) who were joined by
seventeen other individuals, who, averse to Abubekr, did not
acknowledge him, nor give their consent to his khalifat. He said of
these seventeen, _rafas á na_, “they abandoned me,” or “they separated
from me,” whence they received the name _raváfés_, “schismatics;” and
those eighteen persons said to the companions:

  “You have appointed Abubekr without inauguration.”

that is: “You raised to the khalifat Abubekr, without having due
sanction for it;” on which account they received the title of
_Naváséb_, “enemies,” and each of these two sects had two names; the
one their own, on account of the part which they took in the
appointment of the khalif, and the other name, which their antagonist
or enemy gave them; all the companions called themselves _the people
of the faith_, or _the people of the Sonnat and Jamáât_, whilst those
eighteen persons called them _naváseb_, “enemies,” and to themselves
they gave the title of _múmin_, “believers,” and _Shiâhs_, “troop,”
but all the companions named them _Ráfés_, “heretics.” Afterwards, the
religion of the Naváséb divided itself into fifty and five sects, and
that of the Raváfés into eighteen, as it was said:

  “All are in the fire of hell, except one.”

Of these sects, one only is to belong to the people of salvation,
because they profess the right faith, and this right faith consists in
believing the unity, the justice of God, the dignity of the prophet
and of the Imám, and the resurrection, and in maintaining the truth of
each of these five articles. As God Almighty thinks good to choose one
among his servants, whom he sends as his prophet and apostle, that he
may announce the right way to his subjects and creatures, he who is
sent must be pure of all our venial and mortal sins; his word is to be
a mediation between God and man; and the prophet, who is sent by God,
finds it necessary to choose one like him to fill his place after him,
and this substitute must also be pure of all venial and mortal sins;
this substitute, or khalif, must choose one who may take his place
after him, so that the centre of the face of the earth may never
remain destitute of Imáms; and that, by the reasoning of wisdom and by
his efforts, the decisions in the law may be preserved right, and the
collection of proofs not lose its purity among them. Muhammed chose
Alí, and appointed him his executor and khalif, and Alí, after
Muhammed, was the best and wisest of all prophets of the family; the
other Imáms (the blessing of God be upon them!) were his sons; as the
first, so were the last, and at the end they remained the same as they
had been in the beginning. The number of Imáms, according to the
_Akhbár Nabi_, “History of the Prophets,” was twelve,[551] eleven of
them passed to the other world, the twelfth is living for ever; at
last he shall appear, and render the world as full of virtue as it is
now full of injustice and tyranny.

They say, that Abubekr, Omar, and Osman, and the children of Amîah,
and Abasíah, their companions, usurped the dignity of Imáms, on which
account they revile them. Some of them assert that Osmán burnt some
volumes of the Koran, and threw away some of the surahs, which were in
favor of Alí and of his descendants; of which the following is
one:[552]

     In the name of the bountiful and merciful God.

     O you who have faith, believe in the two lights, _Muhammed_
     and _Ali_, whom we have sent, and who recite our verses to
     you, and put you on your guard against the chastisement of
     the great day. These two lights _proceed_ the one from the
     other. As to myself, I understand and I know.

     Those who fulfil the order of God and of his prophet, such
     as it is given to them in the verses of the Koran, those
     shall enjoy the gardens of delight. As to those who, after
     having believed, became infidels by transgressing their
     compact, and what the prophet had stipulated for them, they
     shall be thrown into hell, because they have unjustly
     treated their own souls, and have disobeyed the preaching
     prophet. These shall be drenched with hot water.

     It is God who illuminated the heavens and the earth, as it
     was his pleasure; who made his choice among the angels and
     prophets; who placed the latter among the number of
     believers in the midst of his creatures.――God does what he
     wills: there is but he, the bountiful and merciful God.

     Those who preceded them, have already machinated against
     their prophets; but I have punished them for their perfidy,
     and, certainly, my punishment is violent and severe. God had
     already destroyed Ad[553] and Tamud,[554] on account of
     their crimes; he made of them an example for warning you.
     Shall you then not fear?

     Because Pharaoh acted tyrannically towards Moses and his
     brother Aaron, I drowned him in the waters, as well as those
     who followed him, in order that it may serve as a sign for
     you.

     Many among you are prevaricators; but God will assemble them
     all on the day of resurrection; and they will not be able to
     answer when interrogated by him: certainly, hell is their
     habitation. God is all-knowing and wise.

     O prophet! my advertisement arrived (at its destination);
     perhaps will they act (conformably to it). Those who turned
     away from my words have already experienced detriment. Are
     they comparable to those who accomplish thy ordinances, and
     whom I will reward by the gardens of delight? For God is the
     Lord of mercy and great rewards.

     Ali is of the number of pious; we shall restore him his
     right on the day of judgment. We are not ignorant of their
     intention to defraud him. We have honored him more than all
     thy family. He and his race are of the number of sufferers,
     and certainly their enemy is the Imam of sinners.[555]

     Say to those who became infidels after having believed: “You
     have sought after the comforts of the present life, and you
     have been eager in the pursuit of them; but you have
     forgotten what God and his prophet have promised you. You
     have broken the engagements which you had taken in a formal
     manner; yet we quoted to you examples, in the hope that you
     would follow the good direction.”

     O prophet, we have sent thee clear verses. Those who were
     faithful, and attached themselves to them, will receive
     assistance after thee. Turn away from those who turn away
     from me. Certainly, he shall make them appear on the day on
     which nothing shall avail them, and when they will have no
     pity to hope for. Their habitation shall be hell, from which
     they shall not be removed.

     Celebrate the name of thy lord, and be of the number of his
     adorers. We have already sent Moses, and Aaron, and those
     who followed them; but they treated Aaron unjustly. Patience
     is an excellent virtue. Among them we changed some into
     apes[556] and hogs; we cursed them until the day of
     resurrection. Have patience; certainly they shall be
     punished.

     We have gratified thee with an authority equal to that which
     was possessed by the messengers who preceded thee, and we
     have given thee instructions in their persons. Perhaps
     mankind will be converted. He who turns away from my command
     shall be soon called away by me _from this world_. Let them
     therefore enjoy some time their impiety. Ask no information
     concerning the violators of God’s law.

     O prophet, we granted thee the power of loading the neck of
     those who believed in the strength of a compact which we
     contract. Be thou of the number of the grateful.

     Certainly, Ali is pious. He passes the night prostrate
     _before God_. He is cautious with respect to another life,
     and he hopes to merit the reward of his Lord. Say, will they
     be treated in the same manner, they who have acted unjustly,
     although they knew the chastisement which I prepare for
     them? Chains shall be put on their necks, and they shall
     repent of their acts.

     We have announced to thee a progeny of just men,[557] who
     will not oppose my commands. My bounty and mercy are upon
     them, living or dead,[558] until the day of resurrection. My
     anger is against those who act tyrannically towards thy
     posterity; wicked men who shall suffer the pain _which they
     deserve_.

     As to those who walked upon the road of thy posterity, my
     mercy is granted to them, and they shall be safe in the
     kiosques _of paradise_. Glory to God, King of the creatures.

       *     *     *     *     *

THE RELIGION OF THE AKHBÁRIN.[559]

Mulla Muhammed Amîn, of Asterabád,[560] gave currency in this time to
this religion: they say, after having acquired the natural and
revealed sciences, he made a pilgrimage to the temple of Mecca, and
after having critically examined the sacred sayings, he adhered to
what he thought the right sense, and composed the work _Fava-íd
Madaníy_, “Useful Notes, by a Citizen of Medina.” In the book _Danish
nameh, Káteb Sháhî_, which was written for the use of Dáráí Sekander
Dostgáh Muhammed Kalí Kateb Shah, it is stated, that the exalted wish
and furthermost intent is the knowledge of what is particular to the
origin and end, and the explanation of this meaning is contained in
the verse of the merciful:

     “The faith in God, and in the day of eternal life.”

And the tradition of the noble Amír of the believers and the adored
Imám (the blessing of God and peace be upon them and upon their holy
descendants):

     “God take compassion upon the man of whom I know from whence he
        came, where he is, and whither he goes,”

entered into this meaning. The learned, in the maintenance of this
station, divided into several sects. The one sect established this
station by investigation and evidence; then a division of this sect
rendered it obligatory not to say any thing contrary to the possessors
of revelation, and these are called _Matkalmin_,[561] “scholastics,”
for the reason that they have composed the science of scholastic
theology, on account of rational considerations, and have enlarged
argumentation in the science of scholastic dialectics and theological
questions.

Another sect did not bind themselves in their
reasoning; they are called _Hukmá másháyîn_,[562] “the walking
philosophers,” because their first founders followed the stirrup of
_Arastu_ (Aristotle),[563] and at the time when Arastu, as Vizir of
_Iskander_ (Alexander) was walking to and from the palace of this
king; they took the opportunity of being instructed in science by this
philosopher.

Another sect adopted this doctrine with pious austerities. Afterwards,
a division of this sect made an application of this doctrine as
necessary to the Koran, and took care not to maintain any thing
contrary to the companions of the revelation, and these are called
_Sofis matsherâîn_, “orthodox Sofis.” Another sect did not believe
this necessary, and these are entitled _Hukmá âshrákîn_, to whom
_Aflátún_ (Plato)[564] who was the preceptor of Arastú, furnished
lessons and instructions of piety.

Another class adopted this doctrine with a view to the precepts of the
possessors of holiness, and made it a necessary condition that in all
questions about customs, in which reason is _likely_ to err, they
should strictly adhere to the sayings of the possessors of holiness;
and these are called _Akhbárîn_. The companions of the pure Imáms (the
blessing and peace of God be upon them!) all observed this rule, and
the Imáms (peace be upon them!) prohibited them the science of
scholastic theology, and the science of the fundamentals of religion
and law, which have been collected according to the views of the
intelligent; and likewise they prohibited the science of
jurisprudence, which has been composed as an abstract of opinions, for
this reason: because, safe from error, one is inclosed in what is
right by the words of the possessors of holiness, and because many
contradictions and discordancies occur in the three sciences.[565] As
it is evident and clear that there are no contradictions in truth, so
certainly one of the different opinions is false. The Imáms also
instructed their companions in the science of scholastic dialectics,
in the science of the fundam etals of religion and of law, and in
jurisprudence; but these three sciences are, in many of the questions,
not without contradiction with the sciences which the professors of
common religion have combined. The lords of the temple (peace be upon
them!) have declared, “that in the three sciences, as received by the
generality of the people, truth is that which from us is come to them,
and error is whatever originate from their conceptions.” The doctrine
of the _Akhbárîn_, in after times called _Gháibet sâry_, “the minor
absence,” which by some is reckoned among the traditions of the
seventy-and-three, and by others among the traditions of the seventy
four sects, became diffused among the learned of the _Imámíyat_;
although it was also known among the first of the _Ghâibet[566]
Kaberî_, “the great absence,” and the companions of the Imáms (peace
be upon them!) after having received the three sciences from the
people of the temple (blessing be upon them!), formed a collection of
them in a book according to their direction; it was to this that the
people of the temple referred in their belief and actions, until the
time of the Ghâibet Kaberî of the Shíahs, and this book, by way of
continuation, was brought down to the times of the moderns; the entire
work, which was compiled by the trusty friend of the right faith,
_Muhammed ben Yâkúb al Kalbiy_,[567] (may his tomb be sanctified!)
comprehends the three sciences.

Further, when _Muhammed ben Ahmed Aljanáîd_, who was eminent in
analogy,[568] and _Hassen ben Hassáîn ben Alí, ben Abí âkîl_, a lofty
scholastic theologian, appeared, and were violent jurists; in their
time, the circle of teaching and learning the common religion being in
the colleges and schools, they studied the book of theology, and the
book of the fundamentals of the common religion; but as they did not
possess all the expertness required for the science of the
fundamentals of religion and for that of theology, which were derived
by tradition from the Imáms, they adapted to the common religion some
among the subjects of scrutiny in the science of scholastic theology,
and in that of the fundamentals of theology: and made choice of a
doctrine which was a mixture of the doctrine of the Akhbárîns and of
that of the common religion, and so laid the foundation of rational
dialectics.[569] After them, _Shaikh Mafíd_, “the beneficent Shaikh,”
(the mercy of God be with him!) that is, the Shaikh _Abú Jâfr_, on
account of heedlessness and of the good opinion of those two eminent
men, conformed himself to them, and he formed, in scholastic theology
and in fundamental jurisprudence, a system of doctrine, mixing with
that of the common religion that of the Akhbarîn, and that of the
_Aśulîn_, “solid reasoners;” on that account, the learned of the
Imámíyat sect divided into _Akhbárîn_ and _Asulîn_. Likewise _Alámah
hallî_, “the most learned ornament,”[570] that is, Shaikh _Jemál eddin
mátaher_, has exhausted to the utmost this subject, in the discussion
about prophecy and unity, and at last the _sharh movákef_,[571]
“explanation of the stations” and the origins of the book of religions
and attributes have also been elucidated by it. When shaikh _Mafíd,
istáz-îlm alihadî_, “the teacher of the science of direction,” that
is, _Saíd Mírtasí_, lived, and was the _istáz rais al taifah_, “chief
teacher of the sect,” this religion was diffused among the learned of
the Jmámîyat, until the time of the most learned of the East and the
West, _Alámah-hallí_; and as, penetrating into the depth of knowledge,
he, _Alámah-halli_, surpassed in the sciences _Ebn Janaíd_, and _Ebn
abî âkîl_, and the shaikh _Mafîd_; they gave a greater expansion and
currency to the mixt religion in the book of scholastic and
fundamental theology, and in the controversial dialectics relative to
faith and law, established the mixt religion. As the _ahádís_,[572]
“traditions” of the common religion, on the subjects of revelation and
unity, were not exempt from adulterations, they published the series
of traditions in their own book, divided into four parts. And
Alámah-hallî (the mercy of God be with him!) on account of heedless
confidence divided into four parts the traditions of his book, and the
book of the sect of the _Mahakah_, “the asserters of truth,” in such a
manner as was also manifested by the _Ilm ilahadî_, “the science of
the direction” (revelation), and the _ra-is_ (chief) of the sect, and
_sikat al islám_, “the trusty friend of the right faith,” and head of
the Shaiks, _Alsadik_, “speaker of truth,” that is, _Muhammed Ebn
Bábúyah[573] Alkamî_; and others: hence the whole tribe _Mahakah_
professed this as true, and, after _Alámah-hally_, the shaikh _Shahîd
awl_, “the first witness,” that is, the shaikh _Muhammed maki_, made
it the rule of his religion, and laid the foundation of his literary
works upon it; after them, the _sultan Almadkakín_, “the sultan of the
refiners” (acute investigators), shaikh _Alí_ (the mercy of God be
upon him!) conformed himself to them, and _Al âalem al rabánî,
Shahid-alsánî_, “the learned of the world, the doctor of divinity, the
second witness,” that is, the shaikh _Zin eddin_ “the ornament of the
faith,” _Jabel al âamlî_ (the mercy of God Almighty be with him!) took
also the rule of this religion. This was until the time arrived for
the learned of the moderns, in the science of _Muhammedan_ traditions,
and the science of biographies and characters of persons to whom the
traditions were handed down, and the most pious among them, the master
of the whole in the whole, that is, _Mirza Muhammed of Asterabâd_ (may
the light of God illume his tomb!). _He said_:[574] “At last, as a
sequel to this, he (Jabel) instructed me, a humble individual, in all
the sciences relative to the traditions, and gave me this injunction:
‘Revive thou the religion of the Akhbárîn, and if any doubt arise,
that creates an opposition to this creed, discard that doubt.’ And
this doctrine has fixed itself in my mind. But it was decreed by the
Lord of Glory that it should be manifested through my pen. Afterwards,
having received all the praised sciences from the greatest of the
learned, I, humble individual, during some years staying in the
splendid town of Medina, bowed my head under the collar of meditation,
and humbled myself at the door of the temple of the Lord of Glory; I
sought refuge with the spirits of the sacred place of the companions
of prophecy, and I repeated afresh the sacred sayings, and the book of
the common religion; that is, that of the opposers to the Imámíyat,
and the special book, that is, that of the Imámíyat; in order to
perfect myself in penetration and meditation; so that, by the favor of
the Lord of Glory, and by the benedictions of the prince of prophets
(Muhammed), and of the pure Imáms (the blessing and peace of God be
upon them all!) by the direction of him, to whom obedience is due, I
conformed to what was right, and succeeded in composing the _Faváid
madaníy_, ‘The Useful Notes, by a Citizen of Medina.’” Subquently,
Muhammed Asterabádí had the honor of being instructed by the most
noble of this sect; afterwards they approved his composition, and
congratulated the author upon it. (The mercy of God be upon them!)

Among the Imámíahs it is decided that the Imám _Muhammed, son of
Hassan Askery_,[575] is still alive, but concealed from view; they
divide the time of his absence into two epochs;[576] namely, “the
minor and the greater absence.” The minor absence, which extends to
seventy-three years, falls into the time of _Mâtemed Abásí_,[577] in
the year of the Hejira 266 (A. D. 879); the greater absence took place
in the time of _Rásí_, the son of _Mukteder Abásî_.[578] The
distinction between these two epochs is that, during the minor
absence, there were a registrar and delegates as intermediates between
the pious persons of the religion and the Imáms, whilst, during the
greater absence, the appointing and establishing was broken off. The
first Vakîl, “delegate, agent,” was _Osman_, son of _Said ul Umrul
Asadi_, in the holy place (of Medina); after him, by command of the
Imám of the time, his son, _Abu Jâfer_, took charge of the office,
which he held about fifty years; after him came _Abu ’l Kásem Hossain
Ebn Rúh Ebn Ali Baher Nóubakhtí_, who bequeathed his place to
_Abu’l-Hasan Alî Ebn Muhammed Samírí_, and this was the last Vakíl.
When he was sick, the Shíâhs asked him: “Who shall after thee be the
Vakíl of the holy place?” He wrote his command by a last will, by
which he abolished the charge, and the command is as follows:

     In the name of the bountiful and merciful God:

     O Ali, son of Muhammed Samiri, may God increase the
     recompense of thy brothers with regard to thee, for thou art
     dead, and between thee and me there are six days;[579]
     therefore arrange thy affairs, and propose to nobody to fill
     thy place after thy death; certainly the complete absence is
     now accomplished, and no further manifestation shall take
     place but after the permission of God, the most high. He
     mentioned it, and this after a long delay, and the obduracy
     of hearts, and after the filling of the earth with violence.
     And there shall come from among my people one to be a
     witness; but he who desires it before the coming forth of a
     Safiani and the Sihat, he is a deceiver, and ought to be
     avoided. There is no power and no strength but one God, the
     most high and most great.

Abul-Hasan died in the middle of Shâbán (the eighth month of the
year), in the year of the Hejira 328 (A. D. 939).

It is to be known, that the tradition among the Shiâhs of the
_Imámiyat-âsulín_ sect is divided into four parts: _sáhíh_,
“authentic;” _hasen_, “elegant;” _músik_, “strong;” and _sâíf_,
“weak.”

An _hadís sahih_, “an authentic tradition,” is one, the authority of
which goes back to _mâsúm_,[580] according to the narration of an
_âdil Imám_, “a just Imám,” in the description of whom the
_árbáb-i-hadis_, “the masters of history,” have used the word _âdil_,
whether the narrator be one person, or whether there be more than one,
provided in the description of them all the same language has been
used.

An _hadis hasen_, “an elegant tradition,” is one, the authority of
which goes back, like that of the _hadis sahih_, to the _mâsúm_; but,
according to the narrative of a venerable Imám, in this way, that
although, in regard to the narrator of it, the words _sikah âdíl_,
“trusty and just,” have not come down to us from the historians, yet
they have praised him in other words.

An _hadis músik_, “a strong tradition,” is that, in the description of
whose narrators the words _sikah âdil_ have been used by the
historians, but some or all of the narrators of which are not
_Imámís_, “followers of Ali.”

An _hadis sâíf_, “a weak tradition,” is that in which none of these
three conditions are found; viz.: 1st, the inference from the
commendation of _sikah âdil_; 2nd, a praise other than these two
words; and 3rd, the qualification _sikah âdil_, with erroneous belief
on the part of the narrator.

A tradition is either _in regular succession_, or _not in regular
succession_. A tradition is in regular succession, when a great
multitude on the authority of a great multitude make the same
narration, until it reaches to the _mâsúm_, in such a manner, that the
number of each multitude, in each particular age, shall have been so
great as to exclude the idea of their having combined in telling a
lie. A tradition is without a regular succession, when the number of
narrators does not, in all or several stages, reach to that multitude,
as before said, and this kind of tradition is called, in the peculiar
idiom of the masters of history, _the information of one_. Among the
Akhbarians, there is no such arrangement and classification of
evidence, and God knows the truth.

The author of this book writes what he has learned of the religion of
the _Akhbáríns_ from the Amíns of this doctrine, one of whom was
Muhammed Razái Kazvíní. They call themselves _Akhbárín_, “dogmatic
Traditionists,” because they place the centre of their belief in the
prophetic book,[581] and employ no reasoning. _Mulla Muhammed Amín_,
after having acquired the requisite theoretical and practical
knowledge and that of the law, went to Mecca and to the revered
places, and he declared openly, that controversial dialectics belong
not to the rule of the ancient Shiâhs. The author of this book writes
what he has heard from pious persons, the confidents of secrets of
this sect; whoever desires to know more of it, may have recourse to
the book _Faváid Almadíniy_, which is the composition of the last
mentioned writer.

The following passage is said to be found in the sacred writings:

     “God take compassion on the man of whom I know whence he
     comes, where he is, and whither he goes.”

My desire is God himself, and as an indication of it is my perception
of him, the scope of which is the return to him. Afterwards we ought
to have the knowledge of three perceptions. The _Imánah_ conform
themselves to the religion of the community which is composed of the
people of the temple; but it is required that we acquire in Medina the
knowledge of what the prophet is, and that we enter through the doors
(chapters) of sciences, in which twelve Imáms are to be praised;
whatever further is behind this religion will belong to that of the
heretics. Of the two other religions, the one is that of the _people
of pious austerity_; and this again is divided into two sects: the one
comprehends the ancient _Ashrákíán_, who did not follow the prophet;
and the second consists of the _Matákherîn_, “the moderns,” who, known
under the name of “Sufis,” believe the prophet, and in theory and
practice conform themselves to him and to the Imáms. They say, the
prophet showed the way of righteousness and revealed the hidden; and
the Imáms also taught purity, which from them was conveyed to us; the
Imáms, by their pious austerity, promoted the purity of manners, and
practised abstinence from food and sleep; the lord of the prophetic
protection committed this religion to Alí; and Alí was the delegate of
this pious austerity, the chief master, the Amir of the true
believers; _Hassan Baśri_[582] was one of the devoted followers of the
Amír, and _Báyazîd_ was the disciple of the Imám _Jâfr sadek_;[583]
_Mârúf Kœrkhí_, “the celebrated of Karkh,”[584] gave the hand of
devotedness to the Imám _Reza_.[585] Similar to them is the sect
_shigref_, “the venerable,” who think themselves the vice-regents of
the Imáms, and lieutenants of the prophet (the peace of God be upon
him):[583][**extra anchor] their sayings deserve no attention, as in
our religion there never was a lieutenant, whatever from a spirit of
vanity they may assume. These men are professedly monks, and these are
numbered among heretics.

The second sect is that of the _Istidlal_, “the arguers,” and of
old[586] they were called _Masháyín_, “the walkers, peripatetics;”
they did not follow the prophet, and the moderns call them
_Matkalemín_, “scholastics.” These sectaries are said to mix the
principles of the true faith with the belief of the peripatetics, and
are also reckoned heretics:[587] because the true religion is that
which the lord professed, and this is the religion of the Akhbárins.

Mulla Muhammed Amîn[588] addressed a crowd of _mujtahids_,[589]
“casuists,” who make a profession of ratiocination (discussion), in
the following terms:――“You agree and acknowledge, that the ancient
believers and the religion of old knew of no contentious arguing; and
that the ancient way and the old religion which prevailed in the time
of Muhammed and of the Imáms (the peace of God be upon them!) is the
way of the Akhbarîns. Further, we have likewise a satisfactory proof,
that our way is the constant religion; but try to combine a
demonstration in the way of reasoning, and show to us by whose
direction from among the possessors of holiness you adopted your
creed, whilst after Muhammed (the peace of God be upon him!) no other
prophet is to appear and to bring another religion? In like manner it
has not been stated, in the book of the prophet and in the sacred
sayings of the Apostles and of the Imáms, that the relators should, in
practice act at discretion, and after the disappearing of the Imám,
make a profession of ratiocination. Moreover, it is positively
understood that you have mixed your principles with the principles of
the Sonnites and Jamáat, and your creed has taken the nature of
oxymel, which is neither honey nor vinegar; and you are neither
Sonnites nor Shiâhs; and this is the manner in which the moderns
exercise reasoning as a profession, that, in the time of religious
zeal, they went and helped themselves to the acquisition of knowledge
from the books of the adversaries (schismatics), and a similar desire
has taken hold of your hearts. Afterwards they threw out of their
books what appeared reprovable, but nevertheless mixed something of it
with their own faith.”

It should be known that some things proceed from the exigencies of the
faith: thus the dissentient as well as the consentient use the same
prayers, and even the unbelievers admit, that in these Muhammed is
necessarily honoured. Several things are among the exigencies of the
faith, as for instance the office of an Imám, as the dissentient and
consentient know that, in point of faith, acknowledging the Imáms is
indispensable for strength, firmness, and unimpairable stability. It
should be known that, whatever is established from the verses of the
Koran renders the conforming of the action to it indispensable; but
what is expressed in an allegorical or ambiguous sense, we have not
the capacity of understanding; it is then evident that this is
particular to the prophet and to the Imáms, and we should not meddle
with it; further, we ought to conform our actions to the tradition of
the prophet and of the Imáms. As many traditions are opposed to each
other, and the distinction therein is arduous; on that account, if two
traditions present themselves to our view, such as to be contrary to
each other, then the Imám affords the believers a firm rule, which
proves to the understanding a protection from error. The truth is,
that when two traditions happen to contradict each other, _good
Theologians_ refer them to the incontrovertible authority of the
Koran; the tradition which is conformable to a verse of the Koran, is
that to which they refer the action, and ascribe to religious
zeal[590] the other tradition, and if this does not coincide with the
incontrovertible authority, as it exceeds your power to decide the
dubious question; fix then your eyes upon the creed of the opposers,
and observe by what rule they are actuated.[591] Whatever is contrary
to them, this tradition they should reckon to be truth; and whatever
agrees with the opposers, they should acknowledge as belonging to
religious zeal; and if both these traditions in the creed of the
opposers were laudable, they should consider, that a thing which
according to them deserves pre-eminence, is the contrary of that which
they ought to take. And if one says: “You have many opposers, and
there are seventy-and-two sects whose opinions are conflicting with
each other;” _I answer_: “The Imám declared that they ought to proceed
upon a road contrary to that upon which the victorious, the rulers,
and the learned among the opposers, walk; and if, nevertheless, it may
appear to all that they find themselves upon the same road; there are
then two laws: according to whichever of the traditions they act, it
does not matter in that tradition in which way it comes from the
_mâsúm_,[592] provided, without doubt, it comes from the Imám; and the
Imám is a person to whom obedience is obligatory. Moreover, by
whichever authority they act, they must conform their action to the
direction of the Imám. Another thing is to be said: “Have patience
until the time of the happy meeting with the Imâm.” If any body says:
“We have no option to act or not to act; how long shall we wait? the
coming of the Imám is not determined?” This is the reply: Having
already acted, why should it be said: “Have patience?” This has
reference to _the precept_: “If thou art in business, act peaceably;
and if devoted to religion, follow the rites of the most comprehensive
religion.” Should any one say: “To conform my actions to this rule is
also subject to discussion,” we answer to that: “This is the rule the
Imám has established; if there be discussion, it is therefore the
Imám’s, not our’s.” To weigh a religious doctrine is the same as to
compare two traditions contrary to each other: we found, for instance,
that “as to purity of wine, there are two colors.”[593] The wine is in
the traditions; we then made reference to the incontrovertible
authority of the Koran; we found no verse decisive about it; and in
the allegories we saw, that wine is called uncleanness, and how many
meanings are attached to uncleanness; and as we had the power of
understanding the truth, the ambiguity disappeared. We made reference
to the creed of the opposers _to the right faith_: they acknowledge
wine to be impure. Then we took the contrary of it, and reckoned the
wine to be pure, as the traditions announce the purity of wine.
Further, the tradition which denotes the impurity of wine, we ascribed
to religious caution. And it is to be known that the Mujtahíd ought to
conform his actions to his opinion; but opinion is _shabhah_, “doubt,”
and is so called (very like _shabah_, “an image”), because it is vain,
and “truth-like.”

The religion of the Akhbarín consists in the conviction that, without
an exception, whatever they have heard from the Imám is to them
_dalîl-i-katáí_, “a final, decisive proof” (cutting off all further
questions); moreover the practice followed by the Akhbaríns, is the
_terík-í-katáí_, “the final religion;” and _katáí_, “final,” is that
which does not depend upon _mere_ opinion. The modern among the Shiâh
said, that it becomes the Mujtahed to conform his actions to his
opinions, and that it is incumbent upon others to submit to his
doctrine: this religion is not ancient; as to the rest, the practice
of contentious arguing and restlessness is an error.

       *     *     *     *     *

AN ACCOUNT OF THE ISMAI LIAH.

Information was received from Mír Amír, who was a governor of the
Naváhi, “district” of the town Shekúnah, that the Ismâílíah, are a
tribe among the Shiâhs; and their creed is ascribed to the lord Imám
Ismâíl, the son of the lord Imám Jâfr sádik,[594] and this sect
believe this lord an Imam; they say, that Imám Jâfr consigned the
office of an Imám to him; and that he never admitted to a partnership
with the mother of this lord any other woman or girl, in the manner
that had been done by the prophet with regard to Khadíjah, and by Alí
with respect to Fátmah.[595] About the departure of Ismâíl from this
perishable world, there are different accounts. Some say that he died
during the lifetime of Jâfr; then the prerogative of appointing to the
Imámate was transferred from the Imám Jâfr to the offspring of Ismâíl;
in like manner as Músí (Moses) transferred the appointment to Hárún
(Aaron), who died during the lifetime of Músí. The appointment does
not return by retrocession; and a convention _reversed_ from whence it
came is impossible. Jáfr was not likely to appoint, without
traditional credentials from noble ancestors, one from among his
distinguished descendants, and to be uncertain and unknown is not
suitable to an Imám. As to the appointment of the Imám Jáfr, its
legality is in accordance with the twelve Imáms. Some say, that Ismâíl
had not departed from life, but the news of his death was spread
about, from fear that his enemies should attempt his life, and a
declaration of his death was written. It is reported, according to
some, that during the khalifat of Manzur, Ismâil was seen in Basra,
where a person afflicted with a malady of the foot was cured by means
of his prayers. Mansur asked information from the Imám, who sent to
the khalif a certificate (of Ismâil’s death), in which was included a
letter of the âamil (collector of revenue) of Mansur.

They say that, after Ismâil followed Muhammed, the son of Ismâil, with
whom closed the series of the Shiâh Imáms,[596] and after him the
Imáms disappeared; but no age remains destitute of conspicuous Imáms,
and when an Imám has appeared, he certainly evinces himself as such.

The number of the commands of the Imáms is seven, like the seven days
of the week, the seven heavens, and the seven planets.[597] They hold
the number of the religious leaders to be twelve, and therein the
Imámíyas have committed an error, by counting the Imáms after the
leaders, and these are the _Baténian_, “interior.”[598] These
sectaries do not conform themselves to the evidence of the divine law;
they declare: “we do not say, God is omnipresent or not omnipresent,
omniscient, or not omniscient, almighty, or not almighty, and so in
all attributes;” they maintain further as a confirmation of the truth,
that there is a connexion between God and the _other_ beings, and this
is the creed of the _Tashbíah_, “assimilators;” but from an absolute
negation a connexion takes place with non-existences, which is
maintained by the _Tâtíl_, “indifferent,” and the application of this
thesis to the Lord, the self-existent, leads to the opinion, that
there is no community to be imagined between the Lord God,
self-existent, _and other beings_. They also say that the Almighty God
is the operator of opposite effects, and the creator and ruler of
conflicting results. They further set forth, that when the lord Yzed,
the most sublime, bestowed the gift of knowledge upon the inhabitants
of the world, they called him all-knowing; when he displayed his power
on account of his majesty, they called him all-mighty: certainly the
attribution of knowledge and power to the being of the most sublime
Yzed is founded upon the belief that he is the giver of knowledge and
force. Moreover they assert that, by a single command, God created
intelligence, which among all things is perfect, and by means of
perfect intelligence, he brought forth the spirit which is not
perfect; there is a relation between intelligence and spirit, a
relation between the sperm and the child produced, as well as a
relation between the egg and the bird, or a relation between father
and son, or husband and wife. The spirit becomes then desirous of, and
longing for the excellence of perfect intelligence[599] which he
derives from expansion, therefore he feels himself pressed to move out
of his deficiencies towards excellence,[600] but he does not attain at
perfect motion, except by means of an instrument.

Afterwards, God created the heavenly bodies, and gave the heavens a
circular motion; from his disposition emerged the spirit, the simple
elementary natures, and by means of them the uncompounded beings;
further, he brought forth the compounded bodies from among minerals,
vegetables, and various animals, among which man was the best, on
account of the merit of much sanctity, and his connexion with the
celestial world. Thus the upper world is composed of perfect universal
intelligence, and the rational sense of universality which is the
origin of creatures. It is necessary that in the nether world perfect
universal intelligence and reason prevail, that they may afford to the
inhabitants of the world the means of salvation, and this intelligence
is the prophet _nát´ik_, “speaking,” and the reason is the Imám. As
the heavens are moved by the impulse of intelligence and reason, in
like manner are the other souls set free by the impulse of the
“speaker;” there is one who commands in every age, and every time has
its revolution; every revolution depends upon the authority of seven
persons[601] until it terminates by the last revolution and the time
of judgment comes; the exigencies of the law and religious rule rise
as the rapid movements of heaven, and the necessity of law is the
cause of the acquisition of reason _carried_ to excellence; it is a
_laudable_ trial of mankind to attain to the dignity of wisdom, and
this is “the great judgment.”

When they wish to convert any body to their creed, they throw doubts
upon his religion into his mind, not with any evil intention on their
side, but that he may find the road to God and attain truth, as well
as be convinced that, except their religion, any other is remote from
certainty and without firmness. Their manner of creating doubts about
the pillars of the law, is that they ask about detached parts of a
sura: what (for instance) is the meaning of the detached letters in
the first sura,[602] and the command about fasting, a menstruous
woman, the command of prayers, and why the necessity of bathing with
regard to sperm and urine; the number of the sacred inclinations of
the head, which, according to some, are four, according to others,
three, and perhaps two: which number is right? and so on in all
actions of the pious.[603] When the person desirous of truth, finds
himself by such questions surrounded with doubts, and inquires after
truth, they answer, and conduct him upon the road of the right belief,
in such a manner that all doubt is banished from his heart; he then is
received in their community, and walks in the right way, whence he is
strengthened against any creation of doubts, and this is the manner of
agreement current among the followers of God, by way of compact and
convention.

     “When we took engagements with the prophets.”

Further, according to convention, comes _haválet_, “giving in charge”
to the Imám, and settling arduous matters, when a difficulty occurs in
an affair which presents itself to him; inasmuch as, by the laudable
nature of his qualities, an Imám is wise, and nobody else possesses
the power with which this exalted personage is firmly invested. To
this is joined _tedlís_, “artifice,” which consists in managing
relations with powerful personages, in religious and worldly matters,
in order to increase the proselyte’s inclination for what he seeks and
wishes. Then is _tásís_, “making sure,” or confirming the arrangements
which are agreeable to him, so that he may be confident, and put in
possession of what he expects. Further, there is _khalâ_, “divesting,”
which is obscure. Afterwards by renouncing the actions of this world:
this is _silkh_, “estrangement from the observances of exterior
religion.” Finally, at this period, whoever may find it agreeable to
indulge in, and to excite himself to, pleasurable practices, and to
interpret the law, which is the office of exalted personages, _he may
do so_, as whatever in the world is not hurtful, is proper to the
favourites of God, as for instance wine, which, to enjoy with
moderation and without abuse and noise, is salutary.[604]

They say likewise _vazu_, “ablution,” is as much as acknowledging the
faith of the Imám, and abstersion with sand (from want of water) the
same in the absence of the Imám, as he is the umpire. _Namaz_,
“prayer,” is a precept of the prophet, according to the word of God
the Almighty.

     “Prayer preserveth from filthy crimes, and from what is
        blameable.”[605]

_Jhtilám_,[606] “nocturnal pollution,” refers to the divulging of a
secret to a person not one of those who ought to know it, without the
intention of guiding him into the right road. _Ghasel_, “bathing,” is
a renewal of the covenant. _Zakat_, “alms,” is the sanctifying of life
by means of the understanding of mankind. _Súm_, “fasting,” denotes
the preservation of the mysteries of the Imám. _Zena_, “sexual
intercourse with a strange woman,” is equivalent to divulging the
mysteries of religion. These sectaries say also that praying in an
assembly is following the holy Imám. The alms are to them a metaphoric
signification of the fifth part of property which they give to the
Imám.[607] Further, there is the _Kábah_[608] of the prophet, the
_bâb_, “door,” of Alí, the _śafá_ of the apostle, the _marvah_ of the
_vasí_, “executor,” the _míkát itinás_, “the place of familiarity”
(where the pilgrims assemble and whence they proceed to perform the
solemnities at the temple of Mecca), and the _talbiyat_, “pilgrimage
of obedience” to the blessed; the _seven circuits_, around the house
of lordship which the Shiâhs devote to the Imâms (the peace of God be
upon them!)[609]

Heaven is repose of bodies from all distresses. Hell is the torment of
bodies by distresses.

And in this manner they interpret every thing, and say that every
thing exterior has its interior, which is the cause of the exterior,
whilst this latter is the manifestation of the interior; and there is
nothing exterior which has not its interior; and if not, there is, in
reality, nothing; further, there is nothing interior which has not its
exterior, unless it be an illusion. When God created the exterior
(visible), and the interior (invisible) world, the latter was the
world of spirits, souls, and intelligences; the visible world was that
of bodies, upper and nether, and of accidents. The Imám is the lord of
the interior world, and there is no knowledge of God to be acquired,
except by his instruction. The prophet is the lord of the exterior
world, and the law, of which men stand in need, will not be perfect
except by him; and the law has an exterior side, which is called
_tanzil_,[610] “revelation from heaven, the Koran,” and an interior,
which is entitled _táwîl_,[611] “interpretation.” The age is never
destitute of a prophet, or of law; it is likewise never without an
Imám, or his authority. These sectaries further say, that his
government is sometimes concealed, although the Imám be manifest, and
that at another time the government is manifest, although the Imám be
concealed; in such a manner that the people may know a prophet by the
wonders of his words and deeds; but they recognize the Imám by his
government and direction, and they cannot know God Almighty but by the
Imám. The Shiâhs also maintain that the existence of an Imám through
all times is necessary, whether manifest or concealed, so that no
period of time be destitute of the splendour of the sun, or plunged in
the darkness of night.

A book was seen, composed by Hassan Sábáh,[612] who was a deputy of
the Imám. In the first chapter of it, he says, that the _mufti_,
“wise,” in the knowledge of the Lord God ought to follow one of the
two sentences: either that which says that he may know God by mere
reason, without the aid of instruction by an intelligent _sádik_,[613]
“a sincere friend,” or that which declares that the knowledge of the
Lord God by reason is difficult, and cannot be acquired unless by the
instruction of an intelligent sincere friend; and he further states,
that whatever decision he may give according to the first sentence, he
does not assume to reject the other, because, when he rejects, the
rejection amounts to teaching and demonstrating, that the disavowal of
the posterity of Alí is required by the other. These sectarians say,
that both modes are necessary, and constitute a proof: because the
muftí, when he gives a decision by a sentence, this sentence is either
his own or that of another; in the same way, when he professes a
creed, either he adopts it firmly from his own original persuasion, or
this sense is communicated to him by another. This is what the first
section _of the book before mentioned_ contains. In the contents of
this section is a digression upon the lords of reason and of wisdom.

In the second section of it, we read the statement that, when there is
an occasion for a teacher, either every intelligent man, by a free use
of his ability, gives instruction, or the learned sádik is
indispensable; and the author says, that a person who may agree with
whatever instruction an able master imparts, will not think it
allowable to carry on controversy with this learned antagonist; and
when he permits himself to do so, certainly he may have kept the faith
which is absolutely due to the learned _śaáik_ and confidential
friend. This section is said to contain a digression upon the lords of
the tradition.

In the third section it is stated that, although the necessity of a
learned _sádik_ be established, yet it is required to take advantage
of the knowledge of the first learned man; and after the instruction
received from him, that is, instruction from any teacher without a
special appointment, it is proper to be assured of his truth; as the
right way of religion is not attainable without a companion, certainly
the first concern is to have a _true_ friend. After this subject,
there is a digression upon the Shiâhs.

In the fourth chapter, the author says, that the individuals of
mankind are divided into two classes.

The one says: “We require for the knowledge of the Creator a learned
_sádik_, or sincere friend; and his special appointment is required,
and after that instruction from him.” The other class says,
“Instruction for the knowledge of any science can be obtained from any
person, whether a master or not a master _specially appointed_.” As,
by previous investigations, it is understood that the truth is with
the first class, certainly the chief and leader of the first class
will be the chief of the philosophers; and as it has been ascertained
that the second class is erring, their leader is the leader of the
deceived. The author says further, the _true_ doctrine is, that we
acknowledge the _muhikk_, “him who knows for certain” _bahakk_, that
is, “in truth,” which is a summary knowledge; and after the summary
knowledge by which we recognise “him who knows for certain,” “in
truth,” we want a detailed (distinct) knowledge of these questions;
and our purpose in using the word _bahakk_, “in truth” is to express
the necessity of having a _muhikk_, and the author says: By necessity
we are to know the Imám, and by the Imám we know God in such a manner
that by lawfulness we acknowledge him who is necessary, that is to
say, that we acknowledge by the possibility of perfection the
existence of the self-existent being.

The author also says, that knowing the _true_ doctrine is knowing the
unity _of God_. After this illustration, having in several sections
exhibited an account of his own faith, and in some established it, he
made in other sections a digression upon the creed of others, and the
digressive sections are frequent; the proofs and disquisitions by
controversy with regard to false religions, and the disquisitions by
concordance with regard to the rightfulness of his own religion, are
distinct from the totality of those arguments, which are between truth
and falsehood, and the contrast between truth and falsehood, and that
between small and great _is made evident_. The author further alleges,
that in science there is truth and falsehood; but the distinguishing
mark of truth is unity, and the distinguishing mark of falsehood is
multiformity; unity is related to _authoritative_ instruction, and
multiformity is related to opinion; instruction belongs to the
assembly, and the assembly to the Imám; opinion is allied with
conflicting sects, and these agree with their chiefs. As for the
separation of truth from falsehood, and the resemblance which truth
has with falsehood, and for the distinction between what is consistent
and what is absurd, on both sides, a balance ought to be formed in
which every thing may be weighed.[614] The author moreover says, that
we obtained the knowledge of this balance from the speeches of the
witnesses, and whatever is compounded of negation and affirmation; and
whatever is deserving negation is falsehood; and whatever is deserving
affirmation is truth; and by this balance we weigh the good and bad,
the sincere and the lying, and all contradictions; and the acute
distinction and mystery of this speech is, that in the sentences each
word relates to truth by proof of evidence, and unity and
confirmation. The Imámate unites itself with prophecy in such a degree
that prophecy, by the very nature of the Imámate, is prophecy; and
this is the scope of the discourse in these topics of inquiry.

Besides, the author forbade the vulgar to dive deeply into science;
and he prohibited the nobles the study of the books of the ancients,
unless there was a person fit to master the particulars of their
contents, and the comparative merits of the men who have delivered
speeches. He also determined, with his companions in divinity, to say:
_illah illah Muhammed ast_, “God is God the praise-worthy;” so you;
but the adversaries say: _illah illah akel ast_, “God is God the
wise;” that is, whatever is reason, every reason takes its direction
towards the side of this leader (Muhammed); and as some of them raise
these questions: “God Almighty is he present or not? one or many?
knowing or ignorant? powerful or not?” An answer sufficiently strong
is given, namely: _illah ba illah Muhammed_, “God by God is
praiseworthy:”[615] as it is God who sent the prophet for leading the
creatures, and the prophet is the leader of the creatures.

These sectaries are to be found in many places, but in great numbers
in the _navahi_, “district,” of the eastern Kohistan, in the districts
of Khita, of Káshghar, and Tibet. The author of this book saw, in the
year of the Hejira 1054 (A. D. 1644), in Multan, one belonging to this
sect, called Mír Alî Akbar, and heard frequently this account from his
mouth: The Khalifs of the Ismâílíah maintained, during a long time,
their dignity in the West. The lineage of the first Khalifs, according
to the manner which is agreed upon among the Ismâílíah, is stated as
follows: Khájah[616] Násir Túsi (of Tús) showed himself or really was,
in his time, a professor of Ismâílísm. Muhammed al mahtadí ben
Abd-ullah, ben Ahmed ben Muhammed, ben Ismâíl, ben Jâfr sádik, united
the dignity of the Imámate with his own nobility, and declared that
Mahdi, the last of the age, is represented in Muhammed ben Abd-ullah,
and he quoted from the writing of Sádik, who said: “_At the end of
thirteen hundred years, the sun shall rise in the west._” They say
that the word _sun_ in this sentence alludes to Muhammed, son of
Abd-ullah.[617] They give to Abú yazíd, who fell off from the lord
(Sadik), the name of Antichrist (dajál).[618]

A great number of learned men are followers of the Ismâílíah: such was
_Amír Náśer Khusró_, from among all learned poets, the contemporary of
Ismâíl, surnamed _Montáser_, “the victorious.”[619] Amir Naser[620]
was born in the year of the Hejira 359 (A. D. 969). When he arrived at
the age of discernment and rectitude, he heard the voice of Hassen,
_teaching_ the morals of the Ismâílíah, in the time of the khalifat of
the legitimate Imám Montáser;[621] he hastened from Khorassan to
Egypt, where he dwelt seven years; every year he made a pilgrimage to
Mecca, and returned from thence; he was exceedingly devoted to the
practice of the law. At last he went to Mecca, and returning by the
way of Baśra (Bussora) he was disposed to go to Khorassan. Having
fixed himself in Sabakh, he invited mankind to the khalifat of
Manteśer, and to the religion of the Ismâíliah, and showed the way to
it. Hence, a number of the enemies of the prophet’s descendants wished
to destroy Amír Nás r Khusró. A prey to fear and terror, he concealed
himself from mountain to mountain in Badakhshan,[622] and lived twenty
years upon water and grass in inaccessible places. Some of the
ignorant reckoned him a companion among the Ismâíliah Almutíah; others
of the uninformed composed a book of regret on the subject of his
alliance with the Almutíah which they supposed: the fact is that he,
following the Ismâílíah of the West, kept no communication nor society
with the Almútíah. This is what we have heard from the Ismâílíah with
regard to Nás r, and what is also recorded in historical books.[623]

The Imáms of the Ismâílíah showed themselves very kind to all
creatures. Thus Manśur, the son of Azíz, known under the name of
Alhákem ba amra allah, an Ismáílah, ordered in Egypt that, for the
convenience of purchase and sale, the doors of the shops should be
kept open at night, and the windows of Cairo not shut, that besides
torches should be lighted in the narrow streets the whole night, and
the people freely move in the market places and squares. This lord was
skilful in all sciences, and powerful in prodigies, like his glorious
ancestor Muhammed Mokhtar. Thus he said: “in such a night, a
misfortune will befall me:” and so it happened.[624]

The Imáms of the western Ismâílíah were all zealous in the practices
of exterior worship, and an account of them is published in the
historical books. The Ismâílíah of Iran are celebrated with the
Ismâílíah of Kohistán and Rúdbár.[625] The first of the former was
_Hassan_, son of _Sábáh_. As the account of him in the histories has
been traced with the pen of partiality, therefore I shall endeavor to
make a statement such as obtains credit among the Ismâílíah concerning
him.[626]

The lineage of Hassan is connected with Muhammed Sabah Zamérí; his
grandfather, who descended from the family of Sábah Zamérí, came from
Yemen to Kúfa, from Kúfa to Kam, and from Kam to Ráí. His father is
also said to have been Alí,[627] a person devout and learned in the
religion of Ismâílísm; he found a livelihood in the country of Ráí.
The judge of this province, Abú Muslem Rází, on account of the
contrariety of religion, bore him enmity. At the time when the Imám
Mavafek Níshápúrí, one of the most learned Sonnites, flourished in
Khorássan, the father (Alí), in order to remove from the suspicions of
the enemy, having brought his fortunate son to Níshápúr, into the
society of the Imam Movafik, procured him the opportunity of being
intent upon his own advantage, whilst he himself, seated in the corner
of tranquillity, devoted himself to piety. He never permitted himself
speech above the comprehension of the vulgar, for fear that any person
might consider them speeches of heretics and infidels, and accuse him
of impiety and irreligion. Hassan was a condisciple of Nizam al mulk,
of Tús,[628] and Omar Khayám[629] of Níshápúr. As his glorious father
had revealed to him that Nizám al Mulkh would rise to a high rank of
worldly greatness, and Hassan to a great dignity, visible and
invisible, therefore Hassan said to Nizam al mulk: “Whichever of us
attains a high dignity, shall divide the fortune by him acquired
between us three equally;” and in this sense they bound themselves by
a covenant. When khájah became a vizir in the time of Alp
Arselan,[630] then Hakím Omar Khayám came to him, and in the corner of
contemplative retirement, devoted himself to the acquisition of
virtues. Khojah took no notice of his arrival. Hassan expected that
Nizam al mulk would call him to his presence; disappointed in this,
he, during the reign of Alp Arslan, did not join Khajah, but in the
time of Sultan Malik Shah[631] he presented himself in Níshápúr to
Khajah, but the latter did not mind the covenant that he had made, nor
introduce him to the assembly of the king. Helpless then, the _Sayid
al táífah_, “the chief of the sect,” that is, Hassan, said to Khájah:
“Thou belongest to the learned, and to the companions of certainty,
and thou knowest that the world is a vile object; should such a
meanness be allowable, that thou, on account of rank and the love of
sway, shouldst exhibit thyself a violator of promises, and enter the
number of those of whom it is said: ‘They break the covenant of God.’”

  “Place the hand of faith into the girdle of promise,
   And endeavor to be no breaker of thy word.”

Khájah, perplexed, brought him to the court of the Sultan, to whom he
said much of Hassan’s sagacity, but also gave information that the man
was violent, avaricious, inconsistent, and undeserving of confidence.
As Hassan was learned, and an able man of business, therefore his
piety and prudence made in a short time a great impression upon the
mind of the Sultan, who, in many great and important affairs, acted
according to his advice. As the Sultan thought that what Khâja had
said of the inconsistency and avarice of Hassan’s character was mere
falsehood, and on account of other disorder, some dissatisfaction with
Khájah came into the Sultan’s mind. One day he asked Khájah: “In what
time art thou able to settle a clear account, such as that of a
collector of the receipts and charges of the empire?” Khájah replied:
“In two years.” The Sultan said: “That is a long time.” Hassan took an
engagement with the king that he would bring it to a conclusion in
forty days, under the stipulation that, during this time, all the
writers should be at his service. The Sultan gave his approbation to
the proposal, and Hassan, faithful to his promise, settled in forty
days the account of the finances of the empire with the utmost
exactness. Khájah, on hearing this intelligence, was troubled.
According to the account of some, a slave of Khájah, who was upon
terms of friendship with a servant of Hassan, or according to others,
Khájah himself, took the register from the hands of the servant, who
was carrying the leaves of it outside the king’s hall,[632] and
mutilated the register. The servant brought to Hassan the leaves,
without minding their order and without mentioning to him the
occurrence; therefore, at the time of presenting the register, Hassan
found it mutilated, and intent upon arranging and putting it in order,
confused the leaves. The Sultan was impatient to know the receipts,
charges, and revenues of the country; but Hassan was not able to
answer, and spoke with hesitation. The Sultan, being vexed at meeting
with such delay, said: “What is the reason of these difficulties?” As
he received no answer, suitable to his questions, he became agitated.
Khájah Nizám ul mulk took the opportunity to say: “Intelligent
persons, to complete this business, demanded a delay of two years; an
ignorant man pretends that, to finish it, forty days are sufficient
for this important work: his answer to any question can but be
insignificant. I have formerly represented, that in his character
there is a total levity, and that his speeches deserve no
confidence.”[633] On this account, the Sultan was displeased. Hassan
consequently betook himself to flight, and hastened to Rudbar, in
which country he found refuge with Abed-ul Malik Atás, who was a
follower of the Ismâílíah; from thence he went to Isfahán, and, from
fear of the Sultan and of Khájah, he concealed himself in the house of
the Ráis Abulfazil. One day, in the midst of conversation, it escaped
from his tongue: “If I found two proper friends, I would put in
confusion this Turk and his places.” The Ráís Abulfásil ascribed this
speech to a derangement of the brain; and, without disclosing his idea
to Hassan, he prepared for him aliments, such as are proper for
strengthening the brain. Our Sáid Hassan, from his great sagacity,
having perceived the intention of his mind, hastened from thence to
another place, and afterwards took possession of the fort
_Almút_.[634] The Ráis Abulfazil joined him. Our Sáid then said: “Is
my brain deranged, or hast thou not seen how, as soon as I had found
two proper friends, I have made good my word?”

At last, our Sáid went to Egypt, and at that time Mantaśer[635] an
Ismâílíah, sat upon the throne of the Khiláfet, and, being pleased
with his sight, bestowed favors upon him, wherefore Hassan remained
one year and a half under Montaśer’s protection. After this, a great
enmity arose between him and Amír _Aljíyúsh_,[636] from this reason:
Montaśer withdrew from his son Nazár the succession to his dignity,
and issuing afterwards a second order, transferred it to his other son
Ahmed surnamed Almistálí billah.[637] As a tumultuous concourse of the
people took place on that account, Amír Aljíyúsh approved of the
latter appointment, but Hassan said: “Respect is due to the first
nomination;” and he invited the people to adhere to Nazár’s
Imámate,[638] Amir Aljíyúsh, with the concurrence of some Umrá,
represented to Montas er that Hassan, on account of this guilt,
deserved to be imprisoned in the fort Damíat. Soon after this was
done, a tower of the rampart of the fort, which was of a perfect
strength, fell down, wherefore the people apprehended a still greater
miracle from Hassan; at last the Amír Aljíyúsh sent him, with some
people of the Franks, on board a ship bound to the West. The vessel
was scarcely in the open sea, when a violent wind began to blow, the
sea became boisterous, and the ship’s crew were agitated; but Hassan
showed himself in that state of mind described by Amir Khusro:

  “That thou mayst not be moved by every blast of wind,
   Draw in thy skirts (collect thyself) like a mountain;
   For man is but a handful of dust,
   And life is a violent storm.”

On this occasion one of the voyagers asked Hassan: “What is the reason
that I do not see thee disturbed?” Hassan answered: “It is because the
Múláná, that is, the Imám, revealed to me that no misfortune will
befall the passengers of the ship.” At the same moment, the tumult was
calmed. On that account, love for Hassan gained the hearts of the
whole company, and the vessel went to one of the towns of the
Nazaréens. Hassan from thence embarked in another ship, and arrived at
the frontier of _Shám_ (Syria), where he landed. From thence he
hastened to Haleb (Alep),[639] and then satisfied his desire to go to
Baghdad, from which place he betook himself hastily to Khózistan,
which country he left for Isfahán: in this way he travelled, concealed
and clandestinely, in the countries of Irak and Azerbáíjan, and
invited the people to the doctrine of the Ismáílíah, and to the
Imámate of Nazár; he sent _dáâis_,[640] “missionaries,” to the fort
_Almút_, and to other fastnesses and cities of Rúdbár and Kohistán,
that they might invite the people to the true faith: in a short time,
a great number of men adopted this religion. Afterwards, having fixed
his abode in a place near Almút, he devoted himself entirely to a
religious life, to rectitude and the submission to God, which was his
very nature.[641] The inhabitants, having heard his followers, were
converted to his doctrine, and in the month of Rajeb (December) in the
year of the Hejira 484 (A. D. 1091), a troop of the inhabitants of
Almút brought this personage into the fort.[642] Finally, when he had
entered the fort, a chief, Alí Mahdî by name, who, under the authority
of Sultan Malik shah, was governor of this province, found himself
bereft of power and was obliged to submit. The adversaries of the
Ismâlíah say, that one day Alí Mahdî asserted, “deception in law is
allowable,” and gave an account of some deceptions in religious law;
but our Sáid declared that, the centre of law being rectitude,
deception is not permitted, and all those who practise deception,
shall be brought to account for it by God.

Some time after it, Hassan said one day to Mahdi: “Sell to me for
three thousand dinars as much of the ground of this fort as a cow-skin
will be able to embrace.” Mahdi, having agreed to the bargain, our
Sâid made the cow-skin into thin stripes, which he joined together and
surrounded the whole fort. He then wrote an order to the Ráis Mazafer,
who held a command at the foot of the mountains of Dámâan, and was a
follower of his doctrine, to that effect: “The Ráis Mazafer (may God
Almighty guard him!) shall pay to Alí Mahdî three thousand dinars, as
the price of the fort Almút. Blessing upon the prophet and his
descendants; God suffices to us, and it is good to trust our interests
to him.”

Having written this, he delivered it to Mahdi, and brought him out of
the fort. The latter, some time after, pressed by indigence, presented
the writ to the Râis Mazafer, and received three thousand dinars in
gold.

Thus at last the affairs of our Sáid were carried, after many
difficulties, to the possession of the castle Almút, and in a short
time the whole country of Rúdbár and Kohistan fell into his fortunate
hands; within thirty and six years, he rose to great prosperity and
power. After him seven of his followers held the government, and the
duration of the prosperity of this sect was eighty and one years.[643]
Our Sáid strove at perfection of rectitude and piety, and the zeal of
this lord in upholding the law was carried to such a degree, that he
drove out of the fort an individual who played the flute, and in spite
of the intercessions of many persons in his favor, never gave him
entrance again. During the time of his government, he went no more
than twice to sit upon the terrace of his house, and never was seen
out of the fort, always occupied with the direction of the affairs of
the state and of religion. In his time the fedáyís (his devoted
followers) destroyed a great number of the great and noble adversaries
of his sect.[644] At last death transported our Sáid from this world
of vexations to the gardens of paradise, in the fourth month of the
year (September, the beginning of autumn) of the Hejira 518[645] (A.
D. 1124-5).

His appointed successor was _Kia Buzerk umíd_.

As _Hussáin Fáni_, one of the trusty companions of our Sáid,[646] with
a troop of refîks (followers)[647] brought Kohistán into his
possession, one of the Umrás of Malikshah, who was in Rúdbár, besieged
several times the fort Almút, and spread slaughter and devastation
about, in such a manner that the situation of the inhabitants of that
castle having become distressing, they desired to retire into the
valley. Our Sáid, exhorting them to patience and perseverance,
declared that the Imám, namely Montaśer, had said, the Almutian ought
not to desert the place, which should become to them the seat of good
fortune. At this very time, that person, their enemy, passed to the
other world, and our Sáid was liberated of all anxiety: on which
account the fort was named _Buldet-ul ikbál_, “the town of good
fortune.”

In the beginning of the year of the Hejira 485 (A. D. 1092), the Amír
Arslán sháh[648] moved, by order of the Sultan Maliksháh, the army
against Buldet-ul ikbal. As the situation of the inhabitants of the
fort became desperate,[649] Abu Alí, who was one of the adherents of
our Sáid, and resided in Kazvîn, sent them three hundred valiant men;
and this robust body threw themselves by night into the fort, from
whence, making a night sally upon the Arslánían, they routed them, and
carried off an immense booty.

When the fugitives arrived in the camp of the Sultan, he sent _Kazil
Sarúk_, with a strong army to reduce the rebels _in Khorasan_. Hassáín
Fáni, _one of Hassan’s chiefs_, having taken refuge with his rafíks in
_Múmin-ábád_, the general of the Sultan made the necessary
preparations for a siege. When he was upon the point of seizing the
splendid conquest, the intelligence suddenly spread of the murder of
Khájah Nizam al mulk by the hand of _Abu Táher Adáni_, who was one of
the fedáyis of our Sâid; and closely to this followed the report of
the death of Maliksháh; on which account this army dispersed, and as
the dissension between Barkíarok and the Sultan Muhammed _sons of
Malikshah_, occasioned their weakness,[650] the strength of the
Ismâílíah was increased, and the forts _Girdkoh_ and _Lámíser_ fell
into the possession of our Sáid.[651]

At that time the fedáyis, in order to destroy the learned men and
theologians, who entertained a hatred towards the chosen Ismâílíah,
and reviled their creed, were dispersed on all sides, and brought a
great number of this class beneath the blows of their swords and
poniards: on which account the learned men and the theologians of the
adversaries were frightened.

When Sultan Barkíárok, the son of Malik shah, died, Sultan Muhammed
Doulet[652] succeeded to his sovereignty. The latter sent Ahmed, the
son of Nizam ul Mulk, with an army to the country of Rúdbár. In the
beginning of the year of the Hejira 511[653] (A. D. 1117) he
despatched Alabet Tóshacín shërgír[654] to the assistance of the
Vizir; nearly a year had elapsed when they were about to take the fort
Buldet ul ikbál; at that time the intelligence of the death of Sultan
Muhammed was spread in Atabec’s camp: on which account that army took
to flight in the night time.

When Sultan Sinjar[655] had placed the crown of sovereignty upon his
head, he sent forces several times to combat the sect of the
Ismâílíah. At that time our Sáid Hassan enjoined to one of the
Sultan’s servants, who had adopted the creed of the Ismâílíah: “Fix a
dagger in the ground near the Sultan’s head; but do him no harm,
because thou art nourished by his salt, and it is not right to lay the
hand on the master.” The servant did so. When Sinjar awoke from sleep,
he saw the dagger, and was very much frightened, but kept this
occurrence concealed.

Some days after, the ambassador of our Sáid came to visit him, and
said: “If we did not entertain friendship for the Sultan, that dagger,
which in such a night was fixed in the hard ground, would have been
buried in the soft bosom of the Sultan.” After having heard this, the
Sultan’s apprehension increased, and he made peace;[656] wherefore the
state of Hassan’s affairs gained strength.

In the meantime, Hossâín Fány[657] became a martyr, by the iniquity of
_the Ostad_, “doctor” Hossáín, the son of Hassan, the son of Sabah;
our Sáid ordered, that he should be put to death by the law of
retaliation. About this time, another son of Hassan was found addicted
to drinking wine; by order of his celebrated father, soon after his
brother, he drank the cup of death.

Our Sáid, having fallen sick in the year of the Hejira 518[658] (A. D.
1124-5), he appointed _Kia buzerg Umid_ his successor, and committed
the dignity of his vizirate to _Abu Alí_; he enjoined these two
persons that, in all transactions they should not deviate from the
direction given them by Hossan Fakrání,[659] and having thus settled
these affairs, on the twenty-eighth day of the last Rabiâ (the fourth
month) of the said year, he emigrated to the gardens of Paradise.

Kíá Buzurg Umid, who was originally from the country of Rúdbár,
tended, according to the precept of our Sáid, towards devotion and the
strengthening of religion.[660]

After him, Muhammed Buzerg Umíd took the government. In the beginning
of his reign _Alráshid billah_[661] was killed by a band of fedáyís,
and from this time, fearing the swords of the Almútían, the khalifs
concealed themselves. Muhammed Buzerg also followed the example of
Hassan.

After him came Muhammed, the son of Hassan, the son of Muhammed, who
is known under the name _Alí zikrihi-al-sálam_, which means “let peace
be upon him.” Concerning Hossan there are many tales. His adversaries
assert, that he was the son of Muhammed Umíd, and a class of the
Ismâílíah of Rúdbár and Kohistan said that, in the time of the reign
of our Sáid, one year after the death of Mont´aser the High, a
person called Abul Hassan Sayidí, who had been in the particular
confidence of the khalif, came from Egypt to Almut, and brought with
him a boy descended from Nazár, the son of Montaśer, to whom the
Imámate belonged, and nobody was informed of this secret except our
Sáid, that is, Hassan, who treated Abul Hassan with regard and
respect, and made the Imám reside in a village at the foot of Almút.
After a delay of six months, he gave Abul Hassan leave to depart. The
Imám was inclined to the worship of God and to retirement, and united
himself in wedlock with a modest woman in the village. When she became
pregnant, he committed her to Muhammed, the son of Buzerg Umíd, and
recommended secresy in that affair, saying: “When a boy comes to
light, take the woman.” Muhammed acted according to the injunction,
and during the reign of Muhammed, son of Buzerg Umíd, the belief in
the appearance of a son, identified with Alí zikrichi-al salam, gained
the way of splendor, and the report was this――that he was the son of
Muhammed. Many asserted that whatever deed and action emanates from
the Imám is not only lawful but laudable. The son of Nazar, whom Abul
Hassan Sâyídí had brought to Almút, when arrived at the age of
virility, had connexion with the lawful wife of Muhammed, the son of
Buzerg Umíd, and Ali zikrichi al salam was the fruit of it. Although,
because proceeding from a prophet and Imám, this action be legal, yet
it was not necessary. The relation between Alî zikrichi al salam and
Montaśer Billah is derived from this cause. The Ismâílíah acknowledge
as a legitimate Imám the victorious by the power of God, Hassan, the
son of Mahdi, the son of Ilhádi, the son of Nazár, the son of Montas ar.
They call his precious spirit “the resurrection;”[662] because they
believe that the resurection takes place at the lord’s time, when men
join God, and when the inconveniences of the law are taken off; this
meaning is expressed by “resurrection;” and that the lord, at the time
of his Imámate, having united the creatures with the Creator, threw
off the observances of the law.

It is reported that, when this lord placed his foot upon the cushion
of the khiláfet, in the year of the Hejira 559 (A. D. 1163-4), he
convoked all the chiefs and nobles of his dominion in Buldet ul ikbál,
and ordered that, in the meeting-place of that fortunate fort, a
pulpit should be placed towards the Kiblah, and four flags, one red,
another green, the third yellow, and the fourth white, should be fixed
in the four corners of the pulpit. On the seventeenth day of the
blessed Ramzan of the said year, he ascended the pulpit, and unfolding
the tongue of prodigious speeches, he said: “I am the Imám of the age;
and I took off the hardship of the ordinances and prohibitions from
the inhabitants of the world, and I held the commands of the law for
nothing; now is the period of the lord of the resurrection; the
creatures are to be bound by ties of love to God, and enjoy the
external things in whatever manner they like.” He then descended from
the top of the pulpit, and, having broken fast, ordered that, in the
manner of a festival, all should occupy themselves with mirth and
cheerfulness, and playing and gaming; and this fortunate day was
entitled “the festival of resurrection,” and made the beginning of a
new era. This is also the day on which, according to the reckoning of
many historians, the lord _Amír Almumin Alí_, “the Amír of the
believers,” was wounded by Abd ul rahmen. As to escape from this world
and to join heaven is the object of enjoyment of perfect spirits, so
do they on this day chiefly devote themselves to pleasure. The creed
of this lord was, that the world is ancient, and time infinite; that
the other world is spiritual, and heaven and hell figurative; that the
resurrection is the particular death of every one. This lord was
stabbed with a dagger in the month Rubiâ (August) of the year of the
Hejira 561[663] (A. D. 1165-6) by Hassan, the son of Namvár, who
descended from Bavíah.[664] On account of the last will of his father,
he occupied the Imámate; like his celebrated father, he upheld the
faith.

Jelál eddin, of the same family, made a martyr of his father by means
of poison. As he obtained the Imámate in an undue manner, and seized
the government by usurpation, he also abandoned the religion of the
Ismâilíah. After eleven years, in the month Ramzan of the year of the
Hejirah 618[665] (A. D. 1221-2) he died of dysentery.

After him, Ala eddin Muhammed, son of Jelál eddin Hassan, put to death
all those who, by orders of Jelál eddin, had given poison to his
grandfather, and who had also participated in the opinions and
behaviour of Jelál eddin; he conformed himself to the manners of his
ancestors, and denied those of his father. He let himself be bled
without the advice of a medical man, and as too much blood was taken
from him, he was overcome by melancholy.

The Ismâílíah say, that prophets and saints cannot live free from
bodily defects: thus _Músi_ (Moses) was a stammerer, _Shâyeb_ (Jethro,
father in law of Moses) was blind, and _Ayúb_ (Job) was full of
plagues. It was in the time of the lord Ala eddin Muhammed, that Náśer
Motashem, who was the lord of Kohistan, and to whom the book _Akhlák
Naśeri_[666] is dedicated, sent Khájah Náśir to Almút. Hassan
Mázinderáni was contrary to Ismâílism; he made Alá-eddin a martyr (by
killing him). In the time of Ala eddin there was among the learned men
of the age the shaikh Jamál Gíli: in Kazvin, occupied with the
instruction of the people, he was in secret addicted, and made
proselytes, to the creed of the Ismâílíah; on that account, Alâ-eddin
showed him respect, and conferred favors on the inhabitants of Kazvin,
to whom he said that, if the shaikh did not live in that place, he
would carry the ground of Kazvin in a beggar’s wallet to Almút; but
the learned, who were not Ismâílíah, did not acknowledge an Ismâílíah
shaikh. In giving an account of his (Ala-eddin’s) death it was said:

  “The ornament of faith and religion, the polar-star of the elect
     of God,
   He whose threshold was the Kiblah of hopes,
   In the year six hundred and fifty-one[667] (A. D. 1253) he went
     to the Lord,
   At night, on Monday, on the fourth day of Shavál (the tenth
     Arabian month).”

After Alá-eddin Muhammed, it was Rukn-eddin Khúrshah who became king
in Almút. He put to death Hassan Mazinderání with his family, and
burnt their corpses.[668]

Holagú khan[669] overcame Rocn-eddin: the latter demanded to be sent
to the court of Maikú khán, which demand was granted; on the journey
he attained the extremity of his life; his reign did not last one
year.

In Almút had been dug several reservoirs which were filled with
vinegar, honey, and wine; these things and all stores, which had been
deposited in the time of our Sáíd, that is, of Hassan Śabáh, were
found without any alteration: all were astonished, and the Ismâílíah
thought this event to be one of the miracles of their Said.

       *     *     *     *     *

AN ACCOUNT OF THE ALI ILAHÍAN.

In the east of Kohistan, not far from Bakhtá, is a place called
_Arníl_,[670] and also _Armal_; the king is there entitled _Abáb_.
They say: as it is evident to the swimmer in the sea of the realities
of events, that the door of intercourse is closed between the beings
below and those above, and no intercourse is opened between the
elemental and the heavenly beings, so are the temporal beings and
those of eternity destitute of the bonds of relationship, and no
connexion exists between those confined, and those unconfined, by
space; therefore they are ordered to know God by investigation of
wisdom and of the divine law, and to worship the divinity. The angels
on high and the prophets below have the faculty of knowing the
substance of the blessed verses, but not the divine Being itself:

  “We do not know thee as thou shouldst be known.”

This is what the crier proclaims. On that account it is necessary to
the Almighty God and eternal Lord that he should descend from the
dignity of purity and from the station of unity and absoluteness, and
that, according to the abundance of his clemency, he should, in every
period and revolution of time, unite his spirit with a bodily frame,
in order that his creatures may behold this holy and exalted Lord,
and, in whatever manner he ordains, acknowledge and reverence him; the
precepts and traditions of history are published to that effect. As
the manifestation of a spirit in a bodily form is a possible fact, and
the learned agree upon it, and as it is stated in the account of the
travellers upon the road of salvation to the city of the true faith,
so is it determined that a pure spirit may assume a bodily likeness;
thus is the appearance of Jabrîl in the form of an ape-dog[671] an
instance of it, and thus, on the occasions of wickedness, is the
appearance of Satan, or a demon in a human form. Besides, it is in the
power of the Almighty to manifest himself in the best, the most
perfect body.

The individuals among men are, during the business of life, formed
dependent on their mutual wants. To this sect it is an indispensable
rule to associate all together, in order that no oppression may take
place towards each other in their communities, and that the order of
the world may remain upheld. It is indispensable that this great rule
be derived from God, the Lord of glory, in order that all men may
adopt it. On that account, the government of the supreme Judge has
found necessary that, by power of his perfection, a canon, having been
revealed among the different classes of mankind, should be agreed upon
for the regulation of the creatures, in consequence of which the
purpose of the conditions in the affairs of the world might be
settled. Further, by the assistance of reason and instruction, there
is in this age no other moon or sun in the sphere of perfection but
ALI MURTAZA, “the chosen.” Truly, the _illiterate prophet_[672]
(Muhammed) esteemed this blessed personage equal to several learned
apostles, and saw praiseworthy qualities of a prophet united in that
virtuous existence. Hence it follows, that men possessed of sight
behold him sometimes come down from heaven in the shape of the father
of mankind (_Adam_), and reckon his time to be that of one who
inhabited the floating ship of Noah, and place him as far back as that
age when a martyr, in the garment of Ibrahim, he was playing with the
fire _into which Nimrod had thrown him_; another time they find him in
the dress of the speaker with God, _Moses_, and the words of that
Lord:

  “He who knows himself, certainly knows God,”

confirm that the pure spirit of that embodied soul, and wisdom,
represented in a person, is the Creator of the world, worthy of
praise. And the sentence:

  “God created man according to his image,”

relates to the same, as Adam, the holy father of mankind, the Just, is
nobody else but _Alí Murtazi_. And the saying:

  “I saw the Lord in the shape of a man,”

refers to that eternal being, merging into a body, as he has
manifested himself in the prophet’s visible form under the shape a
powerful man; and the honor of the prophet’s presenting his shoulder
by the assistance of the divine grace to the foot of that leader,
relates but to this, that reverence is due to him, as that
truth-speaking and truth-singing poet sung:

  “The prophet, in breaking down the idols, had no other desire
   But that his shoulder might be placed beneath the foot of the chosen;
   And the house of the worshipped Kâbah be filled with his presence.”

[673]These sectaries also say, that in every revolution of time, the
Lord God was united to the body of a prophet or saint, namely, from
Adam down to Ahmed[674] and Alí, in which manner they explain the
transmigration of the divine light. And some of them say, that the
manifestation of God in this age took place in Aly alah, and after him
in his descendants, and they acknowledge Muhammed and Alí as prophets
and the mission of Alí alah. They assert, that when God saw that the
business did not go on well by the prophet, he came to his assistance,
as it were, by way of zeal. The author of this book saw a person from
among them, called Ahmed, who said, that the Koran which is among them
does not deserve confidence, as it is not the book which Alí Alah had
given to Muhammed; but is the composition of Abu bekr, of Omar, and
Osman. The author saw also one named Shams-eddin, who said: Certainly
the Koran is the word of Alí alah, but having been collected by Osman,
it ought not to be read. Some were seen among them who asserted that
the verse and prose, ascribed to the Amir of the believers, _Omar_,
were collected by Alí, and inserted in the Koran, and to these they
attach a superiority over the Koran, inasmuch as they came from Alí
allah to the creatures without foreign intervention, whilst the
Farkan, _Koran_, was delivered into the hands of men by means of
Muhammed.

There is besides a sect among them which is called the _Ulvíahs_.[675]
They themselves derive their origin from Alí allah, and in their creed
participate with that of the just mentioned sect: they say, that the
Koran which is now among men, is not the word of Alí allah, because
the shaiks (Abu bekr and Omar) employed themselves in its
transposition, and at last Osman cast the whole away; as he possessed
eloquence, he composed a book in his own way, and burnt the original
Koran, wherefore these sectaries, wherever they find this book,
consign it to the flames. Their belief is, that when Alí allah left
the body, he was united with the sun; that he is now the sun; and
having also been the sun before, he was for some days joined to an
elemental body. They further maintain, that on this account the sun
was moving by his order, inasmuch as he is the real sun; wherefore
they call the sun _Alí allah_, and the fourth heaven _Daldal_.[676]
They are worshippers of the sun, whom they hold to be God Almighty.
They are a respectable tribe, and a division of them pretend that they
can call upon the sun, who answers them, and affords them protection
in their affairs.

Abd ullah, one of them so named, reported, that among his relations
was a man called Azíz, upon whom, when he pronounced with fervour Alí
allah, and gave himself up to an ecstatical song or dance, no sword
could take effect. Thus, when one of the incredulous denied this, Azíz
became warm, and took to calling out “Alí allah” in such a manner that
foam settled upon his lips, and he cried to the denier: “Strike, O
accursed!” The latter aimed several blows with a sword at him, but
effected nothing. This person has now joined Alí allah in the other
world.

Among these sectaries it is not permitted to kill any living being,
nor to eat any flesh, as Alí allah said:

     “Make not of your bellies the tombs of living beings.”

And the animals which the Koran permits to be killed, and the flesh
which he allows to be eaten, is that of Abu bekr, of Omar, and Osman,
and of their followers, and all prohibited things, they say, have
reference to these three persons. With them, Iblis, the serpent, and
the peacock are symbols of these three, and likewise Shedád,[677]
Nimród, and Phárâún are they. These sectaries admit prostration before
the image of Alí allah; the breaking and worshipping of idols relates,
according to them, to the said three individuals, as Alí allah called
the Shaikhs the idols of the Korêsh. They agree upon transmigration,
and say, that when Alí appeared in former times in the form of a
prophet, those three also made their appearance in the shape of
deniers, and after them many others will come.


     [549] The Zaydíyat derive their name from _Záíd_, son of
     Alí, son of Záín el-abeddin. They are subdivided into three
     branches, according to others into five, under as many
     chiefs. I shall only mention three. The first, the
     _Jarudíyat_, think that the Imámate was destined by the
     prophet to Alí, but that after the two sons of the latter,
     Hasan and Hosain, the sacred office was uncertain in their
     children, and that those only who rose, sword in hand, were
     Imáms; they do not agree upon the last Imám, still expected.
     The second branch, the _Salaimaniyat_, admit the right of
     Abubekr and Omar to the Imámate, but declare as infidels
     Osman, Zobeir, and Aisha. The third branch, the
     _Báíteriyat_, are for the most part in accordance with the
     second, as to what regards Osman. These three branches are
     heretics in the dogmas only, but, in jurisprudence, they
     follow almost all the orthodox doctrine of Abú
     Hanifáh.――(See _Journal asiatique_, 1825, tome VII. p. 32.
     Art. de M. de Hammer.)

     [550] Túsí is the name of several celebrated men from the
     town of Tús. There are two towns of that name: the one in
     Transoxana, in the domain of Bochára; the other in Khorasan;
     the latter consists of two towns, one is called _Tabaran_,
     the other _Núkan_.――(_Abulfeda_, _Annales Moslemica_, vol.
     III. p. 375.) We know several authors named _Abú Jâfar_, to
     whom the words above quoted may be attributed, none with the
     surname _Túsí_. The author above meant is perhaps _Abú Jâfar
     al Tabarî_, celebrated historian, born in the year of the
     Hejira 224 (A. D. 838), deceased in 310 (A. D. 922).

     [551] The twelve Imáms are as follow:
           I. ALÍ, khalif and Imám, was murdered A. D. 661.
           II. HASAN, eldest son of Alî, khalif and Imám, poisoned
                A. D. 669.
           III. HOSAIN, the second son of Alí, killed in battle
                A. D. 680.
           IV. ALÍ, surnamed _Zin alâbedin_, eldest son of Hosain,
                died A. D. 712.
           V. MUHAMED BEKER, son of Alí, poisoned A. D. 734.
           VI. JAFR SADIK, son of Muhammed, died A. D. 765.
           VII. ISMÁIL, son of Jáfr; see hereafter the account of
                the Ismâilah. Herbelot names, as the seventh
                Imám, Mussa, the second son of Jáfr, surnamed _al
                Kiadhem_, “the debonnair,” and also _saber_, “the
                patient,” and _ámin_, “the faithful guardian.”
                The latter died A. D. 799.
           VIII. ALÍ REZA, son of Mussa, poisoned A. D. 816.
           IX. MUHAMMED, son of Alí Reza, called also _Abú Jafr
                Muhammed_, died A. D. 835.
           X. ALÍ ASKERÍ, son of Muhammed, poisoned A. D. 868.
           XI. HASAN, son of Alí Askerí, died poisoned A. D. 873.
           XII. MUHAMMED, son of Hasan, surnamed _Mahadi_,
                “conductor, director;” he is supposed to be still
                living, and expected to appear with the prophet
                Elias, at the second coming of Jesus Christ.

     It may be remarked that, of the twelve holy men, seven died a
     violent death, and two in an unknown manner.

     [552] I follow here the French translation of the Arabic
     text, made by M. Garcin de Tassy.――(See _Journal asiatique_,
     _mai 1842_, pp. 436-439.)

     [553] _Ad_ was an ancient and potent tribe of Arabs in the
     province of Hadramaut. They chiefly worshipped four deities;
     _Sakia_, supplying them with rain; _Háfedha_, preserving
     them from all dangers abroad; _Rázeka_, providing them with
     food; and _Sálema_, restoring the sick to health. Frequent
     mention of them occurs in the Koran.

     [554] The tribe of _Tamud_ dwelt first in the country of the
     Adites, then removed to the territory of Hejr, where their
     habitations, cut in the rocks, are seen at this day. (See
     Sale’s Koran, vol. I, pp. 7. 9. 196. 199.)

     [555] Moavia.

     [556] Koran, chap VII. v. 165.

     [557] Allusion to the twelve Imáms. See their names, pp.
     367. 368, note 1.

     [558] Allusion to the twelfth Imám, named Mahdi. See
     hereafter a further explanation.

     [559] The word _Akhbarín_ is frequently employed to
     designate “the transmitters of historical traditions,” in
     opposition to مُحدثين _muhad-disin_, “transmitters of
     traditions relative to the prophet;” but above it is
     employed as the name of a distinct sect. I shall translate
     it by “dogmatical traditionists.” It is taken in a much
     wider sense by the author of the Dabistán, who does not fix
     the precise epoch of the origin of this sect, but only says
     that it was in after times called _ghaibet sari_; of which
     name an explanation will be given hereafter.

     [560] _Amin_, “faithful,” is a title given to many Imáms,
     Shaikhs, and Mullas.

     _Asterabad_ is the capital of the province of Georgia; some
     Oriental geographers place the town in that of Tabaristan,
     and others in that of Mazendaran, as these three provinces,
     which together formed the ancient Hyrcania, were often
     united under one denomination. Herbelot mentions two authors
     with the surname _Asterabadi_, both commentators of the
     Arabic Grammar Cafiah, which seems to have no connection
     with the religion above mentioned.

     [561] See note, p. 327, note 1.

     [562] _Ma sha yín_, may be deduced from مشى _máshí_, “walking,
     going,” and alludes to the peripatetic philosophers, who
     were followers of Aristotle, and were wont to discuss
     walking up and down in the Lyceum of Athens. Referred to
     مشايهء _mashíyi-at_ (from مشيئ _mas’hiyí_), “willing,
     wishing, desiring,” the word may signify knowledge-desiring
     philosophers; مشايع _musháíâ_, means “a follower, adherent,
     companion.”

     [563] The Orientals give to Aristotle the surname of
     _Ilahíyún_, “the divine.” They attribute to him more than
     one hundred treatises upon different matters. The greatest
     part of his works, such as we have them, have all been
     translated into Syriac and Arabic; it was through this
     medium, that the great philosopher became first known in
     Europe.

     [564] The Orientals attribute more than sixty-five treatises
     to Plato. They relate that, being asked what he thought of
     this world, he answered: “I entered into it by necessity; I
     dwelt in it with admiration; and I leave it with contempt.”
     Al Ghazali (before-mentioned, see p. 349, n. 2), among other
     distinguished Orientals, wrote a book, called _Monketh_,
     upon Greek philosophy, not without condemning several of its
     dogmas.

     [565] The author mentions three sciences, viz.: فان قلام
     _fán kalám_, “the science of scholastic theology;” فن اصول
     فقہِ _fán ás ul fikah_, “the science of the fundamentals of
     religion and law;” and فن فِقہ _fan fikah_, “jurisprudence.”
     We have already explained the first (see note 1, p. 327);
     the four fundamental articles of the faith have been also
     enumerated (see note 1, p. 324); but the _fikah_,
     “jurisprudence,” although stated as distinct, in reality
     comprehends the two first, and in addition shows only the
     practical application of them. Al Ghazali, quoted by Pococke
     (pp. 200-201, etc., 1st edit.), after having said that this
     world is created for furnishing assistance on the way to
     future life, in order that men, with a due check on
     cupidity, may take as much of this world as may be
     sufficient for a viaticum, and after having declared, that
     the jurist is to be the director of the king in the mode of
     retaining the people in due order, subjoins: “This science
     (the law) belongs to religion, although not by itself, yet
     by the intervention of the world. For the world is a field
     which is sown for the future, nor is religion put into
     practice, if not by the world. But religion and government
     are twin-brothers; religion is the foundation, and the king
     the guardian; but what wants a foundation, verges to ruin,
     and what has no guardian, goes off into nothing, etc., etc.”
     The same intimate junction of religion and civil law, which
     is acknowledged to prevail in the legislation of the Hindus,
     as well as in that of the ancient Hebrews and Persians, has
     passed into that of the Muhammedans. Just as the Vedas with
     the first, the five books of Moses with the second, the
     writings of Zoroaster with the third, so is the Koran with
     the fourth, the foundation of their code, and contains what
     we may call their whole civil and canonical law. With
     respect to the last-mentioned book, as it contains likewise
     all the articles of faith, it follows, that a doctor in law
     is also a doctor in theology; or a _faki_ is at the same
     time a lawyer and a theologian: hence the word _al faqui_ in
     the language of the Spaniards, who have preserved to our
     days, in their character and manners, not a little of their
     former conquerors, the Saracens.

     [566] Upon _ghaibet_, “absence, disappearance, concealment”
     (see hereafter, p. 383, an explanatory note).

     [567] Muhammed ben Yâkub is the author of the book entitled
     القاموس _Kámús_, “the ocean of the Arabic language.” He was
     born in the year of the Hejira 729, A. D. 1328, and died in
     816, A. D. 1413, surnamed Al Shirazí, and Al _Firuzabadí_,
     the last is a town situated in the environs of Shiraz, the
     capital of _Fars_, or Persia proper. I do not, however, find
     elsewhere the title _al Kalbi_, “cordial,” joined to his
     name.

     [568] The term in the text is القياس _al kíás_. Abu Hanifa
     and his commentators are commonly called _ahel al kíás_,
     “men of analogy,” because they applied the process of
     analysis to the study of sacred tradition, and rely more
     upon deductions of human judgment than upon a rigid fidelity
     to the precepts of the Sonna.

     [569] I render in this place by “rational dialectics” the
     word اجتهاد _ijtihad_, which signifies properly, according
     to Silvestre de Sacy, an opinion in religious matters,
     founded upon reasoning, and deduced from the Koran or the
     Sonna, by way of comparison or induction. It may therefore
     be interpreted, as in the sequel, by “ratiocination,
     discussion, contentious arguing, reasoning, etc., etc.” It
     signifies also “study, effort, war against infidels.”――(See
     also upon _Istihad_, _As. Res._, vol. X. p. 492.)

     [570] علامه حلى is a surname which never occurred to me in
     any other book which I have consulted, and the translation
     of which does not satisfy me.

     [571] _Movákef_ means properly “stations,” such as those of
     the Muselmans in their pilgrimages and visits to sacred
     places; but this word serves as a title to several books or
     treatises of metaphysics and scholastic theology.

     [572] احاديث _ahádís_, means sometimes the tenets of the
     Koran, at others, the sayings relative to Muhammed, five
     thousand two hundred and sixty-six in number; according to
     some writers, seven thousand, genuine and forged.

     [573] The manuscript of Oude reads ابن بالونه _Ebn Balúnah_.
     Want of accuracy in proper names is particularly to be
     regretted in the historical part of any work; it prevents
     me, particularly in this place, from giving a positive
     notice of each of the persons introduced in the text.

     [574] The two words in italic are not in the text of the
     edition of Calcutta, nor in the manuscript of Oude. We find
     here abruptly a passage, distinguished in the translation by
     marks of quotation, which belongs to the author of the
     _Faváid al madany_ (see p. 372), and makes, perhaps, a part
     of the preface of this work.

     [575] We have (see note 1, p. 367. 368) given the names of
     the twelve Imáms. The tenth, Alí, born in the year of the
     Hejira 212, A. D. 827, being kept a close prisoner all his
     life in the city of _Askar_, called also _Sermenrai_, in
     Syria, he devoted himself to study and religious exercises,
     but did not succeed in calming the jealousy of the ruling
     khalif, an Abbaside of the family of Motavakel, the mortal
     enemy of the whole race of Alí, and was poisoned in 868 A. D.

     The name “Askerite,” from the city of Askar, was also given
     to his son Hasan, above-mentioned, the eleventh Imám, whose
     son, Muhammed, born in 868 A. D., also called Abu ’l Cassem,
     as the prophet Muhammed, was the last of the twelve Imáms.
     He is distinguished by the surnames _Mantazar_, “the
     expected;” _Kayim_, “the stable;” _Mahdi_, “the director,
     guide;” and others. The followers of this Imám say, that in
     his ninth year he was concealed by his mother in a cell or
     grot, from which he had not returned in the year 899 A.
     D.――(See _Abulfeda_, _Hist. Moslem._, vol. II. p. 223.) The
     Sonnites say that he was drowned in the Tigris in 879 A. D.
     Some Shiâhs maintain, he died in 941, in his seventy-fifth
     year; other Shiâhs pretend that he is still living in the
     grot where he was concealed; and all agree in the belief
     that he will reappear in the world, immediately before the
     second coming of the Messiah, for uniting all the Muselman
     sects into one, and all the different religions in
     Muhammedism. Several impostors assumed the name of _Mahdi_,
     but in vain; nevertheless, two great dynasties were founded
     under that name, viz.: the _Almohads_ and _Fatemites_.
                                                 ――(_Herbelot._)

     [576] According to the Shiâhs, Mahdi made two retreats or
     eclipses, the great and the minor. The minor was that,
     during which he now and then gave news of himself, and
     decided all the questions which the Muselmans proposed, by
     means of certain messengers who carried them to him very
     secretly, succeeding each other without knowing each other.
     This intercourse lasted until the year of the Hejira 326, A.
     D. 937, in which year one of these messengers, called _Alí_,
     died, after having brought a letter from Mahdi, by which
     this Imám announced to him that he (Alí) would die in six
     days, and forbade him to leave the commission of visiting
     him to any other person. It is from this time that begins
     “the great retreat or absence” of Mahdi: for, after the
     death of this Alí, no information was received concerning
     the Mahdi, if not by revelation. This statement, found in
     Herbelot, is confirmed by that above.

     [577] Mâtemed Abáśí, son of Motavakel, was the fifteenth
     khalif of the Abbasides. He began to reign in the year of
     the Hejira 256, A. D. 869, and died in 279, A. D. 892.

     [578] Rás í, the son of Mukteder, was the twentieth khalif
     of the Abbasides. His reign began in the year of the Hejira
     322, A. D. 933, and ended in 329, A. D. 940. The period
     included between the beginning of the reign of Mâtemed and
     the end of that of Rási, is seventy-one years, differing by
     two from the period above stated; the minor absence might
     have begun two years before Mâtemed’s reign.

     [579] See the preceding note 2, pp. 383. 384.

     [580] معصوم means “defended, preserved (by God); innocent,
     an infant;” it is the particular name given by the Imamíahs
     to the twelfth Imám, Muhammed, the Askerite, who, as was
     related in the foregoing note 1, p. 383, was in his infancy
     concealed in a grot, from which he never came forth again,
     and is still expected. It is an ideal Imám, believed by more
     than one sect, and the name of _Mâśum_ was applied to more
     than one individual, as will be seen hereafter.

     [581] The author uses here and elsewhere the word _khabr_,
     which answers to our _gospel_.

     [582] Hassan al Baśri was the son of an affranchised man,
     called Mulla Zaid ben Tabeth, and of a slave woman,
     belonging to Omm Salmath, one of Muhammed the prophet’s
     wives. Hassan acquired the reputation of the first
     scholastic theologian among the Muselmans. He is surnamed al
     Baśri, because his father was a slave in Maissan, a borough
     of the dependencies of Baśra, or Bassora, and because he
     kept his school in that town, where different sectaries
     often came to dispute with him. Wassel Eben Ata, his
     disciple, deviating from his opinions, became the chief of
     the Mâtazalahs (see note 1, p. 325). Hassan al Baśri had
     seen the khalif Osman, and Eben Abbas; on that account he
     quotes in his works what he had learned from them. He died
     in the year of the Hejira 110, A. D. 728, and left a work
     entitled _Hadis sherif_, containing a collection of the
     traditions which he knew relatively to each of the
     fifty-four _feridhat_, or “obligatory precepts,” of the
     Muselman law.

     [583] The sixth Imám, of whom hereafter more will be said.

     [584] _Karkh_ is the name of a part of the town of Baghdad
     upon the western side of the Tigris, where the khalif Mansúr
     built the town and his palace; this is the ancient Baghdad;
     the actual town of Baghdad, upon the eastern side of the
     river, has been built later. Karkh is chiefly inhabited by
     Shiâhs, who had frequent quarrels with the Sonnites,
     dwelling in the other part of the town. One of the most
     serious tumults between the two parties took place under the
     khalif Mostasem. Karkh is the actual suburb of Baghdad, in
     which the tombs of Zobeidah, wife of Harun Rashid, and of
     the pious Súfí Marúf Karkhí, above mentioned, are to be
     seen. The latter died in the year of the Hejira 200, A. D.
     815.――(See _Voyage en Arabie, par Niebuhr_, t. II. pp.
     245-246, and _Chrestomathie arabe de Silvestre de Sacy_, t.
     I. pp. 66-70).

     [585] The eighth Imám, son of Mussa.

     [586] The Arabs divide in general the history of philosophy
     into two great periods: the first comprises the _ancient
     philosophers_, who are subdivided into those anterior, and
     those posterior, to Aristotle; the second period is that of
     the _Muselman philosophers_, who form two classes, those
     before, and those after, Ebn Sina.

     [587] This appears partly to contradict the view which a
     recent judicious author, Doctor Schmolders (see his _Essai
     sur les Écoles philosophiques des Arabes_, pp. 105. 106.
     133. 139, Paris, 1842), takes of this sect. According to
     him, the Motkalemins professed the creation from nothing;
     they disputed about the reality or non-reality of general
     notions; they endeavoured to adapt philosophy to the dogmas
     of the Koran; in short, they were the philosophic
     theologians of the orthodox sects, or dogmatic philosophers.

     [588] See above, p. 381.

     [589] مجتهيد _mujtahid_, is a doctor who exerts all the
     faculties of his mind to find the truth in contested and
     undecided matters; he is supposed to possess the science of
     the Koran, and the traditions with their different meanings,
     readings, and interpretations, and to be besides skilled in
     the disquisition in which truth is sought by analogy and
     comparison. (_Silvestre de Sacy, Chrestomathie arabe_, pp.
     169. 170. 171). This term is also used “of one who strives
     and contends, even to battle, in the cause of God;” and
     expresses further the highest dignity in the Muhammedan
     faith, equivalent to Bishop, or Archbishop with us.――(See
     _the Life of Shaikh Muhammed Alí Hazin_, _translated by F.
     C. Belfour, M. A. Oxon., F.R.A.S., LL.D._, p. 36.)

     [590] تقيه _takíyat_, in the dictionary, “fear, caution,
     piety.” I thought it more correctly translated, here and
     elsewhere, by “religious zeal.”

     [591] The obscurity which the reader may find in this
     paragraph proceeds from the strangeness of the doctrine
     itself, and can be cleared up only by bestowing upon it more
     attentive study than it perhaps deserves.

     [592] Upon _mâsum_, see note, p. 386.

     [593] It is meant probably “two points of view,” and the
     passage above relates to the 219th verse of the IInd chapter
     of the Koran, which is as follows: “They will ask thee
     concerning wine, and lots; answer: In both there is great
     sin, and also some things of use unto men; but their
     sinfulness is greater than their use.” And again, the 67th
     verse of the XVIth sura: “And of the fruits of palm-trees
     and grapes ye obtain inebriating drink, and also good
     nourishment.” Yet the verses 92 and 93 of the Vth sura are
     decidedly against wine, viz.: “O true believers, surely
     wine, and lots, and images, and divining arrows, are an
     abomination of the work of Satan; therefore avoid them, that
     you may prosper.”――93. “Satan seeketh to sow discussion and
     hatred among you, by means of wine and lots, and to divert
     you from remembering God, and from prayer; will ye not,
     therefore, abstain from them?”――(_Sale’s translation._)

     [594] _Jâfer_, surnamed _S adik_, “the Just,” was the eldest
     son of Muhammed Baker, the fifth Imám. Jâfer was born in
     Medina, in the year of the Hejira 83, A. D. 702; he is
     acknowledged the síxth Imám, and of great authority in
     religious matters among the Muselmans. He died in his native
     town, under the khalifate of Abú Jâfer Almansor, the second
     khalif of the Abbasides, in the year of the Hejira 148, A.
     D. 764, in his sixty-second year.

     The two eldest of his seven sons were Ismâil and Mussa.
     Ismâil, the elder of the two, having died during his
     father’s life, the latter appointed Mussa his successor,
     which gave rise to the contest above mentioned, and to
     several sects, as well as to two great dynasties. The
     Fatimite khalifs in Egypt are considered as descendants of
     the branch of Ismáil, called Ismâilahs, of Africa, but the
     Suffavean monarchs of Asia claim to derive their origin from
     Mussa, and strenuously support his title to the seventh
     Imám.

     [595] Muhammed had, during twenty years of wedlock with
     Khádija, never another wife; nor gave Alí a partner to his
     spouse Fatimá, the prophet’s daughter, during her life.

     [596] All those who believe that the Imamate passed
     legitimately from Jâfer to his son Ismáil, and to Ismâil’s
     posterity, are called _Ismâilahs_: but their opinions are
     not uniform. Some maintain that to Muhammed,
     above-mentioned, surnamed _Mectúm_, “the concealed,”
     succeeded his son, Jâfer Mosuddek, whose successor was
     Muhammed Habib. This last is expected to return in order to
     found a new dynasty. The Ismâilahs carry to excess the
     prerogatives which they attribute to their Imáms.――(_Makrisi
     in Chrest. arabe_, vol. II. p. 92.)

     [597] The number _seven_ acts a great part in the system of
     the Ismâilahs. All things, after having attained the
     septenary number, are at their end, must undergo a change,
     and be succeeded by other things. To the septenaries above
     mentioned, I shall add seven palms, of which the height of a
     man is said to consist, seven climates, and seven seas,
     according to the Koran (Sura XXXI. v. 26): “If all the trees
     on the earth were pens, and God should after that swell the
     sea into seven seas of ink, the words of God would not be
     exhausted.” We know how generally in the world such a belief
     with respect to seven existed and still exists.

     [598] “The Batenian, ‘interior,’” says Silvestre de Sacy,
     “are so called, because they establish an interior sense of
     the Scripture besides the exterior; they say, whoever
     attaches himself to the exterior, fatigues himself with vain
     practices, whilst he, who follows tho interior, may dispense
     with all actions; they give to faith a preference over
     Islamism, undoubtedly,” founded upon the authority of the
     Koran, where it “is to be found” (Sura XLIX. v. 14): “The
     Arabs of the desert say: ‘We believe;’ answer: ‘Ye do by no
     means believe; but say: ‘We have embraced Islam;’ for the
     faith hath not yet entered into your hearts.’”

     The Ismâilahs are often confounded with the Batenian. The
     first who maintained this doctrine of mystic interpretation
     was Marzaban, ben Abdullah, ben Maimun al Kadah. He was the
     servant of Imám Jâfer Sadík, and also served Jâfer’s son
     Ismâil, after whose death he attended Muhammed, the son of
     the latter. When Jâfer was poisoned, Abdullah carried off
     Jâfer’s grandson, from Medina to Misr (Egypt). When Muhammed
     died, he left a concubine pregnant, and Abdullah, having put
     her to death, substituted a woman of his own in her room.
     This woman brought forth a son, whom Abdullah asserted to be
     Muhammed’s son; and when this son had grown up, he succeeded
     in making him acknowledged as the Imám by many. Some of this
     person’s descendants attained the rank of sovereigns, and
     the doctrine of the Batenian spread afar. The first of these
     who sat on the throne of the khalifat was Sáid, under the
     name of Abu-Muhammed Obaid-alla, the founder of the Fatimite
     khalifs, in Africa, in the year of the Hejira 296, A. D.
     908. He took the title of _Al Mahdi_, “the Director.”――(See,
     upon this sect, _Asiatic Researches_, vol. II. p. 424.)

     The Fatimites claim their descent from _Alí_, the fourth
     legitimate khalif, and from _Fatima_, the daughter of the
     prophet; but their adversaries give an account of their
     origin similar to that just stated: the opinions of
     historians are divided about this fact.

     [599] The manuscript of Oude reads here _âkl_ instead of
     _fêz_, which the edition of Calcutta repeats twice; I
     adopted the first.

     [600] This part of the doctrine reminds us of the sentiments
     expressed in Plato’s Symposion, by Agathon, one of the
     interlocutors in this admirable dialogue upon love and the
     beautiful.

     [601] According to the Ismàilahs, each speaker or legislator
     is associated with a vicar, whom they call _śamet_,
     “silent,” because he has nothing new to teach; and of these
     vicars he who assisted the legislator, and succeeded
     immediately to him, receives the name of _asás_,
     “fundamental,” or _sús_, “root, source.” The seven _natíks_,
     or “legislators of the revolution, past,” and their vicars,
     are as follow: I. Adam and Seth; II. Noah and Sem; III.
     Abraham and Ismâil; IV. Moses and Aarún, replaced afterwards
     by Joshua; V. Jesus and Simon Kefas; VI. Muhammed and Alí;
     VII. Muhammed, son of Jsmâil, who is designated by the title
     قايم الزمان _Kaím al zemán_, or صاحب الزمان _śáheb al
     zeman_, “the chief, the lord of the age;” in him all the
     doctrines of the ancients are terminated.――(See _Journal
     asiatique_, 1824, t. IV. p. 298 _et seq._; _Recherches sur
     l’initiation à la secte des Ismaéliens. Par Silvestre de
     Sacy_.)

     [602] “There are twenty-nine chapters of the Koran, which
     have this peculiarity, that they begin with certain letters
     of the alphabet, some with a single one, others with more.
     These letters the Muhammedans believe to be the peculiar
     marks of the Koran, and to conceal several profound
     mysteries; the certain understanding of which the more
     intelligent confess, has not been communicated to any
     mortal, their prophet only excepted. Notwithstanding which,
     some will take the liberty of guessing at their meaning, by
     that species of _cabala_ called by the Jews _Notarikon_, and
     suppose the letters to stand for as many words, expressing
     the names and attributes of God, his works, ordinances, and
     decrees: and therefore these mysterious letters, as well as
     the verses themselves, seem in the Koran to be called
     _signs_. Others explain the intent of these letters from
     their nature or organ, or else from their value in numbers,
     according to another species of the Jewish _cabbala_, called
     _gematria_; the uncertainty of which conjectures
     sufficiently appears from their disagreement.”――(_Sale’s
     Koran_, Preliminary Discourse, pp. 78-79.)

     [603] The questions asked for perplexing the neophyte are of
     various natures; for instance, What signifies the throwing
     of stones by the pilgrims at Mecca, whilst running between
     the hills of Merva and Safa?――Why did God create the world
     in six days, when one moment might have sufficed for
     it?――What mean the eight angels, bearers of God’s
     throne?――What the seven gates of hell, and the eight gates
     of paradise?――Further, what is the difference between the
     life of a vegetable and that of a man?――Why has a man ten
     toes, ten fingers, and why in each three joints, but only
     two in the thumb?――Why has a man at the head seven orifices
     (eyes, ears, nostrils, and mouth), and only two for the rest
     of his body? Why twelve dorsal, and only seven vertical
     vertebras? etc., etc.――(See _Journal asiatique_, 1824, tome
     IV. p. 309; and _Gemäldesaal moslimisher Heersher_.
     _III^{ter} Band_, 1837, _Seite_ 237.)

     [604] See upon this subject, the _Journal Asiatique_, tome
     VI. 1825. pp. 334-335.

     The above account of the proceeding by which the Ismâilahs
     made proselytes to their creed exhibits one of the most
     insidious systems that has ever been invented to ensnare
     men. Silvestre de Sacy, in the Memoir quoted, note 2, p.
     405, enumerates nine degrees of initiation by which a
     neophyte, under the direction of a _Dâí_, or “teacher,” was
     to pass, to be made a perfect Ismâilah. The first degree is
     to perplex the disciple by difficult questions; the second
     degree is to fix that the Imáms only have received the
     divine mission to instruct Muselmans; the third, establishes
     the series of seven Imáms, beginning at Alí and terminating
     at Ismâil, son of Jâfer; the fourth makes known the seven
     periods of prophets (as shown in note 1, p. 407); the fifth,
     conducts to contempt of the traditions and of the literal
     sense of the Koran, and is connected with some principles of
     philosophy and mathematics, or rather with fantastic notions
     on the power of particular numbers, such as seven, twelve,
     etc., applied to some phenomena of nature; the sixth degree
     imposes an entire submission to the Imám, and reveals that
     all legal and religious ordinances are nothing else but
     political contrivances, for keeping the vulgar in necessary
     dependence and subordination. At this degree the initiation
     stops for the greatest number of the candidates, and even of
     the Dáis. The seventh degree shows two principles in the
     organization of the universe: the one gives, the other
     receives; the one male, the other female: thus is duality
     substituted for the unity of the Divine nature; the eighth
     degree is consecrated to the development of the above
     mentioned notions; two beings are supposed to exist: the one
     _sabik_, “the antecedent;” the other, _larik_, “the
     subsequent.” Some of the Ismâilahs, however, admit a being
     not to be defined, without name and attributes, above the
     “antecedent.” To this degree is subjoined the dogma of a
     possible ascension, from the undermost stage of hierarchy to
     the highest being, by an endless series of periods and
     revolutions; a new religion is established upon the ruins of
     the former; the resurrection, the end of the world, the last
     judgment, the rewards and punishments, are only emblematic
     expressions of the successive periodical revolutions of the
     stars and of the universe, of the destruction and renovation
     of all beings, produced by the disposition and combination
     of the elements. Arrived at the ninth degree, the proselyte
     knows of no religion, nor submission to any other authority
     but his own, and is left to himself for choosing among the
     systems of philosophy the one he likes best.

     [605] Koran, chap. XXIX. v. 44.

     [606] This word is also interpreted, in the Dictionary, by
     “dreaming, reaching the age of puberty.” The meaning of the
     above passage is obscure.

     [607] The Muselmans are enjoined to give the tenth part of
     their property to the poor. In general, to understand the
     religion of the Ismâilahs, above exhibited, it is required
     to be acquainted with that of the Muselmans, which they have
     modified according to their own particular views.

     [608] The Kâbah of Mecca has been several times mentioned.
     The building of this temple is traced back by the devotees
     to Adam and his son Seth; after its destruction by the
     universal deluge, it was constructed by Abraham and his son
     Ismâil. We may believe that a sacred building existed at
     Mecca long before Muhammed, during the prevalence of the
     Sabean religion: it is held to have been the temple of
     Saturn. After Muhammed it was renewed by Ebn Zobair, and
     finally made such as it is by Hejaz, in the year of the
     Hejira 74, A. D. 693.――(See Pococke, p. 115.)

     [609] The pilgrims, who crowd to Mecca from the most distant
     countries, think to sanctify themselves by the performance
     of a series of rites and ceremonies, such as their prophet
     himself, at his last visit to this place, fixed by his
     example; viz.: he purified himself by bathing; he then went
     to the eastern gate of the temple; there he kissed the black
     stone, upon which Abraham, so the Muhammedans believe,
     conversed with Agar, to which he tied his camels, and upon
     which the traces of his feet are still seen; further, the
     prophet made the seven circuits of the Kâbah, running round
     it three times, and four times marching with a grave and
     measured pace. He afterwards proceeded to the two stones,
     _Sáfá_ and _Marvah_; the first at the foot of mount Abi
     Kobaisi, the second at that of Koaikaban, distant 780 cubits
     from each other. These stones are supposed to have been once
     two idols, Asaph and Nayelah; or two persons, a man and a
     woman, who, for having committed stupration in the temple,
     were changed into stones. At each of them he recited with a
     loud voice the (since formulary) praise of God. Finally,
     having proclaimed his last revelation, by which he declared
     his religion to be perfected, he sacrificed sixty-three
     camels, one for each year of his then closing age: he
     returned to Medina, and soon after died.

     [610] _Tanzíl_ is the literal Muhammedism, or the literal
     interpretation of what is revealed.

     [611] _Táwil_ is the allegorical sense of the doctrine. We
     have, upon the meaning of _tanzîl_ and _táwîl_, a
     Dissertation written by Silvestre de Sacy: _Commentatio de
     notione vocum_ Tánzîl _et_ Táwîl, _in libris qui ad Druzorum
     religionem pertinent_, in the XVIth vol. of _Comment. Soc.
     Reg. Scient. Götting., class. hist. et phil._, p. 3 and seq.

     [612] See a detailed account of him hereafter.

     [613] صادق, _sadik_ is known to be the epithet of Joseph,
     Abu bekr, Jesus, and Jâfer, the sixth Imám; it appears to
     designate the Imám, the Dái, or the acknowledged spiritual
     guide among the Ismâilahs; I shall therefore retaîn the term
     in the translation.

     [614] The celebrated Ghazáli composed among a hundred works,
     thirty-three of which are enumerated by the baron
     Hammer-Purgstall, two with the titles القسطاس _alkistas_,
     “the balance,” and مزان الاعمال _mízan olâamál_, “the
     balance of actions.”

     [615] The attribute of God and the name of the prophet are,
     not without intention, confounded.

     [616] _Khájah_ signifies “lord, professor, man of
     distinction” (and also a eunuch). Khájah is the title
     commonly prefixed to _Naśir-eddin_, “the defender of the
     faith,” which is the surname of Muhammed ben Hassan or Ben
     Muhammed al Túsi, born in Tús, in the year of the Hejira
     597, A. D. 1200. He is acknowledged to have been the doctor
     who acquired among Muselmans the highest reputation in all
     sorts of sciences; he was a commentator of Euclid, and of
     the spherics of Theodosius and Menelaus. He left scientific
     works, duly admired, and was an astronomer, lawyer,
     theologian, and statesman. We shall have to touch upon the
     part which he took in the great events of his days. He died
     in the year of the Hejira 672, or, according to some, 687
     (A. D. 1273 or 1285).

     [617] See our note 2, p. 400-401, relative to Sáid, under
     the name of Muhammed Obaid-alla, Mahdi. The friends and
     enemies of the Fatemites concur in the account, that he
     descended from Maimún, surnamed _Kaddah_, “the oculist,”
     whom some make a descendant of Ali, whilst others say that
     he was the son of _Daísan_, “the dualist,” so called because
     he ascribed the good to God and the evil to man, and some
     attribute to him an origin, not only foreign to the race of
     the prophet, but even connected with a Magian and Jewish
     lineage. Obaid-allah made Kairwan or Kurm (the ancient
     Cyrene) the capital of his dominion, but at the same time he
     laid the foundation of a new capital, which he called
     _Mahedia_, from his assumed surname _Mahdi_. Abu Tamim Moadd
     Moezzledin allah, the fourth in descent from Obaid allah,
     but the first acknowledged Fatimite khalif removed his seat
     to Cairo in Egypt: this town became then the rival of
     Baghdad, which continued to be the residence of the ancient
     line of khalifs. Moezz died in the year of the Hejira 365,
     A. D. 975.

     [618] Abu Yazid, according to Abulfeda (_Annal. Mosl._, vol.
     II. p. 240), was a barbarian of the tribe of Zenata (one of
     the Berbers), son of Condad and an Ethiopian mother. He
     feigned sanctity, and belonged to a sect inimical to the
     Muselmans, whom he persecuted with relentless fury. Herbelot
     says, he was a chancellor of Abúl-Kasem Muhammed Kayem, the
     second khalif of the Fatimites, who succeeded his father
     Obaid-alla, in the year of the Hejira 322 (A. D. 933). Abu
     Yazid rose in rebellion against his master, and brought the
     empire to the greatest peril; but, after many successes and
     conquests, he was defeated, taken prisoner, and died of his
     wounds, in the year of the Hejira 336 (A. D. 947).

     [619] Abu Yazid’s conqueror was the above mentioned Abu
     Teher Ismâil, son of Kayem, the third khalif of the
     Fatimites, who succeeded his father in the year of the
     Hejira 334 (A. D. 945). His surname was, besides the above
     stated, _al Mansur ba kuvet allah_, “victorious by the power
     of God,” to which is often substituted _Mostanser billah_,
     as in Makrisi (see _Chrestom. arabe_, vol I. pp. 84-91). He
     was succeeded by his son, in the year of the Hejira 341 (A.
     D. 952).

     [620] We find in Herbelot’s oriental library a notice of
     Nasser Khosrú, an ancient Persian poet, whose animated and
     pious verses are often quoted by persons of a contemplative
     turn of mind. Baron von Hammer (Schöne Redekünste Persiens,
     S. 43) adduces Nassir Khosru of Ispahan, who, famous as a
     poet and philosopher, was persecuted on account of doubtful
     orthodoxy in matters of faith, and who died in the year of
     the Hejira 431 (A. D. 1039). A sect of Ismâilah is said
     (_As. Res._, vol. XI. p. 425) to have been called Naśariah,
     from Naśar, a poet and learned man.

     [621] The mention made above of Hassan, and further of the
     Almutiahs, points to the reign of Abu Tamim Moâd Mostanser
     Billah, from the year of the Hejira 427 to 487, (A. D. 1035
     to 1094). At the beginning of this reign, Amir Naśer Khusro,
     if the date of his birth be right, would have been more than
     sixty-six years old, and twenty years of concealment in
     Badakhshan extend his age beyond eighty-six years.

     [622] Badakhshan is the country situated towards the head of
     the river Jihon, or Oxus, by which it is limited on its
     eastern and northern side. Balkh is the capital of
     Badakhshan.

     [623] The author of the Dabistán has given a sufficiently
     explicit account of the doctrine of the Ismâilahs, but
     without separating the opinions belonging in particular to
     each of the sects into which the Ismâilahs in the course of
     time divided. We have already mentioned the _Batenian_.
     Another division was that of the _Karmatians_, founded by
     Hamadan, surnamed _Karmata_, “small and distorted,” son of
     Ashath. He appeared first in the year of the Hejira 278 (A.
     D. 891), as an adherent of Ahmed, son of Abdallah, son of
     Maimun Kaddah, before mentioned (note 1, p. 418). This Ahmed
     was an ancestor of Sáid, or Obaid-allah, the founder of the
     Fatimite khalifs. Hamden Karmata recommended community of
     women, and released men from all moral and religious duties.
     In the year of the Hejira 286 (A. D. 899), Abu Sáid,
     surnamed Habab, at the head of the Karmatians, waged war
     upon the khalif Motadhet, in Syria; he took the town Hagiar,
     the Petra deserti of the Romans, once the capital of Arabia,
     and made it his residence. He was assassinated in the year
     of the Hejira 301 (A. D. 913). He left six sons; after the
     death of the last of them, Yusuf (Abu Yakub), in the year
     366, (A. D. 976), the Karmatians confided their government
     to six seids called _sadah_, “pure.” This sect, after many
     combats, was dissipated towards the end of the tenth century
     of our era.――(See _Chrestom. ar._, vol. II. p. 126.)

     The Ismâilahs are also denominated _Talamites_,
     _Khurramiah_, _Safiah_, _Babeciah_, _Majmirah_, _Maknâyah_,
     etc.――(_As. Res._ vol. XI. p. 421, etc.) I have no room for
     an account of each of them: I shall only add the name of the
     _Druses_, a sect existing in our days, upon which Silvestre
     de Sacy gave a particular notice drawn from their own
     papers, in his _Chrestomathie arabe_, vol II. pp. 191, 227,
     and undertook a detailed history of this sect. The name of
     the Druses is derived from دروز _deroz_, or درزية,
     _derziyet_, “juncture.” They are the disciples of Hamza, son
     of Ali, and honor as a god _Hakem beamr allah_, “he who
     governs by the order of God;” the sixth Fatimite khalif, in
     descent from Obaid-allah. Hakem was born in the year of the
     Hejira 375, A. D. 985; he was saluted khalif in 386 (A. D.
     996); he disappeared, some say was assassinated, at the end
     of 441, A. D. 1020. The Druses give the same dates of his
     birth, reign, and death, but say he was the son of Ismâil, a
     descendant of Ali, the son of Abu Taleb, and his mother was
     of the race of Fatima, surnamed Zahra, the daughter of
     Muhammed the prophet. In short, every division of the
     Ismáilah appears to have its own _Mahdi_, “director,” but
     always traces his origin to Ali and Fatima. The Druses
     expect the return of Hakem; he is to reign over the whole
     earth during centuries of centuries, and the unitarian
     Druses with him: the other sects shall be obliged to pay
     homage and tribute to him. The Druses esteem the Koran very
     much, but the prophet not at all; they have rejected
     circumcision, fasting, and prayer, and indulge in drinking
     wine, eating pork, and marrying within the prohibited
     degrees.

     [624] The character and life of the khalif, mentioned above
     and in the preceding note, exhibit a strange mixture of
     intelligence and folly, superstition and incredulity,
     simplicity and ostentation, abstemiousness and liberality,
     intolerance and forbearance, cruelty and mildness; all his
     good and bad actions were marked with something whimsical
     and fantastical: still more――he wanted to be God: thus he
     realized in himself the idea of a monstrous tyrant. To his
     honor be it said that he founded in Cairo the first
     university of the middle ages.――(See his _Life_, by Macrisi,
     in the _Chrest. ar._, tom, I. p. 93 _et seq._, and
     _Gemäldesaal mosl., Herrsher, Band III. Seite 226_, etc.)

     [625] We observe two great divisions of the Ismâilahs;
     namely, the _Western_, to whom alone, till now, the account
     of the Dabistán referred, and the Ismâilah _of Iran_, that
     is, those who established themselves in the strongholds of
     _Kohistan_ (Khorassan), and in _Rúdbar_, which last is the
     name of a fort in the province of _Jebál_, or Persian Irak.

     [626] An excellent work to be consulted with respect to
     Hassan, son of Sábáh, is the history concerning him
     contained in روضة الصفا فى سيرة الانبيا والمولك ولخالفا
     _Rúzat al sáfá fí sírat al anbía w’ al mulk w’ al khalifa_,
     “the Garden of Purity, containing the history of prophets
     and khalifs,” composed by _Muhammed_, son of _Khavendshah_,
     known under the name of _Mirkhond_, born in the year of the
     Hejira 837, or at the end of 836 (A. D. 1432 or 1433),
     deceased in 903 (A. D. 1498). The Persian text of the part
     of it here pointed out was published in Paris, 1812, by Am.
     Jourdain, with a French translation and Notes, some of which
     are by Silvestre de Sacy. I shall, in my quotations from it,
     use only the name “Mirkhond.”

     [627] Some people of Hassan’s sect established his genealogy
     as follows: “Hassan, son of Ali, son of Jâfer, son of
     Hassan, son of Muhammed, son of Sabah Homairi Yemini, but
     Hassan, to whom it was presented, ordered it to be
     cancelled, saying: ‘I prefer being a simple privileged
     servant of the Imám to being his degenerated
     son.’”――(_Mirkhond_, p. 39.)

     [628] We shall have further to notice Nizam al mulk, and a
     remarkable work which he left. From this work, Mirkhond (p.
     31) quotes the following words respecting the Imám Movafek,
     above mentioned: “The Imám, one of the most illustrious
     among the learned men of Khorassan, was generally honored,
     and his society sought after as a source of happiness. He
     was then more than eighty-five years of age, and it was an
     opinion generally received, that all young men who
     instructed themselves under his direction in the science of
     the Koran and prophetic traditions, obtained the favor of
     fortune.”

     [629] Mirkhond has _Hakim Omar Khayam_. Silvestre de Sacy
     (p. 32, note) thought that it would perhaps be better to
     translate “Hakim, son of Omar,” and _Khayam_ is a surname,
     signifying “maker of tents.”

     [630] Alp Arselan, son of Daud (or David), son of Mikail
     (Michael), son of Seljuk was the second sultan of the family
     and dynasty of the Seljucides. He succeeded to Togrul Bèg,
     his uncle, who died without offspring in the year of the
     Hejira 455 (A. D. 1063). At first called _Isrâil_, he took,
     after his conversion to Muhammedism, the name of Muhammed
     with the surname _Alp Arselan_, “the courageous lion” in the
     Turkish language. His most memorable victory was that gained
     with 12,000 men over 300,000 Greeks, whom he put to flight,
     and took their emperor Romanus, surnamed Diogenes.

     [631] Moez eddin (according to others _Jelal eddin_, or
     _Jelal daulet_, “the glory of religion or of state”) Abu ’l
     fetah Malic-shah, son of Alp Arslan, although not the
     eldest, was declared by his father to be his successor, by
     the counsel of the above mentioned Nizam ul mulk, and
     mounted the throne after his father’s death, in the year of
     the Hejira 465 (A. D. 1072). A reform of the Calendar made
     under his reign was called _Tarikh Jelali_.

     [632] Mirkhond (p. 37, French transl.) gives a clearer
     account of the event, as follows: Nizam-ul-mulk, before the
     presentation of the register to the Sultan, having met
     Hassan’s servant outside the hall, requested of him to see
     the register, in order that he might know the manner in
     which it was made, and the servant not daring, out of
     respect to the minister, refuse it to him, delivered the
     register into the hands of Nizam-ul-mulk, who, having seen
     the nicety of the statements, dropped the leaves in such a
     manner as to disperse them, and said: “Many plunders are
     written in this register.” The servant, on account of the
     risk he ran if he avowed what had happened, said nothing of
     the fact to Hassan. When the latter presented his
     statements, he found them mutilated, and the leaves
     confusedly mixed.

     [633] Nizam-ul-mulk, who in the above related anecdote, does
     not appear in an advantageous light, has nevertheless the
     reputation of having been a most learned man, and a
     protector of science. He left a work, called _vaśiyet
     Nizam-ul-mulk_, “the testament of Nizam-ul-mulk,” from which
     Mirkhond relates, partly in the same words as the author,
     what had passed between Nizam-ul-mulk and Hassan; the
     former, of course, endeavors to vindicate his conduct
     towards the latter. Nizam-ul-mulk, after having rendered the
     most eminent services to his Sultan, was discarded by him on
     the suggestions of a Sultana, and assassinated, in the year
     of the Hejira 485 (A. D. 1092), according to Herbelot (_art.
     Malik-schah_), by the successor to his office; according to
     our author (see hereafter) by an emissary of Hassan Sabah.

     [634] See hereafter the notice of this fort, when the event
     will be related in due order of time.

     [635] This was Moadd, Mostanser Billah, who began to reign
     (according to Abulfeda) in the year of the Hejira 427 (A. D.
     1035), and died in 487 (A. D. 1094).

     [636] This word means “the commander in chief of the
     Egyptian troops;” his name was _Bedr al Jemalí_.――(See,
     respecting him, _Les Mémoires géographiques et historiques
     sur l’Egypte, par M. Etienne Quatremère_, t. II. p. 420 _et
     seq._, note of Silvestre de Sacy.)

     [637] Abu’l Kasem Ahmed al mistáli billah reigned from the
     year of the Hejira 487 (A. D. 1094) to 495 (A. D. 1101).

     [638] On account of their adherence to Nazár, the sect,
     headed by Hassan Sabah, and the Ismâilah of Persia are
     called also Nazárián, which is a more probable derivation
     than that in note 4, p. 419.

     [639] Haleb, a town in Syria, is said to be as ancient as
     the dynasty of the Kayanian kings of Persia; it was in this
     town, that Kushtasp received the royal crown sent him by his
     father Lohrasp. It is the ancient Berrhœa.

     [640] _Da âí_ appears to have been a particular and eminent
     dignity among the Ismâílahs. It is said of Nazir-eddin, a
     minister of Mostanser Billah, that he occupied at the same
     time the places of great Kázi, of great _Dá âí_, and of
     Vizir. According to Mokrizi (see _Chrestom. ar._, vol. I. p.
     142) the Dáâi of the Dáâis follows in rank immediately the
     Kází of Kázis, and wears the same costume. He teaches the
     doctrine of his sect, and receives the engagement of all
     those who renounce their former creed, adopting that of the
     Fatimites.

     [641] Mirkhond gives a more detailed account of Hassan’s
     itinerary, as follows: Hassan went from Isfahan to Yezed,
     and to Kirman; whence he returned to Isfahan, where he
     resided four months; he departed again for Khozistan, staid
     there three months, and then went to Damegan, in which town
     and district he passed three years. After that he proceeded
     to Jorjan, and using every caution for not falling into the
     hands of his enemies, he went to Sari, from thence to
     Damawend, whence, by the route of Kazwin, he entered Dilem;
     from thence he passed into a town near Alamut, where he
     devoted himself to a religious life. I have thus enumerated
     the countries in which the doctrine of the Ismâilahs was
     more or less spread, but not without opposition.

     [642] Alamut is a town and fort near Kazvin, in the Persian
     province of _Ghilan_, on the western shore of the Caspian
     sea. آِله اموت, _îlah amut_, means “nest of a vulture.” The
     value of the numbers represented by the letters of these two
     words make together the epoch of Hassan’s entering the fort,
     viz.:

         ا =  1
        ل =  30
         ه =  5
         ا =  1
        م =  40
         و =  6
       ت =  400
      ――――
       483

     483 of the Hejira (A. D. 1090), in the month of Rajeb, the
     seventh of the Muhammedan year; Abulfeda (vol. III. p. 425)
     says the eighth month of the year 483. This stronghold soon
     became the capital of a formidable sovereign, known among
     the European crusaders, under the name of _shaikh al Jebal_,
     interpreted “the old man of the mountain.”

     [643] The author neglects to mention the date from which he
     begins his computation.

     [644] Hassan Sabah, from the height of Alamut, commanded the
     country around, and terrified the inhabitants, high and low,
     by a set of devoted adherents, whom he sent about to
     propagate his religion, and to execute his commands, which
     were frequently the murder of his enemies.

     [645] The edition of Calcutta has erroneously 508.

     [646] Our author, regardless of order, reverts to events
     which took place during the life of Hassan.

     [647] _Refík_, in general acceptation, “follower,” is a
     distinctive name given to the Ismâilahs, and particularly to
     men carrying arms, in opposition to the class of dáâis, or
     “missionaries,” and perhaps also to the fedáyis.――(Note of
     _Silvestre de Sacy_, in _Jourdain’s French transl. of
     Mirkhond_, p. 39).

     [648] Mirkhond says the Amir Arslan-tash.

     [649] Hassan, according to Mirkhond, had but seventy rafiks
     with him.

     [650] Barkíarok, son of Malik shah, was the fourth sultan of
     the house of the Seljucides. He received at the circumcision
     the Muselman name of Kassem, and the title of _Rokn-eddin_,
     “the column of religion,” was given to him by Mectadi, the
     khalif of Baghdad. Barkiarok was the eldest son of Malik
     shah, whom he succeeded in the year of the Hejira 485 (A. D.
     1092).

     His stepmother, Turkan Khatun, had a son by Malik shah,
     called Mahmúd. At the death of the Sultan, being in the town
     of Baghdad, she obtained, by solicitations and presents,
     from the khalif Mortadi, letters of investiture in favor of
     her own son Mahmud, who, then only four years old, was
     proclaimed the legitimate heir of his father’s empire,
     whilst Barkiarok was at Ispahan, then the seat of the
     Seljucides, recognised, by right of primogeniture, the only
     legitimate successor of his father. But Turkan Khatun
     marched to Ispahan with an army, surprised Barkiarok, and
     seized the town, and the person of her step-son. The latter
     however, aided by the faithful servants of his father,
     escaped from her hands, and found a refuge at Shiraz, the
     residence of _Takash-teghin_ the _Atabek_, or
     “lieutenant-general” of Persia. With this chief’s
     assistance, Barkiarok presented himself with an army of two
     hundred thousand men before Ispahan, and besieged Mahmud and
     his mother. A peace was concluded: the Sultana and her son
     were to possess the town and dependencies of Ispahan, but to
     divide Malik shah’s treasury with Barkiarok; he received
     five hundred thousand gold dinars for his share, and, having
     raised the siege, moved to Hamdan, where Ismâil, one of his
     uncles, commanded.

     Ismâil had declared himself for the Sultana: a battle was
     fought in the plain of Hamdan, in the year of the Hejira 486
     (A. D. 1093); Bakiàrok gained the victory: his uncle fell.

     In the very same year, the victor was obliged by another
     uncle of his, Takash, son of Aslan shah, to retire towards
     Ispahan. He was kindly received by his brother Mahmud, then
     free from the tutelage of his mother, who had died; both
     brothers appeared linked in the bonds of perfect amity; but
     the partizans of the younger seized the person of the elder,
     and imprisoned him in the castle. It was the sudden death of
     Mahmud by the small pox which liberated Barkiarok, and gave
     him the possession of the empire. This was not left
     undisturbed, but this is not the place to relate the events
     of his agitated reign, of about thirteen years, which
     terminated in the year of the Hejira 498 (A. D. 1104). I
     have said enough to show how, among such disturbances, the
     power of the Ismâilah could grow in the Persian provinces:
     to this I shall add that during the reign of Barkiarok, the
     European crusaders took Nicæa and Antiochia, and the cross
     was fixed upon the walls of Jerusalem, Akka, and Edessa.

     [651] This was in the year of the Hejira 495 (A. D. 1101-2).

     [652] Son of Malik shah, the fifth Sultan of the Seljucides,
     who reigned from the year of the Hejira 501 to 511 (A. D.
     1107 to 1117).

     [653] The edition of Calcutta reads erroneously 591.

     [654] Mirkhond has Alabek Nushtékin Shergir.

     [655] The sixth Sultan of the Seljucides, named Moezzeddin
     Abu ’l Hareth Sinjar, son of Malik shah. He governed the
     province Khorassan during twenty years, under the reigns of
     his brothers Barkiárok and Muhammed; after the death of the
     latter, he seized the whole empire, and, having overcome his
     nephew Mahmud, son of Muhammed, reigned with various
     vicissitudes of fortune during forty years and four months
     (from 1117 to 1157 A. D).

     [656] This peace, according to Mirkhond (_French transl._,
     p. 48) was made under three conditions, to which the
     Ismâlíahs were held:――1, not to add any new work to their
     castles; 2, not to buy arms and warlike stores; 3, not to
     make new proselytes. The Muhammedan doctors, not having
     approved the treaty, the people suspected the Sultan of some
     hankering for the sect of the Ismâilahs. Notwithstanding the
     peace was concluded between Sinjar and them, who had even
     the revenue of some districts assigned to them, and were in
     others exempt from paying duties.

     [657] Hossáin Fáni was the dáâi of Kohistan. Although,
     according to Mirkhond, his death was also ascribed to
     Hossáin Damawendi, we can but suppose that Hassan must, upon
     very strong grounds, have condemned his own son to death.

     [658] The edition of Calcutta reads erroneously 580.

     [659] Mirkhond says, that these two personages were to
     regulate the affairs of the state conjointly with Hossáin
     Káini.

     [660] According to Mirkhond, he reigned twenty-four years,
     during which some memorable events took place (see _French
     transl._, pp. 49-51) here omitted for want of room.

     [661] The thirtieth khalif of the Abbasides; he who
     assassinated in the Hejira 530 (A. D. 1135). His father,
     Mostarshed, had met with the same fate by the hands of the
     Fedayis, towards the end of Kia Buzurg’s reign. To exhibit
     the long series of assassinations by which the Fedâyís
     spread terror all over Asia, is a weighty task, which has
     been recently performed by the master-hand of the Baron von
     Hammer.――(See his _Geschichte der Assassinen_.)

     Muhammed Buzerg died after a reign of twenty-five years.

     [662] In the style of the Batenian and the Druses,
     _resurrection_ signifies the day of the manifestation of the
     Imám, his doctrine, the entire triumph of his religion and
     the abolition of every other sect.――(Note of _Silvestre de
     Sacy_, p. 54 of the work already quoted.)

     [663] The edition of Calcutta has erroneously 541.

     [664] Mirkhond says (_French transl._, p. 56): Hassan was
     stabbed in the castle of Lamsir, by his wife’s brother, who
     descended from the family of Baviah, and had preserved the
     faith of, and attachment to, the ancient religion.

     There is evidently an omission or hiatus at this place in
     the edition of Calcutta. According to Mirkhond (pp. 57-59),
     after the murder of Hassan, son of Muhammed, Hassan’s son
     Muhammed, occupied the throne. He maintained the doctrine of
     his father, and had great pretensions to learning. He
     governed, from the age of nineteen, forty-six years with
     great success; the _Molheds_ (so were called his adherents)
     triumphed every where among rapine and bloodshed. He died in
     the year of the Hejira 607 (A. D. 1210-1). He was succeeded
     by his son Jelal eddin Hassan, ben Muhammed, ben Hassan, who
     was born in the year of the Hejira 552 (A. D. 1157-8),
     therefore fifty-three years old when he began to reign.
     Mirkhond says, doubtingly, that according to some
     historians, he poisoned his father, which is positively
     asserted in the text of the Dabistán. He re-established the
     Muslim religion, and acquired the name of Jelal-eddin _nóu
     Muselman_, “new Muselman.”

     [665] The edition of Calcutta has, most erroneously, 308.

     [666] This is a treatise upon Morals, composed by Naśir
     eddin Túsí, upon whom see our note 2, p. 417.

     [667] Mirkhond places the assassination of Ala eddin in the
     year of the Hejira 653 (A. D. 1255-6).

     [668] Ruk neddin was the eldest son of Alá-eddin; as heir
     presumptive he was much honored by the Ismâilahs, who made
     no difference between his orders and those of his father.
     The latter, irritated on that account, declared a younger
     son his successor, in spite of the people’s attachment to
     the eldest. Rukn-eddin, perpetually threatened by
     Ala-eddin’s resentment, took refuge in a well defended
     castle. He was suspected, and even accused by his own
     mother, of having been privy to the murder of his father,
     although he punished the murderer.

     [669] Holagú was the grandson of _Jengish khan_. Born in
     1127 A. D., Jengish khan, in the first moiety of the
     thirteenth century, came with six hundred thousand Tartars
     from the high lands between China, Siberia, and the Caspian
     sea, to act his formidable part in the Southern countries,
     already deluged with blood by the unceasing wars of the
     Arabs, Persians, and Turks. The dominion of the Seljuk
     dynasty, torn asunder by the dissensions of their members,
     during forty years after Sinjar, their Sultan, last
     mentioned in the Dabistán (p. 440), terminated with Toghrul
     the Third, in 1193 A. D.; there remained still a vigorous
     branch of it in Jelál-eddin, sultan of Khorazm, who retired
     before the great conqueror towards India; he was overthrown
     in a great battle on the Indus, in 1222 A. D. Jengishkhan
     died in 1227, after having made a division of his immense
     empire: he gave the kingdoms of Khorassan and Kabul to his
     fourth son, Tuli khan, who died soon after his father,
     leaving four sons, the two eldest of whom were the above
     mentioned Maikú kán (Mangu khán), and Holagú khán. The
     former ruled in Tartary, the second proceeded to the
     conquest of Persia and the empire of the khalifs. It was
     necessary first to subdue the Ismâilahs.

     Rukn-eddin, according to Mirkhond, offered submission to
     Holagú: it was by accident that an action took place between
     the Ismâilahs and the troops sent by Holagú to take
     possession of Alamút. Rukn-eddin, after some delay, during
     which he had taken his residence in the fort Maimun-diz,
     surrendered his person to Holagú, who had come to besiege
     it. With Rukn-eddin was the celebrated astronomer
     Nassir-eddin Túsí, who acted as ambassador and mediator; but
     seeing the ruin of the Ismâilahs, not, as he pretended, in
     the position of the heavenly bodies, but in the
     circumstances, he is accused of betraying his master and
     delivering him into the hands of the conqueror. More than
     forty castles, full of the Molhuds’ treasures, were
     destroyed in a short time; among the last were Lamsir and
     Alamút; the inhabitants of the latter hesitated to
     surrender, not being able to separate themselves at once
     from their accustomed glory and independence, whilst their
     sovereign acted as an instrument in the hands of the
     conquerors for delivering up his own subjects, having lost,
     with his good fortune, all firmness and nobleness of mind.

     One of the forts only remained: it was _Kirdcoh_. The feeble
     Rukn-eddin, on his way to Mangu khan, could not prevail upon
     himself to give it up, and instead of ordering the garrison
     to surrender, as he had promised, he sent them word to
     resist. Proceeding towards Tartary, he was put to death by
     the officers of his escort, who probably had received orders
     to that effect from Mangú khán. A death-mandate was also
     executed upon Rukn-eddin’s sons, daughters, relatives,
     servants, and other followers all over the country;
     thousands of the Ismâilahs fell under the sword of the
     Tartars. Holagú completed the conquest of this powerful
     sect, which had been formidable in Asia during one hundred
     and sixty-six years, in the year of the Hejira 654, A. D.
     1256.

     But the Ismâilahs did not cease to exist in Persia, where,
     even in our days, some remains of them are to be found. We
     read in the Transactions of the Literary Society of Bombay
     (vol. II. pp. 281-294), that the parents of a Muhammed
     Mahdi, claiming descent from Ali, were inhabitants of
     Júnpúr, a town near Benares. He was born in the year of the
     Hejira 847 (A. D. 1443), declared himself a Mahdi, in Hejira
     903 (A. D. 1491), first in Mecca, and then in Western India,
     in Guzerat, and Ajmír; and died in Hejira 910 (A. D. 1504),
     in Furuh, a city of Khorassan, not without leaving many
     followers, communities of whom remain, even in our days,
     most numerous in Sind, Guzerat, and the Deccan.

     Halagú, after the overthrow of the Ismâilahs, marched
     towards Baghdád, it is said, at the instigation of
     Nassir-eddin. The celebrated seat of the khalifs was taken
     and destroyed in the year of the Hejira 656 (A. D. 1258),
     without the required efforts to defend it having been made
     by the thirty-seventh and last khalif of the Abbasides. This
     inglorious prince, fallen into the hands of his barbarous
     enemies, met with a cruel death, being packed up in a piece
     of felt, and dragged through the streets of his capital.
     With him perished the khalifate, a dominion once the most
     powerful and absolute of the world. It began with Abu Bekr
     in the eleventh year of the Hejira (A. D. 632), and lasted
     645 lunar, or 625 solar years, during 520 of which it
     remained in the house of the Abbasides. The khalifate of the
     Fatimites in Egypt had ceased to exist in the year of the
     Hejirah 567 (A. D. 1171). All attempts to raise another
     khalifate in Asia and Africa had but a short and confined
     success, or none at all.

     [670] In the seventh vol. of the Asiatic Researches (p. 338,
     edit. of Calcutta), we find an article by T. H. Colebrooke,
     Esq., _On the Origin and peculiar Tenets of certain
     Muhammedan Sects_. It is there stated that: “The Ali
     Ilahiyahs are become numerous in India. This sect is
     mentioned by the author of the Dabistán, as prevalent in his
     time only at _Uzbil_, or _Azbal_, in the mountainous tract
     near _Khata_. It now prevails, according to the information
     which I have received, in a part of the dominion of Nawab
     Nizamu ’l mulk.” The Calcutta edition of the Dabistán reads
     as above, _Arnil_, _Armál_, and _Bakhta_: the manuscript of
     Oude agrees with Colebrooke’s reading, _Azbíl_, but has
     بخطا, _bakhtá_, and زبال, _zebál_, for the two other names.
     The celebrated Orientalist gives an abstract of the doctrine
     of this sect according to the Dabistán, joined to an account
     of the _Borahs_, according to the _Mejálîsu ’l múmínin_,
     composed by _Núrallah of Shoster_, a zealous Shiâh. The
     Bóhrahs are described by this author as natives of Guzerat,
     converted to the Muhammedan religion about three hundred
     years before his time, now 542 years ago. Their converter
     was _Mullah Ali_, whose tomb is still seen at the city of
     Combáyat. Some of this tribe are Sunnites. The party who
     profess the Imámiah tenets comprehended, in the year 1800,
     nearly two thousand families. They are chiefly occupied in
     trade, and transmit the fifth part of their gains to the
     Sayyads of Medina: they are honest, pious, and temperate.

     [671] We find in the Dictionary دحيه الكلبى _dihyat ol
     kalbi_, interpreted “the ape-dog; the shape in which the
     Muhammedans believe the angel Jabriel to have appeared to
     their prophet.” This is not mentioned in the Koran. We read
     in a note of Sale’s Koran, vol. II. p. 401: It is said that
     Jabril appeared in his proper shape to none of the prophets
     except Muhammed, and to him only twice: once when he
     received the first revelation of the Koran, and a second
     time when he took his night-journey to heaven. According to
     the nineteenth chapter of the Koran, Jabril appeared to the
     Virgin Mary in the shape of a man, like a full grown but
     beardless youth, and caused her to conceive.

     [672] امي _ámí_, “illiterate,” was the epithet which
     Muhammed was pleased to give to himself, not without the
     intention of rendering it so much more probable that the
     writing, which he produced as revelations from God, could
     not possibly be a forgery of his own; because it was not
     conceivable that a person who could neither read nor write
     should be able to compose a book of such excellent doctrine,
     and in so elegant a style. It was as “the illiterate” that
     in the 155th verse of the VIIth chapter of the Koran he
     causes himself to be announced by God, who is introduced
     speaking to Moses about the punishment deserved by the Jews
     for their iniquities; and says (ibid., v. 154): “My mercy
     extendeth over all things, and I will write down good unto
     those who shall fear me, and give alms, and who shall
     believe our signs――(v. 155): who shall follow the apostle,
     the _illiterate prophet_, whom they shall find written down
     (i. e. both foretold by name and certain description), with
     them in the law and the gospel: he will command them that
     which is just, and will forbid them that which is evil,”
     etc., etc. We can, however, scarcely doubt that Muhammed,
     belonging to the family of Hashem, the most illustrious
     tribe of the Koreish, the hereditary guardians of the temple
     of Mecca, and himself skilful in commerce, was not more
     illiterate than the Arabs of his class: he certainly proved
     himself a man of a lofty genius, and, although he wrote not
     in verse, a sublime poet.

     [673] We read above the account of sectaries who deified
     Alí. So much is certain, that, from his most tender youth,
     he was the most zealous, courageous, and intelligent
     supporter of Muhammed. The prophet gave him the surname of
     “the lion of God:” he said to him: “Thou art my vizir, and
     my brother in this and the other world. Thou standest by me
     as Aaron stood by Moses; except that no prophet will come
     after me, I have no advantage over thee. I am the town of
     knowledge, and Alí the gate to it.” Alí was a poet; we have
     but half a dozen of his poems and one hundred of his
     sayings.――(See the above-quoted work of Baron Hammer,
     _Gemäldesaal Mosl. Herrscher, I^{ter} Band_. pp. 321-323.)

     [674] _Ahmed_, “most laudable,” is one of the names of
     Muhammed. According to the Commentators of the Koran and the
     Traditionists, _Muhammed_ is the name for men: _Ahmed_ that
     with which the prophet was greeted by the angels; and
     _Mahmud_ that which the inhabitants of hell gave him. He has
     a thousand names by means of his attributes.

     [675] _Ulvíahs_, or _Alííades_, are called the descendants
     of Alí, the two principal branches of whom were those of his
     sons, Husseim and Hassan. In the first continued the twelve
     Imáms; in the second, several leaders rose, with unequal
     success, in different times and places, against the
     government of the Ommiades and Abbasides.

     [676] So is called Muhammed’s mule; also Ali’s horse.

     [677] Shedád is a fabulous personage, said to have lived in
     the times of Jemshid, and to have been sent by Zohak to
     destroy Jemshid, who made war upon him. The fabulists give
     two hundred and sixty years to the reign of Shedád, and
     three hundred to that of his brother Shadid. Both these
     personages are also said to have lived in the time of the
     Hebrew prophet Heber.――(See Herbelot.)




END OF THE SECOND VOLUME.




CONTENTS

OF THE SECOND VOLUME.


                                                                 Page
                THE SECOND CHAPTER OF THE DABISTAN

  Describes, in twelve Sections, the religious system of
              the Hindus                                            1

  Section I.――Concerning the orthodox Hindu system                  2

              Summary of the doctrines contained in the Budah
                Mimansa                                             3

  Section II.――Of certain opinions entertained by this sect
              concerning the creation                               9

  Section III.――Concerning the religious observances and
              ceremonies of the Smartas, or orthodox of the
              Hindus                                               53

  Section IV.――Of the followers of the Vedanta                     90

  Section V.――Concerning those who profess the Sankhya doctrines  118

  Section VI.――Of the Yogis and their doctrines                   123

  Section VII.――Of the tenets of the Saktian                      148

              History of the illustrious Shaikh Abu Ali Hussain,
                the son of Abdullah ben Sina (Avi senna)          168

  Section VIII.――Of the Vishnuian (Vaishnavas), worshippers
              of Vichnu                                           175

              Of the Vairagis                                     184

  Section IX.――On the creed of the Charvak                        197

  Section X.――On the system of those who profess the doctrine
               of Tark                                            203

  Section XI.――On the tenets held by the followers of Buddha      210

  Section XII.--On various religious systems professed by the
               people of India                                    216


                            CHAPTER III.

  Of the religion of the Kera Tabitian                            289


                            CHAPTER IV.

  Of the religion of the Yahuds (Jews), in two Sections           293

  Section I.――The information received from Muhammed Said
               Sarmed                                          _ibid._

  Section II.――Upon the book of Adam                              299


                             CHAPTER V.

  Of the religion of the Tarsa (Christians) in three sections     305

  Section I.――An account of the Lord Aisia (Jesus)             _ibid._

  Section II.――Of the creed of the Aisuah (Christians)            308

  Section III.――Of the works of the Christians                    312


                            CHAPTER VI.

  Of the religion of the Muhammedans, in two Sections             322

  Section I.――Of the religion of the Sonnites                  _ibid._

              An account of the angels                            337

              An account of the Umaviyah and Yezidiah
                connected with the Ali-Ilahian                    356

  Section II.――Of the religion of the Shiâhs                      362

              Of the twelve sects of the Shiâhs                   364

              Of the religion of the Akhbárín                     372

              An account of the Ismâílíah                         397

              An account of the Ali Ilahian                       451




Transcriber Note:

Words and phrases in italics are surrounded by underscores, _like
this_. Superscripts are contained within braces and preceded by a
carat, e.g. III^{ter}. Footnotes were renumbered sequentially and
were moved to the end of the section in which related anchors
occur.

Accented consonants d, k, l, and t are shown with the accent following
the letter, like this: d´. Aspirated h after a consonant is preceded
by an apostrophe: ’h. Umlaut above zed is indicated within brackets:
[:z].

Except as noted herein, no changes were made to spelling or
diacriticals; many words and names were printed with multiple
variations. Punctuation was standardized, with the addition of
unprinted quotation marks, parentheses, apostrophes, commas, and stops
at ends of sentences and abbreviations. Obvious printing errors were
corrected, e.g. backwards or upside down letters, letters in reverse
order, duplicate words that occurred at line or page breaks, and
spaces missing between words.

Reversed lines were restored to proper order:

  person to take care of them. It is said, that in Guze-
  all hands a great number of sheep, they appointed a

was changed to:

  all hands a great number of sheep, they appointed a
  person to take care of them. It is said, that in Guze-

Comments:

  Added missing anchor to [256].
  There are two anchors to [317].
  Missing anchor to [352] was added where it likely belongs.
  [563] First letter of _Ilahíyún_ is unclear in the original.
  There are two anchors to [583]; the second follows [585].
  [661] The word “was” likely omitted from “… he who assassinated …”
  [662] Page number in cite is unclear; it may be 34 instead of 54.
  [669], the year 1127 is at variance with 1162, shown in the index.
  The word “of” was likely omitted from “… shape a powerful …”