Produced by Ron Swanson





VOL. III. PP. 1-30, PL. 1, MARCH 28, 1891

THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE




SOUTH AMERICA

ANNUAL ADDRESS BY THE PRESIDENT

GARDINER G. HUBBARD




WASHINGTON

PUBLISHED BY THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY

Price, 25 Cents.


{1}


VOL. III, PP 1-30, PL 1., MARCH 28, 1891.

THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE




SOUTH AMERICA.

ANNUAL ADDRESS BY THE PRESIDENT,

GARDINER G. HUBBARD.

(_Presented to the Society December 19, 1890._)


Two years ago I selected for my annual address _Africa, or the Dark
Continent_; last year _Asia, the Land of Mountains and Deserts_; this
year I have chosen _South America, the Land of Rivers and Pampas_.

[Illustration: VOL. III, 1891, PL. 1. SOUTH AMERICA. From the
International Cylopedia, by permission of Dodd, Mead & Company.]

       *       *       *       *       *

The recent meeting of the Pan-American Congress has called attention
to South America, a part of our continent under republican forms of
government and rich in products which we lack, while it relies mainly
on other foreign countries for goods which we manufacture. North
America and South America should be more closely united, for the one
is the complement of the other.

The prominent features of South America are its long ranges of
mountains--next to the Himalayas the highest in the world,--its great
valley, and its immense plateau extending from the Straits of Magellan
to the Caribbean sea.


THE MOUNTAINS.

The Andes rise in the extreme south at Cape Horn, run in a
northerly course through Patagonia and southern Chili; thence
continuing in three nearly parallel ranges, the western chain called
the Andes, the others known as the Cordilleras, through Peru, {2}
Bolivia and Ecuador to Colombia. The Cordilleras and the Andes are
connected in several places by knots or cross-chains of mountains. In
Colombia the Andes turn to the northwest, reaching their lowest
elevation at the Panama canal, and continue thence, through Central
America and North America as the Rocky Mountains, to the Arctic ocean.
Near the source of the Magdalena and Cauca rivers in Colombia, the
eastern range is deflected to the east along the northern coast of
South America. The central range disappears between the Magdalena and
Cauca rivers.

The Andes form the water-shed of the continent. The waters on the
western slope flow into the Pacific ocean. The rivers that rise on the
eastern slope, in northern Peru and Ecuador, force their way through
the Cordilleras and at their foot drain the montaña of Bolivia, Peru
and Brazil. In the southern part of Peru and upper Chili there is a
broad sierra or plateau, at an elevation of from twelve to fourteen
thousand feet. The streams that rise in this sierra either empty into
salt or alkaline lakes or sink into the ground.

Unlike all other long ranges of mountains, the continental or eastern
side of the Cordilleras is nearly as precipitous as that extending to
the Pacific. Craters of extinct volcanoes and volcanoes now in
eruption are found in all parts of the chain. In Ecuador there are
fifty-two volcanoes, and twenty of these, covered with perpetual snow
and presided over by Chimborazo and Cotopaxi, rise out of a group of
mountains encircling the valley of Quito, and are all visible from a
single point. Three are active and five others have been in eruption
at one or more times since the conquest. One of these, Sangai, is the
most active volcano on the globe: it sends forth a constant stream of
fire, water, mud and ashes, and some assert that it has done so
without intermission for 300 years; 267 explosions have been counted
in one hour. This is also the land of earthquakes: in 1868, 50,000
lives, we are told, were lost in one day; the tremor was felt over
four countries and from the Andes to the Sandwich Islands. The tidal
wave washed a gunboat of the United States on shore at Arica in lower
Peru, 1000 miles to the south, and sixteen hours later the wave was
felt across the Pacific at New Zealand.

A range of mountains separates Eastern Venezuela and Guiana from the
valley of the Amazon. Other ranges south of the Amazon run
southwestwardly, following the Atlantic coast line from Cape St. Roque
to the Rio de la Plata.


{3} RIVER SYSTEMS.

A great oceanic current flows along the western coast of Africa to the
equator, where it is deflected across the Atlantic ocean and becomes
the equatorial current. On reaching the coast of South America near
Cape St. Roque, it is again deflected north and south. Trade winds
blowing over the equatorial current reach the coast at Brazil
surcharged with vapor; as they follow up the valley of the Amazon the
vapors are partially condensed and frequent showers refresh the land;
but when the clouds at the foot-hills of the Andes meet the colder
winds from the south and strike the snow summits of the Cordilleras,
all the moisture is condensed, and the rain falls in tropical showers
for half the year and waters the largest and richest valley in the
world.

In this valley, among the Cordilleras, three great rivers--the
Orinoco, the Amazon and La Plata--rise. The mountain ranges north and
south of the Amazon divide this great valley into three lesser
valleys, down which the Orinoco, the Amazon and La Plata flow,
watering three-fourths of South America.


_The Orinoco_.

The headwaters of the Orinoco rise in two ranges of mountains; the
Cordilleras in the west, and the mountains of Venezuela many hundred
miles to the east. Four hundred tributaries, abounding in beautiful
falls and cataracts, unite to form this great river.

The whole valley for 1600 miles is filled with dense and tangled
forests. Noble trees of unrivalled beauty blossom in endless
prodigality. Birds of gorgeous plumage nestle in their lofty recesses.
Tall ferns, vines, creeping plants and parasites form a dense tangle
of undergrowth, swarming with life. Myriads of insects in great
variety, reptiles of strange and singular form, lizards and venemous
serpents find their homes and sustenance in the wild, dense mass of
vegetation.


_The Amazon_.

The valley of the Amazon collects its waters from a region 1800 miles
wide from north to south and 2500 miles long from the Andes to the
Atlantic ocean. Even at the foot of the Andes the Amazon is a mighty
river. The valley rapidly narrows to a width of 600 or 700 miles, and
then more gradually to the ocean, {4} where it is only 150 miles wide.
Its total fall from the foot-hills of the Andes to the Atlantic is
very slight, not over three or four hundred feet, and probably
considerably less.

The rims of the valley are formed of diorite and sandstone, and are
raised only a little above the flood-plain, which is formed of mud and
silt, the detritus brought down by the Amazon and its tributaries. The
flood-plain is from fifty to one hundred miles wide, gradually
narrowing as it approaches the ocean. Through this valley the Amazon
cuts its way, separating often into channels which sometimes run
parallel to each other for several hundred miles, frequently forming
large islands, or expanding into lakes. Similar flood-plains are found
on all its larger tributaries.

Up from the ocean into this valley an immense tidal wave rolls, with a
bore, twice a day, forcing back the current of the Amazon 500 miles
and inundating a portion of the flood-plain.

In the early autumn the equatorial rise commences in the headwaters of
its tributaries, far south of the equator. The rains and melting snow
raise the streams, and these the waters of the Amazon. As the sun
crosses the equator and moves to the north the rain follows its
course, and the branches that have their source in the east and
northeast add their flood to the waters of the southerly branches. The
flood in the Amazon is thus continued for nearly six months, raising
its waters from 30 to 50 feet. The channels are filled, and the
flood-plains are overflowed. The whole valley becomes a net-work of
navigable waters, with islands and channels and lakes innumerable,
forming a great inland sea, which the Brazilians call the
Mediterranean of America. The upland, though only a little above the
flood-plain, is rarely overflowed.

The plants and animals of the flood-plain were formerly considered as
distinct from those of the upland as are the plants and animals of
Europe from those of America; but later investigations show that there
is but little difference between the species.

The sea breeze blows up the valley about a thousand miles. Then for
1500 miles the atmosphere is stagnant and sultry; the climate is that
of a permanent vapor bath. The dense foliage forms dark, lofty vaults
which the sunlight never penetrates, and over all hangs a perpetual
mist. The abundance and beauty of vegetation increases, and the trees
which at the mouth of the river blossom only once a year, here bloom
and bear fruit all the year round.

{5} Many great rivers run into the Amazon from the north and the
south, most of them navigable, for many hundred miles. The Madeira,
its greatest tributary, after running 2000 miles, empties into the
king of rivers, without making any perceptible difference in its width
or depth.

This mighty current, rushing into the ocean, meets the equatorial
current and for over one hundred miles keeps on nearly a straight
course, when the stronger and mightier oceanic current deflects it to
the north. At from 200 to 300 miles from land, the sea is strongly
tinged, and in April and May has nearly the clay-yellow hue of the
Amazon. And even further north, about 400 miles from its mouth, the
naturalist on the Amazon tells us, "we passed numerous patches of
floating grass mingled with tree trunks and withered foliage; among
these I espied many fruits of the Amazonian palm. And this was the
last I saw of the Amazon."


_The Rio de la Plata_.

The La Plata, the outlet of the waters of central South America, is
formed by the union of the Uruguay and Parana, about 150 miles from
the ocean; a little lower down, at Montevideo, it is 62 miles wide and
widens rapidly to the Atlantic, where it discharges more water than
all the rivers of Europe. The tributaries of the Parana are
fan-shaped. Its most eastern branches rise in the mountains of Brazil,
within seventy miles of the Atlantic ocean; and 1500 miles away, on
the other side of the continent, its most western tributaries rise
only 125 miles from the Pacific.

Steamers ascend the Parana, Paraguay and Cuyaba, 2100 miles to Cuyaba,
and the river with its branches is navigable for 5000 miles.


_The San Francisco_.

The San Francisco, about 1800 miles long, rises near Rio de Janeiro
and flows north about 1200 miles between parallel ranges of mountains,
then turns east and forces its way through the coast range to the
Atlantic ocean. It runs through the gold and diamond regions of
Brazil, and has a considerable population along its banks. It has many
falls and rapids, and considerable slack-water navigation.


{6} GENERAL DESCRIPTION.

In Asia, the different countries have natural boundaries; the people,
soil and climate of one country are unlike those of others. In Europe
there are few natural boundaries, though different races inhabit the
several states.

In South America only one dominant race is found, and though natural
boundaries exist, yet they do not serve as boundaries to the different
states, other than Venezuela and Guiana. Venezuela and Guiana are
watered by the Orinoco and by several rivers that flow from the
Amazonian mountains to the ocean. The whole coast is low and fertile,
but hot and unhealthy. The principal product is sugar, raised by
negroes and coolies. The interior is sultry and thickly wooded; it is
inhabited by Indian tribes, the principal of which are the cannibal
Caribs, and by negroes as uncivilized as any of the tribes in Africa.
Guiana is controlled by the English, French, and Dutch. Cayenne, the
prison for French convicts, is the capital of French Guiana.

Colombia and Ecuador occupy the northwestern part of South America.
They are situated on both sides of the Andes, and have every variety
of climate. The country is well watered; fertile but unhealthy on the
coast, fertile and healthy on the elevated plains, cold and barren on
the mountains.

In Brazil, besides the Amazon, La Plata and San Francisco, there are
several large rivers with fertile valleys; but occasional droughts,
sometimes lasting for two years, will prevent portions of Brazil from
becoming densely inhabited.

On the Pacific coast south of Ecuador, the rainfall becomes less and
less. For three thousand miles along the coast of Peru and Chili there
is no natural harbor; a plain from ten to fifty miles in width extends
from the Pacific to the foot-hills of the Andes. The Antarctic current
runs along this coast; the southeasterly winds blow over it on to the
land and cool the air; but as the winds are of low temperature their
scanty vapor is dissipated by the heat radiated from the land, and not
a drop of rain refreshes the thirsty soil. Many mountain torrents run
from the snow-clad summits of the Andes, and the beauty of their
narrow valleys forms a grateful contrast to the dry and barren sands
of the plain.

In the southern part of Chili and in that part formerly called
Patagonia, rain is abundant and the country is fertile.

The longest stretch of low and comparatively level land to be {7}
found in the world extends through the center of South America. A boat
starting from the Caribbean sea could sail up the Orinoco over a
thousand miles, then down the Casquiare, which runs from the Orinoco
into the Rio Negro, down that river to the Amazon, up the Amazon to
the Madeira, then up that river and one of its branches through Brazil
and Bolivia, and with a short portage of six and a half miles to one
of the branches of the Paraguay, down the Paraguay and La Plata to the
ocean.

The level land crosses the La Plata and continues southward through
the Argentine Republic and Patagonia to the Straits of Magellan.
Within this plain lie all the interior of Venezuela and Brazil, a part
of Bolivia, all Paraguay, Uruguay, and the Argentine Republic. The
pampas resemble our prairies, but run from north to south, while the
prairies run from east to west.

The streams in the plain south of the valley of the La Plata rise in
the Andes and flow southeastward to the Atlantic.


THE ABORIGINES.

The aborigines of America, except the Esquimaux, are unlike the
natives of other countries; the most marked difference is in their
language. They are divided into a number of tribes differing from each
other in some respects, yet with manners, customs and religious
beliefs generally similar.

In South America there are more than one hundred distinct languages,
and two thousand dialects. About five or six million Indians have as
many dialects as are found among the 800,000,000 inhabitants of Europe
and Asia. Their languages are polysynthetic, being of a higher type
than the agglutinative languages. In the polysynthetic tongue the
substantive, adjective and verb are joined or combined, and oftentimes
a whole sentence will be comprised in a single word.

The natives in the valleys of the Orinoco and Amazon are forced to
cultivate a little ground on the flood-plains, as the forests are
thick and impenetrable. They live principally on the fruit of the palm
(of which there are five hundred varieties), cocoa and bananas, fish
and turtles. There are no roads or paths through the forests except
the numerous channels of the rivers, called igarapes or furos. The
tribes on the pampas live principally on game and wild cattle.

Humboldt tells us that the navigator on the Orinoco sees with surprise
at night the palm trees illuminated by large fires. From {8} the
trunks of these trees are suspended the habitations of a tribe of
Indians, who make their fires on mats hung in the air and filled with
moist clay. The same palm tree furnishes also food and wine and
clothing, and thus supplies every want and even the luxuries of life.

The Indian race as a whole is believed to be superior to both the
negro and the Malay, as neither of those races has ever attained to
the civilization of the Incas of Peru or of the Indians of Mexico and
the Aztecs of Central America. Many of their myths and folk tales are
common, not only to the Indians of one part of the country, but also
to other tribes in distant parts of the continent, and even to the
negroes of Africa, and the Arabs of upper Egypt. All the tribes on the
continent have substantially the same habits of life, the same methods
of warfare, the same general characteristics, and a language built
substantially on the same plan.

From these observations it might seem that the Indian tribes of South
America were allied to those of Africa or to the Malays, but on
further consideration the similarity seems due rather to a like stage
of civilization than to identity of race.


THE INCAS OF PERU.

In crossing from Arequipa in Peru to La Paz in Bolivia, the road
ascends the Andes, makes a slight descent into the barren, desolate
valley between the Andes and Cordilleras, crosses Lake Titicaca, and
then descends to La Paz. Lake Titicaca, the largest lake of South
America, is on a plateau between twelve and thirteen thousand feet in
height, the most elevated table land on the globe, excepting Thibet.
This lake is surrounded by lofty, snow-clad mountains, the highest of
which is Illampa, 22,300 feet in height.

On this lake are the remains of the most ancient civilization of South
America. Cyclopean ruins of temples and fortresses stand as perpetual
monuments of a vanished culture; when and by whom they were erected,
we know not; their builders left no other record of their existence.
The wandering Indians told the first Spaniards that they existed
before the sun shone in the heavens. From one of the rocky islands of
Lake Titicaca, about the year 1000 or 1100, the Sun, parent of mankind
and giver of every good gift, taking compassion on the degraded
condition of {9} the Indians, sent two of his children, Manco Capac
and Mama Oello Huaco, to gather the wandering tribes into communities,
to teach them the arts of civilized life and to inculcate the worship
of the Sun. From Lake Titicaca, this brother and sister, husband and
wife, went down the valley to Cuzco, where they were bidden to found
an empire. Manco Capac was thus the first Inca. There were ten or
twelve Incas before the conquest of Peru. Their conquests extended
through the entire valley of the Cordilleras, until over four hundred
tribes, with a population of many millions, became subject to their
dominion.

The territory of the Incas extended from the southern part of Chili
northward into Colombia, beyond Quito, a distance of two thousand
miles, and west to the Pacific Ocean. On the eastern slope of the
Cordilleras, toward the great plain of the Amazon, the Incas met a
stronger and more savage people, with whom they were in constant
warfare. In the several passes of the Cordilleras they constructed
fortifications to protect their borders and prevent invasion.

The capital of the territory, Cuzco, was situated in a beautiful
valley ten thousand feet above the sea. Amidst the Alps, such a valley
would be buried in eternal snow, but within the tropics it enjoys a
perpetual spring. Here the Incas loved to dwell, and remains of
immense fortresses, palaces and temples, testify to their power and
culture, and to the number of their subjects. Tens of thousands of
laborers must have been required to construct such edifices. When we
reflect that these people had no beasts of burden except the llama,
which could only carry light loads, and no mechanical means for
transporting the vast blocks of stone used in constructing these
buildings, we are astonished at what they accomplished. The pyramids
of Egypt are not more wonderful.

Great highways were built, running north, south and west, connecting
different parts of the Empire. One followed the valley between the
Cordilleras and Andes to Quito, another crossed the Andes and followed
the sea-coast north and south to the extreme limits of their country.
All traveling was on foot. Large and comfortable tambos, or inns, were
erected every few miles, and larger ones at the end of a day's
journey. Couriers were stationed at regular intervals, each of whom
had his allotted station, between which and the next it was his duty
to run at a certain pace bearing his message, and on his approach to
the {10} next station he signalled to the next chasquir, as the
couriers were called, to be ready to carry forward the message. In
this way, it is said, about 150 miles a day were made.

These couriers traveled more quickly than the mail-carriers of Europe,
and the means of communication were then, Squier tells us, far better
than they are to-day. Many of these old tambos are still maintained.
One in which Squier spent the night was 180 feet in length, with rooms
forming three sides of a court.

The country of the Incas had every variety of climate, and the
products were those of every part of the new world. On the coast,
perpetual summer reigns, with all the variety and beauty of tropical
vegetation. At a higher elevation, the trees are always green, and
while one kind sheds its blossoms and ripens its fruit another is
budding and unfolding its bloom. Meantime, on the top of the mountains
is eternal winter. In some places, as at Potosi, the changes of
temperature are frequent and extremes of heat and cold are experienced
in a single day. The weather in the early morning is frosty; in the
forenoon, mild and balmy; in the afternoon, scorching, and in the
evening, cool and delicious.

On the Pacific slope of the Andes, reservoirs were constructed, from
which irrigating canals watered the whole plain now lying desolate and
barren.

The conquered tribes were incorporated into the nation and became the
people of the Incas. If the conquered tribe was strong and warlike,
some of its members were removed to distant parts of the country and
were replaced by the inhabitants of those regions, to whom privileges
and immunities were given as compensation for the change of home. The
conquered tribes quickly realized the benefits of the rule of the
Incas and became faithful and loyal subjects.

The government of the Incas was a paternal despotism controlling the
most minute affairs of daily life. Knowledge, the Incas taught, "was
not intended for the people, but for those of generous ability, for it
would render persons of low degree vain and arrogant."

The Incas established a communal system similar to that of Russia.
One-third of the land belonged to the Inca, one-third to the priests
of the Sun, and the remainder to the people, who were required to
cultivate the land of the Inca and of the priests, as well as their
own. The land was divided among the families yearly, according to
their number. Every newly {11} married couple received a stated
portion which was increased as the family increased.

Their only means of writing was by a cord, called quippus, about two
feet long, composed of threads of different colors twisted together,
from which a quantity of smaller threads hung like a knotted fringe.
The colors denoted sensible objects or sometimes abstract ideas,
though the principal use of the quippus was for arithmetical purposes.

The civilization of the Incas appears to have been of a higher order
than that of the Mexicans. It is not probable that hieroglyphics were
in use among any of the South American Indians, though it is said that
traces of a pictorial alphabet have been found. The people were
contented and happy, although they were deprived of personal liberty,
although their daily life was supervised by their rulers, and although
they held only communal rights of property. They had neither ambition
nor strong love of country.

When Pizarro landed in Peru there were two Incas, one at Cuzco and the
other at Quito, and the bitter conflict which was raging between them
made the conquest of both easy. Pizarro had only 180 followers, but
they were Spanish cavaliers, carrying fire-arms; and with this small
force he overturned the Incas and enslaved the people. The descendants
of the Quichuas, or the people of the Incas, still inhabit the land--a
mild, apathetic, servile and dejected race. It is said that after the
conquest the women put on a black mantle, which they have worn ever
since, as perpetual mourning for the last of the Incas.

There are a few descendants of Spaniards in Peru, but the population
consists chiefly of the descendants of the Quichuas and mixed
Spaniards and Quichuas. The Peruvians of to-day are less civilized
than those who lived 400 years ago; they have less liberty and are
poorer.


DISCOVERY OF THE AMAZON.

Great rivers have usually been discovered and explored by ascending
them from the ocean to their sources; the Congo and the Amazon were
explored downward from their sources to the ocean.

Three hundred and fifty years ago, Gonzalo Pizarro, then governor of
Upper Peru, heard of a land of silver and gold, spices and precious
stones; a land where spring reigned and all tropical fruits abounded.
He determined to follow the little {12} stream which, rising in the
Andes, near Quito, flowed eastward; to explore the country, and find
the happy land. He set out with 350 Cavaliers, mounted on Spanish
horses and attended by 4000 Indian slaves.

The first part of the route was easy; the little stream soon became a
river, then broadened into the Napo; but the farther they went, the
slower and more difficult was their progress as they passed from the
open forest and the cool and invigorating breezes of the Andes into
the sultry valley of the Napo. Their way now led through forests more
dense, darker and more impenetrable than those described by Stanley,
for the valley of the Amazon is richer than the valley of the Congo.
Natives armed with poisoned arrows opposed their progress; food became
scarce, treachery was on every side, and their number gradually
diminished by death and by desertion of the slaves.

The natives told them of a greater river than the Napo which they
would find a few days' voyage farther down. This river, they said,
flowed through a more populous and richer country, where food was
abundant and gold was found in every stream. Pizarro determined to
build a bark and to send Orellano as commander to find and return with
food and succor. For this vessel, the forests furnished the timber;
the shoes of the horses were converted into nails, distilled gum was
used for pitch, and the garments of the soldiers were a substitute for
oakum. In two months, a brigantine was launched, the first European
vessel that ever floated on the waters of the Amazon. The Napo grew
broader and deeper as the little company rapidly floated down, until
it became a mile wide. Three days after they left Pizarro, they saw
before them a river, many times larger than the Napo, which the
Indians called Parana-tinega, King of Waters; but we call it the
Amazon. There was no cultivation, little food could be obtained, and
the Indians were hostile instead of friendly. What was to be done?
Behind them was the wilderness, before them the promised land. The
journey back would be difficult and dangerous; the temptation to
explore the wonderful river was too great to resist. One man alone was
faithful to Pizarro, and he was left on the bank while Orellano sailed
down the river. The wonder of the explorers daily increased as other
rivers larger than the Napo flowed into the Amazon, now on the north,
more frequently on the south. Month after month passed, the river grew
so broad that they could not see from one side to the other. {13}
Great islands were passed, channels running parallel with the main
stream larger than any river they had ever seen. Still on they went,
till after several months they reached the Atlantic Ocean. Then they
sailed north in their little boat, skirting the coast to Trinidad,
where they found a vessel which bore them to Spain. They recounted the
story of the great river; the wonderful country through which they
passed; and the rich mines of which they had heard. They told fabulous
tales of the Amazonians they had encountered, strong and masculine
women, armed with bows and arrows, living by themselves, admitting men
into their country only one month in the year, killing or sending away
the male children and training the girls to become amazons and
warriors.

Orellano was received by the Queen; his treachery was forgotten and a
new expedition was sent out under his command; but he died before
reaching the river.

Meantime, Pizarro and his followers slowly and with difficulty made
their way down the Napo, taking as many months to reach the Amazon as
Orellano had taken days. They looked in vain for their companions, but
found only the solitary man who had been left behind, scarcely alive,
and from him learned of Orellano's desertion. Further explorations
being impossible, they turned back, reached Quito two years after
their departure, their horses gone, their arms broken or rusted, the
skins of wild animals their only clothing. "The charnel house seemed
to have given up its dead, as they glided onward like a troop of
spectres." Half of the Indians had perished, and of the three hundred
and fifty cavaliers only eighty were left.

Such was the end of an expedition which for dangers and hardships,
length of duration, and constancy displayed is probably unmatched in
the annals of American discovery.


GUIANA.

Guiana is the only country of South America not inhabited by the Latin
race. It was acquired for Great Britain by one who acted contrary to
his instructions in attacking a power, Spain, with which his own
country was at peace.

Gonzalo Pizarro, on his journey down the Napo in 1539, heard wonderful
stories of a golden city far away on the banks of the Orinoco,
surrounded by mountains of gold. Rumors of this golden city were
carried by English navigators to Great Britain, {14} with legends of a
prince of Guiana, whose body, first smeared with turpentine, was then
powdered with gold dust, so that he strode among his people a majestic
golden statue. Adventurers started in search of this El Dorado, some
from Peru, others from Quito and from Trinidad; but the golden city
was never found. They, however, brought back reports of chiefs whose
bodies sparkled with gold dust as they danced, who had golden eagles
dangling from their breasts and great pearls from their ears; they
told of mines of diamonds and gold, and of the natives who longed to
exchange their jewels for jews-harps.

Sir Walter Raleigh determined to find this country and bring to his
queen its fabulous riches, for he believed that the silver and gold
mines of Mexico and Peru had made Spain the first state in
Christendom--"that purchaseth intelligence and creepeth into counsels
and endangereth and disturbeth all the nations of Europe."

In 1595, Sir Walter sailed from England and arrived at the Isle of
Trinidad, where he overthrew the Spaniards, then sailed up the
Orinoco, or one of its branches, four hundred miles, until hunger and
sickness compelled him to return. Although he did not reach the golden
city, he could see the mountains far in the distance which he believed
surrounded it, and he found the shining sand on the banks of the
Orinoco. In Guiana he raised the flag of England and compelled the
Indians to swear fealty to his queen.

Twenty years later, a prisoner in the Tower, he was released in order
to make a second voyage in search of this El Dorado for King James. He
sailed in 1617, accompanied by his eldest son; but disaster and
sickness met him at every step. He reached the Orinoco again, too
feeble to land. So his son and Captain Keymis went instead. Keymis
returned after a month of exploration, bringing Raleigh the news of
the death of his son in an attack on a Spanish town. He brought
reports of the golden city, of the mines of gold, diamonds and
emeralds, but neither gold, diamonds nor emeralds to confirm the truth
of these reports. Raleigh said, "I am undone;" Keymis replied, "I know
then, Sir, what course to take." He went to his cabin and killed
himself.

Raleigh returned to England, a broken down old man. The Spaniards
demanded his life of James as they had demanded it of Elizabeth after
his first expedition, on the ground that in time of {15} peace Raleigh
had attacked the Spanish forces and invaded their country. Elizabeth
had refused, but James yielded. Raleigh was executed, but Guiana
became an English colony.

The gold and silver mines of Peru have failed; little gold has been
found in Guiana, but its rich and fertile soil, watered by tropical
rains, has been a source of greater wealth than the gold mines of
Peru.


POPULATION OF SOUTH AMERICA.

As the countries of South America were all settled at about the same
time and by the same race and have passed through a like history, they
can be considered as a whole.

The United States and Canada, with a rough, uncongenial climate and
sterile soil, were settled by the Anglo-Saxons, the remainder of the
western continent by the Latin race and, excepting Brazil and Guiana,
by Spaniards. In North America the Anglo-Saxon race has dominated,
carrying civilization from the Atlantic to the Pacific, expelling and
exterminating the aborigines. There has been no mingling of the
Anglo-Saxon and Indian races, no backward step, but ever civil,
religious and intellectual progress. The Latin race conquered Central
America and South America, a perfect Eden of natural loveliness, one
hundred years prior to the settlement of the Anglo-Saxon; yet to-day
they constitute but a thin layer over a scarcely populated country.
Their leaders were men of unbounded ambition, rapacious, of great
endurance, but cruel and unscrupulous. They sought adventure,
expecting it would bring them gold and silver. For that end they
plundered, despoiled and enslaved the Indians. Gold and silver flowed
into their hands; luxury, effeminacy, and weakness followed.

The Spaniards in America have scarcely retained the civilization they
brought from the old world. They have intermarried with the Indians,
and this mixed race is said to inherit the vices of each of their
ancestors without the virtues of either.

A sparse population, mostly Spanish and foreigners, inhabit a zone ten
to twenty miles in depth along the coast of South America, from the
Bay of Panama to the Caribbean sea. All the cities and settlements,
excepting a few in the Argentine Republic, are near the coast.

Back of this zone, on the Pacific, is a mixed Spanish-Indian
population, much larger than the Spanish and foreign population; {16}
and on the Atlantic a population which is Spanish-Indian,
Spanish-Negro, and Negro-Indian, occupies a zone from twenty to one
hundred miles wide. Beyond the first zone a few Spanish families and
foreigners are found at the gold and silver mines, on the pampas, at
the cattle ranches, and on a few haciendas in Peru and Chili. In
Brazil the Portuguese and some Englishmen and Germans raise coffee and
sugar, and oversee the diamond and gold fields. On the Amazon there
are a few small settlements to collect the India rubber and cacao of
that valley.

Save these sparse settlements, the interior of South America is
inhabited by wild tribes of Indians, uncivilized save for the presence
of a few Catholic priests, who have given the Indians the cross and
the image of the Virgin Mary, which they worship, mingling the
Catholic religion with their old idolatries and barbarous rites. The
natives are believed to be more idle and less civilized than when the
Spaniards discovered America.

The Spaniards are the grandees of the country; too proud to work, they
leave all business to the foreigners and all labor to the Indians,
retaining in connection with the half-breeds all political power. When
the regents appointed by Spain were expelled in the early part of the
present century, republics were established, but they were republics
only in name; the people were neither educated nor fitted for
self-government. Their presidents generally exercised the powers of
dictators and often assumed that title. They have rarely enjoyed a
long rule, for their power and position were sought by others.
Revolution in these countries has passed from the acute to the chronic
stage.

A recent traveller in Peru, who wished to inspect its railroad system,
was informed that only 26 miles were in running order, the remainder
being under the control of the revolutionists who were then less than
80 miles from the capital. He asked why the rebels did not take Lima,
the capital, and was told, "because there is no unanimity among them;
they are suspicious of each other, and cannot depend upon any one
man." Instead of being anxious to serve their country they are only
interested in robbing her.

Another traveller in Bolivia, who witnessed some of these revolutions,
says they sometimes occurred three times in as many weeks, and that it
would have been ludicrous had not their results been often violent and
tragic. There has been no settled government, no continued peace, no
permanent policy, in any Spanish {17} country. The hope for the future
is that the English, German, and French population will increase and
become permanently identified with the country; they will then take an
active interest in politics and direct the policy and administration
of the government.

Commercial and banking business is in the hands of the French,
Germans, and English. The Italians carry on a small trade at corner
groceries and fruit stores; the French keep the hotels and
restaurants; the English and Germans are the shippers, merchants and
bankers.

Regular lines of English, French, and German steamers run from Europe
to Panama and thence along the western coast of South America,
stopping at ports en route; some return by Panama, others sail around
Cape Horn to Europe by Buenos Ayres and Rio Janeiro. Other lines run
direct from Europe to Brazil, and twenty-four lines connect Europe and
the Argentine Republic; while there are only four lines of American
steamers trading to South America.


BRAZIL.

We have given a general description of South America, but three
countries--Brazil, the Argentine Republic and Peru--require further
notice: Brazil, because it is the largest country, occupying
three-sevenths of South America, and the only considerable state that
was not settled by the Spaniards; the Argentine Republic, because it
is the largest and most populous of the Spanish states and, with Peru,
illustrates the political and financial phases through which the
Spanish republics have passed.

The valley of the Amazon makes Brazil the most fertile region of the
world. The tropical woods are so thick and the creepers and
undergrowth so luxuriant that animal life is almost entirely confined
to the trees above and the waters below.

The valley is not unhealthy, and, though under the equator, the
climate is tempered by the trade winds and the evaporation from the
vast Amazonian waters. Beyond the valley is the montaña district,
where the land is higher and the climate semi-tropical, where there
are few creepers, little underbrush, and open forests, and where both
animal and vegetable life is less abundant. Southward, beyond the
montaña district, are the evergreen pampas, where no trees grow and
where the animal and vegetable life are unlike either that of the
valley of the Amazon or that of the {18} montaña. As in Africa, so
here, men who live in the dark forest, die in the open. Mr. Stanley
selected thirty dwarfs from the tropical forests of Africa to take to
England, but as soon as they came into the grass-lands, the clear air
and bright sun, they languished and died before the coast was reached.

Northeast of the pampas, on the Atlantic coast, south of the Amazon,
is a province bounded on the south by a range of high mountains, where
rain is abundant; at Maranhao, its seaport, there are 280 inches of
rainfall in the year. South of Maranhao there is much less rain; and
instead of two seasons, the wet and the dry, which prevail in the
valley of the Amazon, there are the four seasons of the year, but
without extremes of heat and cold.

Over the greater part of Brazil grows the coffee tree, the
sheet-anchor of Brazilian prosperity, since it furnishes 60 per cent.
of all the coffee grown in the world. The plant is not indigenous to
Brazil, but was brought there about one hundred years ago from the old
world.

Brazil, inhabited by the Portuguese, with an imperial government, has
been saved from the anarchy and insolvency of the Spanish republics.
Her railroads have been built with economy and have been generally
successful. It had a population in 1885 of 11,000,000; two-thirds of
whom were Indians and negroes, and many of the negroes were slaves.
Slavery existed longer in Brazil than in any other civilized country;
the lash was commonly used on the plantation, and work continued from
early in the morning until late at night until 1888, when a law was
passed finally emancipating 1,300,000 slaves. It was opposed by the
planters, who said freedmen would not work, but would let the coffee
and sugar plantations fall to ruin. It was probably this act which
caused the overthrow of the empire, for in revenge the planters joined
the insurgents in establishing the Republic.

The Portuguese and Brazilians are more peaceable and orderly than the
Spaniards or Spanish-Americans; we may therefore reasonably hope that
Brazil will not repeat the history of the Spanish republics, which has
been one of disintegration, for these republics have separated into
two or more States. The greatest difficulty in maintaining its immense
domain will arise from the enormous distances and the time required to
travel between different parts of the country. From Rio de Janeiro to
Matto Grosso is 140 days' journey by land, and by water the distance
is 3000 miles. Communication is maintained by steamer {19} through the
Argentine Republic up the Rio de la Plata and its branches. Although
the country has many long and navigable rivers, yet the means of
intercommunication are very poor; for the rivers are little used, and
the forests, creepers, and undergrowth are so dense that the country
back of the river-banks is impenetrable, and even if roads should be
opened the soil is so luxuriant that they would be quickly overgrown
and soon become impassable.

Lines of steamers have been subsidized by the Brazilian government and
run up the Amazon 2000 miles to Tabatinga, at the boundary line of
Peru; there connecting with lines subsidized by the Peruvian
government, which run 1500 miles farther up the river. These vessels
carry supplies to the settlers and bring back India rubber,
Brazil-nuts, cacao, quinine, and the beautiful woods of the forest.

Yet steamers are rarely seen on the Amazon; they have few passengers,
and have not opened the country; we are told that the Mississippi
carries more vessels in a month, and the Yang-tse-kiang in a day, than
the Amazon in a year.


THE ARGENTINE REPUBLIC.

The history of South American republics is illustrated in the
Argentine republic.

It is a vast pampas or prairie, extending from Brazil to the Andes,
and from Bolivia with a southeasterly trend 2000 miles to southeastern
Terra del Fuego.

The climate of the northern portion is tropical; of the central part,
semi-tropical; of the extreme south, temperate or cold. The country is
generally well watered excepting in the northwestern part, where the
land is dry and alkaline, like the arid regions of North America. The
soil is a rich, deep loam, from four to six feet in depth, excepting
in Patagonia and the western pampas, where there is a coarse gravel
and detritus from the Andes. Instead of the dense tropical forest of
the Amazon valley, the pampas are covered by a coarse grass, three or
four feet high, growing in large tussocks and all the year round of a
dark green. The strong grass crowds out all trees and almost all
plants, so that scarcely a flower relieves the uniform, everlasting
verdure.

Instead of the arboreal animals of the Amazon there is the rhea or
American ostrich, "ship of the wilderness," adapted to the {20}
pampas, but unable to live in the forests. The gauchos have hunted it
for the last three centuries, but it is now passing away and will soon
be lost to the pampas, as the buffalo has been to the North American
prairie.

The pampas are far better adapted to the raising of cattle than our
prairies, for the grass is always green and the winters are milder.
Cattle, horses, and sheep imported by the Spaniards and turned on to
the pampas rapidly increased, and now immense herds feed on the
plains.

The Indians who inhabit the pampas, instead of being confined to one
locality and journeying only by canoe, like the Indians on the Amazon,
wander over the length and breadth of the pampas, hunting the ostrich
and cattle. The cattle are tended by gauchos, as the cow-boys are
called, half-breeds as wild as the herds they tend. Constant warfare
exists between the Indians and the gauchos, unless they unite to
attack the settlers. After one of the Indian raids the government dug
an immense ditch from a river to the Andes and drove the Indians to
the farther side, and since then there have been fewer raids--and
fewer Indians.

The land was held in large blocks of many thousand acres, worked by
overseers and gauchos. The animals were killed by hundreds of
thousands for their skins. This state of things is, however, gradually
passing away, for during the last twenty years emigrants from the old
world have settled in the country as farmers and planters.

The fourteen provinces which form the Argentine Republic have never
been welded into one nation, and have seldom had a moment's peace. The
gauchos have been a continual scourge, and the gaucho generals its
rulers and harriers combined. Unfortunately, here, as in other Spanish
states, one dictator has succeeded another. Thirty presidents, or
dictators, have reigned within fifty years. At one time five provinces
had each a separate dictator. The neighboring republic of Uruguay,
formerly a part of the Argentine Confederation, had 26 revolutions in
the twenty-three years from 1864 to 1887.

For some time Buenos Ayres and its dictator ruled the republic; then
the country provinces rebelled, and civil war ensued; one province was
arrayed against another, and all against Buenos Ayres. The provinces
prevailed and the gaucho general, Rosas, occupied Buenos Ayres.
Scarcely was this civil war ended when a war arose with the republics
of Uruguay and Paraguay.

{21} Money was required to pay the army and the cost of civil and
foreign wars. Every dictator had his friends for whom provision must
be made. Large debts were created; banks were chartered; $200,000,000
of paper money were issued. There were several different circulating
mediums; each province strove to outdo the others in the issue of a
currency which quickly depreciated. Companies for different purposes
were organized, and many were subsidized, directly or indirectly. We
are told that in one case $1,500,000 was paid for a concession, and
that "Turkish officials, who have hitherto been the champion artists
in backsheesh, leave off where Argentine blackmailers begin; the price
of a drainage scheme at Buenos Ayres would buy a whole cabinet of
pashas at Galata."

Railroads were built running from Buenos Ayres in different
directions, as each province demanded a railroad, with little regard
to its population or business.

A road was commenced to cross the Andes and open communication between
the Atlantic and Pacific over mountains which had never been crossed
by a carriage of any kind.

The country was not settled so rapidly as the rulers desired.
Inducements were therefore offered to immigrants. The passage money
from Europe and the expenses of the immigrant to his new home have
been paid and land for settlement sold at low rates. It is estimated
that over 1,000,000 foreigners have settled in the country during the
last twelve years, and the proportionate increase of population in the
same period has been twice as great as that of the United States.
Grazing lands have been sold at nominal prices to immigrants, or
leased for terms of years in lots of 6,000 acres at a rental of $100 a
year. Bonds were issued not only by the government but by the
provinces, by the municipalities and by the railroads, and all were
readily taken in England and Germany. To enable the emigrants to pay
for and to cultivate their land, the owner of real estate on
depositing his title deeds with the hypothecary banks and having a
valuation of his real estate, received cedulas, or bonds of the bank,
for one-half its appraised value; these cedulas for large amounts were
issued and sold in Europe; and thus, as ever, more money was required,
more bonds were issued. In 1889, a year of peace, the public debt was
increased 120 per cent., and it is now said to be over one thousand
four hundred millions of dollars, and the principal and interest of
two-thirds of this amount is payable in gold at a premium of 200 per
cent.

{22} In 1890 there was no money to meet the interest and general
prostration ensued.

It is difficult to ascertain the debt of the republic; but if the
accounts given in the English publications are correct the debt is
greater in proportion to its population and wealth than that of any
other country in the world. The only hope of the Argentine Republic is
to wipe out the debt by insolvency and bankruptcy.


PERU.

A strip of land with 1200 miles of sea coast, without a natural
harbor, and 200 to 300 miles wide, consisting of a plain, mountains, a
plateau, and still another range of mountains--this is Peru.

In the west, where the rain never falls, are numerous small rivers,
to-day mountain torrents, to-morrow dry, rocky beds.

Between the lofty ranges of snow mountains is the highest plateau in
the world, after Thibet. The southern part of this plateau is dry and
desolate, the northern portion is well watered, with beautiful streams
running now through deep cañons and then through rich, fertile valleys
steadily descending toward the northeast; the valleys growing ever
broader, warmer and more delightful, until the montaña is reached,
only a few hundred feet above the Atlantic, where the streams have
become rivers, navigable to the ocean.

The western slope of the mountains is dry and barren, so that
breadstuffs and provisions are imported from Ecuador on the north, or
from lower Chili, far to the south. Yet no other country has
contributed so much to the world's fertility; for here are the great
deposits of guano and nitrates, more valuable than mines of gold and
silver. These deposits yielded for over thirty years a net annual
revenue of $20,000,000.

The eastern slope, rich and fertile, producing every tree and flower,
all fruits and vegetables grown in any part of the world; in the
mountains, mines of gold and silver, platinum and cinnabar, copper and
tin, lead and iron, coal and petroleum, nitrates and asphalt: a
bankrupt nation in the midst of untold wealth--such is Peru.

To bring the minerals down to the ocean, tens of millions of dollars
were expended on thirteen roads; but though none of them were ever
finished, they reached a few of the poorer mines. Seven of these roads
were built by the government, the others by private parties.

{23} The sales of guano and the production of gold and silver made
Peru a proud and wealthy nation. Everything prospered until the war
with Chili, from 1879 to 1883, ending in the defeat of Peru and the
loss of a portion of her territory, including a large part of her
guano deposit. She was unable to keep her railroads in operation, much
less to extend them, or to pay the interest on her bonds; and thus
bankruptcy followed defeat. At last, after fourteen years of default
and six years of negotiation, a contract was concluded with Peru by
Mr. M. P. Grace, of New York, in January, 1890, on behalf of the
bondholders. The bondholders became concessionaires, and in
consideration of the release of the bonded debt due to them by Peru,
receive valuable concessions, of money, of mines, of railroads, of
lands and of guano. These concessions include among other things a
government subsidy of $400,000 a year, secured from the customs of
Callao; the mines of Cerro de Pasco, which have yielded a yearly
average of $2,000,000 for over one hundred years; the entire railway
system (769 miles in length) of the state; a grant of 5,000,000 acres
for the extension of the Lake Titicaca railroad; a grant of 4,500,000
acres for the extension of the Central or Oroya railroad to the
navigable waters of the Ucayala, one of the main tributaries of the
Amazon; the exclusive control of the guano deposit until 2,000,000
tons have been sold, from which they expect to sell at least 80,000
tons a year, which will net $1,000,000. The concessionaires on their
part agree to liquidate the Peruvian debt, to repair the railroads,
and construct 974 miles in extension of the existing system at an
estimated cost of $16,000,000, and to assume certain other obligations
to a limited amount.

This, perhaps the most remarkable settlement ever made between a
bankrupt nation and its creditor, is due largely to Mr. Grace, and
cannot fail to develop the resources of Peru and restore her days of
prosperity.


TRADE RELATIONS WITH THE UNITED STATES.

It appears from the foregoing statement that all the carrying trade to
and from South America, by water, is by foreign steamers; that only
four of these are American lines; that the railroads are generally
owned and operated by Englishmen; that the bankers and merchants are
Englishmen or Germans; that {24} many of the mines, cattle ranches,
coffee plantations and other estates are owned by non-resident
foreigners; and that the largest consumer of South American products
is the United States, although this country sells few of its
manufactures and products to South America.

The English steamers, in the usual course of trade, load with English
dry-goods consigned to English houses in South America, where they are
sold and the proceeds invested in coffee and other products, which are
sent in the same vessels to the United States; there sold, and the
money invested in our produce for carriage to England. The English
therefore obtain the profits on manufacture, on the freight to South
America, on the sale of the goods in South America, on the freight
from South America to the United States, on the sale of those goods,
and finally on the freight of the American breadstuffs carried to
Europe. For the successful prosecution of any trade between two
countries, it is essential that each shall produce what the other
wants: Thus, we raise breadstuffs which are not grown on the Caribbean
sea nor in the valley of the Amazon, nor in Peru or upper Chili, and
we also manufacture goods required in all parts of South America,
where they have few factories; there, coffee, wool, India rubber,
cacao and other articles are produced, which we require. Here,
therefore, are the factors necessary for a prosperous trade. Such a
trade we formerly enjoyed with South America: In 1852, six hundred
United States vessels entered the harbor of Buenos Ayres, or more than
twice as many as those of all other nations combined; now only two per
cent. of the shipping entering that harbor belongs to us. Our war
came, iron steamers took the place of wooden sailing ships, we levied
a duty on coffee and rubber, South America levied a duty on our
manufactures, other countries subsidized lines of steamers, while we
refused all subsidies; and our trade with South America rapidly fell
off, as freights were carried cheaper in foreign than in American
ships, and the trade of South America passed from the United States to
England, Germany and France.

It is said that we cannot regain this trade, because we cannot,
without protection maintain our own manufactures, much less compete
with the Europeans in an open market; and therefore that it will be a
waste of money to subsidize our vessels. But the larger the market the
cheaper we can manufacture, and we can {25} surely find a large and
new market for our breadstuffs. It is worth while to make the
experiment at least, to give our vessels the same subsidy and
protection that has been given to the European lines, and to our
merchants and bankers, an opportunity to regain the trade with South
America. At first the odds will be greatly against us; but if we show
the same energy and ability in cultivating trade with South America
that our fathers exhibited, and that we have shown in other
directions, we must ultimately succeed.

It is now proposed to tax the products of South America, unless the
South American states reciprocate and admit our breadstuffs and
manufactures free. If this scheme can be carried out, a large and
prosperous commerce will be established between North America and
South America, and American houses will be started in the large cities
to dispose of our manufactures and ship the products to South America.
By this interchange, our manufacturers and farmers will find a market
for their goods and products, our mercantile navy freight for its
vessels, and our bankers and merchants a profitable business in the
large cities of South America.


RAILROADS.

We have already referred to the several railroads which start from the
little ports on the Pacific coast and run up the valleys toward the
Andes. Three of these, among the most remarkable roads in the world,
ascend to a greater elevation than any others, and to a height which
in Europe or the United States, would be above the snow level. They
were intended to reach the gold and silver mines between the Andes and
Cordilleras.

The first, called the Oroya or Central railroad, 111 miles in length,
starts from Callao on the Pacific, and crosses the Andes, at an
elevation of nearly 15,000 feet, to the plateau between the Andes and
the Cordilleras. It is expected that this road will be extended to the
navigable waters of the Amazon.

Three hundred miles southward, the second road runs from Mollendo,
Peru, by Arequipa to Puno on Lake Titicaca, and thence northward on
the plateau 407 miles to San Rosas, on the route to Cuzco. The road
from Mollendo to Arequipa runs through a country so destitute of water
that the only supply for {26} the engines and stations is by an iron
pipe 8 inches in diameter, and 50 miles long, running from an
elevation of 7,000 feet to the sea-coast.

Seven or eight hundred miles south of Mollendo, a line runs from
Valparaiso in Chili to Buenos Ayres, 870 miles. It crosses the Andes
through a tunnel two miles long, at an elevation of 10,568 feet above
the sea; after leaving the mountains it runs over the pampas two
hundred miles, without a curve or a grade over three feet above or
below the plain, and will soon be completed from ocean to ocean.

From Rio de Janeiro several roads have been constructed over the
mountains west of that city to different parts of Brazil. One of these
runs westwardly toward Bolivia.

Bolivia has recently granted concessions for the construction of a
road from La Paz to connect on the west with the Peruvian roads at
Lake Titicaca, and on the east with the Brazilian lines on the
Pacific; and thus ultimately a road will run from Mollendo on the
Atlantic ocean by Lake Titicaca and La Paz to Rio de Janeiro.

There are now from 6000 to 7000 miles of road in operation in the
Argentine Republic, 5000 to 6000 in Brazil, and 3000 to 4000 miles in
the other states, making a total of about 15,000 miles of railroad in
operation.

A proposition is now before the public for the construction of the
Pan-American railroad, from the Caribbean sea southward to the
Argentine Republic to connect with the Peruvian, with the Brazilian,
and ultimately with the Argentine roads.

The route that seems to be most feasible starts at Cartagena, where
there is a splendid bay and harbor, within three days sail from
Galveston and six days from New York. It follows the valley of the
Magdalena river 800 miles to Dividal, 1700 feet above the sea. Here,
near the head waters of the Magdalena, the route crosses the eastern
Cordilleras at an elevation of about 6,500 feet to the head waters of
the Caqueta, or Yapura, a branch of the Amazon, and thence runs down
that river 375 miles to the mouth of the Engarros, only 550 feet above
tide-water. From the Caqueta river, the route passes through Ecuador
to Iquitos, Peru, crossing fourteen tributaries of the Amazon. From
Iquitos the route ascends the Amazon and the Ucayle, one of its
southern tributaries, 500 miles to Napal, then continues across the
montaña {27} and the numerous valleys of the Amazon about 600 miles,
to Santa Cruz in Bolivia, or 2400 miles from Cartagena; while a branch
will run up the Apurimac to Cuzco.

This road would run for 2000 miles along the foot hills of the
Cordilleras, and in these mountains is probably the richest mining
region in the world; here gold, silver, copper, lead and coal mines
are found. The gold and silver mines do not seem to have been
thoroughly explored, although untold millions of the precious metals
have been extracted from them. These mines are generally in cold and
treeless regions, where coal, labor and food are difficult to obtain;
where freights are high and machinery of all kinds most expensive.
This road would greatly facilitate the opening and working of these
mines, and not only make them profitable but develop a large and
lucrative traffic.

Much of Bolivia is above the navigable waters of the Amazon, and many
of its provinces are now land-locked and almost isolated from
communication with the outer world. The proposed road would cross many
branches of the Amazon, and thus connect with fifty thousand miles of
navigable waters, at least 9000 of which are above Iquitos; and it is
claimed that the business from 20,000 miles of navigable waters would
find by this route a nearer outlet to Europe and America than by Para.

There is every variety of climate on the route. The valley of the
Magdalena is sultry; every afternoon the water grows tepid, and the
stones burning hot, in the sun's rays. In crossing the Cordilleras the
cool breezes of the mountains are met. The road then descends into the
valley of the Amazon, through a rich and not unhealthy region, though
it has the damp, hot, climate of a tropical country, and thence passes
through the montaña district, which is generally high, healthy and
fertile.

This country, under a wise government, is capable of sustaining an
immense population and giving abundant support to such a railroad; but
it is now unexplored, excepting the valleys of the navigable rivers,
and is uninhabited save by wild and savage Indians, though these are
not numerous.

The route up the Magdalena may be expensive by reason of the climate,
but not otherwise. The road in the mountain district will necessarily
be costly, and also in the sierras, because it must {28} cross the
numerous branches of the Amazon, and the precipitous mountains between
the valleys, and from the difficulty of obtaining labor and material
for construction. Mr. Orton, who crossed from one branch of the Napo
to another, says:

"We crossed the stream and the intervening ridges, and their name is
legion; sometimes we were climbing up an almost vertical ascent, then
descending into a deep dark ravine to find a furious river, while on
the lowlands the path seemed lost in the dense bamboos, until the
Indians opened a passage with their machetes and we crept under the
low arcade of foliage."

Even if the railroad were built, almost all the produce of the Amazon
and montaña country could be carried more cheaply by water to Para
than by rail to Cartagena; while goods from England and America would
be carried cheaper by steamer to the Isthmus of Panama, and thence to
all ports on the Pacific ocean, than by steamer to Cartagena and up
the Magdalena across the Andes to the valley of the Amazon, and then a
second time across the Andes to the Pacific ocean. The greater part of
the business to and from the mines would be by the railroad.

At present, as there could not be sufficient business to pay the
operating expenses of such a road, it must rely on government
subsidies to build and operate it.

Those who have given the most consideration to the subject say that
the road need not be an expensive one to operate, and in the important
element of time it would have a great advantage over the route via
Para. As a means of promoting the settlement of the country and
developing commerce, which cannot exist without population, the
railroad would seem to be a necessity, for navigation has neither
opened the country nor brought in emigrants and we may fairly assume
that it will not suffice in the future.


CONCLUSION.

In conclusion I will quote from two writers on tropical America.
Buckle says:

"Amidst the pomp and splendor of nature, no place is left for man; he
is reduced to insignificance by the majesty with which he is
surrounded. The forces that oppose are so formidable that he has never
been able to make head against them.

"The energies of nature have hampered his spirit; nowhere else is the
contrast so painful between the grandeur of the external world and
{29} the littleness of the internal, and the mind, cowed by this
unequal struggle, has been unable to advance.

"Here, where physical resources are the most powerful, where
vegetation and animals are most abundant, where the soil is watered by
the noblest rivers and the coast studded by the finest harbors, the
profusion of nature has hindered social progress and opposed that
accumulation of wealth without which progress is impossible."

Mr. Bates, the naturalist, after a residence of many years on the
Amazon, closes his book as follows:

"The superiority of the bleak north to tropical regions is only in its
social aspects, for I hold to the opinion that although humanity can
reach an advanced state of culture only by battling with the
inclemency of nature in high latitudes, it is under the equator alone
that the perfect race of the future will attain to complete fruition
of man's beautiful heritage, the earth."

_Washington, January, 1891_.

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