BEEF Slaughtering, Cutting, Preserving, and Cooking on the Farm

                UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
                     FARMERS’ BULLETIN NUMBER 2263
            PREPARED BY SCIENCE AND EDUCATION ADMINISTRATION




                             PRECAUTION

The Federal Meat Inspection Act requires that all meat which is to be
sold or traded for human consumption must be slaughtered under
inspection in an approved facility under the supervision of a State
or USDA meat inspector. A person can slaughter his animals outside
such a facility only for use by himself, members of his household, and
his nonpaying guests and employees. He is not allowed to sell any
portion of the carcass. For more details about these regulations,
consult your county extension agent or write to the Animal and Plant
Health Inspection Service, United States Department of Agriculture,
Washington, D.C. 20250.




                              CONTENTS

                                                              Page
    Selection and care  of  animal before slaughter              1
    Preparing for slaughter                                      2
    Slaughter                                                    6
    Chilling the carcass                                        35
    Cutting                                                     37
    Freezing and frozen storage                                 59
    Further processing                                          59
    Meat cookery                                                65


This bulletin supersedes Farmers’ Bulletin No. 2209, “Slaughtering,
Cutting, and Processing Beef on the Farm.”

Department publications contain public information. They are not
copyrighted and may be reproduced in whole or in part with or without
credit.

Washington, D.C.                                       Issued—1977




    BEEF SLAUGHTERING, CUTTING, PRESERVING, AND COOKING ON THE FARM

   By H. Russell Cross,[1] E. Curtis Green,[2] William R. Jones,[3]
     Roger L. West,[4] and Anthony W. Kotula[1] (Photographs by
          Donald K. Rough[1] and Terry K. O’Driscoll[5])

  [1] Meat Science Research Laboratory, Agricultural Research Service,
  Beltsville, Md. 20705.

  [2] Standardization Branch, Livestock Division, Agricultural
  Marketing Service, Washington, D.C. 20250.

  [3] Present address: Cooperative Extension Service, Auburn
  University, Auburn, Ala. 36830. Employed at Pennsylvania State
  University, University Park, Pa., when work was initiated.

  [4] Department of Animal Science, University of Florida, Gainesville,
  Fla. 32611.

  [5] Beltsville Agricultural Research Center, Agricultural Research
  Service, Beltsville, Md. 20705.




              SELECTION AND CARE OF ANIMAL BEFORE SLAUGHTER


Several factors should be considered before slaughtering a beef
animal for home consumption. The most important considerations are
health, kind of animal (calf, steer, or heifer or cow), expected meat
yield, and care of the animal prior to slaughter.


                               Health

One should take care that an unhealthy animal is not selected for
slaughter. At the time of selection, look for signs of sickness such
as fever, increased breathing rate, and diarrhea. Animals suspected of
being unhealthy should be treated by a veterinarian until the animal
is returned to a healthy state.


                             Animal Care

To obtain high-quality meat, it is important to exercise proper care
of the animal prior to slaughter. Pen the animal in a clean, dry place
the day before slaughtering. Restrict the animal from feed 24 hours
prior to slaughter, but provide access to water at all times. The
slaughter of hot, excited animals increases the risk of sickness,
injury, and dark meat.


                             Animal Type

The kind of animal one selects for slaughter will depend on its
ultimate use. For meat similar to U.S. Choice in palatability it is
necessary to select a 1,000 to 1,200-pound steer or a 900 to
1,000-pound heifer that has been on full feed for at least 150 days.
The time on feed influences palatability because of the fat content in
the lean. Unfortunately, as most animals deposit fat in the muscle,
they also deposit fat around the muscle. Much of the outside fat is
usually trimmed off during cutting. If meat with less waste fat is
desired, a steer or heifer fed on forage to 800 to 900 pounds will be
suitable. If the animal’s age is less than 17 to 18 months, the
properly prepared cooked meat should be relatively tender. Yearlings
just off the cow with perhaps a short period on grass, weighing 400 to
600 pounds, will produce meat low in fat. This meat will be less
flavorful than meat from grain-fed animals but should be acceptably
tender. Many persons who slaughter on the farm expect the meat from an
800-pound forage-fed steer to taste like U.S. Choice or Prime.


                              Meat Yield

Well-fed steers from most beef breeds yield a dressed carcass weighing
approximately 60 percent of the animal’s live weight. For example, a
1,000-pound live steer yields a 600-pound carcass. Yields will vary
according to the feeding ration and the length of time on feed.
Cutting losses from the carcass, such as bone or fat trim, vary from
20 to 30 percent or more. With a 25-percent cutting loss, which is not
unusual, a 600-pound carcass would yield approximately 450 pounds of
usable meat cuts. A good rule of thumb for carcass beef is 25 percent
waste, 25 percent ground beef and stew meat, 25 percent steaks, and 25
percent roasts. Thus a 1,000-pound steer will, on the average, yield
about 450 pounds of usable meat cuts. This figure can easily be as
high as 550 pounds for an animal with very little waste fat to as low
as 300 pounds for an animal with excessive waste fat.




                       PREPARING FOR SLAUGHTER


Prior to the day of slaughter, select the slaughter site, accumulate
all equipment, prepare for waste disposal, and, if necessary, make
arrangements with a local processor or meat market for chilling and
cutting the carcass. If you plan to have the carcass chilled and cut
up, arrangements should be made concerning the time and day on which
the carcass can be accepted, the charges, and specific instructions
for chilling, cutting, and wrapping the carcass.


                            Site Selection

Selection of the slaughter site is extremely important. A site with
clean, running water is best. If a tree is to be used, a healthy limb
6 to 8 inches in diameter and 12 to 15 feet from the ground is needed.
This will ensure that the limb will not break from the weight of the
carcass and the carcass can be fully extended from the ground for
viscera removal and splitting. If slaughter is to be done in a barn,
be sure that a strong beam 12 to 15 feet from the floor is available.
The floor should be clean and, preferably, concrete.

After selection of the slaughter site, clean up the area to ensure
that leaves and dirt are not blown on the carcass during slaughter. If
the site has a wooden or concrete floor, wash the floor and all
equipment with plenty of soap and water. Be sure to rinse thoroughly
because sanitizers discolor the meat and may cause off-flavors. If
slaughtering is to be done outdoors use straw to cover the area where
the carcass will be skinned and eviscerated.

The weather on the day of slaughter should also be considered. During
hot weather, slaughter is best performed during the early morning or
late evening hours. Since an inexperienced person will take 2 to 3
hours to complete the slaughter operation, care should be taken to
preclude long exposure to high temperatures. During cold weather of
less than 35°F, slaughter can be done at any time, since spoilage
bacteria do not grow as rapidly in a cold environment. Slaughter
during high winds will result in dirt and other contaminants being
blown onto the carcass.


                            Waste Disposal

All waste products should be disposed of in a sanitary manner. If the
work is to be done in the open, one should select a site with good
drainage so that blood and water can drain away from the carcass.
Blood and water must not be allowed to pollute nearby streams or other
water supplies.

Disposal of viscera is often a problem. Arrangements should be made to
have a local processor or rendering plant pick it up. If this is not
possible, it should be buried so that dogs and other animals cannot
dig it up.

The hide is a very important byproduct of cattle and represents about
7 percent of the live weight. After removal, spread it out in a cool
place with the hair side down and give it a good application of ice
cream or sack salt. About 1 pound of salt is required per pound of
hide. The hide may be tanned or sold.


                        Slaughter Equipment

Elaborate and expensive equipment is not necessary, but certain items
are essential (fig. 1). The following slaughter equipment is
recommended:

  1.  .22-caliber rifle with long cartridges or long rifle cartridges.

  2.  Sharp skinning knife and steel (see the section on sharpening
      knives).

  3.  Block and tackle or chain hoist—should have at least a ¾ or
      1-inch nylon rope or chain.

  4.  Chocks—concrete blocks work well.

  5.  Meat saw.

  6.  Oil or water stone.

  7.  Ample cold water for washing hands, equipment, carcass, and
      byproducts.

  8.  Tree with strong limb, beam, or tripod 12 to 15 feet high, or
      tractor with hydraulic lift.

  9.  Beef spreader or single-tree (for 400 to 600-pound animal, 36
      inches long; for heavy cattle, 40 inches long).

  10. Buckets (two or three).

  11. Ice or cold water.

  12. Straw for placing under animal during skinning and evisceration.

  13. Clean cloths or plastic for protection of meat during transport.

  14. Clean string.

  [Illustration: Slaughter equipment displayed]
  Figure 1.—Equipment for slaughter.

Be sure that all equipment that will come in contact with meat is
thoroughly cleaned. Most people get blood and other material on their
outer garments during slaughter, which should not be transferred to
the carcass after it is washed.

Additional equipment needed for cutting the carcass is discussed in
the section on carcass cutting.


             The Correct Procedure for Sharpening Knives

The basic operations involved in sharpening a knife are grinding,
honing, and steeling. Maintenance of a sharp working edge often
requires only steeling. If the knife is in heavy use, periodic honing
is usually required daily or at least weekly.

1. Grinding (fig. 2) is necessary because new knives are not usually
sold in a form sharp enough for immediate use. The stone should be
water, or oil-cooled to avoid overheating the knife. The blade should
not be ground back more than ¼ inch from the edge to form the proper
bevel. The bevel should be the same on both sides of a skinning knife
so that it may be used with either hand in removing the hide from a
beef carcass. It is best to grind the knife by holding the knife edge
against the stone at a right angle to prevent scarring the blade any
farther back than the actual bevel.

2. Honing (fig. 2) is accomplished on a carborundum stone. Stones
should be set in a block of wood or placed on a damp cloth to prevent
lateral sliding. Hold the handle of the knife in the right hand with
the blade edge pointed away from your body. Assume a position parallel
to the side of the stone and place the heel of the knife blade on the
end of the stone to your extreme left. Tilt the blade of the knife
enough to make the bevel lie flat with the stone. Place the finger
tips of the left hand on the flat of the blade toward the tip and near
the back edge to exert pressure on the blade. It is very important for
safety that the fingers of the left hand push _downward only_ to
maintain an even pressure on the knife blade over the stone. If the
left hand pushes laterally with the sharpening stroke, and the knife
catches on an irregularity, then the fingers will slip off the edge
and can be cut severely by the freed knife blade. With a sweeping
motion toward the right of the stone, draw the knife completely across
the stone, against the cutting edge of the blade. The correct motion
is achieved when that portion of the blade nearest the handle begins
the stroke and the extreme tip of the blade ends the stroke. The
procedure is reversed to hone the opposite side of the blade.

3. Steeling (fig. 2) is accomplished by using various kinds of steels
that are adapted to specific uses. The carborundum and ribbed steels
are for kitchen use where knives need not be razor-sharp and the steel
is actually honing the knife. The mirror-smooth steel for razor-sharp
edges is the one best suited for slaughter and meat cutting. The steel
should be held firmly in the left hand in a position almost diagonal
to the body but with a slightly upward tilt. This permits the free
movement of the knife across the steel without drawing it too close to
the supporting hand. Place the heel of the blade against the near side
of the tip at a 20° to 25° angle and bring the blade down along the
steel toward the left hand with a quick, swinging motion of the
right wrist and forearm. The entire blade should pass lightly over the
steel. Return the knife to a position on the opposite side of the
steel and repeat the same motion.

To test the knife for sharpness and smoothness of edge, run the edge
of the blade lightly over the flat of the thumbnail. If the knife
slides easily, it lacks the proper sharpness. A sharp edge will dig
into the nail and a rough or wire edge will rasp the nail.

  [Illustration: Lin drawing showing blade grinding, honing, and
  steeling]
  Figure 2.—The correct procedure for sharpening knives.[6]

[6] Adapted from Smith, G. C., Carpenter, Z. L., and King, G. T. 1974.
Laboratory Exercises in Elementary Meat Science. Kemp Publishing Co.,
Houston, Tex.




                              SLAUGHTER


                              Stunning

The animal must be killed as quickly and humanely as possible. In a
slaughter house the cattle are driven into a knocking pen where they
are stunned with a compression gun. On the farm a mechanical stunner
is usually not available; therefore, stunning is best accomplished
with a well-directed long or long rifle bullet from a .22-caliber
rifle. _As with the use of any firearms, normal precautions should be
taken when stunning the animal._

The purpose of stunning is to render the animal unconscious so that
its throat can be cut. When stunning is accomplished with a
.22-caliber rifle, the bullet should penetrate the skull and strike
the brain. The location of the brain is shown in figure 3. If done
properly the animal will be immobilized for several minutes.

  [Illustration: Drawing with side and front views of brain location]
  Figure 3.—Location of the brain.

It is best to have the animal secured to a tree or strong post. Direct
the bullet at the intersection of two imaginary lines extending from
the right edge of the poll to the center of the left eye and from the
left edge of the poll to the center of the right eye as shown in
figure 4.

  [Illustration: Man holding gun pointed at front of cow. X indicates
  target location]
  Figure 4.—The X shows where to stun.


                              Bleeding

Bleeding is a very important part of the slaughtering operation and
should be done not more than 2 minutes after the animal is down
because the increased blood pressure may break the capillaries and
cause an unattractive condition in the meat called “blood splash.”

The easiest and safest method for quick bleeding is to bleed the
animal while it is still on the ground. Standing behind the animal,
grasp the lower jaw (fig. 5), pull the head back slightly, and cut
across the throat from ear to ear as deeply as possible (fig. 6). If
the blood does not flow freely, cut deeper. A sharp skinning or boning
knife is appropriate for this part of the operation.

  [Illustration: Man holding knife to side of cow’s neck]
  Figure 5.—Sticking. Stand behind the animal and grasp the lower jaw.

  [Illustration: Man slicing across cow’s neck using a knife]
  Figure 6.—Cutting throat.

“Pumping” the animal will assure more complete bleeding. This can be
accomplished by lifting the hindquarter with the tail, pulling the
foreleg, and applying a pumping motion with a foot in the flank
(fig. 7).

  [Illustration: Man lifting tail, hind leg, and front leg of cow]
  Figure 7.—Pumping to assure complete bleeding.


                           Removal of Legs

If the animal has to be moved to another location for hoisting, tie a
rope or chain around the hindlegs above the hocks (fig. 8). Position
the animal with the hindlegs directly beneath the hoist. Roll the
animal onto its back and prop it in place with two concrete or wooden
blocks (fig. 9).

  [Illustration: Rope tied to hindlegs]
  Figure 8.—Dragging to tree. Secure both hindlegs.

  [Illustration: Cow in supine position held with blocks on either side]
  Figure 9.—Position of carcass for hide removal.

Begin removal of the hindlegs by cutting through the hide and tendons
between the sole of the foot and the dew claws (fig. 10). Split the
hide from the dew claws down the leg to the hock and over the rear of
the round to a point about 6 inches below the hock and remove the hide
from each hindleg (fig. 11). Remove the hindleg by cutting through the
joint closest to the foot with a knife or saw (figs. 12 and 13). Be
careful _not_ to cut the large tendons just below the hock for they will
be needed when hoisting the carcass.

  [Illustration: Man slicing across hind foot using a knife]
  Figure 10.—Cutting beneath dew claws.

  [Illustration: Man slicing along hindleg using a knife]
  Figure 11.—Removing hide from hindlegs.

  [Illustration: Man slicing through hindleg joint using a knife]
  Figure 12.—Removing hindleg by cutting through joint.

  [Illustration: Man sawing through hindleg joint]
  Figure 13.—Removing hindleg by sawing through joint.

To remove the foreleg, cut through the hide and tendons at the joint
closest to the foot. This joint is approximately 1 inch above the bony
rise in the knee. Split the hide from the dew claws to the original
cut and skin out the forelegs. Remove the forelegs with a knife or saw
at the original cut (fig. 14).

  [Illustration: Slicing through one foreleg joint and sawing through
  the other]
  Figure 14.—Removing the forelegs with knife or saw.


                               Siding

After all legs have been removed, split the hide down the midline from
the throat to the anus (fig. 15). This split should be made by
inserting the point of the knife under the hide with the blade turned
up as shown in figure 15. This procedure is referred to as cutting
from inside out and protects against meat contamination from materials
on the hide.

  [Illustration: Man slicing hide from front to back]
  Figure 15.—Splitting hide down midline.

If a cow is being slaughtered, _do not_ split through the center of the
udder. Cut the hide around each side of the udder and remove by
lifting it and cutting along the body wall. Removal of a large udder
will make siding easier and prevent any fluids contained in the udder
from spilling onto the meat.

Begin siding by splitting the hide on the inside of the round (fig.
16). Starting with the cut made in removing the hindleg, cut downward
to the midline split, just behind the scrotum or udder. Cut
“inside out” and _do not_ cut through the fat into the meat. Skin the
inside round around to the front of the leg, leaving all fat and
connective tissue on the carcass and not on the hide (fig. 17).
Inexperienced butchers have a tendency to cut too deep in this area,
so cut slowly and carefully.

  [Illustration: Man slicing hide along inner hind leg using a knife]
  Figure 16.—Splitting the hide on the inside of the round.

  [Illustration: Man skinning hide off hindleg using a knife]
  Figure 17.—Skinning the round.

Removal of the hide from the belly or abdomen is the next step.
Beginning at the midline split, cut under the hide until it can be
grasped with the other hand (fig. 18). Loosen the hide along the flat
surface of the belly from the round forward to the brisket (fig. 19).
The insides of the forelegs can be skinned but _not_ the outside, which
protects the carcass from contamination when it is hoisted (fig. 20).

  [Illustration: Man pulling and slicing away hide from belly using a
  knife]
  Figure 18.—Removing hide from belly.

  [Illustration: Man pulling and slicing away hide using a knife]
  Figure 19.—Loosening the hide from round to elbow.

  [Illustration: Man pulling and slicing away hide around forelegs using
  a knife]
  Figure 20.—Skinning the inside of the forelegs.

Siding (removal of the hide from the sides) is the next step and is
very difficult to do perfectly. This requires a knife with a sharp,
smooth edge; therefore, frequent steeling of the knife may be
necessary. Grasp the loosened hide and pull it up and outward (fig.
21). This places tension on the hide, removes wrinkles, and allows the
knife to glide smoothly. Holding the knife firmly, place it against
the hide with the blade turned slightly outward to avoid cutting the
thin flat muscles which cover the sides of the carcass. With smooth,
sweeping strokes of the knife, skin from the front of the hindleg to
the point where the hide was cut over the elbow. At this point, the
muscles become thin and so tightly bound to the hide that it will be
necessary to leave them on the hide. Cut through the muscles and
continue skinning as far down the side as possible (fig. 22).

  [Illustration: Man pulling and slicing away hide around midsection
  using a knife]
  Figure 21.—Removing hide from sides (siding).

  [Illustration: Cow on ground with hide pulled away]
  Figure 22.—Siding completed.

Return to the rear of the carcass and remove the hide left on the
inside of the rounds (fig. 23). _Do not_ skin the outside of the round
because this can be done more easily after the carcass is hoisted.

  [Illustration: Man pulling and slicing away hide around inner
  hindlegs using a knife]
  Figure 23.—Removing hide from the inside of the round.


                          Skinning the Head

The head should be skinned by splitting the hide down the midline
(fig. 24) and by skinning down each side of the head and neck as far
as possible (fig. 25).

  [Illustration: Man slicing along top of head using a knife]
  Figure 24.—Skinning the head.

  [Illustration: Head and neck with hide removed]
  Figure 25.—Hide removed from neck and head.

Remove the tongue by cutting just inside each jaw to the forward point
where the jaws join (fig. 26), making sure the tongue is straight so
that it will not be cut. Pull the tongue out and complete its removal
by cutting through the cartilage at its base (fig. 27). Wash the
tongue thoroughly in clean water and put it in ice or ice water.

  [Illustration: Man slicing along jaw using a knife]
  Figure 26.—Loosening the tongue.

  [Illustration: Man slicing tongue out at base using a knife]
  Figure 27.—Removing the tongue.

Remove the cheek meat from each side of the jawbone by cutting close
to the bone and down to the rise of the bone just over each eye (fig.
28). Wash thoroughly in clean water and put it in ice or ice water.

  [Illustration: Man slicing cheek away from head using a knife]
  Figure 28.—Removing cheek meat from jawbone.


                         Opening the Brisket

Beginning at the cut made for bleeding, split the muscles along the
midline of the neck up to the end of the brisket. Cut only as deep as
the windpipe. Cut lengthwise along the center of the brisket from the
neck to its rear edge (figs. 29 and 30). _Be careful_ not to cut
beyond the tip of the brisket because the viscera may be punctured.
Split the neck open along the midline and loosen the windpipe and
esophagus. Saw completely through the brisket as shown in figure 31.
Tie the windpipe and esophagus with string to avoid spilling paunch
materials when the carcass is hoisted (fig. 32).

  [Illustration: Man slicing up along the front of the neck using a
  knife]
  Figure 29.—Splitting fat and lean of brisket.

  [Illustration: Picture of split neck]
  Figure 30.—Fat and lean of brisket—split to bone.

  [Illustration: Man sawing brisket bone]
  Figure 31.—Sawing the brisket bone.

  [Illustration: Man tying shut windpipe and esophagus]
  Figure 32.—Tying the windpipe and esophagus.


                         Hoisting and Rumping

Insert the spreader or single-tree between the large tendons on the
hindlegs (fig. 33). For safety, the hocks should be tied securely to
the spreader. After the spreader is firmly in place, hoist the carcass
to a convenient working height, usually waist high, for skinning the
rounds. Skin along the outside of the rounds leaving the fell, the
thin membrane that lies between the meat and skin, on the round (fig.
34). This membrane protects the meat from rapid drying. After skinning
around the anus, loosen it by cutting around it deep into the pelvic
canal (fig. 35). Pull the large intestine about 6 inches from the
pelvic cavity (fig. 36) and tie it with a string near the opening as
shown in figure 37. To facilitate later hide removal from the tail,
remove a thin strip of hide from its top side (fig. 38).

  [Illustration: Pipe holding hindlegs apart, chains attached]
  Figure 33.—Hoisting the carcass.

  [Illustration: Cow hoisted waist high for skinning hindlegs]
  Figure 34.—Removing the hide from the round (rumping).

  [Illustration: Knife slicing around anus using a knife]
  Figure 35.—Skinning around the anus (bung).

  [Illustration: Anus pulled out away from carcass]
  Figure 36.—Pulling anus from pelvic canal.

  [Illustration: Man tying shut anus]
  Figure 37.—Tying the anus.

  [Illustration: Knife slicing hide along length of tail using a knife]
  Figure 38.—Skinning the tail.

Skin the outside of the round, leaving the fell membrane on the round
(fig. 39). You can usually pull off the hide in this region by hand,
leaving the fell intact. At the bottom of the round, the fell is
severed as shown by the arrows in figure 40. If a steer or bull is
being slaughtered, remove the penis by cutting under it and severing
its connection at the anus. Remove the hide from around the anus.

  [Illustration: Man pulling and slicing hide away from hindlegs using
  a knife]
  Figure 39.—Skinning the outside of the round.

  [Illustration: Hide removed from hind legs up to tail using a knife]
  Figure 40.—Hide removed from rounds.


                            Evisceration

Split the pelvic bone by first locating the seam between the rounds,
then following this seam to the bone and cutting through the bone with
a knife or saw (figs. 41 and 42).

  [Illustration: Man splitting hindlegs apart with knife]
  Figure 41.—Splitting the pelvic bone with a knife.

  [Illustration: Man splitting hindlegs apart with saw]
  Figure 42.—Splitting the pelvic bone with a saw.

Hoist the carcass until the front shanks clear the ground by about a
foot. Cut down the midline by inserting the knife handle _inside_
the body cavity with the knife blade extended _outward_ as shown in
figure 43. This procedure ensures that the paunch and intestines are
not cut. Continue cutting down the midline to the cut made when
opening the brisket (figs. 44 and 45). Loosen the large intestines as
shown in figure 46, making sure that the pelvic and kidney fat, as
well as the kidneys, are left attached to the carcass. Pull down on
the paunch and intestines and allow them to fall into a container or
onto the ground. As the paunch falls, a small cut with a knife will
free the liver from the connections to the intestines and paunch (fig.
47). _Do not_ cut the esophagus, which extends through the diaphragm.
The esophagus will be left attached until the lungs are removed.

  [Illustration: Hand in body cavity slicing down through belly using
  a knife]
  Figure 43.—Opening the belly—knife blade outward.

  [Illustration: Man slicing down through belly using a knife]
  Figure 44.—Opening the belly.

  [Illustration: Stomach hanging out from carcass]
  Figure 45.—Belly opened to the brisket.

  [Illustration: Large intestine being sliced away from carcass using
  a knife]
  Figure 46.—Loosening the large intestine.

  [Illustration: Liver being sliced away from intestines using a knife]
  Figure 47.—Freeing the intestines and paunch from the liver.

Remove the liver by reaching behind it and pulling while cutting the
connective tissue (fig. 48). During removal, check for any abscesses
(yellow or white pus pockets) or scar tissue, which are indications of
infections. If these are present, the entire carcass should be checked
thoroughly for other signs of infection or disease (discussed later in
the section on examining the carcass). Once the liver is removed,
separate the gall bladder by cutting under it (fig. 49). Wash the
liver thoroughly and put it in ice or ice water.

  [Illustration: Liver being sliced out using a knife]
  Figure 48.—Removing the liver.

  [Illustration: Gall bladder being sliced away from liver using a
  knife]
  Figure 49.—Removing the gall bladder.

To remove the lungs and heart, cut through the diaphragm, the thin
sheet of muscle, and the white connective tissue that separates the
lungs and heart from the stomach and intestines. This cut is made at
the edge of the thin muscle as shown by the arrows in figure 50. Cut
beneath the hanging muscle and the large blood vessels just below the
kidneys to the backbone. Remove the heart, lungs, and windpipe as one
unit by pulling them down while cutting between them and the backbone
(fig. 51). Be _sure_ to note any adhesion of the lungs to the body wall
because this is a sign of infectious diseases.

  [Illustration: Diaphragm cut away at the point of contact with ribs]
  Figure 50.—Cutting through the diaphragm.

  [Illustration: Slicing heart and lungs from backbone using a knife]
  Figure 51.—Removing the heart and lungs.

The heart is removed from the lungs by cutting across the top of the
heart (fig. 52). Wash it thoroughly and put it in ice or ice water for
rapid chilling. If the tripe, or stomach, is to be saved, empty the
stomach as quickly as possible and rinse it. Thorough cleaning can be
done later.

  [Illustration: Slicing across top of heart using a knife]
  Figure 52.—Separating the heart from lungs.


                         Dropping the Hide

Split and remove the hide remaining on the front shanks (fig. 53).
Skin down each side of the shanks and neck, meeting at the backbone
(figs. 54 and 55). Skin around the loin and under the tail. The
remaining hide on the tail can be pulled or cut off at this time (fig.
56). Remove the tail at its base (fig. 57), wash it thoroughly, and
put it in ice or ice water. Skin over the poll of the head and down
the face, removing the hide at the muzzle (figs. 58 and 59). The head
can be removed at this point; however, if it is left touching the
ground, it will give support during splitting.

  [Illustration: Slicing hide from front legs using a knife]
  Figure 53.—Skinning the front legs.

  [Illustration: Slicing hide from front legs using a knife]
  Figure 54.—Skinning the front legs.

  [Illustration: Slicing hide from neck near backbone using a knife]
  Figure 55.—Removing hide from neck.

  [Illustration: Man pulling hide away from tail]
  Figure 56.—Pulling hide from tail.

  [Illustration: Slicing tail off using a knife]
  Figure 57.—Removing tail.

  [Illustration: Slicing hide down away from head near muzzle using a
  knife]
  Figure 58.—Skinning the head.

  [Illustration: Pulling and slicing hide from muzzle using a knife]
  Figure 59.—Skinning the head.


                        Splitting the Carcass

Split the warm, dressed carcass into halves. This allows for free
circulation of air around the halves, to get a quicker chill. Also, a
dressed beef carcass is heavier and harder to handle if it is not split.

To split the carcass, first saw through the sacral vertebrae or tail
region from the inside (fig. 60). As soon as you have made the cut to
the rise of the pelvic arch, saw from the outside. To make sawing
through the center of the vertebrae easier, mark the correct line you
wish to take down the backbone with a knife. Mark over the top of the
bony spinal processes, which can be easily located with the fingers
(fig. 61). Make the split through the loin and rib. In the chuck
region, lower the handle of the saw to make sawing easier (fig. 62).
If the split gets off center, continue through to the next vertebra
and realign the saw.

  [Illustration: Saw inside body cavity sawing down]
  Figure 60.—Splitting the sacral vertebrae.

  [Illustration: Hanging carcass with knife slice marks along backbone]
  Figure 61.—Line of cutting.

  [Illustration: Saw cutting through shoulder region]
  Figure 62.—Sawing through the chuck.

If brain removal is desired, continue the split through the poll and
down the center of the face. After sawing half way down the face, pull
the halves of the head apart and remove the brains (fig. 63). Wash the
brains thoroughly, checking for bone fragments. If the animal has been
shot the brain will contain metal fragments and should not be saved.

  [Illustration: Hand reaching into brain case and pulling out brain]
  Figure 63.—Removing the brains.

Remove the head at the first joint next to the poll. Head removal is
much easier after splitting (fig. 64). Then remove the kidney and
kidney fat (fig. 65).

  [Illustration: Man slicing off head using a knife]
  Figure 64.—Removing the head at the atlas joint.

  [Illustration: Man slicing out kidney using a knife]
  Figure 65.—Removing the kidney and surrounding fat.

Wash the carcass with clean water, especially down the split backbone
where bone dust accumulates. With a knife, remove any contamination
which cannot be washed off. Pumping the front legs up and down a few
times helps drain the blood from the forequarters.


                        Examining the Carcass

All the internal organs and the dressed carcass should be examined
carefully for any abnormalities or conditions that might affect the
fitness of the meat for food. Usually, a meat inspector or graduate
veterinarian is the only person qualified to do this, but under farm
conditions it becomes necessary for you to look for the obvious signs
of disease or damage. If any part of the viscera or carcass is
questionable, you should obtain expert advice.

Bruises, minor injuries, parasites in the organs and enclosed
abscesses, and single tumors are frequently local conditions that can
be easily removed. However, the presence of congestion or inflammation
of the lungs, intestines, kidneys, inner surface of chest or abdominal
cavity, and numerous yellowish or pearl-like growths scattered
throughout the organs should be viewed seriously. Carcasses and
viscera having such abnormalities should be examined by a graduate
veterinarian and his opinion obtained as to the wholesomeness of the
meat. You should check with a cooperating veterinarian before
slaughtering the animal to be certain he will be available if you
should seek his advice.


                         Loading the Carcass

Separate the halves into quarters by cutting between the last two
ribs, leaving one rib on the hindquarter (fig. 66). Leave a 4-inch
section uncut on the flank side and saw through the backbone (fig.
67). Make small handholds between the first two and the last two ribs
of the forequarter to make loading of the forequarter easier (fig. 68).

  [Illustration: Man slicing through carcass along rib]
  Figure 66.—Ribbing the carcass.

  [Illustration]
  Figure 67.—Sawing through the backbone.

  [Illustration: Man holding forequarter attached to hind by flank
  strip]
  Figure 68.—Grasping the forequarter prior to loading.

When ready to load, place a clean cloth (old sheets work fine) or
plastic in the vehicle. With someone holding each forequarter, cut the
attachment left on the flank side (fig. 69). If alone, _be sure_ to
hoist the carcass so that the opposite side does not fall to the
ground. Lower hinds until they can be reached and removed from the
spreader (fig. 70). Place the forequarter in the vehicle with the bone
side down and the hindquarter on top with the bone side up (fig. 71).
Cover the meat to prevent contamination during transportation.

  [Illustration: Man holding forequarter through slice between ribs]
  Figure 69.—Separating the forequarter from the hindquarter.

  [Illustration: Two men, each holding a hindquarter on spreader]
  Figure 70.—Removing the hindquarters from the spreader.

  [Illustration: Quarters lying in vehicle]
  Figure 71.—Carcass loaded in auto.




                         CHILLING THE CARCASS


The surfaces of freshly slaughtered beef carcasses are contaminated
with bacteria that can spoil the meat unless their growth is promptly
checked. Bacterial growth can be slowed by prompt chilling and keeping
the carcass at low temperatures. If the weather is suitable (28° to
35° F), the carcass or quarters can be wrapped in a sheet and hung to
chill in a well-ventilated shed. Wrapping with a clean cloth will
partially protect the carcass from contamination and help smooth out
the fat on the outer surface.

_Do not_ allow the carcass to freeze because freezing within 1 day after
death may toughen the meat. If the carcass cannot be chilled to below
40°F on the farm, it should be transported to the local locker plant
or market for chilling. Chilled beef should be aged at least 2 to 3
days to ensure that rigor is complete. There is no benefit to aging
beyond 7 to 9 days. In fact, subsequent freezer storage life may be
reduced by long aging periods.




                              CUTTING


Use the following guidelines to prepare cutting and packaging
instructions for the plant if the carcass is not cut and wrapped on
the farm.

_Steaks_.—Those from the loin and rib, which are to be broiled, should
be an inch or more in thickness. Those from the round and chuck, or
which are to be cooked slowly with moist heat, should be ½ to ¾ inch
thick. If two or more steaks are packaged together, they should be
separated by two sheets of plastic or moisture-resistant paper.
Although the size and shape of a steak will largely determine how many
servings it will yield, allow ¾ of a pound per person (bone-in
uncooked) where practicable.

_Roasts_.—Allow ¾ pound (uncooked) per serving for bone-in roasts such
as blade chuck roasts or rump roasts and ½ pound (uncooked) per
serving for boneless roasts such as sirloin tip or heel of round.

_Ground beef and stew meat_.—Allow ½ pound (uncooked) per serving.


                       Carcass Cutting Equipment

Elaborate and expensive equipment is not necessary, but certain items
are essential (fig. 72). The following equipment is recommended:

  1.  Steel.
  2.  Steak knife.
  3.  Boning knife.
  4.  Meat saw.
  5.  Freezer paper (see section on “wrapping”).
  6.  Freezer tape.
  7.  Meat grinder (electric or hand-driven).

  [Illustration: Saw Knives, and sharpening steel displayed]
  Figure 72.—Cutting equipment.


                         CUTTING THE CARCASS

                            Forequarter

The forequarter (fig. 73) is best processed by separating it into two
more manageable sections and making usable cuts from each section. The
following cutting procedure differs from the usual style of retail
cutting by separating the forequarter between the sixth and seventh
ribs instead of between the fifth and sixth ribs. This approach was
taken to preclude difficulties for the novice which might arise with
older carcasses, whose blade bone cartilage would have become ossified
and thus impede the knife cut. Counting the rib closest to the neck as
number one, locate the sixth and seventh ribs. Insert the knife
between these two ribs (fig. 74) at about the midpoint of their length
and cut towards the brisket. From the outside (skin side) of the
forequarter, (fig. 75) insert the knife through the previously made
cut. Holding the blade perpendicular to the outer surface, cut toward
the back line until you meet the bone. After reaching the backbone,
continue forward in a flat, circular motion, cutting all the flesh.

  [Illustration: Hanging forequarter, foreleg facing down]
  Figure 73.—Forequarter.

  [Illustration: Hanging forequarter with slit between two ribs]
  Figure 74.—Knife cut between sixth and seventh ribs.

  [Illustration: Man pushing knife to extend slit to backbone]
  Figure 75.—Knife cut through the meat to the bone.

Saw through the backbone keeping the saw blade parallel to the surface
of the knife cut. The crosscut chuck will then drop down approximately
a foot (fig. 76), so make certain you have plenty of clearance from
the floor. The chuck portion of the forequarter of a 1,000-pound steer
will weigh approximately 100 pounds. Call on your strongest helper to
hold the chuck while you saw through the brisket edge (fig. 77),
completing the separation of the two parts of the forequarter.

  [Illustration: Front portion of forequarter hang from rear portion]
  Figure 76.—Forequarter separated between sixth and seventh ribs.

  [Illustration: Man sawing through brisket while helper holds chuck]
  Figure 77.—Sawing through the brisket edge.

The crosscut chuck is then placed on the cutting table, bone side up,
and divided into two pieces. First make a saw cut through the ribs.
This cut begins on the first rib about 1 inch (fig. 78, top) from
the inner curve of the split surface of the backbone and parallel to
the top line. After sawing through the ribs, with the knife blade held
perpendicular to the table, make a knife cut between the sawed ends of
the ribs through the meat to the shoulder blade (fig. 78, bottom). Saw
through the shoulder blade, separating the crosscut chuck into a blade
and arm section. The fourth, fifth, and sixth rib portions of the arm
are removed by cutting between the third and fourth ribs and sawing
through the brisket edge (fig. 79). These rib portions may be made
into short ribs, cut for stew, or boned and made into ground beef.

  [Illustration: Sawing across ribs; finishing cut using a knife]
  Figure 78.—Separating the arm and blade sections.

  [Illustration: Sawing between two ribs]
  Figure 79.—Removing the fourth to sixth ribs from the arm section.

The shoulder joint and first arm roast are then removed. The shoulder
joint extends from the cut surface 2 to 3 inches toward the foreshank.

Press over the rounded joint until you locate where it sharply
declines and make a knife cut through that point over the bone and
through the meat. Saw through the arm bone (fig. 80), cut through the
flesh to the rib bones, and saw through them to remove the shoulder
joint and first arm roast. The short ribs and most of the underlying
fat are removed by cutting through the natural fat seam (fig. 81).

  [Illustration: Man sawing across section of armbone]
  Figure 80.—Sawing through armbone.

  [Illustration: Slicing off short ribs using a knife]
  Figure 81.—Removing the shortribs.

The large round knuckle bone is separated from the first arm roast by
cutting between the two bones (figs. 82 and 83). This bone, with its
marrow exposed, is an excellent flavor enhancer for soups and stews.
Either arm steaks or arm roasts may be made by parallel cuts across
the arm section until you reach the foreshank (fig. 84).

  [Illustration: Slicing off armbone using a knife]
  Figure 82.—Removing the armbone.

  [Illustration: Finished armbone and short rib displayed]
  Figure 83.—Removing the armbone.

  [Illustration: Three arm roasts displayed]
  Figure 84.—Arm roasts from arm section.

The foreshank is separated from the brisket by a knife cut
approximately midway between these two parts (fig. 85). The brisket
bones and underlying fat are removed from the brisket by cutting
through the natural seam between the thick meaty part of the brisket
and the bones (fig. 86). The fat over the outside of the brisket is
about the thickest located anywhere on the forequarter, and some of
this fat should be trimmed away. Remember to follow the rounded
surface of the lean. The foreshank may be boned and the meat made into
ground beef or stew. Cross-sectional cuts across the muscle and bone
will greatly enhance soup and stews (fig. 87).

  [Illustration: Slicing off foreshank using a knife]
  Figure 85.—Separating the foreshank from the brisket.

  [Illustration: Slicing off part of brisket using a knife]
  Figure 86.—Removing the deckle.

  [Illustration: Finished foreshank and brisket displayed]
  Figure 87.—Foreshank crosscuts and brisket.

Turning now to the blade section of the forequarter, remove the sixth
rib by cutting between the fifth and sixth ribs and sawing through the
backbone (fig. 88). This roast, or roasts from the fifth and fourth
rib sections, can be used as is (fig. 89) or separated into several
usable pieces. The outside muscles may be removed by cutting along the
fat seam through the middle of the roast (fig. 90). These muscles are
less tender and should be cooked with moist heat like a pot roast or
made into stew meat or ground beef.

  [Illustration: Slicing between ribs using a knife]
  Figure 88.—Removing blade roast between ribs.

  [Illustration: Sawing through backbone]
  Figure 89.—Blade roast.

  [Illustration: Slicing outer muscles from blade roast using a knife]
  Figure 90.—Removing the outside muscles.

The chuckeye portion may be removed (fig. 91) by cutting along the
curvature of the rib to the backbone and along its surface to separate
the chuckeye from the bone. The heavy yellow ligament located at the
edge of the chuckeye is removed. The chuckeye portion is usually
tender and excellent for charcoal broiling. The rib bone and attached
meat are excellent in soup or stew (fig. 92). Blade steaks or blade
roasts can be made in a similar manner by cross-sectional cuts of the
blade section to the first rib area (fig. 93).

  [Illustration: Slicing away chuckeye portion using a knife]
  Figure 91.—Removing chuckeye portion.

  [Illustration: Outside muscles, ribeye, and trim displayed]
  Figure 92.—Outside muscles, ribeye, and trim.

  [Illustration: Six blade roasts and one ribeye displayed]
  Figure 93.—Blade roasts from blade section.

The neck bones are removed by cutting along each edge of the vertebra,
and then undercutting, lifting, and removing the neck bones with
attached meat (fig. 94). The neck bones can be divided into several
sections for stew or soup stock. The portions of the blade and knuckle
bones and surrounding heavy connective tissue are removed. The
boneless neck makes excellent ground beef or stew meat.

  [Illustration: Slicing out neck bones using a knife]
  Figure 94.—Removing neck bone.

The rib is separated from the short plate by a saw cut across the ribs
(fig. 95) approximately 2 to 3 inches from the edge of the ribeye. Rib
steaks and roasts (figs. 96 and 97) are made by cutting between the
ribs and sawing through the backbone. The protruding edge of the
backbone may be removed by sawing through the spinal cord groove.

  [Illustration: Sawing across ribs and then slicing with knife]
  Figure 95.—Separating the rib and short plate.

  [Illustration: Slicing between ribs using a knife]
  Figure 96.—Removing rib steak from rib.

  [Illustration: Four pieces of rib displayed]
  Figure 97.—Rib steaks and roasts.

If you prefer, you may make boneless rib steaks and boneless rib
roasts by following the same procedure used for the fourth, fifth, and
sixth rib portion of the chuck, cutting along the curvature of the
ribs to the backbone and along its surface, separating the meat from
the bones. The boneless rib may be made into one or more roasts and/or
steaks. Also, the outside muscles may be removed and the ribeye made
into one or more roasts, or it may be sliced into excellent broiling
steaks.

Short ribs are made by sawing across the rib ends of the plate at
approximately 2-inch intervals (fig. 98) until you reach the white
cartilages attached to the ends of the ribs. The 10th, 11th, and 12th
rib sections of the short ribs often have a high ratio of fat to lean.
Remove these, trim most of the fat away, and use them in soup or stew.

  [Illustration: Sawing across ribs two inches from ends]
  Figure 98.—Sawing shortribs from shortplate.


                            Hindquarter

The flank is the first part removed from the hindquarter (figs. 99 and
100). This is accomplished by making a cut beneath the cod or udder
fat near the center of the round and following the surface of the
round to the outer edge, loosening the upper edge of the flank.
Holding the knife perpendicular to the outer surface cut towards the
backbone at approximately a 45° angle until the hipbone is reached.
Then, hold the knife parallel to the split surface of the backbone and
cut straight down to the 13th rib. Saw through the rib to complete
removal of the flank.

  [Illustration: Hindquarter hanging by hook from rear leg]
  Figure 99.—Hindquarter.

  [Illustration: Man slicing away flank from hanging hindquarter using
  a large knife]
  Figure 100.—Removing the flank.

Lay the flank on the cutting table with the cod or udder fat up and
peel the outer lean muscle back by cutting under the edge next to the
cod or udder fat. Then lift and trim close to the lean approximately
one-half the length of the flank (fig. 101). Turn the flank over and
remove the flank steak. This cut is the hand-shaped muscle at the cod
or udder fat end of the flank. First, loosen the edges of the tough
membrane overlying the muscle. Lift it up and pull it back to clear
the surface of the steak and then cut it off along the edge of the
visible lean (fig. 102). Loosen the flank steak muscle at the cod or
udder fat end and lift it free from the underlying membrane (fig.
103). Pull it back as far as possible, loosening the edges with the
knife. Cut around the lower edge to free the flank steak.

  [Illustration: Man lifting and slicing away lean muscle using a knife]
  Figure 101.—Removing outside lean muscle from flank.

  [Illustration: Man lifting and slicing away membrane using a knife]
  Figure 102.—Lifting membrane from flank steak.

  [Illustration: Man lifting and slicing away steak using a knife]
  Figure 103.—Removing flank steak.

The cod or udder fat and heavy connective tissue are removed from the
rest of the lean by cutting through the flank along the edge of the
visible lean (fig. 104). The portion of the 13th rib is also removed
(fig. 105) from the flank. The boneless flank meat can be used for
stew meat or ground beef.

  [Illustration: Man slicing through fat using a knife]
  Figure 104.—Removing the cod or udder fat.

  [Illustration: Man slicing along rib using a knife]
  Figure 105.—Removing the 13th rib.

The sirloin tip is removed by starting a cut beneath the knee cap. The
knee cap (fig. 106) is located approximately 6 to 8 inches below where
the lean meat of the shank disappears into the knee joint. Hold a
large steak knife parallel to the floor and make several cuts into the
fat until you can penetrate the lean. Cut through the lean 2 to 3
inches until you reach the round bone. Turn the knife downward and cut
close to the round bone until you reach the hip joint. Turn the knife
outward and cut down and out at an approximate 45° angle to remove the
sirloin tip (fig. 107).

  [Illustration: Man slicing into hanging beef side using a knife]
  Figure 106.—Cutting below kneecap.

  [Illustration: Man removing large hunk of meat from beef side using
  a large knife]
  Figure 107.—Removing sirloin tip or knuckle.

The sirloin tip makes an excellent oven roast (cooked by dry heat),
particularly if it is from well-marbled young cattle (fig. 108). The
sirloin tip may be divided into two approximately equal roasts by
cutting lengthwise (fig. 109). Cross-sectional cuts make good steaks
for grilling (fig. 110).

  [Illustration: Sirloin tip displayed]
  Figure 108.—Sirloin tip.

  [Illustration: Man slicing sirloin tip into halves using a knife]
  Figure 109.—Separating sirloin tip into roasts.

  [Illustration: Sirloin tip halves and one sirloin steak displayed]
  Figure 110.—Sirloin tip—steaks or roasts.

The trimmed hindquarters should be laid on the table with the split
surface of the backbone down. Starting at the smaller end of the
hindquarter, the club, T-bone, porterhouse, and sirloin steaks are
removed by cross-sectional cuts with knife and saw (fig. 111). The
last sirloin steak is determined by the cut that passes through the
hip joint (fig. 112).

  [Illustration: Man slicing and then sawing through loin using a knife]
  Figure 111.—Removing club steak from loin.

  [Illustration: Steaks displayed]
  Figure 112.—Sirloin, porterhouse, T-bone and club steaks from loin.

The beef round is turned over with the skinned side down (fig. 113).
The rump is removed by a cut made approximately parallel to the long
axis of the split pelvic bone and about 1 inch towards the hindleg
from the innermost curve of this bone (fig. 114). The tail bone is
removed by cutting along its edge (fig. 115). The hip joint is removed
from the rump by a saw cut just below and close to the pelvic bone
(fig. 116). The saw should be held _parallel_ to the outer skinned
surface of the rump. The trimmed rump roast may be divided by first
sawing through the pelvic bone and then cutting through the lean to
make two approximately equal roasts (fig. 117).

  [Illustration: Hindleg displayed on table]
  Figure 113.—Beef round (sirloin tip removed).

  [Illustration: Man slicing and then sawing across hindleg]
  Figure 114.—Removing the rump.

  [Illustration: Man trimming with knife]
  Figure 115.—Removing the tail bone.

  [Illustration: Man slicing and then sawing through rump]
  Figure 116.—Removing the hip joint.

  [Illustration: Sawing rump in half]
  Figure 117.—Dividing rump into roasts.

To fabricate the round, make a knife cut parallel to the surface where
the rump was removed and across the round just in front of the knee
cap. Saw through the round bone to separate the heel and shank from
the round (fig. 118). Remove the round bone from the round (fig. 119).
Separate the top and bottom parts of the round by starting at the
surface where the rump was removed and cutting along the fat seam
across the center of the round (fig. 120). Slice the top round into
steaks or roasts (fig. 121). Top round steaks and roasts from young
well marbled beef may be broiled or oven roasted. Muscles of the
bottom round are less tender than those of the top round and should be
cooked with moist heat for longer period of time (fig. 122).

  [Illustration: Slicing and then sawing off heel and shank]
  Figure 118.—Separating heel and shank from round.

  [Illustration: Round bone displayed removed from round]
  Figure 119.—Removing round bone.

  [Illustration: Slicing top and bottom round apart using a knife]
  Figure 120.—Separating top and bottom round.

  [Illustration: Steaks and roasts displayed]
  Figure 121.—Top round steak and roasts.

  [Illustration: Steaks and roasts displayed]
  Figure 122.—Bottom round steak and roasts.

The heel of round or “Pike’s Peak” roast is removed by cutting just in
front of the major tendon at the hock straight across until you reach
the shank bone. Then cut along the shank bone and around the knee or
stifle joint to remove the heel of round roast (figs. 123 and 124).

  [Illustration: Slicing heel of round off using a knife]
  Figure 123.—Removing heel of round roast.

  [Illustration: Heel of round and hindshank displayed]
  Figure 124.—Heel of round and hindshank.

Sawing through the knee joint to expose the bone marrow will add
flavor to soups or stews (fig. 125).

  [Illustration]
  Figure 125.—Sawing through knee joint.

Meat trimmed from roasts and steaks, the neck portion, parts of the
plate not made into short ribs, the flank, and the shanks may be made
into stew meat and ground beef.

The neck bones, the “deckle,” shoulder, elbow, hip, and knee joints
add flavor to soups and stews especially if the joints are split to
expose the bone marrow.


                              Wrapping

Immediately after chilling and cutting, meat _must_ be properly
wrapped, quickly frozen, and stored at 0°F or lower until needed.
Proper wrapping is essential to maintain meat quality. Therefore, one
should:

  • Use moisture-vapor proof wrap such as heavily waxed freezer paper
    or specially laminated paper.

  • Wrap meat closely eliminating as much air as possible. Improper
    wrapping will allow air to enter and cause “freezer burn” and
    rancidity.

  • Use a proper wrapping procedure (fig. 126).

  • Label packages as to content and date.

  [Illustration: Five step drawing on proper wrapping folds]
  Figure 126.—Wrapping procedure.




                     FREEZING AND FROZEN STORAGE

For large quantities of meat, it is best to use a commercial
establishment for quick freezing. A home freezer may be used if it
will maintain a temperature of 0°F or below. When using the home
freezer, be sure to:

  • Clean and defrost freezer.

  • Freeze meat at -10°F or below.

  • Freeze only the amount of meat that will freeze in 24 hours.

  • Allow ample air circulation by not over-packing the freezer.
    Approximately 2 to 3 pounds of meat may be packed per cubic foot
    of freezer space.




                         FURTHER PROCESSING


                               Curing

The curing process enhances meat flavor and improves shelf life by
retarding bacterial growth. Salt and nitrites inhibit bacterial growth
and enhance flavor and color; sugar counteracts the hardening effect
of salt and also enhances flavor. Beef is generally cured by making
corned beef or dried beef using the above-mentioned ingredients.


                            Corned Beef

Corned beef is generally made from cuts of the round, brisket, plate,
or chuck.

Remove all bone from the cuts and slice pieces into uniform thickness
and size (approximately 3 inches thick). To prepare the pickle
dissolve 8 pounds of salt, 3 pounds of sugar, 4 ounces of baking soda
and 4 ounces of saltpeter in 4 gallons of water. This will cure 100
pounds of beef. Pack meat in a clean stone crock or stainless steel
tub, and cover it with the pickle. If cuts have not been rolled and
are approximately 3 inches in thickness, they will be ready to use in
2 weeks. Thicker cuts will require longer curing. After curing, remove
meat from the pickle; wash and dry or smoke.

During curing the temperature of the pickle should remain below 38° to
40°F, otherwise the brine may become ropy due to growth of bacteria.
Ropiness looks like partially cooked egg white. If ropiness occurs,
the meat should be removed, washed, and repacked in a clean container.


                             Dried Beef

Dried beef is made from the defatted round separated into the top
round, bottom round with eye muscle, and sirloin tip. For each 100
pounds of meat use 8 pounds of salt, 3 pounds of sugar, and 4 ounces
of saltpeter.

The curing process is the same as that for corned beef. After curing
remove meat from the brine, wash, and hang up to dry for 24 hours.
After drying, smoke at 130° to 140°F for 70 to 80 hours or until the
meat is very dry. The meat should then be stored in a dry,
well-ventilated room that is protected from insects and rodents.

Smoking gives the meat a more desirable color and flavor and probably
aids in its preservation. The wood used to generate the smoke should
be non-resinous, such as hickory, apple, plum, oak, beech, or ash. The
same smoke-house procedures used for curing pork work well for beef.[7]

[7] For further information on smoking see Farmers Bulletin No. 2138,
“Pork Slaughtering, Cutting, Preserving, and Cooking on the Farm.”


                               Canning

Beef can be satisfactorily preserved by canning if the proper
procedures are used. Meat is a low-acid, high-protein food that allows
for good bacterial growth. The use of a pressure canner is vital when
canning meat. Sterilization temperature should be held at 240°F for
the proper length of time. A water bath or a steamer is _not
recommended_ since neither results in a sufficiently high temperature
to produce effective sterilization. Meat may be canned soon after
chilling since aging has little effect on the flavor and tenderness of
canned meats. For complete canning procedures see Home and Garden
Bulletin No. 106, “Home Canning of Meat and Poultry.”


                            Ground Beef

All lean trim can be ground as ground beef. Palatable ground beef
should have from 15 to 30 percent fat. Most retail ground beef ranges
from 20 to 25 percent fat.




                            MEAT COOKERY


Tender cuts of meat are best cooked with dry heat, as by broiling,
roasting, or pan broiling. Less tender cuts of meat are tenderized by
cooking with moist heat. Connective tissue is softened and tenderized
by cooking slowly in moisture.

Temperature control is very important in meat cookery. Meat loses
moisture, fat, and other substances during cooking. However, some of
the meat juices and fat may be retained in pan drippings.

Cooking losses can be minimized by controlling the oven temperature
and final internal temperature of the meat. Shrinkage is increased
when higher oven temperatures are used for cooking and when meat is
cooked to a higher internal temperature.

The meat thermometer is the most accurate guide to the degree of
doneness of meat. Cooking time can be used as a guide to the degree of
doneness, but cooking time is affected by fat and moisture content and
shape or size of the cut.


                       Types of Meat Cookery

Broiling

Broiling is recommended for tender steaks from the loin and rib and
for ground meat patties. Blade steaks from the chuck may also be
broiled if from a high-quality carcass (U.S. Choice or higher). For
best results:

  1.  Set oven for broiling.

  2. Place meat on rack of broiler pan set at the distance from
     the heat recommended by the oven manufacturer.

  3. Broil the steak or patties for approximately one-half the
     desired time before turning. One-inch steaks will require 15
     to 30 minutes; 2-inch steaks, 35 to 55 minutes; and ¾-inch
     patties, 8 to 14 minutes.

  4. Season, if desired, and serve at once.


Pan broiling

The same tender cuts suitable for broiling may also be pan broiled if
they are 1 inch or less in thickness. For best results:

  1. Place meat in hot frying pan or on a griddle.

  2. Do not add fat or water.

  3. Cook slowly over moderate heat, turning occasionally.

  4. Pour off or remove fat as it accumulates.

  5. Brown meat on both sides.

  6. Avoid overcooking. The total cooking time required for pan
     broiling is about 10 to 20 minutes for 1-inch steaks.


Pan frying

When fat is added or allowed to accumulate during cooking, the method
is called pan frying. Tender cuts that are 1 inch thick or less are
usually cooked by this method.


Braising

This method is best suited to less tender cuts such as round or chuck
steak, flank steak, pot roast, stew beef, and shortribs. For best
results:

  1. If desired, brown meat slowly on all sides with enough fat to
     keep meat from sticking. Use a heavy pan.

  2. Season with salt, pepper, herbs, and spices if desired.

  3. Add a small amount of liquid (½ cup or less).

  4. Cover tightly.

  5. Cook slowly over low heat on top of range or in a 350°
     (moderate) oven. Steaks will take 1 to 2 hours and pot roasts
     (3 to 5 pounds) will take 3 to 4 hours.


Roasting

This method is recommended for large, tender cuts. Some beef cuts
suitable for roasting are rib roast, sirloin top roast (USDA Choice or
better), ribeye roast (delmonico), and boneless rolled rump roast
(USDA Choice or better). For best results:

  1. Season with salt and pepper, if desired.

  2. Place meat, fat up, on rack in _open_ shallow roasting pan.

  3. Insert a meat thermometer so the bulb is in the center of
     the largest muscle.

  4. Add no water and do not cover.

  5. Roast at oven temperature of 325° to desired internal
     temperature (see table below).

                    Timetable for roasting beef[1]
 -------------------------------------------------------------------
  Cut of meat   Approximate     Approximate     Internal temperature
                ready-to-cook   roasting time   of meat when done
                   weight        at 325° F[2]
 -------------------------------------------------------------------
                    Pounds       Hours           °F          °C
 Beef
  Standing ribs[3]
   Rare             4 to 6       2¼ to 2½        140         60
   Medium           4 to 6       2½ to 3⅓        160         70
   Well done        4 to 6       2¾ to 4         170         75
   Rare             6 to 8       2½ to 3         140         60
   Medium           6 to 8       3 to 3½         160         70
   Well done        6 to 8       3½ to 4¼        170         75
  Rolled rib
   Rare             5 to 7       2⅔ to 3¾        140         60
   Medium           5 to 7       3¼ to 4½        160         70
   Well done        5 to 7       4 to 5⅔         170         75
  Rolled rump
   (choice grade)   4 to 6       2 to 2½         150 to 170  65 to 75
  Sirloin tip
   (choice grade)   3½ to 4      2⅓              140 to 170  60 to 75
                    6 to 8       3½ to 4         140 to 170  60 to 75
 -------------------------------------------------------------------
 [1] Source: Adapted from Home and Garden Bulletin No. 118, “Beef
 and Veal in Family Meals.”

 [2] Meat at refrigerator temperature at start of roasting.

 [3] Eight-inch cut. For 10-inch ribs allow about 30 minutes less
 time.


                        Cooking Variety Meats

Variety meats include liver, brains, heart, kidneys, sweetbreads,
and tongue. Variety meats are very perishable and should be frozen or
cooked as soon as possible.


Liver

Beef liver is usually braised or fried. Calf liver is frequently
broiled, pan broiled, or pan fried. The outer membrane (skin) may be
removed from liver before cooking.


Brains

Brains are soft and very tender and have a delicate flavor. They may
be broiled, fried, braised, or cooked in liquid.


Heart

Heart is flavorful but not very tender. Braising or cooking in liquid
is recommended.


Kidneys

Beef kidneys should be cooked in liquid or braised. Before cooking,
remove membrane and hard parts. Slice or cut kidney in pieces, if
desired.


Sweetbreads

Sweetbreads are the two lobes of the thymus gland located in the neck
and are a tender meat. Veal, calf, and young beef furnish nearly all
of the sweetbreads. As the animal matures, the thymus gland
disappears. Sweetbreads may be broiled, fried, braised, or cooked in
liquid.




                  U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE

    For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government
                          Printing Office
                      Washington, D.C. 20402
                   Stock Number 001-000-03579-7
                          Class #A 1.9:2261

                    ☆ U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1977 O-217-437




------------------------------------------------------------------------

                          TRANSCRIBER’S NOTES

 1. Silently corrected typographical errors and variations in spelling.
 2. Illustrations replaced with the text ‘[Illustration]’ or
    ‘[Illustration: some descriptive text]’. The illustration caption
    is on the following line. Due to the instructional nature of this
    text, extensive illustration descriptions have been added to this
    text only version.
 3. The original was printed in two column text with illustrations
    sometimes spanning both columns. In order to reduce ambiguity, the
    illustrations have been moved adjacent to the paragraph that refers
    to them.
 4. The table of contents entry “Cutting the carcass” has been replaced
    with “Cutting” to match the actual text heading.
 5. Figures 65 and 66 were mislabeled. They have been swapped.
 6. Footnotes have been renumbered.
 7. Italicised words are enclosed by _underscores_.