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    been moved to the end of the text.




=_A Request_=


Should you find this book helpful in building with concrete, we would
consider it a favor to have you so inform us. Likewise, we would
appreciate a description (and a photograph if possible) of whatever you
have built in concrete.

In this way you will assist us in aiding others in the same way we hope
we have helped you.

If you do not fully understand any part of this book, or if you desire
further information, write us and we shall be glad to do anything else
we can.




                               CONCRETE
                             CONSTRUCTION
                            _for the_ HOME
                            _and the_ FARM

                       “CONCRETE FOR PERMANENCE”

                                 1916

                   THE ATLAS PORTLAND CEMENT COMPANY
       30 Broad Street, New York 134 So. LaSalle Street, Chicago
         Philadelphia Boston St. Louis Minneapolis Des Moines




                            INDEX


                =Special Index to Directions=

                                                 PAGE
    Bank-run gravel,                               13
    Cleaning forms,                                24
    Definition of concrete,                         9
    Dry mixture,                                   13
    Forms,                                      22-24
    Gravel,                                    10, 13
    Hand mixing,                                17-21
    Materials,                                  9, 10
    Measuring boxes,                               12
    Measuring materials,                        11-13
    Medium mixture,                                13
    Mixing,                                     15-22
    Natural mixture,                            13-20
    Placing,                                   25, 26
    Portland cement,                                9
    Proportions,                                11-13
    Protection of concrete after placing,          26
    Publications issued by the Association,         8
    Quantities of materials,                   21, 22
    Reinforcement,                             26, 27
    Runs,                                          15
    Sand as an aggregate,                           9
    Selecting lumber for forms,                    23
    Stone as an aggregate,                         10
    Tools,                                         15
    Wet mixture,                                   13

                    =General Index=
                                                 PAGE
    Acetylene gas house,                        83-87
    Alleyways,                                     41
    Barns,                                         62
    Barn approach,                                 60
    Barn floors,                                54-59
    Barn foundations,                          61, 62
    Barnyard pavements,                        47, 48
    Base for machinery,                         87-89
    Bee cellars,                               92, 93
    Carriage house entrance,                       39
    Carriage washing floor,                        42
    Cellar steps and hatchway,                 90, 91
    Chimney,                                   50, 51
    Chimney caps,                                  97
    Cistern covers,                                69
    Cisterns,                            68-70, 72-73
    Coal house,                                 83-87
    Cold-frame,                               99, 100
    Concrete in the country,                      5-8
    Corn crib floor,                               53
    Corner stones,                                105
    Cow barn floors,                            55-58
    Culverts,                                108, 109
    Cyclone cellar,                             92-93
    Dairy,                                      83-87
    Dipping vats and tanks,                     76-80
    Dog kennel,                                 83-87
    Drain tile outlet,                            106
    Drinking troughs and tanks,                74, 75
    Driveway of concrete,                      40, 41
    Drop gutters,                               54-59
    Duck pond,                                     95
    Engine base foundation,                    87, 88
    Engine house,                               82-89
    Entrance floor,                                39
    Farm buildings,                             82-89
    Feed cooker,                               50, 51
    Feeding floors,                             43-45
    Feeding troughs, racks and mangers,        49, 50
    Fence posts,                                  104
    Field rollers,                                102
    Field spring improvement,                  70, 71
    Floors,                        39, 42, 45, 47, 48,
                                    53-56, 58, 79, 82,
                                    83, 87, 98
    Foundation gutter,                             35
    Fruit cellars,                             92, 93
    Garbage receiver,                             103
    Gasoline engine base,                      87, 88
    Gate posts,                              104, 105
    Granary floors,                                53
    Gutters,                                       35
    Hatchway for cellar steps,                 90, 91
    Hay cap weights,                              103
    Hen house,                                     94
    Hens’ nests,                                   94
    Hitching post,                                104
    Hog wallows,                                   52
    Horse barn floors,                         58, 59
    Hot-bed,                                  99, 100
    Housing for driven well,                   67, 68
    Hydraulic ram house,                           89
    Ice house,                                  83-87
    Lawn roller,                                  102
    Mangers,                           49, 50, 57, 59
    Manure pits and cisterns,                      45
    Milk house,                                 83-87
    Milk vat,                                  81, 82
    Nests for hens,                                94
    Old buildings and their repair,             36-38
    Porch floor,                               98, 99
    Posts for fences and gates,                   104
    Posts, hitching,                              104
    Poultry house,                                 94
    Ram house,                                     89
    Repairs to farm buildings,                  36-38
    Retaining wall and steps,                  96, 97
    Roadways,                                  40, 41
    Root cellar,                               92, 93
    Rollers,                                      102
    Sanitary water supply,                      67-75
    Septic tanks,                            110, 111
    Sidewalks,                                  28-34
    Silos,                                     65, 66
    Small farm buildings,                       82-89
    Smoke house,                                83-87
    Snow fences,                               63, 64
    Spraying tanks,                               107
    Spring improvements,                       70, 71
    Steps,                             90, 91, 96, 97
    Stones, corner,                               105
    Survey monuments,                             105
    Swimming pool,                                112
    Tanks,                                     74, 75
    Tarpaulin weights,                            103
    Tool house,                                 83-87
    Trash burner,                                 103
    Tree repair,                                  101
    Troughs,                                   74, 75
    Vegetable cellar,                          92, 93
    Walks,                                      28-34
    Walk specifications,                           29
    Watering troughs,                          74, 75
    Weights for hay caps and tarpaulins,          103
    Well cover,                                    69
    Well protection,                            67-70
    Wind walls,                                63, 64
    Window hatch,                                 112
    Wiring forms,                                  23




Concrete in the Country

=How the American Farmer is Solving His Conservation Problem=


Conservation is no new problem—it is as old as life itself. It becomes
a highly important question to the person or the nation only when the
resources scarcely supply the demands. Such is the situation in the
United States to-day. In the early days the removal of the forests
was necessary that much grain might be grown. The young Nation had
to have money, and as farming was the only means at hand to furnish
it, the natural fertility of the fields was reduced. But the money
thus supplied was merely a long-time loan on the Bank of Natural
Resources. To-day the vanishing forests and the failing fertility of
the fields bear witness that the loan is now due. Hence the problem of
conservation. Strange as it may seem, the farmer is using one material
not only to replace lumber but also, in a way, to restore the fertility
of his fields—that material is concrete.

The national and state governments and the railroads were the first to
make extensive use of concrete. Not only did the beauty and mystery
of this new construction naturally appeal to the farmer, but he
concluded that the railroads did not use it, in preference to wood,
steel and stone, merely to decorate the landscape. He knew too much
about railroads. So strongly did the railroads’ idea of economy (the
dollar argument) appeal to him that the farmer of the West is now
building practically everything about the farm of concrete. At first,
and quite naturally, land-owners in the rock and gravel regions began
using this new form of construction; but, since its cheapness in first
cost and value in lasting qualities have become generally known, a wave
of enthusiasm for farm structures of concrete has swept the entire
country. A gravel pit is now more valuable than many a gold mine.

With little help other than looking and listening, the farmer grasped
the idea of a concrete walk, and being a natural inventor and
jack-of-all-trades, improved on the method by adding a small curb
next to his flower bed to keep the dirt from washing on the white
walk. This walk was a blessing to the boy—all the time formerly given
to scrubbing and weeding the old brick walk could now be devoted
to fishing. The yard walk was extended to the barns and outlying
buildings. Wading through seas of mud and resulting tracked-up kitchen
floors became a thing of the past. By simply increasing the width of
the walk, a cellar floor was provided and the farmer had a dry cellar.
This was so clean and so odorless that he considered such a floor fit
for that most immaculate of all places—the milk house. Concrete cellar
hatchway and steps, safe under the heaviest barrel of vinegar, and
water-tight, were made in a manner similar to walks.

Brick work had long been laid up in a mixture of Portland cement and
sand. As this kept the water out, the farmer reasoned that it would
keep the water in, and he started to build cistern floors, walls and
cover of Portland cement concrete at one-third to one-half the cost of
the old brick cistern.

After a little more observation, he quit digging deep cistern-pits,
with the necessary annoyance of thawing out frozen pumps and carrying
water—he built a concrete cistern on top of the ground and made the
pumping and carrying of the water a mere matter of turning a faucet in
the kitchen and the bath room.

Several years ago corn was so cheap that in some sections it was
burned for fuel instead of coal. No consideration was then given to
the bushels wasted in muddy feed lots. If the mud became too deep, the
feeding was transferred to the blue grass pasture. To be sure, as the
sod wore out, the feeding-place had to be changed; but somebody had
advanced the idea that this particular method of feeding was good for
the soil. Many farmers had tried wooden feeding floors and had found
them a paying proposition as far as the saving of feed was concerned,
in the general health of the animal, and in the shortened time of
fattening. But two great drawbacks were the rats that infested them
and the constant need of repairs. In concrete the thoughtful farmer
saw the possibilities of an ideal floor—an easily cleaned, rat-proof,
disease-proof surface upon which his hogs, sheep, cattle and poultry
might consume the feed even to the smallest particle.

So satisfactory did the feeding floor prove that the same treatment
suggested itself as a remedy for the fly-breeding, muddy holes in the
earthen floors and the rat-infested wooden floors of the barns. But
the careful horseman held up a bit: he was afraid that stamping at
the flies, his valuable Percherons, Shires and Morgans might stiffen
up their legs. He experimented by placing concrete floors in his open
sheds, which were usually too muddy for the stock to lie down in stormy
weather, just when the straw stacks afforded no protection and when he
needed the sheds most, and found such floors satisfactory.

To-day the manure question is one of the most important considerations
of the time. The virgin soil of the prairies, of the cleared woodlands
and of the broken-up ranges, for a few years produced immense crops
of cotton and grain. To build up the decreasing productiveness of the
fields the farmer soon learned that barnyard manure was the best thing
at hand. The passing of the cattle ranch and the resulting higher price
of meats made stock raising very profitable even to the small farmer,
especially since feeding floors made it possible for him to return
to the soil, in the form of manure, all the fertility which had been
removed in the growing of grain. Leaving out the matter of foods, the
strength of manure is dependent directly upon its manner of storage.
Manure piled on the bare ground or in wooden pens loses one-third
to one-half of its fertilizing properties on account of leaching,
due to heavy rains and tramping of the stock, and later because of
fermentation or “firing” brought about by the lack of sufficient
moisture. This fertilizer usually sells at from 75 cents to $1.00 per
load.

The farmer of to-day builds a water-tight concrete cistern or pit
in which he stores the manure and keeps it as moist as need be. He
extended the concrete floors to the dairy barns with the result that
they were so clean, so odorless and so sanitary that state inspection
is now often insisting and will soon force careless dairymen to put in
such floors as a means of protecting the public health from disease
germs carried in unclean milk. The drop gutters carry all the liquids,
the richest part of the manure, formerly wasted, to the manure pits.
Consequently, one load of manure, thus properly preserved, is easily
worth two loads as ordinarily stored. By confining the manure in
pits and by paving the barn lot with concrete, the farm has been rid
of the chief breeding-place of flies, gnats, mosquitos and disease.
Moreover, such an interior court, surrounded by buildings and concrete
wind walls, forms an excellent feed and winter exercise lot.

Government statistics show that the human death-rate on the farm, in
spite of the fresh food and pure air, is greater than the death-rate in
the city. State University tests of drinking-water have shown beyond a
doubt that the waters of many ordinary shallow and unprotected wells
contain the germs of such dangerous diseases as typhoid fever. To
prevent the polluted surface waters from seeping into the well, many
people are covering their wells and walling them up with water-tight
concrete. Others are sinking “driven” wells and protecting them with
concrete housings. The principle of deep wells for pure water, among
other things, has made gasoline engines a necessity on the farm.
These engines and hydraulic rams at springs, firmly set and housed in
concrete, supply an abundance of water for the concrete reservoirs
or elevated, reinforced pressure tanks. From these places of storage
water is distributed to float-controlled, rot-proof watering tanks and
troughs of the same material. With such a water supply animals never
suffer for water. Even springs and mouths of drain tile are improved
and the water made clean and wholesome by the use of concrete.

Thus the conservative farmer of the present time gives careful
attention to the health, comfort and convenience of his family.
Moreover, the care of the animals is not neglected. A concrete dipping
vat holds the liquids which free horses, cattle, sheep and hogs of
mange, lice, mites, ticks and fleas. The Department of Agriculture is
stamping out the Texas fever and sheep scab by insisting on the use
of dipping tanks throughout all quarantined districts. A hog wallow
with concrete sides and bottoms gives the hog the pleasure afforded
by running streams and at the same time protects him from the cholera
often carried down from animals affected further up stream.

The continual rotting off of wooden fence posts, the constantly
increasing cost of new ones, and the annual expense of fence repairs,
called for the introduction of some substitute. Land is entirely
too valuable and life too short to attempt growing wooden posts.
Even before the telephone and telegraph companies had thought of the
possibilities of concrete in this line, a few venturesome farmers had
given reinforced concrete posts a trial and found their use not only
advisable from the standpoint of cheapness in first cost, but more
profitable on account of their everlasting qualities. The Department
of Agriculture at Washington has thoroughly investigated the use and
methods of making concrete posts and is furnishing a free bulletin
describing the process. Such posts are also valuable in the culture of
grapes and hops.[1]

[1] Farmers’ Bulletin 403, Concrete Fence Posts. Sent free on
application.

The use of concrete in farm buildings has gradually developed from
the ground upward. The drip soon rots out timber near the ground and
eventually crumbles away the brick foundation. At first, uselessly
making the walls as heavy as those of brick, the farmer gave concrete
a trial in foundations. Concrete is stronger than brick. As a wall it
kept the basement and back barn dry. The height of the foundation wall
increased until it supported the joists of the hay loft. Finally, after
a study of methods, of reinforcing, the entire barn—basement, walls,
floors, mangers, troughs, gutters, beams and even the shingles—became
concrete. Matches or lanterns accidentally dropped on concrete floors
in concrete barns do not cause the terror of former times. The oil will
burn until smothered out with a horse blanket, but no further damage
will be done.

Poultry raising on many farms has become well-nigh impossible on
account of rats. To free the farm of these destructive animals, as a
last resort and in spite of the assertions that the grain would spoil,
the thoroughly provoked farmer put concrete floors under his cribs
and granaries. Corn matured enough not to spoil on other floors kept
perfectly on concrete. The rats had to go; they could not get through
such floors. And so we might continue, describing how farmers have
successfully used concrete in building every class of structure from a
stepping stone to the entire group of farm buildings.

Just as there are right and wrong methods of farming, so, too, are
there right and wrong ways of using concrete. It is the aim of this
book to give such directions and information as will enable the reader
to build with concrete surely and successfully.

“CONCRETE IN THE COUNTRY” does not pretend to fully cover the
subject—the field is too large to be exhausted in one such volume. But
the publishers have attempted to deal with as wide a variety of types
of concrete construction as is possible in the space available.

Fuller details are given in other pamphlets, which will be furnished
free to anyone who will write to the address given on the first page of
this book.


=Publications issued by the Association of American Portland Cement
Manufacturers, Philadelphia, Pa.=

At the office of the above Association there are available books
dealing with concrete construction of all classes. These books describe
the construction of silos, fence posts, tanks, troughs, concrete roads,
and many other works. Upon request there will be sent a list of the
publications in print. The books, with one or two exceptions, are sent
free of cost.




What is “Concrete”?


Concrete—a manufactured stone—is made by mixing together Portland
cement, sand and stone (or gravel). Various proportions of each are
used, depending upon the use to which the concrete is put. About half
an hour after mixing these materials together, the mass begins to
stiffen, until, in from half-a-day to a day, it becomes so hard that
you cannot dent it with the hand. By a month the mass is hard like
stone—indeed, harder than most stones.


Materials

Before attempting to describe the actual process of mixing and placing
concrete, it will be well for us to have a pretty clear understanding
as to the nature of the materials with which we are to work, and how
best these may be selected.


Portland Cement

For domestic use, Portland Cement is furnished in cloth sacks and paper
bags. When furnished in cloth sacks, the price per barrel includes
the cost of the sacks (four sacks making a barrel). When the sacks
are returned in good condition, the amount charged is rebated to the
customer. Where cement is furnished in paper bags, the price also
includes the cost of the paper bags which, however, are not returnable.

Many cement users prefer their cement furnished in paper bags, as it
does away with the bother of keeping account of the cloth sacks and
sending them bade to the dealer for credit.

The paper bag or cloth sack of cement weighs 94 pounds, and four such
make a barrel of 376 pounds.

The storage of cement is very important. It must be kept in a dry
place. Once wet, it becomes hard and lumpy, and in such condition is
useless. If, however, the lumps are caused by pressure in the store
house, the cement may be used with safety. Lumps thus formed can be
easily broken by a blow from the back of a shovel.

In storing cement, throw wooden blocks on the floor. Place boards
over them and pile the cement on the boards, covering the pile with a
canvas or a piece of roofing paper. Never, under any circumstances,
keep cement on the bare ground, or pile it directly against the outside
walls of buildings.


Sand

Do not use very fine sand. If there is a large quantity of fine sand
handy, obtain a coarse sand and mix the two sands together in equal
parts; this mixture is as good as coarse sand alone.

Sometimes fine sand _must_ be used, because no other can be obtained;
but in such an event an additional amount of cement must be
used—sometimes as much as double the amount ordinarily required. For
example, in such a case, instead of using a concrete 1 part cement, 2
parts sand, and 4 parts stone, use a concrete 1 part cement, I part
sand, and 2 parts stone.

Besides being coarse, the sand should be clean, _i. e._, free from
vegetable matter. “But,” you say, “how shall I tell whether the sand is
what you call clean?”

The presence of dirt in the sand is easily ascertained by rubbing a
little in the palm of the hand. If a little is emptied into a pail of
water, the presence of dirt will be shown by the discoloration of the
water. This can be discovered also by filling a fruit jar to the depth
of 4 inches with sand and then adding water until it is within an inch
of the top. After the jar has been well shaken, the contents should
be allowed to settle for a couple of hours. The sand will sink to the
bottom, but the mud, which can be easily recognized by its color, will
form a distinct layer on top of the sand, and above both will be a
clear depth of water. If the layer of mud is more than one-half inch in
thickness, the sand should not be used unless it is first washed.

Having discovered that the sand you contemplate using is not clean, and
provided you cannot readily obtain any that _is_ clean, you may use
what you have, provided you wash it in the following manner:—

Build a loose board platform from 10 to 15 feet long, with one end a
foot higher than the other. On the lower end and on the sides, nail a
board 2 by 6 inches on edge, to hold the sand. Spread the sand over
this platform in a layer three or four inches thick, and wash it with
a hose. The washing should be started at the high end, and the water
allowed to run through the sand and over the 2 by 6-inch piece at the
bottom. A _small_ quantity of clay or loam does not injure the sand,
but any amount over 5 per cent. does.


Stone or Gravel

This is known as the “coarse aggregate” of concrete. Great care should
be used in its selection. The pebbles should be closely inspected
to see that there is no clay on their surface. A layer of such clay
prevents the “binding” of the cement. If necessary stone or gravel may
be washed in the same way as above described for sand. Indeed, it is
more easily done than sand, as the water flows through the larger voids
in the gravel more readily than through the voids in the sand. Dust may
be left in the crushed stone without fear of its interfering with the
strength of the cement, but care should be taken to see that such dust
is distributed evenly through the whole mass, and when dust is found in
stone, slightly less sand should be used than ordinarily.

As to the size of stone or gravel, this must be determined by the
form of construction contemplated. For foundations or any large thick
structure, use anything from ½ to 2½ inches in diameter. For thin walls
use ¼ to 1-inch stone.

The best results are obtained by the use of a mixture of sizes graded
from small to large. By this means the spaces or voids between the
stones or pebbles are reduced and a more compact concrete is obtained.
Moreover, this method makes it possible to get along with less sand and
less cement.


Pure Water Necessary in Mixing

Water for concrete should be clean and free from strong acids and
alkalies. It may be readily stored in a barrel beside the mixing board
and placed on the concrete with a bucket. If you are at all in doubt
about the purity of the water that you contemplate using, it would be
well to make up a block of concrete as a test, and see whether the
cement “sets” properly.


Proportioning the Mixture

That mixture in which all the spaces (called “voids”) between the stone
or gravel are filled with sand, and all the spaces between the sand
are filled with cement, is the ideal mixture. This mixture is rarely
attained, as the voids in each load of gravel and sand vary slightly,
and in order to be absolutely safe, it is well to use a little more
cement than will just fill the voids.

[Illustration: Fig. 1.—Quantities of cement, sand, and gravel in 1: 2:
4 concrete mixture, which means 1 part cement, 2 parts sand, 4 parts
crushed stone or gravel, and the resulting quantity of concrete, which
is only slightly greater in size than the gravel, the sand and cement
filling the voids in the gravel.]

                               TABLE I.

       SHOWING THE QUANTITIES OF MATERIALS AND THE RESULTING
              AMOUNT OF CONCRETE FOR TWO-BAG BATCH.

        Legend:
        AA = Cement
        BB = Sand
        CC = Stone or Gravel
    --------+-----------+-----------------------------------------------
            |PROPORTIONS|
            | BY PARTS. |             TWO-BAG BATCH.
            +---+---+---+-------------------+------+-------------+------
            |   |   |   |                   |      |   Size of   |Water
            |   |   |   |                   |      |  Measuring  | in
    KIND OF |   |   |   |     Materials.    |      |    Boxes.   | Gal-
   CONCRETE |   |   |   |                   |      |   Inside    | lons
    MIXTURE.|   |   |   |                   |      |Measurements.| for
            |   |   |   +-----+------+------+      +------+------+Medium
            |   |   |   |     |      |      | Con- |      |      |Wet
            |AA |BB |CC |  AA |  BB  |  CC  |crete.|  BB  |  CC  |Mix-
            |   |   |   |     |      |      |      |      |      |ture.
    --------+---+---+---+-----+------+------+------+------+------+------
            |   |   |   |Bags.|Cu.ft.|Cu.ft.|Cu.ft.|      |      |Gal-
            |   |   |   |     |      |      |      |      |      |lons.
     1:2:4  | 1 | 2 | 4 |  2  |  3¾  |  7½  |  8½  |2′×2′ | 2′×4′| 10
    Concrete|   |   |   |     |      |      |      | 11½″ |  11½″|
            |   |   |   |     |      |      |      |      |      |
     1:2½:5 | 1 | 2½| 5 |  5  |  4¾  |  9½  |  10  |2′×2½′| 2′×5′| 12½
    Concrete|   |   |   |     |      |      |      | 11½″ |  11½″|
    --------+---+---+---+-----+------+------+------+------+------+------

As above explained, concrete is composed of a certain amount of cement,
a larger amount of sand, and a still larger amount of stone (or
gravel). To determine how much of each of these materials to use, we
must first consider the type of work we wish to undertake. For ordinary
work about the farm (silos, tanks, cisterns, fence posts, well curbs,
etc., etc.) use twice as much stone as sand, and twice as much sand as
cement. This is called a 1: 2: 4 mixture—meaning that there are in
that mixture:

    1 part of cement,
    2 parts of sand,
    4 parts of stone or gravel.

For sidewalks, gutters, etc., a “weaker” mixture is sometimes used,
consisting of:

    1 part of cement,
    2½ parts of sand,
    5 parts of stone or gravel.

The proportions should always be measured by volume, and the best way
to do the measuring is by the use of a home-made “measuring box,”
of any kind of rough boards having straight sides, but with no top
or bottom. The size of these measuring boxes is determined by the
proportion desired for your mixture. For such boxes you need the
following sized lumber:

    4 pieces 1 inch by 11½ inches by 2 feet rough (ends of sand and
          stone boxes).
    2 pieces 1 inch by 11½ inches by 4 feet rough (sides of sand box).
    2 pieces 1 inch by 11½ inches by 6 feet rough (sides of stone box).

Note: The two pieces 4 feet long and the two pieces 6 feet long have an
extra foot in length at each end to be made into a handle, as shown in
Fig. 3.

For a 1: 2½: 5 mixture, you require the following sized lumber:

    4 pieces 1 inch by 11½ inches by 2 feet (ends of sand and stone
          boxes).
    2 pieces 1 inch by 11½ inches by 4 feet 6 inches (sides of sand
          box).
    2 pieces 1 inch by 11½ inches by 7 feet (sides of stone box).

        Note: The two pieces 4 feet 6 inches long and the
      two pieces 7 feet long have an extra foot in length
      at each end to be made into a handle, as shown in Fig. 3.


To illustrate the use of the measuring box, let us once more assume
that a 1: 2: 4 mixture is required, and that the amount of finished
concrete needed is 8½ cubic feet. By referring to the table on page
11 it will be noted that two bags of cement are required, also 3¾
cubic feet of sand and 7½ cubic feet of stone or gravel. Under “size
of measuring box” it is found that the sand should just fill a box 2
feet by 2 feet by 11½ inches, and that the stone should fill a box 2
feet by 4 feet by 11½ inches. Lay the sand box, or frame, on the mixing
platform and fill it. Then raise the box. Empty two bags of cement on
the sand and mix as described under “Mixing,” see pages 14-22. Even off
the mixture thus obtained with your shovel, place the stone measuring
box on top of the mixture and fill it. Raise the measuring box—and you
have the correct amount of stone all ready to be mixed with the cement
and sand. It is important to measure both the sand and stone _loose_ in
the box—never “pack” them.

For purposes of explanation, size of mixture will be referred to as
a “_batch_” of so many bags of cement. Thus, a “two-bag batch of
concrete” would mean one requiring two bags of cement, with the sand
and stone proportioned accordingly, as shown above.

For a “four-bag batch of concrete” it would be necessary to multiply
the amount of stone and gravel by 2, also multiplying the cubic
contents of the measuring box by 2, and using four bags of cement
instead of two.

The table previously referred to also shows the amount of water for
different sized batches, but it is to be noted that the quantity of
this ingredient is only approximated. Use the amount indicated in
the table for the first batch, and if it proves too wet for the use
desired, reduce the amount of water; if too dry, increase the amount of
water. Always use a bucket in measuring the amount of water, as this
secures uniform results.


Natural Mixture of Bank Sand and Gravel

Naturally mixed bank sand and gravel are sometimes found in the right
proportions for making concrete. Generally, however, there is far too
much sand for the gravel, and great care should be exercised in using
this class of material. Unless the mixture runs very even throughout
the bank, and is found to be made up of one part sand to two parts
gravel, it is better to screen the sand out of the gravel and prepare
the materials in the usual way.

Herewith is a table showing the quantities for a natural mixture of
bank sand and gravel. The quantities can be found in the same way as in
Table I, on page 11.

                               TABLE II.

           SHOWING THE QUANTITIES OF MATERIALS AND THE
         RESULTING AMOUNT OF CONCRETE FOR TWO-BAG BATCH, USING
         NATURAL MIXTURE OF BANK SAND AND GRAVEL.

    --------+---------------+-------------------------------------------
            |  PROPORTIONS  | TWO-BAG BATCH FOR NATURAL MIXTURE OF
            |   BY PARTS.   |          BANK SAND AND GRAVEL.
            +-------+-------+---------------+-------+----------+--------
            |       |       |               |       | Size of  |
            |       |       |  Materials.   |       |Measuring |
    KIND OF |       |       |               |       |   Boxes. |
    CONCRETE|       |       +-------+-------+       +----------+Water in
    MIXTURE.|       |Natural|       |Natural| Con-  |          |Gallons
            |Cement.|Mixture|Cement.|Mixture|crete. |Mixture of| for
            |       |of Sand|       |of Sand|       | Sand and |Medium
            |       |  and  |       |  and  |       |  Gravel. |Wet
            |       |Gravel.|       |Gravel.|       |          |Mixture.
    --------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+----------+--------
            |       |       | Bags. |Cu. ft.|Cu. ft.|          |Gallons
     1:2:4  |   1   |   4   |   2   |   7½  |   8½  |2′×4′×11½″| 10
    Concrete|       |       |       |       |       |          |
            |       |       |       |       |       |          |
     1:2½:5 |   1   |   5   |   2   |   9½  |  10   |2′×5′×11½″| 12½
    Concrete|       |       |       |       |       |          |
    --------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+----------+--------

There are three kinds of mixtures, in general, on concrete work:—

        1st.—_Very Wet Mixture._—Concrete wet enough to be
      mushy and run off the shovel when handling, used for
      thin walls or for thin sections, etc.

        2d.—_Medium Mixture._—Concrete just wet enough
      to make it jelly-like, used for foundations, floors,
      etc. To better describe this mixture it may be said
      that a man should sink ankle deep if he were to step
      on top of the pile.

        3d.—_Dry Mixture._—Concrete like damp earth, used
      for foundations, etc., where it is important to have
      the concrete “set” up as quickly as possible.

The difference between the mixtures is, that the dryer the mixture the
quicker will the concrete “set up”—but in the long run, when carefully
mixed and “placed,” the results from any of the above mixtures will be
identical. It may be said, however, that a dry mixture is the harder to
handle, must be protected with greater care from the sun or from drying
too quickly; and lastly, is likely—unless used by most experienced
hands—to show voids or stone pockets in the face of the work when the
“Forms” are removed. The less the voids in the stone or gravel, the
greater will be the volume of the concrete. In general, the amount
of concrete will be greater in each instance than is shown in the
table—especially when gravel is used.

[Illustration: Fig. 2.—Concrete Mixing Plant, showing Concrete Board,
Tools, etc., Necessary for Mixing Concrete by Hand.]


Tools

One great advantage of concrete, so far as the farmer is concerned,
lies in the fact that, generally speaking, it necessitates no outlay
for tools, for it so happens that most of the tools needed for forms of
concrete construction are the very ones every farmer uses—

Shovels—One for each man on the job.

Wheelbarrows—At least two, preferably those with sheet iron bodies.

Rake.

Water Barrel.

Several Water Buckets.

A Tamper or Rammer—This is made of wood with handles nailed to it, as
shown in Fig. 2. The measurement is 4 inches by 2 inches by 2 feet 6
inches.

A Garden Spade.

A Sand Screen, made by nailing a piece of ¼-inch mesh wire screen, 2½
feet by 5 feet in size, to a frame made of 2-inch by 4-inch scantling.

In addition to the above tools you will require a Mixing Board. This is
simply a water-tight platform. It should be (for a two batch mixture
and for two men to work on) about 10 feet square. Make it out of 1-inch
boards 10 feet long, surfaced on one side, using 5 cleats to hold the
boards together. The cleats should measure 2 inches by 4 inches by 9
feet. If 1-inch by 6-inch tongued and grooved roofers can be obtained,
these will answer very nicely, provided they are fairly free from
knots. The object of having surfaced boards is to make the shoveling or
turning easy. The boards should be so laid as to enable the shoveling
to be done with and not against the cracks between the boards. The
boards must be drawn up close in nailing, so that no cement “grout”
will run through while mixing.

For a larger job, a slightly larger mixing board will be needed.

In setting up your mixing board, choose a place giving plenty of room
near the storage piles of sand and stone. Block up your concrete board
level, so that the cement grout will not run off on one side, and so
that the board will not sag in the middle under the weight of the
concrete.


Wheelbarrow “Runs”

You will also have to make wheelbarrow “runs” leading from your mixing
board to the spot where the concrete is to be placed. Do not use, for
these runs, any old boards that are handy. Make a good run—smooth,
and, if much above the ground, at least 20 inches wide. This one
feature will lighten and quicken the work to a remarkable extent.


How to Mix Concrete

Having selected the proper materials and arranged the mixing board and
runs, the next step is the actual process of mixing.

The proportions of materials and the nature of same for various types
of work have already been described on pages 11-13. In following
the mixing instructions here given, considerable assistance will be
obtained by referring to the illustrations with which instructions are
interspersed.

[Illustration]

[Illustration: Fig. 3.—Lifting off the Sand Measuring Box and Getting
Cement Ready.]

[Illustration]

[Illustration: Fig. 4.—Spreading the Cement Over the Sand.]

The Hand Mixing Method

There are many ways of “hand mixing,” all having the same good results.
The way described here we believe to be the one best calculated to
obtain good results with a minimum of labor. In this description, and
the accompanying illustrations, we have taken as a basis a “Two-Bag
Batch” of 1: 2: 4 concrete.

First load your sand in wheelbarrows from the sand pile, wheel on to
the “Board,” and fill the sand measuring box, which is placed about
two feet from one of the 10-foot sides of the board, as shown by the
diagram in Fig. 3. When the sand box is filled, lift it off and spread
the sand over the board in a layer 3 or 4 inches thick, as shown in
Fig. 4. Take the two bags of cement and place the contents as evenly
as possible over the sand (see Fig. 4). With the two men at points
marked “x” and “xx” on the sketch below Fig. 4, start mixing the sand
and cement, each man turning over the half on his side of the line AA.
Starting at his feet and shoveling away from him, each man takes a
full shovel load, turning the shovel over at the points marked 1 and
2 respectively in Fig. 4. In turning the shovel, do not simply dump
the sand and cement at the points marked 1 and 2 in the diagram under
the cut, but shake the materials off the end and sides of the shovel,
so that the sand and cement are mixed as they fall. This is a great
assistance in mixing these materials. In this way the material is
shoveled from one side of the board to the other, as shown in Figs. 5
and 6. Fig. 5 shows the first turning, and Fig. 6 the second turning.

The sand and cement should now be well mixed and ready for the stone
and water. After the last turning, spread the sand and cement out
carefully, place the gravel or stone measuring box beside it as shown
in Fig. 7, and fill from the gravel pile. Lift off the box and shovel
the gravel on top of the sand and cement, spreading it as evenly as
possible. With some experience, equally good results can be obtained
by placing the gravel measuring box on top of the carefully leveled
sand and cement mixture, and filling it, thus placing the gravel on
top without an extra shoveling. This method is shown in Fig. 8. Add
about three-fourths the required amount of water, using a bucket and
dashing the water over the gravel on top of the pile as evenly as
possible. (See Fig. 9). Be careful not to let too much water get near
the edges of the pile, as it will run off, taking some cement with it.
This caution, however, does not apply to a properly constructed mixing
board, as the cement and water cannot get away. Starting the same as
with the sand and cement, turn the materials over in much the same way,
except that instead of shaking the materials off the end of the shovel,
the whole shovel load is dumped as at points 1 or 2 in the diagram
under Fig. 4 and dragged back toward the mixer with the square point
of the shovel. This mixes the gravel with the sand and cement, the wet
gravel picking up the sand and cement as it rolls over when dragged
back by the shovel. (See Fig. 10). Add water to the dry spots as the
mixing goes on until all the required water has been used. Turn the
mass bade again, as was done with the sand and cement. With experienced
laborers, the concrete should be well mixed after three such turnings;
but if it shows streaky or dry spots, it must be turned again. After
the final turning, shovel into a compact pile. The concrete is now
ready for placing.

[Illustration]

[Illustration: Fig. 5.—First Turning, Sand and Cement.]

[Illustration]

[Illustration: Fig. 6.—Second Turning, Sand and Cement.]

[Illustration]

[Illustration: Fig. 7.—Filling the Stone (or Gravel) Measuring
Box—First Method.]

[Illustration]

[Illustration: Fig. 8.—Filling the Stone (or Gravel) Measuring Box
When on Top of Mixed Sand and Cement—Second Method.]

[Illustration: Fig. 9—Placing the Water on the Stone (or Gravel) which
is on Top of the Mixed Sand and Cement.]


Mixing Natural Mixture of Bank Sand and Gravel

Spread out the mixture of sand and gravel as much as the board will
readily permit, add enough water to wet the gravel and sand thoroughly,
spread the cement evenly in a thin layer over the sand and gravel, and
turn over, as described previously, at least three times, adding the
rest of the water necessary to get the required consistency while the
materials are being turned. It requires some experience to work up a
natural mixture of bank sand and gravel, and if at all doubtful about
the concrete made from it, first screen the sand from the gravel, and
then mix in the regular way.

[Illustration: Fig. 10.—Mixing the Stone (or Gravel) with the Sand and
Cement.]


Number of Men

For the above operation only two men are required, although more can
be used to advantage. If three men are available, let two of them mix
as described above and the third man supply the water, help mix the
concrete by raking over the dry or unmixed spots as the two mixers turn
the concrete, help load the wheelbarrows with sand and stone or gravel,
etc. Fig. 5 shows a third man on the board. In this illustration, he is
helping mix the sand and cement by raking it—a most effective practice.

If four men are available, it is best to increase the size of the batch
mixed to a four-bag batch, doubling the quantities of all materials
used. The cement board should also be increased to 10 by 12 feet as
shown under “Tools.” In this case start the mixing in the middle of the
board, and each pair of men mixing exactly as if for a two-bag batch,
except that the concrete is shoveled into one big mass each time it
is turned back on to the center of the board. When more than four men
are available, the rest may place the concrete, make new runs, load
wheelbarrows, etc., taking the concrete away from the board as fast as
it is mixed. In this case another small concrete board should be placed
next to the big “board,” so that in the last turning the batch can be
shoveled over on to the small board for placing, making room on the big
board to mix the next batch. The small platform need be only just big
enough to hold the pile of mixed concrete.


How to Determine Quantities of Materials Needed

First figure the number of cubic feet of concrete that will be required
for the work in question. Then by multiplying this number by the number
under the proper column and required mixture shown in Table III, the
amounts of cement, sand, and stone or gravel can be found.

                              TABLE III.

    -------------------+------------------------------------------------
                       | QUANTITIES OF MATERIAL IN 1 CU. FT. OF CONCRETE
                       +---------+--------------+-----------------------
           MIXTURE     | Cement, |     Sand,    | Stone or Gravel,
                       | Barrel  |   Cu. Yard   |     Cu. Yard
    -------------------+---------+--------------+-----------------------
    1 : 2  : 4 Concrete|   .058  |     .0163    |       .0326
    1 : 2½ : 5 Concrete|   .048  |     .0176    |       .0352
    -------------------+---------+--------------+-----------------------


=Example=

Suppose the work consists of a concrete silo requiring in all 935 cubic
feet of concrete, of which 750 cubic feet is to be 1: 2: 4 concrete,
and 185 cubic feet is to be 1: 2½: 5 concrete. Also enough sand and
cement is needed to paint the silo inside and outside, in all 400
square yards of surface, with a 1: 1 mixture of sand and cement. One
cubic foot of 1: 1 mortar will paint about 15 square yards of surface
and requires 0.1856 barrels of cement and 0.0263 cubic yards of sand.


=Solution, Etc.=

Thus the necessary quantities of materials are:—

    57½ barrels of Portland cement.
    16½ cubic yards of sand.
    31 cubic yards of stone or gravel.

It is always wise to order two or three extra barrels of cement, if the
dealer is at considerable distance, as this avoids any possible trouble
that a shortage might cause. Besides, any cement left over always comes
in handy for repair work around the house or barn.


Forms for Concrete

Concrete is a plastic material and before hardening, takes the shape of
anything against which or in which it is placed.

Naturally, the building of the Form is a most important item in the
success of the work.

These Forms hold the concrete in place, support it until it has
hardened and give it its shape, as well as its original surface finish.


Kinds of Forms

Almost any material which will hold the concrete in place will do for a
Form. Concrete foundations for farm buildings require shallow trenches,
and usually the earth walls are firm enough to act as a Form.

Molds of wet sand are used for ornamental work. Frequently colored
sands are used for this purpose, providing both the finished surface
and color to the concrete ornament.

Cast, wrought or galvanized iron is used, where an extremely smooth
finish is desired, without further treatment upon the removal of the
Forms. Forms made of iron are more easily cleaned, and can be used a
greater number of times than those of wood. Rusty iron, however, should
not be used.

By far the greatest number of Forms are made of wood, owing to the fact
that lumber in small quantities can always be obtained.


Requirements of a Good Form

Plan your Forms so there will be no difficult measurements to
understand. Make as few pieces of lumber do the work as you can, and
do not drive the Forms full of nails. If you do the Forms will be
difficult to take apart without splitting.

Forms must be strong enough to hold the weight of the concrete without
bulging out of shape. When they bulge, cracks open between the planks
and the water in the concrete, with some cement and sand, will leak
out. This weakens the concrete, and causes hollows in the surface which
look badly after the Forms are removed.

Forms which lose their shape after being used once can hardly be used a
second time. A part of the erection cost of Forms is saved if the Forms
are built in as large a section as is convenient to handle. This saving
applies to their removal, as well as to their setting. Consequently,
the lightest Forms possible, with the largest surface area, are the
most economical.


How to Plan Forms

[Illustration: Wiring Forms Prevents Bulging.]

The first consideration in planning Forms is the use to which they are
to be put. Neglect of this point means waste of money and time. If they
are for work afterward to be covered with a veneer coat, the finish of
the surface is of small consideration, while the alignment of the Form
is all-important.

If a tank or retaining wall is to be built, the fact that the Forms are
not in exact alignment will hardly be noticed.

In planning Forms for large structures, the oftener each section is
used, the less the cost. You save money if they are rigid in alignment,
and well surfaced. In other words, if you count on using your Forms
over and over again, the more nearly perfect they are, the more often
they can be used, and the cheaper they become.

If Forms are to be used only once, as is generally the case on the
farm, they should not be nailed so securely as to prevent their being
readily taken apart, and the lumber used for something else. If often
pays to put them together with screws. If nails are used, do not drive
them home.


Care Needed in Selecting Lumber for Forms

The selection of lumber is of importance. If the Forms are to be used
over many times, surfaced lumber, matched, tongued, and grooved stuff,
free from loose knots, is an economy. If, however, they are to be used
only once, almost any old plank will do. By nailing a board on the
outside of the cracks or over the bad knot, and filling with a little
clay, the Form is made tight.

Green lumber is preferable to kiln-dried or seasoned stuff. Seasoned
stuff, when wet (either by throwing water on the form before placing
the concrete or by absorbing the water from the concrete) warps, and
the shape and tightness of the Form are damaged.

[Illustration]

Originally only surfaced lumber was used for Forms, dependence being
placed on it for giving a finish to the work. While to-day other than
smooth surfaces for concrete are the fashion, surfaced lumber has some
advantages. The Forms fit together better and are easier to erect. They
are more easily cleaned. They are easier to remove. All these items
reduce the cost of the work. The saving effected will of course depend
on the difference in local price between finished and rough lumber.


How to Clean

Particles of concrete stick to the Forms. In order to prevent this,
give the surface next the concrete a coat of oil or soft soap. Linseed,
black or cylinder oil may be used. Never use kerosene.

Before erecting, paint the Forms with the oil or soap. Then carefully
protect them from dust or dirt until erected. Upon removal, immediately
clean off all the particles of concrete sticking to the surface. A
short-handled hoe will take off the worst, while a wire brush is most
effective for finishing. Be careful not to gouge the wood in cleaning,
as it will spoil the surface of your next section of concrete. It will
not be found necessary to repaint after each time of use. Watch the
surface and repaint if it appears dry in spots.

If chips or blocks of wood fall inside the Forms while erecting,
carefully remove them. The space inside the Forms is intended for the
concrete; and care should be taken to see that only concrete is placed
there.

The necessity of Forms presents a problem calling for the use of
that ingenuity for which the farmer is justly famed. Forms can be
economically placed in so many ways that only one example will be
given. A foundation Form in place is shown in the photograph. Note the
simple and easy method of bracing. Also note how lumber is saved from
cutting by allowing the sides to project, as well as the studding.

For this building, 18 by 24 feet, trench 18 inches wide and 2 feet
deep—total cost of setting forms $4.00. The lumber was all on hand and
can be used again.




How to Place Concrete


No time should elapse between the “mixing” and the “placing.”
Directions for placing must of necessity be general, and the farmer
must use his own judgment as to how to handle this part of the concrete
work, in connection with whatever particular job he has on hand. The
important thing to remember is, that the materials should not separate
in placing.

You may shovel the concrete off the board directly into the work; you
may shovel it into wheelbarrows, wheel it to position and dump, or you
may carry it to the proper place by buckets and hoisting apparatus.


Directions for Placing

[Illustration]

Ordinarily speaking, concrete should be deposited in layers about 6
inches thick.

After placing concrete in the Form, it should be “tamped” _lightly_
with a wooden or iron tamper (or rammer) until the water shows on the
top and no stones are left uncovered by mortar.

In order to obtain a smooth face on the concrete, the mixture should be
carefully “spaded” immediately after “placing”—on the side next to the
Form where the finished concrete will be exposed to view. By “spading”
is meant the working of a spade or a beveled board between the concrete
and the side of the Form, moving it to and fro, and up and down. This
forces the large stones away from the boarding, or Form, and brings
a coating of mortar next thereto, thus making the face of the work
present an even, smooth appearance.


The Necessary Tools

On certain jobs—as, for instance, in the case of a 6-inch silo wall—a
spade cannot very well be used, on account of the narrowness of the
concrete section. In this event, use for surfacing, a thin wooden
paddle, made from a board 1 inch by 4 inches, and gradually sharpened
to a chisel edge at the end. The sharpening should be on one side only,
and in using this paddle place the flat side against the Form, as shown
in illustration.

When the mixture is a _dry_ one, great care must be used in this
“spading” or surfacing, in order to obtain uniform results, but in
the case of a _wet_ mixture, spading is only required as an added
precaution against the possibility of voids in the face of the work,
and in many cases it is not necessary at all.


Protection of Concrete after Placing

Green concrete should not be exposed to the sun until after it has
been allowed to set for five or six days. Each day during that period
the concrete should be wet down by sprinkling water on it, both in
the morning and afternoon. This is done so that the concrete on the
outside will not dry out much faster than the concrete in the center
of the mass, and should be carried out carefully, especially during
the hot summer months. Old canvas, sheeting, burlap, etc., placed so
as to hang an inch or so away from the face of the concrete will do
very well as a protection. Wet this, as well as the concrete. Often the
concrete Forms can be left in place a week or ten days; this protects
the concrete during the setting-up period and the above precautions are
then unnecessary.


Points to Remember

It may be well, in summing up, to emphasize the following points:—

    1st. The materials must be perfectly clean.
    2d. The mixing must be in proportions carefully determined.
    3d. The mixture must be used while absolutely fresh.

Good results cannot be obtained unless you use a good cement, nor will
the work be at its best unless care is taken in the selection of clean
sand and clean stone.

Among the uninitiated, there is an all too prevalent idea that anything
is good enough for the making of concrete. Some will tell you that
sawdust, shavings, mud, clay, etc., will do to complete the mixture,
but the absurdity of this notion will very soon become evident to
anyone who neglects the precautions which have been above pointed out.


Reinforcement

_Principles involved_

Concrete and steel render valuable assistance to each other in the
support of heavy burdens. On a solid foundation, loaded from above
and thus under direct pressure, a concrete column will withstand the
strain of an enormous load. A much smaller load so placed as to cause
stretching or bending toward one side of the same column may cause
it to snap off, for concrete is strong, but brittle. On the other
hand, steel is tough and elastic. In the form of rods or wire, steel
withstands massive loads that tend to stretch it, and thus displays
a kind of strength directly opposite to that of the plain concrete
column. In modern construction these two valuable properties of
concrete and steel are utilized by combining them in what is called
reinforced concrete. With steel properly buried in the concrete, the
column withstands not only the load which might otherwise snap it, but
one many times larger, and even though it is applied at any place along
its length.

Reinforcement, therefore, is steel in the form of rods, bars or wires,
buried in concrete to take up and to withstand the strains which tend
to stretch or to bend the concrete. A concrete fence post is merely a
small concrete column. Reinforced, it easily stands the strain from
usage in a fence line.

[Illustration]

The value of reinforcing concrete posts properly may readily be seen
in the figure. If a load (L) is raised so that its weight is supported
on one side by a wooden post, the post will bend. The fibre in the
wood on the side away from the load may be tough and elastic enough to
prevent the post from breaking, and when released the post will spring
back into its former position. In the third figure a No. 9 wire (W)
is fastened securely to the wooden post at the top and at the ground
surface, and is supported along its length by the struts (S). If the
same load is applied, the post will not bend, because the wire takes
up the bending or stretching strain. This is precisely the case with
the reinforcement in a concrete post. Supported along its length by the
concrete, the wire (W) or steel in other shapes takes up the bending or
stretching strains. Since the load which causes bending or stretching
may come from any direction, concrete posts are reinforced on every
side; otherwise they might break in a manner somewhat similar to that
in which the wooden post bends when the reinforcement is not on the
proper side of the post.

In the effort to be safe it is a common fault to insert more
reinforcement than is absolutely necessary. This adds needlessly to the
cost, for concrete becomes stronger as it grows older.


Kinds of Reinforcement

With regard to the roughness of the outside, metallic reinforcing
materials are divided into two classes, smooth and corrugated or
deformed. The general result of the many tests carried on in testing
laboratories seems to indicate that in strength of bond, if the
concrete is sufficiently rich and well mixed, smooth surfaces give
satisfactory results. Two kinds of reinforcement are much used—bars
and wire.

_Bars._—Round bars three-sixteenths or one-fourth of an inch in
diameter are the size and kind most used on the farm. The stock on hand
at blacksmith shops and hardware stores is generally from steel that
stretches too easily and therefore is not the best for reinforcement.
Companies which make a specialty of reinforcing materials can furnish
both rods and bars which stretch only under very large loads.

_Wire._—The development of the wire fence has produced a material well
suited for reinforcing purposes. Of equal size, such wire will produce
a stronger reinforcement than the material above described. In order
to obtain straight wire of the necessary length, the coils ordinarily
placed on the market should not be straightened out. Straight wire
can be obtained from dealers in the same manner as baling wire; that
is, either single or twisted into two or three-ply cables, and of the
length desired. The plain, ungalvanized fencing wire is the proper
kind, for galvanization adds nothing to the strength, and the metal
will not rust when incased in the concrete.




Concrete Sidewalks and Floors


Concrete floors are nothing more than sidewalks of large size, and are
formed by casting slabs in place.

The description given is an economical and practical method of laying
sidewalks or floors, easily adapted to any use where concrete is found
advantageous. This description will therefore apply not only to the
building of sidewalks, but to all flat surfaces of concrete resting on
the ground.


Lasting Qualities

Concrete floors must remain hard and in position to be permanent. To
accomplish this, good materials must be used, and proper methods of
mixing and placing must be followed. Only in this way can settlement
cracks, upheaval by frost or roots of trees, contraction cracks,
crumbling, and general failure be avoided.


Settlement Cracks

To avoid settlement cracks, thoroughly ram the ground after excavating
for the foundation. This gives a solid bearing to the concrete slab.


Upheaval by Frost

To prevent upheaval by frost a foundation formed of crushed stone, hard
furnace cinders, brick bats broken to about a 2-inch size, broken tile
or any other hard porous material, should be laid in such a way as to
obtain perfect drainage. Never use ashes.

If freezing occurs, room is in this way provided between the pieces of
stone for the expansion of the ice.

[Illustration]

If this foundation is placed in clay soil, side outlets or blind drains
of tile should be provided at points along the walk where they are
necessary, leading into holes filled with cinders or crushed stone,
which will allow the surrounding earth to soak up the accumulated
water. Clay soil holds the water collected in the drainage foundation,
and if it becomes entirely full of water, the ice formed during
freezing weather will upheave the walk.


Upheaval by Tree Roots

Upheaval by tree roots can be easily avoided by cutting out all roots
which run under the pavement at a less depth than 18 inches below the
surface of the ground.


Contraction Cracks

Cement concrete expands and contracts by changes of temperature in the
same way as steel. It is, therefore, necessary to cut joints which will
allow for this expansion and contraction. The concrete must be cut
entirely through to the bottom of the slab with a trowel, cleaver or
other instrument, the joint formed being from ⅛ to ¼ of an inch wide.
Blocks formed in this way should not be greater than 6 feet square (36
square feet).


Scaling or Crumbling of the Surface

The principal causes of scaling or crumbling surfaces are improper
mixing, drying out before the cement has thoroughly hardened and the
use of bad materials.

Cement needs water not only when mixed, but after being placed and
tamped, and until it has entirely hardened. If concrete is not kept
continually wet until hard, it is weakened, and the surface of such a
walk scales or becomes soft and chalky.


Specifications


DRAINAGE FOUNDATION

Stake out the lines of the walk, or dimensions of the floor. Excavate
to a depth of 16 inches, ram and tamp the ground thoroughly and evenly
and fill in 12 inches with clean large cinders, broken stone, pebbles,
brick bats, broken tile or other material selected. Place in position
wooden forms made of 2 by 4’s, these 2 by 4’s to be set on edge and
held in position by stakes firmly driven in the ground, the top edge to
be located so as to accurately outline the established grade or slope
of the walk or floor.

A walk should be higher in the center, or at one edge, to insure the
water running off. This slope should be ¼ of an inch to the foot.


SELECTION OF MATERIALS

Particular attention must be paid to the selection of the materials and
their mixing.

The concrete should be composed of gravel or crushed stone all of
which will pass through a ¾-inch mesh screen, and be collected on a
¼-inch mesh; sand, free from loam and preferably coarse, and a grade of
Portland cement guaranteed to meet all the requirements of the Standard
Specifications as adopted by the American Society for Testing Materials
and the American Society of Civil Engineers.


PROPORTIONS

The strength of the slab is not always governed by its thickness. The
greater strength is obtained by properly proportioning the gravel or
crushed stone, sand and Portland cement, so that all the spaces between
the stone are filled with sand and cement.

[Illustration]

The Portland cement, sand and gravel or crushed stone should be mixed
in proportions, if the sand is not very coarse, of 1: 2: 4—which
means, 1 part Portland cement, 2 parts sand, 4 parts gravel or crushed
stone, all passing a ¾-inch mesh and all collected on a ¼-inch mesh. If
the sand is coarse and the crushed stone or gravel well graded in size
of particles, it may be mixed in proportions of 1 part Portland cement,
2½ parts sand, 5 parts gravel or broken stone. All proportions are
measured by volume.

Bank run gravel is often used for sidewalk work, particularly where a
good bank can be found on the farm. It is safer, if this material be
used, to screen out the pebbles, using them as stone, measuring the
quantities of stone and sand as described above. Concrete should not be
laid in freezing weather.

[Illustration]


CONSISTENCY OF CONCRETE

Mix the concrete as described on page 15 to a consistency that when
tamped, it will not quake, but it should be sufficiently wet so that
some moisture will rise to the surface under tamping.


PLACING

Divide the walk by setting forms at right angles to the side forms.
The cross forms can be made of 2 by 4’s. These provide for expansion
and contraction joints. Hold these forms in place by driving stakes
through the foundation into the ground on the opposite side from where
the concrete is to be placed. Spread the concrete over the drainage
foundation to the thickness of the walk or floor, and in slabs not over
6 feet square. The thickness of a walk should be 4 inches, a driveway
6 inches, a floor over which a wagon may be driven 6 inches, and all
other floors 4 inches.

Fill in every other slab, placing enough forms to use up all the
concrete mixed in one batch. No batch should stand longer than one half
hour before being placed.

Tamp the concrete thoroughly. Use a template, with ends resting on the
side forms, and cut to a curve to give the walk the necessary crown.
The concrete should be tamped so as to conform to the curve of the
template. If one edge of the walk is made higher than the other, use a
straight edge resting on the side forms. Tamp the concrete to conform
to the straight edge.

[Illustration]

Mix another batch of concrete, remove the cross forms and place the
concrete between each slab, forming a continuous walk. Use the template
or straight edge and tamp as before. Immediately after placing the
closing slab, work a straight trowel or knife down through the entire
depth of the concrete between each slab, thus insuring a perfect
contraction joint. Smooth the surface with a wooden float.

[Illustration]

[Illustration]

A neat appearance may be given the contraction joints by running a
jointer along the top, thus smoothing the edges. Do this before the
concrete gets too hard. The sides of the walk may be smoothed in the
same way by use of an edger.

[Illustration]

When the concrete is nearly hard go over the surface with a piece of
oakum or a stiff brush, removing the marks of the float and giving a
good even wearing surface which will not be slippery. In using oakum
or a brush be careful not to remove the larger pieces of stone. If
surfacing in this manner disturbs the particles of stone and roughens
the walk to too great an extent, allow the walk to harden a little more
before finishing in this way. At the end of each day’s work see that
the last slab is entirely filled and finished.

[Illustration]

All interior floors, such as floors of cellar, barns and stables
require no contraction joints. They are made by laying a solid
continuous sheet of concrete. All outside floors should have
contraction joints forming slabs not over 6 feet square. These are
provided the same as in sidewalks. A feeding floor is formed merely
by sidewalk pavements set side by side. Instead of using a template
for crowning the surface, use a straight edge, each end resting on the
extreme outside forms to give a slope to the feeding floor. Contraction
joints for exterior floors are formed in the same way as for sidewalks.
The concrete is also placed in alternate slabs and finished in the same
way as sidewalks. When completed the walk or floor must be continuously
protected from the rays of the sun and from the wind for at least three
days, so that it will not dry out at any time. This can be easily
done by covering the concrete when it is hard with hay, straw, or old
carpet. This covering should be thoroughly soaked with water, and kept
wet for three or four days or longer if economy will permit.

[Illustration]

While the walk or floor is hardening it should be so protected as to
prevent persons or animals from disfiguring the surface by walking on
it.

[Illustration]




A Foundation Gutter and Walk


[Illustration]

Foundation gutters catch the water from off the rain-beaten side of the
building, quickly carry it away, and, by preventing “seepage,” keep the
cellar, basement, or ground-floor dry. In sloppy, muddy weather, they
also serve as convenient walks around the out-buildings.

Determine the grading or sloping of the gutter bottom from observation
of direction of the flow of surface water during rain storms, or from
local conditions, such as location of outlet into underground drain.
Excavate a trench 1 foot 6 inches in width, 10 inches deep on each
side, and hollowed out to 13 inches deep in the middle. Use a straight
edge or a grade cord, together with a spirit level, to give the bottom
of the trench the desired slope or “fall.” For each foot of length a
slope of one-eighth inch will be sufficient.

Clean the dirt off the foundation wall with a stiff broom or brush.

In the bottom of the trench place a 6-inch foundation of well-“tamped”
gravel, brickbats or crushed stone.

Make a one-bag batch of concrete in proportions, 1: 2½: 5. Have the
mixture just wet enough to tamp well.

[Illustration]

Place a 4-inch thickness of concrete to form a dish-shaped gutter 3
inches deep in the middle. Every five feet, make an expansion joint ⅛
of an inch wide by inserting a metal strip not less than 7 inches wide
and 18 inches long, or by cutting a joint entirely through the concrete
with a straight spade. Smooth the surface with a wooden float.

[Illustration]

           =Materials Required=
    One cubic yard crushed rock or screened gravel;
    ½ cubic yard sand;
    6 bags of Portland cement, for a 50-foot section.




Repairs to Farm Buildings


Since wood always fails first at the ground, the use of concrete on
the farm has developed from the ground up. After a farmer has had to
replace several sills or blocks of wood, he begins to look about him
for a new material which will not rot or will not have to be replaced.
Concrete is his natural selection.

[Illustration]

[Illustration]

Support the building by temporary struts, alongside of the post to be
removed. Saw off post entirely above rotten part. Dig a hole directly
under the post 2 feet deep, and slightly larger than the post itself.
Build a box with sides only, with the same inside measurement as the
hole already dug. The box must be long enough to reach from the ground
to a few inches above the bottom of post.

Fill hole with concrete, mixed 1: 2: 4. Then place the box in
position, and fill it with concrete until the bottom of the sawed-off
post is embedded about ½ an inch in the mixture. Leave the forms in
place for one week and after two weeks remove the struts which have
been used as temporary support for the building. The concrete should be
mixed fairly wet, and churned with a stick while being placed.

The bottom of the foundation may be made larger than the top, by simply
sloping one side of the box form—giving the effect shown in the
photograph.


Why Concrete Should be Used to Repair Farm Buildings

Repairs to foundations of this kind vary greatly in size and shape.
Concrete is the only material which can be used for any purpose,
whether large or small, without first having to be cut to the shape and
size desired. Consequently there is no cheaper known material for this
kind of work.

[Illustration]


Replacing an Entire Foundation with Concrete

The work can be done by the farmer, with the help of his own farm
labor, at times when more important work is not claiming his attention.

Foundations of concrete are indestructible.

At necessary points, remove a few stones or bricks, as the case may
be, inserting short pieces of heavy timber to wedge or jack up the
building. Carefully raise the building, by this means, until it stands
free of all foundations. Remove all the old stone or brick foundation
to be replaced, and set in place the forms for the concrete.

Small buildings can usually be raised high enough to allow working
room, whereby the form may be filled right up to the top with concrete.
The mixture should be a wet one. (Proportions, 1: 2: 4.)

Where buildings are too cumbersome to be raised by “jacking,” to a
sufficient height to give head-room, it will be found necessary to make
the foundations 3 inches wider than the sill. Carry the forms to the
desired height and utilize this extra 3 inches of width for placing the
concrete in the forms. The top board of the forms may also be left off
until you are ready to place the last of the concrete. In this case the
last batch of the concrete should be very wet. Tamp the concrete until
it comes up flush with the bottom of the sill, to the entire width of
the wall.

Be sure to leave a space in the concrete wall, under and on the sides
of the underpinning support, so that the building may later be lowered
back onto the new foundation and the timber removed. This opening must
be slightly larger than the underpinning support. After the building
has been lowered fill these openings with concrete. Lower the building
after the foundation has been in two weeks.




A Concrete Entrance Floor


[Illustration]

[Illustration]

At a point 3 feet from the building, dig a trench 6 inches wide and
18 inches deep—the length of this trench to be 2 feet greater than
the width of the doorway of the building. From the edge of the trench
nearest to the building, dig away the earth between trench and building
to a depth of 1 foot, and place here, to a depth of 6 inches, a fill
of either coarse gravel or crushed rock. Do not, however, place any of
this gravel fill in the trench. Mix concrete 1: 2½: 5, and lay same,
first in the trench, and then on top of the gravel fill; sloping the
surface so that it just meets the floor level at the doorway. Before
the concrete has had time to set, provide a runway slot for the sliding
doors—or better, build little guides or humps with the concrete,
to hold the doors in position. If the doors happen to be swinging
ones, place a gas pipe or iron socket in the soft concrete, for a
“shove-fastener.”

Note the concrete curb on the right of entrance door. This prevents the
gravel that surrounds the building from washing down onto the approach
and getting in the way of the doors. To build this curb, use 1-inch
planks placed on top of the concrete floor, to serve as forms to hold
concrete in place.

            =Materials Required=
    One cubic yard of crushed stone or screened gravel;
     2½ cubic yards of sand;
     5  bags of Portland cement.

This entrance floor was constructed in half a day, by one man.

[Illustration]




Farm Buildings Should be Connected by a Concrete Driveway


By using concrete to connect up buildings, this farmer has a solid,
substantial roadway that will last for all time—instead of the usual
muddy, untidy space that ordinarily separates such buildings.

To construct a driveway between the various buildings of a farm, first
excavate a trench 12 inches deep, this trench being the exact width
that you wish the finished driveway to be. Six feet is a convenient
width; but the drive should be made slightly wider than this at the
corners to provide for turning of vehicles.

Place in the trench a fill of gravel to a depth of 6 inches and tamp
it well. On top of the gravel fill, place your concrete mixture, to a
depth of 6 inches on the sides, and 7 inches at the center.

[Illustration]

For this work, concrete should be mixed in proportions 1: 2½: 5, and
wet enough to pack well.

[Illustration]

To finish, no mortar is needed. Leave the surface rough, so as to
afford a better footing for the horses and cattle.

                       =Materials Required=
    5 bags of Portland cement        }
    ½ cubic yard of sand             }  make a section of roadway
    1 cubic yard of crushed stone or }        6 by 10 feet
        screened gravel              }

Approximate cost, at current prices of materials, 6 cents per square
foot of surface.




Alleyways Between Buildings


The farmer of to-day plans for comfort and convenience. About the home,
mud is the greatest of all nuisances. In the spring and winter, the
driveways from the public road and the alleyways between buildings
become so muddy that they are often impassable. As a result the
grassy lawns and lots are driven over, cut to pieces, and the general
appearance of the farm is ruined. Moreover, in bad weather the chores
cannot be done unless the “hands” wear rubber boots. The women and
children are unable to get out to gather the eggs and to see after the
poultry. Muddy feet track up the house walks and floors.

Alleyways between buildings are built of concrete similar to driveways
with this exception—they are made dish-shaped to the same extent that
the driveway is crowned. This carries the roof water away from the
buildings instead of letting it soak in around the foundation walls.

[Illustration]




Carriage Washing Floors


Nothing will take the sticky mud off the wheels and body of a rig
except water. People have at times tried to remove this mud by
scraping, but have found that after the mud has once dried a large
amount of the varnish comes off with it and the “looks” of the carriage
is ruined.

Convenience in washing means that the wagon is pulled just outside of
the barn and quite near the pump or other source of water supply. All
of the carriages are washed in exactly this same spot, and, as this
is done day after day the washing place very shortly becomes nothing
more nor less than a mud hole. To avoid this a concrete floor should be
built.

This floor should be of the size to take not only the wheels of the rig
but the shafts or tongue as well. Unlike feeding and other floors, this
floor is built with a slope toward the center, with a catch basin under
the middle, from which a drain leads. Thus all of the water, together
with the mud coming off the wagon, flows into the basin. This basin
should be protected with a grating, with holes in same not less than ¼
of an inch. This grating should be removable so that the mud, which is
bound to flow into the basin, can be removed. A pipe less than 6 inches
should not be used to connect this basin up with a sewer or ditch
outlet. This will prevent the stoppage of the drain for many years. A
slope from the edges of the floor to the drain of ⅛ of an inch to the
foot should be made. To lay the floor proceed exactly as described in
“Sidewalks,” and, as the floor is exposed to the weather, contraction
joints must be provided, as in Feeding Floors.

After the floor is finished and while the concrete is yet soft, make
grooves in it, running from the basin to the edges of the floor. This
can be done by taking a V-shaped strip of wood and driving it into the
concrete at regular intervals by means of a tamper. This strip of wood
should be thoroughly greased so that it may be removed without having
the concrete stick to its surface.

[Illustration]




Feeding Floors and Barnyard Pavements


The saving principle of feeding floors has long been recognized by
successful breeders and feeders of live stock. The trouble, heretofore,
has been to obtain an entirely satisfactory material for floor
construction.


Disadvantages of Wooden Floors

Wooden floors kept the feed out of the mud and dust and not only
saved every particle of grain but also prevented wheezing coughs and
otherwise temporarily improved the health of the animal. However, in a
short time, the best wooden floors rotted out and became infected with
disease germs. Often floors had to be burned to free the farm of hog
cholera.


Advantages of Concrete

In concrete the farmer and ranchman have found an ideal floor material.
Such floors not only effect a saving in feed, a shortening in the
time of fattening and a decrease in labor, but also afford perfect
protection to the health of the animal. Concrete floors do not soak up
water and therefore cannot become infected with disease germs. Their
surfaces can be easily cleaned and thoroughly disinfected with oils
and dips. Rats cannot nest under them. Careful tests have shown that
concrete floors, through the saving of grain and manure alone, pay for
themselves in the short period of one year.


How to Build Feeding Floors

Feeding floors are merely several sidewalks laid side by side, and the
same general rules of construction (given under SIDEWALKS, page 28)
apply to them. Choose a site in the lot where the ground is slightly
sloping, well drained and wind protected, and convenient to feed and
water.


Drainage Foundation

Excavate to a depth of 12 inches for the drainage foundation, and
around the outside edges of the entire floor dig a trench 12 inches
wide and 18 inches deep. (This trench, filled with concrete, prevents
hog wallows from undermining the floor and keeps the rats from nesting
under it.) Fill all of this space (except the trench) to the natural
ground level with well tamped coarse gravel, crushed rock, tile culls
or brickbats. This fill forms the drainage foundation as described for
sidewalks.


Grading the Floor

The floor must be graded or sloped so that water will not collect on
it in the winter and so that the manure washings may be caught by the
gutters and run to the water-tight concrete manure pit. (To shape the
gutter, make a mold or template by rounding the corners on the flat
side of a 6-foot length of a 4 by 6-inch timber.) A gentle slope,
toward the low corner, of ¼ of an inch for each foot of length or width
is sufficient. This is secured by the use of a heavy grade stake at
each corner of the floor, a straight edge or a grade line, and a spirit
level.

It is an advantage to have a feeding floor its full thickness above
ground. Make light floors 4 inches and floors subject to heavy loads
6 inches thick. For the forms use 2-inch lumber of a width equal to
the floor thickness. Begin on a low side of the floor. Mark the grade
height on each corner stake and set the forms to a grade cord stretched
from stake to stake. Use only good materials and mix the concrete 1:
2½: 5 according to direction on page 15.


Placing the Concrete

Always begin placing the concrete on the low side of the floor, so that
the rain from sudden showers will not run from the hard onto the newly
placed concrete. Fill the trench and the slab section of the forms with
concrete. Bring the surface to grade by drawing over it a straight edge
with its ends on the opposite forms or with one end on the form and the
other on the finished concrete. Four inches in from the edge, on each
of the low sides, temporarily embed the rounded 4 by 6-inch gutter mold
and tamp it down until its square top is even with the surface of the
slab section of the floor. Remove the mold, finish with a wooden float
and cure the floor as described on pages 31-34. Connect the gutters
with the manure pit by means of a trough, another gutter, or by large
drain tile laid underground.

[Illustration]

On the next page is given an itemized bill of materials necessary for a
6-inch floor 24 by 36 feet, amply large to accommodate 50 hogs.

                       =Materials Required=
    Crushed rock or screened gravel, 20 cubic yards @ $1.10   $22.00
    Sand, 10 cubic yards @ $1.00                               10.00
    Portland cement, 28 barrels @ $2.50                        70.00
                                                             -------
                                                             $102.00

Mixing the concrete by hand, 5 men can usually finish this floor in two
days. Depending upon the price of labor and materials and the thickness
of the concrete, the floor will cost 6 to 12 cents for each square foot
of surface.

[Illustration]




Manure Pits and Cisterns


For restoring the fertility of the fields, there is nothing better than
barnyard manure. By the ordinary methods of piling it on the ground
or storing it in wooden pens, from 30 to 50 per cent. of the manure’s
strength is wasted. This loss is brought about in two ways:

    First—By “leaching” or washing out, due to heavy rains.
    Second—By heating or “firing,” caused by lack of sufficient
            moisture.

Since concrete pits are waterproof, manure can be kept in them as moist
as necessary. Moreover, with concrete pits the supply of manure is
increased, as all the liquid manure, from the gutters of the barns,
barnyard pavements and feeding floors, is saved.


How to Build

Locate the manure pit handy to the barn and so as to catch the manure
from the outside floors. Two pits may be better than one. Excavate the
hole to the desired size and depth. (Manure pits are seldom over 4 feet
deep.) Dig a sump hole 3 feet square and 2 feet deep at one corner of
the pit. Slope the floor toward this hole, from which a pump will draw
the liquid manure. Frame forms of 1-inch siding on 2 by 4-inch studding
spaced 2 feet, so as to mold a wall 8 inches thick. If the dirt sides
stand firm, they will serve for the outside form and nothing but an
inside form will be required. Mix the concrete 1: 2: 4 (see page 11).
Lay the floor so that it will be one solid piece 6 inches thick. No
contraction joints will be necessary. Without delay, set up the forms,
brace them firmly and fill them with concrete as directed under DIPPING
VATS, pages 76-80. If a very large pit is needed, build it with sloping
concrete ends sufficiently wide to accommodate a manure spreader. Let
the inclines be gentle, and, to give the horses a firm footing, embed
iron cleats every 18 inches in the slopes, the same as for dipping
tanks. Cisterns for liquid manure only, may be made like ordinary
CISTERNS, page 68. However, the solid manure rots more quickly and is
better for the fields if both solids and liquids are kept in the same
pit. An ordinary pump, with a pipe leading to the sump hole, covered
with a grating, is a convenient means of removing the liquid. Liquid
manure is especially good for the vegetable and flower garden, since it
contains no weed seed. Cover the pits or keep the manure well soaked
with water, so as to remove the principal breeding places of the house
and barn fly.

[Illustration]

The manure pit shown in the photograph is located in the side of a
little hill. It is 21 feet long, 14 feet wide, 10 feet deep on the
hillside and 6 feet deep on the low side. The bottom is 6 inches and
the walls 8 inches thick. Four men built the pit in two days.

                       =Materials Required=
    Screened gravel or crushed rock  17 cubic yards at $1.10   $18.70
    Sand                             8½ cubic yards at $1.00     8.50
    Portland cement                  30 barrels at $2.50        75.00
                                                              -------
                                                              $102.20


The Value of Manure Pits

Rotten manure not only enriches the ground, but also increases the
water-holding capacity of the soil. One load of well rotted manure from
a concrete pit is worth two loads of manure as ordinarily stored.

[Illustration]




Concrete Barnyards


The advantages of concrete feeding floors so appealed to the farmers
who first built them that they enlarged the floors until their entire
barnyards were surfaced with concrete.

It is no uncommon sight in the spring and winter to see an earthen barn
lot so deep with mud that animals go thirsty rather than attempt a trip
to the water trough.

The effect is bad on all kinds of livestock, especially on fattening
animals and dairy cattle. “Feeders” must have an abundance of water
to fatten quickly. Insufficient water cuts down the quantity of milk
given by dairy cows. Lack of enough exercise further decreases the
yield. An occasional trip through this mud to the trough, so cakes the
cows’ udders with dirt that the milker wastes valuable time in washing
them—and they must be washed, if one would have clean, wholesome milk.
Continual tracking through the mud not only makes more currying, but
often produces that irritation on horses’ legs known as “scratches.”
Suddenly frozen, such an earthen lot is so rough that it is impassable.
Moreover, the old barnyard—with its surface worked up year after
year—becomes a storage place, which carries over the disease germs
from one season to another. The “droppings” are entirely lost, and,
mixed with the earth, tend to make the lot muddier the following year.
To keep up the fertility of the soil, all the manure produced on a farm
should be saved and returned to the fields.


Concrete Floors Increase Profits

A concrete barnyard makes a fine exercise lot in all kinds of weather
and always affords a dry spot for the animal’s bed. Every shower washes
the surface clean and flushes the droppings into the manure pits.
Concrete yards lighten the work of the housewife, as there is no mud to
be tracked on the walks and kitchen floor. The use of rubber boots is
unnecessary. On concrete floors not a particle of grain need be wasted.
The way to the water trough is always dry, smooth and passable.
Concrete floors promote and protect the health of farm animals and
increase the profits of farming, stock raising and dairying.

[Illustration]


Construction

The construction of concrete barnyards is exactly like that of FEEDING
FLOORS, page 43, except that the work is on a larger scale. Often
the entire lot is not paved in one season, but from year to year as
the farmer has time. In excavating for the drainage foundation (see
SIDEWALKS, page 29), be careful to remove all manure and straw which
may be tramped into the ground and which may be so solid as to resemble
earth. In time any kind of manure decays, shrinks, causes the floor to
settle and forms water and ice pockets on its surface. Dig the trench
for the foundation apron as for FEEDING FLOORS—there is no material so
rat-proof as concrete.

With the drainage foundation ready, set the forms in the manner
described for SIDEWALKS. Even if the whole lot is not to be paved
at one time, plan the grading for the entire barnyard so that the
completed pavement may have perfect surface drainage. Build and cure
the pavement and make provision for saving the manure the same as for
concrete FEEDING FLOORS. Do not be too particular about giving the
surface a smooth finish—a rougher finish affords the animals a better
footing. The cost per square foot is no more than that of feeding
floors—the investment yields a greater profit.




Feeding Troughs, Racks and Mangers


With a progressive farmer, the health of his livestock is second in
importance only to that of his family. Concrete is a great factor in
promoting and preserving health. With concrete troughs, animals are
seldom “off their feed”: there are no slivers to stick into their gums.
Even with wet feed, concrete troughs are never sour.

Concrete does not rot and become infested with disease germs. Such
troughs and mangers can be thoroughly disinfected without injuring them.


Troughs for Horses, Cattle, and Sheep

In general, the method of constructing feeding troughs and mangers for
horses and cattle is practically the same as for WATERING TROUGHS AND
TANKS, page 74. An outdoor trough, suitable for feeding grain or silage
to cattle and horses, is shown on page 48. (However, most farmers will
prefer not to locate a feeding trough in a fence corner.) This trough
is 10 feet long and 2 feet 2 inches wide, outside measurements. The
bottom is 4 inches thick as also are the side and end walls at the top,
but these walls slope on the inside to a thickness of 6 inches at the
bottom. This extra thickness makes not only a stronger feeding trough,
but also one more easily cleaned out. The entire trough is reinforced
with heavy woven wire fencing laid within 1 inch of the bottom and the
same distance from the inside face of the side walls. The trough is
held 1 foot 4 inches above ground by concrete benches, 2 feet 2 inches
wide, 1 foot thick, and extending 3 feet below the ground or feeding
floor surface.

In locating troughs, follow the same principles laid down under FEEDING
FLOORS. Dig the trenches for the concrete supports and carry the
concrete (mixed 1: 2: 4) to the necessary height by means of open box
forms similar to the one shown on page 36. Use a spirit level to get
the tops of these supports even. Immediately set the outside trough
form, previously made with openings in the bottom board, to match the
concrete supports. Provide a 2-inch drain hole, corked with a greased,
tapering wooden plug long enough to extend through the concrete. Place
1 inch of concrete over the bottom, lay the heavy woven wire fencing
so that it will extend up into the side walls. Tamp in the bottom the
remaining 3 inches of concrete. Finish this concrete with a steel
trowel. At once set in the sloping inside mold, built as one piece
and without a bottom. Fill the space between the inside and outside
forms with wet concrete. After the concrete is hard enough to bear
considerable pressure of the thumb (usually five to seven hours),
carefully remove the inside mold. No painting with neat cement (cement
mixed with water) or plastering will be needed if the inside form is
smooth. Do not take down the outside forms for two weeks. To make this
same trough of suitable height for small calves or sheep, place around
it a fill of gravel of the necessary depth. Two men can build such a
trough in less than a day.

                       =Materials Required=
    Crushed rock or screened gravel  1  cubic yard at $1.10  $1.10
    Sand                              ½ cubic yard at $1.00    .50
    Portland cement                  1½ barrels at $2.50      3.75
                                                             -----
                                                             $5.35


Feeding Troughs for Hogs

[Illustration]

Feeding troughs for hogs are usually built as a part of the feeding
floor, according to the plan shown, and similar to WATERING
TROUGHS, page 74.


[Illustration]


A Fire-protected Feed Cooker

[Illustration]

Concrete is a first aid to the farmer in preventing fires.

The photographs shown here are of a wooden building in which a feed
cooker for hogs and poultry is installed.

Discovery of a fire in the building a few years ago led this farmer to
thoroughly protect his building by surrounding his cooker with that
most fireproof material—concrete.

The old wooden floor was first torn out, a fill of coarse gravel tamped
in, and a 5-inch floor of concrete laid on top, mixed 1: 2½: 5.
Immediately under and around the cooker the floor was dropped down 8
inches to prevent chance sparks from blowing about.

At the back of the cooker, on the 2 by 4-inch studding, heavy woven
wire was securely fastened, and by temporarily placing a wooden wall 4
inches in front, to act as a form, an 8-inch concrete wall was built.
This wall was made 8 feet wide and 5 feet high. The foundation for the
wall extends 3 feet below the floor level.

[Illustration]

On the top of this wall rests the chimney. The chimney is 12 by 14
inches on the outside, with a single flue 8 inches round, and is 10
feet high. This height is sufficient to clear the roof. For the inside
form 8-inch sewer pipe was used and left in place (stovepipe or drain
tile could also be used). Ordinary box forms were used for the outside
forms, made as described on page 36.

The chimney was reinforced with a ½-inch rod running from top to bottom
in each corner, 1½ inches from the edge. The lower ends of these rods
are firmly embedded in the concrete wall on which the chimney rests.

As this improvement was made by the farm hands, the cost of the floor
was only 5 cents a square foot, while the wall and chimney cost $5.00.

Not only has that dread of fire which keeps many a man awake at night
been overcome, but the whole feed cooker house can be kept in a most
cleanly condition at all times.

Rats, the greatest pest known to the farmer, are driven away. These
animals cannot nest in concrete.


[Illustration]


Hog Wallows—Automatic Dipping Tanks

A wallow is as necessary for a hog as a bath-tub is for a human being.
A clean bath benefits the health of a hog, especially if the wallow is
filled with a dipping solution. This combination not only saves the
lives of fat hogs on hot days, but also aids greatly in preventing
cholera. See DIPPING TANKS, page 76.

Locate the wallow in a convenient place near the water supply. A level,
well drained spot, where the mud will not wash into it, is best. (The
wallow shown in the photograph is in the hog house, and is a large dish
in the concrete floor.) Make the wallow 8 by 12-feet. Dig out the hole
with straight sides to the depth of 2 feet 2 inches. Lay a drainage
foundation 10 inches thick—see SIDEWALKS, page 29. Set a 10-inch board
around the outside of the hole to keep the dirt from crumbling in on
the concrete.

Mix the concrete 1: 2: 4 and place a 6-inch floor in the hole. As the
concrete is laid, embed woven wire in it 1 inch from the bottom. Have
the concrete for the side walls fairly dry and tamp it to the shape and
dimensions—4 inches thick at the top and 10 inches at the floor line.
The sloping sides make cleaning easy. Keep all animals away from the
wallow for two weeks. Three men built this wallow easily in one day.

                       =Materials Required=
    Screened gravel or crushed rock    2½ cubic yards @ $1.10     $2.75
    Sand                               1¼ cubic yards @ $1.00      1.25
    Portland cement                    4½ barrels @ $2.50         11.25
                                                                 ------
                                                                 $15.25


[Illustration]




A Corn Crib Floor of Concrete


Rats love grain; and therefore the corn crib is usually the rat
headquarters of the farm. By building corn cribs and granary floors of
concrete the farmer takes a long step toward rat extermination.

Lay out the building: for the foundation wall, dig a trench 12 inches
wide and from 2 to 3 feet below ground level. Set box forms, so as to
bring the surface of the finished foundation and floor 1½ to 2 feet
above ground level, according to the height of the “drag” conveyor used
by local corn-shellers.

As the floor will only be 6 inches thick, fill in between the
foundation walls with gravel to within a distance of 6 inches of top
of forms. Soak this fill thoroughly, and tamp and roll it well, before
placing concrete on top.

Mix concrete (1: 2: 4) and fill the foundation forms. Beginning at
one end of the building, lay the concrete floor in sections 4 feet
wide, and continue until the entire floor is placed.

In order to fasten the wooden sill for the granary uprights to the
concrete floor, insert ¾-inch bolts heads down or strap irons bent
like capital =Z=’s at the necessary points in the green concrete
of foundation. The bolts are long enough to pass through holes in the
sill and to receive nuts and washers. The straps are long enough to be
spiked to the uprights.

[Illustration]

Finish the surface of the floor with a steel trowel, so as to render
scooping of the grain an easy matter.

Approximate cost per square foot of floor surface, 12 cents.

[Illustration]




Concrete Barn Floors


Investigations of the Department of Agriculture have disclosed the
fact that many cases of typhoid fever and malaria, often considered
unaccountable in their origin, are the result of the germs being
carried by the house-fly. Screens, flypaper, and poisons are all very
well, in a small way, but to free the place of flies means getting rid
of the conditions which produce them. Leaving out the manure pile (see
MANURE PITS, page 45), the favorite breeding-place of flies is the foul
floors of the cow and horse barns. The barn can be almost entirely rid
of flies by building floors and manure pits of concrete.


The Advantages of Concrete Floors

There are no flies to make the horses stamp.

Rats have no hiding-place about concrete floors.

No other floor is as slick as a manure-soaked wooden floor. Concrete
floors may be finished as rough or corrugated, as may be desired.

Concrete floors do not soak up water. The liquids run into the gutters
and thence to the manure pits. The floor may be flushed with water and
kept as clean and odorless as a kitchen floor.

All kinds of barn floors must be bedded down. Concrete floors are
warmer and cleaner than any other kind, for they are always dry.
Besides, heat and cold do not easily pass through concrete.

Concrete floors afford good fire protection. No fire can be started on
concrete floors by a shiftless farm “hand” dropping cigarette stubs or
matches on their surface.

Good farm “hands” prefer to work where there are concrete floors: they
lighten the labor. Concrete floors have no uneven edges to catch the
scoop and to ruffle the temper.


[Illustration]




Concrete in the Cow Barn


With cleanly milk and butter producers, it is no longer a matter of
floor or no floor; it is merely a question of which is the best floor
for the cow barn. The best dairymen long ago decided in favor of
concrete. On account of many epidemics of “catching” diseases, directly
traceable to milk, city authorities are forcing the careless dairyman
to decide—concrete floors are one of the requirements for certified
milk.

The stalls of dairy barns are arranged with the cows in the opposite
rows of stalls standing with their heads or their heels toward each
other.

The stall plan depends entirely upon the arrangements for bringing in
feed and removing manure. The plan below is for a barn with the cows’
heads toward each other. If the dairyman prefers the other arrangement,
the same plan can easily be adapted to it. A width of 8 feet 6 inches
provides sufficient room for a manure spreader.

[Illustration]

[Illustration]


How to Build Dairy Barn Floors

Consider a barn planned to have the two rows of cows facing each other.

Remove all manure and other foreign matter together with such humps
of earth as may be necessary to give the floor a slight slope in the
direction in which the manure will be taken out. Begin the construction
of the floors at the two sides of the barn so that the middle and ends
may be used as working space.

On the earthen floor, at a distance of 4½feet from the side walls of
the barn, set on edge a line of 2 by 6-inch boards, extending the
entire length of the building. Support these boards by stakes driven
firmly in the ground on the side of the board away from the barn wall.
By means of a carpenter’s spirit level and a grade line, see that the
tops of these boards have an even slope (say ⅛-inch per foot) toward
the manure pit. Allowing a clear intervening space of 10 inches, set
up in a similar way a line of 2 by 8-inch boards with the supporting
stakes inside of the 10-inch space and with the top of this board 2
inches higher than the 6-inch board. In this space the drop gutter will
later be constructed.


The Alleyway

Between the wall and the 6-inch board tamp in sufficient gravel to even
off all irregularities in the ground surface and to allow the building
of a 5-inch thickness of floor, sloping ½ inch from the wall toward the
gutter. Mix the concrete 1: 2½: 5, tamp into place, and finish the
surface with a wooden float and a wire brush. The roughened surface
thus produced gives the cows a good footing.


The Stall Floor

With the alley finished, begin the construction of the floor of the
stalls proper. For the average sized cow, the usual length of stall is
4 feet 8 inches from stanchion to drop gutter and the width is 3 feet
6 inches. The stall floor should slope not less than ½ inch toward
the drop gutter to provide for drainage. If an adjustable stanchion
fastener is to be used, set it in the center of the 6-inch manger wall.
The length of the stall is regulated by this device. For a stall 4 feet
8 inches long, set the outside board (2 by 12 inches) of the manger
wall 5 feet 2 inches from the drop gutter. The top of this board will
be 7 inches above the finished floor. This extra height provides a form
for the manger wall. In this space, place the 5-inch floor in the same
manner as the alleyway was laid. If gas pipe stall divisions are to be
used later, make mortises in the floor at the proper points by tamping
the concrete around a core of the right size, removing the core when
the concrete has stiffened.

[Illustration]


The Manger

[Illustration]

As soon as the floor of three stalls has been concreted and while the
concrete is yet green, build the concrete manger wall upon the new
stall floor. The projecting 7 inches of the 2 by 12-inch board already
in place serves as the outer wall form. “Toe nail” two 1 by 6-inch
boards together at their edges, thus providing a 7-inch height for the
other manger wall form and a bearing plate to rest on the green stall
floor. Set this wall form so as to leave a 6-inch space for the manger
wall. Cross-brace these wall forms upon each other and if necessary
drive an occasional nail through the bearing plate into the new
concrete. Fill the space between the forms with concrete, setting the
stanchion fasteners at the same time. Continue in the same manner until
the stall floors are finished. If desired, the back wall of the manger
may be given a dish shape for a swinging stanchion.

[Illustration]

Then commence the work on the other side of the barn, constructing the
floor of the alleyway and stall in exactly the same manner.


The Feedway

With the alleys and stalls finished, begin work on the feedway. If
possible, this should be at least 8 feet wide.

As the bottom of the manger should be on a level with the stall floor
and since the top of the feedway floor must be at least 8 inches above
the bottom of the manger, place sufficient gravel fill (well tamped)
to bring about this result. To hold in place the 5-inch concrete of
the feedway alley floor and to provide for sloping front walls of the
mangers, set a 2 by 10-inch board, spaced (from the other wall of the
manger) 1 foot 6 inches at the bottom and 1 foot 10 inches at the top.
These sloping walls allow all feed to be swept back into the mangers
and all trash to be easily removed from them. Build the 5-inch floor
of the feedway, crowning it to 6 inches thick in the middle. See
SIDEWALKS, page 31.


Horse Barn Floors

Concrete floors are equally as valuable for the horse barn as for
the cow stable. The same principles govern the floor construction.
Naturally there must be a few changes in the dimensions. Single stalls
are usually 5 feet wide and 9 feet from the front wall of the manger to
the drop gutter.

As the gutter is generally covered with a rough cast-iron plate sunk
flush with the concrete, carrying liquids alone, it need not be so wide
and deep as for the dairy barn. A clear width of 10 and a depth of 3
inches are sufficient.


Concrete Mangers

Many farmers are to-day building their mangers or racks of concrete.
“Stump suckers” lose the habit when fed in concrete mangers.

[Illustration]

The manger is constructed along the general lines laid down for OUTDOOR
FEEDING TROUGHS, page 48. A form satisfactory for building horse barn
mangers is shown in the photograph. The feed trough can be molded as a
part of the manger by using a box form like an ordinary wooden feeding
trough, but 6 inches wider and without end pieces. Saw out the manger
forms so that the box will fit the opening. When the manger forms have
been filled with concrete to the feed trough level, place 1 inch of
concrete over the bottom of the trough form, lay in a strip of heavy
woven wire fencing, and then place the remaining 2 inches of the 3-inch
bottom. Immediately set upon this concrete a bottomless box with end
pieces, of a size to allow for the 4-inch manger wall and the 3-inch
side walls of the trough. Fill both manger and trough forms and embed
a ½-inch rod in the side walls of the trough 1 inch from the top. Make
holes in the manger wall for the hitching strap by inserting a 2-inch
greased peg in the concrete. Imbed a 1-foot length of ½-inch rod in the
concrete above this hole.

Scientists have found that rats distribute more disease than any other
animal. Recognizing the danger, state and city authorities, the world
over, are spending vast sums of money in exterminating this pest. If
rats have no nesting place, they cannot stay on the farm. Rats and mice
cannot find a home about concrete floors, nor can they climb concrete
barn walls.

In a stable floored with concrete, the horses can rest at noontime
instead of stamping at flies.

[Illustration]


Farmers Build Barn Approaches of Concrete

[Illustration]

For purposes of drainage, concrete barns are often built on the side
of a hill, the lower story being used for the livestock, while the
second floor is used as a wagon house and for feed and storage. This
arrangement necessitates a “barn approach.” Originally these approaches
were simply of earth, piled up in front of the door; and quite often
the earth extended beyond the ends of the barn.

By not allowing the approach fill to come right up to the barn,
the lower story of the barn receives the full benefit of light and
ventilation on all four sides.

The concrete bridge gives a shelter for wagons and tools; while a root
cellar may be conveniently built under the barn approach.

Such an approach adds greatly to the appearance of the barn and its
surroundings.

Economy of space made it desirable to provide a retaining wall to hold
the earth in position—and concrete naturally came into use for the
purpose.

The earth fill already in place in front of the barn door should be cut
out to the desired width and a trench dug along both sides below the
ground level to a depth of 2½ or 3 feet, and 1 foot wide.

Only outside forms are needed, as the earth fill in the barn approach
acts as an inside form. These outside forms may be made up in sections
as large as desired, of 1-inch planks, with the necessary upright
studding.

[Illustration]

Mix concrete 1: 2: 4.

Place the concrete in the foundation, erect the forms, holding these in
position by nailing to stakes driven back of the forms in the ground.
The concrete can be placed with greatest convenience from the top of
the earth fill that forms the approach. In shoveling into the form, be
careful that the concrete strikes the wood form instead of the earthen
side, as concrete mixed with earth does not give the fullest possible
strength.


A Concrete Barn Foundation

[Illustration]

On account of convenient arrangement, economy of space, and protection
to the stock, second story barns have become very popular.

At first the use of concrete for the walls of the first story was
looked upon with doubt. It might be damp. It might make a cold stable.
Yet the character of the material so well fitted the use that it was
tried, found entirely satisfactory, and to-day is being used for the
lower story of thousands of barns every year. As this arrangement does
not give a perfect fire protection to the stock, a ceiling of concrete
is provided, furnishing a floor for the carriage house, hay loft and
granary, through which rats cannot gnaw. With this floor of concrete,
the top of a barn can burn off and the stock be perfectly safe.

[Illustration]

Excavate a foundation trench to a depth below the frost line, twenty
inches wide. Fill with concrete mixed 1: 2½: 5. On this foundation
erect the forms for the side walls, spaced in such a way as to make the
wall 12 inches thick. These forms are made of 1-inch siding, with 2 by
4-inch studs, spaced 18 inches apart. Fasten the forms securely at top
and bottom as described in forms for “Small Farm Buildings,” page 82.
While erecting the forms, place in position frames for the window and
door openings. These frames are removed after the concrete has become
hard and the windows and doors placed. If the concrete extends above
the windows, place three ½-inch iron rods 3 inches above each opening,
and extending 18 inches beyond its sides. Insert bent iron rods in the
concrete around the corners, at intervals of every 2 feet of height.
Having carried the wall to the desired height, provide for attaching
the wooden superstructure to it by placing iron bolts every 5 feet in
the concrete while it is yet soft. These should be placed with the
head down, allowing the nut end to extend above the wall a sufficient
distance to pass through the sill and to afford length for a nut and
washer.

If a concrete ceiling is to be placed over the stable, erect forms in
the same way as for a cistern cover described on page 69. This ceiling
will have to be carefully reinforced, and if there is any doubt about
the quantity and position of this reinforcing, a competent engineer
should be consulted.

Entire barns of concrete are being built in ever increasing numbers. If
so built, the fire danger for that barn is forever removed. A barn of
concrete, however, with a wooden roof is not perfectly fireproof. If
the hay catches fire in such a barn, the roof is burned up.

Any one who has the ingenuity to build an entire barn of concrete can
build a concrete roof as well.

[Illustration]




Wind Walls and Their Importance


[Illustration]

To be healthy, stock need exercise—in winter as well as summer. But
few farms are provided with an exercise lot sufficiently well protected
against winter blasts to provide a safe exercising place.

The exercise lot should be located on the warm side of the buildings.
Erect the wind wall on the side from which the winter storms most often
come. Probably the most convenient way to build the wall will be in
sections of 10 feet in length. The wall will be 3 inches thick at top,
12 inches thick at the base, 7 feet above and 3 below ground, with the
slope side toward exercise lot.

To securely brace the sections of this wall, large posts (called
buttresses) are needed. These posts are the full height of the wall
and are 12 by 18 inches square. The narrow side is set with the line
of fence, and the buttresses are placed 11 feet apart from center to
center. The forms for these buttresses are the same as for gate
posts, with the exception that a beveled 2 by 4-inch timber is nailed
vertically to the inside of each side wall of the form, 3 inches from
the back board. This leaves a slot in the finished buttress, into
which the slab sections of the wall are later “keyed.” Through these
2 by 4’s, at points 3 and 15 inches below the tops, bore ⅝-inch holes
through which ½-inch reinforcement rods will be placed and allowed to
project into the wall proper about 18 inches.

[Illustration]

Locate the points for the centers of the buttresses, the first buttress
at the beginning of the wall. Dig a hole for each buttress 12 by 18
inches and 4 feet deep and erect the buttress forms. Fill the forms
with wet concrete, mixed 1: 2: 4. Do not forget to insert at the
proper time the 3-foot lengths of ½-inch rods in the ¾-inch holes
above mentioned. Brace the forms securely, to keep them in position.
After the first two buttresses are in place, dig out the 1 by 4-foot
foundation trench and, over it and between the buttresses, erect the
box forms for the slab sections, with the sloping side next to the lot.
These forms are made of 1-inch siding nailed to 2 by 4-inch studding
securely braced at bottom and tied together by cross-pieces at the top.
On the working side, add the siding as needed, so as to facilitate the
placing of the concrete.

Remove the side forms for buttress just before placing the forms for
wall proper. In the center of wall, within 6 inches of the top, embed a
10-foot length of ½-inch iron rod. After the wall is one week old, take
down the wall forms, erect them between the next two buttresses, and
proceed with the construction in the same manner.

Wind walls are often made with straight sides. While this takes more
concrete, the saving in erection of forms probably offsets this
additional cost.

The materials required for each 10-foot section of wall and 1 buttress
are two cubic yards crushed stone or screened gravel, 1 cubic yard
sand, 12 bags of Portland cement. Approximate cost, $15.00.

[Illustration]




Concrete and the Silo


A silo is a tank for the preservation of fodder in its green state, for
feeding stock at times when there is no natural pasture—that is in
winter and in the hot, dry months of summer. By the use of silos fodder
is canned very much as a housewife cans fruit or vegetables.

Concrete fulfils every requirement for a first-class silo, providing
the added advantages of being absolutely fireproof and everlasting,
possessed by silos built of no other material. For instruction in
building silos, see Bulletin No. 21 of the Association of American
Portland Cement Manufacturers, sent free on application.

Space does not permit us to go fully into the construction of a
concrete silo and we can only give the requirements for a good silo,
and show how concrete fills them all.

Silos must be air-tight. The admission of air causes the fodder to
mould, and the stock will not eat it.

Air cannot leak through a concrete silo.

Silos must be water-tight. If they are not, the juices, so necessary to
keep the fodder green, will leak out, and the fodder spoils.

[Illustration]

Concrete, properly mixed, is water-tight.

Silos must be smooth on the inside. A silo with a rough inside surface,
catches the cornstalks, and prevents proper packing.

Concrete can be made so smooth that many firms building silos of other
materials finish the inside with a coat of cement and sand.

The fodder lasts better if kept at an even temperature. Concrete does
not conduct heat or cold. It keeps the heat in the fodder in winter,
and keeps the heat out of the fodder in summer. Nature provides the
fodder with the proper amount of heat to preserve it perfectly.

Rats nesting in the silage ruin it.

Concrete is the greatest rat-proof material known.

In addition to these reasons, concrete silos are not attacked by the
juices coming from the fodder. They do not rot by alternate wetting and
drying.

Fire, that greatest of farm scourges, cannot destroy the crop if stored
in a concrete silo. A farmer may rebuild a barn, but the crops lost
through the burning of the building are lost forever.

[Illustration]




Sanitary Water Supply


As the laws of health become better understood, greater precautions are
taken to prevent sickness. For years all evidence has been pointing to
drinking water as a common source of most diseases and the principal
means of spreading sickness. Every well, spring and cistern, open
to surface water or walled and covered with materials through which
surface water can seep, is liable to contain disease germs. Concrete
walls and covers are water-tight: they afford perfect protection for
both man and beast.


How to Protect Wells

Many bored and dug wells, sunk years ago, afford such excellent water
that their owners prefer to keep them. This is often made possible by
the use of concrete. Remove the brick of the wall down to dense clay
through which water will not run, usually not more than 6 feet. If the
earthen wall stands firm, only one form, fitting inside the brick wall,
is needed. Make this form of narrow flooring securely fastened on the
inside to wagon tires or to curved wooden templates, and long enough
to extend 2 feet below the point to which the brick are to be removed
and 4 inches above the ground level. If the earthen wall shows signs
of crumbling, before taking out the brick, dig back the ground to the
necessary depth and use an outside form. Lower the forms into place and
fill them with 1: 2: 4 concrete. In placing the concrete follow the
directions given under UNDERGROUND CISTERNS, page 68.

The steel casing for driven well must end below the frost line so as to
keep the underground connecting pipes from freezing. This construction
exposes the house supply to the dangers of surface water. Concrete
walls or housings are the only means of protection. Make the forms and
build the housing according to the rules laid down for UNDERGROUND
CISTERNS, pages 68-70. The housing shown in the photograph is 5
by 6 feet by 4 feet deep, sufficiently roomy for inspecting, adjusting
and repairing pipe connections. The walls and floor are of 1: 2: 4
concrete 6 inches thick. One-half inch bolts project 2½ inches above
the walls for fastening the wooden cover. A 4-inch removable cover of
concrete, molded in two pieces, makes a more sanitary covering. The
service pipes were laid in 4-inch drain tile slightly above the floor
of the housing. A tile of the same size, laid on a grade, carries away
all the leakage of the fittings. Two men built the housing in one day.

[Illustration]

                       =Materials Required=
    Screened gravel or crushed rock    3  cubic yards at $1.10    $3.30
    Sand                               1½ cubic yards at $1.00     1.50
    Portland cement                    5½ barrels at $2.50        13.75
                                                                 ------
                                                                 $18.55

Well platforms are made like cistern covers (see page 69) except that
they are not molded fixed in place, but loose and removable, so that
the well can be cleaned at any time. Concrete well covers keep mice and
frogs out of the well. Even scrub water cannot seep in.


Underground Cisterns and Cistern Platforms

[Illustration]

Underground cisterns are useless if they leak. In dry weather they
are empty, and at other times the ground water seeps in and makes the
“soft” water as “hard” as that from the well. Concrete cisterns have no
joints to leak: they are built in one solid piece.

In placing the cistern, select a site convenient to the principal
down-spout and the kitchen. Do not forget to make allowance for 8-inch
walls in laying out the plan. If the ground in which the pit is dug
is sufficiently firm to stand alone, no outside form will be needed.
Otherwise the hole must be dug large enough to receive an outside form
built similar to the inside one. Make the inside form of 1-inch boards
on 2 by 4-inch studding so that the siding will be toward the earth
walls. Mix the concrete 1: 2: 4 and lay a 6-inch floor on the earth
bottom. Immediately set the wall forms on all sides. In filling the
wall space, be careful not to shovel the concrete against the earthen
wall: dirt in concrete is liable to make a leaky wall.

[Illustration]

After the concrete side walls have been brought to ground level, set
a 5-inch board on edge around the outside of the cistern, so as to
hold the concrete for the platform. Saw off the uprights of the inside
form 6 inches below the finished top of the concrete cover, and nail
2 by 4-inch floor joists even with their tops. Floor the joists with
1-inch boards. Braces, to keep the wooden platform from sagging, may
be placed down the middle of the cistern as shown in the drawing. To
provide for a manhole opening, build a bottomless box 5 inches deep,
2 feet square at the top and 18 inches square at the bottom—outside
measurements,—or have the tinsmith make a round bottomless tin form 5
inches deep, 2 feet in diameter at the top and 18 inches at the bottom,
just like a large dishpan without a bottom.

Begin at one side of the platform, tamp in 1½ inches of concrete, and
upon it lay heavy woven wire fencing. Allow the edges of the wire to
extend within 1 inch of the outside lines of the platform. Bring the
platform to its full thickness by immediately placing the remaining
3½ inches of concrete. Work rapidly and do not stop for any reason
until the cistern cover is completed. As the work progresses, finish
the surface with a wooden float. Grease the manhole frame and place it
where the opening is desired. Strengthen the floor around the manhole
opening by laying four short ½-inch iron rods, placed criss-cross, 2
inches from the bottom of the slab and the same distance back from
the edges of the hole. If the tin form is used, the manhole cover may
be cast at the same time as the remainder of the floor. Reinforce
the cover with woven wire and also with four short lengths of ½-inch
rods laid in the form of a square. Have on hand an old bridle bit or
hitching post ring, which will serve as a lifting-ring for the concrete
cover. In placing the ring in position, provide it with a knob of
twisted wire, or with a nut and large washer, to fix it firmly in the
concrete. If the wooden manhole form is used, carefully remove it after
5 hours. After 3 days build the manhole cover the same as for the tin
form, with this important exception—place heavy paper, cardboard or
leather around the edge of the opening to prevent the fresh concrete
of the cover from sticking to it. Set bolts for a pump base according
to directions given for GASOLINE ENGINE BASES, pp. 87, 88. The
necessary openings for down spouts and for removing water may be made
by embedding tile, of the proper diameter and length, in the concrete
platform or side walls.

When the platform is two weeks old, remove the manhole cover, bore a
hole in the wooden floor, saw an opening, descend and loosen the roof
form, passing it out through the manhole.

[Illustration]

If the cistern water is to be used for cooking and drinking, provide
a filter on the outside of the cistern wall. Construct the filter
similar to the cistern, of dimensions 4 by 3 feet and 4 feet deep.
While building the cistern wall, lay an 8-inch tile through it, at the
proper height to connect with an opening of the same size in the filter
wall at its floor, and place a removable screen of ¼-inch mesh over the
opening. Fill in 2 feet of coarse charcoal. Cover the charcoal with 1
foot of sand and gravel. Lead the water from the roof into the top of
the filter. Cover the filter with a loose concrete slab.

Four men built a cistern 8 feet square and 8 feet deep, with a 6-inch
floor and a 5-inch platform, in two days. The cistern holds 122 barrels
of 31½ gallons.

                       =Materials Required=
    Screened gravel or crushed rock   8 cubic yards at $1.10   $8.80
    Sand                              4 cubic yards at $1.00    4.00
    Portland cement                  13 barrels at $2.50       32.50
                                                              ------
                                                              $45.30

“Soft” water is not only better for the bath, but also makes the
washing easier and the clothes whiter. Mischievous children cannot
remove concrete manhole covers.


Making Spring Water Sanitary

To the planter and stockman, a flowing spring is worth a great deal of
money. Properly cared for, it will afford cold, sweet water for the
house, the dairy, and the watering tanks. Improperly protected, it is
not merely a mud hole, a nuisance to the milker of dairy cows, but is
too frequently the cause of disease.

[Illustration]

To improve a spring, first open up the channel and drain out all the
water possible. Clean out the spring so as to increase its flow. Lay
the necessary feed pipes to the house and barn. Wall up the well of the
spring with concrete blocks, laid without mortar to a point just above
the in-flow streams of the spring. Complete the walls with blocks laid
in 1: 2 cement-sand mortar, or, using wooden forms, with a 6-inch
solid wall of 1: 2: 4 concrete. Carry these walls high enough to keep
surface water out of the spring well. If the spring is to be used as
a drinking tank for stock, make the walls equal to the usual depth of
such tanks. (See WATERING TROUGHS AND TANKS, page 74.) Lay a
4-inch floor of 1: 2½: 5 concrete (on a drainage foundation) 10 feet
around the field spring on all sides.

At the edges of the floor, turn down a concrete “apron” or foundation,
2 feet into the ground, the same as for FEEDING FLOORS, page 43. This
prevents the frost from getting under the floor and cracking it.

Make provision for the over-flow at a point where it can be carried to
the stream by a gutter in the floor, or by a drain tile under it.

With such improvement, since there is no mud, the stock cannot mire and
the udders of the dairy cows are always clean.

To keep rats and rabbits out of springs from which the water is drawn
for house use, provide a concrete cover like that described for
UNDERGROUND CISTERNS, page 69. For small springs this cover is often
made removable as shown in the photograph on page 73.

[Illustration]

[Illustration]


New Style Cistern Built on Top of Ground

The photograph shows a cistern, 6 by 6 by 12 feet, inside dimensions,
with 8-inch walls, 6-inch floor, and 4-inch roof.

Dig a pit 12 inches deep, and of the size of cistern desired. Cover the
bottom with a well tamped fill of gravel to a depth of 6 inches. Mix
concrete 1: 2: 4 and place it to a depth of 2 inches over the surface
of the fill. On top of this lay sections of heavy woven wire fencing.
This wire should be laid in such a way as to extend 6 inches beyond
the outside edge of foundation—the ends being bent up, so as to stand
upright, 3 inches back from the edge of the concrete flooring already
placed. Immediately lay the remaining 4 inches of concrete floor. Give
the surface a finish with a wooden float to within 6 inches of edges.

Without delay, set the forms, made up in the required sections, resting
the inside form on the concrete floor and the outside form on the
ground. Place the inside form first. After setting the inside form,
place woven fence wire, supporting it against the inside form by means
of staples driven lightly into the form and holding the wire 4 inches
away from it. Care should be taken in placing the concrete that the
wire is kept near the outside of the concrete wall. This reinforcement
is carried 1 foot beyond top of wall. The projecting wire mesh will
later be used to tie the concrete roof to the side walls. The timber
required for the forms will be 1-inch siding and 2 by 4 uprights,
spaced every 18 inches.

In placing the concrete in the forms, it will be easier to leave off
the two top feet of planking of outside form until the concrete reaches
its level. Then add this planking and fill the two top feet. The
concrete will probably have to be passed up to a man on top by means of
buckets.

The luxury of soft water for the bath, and its advantages for laundry
purposes, are understood better by farmers than by their city cousins.
Cisterns were originally built in the ground, but a thinking farmer
used concrete to build a cistern on top of the ground, no doubt taking
the idea from the old-fashioned rain barrel. While it requires more
forms and more reinforcement than a cistern built in the ground, yet
the large cost of digging a deep hole is saved. As the water is piped
to the house, direct water pressure is provided, thereby giving the
farm-house all the advantages of a city water system.

[Illustration]

Build a wooden platform inside the cistern, in the same manner as
directed in UNDERGROUND CISTERNS, page 69. The materials required for
the concrete are 10 yards of crushed rock or screened gravel, 5 yards
of sand, and 17 barrels of Portland cement.

[Illustration]

[Illustration]




Watering Troughs and Tanks


All thrifty farmers are building their tanks and troughs of concrete.
Such troughs never rot, rust, or leak.

By using concrete, tanks of any size and shape can be made.


Watering Tank for Horses and Cattle

Most stockmen prefer to build their watering tanks oblong in shape.
Having decided upon the size, locate the tank in a handy, well drained,
wind-sheltered place.

To build a tank like the one shown in the picture, lay out the trough
5 by 16 feet. Make an excavation for a drainage foundation as directed
under SIDEWALKS, page 29. Around the outside dig a 10-inch trench 2 feet
6 inches deep. Lay all in-flow and over-flow pipes (not less than 1½
inches in diameter) so that the ends, fitted for connections, will be
even with the finished bottom of the tank.

Build the forms and have the necessary reinforcing on hand before
mixing any concrete. The tank is 5 by 16 feet by 2½ feet deep with an
8-inch bottom. The walls are 5 inches thick at the top and 10 inches
at the bottom. (The sloping face allows the ice to slip up the sides
instead of pushing directly against them.) Consequently the inside
forms at the bottom are 5 inches shorter at each end than at the top.

The forms are nothing more than shell boxes made from odd lengths of
1-inch siding nailed to 2 by 4-inch studding spaced not more than
2 feet apart. The sides of the forms may be made separate and put
together in place; or, if there is sufficient help, each form may be
entirely completed and set up as one piece. The forms are held in
position by 2 by 4-inch liners at top and bottom, and if necessary by
sloping braces nailed to stakes driven in the ground. Cut strips of
heavy woven wire fencing sufficiently long to cover the bottom and to
project up into the walls.

[Illustration]

With the forms ready, mix a batch of 1: 2: 4 concrete. Beginning at
one end, fill the trench, and upon the gravel foundation place a 2-inch
layer of concrete in width slightly greater than a width of wire. Upon
this concrete lay a section of wire. Tamp in the remaining 6 inches
of concrete and bring up the extra length of the wire so that the
ends will project up into the future side walls. Continue laying the
concrete in sections until the bottom is completed. Finish the surface
with a wooden float.

Immediately set the wall forms in place, and set them level by using a
carpenter’s level. Fill the wall space with concrete. Half way up the
side and 1 inch from the outside, lay a ½-inch iron rod entirely around
the tank. Again 2 inches from the top, and 1 inch from both inner and
outer edges, lay two rods of the same size. If a tank cover is desired,
set bolts in the concrete as directed under CORN CRIB FLOORS,
page 53.

To prevent mud holes, surround the tank with a concrete floor. (See
FEEDING FLOORS, page 43.) Protect the green tank from drying
out according to instructions under SIDEWALKS, pages 28-34.

                       =Materials Required=
    Crushed rock or screened gravel  7 cubic yards at $1.10   $7.70
    Sand                             3½ cubic yards at 1.00    3.50
    Portland cement                  11½ barrels at 2.50      28.75
                                                             ------
                                                             $39.95


Watering Troughs for Hogs

Troughs for hogs are built in two styles—wedge-shaped, like the feed
trough shown on page 49, or like troughs for cattle except smaller.
Use short lengths of 1-inch pipe crosswise to keep the hogs out of the
trough. Set bolts, properly spaced, in the soft concrete sides, so that
the pipes will fit between them and can be held firm by a strap iron
over the bolts.

[Illustration]


Dipping Vats and Tanks

The younger generation have no remembrance of the epidemic of Texas
or southern fever which swept over the country about forty years ago,
killed thousands of cattle, and left hundreds of bankrupt farmers and
ranchmen in its wake. Government experts found that this deadly disease
is caused by ticks, which infest cattle in certain localities. They
also discovered that the fever can be prevented by dipping the animals
in chemical solutions.[2]

[2] For free bulletins on dipping write the Agricultural Department,
Bureau of Animal Industry, Washington, D. C.

Dipping cures not only Texas (known as “splenetic”) fever, but also
the lip and leg disease, mange, and scab or scabies of both sheep and
cattle. Certain solutions free horses, cattle, sheep, and hogs of lice,
mites, fleas, and flies. The only method of applying these chemicals,
surely and thoroughly to all parts of the animal, is by giving him a
plunge in a tank containing the healing liquid. Since the dip is the
most costly part of the process, and since it must be applied once or
twice every year, some permanent form of tank is needed—one that will
not rot or rust out, leak or heave in during winter. Concrete vats,
built ten years ago, without one cent’s worth of repair, are still as
good as new and are still giving entire satisfaction.

[Illustration]

There are four important points to be considered in the building of a
dipping tank:

        First—An entering slide, steep enough to shoot the
      animal in, without a direct drop. A direct drop, the
      entire depth of the tank, is likely to injure the
      animal.

        Second—The tank must be narrow enough to prevent
      the animal turning around when once in, long enough
      to keep him in from one to two minutes, and deep
      enough not only to make him swim, but also that he
      may disappear entirely when he takes the plunge.

        Third—The slope at the leaving end must be gentle
      and the footing roughened or cleated so that the
      animal may easily scramble to the dripping pens.

        Fourth—As the liquid dip is the most expensive
      part of dipping, there must be provided two dripping
      pens draining back into the tank.

Select a well drained site convenient for a chute leading from a small,
well-fenced lot or corral. At the narrow end of the chute and in line
with it lay out the dipping tank with the entering slide next to the
chute.

[Illustration]

Often the chute is built on a curve, so that the animals cannot see
where they are going.

They are generally constructed with a hump in the floor. This prevents
the animal from jumping into the dip, and gives the necessary length to
the slide, without increasing the depth of the tank. Choose the proper
dimensions from the diagrams and table according to whether the tank is
to be used for horses, cattle, sheep, or hogs.

The lengths given will keep the animal in the tank one minute, usually
a sufficient time to cure mild forms of disease. Where a longer
treatment is desired, most ranchmen, instead of building tanks of
greater length, provide a drop gate working in a groove, as shown in
the photograph, by means of which the animal is kept in the tank as
long as necessary. Likewise, rather than build a separate tank for
sheep and hogs, stockmen insert a temporary division fence, running the
full length and depth of the cattle and horse tank. This fence should
be solid and so spaced as to prevent hogs and sheep from turning around
in the tank. In this way a single dipping tank may be used for horses,
cattle, sheep, and hogs.

Dig the deep part of the hole first, and then slope the earth for the
slide and climb. Lay the outlet drain pipe so that the top of the elbow
bend will be even with the surface of the finished concrete bottom.
Tamp back the dirt thoroughly about the drain tile before placing
concrete.

[Illustration]

The side walls only will require forms. If the banks stand firm, inside
forms alone will be needed. Make these of 1-inch boards on 2 by 4-inch
uprights. Steel reinforcing, preferably wire cloth or hog wire, is
placed in the forms so that it will be embedded in the center of the
concrete wall. Floor, sides, and ends should all be thus reinforced to
prevent settlement cracks due to any settlement of earth foundations.
Mix the concrete 1: 2: 4 and lay the floor and slopes directly on
the solid earth. No fill is necessary. The concrete for the sloping
ends should be mixed fairly dry so that it will tamp well and stay in
position without the use of forms. With the bottom and slopes built,
lower the side wall forms into the pit. Take care to jar no dirt upon
the concrete already placed. Space the forms properly and cross-brace
them firmly upon each other. Fill the wall space with concrete.

In placing this concrete, be sure that it strikes the wood form instead
of the earthen side, as concrete mixed with earth makes a weak, leaky
wall. Carry the walls 6 inches above the surrounding ground to prevent
flood water from running into the tank.

The entrance slope should be smooth to slide the animals into the tank
without skinning them up. Finish this surface with a wooden float and
steel trowel. Some ranchmen prefer to cover the entire slide with a
polished steel plate, the edges of which are sunk into the concrete
when the slide is built. To aid the animals in climbing out, embed in
the concrete the turned-up ends of iron cleats bent at right angles
similar to a capital “U.” Old wagon tires, cut in lengths not greater
than 20 inches and turned up 4 inches at each end, will do. Leave 1
inch clearance between the flat surface of the cleats and the concrete.
Space the cleats 18 inches for horses and cattle and 10 inches for
sheep and hogs.

At the leaving end of the tank, lay out the two dripping pens with
their division fence on a line with the center line of the tank, so
that a gate hung to this fence may close either pen, when it is full,
and allow the animals from the tank to pass to the empty pen. Use
concrete posts for the fences, as they will require no replacing.
Excavate for the drainage foundation, set the posts, and build a 6-inch
concrete floor according to the directions given under SIDEWALKS,
page 28, and FEEDING FLOORS, page 43. Slope the floors, ¼ inch to
each foot in length or width, so that the dip running off the animals
will be saved and returned to the tank. Corrugate or groove the floor
to the depth of ½ inch, every 8 inches, in one direction. During the
construction of the floor, mold around the outside a concrete curb,
commonly called a splashboard, 6 inches above the floor and 4 inches
wide. Where the dip from the floor empties into the tank, place a
removable wire screen or strainer to keep the droppings and wool tags
out of the vat. Cure the floors and slopes according to directions
under FEEDING FLOORS, page 43. The wall forms may be removed after one
week, but the tank should not be used until it is three weeks old.

[Illustration]

[Illustration]

           DIMENSIONS OF GROUND PIT FOR DIPPING TANKS
    -------+------+-----+-----+------+-----+------+------+-----+
     Kind  |   W  |  N  |  D  |   L  |  E  |   B  |   A  |  I  |
    -------+------+-----+-----+------+-----+------+------+-----+
           |      |     |     |      |     |      |      |     |
           |      |     |     |      |     |      |      |     |
    Horses |5′ 10″|3′ 4″|8′ 8″|55′ 0″|7′ 6″|31′ 0″|16′ 6″|8′ 8″|
    Cattle |5′  4″|3′ 4″|7′ 8″|51′ 0″|6′ 8″|31′ 0″|13′ 4″|7′ 8″|
    Sheep  |3′  4″|2′ 4″|5′ 8″|46′ 0″|5′ 0″|31′ 0″|10′ 0″|5′ 8″|
    Hogs   |3′  4″|2′ 4″|5′ 8″|36′ 0″|5′ 0″|21′ 0″|10′ 0″|5′ 8″|
    -------+------+-----+-----+------+-----+------+------+-----+
    -------+------+-----+---------+----------+----------
     Kind  |   O  |  T  | Cement  |    Sand  |  Rock
    -------+------+-----+---------+----------+----------
           |      |     | Barrels | Cu. yds. |  Cu. yds.
    Horses |18′ 7″|0′ 8″|   38    |    11    |    22
    Cattle |15′ 4″|0′ 8″|   36    |    10½   |    21
    Sheep  |11′ 6″|0′ 8″|   22    |     6½   |    13
    Hogs   |11′ 6″|0′ 8″|   19    |     5½   |    11
    -------+------+-----+---------+----------+----------

[Illustration]

[Illustration]

At first state and federal authorities had to force ranchmen to
dip, but so beneficial has it proved that compulsion is now seldom
necessary. Experienced cattle-men have found by actual tests that
dipping increases the market value of their steers $5 per head. The
cost of dipping on the farm is only 1½ to 3 cents per head—in the
stock yards the charge is 15 to 20 cents. One large ranchman, who lost
28 per cent. of his herd (several thousand) in one winter with the
mange, found his first trial of dipping so effective in curing this
disease that the following winter he did not lose a single steer.
The use of dips has become so general in the South and West that the
Government has raised the quarantine in most sections.

[Illustration]


The Construction of a Concrete Milk Vat

Dig a pit to a depth of 1 foot 6 inches and place wooden forms in
such a way as to provide for tank walls 6 inches thick and 1 foot 8
inches in height. This will bring the walls only 8 inches above ground
level—which makes it easy to lift the milk cans in and out.

[Illustration]

Use a wet mixture of concrete, of proportions 1: 2: 4. Place as
described on page 74; and be sure to build walls and floor at the same
time. The floor should be 6 inches thick.

The vat described has a partition 6 inches thick, dividing the tank
into two chambers, each chamber being 6 feet 9 inches long. An iron
grating is placed in the bottom of the tank to allow free circulation
of cooling water around and under the milk cans. Arrangements must be
made for inlets and outlets. The inlet pipe can be simply placed above
one end of tank.

The pipe rail at back of tank provides a convenient purchase when
lifting heavy cans from the tank.

A hole must be provided at the other end of tank, in the bottom, and
connecting, by an iron pipe, with the drain tile. Into this hole a
removable upright iron pipe is fitted, the length of pipe depending
on the depth of water desired for the cans. This allows the water to
come only to the top of the pipe and provides an over-flow outlet at the
proper height. The pipe must fit tightly into the hole.

Time required to build:—one day with three men on the job.

Approximate cost, at current prices of materials and including labor,
$16.00.

The materials required are 2 cubic yards of crushed rock or screened
gravel, 1 cubic yard of sand, and 5 barrels of Portland cement.

[Illustration]




Small Farm Buildings


Numerous small structures are required on the farm. Dog kennels, tool
houses, coal houses, ice houses, hydraulic ram houses, smoke houses,
acetylene gas plant houses, gasoline storage houses, milk houses and
many similar buildings are a necessity on every well improved farm.
Such structures are all of simple design and can be easily built of
concrete.

When once constructed of this material durability and freedom from
fire are assured. For such buildings as milk houses built of concrete
instead of wood, there is the added advantage of cleanliness. Modern
dairying demands absolute cleanliness. Concrete meets this demand.

[Illustration]

[Illustration]


Milk Houses

Milk splashed on wooden walls soaks in, causing a very disagreeable
odor likely to taint milk stored in the vat. Concrete does not absorb
milk splashed on it. Such walls can be kept free from tainting odors
by simply washing them down. In concrete dairy houses, with concrete
vats, the milk will keep sweet longer than in houses built of any other
material. Dairy experts all admit that no other material can take the
place of concrete for such purposes.

The illustration shows a simple form of milk house with walls, floor
and vat, all of concrete. This house is 16 feet long, 10 feet wide and
8 feet high with a rise to the roof peak of 5 feet.

LOCATION

The milk house should be located near the barn and convenient to a
clean water supply. Care must be taken to provide for the outflow of
the water from the vat. This can be done by leading a line of pipe
from the vat to a discharge point at a lower level or to the drinking
troughs for the stock.

Often the water from a flowing spring can be piped several hundred feet
to the house, providing an excellent means of keeping the milk cool and
sweet.

FOUNDATION

To build such a milk house as shown, dig a trench for the foundation 3
feet deep and 12 inches wide. Fill the trench to the ground level with
1: 2½: 5 concrete. The foundation should be laid out in such a way as
to extend 3 inches beyond the inside and 3 inches beyond the outside of
the walls of the house.

WALLS

As soon as the concrete foundation has become hard enough to support
them, erect the wall forms. These forms consist of 1-inch siding nailed
to 2 by 4-inch studding. The studs should be spaced 2 feet apart and
the 1-inch sheathing is nailed to the sides of the studding toward
the concrete. For small buildings it is often easier to build an
entire wall form flat on the ground and then raise it into position.
The bottoms of the studs rest on the concrete foundation and are held
in position by strips nailed to them and extending to stakes driven
firmly into the ground. The distance the inside and outside forms are
spaced apart depends upon the thickness of wall desired. Sloping braces
leading from the studs to the ground keep the side forms from bulging
and cross-cleats nailed at the top keep the inside and outside forms
the correct distance apart. Bulging of forms can also be prevented by
wiring them together as shown on page 23. On page 22 is a description
of the general method of building forms. Especial care must be taken to
hold the forms in position while placing the concrete. The studs in the
side wall forms for this house should be cut off at the height of the
walls. With the wall forms secured in position fill them with concrete.

DOORS AND WINDOWS

A space must be left in the walls for the doors and windows. This is
done by placing between the wall forms, frames or boxes without top or
bottom made of 1-inch boards. When the wall form has been filled to
the level of the bottom of the opening a frame, the size and shape of
the opening desired is secured firmly in place and the concrete poured
around it. After the wall reaches a level 2 inches above the frame lay
in the fresh concrete two ½-inch iron bars. These pieces should be long
enough to extend 8 inches beyond each side of the frame. A piece of old
wagon tire can be used instead.

The sill shown in the sketch can be molded by building a small box
extending out from the side form. The concrete should be placed for the
sill at the same time that the wall is being built. For buildings such
as we have mentioned a sill is unnecessary.

FINISHING TOP OF WALL

When the side walls have been built to the top and before the concrete
has set, shove ½-inch bolts 18 inches long down into it. Space these
bolts 24 inches apart, 9 inches of the length being in the concrete.
The end wall forms extend above the plates to the peak of the roof,
and are filled to the top. While placing the concrete in the walls it
should be continually spaded as described on page 25.

[Illustration: =DETAILS OF DOORS AND WINDOWS=]

BUILDING THE ROOF

The roof is built by nailing 2 by 4 rafters to the inside studs of the
side wall forms, on a line 1 inch lower than the bottom of the roof.
The rafters are given the pitch desired for the roof, and are securely
fastened where they meet at the ridge. To stiffen the roof form until
the concrete has become hard tie the opposite rafters together at the
bottom (with a 1-inch strip) in the form of a capital “A.” One-inch
boards are nailed on the rafters. The cornice shown in the sketch
extending beyond the wall can be easily built by nailing a board the
width of the cornice to the tops of the outside studs of both side and
end walls. To hold the concrete in place as the roof is being built
nail a 5-inch upright strip along the outside edge of this board. Bend
the bolts projecting above the walls down to within 1 inch of the roof
boards. Spread a layer of heavy woven wire fencing over the entire
roof, allowing it to extend to the outside of the cornice. Wire the
fencing securely to the bent bolts. Place two ½-inch steel rods near
the outside of the cornice all the way around the roof, and fasten
these securely to the woven wire fencing. The roof should be made 3
inches thick and the stone used for the concrete should not be larger
than ½ inch.

[Illustration]

Mix the concrete fairly stiff and start placing it at the cornice,
working toward the ridge. Spread the concrete out in a thin layer and
then lift the woven wire fencing and the two rods in the cornice so
that the concrete is 1 inch thick below the wire. Cover the rods and
wire with more concrete to a depth of 2 inches. When finished the
roof will then be 3 inches thick, 1 inch below the wire and 2 inches
over it. Always work from the low edge of the roof and finish to the
complete depth of 3 inches at once. Imbed a width of woven wire fencing
lengthwise over the ridge of the roof 1 inch beneath the surface. The
work must be carried on without interruption. The concrete must not be
allowed to dry along an unfinished edge, as there is danger of a leak
where fresh concrete is joined to that already hard. Tamp the concrete
until moisture comes to the surface and smooth off the top of the roof
with a wooden float and steel trowel.

The forms must be left in place for at least a week and the concrete
in the roof must be protected from the sun and wind while it is
hardening. A method for doing this is described on page 26 under
SIDEWALKS.

FLOOR

[Illustration]

When the forms have been removed from the walls and roof the floor can
be laid. Excavate the ground to a depth of 4 inches below the finished
floor level. Mix and lay the concrete as described on page 31.

The concrete milk vat should be built at the same time and as a part of
the floor. See description on page 82.

ENGINE BASE

Engines, cream separators, pumps and other pieces of machinery
require solid bases. These bases must be permanent, and free from any
vibration. A base constructed of concrete possesses these advantages.

[Illustration]

To form a base for the support of a small engine, first excavate a
pit 2 feet 4 inches deep, and 1 foot larger both in length and width
than the dimensions of the engine base. Fill the pit with a mixture of
concrete, (1: 2½: 5), and then construct a form which will carry the
concrete to a height 4 inches above the floor level or to the height
desired.

Bolts should be set in the concrete before it dries, these being
sufficiently long to bend 4 inches at right angles, and to extend 1
foot deep into the concrete, with bent end down. They should be placed
with the upright part surrounded by gas pipe of twice the diameter of
the bolt, and of a length sufficient to come flush with the surface of
the concrete. The open space formed around the bolt by the pipe will
allow for slight errors in locating bolts, so as to meet the holes in
the engine base.

Keep the concrete wet for 24 hours after placing, by sprinkling. After
six days, set the engine, adjust the bolts, and fill the spaces around
the bolts with cement mortar, mixed 1 part cement, 1 part sand. Do not
use the engine until the concrete base is at least two weeks old.

[Illustration: Concrete Ice House]

A concrete base adds years of service to the life of a gasoline engine
or cream separator.

[Illustration: Grain Elevator Approach and Engine House]

METHOD APPLIES TO ALL BUILDINGS

The method just described for building a milk house applies equally
well to any of the small houses mentioned above. It is not always
necessary to build a peaked roof; sometimes a flat roof will answer the
purpose; but the general method in all cases is the same. The drawings
show in detail the way a door can be built and framed and also how the
windows can be made to slide up and down.

[Illustration: Hydraulic Ram House]

ADVANTAGES OF CONCRETE

Concrete alone possesses the necessary fireproof qualities for such
buildings as smoke houses, where there is always great danger from fire.

Oil lamps are becoming a thing of the past on modern farms. Acetylene
and gasoline plants furnish a better and safer light. These plants are
built either above or below ground. In either case concrete is the
ideal material, since it is both fire and waterproof.

The durability of concrete is particularly valuable for such buildings
as hydraulic ram houses, which must always be located near streams,
and ice houses, where there is always moisture. Wood quickly rots, but
moisture has no effect on concrete.

For tool houses, coal houses, and buildings subjected to rough usage,
nothing equals concrete.

Concrete, for small buildings, meets the three great demands of the
farmer—cleanliness, freedom from fire, and durability.

[Illustration]


Concrete Cellar Steps and Hatchway

Cellarways are particularly liable to leak and cause a damp cellar.
This cannot happen if they are made of concrete. There are no
cracks through which the water can come. Wooden steps last no time,
particularly where heavy barrels and similar weighty loads are taken up
and down. As wooden or brick areaways are always damp, the steps rot
quickly, thus requiring constant renewal. Few things are more dangerous
to limb, and even to life, than a step giving way under the weight of a
heavy barrel which is being carried into the cellar.

[Illustration]

Concrete steps are safe under any load.

Owing to the fact that concrete can be molded into any desired shape,
it is particularly desirable for this purpose. Some people like steps
with a low rise and a particularly wide tread, while others prefer a
high rise and narrow tread. Concrete can easily be fitted to either.
The determining feature is usually the space to be occupied. The door
into the cellar limits the depth to which the steps are taken, and
therefore the height of the risers; while the room the cellarway is to
take outside the line of the wall determines the width of the tread. If
possible, the rise of each step should be from 6 to 8 inches, while the
width of the tread should be from 9 to 12 inches.

_Note_: See page 112 for Window Hatchway.


[Illustration]

In erecting, first excavate the hole to the width of steps desired,
plus one foot. This allows for a 6-inch wall on either side. Slope the
ground from 1 foot back of where the top step is to come to 1 foot back
of where the bottom step will be. To form the steps, saw out a board
just as you would a “horse” for steps, and nail planks where the risers
come, holding the two “horses” the proper distance apart. This is
placed upside down, resting on the top and bottom, with the edge of the
top and bottom rise where the bottom and top steps are to come. Fill
this form and the space back of it with 1: 2: 4 concrete, starting
with the bottom step, and continuing upward to the top, bringing the
concrete in each step to the top of rise. Side forms for the 6-inch
walls may now be placed, braced apart in the center properly, and
resting on the back of the horses. These can be carried to any height
desired to give the hatchway doors a proper slope for shedding rain and
snow. Forms will have to be built on the outside of these walls above
the ground line to hold the concrete in place. Before the concrete sets
in the side walls, bolts should be placed, with heads in the concrete,
by means of which wooden sills are fixed to the walls for fastening
the cellar doors by strap hinges. If the bottom step does not come to
the wall line, the flat landing in the bottom should be covered with a
5-inch thickness of concrete. Here is a convenient place to locate a
drain, to carry off the water used in sluicing down the steps, and any
which may leak through the cellar doors.

The cellar hatchway shown in the photograph and in the drawing is 5
feet wide, built according to directions above. The side walls at the
cellar are 7 feet high and 10 feet long. The slope for the cellar doors
is 2 feet 4 inches. There are 7 steps of 8-inch rise and 10-inch tread
and a landing 3 feet 2 inches wide. Two men built this hatchway in 1½
days.

    =Materials Required=
    Crushed rock or screened gravel  2¼ cubic yards at $1.10   $2.48
    Sand                             1⅛ cubic yards at $1.00    1.13
    Portland cement                  3¾ barrels at $2.50        9.37
                                                               ------
                                                               $12.98

[Illustration]


Root Cellars of Concrete

The increasing use of roots, as winter feed for animals, has brought
about the construction of root cellars as a means of preserving this
valuable food. A root cellar must be sufficiently warm and dry to keep
roots from freezing or rotting. By building the cellar below ground
the warmth is greatly increased. To do this, however, a material must
be employed which is moisture-proof and which will not rot. For these
reasons use concrete.

The cellar shown in the illustration on page 91 extends 5 feet below,
and 2 feet above ground level. The walls are 5 inches thick, and are
made of concrete proportioned 1: 2: 4.

[Illustration]

Choose a well drained site, and dig a pit in the earth to the desired
depth and with an entrance-way so sloped as to make provision for
concrete steps, which will have a rise of 7 inches and a tread of 10
inches.

Build a floor of the same thickness as the walls. Set inside box form
and fill the space between this form and the earthen side walls with
the wet concrete, the same as for UNDERGROUND CISTERNS, page
68.

Above the ground level an outside form must be used. The roof is built
in the way described on page 86 except the thickness is increased to 5
inches.

Ventilators are provided in the roof, by imbedding lengths of sewer
pipe in the concrete. Add galvanized tin hoods to keep out the rain.

By referring to page 90, there will be found a description of how to
build a hatchway and steps.

Immediately after the side wall forms have been erected, the door frame
should be set in its required position, before placing concrete.

Similar structures are also used as bee, vegetable, fruit and cyclone
cellars. Concrete cellars are great favorites with growers of apples,
potatoes and cabbage. By adjusting the ventilator openings, the
temperature can always be kept at just the right point. Moreover, since
rats and mice cannot gain an entrance to a concrete root cellar, there
is no waste causing decay, and the vegetables keep better.

In cold climates bees must be warmly housed in winter, lest they freeze
to death. By no other means than underground cellars can they be safely
brought through the winter. The bee cellar must be dry, in order that
the bees stay in good health. In no way, can there be provided so even
a temperature or so dry an atmosphere, as by the use of concrete. Bees
kept in concrete cellars come through the winter in perfect condition.

                       =Materials Required=
    Crushed rock or screened gravel  11 cubic yards at $1.10    $12.10
    Sand                              5½ cubic yards at $1.00     5.50
    Portland cement                   15 barrels at $2.50        37.50
                                                                ------
                                                                $55.10

[Illustration]

[Illustration]


Poultry Houses

The high price of all foods has made poultry raising profitable. But to
have laying hens they must be carefully tended. Their houses must be
clean, and free from draughts. Young chickens must be protected from
rats, skunks and foxes.

[Illustration]

Concrete houses fill every requirement of an ideal poultry house. To
clean a house of concrete, spray it with oil and burn it out. Concrete
is fireproof. Rats cannot gnaw through a concrete floor or sidewalk. In
a concrete house there are no cracks through which the snow can sift,
or in which lice and bedbugs can hide.

[Illustration]

Locate the poultry house where there is plenty of sunlight and where
the concrete poultry yard (see FEEDING FLOORS, page 43) may be wind
protected. Build the house as directed under SMALL BUILDINGS, page
82. As the walls are being placed, insert short pieces of gas pipe at
convenient heights to support the shelves for the nests (one style of
nest shown on page 94) and the rails for the roosts. If desired, a
one-way-slope concrete roof may be made.

Make the floor on an 8-inch fill of gravel, or of slabs built on a
smooth floor and later set in place. Lay heavy wire fencing in the
concrete slab 1 inch from the under side.


Poultry Watering Troughs

To rid the farm of cholera and roup, nothing aids more than concrete
drinking troughs. Occasionally scrub the troughs, spray them with oil
and burn them out.


Duck Ponds

Ducks and geese need water, yet if they are allowed to go to a nearby
stream, many are lost. Poultrymen are building ponds of concrete,
attached to the water supply in such a way as to provide fresh water at
all times. For building, see instructions under HOG WALLOWS,
page 52.

[Illustration]

[Illustration]


Retaining Wall and Steps

Terraces, if too steep, will not stay sodded, and if too flat, take up
room which would otherwise be a part of the lawn. The neatest way is to
place a retaining wall along the terrace edge. This wall is built in
the same way as the wall to hold the earth in a barn approach described
on page 60.

[Illustration]

If the wall is over one foot high steps are necessary. A most
convenient arrangement is to have the bottom step come flush with
the face of the wall, making it impossible to fall over one or two
projecting steps in the dark.

In building, insert a stop plank between the front and back forms to
prevent the concrete from going to the full height of the wall. The
bottom of this plank should be kept at a height above the bottom of the
wall sufficient to form the first step.

After the concrete for the wall is placed, remove the section of the
form where the steps are to come, and dig out the earth to a depth
sufficient to hold them.

The remaining steps are built in the manner described on page 90.

After the concrete is placed, the steps should be closed to traffic for
at least one week.

In the background of the photograph on page 72 may be seen a double
terrace wall of concrete, each wall 5 feet high.

[Illustration]


Concrete Chimney Caps

As a large proportion of fires in residences originate in the chimney,
it is well to have this part of the house as nearly fireproof as
possible. It can be made entirely so by building it of concrete. If
this is not convenient, at least let the chimney cap be of concrete.

[Illustration]

These caps are cast in one piece, on the ground, and in any shape
desired.

The outside form is a wooden box, with inside dimensions corresponding
with the outside dimensions of the desired cap. Usually the cap is 6
inches thick, and has an “over-hang” or “drip” extending on all sides
beyond the outside of the chimney.[3] Thus, if top of chimney, over
all, is 18 inches square, make outer form 22 inches square, an extra
allowance of 2 inches on all sides, thus obtaining a cap that will have
an “over-hang” of 2 inches all the way around.

[3] A simple method for building a chimney entirely of concrete is
described on page 50.

The inside form may consist of a piece of terra-cotta tile. If more
than one opening is desired in the cap, use two pieces of tile or as
many as there are to be openings.

Mix concrete 1: 2: 4, the mixture to be a thoroughly wet one. Place
in the form, after greasing outside of terra-cotta so that same may
be easily removed. Leave undisturbed for two days. Remove forms and
place cap in position, attaching it to the brick chimney with a cement
mortar, one part cement to one part sand.

[Illustration]


Concrete Makes an Excellent Porch Floor

When even a part of a building is subjected to unusual wear, either
from use or exposure to the elements, build it of concrete.

[Illustration]

Porch floors of wood rot quickly when laid near the ground; and, even
if they do not rot, through constant use they become splintered and
faulty.

As concrete is a stone which can be made into any shape without
cutting, it is particularly well adapted for porch floors of any size
and shape. Its lasting qualities under all conditions of wear and
exposure have been so often mentioned, it seems useless to refer to
them again.

[Illustration]

Remove the old wooden floor, first placing props to support the porch
roof, with their lower ends resting outside the line of the porch
floor. The pillars themselves must also be supported if they are not to
be replaced by concrete.

The floor is laid in exactly the same way as a feeding floor described
on page 43. As the size is usually small, however, the floor can be
laid in a single slab without joints. If a smooth surface is wished
for, finish first with a wooden float and then with a steel trowel.

Do not put too much elbow grease into the finishing. If you do, small
cracks are likely to come on the surface and spoil the looks of the
floor.

No material could be more useful than concrete for the porch of a
school house where hundreds of little feet scuff and stamp daily.

A porch of concrete is free from vermin, fireproof, easily scrubbed,
and needs no repairs.


Hot-Beds and Cold-Frames

Fresh vegetables may be had during the winter at small expense by every
suburbanite, if he builds a hot-bed or cold-frame. By their use early
spring plants can also be given a good start. Since the bed must be
placed partly in the damp ground, the only material to be considered
for this purpose is concrete, which does not rot out and which, being
free from cracks and joints, makes the warmest bed in cold weather.

Locate the bed on the sunny side of a building, if possible, on the
south side. Dig the pit the width and length of the hot-bed, not less
than 3 feet deep. The one shown is 39 feet long and divided into 3
equal compartments. Make box forms of 1-inch lumber to carry the south
(front) wall 6 inches and the north (back) wall 15 inches above ground.
The end walls slope to the others. If the bed is not near a building,
extend the back wall 2 feet higher to serve as a wind-break. Before
filling the forms with concrete, test their width by laying on a sash.
See that it laps full 2 inches at each end.

[Illustration]

Mix the concrete mushy wet in proportions 1: 2½: 5. Fill the forms
without stopping for anything. Tie the walls together at the corners
by laying old iron rods in them bent at right angles. During the
placing of the concrete set ½-inch bolts about 2 feet apart to hold
the wooden framing to the concrete; or make grooves in the tops of
the walls for sinking the frames level with the top of the concrete,
allowing one-quarter inch at each end for clearance. This can be
done by temporarily embedding in the soft concrete a wooden strip of
the necessary width and thickness. Remove the forms after six days.
Divisions may be built along with the walls or later as convenient. One
and one-half days were required for two men to build a hot-bed 5½ by
12¼ feet in the clear.

                       =Materials Required=
    Screened gravel or broken stone    2½ cubic yards at $1.10   $2.75
    Sand                               1¼ cubic yards at $1.00    1.25
    Portland cement                    3½ barrels at $2.50        8.75
                                                                 ------
                                                                 $12.75

[Illustration]

[Illustration]


Tree Repair

[Illustration]

Nothing adds so much to the home-like appearance of a place as good
shade trees. But trees are like teeth—they need attention. Boring
insects often cause decay. The hollow becomes larger. The wind blows
the weakened tree down. The “looks” of the place is ruined. It takes at
least a lifetime to produce another such tree.

By means of concrete, many famous old trees, seemingly about gone, are
now saved. Open up the cavity with a hand-axe. With a mallet and chisel
cut out every bit of the rotten wood, and stop the flow of sap by
painting the cavity with liquid asphalt. Reinforce small cavities with
nails as shown in the photograph, larger cavities with rods, wire and
spikes. Carefully fill every crevice with a 1: 3 cement-sand mortar.
By slightly trimming the edges of the bark around the filling, once or
twice a season, the bark will grow entirely over the concrete.

[Illustration]


Rollers of Concrete

Frost coming out of the ground in the spring raises the lawn into
humps. If these are not rolled down at once, the lawn is rough all
summer.

Rollers were originally made by the farmer from logs of wood. These
were abandoned for the more expensive iron rollers, purchased in the
nearest town. To-day farmers are again making rollers, but are using
concrete. An iron roller with a cylinder from 2 to 3 feet in length
will cost from $15 to $20, whereas one of the same size constructed of
concrete will cost practically nothing.

Obtain a length of sewer pipe, of the size of roller wished for. A tile
from 12 to 24 inches in diameter will usually suit the purpose. Set
this tile on end, small end down, on a wooden platform. Through a hole
bored in the platform insert a 1-inch round iron bar, long enough to
project beyond the ends of the roller a sufficient distance to provide
bearings and attachment for the handles. Care should be taken to get
the bar exactly in the center of the tile before placing concrete,
and to keep it there while the concrete is being placed. Make a wet
mixture of concrete (1: 2: 4), and fill the tile with this mixture,
up to the “bell” of the tile. Allow the concrete to set for ten days,
when the roller may be placed on side, and the bell of pipe chipped off
with a cold chisel and hammer. Attach a forked handle, as shown in the
illustration. As the axle is a firmly-fixed part of the roller, the
fork ends of the handle must be provided with holes, within which the
axle can turn.

A roller 18 inches in diameter and 2 feet long will weigh about 600
pounds. If a lighter roller is desired, use a smaller sized sewer
pipe; or place several small pipes inside the large one, depositing
the concrete around them on the outside. They will form hollow spaces
inside the roller and lessen its weight.

By increasing the size pipe, or by using a steel mold and attaching
a pair of shafts or a tongue instead of a handle, horse rollers for
crushing the clods in the ploughed fields may be made.

[Illustration]


Hay Caps and Tarpaulin Weights

With the usual shortage of labor in the harvest season and the frequent
occurrence of showers, to secure sweet, unmolded hay it has become
necessary to cover the hay cocks with a canvas or muslin cover. The
best weights to hold down the covers are made of concrete. Mix the
concrete 1 part Portland cement to 2 parts sand, mold them like
doughnuts or as cakes with a galvanized wire loop, and set them aside
in a damp place for 7 days before using.


Trash Burner or Garbage Receiver

[Illustration]

Trash and leaves must be burned without danger to the surrounding
property. A concrete burner affords the only safe and inexpensive means.

Dig out the dirt to the depth of 6 inches. For forms choose two
barrels, one of which will set within the other with a clearance on all
sides of 6 inches. Adjust the height by cutting off their butts. Make
an opening through which a metal ash box can be inserted or over which
an iron door can be hung. Fill the foundation hole and the forms with
1: 2: 4 concrete. Remove the outside form after two weeks. The fire
will later take care of the inner form. After three weeks the burner
may be used.

[Illustration]


Concrete Posts

When a man buys a farm, he examines first the condition of its general
improvements. If the fences are “all run down,” he must take into
consideration the cost of repairing or replacing them—a matter of no
small importance and expense in these days of high priced labor and
lumber. The cheapest fence is not always the one lowest in first cost.
Intelligent purchase of fencing materials means buying those which last
longest with least repairs.

A railroad probably has more fencing along its right of way than any
single property owner, and to avoid damage suits, the fences must at
all times be in perfect repair. As fast as their wooden fences rot out
and burn down, they are replacing them with concrete. Not only has the
lasting quality of concrete recommended itself, but the ever increasing
shortage of the lumber supply has made the purchase of good wooden
posts impossible, and the cost of poor posts high.

Concrete posts in first cost are seldom more expensive than wooden
posts. The life of a wooden post is from 3 to 5 years, while concrete
posts last forever. Weather and fire do not injure them. Even forest
fires cannot harm a line of concrete posts.

The United States Government, recognizing the importance of this
subject, has issued Farm Bulletin No. 403, entitled Concrete Fence
Posts. This bulletin can be obtained free upon application to the
Agricultural Department, or to your Congressman.

Hitching posts, made in a slightly larger box form, with a bolt and
ring inserted in the concrete before it has hardened, add neatness to
the house surroundings. Gate posts of concrete, nothing more than heavy
fence posts made long enough to take the highest fence, prevent sagging
gates, so hard to open. A concrete clothes post is ready for the
clothes line and the wash every Monday morning. The weight of the wet
clothes does not break them down or cause them to sag. Clothes never
have to be rewashed due to dragging in the dirt.

[Illustration]


Corner Stones and Survey Monuments

[Illustration]

To property owners, as well as engineers, survey monuments which last
forever and can be easily distinguished from surrounding rocks, are of
the utmost importance. Expensive re-surveys and legal fights can be
avoided by making such monuments easily distinguishable, permanent,
and in such a way as to avoid confusion with other marks. The use of
concrete for this purpose fills all the requirements better than any
other material.

Get from the proper public official (usually the county engineer or
surveyor) the exact location of corner stones. Drive four stakes in the
ground so that strings stretched between every other stake will cross
each other directly over the original monument.

Remove the old monument, and, with a post auger, bore a hole deep
enough to reach below the frost line (at least 3 feet deep), where the
old monument stood.

Fill the hole with concrete mixed 1: 2: 4, rounding the top with
the hands so it will extend 3 or 4 inches above the level of the
surrounding ground.

While placing the last foot of concrete, imbed a harrow tooth, iron
bolt, or gas pipe, with its top just showing above the finished
concrete at a point directly under where the strings cross. Protect the
monument from damage by stock for one week, by placing a box over it.


Drain Tile Outlet Walls

In developing the lowlands for farm purposes—and such lands are now
most valuable—immense sums are being invested in concrete drain tile.

Where drain tile empty into an open ditch, the banks of the ditch
around the drain tile gradually wash away, and often two and three
lengths of tile become disjointed, allowing the water from them to
further cut away the field land. These exposed tile are often crushed
by livestock. Moreover, clay and shale tile freeze, crumble, and mixed
with the earth from the bank frequently close the outlet. Muskrats,
skunks and mink use the tile as a nesting place, and the drain becomes
stopped up and drowns out the crops.

[Illustration]

All of this trouble is prevented by a small outlay of time and money in
building a concrete retaining wall to keep the end of the drain tile
from washing out and to protect it.

Choose the dry season of the year, immediately after the laying or
cleaning of the string of tile, when little water is in the ditch.

Dig a trench 12 inches wide along the edge of the open ditch 2 feet
below its bottom and under the end of the line of tile. This trench
should extend along the bank for from 4 to 6 feet, with wings turned
into the bank at its ends, sufficiently long to prevent water from
getting in behind the wall and washing the dirt out.

Mix concrete 1: 2½: 5—wet enough to tamp well.

Fill the trench with concrete up to the ground level. Should the trench
be full of water, place this part of the concrete dry.

Set box forms, made of 1-inch siding and 2 by 4-inch studding. These
forms must be high enough to bring the wall up to the level of the top
of the ditch banks. At the proper height to meet the string of tile,
place a first-class drain tile (at least one size larger than the
regular string) through the forms so that the front end will be flush
with the outside wall after concrete is placed.

Bore two small holes in the forms above this tile, and place in them
well greased pegs of wood. After the forms are filled with concrete,
these pegs are removed, the holes receiving the bolts holding a flap
gate to keep animals out of the line of tile. Fill the forms with
concrete, and smooth off the top of wall with a steel trowel.

Remove the forms after one week, and fill in earth behind the wall to
its top.

[Illustration]


Spraying Tanks

San José scale and insects are everywhere making fruit growers spray
their orchards. To get rid of the continual nuisance of leaks and the
handling of warm solutions, orchardmen are building elevated concrete
tanks and are heating the spraying solution with steam pipes on the
tank bottoms. With such a plant, there is no delay—and time counts in
the spraying season.

The tank shown stands on 10 by 12-inch columns, 6 feet clear of the
ground. It has two compartments, each 5 by 5 feet by 4 feet deep
holding 750 gallons. The side walls are 4 inches thick. Beneath the
4-inch bottom, on all sides, are 8 by 12-inch concrete beams.

Locate the tank convenient to the water supply. Dig the column holes 12
inches square, 3 feet deep, 11 feet out to out on the longer side and 5
feet on the shorter. Have all forms ready before placing any concrete.
Fill the holes with concrete and imbed in each hole four ½-inch iron
rods 10 feet long so that they will come right for the columns and
extend through them. Set up the 10 by 12-inch by 6-foot column forms
with their tops level with each other. Join them together with the
solidly framed 8 by 12-inch beam forms.

Keeping the rods 1 inch from the corners, fill concrete in the column
forms up to the floor beams. Spread 1 inch of concrete over the bottom
of the beam forms and lay in two ½-inch rods 1½ inches from each side
wall. Bend these rods around those in the columns. Without delay fill
the beam forms.

Erect the forms for the tank proper as for WATERING TANKS,
page 74. In the bottom of each tank set a 1½-inch flange pipe coupling.
Place 1 inch of concrete, then strips of heavy woven wire, and the
remaining 3 inches of concrete. Fill the side walls and, 1 inch from
the outside, imbed similar wire fencing. Protect the green concrete
according to directions under watering tanks.

The materials required are: screened gravel or crushed rock, 4½ cubic
yards; sand, 2¼ cubic yards; and Portland cement, 7½ barrels.


[Illustration]


Culverts are Permanent When Made of Concrete

The secret of good roads is good drainage. Standing water soaks into
the road bed, softens the road surface and causes ruts. To keep well
made roads in first-class condition, get the water to the highway drain
tile as fast as it falls. This can be accomplished only by means of
culverts.

The perfect culvert is one which does not rot or rust out, which does
not crush down and clog up the opening, which lasts forever. Concrete
is the only material which fills the bill.

The best time to build a culvert is in the dry months of summer. They
can be shaped either round or square and of a size depending on the
amount of water which must be removed quickly. Usually openings 12 to
18 inches are large enough. Set the culvert as deep in the road bed as
possible, but do not place the outlet end lower than the bottom of the
ditch into which the culvert drains. To keep the culvert well beneath
the road bed, if necessary, make the side ditch deeper at the inlet
end. Determine the grade line of the finished culvert bottom. Only a
little slope is needed. Dig the trench 6 inches deeper than the grade
line and as wide and long as necessary. The width of the trench depends
upon the size of the culvert to be built, and its length upon the width
of roadway under which the water is to be carried. The concrete walls
are each 6 inches thick, so the width of the trench will be 1 foot
greater than the clear width of the culvert. Fill this trench with
concrete mixed 1: 2½: 5, and, while it is still wet place in the
center of it a U-shaped box, turned upside down, of 1-inch boards, the
outside of which is the size of the culvert desired. Fill concrete into
the space between the sides of the box and the sides of the trench and
tamp concrete over the top to a depth of 8 inches. Road culverts should
not be less than 18 inches below the surface of the roadway.

To prevent the material of which the road is made from washing down into
the culvert, small wing or retaining walls must be built at each end.
To do this dig an 8-inch trench 3 feet deep, at each end of the culvert
along the end of the culvert barrel. Frame a form, the width and height
necessary, against the end of the box or pipe. Make another form, of
the same size, but U-shaped, with the opening just large enough to
fit over the outside of the concrete culvert barrel. Set this form 8
inches inside the first. Plumb both forms and brace them securely. Nail
boards across the ends of these two forms and fill them with concrete.
For one week shut off the traffic from passing over the culvert. Allow
the forms to remain in place for two weeks. Replace the road material
over the culvert and keep the ruts carefully filled until the fill has
become solid. Since there are usually many culverts to be built, it is
cheaper to use a collapsible form, adjustable to several sized culverts.

[Illustration]

The box culvert shown in the illustration on page 108 has an opening 18
inches wide and 16 inches deep. The length is 20 feet. The retaining
walls are 8 inches thick, 2 feet high (from the barrel opening), and
do not extend beyond the culvert walls. The bottom and the side walls
are 6 inches thick; the top, 8 inches. Three men, with a highway
commissioner as superintendent, built this culvert in two days.

    =Materials Required=
    Crushed rock or screened gravel    3 cubic yards at $1.10     $3.30
    Sand                               1½ cubic yards at $1.00     1.50
    Portland cement                    4 barrels at $2.50         10.00
                                                                 ------
                                                                 $14.80

Concrete bridges last forever. With all the bridges and culverts of
concrete, tax officials will no longer need to levy bridge taxes.

[Illustration]


Septic Tanks

The proper method for the disposal of house sewage is an important
question on the farm. Cess-pools, simply pits dug in the ground, are
great disease spreaders. The liquids from them seep through the ground,
carry germs from the pool to the well, render “the best drinking-water
in the country” unfit for use, and often cause the spread of disease.

The modern farmer no longer puts up with such barbaric practice.
Cess-pools have long been prohibited in cities, where immense sums of
money are spent for the proper disposal of sewage. It is not possible
to provide farms with these expensive plants, nor is it necessary.
Through the use of an inexpensive septic tank all of the conveniences
of the toilet and bath may be installed in the house and the danger
from sewage removed.

[Illustration]

[Illustration]

Septic tanks are nothing but long underground, water-tight cisterns
through which the sewage passes very slowly and evenly. Located
underground, they are warm and dark—ideal conditions for the
development of the bacteria, little germs which eat up the sewage and
render it harmless in much the same way as another kind causes cider to
ferment. To prevent the bacteria (which live in the frothy sludge) from
being disturbed cross-walls, called baffle boards, are placed to break
up the current of the inflowing sewage. The purified sewage, merely
clear water, may be discharged into the farm drain tile.

Locate the septic tank where it can be placed entirely with the side
walls underground and out of danger of flood waters. For a family of 8
to 10, plan a tank with 8-inch walls, 5 feet wide, 5 feet deep and 10
feet long—all dimensions in the clear. Lay out the tank and construct
it in exactly the same manner as UNDERGROUND CISTERNS, page 68.

Before filling the forms, set in the 6-inch inlet and outlet drains
at the same height, 2 feet 6 inches below the ground level. To aid
further in breaking up the currents and keeping out too much air, use
elbow bends, so that the sewage in the tank will cover the mouths of
the tile. In the side forms, at a distance of 2 and 4 feet from the
inlet wall, set ¾-inch bolts to which the baffle boards will later be
attached. These boards reach entirely across the tank, project above
the sewage, and extend to within 1 foot of the bottom. While building
the manhole covers, for the needed ventilation, insert in them four
short lengths of 1-inch gas pipe.

Remove the forms the same as for underground cisterns.

[Illustration: Concrete Hydrant Sink]

[Illustration]


Window Hatches

Window hatches should be protected by a flap cover, to close in times
of heavy rain or snow.

[Illustration]


An Outdoor Swimming Pool

These are built exactly as an underground cistern. A pool near home
affords a safe “swimming hole” for the children.




                        =_How will you know?_=


                  You are going to build—now or some
                  time—and you want to build well and
                             economically.

                 You will choose between temporary and
                        permanent construction.

                  _Why you should build in concrete._

           First, because of _permanence_. It is fireproof,
          strong, and lasting—proof against wear-and-tear and
         depreciation. It lasts and lasts—against wind, water,
                               and fire.

           Second, because of _cleanliness and sanitation_.
       This means healthy stock and better products, which sell
                           at higher prices.

             Third, because of _economy_. Concrete is
           lower in ultimate cost because, once built, it
           requires no painting or up-keep, no repairs, no
           attention. Being proof against fire, concrete
           secures the lowest insurance rates.

                            [Illustration]

        “_The Standard by which all other makes are measured._”

                   _Why you should use ATLAS._

             First, because Atlas Portland Cement is the
           most-used cement—high in quality and always
           uniform and reliable.

             Second, because Atlas Portland Cement has
           demonstrated its worth. Our own government
           selected it for the Panama Canal, after careful
           investigation and tests. Nearly seven million
           barrels have been used so far for this project.
           Severe government tests have been made of every
           hundred barrels, but not a single barrel has
           been rejected.

                            [Illustration]

        “_The Standard by which all other makes are measured._”

                         _Free help for you._

             This book will give much valuable information
           about concrete. But naturally, your particular
           needs may require further information.

             Let us furnish this information you need.
           Tell us what you want to build and what you
           would like to know. We will gladly give you
           all the necessary help.

             So far, we have sent information to over
           two million farmers. Why shouldn’t you avail
           yourself of this help, which is offered to you
           without any obligation?

             Whenever you buy cement, look for the Atlas
           trade mark as your guide—the black trade mark
           with yellow letters.

                 =_The Atlas Portland Cement Company_=

                _New York Chicago Philadelphia Boston_
                  _St. Louis Minneapolis Des Moines_

                            [Illustration]

        “_The Standard by which all other makes are measured._”


                              =_Warning_=

             There are many brands of Portland cement,
           and some people are confused, and as a result
           accept any cement bearing the word “Portland.”

             The word “Portland” signifies _only_ the
          kind of cement, _but does not designate the
          brand and quality_.

             Specify “ATLAS” Portland Cement when you buy,
           and you will get the best.

                     =Atlas Portland Cement=

           is always uniform in strength, color and quality.
           It is the cement that has done most to make
           concrete and its uses so satisfactory and well
           known. That is why Atlas is “The Standard by
           which all other makes are measured.”

                            [Illustration]

        “_The Standard by which all other makes are measured._”


                               =Ask Your
                              Dealer for
                                 ATLAS=

                            [Illustration]

                     “_The Standard by which all_
                      _other makes are measured_”


                     “_The Standard By Which All_
                      _Other Makes Are Measured._”

                            [Illustration]

                                =ATLAS=
                        used exclusively by the
                        United States Government
                        on the Panama Canal

                                =ATLAS=
                        used exclusively on the
                        great Keokuk Dam across
                        the Mississippi River