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                              the art and
                              the romance
                                   of
                            indian basketry


                              clark field

                         clark field collection
                  philbrook art center • tulsa • 1964

                   _Published by Philbrook Art Center
                            Tulsa, Oklahoma
                                 1964_




                                FOREWORD


The autobiographical information about Mr. Clark Field, which appears at
the end of this brochure, briefly tells the inspiring story of well over
four decades of dedication to—and sincere belief in—the American Indian
as a creative artist. The results of these many years of collecting
Indian baskets (and pottery) are on permanent display at Philbrook Art
Center, in the Clark Field Collection; in addition, many other specimens
are in storage and available to the scholar in the study collection.
This brochure is not intended as a catalogue of all of the baskets in
the Clark Field Collection, which includes more than a thousand
specimens. Rather, it serves as an introduction to Indian basketry and
tells the story of how baskets were made and used. About 90 of the more
important baskets are illustrated, including the most famous American
Indian basket, woven by Dotsolalee reproduced in color on the cover.

Mr. Field has combined his enthusiasm for the art of Indian basketry
with a high degree of scientific scholarship. He has kept careful
records, which will become increasingly valuable as old specimens become
even more rare and this Indian skill gradually dies out in this modern
world. His daughter, Dorothy Field Maxwell, has assisted Mr. and Mrs.
Field in their collection and with the preparation of this brochure.
Mrs. Jeanne Snodgrass, Curator of Indian Art at Philbrook, has also
assisted with the brochure in an editorial capacity.

Mr. Field has performed an invaluable service to humanity in his long
dedication to the preservation of this most important facet of the
original Americans, and Philbrook Art Center will be, for countless
generations, a mecca for those who wish to enjoy this fascinating
utilitarian, yet esthetically meaningful art form.

                                                      Donald G. Humphrey
                                                                Director
                                                    Philbrook Art Center
                                                           _Clark Field_




                                BASKETRY


The need for food containers in early human communities led to the
“invention” of basketry. The first baskets may have been made of animal
skin or twigs; but soon evolved into the use of more suitable materials
such as vegetable fibres. Because of the organic materials used in
making baskets, most of the earliest examples have been lost through
decay. A few examples have been preserved but only in areas of extremely
dry climate, such as in Egypt, in Chile and Peru in South America, and
in the southwestern United States. Radiocarbon tests of woven artifacts
establish the existence and the use of baskets in Nevada, Utah and
Oregon as early as 9000 to 700 B.C., and that Egyptians of the
pre-dynastic period (c. 5000 B.C.) used baskets. Early literary sources,
such as the Bible, mention baskets and other woven articles such as the
“ark of bulrushes” in which the infant Moses was hidden (Exod. 2: 3,
53); baskets were used to bring the tithes to the temple, and Matthew
talked of “twelve baskets full.” (Matt. 14: 20.)

In the study of American Indian baskets there are three major factors to
be considered: the first is the tribe which produced the basket; the
second is the language, since inter-marriage among tribes produced
varying cultures; the third factor is the weave of the basket itself.
For example, the five major weaves used by American Indians are: Coil,
Twine, Twill, Wicker and Imbricated. To the novice there is the obvious
difference in shape, color and texture of a collection of Indian baskets
viewed in a museum. To the collector there is the hint of the whole
pattern of life of the Indians who produced the basket.

The materials used in any particular basket reflect the locale of the
tribe which produced it, for the Indian used materials that were at
hand. In the case of the _Cherokees_, a native variety of red honey
suckle produced runners that were used by that tribe in Virginia in a
wicker-type weave. In North Carolina, the same tribe utilized the
Japanese honeysuckle, while in Oklahoma the tribe used buckbrush
runners. In Arizona, the _Pimas_ wove split willow twigs and the black
Martyna or “Devil’s Claw” of their desert lands.

It is the Indian woman, not the man, who makes baskets (except for few
instances, i.e., the _Papago_ carrying basket). They are made either for
utilitarian use or for ceremonial use. Basket designs are not taught to
the craftsman nor are they copied from a pattern book. They are created
by the individual weaver who is an artist of great ability. The
artist-craftsman must first develop a manner of weaving that will form a
shape adequate for the basket’s final use. She must then find suitable
materials in her area for this weaving project. This step completed, she
mentally creates a decorative design and invents a method of weaving it
into the basket.

It is known that all North American Indian tribes, at some time in their
history, made and used baskets. However, the finest and most decorative
baskets were made about the middle of the 19th century, in the
Northwest, down the Pacific Coast states and into the Southwest through
Arizona and New Mexico.

In 1935 there were more than five hundred _Pima_ Indians making baskets
for their own use. Now there are less than six good weavers on that
reservation. Today _Papago_ Indians make some baskets for tourist trade,
but not nearly as many as they made a few years ago. The _Hopi_ Indians
bring a few baskets to market places, but there are fewer and fewer each
year. For example: at the 1964 Inter-Tribal Indian Ceremonials, Gallup,
New Mexico, there were forty classifications in the basketry
competition—baskets were submitted to only twenty-seven classifications.
There are some basket weavers among other tribes but for the most part,
few tribes today may be called “basket makers.”

The influence of other culture groups upon the craft of basket weaving
is so great that each year fewer baskets are produced by the regular
weavers. The Indian women have learned that they can secure mass
produced articles as a substitute for baskets. Only two percent of the
types of baskets included in this collection are now being made. It is
quite probable that by the year 2000 there will be NO Indian baskets
being woven.




                             EARLY BASKETRY


                     _Ozark Mountains of Arkansas_

Very few people are aware that baskets were made by the Ozark “Bluff
Dwellers.” A special exhibit in the University of Arkansas Museum,
Fayetteville, contains a small basket filled with grasshoppers. The
University Museum points out that as long ago as the year 1 A.D.,
baskets were being made by Indians in the Ozark Area. This provides
further evidence of the Indian’s early inhabitance of this country.




                BASKETS WHICH ARE NO LONGER MADE—AND WHY


Case No. 5:

These tightly woven baskets made by _Thlinkits_ of Alaska, were woven
from spruce tree roots which were split by hand. The baskets were used
to hold boiling water for clam cooking. The fibers swelled to such an
extent that water could be retained in the basket for as long as five
hours. Today this tribe purchases a kettle or bucket for their boiling
needs.
                                                          (See Plate 9c)

Case No. 7:

These large _Apache_ baskets used for storing grain, were made about
1874. It required as long as three months to produce this type of
specimen and since 1914 very few have been made. The twenty-five cent
burlap sack has replaced it.
                                                          (See Plate 6c)

Case No. 9:

This _Cochiti_ bird cage, made of a yucca plant, has been replaced by
metal bird cages.




                    IDEAS COPIED FROM INDIAN BASKETS


The Anglo appropriated many Indian basket ideas for his own use:

The _Penobscot_ colander was found in use as such among the people of
this Maine tribe and was made about 1841. It is quite possible that we
took this as a pattern for our own metal colanders.
                                                         (See Plate 10a)

It is also quite possible that we copied the pattern of the _Catawba_,
North Carolina, fish trap for our own minnow trap.
                                                          (See Plate 4a)




                   BASKETS OF UNIQUE DESIGNS AND USES


The average weaver does not use more than five or six figures in a
design.

Case No. 3: _Mission_ of California—a quail and flying duck design.
                                                         (See Plate 11b)

Case No. 3: _Shoshone_ (Panamint), Death Valley California—Oriole design
food bowl.
                                                         (See Plate 11c)

Case No. 9: _Choctaw_ of Oklahoma—Wall Pocket.
                                                         (See Plate 16c)

Case No. 9: _Niantic_ of Connecticut—clothes rinsing basket.
                                                         (See Plate 19d)

Case No. 10: _Chitimacha_ of Louisiana—an alligator intestine design.
                                                         (See Plate 15c)

Case No. 11: _Shoshone_ (Panamint), Death Valley, California—seventy
figures in the design; including the American Eagle, crow in a tree,
rocky mountain sheep, and lizard tracks in the sand.
                                                          (See Plate 6b)

Case No. 11: _Quinault_ of Washington—Clam gathering basket.
                                                         (See Plate 14b)

Case No. 12: _Cahuilla_ of California—food platter rattlesnake design.
                                                         (See Plate 12a)

Case No. 12: _Chemehueve_ of Arizona—a “stink bug” design.
                                                         (See Plate 12c)

Case No. 12: _Yavapai_ Apache of Arizona—a tarantula design.
                                                         (See Plate 12d)

Case No. 13: _Paiute_ of Nevada—porridge bowl.
                                                         (See Plate 10b)

Case No. 13: _Hoopa_ of California—grinding tray and stone.
                                                         (See Plate 10d)




                         THE VANISHING INDIAN?


The vanishing Indian? He is not vanishing! In 1890, the Indian
population in North America numbered about one quarter million and in
1963, records reveal there are over one million Indians.




                           SYMBOLIC DESIGNS?


There is the mistaken idea that one tribe “understands” the designs of
another tribe and that there is symbolism, or meaning, to every design.
Actually, _most_ designs are purely decorative renderings and they have
no more symbolism for the Indian than a fabric design has for the
general public.

The identification of a basket is made not through the interpretation of
a “mysterious meaning” of the design but generally from the design motif
itself. For instance, baskets made by tribes of southern California are
distinguishable to the trained eye since they tend to be of a
particularly heavy, bold and angular style. They seldom have _mysterious
meanings_!
                                                         (See Plate 12b)




                                BASKETRY


                _Western Apache_—Arizona and New Mexico

Case No. 13:

At one time it was not difficult to identify _Apache_ Basketry by tribal
name, such as: _San Carlos_, _Chiricahua_, _Tonto_, and _Yavapai_. Today
it is not possible to identify baskets as belonging to a particular
_Apache_ tribe.

During the nineteenth century these southwest tribes waged continual
warfare with the Anglos and Spaniards who had settled in the area.
Attempts were made by the United States government to establish
treaties. However, newly written treaties were broken before the ink
dried! About 1880, the army rounded up all the Apaches of Arizona and
New Mexico and took them as prisoners to the _San Carlos Reservation_.
There they remained confined for several years. During this period of
confinement the basket weavers copied designs and weaving techniques
from one another.

When the tribes were released and allowed to return to their respective
reservations the “new” styles of basketry were continued. As a result of
this situation, today we find baskets woven by these tribes to be so
similar in appearance that definite tribal affiliation cannot be
determined. They are therefore classified only as _Western Apache_
baskets.
                                                         (See Plate 13a)




                               DATSOLALEE
                                  1918
                        _Washoe_—Western Nevada


Case No. 3:

This basket was made by _Dabuda_ (Young Willow). She was later given the
nick-name of _Datsolalee_ (Broad in the Hips) and is best known by this
name since later in life she tipped the scales at 350 pounds.

On March 26, 1917, _Datsolalee_ started weaving this specimen which is
fifty-two inches in circumference and has more than 100,000 stitches
(more than thirty to the inch). Eleven months later, on February 16,
1918, she completed this basket which is her greatest masterpiece.
Although made for ceremonial use, the shape is that of a food bowl. The
white background is made of peeled twig from the Mountain Willow; the
black color is the root of a Bracken, or giant fern; the reddish-brown
is bark from the Nevada Redbud. To her the design meant: _We assemble to
discuss the happy lives of our ancestors._ Shortly after the completion
of this basket the weaver lost her eyesight. She died at the age of 95
in 1926.

In 1958 the U. S. Indian Arts and Crafts Board, Department of the
Interior, Washington, D.C., rated this basket as probably the finest
specimen of basketry ever produced.

During her lifetime, _Datsolalee_ made only forty-six large scale
baskets. During the summer months she could often be found at the resort
area of Lake Tahoe, California, weaving miniature basketry which she
sold to tourists for small sums. In 1914, Mrs. Henrietta K. Burton, from
the Bureau of Indian Affairs in Washington, D.C., visited the artist’s
home in Carson City, Nevada. Mrs. Burton made numerous photographs of
_Datsolalee_ and her baskets for use in federal publications which dealt
with Indian basketry. Since that time these photos have appeared in many
other basketry publications.

Due to the artist’s reputation and ability, as well as the artistry and
craftsmanship of this specimen it is valued at $2000. It is doubtful
such a basket could ever again be produced—no weaver today shows ability
such as that of _Datsolalee_. Her baskets are sought by collectors
throughout the world.

In 1914, G. A. Steiner, of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, purchased the
finest basket the artist had produced up to that time. It is forty-nine
inches in circumference and has more than eighty thousand stitches. It
was purchased for $1950, and added to the Carnegie Library Collection in
Pittsburgh (this was the highest price ever paid for a single Indian
basket).

Philbrook’s _Datsolalee_ basket has received international recognition.
It may be seen, in color, in _Indian Art in America_, by Frederick J.
Dockstader (New York Graphic Society, 1960) and in the magazine
_America_ (No. 67) which was distributed by the U. S. Information Agency
and printed in Russian.
                                                         (See Plate 17a)




                         UTILITARIAN—HISTORICAL
                                c. 1835
                   _Pennacook_—Northern Massachusetts


Case No. 4:

This basket is made of ash splints and is white on the interior. The
exterior is decorated with designs painted in native dyes using a
swabbing stick which has been pounded at one end to form a brush.

This earliest known type of painted-on decoration ceased about 1870. An
approximate dating for this specimen can be established from an April 2,
1835, copy of the _Boston Daily Courier_, which lines the basket lid.
                                                          (See Plate 2d)




                         UTILITARIAN—HISTORICAL
                       _Wampanoag_—Massachusetts


Case No. 4:

This very plain basket, constructed of brown ash splints, was
authenticated by the late Frank G. Speck, internationally known
University of Pennsylvania anthropologist, as being _Wampanoag_.

The _Wampanoags_, now extinct, were a branch of the Massachusetts
_Algonquins_.

This specimen was made by a direct descendant of King _Massasoit_, the
Indian chief who met the Puritans at their Plymouth Rock landing in
1621. Massasoit was the father of King Phillip, for whom the King
Phillip’s Indian Wars of 1676, were named.
                                                          (See Plate 2c)




                         CEREMONIAL WINE BASKET
                                c. 1837
                            _Papago_—Arizona


Case No. 4:

Annually, in July when the fruit of the Saguaro Cactus is ripe, the
_Papagos_ hold their _Nahwehteete_ (wine drinking) ceremony. The purpose
of this ceremony is to offer a prayer of supplication to bring rain.
Wine, made from the Saguaro (called _Tizwin_) is passed around in this
basket and served from a gourd dipper.

Between dances the basket is used for storing the sacred ceremonial
paraphernalia used in the dance. The “Keeper of the Sacred Basket”
seldom ever parts with the basket. Therefore, not many can be found in
public or private collections.
                                                         (See Plate 17b)




                                MORTUARY
                       _Pomo_—Northern California


Case No. 3:

The _Pomo_ Indians are the only tribe known to have completely and fully
decorated baskets with feathers. These baskets were considered to be the
tribe’s highest artistic achievement. It was a great honor to the memory
of a deceased person when this type of basket, especially made for such
an occasion, was placed on his body at the cremation ceremony. It may be
said that the sacrifice of these baskets was the tribe’s most profound
means of showing respect at the time of cremation.

The custom of making and using these baskets no longer prevails. Few
people today know the art, and even fewer people are willing to devote
the nearly two years to make one feathered basket.

At the time this ceremony was active in the _Pomo_ culture, each family
had several such baskets in reserve. It must therefore be assumed that
the women of the tribe devoted a great deal of their time producing
these symbols to honor the dead.

It is interesting to compare cultures: The _Pomo_ Indian sacrificed a
work of art which took about two years to make—today’s Anglo society
calls the florist and orders a “ten dollar spray” of flowers. This
basket on the collector’s market is valued at about $300.
                                                   (See Plate 18c & 18d)




                             JUMPING DANCE
                           _Hoopa_—California


Case No. 4:

The “Jumping Dance Basket” receives its name from a ceremony in which
the participants perform with jumping dance motions. This ceremony is a
prayer of supplication for the return of the soil’s fertility. It is
held in the spring of the year on land that has ceased to bear crops.

Some people question these customs, and actually call them mere “Indian
superstitions.” It is revealing to note, however, that less than a
century ago Anglos believed that the childhood disease, rickets, could
be cured by splitting an ash tree at dawn, and passing the stricken
child head-first through the opening in the tree.

This set of three baskets, handed down from generation to generation,
was secured from a medicine man. The baskets were made prior to 1860 and
no one living today seems to know how to weave them. As a result, the
baskets are quite rare, and it is doubtful if another such set could be
obtained.
                                                         (See Plate 18a)




                             MOURNING BOWL
                                c. 1870
                         _Menominee_—Wisconsin


Case No. 4:

This rare, small birch bark pail is called a “Mourning Bowl.” It is used
during the _Feast of the Dead_, a sacred ceremony which is held one year
after burial to honor the deceased. During the Ceremony of the Mourning
Bowl, food is placed in the bowl and passed to the mourners. After the
ceremony, the basket containing food is giving a final blessing and is
placed on the grave of the deceased.
                                                         (See Plate 17d)




                          INITIATION CEREMONY
                             _Hopi_—Arizona


Case No. 4:

The _Soyal_ (Prayer Offering Ceremony) of the religious organization,
_Kwan Kwan Tu_ (One Horn Fraternity), is part of a boy’s initiation
ceremony at puberty. The ceremony is held mainly in the _Kiva_
(underground ceremonial chamber), from December through April. Here the
novice meets his godfather for the first time.

The design of the large plaque (at top of plate) represents a sand
painting which is executed on the floor before the _Kiva_ altar. The
novice wears only a breechcloth as his godfather instructs him to kneel
on the painting and rubs him with sacred corn meal, which has been
blessed by the _Cacique_ or religious leader. The significance of this
ritual is that the novice’s sins and evil thoughts are washed away. The
corn meal is then taken outside and cast to the winds, thus purifying
the boy. (Center of plate 20: basket bowl with corn meal.)

The wicker basket (at bottom of plate 20) is used in carrying bean
sprouts and young corn during the “February Twelve Day” _Kiva_ ceremony.
The sprouts and corn, signifying new life for the initiated, are eaten
by him as he takes the numerous vows of faith.

The two small trays (on either side of the top-center tray) represent
the badges, which are given to the newly initiated boy.
                                                          (See Plate 20)




                             WEDDING BASKET
                            _Navajo_—Arizona


Case No. 4:

The origin of the _Navajo_ basket with the “Spider Woman’s Cross” design
dates back hundreds of years. It is no longer made. As a substitute for
their own basket during marriage ceremonies, the _Navajo_ people often
use a _Paiute_ basket of the type shown in the upper right of the case.
                                                         (See Plate 19b)

The Paiute basket is illustrated on Plate 19c.




                             WEDDING PLAQUE
                             _Hopi_—Arizona


Case No. 4:

This plaque is made of yucca. The green color is unbleached yucca, the
white is bleached yucca and the black color is yucca which has been dyed
by using black sunflower seeds.

The plaque is called _Kochaiinpi_ (White Meal Plaque), and is woven by a
prospective bride for use in the wedding procession. It is hung in the
newly married couple’s home afterwards, partly to commemorate the
occasion.

After the wedding the single-file procession proceeds to the new home
which has recently been built by the groom. This procession is led by
the bride’s mother who carries on her head a large pottery bowl filled
with baked beans. The bride follows next. With both hands she carries a
large basket tray stacked with the _piki_ bread (a thin wafer of
bread—almost like parchment) which she has made from blue corn meal
mixed with sweetened siovi ashes and cooked on a hot stone. Next in line
are four male relatives of the bridegroom, each holding a corner of a
blanket on which rests the “White Meal Plaque.” The plaque filled and
running over with the white meal which the bride had ground earlier.
Thus, the young couple start their life together with an ample quantity
of food.

The spiritual connotation of the basket is this: It is believed that at
the time of death an individual’s soul stands on the brink of the
_Maski_ (or after world; in this case literally the Grand Canyon). The
soul steps onto the “White Meal Plaque,” gently soars over the abyss,
and safely descends to the bottom. Thus the soul departs to the abiding
place of the dead and forever rests in peace.
                                                         (See Plate 19a)




                                WEDDING
                                c. 1937
                           _Pomo_—California


Case No. 4:

This coiled basket is covered with the feathers of about two hundred
quail. The feathers which protrude from the basket, are from the head of
the Valley Quail, or Gambel’s Quail. The dark blue feathers are taken
from different quails. The decorative disk-like beads are fashioned in
the following manner: the shells are broken into small pieces and then
drilled with a pump drill. They are then strung on a cord and the strand
is then rubbed on a wet sandstone until the beads are round and uniform
in size.

This type of basket was made by the bride’s mother and is considered to
be the finest example of basketry produced by _Pomo_ Indians. The
_Chimopika_ (Dowry Basket) is presented to the bridegroom, by the
weaver, at the wedding ceremony. Sweetmeats, such as cakes of sugar from
sugar sap trees, are placed in the basket and passed around to the
guests.

The married couple retains this sacred memento of the marriage ceremony
as long as they both live, but if either of the couple dies the basket
is sacrificed in the cremation ceremony.

This basket was used in ceremonies prior to about 1889. They are no
longer made or used. This basket was obtained in 1937 from an Indian
Agent who at that date stated he had seen only six baskets of this type
on the reservation since 1907.
                                                         (See Plate 18b)




                          CEREMONIAL—CARRYING
                                  1905
              _White Mountain Apache_—White River, Arizona


Case No. 4:

This splendid specimen is woven mainly of lemon bush. The white area is
yucca plant and the black area is “Devil’s Claw,” or Martyna.

This basket was made by a _White Mountain Apache_ for use in the “Coming
Out Dance.”

When an Indian Girl reaches the marriageable age, a “Coming Out Dance”
is given in her honor. The girl’s relatives and friends are invited to
attend this important traditional ceremony. Drummers provide music as
the girl and her sponsor (usually her aunt) dance on a rug or on the
skin of an animal such as the bear or buffalo. These ceremonial baskets
are placed for the guests to view—the more guests, the more baskets
required. Each basket is filled with a mixture of sweetmeats, fruits and
other foods and is placed on a slope in order to make the contents
plainly visible to the guests.

After the ceremony the baskets are passed among the guests for the
contents to be enjoyed. They are then hung inside the house by the two
handles, until the next “Coming Out Dance.”
                                                         (See Plate 17c)




                                STORAGE
                                c. 1900
                             _Pima_—Arizona


Case No. 10:

This basket was used for storing mesquite beans after they had been
hulled. It is doubtful if this type of basket has been made since 1900.
                                                          (See Plate 8a)

For storage baskets of other tribes see:

  Plate 6a: _Cherokee_
  Plate 6d: _Ottawa_
  Plate 7a: _Cherokee_




                             SEED CONTAINER
                              c. 300 A.D.
                          _Pueblo II_—Colorado


Case No. 4:

Evidence of the importance of basketry among the southwestern peoples of
the United States in the first few centuries of our era lies in the fact
that these peoples and their culture are referred to as the “Basket
Makers.”

This basket dates back to approximately 300 A.D., about 1600 years ago.
It was used as a seed container to store squash and pumpkin seeds until
the next planting season. It was found in the cliff dwellings of the San
Juan River basin near Mesa Verde, Colorado.
                                                          (See Plate 7b)




                                STORAGE
                                c. 1875
                           _Tonto Apache and
                White Mountain Apache_—Southeast Arizona


Case No. 7:

This unusually large specimen is almost three feet tall. Since about
1914, very few, if any, as large as this have been made. An Indian woman
would have to devote three to four months to the weaving of a basket of
this size. Today she can purchase a gunny sack from the nearest trading
post for twenty five cents and store the same amount of grain with much
less effort.

This basket, valued at $750.00 on the collector’s market today, is a
splendid illustration of a dying art. The forthcoming Indian generation
will not be concerned with the making of baskets for daily use. The
beautiful weaving techniques and colorful designs will become a thing of
the past.

Also, in this show case, is a fine 1890 basket specimen; a _Tonto
Apache_ storage basket from the Verde River area below Flagstaff,
Arizona.
                                                    (See Plate 6c & 17c)




                               HOUSEHOLD
                         _Chitimacha_—Louisiana


Case No. 10:

The unusual decorative design of this basket is commonly referred to as
“alligator intestines.” This design motif has been used as far back as
history records, and serves as an excellent example of the weaver’s
skill.
                                                         (See Plate 15c)

For other examples of household baskets see:

  Plate 15b: _Cherokee_, household farm basket
  Plate 15d: _Hoopa_, tobacco basket
  Plate 16a: _Yokut_, general household basket
  Plate 16b: _Rappahannock_, household farm basket
  Plate 16d: _Cherokee_, household farm basket




                               FOOD BOWL
                  _Hopi—Shongopovi_, 2nd Mesa—Arizona


Case No. 11:

This food bowl is one of the finest specimens of decorative symbolism
ever produced in _Hopi_ basketry.

The decorations represent the knobhead (or Mudhead) Clown _Kachina_
called _Koyemsi_, and the Crow Wing Mother (the mother of all
_Kachinas_). The four ears of corn, each in a different color, represent
the four seasons of the year.

Made by _Lula Joshongeva_, it received several awards at the 1956
Inter-Tribal Indian Ceremonials, in Gallup, New Mexico. Further honor
was bestowed the basket by a Navajo medicine man’s special blessing at a
“Blessing Ceremony.”
                                                          (See Plate 8b)




                            BERRY GATHERING
                         _Choctaw_—Mississippi


Case No. 4:

The basket with a tall handle was made in 1817, fourteen years after the
Louisiana Purchase. _The basket with a shorter handle is a contemporary
specimen._

The 1817 specimen is of considerable historical significance since it
was brought to Oklahoma sometime between 1838 and 1842, at the time the
Federal Government removed the Choctaw tribe from Mississippi to Indian
Territory (Oklahoma).
                                                          (See Plate 5b)




                              WATER BOTTLE
          _Chiricahua_ and _Havasupai_—New Mexico and Arizona


Above door of entrance to Basket Gallery:

These woven specimens are covered with gum from the Pinon Pine and
subsequently baked over an open fire until they become as hard as
shellac. This coating makes the bottles watertight.

Several Arizona tribes prefer this type of water bottle to any they can
procure from the Anglo; they are, therefore, still used extensively in
this area.
                                                    (See Plates 2a & 2b)




                          CARRYING (or Burden)


Cases No. 1, 7, 8, 11 and Overhead—_Various Tribes_.

This type of basket was used by the _Paiutes_ of Nevada and the
_Gabrielenos_ and _Maidus_ of California for carrying acorns; by the
_Quileutes_ of Washington for carrying salmon; by the _Hopis_ of Arizona
for carrying peaches and corn, and by the _Zunis_ of New Mexico for
carrying peaches.
                                                  (See Plates 14c & 14d)

Case No. 1. Examples of burden baskets used by the _Cherokees_ of the
      Smokey Mountains of North Carolina.

Case No. 7 and 8: Examples of baskets used by the _Karocs_ of
      California, showing the “Tump-line” basket with head band
      attached.
                                                         (See Plate 13c)

Case No. 11: Shows a harvest basket of the _Cahuilla_ of California,
      used in carrying grains.
                                                          (See Plate 9a)




                                CARRYING
                   _Cahuilla_ or _Mission_—California


Case No. 13:

This basket was used to carry grasshoppers to the brush and grass
_Wickiup_ where they were roasted on a long stick over a flame in
preparation for eating.

There is nothing too unusual about mankind eating insects: The _Holy
Bible_ tells of the children of Israel—forty years in the wilderness—in
the land of Canaan, eating locusts, as did John The Baptist while
preaching in the wilderness. Today specialty stores retail grasshoppers,
fried worms, bees and ants—many of which are chocolate coated!
                                                         (See Plate 14a)




                          GRASSHOPPER STEWING
                            _Paiute_—Nevada


Case No. 13:

This basket was made for cooking grasshoppers. After the grasshoppers
were placed in the basket the top was tied with a buckskin thong and
submerged in boiling water. The basket was removed from the water when
the grasshoppers were sufficiently cooked and ready to be eaten.
                                                         (See Plate 10c)




                              WATER TIGHT
                                c. 1875
                           _Thlinkit_—Alaska


Case No. 5:

This water-tight boiling basket is made of spruce roots which have been
finely split by hand. It is woven as tightly as commercially woven
canvas water bags. These baskets are no longer made for cooking because
metal containers are readily available.

The design motif of this unusually fine specimen is constructed of
mountain grass, commonly called Squaw Grass. The grass is soaked in bog
mud all winter, giving it the black color. The copper color is obtained
by boiling the grass with copper ore, and the white is the same grass,
sun bleached.
                                                          (See Plate 9c)




                            CARRYING BASKET
                                c. 1890
                            _Papago_—Arizona


Case No. 4:

This carrying, or burden, basket, referred to by _Papagos_ as _Kiaha_,
is made of stems from the Cereus Giganteus Cactus and the twine from
leaves of the Maguey plant. The Maguey plant played a major role in
_Papago_ life due to the fact that food, rope, twine, varnish, needles,
and liquor were obtained from it.

The _Papagos_ taught the Spaniards to make liquors from the juice of the
Maguey plant more than four hundred years ago. The liquor is still made
today in Mexico.

In 1540, the Spaniards, led by Coronado, arrived in the Southwest and
found this basket being used in daily life. Such items as Mesquite
beans, cactus, wood, water jars and corn were carried in this basket,
which is equipped with a head band and rests on the shoulders. After the
Spaniards introduced horses and horses became plentiful, the men ceased
to have need for (or to make) this basket.

It is interesting to note that the weaving technique of this (one of the
few baskets made by men) may be called the American counterpart of
_Belgian Point Lace_.
                                                         (See Plate 13d)




                             ROASTING TRAYS
                                c. 1890
                           _Yurok_—California
                             _Modoc_—Oregon


Case No. 12:

These three trays are used for roasting shelled nuts such as hazel nuts
and pinon nuts. The nuts are placed on the tray along with red-hot wood
coals. A revolving motion is applied to the tray and the coals are
rolled so deftly that they do not burn the tray.
                                                          (See Plate 9d)




                      CORN HUSK (or “Sally”) BAGS
                                c. 1850
                           _Umatilla_—Oregon


Case No. 10:

This specimen was made of a hemp foundation and false embroidery of
twisted corn husks. Vegetable dyes were used.

The name “Sally Bag” goes back to an older use of the term sally,
meaning “to go forth,” “to sally forth,” i.e. to travel.

The bags were used as travel bags and were tied to the back of the
cantle of the saddle. They were known to have been in use at the time of
the Lewis and Clark Expedition of 1805.
                                                         (See Plate 15a)




                            EFFIGY—TRINKETS
                _Alibamu_ of Texas, formerly of Alabama
                          _Papago_ of Arizona


Case Nos. 2 and 13:

These baskets are unique works of art. Each shows considerable
creativity. The _Alibamu_ turkey basket made of pine cones and the
_Papago_ owl made of Yucca plant are used as trinket baskets. In more
recent years, additional types have been made in the form of birds,
frogs, turtles, alligators, armadillos, etc. These baskets have proven
quite popular and have therefore become an asset to the economy of the
craftsman.
                                                    (See Plates 5c & 5d)




                            IMBRICATED WEAVE
                     _Yakima_—Toppenish, Washington


Case No. 11:

The Latin word _Imbrex_ means tile; imbricated means overlapping like
tiles or a decoration resembling tiles. This basket is an excellent
example of the imbricated weave.

This basket was formerly used for cooking and is now used in berry
picking. There are four different materials used in the construction:
the foundation is coiled, split cedar roots; the white color is bleached
mountain grass; the dark red is cherry tree bark; the brown is cedar
bark.
                                                          (See Plate 5a)




                               BIRCHBARK
                             Various Tribes


Case No. 8:

Many items are made from birch-bark by the Indians in areas where the
birch tree grows in abundance. Like many other cultures, the Indian used
objects for daily use which required the least effort to make.
Birch-bark lends itself readily to easy construction.

Shown here are many forms of birch-bark construction: boxes, buckets,
creels, trays, etc.

  Plate 3d: _Algonquin_ fishing creel
  Plate 7c: _Algonquin_ canoe box
  Plate 7d: _Chippewa_ storage box
  Plate 8c: _Chippewa_ wild rice gathering tray




                             SQUASH BLOSSOM
                             _Pima_—Arizona


Case No. 7:

The decorative motif of these baskets is actually thought of by the
_Pima_ weaver as a “progressive design,” rather than that of a squash
blossom. The design is executed in sequences of three to twelve petals,
one of a sequence to each basket. Only two complete sets (ten baskets to
a set) are known to exist. They are no longer made.

These baskets were used for such things as winnowing grain and gathering
fruit and vegetables.
                                                          (See Plate 9b)




                       PORCUPINE QUILL DECORATION
                                c. 1903
                          _Chippewa_—Minnesota


Case No. 2:

One of the finest examples of the Indian woman’s native creative arts is
found in porcupine quill decoration. The artist formerly prepared her
own dyes from berries, roots, barks, etc. Today, aniline dyes are used
almost exclusively. Steps used in the preparation of quills for bark
decoration are as follows:

  The artist usually divides the quills into four lengths and stores
  them in separate containers because they differ in length and
  thickness (one to four inches long and 1/16 to 3/32 inches thick). The
  quills are washed well in soap root before being dyed, and stored.
  When she is ready to use the quills she softens them in her mouth. The
  warmth and moisture are most effective and it is thought that the
  saliva contains some special property that makes them more pliable.
  She generally keeps a number of the quills of the same size and color
  in one cheek with the points protruding from her lips, pulling out a
  quill as it is needed. Small holes are punched in the bark with an awl
  and the quill is inserted in these holes. The ends are bent over on
  the back side of the bark to hold them in place. By using quills of
  the desired length to fit the decoration, it is not necessary to cut
  them. The quill swells and stiffens as it dries, making it even more
  secure.

In most boxes, so decorated, a plain undecorated piece of bark is fitted
on the inside (or back side) to hide the raw ends of the quills. Three
to four thousand quills are required to cover a box the size of the one
shown in Plate 1a. Vegetable dyes were used on the quills of this box
and have not faded in more than fifty years.
                                                          (See Plate 1a)




                               MINIATURES


Case No. 2:

Indian women make these to show their skill in weaving. In similar
fashion, the Anglo has engraved the _Lord’s Prayer_ on the head of a
straight pin in order to illustrate his skill.

The principal, and interesting difference is: the Anglo uses a
magnifying glass and the Indian women do not.




                         MOOSE HAIR EMBROIDERY
                                c. 1875
                   _Huron_—Province of Quebec, Canada


Case No. 3:

This basket and the basket from Maine are rare examples of the old
Indian art of moose hair embroidery. A cluster of very fine hair grows
from the withers of the wild moose and this hair, dyed in suitable
colors, is used for the embroidery.

The art of this type embroidery probably dates back to about 1714, at
which time the natives used this method of decoration for their own
buckskin clothing. It is believed that these people were taught the art
at convents after the steel needle was introduced into this country from
Europe in the eighteenth century. However, there is no proof of this
theory.

It is interesting to note other unique examples of decorative art by
these people; i.e., the drilling of seed pearls the size of the head of
a straight pin and in turn, sewing these pearls on cloth or fiber. With
crude tools, they created rare and beautiful works of decorative art
which would be difficult for us to duplicate with today’s precision
tooling.

After adopting Anglo-style clothing these Indians practiced moose hair
embroidery art on trinkets such as these until it became almost extinct
by 1890. Specimens such as these are rare even in museums.
                                                          (See Plate 8d)




                        _Passamaquoddy—Malecite_
                                 Maine


This is a birch bark box covered with red cloth and decorated with moose
hair embroidery.
                                                          (See Plate 8d)




                           WHALEBONE (Baleen)
                     _Eskimo_—Point Barrow, Alaska


Case No. 3:

The Baleen used in the weaving of this basket is found in the upper jaw
of the Bowhead, or Alaskan Right Whale. This horny substance is pulled
into various sized strips. While it is still fresh it is flexible and
can be woven as easily as fiber. The same weaving technique used in
making coiled baskets from grass roots is also used in the construction
of this basket.

An Alaskan trader is credited with having taught the _Eskimos_ to use
Baleen as a weaving medium. The art was almost extinct until a few years
ago when the U. S. Indian Arts and Crafts Board gave needed
encouragement to the craftsmen.

The Bowhead, or Right Whale, is not plentiful at Point Barrow; only two
or three such whales are caught during a good year. Some years none are
caught.

Two factors are predominate in making this type of basketry scarce: 1)
lack of Baleen, 2) the fifty hours necessary for a skillful craftsman to
construct the specimen.

The decorative ivory figure on the lid of the basket is made of walrus
tusk.
                                                          (See Plate 1b)




                         ALEUT ISLAND BASKETRY
                        c. 1860 and c. 1939-1944
                       _Attu_—Attu Island, Alaska


Case No. 6:

The baskets shown in display case no. 6, are the finest weave known to
have been made in North America.

Woven in about thirty days, the average size basket may have up to
10,000 stitches to the square inch. The finest machine made cotton
sheeting has 3600 stitches to the square inch.

The dark toned baskets were made about 1860 and the lighter toned ones
were made between 1939 and 1944.

These specimens are made by the _Aleut_ Indian women of a beach grass
(Wild Rye) which grows on Attu Island. The stems and blades are about
the size of wheat straw, and the _Aleut_ women split them with their
finger nails.

In 1741, Russian explorers discovered and settled the Aleutian Islands.
They later found that the native women were wrapping their dead with
finely woven, narrow strips of grass fiber and placing the bodies in
caves.

Russians then encouraged the _Aleuts_ to weave baskets of this same
product. In the normal course of events, the Russians influenced the use
of silk and cotton thread decorations on the baskets.

In 1948, Edward L. Keithan, curator of The State Museum of Alaska, made
a field trip to the Aleutian Islands and found only three women still
practicing this fine art of basketry. Today, there is no continuance of
this art.
                                                    (See Plates 1c & 1d)




                            GAMBLING DEVICES


Case No. 2:

Illustrated here are several types of gambling devices used by North
American Indians:

_Pomos_ of California, used a mat on which they threw their counters.
                                                          (See Plate 4b)

_Seneca-Cayuga_ of New York, used a wooden bowl and six flat, polished
      peach seeds for their famous “Peach Seed Game.” This bowl was
      brought to Oklahoma about 1840.
                                                          (See Plate 4c)

_Cheyennes_ of Oklahoma, used a basket bowl with wooden counters.

_Pawnees_ of Nebraska, used a basket tray. This is the only type of
      basketry known to have been made by them. This basket was made
      before they were removed to Oklahoma.
                                                          (See Plate 4d)

_Klamaths_ of Oregon, used a different gambling device in that it was
      more of a guessing game. The mat covered the hands of the
      operator. The two bones are held, one in each hand, and rotated.
      The bet was made on the turn of the selected bone. These counters
      were usually made from the foreleg of a deer or elk.

The Mongolian culture is well known to have a strong interest in
gambling games. Some anthropologists tell us that the North American
Indians came to this country many years ago across the Bering Sea from
Asia and that they are descendants of the Mongolians in that area.




                              MANIOC PRESS
                    _Carib_—Guatemala and Venezuela


Case No. 13:

Indians of Mexico, Central America, northern South America and the
Caribbean Islands used this press to remove poison (Hydrocyanic Acid)
from the Manioc root. This root is similar to the root used in the
preparation of tapioca. The Indians process the root to make a flour
which is used in a native bread. This type of press was in use by these
people as early as 892 A.D. and in some areas is still being used today.

To remove the poison from Manioc the root is pounded, then stuffed into
the basket, causing it to expand in girth and to shorten in length. (The
particular type of diagonal twill weave used in this basket press
permits a girth expansion to twice its former size and a reduction in
length of about one-half its original size.) The press is then submerged
in water and soaked until thoroughly saturated. When it is removed from
the water the press is hung by the loop end, usually on a branch. The
foot or a weight is put on the closed end of the press and this creates
a squeezing action which removes the poison from the root inside. At
this point the press changes shape and becomes long and narrow again.
This process is repeated several times to assure the removal of the
poison.
                                                         (See Plate 11a)




                              BABY CRADLES


Case No. 5:

The art of making basket cradles is almost lost today. However, the
wooden cradle is still made and used extensively by many tribes; this is
especially so in the Pueblo tribes.

The following illustrates the use of baby cradles by some basket making
tribes: Hoopas, of California, used a sit-down type cradle—the baby is
seated in, and tied to, the cradle; _Hopis_, of Arizona and _Frazier
River_, of Washington, used the cradle for putting the baby to sleep
holding the cradle in their arms; tribes such as _Mono-Paiute_ and
_Pomo_, of California, and _Ute_ of Colorado, used the cradle by placing
it on the mother’s back.

There are more than six hundred Indian dialects. The _Ute_ word for
cradle is _Ahcacon_. When asked, what the Indian word for “cradle,” or
“baby board” is, it is impossible to answer. Because of the many
dialects it is easily understandable that there are numerous words for
this object, just as the word would be different in Spanish, Swedish,
German or Russian.
                                                (See Plates 3a, 3b & 3c)




                          BLOW GUN AND QUIVER
                       _Cherokee_—North Carolina.


Case No. 1:

Made of wild cane and six feet long, this type blow gun was used for
shooting poison darts. Some guns are as long as twenty feet. A blow gun
is extraordinary in that it has for example, the power to shoot a dart a
quarter of an inch into a pine door. This power is probably due to the
choke bore design of the gun.

The darts are fifteen to eighteen inches long and are made of locust
wood. They are sharpened and hardened over a flame at one end and, at
the opposite end are wrapped at an angle with the silk from a thistle
plant. As the air is blown into the gun the thistle silk fluffs and
creates a shoulder to blow against. The dart is retarded in its movement
by the taper of the bore. It is not known what implement was employed to
produce this tapered bore.

Many years ago this type blow gun, with poison darts, was used in
warfare by the _Cherokee_, _Choctaw_, _Catawaba_, and _Houma_ tribes.
Displayed with the blow gun and darts is the basket quiver which held
the darts. These specimens were brought to Oklahoma before 1860, by the
grandfather of Jim Backwater.
                                                          (See Plate 21)


  The Clark Field Collection of Indian Baskets is composed of one
  thousand and ninety six specimens, as of date (1964), from throughout
  North America and represents almost every basket making tribe of that
  area. Due to the wide scope of tribal representation and the beauty of
  these outstanding specimens, this collection is rated by the U. S.
  Indian Arts and Crafts Board as the most outstanding Indian basket
  collection in North America.


                              Plate No. 1

    [Illustration: 1a
    HOUSEHOLD
    _Chippewa_
    Minnesota
    Size: 3¾″ × 8¼″]

    [Illustration: 1b
    TRINKET
    _Eskimo_
    Alaska
    Size: 3½″ × 3½″]

    [Illustration: 1c
    DECORATIVE
    _Attu_
    Aleutian Islands, Alaska
    Size: 5″ × 6″]

    [Illustration: 1d
    DECORATIVE
    _Attu_
    Aleutian Islands, Alaska
    Size: 3¼″ × 3¾″]


                              Plate No. 2

    [Illustration: 2a
    WATER JUG
    _Chiricahua Apache_
    New Mexico
    Size: 13½″ × 9½″]

    [Illustration: 2b
    WATER JUG
    _Havasupai_
    Arizona
    Size: 12″ × 10″]

    [Illustration: 2c
    HISTORICAL—UTILITARIAN
    _Wampanoag_
    Massachusetts
    Size: 6¾″ × 9″]

    [Illustration: 2d
    HISTORICAL—UTILITARIAN
    _Pennacook_
    Massachusetts
    Size: 14½″ × 20″]


                              Plate No. 3

    [Illustration: 3a
    CRADLE
    _Pomo_
    California
    Size: 16″ × 12″ × 7″]

    [Illustration: 3b
    CRADLE
    _Hoopa_
    California
    Size: 16¾″ × 9½″]

    [Illustration: 3c
    CRADLE
    _Ute_
    Colorado
    Size: 34″ × 12″]

    [Illustration: 3d
    FISHING CREEL
    _Algonquin_
    Quebec, Canada
    Size: 10½″ × 10½″ × 8½″]


                              PLATE No. 4

    [Illustration: 4a
    FISH TRAP
    _Catawba_
    North Carolina
    Size: 64″ × 16″]

    [Illustration: 4b
    GAMBLING MAT
    _Pomo_
    California
    Size: 28″ diameter]

    [Illustration: 4c
    GAMBLING TRAY
    _Seneca—Cayuga_
    New York and Oklahoma
    Size: 12″ × 3¼″]

    [Illustration: 4d
    GAMBLING TRAY
    _Pawnee_
    Nebraska and Oklahoma
    Size: 9″ × 2″]


                              Plate No. 5

    [Illustration: 5a
    BERRY GATHERING
    _Yakima_
    Washington
    Size: 20″ × 14½″]

    [Illustration: 5b
    BERRY GATHERING
    _Choctaw_
    Mississippi
    Size: 10″ × 10″]

    [Illustration: 5c
    EFFIGY—TRINKET
    _Papago_
    Arizona
    Size: 8½″ × 7″]

    [Illustration: 5d
    EFFIGY—TRINKET
    _Alibamu_
    Alabama and Texas
    Size: 6″ × 7″]


                              Plate No. 6

    [Illustration: 6a
    STORAGE
    _Cherokee_
    North Carolina
    Size: 18½″ × 18″]

    [Illustration: 6b
    STORAGE
    _Shoshone—(Panamint)_
    Death Valley, California
    Size: 24″ × 9″]

    [Illustration: 6c
    STORAGE
    _Tonto Apache_
    Arizona
    Size: 29½″ × 19″]

    [Illustration: 6d
    STORAGE
    _Ottawa_
    Michigan
    Size: 10½″ × 14″ × 10″]


                              Plate No. 7

    [Illustration: 7a
    STORAGE
    _Cherokee_
    North Carolina
    Size: 13¾″ × 12″ × 12″]

    [Illustration: 7b
    STORAGE
    _Basket Maker II_
    New Mexico
    Size: 5⅝″ × 4″]

    [Illustration: 7c
    STORAGE
    _Algonquin_
    Quebec, Canada
    Size: 12½″ × 18½″ × 15½″]

    [Illustration: 7d
    STORAGE
    _Chippewa_
    Wisconsin
    Size: 17″ × 9″ × 12″]


                              Plate No. 8

    [Illustration: 8a
    STORAGE
    _Pima_
    Arizona
    Size: 21½″ × 18″]

    [Illustration: 8b
    STORAGE
    _Hopi_
    Arizona
    Size: 13″ × 17″]

    [Illustration: 8c
    GATHERING
    _Chippewa_
    Wisconsin
    Size: 30″ × 20″ × 7½″]

    [Illustration: 8d
    HOUSEHOLD TRINKET
    _Passamaquoddy—Malecite_
    Maine
    Size: 3″ × 5″]

    [Illustration: CARD CASE
    _Huron_
    Quebec, Canada
    Size: 4″ × 2¾″]


                              Plate No. 9

    [Illustration: 9a
    HARVEST
    _Cahuilla (Mission)_
    California
    Size: 8½″ × 22″]

    [Illustration: 9b
    WINNOWING TRAY
    _Pima_
    Arizona
    Size: 3″ × 19″]

    [Illustration: 9c
    COOKING
    _Thlinkit_
    Alaska
    Size: 11½″ × 14″]

    [Illustration: 9d
    ROASTING
    Yurok (2)
    California
    Size: 2½″ × 10½″ and 3″ × 21½″
    _Modoc (1)_
    Oregon
    Size: 3½″ × 14½″]


                              Plate No. 10

    [Illustration: 10a
    COLANDER
    _Penobscot_
    Maine
    Size: 5½″ × 11½″]

    [Illustration: 10b
    PORRIDGE BOWL
    _Paiute_
    California
    Size: 8″ × 12″]

    [Illustration: 10c
    STEWING GRASSHOPPERS
    _Paiute_
    California
    Size: 12″ × 9″]

    [Illustration: 10d
    GRINDING TRAY
    _Hoopa_
    California
    Size: 4½″ × 16½″]


                              Plate No. 11

    [Illustration: 11a
    MANIOC PRESS
    _Carib_
    Guatemala and Venezuela
    72″ × 2½″ not expanded
    40″ × 4″ expanded (filled)]

    [Illustration: 11b
    FOOD BOWL
    _Mission_
    California
    Size: 5½″ × 15″]

    [Illustration: 11c
    FOOD BOWL
    _Shoshone (Panamint)_
    California
    Size: 3⅜″ × 7½″]


                              Plate No. 12

    [Illustration: 12a
    FOOD PLATTER
    _Cahuilla (Mission)_
    California
    Size: 4½″ × 20″]

    [Illustration: 12b
    FOOD BOWL
    _Shoshone (Panamint)_
    California
    Size: 4″ × 8½″]

    [Illustration: 12c
    FOOD PLATTER
    _Chemehueve_
    Arizona
    Size: 3″ × 15″]

    [Illustration: 12d
    FOOD PLATTER
    _Yavapai Apache_
    Arizona
    Size: 4″ × 12½″]


                              Plate No. 13

    [Illustration: 13a
    FOOD PLATTER
    _Western Apache_
    Arizona
    Size: 4¾″ × 21½″]

    [Illustration: 13b
    FOOD PLATTER
    _Papago_
    Arizona
    Size: 2¾″ × 11½″]

    [Illustration: 13c
    CARRYING (Tump-Line)
    _Karoc_
    California
    Size: 9¾″ × 13″]

    [Illustration: 13d
    CARRYING
    _Papago_
    Arizona
    Size: 12″ × 25½″ × 20½″]


                              Plate No. 14

    [Illustration: 14a
    CARRYING (Grasshopper)
    _Cahuilla (Mission)_
    California
    Size: 14″ × 9″]

    [Illustration: 14b
    GATHERING (Clams)
    _Quinault_
    Washington
    Size: 12¾″ × 16″ × 10″]

    [Illustration: 14c
    CARRYING
    _Maidu_
    California
    Size: 29½″ × 19″]

    [Illustration: 14d
    CARRYING
    _Gabrielenos (Mission)_
    California
    Size: 19″ × 25″]


                              Plate No. 15

    [Illustration: 15a
    CARRYING (Sally Bag)
    _Umatilla_
    Oregon
    Size: 17½″ × 13½″]

    [Illustration: 15b
    HOUSEHOLD (Farm)
    _Cherokee_
    Oklahoma
    Size: 6″ × 9½″]

    [Illustration: 15c
    HOUSEHOLD
    _Chitimacha_
    Louisiana
    Size: 6½″ × 9″ × 6″]

    [Illustration: 15d
    HOUSEHOLD (Tobacco)
    _Hoopa_
    California
    Size: 4½″ × 4⅜″]


                              Plate No. 16

    [Illustration: 16a
    HOUSEHOLD
    _Yokut_
    California
    Size: 6″ × 12″]

    [Illustration: 16b
    HOUSEHOLD (Farm)
    _Rappahannock_
    Virginia
    Size: 9½″ × 20″ × 17″]

    [Illustration: 16c
    HOUSEHOLD (Wall Pocket)
    _Choctaw_
    Oklahoma
    Size: 14″ × 12″]

    [Illustration: 16d
    HOUSEHOLD
    _Cherokee_
    Oklahoma
    Size: 9½″ × 12″]


                              Plate No. 17

    [Illustration: 17a
    CEREMONIAL
    _Washoe_
    Nevada
    Circumference 52″ 13″ hi, 8″ orifice]

    [Illustration: 17b
    CEREMONIAL (Wine)
    _Papago_
    Arizona
    Size: 7¼″ × 15½″]

    [Illustration: 17c
    CEREMONIAL (Carrying)
    _White Mountain Apache_
    Arizona
    Size: 13¾″ × 14″ × 15″]

    [Illustration: 17d
    MOURNING BOWL
    _Menominee_
    Wisconsin
    Size: 7″ × 8″]


                              Plate No. 18

    [Illustration: 18a
    CEREMONIAL (Jumping Dance)
    _Hoopa_
    California
    Top: 15″ × 3½″
    Middle: 18″ × 4½″
    Bottom: 20″ × 5½″]

    [Illustration: 18b
    CEREMONIAL (Wedding)
    _Pomo_
    California
    Size: 5⅝″ × 12″]

    [Illustration: 18c
    MORTUARY
    _Pomo_
    California
    Size: 5″ × 14″]

    [Illustration: 18d
    MORTUARY
    _Pomo_
    California
    Size: 5″ × 9½″]


                              Plate No. 19

    [Illustration: 19a
    CEREMONIAL (Wedding)
    _Hopi_
    Arizona
    Size: 2½″ × 15″]

    [Illustration: 19b
    CEREMONIAL (Wedding)
    _Navajo_
    Arizona
    Size: 4″ × 13″]

    [Illustration: 19c
    CEREMONIAL (Medicine Tray)
    _Paiute_
    Arizona
    Size: 3″ × 14½″]

    [Illustration: 19d
    RINSING (Clothes)
    _Niantic_
    Connecticut
    Size: 6″ × 11″ × 11″]


                              Plate No. 20

    [Illustration: SOYAL INITIATION CEREMONY
    (Prayer Offering Ceremony)
    _Hopi_
    Arizona]


                              Plate No. 21

    [Illustration: BLOW GUN, QUIVER and DART
    _Cherokee_
    North Carolina]




                          ROOT RUNNER BASKETRY


                 _Reprint from Philbrook Brochure, 1952
                            by Clark Field_




                              INTRODUCTION


The purpose that a foreword serves to the reading public is ostensibly
to express its writer’s endorsement of the material presented and of the
mode of treatment. In this instance the purpose is heartily avowed. The
monograph in hand forms a contribution to the series of studies being
pursued widely among scholars whose aim is to piece together portions of
the picture of culture of the Indians of the Southeast. Our knowledge of
the culture properties of native tribes in any area where their
development has been going on for centuries in their original seats
comes necessarily by gradual steps. These may seem disconnected in the
minds of laymen who are in haste to see the whole story completed.
Perhaps only the pioneer investigator knows how long and intimately a
people must be studied by dwelling in their midst before their ways of
life become clear enough to be understood and discussed. Collections of
data, historical, descriptive and functional, have to be made and
preserved in the form of notes and actual specimens. When these ends are
accomplished, the picture of tribal life takes definite shape, and
another gap in the history of a people is closed. These are the
requirements for carrying on in a somewhat new undertaking in the line
of history, namely ethno-history.

Studies of a people’s physical structure, their psychology, language,
religion and government contribute their share. On the material side
their crafts developed to supply economic needs and the art involved in
the crafts themselves must be illustrated with accumulations of
specimens. These requirements the author of the following study has had
well in mind for a considerable space of time, and he has treated them
with conservative judgment and a regard for their implications with
botany and ecology. Such remarks applied to the paper constitute the
ethnologist’s endorsement.

It is a splendid thing for man of the present to take time to stabilize
his mind to contemplating the achievements of tribes inhabiting our
continent as a prologue to the affairs of the present. Where is the
brash critic to persist in the claim that the natives of America have no
original elements of “civilization” either from the early or late past,
or in the present? The Cherokee have provided an answer. Contemporary
literature has amassed the evidence nor alone in the series of volumes
from the University of Oklahoma Press, but in prose and poetry known
throughout the nation. It offers a compendious chapter in the epic of
America. Each additional study adds a paragraph of importance to the
whole.

The study to follow contributes a detail of existing knowledge of the
art-crafts of the Cherokee. As such it will prove to be another source
reference to the Cherokee way of life in art and its expression in
concrete form. The utilities have been and still are to Indians a means
of finding outlet for their aesthetic urges. Art and crafts are merged
in the output. Other fields lie open for further attempts to perform its
functions in national life by issuing successive publications dealing
with its cultural material, thus laying foundations for that basic
teaching we fondly call Americanism.

                                                          FRANK G. SPECK
                                             Department of Anthropology,
                                              University of Pennsylvania
                                              Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
                                                                    1952




                          ROOT RUNNER BASKETRY


The association of root-runner basket forms in America would show a
number of instances of use of a “Rod” as a one rod foundation for coiled
baskets occurring originally in Arizona, Colorado, New Mexico and on the
plains.[1] This technologically simple form of basket building material
has implications bearing upon the age and area theory that challenges
attention on a wider scale. Apart from the coiling process, a single rod
construction appears in the Southeast in wicker work. What conclusions a
broader study of single rod basketry (to which class the root runner
series belongs) in any of its constructional forms, whether in coiling
or wicker work, would lead to is quite beyond the purpose of this
article.

It is the intent of the writer to record a simple phase of basketry
technique in the southern middle Atlantic slope and the northern part of
the south and southeast area, as it applies to the Cherokee of the North
Carolina highlands and of Oklahoma. In these areal habitats the two
subdivisions of the tribe make use of three diverse plant types, the use
of which in basketry construction in some districts does not overlap or
coincide. In Carolina an earlier root-runner style has either passed out
of memory or never existed among the Cherokee Indians, but came in later
through acculturative changes. As far as has been ascertained, all fine
root runner fibers used in the making of Indian baskets belong to two
family groups, the botanical names of which are Caprifoliceae and
Crataegus.

To the first family group belong:

  Japanese Honeysuckle (Lonicera Japonica)
  A vine introduced into America from Asia around 1906.[2]
  Buckbrush (Symphoricarpos Orbiculatus)
  Also called Indian Currant and Coral Berry.

To the second family belong:

  Wild Hawthorne (Crataegus Crus Galli)
  The Yuki Indians of California made a basket out of the stems of a
          native honeysuckle (Lonicera Interrupta). It, however does not
          have fine root runners.[3]




                    ROOT RUNNER BASKETS IN VIRGINIA


    [Illustration: Root Runner Basket]

The Rappahannock Indians of Virginia make a basket of Japanese
honeysuckle root runners of a wicker type weave which is crude in
weaving technique in comparison with baskets from North Carolina.
(Rappahannock of Virginia.) Quoting Dr. Speck, “The art was revived by
some of the women in 1922, when the Indian Association was formed. Susie
and Lizzie Nelson, old Bob Nelson and other Rappahannock Indians made
these baskets at that time. Chief Otto Nelson, his wife Susie, and
Lizzie Nelson remember that when they were young about 1890, their
grandmother Sallie Ronnie, who was then about 60 years old, had a
honeysuckle sewing basket shaped like an oval bowl, similar in weave to
the baskets mentioned above.

“There is a native local, variety of Red Honeysuckle (Lonicera
sempervirens) in Virginia which is not a ground runner but clings for
six feet or so to trees and fences; it is finer stemmed than the
Japanese variety and Indian women of the Rappahannock tribe have agreed
to weave with it. All honeysuckle runners are kept soaked in water to
preserve their pliability for weaving. They can be gathered and woven at
any time of the year if treated in this manner.”

As far as known no other fine root runner is used for basket weaving by
the Indians of this state, although other fine root runners such as
Devil’s Shoestring and London Pride grow there. Comments on honeysuckle
wicker-weave baskets among the Mattaponi Indians of Virginia are made by
Dr. Frank Speck in his book “At Mattaponi,” in which he speaks of the
girls making baskets of honeysuckle stems, meticulously neat and with a
technique suspiciously European in detail. We cannot be too sure that
something like this did not exist before as many references to baskets
of various forms made in the early days are encountered.[4] The Pamunkey
Tribe, living on a reservation ten miles south of Mattaponi, have used
honeysuckle runners for over twenty years. In both bands the details of
form and weave are identical, and the historical circumstances may also
be.




                 ROOT RUNNER BASKETS IN NORTH CAROLINA


    [Illustration: Root Runner Basket]

The Cherokee Indians of North Carolina used Japanese honeysuckle in
basket weaving as early as 1880, when it was introduced by a Cherokee
woman named Arizona Blankenship who had been educated at Hampton
Institute, Virginia. It is interesting to note that the Cherokee Agency
Indian School was founded at Cherokee, North Carolina, that same year.

In January, 1943, Dr. Speck made an extensive trip into the hill country
around Cherokee, North Carolina, visiting the old conservative Cherokee
Indians of that region. He learned from the old people that honeysuckle
basket weaving was not an original Cherokee Indian art. Making inquiry
into their history of basket weaving, he could find no evidence of their
use of hawthorne (Crataegus) although it is native to that state, or any
historical evidence of the use of any other fine root runners. It is
possible, of course, that the Hawthorne runners could have been used by
other Indian bands in other parts of the state but so far it is not
known, notwithstanding the fact Dr. Speck has spent many years of study
of Cherokee Indian basketry in North Carolina.[5] Cane and oak splints
were used chiefly by the Cherokee in basket weaving and the use of
Japanese honeysuckle was undoubtedly a later addition to their culture.
An illustration of one of the earliest known types of honeysuckle weave
is shown in the Cherokee of North Carolina plate. This basket has no
foundation to support the fine root runner fibers although most of their
baskets made of honeysuckle runners do have foundations of oak splints.
As far as is known no double weaving of fine root runner baskets was
done by the Cherokee of this state.




                    ROOT RUNNER BASKETS IN OKLAHOMA


    [Illustration: Root Runner Basket]

The Cherokee of Oklahoma used buckbrush (Symphoricarpos Orbiculatus) in
making fine root runner baskets and it appears after careful study and
extensive inquiry, that this type of basket weaving may have originated
among the Indians of Oklahoma. This conclusion is based on many years of
collecting baskets from Cherokee Indians in every part of the old
Cherokee nation. Interviews with older basket-making women were held
through interpreters and it was clearly established that basket making
from honeysuckle was not known to them or to their mothers or
grandmothers who had lived in Georgia and North Carolina before their
removal in 1938 to Oklahoma. The only type of weaving known to them
before coming to Oklahoma was the cane and oak-splint weaving. From such
interviews these facts could be traced back to as early as 1850. They
were certain that the earliest baskets made by their grandparents were
out of buckbrush and oak splints; no cane or honeysuckle was used in the
northern part of the Cherokee nation.

In the Spavinaw hills country of the northern part of the Cherokee
nation the Indians used only buckbrush runners as cane does not grow in
this section. In the southern part of the nation, in the vicinity of
Gore and Weber Falls, cane grows and is used almost exclusively in
basket weaving. In the locality of Tahlequah and Stillwell both cane and
buckbrush weaving is done. The Cherokee of this region make both a
double and single wicker weave basket of buckbrush runners and no
foundation is used in either type although each is strong and
serviceable. All of their fine root runner baskets (buckbrush) are a
wicker type of weave of unexcelled technique. The double weave basket
made by Lucy Mouse (shown in the Oklahoma example) is a splendid
specimen of fine weaving—a strong durable basket. The dye used in this
basket is walnut stain from boiled walnut hulls.

The buckbrush runners are pulled in the fall of the years and after
drying two or three weeks are boiled to remove the bark. The fibers
remain flexible enough for weaving all winter which is the basket
weaving season.

The shapes were formerly market baskets, fruit trays, egg baskets and
storage baskets, some of which were used by them as long as fifty years
ago. Twenty-five years ago vegetable dyes were used for coloring but
today commercial dyes are largely used; the baskets are made, as a rule,
for sale, and show considerable white influence.

                                                            —Clark Field




                             AUTOBIOGRAPHY


I was born in Dallas, Texas, on January 6, 1882.

I first became interested in the art work of the Indians while working
as a reporter for an Oklahoma daily newspaper in 1900, at which time I
covered the opening for settlement of the Kiowa, Comanche and Apache
Indian reservations in southwest Oklahoma. After two years of study
(1903-1904) at the University of Oklahoma, I became a traveling salesman
and remained in that profession until 1917 when I went into business for
myself (retired from business in 1957). About 1918 I became actively
interested in Indian pottery and basketry and started my collections.
Since that time, Mrs. Field, my daughter Dorothy Field Maxwell (Mrs.
Gilbert S.), and I have traveled more than one hundred and twenty five
thousand miles collecting in the United States, Canada, Alaska, Mexico,
Central and South America.

To date (1964) we have spent 46 years in trying to collect authentic
specimens of baskets made for actual use by all basket-making tribes (no
tourist specimens are included). Intent upon maintaining the highest
possible quality throughout the collection, I have always insisted upon
acquiring the finest representative basket for its particular tribe or
use.

The collection is completely catalogued and photographed and has been
given to the Philbrook Art Center of Tulsa, Oklahoma, where it is on
exhibition. The collection has been rated by members of the Indian Arts
and Crafts Board, and by members of other museums, as the most
comprehensive in the United States for its beauty of specimens and
unusual method of display.

                                                             Clark Field




                               FOOTNOTES


[1]The definitions and boundaries of typology and historical horizons
    given by Dr. Gene Weltfish are followed here. “Prehistoric North
    American Basketry Techniques and Modern Distributions,” American
    Anthropologist, Vol. 32, No. 3, 1930 and “Preliminary Classification
    of Prehistoric Southwestern Basketry,” Smithsonian Miscellaneous
    Collection, Vol. 87, No. 7, 1932, P. 40.

[2]Dr. Alfred Rehder, Curator of Herbarium of Arnold Arboretum, Harvard
    University.

[3]C. V. Morton, Assistant “Curator of Plants” Smithsonian Institution,
    letter to A. Wetmore, April 14, 1943. Also. “Trees and Shrubs,”
    Chas. Sargent, 1905, Vol. 1, 139 and “Manual of Flowering Plants of
    California.” Willis Linn Jepson. 1823.

[4]Dr. F. G. Speck, “Chapters in Ethnology of the Powhatan Tribes of
    Virginia,” Indian Notes and monographs, Museum of the American
    Indian (Heye Foundation) New York, Vol. 1, No. 5, 1928, P. P.
    385-388, F. G. 88.

[5]Rather extensive discussion and illustration of honeysuckle root
    baskets by the white mountaineers of the South are given by A. H.
    Eaton “Handicrafts of the Southern Highlands.” Russel Sage
    Foundation, N. Y. 1937, pp. 174-5, 115-209. No dating is attempted.




                                 INDEX


                                    Page                   Plate

  Ahcacon                 25                        3a, 3b, 3c
  Aleut                   22, 23                    1c, 1d
  Algonquin               19                        3d, 7c
  Alibamu                 18                        5d
  Apache                  3                         6c
     Chiricahua           5, 15                     2a
     San Carlos           5
     Tonto                5, 14                     6c
     Western              5                         13a
     White Mountain       12, 14                    17c
     Yavapai              4, 5                      12d
  At the Landing of the   7
      Pilgrims
  Attu                    22, 23                    1c, 1d
  Autobiography           31
  Basket:
     Baby Cradle          24, 25                    3a, 3b, 3c
     Bag, Corn Husk       18                        15a
     Baleen               21, 22                    1b
     Berry                15, 19                    5a, 5b
     Birchbark            19, 21                    3d, 7c, 7d, 8c
     Bird Cage            3
     Boiling              17                        9c
     Bowl                 4, 15, 23                 8b, 10b, 11b, 11c,
                                                    12b
     Canoe                19                        7c
     Burden               16, 17                    9a, 13c, 13d, 14a,
                                                    14c, 14d
     Carrying             12, 16, 17                9a, 13c, 13d, 14a,
                                                    14c, 14d, 17c
     Ceremonial           6, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13   17a, 17b, 17c, 18a,
                                                    18b, 18c, 18d, 19a,
                                                    19b, 19c, 20
     Clam                 4                         9c, 14b
     Colander             3                         10a
     Cooking              3, 19                     5a, 9c
     Corn Husk            18                        15a
     Effigy               18                        5c, 5d
     Coming Out Dance     12, 13                    17c
     Egg                  30
     Feathered            8, 12                     18b, 18c, 18d
     Fishing Creel        19                        3d
     Fish Trap            3                         4a
     Food Bowl            4, 15                     8b, 10b, 11b, 11c,
                                                    12b
     Gambling             23                        4b, 4c, 4d
     Gathering            4, 15, 19                 5a, 5b, 8c, 14a, 14b
     Grasshopper          16                        10c, 14a
     Harvest              4, 16                     9a
     Historical           7, 15                     2c, 2d, 5b
     Household            14                        15b, 15c, 15d, 16a,
                                                    16b, 16c, 16d
     Ideas Copied         3                         4a, 10a
     Initiation Ceremony  10                        20
     Jumping Dance        9                         18a
     Kachina              15                        8b
     Manioc Press         24                        11a
     Market               30
     Miniatures           20
     Moose Hair           21                        8d
     Mortuary             8                         18c, 18d
     Mourning Bowl        9                         17d
     Plaque               10, 11                    19a, 20
     Porridge Bowl        4                         10b
     Quilled              20                        1a
     Quiver               25                        21
     Rinsing              4                         19d
     Roasting Tray        18                        9d
     Root Runner          26, 27, 28, 29, 30
     Sally Bag            18                        15a
     Seed Container       13                        7b
     Soyal                10                        20
     Squash Blossom       19                        9b
     Stewing              16                        10c
     Storage              3, 4, 13, 14              6a, 6b, 6c, 6d, 7a,
                                                    7b, 7c, 7d, 8a, 8b
     Tray                 4, 18, 19, 23             4d, 8c, 9b, 9d, 10d
     Trinkets             18, 21                    1b, 5c, 5d, 8d
     Tump-line            16                        13c
     Unique Designs       4                         6b, 10d, 11b, 11c,
                                                    12a, 12c, 12d, 15c,
                                                    16c, 19d
     Utilitarian          7                         2c, 2d
     Wall Pocket          4                         16c
     Watertight           15, 17                    2a, 2b, 9c
     Water Bottle         15                        2a, 2b
     Wedding              10, 11, 12                18b, 19a, 19b, 19c
     Whalebone            21, 22                    1b
     Wild Rice            19                        8c
     Wine                 8                         17b
     Winnowing            19                        9b
  Basketry
     Aleut Island         22, 23                    1c, 1d
     Birchbark            19, 21                    3d, 7c, 7d, 8c, 8d
     Early                3
     General              1, 2
     Root Runner          26, 27, 28, 29, 30
     Western Apache       5                         13a
  Basket Makers           13                        7b
  Blow Gun                25                        21
  Bluff Dwellers          3
  Bottle                  15                        2a, 2b
  Bowl                    4, 15, 23                 4c, 8b, 10b, 11b,
                                                    11c, 12b
  Buckbrush               30
  Box
     Canoe                19                        7c
     Storage              19                        7c, 7d
     Household            20                        1a
     Trinket              21                        8d
  Catawba                 3                         4a
  Central America         24                        11a
  Cacique                 10
  Cahuilla                4, 16                     9a, 12a, 14a
  Carib                   24                        11a
  Chemehueve              4                         12c
  Cherokee                1, 14, 16, 25, 26, 27,    15b, 16d, 21
                          29, 30
  Cheyenne                23
  Chippewa                19, 20                    1a, 7d, 8c
  Chiricahua              5, 15                     2a
  Chitimacha              4, 14                     15c
  Choctaw                 4, 15                     5b, 16c
  Cochiti                 3
  Coming Out Dance        12, 13                    17c
  Decoration
     False Embroidery     18                        15a
     Feather              8, 12                     18b, 18c, 18d
     Imbricated           19                        5a
     Moose Hair           21                        8d
     Painted              7                         2d
     Quilled              20                        1a
  Dotsolalee              6, 7                      17a
  Effigy                  18                        5c, 5d
  Embroidery, Moose Hair  21                        8d
  Eskimo                  21, 22                    1b
  Feathered               8, 12                     18b, 18c, 18d
  Feast of the Dead       9                         17d
  Frazier River           24
  Gabrielenos             16                        14d
  Gambling Devices        23                        4b, 4c, 4d
  Grasshopper             16                        10c, 14a
  Gum Covered             15                        2a, 2b
  Havasupai               15                        2b
  Honeysuckle             1, 27, 28, 29, 30
  Historical              7                         2c, 2d
  Hoopa                   4, 9, 14, 24              3b, 10d, 15d, 18a
  Hopi                    2, 10, 15, 24             8b, 19a, 20
  Houma                   25
  Huron                   21                        8d
  Imbricated              19                        5a
  Karoc                   16                        13c
  Kiaha                   17                        13d
  Kiva                    10
  Klamath                 23
  Mattaponi               28
  Malecite                21                        8d
  Maidu                   16                        14c
  Menominee               9                         17d
  Miniatures              20
  Mission                 4, 16                     9a, 11b, 12a, 14a,
                                                    14d
  Modoc                   18                        9d
  Mono-Paiute             24
  Nahwehteete             8
  Navajo                  10, 15                    19b
  Niantic                 4                         19d
  Ottawa                  13                        6d
  Paiute                  4, 10, 16                 10b, 10c, 19c
  Papago                  2, 8, 17, 18              5c, 13d, 17b
  Pamunkey                28
  Panamint                4                         6b, 11c, 12b
  Passamaquoddy           21                        8d
  Pawnee                  23                        4d
  Pennacook               7                         2d
  Penobscot               3                         10a
  Pilgrims                7                         2c
  Pima                    1, 19                     9b
  Platter                 4                         12a, 12c, 12d
  Plaques                 10, 11                    19a, 20
  Pomo                    8, 12, 23, 24             3a, 4b, 18b, 18c,
                                                    18d
  Porcupine Quills        20                        1a
  Pueblo                  13, 24                    7b
  Quileutes               16
  Quill Decoration        20                        1a
  Quinault                4                         14b
  Quiver                  25                        21
  Rappahannock            14, 28                    16b
  Rinsing Basket          4                         19d
  Root Runner Basketry    26, 27, 28, 29, 30
  San Carlos              5
  Seneca-Cayuga           23                        4c
  Shoshone                4                         6b, 11c, 12b
  Soyal                   10                        20
  Specimens No Longer     3                         6c, 9c
      Made and Why
  Speck, Frank G.         26, 28, 29
  Symbolic Designs        5                         12b
  Thlinkits               17                        9c
  Tray                    4, 18, 19, 23             4d, 9b, 9d, 10d
  Tonto                   5, 14                     6c
  Umatilla                18                        15a
  Ute                     24, 25                    3c
  Vanishing Indian        4
  Wampanoag               7                         2c
  Whalebone               21, 22                    1b
  White Mountain Apache   12, 14                    17c
  Wickiup                 16
  Washoe                  6, 7                      17a
  Western Apache          5                         13a
  Yakima                  19                        5a
  Yavapai Apache          4, 5                      12d
  Yuki                    27
  Yokut                   14                        16a
  Yurok                   18                        9d
  Zuni                    16




                          Transcriber’s Notes


—Retained publication information from the printed edition: this eBook
  is public-domain in the country of publication.

—Silently corrected a few typos.

—Modified some references to plates for more convenient hyperlinking
  (e.g., “Plate 17a & c” changed to “Plate 17a, 17c”).

—In the text versions only, text in italics is delimited by
  _underscores_.