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                      U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service




                             For the Birds


                          http://birds.fws.gov

                               March 2001


_Among the fondest and most memorable moments of childhood are the
discoveries of songbirds nesting in the backyard. The distinctive,
mud-lined nests of robins and their beautiful blue eggs captivate people
of all ages. Likewise, the nesting activities of house wrens, cardinals,
chickadees and other common birds can stimulate a lifelong interest in
nature._

_As you learn to enjoy the beauty of birdlife around their home, you may
wish to improve the “habitat” in your yard so that more birds will visit
your property. You can attract birds by placing bird feeders, nest
boxes, and bird baths in your yard, and by planting a variety of trees,
shrubs, and flowers. These can provide good nesting sites, winter
shelter, places to hide from predators and natural food supplies that
are available year-round._

_Backyard bird feeding is a convenient way to enjoy wildlife. More than
65 million Americans of all ages watch, feed and landscape for birds._

_It doesn’t matter where you live—in an apartment, townhouse or single
family dwelling, in the city, suburbs or country. Just stand still and
you’ll hear them: wild birds. It is hard to imagine life without them._

_Bird watching is one of the fastest growing forms of outdoor recreation
in the country. Each year millions of people discover for the first time
the joys of birdwatching. It’s easy to understand why. Birds are fun to
watch._

_And you can watch them just about everywhere. The most convenient place
to start is right in your own backyard. All it takes to get their
attention is food or water, a place to build a nest and appropriate
vegetation._

    [Illustration: Bird on window feeder]




                           _Getting Started_


Backyard Bird Feeding

  When you want to attract a particular bird species and keep it coming
  back to your backyard, what you do will be determined by where you
  live, and the time of year. For example, on any winter day, you are
  likely to see a cardinal at a sunflower feeder in Virginia, a
  goldfinch at a thistle feeder in Massachusetts and hummingbirds at a
  nectar feeder in southern California.

  A bird field identification book has pictures of different birds and
  will help you find the names for the birds you’re likely to see and
  the time of year you’re most likely to see them. So, first determine
  what birds are likely to occur in your area.


Feeder Selection

  When the ground is covered with snow and ice, it’s hard to resist just
  tossing seed out the door. But it’s healthier for the birds to get
  their handouts at a feeding station, rather than off the ground.
  Regardless of the season, food that sits on the ground for even a
  short time is exposed to contamination by dampness, mold, bacteria,
  animal droppings, lawn fertilizers and pesticides.

  You can start simply with a piece of scrap wood elevated a few inches
  above the ground. Add a few holes for drainage and you’ve built a
  platform feeder. It won’t be long before the birds find it.

  There are several factors to consider after you’ve decided to feed
  birds in your backyard.




                              _Placement_


  Where do you want to watch your birds? From a kitchen window ... a
  sliding glass door opening onto a deck ... a second-story window?

    [Illustration: Window feeder]

  Pick a location that is easy to get to. When the weather is bad and
  birds are most vulnerable, you may be reluctant to fill a feeder that
  is not in a convenient spot near a door or an accessible window. Also,
  pick a site where discarded seed shells and bird droppings won’t be a
  cleanup problem.

  Put your feeder where the squirrels can’t reach. Squirrels become a
  problem when they take over a bird feeder, scaring the birds away and
  tossing seed all over. Squirrels have been known to chew right through
  plastic and wooden feeders.

  If you’ve seen squirrels in your neighborhood, it is safe to assume
  they will visit your feeder. Think long and hard before you hang
  anything from a tree limb. Squirrels are incredibly agile, and any
  feeder hanging from a tree is likely to become a squirrel feeder.

    [Illustration: _Photo: Kevin Tennyson, USDOI_]

  In the long run, a squirrel-proof feeder or any feeder on a pole with
  a baffle is the least aggravating solution. The most effective
  squirrel-proof feeder is the pole-mounted metal “house” type.

  If you must hang a feeder, select a tube protected with metal mesh.
  Most plastic “squirrel-proof” feeders, despite manufacturers’ claims,
  may eventually succumb to the squirrels. Any wood or plastic feeder
  can be effective when mounted on a pole with a plastic or metal
  baffle, if the pole is at least 10 feet or more from a tree limb or
  trunk (squirrels can jump great distances).




                              _Durability_


  Bird feeders are made from a variety of materials. You can buy
  disposable plastic bag feeders; feeders made of cloth, nylon, vinyl
  and metal netting; clear, lexan, colored and PVC plastic tubes;
  ceramic and terra cotta; redwood, western cedar, birch, pine and
  plywood; sheet metal and aluminized steel; glass tubes and bottles.

    [Illustration: Terra Cotta feeder]

  How long a feeder lasts depends on how well you maintain it, the
  effects of weather, and whether squirrels can get to it. Water can get
  into any feeder regardless of how carefully you protect it. Cloth,
  vinyl, nylon and metal netting feeders are inexpensive, but they do
  not protect your seed from spoiling in damp or wet weather. Improve
  them by adding a plastic dome.

  Most wood, plastic, ceramic and solid metal feeders keep seed dry, but
  water can get into the feeding portals. Look for feeders with drainage
  holes in the bottoms of both the feeder hopper and the seed tray.

  Even bowl-type feeders and trays with drainage holes will clog with
  seed and bird droppings that can mix with rainwater and be unhealthy
  for any animal. Look for shallow plate-like seed trays to catch
  dropped seeds while allowing spent seed shells to blow away.

  When you feed birds, expect bird droppings and a leftover food mess.
  While you do not have to wash the feeder daily, you should clean it at
  least every few weeks. Diseases like salmonella can grow in moldy, wet
  seed and bird droppings in your feeder tray and on the ground below.
  Move your feeder a few feet each season to give the ground underneath
  time to assimilate the seed debris and bird droppings.

  The maintenance required to keep your feeder clean varies according to
  the type of feeder. A thistle feeder for goldfinches should be cleaned
  about once a month depending on how often it rains. Feeding
  hummingbirds requires cleaning at the very least weekly, but
  preferably two or three times a week. Sunflower and suet feeders need
  to be cleaned only once a month.

  Plastic, ceramic and glass feeders are easy to clean. Wash them in a
  bucket of hot, soapy water fortified with a capful or two of chlorine
  bleach. Use the same regimen with wood feeders, but substitute another
  disinfectant for the bleach so your wood won’t fade.




                            _Food Capacity_


  The ideal feeder capacity varies with your situation, and the types of
  birds you want to attract. If you feed hummingbirds, big feeders are
  not always better. One hummingbird will drink about twice its body
  weight (less than an ounce) a day. Early in the season, hummers are
  territorial and won’t share a feeder. A sixteen-ounce feeder can be
  wasteful, or even lethal, because artificial nectar (sugar water) can
  ferment in the hot summer sun. A two-ounce feeder is more than enough
  for one hummer. Increase the size of your feeder depending on your
  location and how many hummers you see in your yard.

    [Illustration: Winter feeding]

  If you opt for a large-volume seed feeder, protect it from the weather
  and keep it clean. If after months of use, the birds suddenly abandon
  your feeder full of seed, it’s time for a cleaning.


How Many Birds

  If too many birds at your feeder become a problem, you can control
  their numbers by putting out smaller amounts of seed, or by using
  specialty seeds or restrictive feeders that will attract only certain
  species. If you fill your feeder only when it’s empty, the birds will
  look for food elsewhere.

  You can encourage small birds and discourage large birds with feeders
  that restrict access. Wood feeders with vertical bars and feeders
  covered with wire mesh frustrate larger birds.

  The most non-selective feeders are the tray, platform or house feeders
  because they allow easy access by all birds.

  Tube feeders without trays also restrict access to only small birds.
  Remove the perches, and you’ve further restricted the feeder to only
  those birds that can easily cling—finches, chickadees, titmice and
  woodpeckers.

  If starlings are a problem at your suet feeder, discourage them by
  using a suet feeder with access only from the bottom. Starlings are
  reluctant to perch upside down. Chickadees and woodpeckers don’t find
  that a problem.

  You can virtually eliminate visits by birds you would rather not see
  by offering seeds they won’t eat. If you use more than one type of
  seed, put them in separate feeders. This will reduce wasted seeds, as
  birds will toss unwanted seeds out of a feeder to get to their
  favorites.

  Watch a feeder filled with a seed mix and you’ll see the birds
  methodically drop or kick out most of the seeds to get to their
  favorite—sunflower.

    [Illustration: Seed mixtures]

  Many birds prefer sunflower. Some prefer millet. A few prefer peanuts.
  Sparrows, blackbirds, doves and juncos will eat the other grains used
  in pre-made mixes: corn, milo, red millet, oats, wheat and canary
  seed. Birds will also kick out artificial “berry” pellets, processed
  seed flavored and colored to look like real fruit.

  Black oil sunflower is the hands-down favorite of all the birds that
  visit tube and house feeders. Birds who visit platform feeders (doves
  and sparrows) favor white proso millet. Ducks, geese and quail will
  eat corn. Many cereal grains (corn, milo, oats, canary, wheat, rape,
  flax and buckwheat) in mixed bird seeds are NOT favorites of birds
  that visit tube feeders.

  The most effective way to attract the largest variety of birds to your
  yard is to put out separate feeders for each food:

  a starling-resistant suet feeder
  a house feeder for sunflower
  a bluebird feeder
  a wire mesh cage feeder for peanut
  a nectar feeder
  a tube feeder for thistle
  a stationary or tray fruit feeder
  a house or platform feeder for millet

    [Illustration: Suet Feeder]

    [Illustration: Thistle Feeder]

    [Illustration: Feeding Tray]

    [Illustration: Nut Feeder]


Birds Attracted by Various Feeders and Foods

  _Tube Feeder with Black Oil Sunflower_
    goldfinches
    chickadees
    woodpeckers
    nuthatches
    titmice
    redpolls
    pine siskins
  _... Adding a Tray to the Tube Feeder Will Also Attract_
    cardinals
    jays
    crossbills
    purple finches
    house finches
    white-throated sparrows
    white-crowned sparrows
  _Tray or Platform Feeder—with Millet_
    doves
    house sparrows
    blackbirds
    juncos
    cowbirds
    towhees
    white-throated sparrows
    tree sparrows
    white-crowned sparrows
    chipping sparrows
  _Tray or Platform Feeder—with Corn_
    starlings
    house sparrows
    grackles
    jays
    juncos
    bobwhite quail
    doves
    ring-necked pheasants
    white-throated sparrows
  _Platform Feeder or Tube Feeder and Tray—with Peanuts_
    cardinals
    grackles
    titmice
    starlings
    jays
  _Niger Thistle Feeder with Tray_
    goldfinches
    house finches
    purple finches
    redpolls
    pine siskins
    doves
    chickadees
    song sparrows
    dark-eyed juncos
    white-throated sparrows
  _Nectar Feeder_
    hummingbirds
    orioles
    cardinals
    tanagers
    woodpeckers
    finches
    thrushes
  _Fruit_
    orioles
    tanagers
    mockingbirds
    bluebirds
    thrashers
    cardinals
    woodpeckers
    jays
    starlings
    thrushes
    cedar waxwings
    yellow-breasted chats
  _Hanging Suet Feeder_
    woodpeckers
    wrens
    chickadees
    nuthatches
    kinglets
    thrashers
    creepers
    cardinals
    starlings
  _Peanut Butter Suet_
    woodpeckers
    goldfinches
    juncos
    cardinals
    thrushes
    jays
    kinglets
    bluebirds
    wrens
    starlings
  _Hanging Peanut Feeder_
    woodpeckers
    chickadees
    titmice


Uninvited Guests at the Birdfeeder

  Once you get your bird feeding station up and running, you may run
  into problems with two kinds of uninvited guests—those interested in
  the seeds (squirrels and chipmunks, rats and mice, and starlings and
  house sparrows), and those interested in eating a bird for dinner
  (cats and hawks).

    [Illustration: Squirrel-resistant feeder]

  When a squirrel is at the feeder, you’re not likely to see birds.
  Squirrels will scare off the birds while they eat the seed and
  sometimes they will eat the feeder too. The simplest solution is a
  squirrel-proof feeder or pole.

  Starlings and house sparrows are not native to North America and are
  aggressive towards other species. Choose your feeder and seed to
  exclude these species if possible.

  Chipmunks, rats and mice can also become a problem where there is seed
  spillage under the feeder. Don’t use mixed bird seed, and if you don’t
  have a squirrel problem, add a feeder tray.

  Feral cats and your neighbor’s tabby are a serious threat to many
  birds. Keep feeders away from brushpiles and shrubbery, as this offers
  cats the necessary cover to surprise birds.

  If there are no cats in your neighborhood and you find a pile of
  feathers near your feeder, look for a full-bellied hawk perching on a
  tree nearby. Don’t put out poisons or try to trap hawks though, as
  this is against state and federal law.


Questions about Feeding Wild Birds


                   _When is the best time to start?_

  Usually, whenever the weather is severe, birds will appreciate a
  reliable supplemental food source. In northern areas, start before the
  onset of cold weather so birds have time to find the feeder.


                        _When’s the best time to stop?_

  Although you can feed birds year-round, especially with fruit and
  nectar, you can stop feeding seeds once a reliable supply of insects
  is available in the spring.


           _Is it best to stop feeding hummingbirds after Labor Day?_

  There is no evidence that feeding hummingbirds after Labor Day will
  keep them from migrating. In fact, it may help a weakened straggler
  refuel for the long haul. Leave your nectar feeders out until the
  birds stop coming.


              _How long does it take for birds to find a feeder?_

  It may take more time for birds to find window feeders than hanging or
  pole-mounted feeders. You may want to wrap aluminum foil around the
  top of the feeder hanger. Sometimes all it takes is the reflection of
  light on the foil to catch their attention.


    _My feeder is full of seeds. I haven’t seen a bird in months. Am I doing
                             something wrong?_

  When birds desert your feeder, it may be simply that a lot of natural
  food is available nearby. Or something may be wrong, such as spoiled
  seeds or a contaminated feeder. Throw the seeds away and wash the
  feeder. Look at where your feeder is placed. Be sure it’s not
  vulnerable to predators. At the same time, make sure it is not in an
  open area, away from the cover in which birds usually travel.


     _Will birds’ feet stick to metal feeders and perches in the wet winter
                                 weather?_

  Birds don’t have sweat glands in their feet, so they won’t freeze onto
  metal feeders. There’s no need to cover any metal feeders parts with
  plastic or wood to protect birds’ feet, tongues or eyes.


                           _Do wild birds need grit?_

  Birds have no teeth to grind their food. The dirt, sand, pebbles and
  grit they eat sit in their crop and help grind up their food. Adding
  grit to your feeder is helpful, particularly in the winter and spring.
  Crushed eggshells do the same thing, and in the spring have an added
  benefit: they provide birds with extra calcium for producing eggs of
  their own.


                      _Can birds choke on peanut butter?_

  There is no evidence that birds can choke on peanut butter. However,
  birds have no salivary glands. You can make it easier on them by
  mixing peanut butter with lard, cornmeal or grit. Your birds will
  appreciate drinking water too, from a bird bath or trough.


                       _Won’t suet go bad in the summer?_

  In the winter, raw beef fat from the local butcher is all you need for
  your suet feeder. When temperatures rise, raw fat can melt and get
  rancid. It’s safer to use commercially rendered suet cakes in the
  spring and summer months. Rendering (boiling) the fat kills bacteria.


   _What is hummingbird nectar? Do hummers need nectar fortified with vitamins
                               and minerals?_

  You can make your own hummingbird nectar by adding ¼ cup of sugar to a
  cup of boiling water. Remember, sugar water will ferment when left in
  the hot sun, turning nectar deadly. Do not put out a nectar feeder if
  you are not willing to clean it at least weekly, preferably twice a
  week.

  Hummers eat insects for their protein. There is no evidence that these
  tiny birds need vitamin and mineral supplements. There is also no
  evidence that adding red food coloring to nectar will harm the birds,
  but it probably is not necessary to attract them. Just put your feeder
  near red flowers or buy a red hummingbird feeder.

    [Illustration: Hummingbird feeder]


            _How can I avoid bees at my hummingbird feeder?_

  Bees will inevitably visit your hummingbird feeder, especially in hot
  weather. Little plastic bee guards may help keep them from getting
  nectar but it won’t stop them from trying. Don’t take the chance of
  contaminating your nectar by putting vegetable oil around the feeding
  portals. One solution is to add a few small feeders away from where
  people are likely to be bothered by bees.


                  _How close to my window can I put a feeder?_

  Birds will come right to your window. Sometimes it takes a while for
  them to overcome their initial reluctance, so be patient. Don’t worry
  that a feeder on the window will cause birds to fly into the window.
  Birds fly into the window because they see the reflection of the
  woods. Window feeders and decals help break up the reflection.


              _Is cracked corn coated with a red dye safe to use?_

  No. The red or pink coating is capstan, a fungicide used on seeds
  meant for planting. If you buy a bag of cracked corn or other seed
  treated with capstan, return it to the store. It can kill horses,
  other mammals and wild birds.


    _I bought a bag of sunflower seeds early in the spring. Over the summer I
   first noticed worms, then moths. What can I do to keep the bugs out?_

  Moths lay their eggs in sunflower seeds. The eggs lay dormant as long
  as the seeds are stored in a cool dry place. In the summer, seeds get
  hot and the eggs hatch. The best way to avoid this problem is to buy
  seeds in smaller quantities, or store your seeds in a cool, dry place.
  It also helps to know where your retailer stores the seed. An
  air-conditioned storage unit is the better choice.

  Insects also lay their eggs in burlap bags. Don’t buy seeds in burlap
  bags. Don’t buy seed in paper and plastic bags with patched holes.
  That may be a sign of insect or rodent infestation.


Homes for Birds


                 _Birds You Can Attract to Nest Boxes_

  Many of the birds that visit feeders and baths may stay and nest in
  nearby trees. Most of them, including cardinals, doves and orioles,
  don’t nest in boxes. You can still help them by considering their food
  and shelter requirements in your landscape plans.

  More than two dozen North American birds nest in bird houses. The
  following descriptions will help you determine which birds might visit
  your neighborhood.


                                  _Bluebirds_

  If you put up a bluebird house near an old field, orchard, park,
  cemetery or golf course, you might have a chance of attracting a pair
  of bluebirds. They prefer nest boxes on a tree stump or wooden fence
  post between three and five feet high. Bluebirds also nest in
  abandoned woodpecker nest holes.

  The most important measurement is the hole diameter. An inch and a
  half is small enough to deter starlings, which, along with house
  sparrows, have been known to kill bluebirds, as well as adults sitting
  on the nest. Bluebirds have problems with other animals too.
  Discourage cats, snakes, raccoons and chipmunks by mounting the house
  on a metal pole, or use a metal predator guard on a wood post.


                               _American Robins_

  The robin is our largest thrush. They prefer to build their nest in
  the crotch of a tree. If you don’t have an appropriate tree, you can
  offer a nesting platform. Pick a spot six feet or higher up on a
  shaded tree trunk or under the overhang of a shed or porch. Creating a
  “mud puddle” nearby offers further enticement, as robins use mud to
  hold their nests together.


                      _Chickadees, Nuthatches and Titmice_

  Chickadees, titmice and nuthatches share the same food, feeders, and
  habitat. If you put a properly designed nest box in a wooded yard, at
  least one of these species might check it out.

  Put chickadee houses at eye level. Hang them from limbs or secure them
  to tree trunks. The entrance hole should be 1⅛ inches to attract
  chickadees, yet exclude house sparrows. Anchor houses for nuthatches
  on tree trunks five to six feet off the ground.

    [Illustration: Titmouse house]


               _Brown Creepers and Prothonotary Warblers_

  Look for brown creepers to nest behind the curved bark of tree trunks.
  In heavily wooded yards, slab bark houses appeal to creepers.
  Prothonotary warblers also prefer slab bark houses, or bluebird boxes
  attached to a tree trunk, but theirs must be placed over water (lakes,
  rivers or swamps) with a good canopy of trees overhead.


                                    _Wrens_

  Wrens don’t seem to be very picky about where they nest. Try nest
  boxes with a 1 inch × 2 inch horizontal slot (1½ inch × 2½ inch for
  the larger Carolina wrens) instead of a circle. These are easier for
  the wrens to use. However, the larger the opening, the more likely it
  is house sparrows will occupy the box.

  Wrens are known for filling a nest cavity with twigs, regardless of
  whether they use the nest to raise their young. Since male house wrens
  build several nests for the female to choose from, hang several nest
  boxes at eye level on partly sunlit tree limbs. Wrens are sociable and
  will accept nest boxes quite close to your house.

    [Illustration: Inside of nesting cavity]


                    _Tree and Violet-green Swallows_

  Tree swallows prefer nest boxes attached to dead trees. Space the
  boxes about seven feet apart for these white-bellied birds with
  iridescent blue-green backs and wings. The ideal setting for these
  insect-eaters is on the edge of a large field near a lake, pond or
  river.

  Violet-green swallows nest in forested mountains of the West; boxes
  placed on large trees in a semi-open woodland will attract them.


                          _Barn Swallows and Phoebes_

  If you have the right habitat, like an open barn or old shed, barn
  swallows and phoebes are easy to attract. It’s their nesting behavior,
  not their plumage or song, that catches your attention. However, these
  birds tend to nest where you would rather not have them: on a ledge
  right over your front door. To avoid a mess by your door, offer the
  birds a nesting shelf nearby where you’d rather have them.

    [Illustration: Nesting ledge]


                            _Purple Martins_

  Many people want martins in their yards because, it’s been said, these
  birds eat 2,000 mosquitoes a day. While it’s true that they eat flying
  insects, don’t expect purple martins to eliminate mosquitoes in your
  yard completely. Martins prefer dragonflies, which prey on mosquito
  larvae. If you want to help rid your yard of mosquitoes, put up a bat
  roosting box. One bat can eat thousands of mosquitoes a night.

  Martins are entertaining creatures, however, and you’ll enjoy watching
  their antics in your backyard. You have the best chance of attracting
  martins if you put a house on the edge of a pond or river, surrounded
  by a field or lawn. Martins need a radius of about 40 feet of
  unobstructed flying space around their houses. A telephone wire nearby
  gives them a place to perch in sociable groups.

    [Illustration: Ceramic house]

  Martins nest in groups, so you’ll need a house with a minimum of four
  large rooms—6 or more inches on all sides, with a 2½ inch entrance
  hole about 1½ inches above the floor. Ventilation and drainage are
  critical factors in martin house design. Porches, railings, porch
  dividers and supplemental roof perches, like a TV antenna, make any
  house more appealing.

  You can also make houses from gourds by fashioning an entrance hole
  and small holes in the bottom for drainage. If you use gourds, it’s
  not necessary to add railings and perches. Adult martins will perch on
  the wire used to hang the houses. Before you select a house, think
  about what kind of pole you’re going to put it on. Martins occupy a
  house ten to twenty feet off the ground. Some poles are less
  cumbersome than others.

  Gourd houses are the easiest to set up. String them from a wire
  between two poles, from a sectional aluminum pole, or on pulleys
  mounted to a crossbar high up on a pole.

  You can mount lightweight aluminum houses for martins on telescoping
  poles, providing easy access for maintenance and inspection. Because
  of their weight (more than 30 pounds), wood houses should not be
  mounted on telescoping poles. You’ll have to use a sturdy metal or a
  wood pole attached to a pivot post. The problem with this lowering
  technique is that you can’t tilt the house without damaging the nests
  inside. If you put your house on a shorter, fixed pole, ten to twelve
  feet high, you can use a ladder to inspect and maintain it.


                                 _Flycatchers_

  The great crested flycatcher and its western cousin, the ash-throated
  flycatcher, are common in wooded suburbs and rural areas with
  woodlots. Their natural nesting sites are abandoned woodpecker holes.
  Flycatchers may nest in a bird house if it is placed about ten feet up
  in a tree in an orchard or at the edge of a field or stream. This is a
  longshot, but well worth the effort if you are successful.


                                 _Woodpeckers_

  You can attract all types of woodpeckers with a suet feeder, but only
  the flicker is likely to use a bird house. They prefer a box with
  roughened interior and a floor covered with a two-inch layer of wood
  chips or coarse sawdust. Flickers are especially attracted to nest
  boxes filled with sawdust, which they “excavate” to suit themselves.
  For best results, place the box high up on a tree trunk, exposed to
  direct sunlight.

  Try building a birdhouse for the other species of woodpeckers
  following the guidelines in this booklet. You might be surprised!


                                     _Owls_

  Most owls seldom build their own nests. Great horned and long-eared
  owls prefer abandoned crow and hawk nests. Other owls (barred, barn,
  saw-whet, boreal and screech) nest in tree cavities and bird houses.

  Barn owls are best known for selecting nesting sites near farms. Where
  trees are sparse, these birds will nest in church steeples, silos and
  barns. If you live near a farm or a golf course, try fastening a nest
  box for owls about 15 feet up on a tree trunk.

  Screech owls prefer abandoned woodpecker holes at the edge of a field
  or neglected orchard. They will readily take to boxes lined with an
  inch or two of wood shavings. If you clean the box out in late spring
  after the young owls have fledged, you may attract a second tenant—a
  kestrel. Trees isolated from larger tracts of woods have less chance
  of squirrels taking over the box.

    [Illustration: Owl house]


                           Selecting a House

  In the bird house business, there’s no such thing as “one size fits
  all.” Decide which bird you want to attract, then get a house for that
  particular bird. Look through any book or catalog and you’ll see bird
  houses of all sizes and shapes, with perches and without, made of
  materials you might not have thought of: recycled paper, gourds,
  plastic, rubber, pottery, metal and concrete. The proper combination
  of quality materials and design makes a good birdhouse.

    [Illustration: Covered tray feeder]


Materials

  Wood is just about the best building material for any birdhouse. It’s
  durable, has good insulating qualities and breathes.
  Three-quarter-inch thick bald cypress and red cedar are recommended.
  Pine and exterior grade plywood will do, but they are not as durable.

  It makes no difference whether the wood is slab, rough-cut or
  finished, as long as the inside has not been treated with stains or
  preservatives. Fumes from the chemicals could harm the birds.

  There’s no need to paint cypress and cedar, but pine and plywood
  houses will last longer with a coat of water-based exterior latex
  paint. White is the color for purple martin houses. Tan, gray or dull
  green works best for the other cavity nesting species. The dull, light
  colors reflect heat and are less conspicuous to predators. Don’t paint
  the inside of the box or the entrance hole.

  Regardless of which wood you select, gluing all the joints before you
  nail them will extend the life of your bird house. Galvanized or brass
  shank nails, hinges and screws resist rusting and hold boxes together
  more tightly as they age.

    [Illustration: Suspended wooden nesting box]

  Resist the temptation to put a metal roof on your bird house.
  Reflective metal makes sense for martin houses up on a sixteen-foot
  pole, but when it’s tacked onto the roof of a wood chickadee house,
  the shiny metal is more likely to attract predators.

  Natural gourds make very attractive bird houses. They breathe, and
  because they sway in the wind they are less likely to be taken over by
  house sparrows and starlings.

  Grow your own gourds and you’ll have dozens to choose from in the
  years ahead. If you don’t have the space to grow them, a coat of
  polyurethane or exterior latex (on the outside only) will add years to
  the one you have.

  Properly designed pottery, aluminum (for purple martins only),
  concrete and plastic houses are durable, but don’t drop them.

  Be sure to provide ventilation, drainage, and easy access for
  maintenance and monitoring. Concrete (or a mix of concrete and
  sawdust) offers protection other houses cannot: squirrels can’t chew
  their way in.


Design

  How elaborate you make your bird house depends on your own tastes. In
  addition to where you place the box, the most important considerations
  are: box height, depth, floor dimensions, diameter of entrance hole
  and height of the hole above the box floor.

  Refer to the following chart before building your nest box, keeping in
  mind that birds make their own choices, without regard for charts. So
  don’t be surprised if you find tenants you never expected in a house
  you intended for someone else.

    [Illustration: Squirrel on feeder]


Nest Box Dimensions

 Species                 Box floor     Box      Entrance   Entrance   Placement
                          (inches)    height     height    (inches)    diameter
                                     (inches)   (inches)                height
                                                                        (feet)

 American Robin[1]          7×8         8          ——         ——
 Eastern & Western          5×5        8-12       6-10        1½         4-6
 Bluebirds
 Mountain Bluebird          5×5        8-12       6-10        1½         4-6
 Chickadee                  4×4        8-10       6-8         1⅛         4-15
 Titmouse                   4×4       10-12       6-10        1¼         5-15
 Ash-throated Flycatcher    6×6        8-12       6-10        1½         5-15
 Great Crested Flycatcher   6×6        8-12       6-10        1¾         5-15
 Phoebe[1]                  6×6         6          ——         ——         8-12
 Brown-headed/Pygmy/        4×4        8-10       6-8         1¼         5-15
 Red-breasted Nuthatch
 White-breasted Nuthatch    4×4        8-10       6-8         1⅜         5-15
 Prothonotary Warbler       5×5         6         4-5         1⅛         4-8
 Barn Swallow[1]            6×6         6          ——         ——         8-12
 Purple Martin              6×6         6         1-2         2¼         6-20
 Tree and Violet-Green      5×5        6-8        4-6         1½         5-15
 Swallows
 Downy Woodpecker           4×4        8-10       6-8         1¼         5-15
 Hairy Woodpecker           6×6       12-15       9-12        1½         8-20
 Lewis’s Woodpecker         7×7       16-18      14-16        2½        12-20
 Northern Flicker           7×7       16-18      14-16        2½         6-20
 Pileated Woodpecker        8×8       16-24      12-20       3×4        15-25
 Red-Headed Woodpecker      6×6       12-15       9-12        2         10-20
 Yellow-bellied Sapsucker   5×5       12-15       9-12        1½        10-20
 Bewick’s/House Wrens       4×4        6-8        4-6         1¼         5-10
 Carolina Wren              4×4        6-8        4-6         1½         5-10
 Barn Owl                  10×18      15-18        4          6         12-18
 Screech-Owl and Kestrel    8×8       12-15       9-12        3         10-30
 Osprey                    48×48     platform
 Red-tailed Hawk/Great     24×24     platform
 Horned Owl
 Wood Duck                 10×18      10-24      12-16        4         10-20


[1]_Use nesting shelf, platform with three sides and an open front_


  Now that you have the correct dimensions for your bird house, take a
  look at how to make it safe: ventilation, drainage, susceptibility to
  predators, and ease of maintenance.




                             _Ventilation_


  You should provide air vents in bird boxes. There are two ways to
  provide ventilation: leave gaps between the roof and sides of the box,
  or drill ¼ inch holes just below the roof.




                               _Drainage_


  Water becomes a problem when it sits in the bottom of a bird house. A
  roof with sufficient slope and overhang offers some protection.
  Drilling the entrance hole on an upward slant may also help keep the
  water out. Regardless of design, driving rain will get in through the
  entrance hole. You can assure proper drainage by cutting away the
  corners of the box floor and drilling ¼-inch holes. Nest boxes will
  last longer if the floors are recessed about ¼ inch.




                            _Entrance Hole_


  Look for the entrance hole on the front panel near the top. A rough
  surface both inside and out makes it easier for the adults to get into
  the box and, when it’s time, for the nestlings to climb out.

  If your box is made of finished wood, add a couple of grooves outside
  below the hole. Open the front panel and add grooves, cleats or wire
  mesh to the inside. Never put up a bird house with a perch below the
  entrance hole. Perches offer starlings, house sparrows and other
  predators a convenient place to wait for lunch. Don’t be tempted by
  duplexes or houses that have more than one entrance hole. Except for
  purple martins, cavity-nesting birds prefer not to share a house.
  While these condos look great in your yard, starlings and house
  sparrows are inclined to use them.




                            _Accessibility_


  Bird houses should be easily accessible so you can see how your birds
  are doing and clean out the house. Monitor your bird houses every week
  and evict unwanted creatures such as house sparrows or starlings.

  Be careful when you inspect your bird boxes—you may find something
  other than a bird inside. Don’t be surprised to see squirrels, mice,
  snakes or insects. Look for fleas, flies, mites, larvae and lice in
  the bottom of the box. If you find insects and parasites, your first
  reaction may be to grab the nearest can of insect spray. If you do,
  use only insecticides known to be safe around birds: 1 percent
  rotenone powder or pyrethrin spray. If wasps are a problem, coat the
  inside top of the box with bar soap.

    [Illustration: Squirrel in nest box]

  Here’s how to check your nest boxes for unwanted visitors:

  Watch the nest for 20-30 minutes. If you don’t see or hear any birds
  near the box, go over and tap on the box. If you hear bird sounds,
  open the top and take a quick peek inside. If everything is all right,
  close the box. If you see problems (parasites or predators), remove
  them and close the box.

  A bird house with easy access makes the job simple. Most bird houses
  can be opened from the top, the side, the front or the bottom. Boxes
  that open from the top and the front provide the easiest access.
  Opening the box from the top is less likely to disturb nesting birds.
  It’s impossible to open a box from the bottom without the nest falling
  out. While side- and front-opening boxes are convenient for cleaning
  and monitoring, they have one drawback: the nestlings may jump out. If
  this happens, don’t panic. Pick them up and put them back in the nest.
  Don’t worry that the adults will reject the nestlings if you handle
  them. That’s a myth; most birds have a terrible sense of smell.

    [Illustration: Cleaning house]

  If you clean out your nest boxes after each brood has fledged, several
  pairs may use the nest throughout the summer. Some cavity-nesting
  birds will not nest again in a box full of old nesting material.

  In the fall, after you’ve cleaned out your nest box for the last time,
  you can put it in storage or leave it out. Gourds and pottery last
  longer if you take them in for the winter. You can leave your purple
  martin houses up, but plug the entrance holes to discourage starlings
  and house sparrows.

  Leaving your wood and concrete houses out provides shelter for birds,
  flying squirrels and other animals during winter. Each spring,
  thoroughly clean all houses left out for the winter.




                       _Limiting Predator Access_


  Proper box depth, and roof and entrance hole design will help reduce
  access by predators, such as raccoons, cats, opossums, and squirrels.
  Sometimes all it takes is an angled roof with a three-inch overhang to
  discourage small mammals.

  The entrance hole is the only thing between a predator and a bird
  house full of nestlings. By itself, the ¾-inch wall is not wide enough
  to keep out the arm of a raccoon or house cat. Add a predator guard (a
  ¾-inch thick rectangular wood block with an entrance hole cut in it)
  to thicken the wall and you’ll discourage sparrows, starlings, and
  cats.


Bird House Placement

  Where you put your bird house is as important as its design and
  construction. Cavity-nesting birds are very particular about where
  they live. If you don’t have the right habitat, the birds are not
  likely to find the house. You can modify your land to attract the
  birds you want to see by putting out a bird bath, planting
  fruit-bearing shrubs, including more trees or installing a pond with a
  waterfall.

    [Illustration: Variety of bird feeders]

  Once you’ve matched up the right bird house with the appropriate
  habitat, you have to know where to put the nest box. Should you hang
  it from a tree limb, nail it to a fence or mount it on a pole or a
  tree trunk?

  Most species require a fairly narrow range of heights for nest boxes.
  After checking the table in this brochure, pick a height that’s
  convenient for you. After all, you will want to watch what goes on and
  keep the box clean. If you want to watch chickadees from your second
  floor window or deck, fifteen feet is reasonable but it’s a lot easier
  to clean out a box at eye level.

  Here are some tips on where to put bird houses:

  don’t put bird houses near bird feeders.

  houses mounted on metal poles are less vulnerable to predators than
  houses nailed to tree trunks or hung from tree limbs.

  use no more than four small nest boxes or one large box per acre for
  any one species.

  put about 100 yards between bluebird boxes and 75 yards between
  swallow boxes. (If you have both species, pair the houses with one
  bluebird box 25 feet from a swallow box.)

  don’t put more than one box in a tree unless the tree is extremely
  large or the boxes are for different species.

  if you have very hot summers, face the entrance holes of your boxes
  north or east to avoid overheating the box.


Protection from Predators


                                 _Cats_

    [Illustration: Cat]

  Nesting birds are extremely vulnerable to cats, as are fledglings and
  birds roosting for the night. Bell collars on cats offer birds little
  protection. Nailing a sheet metal guard or cone to a tree trunk is
  unsightly, but may deter less agile felines. Houses mounted on metal
  poles are the most difficult for predators to reach, especially if you
  smear the poles with a petroleum jelly and hot pepper mixture. The
  best deterrent is for owners to keep their cats inside whenever
  possible.


                                     _Dogs_

  Pet dogs are a hazard to nestlings in the spring and summer. Don’t let
  your dog run loose during nesting time.


                                  _Squirrels_

  Red squirrels, and sometimes gray squirrels, can become a serious
  menace to bird houses and the birds themselves. If you find your nest
  hole enlarged, chances are a red squirrel is the culprit. Once inside
  the box, squirrels make a meal of the eggs and young. Adding a
  predator guard made of sheet metal to the entrance hole is usually
  enough to keep squirrels out.


                            _Raccoons and Opossums_

  Raccoons and opossums will stick their arms inside nest boxes and try
  to pull out the adult, young, and eggs. Adding a ¾-inch thick predator
  guard to the bird house or an inverted cone to its pole support is a
  simple solution.


                                    _Snakes_

  Snakes play an important part in the balance of nature. If you find
  one in your bird house, don’t kill it. Snake-proof your house by
  putting it on a metal pole lathered with petroleum jelly or red
  cayenne pepper.


                         _House Sparrows and Starlings_

  If you don’t discourage them, these two nuisance species introduced
  from Europe will harass or kill cavity-nesting birds. Since house
  sparrows and starlings are not protected by law, you may destroy their
  nests. But remember, other birds are protected by law.


                                 _House Wrens_

  House wrens sometimes interfere with the nesting success of other
  birds by puncturing their eggs. But, unlike the house sparrow and
  starling, these birds are native to North America and are protected by
  law. Don’t be tempted to intervene when wrens appear at your backyard
  birdhouse.


                                   _Insects_

  Many insects lay their eggs and pupate in bird houses. Inspect your
  bird houses for signs of gypsy moths, blow flies, wasps, ants, gnats
  and bees. Keep bees and wasps from attaching their nests by coating
  the inside of the roof with bar soap. In areas where gypsy moths
  abound, avoid placing boxes in oak trees, which the gypsy moths favor.

  Pyrethrin and rotenone insecticides are recommended for killing fly
  larvae, bird lice and mites after birds have finished nesting for the
  season.


Attracting Birds

  As people learn to enjoy the beauty of birds around their home, they
  may wish to improve the “habitat” in their yard so that more birds
  will visit their property. You can attract birds by placing bird
  feeders, nest boxes and bird baths in your yard, and by planting a
  variety of trees, shrubs, and flowers. These can provide good nesting
  sites, winter shelter, places to hide from predators and natural food
  supplies that are available year-round.

    [Illustration: Bird bath]


Landscaping for Birds

  The most surefire way to attract birds to your backyard is to make
  certain the appropriate habitat is available to them. You may be lucky
  and already have a good supply of food, shelter, and water available
  for our feathered friends. In that case, you have to do little more
  than stand back and watch.

  However, for most backyards, bird habitat must be created. It’s called
  “landscaping for birds” and it can be as simple or extravagant as you
  wish. Whatever the approach, anyone who has ever tried this type of
  landscaping comes away with a real love for it after their first
  sparkling hummingbirds hover at the coral bells, or the perky catbird
  comes down for a drink of water from the birdbath, or the sleek
  waxwings gather en masse to sample bittersweet berries.


Benefits of Landscaping for Birds

  You can derive many benefits from landscaping to attract birds to your
  yard:


                        _Increased Wildlife Populations_

  You can probably double the number of bird species using your property
  with a good landscaping plan.


                             _Energy Conservation_

  By carefully arranging your conifer and hardwood trees, you can lower
  winter heating and summer cooling bills for your house.


                              _Soil Conservation_

  Certain landscape plants can prevent soil erosion.


                                _Natural Beauty_

  A good landscaping plan contributes to a beautiful, natural setting
  around your home that is pleasing to people as well as birds.

    [Illustration: Bath in garden setting]


                         _Wildlife Photography_

  Wildlife photography is a wonderful hobby for people of all ages.


                                 _Birdwatching_

  Try keeping a list of all the birds you see in your yard or from your
  yard. Some people have counted nearly 200 species of birds in their
  yard!


                            _Natural Insect Control_

  Birds such as tree swallows, house wrens, brown thrashers and orioles
  eat a variety of insects.


                               _Food Production_

  Some plants that attract wildlife are also appealing to humans. People
  and wildlife can share cherries, chokecherries, strawberries, and
  crabapples.


                                _Property Value_

  A good landscaping plan can greatly increase the value of your
  property by adding natural beauty and an abundance of wildlife.


                               _Habitat for Kids_

  Some of the best wildlife habitats are the best habitats for young
  people to discover the wonders of nature. A backyard bird habitat can
  stimulate young people to develop a lifelong interest in wildlife and
  conservation.


Basics of Landscaping for Birds

  Landscaping for birds involves nine basic principles:


                                     _Food_

  Every bird species has its own unique food requirements that may
  change as the seasons change. Learn the food habits of the birds you
  wish to attract. Then plant the appropriate trees, shrubs, and flowers
  to provide the fruits, berries, seeds, acorns, nuts and nectar.


                                    _Water_

  You may be able to double the number of bird species in your yard by
  providing a source of water. A frog pond, water garden, or bird bath
  will get lots of bird use, especially if the water is dripping,
  splashing or moving.


                                   _Shelter_

  Birds need places where they can hide from predators and escape from
  severe weather. Trees (including dead ones), shrubs, tall grass and
  bird houses provide excellent shelter.


                                  _Diversity_

  The best landscaping plan is one that includes a variety of native
  plants. This helps attract the most bird species.


                                 _Four Seasons_

  Give birds food and shelter throughout the year by planting a variety
  of trees, shrubs and flowers that provide year-round benefits.


                                 _Arrangement_

  Properly arrange the different habitat components in your yard.
  Consider the effects of prevailing winds (and snow drifting) so your
  yard will be protected from harsh winter weather.


                                  _Protection_

  Birds should be protected from unnecessary mortality. When choosing
  the placement of bird feeders and nest boxes, consider their
  accessibility to predators. Picture windows can also be dangerous for
  birds, who fly directly at windows when they see the reflection of
  trees and shrubs. A network of parallel, vertical strings spaced 4
  inches apart can be placed on the outside of windows to prevent this
  problem. Be cautious about the kinds of herbicides and pesticides used
  in your yard. Apply them only when necessary and strictly according to
  label instructions. In fact, try gardening and lawn care without using
  pesticides. Details can be found in gardening books at the library.


                               _Hardiness Zones_

  When considering plants not native to your area, consult a plant
  hardiness zone map, found in most garden catalogues. Make sure the
  plants you want are rated for the winter hardiness zone classification
  of your area.


                             _Soils and Topography_

  Consult your local garden center, university or county extension
  office to have your soil tested. Plant species are often adapted to
  certain types of soils. If you know what type of soil you have, you
  can identify the types of plants that will grow best in your yard.


Plants for Wild Birds

  Seven types of plants are important as bird habitat:


                                   _Conifers_

  Conifers are evergreen trees and shrubs that include pines, spruces,
  firs, arborvitae, junipers, cedars, and yews. These plants are
  important as escape cover, winter shelter and summer nesting sites.
  Some also provide sap, fruits and seeds.


                             _Grasses and Legumes_

  Grasses and legumes can provide cover for ground nesting birds—but
  only if the area is not mowed during the nesting season. Some grasses
  and legumes provide seeds as well. Native prairie grasses are becoming
  increasingly popular for landscaping purposes.


                           _Nectar-producing Plants_

  Nectar-producing plants are very popular for attracting hummingbirds
  and orioles. Flowers with tubular red corollas are especially
  attractive to hummingbirds. Other trees, shrubs, vines and flowers
  also can provide nectar for hummingbirds.


                            _Summer-fruiting Plants_

  This category includes plants that produce fruits or berries from May
  through August. In the summer these plants can attract brown
  thrashers, catbirds, robins, thrushes, waxwings, woodpeckers, orioles,
  cardinals, towhees and grosbeaks. Examples of summer-fruiting plants
  are various species of cherry, chokecherry, honeysuckle, raspberry,
  serviceberry, blackberry, blueberry, grape, mulberry, plum and
  elderberry.


                             _Fall-fruiting Plants_

  This landscape component includes shrubs and vines whose fruits ripen
  in the fall. These foods are important both for migratory birds which
  build up fat reserves before migration and as a food source for
  nonmigratory species that need to enter the winter season in good
  physical condition. Fall-fruiting plants include dogwoods, mountain
  ash, winter-berries, cotoneasters and buffalo-berries.


                            _Winter-fruiting Plants_

  Winter-fruiting plants are those whose fruits remain attached to the
  plants long after they first become ripe in the fall. Many are not
  palatable until they have frozen and thawed many times. Examples are
  glossy black chokecherry, Siberian and “red splendor” crabapple,
  snowberry, bittersweet, sumacs, American highbush cranberry, eastern
  and European wahoo, Virginia creeper, and Chinaberry.


                             _Nut and Acorn Plants_

  These include oaks, hickories, buckeyes, chestnuts, butternuts,
  walnuts and hazels. A variety of birds, such as jays, woodpeckers and
  titmice, eat the meats of broken nuts and acorns. These plants also
  contribute to good nesting habitat.


How to Get Started

  Think of this project as landscaping for birds. Your goal will be to
  plant an assortment of trees, shrubs and flowers that will attract
  birds. If you plan carefully it can be inexpensive and fun for the
  whole family. The best way to get started is to follow these
  guidelines:


                             _Set Your Priorities_

  Decide what types of birds you wish to attract, then build your plan
  around the needs of those species. Talk to friends and neighbors to
  find out what kinds of birds frequent your area. Attend a local bird
  club meeting and talk to local birdwatchers about how they have
  attracted birds to their yards.


                       _Use Native Plants When Possible_

  Check with the botany department of a nearby college or university or
  with your state’s natural heritage program for lists of trees, shrubs,
  and wildflowers native to your area. Use this list as a starting point
  for your landscape plan. These plants are naturally adapted to the
  climate of your area and are a good long-term investment. Many native
  plants are both beautiful for landscaping purposes and excellent for
  birds. If you include nonnative plant species in your plan, be sure
  they are not considered “invasive pests” by plant experts. Check out
  the bird books in your local library.


                         _Draw a Map of Your Property_

  Draw a map of your property to scale using graph paper. Identify
  buildings, sidewalks, power lines, buried cables, fences, septic tank
  fields, trees, shrubs and patios. Consider how your plan relates to
  your neighbor’s property—will the tree you plant shade out the
  neighbor’s vegetable garden? Identify and map sunny or shady sites,
  low or wet sites, sandy sites, and native plants that will be left in
  place.

  Also identify special views that you wish to enhance—areas for pets,
  benches, picnics, storage, playing, sledding, vegetable gardens and
  paths.


                             _Get Your Soil Tested_

  Get your soil tested by your local garden center, county extension
  agent or soil conservation service. Find out what kinds of soil you
  have and then find out if your soils have nutrient or organic
  deficiencies that fertilization or addition of compost can correct.
  The soils you have will help determine the plants which can be
  included in your landscaping plan.


                  _Review the Seven Plant Habitat Components_

  Review the seven plant components described previously. Which
  components are already present? Which ones are missing? Remember that
  you are trying to provide food and cover through all four seasons.
  Develop a list of plants that you think will provide the missing
  habitat components.


                           _Talk to Resource Experts_

  Review this plant list with landscaping resource experts who can match
  your ideas with your soil types, soil drainage and the plants
  available through state or private nurseries. People at the nearby
  arboretum can help with your selections. At an arboretum you can also
  see what many plants look like. Talk with local bird clubs, the
  members of which probably are knowledgeable about landscaping for
  birds.


                          _Develop Your Planting Plan_

  Sketch on your map the plants you wish to add. Draw trees to a scale
  that represents three-fourths of their mature width, and shrubs at
  their full mature width. This will help you calculate how many trees
  and shrubs you need. There is a tendency to include so many trees that
  eventually your yard will be mostly shaded. Be sure to leave open
  sunny sites where flowers and shrubs can thrive. Decide how much money
  you can spend and the time span of your project. Don’t try to do too
  much at once. You might try a five-year development plan.


                             _Implement Your Plan_

  Finally, go to it! Begin your plantings and include your entire family
  so they can all feel they are helping wildlife. Document your
  plantings on paper and by photographs. Try taking pictures of your
  yard from the same spots every year to document the growth of your
  plants.


                              _Maintain Your Plan_

  Keep your new trees, shrubs and flowers adequately watered, and keep
  your planting areas weed-free by use of landscaping film and wood
  chips or shredded bark mulch. This avoids the use of herbicides for
  weed control. If problems develop with your plants, consult a local
  nursery, garden center or county extension agent.


                               _And Finally ..._

  Make sure to take the time to enjoy the wildlife that will eventually
  respond to your landscaping efforts.


Protecting Bird Habitat

  Each year your state wildlife agency, private conservation groups, the
  U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service, other federal agencies, and many private
  landowners and business leaders work together to conserve and manage
  millions of acres of habitat—swamps, forests, ponds and grasslands.
  These habitats provide nesting habitat for songbirds and shorebirds,
  ducks and geese, hawks and owls.

  You can make a difference in helping protect habitats for migratory
  birds by joining Partners in Flight, a consortium of the above groups
  dedicated to finding reasonable ways to maintain the health of bird
  populations in the Western Hemisphere. For more information about
  Partners in Flight, please contact U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service,
  Office of Migratory Bird Management, 4401 North Fairfax Drive,
  Arlington, VA 22203.

  Another way that you can help preserve a disappearing but valuable
  natural resource—wetlands—is by buying Federal Duck Stamps at your
  local post office. Money from sales of these stamps is used to protect
  wetlands. For more information, write U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service,
  Federal Duck Stamp Office, 1849 C Street, NW, Washington, DC 20240.


_All photos copyright Maslowski Photo, Inc. except as noted._


Additional Resources


                                _Books_

  A large variety of books are available on attracting, housing,
  feeding, and gardening for birds. Check your local library, book
  store, or the Internet, for a selection of books on attracting birds
  to your yard.


                                  _Web Sites_

  There are many good on-line resources for bird enthusiasts. Below are
  a few useful web sites that discuss some of the more popular backyard
  birds; general information on bird feeding, housing, and gardening for
  birds; ways to keep birds safe from predators; and opportunities for
  you to become citizen scientists just by watching birds at your
  feeder.

  _WildBirds.com_—feeding and attracting
  http://www.wildbirds.com

  _Birding/Wild Birds_—backyard birds, birdhouses and feeders
  http://www.birding.about.com/hobbies/birding

  _Backyard Wildlife Habitats_—National Wildlife Federation
  http://www.nwf.org/habitats

  _Cats Indoors_—American Birding Conservancy
  http://www.abcbirds.org/cats/catsindoors.htm

  _North American Bluebird Society_
  http://www.nabluebirdsociety.org

  _Purple Martin Conservation Association_
  http://www.purplemartin.org

  _BirdSource_—FeederWatch and Classroom FeederWatch
  http://birdsource.org

  _National Bird-Feeding Society_
  http://www.birdfeeding.org/

  _Stokes Birds at Home/Birding_—feeding, housing, and gardening
  http://www.stokesbirdsathome.com/birding


                              _Disclaimer_

  _The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service intends no endorsement and cannot
  guarantee the accuracy of information found on these web sites._




                          Transcriber’s Notes


—Silently corrected a few typos.

—Retained publication information from the printed edition: this eBook
  is public-domain in the country of publication.

—In the text versions only, text in italics is delimited by
  _underscores_.

—Website references from the printed book may not be current.