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                                  THE
                           TEMPLES AND RITUAL
                              OF ASKLEPIOS
                        AT EPIDAUROS AND ATHENS


    TWO LECTURES DELIVERED AT THE ROYAL INSTITUTION OF GREAT BRITAIN


                                   BY
                     RICHARD CATON, M.D., F.R.C.P.
               _HON. PHYSICIAN LIVERPOOL ROYAL INFIRMARY
    EMERITUS PROFESSOR OF PHYSIOLOGY, UNIVERSITY COLLEGE, LIVERPOOL_


                    _WITH THIRTY FOUR ILLUSTRATIONS_


                             SECOND EDITION


              PRINTED AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS OF LIVERPOOL

                      LONDON: C. J. CLAY AND SONS
          CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS WAREHOUSE, AVE MARIA LANE
                                  1900

                                LONDON:
                          C. J. CLAY AND SONS
          CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS WAREHOUSE, AVE MARIA LANE
                     GLASGOW: 50, Wellington Street

    [Illustration: Publisher Coat of Arms]

                        LEIPZIG: F. A. Brockhaus
                    NEW YORK: The Macmillan Company
                        BOMBAY: E. Seymour Hale




                                PREFACE


Some apology is perhaps needed from one who can neither claim to be a
classical scholar nor a professional archæologist in venturing upon the
subject of these lectures.

Repeated visits to Greece and the Greek colonies during the past twenty
years have enabled the author to observe, in their various stages,
certain of the researches to be here briefly recounted. To him their
interest appeared so considerable that it seemed probable the enquiry
might be attractive to members of the medical profession generally, and
perhaps also to other readers, from the side of the cult, if not from
that of the classical archæologist.

The same motive explains the effort made to present a picture, in part
hypothetical, of the ancient fabrics, and of the work carried on in
them. More latitude in speculation in such a direction is perhaps
allowable to one who traces the development of a cult, than to the
scientific archæologist.

No originality is claimed in regard to the facts. Some of the sketches
and restorations are original, and so are various theories or suggested
explanations, such as that regarding the purpose of the Tholos and the
Circular Pit at the Asklepieion;  the suggestion that the Square
Building was a Prytaneion, where sacrificial banquets were held and the
perpetual fire maintained; the theory that certain of the buildings were
hostels; the conjecture regarding the selection of sites for Greek
Theatres, &c. Whether these are well-founded or otherwise only time and
further research can decide.

The author desires to record his thanks to the learned Oxford friend who
edited and translated the inscription on page 42, and who kindly pointed
out various errors in the first issue, also to Mr. Sampson, the
librarian of University College, Liverpool, for his highly valued advice
and for his kindness in reading the proofs of the present edition.




                  THE TEMPLES AND RITUAL OF ASKLEPIOS




                               LECTURE I


Ladies and Gentlemen,

You are aware that during the last twenty-five years the energy and
enthusiasm in archæological research of such men as Dr. Schliemann have
not merely thrown light on historic and prehistoric Greece, but have
also awakened a keener enthusiasm among classical scholars and in those
Societies which in various countries are devoted to archæological
investigation. Even Governments have been influenced and induced to help
on the progress of these highly interesting studies. The Germans have
spent large sums in the excavation of Olympia and Pergamos. The French
government has wisely and liberally incurred a considerable expenditure
in the excavation of Delphi and on other important works. The Greek
Government, aided by members of the Greek Archæological Society, has
devoted money and an infinitude of labour to investigations of the
classic wealth of Greece and the Greek colonies.

In these three instances, although the amount paid may be trivial when
viewed in the national balance-sheet, its archæological equivalent is
great. These three countries have not only made the whole world their
debtor by the liberality they have displayed, but each has quickened and
stimulated a taste for learning and for art among its own people.

One or two other nationalities have had a share in the progress made,
though of a more private and individual kind. The American School has
explored the Argive Heræon and certain other classical sites, and our
own British School in Athens, whose chief wealth has been the enthusiasm
of its members, has done much, when we consider the difficulties to be
met and the lack of that sufficient pecuniary support with which other
countries have endowed their representatives.

Although considerable interest is felt by the English public in regard
to much of the work just referred to, one important field of
investigation has remained comparatively unknown in this country—I mean
the exploration of the shrines of Asklepios, the god of healing, at
Epidauros and Athens, about which I am to have the honour of speaking to
you. As the time allotted is brief, it is needful to avoid all prefatory
remarks, and to restrict this paper almost entirely to a consideration
of the new discoveries and to inferences from them. As a matter of fact,
apart from the Hippocratic writings there is but scant information as to
the sanitary and medical aspects of Greek life in ancient literature.
Homer and Pindar have brief references to Epidauros and other
sanctuaries of the god; so also have Plato, Hippys of Regium, Strabo,
and some of the dramatists, as Aristophanes, and certain of the late
Greek writers, especially Pausanias. Under these circumstances most
precious are the researches made by the spade.

The pioneer in this inquiry was M. Cavvadias, the eminent archæologist,
Ephor of Antiquities and late Minister of Education in the Greek
government. To him more than to any one else we owe the important
additions lately made to this branch of archæology.

He worked in conjunction with the Greek Archæological Society, and was
aided by M. Staïs, the Conservator of the National Museum. Herr Baunack
and others helped to restore and decipher the hundreds of inscriptions
which were found—a work of no small difficulty.

Various authorities more or less associated with the French School, such
as M. Gérard, MM. Defrasse and Lechat, and Prof. Reinach; Dr. Dörpfeld,
Prof. Furtwängler, Herr Baunack, Dr. Köchler, and others associated with
the German School, have had a share in the work or in recording its
results.

Comparatively little has been done by the English, and only a limited
amount of description has been published in our language. An interesting
paper by Professor Percy Gardner, in his _New Chapters in Greek
History_, some valuable references by Miss Jane Harrison and Mrs.
Verrall in their _Mythology and Monuments of Ancient Athens_, the
admirable notes in Mr. Frazer’s new edition of _Pausanias_, and one or
two articles in American journals, such as the _American Antiquarian_
and _Cornell Studies_, are among the chief.

    [Illustration: PLATE I—Outline Restoration of a part of the Hieron
    of Epidauros (R.C.)]


    Outline Restoration of Some of the Principal Buildings of the Hieron of
                                 Epidauros

  (_Some emendations in this plate have been borrowed from the important
  work published by_ M. Cavvadias _during the present year._)

  A South Propylæa, or possibly Temple of Hygeia. B Gymnasium (?). C
      Temple of Asklepios. D D East and west Abaton; the lower story of
      the latter and the steps leading down to it are shown. E The
      Tholos. F Temple of Artemis. G The Grove. H Small altar. I Large
      altar (?). J South boundary of sacred precinct, apparently of late
      construction. K The ‘Square building.’ L The baths of Asklepios
      and probable site of library. M Gymnasium or baths or hostel. N
      The building with four quadrangles, probably a hostel. O Roman
      building. P Roman baths. Q Supposed portico of Kotys. R
      North-eastern colonnade. S North-eastern quadrangle, a hostel (?).
      T Temple of Aphrodite. U Northern Propylæa on road from town of
      Epidauros. V Roman building. W Northern boundary of precinct (?).
      X Stadium. Y Goal, or perhaps starting-place. Z Mouth of
      subterranean passage, communicating with precinct (?). α Temple of
      Asklepios and Egyptian Apollo, according to Cavvadias. β Supposed
      temple of the bountiful gods, γ Temple of Themis (?). δ Reservoir
      or bath. ε Position of ancient cemetery.

  The great theatre is situated about 200 yards to the south-east of the
  building marked N.

  NOTE. THIS BUILDING (N) IS SITUATED 150 YARDS MORE TO THE EAST THAN IS
  HERE REPRESENTED.

For details of the work of the various writers _see_ appended list of
authorities consulted.

I have to express my acknowledgment to the authorities I have named, but
chiefly to M. Cavvadias for his kindness in giving me special facilities
in Greece, and for allowing me the use of some of his plates; also to
MM. Defrasse and Lechat, and to their publishers, who permit me to show
you some of their beautiful restorations. Apart from these the lantern
slides I shall show you are from photographs or sketches taken by myself
on the scene of the various excavations or in museums.[1]


                       I. The Hieron of Epidauros

According to tradition, Asklepios, the son of Apollo and Koronis, was
born in the Hieron valley, in the Argolic peninsula; the place names
still preserve the legend; the hamlet of Koroni commemorates his mother,
the hill Titthion owes its name to his having been there suckled by a
goat, while on the opposite hill, Kynortion, stood the temple of the
Maleatean Apollo.

The Hieron six miles from the town of Epidauros was the chief seat of
the worship of Asklepios, though minor ones existed in Athens, at
Delphi, Pergamos, Troizen, Kos, Trikke, and other places.

Plate I is an outline restoration, representing some of the principal
buildings in the Hieron.

I must warn the reader that this plan does not profess to be accurate.
The structural detail of the buildings is always more or less
conjectural, even their relative size and their distances from one
another are only approximately correct. The object of the plan is to
give a general idea of the arrangement of the chief buildings hitherto
discovered, exclusive of the theatre. (It should be stated here that the
numbers which follow refer to the illustrations, while the capital
letters correspond with those on Plate I).

_A_ represents the gateway or Propylæa (or perhaps temple of Hygieia) on
the south of the precinct. Its close relation to the quadrangle _B_ has
caused some observers to suppose it was the entrance to _B_ alone, but
to the writer this seems improbable.

_B_ is a large quadrangle about 250 feet square, reminding one of the
Palæstra at Olympia. The central space was surrounded by small rooms and
a colonnade; some of the columns of the latter remain, embedded in the
later Roman brickwork of a music hall or Odeon, constructed within the
quadrangle. Nine rows of seats and part of the stage of the Odeon still
remain. The building has been supposed to be a gymnasium; but if so,
must have ceased to be the scene of gymnastic exercises after the
quadrangle was built upon in Roman times. Was it a hostel?

    [Illustration: PLATE II—Restoration of East End of Temple of
    Asklepios (Defrasse)]

_C_ represents the temple of Asklepios, the central shrine, a richly
decorated and coloured doric building, erected in the fourth century
B.C., the east end of which is shown in the accompanying restoration by
Defrasse, Plate II. At the west and east gables were pediment groups
representing a battle with Centaurs and a combat of Greeks and Amazons:
one of the latter is shown in Plate III; together with acroteria, as in
Plate IV, which shows one of the two Nereids alighting from horseback;
these stood on the two sides, while a central winged victory occupied
the apex of the gable.

    [Illustration: PLATE III—Remains of Amazon from Pediment]

    [Illustration: PLATE IV—Remains of a Nereid, one of the Acroteria]

A beautiful ivory door, which cost 3,000 drachmæ, closed the sanctuary;
within, the cella was a single chamber; there was no opisthodomus.

Plate V, a restoration by M. Defrasse, represents the south side of the
temple, and also, towards the left, a part of the Abaton.

    [Illustration: PLATE V—Restoration of part of Abaton and of Temple
    of Asklepios (Defrasse)]

Within the temple stood, as shown in Defrasse’s drawing, Plate VI, the
great chryselephantine statue of Asklepios made by Thrasymedes of Paros,
a work somewhat resembling the Parthenon figure, or the vast Zeus of
Olympia, or the Hera at the Argive Heræon; the flesh was ivory, the rest
gold splendidly enamelled in colours. So many small replicas of this
figure remain—sculptured copies found at Epidauros, or small
representations on ancient coins—that by the aid of Pausanias’
description M. Defrasse has doubtless reproduced the image with a near
approach to accuracy.

The god was sitting on a throne, a large golden serpent rising up to his
left hand; on his right lay a dog, and in front was an altar.

    [Illustration: PLATE VI—Restoration of chryselephantine figure of
    Asklepios (Defrasse)]

Gold and ivory were beautiful materials for the sculptor, though
involving much difficulty when combined. The disappearance of all
attempts at chryselephantine sculpture in modern times is perhaps due to
this difficulty in production and to the cost, but probably more to the
fact that the ivory usually tended to crack. The great figure of Athena
in the Parthenon needed, we know, to be frequently moistened on its
ivory surface with water. At Olympia, oil was applied to the great
figure of Zeus, but curiously enough the Asklepios at Epidauros needed
neither. As the god of medicine, it may be supposed that he was able to
preserve his own integument, but Pausanias tells us that a well, beneath
the pavement of the temple, diffused sufficient moisture to prevent
contraction and cracking of the ivory.[2]

On the throne were representations, doubtless in relief, of Bellerophon
killing the Chimæra, and of Perseus with the head of the Medusa.

    [Illustration: PLATE VII—Base of Temple of Asklepios]

Plate VII. represents the remains of the temple as they exist to-day.
Fragments of column, capital, pediment, &c., with pavements and bases of
walls, render the hypothetical reconstruction of the building fairly
easy.

_D D_ in my first illustration is the Ionic portico or Abaton, a part of
which is seen in Plates V. and X.; the western part is in two stories,
the lower one being in the basement. It is open on the south side; a
double colonnade supports the roof, the eaves of which, together with
the walls and columns, showed colour decoration. This constituted the
ward or sleeping place for the sick who were awaiting the miraculous
interposition of the god. The Abaton was furnished with pallets, lamps,
tables, altars, and probably curtains, the patients themselves supplying
their own bed clothing. Other details of this building will be given in
the next lecture. It may be added here that from one point of view these
remains are highly interesting, for they constitute the earliest known
example of a Hospital Ward. There is reason to believe that institutions
closely related to Infirmaries or Hospitals existed in Egypt many
centuries earlier than the founding of the Hieron, but no structural
trace of such a building has been discovered.

    [Illustration: PLATE VIII—Remains of East Abaton]

The back or north wall of the Abaton, the front or south line of Ionic
columns and the central line of columns can be clearly made out from the
remaining fragments.

Plate VIII shows these remains of the eastern part of the Abaton. The
photograph unfortunately is defective, and it gives the idea that the
remains are less considerable and important than they really are.

In Plate IX the remains of the lower story of the western part are
shown. This photograph was taken from the top of the stairs leading down
to the area-like court from which access was obtained to the lower
story.

    [Illustration: PLATE IX—Remains of lower story of West Abaton]

The Tholos or Thymele, shown at _E_ in Plate I and in the annexed
restoration by Defrasse, Plate X, was probably the most beautiful
circular temple that the Greeks ever built, far surpassing the
Philippeion at Olympia. It was built in the fourth century B.C., by
Polykleitos the younger, and took twenty-one years to build; externally
it presented a beautiful doric colonnade, with peculiarly rich cornice,
coloured. Within was a circle of sixteen graceful Corinthian columns of
marble; the wall and floor were also decorated with variously coloured
marbles. Here were two celebrated paintings by Pausias, the Greek
artist; the first represented Methe (drunkenness), a woman holding a
large wine goblet to her lips, the glass of which was so painted that
the face was seen through, or reflected in it. The second, a picture of
Eros (love) laying aside his bow and quiver and taking up his lyre, a
less dangerous weapon. Perhaps we may suppose that the painter here
indicated the relation of Bacchus and Venus to the ailments which
afflict mankind. The scourges which we are told the gods make out of the
pleasant vices of men doubtless often brought the wealthy Greek as a
suppliant to Asklepios.

    [Illustration: PLATE X—Restoration of Tholos (Defrasse)]

What was the purpose of the Tholos? Defrasse and Lechat believe it was a
drinking-fountain, a sort of pump-room, in which in old times a healing
spring arose; if so, we can imagine the gouty Athenian being sent here
to drink large draughts from the holy spring, he envying meanwhile Methe
and her occupation on the wall before him. The foundations are curious,
consisting of a series of circular walls forming a labyrinth, every part
of which must necessarily be traversed by the explorer seeking the
central space, Plate XI.

    [Illustration: PLATE XI—Foundation of Tholos]

MM. Defrasse and Lechat think this singularly constructed basement was a
water cistern from which the ‘pump-room’ above was supplied. The
difficulties attending this rather attractive hypothesis are—(_a_) that
the word ‘Thymele’ means a sacrificing place; (_b_) Pausanias speaks of
the Tholos and of the sacred well as though they were entirely distinct
places; (_c_) after careful search I can find no trace of a water
conduit; (_d_) the basement space, I may say confidently, was not
cemented, either on wall or floor, as in all probability it would have
been if to hold water. Not improbably the Tholos was employed for minor
sacrifices, and perhaps the labyrinth below may have been associated
with some mysterious Asklepian rite of which we are now ignorant;
_e.g._, the labyrinth may have been the home of the sacred serpents. We
do not know what were the domestic economics of these creatures; they,
in an especial degree, were the incarnation of the god. They were
treated by the sick with the utmost veneration; perhaps this curious
basement structure was their retreat, and conceivably the upper stage of
the Tholos was employed for the offering of sacrifices to them as
representatives of the god. Perhaps the sacrificial cakes (πόπανα) were
here offered to them. An aperture in the floor may have been provided
allowing the passage of the serpents from the labyrinth to the
sacrificing place above. We know that the sick were in the habit of
offering these cakes to the serpents as a matter of common usage.

    [Illustration: PLATE XII—Restoration of Temple of Artemis (R.C.)]

Plate I, Letter _F_. The Temple of Artemis is smaller than that of
Asklepios (see Plate XII); the eaves were decorated by a rich cornice of
sculptured heads of dogs, the attribute of Artemis-Hekate. She, the
sister of Apollo, was a divinity of healing and succour, the chaste moon
goddess, who healed Æneas. Acroteria of Victories decorated the eastern
gable; within was a row of marble columns, and externally stood a triple
figure of Artemis-Hekate, and an altar.

Letter _G_ in Plate I shows the position of the grove, which probably
extended also in the direction of the Tholos. _H_ in the same plate
shows the position of an altar which may have been sacred either to
Asklepios or to Artemis. The letter _I_ shows a foundation on which
probably a much larger altar formerly stood; it may have been that of
Asklepios, on which possibly holocausts were offered. _J_ represents the
southern boundary of the precinct. β is thought to have been the shrine
of the Ἐπιδόται or bountiful gods.

_K_ in Plate I represents the square building which has occasioned much
discussion. It contains the base of an altar surrounded by many bones of
sacrificial animals and much ash, also fragments of bronze and
earthenware, many of them bearing dedications to Apollo or Asklepios.
Its period of erection seems to have been not later than the beginning
of the fifth century B.C. It contained great numbers of statues and
inscriptions. It may have been a house for priests or officials, or even
a hostel, or possibly was the Prytaneion, on the altar of which burnt
the perpetual fire; no mention is, however, made of a Prytaneion in the
inscriptions.

_L_ in Plate I represents a large building, irregular, and of various
date; believed to have been the baths of Asklepios; this building
perhaps may have also contained the library, dedicated to the Maleatean
Apollo and Asklepios, which one would think is likely to have been in
some central position.

_M_ in Plate I is intended to represent a rectangular building of which
only small traces remain. Whether or not it was a definitely constructed
quadrangle, such as I have drawn, may be uncertain. If it was, perhaps
we have here the remains of one of the two gymnasia which the
inscriptions tell us existed at the Hieron, or it may have contained
baths.

_N_ in the same plate is a restoration of the building with the four
quadrangles, only lately excavated. It is the largest building yet
discovered at the Hieron, being nearly 90 yards square. Each of the four
quadrangles is surrounded by a number of rooms. In all there were
between seventy and eighty of these apartments, each of which opened
into its own quadrangle, so far as I could judge. A colonnade ran round
the interior of each quadrangle. Query, what is it?—a gymnasium, a
palæstra, a college for the priests, or a great hostel? I confess the
last-named seems the most probable. When one considers the large number
of the sick who came to the Hieron, it is obvious that extensive
accommodation must have been provided for them somewhere. The two
chambers of the abaton could not have held more than 120 beds, supposing
these to have been placed in two rows; or if we suppose the almost dark
lower story of the western end to have been a dormitory also, 180 would
then have been the greatest possible accommodation. This, if the extreme
number to be entertained, scarcely accords with the accounts given by
ancient writers of the multitudes who came for healing to the sanctuary.
It appears likely, therefore, that this and other undetermined buildings
were hostels for the accommodation of those whose ailments were slight
or who were convalescent.

    [Illustration: PLATE XIII—North-Eastern Colonnade]

The remains of this curious structure are shown as seen from a distance
in Plate XVII below.

_O_ in Plate I is a Roman building. Cavvadias thinks that α is the
temple of Asklepios and the Egyptian Apollo.

_P_ is a building also of the Roman Period, and evidently contained
baths. There are traces of a hypocaust. The remains of hot air or hot
water pipes are abundant, and certain curious apse-like recesses in the
walls, containing a seat and terminating below in a bath or deep basin,
were evidently a form of sitzbath. When we remember that the French have
lately discovered at Delphi no less than three extensive bathing
establishments, adjacent to the walls of the precinct on the east, west,
and south sides respectively, it is not surprising that we should find
at least two such buildings at Epidauros. A part of this Roman
bath-house is seen in the distance in Plate XIII.

    [Illustration: PLATE XIV—Figure of Aphrodite]

_Q_ in Plate I is a quadrangular building between the Temple of Artemis
and the South Portal. Round three if not four of its sides were rooms,
as in the case of the great four-quadrangle building; many remains of
columns are seen. Its purpose is doubtful. Probably it is the Colonnade
of Kotys which Pausanias mentions. (It is to be hoped that no shrine of
the dissolute Thracian goddess of that name existed here.)

This Colonnade of Kotys we know was originally built of sun-dried brick,
and may perhaps originally have had wooden columns. Sun-dried brick, so
common in many parts of Greece to-day, was often used in ancient times
for important purposes, as, for example, in the building of the Heræon
at Olympia. When this somewhat perishable material was covered with a
fine hard cement, which resisted the heaviest rain, walls so constructed
became wonderfully durable. The Colonnade of Kotys was rebuilt during
Roman times. Some of the roof tiles discovered lately bear the name of
Antoninus. Cavvadias suggests that the small temple γ is that of Themis.

_R_ in Plate I is a colonnade which extended east and west nearly at
right angles with the Roman Baths _P_ described above. Plate XIII shows
the remains of this colonnade, also a small open aqueduct with basins in
its course about eleven yards apart. This small water channel reminds
the visitor of a similar one existing in front of the Echo Colonnade at
Olympia, the latter contains one or two basins like those shown in the
plate. This view shows in the distance the Roman baths (_P_).

Adjoining this colonnade on the north-east is a large quadrangle _S_,
formerly bordered on its four sides by columns. Its length east and west
was about double its breadth north and south. Was this another hostel?

_T_ is believed by M. Cavvadias to be the Temple of Aphrodite, a Doric
structure only excavated in 1892. An inscription discovered on the spot
speaks of the sanctuary of Aphrodite; not far from it was found a statue
of the goddess in Parian marble, a most beautiful figure now preserved
in the Museum at Athens. Plate XIV is an attempt to represent this
figure as it now exists. The ancient cemetery of the Hieron was near the
point marked ε in Plate I.

_U_ in Plate I is an Ionic building, the present condition of which is
shown in Plate XV. It may be a temple external to the precinct, or it
may, as others suggest, be the Northern Propylæa or Ceremonial Gateway.
The latter appears the more probable explanation; by this entrance the
pilgrims who came from the port of Epidaurus would approach the
Sanctuary. Note the small well in the foreground.

_V_ is a Roman building of unknown purpose, and _W_ represents a barrier
which probably was the northern wall of the precinct. A wall protected
the sacred enclosure on every side, “Τὸ δὲ ἱερὸν ἄλσος τοῦ Ἀσκληπιοῦ
περιέχουσιν ὅροι πανταχόθεν,”[3] says Pausanias, but fully one-half of
this barrier has yet to be found. It will be noted that, as at Olympia,
many important buildings are external to the precinct.

Plate XVI represents a side view of the theatre (which is not shown in
the outline plan Plate I).

    [Illustration: PLATE XV—Northern Propylæa and Well]

The Great Theatre situated to the south of the precinct was built about
the year 450 B.C. by Polykleitos, the architect of the Tholos.
Pausanias, who was a great traveller, tells us it was the most
interesting of all the theatres existing in his time, and to-day any one
who is familiar with the theatres of Greece and the Greek colonies will
say that this is more impressive than any of the others. The Koilon or
auditorium consisted of fifty-five rows of marble seats, with
twenty-four lines of stairs. The space for the chorus is, according to
the ancient system, circular, and in the centre doubtless stood an altar
of Bacchus. The stage was elevated nearly twelve feet, the proscenium
being enriched by splendid sculpture. The acoustics of the theatre are
perfect; a sound little louder than a whisper uttered on the stage can
be heard in every part. The theatre is so placed on the slope of
Kynortion that the occupants of the major part of the auditorium had a
charming view (over the top of the stage) of the mountains to the north
and of the whole range of beautiful buildings of the Hieron.

    [Illustration: PLATE XVI—Theatre]

Plate XVII represents the view taken from the top row of seats. Note the
circular chorus space, the remains of the “four quadrangle building,”
and glimpses of the Hieron beyond. While witnessing here the sublime
tragedies of Æschylus or Sophocles, or such a comedy as the _Plutus_ of
Aristophanes (in which, as you will remember, great fun is made at the
expense of Asklepios and his priests), the contrast afforded by glancing
from the stage to the blues and purples of the mountains, the verdancy
of the grove, and the beautiful forms and colours of the group of
temples would be most pleasing. The Greeks were acute in perceiving and
taking advantage of subtle sources of pleasure like this, and I believe
that the sites of many of their theatres were chosen so as to secure for
the audience this double pleasure. The Theatre of Delphi is a
conspicuous example of this provision, as also is that of Tauromena.
This theatre has been said to seat 12,000 spectators; according to my
own rough computation, it unquestionably will hold over 9,000 without
crowding.

    [Illustration: PLATE XVII—View of Theatre from top row of seats,
    ruins of the “four quadrangle building” in the distance]

Before quitting this theatre it may be remarked that Dr. Dörpfeld’s
interesting and attractive theory of the occupancy of orchestra and
stage equally by the players in a Greek drama, is difficult of
application in this individual case, in consequence of the great
difference in level—eleven or twelve feet—between the two. So great a
disparity of surface would, as most people think, seriously interfere
with the unity of the representation, even if flights of steps connected
orchestra and stage.

_X_ in Plate I represents part of the Stadium, which is about six
hundred feet long. Here are remains of at least fifteen rows of marble
seats. Probably foot races took place here as well as other forms of
athletic exercise. All the maps of the Hieron represent the eastern end
of the Stadium as semicircular, but so far as one can judge, the latest
excavations indicate that it was square, and therefore I have so
represented it.

    [Illustration: PLATE XVIII—East end of Stadium]

Assuming that the fifteen rows of seats extended from end to end on each
side, and allowing a foot and a half for each person, the Stadium would
seat twelve thousand spectators on its two sides, without computing the
seats at the ends.

Plate XVIII represents the excavation at the end adjacent to the Hieron.
_Y_ in Plate I (shown also in Plate XVIII) is either the starting place
or the goal. _Z_ is a subterranean passage probably communicating with
the precinct.

An inscription (found in 1896) mentioned by Mr. Frazer, shows that a
hippodrome also existed at the Hieron.

On Mount Kynortion, some distance south of the great theatre, stood the
temple of the Maleatean Apollo. The remains are so fragmentary that it
is difficult to devise a conjectural restoration.


                     II. The Asklepieion at Athens

Before saying anything about the ritual and the treatment of the sick at
the Hieron, it will be well to turn to the Asklepieion at Athens, and
examine briefly the structural arrangements there. Situated on the south
side of the Acropolis, at an elevation of perhaps eighty feet above the
plain, adjoining on the east the theatre of Dionysus, the locality was
probably as healthy as any the immediate neighbourhood of Athens could
supply. The heat no doubt was great in summer, but we may conclude that
a grove of large trees afforded grateful shade to the sick.

    [Illustration: PLATE XIX—Portico of Eumenes and Acropolis]

    [Illustration: PLATE XX—Attempt at an Outline Restoration of the
    Asklepieion at Athens (R.C.)]

    [Illustration: PLATE XXI—Remains of Asklepieion from the West]

Plate XIX represents the remains of the Stoa or Portico of Eumenes (so
called) lying to the south of the Acropolis. To the extreme left is seen
the temple of the Nike Apteros, and on the summit of the Akropolis the
Parthenon. Between the Stoa and the rock of the Akropolis is situated
the Asklepieion. The accompanying outline plan, No. XX, is an attempt to
give some idea of the arrangement of buildings within the precinct. The
buildings were to a certain extent an imitation, on a smaller scale, and
on a limited area, of those at the Hieron of Epidauros. Remains of what
were probably a temple of Asklepios and Hygieia, of doric architecture,
also a supposed temple of Themis, and a shrine of Isis, exist, while
smaller shrines of Serapis, Kore, Hypnos, Herakles, Panakia, Demeter,
and other divinities have left no distinct traces. There are
considerable remains of a large eastern portico or abaton of pentelic
marble, from which is reached a circular chamber in the rock containing
the sacred well. Some of the masonry here seems to me to be of late
Roman date.

    [Illustration: PLATE XXII—Remains of Asklepieion from the East]

Plate XXI represents the Asklepieion as seen from the western end, and
plate XXII from the east. The building inscribed “western abaton” in
plan No. XX may have been a supplementary abaton or a priest’s house or
a covered gymnasium. A grove existed, perhaps occupying the space
between the Stoa of Eumenes and the temples, or situated in a large
vacant space to the west.

On an elevation above and close to the abaton is a curious well-like
structure, surrounded by marble columns, which perhaps was the serpent
pit.

    [Illustration: PLATE XXIII—Supposed Serpent Pit and remains of
    Marbled Columns round it]

Plate No. XXIII represents the remains of this curious and mysterious
structure. I examined the masonry carefully to see if a direct
communication between this supposed snake pit and the abaton could be
traced, but failed to find it. If the purpose of the Tholos at Epidauros
is that suggested above, viz., a place of sacrifice to the sacred
serpents, may we not have here also the remains of a Tholos or Thymele
on a small scale? Possibly the four marble bases are those of columns
surrounding an altar to which the serpents ascended from their pit
beneath, to receive the sacrificial cakes of the worshippers, who
themselves stood beneath a roof carried by these columns. This of course
is a mere hypothesis.

The grove contained great numbers of statues, busts, ex-votos, and
inscriptions. The theatre of Dionysos close at hand was doubtless
frequented by the sick as a diversion. The stall occupied by the priest
of Asklepios, with his name on it, is still in excellent preservation,
as seen in plate XXIV. He sat in the first rank, in a most honoured
position, with his back to the setting sun, next to the priest of the
Muses. The Panathenaic stadium, three-quarters of a mile away, doubtless
was also frequently visited by the convalescents from the Asklepieion.

    [Illustration: PLATE XXIV—Seats of Priests of Asklepios and of the
    Muses in the Theatre]




                               LECTURE II


We now pass on to consider the ritual of the Asklepian shrines and the
accommodation and treatment of the sick who frequented them.

It is convenient, first, to consider the Hierarchy. They consisted of
the Hiereus or Hierophant, the priest, who was the head official. He was
appointed annually, and he appears to have been frequently re-elected.
From the Athenian inscriptions we know that sometimes he was a
physician, sometimes not; so also it was with the subordinate officials.
The priest was the general administrator, and had a share in the
financial government of the temple. The Dadouchoi, or torch-bearers,
were probably subordinate priests; the Pyrophoroi, or fire-carriers,
among other functions, lighted the sacred fire on the altars; the
Nakoroi or Zakoroi, whose duties in the temple are uncertain, sometimes
were physicians; the Kleidouchoi, or key-bearers, who perhaps were
originally a class of superior door porters, but who appear later to
have assumed priestly functions; the Hieromnemones seem to have had
purely secular duties, and in common with the Hiereus had charge of all
receipts and payments; all were under the rule of the Boule of
Epidauros. The Kanephoroi (or basket-bearers) and the Arrephoroi (or
carriers of mysteries or holy things) were priestesses. We read in some
of the inscriptions of servants or attendants who ministered to the
sick, and carried those who were unable to walk. Did these women in any
degree act as nurses? It is possible, but no definite information on the
subject is given.

There were certain officials, also, who attended to the sacred dogs; the
serpents are not thus far known to have had such guardians. We read also
of bath attendants.

There was also a special religious society termed the Asklepiastai.

Turning now from the priests to the suppliants: these, we find, came
from all parts of the Greek world, and from what ancient writers tell us
their numbers appear to have been great. Where were they housed? Some,
of course, dwelt in the abaton, the women probably in one part and the
men in another, for a wall divided the East from the West abaton; but,
as I have already pointed out, not more than 120 could find beds there
at a time; perhaps the invalid was only housed there at first, and when
he began to improve was drafted off to a hostel. Assuming that all the
buildings which I have suggested to be hostels were such, they could not
accommodate more than some four or five hundred patients. Perhaps we may
assume that such was the usual number attending at ordinary times, while
at the great festivals many thousands assembled. Whether this large
number were lodged in tents or temporary wooden buildings, or otherwise,
is uncertain.

Probably multitudes of vigorous and able-bodied persons came to the
festivals, and many of them may have been lodged six miles away at the
town of Epidauros, or in villages or hamlets adjacent. The ten or twelve
thousand who filled the Theatre or the Stadium cannot have been
exclusively sick people. It seems probable that numbers of athletes and
multitudes of Greeks who merely wanted a holiday and a little excitement
came to the Megala Asklepieia as they came to the Isthmian or the
Olympic games. Setting aside, therefore, all visitors of this class, who
probably brought gains to the Sanctuary, and for whom accordingly space
was provided in the Theatre, Stadium, and Hippodrome, I pass on to
consider the suppliants proper.

The patient on arrival probably had an interview with the priest or
other official, and arranged about his accommodation with one of the
Hieromnemones, or other secular person. He performs certain rites,
bathes in the sacred fountain, and offers sacrifices under the direction
of the Pyrophoros; the poor man gives his cake only, the rich his sheep,
pig, or goat, or other offering in addition. The votive tablets
frequently show the cakes (πόπανα) being presented, or the sheep, pig,
or other animal. Where the ceremonial purification took place is
uncertain. A deep well exists in the eastern abaton. A stone dropped
struck the water in a fraction over three seconds, as I found after
repeated trials. The well is therefore over 144 feet deep. Possibly the
water used in the ritual was derived hence, but more probably the place
of purification has yet to be found. “Only pure souls may enter here,”
was inscribed over the entrance of the temple of Asklepios.

Pausanias speaks of a fountain beautifully roofed and decorated, “κρήνη
τῷ τε ὀρόφῳ καὶ κόσµῳ τῷ λοιπῷ θέας ἀξία.”[4] Can this have been the
bath of Asklepios marked L in my plan? Traces of a large basin remain
there.

When night comes the sick man brings his bed-clothing into the abaton,
and reposes on his pallet, putting usually some small gift on the table
or altar. The Nakoroi having come round to light the sacred lamps, the
priest enters and recites the evening prayers to the god, entreating
divine help and divine enlightenment for all the sick assembled there;
he then collects the gifts which had been deposited on altars and
tables; later the Nakoroi enter, put out the lights, enjoin silence, and
command everyone to fall asleep and to hope for guiding visions from the
god. The abaton was a lofty and airy sleeping chamber, its southern side
being an open colonnade. It is singularly like the ‘shelter balcony’ or
_Liegehalle_, now used in treating phthisis. This provision of abundance
of pure fresh air for the sick by day and night, which is so beneficial
now, was undoubtedly so then also, and probably brought much credit to
the god and his shrine.

According to the inscriptions the god frequently appeared in person, or
in visions, speaking to the sick man or woman concerning their ailments.
Whether these visitations were merely hallucinations in individuals
whose imaginations had been excited, or whether some priest in the dim
light, accompanied by a serpent, acted the part of Asklepios; whether
the patient was put under the influence of opium or some other drug
provocative of dreams; or whether, by some acoustic trick, the priests
caused the sick to hear spoken words which they attributed to the deity,
it is difficult now to say.

The valley of the Hieron was the habitat of a large yellow serpent,
perfectly harmless, and susceptible, like most snakes, of domestication.
Pausanias tells us it is found in the Epidaurian country alone. I am
afraid it is now extinct, though it has been seen during the present
century. A number of these creatures dwelt in the sanctuary, perhaps in
the vaults of the Tholos. They were reverenced as the incarnation of the
god. The sick were delighted and encouraged when one of these creatures
approached them, and were in the habit of feeding them with cakes. The
serpents seem to have been trained to lick with their forked tongue any
ailing part. The dog also was sacred to Asklepios, and the temple dogs
in like manner were trained to lick any injured or painful region of the
body.

It will be remembered that in the _Plutus_ of Aristophanes, the blind
Plutus enters the abaton of the Asklepieion at Athens in order to be
cured. Asklepios with his daughters, Iaso and Panakeia, appear in
person; they whistle to the sacred serpents, which at once approach,
lick the blind eyes, and vision is restored.

    [Illustration: PLATE XXV—Restoration of the Interior of the Abaton
    at Epidauros
    Patient Sacrificing and having Injured Leg licked by the Sacred
    Serpent (R.C.)]

In the accompanying sketch of the abaton, Plate XXV, a miracle is in
progress in the foreground. A lame man comes to the altar, he offers his
sacrifice, the Pyrophoros lights the sacred flame, the Dadouchos or
Nakoros enjoins silence while the holy serpent licks the affected part.
The abaton is nearly empty, as it is the daytime, but one or two
bedridden patients watch the miracle with interest.

In the inscriptions the phrase ἰάσατο τῇ γλώσσᾳ, referring to the
serpent, is met with, and also in reference to the dogs κύων τῶν ἱαρῶν
ἐθεράπευσε τῇ γλώσσᾳ.

Many of the _malades imaginaires_, who to this day are the support of
the quack, and a cause of embarrassment and difficulty to the scientific
physician—who desires above all things to be honest—doubtless visited
Epidauros.

    [Illustration: PLATE XXVI—Head of Asklepios]

The priest wearing the holy chaplet would take such a person (as
probably he took all suppliants) into the temple, and cause him to
present himself before the image of the god; libations were poured,
prayers and sacrifices offered, and rites of an impressive kind enacted.
Hymns and pæans were sung to the music of the double flute. The sick man
was caused to lay his hand solemnly and reverently on the altar of the
god, and then on the part of his own body presumed to be affected; if
there were really nothing the matter, he was proclaimed to be
miraculously cured by the god, and doubtless his imagination was so
impressed that he often himself believed in the cure.

If the patient were young, sacrifices were doubtless offered at the
shrine of Artemis-Hekate, and perhaps in all cases the procession of
priests and suppliants visited the Tholos (which you remember was the
Thymele or sacrificing place) and offered sacrifices there perhaps to
the serpent, the incarnation of the god of healing; or the train of
votaries ascended Mount Kynortion to the shrine of the great Apollo.

    [Illustration: PLATE XXVII—Asklepios with Serpent.]

The suppliants spent the day in rest or exercise, as was most agreeable
to them. It must be remembered that the precinct was as beautiful as the
noblest works of Greek art could make it; moreover large and lofty trees
formed a shady grove, protecting from the sun’s heat, while the soft
breeze and the sweet pure air of the mountains formed in themselves a
potent agency for the restoration of health. The patient had much around
him to please and interest—beautiful buildings, rich with sculpture and
with colour, statuary figures and groups representing Asklepios and
other divinities or subjects from the old Greek mythology in marble and
bronze.

Plate XXVI represents a head of Asklepios (from the Asklepieion at the
Piræus), to which the genius of the sculptor has given an expression of
sorrow and sympathy, as though the god were grieving over the sufferings
of mankind.

Plate XXVII shows a full-length figure of the god, found at Epidauros,
accompanied as usual by the serpent. Artistic reliefs, hermæ, and
full-length figures of noted priests and physicians, and of individuals
eminent in art, philosophy, literature, or history; also ex-votos,
stelæ, and tablets recording the marvellous cures effected by the god,
coloured bas-reliefs, encaustic paintings, shrines, exedræ, decorative
vases and fountains, beautified and added interest to the precinct.

    [Illustration: PLATE XXVIII—Shelter-seat]

Shelter-seats, arranged in semicircles, of beautiful white marble, were
so placed as to avoid sun or wind; they were convenient for converse, or
for listening to a reader or a musician.

Plates XXVIII and XXIX represent the remains of two of these seats at
the Hieron; close to the former is seen a large pedestal on which
probably an equestrian statue formerly stood.

    [Illustration: PLATE XXIX—Shelter-seat]

Many shrines and chapels to subsidiary deities existed, as, for example,
to Hygieia, Themis, the Egyptian Apollo, Helios, Selene, Epione (the
wife of Asklepios), Zeus, Poseidon, Minerva, Hera, Demeter and other
Eleusinian deities, Dikaiosyne, Lato, Hypnos, Eileithyia, and others not
as yet identified. The diminutive figure of Telesphoros, in his capacity
of god of Convalescence, is not seen here so often along with Asklepios
on ex-votos and coins, as at Pergamos and some other Temples.

Plate XXX represents a number of small figures of Hygieia and of
Asklepios from the Hieron.

Every devout Greek who came as a suppliant to Asklepios would find here
also a shrine of his own favourite deity.

To those who had been initiated at Eleusis, and whose advanced age or
incurable sickness gave little prospect of life, the calm and dignified
forms of Demeter, Persephone, and Iakchos would suggest patience and the
hope of a pure spiritual after-life, free from all bodily infirmity,
“for the Greek or Roman heart ... was as full, in many cases fuller, of
the hope of immortality than our own.”[5]

    [Illustration: PLATE XXX—Figures of Asklepios and Hygieia]

Those of the sick who were not too ill, would ascend the hill of
Kynortion to visit the temple of Apollo, or climb the neighbouring hill
of Titthion, sacred to the infancy of Asklepios. Others would engage in
the exercises of the gymnasium or the stadium; if unable to participate
in these more active pursuits, they would become spectators of them. The
comedies or tragedies played in the theatre would often so immerse the
audience in merriment or pathos as to banish for the time individual
troubles; both priest and patient attended them constantly. Music, the
singing of Orpheic hymns, religious dances, processions, and festivals
would vary the interest and occupations of the day. The studious man
could occupy himself with manuscripts from the library, and, reposing in
the shelter-seats, would dream over history, plays, or poetry. The
solemn rites of the temple, the sacrifices, the study of the
multitudinous tablets, would all tend to a calm and hopeful condition of
mind, eminently helpful to recovery from slight forms of illness, even
though no direct medical treatment were pursued.

In earlier times it seems as though the health-restoring influence of
the shrines was thought to be wholly miraculous, with but small aid or
none from art: the god alone achieved all. The more ancient inscriptions
contain childishly absurd reports of miraculous cures.

The ruling idea was that the deity appeared to the sick man in the
abaton, applied some medicament, performed some operation, or instructed
the dreaming patient to carry out some sanative action when he awoke.
The frauds of the god or his priest were so outrageous that some of the
old Greeks seem almost to have equalled in folly and credulity the
moderns, who readily buy soap or pills on no other warranty than the
advertisements of a lying and interested vendor.

On the walls of the eastern abaton were fixed two large stone tablets,
bearing the title, “Cures by Apollo and Asklepios.” Most of the
fragments of these tablets have been recovered, pieced together, and
deciphered by M. Cavvadias and other learned palæographers. The
following are a few extracts:—

Line 72 of the first tablet in the abaton.—A man who had only one eye is
visited by the god in the abaton during the night. The god applies an
ointment to the empty orbit. On awaking, the man finds he has two sound
eyes.

Line 125.—Thyson of Hermione is blind of both eyes; a temple dog licks
the organs and he immediately regains his sight.

Line 107.—Hermodicos of Lampsacus comes to the Hieron in a paralyzed
condition. As he sleeps in the abaton the god tells him to rise, to walk
outside the precinct, and carry back into it the largest stone he can
find. He does so, and brings in a stone so heavy that no other man can
lift it, and the stone, as the inscription says, still lies before the
abaton. The same stone (probably) lies there to-day, and the visitor may
yet in vain emulate the feat of Hermodicos. It will be recognised in the
illustration, Plate XXXI, by the hole cut in it to put the hands in.

Line 113.—A man had his foot lacerated by the bite of a wild beast; he
is in much pain; the servants of the abaton carry him outside during the
daytime; as he is waiting to be healed a serpent follows him, licks his
foot, and he is at once cured.

Line 122.—Heraieus of Mytilene has no hair on his head; he asks the god
to make it grow again. Asklepios applies an ointment, and next morning
the hair has grown thickly over his scalp. (Unfortunately Asklepios
omitted to write down the prescription for the benefit of those in like
case in the future!)

    [Illustration: PLATE XXXI—The Stone miraculously carried by the
    paralyzed Hermodicos]

At line 48 begins a story containing a moral which the priests may have
thought it desirable to impress upon their visitors:—

Pandaros comes all the way from Thessaly in order to have a disfiguring
eruption or branding mark on his forehead cured; he is quickly made
well. Returning to Thessaly his cure is observed by his neighbour
Echedoros, who has a similar, but slighter, eruption on the face. He
also goes to Hieron, carrying with him a sum of money sent to the god by
the grateful Pandaros. Echedoros contemplates retaining this money
himself; he consults the god about his own case, and in answer to a
question states that he has brought no gift from Pandaros. On rising in
the morning he finds that, instead of having his skin disease cured,
that of Pandaros has been added to it.

Line 96.—A man from Toronœa is so unfortunate as not to be in the good
graces of his stepmother; she introduces a number of leeches into the
wine he drinks. Being of a submissive and confiding temperament, he
swallows the beverage unsuspectingly, but the results are so serious
that he is obliged to visit the god. Asklepios cuts open his chest with
a knife, removes the leeches, sews up the chest again, and the patient
returns home next day.

From other inscriptions we find that Asklepios treats dropsy surgically,
in a simple but heroic manner; he first cuts off the patient’s head,
then holds him up by the heels; the fluid all runs out. He then puts the
patient’s head on again, and the case terminates happily.

These, I think, are a sufficient sample of the preposterous stories of
cures which the god was reported to have performed in early times.

It is quite clear that the absolute liking which many men and women have
for the charlatan, and for deception, their appetites for the marvellous
and incredible in all medical matters, existed as strongly among the
Greeks as among ourselves, though the superstitious beliefs and the
ignorance of science prevailing in those times rendered such folly more
excusable than it is now.

In later times it seems clear that superstition and deception had a less
share, and art a larger one, in the work of healing at Hieron. Probably
among the acute citizens of Athens, at no period were the frauds of the
god so outrageous as in the early times at Hieron. We find the priests
prescribing many things that were prudent and judicious; diet of a plain
and simple character, hot and cold baths, poulticing for certain chest
ailments, and a variety of medicaments—hemlock juice, oxide of iron,
hellebore, squills, lime-water, and drugs for the allaying of pain—are
incidentally mentioned. Water was used extensively both internally and
externally; active gymnastic exercise, riding, friction of the skin, a
sort of massage, and counter-irritation.

The tablet of Apellas of Idria tells us that when visiting the Hieron on
account of frequent illness and severe indigestion, the god or his
priests ordered a diet of bread and curdled milk, with parsley and
lettuce, lemons boiled in water, also milk and honey. Apellas being an
irascible person, the god ordered careful avoidance of the emotion of
anger, and desired him to run and swing in the gymnasium, and use
vigorous friction and counter-irritation to the surface of the body.
Probably Apellas was a wealthy and luxurious city-dweller, who took too
much food and Chian wine, and who suffered, as many in that age did,
from gout. He is eventually cured, and erects a tablet to show his
gratitude.

Here is the invocation of another sufferer coming to the Hieron: “O
blessed Asklepios, god of healing, it is thanks to thy skill that
Diophantes hopes to be relieved from his incurable and horrible gout, no
longer to move like a crab, no longer to walk upon thorns, but to have a
sound foot as thou hast decreed.” It would have been interesting to know
how far Diophantes’ hopes were realized. If they met with
disappointment, he may have regretted putting up the tablet at so early
a stage.

There can be little doubt that many of the sick benefited greatly by the
rest, the pure air, the simple diet, the sources of mental interest, the
baths, exercise, massage, and friction, and in later days by the actual
medical treatment adopted. Surgical treatment was also employed, for we
find marble reliefs of surgical instruments.

Not infrequently it would happen that persons with real or with
incurable diseases came to Hieron and got worse, notwithstanding their
sacrifices and petitions to the god. How the priests excused the
impotency of their deity on these occasions we do not know; perhaps some
lack of merit, purity, or sanctity in the individual may have been
imputed. We know that in some cases the honour of Asklepios was saved by
sending the unfortunate invalid to some distant shrine; but of course it
happened that in some instances the patient died while at the Hieron.
Now, according to the religion of the Greeks, two events were considered
to desecrate in the most dreadful manner any hallowed precinct—namely,
birth and death; neither of these must occur within any sacred
enclosure.

While the sick probably met with considerable kindliness, humanity, and
real help at these shrines, and much actual benefit resulted,
notwithstanding the superstition on which all was based, still, in this
one respect Greek tradition and ceremonial were a cause of the most
gross inhumanity. The unhappy visitant whose vital powers were finally
declining was received and domiciled in the abaton, but when he failed
to improve, and was seen by the priests and attendants to be obviously
dying, instead of being tenderly nursed and soothed, he was removed from
his couch, dragged across the precinct to the nearest gate, expelled,
and left to die on the hillside unhelped and untended. Asklepios had
rejected him, and no priest or minister of the god must defile himself
by any dealings with death. One cannot but hope that the sympathy and
humanity which exist naturally in the hearts of most men and of all
women, found some means of helping these unhappy beings, and that when
death seemed probable such sufferers were conveyed to a hostel outside
the precinct, and allowed to die in peace there. A like superstition
existed regarding birth. Many a poor woman who was anticipating
maternity, and who had been hoping for relief from some ordinary
ailment, was suddenly and mercilessly expelled from the precinct at the
moment when she needed help and comfort most.

Not until the time of the Antonines was any definite provision made for
these two classes of sufferers. Either Antoninus Pius or Marcus Aurelius
erected outside the precinct a home for the dying, and a sort of
maternity hospital. Doubtless some of the ruins dating from the Roman
period, which are at present unidentified, subserved these two purposes.

As yet nothing has been said about the commissariat arrangements of the
Hieron. It is probable that several hundred persons habitually resided
there, if we include the sick, the convalescents, the priests,
officials, and servants, while on the occasion of the great festivals
the number rose to at least ten or twelve thousand. What arrangements
were made for the dieting of all these? Where were the storehouses, the
kitchen and the “deipneterion,” or dining-room, if any such existed?

Probably the diet of the poorer patients may have consisted largely of
the barley-meal paste, the “maza” eaten with certain inexpensive
vegetables. This would require little preparation. Among the well-to-do
patients, however, who were numerous, the meals would be more formal and
would need more care in preparation. In early times the “ariston” formed
the breakfast, and was eaten at sunrise. In later times this meal was
moved on to the middle of the day, and the “acratisma,” consisting
merely of bread dipped in unmixed wine, was eaten at an early hour. The
mid-day meal in later times consisted of various warm dishes needing the
art of the cook, and the principal meal, the “deipnon,” which was still
more elaborate, was just before sunset. Where the preparation and the
consumption of these meals took place it is difficult to say.

The lower story of the western abaton may have been a storehouse, or
possibly a kitchen. It must be remembered that the main part of the
flesh of the animals presented for sacrifice was used for food. In
general only the thigh bones, the entrails and some of the fat, was
consumed on the altar, the remainder was eaten by priests, votaries, or
attendants. In the case of the bloodless offerings, the cakes, fruit,
grain, milk, wine, honey, &c., a large part also was used as food. A
rule existed at Epidauros that all should be consumed within the
precinct.

The so-called “Square building” marked _K_ in the plan, may have been
the scene both of minor sacrifices and of the consumption of the
unsacrificed remnants. I have suggested above that this building might
be a hostel, and the large quantities of ash, of bones, and of fragments
of bronze and earthenware vessels found there to some extent support
this hypothesis, and the idea that it was employed for the sacrificial
banquets.

Among the hundreds of inscriptions found I have thus far only mentioned
one class—namely, those referring to cures. There are, in addition, no
fewer than thirteen other kinds of inscriptions; for example, the great
poem of Isyllos, describing the genealogy and miracles of Asklepios,
written by command of the oracle of Delphi. This has been edited and
commented on in a most scholarly manner by Prof. von
Wilamowitz-Möllendorff.

Many of the inscriptions are in honour of individual priests,
pyrophoroi, hieromnemones, or of distinguished Greeks unconnected with
the sanctuaries; for example there was found, in association with a
headless statue, the inscription shown below.

Plate XXXII. The upper four lines of the inscription are in the Dorian
dialect, the remainder in the Ionian. The former is the dedication of
the statue by the Epidaurians to a historian previously unknown to the
classical student, a certain Philippos of Pergamos. The lower Ionic
fragment is probably a quotation (the only one known to exist) from his
writings.

    [Illustration: PLATE XXXII—Dedication of Statue to Philippos
    (Cavvadias)]

Supplying the lost words or letters the inscription runs as follows:—

  ἄνθετο µὲν µ’ Ἐπίδαυρος Ἀριστείδαο Φίλιππον
  Περγάµοθεν θείας κοίρανον ἱστορίας
  ἀγλάϊσαν δ’ Ἕλλανες ἐπεὶ πολεµογράφον αὐδὰν
  ἔκλαγον ἁµερίων κόσµον ἐπερχόµενος.

                                 * * * * *

  ἐγὼ παντοίων παθέων καὶ συνεχέος ἀλλη-
  -λοφονίης ἀνά τε τὴν Ἀσίην καὶ τὴν Εὐρώ-
  -πην καὶ τὰ Λιβύων ἔθνεα καὶ νησιωτέων
  πόλιας καθ’ ἡµέας γεγενηµένων ὁσίῃ
  χειρὶ τὴν περὶ τῶν καινῶν πρήξεων ἱσ-
  -τορίην ἐξήνεγκα ἐς τοὺς Ἕλληνας
  ὅκως καὶ δι’ ἡµέων µανθάνοντες ὁκό-
  -σα δηµοκοπίη καὶ κερδέων ἀµ[ετρίαι]
  καὶ στάσιες ἐµφύλιοι καὶ πιστὶω[ν]
  καταλύσιες γεννῶσιν κακὰ παρὰ [τῇ]
  ῥήσει παθέων ἀλλοτρίων ἀπενθή[τως]
  ποιέωνται τὰς τοῦ βίου διορθώσιας.

                            English Version.

  “Set up in stone by Epidauros see,
  A peerless scribe of god-like history,
  Philip, the son of Aristeidas, come
  Unto this holy place from Pergamum:
  War was too long the theme of Greece; my pen
  Shrilled to ensue a peace for mortal men.

                                 * * * * *

  “All sorts of suffering and endless bloodshed having taken place
  recently throughout Asia, Europe, the Libyan hordes, the island
  cities, I publish to the Greek world, without breach of trust, a
  ‘History of our own Times,’ in order that my countrymen may learn, by
  my means, what hosts of evils arise from political charlatanry and
  financial greed, quarrels in a nation, and acts of treachery, and so,
  by the recital of other people’s miseries, may, without pain or grief
  to themselves, put their own lives in order, as occasions arise.”

It is somewhat interesting to find the Boule of Epidauros thus doing
special honour to a historian, and at the same time warning the Greek
people against those political faults to which the nation was specially
prone. The governing bodies of our health resorts do not show so
large-minded an appreciation of letters or of political morals.[6]

A number of the later inscriptions are in honour of distinguished
Romans.

There are numerous inscriptions regarding laws, or judicial decrees.
Others, again, refer to the contests of the Stadium, while another and
especially voluminous class relates to the construction of the temples
and other buildings. In addition to the names of the architects and
contractors, and the sums paid, these records contain many interesting
details, _e.g._, the statement that the pediment groups and acroteria on
the temple of Asklepios were cut in marble by Hektoridas and another
artificer, from models designed by the great sculptor Timotheus, the
artist who, along with Scopas, designed parts of the mausoleum of
Halicarnassus.

The minute details concerning the building of the Tholos, the amounts
paid for marble and other materials, the names of architects and
contractors, the report of the commissioners who inspected the work, and
who formed a sort of lay buildings committee; their journeys to Athens,
Corinth, Megara, and other places in quest of material, workmen, etc.,
the exact sums expended on these journeys, and other details, are
curious and interesting. One can only regret that no hint is given of
the use and purpose of the building on which so much care and thought
were expended.

I might occupy much time in showing and describing the scores of
sculptured votive tablets which have been recovered. In most, of course,
the figure of Asklepios has been destroyed or damaged by the
iconoclastic zeal of the early Christian.

    [Illustration: PLATE XXXIII—Group of Suppliants approaching
    Asklepios and his Family[7]]

In Plate XXXIII an almost uninjured example is shown. A group of four
suppliants with their children approach the god, who leans on his staff
with entwining serpent. Behind Asklepios is seen the head of (probably)
his wife Epione, then come Machaon and Podalirius, his sons, then,
probably Hygieia, Panakeia, and Iaso, his daughters. The whole Asklepian
family are of heroic stature.

Every fourth year a great festival was held at the Hieron, the Megala
Asklepieia, at which athletic contests, races, processions, music, plays
in the theatre, holy (perhaps also unholy) vigils, lasting all night
(especially if the Thracian Kotyttia were enacted in the portico of
Kotys), gorgeous rites, sacrifices, decoration of the temples and
precincts, together with feasts, took place. Most probably the priests
would arrange for the performance of a few miracles. Other festivals
were also held, as the Megala Apolloneia.

On these occasions, if not at other times, doubtless every seat in the
theatre, stadium, and hippodrome would be filled, mostly by sound and
healthy visitors, coming, as I have suggested above, partly to enjoy a
holiday, partly to witness athletic exercises, which interested them
quite as much as important cricket, football, or rowing contests
interest us, and partly to do honour to the god whose aid they might
need when the days of sickness or old age should come.

                            * * * * * * * *

Lastly, there is a link which, though of no practical import, is still a
genuine historic bond connecting the Hieron of Epidauros with the
medicine of Western Europe. Three centuries B.C. Rome was visited by
dire pestilence. The rulers of Rome, having in vain endeavoured to check
it, sought the counsel of the Sybilline books, and were directed to
bring Asklepios to Rome from Epidauros. A galley was sent to the Saronic
Gulf, and a mission visited the Hieron, bringing back to the ship one of
the sacred serpents. The galley returned, entered the Tiber, approached
Rome, and as it touched the insula in the Tiber the sacred serpent at
once left the ship and found a refuge on the island. From that moment
the plague is said to have rapidly disappeared.

In gratitude to the god, who was thus visibly among them in serpent
form, the south end of the island—probably, indeed, the whole of the
island—was modelled into the shape of a great galley of hewn stone. A
temple of Æsculapius (as the Romans called him) was built at the
southern end, with portico and abaton. A well existing there became
sacred to Æsculapius, and from that day to this the island in the Tiber
has, through pagan and Christian times alike, been devoted to the cure
and treatment of the sick. The stern of the stone galley still exists,
with the effigy of the serpent and remains of the image of Æsculapius.
The Church of St. Bartholomew stands on the site of the temple, and on
or near the spot where stood the ancient abaton now stands a hospital
served by the Brotherhood of San Juan de Dios, the benevolent saint of
Granada, where the sick folk of Rome are helped and tended; and there,
unlike their predecessors of 2,200 years ago, if illness should
terminate in death, the poor weary souls are kindly and tenderly
ministered to by priest, physician, and nurse, until they sink into the
last sleep.

                            * * * * * * * *

It is doubtless in consequence of this episode of the founding of a
temple of Æsculapius on the island of the Tiber that the staff and
serpent of the Epidaurian god have been, and remain to this day, the
symbol of the profession of Medicine.

    [Illustration: Staff and Serpent]

               Ο ΒΙΟΣ ΒΡΑΧΥΣ Η ΤΕΧΝΗ ΜΑΚΡΗ Ο ΚΑΙΡΟΣ ΟΞΥΣ
     —“Life is short, the art is long, the opportunity is fleeting”




                          LIST OF AUTHORITIES


Baunack (J.) Aus Epidauros
                                                                    1890

—— (Ἐφηµερίς, 1884)
                                                                    1884

—— Studien

—— Zu den Inschriften aus Epidauros (_Philologus_, 54)
                                                                    1895

Blinkenberg (C.) Asklepios og hans Frænder

—— Inscriptions d’Epidaure (_Nordisk Tidsskrift for Filologi og
      Pædagogik_, 1895)
                                                  8^o., Copenhagen, 1895

Brunn ( .) Der Thron des Asklepios zu Epidauros (_Sitzungsb. der
      philosoph. philolog. u. histor. Classe d. k. b. Akad. der
      Wissensch. zu München_, 1872)
                                                     8^o., München, 1872

Cavvadias (P.) Δελτίον ἀρχαιολογικόν, 1891

—— Ἐφηµερὶς Ἀρχαιολογική, 1894

—— Fouilles d’Epidaure, vol. i.
                                                      fo., Athènes, 1893

—— Τὸ ἱερὸν τοῦ Ἀσκληπιοῦ ἐν Ἐπιδαύρῳ καὶ ἡ θεραπεία τῶν ἀσθενῶν.
                                                     8^o., Athènes, 1900

—— Inscriptions d’Epidaure (Ἐφηµερὶς Ἀρχαιολογική, 1883, 1886)
                                                  4^o., Athènes, 1883-86

—— Monuments d’Epidaure (Ἐφηµερὶς Ἀρχαιολογική, 1884-85)

—— Πρακτικὰ τῆς Ἀρχαιολ. Ἑταιρὶας 1881-82-83-84, etc.

—— Rapports sur les fouilles d’Epidaure (_Praktika_, 1881-85)

Chipiez (C.) (_Revue Archéologique_), 1896

Christ (W. von) Das Theater des Polyklet in Epidauros (_Sitzungsb. der
      philosoph. philolog. u. histor. Classe d. k. b. Akad. der
      Wissensch. zu München_, 1894.)
                                                     8^o., München, 1894

Defrasse (A.) and Lechat (H.) Epidaure
                                                        fo., Paris, 1895

—— Notes sur Epidaure (_Bulletin de Corresp. Hellénique_, 1890)

Diehl (K.) Excursions archéologiques en Grèce
                                                                    1890

—— (_Athenische Mittheilungen_, 1893)

—— (_Berliner Philolog. Wochenschrift_, 1890)

Doerpfeld (W.) Der Rundbau in Epidauros (_Antike Denkmäler_, Bd. II,
      Heft I)
                                                       fo., Berlin, 1893

Dumon (K.) Le théâtre de Polyclite
                                                       4^o., Paris, 1889

Foucart (P.) (_Bulletin de Corresp. Hellénique_, 14)
                                                                    1890

—— Sur les sculptures et la date de quelques edifices d’Epidaure

Furtwaengler (A.) Epidauros (_Berliner Philolog. Wochenschrift_, 1888)

Gaidoz (H.) A propos des chiens d’Epidaure (_Revue Archéologique, 3^e
      série_, 4)

Ganneau (C.) Esculape et le chien (_Revue Archéologique_, 1884)

Gardner (P.) New chapters in Greek history
                                                       8^o., Lond., 1892

Girard (P.) L’Asklépieion d’Athènes d’après de récentes découvertes
                                                                    1881

Herlich (S.) Epidaurus, eine Heilstätte
                                                                    1898

Herold ( .) (_Zeitschrift für Bauwesen_, 1893)

Kjellberg (L.) Asklepios. Mythologisch-archäologische Studien (_Särtryck
      ur Sprâkvetensk. Sällsk. förhandl._ 1894-97)

Koehler (G.) (_Athenische Mittheilungen_, 1877)

Koepp (F.) (_Athenische Mittheilungen_, 1885)

Merriam (A. C.) Dogs of Æsculapius (_American Antiquarian_, vol. 7)
                                                           Chicago, 1885

—— Marvellous cures at Epidauros (_American Antiquarian_, vol. 6)
                                                           Chicago, 1884

Panofka (T.) Asklepios und die Asklepiaden (_Abh. d. Berl. Akad._, 1845)

Pausanius, _Periegetes_. Description of Greece, trans. with a commentary
      by J. G. Frazer
                                              6 voll.; 8^o., Lond., 1898

—— Mythology and monuments of ancient Athens, being a trans. of the
      _Attica_ of Pausanias by M. de Verrall, with intro. by J. E.
      Harrison
                                                       8^o., Lond., 1890

Petersen (C.) Athenastatuen von Epidauros (_Mitth._, vol. xi)

Reinach (S.) Les chiens dans le culte d’Esculape (_Revue Archéologique_,
      1884)

—— Chronique d’Orient (_Revue Archéologique_, 1884)

—— La seconde stèle des guérisons miraculeuses (_Revue Archéologique_,
      1885)

Staïs (V.) Ἐφηµερίς. 1892

—— Monuments d’Epidaure (Ἐφηµερὶς Ἀρχαιολογική, 1886)

Vercoutre ( .) (_Revue Archéologique_, 1884-85)

Walton (A.) The cult of Asklepios (_Cornell Studies_, No. III)

Wilamowitz-Möllendorff (U. von) Isyllus von Epidaurus




                               Footnotes


[1]About one-third of the lantern slides are here reproduced.

[2]Montfaucon (L’Antiq. Explic. 1 ii 289) quotes a curious story to the
    effect that Dionysios, the Tyrant of Syracuse, visiting Epidauros,
    stole the massive golden beard from the figure of the god. He
    excused the theft on the ground that it was unseemly for Asklepios
    to wear a beard when his father Apollo had none!

[3]Lib. II cap. xxvii § 1.

[4]Lib. II cap. xxvii § 5.

[5]_Modern Painters_, V, Part ix, Ch. 5, § 3.

[6]An American friend suggests another explanation, viz., that the
    statue, although “set up by Epidauros,” was paid for and the
    inscription inspired by Philippos of Pergamos himself. Though St.
    John, in the Apocalypse (II. 13) speaks unfavourably of that city
    ὅπου ὁ Σατανᾶς κατοικεῖ one feels unwilling to accuse one of its
    inhabitants of so astute a form of advertising.

[7]This slab has accidentally been reversed in the process of
    reproduction.




                          Transcriber’s Notes


—Silently corrected a few typos.

—Retained publication information from the printed edition: this eBook
  is public-domain in the country of publication.

—In the text versions only, text in italics is delimited by
  _underscores_.