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TRENCH WARFARE




  TRENCH
  WARFARE

  A MANUAL FOR OFFICERS AND MEN

  BY
  J. S. SMITH

  SECOND LIEUTENANT WITH THE BRITISH
  EXPEDITIONARY FORCE


  [Illustration]


  NEW YORK
  E. P. DUTTON & CO.
  681 FIFTH AVENUE




  COPYRIGHT, 1917,
  BY E. P. DUTTON & CO.


  Printed in the United States of America




  TO
  THE AMERICAN OFFICERS AND MEN
  WHO SERVED AND
  ARE SERVING THEIR COUNTRY
  UNDER ALIEN FLAGS




INTRODUCTION


It is a safe bet that when the German army started for Paris they had
plans for use in the event of disaster. The disaster occurred, and a
new type of warfare requiring the highest courage, skill and endurance
was born. I say born because although trench warfare was known before,
it died in birth compared to this war, for the amount of science,
energy and variety of weapons used.

More earth has been removed by a combination of man, pick and shovel
in making these trenches than was excavated to make the Panama Canal
possible, and in less time.

It is my object in this book to give a faint idea and knowledge of the
trenches, and to approximately explain the way warfare is carried on,
and I offer the information contained herein as a basic foundation on
which to use the further knowledge you will gain as an officer, and
which, for obvious reasons, I will not and cannot give here.

The notes are all taken from different courses of instruction, and
observations made during thirty-one months of service, fifteen of which
was spent on the Belgian and French fronts, both as private and officer
in the infantry service.

I do not lay down my information as expert and final by any means,
but as trench warfare changes from day to day, improvements are made,
old ideas discarded, new ones tried, it can be seen that nothing can
be laid down as a cut and dried rule, but the principles of trench
building, generally speaking, remain the same. This I have endeavored
to give, along with a few other notes which will give an idea of the
many and varied tasks that a second lieutenant must know before he is
fit to take hold of men in a place such as the Western Front, where
there is very seldom a chance to rectify mistakes, or to experiment
more than once.

When the British and French armies started their retreat from Mons, as
far as the British army was concerned they were hampered by their want
of knowledge of trench warfare as used in the South African war. The
men retired day by day, hardly staying in one place long enough to dig
themselves in. At that time for digging a trench system, one valuable
lesson was learned, and that was, that the hole such as they had been
taught to make in just such circumstances as they were up against then
was no good, as it offered them no protection from overhead shrapnel,
and at the best of times made a very poor shelter. This hole used to be
dug a little more than the width of a man and straight back his full
length, he naturally throwing the dirt in front of him and thus making
a little parapet.

When the battle of the Marne commenced and the British and the French
drove forward, this valuable lesson and many others had been learned,
so that when the armies had reached the limits of their endurance,
instead of digging themselves in in the old style, a new system was
used, greatly assisted by shell fire.

A round hole was dug by each man to fit his individual size and made
to suit himself. Here he squatted and fought, if necessary, and got
what rest was possible during that day, with the enemies’ line at
distances varying from 100 to 500 yards from him. During the night,
these men when not fighting or bothered by counter-attacks, or trying
to obtain rations, water and the many necessaries that a fighting man
requires, deepened their shelters and joined them together by little
narrow ditches. During the next day there might be bitter fighting,
so it would be even possible that other troops would come up and
relieve during the early dusk. The relieved troops would retire a short
distance and dig themselves another row of little holes where they
might act as supports in case the temporary front line gave. During
that night the holes on the front line would be enlarged until they
finally joined and gradually without deliberate intention the trench
became a permanent feature. Then the line slightly in the rear became
connected with the front line system by what were then nothing more or
less than ditches and this was the birth of the present system which
now stretches from the sea to Switzerland.

The trench systems now generally consist of three complete lines or
systems of trenches, each system being self-supporting and independent
of the other. The second and third systems are generally laid with
due consideration to protection, fields of fire, and all the other
tactical requirements that are necessary to such a system; it being
impossible in the majority of cases to keep these points in mind during
the building of the first or original line. These systems generally run
to a depth of six to eight miles from the front firing line. They are
so constructed that when a firing line has been broken through to any
great extent, what was formerly a communication trench at once becomes
a fire trench, and serves to bring a heavy enfilade fire on the troops
occupying the captured area.

It must be remembered that the considerations, arguments, and notes
laid down in this book cannot, under stress of circumstances, always be
acted on. It will be found, however, that a certain amount of training
and of study as to the conditions governing the sighting, building, and
living in these trenches, will cause a man, even under great stress
of excitement, to look for and try to obtain the ideal as a matter of
habit and without giving much time and thought to the question.

The Art of War is “the greatest amount of common sense used in the
shortest possible time.”

                                                  J. S. S.




EDITOR’S NOTE


Mr. J. S. Smith, the author of this book, is an American, born in
Philadelphia, who enlisted in the 29th Vancouver Battalion in the fall
of 1914. He saw service along the Belgian front, and in August 1916 was
given a commission in the British Army. He is now (June, 1917) serving
with the British Expeditionary Force on the French front.




CONTENTS


                                                                    PAGE

  INTRODUCTION                                                       vii

  LOCATION AND CONSTRUCTION OF TRENCHES                                1

  DUGOUTS                                                             19

  RESISTANCE OF ROOFING MATERIALS                                     24

  DUMPS                                                               25

  LATRINES                                                            27

  REVETMENTS                                                          28

    Sand Bags                                                         29

    Corrugated Iron                                                   32

    Fire Platforms                                                    34

  TRAVERSES                                                           36

  LISTENING POSTS                                                     38

  OBSERVATION POSTS                                                   43

    Loopholes for firing                                              43

  SUPPORT TRENCHES AND SUPPORT DUGOUTS                                45

  SUPPORT POINTS                                                      46

  RESERVE DUGOUTS                                                     47

  SECOND LINE                                                         47

  COMMUNICATION TRENCHES                                              48

  SKETCH OF TRENCH SYSTEM                                             56

    Section I                                                         56

    Section II                                                        58

    Section III                                                       63

    Section IV                                                        67

  TELEPHONE LINES                                                     68

  RECESSES                                                            69

  NOTICE BOARDS                                                       70

  TRENCH DRAINAGE                                                     72

  FLOORBOARDS                                                         77

  BRUSHWOOD AND STRAW                                                 79

  WORKING PARTIES                                                     80

  RELIEFS                                                             81

  TRAVERSED FIRE TRENCHES                                             83

  OBSTACLES AND ENTANGLEMENTS                                         84

  LOW WIRE ENTANGLEMENTS                                              85

  HIGH WIRE ENTANGLEMENTS                                             86

  ABATIS                                                              88

  BARRICADES                                                          88

  INUNDATIONS                                                         89

  FOUGASSES                                                           89

  ORGANIZATION OF BOMBING SQUADS                                      90

  TRAINING                                                            91

  EXPLOSIVES                                                         101

  BOMBS                                                              103

    PERCUSSION BOMBS

        Hand Grenade No. 1                                           103

        Hand Grenade No. 2                                           105

        Rifle Grenade No. 3                                          105

    IGNITION BOMBS

        Hand Grenade Nos. 6 and 7                                    107

        Hand Grenade Nos. 8 and 9                                    108

        Pitcher Hand Grenade                                         108

        Oval Hand Grenade                                            110

        Ball Hand Grenade                                            110

        Jam-pot Bombs                                                110

    MECHANICAL BOMBS

        Hand Grenade No. 5 or Mills’ Grenade                         111

  GAS WARFARE                                                        113

    Tear Shells                                                      116

  GAS MASKS OR RESPIRATORS                                           119

  DUTIES OF A PLATOON COMMANDER AT THE FRONT                         121

  GOING INTO THE TRENCHES                                            122

  IN THE FIRING LINE                                                 123

  OBSERVATION                                                        125

    Inspection                                                       126

  SENTRIES                                                           127

  RIFLES                                                             128

  PREPARATORY TO ENTERING TRENCHES                                   130

  TAKING OVER TRENCHES                                               131

  SNIPING                                                            131

  PATROLS                                                            132

  DUTIES OF AN OFFICER                                               134

  HOW TO FIRE A MACHINE GUN IN CASE OF EMERGENCY                     140

    Lewis Gun                                                        141

    Vicker’s Automatic                                               141

    Stoppages                                                        142

  PREVENTION OF FROST BITES AND TRENCH FEET                          142




TRENCH WARFARE




LOCATION AND CONSTRUCTION OF TRENCHES


In locating the site for a defensive firing line, it must be divided
into three sections:--firing line, immediate support and reserves. In
doing this several opposing factors should be taken into consideration
and their relative importance judged according to the special
circumstances and objects in view, keeping in mind the probable lines
and manner of defense of the enemy, and whether the trenches are for
permanent or for temporary use.

This may be summarized under two heads: first, with the object of
attaining the greatest field that can be covered by defensive fire;
and, second, the greatest security from offensive fire.

It will even be found that these two constructions will be in conflict.
Trenches placed behind the crest of a hill, say fifty to one hundred
and fifty yards from the top, will hamper the accuracy of the enemy’s
artillery fire. Shooting, to be effective, calls for a high rate of
accuracy, and here the only observations possible are from aircraft
and balloons; but the enemy side of the hill will be raised ground to
the occupants of the trench. At night large numbers of the enemy could
collect there, and the dangerous space to them would merely be the
distance from your fire trench to the crest of the hill.

The enemy could and would entrench themselves on their side of the
crest and by raising their parapet enjoy the advantage of a higher
front, which would eventually lead to their entirely controlling the
area behind your trenches, which are continually used by the relief and
fatigue parties.

It is a principle that grazing rifle fire upon a defensive enemy is
more effective than plunging fire, but any entrenched position higher
than your own held by an enemy gives them a tremendous advantage.
Regardless of what opinion may be held as to the maximum depth of a
field of fire required to meet or repel attacks, whether in masse
or open order, it should be obvious that the greater the depth of
the field of fire and the more extensive the view of the enemy’s
operations, the better it will be for the defending forces.

Protection from and localization of artillery fire must be provided by
the internal construction of the trench rather than by a position that
protects but also restricts the field of fire. There are frequently
found in front of a firing line small areas of ground which are not
covered by direct fire from your trench. A flanking fire frequently
can cover these areas, but in spite of this, they must be watched
constantly by means of listening posts or concealed observation posts,
which may be hidden by the banks of rivers, hedges, ruined houses, or
whatever natural existing concealment renders observation possible.

At night, it is a safe principle to support listening posts by
automatic rifles, trip wires with noise making arrangements attached
to them as common sense under the circumstances dictates. Great care
and caution must always be taken to prevent the discovery of these
listening posts by the enemy, and when discovered, alternative posts
should be made or greater care taken for the protection of the men
occupying these posts, such as overhead protection by mesh wire against
bombing, and the upkeep of a small supply of bombs and close-range
weapons in the post. The important trenches on the front having been
located with a view of protecting the immediate front and with due
regard to their relation, tactically, to the other trenches already
located, the connecting trenches obviously must be subservient to the
more important ones. Every endeavor must be made to avoid enfilade
fires in the flanks, to give and to receive mutual support, and in
particular to support those flanks which are not protected otherwise.

It is an essential consideration in the location of all these trenches
that lateral communications can be established, and that supplies,
supports, reserves, ammunition, etc., together with the means of
retiring if necessary be taken into account. The distance from the
water supplies and the possibility of concealing approaches is a
further governing factor, although in many cases an ideal condition
cannot be realized.

Then there is the counter attack, in case the fire trench should be
taken, and the kind of soil which is so essential to its relation to
bad weather and water seepage--these also require thought and study.

These things are main considerations to be kept in mind after a line
has been settled on, whether during attack or whether siting trenches
under common circumstances. It is not expected and is not necessary,
when trying to obtain a position during attack, to keep all of these
conditions in mind, but it is essential that when the attack has been
finished and things return to slightly more normal circumstances, that
these things be given instant consideration and proper action taken.

Were such a thing as concealment possible, it should be the first
thing of importance to be kept in mind. Listening posts, machine
gun positions, reserve dugouts, company, battalion and regimental
headquarters, and similar things, at some distance behind or on fire
lines, may be concealed, but fire-trenches are sure to be observed
sooner or later (mostly sooner) by aeroplane and other means of
observation, and it is best that one should admit the impracticability
of concealment at once and take the proper protective measures. If
opportunity for concealment offers itself, as it may do, according to
the lay of the land, it should be taken always. It should always be
kept in mind that one should try to place himself in the position of
having the enemy’s point of view, both from his trenches and his aerial
observations.

Advantage should be taken and even care given along trenches to the
extensive cultivation of the weeds, grasses, etc., that may grow
rapidly in the excavated soil.

It is, and always will be, a matter of much argument that trenches
should not be dug near hedges, ditches, roads or rows of trees, on
account of easy ranging mark given to the enemy artillery. In a country
where such things are scarce, the idea may have a leg to stand on, but
certainly to the Western Front it does not apply. It does not take
artillery a moment to approximate by ranging shot, check by deduction
or addition the range of trenches in any area, even if lying along
a hedge or road. The ditch or hedge in some cases will provide the
starting of a trench and offer fair amount of cover from fire to the
troops working. A ditch immediately in front or behind the trench
greatly helps to solve the many and varied difficulties of drainage,
and when in front of a trench, can be made into a formidable obstacle,
generally by throwing in varied lengths of barbed wire. Trenches under
the cover of a hedge are very often safe from aerial observation, and
even when located, sniping and observation can be carried on from them
if the contours of the ground are favorable. It is always possible
to do a certain amount of repairing and moving of troops only when
unobserved from the enemy’s trenches. If advantage is not taken of
these natural protections, such as hedges and trees, then they must be
destroyed.

It is obvious that a great deal of labor can be lost and work thrown
away if a policy is not adopted and continued. Battalions relieving one
another up and down the line may waste a tremendous amount of labor
unless the relieved officer’s policy is explained. If each commanding
officer of a relieving battalion is permitted to air his own theories,
duplication of work and lack of continuity will exist. Therefore, it is
essential that the officers relieving the trench be thoroughly informed
of work going on. With this object in view some of the officers of the
relieving battalion should do a tour of duty (about 24 hours) before
their troops take over the trench. An Officer and Non-Commissioned
Officer are detailed from each relieving company for this duty. In the
trench this officer is instructed by the senior officer present, and
the non-commissioned officer by the ranking non-commissioned officer,
in the policy to be continued. The commanding officer of the occupying
company should have a sketch map of his sector of trench which he
turns over to the relieving officer. This map should show the work
under construction; proposed work; wire defenses; and if possible, the
enemies machine gun emplacements, observation posts, snipers and work
in progress. The notes accompanying the map should give the general
conditions concerning the work--depth to which it is safe to dig,
nature of soil, conditions regarding drainage, and all information in
regard to the enemies’ activities during the period of occupancy. In
addition, the relieving officer has the trench diary showing all the
information covering every minute detail of the happenings during that
company’s stay in the trenches. This diary is a continuous record of
that particular sector and remains with the occupying company until
it is relieved and then passes into the possession of the relieving
half company, and so on, forming a continuous running record of the
policy applying to the upkeep and methods employed therein. This diary,
unless it is buried to avoid falling into the hands of the enemy, will
continue until the end of the war. So every half company inherits one
from his predecessor in the line upon its assuming the obligations
previously assumed by its fore-runner, thus preventing a duplication of
work and assuring continuity of endeavor.

There are certain obvious requirements that have to become rules. When
required to fill sandbags, always look for the nearest excavation
being made and fill from there, if distance permits.

As a matter of fact, in every trench there is a continuous revetting,
widening of communications or control trenches, or driving of a tunnel
to a listening post.

[Illustration: _A--Parapet Traverse_

_B--Parados Traverse_

_TRAVERSED & RECESSED TRENCH._]

Inasmuch as the time for filling sandbags is never ending, if work
is being done and the earth is not absolutely needed for parapet
or parados, the earth, if dry, should be put in sandbags, and, if
necessary, stored until it is needed. The repair work that is most
necessary takes precedent and is about as follows: Any damage to
parados or traverses should be immediately attended to. During the
night any damage to the wire entanglements must be repaired. Drainage
comes next in order of importance, and this involves the digging of
sumps and deepening of the drainage bottom. These are the repairs, but
improvements must continually be made in the dugouts and communication
trenches.

The ultimate design of a fire-trench depends upon its closeness
to the enemy. When the latter are within 150 yards, the traversed
fire-trench shown in sketch should be employed, as it provides adequate
accommodation and protection for men who may at any moment be called
upon to make use of bomb, bayonet and bullet; but if the enemy trenches
are more than 150 yards distant, the ultimate design would depend upon
the number of machine guns and automatic rifles available. Each of
these guns has a firing capacity of about 25 rifles. Each gun therefore
gives a reduction in the number of men required to hold the line, and
in consequence reduces the amount of trench needed to protect these men.

A design, known as the “T” shaped fire-trench, makes an adaptable basis
for entrenching under these conditions. Many lengths of a continuous
traversed trench have no great field of fire, and yet, having been dug,
they must be held, and unless properly held and kept in repair, they
naturally become a source of danger.

As shown in the sketch, a traversed trench consists of a series of
fire-bays interrupted by a series of traverses. The object of these
being to localize the effect of shells or bombs landing in a fire-bay,
and preventing enfilade fire down the length of the trench, as well as
localizing any entry of the enemy into your line.

Dimensions vary up and down the line. Sometimes according to the lay
of the land, sometimes according to the opinions, whims or fancies of
the regiments making them, but the following dimensions should be kept
in mind, and it will be found that they show the average of the whole
general line on the Western Front.

Fire-bays generally are from 12 to 18 feet long (defendable by 4 to 6
men, but accommodating 8 to 12, when necessary) plus a 2-ft. covered
sentry box recessed into the traverse and giving room for one more
man; this depending entirely on the energy and initiative of the men
occupying the section.

Every traverse averages 9´ x 9´ which includes a fairly liberal
allowance for wear and tear, and is the minimum allowance for stopping
enfilade fire and localizing fire. As the width from front to rear
varies, depending on the amount of shell fire, it should be wide
enough to allow a certain amount of lateral traffic without interfering
with those who may be firing. Three feet may be taken as the maximum
width at the bottom of the trench, that is, 1½´ for traffic and 1½´
for those firing, with a slope to the sides of from 10 to 15 degrees
from perpendicular, thus lessening the tendency of the walls, whether
revetted or otherwise, to slide in.

The depth of the trenches varies also, for the same reasons that cause
the width to vary. Recesses should also be dug at various and favorable
places for the storing of ammunition and bombs.

When digging entrenchments without regard to concealment, the excavated
soil is first of all thrown to the front or enemy’s side of the trench,
thus temporary cover is obtained. When the entrenchment has reached
the proper depth the artificial raising of the ground is leveled. The
artificially raised portion is known as the parapet. On the completion
of the parapet, the soil is thrown to the rear side of the trench, thus
forming the parados which gives a protection from the rear. It is not a
good policy to excavate in front of the parapet, but to get additional
height and thickness as quickly as possible this is often done. Unless
carefully watched, men will dig this dirt from places as near the
parapet as possible, resulting in the weakening or total undermining
of the parapet or trench wall. The more gradual the forward slope of
the parapet, the more does it approximate as it should to the glacis
of a fort, consequently giving less cover to an attacking enemy. Make
use of the ditch or holes from which the dirt was obtained, as a strong
obstacle immediately in front of your trench, where the enemy at the
last moment may be held up to go under a very severe rifle and bombing
effort. In normal circumstances, by which I mean when not exposed to
an unduly vigorous machine gun or artillery fire, the soil should not
be taken from in front of the trench in the manner described above,
closer than 10 to 15 feet from the actual parapet, unless the holes are
adequately protected by trip wire, as well as barbed wire. Cases have
occurred when valuable information has been obtained by the enemy lying
in holes thus dug and not properly protected.

The parapet should be kept as low as possible and made to blend with
its surroundings as much as possible. This is done by taking great care
to cover any signs which show that fresh work has been done, even to
the extent of actually planting grasses, weeds and roots, such as grow
in the immediate neighborhood, and giving every encouragement to those
that already grow. This greatly hinders the enemy’s artillery, as it
changes positions up and down the line; interfering with and hindering
the observations and accurate ranging by their forward observing
officers, checking charts turned over by relieved batteries.

Bullet-proof nature of a parapet naturally depends on the soil of which
it is composed. Although it is not necessary to memorize the minimum
of safety, you should keep a general rule in your head. The parapet
should not be less than five feet, regardless of the kind of soil. When
the trench has been carefully sited for the actual field of fire from
a ground level, this thickness is best obtained by raising the ground
level artificially as little as possible and getting the necessary
depth by digging, unless prevented by moisture.

Unnecessary casualties are caused by the practice of putting a single
row of sand bags along the top of a parapet for temporary purposes of
concealment, as it gives a faulty idea to the men in the trench as to
the real height of the parapet.

The parados gives protection from the effect of shell fire bursting
behind the trench, and should be made fire-proof as soon as possible,
although it is not necessary unless concealment is possible to level it
down in a similar manner to the parapet. As a matter of fact, it should
be at least a foot higher than the parapet, thus providing a background
for the parapet. It has been known to happen that when the occupants of
a trench have been reached by the enemy they have vacated their trench
and used the parados as a parapet, much to the surprise and disgust of
the enemy. In a high and irregular parados, places could even be found
which when not used steadily provide unexpected and safe observation
and sniping posts, but care must be taken that they are not used too
often.

If a trench were used merely for firing, 4½ feet from bottom of trench
to top of parapet would be a sufficient depth. During attack, however,
when fire from loopholes is too restricted, exposure of head and
shoulders over the parapet becomes necessary, but it is not necessary
to expose men moving along the trench and not actually firing. If the
trench should be 7´ or 8´ deep, you must provide a platform at the
bottom of the front wall 1¼´ wide and 4½´ from the top of the parapet.
This is called a fire-step. The rest of the trench can be deepened
to any desired depth, depending on the energy displayed. If of an
extraordinary depth, steps must be cut to the fire platform.

In a great many different parts of the Western Front, especially
Belgium, it was found that after digging to a depth of one to three
feet water was encountered to such an extent that it became impossible
to dig any sort of a trench which would give adequate protection to the
men involved.

[Illustration: _FIRE TRENCH._

_LINK TRENCH._

_SUPERVISION TRENCH._]

When these conditions are run into, breast work parapets must be
artificially built up above ground level with soil, sods and sandbags,
supported by sandbags, hurdles or close wire netting, revetment and
stakes. The same principles of thickness, depth, width, slopes, and
in fact everything that applies to a dug-in trench, applies to breast
works.

[Illustration: _A--Link Trench, minimum length 5 ft._

_“S” & “T” TRENCH._]

The “T” trench has many more advantages than the few mentioned in the
opening of this chapter. T fire-bays may be single, double or treble
(that is with one, two or three bays). Fire-bays in any length up to
15 feet with 8 feet traverses are for firing purposes only, and the
control trench, sometimes known as the lateral communication trench,
as its name implies, giving lateral communications, is used for that
purpose only. Therefore, the fire-bays and control trenches can be
narrower than trenches which have to be used for both purposes, thus
lessening the amount of repair and revetment work required. And the
intervening ground between these fire-bays gives the same result as
a traverse used in a traversed trench system, and saves the labor of
digging a more intricate system. The control trench gives an officer
or N. C. O. in charge of the T bays a chance to handle his men and
fire in these bays without struggling around innumerable traverses and
wasting time very often when a minute lost or gained means lives lost,
or part of a trench system in the hands of the enemy.

T bays may be sited with due and careful consideration while facing the
enemy in an existing trench system. Thus it gives you the advantage
of being able to take into consideration all the requirements of the
field of fire, control of isolated areas, and the obtaining of maximum
results from enfilade fire. These T trenches may be dug out from the
old system without undue exposure of your men and if distance between
the lines permits, and it is entirely possible to construct a new and
generally more favorable line of trenches within 100 to 200 yards of
the enemy’s trenches. Intervening ground between these T bays must be
completely controlled by entanglements and mobile machine guns, or
automatic rifles, able to operate from different alternating recesses
in the control trench. Fire platforms should be placed in recesses
at intervals in the control trench from which covering fire can be
given. Artillery fire, to damage a T trench, must be very accurate. In
a traversed trench a shell destroys not only lateral communication,
but the defenders as well, whereas with a T shape, both fire-bays and
control trench have to be ranged and hit. The success of the enemy
is entirely local when capturing one of these T-bays, and he may be
shelled by your own artillery without any danger or risks to those
defending their T-bays. Control trenches should be dug first and
zigzagged with the longer stretches facing the enemy. This gives you
another fire-trench as well as a communication trench, and is also
ready for use at any time needed before the T-bay is completed. On the
completion of the T-bay, the corners of the zigzagged trench must be
rounded off to make it easier and quicker for the movement of troops
and carrying of stretchers.




DUGOUTS


It is only under very exceptional circumstances that under-cutting a
trench wall is allowed, and then the shelter should be cut in the rear
wall only. These shelters must be carefully supervised and watched by
the officer, as men are very often careless, with the result that the
shelters are dug in a hurry and poorly. Then it rains, the shelter
falls in, and the men are no more. It should be high enough for a man
to sit up straight, and long enough for him to lie down in, and deep
enough for two men to lie side by side. It should be raised at least
a foot above the floor level in the trench to prevent water from the
trench floor coming in. A shelter smaller than these dimensions is
useless. It has a demoralizing effect, destroying all activity, mental
and physical. These shelters can only be properly made by cutting into
the rear trench wall the necessary depth and length and right to the
top. Then, with any material which is convenient, such as corrugated
iron, brushwood, old rubber sheets, revet the sides and back. A
corrugated iron roof is supported on posts at a depth of about a foot
to a foot and a half below the normal level of the ground. Then, when
possible, cover this with rubber sheets. If not possible to procure
rubber sheets, simply cover with dirt excavated from shelter, taking
care that it does not rise higher than your parados.

[Illustration: FIRE TRENCH, SHOWING ENTRANCE TO SHELTER

The shelter is of use only in a narrow or deep trench. Note that the
floor is above the bottom of the trench.]

A fire-trench, however, is not a proper place for shelters, and they
are generally better as a weather protection than a shell-proof
shelter. Even this should not be favored too much, as it tends to cause
obstruction, delay and inconvenience in the passing of troops. The
real dugouts for the accommodation of men holding a line are generally
behind the fire-trenches in an immediate support line, or as in the
case of T-bays, in the control trench and communication trenches
leading to and from them. These are large dugouts, having a depth of
30 and 40 feet, and in some cases capable of holding 100 to 250 men,
generally having from 5 to 10 exits and entrances. Here the men stay
during bombardments and are generally safe from any caliber shell
which may light on top, unless a half dozen should light in the same
particular spot.

This work is generally of a very skilled and technical kind. Plans,
drawings and labor are supervised by the engineers, expert tunnelers
being used in constructing work, although the infantry supplies working
parties to dispose of the dirt, etc., resulting from these excavations
and to carry the materials and tools needed and required in the
construction.

The design and general scheme of a small dugout which can be made by
the infantry under the supervision of an officer, without the aid of
an engineer, are here given. The dugout should be approximately 6
feet from floor to roof and about 8 feet wide, with an approximate
length of 12 feet, thus allowing men to lie down and yet leave room
for passage through. The width depends upon the number you intend to
have occupy it. Each man requires 18″. Depth to be dug below ground
depends entirely to what extent you may raise the roof upon the ground
without making an unduly exposed hump which will at once tell the enemy
a dugout is there. The thickness of the roof should be approximately
6 feet, constructed with side posts, cross beams, corrugated iron,
waterproof oilcloth, sandbags and soil. Sandbag revetments should be
used in the strengthening of side posts. When possible, although hardly
ever so, walls should be lined with waterproof oilcloth and entrances
so placed that they get as much sun as possible.

[Illustration: _DUG-OUT WITH ROOF REMOVED._

  Dimensions variable. Note the wide berms permitting the use of
      strong roof supports. A layer of large stones to cause early
      shell burst should form part of the roofing.]

Great care and attention must be given to these dugouts, and even
though taking a little longer than seems necessary, care must be taken
to see that they are substantially constructed, otherwise they are in
a constant source of danger of cave-ins during heavy shelling and bad
weather. Not more than 10 men should occupy one of these dugouts. Then,
if accidents happen, your casualties are not so great.

The roof of these dugouts should be prepared in a manner tending
to withstand as high shell shock as possible, and for this purpose
the following table would be of some use, any part of which, or a
combination of all, will give some idea of what is required.




RESISTANCE OF ROOFING MATERIALS


(a) Shrapnel bullets--Stout planks suitably supported and covered with
corrugated iron and 12″ of earth or 3″ of shingle.

(b) Ordinary guns of 3″ caliber--Strong timber supporting 4 ft. of
earth with a top layer of heavy stones or broken bricks to cause early
shell burst.

(c) Field howitzers (of less than 6″ caliber)--12″ logs, supporting 8
ft. of earth with top layer of heavy stones or broken brick and lightly
covered over with some earth.

(d) “Jack Johnsons”--20 ft. of earth or 10 ft. of cement concrete,
reënforced with steel and covered over with a covering of heavy stone
or broken brick.

It is very often the case that there is a line of trenches with very
few dugouts. Those that exist are mainly occupied by first aid stations
with a medical officer in charge, and officers’ headquarters. When such
is the case, very narrow, deep trenches, known as retirement trenches,
are dug roughly from 20 to 50 yards behind the firing line, so that
every one, except those on sentry duty, may retire there during the
heavy shelling. It is very obvious that excellent communication must be
kept up between this trench and the firing line.




DUMPS


Sandbags, corrugated iron, floor boards, ladders, pails, brushes,
rubber boots, periscopes, barbed wire, etc., are what are known as
“trench stores.” These are generally brought up by carrying parties
during the night and taken to some convenient spot picked out by
whosoever may be commanding that particular section of trench, ready
for distribution in the morning. This place is known as a “trench
dump.” Here every morning each junior officer goes to his company
commander with a request for his stores for the day. When this has
been handed in and approved by his company commander, he then has a
party detailed to go and collect his stores. These are again placed
in his particular little sector of the lines and he receipts for
their care and proper use; all stores not used are turned over to
the relieving troops and a receipt taken for same. These dumps must
be made in a central location, both as regards the company dump
and the platoon. The company dump is not a permanent home for the
stores or utensils brought up, but is merely what might be called the
distributing center. When a company commander turns over his trench
stores and utensils to the relieving commander, the fact that he has
all his stores and utensils in the company dump does not show merit,
but merely inefficiency, that the distribution, which should have taken
place, has not been carried out, and, therefore, that some of the men
under his command probably have not the required tools to work with or
the material that is necessary to the small units to carry on their
daily lives. Stores should not remain in their center dumps. But each
platoon commander should know exactly how much he has in hand, and how
much he needs. It is also plainly evident that in a scattering of dumps
in this manner, any captured by the enemy do not constitute a “knock
out” as far as the trench stores are concerned.




LATRINES


The cleanliness of the trenches and latrines requires the closest
supervision of all officers and non-commissioned officers. The bucket
system of latrines is entirely unsatisfactory. The ground where the
buckets are in use becomes unsanitary, and so does the ground in
which the contents are buried. Double labor and carriage is involved,
and as often as not a polluted soil is sooner or later to be found
in the line of a proposed communication trench. The method used in
the French armies is very good and by far the cleanest. It involves
no unpleasant labor and is satisfactory. A pit about 12 feet deep, 3
feet wide and 12 feet long is dug in some place which is fairly easy
to get at by those who are to use it. Generally thirty to forty feet
behind the fire-trenches and off one of the communication trenches.
The pit is boarded over, the boards being laid across the width, that
is from front to rear; every other board space being omitted. A pail
of disinfectant is kept standing nearby, and the deeper the pit is,
the better and longer it will remain in use, but should be filled
in when contents are within 6 feet of the top. This makes subsequent
unpleasantness very unlikely. Care must be taken that men using these
places have some protection from stray shells, and are out of sight of
the enemy.

When possible, there should be a refuse pail for every section of men,
and care should be taken to impress on the men that they must throw
in all tea leaves, dregs, all scraps of food, and refuse in general,
and should be covered over with disinfectant. If this is not done,
thousands of flies and insects are attracted, with the inevitable rats,
and disease and unsanitary conditions will follow. Tin cans, etc.,
should under no circumstances be thrown over the parapets as the same
results will occur there.




REVETMENTS


When fire trenches are to be occupied for any length of time it is
necessary to revet them. By that I mean the walls, and especially
front walls, have to be faced or strengthened by sand bags, boards,
corrugated iron or other material that is needed. This work to be of
any use at all must have solid foundations and be thorough from top to
bottom. Careless revetment work is of no use and a source of endless
labor and trouble. All such work should be supervised by officers or
N. C. O.’s who have a thorough understanding of such things, and they
will be amply repaid if they take an active part in the work with their
own hands. There are several forms of revetment, according to the
materials available and the conditions of the walls to be revetted, but
the usual materials are the sandbags, corrugated iron, stakes, boards,
wire netting, etc., and these can be used either separately or in a
combination. All these materials are generally kept in engineer dumps,
some little way behind the firing line. Requisitions are made during
the day by the officer commanding the sector of trench which requires
revetting, and at night the men are detailed in carrying parties to go
down to the engineer dumps and carry these things up for work the next
day.


SANDBAGS. Sandbags are usually available in large quantities, but it is
well to remember that generally only half the number indented for reach
the indentor. The rest generally go around the men’s feet and legs to
keep them warm at night, and very often are used as a sort of mattress
in the dugouts. This should not be allowed as it creates a tremendous
wastage. The sandbags should only be about three-quarters filled, thus
allowing for the choke or neck end, after tied, being turned under the
back when laid in position. This also gives something to catch hold of
when laying and brings the weight to something manageable, about sixty
pounds. A bag three-quarters filled measures approximately 20″ x 10″ x
5″. Laid sand bags are called headers, when laid with bottom of the bag
facing the center of the trench, and stretchers, if laid with the side
facing the trench as per sketch. The neck end should always be tucked
well in the bag in the case of the stretcher; the side seam, which is a
weak spot in the sandbag, should be kept from exposure, that is, should
be turned from the center of the trench.

When the front wall of a trench is to be revetted and only sandbags are
available, the wall should first be cut to a slope of from 10 to 15
degrees from the perpendicular, and the loose soil obtained, if dry,
placed in the sandbags. When there is an unrevetted fire platform,
this should be also cut away and put, if dry, in the sand bags. A
bed should then be dug about 6 inches into the solid bottom of the
trench (disregarding the soft mud which for foundation purposes is
of no use) and sloping down into the parapet at right angles to the
slope of the front wall. Into this bed place a row of headers. On this
row place a double row of stretchers. Joints must always be the same
manner as brick-laying; that is, care taken that the joint where the
ends of the stretchers meet does not come immediately over the joint
between the headers and the lower row. Sand bags should now be beaten
down flat, generally with a wooden mallet provided for this purpose;
then alternate rows of headers and stretchers laid; each layer being
flattened out with the mallet until the top of the parapet is reached.
The top layer should always come out as headers.

[Illustration: Headers, Stretchers, Headers]

Twenty-five headers or twelve stretchers, or sixteen mixed, is the
average required for revetting every superficial yard of trench.

The slope of a front trench wall, even when from 10 to 15 degrees from
perpendicular, is apt gradually to assume the perpendicular, and then
fall in, owing to the sinking of the trench bottom or the actual thrust
of the earth in front. This can, however, be checked by using 6´ to
8´ stakes driven well into the front wall foundation, and at the same
angle as the front wall. Then, wiring the head of these stakes to what
is known as an anchor-stake driven about 10´ into the ground in front
of the trench.

Sandbags come in bales of 250, which are again divided into bundles of
50 each. On a carrying party it is an average rule that each man carry
100 sand bags.


CORRUGATED IRON. Generally, when lengths of corrugated iron and plenty
of floor boards and stakes are available, this material is used for
revetting the lower half of a trench wall, as it removes a great many
difficulties, such as looking over substantial foundations for sandbag
revetments. It makes it unnecessary to fill sandbags, etc., thus saving
a great amount of time and labor. In revetting with corrugated iron and
stakes or hurdles, cut the slope or wall from 10 to 15 degrees from the
perpendicular, putting the soil in the sandbags and leaving it in some
handy place for any future use. Then, drive 6´ to 8´ stakes well into
the trench foundation and approximately 4´ apart, thus giving adequate
protection to each piece of corrugated, having the stakes at an angle
of 15 degrees at least, from the perpendicular, and 6″ or 8″ away from
the trench wall. Then, slide the corrugated, hurdles, or boards on
their sides down behind the stakes, overlapping slightly the ends and
ramming them well down into the mud or soil in the bottom, and filling
in the space behind with soil.

The bottom third or half of the front wall is thus substantially,
easily and quickly revetted, and the upper half or remainder is
generally revetted with the sandbags, a bed being dug so that the
first layer of headers is about half its depth below the top of the
corrugated. If stakes shorter than 6´ or 8´ have been used in the
revetting, half should be cut off to where the sandbag revetting
commences and wired to anchor stakes, driven into the parapet end of
the bed, and not wired over the top of the parapet, as it tends to
gradually pull them upwards. Then cover this wiring with your first
layer of headers. When hurdles or floorboards are used instead of
corrugated iron, empty sandbags or similar material must be hung behind
them to prevent the soil crumbling through and thus weakening the
foundation of the sandbag revetments. Corrugated should not be used
for revetting the front wall higher than 2´, which is the width of
one sheet, as the supply is generally limited and can be put to more
valuable use as dealt with later.

Corrugated iron comes in bundles of about 24 sheets to the bundle,
averaging 6´ by 3´. Two sheets is the average load for any one man in a
carrying party.

A front wall constructed in the manner shown, if prompt and immediate
attention always be given to repair if damage is done, will give very
little bother. It is the usual custom to construct your fire platform
after this revetting work has been done.

A trench should be dug no deeper than will afford protection to the
firer, a deeper passageway necessitating a fire platform, a subsequent
work, and by first revetting the whole front wall from bottom to top
then adding the fire platform, each gets the benefit of the foundation
of the other. Until this fire platform is constructed, emergency
methods may be used and improvised in a moment with ammunition boxes,
loose sandbags and the various other junk which accumulates in a trench.


FIRE PLATFORMS. Now that the front wall has been revetted, either with
corrugated or sandbags, the construction of the fire platform should be
at once started. To start this, short stakes should be driven well into
the trench bottom about 36″ from the front wall and parallel to the
slope of the front wall, averaging from 2´ to 3´ apart and generally
as substantial as the large revetment stakes, although this is not of
absolute necessity.

When brushwood is procurable, it should be used as a foundation,
putting it in after the short stakes are driven and ramming it down
behind them. This gives you as nearly as possible a dry and compact
foundation for your first row of headers. Then this may be covered with
another lot of brushwood, and that again by a row of headers, and from
then the layer should be alternate headers and stretchers. Sand bags do
not offer a good platform after a heavy rain, as they become wet and
slippery and the material quickly rots, then they break open and the
top of your fire platform is gone. To avoid this, it is necessary to
use whatever material may be at hand in the covering of the top layer.

One good way of providing this top covering when the material is
procurable, is a wire netting used in a double thickness. It should
be placed behind and up against the stakes before the foundation is
laid. Then when the fire platform is built to its proper height, bend
the wire from the top of the fire platform and fasten it down on the
sides by whatever means are handy. Using this double wire netting
makes it possible to use brick and all sorts of general trash in the
construction of the fire platform and gives a very good dry footing.
When doing that the face of your platform should be either corrugated
sheets or boards.

Very often what are known as sentry-boards, or small floor boards about
36″ square and with additional cross pieces underneath, giving them
a height of about a foot, thus raising them well out of the mud, are
used, and are very handy before a fire platform is made, and in some
cases have to be used for small men after the fire platform is made.




TRAVERSES


All the walls of the traverses must also be revetted, generally with
the sandbags and in exactly the same manner as the front walls of a
fire-bay, care being taken to keep it well sloped. This leads to a
lessening of protection afforded the occupants by making a greater
width at the top of the trench, but it is absolutely necessary unless
you wish your whole traverse to gradually fall in, when you are in a
position of having no protection at all. The top of the traverse may be
and is often several feet higher than the parapet, if the fire-bay it
protects is exposed to enfilade fire from the enemy trench at a higher
level. But when this is not the case, the traverse should not be higher
than the parapet or parados, and should slope down towards the enemy to
give the appearance of being merely a continuation of the parapet.

The traverse should never be less than 9´ wide, allowing 2´ for a
sentry box, although this sentry box is no longer generally in use.

What are known as overhead traverses are made generally in a
communication trench leading up to the front line, and which in certain
parts the enemy are able to look into. These overhead traverses give
to this particular place the protection which is necessary. They are
quickly and easily made by placing corrugated iron, logs or strong
branches, or floor boards, across the top of the trench and putting
sand bags on the top of these. When the trench walls are weak, or even
on general principles, the sides supporting this overhead traverse
should be revetted with sandbags.

The sentry boxes, although not in general use now, are described, more
for general information than anything else. They are dug or recessed in
the traverse at either end of the fire-bay and must have an observation
slit in the parapet for use by day, but no loophole facing the enemy,
as regardless of the care and caution used in the construction of these
loopholes, they will sooner or later, generally sooner, be observed by
the enemy and the sentry box made useless.

During an attack this sentry box is never used, except for stores or
the placing of wounded, as there will always be plenty of room for the
late occupant in the fire-bay itself. Sometimes, when energy and time
permit, an enfilade fire loophole is made through the traverse and
facing the next fire-bay, but this has as much value for making easy
verbal communication from one fire-bay to another as it has to the
checking of attacking forces.




LISTENING POSTS


As before mentioned, in the space between the front lines of the
opposing armies, which is known as No Man’s Land, there are sometimes
large and sometimes small areas of ground, ditches, streams, etc.,
which cannot be satisfactorily watched from a fire trench immediately
facing them, owing to the lay of the land, hedges, old excavations,
buildings, etc. This is the case in a great many instances regardless
of the careful thought and the amount of time spent in siting a
fire-trench, as the siting of all trenches is largely subsidized by the
tactical position of the flank trenches. Very often a line of trenches
is taken up under stress of circumstances that do not permit of the
obeying of the rules and standards set for an ideal fire-trench.

The control of these areas is essential to prevent small surprise
attacks, cutting-out parties and raids. During the day they are very
often observable from a flank trench or higher observation ground in
the rear, but at night this is not possible; so that listening or
observation posts are gradually sited in front of the fire trench
with due consideration to the situation in that immediate vicinity. A
ruined shed, shack, cart, or any other thing of a similar character
lying in No Man’s Land is very useful for these purposes if it can be
reached before the enemy reach it with the same purpose in mind. This
cannot be used very long, as its purpose is too obvious and peace and
quietness will not last long, but it will do until a more satisfactory
arrangement can be made.

The listening post is often dug just inside the outer fringe of your
own barbed wire entanglements, and is just large enough to allow two
men to stand in unobserved. It should be reached by a very narrow,
irregular trench running out from a fire-bay, where it is fairly
easy to secure the maximum amount of concealment necessary to give
protection. The soil excavated from these places must not be thrown
out, but placed in sand bags and taken into the trench and used there.
It is always best and requires very little more labor, and gives the
maximum amount of protection to your listening post if communication to
it be made through a tunnel.

These things are bound to be discovered within a certain amount of
time, and when you know the position of your listening post has been
found by the enemy, which you will know very quickly, owing to the
amount of bombs and rifle fire it will receive for one or two nights,
until you can dig another one, it is a safe thing to build up a small
parapet, taking it down every morning before dawn. It then becomes
necessary to dig a new post, and this can be generally done by leading
off from your old communication trench to some more favorable spot.
When the new post is ready for occupancy, the old one should be filled
in with barbed wire, or completely filled in again with dirt, and the
sandbag parapet left to mislead as long as possible.

The first duty of a listening post is to listen and report. Most of the
work is done at night, and no firing or sniping must be allowed from it
during the day. Patrols generally come out via one listening post and
return by another, so that all listening posts must be warned of the
trench by which the patrol will come out and the approximate hour of
departure and return. Patrols should never be sent out without definite
orders as to what is required, and especially as to the listening post
they leave and return by. Listening posts should fire without challenge
at any one who approaches within sight, whether friend or enemy, unless
it has been warned that a friendly patrol is out, in which event
signals should be pre-arranged. Then the listening post will use the
greatest caution and should challenge audibly when the patrol is close,
and unless immediately satisfied, fire. Listening posts are connected
with the fire trench by a cord or wire, and a simple code of tugs is
arranged, or a bell fastened to the fire trench end for alarm in case
of emergency, and here a sentry always stands to get any signals that
may come from the listening post.

If a listening post has not been warned that a friendly patrol is out
and fires on it without challenge, the L. P. is absolved from all blame.

When a hedge or ditch, which might easily provide cover to the enemy,
is running parallel with the firing trench, it must be controlled at
night by a machine or Lewis gun which is able to enfilade a frontal
advance over open ground leading to it. If, as is often the case, the
parallel hedge or ditch is easily approached along either hedges or
ditches running at right angles to it, these angles must be protected
by machine or Lewis gun firing down them.

When hedges or ditches running at right angles from the firing line
and leading towards the enemy are in a sector of line, they should be
protected from dusk to dawn by one or two men, generally only armed
with bombs to protect against surprise, and great care must be taken
that no more signs than possible are left to the occupancy of this
position over night.




OBSERVATION POSTS


LOOPHOLES FOR FIRING. During an attack, firing is never possible
through loopholes as it is too restricted to be of any value. All the
firing then is done over the parapet. The difficulty of constructing
new observation posts which are effectual and inconspicuous for any
length of time has resulted in their not being made in a parapet,
where, when located by the enemy, they are as often as not a source of
danger. Moreover, promiscuous firing through loopholes by inefficient
riflemen is of no value. Sniping is under the control and supervision
of a sniping officer, and loopholes should only be used by men
appointed by that officer. They are not used at night and should be
only used during the day for enfilade fire, and be placed in the
parapet as low down as is consistent with line of site. A piece of
cloth or empty sandbag should be hung from the rear of the loophole,
so that when the hole is not obstructed by the fire, no light can
show through. No shots should be fired from those loopholes, except
at a definite target, and ranges of targets or spots where targets
may possibly appear, should be ascertained in advance, and necessary
exposed movement, such as withdrawal of rifle, must be very slow
and gradual. With care, and when only used by a skilled rifleman, a
loophole will be of value for probably two weeks and good results
obtained, but by a careless man the value of a loophole will not last a
day and very likely result in casualties not only to the man shooting,
but to others as well.

In the area from 20 to 100 yards behind the fire trench, there
sometimes is, although very seldom, ground much higher than the actual
fire trench, so that it is safe to allow even hastily trained men
to use it for firing over the heads of the main front line trench,
although it has happened that men in such a position have fired into
their front line, thinking it the enemy line. This ground is generally
used by building what are known as covering fire trenches. These to be
of any value, should not be more than 20 yards behind the front line,
as farther forward than 20 yards they become affected by artillery
fire directed at the fire trenches; and farther back than 100 yards
the covering fire, unless in the hands of very skilled and efficient
riflemen, becomes very dangerous to the men in the front line.




SUPPORT TRENCHES AND SUPPORT DUGOUTS


A support trench is usually within 30 to 300 yards of a fire trench,
and may serve the purposes of covering fire trenches by skilled
riflemen or an indirect machine gun fire, but their main purpose is
to shelter troops from observation and shell fire, and thus their
main characteristics become the size and strength of ample dugouts.
Troops in the support dugouts are at hand for three purposes: Firstly,
replacing of casualties occurring in the fire trenches during normal
times or a hostile attack. Secondly, holding the support trenches in
case the fire trenches are taken by the enemy. Thirdly, in the event of
an attack on the enemy’s trenches, leading the attack by moving forward
over the heads of the occupants of the fire trench, or if the latter
are leading the attack, to occupy at once the fire trench when vacated.
For this reason it is of vast importance that there are accessible and
commodious support dugouts and communications between the immediate
support trenches and front line. If this is so there will be less
chance of disasters to supports and reserves coming up to make good a
successful attack. There must be support dugouts even in the event of
there being no support trenches, and this is very often possible owing
to the lay of the land. The strength and size of these dugouts entirely
depend on tactical considerations and local conditions, which are
generally decided by the staff.




SUPPORT POINTS


These forts or strong points, as they are sometimes called, usually
round or square, but which may be any shape best suited to the
condition of the country in which they are placed, are generally from
100 to 300 yards behind the fire-trenches and supplementary to the
support trenches. Each of these strong points contains a permanent
garrison of firing troops, strongly protected with barbed wiring
and sandbag revetments, and well supplied with ammunition, food and
water, to enable them to withstand heavy attacks. During an attack
they are used to give overhead covering fire, and for the control of
ammunition and other supplies to be sent on to the firing line. It is a
general rule that if the enemy take a fire line the garrison of these
supporting points must hold out and remain a thorn in the enemy’s side
until the last man of the garrison is killed.




RESERVE DUGOUTS


These dugouts protect the local reserves from which supports are
supplied and are used for purposes similar to those for which the
immediate support dugouts are employed, but on a great deal larger
scale. These dugouts are generally near battalion headquarters and from
500 to 1,500 yards behind the firing line. The chief considerations
in siting the positions of these dugouts are three: First: facilities
for rapid and easy transit to the support and fire-trenches; second:
concealment; third: comfort. Comfort should be secondary to the other
conditions affecting the siting of the system.




SECOND LINE


This comprises the line of fire-trenches, with covering fire-trenches,
support trenches, support dugouts and reserve dugouts (in other words,
it is an exact duplication of the front line system), far enough behind
the front line that in the event of the first system being taken,
the second line is ready to be taken up by the troops driven out of
the front line, and receive the support of troops lying in brigade or
divisional reserve. The distance of the second line behind the first
is roughly a mile, and while the first line is held, operations of the
second often provide useful accommodation for the machine guns and
artillery, both for firing purposes, observation and shelter.

The time available for siting and constructing second line system, and
the freedom from all disturbances which bother the front line system,
should result in its being impregnable. It is an ideal system provided
those responsible for its siting and construction are thoroughly and
practically experienced with first line conditions and profit by that
experience and former mistakes.




COMMUNICATION TRENCHES


When siting communication trenches, two considerations come into
conflict with one another; the desire for protection, and the necessity
of rapid and easy transit. It is obvious that a C. T. is of vital
importance to the firing line in the getting up of supporting troops,
ammunition and stores rapidly and without undue fatigue. It is also
obvious that it must give as much protection as possible to the troops
using the C. T., but it must be recognized that the protection given
must not interfere with rapid transit by making the C. T. too narrow.
It must also be kept in mind that rapid transit in itself gives a
certain amount of protection for the simple reason that the easier and
quicker the transit, the less time are troops delayed in the C. T.’s in
which protection is required, and if troops can cover the danger area
in 10 minutes, they are plainly in danger for a less period than if it
took 30 minutes to struggle over that same area. This rapid transit,
only obtained by a dangerously wide communication trench from support
or reserve lines and from dugouts, also makes it possible for less
troops to be regularly on duty in the fire-trenches, which are always
uncomfortable and dangerous, especially during a bombardment, and it
also enables supports and reserves to be rushed up quickly when the
occasion demands.

It can be plainly seen now that a compromise must be effected between
claims of protection and rapid transit, so that the size and shape of
the C. T.’s will vary according to their distance from a danger area.
Generally speaking, the nearer to danger, the more must the claims of
rapid transit give way to those of protection.

Disregarding for the time being the claims of protection and only
considering rapid transit, there are these things to be considered:
First, that a C. T. be as short as possible, making use of contours,
sunken roads and other natural features to avoid digging as much as
possible. Second, that a C. T. be as straight as possible, which not
only shortens the distance but avoids turns and corners which interfere
with speed and which require renewed effort at every turn. These sharp
corners and turns must always be avoided. This can be done without
weakening a trench or increasing the risk, and every effort should be
made to save troops carrying full equipment, stores, ammunition, or
rations from unnecessary tiring, hindrances, and difficulties, such
as sharp corners and turns. Third, the C. T. J.’s must be as level as
possible, as they are generally slippery, and inclines or declines
should be avoided as they very often cause accidents. A longer C. T.
following around natural contours is frequently more advantageous for
this reason than a straight one over a hill, which it is only possible
to make level by an amount of digging out of proportion to the result
gained. The C. T. must be wide enough for requirements. These differ
according (a) to the proximity of C. T. to the fire-trenches, (b) to
the number of C. T.’s available, and (c) to the use for which a C. T.
is required, i. e., whether a double C. T. (for both up and down
traffic) or a single C. T. (for traffic in one direction only).

When a C. T. is close to the fire-trench, troops moving into it
are practically themselves in the fire-trench and as each group
has probably to get to a different part of that fire-trench, all
necessary traffic up and down the fire-trench and disturbance of the
men occupying it must be avoided. Rapid transit can advantageously be
obtained by other means than the width of the C. T.; by dividing the
single C. T. at some point from 30 to 60 yards in rear of the actual
fire-trench into a number of small narrow C. T.’s, each leading to a
group of 3 to 6 fire-bays, and these may again be divided into those
for up and those for down traffic.

This system requires a fair amount of thinking out and all the trenches
should be plainly marked and named. These names are placed on notice
boards at the different junctions having the proper indications and
rules directing the use of up and down traffic. This is and should be
rigidly enforced during both quiet and active periods, but takes on a
much greater importance during active periods.

The width of these single C. T.’s running close to the fire-trenches
should be enough to allow a man carrying full equipment, stores, or
rations to pass along easily and without bumping the sides with his
equipment or burden; approximately two feet at the bottom with ample
room at all corners. The width of a single C. T. for down traffic
only should be wide enough to allow for passage of a laden stretcher,
especially at the corners, as a stretcher is a very clumsy thing to
get around these corners and often the delay caused has very serious
consequences.

As a C. T. leaving a fire-trench gets farther away, the width should
be as soon as possible such as will allow two men to pass one another
fully equipped without jostling or scraping the sides of the trench, or
approximately 4 ft. at the bottom. This width with recesses described
later allows rapid transit for troops passing each other in quiet
parties and allowing a much greater safety in an emergency when there
is no down traffic.

The front is always referred to as “up.”

Another advantage to be gained in the width of the C. T. is in the
fact that it is much easier to keep dry and usable. It permits laying
of regulation floor boards, allowing enough room on each side of them
for the purpose of drainage, and is a means of preventing falling
soil from covering the floor boards. Water will not drain off or
through soil which is continually trampled on and has become sodden
or irregular, and unless the floor boards are kept free from soil,
they soon become useless, crooked and immovable. The width of these
trenches allows the wind and sun to reach the bottom of the trench,
thus helping a great deal in keeping it dry. There is no such thing
as a communication trench 18 inches wide at the bottom and 24 inches
wide at the top; diggings of these dimensions are nothing more than
drains which in an emergency only are struggled through when passing
in the open is still more impossible, and they should not be given any
consideration whatever as a C. T.

The features required in a communication trench, regardless of the
claims of rapid transit and only considering protection, are:

(First) Frequent traverses or turnings to avoid the effect of enfilade
fire, to localize the effect of a bursting shell or bomb, to make
difficult a hostile advance down the C. T. and to enable bomb parties
to resist more easily their advance.

(Second) A trench that is sufficiently narrow will localize the effect
of a bursting shell or bomb and minimize the effectiveness of hostile
fire, which must have a high degree of accuracy to be effective. But
the quicker over the ground the shorter the period of danger, and shell
fire of any degree of accuracy will substantially narrow one of these
narrower trenches, damaging the walls and causing casualties and other
obstructions which will render passage impossible with either one or
two results. Delay caused at a critical moment, or the occupants trying
to obtain a passage up the trench in order to take any part in the
fighting, would have to come out into the open sooner than necessary.
The shelling of the C. T.’s usually is heavier for perfectly obvious
reasons during an attack and when rapid transit through them is of the
utmost importance. A narrow trench generally takes as long to dig as
one of the wider type, owing to the restricted area in which to work.

(Third) If invisibility be possible, it is an excellent feature, but
in nine hundred and ninety-nine cases out of a thousand it is hardly
possible. An observed C. T. indicates the position and direction of
supports, stores, reserves, dugouts, etc. This fault can be corrected
to a certain extent by the careful use of the contours, dead ground,
sunken roads, and all natural features, such as woods and hedges.
Artificial cover may and does assist concealment, but sooner or later
hostile aerial observation and photographs disclose the position of
more easily concealed things than an excavated C. T. It is frequently
the shadow at the bottom of a trench which gives its position away
to aircraft, and the narrower the trench, the more prominent is the
shadow. The soil, which is generally a different color from the surface
soil, must be thrown up on either side as time does not allow it being
carried away. Unless in a place of artificial cover through the length
of the C. T., it is usually necessary to admit the impossibility of
concealment and utilize time more profitably by taking protective
measures.

Rapid transit to a fire-trench is of greater importance than rapid
transit from a fire-trench, and the importance of protection is
greater as the fire-trench and its dangers are approached. Methods
of construction should be based on this idea and the arguments given
above.




SKETCH OF TRENCH SYSTEM


This sketch shows a double-traffic communication trench leading (5 ft.
wide) from reserves and H. Q. to a loopholed island-traverse about 30
yards behind the support line. At this island-traverse, single-traffic
C. T. branches off to various sectors of the support line; the main
C. T. leading on (from 3 to 4 feet wide) uninterrupted through the
support line to loopholed island-traverse “E,” about 30 yards behind
the firing line. At this island-traverse the main C. T. breaks off into
single-traffic C. T. 3 feet wide. Each leads to various sectors of the
firing line.


[Illustration: SECTION I

SKETCH OF TRENCH SYSTEM]

SECTION I. C. T. should start behind one of the fire-trench traverses
and not from a fire-bay. Every yard should be contestable for
approximately the first 15 to 20 yards. This can be effected, and at
the same time the effect of hostile artillery and rifle fire and bombs
localized, by a series of traverses 9 feet square, the trench being
approximately 7 feet deep and 2 feet wide at the bottom. Cut into the
rear of a few of these traverses is a narrow recess through which one
of the defending bombing party may take up a position in the center
of the traverse and fire, kneeling or standing, through a loophole at
the advancing enemy. The recess gives him ample protection, including
head cover, and is so cut that the entrance is out of alignment with
the trench behind him and he will be unaffected by a bomb exploding
there. At the same time he may work with, and direct, the bombers
behind him who are bombing over the traverse, and if it becomes
necessary, they can also take cover in the entrance to the recess. The
loophole should not be placed so high that it becomes possible for the
enemy to come forward under it.

The most dutiable arms for the members of the defending bombing party
detailed for this traverse work are what are known as “close-contact
weapons,” generally including revolvers, bombs, trench knives, and very
often a bayonet carried by pushing it down in the puttee.


[Illustration: SECTION II

SKETCH OF TRENCH SYSTEM]

SECTION II. The time and claims of rapid transit will not allow the
traverse system as employed in Section I to be continued, the narrow
single-traffic C. T.’s, from wear and tear and shell fire, soon become
wider, and as the width would allow rapid transit to friend and foe
alike, it is of the utmost importance that some means be adopted to
deprive the enemy of this advantage. Moreover, the enemy may have
successfully advanced down on traversed C. T., say, at “C,” and our
own bombers might still be fighting in another traversed C. T., say,
at “D,” and their needs demand protection. This may be obtained if,
before the single C. T.’s merge into the double, each of them be quite
straight for approximately 15 yards, and island-traverse, “E,” be
placed at the junction. In the rear of this island, “E,” is a large
and substantial recess, into which one or two Lewis guns or automatic
rifles can be placed, firing through loopholes and rendering hostile
advance down both “C” and “D” communication trenches almost impossible.
The recess in “E” must allow ample room in which to operate. Overhead
cover is provided, and one rifle would require one long loophole, so
that it could fire along either C. T. without more than a moment’s
interruption. In the case of two rifles being available, there could be
two such long loopholes, each covering both C. T.’s, one for kneeling
and one for standing. The lower loophole gives the advantage of it
being impossible for any of the enemy to get out of danger beneath it.
The fact that the traverse is an island one, with passageway either
side, would allow friends to advance round the traverse and up “D” to
the support of friends still fighting there, and without obstructing
the fire directed from the traverse at enemy advancing down “C.”

[Illustration: _ISLAND TRAVERSE_

A type used to control long, straight stretches of trench.]

An island-traverse so constructed and manned should be unapproachable
along either trench “C” or “D,” but precautions must be taken to
prevent the enemy avoiding it by coming out into the open, as in active
moments C. T.’s become as mutilated as fire trenches and the enemy may
leave the C. T. before reaching the 15-yard stretch and approach the
traverse from above or flank. In anticipation of this, the position “H”
is selected slightly in rear and to flank of the traverse, and in this
position one of the automatic rifles may take up, either originally or
by retirement from “E,” and deliver the required traversing covering
fire across the front of “E” and giving adequate protection to the
garrison manning the island-traverse. Barbed wire is also generally
placed in open ground such as this described, say, for instance,
between “K” or “L” on either side of the 15-yard stretches to impede
hostile exit and advance. The overhead traverse just in front of the
island gives protection against bombs thrown down on C. T.

When covering fire is not required, the position “H” will form an
alternative position should the island-traverse be destroyed by shell
fire or taken by the enemy; but the latter will be of little use to
the enemy as their progress passed it is blocked by a loophole placed
at “H” and covering the trench “M” down which they must advance. It
also covers a dummy trench, shown as “N,” down which there is a fair
chance that the enemy would naturally go if a misleading notice were
placed at the junction of “M” and “N.” The slight turn at the end,
“O,” will prevent premature knowledge as to the real nature of this
trench. The enemy’s progress may also be blocked for a short time by
having rolls of looped wire, sometimes known as concertina wire, so
placed in recesses in the side of the trench, and so arranged that when
a man retiring down a trench can catch hold of the roll as he passes
a recess, uncoils it as he runs, leaving it in the trench in a badly
tangled mass.


[Illustration: Section III

SKETCH OF TRENCH SYSTEM]

SECTION III. Supporting trenches may be at any distance from 30 to
300 yards behind the firing trenches. The C. T. in this section
is constructed on the same lines, or may be constructed on the
same lines, as Sections I and II, into whatever proportions local
conditions and practical considerations, and particularly dangerous
places, may dictate. The zigzag plan shown in the sketch is generally
safe to adopt, as it allows rapid transit with a certain amount of
concession to the claims of protection, more so as it approaches the
fire trenches. These C. T.’s generally should be a series of straight
stretches, zigzagging at acute or obtuse angles, the length and angles
governed by local conditions, the extent and direction from which each
stretch might be enfiladed, and the gradient and distance from danger.
It has been shown before that the shorter the stretches and the more
acute the angle at the turn, the less is the danger from enfilade fire,
but the C. T. with this advantage requires a greater length of time
and labor in digging, as well as taking a great deal more time and
effort to pass through it. In order to lessen these things as much as
possible, it is always considered best to adopt longer stretches and
more obtuse angles as soon as possible.

The excavated soil is naturally thrown up on the side facing the enemy,
and thus forming a parapet. It can at times be used as an actual fire
trench. The parapet should fulfill the same conditions as the parapet
of a fire trench, and where necessary, overhead traverses should be
placed. The more of these overhead traverses used, the longer can the
straight run of trench be. When running up-hill, facing the enemy, it
is clearly obvious that acute turns and short stretches are necessary,
or, if it is not found advisable to use these and more time can be
gained by digging the straight runs, then they should be dug deeper and
a great deal of care taken in placing the overhead traverses.

Generally, the farther the C. T. from the enemy, the less necessity
to take measures for stopping hostile advance down it, but it is a
safe thing when time permits to loophole the traverses facing the
long straight stretches either in an ordinary traverse or when time
permits the building of island-traverses, especially at junctions. Such
loopholes command the straight stretch in front and are reached by
narrow trenches very similar to a drainage trench, as indicated at
“H.” Here again, as well, the loopholes for at least one or two should
be for kneeling fire.

Hostile attacks may also be hampered here by using the rolls of looped
wire previously mentioned, or by frames of barbed wire placed at the
side of the trench just behind the parapet, so that a man retiring down
the trench can easily pull them down into the trench after him. Great
care must be taken that C. T.’s running from firing line to support
trenches do not obstruct the fire from the supporting trenches.


[Illustration: SECTION IV

SKETCH OF TRENCH SYSTEM]

SECTION IV. Behind the support trenches the C. T. should be constructed
on the traverse principle of _Section I_, so that the same defensive
features existing for the support trenches as should exist for the
firing line. In doing this, however, it should be kept in mind to
provide rapid transit for troops behind these supporting lines. This
is best done by continuing the zigzag system right through support
trenches as shown. When necessary, this C. T. can be blocked.

It is always a possibility that support trenches may be lost, but not
a probability. Therefore, undue weight should not be given against the
convenience of adopting as soon as possible again the zigzag C. T. of
_Section II_, the latter supplying all requirements of rapid transit
and allowing the introduction of straight stretches in loophole
traverses wherever required.




TELEPHONE LINES


It is generally found that artillery telephone lines are laid on
the north and west side of a C. T.; infantry lines on the south and
east. Lines are generally laid about two feet from the bottom of the
trench, picketed inter-grooves being cut into the side of the trench.
These lines must be given absolutely every protection possible by the
infantry and by any one using the trenches. Far too much carelessness
has at times existed which destroyed communication with artillery and
infantry when it was of vital importance that it should be open.

Infantry in the trenches depend for immediate support upon their
artillery, and if, through lack of supervision on the part of the
officers in charge, these lines are destroyed or temporarily torn down
by careless men not understanding their significance and importance,
then that officer or officers is guilty of a very serious crime.




RECESSES


These are usually made in C. T. to allow for the passing of troops
or bearers of stretchers, or parties passing up and down to the line
carrying the many things that are necessary for the upkeep of that line.

It is advisable that these should always be placed in the same
corresponding place in each stretch, as shown in SECTION III, just
before the turn, so that men know where they are to be found. The
first man of a party coming up having arrived at a turn, and seen or
heard others coming down, can give necessary protection to his party,
and a great deal of unnecessary and very exasperating and fatiguing
movements, and sometimes retracing of steps, is avoided. It is also
often the cause of a great many casualties in a trench where these
recesses are not made, as parties of men coming and going very often,
while struggling to get past one another with their loads, are caught
by heavy shell fire.

The recesses should be about 8 feet long and at least 2 feet wide, and
the soil excavated from these recesses could be used for strengthening
the parapets of the C. T.’s at these turns. Generally, when time
allows and energy permits, close to the firing line these recesses are
made longer and deeper, oftentimes running to 12 and 18 feet long by 6
and 10 feet deep, although it is not advisable to crowd them too much.
Recesses of this kind may also be heavily roofed and used as a very
temporary shelter for stretcher cases, stores of bombs, ammunition, etc.

At every second or third stretch in these C. T.’s, either steps or an
easy runway to the top of the trench should be made. This saves time on
a great many occasions when parties coming over the top for speed and
comfort find themselves stopped and have to take to the trench on short
notice. It is also good when a serious obstruction occurs, and it is
necessary to leave a C. T. and enter it again farther on.




NOTICE BOARDS


These boards should be fixed at every entrance and junction in a trench
system, stating the name of the trench and the places to which it
leads, and where there are trenches expressly for up and down traffic,
these boards should state it. Some people argue that such notices
assist the enemy when they get into our trenches, but the argument
does not hold as it is very often the case they do not know the names
used in the sectors, as they vary up and down the line, and generally
they have a very good idea of the system they will find themselves in
anyway, and there is a very small chance that a majority of them will
be able to read them anyway.

Care must be taken that these notice boards are not used for what
is known as “boiling up,” building fires, in braziers, etc., as the
absence of these boards causes a tremendous amount of confusion when
new troops are coming into the line. All officers must know the
shortest routes from their own headquarters to those of companies on
their flanks, as well as their own battalion headquarters, and every
officer, N. C. O. and man must know the position of his immediate
commander’s dugout, as well as his company headquarters, and every man
must know the name of the trench that he is in and helping to hold, and
this is not possible when these notice boards are destroyed.




TRENCH DRAINAGE


Efforts at drainage, which is the greatest trouble during the winter
months to troops occupying the line, must be as systematic and thorough
as possible. Tinkering is of very little use and brings no results
but causes a great and tiring expenditure of labor as far as the
men are concerned, with no end of work in sight. When taking over a
sector of line, the drainage system must be thoroughly studied and a
line of campaign mapped out and strictly adhered to. Thorough work
in the initial stages will save any amount of subsequent unnecessary
fatigue and labor. The system to be applied depends entirely on
local conditions, but full advantage must be taken of the assistance
which nature affords. Water running down hill is a marvelous fact;
nevertheless it is often overlooked. Field drains and natural streams
anywhere near the trench must be kept clear of obstructions. These are
usually attended to by the overworked farmers in peace times, but as
they do not work near a trench system, it must be looked after by the
army. Neglect of the natural watercourses has been the cause of much
of the difficulty of draining the trenches themselves.

During the winter months a trench is never really drained. A mixture
in the trenches which is neither water nor good, sticky mud, but a
beautiful liquid combination of water and dirt, which is thick enough
not to run, is formed. Sometimes it becomes sufficiently like water
to be pushed or assisted to run down hill with scrapers, boards, and
anything else that is handy. Sometimes it becomes sufficiently heavy
enough to be shoveled over the parapet or put into sand bags. In either
of these cases it is only overcome by persistent labor, but when
the mud is in its true clayed self it is a waste of time and labor
to attempt to move it, and the only way, without a large amount of
cursing, is to sit tight and pray for the sun to dry it.

When a valley or dip is close to the side of a C. T. a few narrow
gullies through the side, of about 18 inches in width, should be made
so that liquid mud can be swept along the trench and on through the
gulley to a natural fall. These little gullies or ditches should start
at a place or places where there are dips in the level of the trench
and must be dug straight through the side, as it then becomes easier
to keep clear and gives no obstruction to the flow of mud; but if
facing the enemy, it should not be in a straight line, as it then
allows rifle fire into the trenches. If no other way is possible, then
overhead traverse or other means of protection should be taken at that
point. Sometimes, when it is not possible to complete these gullies,
they should be dug out as far as circumstances will permit and a block
of soil or very large sods be put at the junction of the gulley to the
trench and the liquid mud dipped out of the trench and dumped into
the gulley, where it will be prevented from running into the trench
again by these collections of sods. This process is very slow, but
conditions frequently make it the easiest and most convenient way of
ridding the trenches of some of the mud. This work can be carried on
by what is sometimes known as a “trench patrol” or maintenance squad,
which is generally detailed from the company in the support line and
which patrols the system of trenches held by their battalion during
the day. The N. C. O. in charge generally reports serious collapses
to his company officer, who in turn reports it to the engineers, who
immediately take steps to have it repaired.

The width of drainage gullies should not be less than 18 inches, thus
allowing easy use of brushes issued. With these brushes and adequate
gullies, very long stretches of trench can be kept in excellent
condition when the trench is wide enough to allow the drying effect
of wind and sun to reach the bottom. The time spent in making these
gullies is saved over and over again. If there be no natural valley
or dip, a sump-pit is generally dug, the size depending on the energy
of the troops digging it, but generally it is about 10 feet below the
level of the trench it drains, and anything from 8 feet on in diameter.
It is dug some fair distance from the trenches and in a position that
will allow the maximum amount of gullies to be led to it from that
particular section of the trench.

After having this system worked out, the next thing is to ascertain
what parts of the rest of the trench system will not be affected by
this drainage, and there to dig similar sump-pits just to the side of
the trenches drained, small gullies leading to them. These need only
be about 6 feet deep below the trench level and 4 feet in diameter. A
short gulley, 12 to 15 inches wide and 2 feet long, should lead from
the trench to the sump-pit, as shown in sketch of trench system.

Sometimes the sump-pit may be semi-circular and cut into the side of
the trench, but in this case some barrier must be put across it to
prevent men falling in while traveling at night. The former system is
far more satisfactory, and especially so when the trench is hardly wide
enough to allow the passing of traffic without touching the sides of
the trench.

Entrances to these sump-pits must always be kept clear of all
obstructions. Very often a ridge of mud from a man’s foot-mark is
enough to put a sump-pit out of action. They should be continually
emptied by pumping the contents over the parapet, or carrying in pails
to the nearest gulley.

The side sump-pits must never be cut under the wall of a trench. On
very short notice the roof will take the place of the excavated soil
and there will be no sump-pit.

It is not always that pumps are available, and the few of those which
are, are of no practical use for a length of time sufficient to be of
any value; in fact, they hardly repay the fatigue entailed in getting
them to the trenches. For ordinary trench drainage several small pumps
are of far more use than one large one, as the range’s limited by the
difficulties of removing it or by the length of pipe attached. These
pumps, whether large or small, must be given a large and substantial
platform, placed in some central position among a number of sump-pits.
Each pump must have not only a discharge pipe, but a suction pipe, the
latter being movable from one pit to another in the pump’s area without
moving the pump. The placing of these pumps must be thorough and
systematic, and those sump-pits not reached by pumps must be kept empty
by means of pails.




FLOORBOARDS


Although these are rarely available in sufficient numbers to be laid
continuously along the entire length of the trench, it is unwise to
throw one down on a particularly muddy spot in a trench as a remedy.
The result is that when it becomes covered with mud it sinks out of
sight, and another one is thrown down with the same result. Then,
when an attempt to drain is made, much to somebody’s disgust they run
into a layer of floorboards, quit work, and the trench never becomes
drained. Patchy repairs to a trench bottom are as aggravating and as
useless as bad revetment. When only a few floorboards are available,
then they should be laid in one length and that length made as nearly
perfect as possible, until more may be had, then that length continued.
Patching here and there is of no use and never leads anywhere. Trench
bottoms are treated in different ways up and down the line, depending
on localities and materials on hand. In some places the trench bottom
is of concrete blocks and bricks, with a small trench ditch of about 6
inches running along the side. This is not a very happy combination,
as men traveling up and down the trenches at night with heavy loads
sometimes stumble, their feet go in, the trench ditch becomes full of
mud and blocked up, and your trench gradually becomes flooded up and
down its length, unless very great care is taken. Where time and labor
are available, long lengths of trench may be put and kept in good
condition and the trench question partially solved if two rows of stout
4-foot sticks are driven well into the bottom of the trench, about 3
feet apart. Wooden rails are then nailed along the top of the stakes
and cross-bars nailed and fastened to the rails. This work must be done
thoroughly, though, or weak places will occur and become very dangerous
for men traveling at night with heavy loads, as a fall through a hole
in one of these bottoms generally means a broken ankle or some other
accident.

In some parts of the line it has not been necessary to use anything
for a trench floor, the ground itself being sufficient, with a small
drainage ditch dug at the side, as in the case of those trench bottoms
covered with cement and brick.




BRUSHWOOD AND STRAW


Brushwood should not be placed in a trench bottom, except under
very exceptional circumstances, and, as a matter of fact, is very
seldom used, its value lying more in the manufacture of hurdles. Once
brushwood has been trodden into the mud it is absolutely impossible
to remove it, and there is no means of removing the mud and properly
repairing the trench bottom. Straw under no circumstances should ever
be put in a trench bottom, and when put into dugouts or shelters,
should be cleared out and burned where possible (which will not be in
front line) as soon as it becomes sodden or sour. The floor of the
dugouts and shelters must be thoroughly cleaned of all this old straw,
sand bags and bad soil before fresh straw is put in. It is possible in
large dugouts such as are found in reserve and support lines, to make
bunks out of wire netting on the same style as the berth in a steamer,
and in a modern dugout enough of these bunks may be made to accommodate
a company. In all German dugouts this is the practice, although it is
not possible in close proximity to the front line. Advantage must be
taken of what material is at hand.




WORKING PARTIES


The routine of a battalion which is doing, for the sake of
illustration, we will say six days in the trenches, is roughly as
follows:

Six days are spent in what is generally known as a Brigade Reserve,
which means living in the reserve dugouts or billets, depending on the
closeness of a village to the firing line. During these six days the
battalion supplies working parties to assist the battalion holding
the line in the upkeep of its trenches. Very often this necessitates
continuous work night and day for the men, more especially so during
the winter months. At the end of the six days they go to the trenches
and are in turn assisted by the working parties of the battalion
relieved.

These working parties may sometimes be actually in the front line with
the battalion that relieved them, or on the communication trenches
leading to the front line, or on the second line defenses or reserve
and support dugouts. This work is carried on under the supervision of
engineer officers generally acting under orders from their brigade and
divisional commanders. A request is made daily through the battalion
commander for so many men to form the various working parties for that
day and night, and the battalion commander keeping the brigade or
division informed of his actual strength, protects his battalion from
impossible allotments of work. These working parties are then detailed
with the officer in charge, and he is generally given sufficient notice
that he may have some idea of the task ahead of him. It is then to that
officer’s benefit, knowing the amount of men who will have to do the
task and what the task is like, for him to study out before leaving for
the place where the work is to be done, just exactly what he intends to
do and what sort of an organization it will require to do the work with
the least possible friction.

This is absolutely essential, as naturally men coming from a six days’
tour of the trenches and being ordered on a working task, are not
keen on the job, and when an officer has not studied beforehand what
he intends doing and how it shall be done, it winds up in endless
confusion, disgusts the men more than ever, and precious little work is
done.


RELIEFS. The total time occupied in digging trenches is generally
divided into parties called reliefs, usually of four hours. Shorter
periods than this means much time wasted in commencing work and in
delays; but, as a matter of fact, the time spent on the job and going
to and from it will run to from 7 to 10 hours.

In digging trenches, the usual extension is to two full paces per man.
Where there is little probability of attack the following method may
be adopted: Halt party about four paces in rear of the left flank of
the general line of trenches required to be dug; then form single rank,
march ahead of party to the commencement of task and indicate to the
first man his task, stepping off the next two paces for the next man,
and so on until you have your party all placed. This takes a very short
time and is one of the best methods. Allow the men to remove their
equipment, but do not allow them to throw it any place they like. It is
a general rule to place it about four paces to the rear of their task.
Where attacks are possible, rifles must be kept within easy reach.




TRAVERSED FIRE TRENCHES


The following is a method for extending men to dig by night a traversed
and recessed fire trench which is not already traced:

  1. Detailing a covering party to guard against sudden attack.

  2. Extension of the remainder to two paces.

  3. Number quietly down the line by 4s.

  4. Nos. 1 and 4 stop 2 paces back (these men then become traverse
       men).

  5. Nos. 2 and 4 drive in their picks (half way between themselves
       and left-hand neighbors and in line with their toes).

  6. Front rank to mark out tasks (Nos. 2 and 3 commence from the
       pick between them and mark out 7½ feet each way, that is, 2½
       pick-handles’ distance).

  7. Rear rank mark out tasks (commencing from pick between Nos. 1
       and 4 to end of each recess).

As soon as this is done the men commence work, the officer going down
the line at once to check any errors before they have gone too far.
While this may sound very complicated it will be found that after a
little training the men become accustomed to it and it is a very simple
matter. This method renders unnecessary the giving of many orders in
the dark once the men are extended, and prevents a great amount of
confusion. There will always be a slight amount of readjustment of the
work, such as the widening of traverses, etc., but it is easily done
after the work has been started and even after the trench has been dug
to some depth.




OBSTACLES AND ENTANGLEMENTS


The purpose of an obstacle is to obtain the control of the enemies in
respect to direction and speed during an attack, and to deflect troops
into areas favorable to their destruction by the defenders. They break
up the unity of action, deflect parties isolated into the best swept
fields of fire and hold them under close fire of the defenses. An
obstacle should be close to the defender’s position, not more than 80
yards away at the most. A system is now in use on the Western Front
where entanglements in front of trenches are placed approximately 20
yards from the parapet, as that has been found to be the distance at
which the deadliest bombing can be done. They should be sheltered
or screened, when possible, from enemy artillery, giving no cover
to the enemy and be so placed as to surprise the enemy. They should
not interfere with any counter attack necessary to be made and have
occasional gaps, which may be mined. Types of obstacles are low wire
entanglements, their height depending on the condition existing in No
Man’s Land; high wire entanglements, barricades, mines, inundations,
etc. Wire plays the important part in most of the obstacles now being
used on all fronts, and is generally used, first, as a trip wire
stretched just above the ground, or fastened in loose coils to short
pickets. Flares and alarm guns and tin cans may be used in connection
with this; second: a simple fence to cause delay and confusion to the
enemy at night; third: as a concealed obstacle in fords and standing
crops or long grass; fourth: as a help towards making hedges and
brushwood impassable, and as a wire entanglement solely.

The wire entanglements are the best obstacles, as they are quickly and
easily made, are very difficult to destroy and offer no obstruction to
fire in view of the defenses.


LOW WIRE ENTANGLEMENTS. Stout sticks, 36 inches long and 1½ to 2 inches
in diameter, are driven into the ground on level at 6-foot intervals.
These should be driven in at least three rows so arranged that the
sticks in one row are opposite the centers of gaps in the next. The
heads of the sticks are connected by strong wires crossing diagonally
from 12 to 18 inches above the ground.


HIGH WIRE ENTANGLEMENTS. To be effective, high wire entanglements
should prevent the enemy from crawling through it at or near the
ground level, and when possible, should be screened from enemy
artillery observation. This obviously is utterly impossible as far as
wire entanglements in front of the firing line is concerned, but it
is possible to a certain extent to screen these high entanglements
from observation in front of support lines and second line systems.
Under conditions existing at the front, the wire work is often and
generally, for very good reasons, of a hasty character, and it is best,
therefore, to limit the first stage to just enough to form a nucleus
of the whole entanglement, in order that the required area may be
covered by obstacle before serious interruption occurs. To do this, the
obstacle is best constructed in two zones, with a small space between.
The pickets should be from 5 to 8 feet long and average five inches
in diameter, being placed at irregular distances and with varying
heights in order to make more difficult the passage over them by means
of hurdles and planks. The outer pickets should be very firmly driven
and stayed to prevent the enemy dragging the obstacle away. It is also
nice to drive large nails into the tops of the posts with half their
length projecting. After the posts are driven in, they are first joined
diagonally, that is, from head to foot and foot to head, by winding
the wire around each post and securing it by staples. Each set of
posts should be stayed by four wires. There should be a trip wire 9
inches from the ground, or even less, running continuously round the
outer posts, and another one foot from the top of the middle posts.
The barbed wire can then be hung in festoons between the posts on no
fixed pattern and fastened to them. It must also be fastened to the
other wire where it crosses, by short lengths of wire especially cut
beforehand. Slack wires are of more hindrance when cut than taut wires.
Tight wires help the enemy’s advance by giving support to hurdles and
other methods used to get across these entanglements. One method once
used by the Germans was the carrying out of mattresses and endeavoring
to cover the wire obstacles in that manner, and had the wire been taut
it would have been a success, but as it happened, it was not.

The ground on the enemy’s side and within the entanglement, as a matter
of courtesy, is strewn with broken glass and tangled wire. The whole
system of entanglement should be under well-controlled machine gun
fire from special points and should be widest where the fire of the
defenders is least effective by night. There should be one sentry at
least to each 50 yards of entanglement.


ABATIS. A form of obstacle made by trees cut down and laid side by
side as close as possible with their branches towards the enemy is
used. These should be in a hollow and screened from view to make it of
any value. The butts of the trees should be firmly secured by burying
them in the earth, or by laying logs of timber across several butts.
Wire and barbed wire must then be interlaced between the boughs, which
should also be sharpened to points on the enemy side. Some of the lower
branches may be pegged to the ground, if thought necessary, to insure
the maximum resistance.


BARRICADES. These are used for the defense of streets, roads, bridges,
etc., and are made of any available materials, including furniture and
vehicles, either overthrown or with wheels removed, carts filled with
earth, railings, bales of goods, etc. Where trees are growing along the
roadside, fell them across it and entangle with wire.

It must be kept in mind, though, that passages are required through
these barricades to allow outposts to advance or retreat, that these
passages, viewed from the front, must not appear as openings. To avoid
this the barricade should be made in two parts, one overlapping the
other. Sometimes, where there is a gap in a row of houses, or a sharp
bend in the road, a barricade may be made in one part and a passage
round one end left for traffic.


INUNDATIONS. They may be formed by damming streams at convenient
points, specially in the valleys, or by damming up the arches of
bridges. In the latter case, care must be taken not to endanger the
stability of the bridge. The ditches of field works form a good
obstacle when flooded. Destroyed trenches in front of a breastworks may
be filled with water, and with barbed wire thrown into it, will prove
an effective obstacle.


FOUGASSES. These are used in connection with obstacles and are really
land mines loaded with stones, bricks, etc. An excavation is made in
conical shape with an axis inclined to about 40 degrees toward the
enemy horizon. A box of powder is then placed in a recess at the bottom
and on the box is placed a wooden platform or shield 3 to 4 inches
thick, over which stones are piled.

A fuse is placed in a groove cut at the back of the excavation. A line
of least resistance must be so arranged that by placing the excavated
earth on the back edge of the fougasse, the powder will act in the
direction of the axis and not vertically. A fougasse charged with 80
pounds of powder may be constructed in this manner to throw five tons
of brick and stone over a surface about 160 yards long by 120 yards
wide.

All of the foregoing are labors of working parties, as well as
construction of dugouts, carrying of supplies, ammunition, etc.,
drainage and building of the trenches and the many other jobs behind
the lines. Always, no matter how small the job, careful forethought
must be given to the planning and arrangement necessary to carry it out.




ORGANIZATION OF BOMBING SQUADS


Every infantry soldier must and does receive instruction in grenade
throwing. Some men do not possess the temperament and qualifications
necessary to make efficient bombers, and for this reason in every
platoon there should be a bombing squad of one N. C. O. and 8 men, with
a higher degree of training and efficiency as bomb throwers than the
remainder, although all hope must not be given up for the remainder.

These men are available either to work with the platoon or to provide
a reserve of bombers for any special job, such as raids, cutting-out
parties, and clearing trenches just occupied. Only the very best
men in each platoon should be chosen, taking into consideration
physique, courage and steadiness, although it is not always the big
man physically that makes the best bomber. The responsibility for the
training of these men rests with the battalion and company commanders.




TRAINING


The first step is to overcome a man’s natural fear of the grenade
itself. This is only done by explaining how it is to be used, the
method of lighting and the length of time taken for the fuse to burn. A
good idea is to have some of the fuses of the length used lighted and
the men told to count while the fuse burns out. Dummy grenades with
fuses attached can then be introduced and the men taught to light them,
observing carefully how long it takes for the fuse to burn down to the
grenade.

The second step is to develop accuracy in throwing. Normally, the bomb
should be bowled overhand, although it is certainly not wrong to throw,
but it has been found in tests that a man throwing bombs has tired a
great deal quicker than a man bowling them overhand.

Stick grenades may be thrown over short distances like a dart, although
this is unhandy and can only be done by a carefully trained man. Great
care must be taken while in the trenches in throwing percussion bombs,
as very often a man swinging his arm back to throw such a bomb has
exploded it in the trench, with disaster to himself and those near him.

Men should be taught to throw standing, kneeling and prone. It should
be impressed upon them from the beginning that if a grenade with a time
fuse is dropped in the act of throwing there is ample time to pick it
up and throw it out of the trench before it explodes, but this must be
done immediately.

[Illustration: A B]

A is a diagram of a bombing field where men are trained in practice
with dummy bombs. 1 is the target marked on the ground and having
the same general plan as a firing target, with Bull, Inner, Magpie,
and Outer, the score counting 5, 4, 3, & 2 respectively, or according
to the instructor’s taste. 2 is the first line, 20 yards from the
center of the inner ring. The men _must_ be trained to a high degree of
accuracy at this range. 3 is the second line, 25 yards from the center
of target. There are lines every five yards back until the 40 yard line
is reached, which latter is the extreme range for bombing practice.

At each range the men should practice standing, kneeling, and prone. At
35 and 40 yards bombing from the kneeling and prone positions is very
difficult and the time spent on practice here should not interfere with
the obtaining of great accuracy at the shorter ranges.

At all ranges the men should be allowed to throw any number of dummy
bombs, but should not be permitted to fatigue their arms.

B is a diagram showing the arrangement for trench practice with dummy
bombs. Small trenches are built on the surface of the ground by screens
of wire mesh covered with burlap or other similar material. 1 is the
thrower’s trench and is built so high that he cannot see over the top.
From this he throws, using a periscope for observation. 2 represents
part of a traverse and fire-bay, the front part of which is about 20
yards from the throwing trench. 3 is a section of straight trench about
25 yards half right from the thrower’s front. 4 is a section of curved
trench about 20 yards half left from the thrower’s front.

The general custom in the practice trenches is to give the man any
desirable number of dummy bombs, say 18; 6 for each trench. Four out of
six are required to be put in No. 2, and 3 out of 6 in Nos. 3 & 4. Men
must not be kept at bombing practice too long at a time as it spoils
both their interest and their aim.

In taking a line of trenches, it is well to remember that the attack
will take place on a relatively small front by a large number of
men, and therefore when the trenches are finally reached, there is
liable to be great overcrowding in them. This can only be prevented by
extending them along the trenches as quickly as possible, and is of the
utmost importance as heavy casualties will result from allowing this
overcrowding. To make this extending possible, it is the duty of the
bombing parties to work along to both flanks of the trenches and take
advantage of the temporary confusion of the enemy by obtaining as much
of his trenches as possible, thus allowing for the extension of men.
In a narrow trench the only portion of an attacking party coming into
contact with the enemy is the head, or what is known as the Bayonet
Man. The bombing party is composed of the following:

  1. Bayonet man,
  2. First thrower,
  3. First carrier,
  4. First spade man,
  5. N. C. O. first squad,
  6. Second bayonet man,
  7. Second thrower,
  8. Second carrier,
  9. Spade man, in charge of second party.

These parties will work up a trench until they come to a junction, when
the first party in charge of the N. C. O. will continue straight on
and the second party branch to the right or left, as the case may be,
and as they come on other parties keep working up behind them, and the
infantry gradually following taking possession of the line and starting
consolidation work at once.

Communication throughout these lengths of grenade parties is very
difficult with men extended in single file, and the attendant
confusion which accompanies such a stand.

A system is required which will enable supplies of bombs to be passed
up and casualties replaced automatically. This system cannot be laid
down on any cut and dried lines, but must be figured out before the
attack, with due consideration being given to the line of trenches to
be attacked and the difficulties which will be encountered in getting
supplies to that line, and it is only on the spot that such a system
can be worked out.

During an attack three grenades per man are issued to each unit
detailed to open the attack, and these grenades are turned over to
the bombers or used by the men themselves if necessary. When out of
grenades themselves, the men take over the casualty’s, and it is the
duty of a casualty when he is so able to, to leave his grenades and
ammunition to the care of some other man before “going down.” Small
depots should be established at frequent intervals along the trenches
from which the attack starts, with careful consideration given to
their safety from shell fire, if at all possible. Other depots must
be established in the support and assembly trenches, and these will
generally be supplied through a central station probably controlled by
a brigade or division.

Before starting the attack, every man and party should have had
explained them in detail exactly what is required of them, and
generally the following system is adopted:

    First bombing party of group--

    Two bayonet men to protect grenade throwers,

    First bomber,

    First carrier,

    Second bomber,

    Second carrier,

    Group leader (N. C. O.),

    Two bayonet men to protect the group leader and the rear of party.

                   *       *       *       *       *

    Second bombing party--

    Formation as above. The head of the party must be in touch with
      the rear of the first party. Officer commanding in rear of
      second party.

                   *       *       *       *       *

    Third and fourth bombing party--

    Formation as above. Second in command in touch with rear of
      fourth party.

    Machine gun detachment, if available or considered necessary.

The machine gunners are generally used at the rear of a party, so that
they can bring their guns into action from behind and sweep the top
of the ground around the trenches being attacked, in order to prevent
an overland attack on the bombing party. In all these formations the
number of men detailed must allow for casualties. Rapidity of movement
is essential, as crawling and stalking will give the waiting enemy an
advantage. The leading bayonet men generally move along the trench,
from corner to corner, in a succession of rushes, followed by first
bomber, and the thrower hurls as directed by the bayonet man. The
duty of the bayonet man is to protect the thrower and carrier at all
costs. Second bomber and carrier follow the leader, keeping one corner
behind to replace casualties. Each party must be regarded as reserves
to the party in front, and some method must be found every time a new
attack is carried out for giving the aerial service notice of trenches
occupied. If the head of a party is checked, that which has been gained
must be held by throwing up a barricade. In all attacks bombing parties
are supported by a party of sandbag men, under an experienced N. C. O.,
so that while bombers keep the enemy at bay a strong barracade may be
put up as quickly as possible.

This is generally done by placing what is known as a demolition tube
about 1½ feet from the bottom of the trench and in each side of the
trench. This will bring down enough of the sides of the trench to make
a good enough barricade for the moment, but great care must be taken
that while watching and protecting the barricade the enemy do not come
overland and drop in behind the barricade, with disastrous results to
the garrison.

Although the main defense of a line of trenches is infantry supported
by artillery and machine gun fire, parties of bombers should be
distributed throughout the front system of trenches. The best position
is in the support trenches close to the main communication trenches,
where they can make an immediate counter-attack should the enemy
succeed in gaining a footing. A bombing trench back about 20 yards in
the rear from which bombs may be thrown into the front trench, is a
distinct advantage.

The bombs stored in the trench should be kept ready-fused and with
detonators inserted. They must be distributed in a number of dry,
enclosed, as nearly as bomb-proof depots as possible, established at
frequent intervals along the trenches. A good type of grenade depot is
one built in a “T” shaped trench, slightly off the main trench.




EXPLOSIVES


Relative strengths of explosives: Gunpowder 5; cordite 8; dynamite 9;
guncotton 10; gelignite 10; gelatine dynamite 11; blasting gelatine
12. Guncotton is available in two forms, wet and dry. The dry, while
being utilized in making bombs, is mostly used to explode the wet
guncotton. For this purpose it is made up in one-ounce primers, which
are perforated in the center for a detonator. These primers are packed
in metal cylinders, each containing ten threaded on a tape. Each case
contains six cylinders. In this state, although not as powerful, dry
guncotton is much more dangerous to handle than wet, being susceptible
to both shock and friction.

Wet guncotton is that which has absorbed 30% of its weight in water,
and is made up in 15-ounce slabs 6 x 3 x 1⅜ inches, and packed in tin
foil and air-tight boxes containing 16 slabs each.

Whether wet or dry, guncotton, like other explosives, can be exploded
by one detonator, so long as the charges or slabs are in direct contact
with each other.

Dynamites include the following compounds: (1) dynamite; (2) gelignite;
(3) gelatine dynamite; (4) blasting gelatine. All of these are now
being used. Their advantages over guncotton are that, being soft and
plastic, they can be used in bombs where it would be impossible to use
guncotton slabs or primers on account of size and shape. Dynamite and
its compounds freeze very easily (42° F.), becoming hard and brittle.
In this state they are exceptionally dangerous, and they should be
thawed before use, but this process should not be attempted by any
one other than a competent person. Wooden implements should always be
used for cutting and piercing holes for detonators in any of these
explosives, and care should be taken to protect them from damp, as
when wet they become highly dangerous. Dynamite explosives are usually
supplied in parchment cartridges weighing two ounces, and are packed in
boxes of 5 or 50 pounds.

Lyddite and picric acid are both high explosives, used mostly in
shells. They are easily melted and in this way the shell is filled.
They are very safe and difficult to detonate.

Ammonal. A new explosive which is absolutely safe to handle, not being
sensitive to shock or even bullets. It does not freeze and can only be
exploded by means of a detonator. It easily absorbs moisture and should
be kept dry.

Cordite. Is made in strands and is the explosive used in small arms
ammunition.




BOMBS


There are three kinds of bombs: (1) _percussion_; (2) _ignition_;,
and (3) _mechanical_. It is not possible to describe every bomb in
use under these three headings, but the most typical are selected for
description, although it does not follow that they are all in use at
the present time, but will give a fairly good idea of what is required.


PERCUSSION BOMBS.

  1. Hand Grenade No. 1.

  2. Hand Grenade No. 2, formerly known as Mexican Hand Grenade.

  3. Rifle grenade No. 3, formerly known as Hale’s Rifle Grenade.


[Illustration: _HAND GRENADE NO. 1._]

_Hand Grenade No. 1_ consists of a brass case screwed on to a block
of wood, to which is fixed a small cane handle about half way up the
case. Outside it is a cast iron ring serrated into 16 parts. The upper
end is covered by a moveable cap with a striker pin in the center.
On the cap are the words “Remove,” “Travel,” and “Fire” in duplicate.
These are marked in red and can be made to correspond with red pointers
painted on case. To prepare a bomb, turn cap so that pointer is at
“Remove,” take off cap, insert detonator in hole and turn it to the
left until the spring on the flange is released and goes into position
under the pin; replace cap and turn to “Travel,” which is a safety
position. When the bomb is to be thrown, turn cap to “Fire” and then
remove safety pin. This bomb explodes on impact, and to insure its
falling on the head, streamers are attached. Care should be taken that
streamers do not get entangled. The bomb must be thrown well into the
air.


_Hand Grenade No. 2_ is similar to the above, except that a special
detonator is screwed in from the head, and that the striker pin, in
this case, is at the bottom. The detonator having been inserted in the
bomb is ready for throwing as soon as the safety pin has been drawn.


_Rifle Grenade No. 3_, more commonly known as Hale’s Rifle Grenade,
consists of a serrated steel case filled with T.N.T. and a composite
explosive. At the bottom of the case is a brass ring fitted with wind
vanes, which keeps in place two small steel retaining plugs, securing
the striker. In order to prepare this grenade for firing, the steel
rod attached must be put down the bore of the rifle. The safety pin is
then withdrawn, the collar pulled down and the wind vane given a slight
turn. The rifle is then loaded with a special cartridge containing
43 strands of cordite. When charging the rifle the bolt must be well
pushed home. When the rifle is fired, the explosion of the cartridge
speeds the grenade on its way and the air passing through wind vanes
causes the ring mentioned above to unscrew, and the two retaining plugs
to fall out. The striker is now free, and when the grenade reaches its
destination and comes in contact with the ground the shock compresses
the creep spring and the needle of the striker is forced into the
detonator, exploding the grenade.

Special screw-in detonators are supplied with this grenade, as well
as in Grenade No. 2, and care should be taken not to mix the two
detonators, as the Rifle Grenade Detonator is slightly longer, and if
fixed in the wrong grenade will cause premature explosion and much
sadness. These grenades have an accurate range of from 250 to 350 yards.


IGNITION BOMBS. The following bombs come under this heading:

    Hand Grenade No. 6.--Grenade light friction pattern.

    Hand Grenade No. 7--Grenade heavy friction pattern.

    Hand Grenade No. 8--Formerly known as double-cylinder light
      pattern.

    Hand Grenade No. 9.--Formerly known as double-cylinder heavy
      pattern.

    Battye Hand Grenade.

    Pitcher Hand Grenade.

    Oval Hand Grenade.

    Ball Hand Grenade.


_Hand Grenades Nos. 6 and 7_ consist of metal cases filled with T.N.T
and a composite explosive and are exactly alike, except that No. 7
contains shrapnel bullets or scrap iron, while No. 6 contains only
explosive. At the top of each case is a place to fix the friction
igniter, which is supplied separately. When these bombs are to be used,
detonator fuse and igniter are put in and firmly fixed. Before throwing
the becket on, head of igniter should be pulled smartly off.


_Hand Grenades Nos. 8 and 9_ are similar to the above, except that the
fuse is lighted by a Nobel Patent Lighter[1]. The _Battye Grenade_
consists of a grooved cast iron cylinder filled with explosive. The top
is closed by a wooden plug pierced centrally for insertion of detonator
and fire.

    [1] _The Nobel lighter_ consists of two cardboard tubes, one
        fitting over the other. Inside the top end of the outer
        tube there is a layer of friction composition; fixed to the
        top end of the inner tube is a forked brass friction head,
        which is held in position by a safety pin fastened through
        both tubes. Inside the other end of the inner tube is a
        small copper band, into which the fuse is fitted. At the
        joint of the two tubes there is a narrow tape band with a
        loose end. To light the fuse, pull off tape and safety pin,
        then press down outer tube and turn slightly. This lighter
        has a five-second fuse attached.


_The Pitcher Hand Grenade_ is very similar to the Battye, only
different in that it is slightly heavier and having a different patent
lighter. This lighter is somewhat complicated and special instructions
should be given before the grenade is used.

[Illustration: _HAND GRENADE NO. 7._

_BALL HAND GRENADE._]


_The Oval Hand Grenade_ is an egg-shaped cast iron receptacle filled
with ammonal. One egg has a steel plug and the other a flanged brass
plug bored centrally, to which a hollow copper tube is fixed to take
the detonator. This grenade is set off by a Brock fuse and lighter[2].

    [2] _The Brock lighter_ consists of a match-head and fuse
        combined. The head consists of a small cardboard cup filled
        with friction composition and covered with waterproof
        paper. With this type of lighter an armlet covered with
        match composition is worn by the bomber on the left
        forearm. To ignite fuse, first pull off waterproof paper
        and then strike head against armlet. Time of fuse 5 seconds.


_The Ball Hand Grenade_ consists of a cast iron sphere, 3 inches in
diameter, filled with ammonal and closed by a screwed steel plug which
has attached to it a covered tube to take detonator in the center of
grenade. It is also lighted by a Brock lighter.


JAM-POT BOMBS. In the early stages of the war it was found necessary
to make bombs on the spot. The material used was generally a jam tin
filled with shrapnel bullets, scrap iron, powdered glass and grass,
etc. This was exploded by 2 one-ounce primers, two ounces gelignite,
blastene or ammonal, and detonated by a No. 6 or 7 detonator, to which
was attached a five-second fuse. The time could be regulated by length
of fuse.


MECHANICAL BOMBS. _Hand Grenade No. 5_, known as _Mills’ Hand Grenade_.
Mills’ Hand Grenade No. 5 weighs about one and one-half pounds and is
in constant and steady use at the front, being the best known of all
grenades. It consists of an oval cast iron case, containing explosives
and serrated to provide numerous missiles on detonation. In the center
is a spring striking pin, kept back by a lever or handle, which, in its
turn, is held in position by a safety pin.

[Illustration: _HAND GRENADE NO. 5 (MILLS)._]

Detonators and percussion caps connected by a short length of fuse are
supplied with these bombs. When the bomb is to be used the bottom is
unscrewed and the combined detonator and percussion cap is inserted
in the space provided for it, the percussion cap being placed in the
boring under the striking pin. When this is done the bottom is screwed
on again as tightly as possible, using the special spanner provided
for this in each box. Before throwing, the safety pin is removed and
the bomb held with the lever in the palm of the hand. When the bomb is
actually thrown the lever or handle is released; this releases the
spring, which forces striker down on to the percussion cap, ignites
fuse, sets off detonator and explodes bomb.




GAS WARFARE


The use of poisonous and asphyxiating gases, which was first adopted
by the Germans in the Ypres salient in April of 1915, is now becoming
an accepted fact in the present war. It is to a certain extent in
one shape or another, before one every day of his life in or near
the trenches. Every one should therefore be well acquainted with
the various ways in which gases are used in an attack, as well as
precautionary methods to be taken in counteracting its effects while on
the defense.

In an attack there are only two methods which can be used--emanation
and shells and grenades. The emanation method can only be employed
under very favorable circumstances and in a few cases where rather a
long chance was taken, it reacted very badly on the enemy. The first
thing to make a gas attack successful must be a favorable breeze of
about five miles an hour, as if the wind blows any faster it does not
give the gas a chance to settle down into the trenches. The object of
this gas is to create a poisonous and irritant atmosphere, and this is
accomplished either by a gas forced through tubes in the direction
of the enemy, or a liquefied gas stored in cylinders under very high
pressure. To be successful, as before mentioned, the wind must be a
steady breeze of not much over 5 miles per hour, no rain, and the
element of surprise must figure very largely. The gas used must be
heavier than air and not allow of being held back by any protective
measures taken by the enemy. If the wind is too strong, it is obvious
that any gas employed will be carried too quickly over the enemy’s
trenches, so that it cannot settle to any degree which will allow of
its obtaining the desired effect. If the wind is too light, it will be
carried up into the air by local eddies, or may even be blown back.

For these reasons it is impossible to fix a definite hour for gas
attacks, as everything depends on the wind.

Arsenic and phosphorus compounds are used in the tube method, and their
presence can be detected at once by the smell of garlic. Should such
gases get into your own trenches, chloride of lime scattered freely
about will disperse them.

The gases used in liquid form from cylinders are a mixture of chlorine
and other matter annoying to the ordinary infantry officer and
soldier. If successful in surprising the enemy, their trenches should
be cleared at once, but if the element of surprise is not there and
time is given for defensive measures to be taken, the effect is lost.
In an assault following a gas attack, men should always wear smoke
helmets for at least 30 minutes after the gas dissemination has ceased,
and the assaulting party must have the strictest orders not to remove
their helmets until the officer in charge has given the command.

In the shell and grenade method of dissemination, shells and bombs are
used containing liquid gas, or a substance which gives off irritant
fumes.

It is easy to tell a gas shell when it lights as it comes down, the
same as a “dud” shell; that is, one which does not explode, the outer
casing of the shell simply collapsing. The liquid soaks into the
ground, and men should be warned against standing over this ground and
inhaling any of the fumes, which are very slight and rather hard to
notice but very powerful and with very quick action. When a man thinks
he has inhaled any of this gas he should at once be made to lie down,
not undergo any exercise whatever, and as soon as possible have him
carried out on a stretcher to the dressing station.


_Tear shells_, which are used in great profusion during an attack, are
for the moment blinding in their effect, causing smarting of the eyes
and a great amount of watering. This effect is only for a minute, and
the men must be impressed with the fact that if they continue moving
forward instead of sitting down and rubbing their eyes, it will pass
off almost at once. These shells are also greatly used against the
artillery during heavy bombardments. Adequate protection is furnished
in the shape of goggles to fit over the eyes, as the gas has no other
effect whatever.

As in other branches of military art, the best means of learning
defense is to have a thorough knowledge of attack. Thus, direction
of wind must always be noted, and if favorable for an enemy attack,
special observers must be placed to give warning and surprise guarded
against in every way. Sentries are specially placed in the trench,
and often in listening posts, to get early warnings of an impending
attack. If a sentry at a listening post discovers that a gas attack
is being made, he at once warns the sentry at the end of his cord or
wire, giving a pre-arranged signal. This sentry passes the alarm on
a Strombon horn, which is something similar to a Klaxton, and will
automatically give a warning which can be heard for 3 or 4 miles, and
which lasts about a minute.

When a horn is not in use, generally shell cases are hung in the
trenches. These are beat on by the sentry who is warned and taken up
all along the line. It is then the duty of that sentry not for the
instant to put on his gas helmet, but to proceed along the front line
waking all the occupants of dugouts, etc., who may be sleeping in the
area guarded by him. Every man without exception stands to in his
trench with his helmet on and will not reënter dugouts until first
given permission by officer or N. C. O.

These attacks are generally carried out, when possible, just before
dawn or during the middle of the night, and the only warning given
before the actual gas reaches a trench, is a slight hissing sound which
is made and can be easily heard as the gas escapes from the cylinder.
Great care must be taken when the wind is favorable for an attack that
this sound be listened for.

Any man wounded during a gas attack must not be placed in a dugout
or on the bottom of a trench, and even if considerable shell fire be
going on it is far better that he be laid out in the open on the top
of the ground, where he will have a far better chance than lying in
the bottom of the trench or in a dugout. After gas has passed through a
trench system, and before the officer thinks that it is safe to remove
the helmets, the trenches must be sprayed with a machine known as
Vermeral Sprayer. A man with this sprayer on his back and wearing his
helmet, slowly traverses the trench working the spray. This small tank
on his back is charged with nothing more or less than “hypo” (sodium
hyposulphite), about 6 pounds of which is dissolved in a bucket of
water and a handful of ordinary washing soda added.

Garden syringes and buckets may be used if sprayers are not available,
but their effect is not so quick.

When the officer thinks that the trench has been sprayed sufficiently
and all gas has gone, he may then allow the men to take off their
helmets, but not to reënter their dugouts until they have been
thoroughly cleaned.

This is sometimes done by fanning the gas out, sometimes by building
a fire and smoking it out, and by the use of the sprayer. Great care
must be taken that no one enters until every last vestige of gas is
gone, and it is generally well that the medical officer should inspect
infected dugouts before allowing the men to return.




GAS MASKS OR RESPIRATORS


The Box Respirator at present in use on the Western Front is the latest
improvement, and proof against any gas that so far has been used,
but should such a thing happen that a man be caught without his box
respirator, any of the following improvised methods are good:

1. Wet and ring out any woolen article, such as a stocking, muffler or
cap comforter, so as to form a thick pad large enough to cover the nose
and mouth, and press firmly over both.

2. Place in a scarf, stocking or handkerchief, a pad of about three
handfuls of damp earth, and tie firmly over the nose and mouth.

3. A wet cap comforter will be found useful as additional protection,
especially against certain gases other than chlorine.

4. A cap comforter wetted with water and soda solution or tea, folded
into eight folds and firmly held over the nose.

5. A sock folded fourfold similarly wetted and held or tied. If
the sock or comforter has been soaked in soda solution it will act
efficiently when dry, though, if possible, it should be moist. The
spare tapes from puttees may be used for tying on the sock or cap
comforter.

6. Any loose fabric, such as a sock, sandbag, woolen scarf or
comforter, soaked in urine, then wrung out sufficiently to allow of
free breathing and tied tightly over the nose and mouth.

In the absence of any other cloths, the flannel waistbands issued for
winter use could be used for this purpose.

Every officer defending a trench against an enemy gas attack should
endeavor to collect information whenever possible to be sent to
headquarters regarding the capture of apparatus used by the enemy
either for disseminating or protection from gas. If a gas shell attack
is made, unexploded shells or portions of them should be sent; the time
of day, duration of attack, color, taste or smell of gas used, effect
on the eyes, breathing, and all other symptoms should be noted. New
gases may be used at any time, and speedy information greatly helps the
adopting of protective measures.

The area of the gas attack is very large and will sometimes cover as
far back as 12 to 15 miles behind the lines, although at that point it
is not generally dangerous, but for three to four miles the gas has
a killing power, and precaution should be taken anywhere within that
length of the firing line the same as though in the firing line.

Another nuisance resulting from a gas attack is the wholesale slaughter
of rats and other animals that infest the trenches, and while a very
unpleasant job, steps should at once be taken to gather these beasts up
and bury them in some place, obviously for sanitary reasons.




DUTIES OF A PLATOON COMMANDER AT THE FRONT


GENERAL NOTES: The selection and training of section commanders is of
the highest importance, and a commander must assure himself that the
man selected has the confidence of the men as well as his own.

A platoon commander should know his men and all about them, and keep a
record in a book arranged in sections always kept up-to-date. This is
easy to say, but harder to do, when the platoon changes day by day.

He should know his drill and be capable of moving the platoon into any
position easily and by the shortest possible route.

He should know how to organize a task allotted to him, such as
delivering over a working party, placing a line of sentries, arranging
posts and reliefs, and occupying a line of trenches.

He should be able to assume responsibility for all trench stores,
bombs, periscopes, etc., handed over to him.

He should know the geography of his battalion trenches, the position of
company and battalion headquarters, and keep trained guides at hand who
can find their way to all important points by day or night.




GOING INTO THE TRENCHES


Platoons generally enter by not more than two sections at a time,
thus minimizing the danger from shell fire and delay at entrance to
communication trenches.

Before leaving billets, platoon commanders should explain fully to
sergeants and sections commanders the extent of trench to be taken over
and the steps to be taken in case they are caught by shelling or rapid
fire going up to the trenches. Arrangements should also be made that if
casualties occur among the soldiers, relief will proceed as arranged.




IN THE FIRING LINE


On relieving the fire trenches, the men should make no noise, and
rifles must be carried so that they do not show over the parapet. This
is necessary even if enemy’s trenches are at a distance, as there is
always the possibility of a listening or observation post being quite
near.

Each man should pair off with one of the party occupying the trench and
find out from him any points which may be useful.

A commander should consult the officer or N. C. O. in charge of
the outgoing party and obtain the fullest information possible in
connection with the position.

Particular points on which information should be obtained from the
outgoing officer are generally: (a) behavior of enemy during period
preceding relief and any point in their line requiring special
information, such as enemy may have cut wire as though preparing to
attack; (b) machine gun implacement may be suspected at some particular
point; (c) anything ascertained by patrols about ground between firing
lines, thus avoiding unnecessary reconnoissance; (d) any standing
arrangement for patrols at night, including point at which wire can
best be passed, ground to be patrolled, or place where they can lie
under cover; (e) any parts of trench from which it is not safe to
fire. Such positions are apt to occur in winding trenches, and are not
always recognizable in the dark; (f) special features of trench, recent
improvements, work not completed, dangerous points (on which enemy
machine guns are trained at night), useful loopholes for observation;
(g) places from which wood and water can be safely obtained; (h) amount
of ammunition, number of picks, shovels and empty sandbags in that
section of the line.

Information on these points cannot always be given by word of mouth.
Written notes and plans should, therefore, be handed over to a platoon
commander taking over for the first time.

In the meantime the incoming party should fix bayonets and all go
temporarily on sentry at posts taken over. Occasional shots should be
fired, so that the enemy’s suspicions may not be roused. The outgoing
party then starts back, and when clear, the relieving party should be
numbered off and sentries posted and dugouts allotted. When practicable
sentries should be taken from the dugout closest to his post.

By day the number of sentries varies, but should not be less than one
in six. The platoon sergeant is responsible for changing sentries, who
are generally not on duty more than one hour at a time, unless under
exceptional circumstances. When the maximum amount of labor must be
obtained from the battalion holding the line, sentry duty is of any
length that fits in with working arrangements.

Every man must see that he has a good clear position for all
directions. Section commanders must satisfy themselves that men have
done this and reported such. When these arrangements are completed,
word must be quietly passed down for men not on sentry to stand clear,
and they are all not in that position again until the “Stand to” hours,
generally the hour nearest dusk and the hour before dawn.

After dark, unless the moon is bright, rifles should be kept in a
firing position on the parapet, and all men not on duty should keep
rifles with bayonets fixed while in the trench.


OBSERVATION. Continuous survey of the enemy’s lines through disguised
steel loopholes should be made when the trenches are being held for any
lengthy period, and such loopholes must always be sideways. Sites may
be chosen by day, and made and disguised by night. Two steel loopholes
about 3 yards apart enable a man with leveled rifle to wait by one
while another with field glasses watches for target through the other.

An observer watching persistently through glasses in complete security
should make himself so familiar with the look of the opposite trenches
as to enable him to observe any alteration in the enemy’s wire
entanglements, or notice immediately if a new sap has been run out
from the enemy trenches under cover of night. He should watch points
suspected of being machine gun implacements, and especially at night
when the flashes can be detected. Observers should be told what marks,
etc., to look for on men exposing themselves, and any result of these
observations at once reported to the officer or N. C. O.


INSPECTION. A platoon commander should make frequent examination of
trenches; at least once daily, go around with platoon sergeant and
section commanders and decide on the necessary work to be done. Section
commanders are responsible for carrying it out.

Before handing over a trench, a platoon commander should make a
rigorous inspection to see that it is as clean as possible and that
latrines are left in a satisfactory state. This includes the removal
of old tins, paper, scraps of food, etc., which should be buried
or burned, if possible. Empty cartridges should also always be
kept cleared out, as they get imbedded in trench floors and hinder
subsequent digging.




SENTRIES


If the enemy is close, sentries should be supplied with a small
periscope to fix on sticks or bayonets. Magazines must be kept as full
as possible. Sentries are not allowed to look over the parapet by day,
but by night they must keep a continuous lookout. Shots should be fired
even when no lights are showing, on the chance of catching hostile
patrols or working parties. The best time to watch across No Man’s Land
is exactly the minute that the enemy send up a Very light, as there is
little danger of one being seen, the real danger coming when the Very
light is coming down behind you. Sentries should not reply to bursts of
rapid fire on the right or left, unless they have a definite object to
fire at.

Arrangements are usually made for commanders of two or three
neighboring platoons to divide the night between 10 P.M. and the time
for “Standing to” between them.

The platoon commander on duty in each watch should patrol the line
constantly and satisfy himself that the proper number of sentries are
on duty and keeping a sufficient lookout; also that they have good
firing positions. In each platoon the sergeant and section commanders
keep watch similarly in turns during the night, and are responsible for
the relief of sentries. They also visit sentries every hour.

It is a rule which must be strongly enforced, that every sentry
must challenge each person passing him, as it has often happened
that enemy officers with more daring than common sense and speaking
fluent English, have come into the trenches and walked up and down
without being molested, which was only made possible by sentries not
challenging every one passing his post.




RIFLES


Rifles should be inspected every morning in the trenches by the platoon
commander, and at other times during the day by the sergeant or section
commander, and it should be impressed on the men that ammunition must
be kept clean or the rifles are apt to jam.

The principal defects of a rifle in the trenches are:

(a) Mud in the bolt, owing to rifle being rested on wet parapet or
dropped on wet ground. To remedy this a bolt cover is used, or when not
obtainable, an old sock pulled over the bolt action gives the desired
result.

(b) Muddy ammunition, resulting in mud in chamber. Remedy: Prohibit
placing of ammunition on ground and provide proper boxes for it.

(c) Mud in muzzle resulting from rifles being pushed into the sides of
the trench. Remedy: Careful and frequent inspection. Rifle barrels must
be freed from mud before firing, or they will be injured.

(d) Sticking of cartridges owing to dirt in chamber and magazine.
Remedy: The keeping clean of both.

(e) Rust in the lock and insufficient oiling. Remedy: Bolt and magazine
tested daily. Cartridges never to be kept in the chamber.

It is a standard rule that never from the time men enter the trenches
until they go out, regardless of what they are doing, does their
equipment come off, not even to lie down to sleep. During working
periods which take the men to the trenches, their equipment and rifles
must always be carried with them.




PREPARATORY TO ENTERING TRENCHES


Things to be taken note of before entering:

(a) Check periscopes, wire cutters, field glasses, water carriers,
stretchers, field dressings, emergency rations, smoke helmets, rifles,
identity discs, sandbags, ammunition.

(b) See that water bottles are filled.

(c) Each officer to have an orderly.

(d) Magazines to be charged and bayonets fixed and unfixed beforehand
to insure proper working. When taking over the trenches, the first
thing to be done is:

(a) Ascertain position of officers’ dugouts.

(b) Arrange telephones.

(c) Check stores, tools, and reserve ammunition, and its position.

(d) Obtain rough sketch of front and number of traverses to be manned.

(e) See that entanglements in front of trenches are absolutely intact.

(f) Arrange for water and ration parties and find out position of
latrines.




TAKING OVER TRENCHES


On arrival each sentry is to have a periscope, the whole company to
stand at arms, and each platoon to have its own ammunition reserve
and all men know where this is. It is of the greatest importance that
every detail and portion of trench taken over be known, and also the
adjoining trenches as far as they affect the trenches held. Accurate
sketches of the trench should be made, and periscopes, prismatic
compasses and ruled notebooks are required. General scale is roughly
¼ inch to 10 yards. Drains must be watched and every effort made to
keep trenches dry. When large trench mortar batteries of the enemy are
active, men must be told off to watch for these bombs, as they are
easily seen, and many casualties may be prevented by timely warning of
their coming.

The fire trenches should contain as few men as possible, and work
should be done at night, the men resting by day.




SNIPING


Each company generally has specially selected men told off as snipers.
Strict discipline is necessary. They are generally on duty by day and
excused from night work, and it is the rule that they are either told
off to a definite post or given what is known as a roving commission.
These men must be expert in building loopholes of all kinds by day or
night, use of telescopic sights, periscopes, etc., the selection and
judging of good sniping positions, either for use in front or behind
fire trenches; expert in judging distances, in aiming and trigger
pressing, in laying fixed rifles for night firing, and in the fixing
and laying of rifle batteries.




PATROLS


Patrolling both day and night is of great importance, and generally
during the night each unit holding a front line sends out several small
patrols which frequently obtain information of great value and at the
same time counter the enemy’s efforts in this direction.

These patrols generally consist of an officer and four to six men,
according to the job in view. Sometimes on highly important work,
it is three officers and sufficient orderlies to carry any valuable
information obtained quickly back to a pre-arranged headquarters.

Bombs, revolvers and trench daggers are the only weapons of any value
on these patrols. They frequently carry out small operations, such as
raiding parties, cutting out parties, etc., obtaining from prisoners
taken in this way information as to what enemy troops are opposing them
in the line.

When a patrol is out every man in the section of firing line concerned
must be warned, as well as the listening posts, and this cannot be
done too carefully. It is not a sufficient warning to tell the sentry
on duty at the time a patrol goes out, as men cannot all be trusted to
pass on instructions, and generally word is quietly passed down the
line by an N. C. O. or officer in person, and never passed from man
to man. At the same time care must be taken to see that all firing
does not cease, as this is undesirable, obviously arousing the enemy’s
suspicions that something is going on. When these patrols have to lie
out in trying conditions during winter months, special dugouts should
be kept ready for them on their return.




DUTIES OF AN OFFICER


Some of the questions an officer should ask himself on taking over a
trench and keep in mind during his stay there, are:

1. I am here for two purposes--to do as much damage as possible to
the enemy and to hold my part of the line at all costs. Am I doing
everything possible to insure my being able to do this?

2. Do I worry the enemy as much as I might, and are the periscope
rifles, rifle grenades, catapults and patrols at my disposal organized
in the best way to effect this purpose?

3. Am I doing all I can to make my part of the line as strong as
possible?

4. Should the enemy succeed in getting into any part of my line, will
I be able to at once bring up a section of bombers for immediate
counter-attack?

5. Do I connect properly with units on my right and left? Do I know the
position of the nearest support, and the position of all machine guns
in my vicinity, as well as their lines of fire?

6. Does every man know his firing position, and can he fire from it
over the parapet at the foot of our wire?

7. Do I do my best to prevent men exposing themselves needlessly? Have
I ascertained and warned all my men of the places in my part of the
line, including communication trenches, which are exposed to the fire
of hostile snipers?

8. Are my sentries in the right places? Are they properly posted by
N. C. O.’s and have they received proper instructions? Are the sentries
visited at frequent intervals?

9. Have I always got a man ready to take messages to company
headquarters? Do I realize that I should at once report any information
I may obtain about the enemy, and that such information may be of the
greatest use to the highest commanders?

10. Do all my men know their duties in case of attack, especially the
bombers? If the enemy succeeds in working into my line at any point,
how can I best arrange for counter-attacking him?

11. Are there any suitable places in my part of the line which snipers
can use? Have I pointed out to section commanders the portions of the
enemy’s trench which each one is responsible for keeping under fire,
and where the enemy’s loopholes are?

12. Do I thoroughly understand the best method of relief and bringing
up of ration and water supplies, and do my men come up into the
trenches in absolute silence?

13. Do my men know their way about the trenches in various routes to
company and battalion headquarters?

14. Am I acquainted with the arrangements for access to the artillery
and for asking, if necessary, for their immediate support? Do I know
the location of the nearest telephone?

15. Am I doing my best to collect information about the enemy, his
defenses, his activities and movements, and especially about his
patrols at night? What points in my front particularly require
patrolling?

16. Are my listening patrols properly detailed?

17. Which is my best way to get through the parapet in order to go
towards the enemy?

18. Do I know the last order regarding the use of S. O. S., gas and
Zeppelin messages, and do I know exactly what messages to send?

19. Are the arrangements in case of gas attack complete and known to
all ranks? Do I know the gong position, and does the sentry know the
orders as to sounding it?

20. Have my men always got their gas helmets on their person and are
they in good order?

21. Are my parapets and traverses bullet-proof everywhere?

22. Is my wire strong enough and am I doing all I can to prevent my
trenches from falling in?

23. Am I doing all I can to drain my trenches?

24. Have my men got weather-proof places to sleep in?

25. Are the trenches as clean and sanitary as they might be? Are
live ammunition and empty shells properly collected? Have I made
all possible arrangements for the collection of refuse and do the
men realize that it must not be thrown over the parapets or in the
sump-pits for sanitary reasons?

26. Where are my small ammunition and bomb stores, and are they under
cover from weather?

27. Are all my rifles and ammunition clean and in good order, and have
all my men rifle covers? Are their magazines always charged?

28. Am I doing all I can to prevent my men from getting trench feet?
Have my men greased their feet before entering the trenches, and have
they a pair of spare dry socks to change? Do my men wear gum boots
when it is not necessary? Have I made all possible arrangements for
drying socks?

29. Are the orders as to wearing equipment carried out?

30. Are my men using as firewood notice boards or wood from the defense
or from the engineer or trench stores?

31. Are my men drinking water from any but authorized sources?

32. Do I know the name of every N. C. O. and man in my platoon, and do
they know mine?

33. Do I insure that my men get sufficient sleep?

34. Have I sufficient periscopes and are they in good order?

35. Almost always remember that I am here for two purposes. Do as much
damage to the enemy with the minimum amount of casualties resulting
from retaliation, and to hold my part of the line at all costs.

[Illustration: _PLAN_]

[Illustration: MACHINE GUN EMPLACEMENT

A type of front line emplacement with which an infantry officer should
be familiar, but which are constructed by and are entirely under the
control of Machine Gun Companies.]




HOW TO FIRE A MACHINE GUN IN CASE OF EMERGENCY


As a machine gun textbook is very dry, and it is difficult for a man
who is not of a mechanical turn of mind to obtain the most elementary
knowledge of the action from a book, officers should lose no time in
getting in touch with a machine gun officer and learn from actual
experience, how to load, fire and rectify simple stoppage.


LEWIS GUN. To load, put a full magazine on the magazine post with the
cocking handle forward.

Pull back cocking handle to its fullest extent, and raise tangent sight
unless the target is within 200 yards.

To fire, press the trigger and the gun will continue to fire as long
as pressure on the trigger is maintained. It will only stop when (a)
the magazine is emptied; (b) stoppage is set up. To remedy this (1)
take off empty magazine and put on full one, reload relay and fire; (2)
cocking handle stops in one of three positions. To remedy this one must
have a thorough knowledge of remedying of stoppages.


VICKER’S AUTOMATIC. To load, pass the brass tack of belt through feed
plug (right to left), pull back crank handle and pull belt to the left;
release handle and belt; repeat this process and the gun is loaded.
Vertical adjustment for sighting is obtained by moving elevating wheel
on quadrant of tripod, horizontal adjustment by tapping the rear
cross-piece. The clamping handle is in front of the cross-band of the
tripod. To fire, raise safety catch with first or second finger (the
safety catch is a strip of steel which is under the thumb-piece or
double button) and press the thumb-piece. The gun will now fire until
pressure is released or until a stoppage occurs.


STOPPAGES. There are four common stoppages, distinguished by the
position of the crank handle. Remedy: (1) Pull crank handle back and
belt to the left, let go crank handle; (2) open rear cover, take out
lock, remove bent cartridge from face of lock; (3) hit crank handle
down. If it will not go, lift it a little, pull belt and hit again; (4)
raise crank handle, pull belt, let go of crank. If not effective, then
put in the spare lock, but unload first. To disable gun, remove lock
and fuse from fire belt through the breech casing.




PREVENTION OF FROST BITE AND TRENCH FEET


These conditions are generally caused by long standing in cold water
and mud, or the continuous wearing of wet socks, boots and puttees,
and the conditions are accelerated when the blood circulation in the
feet and legs is interfered with by the use of tight puttees, or
anything calculated to cause constriction of the lower limbs. They can
be prevented or diminished by constant improvement of trenches and
reducing the time spent in the trenches as far as the general situation
will permit by battalion arrangements; by insuring that men entering
the trenches are warmly clad in dry boots, socks, trousers and puttees,
and that before entering, the men’s legs and feet are thoroughly rubbed
with whale oil. Provisions are made for the men on coming out of the
trenches to get warm shelters, hot foods and facilities for washing the
feet and drying wet clothes, and all along the line just behind the
trenches soup kitchens are kept where the men may stop on the way to
billet and get hot soup, etc.

The arrangements made when a battalion is going into the trenches are
roughly as follows:

The men’s feet and legs are washed and dried and then thoroughly rubbed
with whale oil and dry socks put on. A second pair of dry socks is
carried by each man, and when it is possible, battalion arrangements
are made for wet socks to be brought down from the trenches one night
and dry ones exchanged, this taking place every night. This is
generally managed by the men changing in the early morning, the relief
party for that night taking down the wet socks and bringing in the dry
for the next morning.

Hot water must never be used, nor the feet held near a fire. Where
necessary, and circumstances permit, long gum boots are put on on
entering the trench, while the men’s feet are still dry, and taken off
as soon as they prepare to leave and handed over as trench stores.

In some parts of the line, where conditions are very favorable,
battalion rest posts are formed as close to the firing line as
permissible, and men showing signs of suffering from exposure are
frequently attended to.




Transcriber’s Notes


Punctuation, hyphenation, and spelling were made consistent when a
predominant preference was found in the original book; otherwise they
were not changed. More than twenty possible spelling and grammatical
errors in the original text were found but not changed.

Simple typographical errors were corrected; unbalanced quotation
marks were remedied when the change was obvious, and otherwise left
unbalanced.

The hierarchical structure of the Table of Contents does not always
match the structure of the main text. Transcriber has not changed this.

Illustrations in this eBook have been positioned between paragraphs and
outside quotations.

The descriptions of the Nobel and Brock lighters on pages 108 and 110
were treated as footnotes by the Transcriber, who added appropriate
anchors to them in the text.