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[Illustration: THE FIVE CLASSES OF INVERTEBRAL ANIMALS

DESCRIBED IN THIS VOLUME]




                                  THE
                            BOOK OF SHELLS;

                              CONTAINING
                   THE CLASSES MOLLUSCA, CONCHIFERA,
                       CIRRHIPEDA, ANNULATA, AND
                              CRUSTACEA.

                   PUBLISHED UNDER THE DIRECTION OF
          THE COMMITTEE OF GENERAL LITERATURE AND EDUCATION,
                APPOINTED BY THE SOCIETY FOR PROMOTING
                         CHRISTIAN KNOWLEDGE.

                          THE SECOND EDITION.

                                LONDON:
                     JOHN W. PARKER, WEST STRAND.

                            M.DCCC.XXXVII.




TO THE READER.


In describing that portion of the system of Natural History which
embraces the VERTEBRAL ANIMALS,—namely, the Mammalia, the Birds, the
Reptiles, and the Fishes,—the arrangement of the BARON CUVIER was
adopted. In the present little volume, as well as in two others that
are to follow, and which, together, will comprise the INVERTEBRAL
ANIMALS, the method of M. LAMARCK will be adhered to. It is true, that,
since the works of that naturalist were published, many deviations
from certain parts of his system have taken place, some of which have
received the sanction of the highest names; but still, _as a whole_,
Lamarck’s System remains unrivalled, and the young naturalist can
readily add to the information it contains, by reference to the works
of more recent authors, in case he has sufficient inclination and
industry to follow out the subject.




           CONTENTS.


                                     Page
    Introductory Chapter                9

    Class MOLLUSCA                     14

    Order HETEROPODA                   15
    The Glassy Carinaria               15

    Order CEPHALOPODA                  16
    The Cuttle Fish                    17
        Argonaut                       20
        Pearly Nautilus                22

    Order TRACHELIPODA                 26
    The Marble Cone                    27
        Porphyry Olive Shell           28
        Money Cowrie                   29
        Diadem Whorl Shell             31
        Common Columbella              31
        Music Harp Shell               32
        Wide-Mouthed Purpura           33
        Spotted Scorpion Shell         37
        Variegated Sea-Trumpet         39
        Caniculated Pear-Shell         40
        Babylonian Split-Mouth         40
        Marble Turban-Shell            41
        Imperial Top-Shell             41
        Precious Scalaria              42
        Iris Ear-Shell                 43
        Dusty Neritina                 44
        Viviparous Paludina            44
        Lymnæa Stagnalis               45
        Horn-shaped Planorbis          46
        Red-mouthed Bulimus            46
        Mummy Puppet Shell             47
        Wood Snail                     47

    Order GASTEROPODA                  51
    The Red Slug                       51
        Woodlike Bulla                 53
        Nail-shaped Crepidula          54
        Mediterranean Umbrella         54
        Clouded Fissurella             54
        Hungarian Bonnet Shell         55
        Scaly Chiton                   56

    Class CONCHIFERA                   57

    Order UNIMUSCULOSA                 64
    The Horse-Foot Bowl Shell          64
        Oyster                         65
        Great Comb Shell               68
        Pearl Oyster                   69
        Hammer Oyster                  77
        Rough Pinna                    77
        Common Mussel                  79
        Giant Tridacna                 81

    Order BIMUSCULOSA                  82
    The Fresh-Water Mussel             83
        Heart-shaped Isocardia         84
        Wedge-shaped Donax             85
        Sheath Solen                   85
        Date-shaped Pholas             87
        Ship-Worm                      89

    Class CIRRHIPEDA                   91

    Order CIRRHIPEDA PEDUNCULATA       92
    The Smooth Barnacle                92

    Order CIRRHIPEDA SEDENTARIA        94
    The Acorn-Shell                    94

    Class ANNULATA                     97

    Order ANNULATA SEDENTARIA          98
    The Magnificent Amphitrite         98

    Order ANNULATA ANTENNATA          100
    The Sand-Worm of the Fishermen    100
        Blood-coloured Leodice        100
        Spinous Sea-Mouse             102

    Order ANNULATA APODA              102
    The Common Earth-Worm             103
        Medicinal Leech               106

    Class CRUSTACEA                   115

    Order CRUSTACEA HOMOBRANCHIÆ      115
    The Crab Tribe                    117
        Land Crab                     124
        Hermit Crab                   127
        Lobster                       130
        River Cray-Fish               131
        Phosphorescent Shrimp         132
        Opossum Shrimp                134

    Order CRUSTACEA HETEROBRANCHIÆ    137
    The Spotted Squill                137
        Common Cloportus              138
        Molucca Crab                  142
        Crab-like Limulus             144
        Water Flea                    144
        Small Water Flea              147
        Hairy Cypris                  148




THE BOOK OF SHELLS.




INTRODUCTORY CHAPTER.


In reviewing the first DIVISION of the animal kingdom, namely, the
vertebral animals, we cannot fail to have been delighted with the
wonderful and appropriate faculties bestowed upon each individual;
but, beautiful and well adapted to the use of their possessors as
these faculties may have appeared, our pleasure must be still greater
in tracing the powers with which those creatures are endowed, which
constitute what we have been accustomed to call the lower orders of
animated nature.

When contemplating the graceful form of the horse or the stag, or
the beautiful plumage of the feathered tribes, or when we notice the
terrific appearance of the crocodile, or the elaborate finish and
metallic lustre of the scales of fishes, we are led to expect that
equal care has been bestowed upon the rest of the organization of the
different individuals, and that equal attention has been paid to the
various instincts and powers that are necessary to their preservation;
but when we observe a snail, or a worm, and compare their more simple
appearance, and the perfect absence of what we have been accustomed to
consider the organs of motion, namely, feet and hands, we are apt to
look on them as having been created for some very subordinate purpose,
and, therefore, less carefully formed than the vertebral animals. How
much greater then must be our delight, when we find them possessed
of every power necessary to their state of existence, as beautifully
developed, and as carefully adapted to their necessities, as the
highest instincts of other classes are to their possessors. Nor is
their organization to be considered less perfect, because we are unable
to trace it in all its ramifications; the minute branches of the nerves
of the human body are, not only invisible to the naked eye, but even
to the most acute observer when assisted by the magnifying power of
the microscope, but we are certain that they do exist, from the pain
we feel when they are injured. Until lately, the _Infusoria_, those
microscopic animals that are found in infusions of vegetable substances
in water, were supposed to be possessed of neither nerves nor stomach,
and to be fed by absorption; but the ingenious experiments of a learned
foreigner have proved, that, instead of being without a stomach,
they are provided with as many as five or six: it is true, that the
nerves have not yet been detected, but we have a right to infer their
existence from their effects; so that these minute creatures, which we
have been accustomed to consider as nearly destitute of organs, are, in
fact, beautifully formed, and as perfect in their kind as any other of
the Creator’s works.

The second DIVISION of the objects of natural history, namely, the
INVERTEBRAL animals, which we have now to describe, are placed by
themselves, on account of their being without an internal skeleton,
consisting of a series of vertebræ, or bones of the back. This
distinction is explained in the introductory chapter to the Book of
Animals. They have been separated, by Lamarck, into Eleven CLASSES,
namely:—

  1. MOLLUSCA, (_soft-bodied animals_,) in general covered
        with a shell; as, for instance, a snail; or without a
        shell, as a slug.

  2. CONCHIFERA, (_shell-bearing animals_,) with a shell,
        consisting of two valves, as an oyster or mussel.

  3. CIRRHIPEDA, (_with feet like cirri, or hairs_.) The inhabitant
        of the acorn-shell, found on the back of the larger kind of
        shell-fish, &c., is an instance of this class.

  4. ANNELIDA, (_with body formed of rings_;) of this class
        the leech and the earth-worm are instances.

  5. CRUSTACEA, (_covered with a hard case_,) crabs, lobsters, &c.

  6. ARACHNIDÆ, _Spiders_.

  7. INSECTA, _Insects_. A perfect insect has always six legs.

  8. TUNICATA, (_enclosed in a case of a leathery consistence_.)

  9. VERMES, _Worms_. With lengthened body without divisions;
        for instance, worms found in the intestines.

  10. RADIARIÆ, (_radiated animals_,) with the different parts
        of which they are formed arranged like rays round one
        common centre; as, for instance, the Star-fish.

  11. POLYPI, (_many feet_.) The animal that forms the Coral
        is a Polypus.

  12. INFUSORIA, (_Infusory animals_.) These are found in
        infusions of vegetable substances in water, and are,
        in general, too small to be visible to the naked eye.

In the present little book we shall treat of the first five of these
Classes.

The Molluscous animals are, on account of their organization, placed
first among the invertebral animals, a few of the species resembling,
in some respects, the more simply-formed fishes.

The systematic arrangement of the Molluscous animals, considered
not only as regards their shells, but having reference also to the
anatomical distinctions of the creatures themselves, is a modern study.
In ancient authors we merely find a few scattered facts, the beauty of
the shells attracting their notice more than the value or nature of the
animals.

Although, at the first glance, the inhabitants of shells appear to
be beings of a very uninteresting nature, a due consideration of the
valuable properties of many, and the usefulness of all, will enable
us to perceive, that, regarding them merely in an interested point of
view, they are worthy of the strictest attention of the naturalist.
In the first place, the whole of them afford food for the different
species of fish, and other inhabitants of the deep. The Tyrian dye, the
royal purple of the ancients, was produced by the inhabitant of a small
univalve shell, of the genus Purpura. That beautiful ornament in dress,
the oriental pearl, is the consequence of disease in a species of
mussel, and the inner portion of the shell of the same animal, is the
well-known substance, mother-of-pearl. A kind of silk is obtained from
the beard of the pinna, which, in some places, is made into gloves. As
an article of food we may mention the well-known oyster, the mussel,
scallop, &c., and some of the larger kinds form no small portion of
the subsistence of the natives of the South-Sea Islands, and the Negro
population in the West Indies.

The _Teredo navalis_, or ship-worm, has, by its destructive powers,
ruined the noblest vessels, and rendered useless the timbers, on which
many of the constructions in harbours mainly depend for security; on
this account great attention has been bestowed on its natural history
and habits. The barnacle, which attaches itself to the bottoms of
ships, renders the planks so foul, as to interfere materially with
the rate of sailing of the vessel itself. These are only a few of the
useful and noxious qualities of these inhabitants of the deep.

The shell with which a Molluscous animal is covered, is absolutely
necessary to protect its delicate body from injury; this shell is, in
general, composed of much the same substances as bone; but the bone of
a bird, or quadruped, is formed by the agency of the blood, and the
particles of which it is composed are deposited by that fluid, and
again taken up and restored to the circulation, a circumstance which
does not take place in the substance of a shell. The shell is formed
by the deposition of layer upon layer, in the course of the growth of
the animal, and the ridges we perceive on many shells, point out their
periodical increase.

[Illustration: _Fig 1. Fig 2._]

It will be necessary, when describing the distinctions between shells
of different genera, to use several terms, which will, unless properly
defined, be, perhaps, unintelligible to young people. The annexed
diagrams will explain the meaning of those of most frequent occurrence
among the Mollusca. Fig. 1, represents a univalve shell; fig. 2,
another shell, of the same division, cut through the middle, for the
purpose of showing the columella, or pillar. Many shells, as, for
instance, the periwinkle, (_Turbo vulgaris_,) have what is called
an operculum, (_a lid_,) which closes the opening, and protects the
inhabitant from injury. In the case of the periwinkle, this lid is of
horny nature, but, in many species it is hard and solid, like the shell
itself.




CLASS MOLLUSCA.


In noticing the animal of a univalve shell, the part which more readily
attracts the attention is the mantle, which covers the head of the
creature, something like a hood; it varies much in form and size in
different genera. The eyes, which in the sepia are amazingly large and
brilliant, are very minute in most of the other tribes, although they
are frequently visible, and would appear, from their formation, to be
of little use as organs of sight; indeed, it is supposed, that in the
snail they are devoted to the sense of smelling.

The organs of motion in the Mollusca, according to their different
form and position, give names to most of the orders; these consist of
muscular expansions of the body, by means of which the animal swims or
drags itself along the ground. The gills, or breathing apparatus, are
situated internally, and communicate with the air or water, by means of
a small canal opening outwardly. The mouth is usually concealed from
view when the creature is at rest; in some, this organ is furnished
with a hard substance, which supplies the place of teeth, while, in
others, it is in the form of a projecting tube. The greatest portion
of these creatures are produced in the water, the tribes that inhabit
that element, exceeding by far those that are to be found upon the land.

The Molluscous animals have been separated into the five following
Orders:—

  1. HETEROPODA, (_with feet, or organs of motion,
        not uniform in all species_.)

  2. CEPHALOPODA, (_with feet, or organs of motion,
        attached to the head_.)

  3. TRACHELIPODA, (_with feet, or organs of motion,
        attached to the neck, near the gills_.)

  4. GASTEROPODA, (_with feet, or organs of motion,
        attached to the stomach_.)

  5. PTEROPODA, (_with feet, or organs of motion,
        like wings_.)


_ORDER HETEROPODA._

The creatures belonging to this order, says Lamarck may be considered
as the first vestiges of the appearance of a series of marine animals,
intermediate in their formation between the fishes and the Cephalopods;
they are all natives of hot climates, and possess a body of a jelly-like
substance, and so transparent as to be seen with difficulty when
floating in the water. They do not all possess shells, and are less
known than they otherwise would be, on account of the great difficulty
there is in preserving them.


THE GLASSY CARINARIA, (_Carinaria vitrea_.)

This singular animal is rarely taken, on account of its delicate and
perishable substance; it is found in the Southern Ocean. It will be
seen, on referring to the engraving, that the shell which it bears
merely covers a portion of its body, that in which the most material
organs of the animal are found, namely, the heart and the branchiæ, or
organs of breathing. These are most curiously placed on the upper part
of its body, projecting from it and protected by a delicately white
and transparent shell, shaped like a little cap, and of a substance
resembling glass. The creature is able to enlarge its body by filling
it with water, and in swimming the back is undermost. The shell, which
seldom exceeds an inch in length, has been sought after by collectors
with great assiduity, and has, at times, fetched as much as ten guineas
at a sale; a perfect specimen is very rarely met with. There is a wax
model of one of these shells in the British Museum, nearly two inches
wide.

[Illustration: THE GLASSY CARINARIA, (_Carinaria vitrea_.)]


_ORDER CEPHALOPODA._

The Cephalopods have been so named by Cuvier, from being furnished
with a kind of inarticulated arms which surround the head. We find
among this class some of the most singular productions of the waters;
they differ materially from each other, and have been separated into
three groups; first, those without any external shell, as the Sepia;
secondly, the inhabitants of a shell without any divisions, as the
Argonaut; and, thirdly, those whose shell is divided into numerous
chambers, as the Nautilus.


THE CUTTLE FISH, (_Sepia officinalis_.)

The Cuttle Fish, of which there are many different species, is a native
of all the temperate and tropical seas. Its body is, in general, of
an irregular oval shape, and of a jelly-like substance, and usually
covered with a coarse skin, having the appearance of leather. Unlike
all other inhabitants of the water which are without a backbone, the
Sepia possesses two large and brilliant eyes, covered with a hard
transparent substance.

The Cuttle Fish, figured in the engraving, is furnished in front
with eight arms or feelers, with which it grapples with its enemy,
or conveys its prey to its mouth. These arms are most curiously
constructed, and afford it ample means of defence; they possess in
themselves a strong muscular power, and this is materially assisted
by numerous cups or suckers, placed along the whole of their inner
surface, with which they fasten themselves to any object they come in
contact with. These feelers appear to be also endued with some peculiar
power, of a galvanic nature; since the pain which they inflict does not
cease for a long time after the removal of the animal, leaving a kind
of stinging sensation, like that produced by nettles, which remains for
many hours, and is followed by a troublesome irritation and itching.

[Illustration: THE CUTTLE FISH.]

[Illustration: BEAK OF A CEPHALOPOD.]

The size to which this creature grows has been variously stated; and,
although evidently exaggerated by some authors, there can be no doubt
that it attains a very considerable magnitude. When attacked in its own
element, it has been known, even in the seas of temperate latitudes,
capable of overcoming a powerful mastiff. The jaws of all this tribe
are, likewise, extremely strong, formed like the beak of a parrot, and
very hard. In addition to these means of defence, it possesses within
its body a bladder, containing an inky-coloured fluid, which it has the
power of throwing out at will, and, by thus discolouring the water, it
escapes the pursuit of its enemies. This inky liquid, when dried, forms
a very valuable colour, used by artists, and called, after the animal,
_Sepia_. The eggs of the female are of an oval form, and joined to each
other in clusters. They are of the size of filberts, of a black colour,
and commonly known by the name of _Sea Grapes_. They are found attached
to sea-weed, rocks, and other marine substances.

The Cuttle Fish generally remains with its body in some hole in a rock,
while its arms are extended in every direction, to seize the wanderer
that may chance to pass its place of ambush. Its appetite is voracious,
and it seizes as its prey every living thing that it has the power to
conquer.

The species figured in the engraving is very common on the English
coasts, and the bone which is enclosed in its body is frequently found
on the sands; it is a well-known substance, and much employed in the
manufacture of tooth-powder. This bone, which, with the exception of
the jaws, is the only solid part in the Sepia, differs in shape in
the different species, but is always somewhat oval in its form, though
varying considerably in texture.


THE ARGONAUT, (_Argonauta argo_.)

    The tender Nautilus that steers its prow,
    The sea-born sailor in its light canoe.

       *       *       *       *       *

    He, when the lightning-winged tornadoes sweep
    The surge, is safe; his home is in the deep.
    He triumphs o’er the armadas of mankind,
    That shake the world, but tremble in the wind.

The curious inhabitant of this elegant shell has, from the earliest
ages, excited the admiration of the student in natural history; and,
at the same time, its real place in the system has eluded the research
of the most acute observers. The animal agrees, in many points, with
the sepia, or cuttle fish, which never possesses a shelly covering, so
that, had it been found without that beautiful addition, naturalists
would have referred it, without hesitation, to that particular division
of the dwellers in the deep; it is, however, always met with along
with the shell; and, although there appears to be no bond of union
between the tenant and its dwelling, still the purposes to which it
applies it, imply, at any rate, a long-continued occupancy, if they do
not absolutely point out the Nautilus as the original architect of the
shell.

The name Argonaut has been applied to this sea-born navigator from its
resemblance, when floating on the surface of the waves, to a vessel in
full sail, Argo being the name of the ship, which was supposed to have
been the first fitted out for commercial adventure.

[Illustration: THE ARGONAUT, OR PAPER NAUTILUS.]

In calm Summer days, these beautiful little creatures may be seen, in
considerable numbers, steering their little barks on the surface of the
waters of the Mediterranean. The words of the ancient Roman naturalist,
Pliny, give a pleasing description of its habits. “Among the principal
miracles of nature,” says he, “is the animal called Nautilos, or
Pompilos: it ascends to the surface of the sea, in a supine posture,
and, gradually raising itself up, forces out, by means of its tube,
all the water from its shell, in order that it may swim more readily;
then, throwing back the two foremost arms, it displays between them a
membrane of wonderful tenuity, which acts as a sail, while, with the
remaining arms, it rows itself along, the tail in the middle acting as
a helm to direct its course, and thus it pursues its voyage; and, if
alarmed by any appearance of danger, takes in the water and descends.”

Although the Argonaut has never yet been discovered attached to its
shell, some observations which have been recently made on the Pearly
Nautilus, which very nearly resembles it, have almost proved that
such a connexion does really exist. But whether the shell is formed
by itself, or only used to assist the creature in its movements, the
instinct displayed is not the less wonderful, or worthy of observation.
The Mediterranean, and warmer parts of the Atlantic, abound in these
interesting animals, and one species is also found in the Indian Ocean.


THE PEARLY NAUTILUS, (_Nautilus pompilius_.)

The inhabitant of this singular shell had long been sought after
with eagerness by naturalists, and it is only within these few years
that its true nature has been ascertained. We are indebted for this
knowledge to the researches of the late Mr. George Bennet, who, while
engaged in a voyage among the Polynesian Islands, captured a specimen
containing a living animal, which was brought to England, and is now
deposited in the Museum of the Royal College of Surgeons in London.

The shell of the Nautilus, as may be seen by the engraving, is divided
into numerous cells. The use of these cells to the animal we are now
describing, was formerly not well understood, but they were supposed to
be employed, by their inhabitant, for the purpose of rising or sinking
in the Water at will. The body of this _Cephalopod_, it will be seen,
only occupies the outer cell of its habitation, its increased size
having rendered it too large to remain in that preceding it. If, as
the animal deserted its smaller tenements, one after the other, they
had been filled, up with solid matter, the shell would have become too
cumbersome for its owner; so that we have here another proof of the
providing care of the Creator. We shall describe, in Mr. Bennet’s own
words, the capture of this interesting object.

[Illustration: THE PEARLY NAUTILUS,

Showing the Animal, and a Section of its Shell.]

“It was on the twenty-fourth of August, 1829, (calm and fine weather,
thermometer at noon 79°,) in the evening, when the ship Sophia was
lying at anchor, in Marakini Bay, on the south-west side of the island
of Erromanga, one of the New Hebrides group, Southern Pacific Ocean,
that something was seen floating on the surface of the water, at
some distance from the ship; to many it appeared like a small dead
tortoise-shell cat, which would have been such an unusual object in
this part of the world, that the boat, which was alongside of the ship
at the time, was sent for the purpose of ascertaining the nature of the
floating object.”

“On approaching near, it was observed to be the shell-fish, commonly
known by the name of the Pearly Nautilus: it was captured and brought
on board; but the shell was shattered from having been struck with
the boat-hook, in taking it, as the animal was sinking when the boat
approached, and, had it not been so damaged, it would have escaped. I
extracted the fish in a perfect state, which was firmly attached to
each side of the cavity of the shell.” The hood has been stated by Dr.
Shaw, as being “of a pale, reddish-purple colour, with deeper sports
and variegations,” the colour, however, as it appeared in this recent
specimen, was of a dark reddish-brown.

[Illustration: SHELL OF THE NAUTILUS; AND THE SEA-PEN, OR INTERNAL
SHELL OF THE LOLIGO.]

Although this is the only instance of the animal itself having been
brought to this country, there is but little doubt of its having been
frequently taken, but as the shell was the object of the captors, and
not its inhabitant the latter has been thrown away as useless. An
office in his Majesty’s Navy found a Nautilus in a hole in a reef of
rocks, near an island on the Eastern coast of Africa; the mantle of the
fish, like a thin membrane, covered the shell, which was drawn in as
soon as it was touched, and the elegant shell was then displayed. “I
and others,” says the same informant, “when it was first seen did not
notice it, regarding the animal, as the membrane enveloped the shell,
merely as a piece of blubber; but having touched it by accident, the
membranous covering was drawn in, and we soon secured our beautiful
prize.”

Rumphius, a German naturalist, appears to have been acquainted with
its habits; he says, “When he thus floats upon the water, he puts out
his head, and all his barbs, and spreads them on the water, with the
poop of the shell above water: but at the bottom he creeps in a reverse
position, with his boat above him, and with his head and barbs upon the
ground, making a tolerably quick progress. He keeps himself chiefly on
the ground, creeping sometimes also into the nets of the fishermen: but
after a storm, as the weather becomes calm, they are seen in troops
floating on the water, being driven up by the agitation of the waves.
This sailing, however, is not of long continuance, for having taken
in all their tentacles, they upset their boat, and so return to the
bottom.”


_ORDER TRACHELIPODA._

The Trachelipodes contain by far the largest portion of the univalve
shells, and are mostly inhabitants of the waters. They form two
numerous groups, the feeders on animal food, (_Zoophagi_,) and those
that exist on vegetable substances, (_Phytophagi_.) The animal feeders
are well distinguished from the other group, by having a mouth without
jaws, being furnished with a tube which they can retract or advance at
pleasure, for the purpose of sucking their nutriment from the bodies
of other inhabitants of the deep. The animal feeders are also known
from the other section by the possession of a projecting tube called a
_siphon_, which conveys the water to the gills. The shell also points
out to which section its possessor belonged, from the lower part of
its opening being formed either into a sort of canal, or a groove for
the reception of its siphon. They are all marine animals, and breathe
water. The flesh-eating tribes compose five families.

  FAMILY CONVOLUTA,    (_rolled up like a scroll_.)
  FAMILY COLUMELLARIA, (_distinguished by a plaited columella_.)
  FAMILY PURPURIFERA,  (_yielding a purple colour_.)
  FAMILY ALATA,        (_winged_.)
  FAMILY CANALIFERA    (_having a canal at the base of the opening_.)


FAMILY _CONVOLUTA_.

The convoluted shells contain but few genera; but these are very rich
in species, and furnish us with some of the most beautiful specimens of
this class.


FEEDERS ON ANIMAL FOOD, (ZOOPHAGI.)


THE MARBLE CONE, (_Conus marmoreus_.)

Lamarck notices no less than 181 recent species of the Cone shell. The
Marbled Cone figured below, is found in most of the Asiatic seas, and
is not uncommon; it is of a dusky colour, and covered with angular
white spots. The section of this shell points out in a remarkable
manner the economy and providence of the Creator, so visible in all his
works.

[Illustration: _Voluta diadema. Conus marmoreus. Columbella
mercatoria._]

It will be seen on referring to the engraving, that the shell is
much thicker in the outward part of its coat than in any other part;
and this exceeding thickness is necessary for the protection of the
soft body of its inhabitant. In the course of the growth of the
animal the shell is enlarged, and that part that was external becomes
internal, the last made portion of the shell forming the outer wall;
if, therefore, the inner part of the shell retained its original
thickness, its weight would become too great for its possessor. To
guard against this inconvenience, and this useless waste of material,
the creature possesses the power of absorbing so much of the substance
of what now becomes the internal portion of its dwelling as is
unnecessary for its present use, and of re-depositing the same on the
outward wall of its mansion, where strength is most required[1].

The Cones, says Lamarck, are the most beautiful of all the univalve
shells; the genus comprises the most valuable and the most remarkable
specimens of this family, whether we look at the regularity of their
form or the splendour of their colours. The beauty of many, but,
above all, the extreme rarity of others, have given them a species of
celebrity, and have caused them to be much sought after by collectors.

[Illustration: _Oliva porphyria._]

The Cones are found in the seas of hot climates, in from ten to twelve
fathom water. The animal of the Cones has the head furnished with two
tentaculæ, or horns, with the eyes on the summits; they only inhabit
salt waters.

The genus Oliva is distinguished from the Cones by the groove or canal
which separates the turns of their spire, and by the wrinkles on the
columella. The Porphyry Olive is found in the South American Seas, on
the Brazilian coast, and is the most beautiful and the largest species
of the genus; it is of a flesh colour, with numerous lines of a reddish
brown, forming angular figures of various forms, and covered with
irregular-formed spots of a red or maroon colour. Its length is nearly
four inches. There are nearly seventy species of this beautiful shell.


THE MONEY COWRIE, (_Cypræa moneta_.)

The Money Cowrie of Guinea is very common on the Indian and African
coasts; and is used by many of the inhabitants of Africa as a
circulating medium; it is also employed for the same purpose in
Hindoostan, particularly at Calcutta, where great quantities are
obtained from the inhabitants of the Maldive Islands in exchange for
rice.

[Illustration: _Cypræa moneta._]

Many tons of Cowries are annually shipped from England to Guinea;
these having been originally brought from the Maldive Islands to
Bengal, and from thence sent into this country. The value of these
shells as a circulating medium depends naturally enough on their
greater or less abundance.

In Bengal, in general, from 2000 to 2400 are equal in value to a
shilling. But in Africa they are much dearer, about 250 being valued at
a shilling.

The Cowrie shell is found of three different forms, according to
its age. First, in its extreme youth, when the shell is extremely
imperfect, and is like a slender one, without any appearance of the
usual characters of the genius. Secondly, when half-grown; it then
begins to assume the form of the perfect shell, but is extremely
slight, and colourless, and the point of its spire projects. Thirdly,
when perfect; it has now received a second deposit of shelly matter, in
which its specific colours appear, and its spire is completely hidden.
The second deposit with which the shell is covered, is secreted by the
two membranous wings of the creature’s mantle, which, in the adult
state of the animal, have rapidly increased and become extremely large,
so much so, as to be capable of covering the whole of the shell, while
the deposition of the new matter is taking place.

Lamarck says the observations of the habits of this creature tend to
prove that, in addition to the power of completing its shell, as we
have already noticed, it can, when its increased size has caused it to
require a new habitation, desert its former shell and form a new one;
from this it happens that the same individual can form successively
many shells of different sizes, so that we find the same species both
large and small.

When not in search of food, these animals are found buried in the sand,
at some distance from the sea-shore, in temperate as well as in hot
climates.


FAMILY _COLUMELLARIA_.

This family is distinguished, from the next in having the columella
plaited, and a notch at its base. It does not include any shells with a
plaited columella, the opening at the base being entirely smooth, that
is, without a notch.


THE DIADEM WHORL SHELL, (_Voluta diadema_.)

The Diadem Whorl Shell is a very beautiful specimen of its genus; it
is marbled with white upon a yellow ground, but the markings become
nearly obliterated by age: it is as much as seven inches in length, and
is found in the Asiatic seas. The head of the animal of this shell has
two pointed tentaculæ, with an eye at the outer base of each. Its mouth
is a lengthened cylindrical and retractile tube, furnished with little
hooked teeth; it has also a tube to conduct the water to the branchiæ,
springing out obliquely behind the head.


THE COMMON COLUMBELLA, (_Columbella mercatoria_.)

The common Columbella is found in the Atlantic Ocean near the island
of Gorée, and in the West India Islands; it is about three quarters of
an inch in length. It is a sea-shell, and is found upon the coast; it
possesses a very small oval operculum attached to its foot.


FAMILY _PURPURIFERA_.

The notch at the base of the shells of this family is a kind of groove
bent backwards and upwards, but not properly forming a canal, all
the genera have an operculum. The name Purpurifera has been given to
these Trachelipodes, because some of the genera contain in a peculiar
reservoir the colouring-matter with which the Romans, and other ancient
nations, dyed their beautiful and well-known purple, which was so much
in use before the discovery of cochineal.


THE MUSIC HARP SHELL, (_Harpa musica_.)

The Harp shells are found in the Indian seas, and in great abundance
also in the Red Sea. A very curious fact appears in the history of the
animal of the Harp which deserves notice. It was observed a long time
back by a German naturalist named Bon, but had since then been either
forgotten or disbelieved: a recent traveller has confirmed its truth,
although he notices it as a new discovery; it is as follows:—

[Illustration: _Harpa musica._]

The foot of the animal has the power of dividing itself into two
portions; and one, namely, the hinder portion, can be separated from
its body by the animal, when it finds itself suddenly in danger, and
wishes to retire into the deepest recess of its shell; on this account
it is without an operculum, which would evidently be useless, as it
would be lost at the same time as the foot.

The Harps, says Lamarck, are very beautiful shells, and if they were
less common, would, on account of their elegant forms and colours,
become valuable in a collection. Some species, however, are still
considered rare.

The Harps take their name from the fancied resemblance between the
regularity and direction of the ribs on the shell, and the strings of a
harp. The species are not numerous, not exceeding eight in number.


THE WIDE-MOUTHED PURPURA, (_Purpura patula_.)

This species of Purpura is said to be that which was employed by the
Romans in dyeing, but many others of the same family yield a purple
colouring-matter. It is nearly three inches in length, and is found in
the Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean.

The purple colour which this little Molluscous animal produces, was
discovered by the inhabitants of the ancient city of Tyre, and was
thence called the Tyrian purple. The circumstances which led to the
discovery of it are very imperfectly known, but fiction has supplied
the want of historical facts, and described its origin with sufficient
minuteness of detail. According to one account, the merit of its
discovery is due to a dog belonging to a certain Hercules. We are
informed that when this dog was accompanying his master along the
sea-shore, who was then following the nymph Tyros, the animal seized
one of the Purpuræ lying on the sand, and breaking the shell with his
teeth, his mouth soon became coloured with the purple juice. The nymph
having observed the effect, immediately expressed a strong desire to
have a dress dyed of the same beautiful colour; and her lover, no less
anxious to gratify her wishes, at last succeeded in discovering a
method of applying it to cloth.

This colour was so highly valued by the ancients, that it was either
consecrated to the worship of the Deity, or conceived to be fit only
for the garments of royalty.

Under the Mosaic dispensation, the stuffs for the service of the altar
and the habits of the high-priest were enjoined to be of purple. The
Babylonians devoted this colour to the dress of their idols, and most
of the other nations of antiquity appear to have done the same thing.
Pliny informs us that it was used by Romulus and the succeeding kings
of Rome, as well as by the consuls and first magistrates under the
republic. The Roman emperors at last appropriated it entirely to their
own use, and denounced the punishment of death against those who should
dare to wear it, although covered with another colour. This absurd and
tyrannical restriction confined the dyeing of the Tyrian purple to a
few individuals, and, in a short time, the knowledge of the process was
entirely lost.

In the twelfth century, neither the creature that furnished the dye,
nor the methods which the ancients employed to communicate to cloths
the rich and beautiful purple which it afforded, were at all known; and
on the revival of learning, it was even suspected by many, that the
accounts which had come down to us respecting this celebrated colour
were entirely fabulous.

According to Pliny, the Tyrians removed the finest colouring-matter
out of the largest shells, in order to possess it in a more pure
state, and to extract it more effectually, but obtained the colour from
the smaller by grinding them in mills. He adds, that when the Purpuræ
were caught, the receptacle which contained the dyeing-liquor was taken
out and laid in salt for three days; and that after a sufficiency of
the matter had been collected, it was boiled slowly in leaden vessels
over a gentle fire, the workman scumming off from time to time the
fleshy impurities. This process lasted ten days, after which the liquor
was tried by dipping wool into it, and if the colour produced by it was
defective, the boiling was renewed.

Other colouring-matters were employed sometimes to economize, and at
other times to vary the effect of the liquors of the Purpuræ. Among
these Pliny enumerates _Fucus marinus_, or Archil, and the _Anchusa
tinctoria_, or Alkanet, both of which are still used as dyes. By these
and other means, the purple colour was made to assume a variety of
shades, some inclining more to the blue, and others to the crimson.

In modern times several attempts have been made to obtain this dye; but
the discovery of cochineal has rendered it a matter of little import.

In the year 1683, Mr. William Cole, of Bristol, being at Minehead,
was told of a person living at a seaport in Ireland, who had made
considerable gain by marking with a delicate and durable crimson
colour, fine linen that was sent to him for that purpose, and that this
colour was made from some liquid substance taken from a shell-fish. Mr.
Cole, being a lover of natural history, and having his curiosity thus
excited, went in search of these shell-fish, and, after trying various
kinds without success, he, at length, found considerable quantities
of a species of buccinum on the sea-coasts of Somersetshire, and the
opposite coasts of South Wales. After many ineffectual endeavours,
he discovered the colouring-matter, placed in a white vein, lying
transversely in a little furrow, or cleft, next to the head of the
fish, “which,” says he, “must be digged out with the stiff point of a
horse-hair pencil, made short and tapering, by reason of the viscous
clamminess of the white liquor in the vein, that so by its stiffness it
may drive in the matter into the fine linen or white silk intended to
be marked.” Letters or marks, made in this way, with the white liquor
in question, “will presently appear of a pleasant green colour, and, if
placed in the sun, will change into the following colours,—that is, if
in Winter, about noon, if in the Summer, an hour or two after sunrise,
or so much before setting, (for in the heat of the day, in Summer,
the colours will come so fast that the succession of each will scarce
be distinguishable,) next to the first light green will appear a deep
green, and in a few minutes this will change into a full sea-green,
after which, in a few minutes more, it will alter into a watchet blue,
and from that, in a little time more, it will be of a purplish red,
after which, lying an hour or two, (supposing the sun still shining,)
it will be of a very deep purple red, beyond which the sun can do no
more.”

“But the last and most beautiful colour, after washing in scalding
water and soap, will (the matter being again exposed to the sun or the
wind to dry,) be a much different colour from all those mentioned,
that is, a fair bright crimson, or near to the prince’s colour,
which afterwards, notwithstanding there is no styptic to bind the
colour, will continue the same, if well ordered, as I have found in
handkerchiefs that have been washed more than forty times, only it will
be somewhat alloyed from what it was after the first washing.”

Some years after this, Réaumur discovered great numbers of a species
of buccinum, on the coast of Poitou, and the stones, round which they
had collected, were covered with small oval masses, some of which were
white, and others of a yellowish colour; and, having squeezed some of
them on the sleeves of his shirt, in about half an hour he found it
stained of a fine purple colour, which he was unable to discharge by
washing. In repeating his experiment on his return home, he found it
was necessary that the cloth should be exposed to the direct rays of
the sun.

The difficulty of procuring and preserving a sufficient number of these
shell-fish, must always render the use of this dye very limited; but
Dr. Bancroft is of opinion, that it might still be rendered beneficial
in staining or printing fine muslins, for which purpose but little
colouring-matter is required. No substance, he remarks, will afford a
substantive purple of equal beauty and durability, and capable of being
applied to linen or cotton with so much simplicity and expedition.


FAMILY _ALATA_.

This family is distinguished, by having a canal of variable length at
the base of its opening, and by the fact of the right margin of the
shell changing its form during the growth of the animal.


THE SPOTTED SCORPION SHELL, (_Pterocera scorpio_.)

This curious shell is found in the East Indian seas, and attains
a considerable size, as much as six inches. In an early age the
projecting claws of this shell are very small, so that its appearance
is materially different from that which it assumes at a more advanced
period of its growth. It is known as the Spotted Scorpion Shell, and
is distinguished from other species of the same genus, by the knotted
and granulated appearance of its surface; the opening of the shell
is long and narrow, and of a dull violet red, sometimes brownish, on
which numerous transverse wrinkles are seen, either of a pure white, or
slightly tinged with yellow.

[Illustration: _Pterocera scorpio._]


FAMILY _CANALIFERA_.

The shells belonging to this family agree with those of the last in
having a canal at their base; but the lip to the right of the opening
does not change its form through age.


THE VARIEGATED SEA-TRUMPET, (_Triton variegatum_.)

The _Triton variegatum_, or Variegated Sea-Trumpet, a large and
beautiful shell, sometimes as much as two feet in length, is found
chiefly in the torrid zones, near the Asiatic coast. The attendants on
the sea-gods of pagan Rome are frequently represented with this shell
applied to their mouth by way of a trumpet.

    Already Triton, at his call, appears
    Above the waves; a Tyrian robe he wears,
    And in his hand a crooked trumpet bears.
    The sovereign bids him peaceful sounds inspire,
    And give the waves the signal to retire.
    His writhen shell he takes, whose narrow vent
    Grows by degrees into a large extent,
    Then gives it breath; the blast, with doubling sound,
    Runs the wide circuit of the world around.
    The sun first heard it, in his early east,
    And met the rattling echoes in the west;
    The waters, listening to the trumpet’s roar,
    Obey the summons, and forsake the shore.
                                        DRYDEN.

[Illustration: _Dolium perdix. Triton variegatum. Pyrula
caniculata._]


THE CANICULATED PEAR-SHELL, (_Pyrula caniculata_.)

This shell is found in the Icy Sea, and on the coast of Canada, and
attains the length of seven inches. The animal of the Pyrula is at
present unknown. There is a kind of keel or ridge along the edge of the
whorls, which is obliterated in very old specimens. There are as many
as eight-and-twenty species of this shell.

[Illustration: _Turbo marmoratus. Pleurotoma babylonia. Trochus
imperialis._]


THE BABYLONIAN SPLIT-MOUTH,

(_Pleurotoma babylonia_.)

The Babylonian Split-Mouth is found in the East Indies and the Molucca
Islands, and is about three inches and a quarter in length. It is said
that the animal of this shell, when in motion, has its foot separated
as it were from its body by a long thick footstalk, which arises from
the centre of the mantle, which is at this time turned back over the
shell. This separation of the foot has the effect of causing the
creature to tumble over frequently, from the great weight it has to
support.


VEGETABLE FEEDERS, (PHYTOPHAGI.)

Those genera of the Trachelipods which live on vegetable substances
have no projecting siphon, but possess a mouth furnished with jaws;
they are in general land-shells, and consequently, the air which
they breathe is conveyed directly to their branchiæ. Some of their
tribes however, live in fresh water, either in running streams or in
stagnant pools: among these, some breathe water and others air. These
last are obliged frequently to come to the surface for the purpose of
breathing,—others again inhabit salt water, and are unable to exist
out of that element.


THE MARBLE TURBAN-SHELL, (_Turbo marmoratus_.)

There are as many as thirty or forty species of the Turban-shell.
The Marble Turban, _Turbo marmoratus_, is the largest, being as much
as four inches across; it is found in the Indian Ocean. The colour
of this shell is of a brownish green, of greater or less intensity.
It is ornamented by eight or ten narrow transverse belts, consisting
of a series of white or brownish spots. This is one of those shells
whose substance, after the outer coat is removed, is of the nature of
mother-of-pearl.

The _Turbo littoreus_ (the Shore Turban), is the well-known periwinkle,
with which our rocky coasts abound.


THE IMPERIAL TOP-SHELL, (_Trochus imperialis_.)

These shells have received their name from their resemblance in form
to a boy’s top. They are all marine shells, and the apex of their
spire is always very sharp-pointed. In some places they are called
_flat-mouthed snails_. The greater number of these shells, (and the
species are very numerous,) are of a beautiful pearly substance, and
many of them are also elegantly marked with longitudinal ribs; there
are as many as seventy species,—the larger and more elegant are only
found in the seas of hot climates.

[Illustration: _Haliotis iris. Scalaria pretiosa. Neritina pulligera._]


THE PRECIOUS SCALARIA, (_Scalaria pretiosa_.)

This shell is noted for its rarity, and for the singular arrangement of
its whorls, which do not touch each other, and appear as if they were
only connected by the ribs with which the shell is adorned. Like the
turbans, the inhabitants of the Scalariæ are found on the sea-coast,
on rocks and large stones, between high and low water mark. The native
place of the Scalaria pretiosa seems to be uncertain; Lamarck, and
several others, believe it comes from the East Indies, while others
consider it an inhabitant of the Mediterranean. So great was the rage
some years back, to possess a perfect specimen of this shell, that
as much as twenty or thirty pounds, and even more, has been given
for a well-preserved specimen. Travellers relate that the Scalariæ
are much sought after and highly prized by the women on the coast
of Amboyna, and at Batavia, where they are used as earrings, and in
forming necklaces. They are, although rarely, as much as four inches
in length. It is said, that there was a specimen in the cabinet of the
empress Catherine of Russia, still larger; but the most usual size is
from one to two inches in length. A fine specimen of this shell ought
to be semi-transparent like porcelain, of a light brown, tinged with
rose-colour, and the ribs of a beautiful opaque white.


THE IRIS EAR-SHELL, (_Haliotis Iris_.)

The _Haliotides_, or sea-ears, are very splendid shells; the species
are numerous, and some of them are extremely common. The place in the
system which this shell ought to occupy, appears to have caused many
doubts in the minds of modern naturalists, and consequently, we find it
continually shifted from one part to another in the different works of
Lamarck and Cuvier. When moving from place to place in search of food,
the animal and its shell present a very pleasing sight, the slender
tentacula which appear through the different holes which ornament
the margin of the shell, gracefully waving in all directions; these
tentacula are supposed to be breathing-tubes. In the young shell, the
number of perforations is not so great as in an adult, one being formed
at each progressive stage of the creature’s growth. Sometimes the holes
which were first formed become, by age, filled up. The proportions of
the shell, also, vary materially, so as to render the separation of
species very difficult and uncertain.


THE DUSTY NERITINA, (_Neritina pulligera_.)

This shell is found in the rivers of India, and is about an inch and
a quarter in length. All the species of this genus are supposed to
inhabit fresh water only. There is a curious fact attached to the
history of the Neritina, and of a neighbouring genus, Nerita,—namely,
that when found in a fossil state, their colours are always in good
preservation. The species, which are tolerably numerous, are in general
natives of hot climates.


THE VIVIPAROUS PALUDINA, (_Paludina vivipara_.)

The animal of the genus Paludina is an inhabitant of fresh waters: it
takes its specific name from the fact of the young being hatched within
the parent shell, and deposited in the waters perfectly formed. In
nearly the whole of this class the eggs are laid either in water or in
the earth, and afterwards hatched after a longer or shorter period.

[Illustration: _Planorbis corneus. Paludina vivipara. Lymnæa
stagnalis._]

These shells are found generally in running streams of fresh water;
sometimes, however, they are met with in brackish water, at the
mouths of rivers. The operculum of the Paludina is of a strong horny
substance. The young, immediately they are hatched, attach themselves
to the outside of the shell of the mother, where they remain until they
are sufficiently strong to trust themselves in the water.


LYMNÆA STAGNALIS.

The _Lymnæa stagnalis_ is found in stagnant waters, particularly narrow
ditches, in great abundance. As it breathes air, it is necessary for
its existence that it should frequently resort to the surface of the
water; and consequently, we find these shells floating about in great
numbers, with the body partly out of the shell. The least appearance
of danger causes a Lymnæa to withdraw the whole of its body into
its shelly covering; and as this increases its specific gravity, it
instantly sinks to the bottom, where it remains in safety. In order
to reach the surface again, it is obliged to crawl to the side of the
ditch, and when it has reached the level of the water, it again trusts
its little bark to the mercy of the winds and stream, for it has very
little power to direct its own course.

During the Winter, these creatures remain at the bottom, buried in the
mud, and in a state of torpor. Although apparently useless to mankind,
they form part of the subsistence of many water-birds, and of fishes,
which are extremely fond of them. The species of this shell are not
easily decided, since they bear so great a resemblance to each other.


THE HORN-SHAPED PLANORBIS,

(_Planorbis corneus_.)

The _Planorbis_, although differing in form from the Lymnæa, possesses
the same habits, and is found in the same localities. The jelly-like
substance which is frequently found, in the Spring of the year,
attached to water-cresses and other aquatic plants, and which is
considered by many to be of a poisonous nature, and looked on as the
spawn of toads, is merely the covering of the ova of this and other
inhabitants of fresh-water shells; and, although very disagreeable,
certainly not poisonous.


THE RED-MOUTHED BULIMUS, (_Bulimus hæmastomus_.)

The _Bulimus hæmastomus_ is a most beautiful shell; it is a native of
Guiana, and is frequently as much as four inches in length. The most
singular part of its natural history is the large size of the egg of
the animal in comparison with its magnitude; it is said to equal that
of a moderate-sized pigeon.

[Illustration: _Bulimus hæmastomus. Pupa mummia._]


THE MUMMY PUPPET SHELL, (_Pupa mummia_.)

The _Pupa mummia_ is found in the Antilles; it takes its name from the
singularity of its form, which very much resembles that of a mummy.

The Pupa is essentially a land-shell, living among grass, on stones,
and sometimes in places much exposed to the heat of the sun. The
greater number of the species, which are very numerous, are natives of
tropical countries; there are, however, several found in Germany, and
other parts of the Continent, but they are extremely small.


THE WOOD SNAIL, (_Helix nemoralis_.)

The Snail (_Helix_) is an animal well-known in every part of the globe,
and its species are still extremely numerous, although many shells
which belonged to this tribe, under the Linnæan arrangement, have been
placed in other divisions. The head of the Snail is furnished with
two pair of tentacula, or feelers; these, unlike similar appendices
in other Mollusca, are retractile; that is, they can be withdrawn
into the body at the will of the animal. The use of these tentacula
is uncertain. At the top of each of the longest pair we find a black
spot; these spots have been supposed to be the eyes of the animal,
and a celebrated anatomist says, that he has discovered in them all
the component parts of perfect eyes. However this may be, the animal
appears to use them rather as organs of touch than of sight. Some
writers suspect that the sense of smell resides in one or both pairs of
these appendages.

The uses to which Snails are applied are not many; some of the larger
kinds, however, are, in some countries, employed as food. The Romans,
according to Pliny, consumed large quantities, and considered them in
the light of delicacies, and considerable pains were taken in fattening
them for the table. Those from Sicily and the Balearic Islands were in
great request, and attained a very large size. Some authors say they
are still used as food in several parts of the Continent.

[Illustration: _Helix nemoralis._]

In Paris, London, and many large towns, great numbers of Snails are
frequently brought to market; but these are not employed as food, but
used medicinally by persons suffering under consumption, and other
diseases of the chest.

It was already known that polypi, and some species of worms, could have
portions of their body cut off, and that the parts removed would be
afterwards reproduced; and as these animals had no well distinguished
extremities, such as heads or limbs, the fact, although singular, was
not disputed; but, when it was asserted by Spallanzani, that Snails,
which have a very well defined series of parts, could, after the head
was removed, reproduce that portion of the body, the scientific world
became naturally incredulous, and numerous experiments were made,
and thousands of Snails slaughtered, to ascertain the fact. No one,
however, for a length of time, could succeed;—it was then suspected
that Spallanzani had only removed a portion of the head. At length,
it would appear, from the experiments of M. G. Tarenne (an account of
which appeared in 1808), that these creatures could actually reproduce
a complete head. He gives as a reason of the want of success of others,
the little precaution taken to provide the mutilated Snails with proper
nourishment. The new head, according to him, is perfect in about two
years after the old head has been removed.

M. Tarenne says, that after having cut off the heads of two hundred
Snails, he threw them all into a moist spot at the end of his garden,
that they might obtain the nourishment most fitted for them (how they
could eat without their heads he does not say); at the end of the
Summer he examined all the mutilated Snails he could find, and he
discovered that they all had a new head, about the size of a grain
of coffee; they had four small tentacula, a mouth, and lips; at the
end of the following Summer, the heads were perfectly reproduced, and
like the original head, with the exception of the skin, which was more
delicate. “After this experiment,” says a French author, “we cannot
doubt that the entire head of a Snail can be regenerated after it has
been removed; however, I cannot disguise the fact, that I have a kind
of repugnance at admitting the matter to be entirely beyond dispute.”

If the advantages bestowed on man by Snails are not numerous, the
disadvantages, or rather inconveniences, produced by them are very
considerable; they are particularly destructive in orchards and
kitchen-gardens. On this account, many methods have been recommended
for the purpose of destroying them. Although many of these are
tolerably successful, there is no plan more likely to keep the breed
of Snails under, particularly in enclosed gardens, than that of early
rising and gathering them, if we may so express ourselves, while the
dew is yet on the grass: if the shells are then broken, they become
excellent food for poultry. Ducks may sometimes be allowed to wander
in the garden, as they do but little damage to the vegetation, and are
great destroyers both of Snails and slugs.

A singular account of the instinct of Snails is, perhaps, worth
recording.

The garden of a small house, by the side of one of the roads leading
into London, was much infested by a colony of Snails; the proprietor of
this house, desirous of getting rid of the pest, and yet unwilling to
kill the Snails, collected them, and threw them unharmed into the road;
but still, he every morning discovered as many Snails among his pinks
and tulips as he had removed the previous day; this somewhat puzzled
him, until once, on leaving his house early, he perceived the Snails
which he had but an hour before thrown into the dusty road, moving, not
in a body, but each from the spot on which it was thrown, in a direct
line from that spot to the low wall which encompassed the garden, as
if they comprehended the mathematical fact that, “a straight line is
the nearest way from one given point to another.” How were these Snails
aware that by moving in that direction, they should arrive at a green
spot? From the road nothing could be visible to them but dust,—from
the path, nothing but the wall in front,—but still, although the
whole of their path was covered with dust, they proceeded steadily on,
until they had surmounted the wall, and reached their old quarters. By
what other faculty were they guided but that instinct which supplies
the place of the higher powers of the mind, and which is imparted with
so liberal a hand to the meanest creature in nature?


_ORDER GASTEROPODA._

The Gasteropods are so called from two Greek words, meaning belly and
foot, because the foot, or organ of motion of the animals of which
this order consists, is attached to the whole of the under part of the
creature, or rather, the belly or under part is itself the foot, and is
for that purpose broad and flat. The Gasteropods are also distinguished
from the last order by having a straight body, in no case spiral,
and never possessing a shell capable of enclosing the whole body; in
some cases, the body is completely naked, and without the protecting
covering of any shell whatever.


THE RED SLUG, (_Limax rufus_.)

The Common Slug is a good example of an individual of this order,
entirely wanting a shell. The Slugs, like the snails, are found in all
countries; they are equally destructive to vegetation, but as yet have
never been used by man for any useful purpose, if we except the fact
of their sometimes becoming the food of ducks and poultry. The _Limax
rufus_, Red, or more properly brown, Slug, for the colour is of a
reddish-brown, varying in intensity to such an extent as to render it
impossible to find two specimens of the same colour, is more commonly
found in fields than in gardens.

[Illustration: _Limax rufus._]

There are many species of the Slug; but they are not well defined, on
account of the variable nature of their colour; the black and the brown
kinds are, however, pretty well known: the black, in particular, is
very destructive in kitchen-gardens, and commits great havoc in fields
of cabbages and turnips.

In one or two species, the buckler, or smooth space near the head,
contains a very small oval shell.

There is a very singular species of Slug found in Teneriffe, under
stones in moist places, it is not more than an inch and a quarter in
length; it is called _Limax noctiluca_, the night-shining Slug. The
buckler, in this species, is very narrow, and covered with pores, which
exude a kind of viscous substance, which has the property of shining
with a phosphorescent light, like that of the glow-worm.

We may have some idea of the rapid increase of Slugs, by a fact
mentioned by Dr. Leech, that two individuals of a small species have
laid as many as seven hundred and sixty-six eggs; and these eggs were
dried in an oven without destroying their vital powers, since, on being
placed in a damp situation, they were afterwards hatched.

The following plan of taking and destroying Slugs was resorted to by
a gentleman near Ipswich. Having heard that turnips were employed to
entice Slugs from wheat, he caused a sufficient quantity to dress eight
acres to be got together, and then, the tops being divided and the
apples sliced, he directed the pieces to be laid separately, dressing
two rows with them, and omitting two, alternately, till the whole field
of eight acres was gone over. On the following morning, he employed two
women to examine the tops and slices, and free them from the Slugs,
which they threw into a measure: and when cleared, they were laid
on those rows that had been omitted the day before. It was observed
invariably, that in the rows dressed with the turnips, no Slugs were
to be found upon the wheat, or crawling upon the land, though they
abounded upon the turnips; while, on the undressed rows, they were to
be seen in great numbers, both 011 the wheat and on the ground. The
quantity of Slugs thus collected was nearly a bushel.


THE WOODLIKE BULLA, (_Bulla lignaria_.)

The animal of the _Bulla_ is singular, from possessing-within its
stomach three pieces of a substance resembling bone; these give that
organ the power of crushing or grinding the food, forming a kind
of gizzard. The bony portion of this stomach is represented in the
foreground in the engraving. The Bulla lignaria is about two inches
and a half in length, and is found in the European seas; Lamarck
mentions as many as eleven species.

[Illustration: _Bulla lignaria._]


THE NAIL-SHAPED CREPIDULA,

(_Crepidula unguiformis_.)

The genus _Crepidula_ takes its name from its hearing some resemblance
to a little shoe; none of the species are found in Europe. Of these
there are about six, but they are all confined to the seas of warm
climates.


THE MEDITERRANEAN UMBRELLA,

(_Umbrella Mediterranea_.)

The _Umbrella Mediterranea_, as its name implies, is found in the
Mediterranean, and in the Gulf of Tarento. The shell of the Umbrella is
singular, from the lower part of its circumference being surrounded by
a border of a substance much softer than the shell itself.


THE CLOUDED FISSURELLA, (_Fissurella nimbosa_.)

The _Fissurella nimbosa_ is found in various and distant parts of the
world,—in the north of Europe, the western coast of Africa, &c. It is
rather a handsome shell, which seldom exceeds an inch and a half in
length.

[Illustration:

  _Umbrella      Crepidula    Fissurella
   Mediterranea. unguiformis. nimbosa._

]

The Fissurella very much resembles our limpet, but differs from it by
having a small, rather oval-formed hole in the summit of the shell,
affording a passage to a small canal through which the water is
discharged, after having passed over the branchiæ.


THE HUNGARIAN BONNET SHELL,

(_Pileopsis Ungarica_.)

The _Pileopsis Ungarica_ is extremely elegant both in its form and
markings; it is of a delicate white, slightly tinged, internally, with
rose-colour. The animal attaches itself to rocks, between high and low
water mark, and very rarely, if ever, changes its situation, unless
removed by accident, when it is driven about by the waves, until the
creature, being thrown on a rock in a favourable situation, attaches
itself firmly to the surface.

[Illustration: _Pileopsis Ungarica._]


THE SCALY CHITON, (_Chiton squamosus_.)

The _Chitons_ differ so much from all other shell-bearing animals in
the arrangement of their shelly covering, that they have been placed
by different naturalists in various parts of their system. Lamarck,
in referring to these animals, has placed them near the end of the
Mollusca.

[Illustration: _Chiton squamosus._]

“Although,” says Lamarck, “when we examine this creature, and observe
the several pieces of which its shell is composed, attached to the
marginal membrane of the mantle which surrounds them, it appears not
a univalve, but a multivalve shell; yet these shelly pieces ought not
to be regarded in any other light than as a lengthened shell of one
piece, which Nature had originally broken transversely into several
distinct moveable pieces, to give greater freedom to the animal in its
movements.”

The Chitons, like the neighbouring genera, frequent the rocks between
high and low water mark, but are much more active in their movements.
Poli, a learned Neapolitan, in describing the anatomy of a Chiton,
says, that the interior of the mouth or throat of this animal is
covered with a multitude of teeth,—some simple, and others with three
points, and that these teeth are disposed in numerous longitudinal rows.




CLASS CONCHIFERA.


The Conchifera differ from the Molluscous animals that bear shells,
in a very great degree; for, although the substance of the body is
soft, unlike the Mollusca it is inarticulate, always enclosed in a
shell of two valves, without head or eyes,—a mouth, if it may be so
called, concealed from view, and without any hard parts, and the whole
body enveloped in a large mantle, or hood, formed of two thin lobes,
generally perfectly free, but at times united in front; these are the
principal distinguishing characters of this class.

In earlier systems, when shells were classed without much reference
to the animals that inhabited them, the only distinction made was the
number of pieces of which the shell was formed, and they were arranged
under the heads of _univalves_, of one piece, _bivalves_, with two
pieces, and _multivalves_, with more than two pieces. This arrangement
was inconvenient, as, in some cases, it separated animals that
otherwise agreed with each other. With respect to the bivalve shells,
however, this objection does not hold good, as they all contain animals
belonging to the class Conchifera.

The individuals of this class appear to be deprived of all the senses
except that of feeling. Their powers of motion have been so well
described by Dr. Roget, in his _Bridgewater Treatise_, that we cannot
do better than extract a portion from that interesting work.

[Illustration: Valves of the _Unio Batava_, with the Connecting
Ligament.]

The two valves of the shell of the Conchifera are united at the back by
a hinge-joint, often very artificially constructed, having teeth that
lock into each other; and the mechanism of this articulation varies
much in different species. The hinge is secured by a substance of great
strength.

During the life of the animal, the usual and natural state of its shell
is, that of being kept open for a little distance, so as to allow of
the ingress and egress of the water necessary for its nourishment
and respiration; but, as a security against danger, it was necessary
to furnish the animal with the means of rapidly closing the shell,
and retaining the valves in a closed state. These actions, being
only occasional, yet requiring considerable force, are effected by a
muscular power, for which purpose sometimes one, sometimes two, or even
a greater number of strong muscles are placed between the valves, their
fibres passing directly across from the inner surface of the one to
that of the other, and firmly attached to both. They are named, from
their office of bringing the valves towards each other, the _adductor
muscles_.

[Illustration: Section of an Oyster, showing the situation of the
Hinge, L., the Adductor Muscle, A, and the transverse direction of its
Fibres, with respect to the Valves.]

The simple actions of opening and closing the valves, are capable of
being converted into a means of retreating from danger, or of removing
to a more commodious situation, in the case of those bivalves which are
not actually attached to rocks, or other fixed bodies.

Diquemarc long ago observed, that even the Oyster has some power of
locomotion, by suddenly closing its shell, and thereby expelling the
contained water with a degree of force, which, by the reaction of the
fluid in the opposite direction, gives a sensible impulse to the heavy
mass. He notices the singular fact, that Oysters which are attached to
rocks occasionally left dry by the retreat of the tide, always retain
within their shells a quantity of water sufficient for respiration, and
that they keep the valves closed till the return of the tide; whereas,
those Oysters which are taken from greater depths, where the water
never leaves them, and are afterwards removed to situations where they
are exposed to these vicissitudes, of which they have had no previous
experience, improvidently open their shells after the sea has left
them; and, by allowing the water to escape, soon perish.

[Illustration: _The Cardium, or Cockle._]

Many bivalve Mollusca are provided with an instrument shaped like a
leg and foot, which they employ extensively for progressive motion. In
the _Cardium_, or cockle, this organ is composed of a mass of muscular
fibres, interwoven together in a very complex manner, and which may
be compared to the muscular structure of the human tongue; the effect
in both is the same, namely, the conferring a power of motion in
all possible ways; thus it may be readily protruded, retracted, or
inflected at every point.

The _Solen_, or razor-shell fish, has a foot of a cylindrical shape,
tapering at the end, and much more resembling in its form a tongue
than a foot. In some bivalves, the dilatation of the foot is effected
by a curious hydraulic mechanism; the interior of the organ is formed
of a spongy texture, capable of receiving a considerable quantity of
water, which the animal has the power of injecting into it, and of thus
increasing its dimensions.

The foot of the _Mytilus edulis_, or common mussel, can be advanced
to the distance of two inches from the shell, and applied to any
fixed body within that range. By attaching the point to such body,
and retracting the foot, this animal drags its shell towards it, and
by repeating the operation successively on other points of the fixed
object, continues slowly to advance.

This instrument is of great use to such shell-fish as conceal
themselves in the mud or sand, which its structure is then peculiarly
adapted for scooping out. The cockle continually employs its foot for
this purpose: first, elongating it, directing its point downwards, and
insinuating it deep into the sand, and next, turning up the end, and
forming it into a hook, by which, from the resistance of the sand, it
is fixed in its position, and then the muscles, which usually retract
it, are thrown into action, and the whole shell is alternately raised
and depressed, moving on the foot as on a fulcrum. The effect of
these exertions is to drag the shell downwards. When the animal is
moderately active, these movements are repeated two or three times in a
minute. The apparent progress is at first but small, the shell, which
was raised on its edge at the middle of the stroke, falling back on
its side at the end of it; but when the shell is buried so far as to
be supported on its edge, it advances more rapidly, sinking visibly
at every stroke, till nothing but the extremity of the tube can be
perceived above the sand.

By a process exactly the inverse of this, that is, by doubling up the
foot, and pushing with it downwards against the sand below, the shell
may be again made to rise by the same kind of efforts which before
protruded the foot. By this process of burrowing, the animal is enabled
quickly to retreat when danger presses, and when this is past, it can,
with equal facility, emerge from its hiding-place.

The _Cardium_ can also advance at the bottom of the sea, along the
surface of the soft earth, pressing backwards with its foot, as a
boatman impels his boat onwards by pushing with his pole against
the ground in a contrary direction. It is, likewise, by a similar
expedient, that the Solen forces its way through the sand, expanding
the end of its foot into the form of a club.

The _Tellina_ is remarkable for the quickness and agility with which it
can spring to considerable distances, by first folding the foot into a
small compass, and then suddenly extending it, while the shell is, at
the same time, closed with a loud snap.

The _Pinna_, or marine mussel, when inhabiting the shores of
tempestuous seas, is furnished, in addition, with a singular apparatus
for withstanding the fury of the surge, and securing itself from
dangerous collisions, which might easily destroy the brittle texture of
its shell. The object of this apparatus is, to prepare a great number
of threads, which are fastened at various points to the adjacent rocks,
and then tightly drawn by the animal, just as a ship is moored in a
convenient station, to avoid the buffeting of the storm. The foot of
this bivalve is cylindrical, and has, connected with its base, a round
tendon, of nearly the same length as itself, the office of which is to
retain all the threads in firm adhesion with it, and concentrate their
power on one point. The threads themselves are composed of a glutinous
matter, prepared by a particular organ. They are not spun by being
drawn out of the body, like the threads of the silkworm, or of the
spider, but they are cast in a mould, where they harden, and acquire a
certain consistence before they are employed. This mould is curiously
constructed; there is a deep groove which passes along the foot, from
the root of the tendon to its other extremity, and the sides of this
groove are formed so as to fold and close over it, thereby converting
it into a canal. The glutinous secretion, which is poured into this
canal, dries into a solid thread; and, when it has acquired sufficient
tenacity, the foot is protruded, and the thread it contains is applied
to the object to which it is to be fixed, its extremity being carefully
attached to the solid surface of that object. The canal of the foot is
then opened along its whole length, and the thread, which adheres by
its other extremity to the large tendon at the base of the foot, is
disengaged from the canal. Lastly, the foot is retracted, and the same
operation is repeated.

Thread after thread is thus formed, and applied in different directions
around the shell. Sometimes the attempt fails, in consequence of
some imperfection in the thread; but the animal, as if aware of the
importance of ascertaining the strength of each thread, on which its
safety depends, tries every one of them as soon as it has been fixed,
by swinging itself round, so as to put it fully on the stretch; an
action which probably also assists in elongating the thread. When once
the threads have been fixed, the animal does not appear to have the
power of catting or breaking them off. The liquid matter, out of which
they are formed, is so exceedingly glutinous as to attach itself firmly
to the smoothest bodies. It is but slowly produced, for it appears that
no Pinna is capable of forming more than four, or at most five threads,
in the course of a day and night. The threads which are formed in
haste, when the animal is disturbed in its operations, are more slender
than those which are constructed at its leisure. In Sicily, and other
parts of the Mediterranean, these threads have been manufactured into
gloves, and other articles, which resemble silk.

The number of muscles by which the shells are moved have caused this
Class to be divided into two orders: the Bimusculosa, in which there
are two pair of muscles to perform this office; and the Unimusculosa,
with only one pair.


_ORDER UNIMUSCULOSA._

The Conchiferous animals which possess but one pair of muscles, are
much more limited in number than those which possess two or more; but
they contain in their ranks several well-known and useful species, as,
for instance, the oyster, the mussel, and the animal which produces the
oriental pearl.


THE HORSE-FOOT BOWL SHELL,

(_Anomia ephippium_.)

The shells of the Anomiæ are exceedingly irregular in their form;
like the oysters, they remain during the whole of their existence
attached to one spot, either on a rock, or on the shell of some larger
inhabitant of the deep. These shells are more frequently found in the
same places as the oyster, and very commonly attached to the shell of
the latter; as an article of food, the Anomia is of little or no value.
Its organization and manner of living are much the same as those of
the oyster. The most singular part of its construction consists in
the use made of one of the muscles with which it is furnished, which,
instead of being attached to the shell, is fixed to a solid piece of
shelly substance, in the form of a cone with the top cut off; this
_operculum_, or lid, closes a singular opening in one of the valves of
the shell itself. The animal adheres to the rock, or other substance,
by means of this lid, and is detached with great difficulty.

[Illustration: _Anomia ephippium._ [_Anomia_, a little bowl;
_ephippium_, a horse’s foot.]]


THE OYSTER, (_Ostrea edulis_.)

Oysters, like all other creatures that have been destined to become
food for man, are found in great abundance in most parts of the globe;
they are inhabitants of salt waters only, and are always found in rocky
ground, in no great depth from the surface.

Oysters generally cast their spat, or spawn, in the month of May;
when first shed it has the appearance of a drop of candle-grease,
which the dredgers commonly call _cultch_. The growth of an Oyster is
tolerably rapid; three days after the spawn is deposited, the shell of
the young Oyster may be seen, nearly a quarter of an inch in width; in
three months it is larger than a shilling, in six months bigger than a
half-crown, and in a year it exceeds a crown piece in size.

[Illustration: _Ostrea edulis._]

Oysters have been employed as food almost from time immemorial. The
Greeks, but more especially the Romans, held them in high repute,
attaching, at the same time, great importance to the places in which
they were found. Those from the Dardanelles, from Venice, and from
England, were considered the best, and the prices paid for them by the
luxurious inhabitants of Rome were enormous. They were transported
in large vessels, and deposited in the Lucrine Lake, where they were
fattened for the table. The Romans, it seems, gave a preference to
those which had the border of their mantle of a dark-brown colour,
nearly black.

The English Oyster-fishery is principally carried on at the following
places:—Wivenhoe, near Colchester, in Essex, (the beds here are
generally supplied from Portsmouth;) at Feversham and Milton, in
Kent, the Swales of the Medway, and at Tenby, on the coast of Wales.
In Scotland, they are chiefly taken at the island of Inchkeith, and
at Preston-pans, both in the Firth of Forth. The fishing for Oysters
is permitted by law, from the 1st of September to the last of April
inclusive. During the remaining months they are considered unwholesome;
it is a common saying that Oysters are in season during all the months
that have the letter _r_ in them.

In France, the chief fishing-station for Oysters is in the Bay of
Cançal, between the town of that name and Mount St. Michael, or St.
Malo. The fishery is effected by means of an iron net or dredge; this
is drawn over the Oyster-bed by hand-labour, or by having the rope
which is fixed to it attached to the stem of the fishing-boat, which is
then allowed to run before the wind; frequently, in the course of a few
minutes, as many as two or three hundred are taken. The Oysters taken
are sent from the ports of Granville and Cançal, to different places,
where artificial banks or preserves are established. These banks
are not only of use in the preservation of the Oysters, but assist
materially in their improvement. In fact, the Oyster, when first taken
out of the sea, has frequently a strong muddy taste, and appears in
what we should call bad condition.

Some of these preserves are a species of tank dug in the sand, or
sometimes even in stone, near the sea-shore, and communicating by a
narrow tunnel with the sea-water; the bottom and sides of these tanks
are usually strewed with large stones. In France great care is bestowed
on the management of these preserves; the Oysters are placed by hand
on the stones, with the largest shell downwards, and at times the
water is let off, and they are freed from all mud and dirt that may
have collected, by having large quantities of water poured over them.
A fashion existed formerly in France of preferring those Oysters which
had a tinge of green, and great pains were taken to cause this change
of colour to take place, by placing the animals where they could obtain
a peculiar kind of green food.


THE GREAT COMB SHELL, (_Pecten maximus_.)

This shell, although it has the name of the Great Pecten, is not the
largest of the numerous tribe to which it belongs; it is found in all
the European seas. The regular nature of the fluting with which it is
covered, and the elegance of its markings, have brought it much into
use among ladies, who employ it in making pin-cushions and other
articles of fancy-work; there are about sixty recent, and thirty fossil
species.

[Illustration: _Pecten maximus. Malleus albus._]

The power of locomotion appears to be very considerable in some species
of the Pectens; it is said the animal can raise itself up in the water,
and even reach the surface, by moving the two valves of its shell; but
this is a fact not quite established, as but little is known of its
habits. It is sometimes used as an article of food; but to render it
tolerably palatable it requires cooking.

In some countries, the shells of the larger species are used by the
poorer classes instead of plates. In Paris, the _restaurateurs_ employ
them for the same purpose when serving up a certain preparation of
mushrooms; in England, they are employed in cooking scalloped oysters,
and the shell is consequently known as the Scallop Shell.


THE PEARL OYSTER, (_Meleagrina margaritifera_.)

The animal of this shell, although popularly called an oyster, is very
different in structure, bearing greater resemblance, in some parts of
its formation, to the mussel, particularly in possessing a _byssus_, or
beard; it is the shell in which the famous oriental pearls are found.
There are but two known species of the Meleagrina, which are chiefly
found in the Persian Gulf, and at Ceylon, or in some of the seas of
Australasia.

The cause of the formation of pearl in the shells of this and other
inhabitants of the water, has been the occasion of considerable
dispute, but it is now pretty well ascertained.

The inner portion of the shell of the Meleagrina is lined with a
pearly substance, which is called mother-of-pearl; this is formed by
an animal deposit, and is in thin layers. If, by any accident, the
inner surface of the shell is injured, so as to cause a fracture of the
mother-of-pearl, the deposit, in that place, becomes for the future
irregular, and a bump is gradually formed. Accidental circumstances
cause this bump to assume various shapes; sometimes it is oval,
sometimes globular, and at others pear-shaped. This kind of pearl is
always originally found attached to the shell by means of a small neck,
or footstalk, and the spot at which this neck was placed can always be
traced on the pearl itself.

[Illustration: _Meleagrina margaritifera._]

But pearls are at times found loose in the shell;—in this case, the
pearly matter is deposited on some extraneous substance, such, for
instance, as a grain of sand, and by dissolving the pearl in an acid,
this nucleus can be traced.

Some of these round pearls are supposed to be formed on a centre,
consisting of the remains of a diseased _ovum_, or egg, of the animal.

Every schoolboy knows the story of Cleopatra having dissolved a
valuable pearl in vinegar, and afterwards drunk it off, to show her
ridiculous disregard of expense. But the account may reasonably be
doubted; for had the acid been strong enough to dissolve the pearl, it
would have been impossible to drink it, and if it was weak enough to
drink, it would not have dissolved the pearl, at least not until the
lapse of a very considerable time.

At the island of Ceylon the fishery for pearls is a matter of great
moment. The following is an account of the mode in which it is
conducted.

The country round Aripo, on the north-western coast of the island of
Ceylon, is flat, sandy, and barren, presenting nothing to the eye
but low brushwood, chiefly of thorns and prickly pears (which are
the plants that nourish the cochineal insect[2]), and here and there
some straggling villages with a few cocoa-nut trees. But Condatchy,
three miles distant, where, in general, nothing is to be seen but a
few miserable huts, and a sandy desert, becomes, during the period of
the pearl-fishery, a populous town, several streets of which extend
upwards of a mile in length (though, as the houses are only intended
as a shelter from the sun and rain, they are very rudely constructed),
and the scene, altogether, resembles a crowded fair on the grandest
scale. The people most active in erecting huts and speculating in the
various branches of merchandise, are Mohammedans, Cingalese (natives
of Ceylon), and Hindoos from the opposite coast of the continent of
India. Apparently, however, from their natural timidity, none of the
Cingalese are divers, and scarcely any of them engage in the other
active parts of the fishery; they merely resort hither for the purpose
of supplying the markets.

About the end of October, in the year preceding a pearl-fishery,
when a short interval of fine weather prevails, an examination of
the banks takes place. A certain number of boats, under an English
superintendent, repair in a body to each bank, and having, by frequent
diving, ascertained its situation, they take from one to two thousand
oysters as a specimen. The shells are opened, and if the pearls
collected from a thousand oysters be worth three pounds sterling, a
good fishery may be expected. The “banks,” or beds of oysters, are
scattered over a space in the Gulf of Manaar, extending thirty miles
from north to south, and twenty-four from east to west. There are
fourteen beds (not all, however, productive), of which the largest is
ten miles long, and two broad. The depth of water is from three to
fifteen fathoms.

The pearl oysters in these banks are all of one species, and of the
same form: in shape not very unlike our common English oyster, but
considerably larger, being from eight to ten inches in circumference.
The body of the animal is white, fleshy, and glutinous: the inside
of the shell (the real “mother-of-pearl,”) is even brighter and more
beautiful than the pearl itself: the outside smooth and dark-coloured.
The pearls are most commonly contained in the thickest and most fleshy
part of the oyster. A single oyster will frequently contain several
pearls, and one is on record, as having produced one hundred and fifty.

Sometimes the English government of Ceylon fishes the banks entirely
at its own risk; sometimes, the boats are let to many speculators:
but, most frequently, the light of fishing is sold to one individual,
who sub-lets boats to others. The fishery for the season of the year
1804 was let by government to an individual for no less a sum than
120,000_l._

At the beginning of March, the fishery commenced, and upwards of two
hundred and fifty boats were employed in the fishery alone. These,
with their crews, and divers, and completely equipped with everything
necessary to conduct the business of the fishing, come from different
parts of the coast of Coromandel. After going through various ablutions
and incantations, and other superstitious ceremonies, the occupants of
these boats embark at midnight, guided by pilots, and as soon as they
reach the banks, they cast anchor, and wait the dawn of day.

At about seven in the morning, when the rays of the sun begin to
emit some degree of warmth, the diving commences. A kind of open
scaffolding, formed of oars and other pieces of wood, is projected from
each side of the boat, and from it the diving-tackle is suspended,
with three stones on one side, and two on the other. The diving-stone
hangs from an oar by a light rope and slip-knot, and descends about
five feet into the water. It is a stone of fifty-six pounds’ weight, of
a sugar-loaf shape. The rope passes through a hole in the top of the
stone, above which a strong loop is formed, resembling a stirrup-iron,
to receive the foot of the diver. The diver wears no clothes, except a
slip of calico round his loins,—swimming in the water, he takes hold
of the rope, and puts one foot into the loop or stirrup, on the top of
the stone.

He remains in this upright position for a little while, supporting
himself by the motion of one arm. Then a basket, formed of a wooden
hoop and net-work, suspended by a rope, is thrown into the water to
him, and in it he places his other foot. Both the ropes of the stone
and the basket he holds for a little while in one hand. When he feels
himself properly prepared and ready to go down, he grasps his nostrils
with one hand, to prevent the water from rushing in; with the other
gives a sudden pull to the running-knot suspending the stone, and
instantly descends: the remainder of the rope fixed to the basket is
thrown into the water after him, at the same moment: the rope attached
to the stone is in such a position as to follow him of itself. As soon
as he touches the bottom, he disentangles his foot from the stone,
which is immediately drawn up, and suspended again to the projecting
oar in the same manner as before, to be in readiness for the next
diver. The diver, arrived at the bottom of the sea, throws himself as
much as possible upon his face, and collects everything he can get
hold of into the basket. When he is ready to ascend, he gives a jerk
to the rope, and the persons in the boat, who hold the other end of
it, haul it up as speedily as possible. The diver, at the same time,
free of every incumbrance, warps up by the rope, and always gets above
water a considerable time before the basket. He generally comes up at a
distance from the boat, and swims about, or takes hold of an oar or a
rope, until his turn comes to descend again; but he seldom comes into
the boat, until the labour of the day is over. When a young diver is
training to the business, he descends in the arms of a man completely
experienced in the art, who takes great care of him, and shows him the
manner of proceeding, and the pupil at first brings up in his hand a
single oyster, a stone, or a little sand, merely to show that he has
reached the bottom. The length of time during which the divers remain
under water, is rarely much more than a minute and a half; yet, in
this short period, in a ground richly clothed with oysters, an expert
man will often put as many as one hundred and fifty into his basket.
There are two divers attached to each stone, so that they go down
alternately. The men, after diving, generally find a small quantity
of blood issue from their nose and ears, which they consider as a
favourable symptom, and perform the operation with greater comfort
after the bleeding has commenced. They seem to enjoy the labour as a
pleasant pastime, and never murmur or complain, unless when the banks
contain a scarcity of oysters, though their labours are continued for
six hours.

When the day is sufficiently advanced, the head pilot makes a signal,
and the fleet set sail for the shore. All descriptions of people hasten
to the water’s edge to welcome their return, and the crowd, stir, and
noise, are then immense. Every boat comes to its own station, and the
oysters are carried into certain paved enclosures on the sea-shore,
where they are allowed to remain in heaps (of course, well guarded) for
ten days, that time being necessary to render them putrid. When the
oysters are sufficiently decayed, they are thrown into a large vessel,
filled with salt water, and left there for twelve hours to soften their
putrid substance. The oysters are then taken up, one by one, the shells
broken from one another, and washed in the water. Those shells, which
have pearls adhering to them, are thrown on one side, and afterwards
handed to clippers, whose business it is to disengage the pearls from
the shells, with pincers.

When all the shells are thrown out, the slimy substance of the oysters
remains, mixed with sand and broken fragments of shells, at the bottom
of the vessel. The dirty water is lifted out in buckets, and poured
into a sack, made like a jelly-bag, so that no pearls can be lost.
Fresh water being then added from time to time, and the whole substance
in the vessel continually agitated, the sand and pearls together, are
by degrees allowed to sink to the bottom.

As soon as the sand is dry it is sifted; the large pearls, being
conspicuous, are easily gathered; but the separating the small
and diminutive (“seed pearls,” as they are called,) is a work of
considerable labour. When once separated from the sand, washed with
salt water, dried, and rendered perfectly clean, they are sorted into
classes, according to their sizes, by being passed through sieves.
After this, a hole is drilled through each pearl; they are then
arranged on strings, and are fit for the market.

Pearls have been considered as valuable ornaments from the earliest
times: they are mentioned in the book of Job (xxviii. 18,) and are
often alluded to by the classical writers. There have been various
attempts made to imitate them successfully, one of the most singular
of which,—known to have been practised early in the Christian era,
on the banks of the Red Sea,—is still carried on in China. A hole is
bored in the shell of the pearl oyster, a piece of iron-wire inserted,
and the oyster restored to its place: the animal, wounded by the point
of the wire, deposits a coat of pearly matter round it: this gradually
hardens, successive layers are added, till a pearl of the requisite
size is formed, and the shell is once more brought to land.

A plan, somewhat similar to this, was employed by Linnæus, who pierced
the shells of the fresh-water mussel, causing thereby a pearl to be
formed at the punctured spot; and the Swedish government actually
established artificial pearleries,—but these were abandoned after
a few years; for, although pearls were formed, they were seldom of
sufficient size to be of much value.

False pearls are made of hollow glass globules, the inside of which is
covered with a liquid, called pearl-essence, and then filled with white
wax. This liquid is composed of the silver-coloured particles which
adhere to the scales of the bleak, (_ablette_,) and was first applied
to this purpose, early in the last century, by a Frenchman of the name
of Jacquin[3].


THE HAMMER OYSTER, (_Malleus albus_.)

The singular figure of this shell renders it very remarkable;
externally its appearance is very rude and irregular, but, on the other
hand, the inner surface is equally beautiful, being covered with the
most brilliant mother-of-pearl. The different species of the Malleus
are all marine, and found in the seas of hot climates, and the rarity
of some causes them to be very valuable, and much sought after. Like
the neighbouring genera, the animal is furnished with a byssus, or
beard, by which it adheres to the rocks.


THE ROUGH PINNA, (_Pinna rudis_.)

The Pinna is a marine shell; most of the species are large, and the
shells very thin in proportion to their size. That represented in the
engraving is found in the American seas, and is sometimes as much
as a foot and a half in length; it is by no means rare. There is a
species found in the Mediterranean, in about five or six fathoms water,
which is much sought after by the inhabitants of Sicily and Calabria,
not only as an article of food, but also for the sake of its beard,
or byssus, of which, in many places, a kind of cloth is made, very
remarkable for its softness and warmth. The fishermen, to obtain the
Pinna, make use of a kind of iron rake, called a _crampe_, with teeth a
foot in length; when the shells are drawn up, the beards are found to
be torn in some part of their substance. If a sufficient length remains
attached to the animal, to render the fibres available for the purpose
of spinning, they are cut off close to the shell: they are then dried
and spun, and afterwards woven into gloves, stockings, caps, and even
garments of much larger size.

[Illustration: _Pinna rudis._]

The threads of which the byssus is formed are extremely fine, and of
equal thickness throughout their whole length, very strong, and of a
dark morone colour, which is exceedingly permanent.

This curious kind of cloth was long since known to the ancients; but
at present its manufacture is very limited, from the great scarcity of
the Pinna, and the number of beards necessary to make even so small an
article as a pair of gloves. But it is supposed, that if the shells
were placed in more favourable circumstances, in preserves, &c., they
would increase much more rapidly.

These shells are found in the seas of all hot climates, but the British
shores possess but one species, the _Pinna lævis_ of Donovan; this is
of a horny colour, clouded with brown, and attains a considerable size.


THE COMMON MUSSEL, (_Mytilus edulis_.)

The Mussels are a well-known and very useful genus of the shell-bearing
animals: they are generally found attached to rocks between high and
low water marks.

[Illustration: _Mytilus edulis._]

They are sought after in most parts of the world as an article of food;
and, although not equal to the oyster, make a very palatable dish.

The Mussel, although usually wholesome, is at times the cause of
severe, though temporary illness. Different reasons have been assigned
for this poisonous property, and many signs have been noted, by
which it is said the unwholesome state of this shell-fish can be
detected,—a yellowness of colour, an extremely meagre appearance,
partial corruption, a diseased state of the animal, a small crab or
insect found between the valves of its shell. Other observers have
ridiculously attributed the effects to the change in the phases of
the moon; but, if we are to believe a French physician, who made many
experiments, all these guesses are wrong; according to this author,
the ill effects are caused only after the Mussels have been feeding
on the spawn of the star-fish; this spawn appears to the eye merely
a shapeless lump of jelly, but after a few days it is a living mass
of infant star-fish. The time of the year during which this spawn is
cast, is from the end of April, or beginning of May, to the end of
July, or beginning of August; from this, he says, arises the common
observation, that Mussels are only poisonous during those months in
which the letter _r_ is not found. This spawn, according to our author,
is so venomous and caustic, that it causes great pain, swelling, and
inflammation, even to the hand, if handled at this season; rubbing the
part with vinegar is recommended as a cure. Small star-fish were rolled
up in other food, and given to dogs and cats, when the animals suffered
severely, and in the end generally died. In spite, however, of all
these experiments, it is still doubtful whether the true cause has been
discovered. Thus much appears to be certain, that whenever indigestion
occurs after eating Mussels, some ill effects are experienced, but
this has seldom, or very rarely, taken place when they have been eaten
with vinegar, and they are much more wholesome cooked than otherwise.

When an individual is _musselled_, the effects are very alarming;
the body, head, and face swell to a frightful extent; and, in a few
hours, the skin is covered with a bright scarlet eruption; the cure is
attempted by means of an emetic, and afterwards some aromatic drink,
and vinegar and water; this brings on a profuse perspiration, which
soon relieves the patient.

The Mussel is taken by our fishermen for bait, for which purpose it is
well adapted.

In some parts of the Mediterranean great attention is paid to the
multiplication of this animal. At the port of Tarento, in the kingdom
of Naples, they drive into the sand a number of long poles, to which
the spawn of the Muscle becomes attached. In the following August,
when they have attained the size of almonds, they are taken to the
mouth of the brooks and small streams which fall into the gulf; here
they are left until October, when they are taken back to the sea, and
in the following Spring they are considered fit to eat. This change
from the salt to the fresh water and back again, is said to improve
their flavour and colour. Near Rochelle they are preserved in tanks,
preserves in which the salt water remains at rest.


THE GIANT TRIDACNA, (_Tridacna gigas_.)

The _Tridacna gigas_ is the largest of the bivalve shells; it is very
thick and close in texture, and is said to have been found as much as
five hundred pounds in weight. In Catholic countries the shells have
been sometimes used as the receptacles for the holy water in the
churches, and formerly they were considered sufficiently valuable to
form a present to a king; those in St. Sulpice, at Paris, were given
to Francis the First by the Republic of Venice. They have been found
in India, as it is related, of so extreme a size, that more than one
hundred persons have made a meal on the flesh of a single Tridacna
gigas, but this, no doubt, is an exaggeration. These shells adhere
to the rocks by their short and strong byssus with so much tenacity,
as to require the assistance of a mallet and chisels, in the task of
separating them from the rock.

[Illustration: _Tridacna gigas._]


_ORDER BIMUSCULOSA,

(Shells with Two Pairs of Muscles.)_

This Order contains by far the greatest portion of the bivalve shells,
all interesting to the naturalist, from the variety and beauty of their
structure, but few possessing a claim to notice on account of their
use as food for mankind, not but that many are equally wholesome with
those belonging to the last order, but as they possess two or more
pairs of muscles, they are much more capable of moving from place to
place, and, consequently, are seldom found in any great quantities in
one spot, and being found, as they generally are, in a considerable
depth of water, they are not so easily obtained.


THE FRESH-WATER MUSSEL, (_Anodonta cygnæa_.)

Although this shell, and several other species which nearly resemble
it, are known by the trivial name of _Mussel_, the only resemblance
between them consists in their outward appearance, the animals which
inhabit the shells being very distinct, both in organization and in
habits. The Mussels, as we have already said, have very little power
of moving from place to place, while, on the other hand, the Anodonta
is at times far from being a sluggish animal, and, for the purpose of
shifting its position, it avails itself of a very strong and broad
muscular foot. The shell of the Anodonta is sometimes found to contain
pearls, a circumstance which frequently occurs in all shells which are
lined with mother-of-pearl.

Some of the Scotch rivers have produced numerous specimens of pearl,
very large and beautiful, and which used to bear an extremely high
price.

A paper in the Philosophical Transactions for 1693, mentions the
collection of pearls from this shell, in the river Omagh, County
Tyrone, in Ireland. “The poor people,” he says, “in the Summer months,
go into the water, and some with their toes, some with wooden tongs,
and some by putting a sharpened stick into the opening of the shell,
take them up; and, although, by a common estimate, not above one shell
in a hundred may have a pearl, and of these pearls not above one in
a hundred be tolerably clear, yet a vast number of fair merchantable
pearls, and too good for the apothecary, are offered for sale by those
people every Summer assizes. Some gentlemen of the country make good
advantage thereof, and myself, whilst there, saw one pearl bought for
50_l._ that weighed thirty-six carats, and was valued at 40_l._ A
miller took out a pearl, which he sold for 4_l._ 10_s._ to a man that
sold it for 10_l._, who sold it to the late Lady Glenanly for 30_l._,
with whom I saw it in a necklace; she refused 80_l._ for it from the
late Dutchess of Ormond.”

[Illustration: _Isocardia cor. Anodonta Cygnæa._]


THE HEART-SHAPED ISOCARDIA,

(_Isocardia cor_.)

This shell, which is very common in the Mediterranean, where it goes by
the name of the _foolscap-shell_, and the _bullock’s heart shell_, is
rare in the British seas, but it is sometimes found on the Irish coast;
it is the largest British bivalve shell.


THE WEDGE-SHAPED DONAX, (_Donax cuneata_.)

There are nearly thirty species of Donax, all extremely beautiful; that
represented in the engraving is of a whitish colour with red streaks:
it is often met with in collections of Indian shells. One of these
species is found on the English coasts, of a delicate white colour, and
streaked with pink.

[Illustration: _Donax cuneata._]

In following the system of Lamarck, we are gradually led through
various genera to two species figured on the next page, namely, the
Tellina, or _earth-shell_, and the Pandora, and, ultimately, to the
Solen, or _razor-shell_.


THE SHEATH SOLEN, (_Solen vagina_.)

The Solens are singular from the power they possess of burying
themselves in the sands on the coast, sometimes even to the depth of a
couple of feet. The foot of the Solen, by means of which it is able to
penetrate the sand, is equal to one-half of the length of the shell.
Their movements are confined to rising to the surface of the sand in
which they have formed their hole, and in again sinking to the bottom.
This movement is, no doubt, produced by the action of the foot, which
forms itself into a sharp point in its descent, and when it remounts is
enlarged as much as possible, to form a resting-point, for the purpose
of raising the shell to the surface. It is not supposed that the animal
ever entirely leaves its hole of its own accord, although it may
possess the power; but it is certain, according to the observations of
Réaumur, that if forcibly removed it can re-enter it. The hole it forms
for its retreat is always perpendicular.

[Illustration: _Tellina. Solen vagina. Pandora rostrata._]

One of these creatures, being taken out of its retreat, was laid on
the sand; it first extended its foot in the form of a wedge, or rather
cone, and, applying it to the surface of the sand, slightly raised the
farthest end of its shell; at the next effort the projecting part of
the foot was buried in the sand, and the shell became more elevated;
after two or three more attempts the hole had attained a perpendicular
direction, and the shell was partly buried in it; the shell then began
to descend, and that with considerable quickness.

The Solens are used sometimes, but rarely, for food; but in places
where they abound, they are sought after as bait for fishes: the method
of taking them is very singular. Having discovered the place of retreat
of the creature, by observing the hole in the sand which leads to its
chamber, the fisherman throws into its entrance a small quantity of
salt. Although an inhabitant of salt water, the pure salt produces so
irritating an effect on the extremity of its body, that it quickly
mounts to the surface; the fisherman, waiting for its appearance,
snatches hastily at it, and if he succeeds in seizing it firmly, makes
good his capture; but if not sufficiently active, and the animal
escapes, the application of fresh salt produces no further effect;
either it is not sensible to the additional infusion of salt, or, which
is most likely, the instinct of self-preservation causes it to put up
with the inconvenience rather than be taken. In this case, no other
means are left of securing it, than using an iron instrument to dig it
out with. The number of species is upwards of twenty.


THE DATE-SHAPED PHOLAS, (_Pholas dactyloides_.)

These creatures have much more powerful means of boring than the
solens, for not only do they imbed themselves in hard clay, but even in
stone and lava. In what manner this is effected has been the subject of
much dispute; it is almost certain that the process is not mechanical,
for their soft body, and the fragile nature of their shells, seem an
insuperable bar to such a proceeding. Some authors have asserted that
the hole is formed by means of an acid secreted by the animal, which
acts chemically on the stone; but there are two reasons against this
solution of the difficulty; first, no acid liquid has been discovered
in the living animal, and, secondly, although acid would act upon
stone, it would have no effect whatever on lava.

Another curious part of the history of these shell-fish is their
phosphorescence, which is so bright, that it has been asserted, if
eaten in the dark without their being cooked, it appears as if the
person devouring them was swallowing phosphorus.

[Illustration: _Pholas dactyloides._]

Although not used as food in this country, they are not uncommonly
eaten on the shores of the Mediterranean, where some large species are
found.

The species represented in the engraving is found on the British
coasts, imbedded in clay; its shell is of a delicate white, beautifully
carved. The projecting piece at the lower part of the shell in the
engraving is the long foot of the animal; on the right hand, the hole
from which a shell has been removed is shown.


THE SHIP-WORM, (_Teredo navalis_.)

Before the anatomy of this destructive creature had been carefully
examined, there was as much difficulty in guessing at the means it
employed in penetrating the solid timbers in which it is found, as
there is with regard to the operations of the Pholas; but subsequent
observation shows that the hard parts, of which the mouth is formed,
are fully equal to the task.

[Illustration: _Teredo navalis._]

Perhaps we may say, with propriety, that this is the only species of
the shell-bearing tribes that is decidedly injurious to mankind. The
animal of the Teredo is a long worm-shaped creature, dwelling in a
tube of a shelly substance, which it forms for itself in its progress
through the wood; the small pointed shell-like pieces, to the right
in the engraving, form the jaws of the animal. With the assistance of
these it cuts its way into the timber, and, at the same time, lines the
excavation it is making with a shelly substance, which is gradually
formed into a tube, the animal occupying that part which is most
deeply sunken in the timber; in directing its course it generally
excavates in the direction of the grain of the wood, but in some
instances it crosses this grain.

In Holland a great part of the country is below the level of high
water, and, to prevent the irruption of the sea, immense dykes have
been formed along the coast; these are framed, on the sea-side, of
large masses of sand, while to the landward they are strengthened by
means of strong piles driven into the ground and wattled together.
These piles were once discovered pierced in all directions by this
destructive worm, to such an extent as to endanger their safety, and
had it not been for a timely discovery of the mischief, immense tracts
of country would have been laid under water, and irretrievably lost.




CLASS CIRRHIPEDA.


The Cirrhipeds are well known under the names of _Barnacles_ and
_Acorn-shells_, being found attached to rocks, ships’ bottoms, and
pieces of timber which have been under the water for a length of time.
They also at times fix themselves on the shells of the larger Mollusca,
and on the backs of whales, tortoises, &c. These creatures, from their
singular formation, have often proved a stumbling-block in the way of
the systematic naturalist, who, from their anomalous characters, was
unable to refer them to any part of his system; and although their
true nature, which has more recently been discovered by a British
naturalist, was partially suspected by Lamarck, (without, however, any
definite idea on the subject,) we have still placed them immediately
after the Conchifera, although, as we shall presently show, they ought
more properly to be ranged with the Crustacea, that is, the crab and
lobster tribes, and in future systems this no doubt will be the case.

After noticing their resemblance in many respects to the Crustacea,
Lamarck thus expresses himself. “In fact, when I established the
CLASS of Crustacea, I formed the _first order_ of this class, (the
_Cirrhipeds_,) under the name of _sightless Crustacea_, but a few years
afterwards I separated them and placed them at the end of the Mollusca,
but this was no better. If, for example, we consider those characters
which furnish their most important organs, we shall find that the
Cirrhipeds, without any doubt, most nearly resemble the Crustacea,
for they have the same system of nerves, they have jaws analogous to
those of the Crustacea, and their tentacula resemble the antennæ of the
shrimps.” To prove that they really were Crustacea, was a task that
devolved upon a British naturalist, I. V. Thomson, Esq., a surgeon in
his Majesty’s forces. The manner in which this discovery took place, we
shall notice further on.

The Cirrhipeds have obtained their name from the hairy feelers, or
tentacula, with which they are provided; the name Cirrhipeda being
derived from two Latin words,—_cirrhus_, hair, and _pes_, the foot;
these appendages, being figuratively called feet, although they have,
in reality, but little relation to that organ of motion.

They have been separated into two orders; namely, _Cirrhipeda
pedunculata_, which are attached to any object by a tube of a leathery
nature, as, for instance, the Barnacle,—and _Cirrhipeda sedentaria_,
which are fixed directly to the rock, like the Acorn-shell.


_ORDER CIRRHIPEDA PEDUNCULATA._

(_Cirrhipeda with a Footstalk._)


THE SMOOTH BARNACLE, (_Anatifa lævis_.)

The curious popular error, that the Barnacle contained the young of
a species of goose, which was thence called the Barnacle Goose, has
lasted for many ages, and still prevails among the uneducated, on the
shores of many of the European seas. One reason of the continuance of
this error in several Roman Catholic countries, is the permission
granted by the priest to its members, to eat this goose on fish-days,
because it is considered, on account of its supposed watery origin, to
partake more of the character of a fish than a fowl. To show the extent
to which an erroneous belief may be carried, we may quote the following
notice sent by Sir Robert Moray to the Royal Society, and _printed_ by
them in their _Transactions_. He says, “The pedicle seems to draw and
convey the matter which serves for the growth and vegetation of the
shell and the little bird within it.” “In every shell that I opened, I
found a perfect _sea-fowl_; the little bill like that of a _goose_, the
eyes marked; the head, neck, breast, wings, tail, and feet formed; the
feathers everywhere perfectly shaped, and blackish-coloured; and the
_feet_ like those of other water-fowl, to my best remembrance!” “Nor
did I ever see any of the little birds alive, nor met with anybody that
did; only some credible persons have assured me that they have seen
some as big as their fist!!”

[Illustration: _Anatifa lævis._]


_ORDER CIRRHIPEDA SEDENTARIA_,

(_Sedentary Cirrhipeds_.)


THE ACORN-SHELL, (_Balanus_.)

Mr. Thomson describes his discovery of the real nature of the
Cirrhipeds in these words. “On April 28, 1823, which the author had
devoted to the investigation of some marine productions, he was
returning home without any addition to his stock of knowledge, when,
casually throwing out a small muslin towing-net, on crossing the ferry
at Passage, such a capture of marine animals was made, as furnished a
treat which few can ever expect to meet, and could hardly be excelled
for the variety, rarity, and interesting nature of the animals taken.”
After mentioning the names of several very rare species, he continues
“and others perfectly nondescript, and incapable of being associated in
any of our classifications of the Crustacea; of this description is the
little animal about to be described.

[Illustration: _Balanus_, (The Acorn-Shell Barnacle.)]

“There is a small translucent animal one-tenth of an inch long, of a
somewhat elliptic form, moderately compressed, and of a brownish hue.
When in a state of perfect repose, it resembles a very minute mussel,
and lies upon one of its sides at the bottom of the vessel of sea-water
in which it is placed. At this time all the members of the animal are
withdrawn within the shell, which appears to be composed of two valves,
united by a hinge along the upper part of the back, and capable of
opening from one end to the other along the front, to give occasional
exit to the legs. The limbs are of two descriptions; namely, in front a
large and very strong pair, provided with a cup-like sucker and hooks,
&c., and at the hinder part of the body, six pair of swimming-members,
so articulated as to act in concert, and to give a very forcible stroke
to the water, so as to cause the animal, when swimming, to advance by a
succession of bounds, after the manner of the water flea.

[Illustration:

  Fig. 1.  Larva of Barnacle, natural size.
       2.    "    "    "      magnified, seen from above.
       3.    "    "    "      highly magnified, seen from side;
                                _a_, swimming-members;
                                _b_, front limb, with sucker.
       4. Eye, much magnified.
       5. Perfect Young Barnacle, natural size.
       6.    "      "      "      full grown.

]

“The greatest peculiarity, however, in the structure of this animal,
is the eyes; which, although constantly shielded by the valves of the
shell, are placed on footstalks, as in the crab and lobster, in front,
at the sides of the body.

“Some of these curious creatures were collected in the Spring of 1826;
and, in order to see what changes they might undergo, were kept in a
glass vessel, covered by such a depth of sea-water, that they could be
examined at any time by means of a common magnifying glass; they were
taken on May the 1st, and on the night of the 8th, the author had the
satisfaction to find that two of them had thrown off their _exuviæ_[4],
and, wonderful to say, were firmly adhering to the bottom of the
vessel, and changed into young Barnacles! such as are usually seen
intermixed with grown specimens, on rocks and stones, at this season of
the year. The eyes were still perceptible, although the principal part
of the black colouring-matter appeared to have been thrown off with
the _exuviæ_. On the 10th, another individual was seen _in the act of
throwing off its shell_, and attaching itself, like the others, to the
bottom of the glass.”




CLASS ANNULATA.


We cannot better describe the Annulose animals than in the words of
Lamarck; he calls them,

“Animals with soft bodies, lengthened, worm-shaped, naked, or
inhabiting tubes, with the body divided into segments, or at least
transverse wrinkles, often without head, without eyes, and without
antennæ, unfurnished with articulated limbs, but the greater number
having, instead, small protuberances, bearing spines, and capable of
being retracted at pleasure, disposed in rows along the sides, though
not continued quite to the extremity of the body, and assuming various
forms. They have also red blood circulating by veins and arteries; this
separates them from the Worms, properly so called, which have white
blood. This colour of the blood is a singular fact, since the animals
are much less complex in their organization than the Mollusca, which
have colourless blood. The Class of Annulose animals has been separated
into three Orders, namely, _Annulata sedentaria_, which are fixed to
other substances; _Annulata antennata_, possessing antennæ, or feelers;
and _Annulata apoda_, without projecting members answering as feet,
serving solely to attach the animal to rocks, stones, &c.”

[Illustration: _Shells of various sedentary Annulose Animals._]


_ORDER ANNULATA SEDENTARIA_,

(_Sedentary Annulose Animals_.)

The creatures which form this order are generally found attached
to rocks, shells, &c. and are usually of small size. The engraving
represents a variety of species of these animals. Of the genus Serpula
there are many species, but as it is in general merely the shell
that is found in collections, they are but ill defined; some of the
species are found in almost all climates. The animal of the Serpula has
great power of contracting its body, but it never leaves its shell or
tube; this tube is gradually lengthened by the inhabitant, who always
occupies the most recently-formed portion of it; its _operculum_, the
lid with which it closes the opening of its tube, is very prettily
formed; it is something like the mouth-piece of a trumpet, but of
course not perforated, and it closes the opening with great accuracy.


THE MAGNIFICENT AMPHITRITE,

(_Amphitrite magnifica_.)

This beautiful species is perhaps the largest of the whole tribe as
yet discovered. It is found in various parts of the coast of Jamaica,
adhering to, or rather embedded in, the rocks. Its irritability is
exceedingly great, and on being approached it instantly retreats into
its elastic tube; this tube is of a leathery consistence, unlike that
of the Serpula. Specimens of this elegant species can only be obtained
by breaking off such parts of the stone as contain them. These, being
put into tubs of sea-water, may be kept for months in perfect health.
That part of the body which is so beautifully spread out like an
umbrella, consists of the _branchiæ_ or organs of breathing; these are
of a yellowish colour, beautifully marked with pink. The Amphitrite,
although perhaps it never entirely leaves its tube, is not attached to
it, and frequently draws out nearly the whole of its body.

[Illustration: _Amphitrite magnifica._]


_ORDER ANNULATA ANTENNATA_,

(_Annulose Animals possessing Antennæ_.)


THE SAND-WORM OF THE FISHERMEN,

(_Arenicola piscatorium_.)

This Worm forms its nest in the sand on the sea-shore, and is much
sought after by fishermen as bait for fishes. It is found in all the
European seas. There appears to be but one species, but that is met
with in great abundance.

[Illustration: _Arenicola piscatorium._]


BLOOD-COLOURED LEODICE, (_Leodice sanguinea_.)

The antennated Annulata differ materially from those which are
enclosed in a case; they possess, in addition to their antennæ, organs
of motion, like the false legs of a caterpillar, and two or four
well-formed eyes; they are all marine animals, and altogether they bear
a strong resemblance to the _scolopendra_, or centipede.

[Illustration: _Leodice sanguinea._]

The species represented above was taken on the southern coast of
Devonshire; it is the largest English species, extending sometimes to
the length of fourteen or fifteen inches.

When the animal was in a glass of sea-water, the circulation of the
blood through the bristle-like appendages on each side of the body
was a curious object, and appeared to be effected at the will of the
animal, but when it became sickly, the circulation was slower, and as
soon as it expired all the colour from those parts vanished.

The mouth is large, and placed beneath, concealing most formidable
jaws, or complicated fangs, which were put forward occasionally as the
animal became sickly, or in the agonies of death. The figure beneath
the worm shows the shape of this singular apparatus.


THE SPINOUS SEA-MOUSE, OR SEA-CATERPILLAR,

(_Halithæa aculeata_.)

The Sea-Mouse is found in the European seas, and when in its native
element is singularly beautiful, the hair with which it is partially
covered being equal in splendour to the colours on the tail of a
peacock.

[Illustration: _Halithæa aculeata._]


_ORDER ANNULATA APODA_,


(_Footless Annulose Animals_.)

The greater portion of the Annulose animals, namely those already
described, are furnished with small projecting points on the sides
of their body, which assist them in their motions, and which may,
consequently, be considered as supplying the place of feet; but those
we have yet to notice have no similar appendages, and, therefore, they
are called footless. They are all very lively in their movements, and
live either in moist earth, or the mud at the bottom of ponds. We
find among the footless Annulata two well-known genera, namely, the
Earth-worm and the Leech.


THE COMMON EARTH-WORM,

(_Lumbricus terrestris_.)

The body of the Earth-worm is composed of a great number of narrow
rings, and along each side are four rows of very small, short,
silk-like bristles, of a substance partly horny and partly shell-like.
These bristles are placed on the edges of the rings, and it is by the
alternate contraction and expansion of these rings that the worm is
enabled to move along, the little bristles acting like hooks, and so
forming various fixed points of resistance or _fulcra_, upon which the
animal can rest at each movement forwards. The organization of the
Earth-worm is very simple, the intestinal canal for the food being a
simple straight tube, except in one part of its length, where a kind
of gizzard is found, which answers the purpose of a stomach. It is
supposed to feed upon the vegetable substances it finds in the earth.

[Illustration]

The hole, or burrow, formed in the earth by the worm, always has two
openings, one by which it enters, and by which it throws out the dirt
which is removed during the progress of its excavation, and the other
by which it sometimes leaves its burrow, so that the hole made by the
animal would be much in this form, descending at A, and reaching the
surface by B. It has been said, that the Earth-worm, if divided by the
spade or otherwise, will unite again and live; the foundation for this
appears to be the more probable fact, that, when divided, that portion
of the animal in which the head is placed may, perhaps, survive the
mutilation, and ultimately again become a perfect creature.

Although worms, after wet weather, sadly disfigure our gravel walks,
they are, at the same time, useful gardeners, loosening the earth round
the roots of plants, and thus rendering it more capable of receiving
the small fibres of the roots. During the Winter they penetrate very
deeply into the ground, and remain, according to Latreille, rolled up
in a kind of nest, protected from injury by the discharge of _mucus_,
which is furnished by the pores of their body.

The Earth-worm appears to have been a considerable favourite with
the author of the _Journal of a Naturalist_; among other remarks,
he observes, “There is another creature, and that a very important
one in the operations of nature, that is surrounded by dangers,
harassed, pursued incessantly, and becomes the prey of all; the common
Earth-worm. This animal, destined to be the natural manurer of the
soil, and the ready indicator of an approved staple, consumes on the
surface of the ground, where they soon would be injurious, the softer
parts of decayed vegetable matter, and conveys into the soil the
more woody fibres, where they moulder and become reduced to a simple
nutriment, fitting for living vegetation. The parts consumed by them
are soon returned to the surface, whence dissolved by frosts, and
scattered by rains, they circulate again in the plants of the soil,

                 Death still producing life.

“Thus eminently serviceable as the Worm is, it yet becomes the prey
of various orders of the animal creation, and perhaps is a solitary
example of an individual race being subjected to universal destruction.
The very emmet seizes it when disabled, and bears it away as its
prize. It constitutes throughout the year the food of many birds;
fishes devour it greedily; the hedgehog eats it; the mole pursues it
unceasingly in the pastures, along the moist bottoms of ditches, and
burrows after it through the banks of hedges, to which it retires in
dry seasons. Secured as the Worm appears to be by its residence in the
earth, from the capture of creatures inhabiting a different element,
yet many aquatic animals seem well acquainted with it, and prey on it
as a natural food, whenever it falls in their way: frogs eat it, and
even the great water-beetle I have known to seize it, when the bait of
the angler, and it has been drawn up by the hook. Yet notwithstanding
this prodigious destruction of the animal, its increase is fully
commensurate to its consumption, as if ordained the appointed food of
all.

“Worms, generally speaking, are tender creatures, and water remaining
over their haunts for a few days, drowns them. They easily become
frozen, when a mortification commences at some part, which gradually
consumes the whole substance, and we find them on the surface a mass
of jelly. Their retiring deeper into the soil is no bad indication of
approaching cold weather; but no sooner is the frost out of the ground,
than they approach the surface.

“Earth-worms do considerable mischief to the floriculturist by drawing
the young plants, immediately after they are transplanted, into
the earth. In the drainage of lands they are of essential service,
penetrating the clay that lies beneath the vegetable mould in every
direction, and thus forming numerous small canals to carry off the
water into the deep trenches dug by the agriculturist.” The author we
have already quoted, after concluding this account of the Worm, says,
“I would advocate the cause of all creatures, had I the privilege of
knowing the excellency of them; not willingly assigning vague and
fanciful claims to excite wonder, or manifesting a base pride by any
vaunt of superior observation; but when we see, blind as we are, that
all things are formed in justice, mercy, truth, I would tell my tale
as a man, glory as a Christian, and bless the gracious Power that
permitted me to obtain this knowledge.”


THE MEDICINAL LEECH, (_Hirudo medicinalis_.)

The medicinal utility of the Leech seems, even in very remote times, to
have been acknowledged by mankind, and accordingly we find it noticed
in the writings of many ancient physicians. It was not simply applied
to the cases in which it is at present employed, but was recommended
to be used in many singular ways: a paste made of the ashes of a burnt
leech was said to have the property of removing the hair from any
part of the body. It was also employed to suck the blood from a wound
occasioned by a mad dog, or any other rabid animal.

At present the employment of this useful creature is confined to the
operation of drawing blood from inflamed parts of the surface of the
body, for which use it is eminently adapted.

There are as many as twelve or fifteen species of these creatures,
but only two have been employed in medicine, namely, the _Hirudo
medicinalis_, which may be known by having six yellowish lines, or
striæ, on its back, while the under part is of a grayish hue spotted
with black, but, as we shall presently see, these markings are not
uniformly found; and the _Hirudo troctina_, of a brownish colour,
the upper part of the body marked with black spots, each of which is
surrounded with a golden-coloured ring, the sides of a dingy yellow,
and the under part of a yellowish green with black spots.

The first of these species, the medicinal leech, is common throughout
the whole of Europe, but is much more abundant in the Southern parts;
it is generally about three inches in length. Formerly it was very
abundant in Great Britain, but the improvements in agriculture,
and the consequent drainage of the land, together with the great
use made of it in medicine, have of late years rendered it of less
frequent occurrence. On this account great quantities of leeches are
imported; these chiefly come from Bourdeaux and Lisbon. On a moderate
calculation, it appears that, in England, on an average, out of every
hundred leeches employed, ninety-nine may be considered of foreign
production; these differ from the English leech in being somewhat
larger, and having the under part of a uniform colour, without spots.
Some idea may be formed of the number of leeches used in medicine by
the statement, that in the hospitals of Paris alone, 300,000 were
employed in one year. The prevailing colour of the medicinal leech
appears to vary according to the nature of the soil on which it is
found. In Winter the leech retires to waters of considerable depth, and
seeks shelter in the mud at the bottom; but in the Summer it appears
to delight in shallow pools, basking, as it were, in the warmth of the
sun: but if the water it frequents is in danger of being dried up by
the Summer-heat, the leech buries itself in the mud at a considerable
depth. Just before a thunder-storm, leeches appear much agitated,
and rise frequently to the surface of the water; this, therefore, is
considered by the _leech-gatherers_ as a favourable time for collecting
them.

The property by which a leech anticipates thunder, has induced some
persons to employ it as a species of barometer; for this purpose a
leech is enclosed in a glass vessel half-filled with water, and the
following is supposed to be the result. When the weather is about to be
serene and pleasant, the leech will remain at the bottom of the vessel
without the least movement; secondly, if it is about to rain, the
animal will rise to the surface, and there remain until the approach of
fine weather; thirdly, before boisterous weather, it will appear in a
state of great agitation; fourthly, on the approach of thunder, it will
remain out of water for several days, appearing agitated and restless,
and so on.

This natural barometer _appears_ to answer tolerably well, if there is
sufficient belief in its virtues on the part of the possessor, and if
one leech only is employed; but when several of these creatures are
enclosed in the same vessel, they do not appear to obey the same laws,
and, consequently, their movements do not correspond with sufficient
accuracy to render their indications of the weather of much use.

The medicinal leech appears during its whole life to exist on the blood
or other juices of the creatures on whose body it fixes itself; this is
not the case with the horse-leech, which lives entirely on the _larvæ_
of aquatic insects, worms, &c., so that the common idea of the danger
of the bite of the horse-leech is without foundation.

The horse-leech is exceedingly voracious, not only swallowing worms,
tadpoles, &c., but even preying upon its own species. Sixty-five
horse-leeches were placed in a glass vessel, and in five days the
number was reduced to fifty-two, and not a vestige of those that were
missing was to be discovered.

The usual slowness of action of the digestive powers in all animals of
cold blood, was curiously illustrated in the case of a horse-leech,
which, after swallowing two small leeches of a different species,
disgorged one of the two at the end of three days, in a living state,
and apparently not much injured from its sojourn in so unusual a
lodging; but it enjoyed its liberty only for a few hours, its more
powerful companion swallowing it a second time at the end of that
period.

A number of this species of leech, inhabiting the water that supplied a
trough in which a tench had been placed, fixed themselves to different
parts of the body of the fish, and so effectually was the poor tench
annoyed, that it was soon deprived of life. “The leeches then tore it
(previously breaking the line of connexion between the various parts of
the body, by inflicting a vast number of bites or wounds,) into such
pieces as they could readily receive into the stomach, and so diligent
were they, that in a few days nothing remained of the fish but the mere
skeleton.”

From these habits it would appear, that the name of Hirudo
_sanguisuga_, (the blood-sucking leech,) has been improperly applied to
the horse-leech; on this account a recent author has suggested the name
of Hirudo _vorax_, (the voracious leech,) as being more suitable to its
nature.

Leeches are supposed to be very long-lived; two were preserved in
confinement for eight years before they died, and the well-ascertained
slowness of their growth seems to place their length of life beyond a
doubt.

On the head of the medicinal leech ten points are arranged in the form
of a horse-shoe, thus—

[Illustration]

These are considered, by some authors, to be organs of sight, or
eyes, while, on the other hand, it is stated by others, that they are
merely tubercles. Lamarck was of this opinion, and, consequently, in
describing their character, says they are without eyes.

The teeth, or rather piercers, with which the leech is furnished, are
three in number, of a hard gristly substance, and so placed, with
regard to each other, as to meet in the centre at equal angles; these
piercers are thrust into the skin when the animal attaches itself; not
by one plunging effort, but by constantly scratching or sawing upon the
surface (assisted at the same time by the sucking action of the lips);
in this manner they gradually become buried in the skin, and there
remain as long as the creature retains its hold; this movement of the
piercers occasions the gnawing pain felt for the first two or three
minutes after the leech has commenced operation.

Leeches are at times so scarce and valuable, that great care has been
taken in preserving them in a healthy state and fit for use. The
principal art in managing them consists in placing them in vessels
sufficiently large, keeping the water clear, and in removing those
which are unhealthy as soon as they are discovered.

Leeches, when applied to the skin, frequently show little inclination
to bite, and many plans have been resorted to, to induce them to
commence operations, such as bathing the part with milk, &c.; but
these methods may be considered useless, and the best plan appears
to be, to wash the part clean, and this is the more necessary when
any embrocation has been previously applied; but the surest way is to
puncture the place slightly, so as to cause the blood to appear. If the
little surgeon, before it is fully gorged, appears lazy and unwilling
to proceed, it can be usually roused by being sprinkled with a little
cold water.

After a leech has fallen off, it is usual to sprinkle salt on it to
induce it to disgorge the blood it has swallowed; but as the salt
frequently blisters its body, it has been recommended by Dr. Johnson of
Edinburgh, from whose work on the Leech, we have obtained most of the
preceding information, to apply a small portion of vinegar to the head
of the leech instead of salt.

The necessity for obliging the leech to dislodge the blood it has
swallowed, arises from the fact that it would remain in the body of
the animal for some months before it could be all digested; but the
most singular thing is, that, during the whole of this time, the blood
remains in nearly as fluid a state as when it was newly swallowed[5].
The stomach of this creature is very curiously formed, being composed
of a number of chambers, each chamber having a separate connexion with
the intestinal canal, in such a manner that, at the will of the animal,
the contents of each chamber can be emptied singly into that canal,
through a distinct opening.

[Illustration: Fig. 1. Fig. 2.]

It was long a matter of dispute as to whether leeches were produced
from eggs or born alive, but it is now ascertained that the ova are
developed in a singular case, having some resemblance to the cocoon
of a silkworm. The following engraving represents this case, of its
natural size: fig. 1, shows the perfect case or cocoon, and fig. 2, the
same opened, with the young leeches contained within it; it is said
that, at times, there are as many as thirteen or fourteen in one case.
This cocoon is formed by the parent animal, and by it deposited in the
mud or clay, which composes the bed of the pool it inhabits.

The fact of the young leech being produced from these cocoons, although
only latterly ascertained by naturalists, was long since well-known to
the dealers in leeches on the French coast, who avail themselves of
this knowledge of their habits, to multiply them for the purpose of
sale.

“It was by these means the leech-dealers of Bretagne, and particularly
in Finisterre, replenished the ponds in which they preserved those
leeches which were intended for the Paris market.

“About the month of April or May, according to the nature of the
season, they send out labourers, provided with spades and baskets, to
the little muddy marshes, where they are known to exist in abundance.
These workmen then set about removing those portions of mud that are
known to contain cocoons, which are afterwards deposited in sheets of
water previously prepared for their reception; here the young leeches
quit the cocoons, and are allowed to remain for six months, when they
are removed to larger ponds.” While they remain in these ponds, the
cattle and other animals are driven to the water, for the purpose of
allowing the young to feed upon them, as it is supposed that they grow
much more rapidly after having partaken of blood.

There is a small species of leech in the island of Ceylon, which is
more dreaded, and, from its great numbers, produces more evil, than
even the venomous reptiles which are found in the island, including the
terrible hooded snake itself.

The largest of these leeches are seldom more than half an inch in
length, and the smallest are minute indeed. This leech is a very active
animal; it moves with great rapidity, and is even said occasionally
to spring. It is supposed to have an acute sense of smelling, for no
sooner does a person stop where leeches abound, that they appear to
crowd eagerly to the spot from all quarters. In rainy weather, it is
shocking to see the legs of men on a long march thickly beset with
these creatures, gorged with blood, and the blood itself trickling down
in streams. It might be supposed there be little difficulty in keeping
them off; but they crowd to the attack, and fasten on more quickly
than they can be removed. Their bites are much more troublesome than
would be imagined, being very apt to fester and become sores, and, in
persons of a bad habit of body, to degenerate into extensive ulcers,
and ultimately cause the loss of a limb, if not that of life itself.

Many plans have, of course, been resorted to, to avoid this pest, such
as anointing the legs with tobacco-water, grease, &c., but all to very
little purpose, the only successful mode appearing to be, the enclosing
the lower part of the legs in boots and pantaloons, fitting very
closely to the limb, a very unpleasant dress in so sultry a climate.




CLASS CRUSTACEA.


The arrangement of the Crustacea in systems of natural history has
undergone numerous changes; they were placed by Linnæus among the
insects:—others considered them to have more analogy to the spiders.
Lamarck was the first who made the Crustacea an independent CLASS
forming two _orders_, which he has named after the arrangement of the
branchiæ, or gills, by which they breathe, namely,—the _Crustacea
homobranchiæ_, the distinguishing marks of which he describes in this
manner: branchiæ hidden under the lateral margins of a kind of cuirass,
covering the body of the animal, with the exception of the tail; the
mandibles always furnished with feelers, the eyes placed on footstalks,
the head not distinct from the trunk, and possessing ten feet to assist
them in their movements. Secondly, the _Crustacea heterobranchiæ_, in
which the branchiæ are external, in various situations, but never under
the lateral margin of a cuirass; they are either under the belly or the
tail, adhering to the feet, or confounded with them: the eyes are in
general fixed, _sedentary, not on footstalks_.


_ORDER CRUSTACEA HOMOBRANCHIÆ_,

(_Shell-Fish with concealed gills._)

The first of these orders, the _homobranchial_ Crustacea, includes most
of the larger kinds of shell-fish, as, for instance, crabs, lobsters,
and cray-fish; shrimps and prawns are also in this division.

Their organization is much more perfect than that of the other order,
and, according to Lamarck, it is among these animals that the last
appearance of the organ of hearing is seen, in tracing the animal
kingdom from the most perfect animals to those whose formation is
apparently less complex.

The body of these creatures appears to be composed of only two
principal parts, the body and the tail; for the head is so intimately
united and confounded with the trunk, as to appear to be merely a
portion of it. The two eyes are fixed at the top of two moveable
supports, and are placed in a hollow prepared for their reception, on
each side of a projecting portion of the shell that covers the head.
The antennæ, which are usually four in number, are placed about this
spot; they are inserted beneath the stems that support the eyes. The
two outermost of these antennæ are generally the longest.

The branchiæ, or organs by which they breathe, assume a form somewhat
pyramidical, arranged like a series of leaves, or the web of a feather;
they are placed in the interior of the shell along each side, and are
so arranged as to adhere to the roots of the feet, so that each of
these feet has a hidden branchia attached to its base.

The mouth is composed of a fleshy lip, projecting between the
mandibles; of two hard triangular mandibles, more or less notched at
their extremity, and each having a kind of feeler inserted on the upper
part; they also possess a little tongue between these mandibles, at
the root of which is the opening to the stomach: they have besides two
pair of jaws, like leaves, the borders of which are fringed, and six
other members, which Lamarck calls _foot-jaws_, from their bearing
some resemblance to legs, or feet. From this it appears that the
parts of the mouth in the Crustacea form a complicated apparatus, and
accordingly we find the whole tribe exceedingly voracious, the Crabs
in particular, feeding upon any animal substance, putrid or not, that
may come within their reach. Some of the species are well known as
articles of food, but they are not equally wholesome at all seasons of
the year.


_THE CRAB TRIBE._

The genera of the Crustacea are so extremely numerous, and the
knowledge we possess of their natural history is so scanty, being
generally confined to their form and colour, that we shall limit
ourselves to a description of some of the best known and most useful
species.

[Illustration: THE ZOEA OF THE COMMON CRAB.]

The Crabs are a very numerous tribe, and contain many singular
species, as far as regards their form, which assumes an endless
variety of curious shapes, sometimes elegantly decorated with the most
brilliant colours; this more particularly applies to those which are
found in the seas of hot climates.

The singular little animal represented in the preceding page, was
placed by naturalists among the _Crustacea_, and considered a perfect
animal of a distinct species; it was named Zoea. Mr. Thomson, the
experienced naturalist we have already noticed, was the first to
discover the real nature of this little creature. We cannot do better
than to introduce the subject by the following observations of the
author of this discovery, showing the reason so little is known
respecting these inhabitants of the deep.

“The sea (which is the habitation of the greater part of the
_Crustacea_) to the casual observer offers nothing but an immense body
of water, here and there presenting a solitary whale, or a vagrant
troop of some of the smaller cetaceous animals; the appearance of a
fish of almost any other kind in the track of a vessel over a vast
expanse of the open ocean, is regarded, even by the mariner, as a
kind of phenomenon, and creates an interest not to be appreciated by
those who have not engaged in distant voyages. The fathomless parts
of the ocean certainly do not offer the same profusion of inhabitants
with the shores of islands and continents, or those parts where the
bottom is within reach of the sounding-line, or where the surface is
interspersed with fields of Sargosa[6]. On due examination, however, we
shall not fail to find it everywhere peopled by a considerable variety
of animals, either of small size, or possessed of such a degree of
translucency as to render them invisible, or scarcely perceptible, even
when on or near to its surface; that it should possess its share of
the organized beings which we see spread over every other part of the
surface of our globe, is a conclusion we might arrive at indirectly,
from the consideration of oceanic fishes and birds being observed in
those parts of the ocean most distant from the land, and the provident
care of the Deity, which we invariably witness throughout the domain of
nature, to furnish food for all, even the meanest of his creatures; the
more minute and invisible inmates of the sea, then, must constitute the
food of oceanic fishes and birds.

“Few of these marine animals, except some of the larger and most
conspicuous, have as yet been observed, so that the investigation of
them holds out a promise of a rich harvest to the naturalist, and
a vast field of exploration, replete with novelty and interest; to
accomplish this, however, he must use the greatest diligence, seizing
every opportunity, when the way of a ship does not exceed three or
four miles per hour, to throw out astern a small towing-net of gauze,
bunting, or other tolerably close material, occasionally drawing it
up, and turning it inside out into a glass vessel of sea-water, to
ascertain what captures have been made. When a ship goes at a greater
rate, and in stormy weather, a net of this kind may be appended to the
spout of one of the _sea-water_ pumps, and examined three or four times
a day, or oftener, according to circumstances.”

Although naturalists were decided in calling the Zoea a crustaceous
animal, they were still far from agreeing as to the place in the
system it ought to occupy, for the different species were so unlike
each other: but it will be no longer a matter of surprise, when it
is known, that this singular creature is not a perfect animal, but
merely the larva, or imperfect state of the Common Crab. This fact is
perfectly new, and interesting in a double point of view, not only
proving their real nature, but also that the Crustacea are not, as
described in most systems, animals undergoing no metamorphosis, and on
that account to be separated from the insects, but that they do undergo
a metamorphosis, and that of a most wonderful nature.

It was in the Spring of 1822 that Mr. Thomson first met with Zoeæ,
in the harbour of Cove, and that in considerable abundance; the year
following, at the same season, one of considerable size occurred;
this was considered a fit object for experiment, and was carefully
supplied with fresh sea-water, from May 14th to June 15th, when it died
in the act of changing its skin. That portion of its new form which
it had been able to disengage was sufficient to show that it bore a
great resemblance to the division of the Crustacea, in which the crabs
and lobsters are placed. “This proof,” says the author, “might be
considered incomplete, if I had not had the good fortune to succeed in
hatching the _ova_ of the Common Crab, during the month of June, which
presented exactly the appearance of the _Zoea taurus_.”

The Common Crab, _Cancer major_, is so well-known, that any description
of its appearance would be useless.

One singular part of the history of these creatures is, the power that
is possessed by them, of changing their shell once in every year; this
power is providentially bestowed upon them, to enable them to increase
in size, a thing that would otherwise be utterly impossible, from the
peculiar nature of the hard coat in which they are enclosed.

The Crab, in order to prepare for the extraordinary change it is about
to undergo, when shifting its shell, chooses a close and well-secured
retreat, in the cavities of rocks, or under great stones, where it
creeps in and remains during the operation. The time of the year
when this occurs is about the beginning of the Summer, at which time
their food is in plenty, and their strength and vigour in the highest
perfection. But soon all their activity ceases; they are seen forsaking
the open parts of the deep, and seeking some retired situation among
the rocks, or some outlet where they may remain in safety from the
attacks of their enemies. For some days before their change, the animal
discontinues its usual voraciousness; it is no longer seen laboriously
harrowing up the sand at the bottom, or fighting with others of its
kind, or hunting its prey; it lies torpid and motionless, as if in
anxious expectation of the approaching change. Just before casting
its shell, it throws itself upon its back, strikes its claws against
each other, and every limb seems to tremble; its feelers are agitated,
and the whole body is in violent motion; it then swells itself in an
unusual manner, and at last the shell is seen beginning to divide at
its junctures, particularly at those of the belly, where it was before
seemingly united. It also seems turned inside out; and its stomach
comes away with its shell. After this, by the same operation, it
disengages itself of its claws, which burst at the joints; the animal,
with a tremulous motion, casting them off, as a man would kick off a
boot that was too big for him.

Thus, in a short time, this wonderful creature finds itself at liberty;
but in so weak and enfeebled a state that it continues for several
hours motionless. Indeed, so violent and painful is the operation,
that many of them die under it; and those which survive, are in such
a weakly condition for some time, that they neither take food, nor
venture from their retreats. Immediately after this change, they have
not only the softness, but the timidity of a worm. Every animal of
the deep is then a powerful enemy, which they can neither escape nor
oppose; and this, in fact, is the time when the dog-fish, the cod,
and the ray, devour them by thousands. But this state of weakness
continues for a very short time; the animal, in less than two days, is
seen to have the skin that covers its body almost as hard as before;
its appetite appears to increase; and, strange to behold! the first
object, it is said, that tempts its gluttony, is its own stomach, which
it was lately disengaged from. This it devours with great eagerness.
In about forty-eight hours, in proportion to the animal’s strength,
the new shell is perfectly formed, and as hard as that which was but
just thrown aside. Previous to the time of moulting or changing their
skin, a flat chalky stone is found on each side of the stomach; this
is believed to form a store of earthy matter for the renewal of the
shell. These stones, popularly known as _crabs’ eyes_, were long
highly esteemed for their medicinal properties, but in reality are not
superior to so much chalk.

When completely equipped in its new dress, the dimensions of the
old shell being compared with those of the new, it will be found
the creature has increased in size nearly one-third, and it appears
wonderful how the old shell could have contained it.

Many of the cold-blooded animals have the power of reproducing a limb,
or a portion of one, if by any accident it has been lost. This faculty
of reproduction is possessed by the Crab in great perfection; but it
has also a surprising power in itself, voluntarily to break off its
own legs and claws. It seems this takes place when any serious injury,
by bruising, has happened to any of its members. After it has received
the hurt it bleeds, and gives signs of pain, by moving the wounded limb
from side to side, but afterwards holds it quite still, in a direct and
natural position, without touching any part of its body or its other
legs with it. Then, on a sudden, with a gentle crack, the wounded part
of the leg drops off at the next joint to the one injured; this appears
to be more easily done with respect to the smaller legs, than in the
case of an injury occurring to those which bear the pincers.

When the leg has dropped off, a mucus, or jelly, is discharged on
the remaining part of the joint next the body, which, as a natural
styptic, instantly stops the bleeding; this gradually hardens and grows
callous, becoming a new leg in miniature, which at every change of the
creature’s shell increases rapidly in size.

Crabs are naturally very quarrelsome, and with their claws fight and
kill each other; and if by chance any of their limbs should be so
bruised, as to have taken away from the creature the power of breaking
off its claws, the protecting jelly is not produced, and the animal
bleeds to death. An experiment was made to give some idea of the
tenacious disposition of this creature, by obliging a Crab, with one
of its great claws, to lay hold of one of its smaller ones; the silly
creature did not distinguish that itself was the aggressor, but exerted
its strength, and soon cracked the shell of its own small leg, which
bled freely; but feeling itself wounded it succeeded in breaking off
its limb in the usual manner,—still, however, holding fast for a
length of time the part of the wounded leg which had come away.

The curious shuffling walk of the Crab is well known, but it does not,
as it is said, walk exactly backwards.


THE LAND CRAB, (_Gecarcinus ruricola_.)

Although nearly all the Crab tribe are inhabitants of the water, there
is a species found in the West Indies, a native of the Bahama Islands,
whose habits are unlike those of the rest of its class, and highly
curious in themselves.

[Illustration: THE LAND CRAB, (_Gecarcinus ruricola_.)]

Land Crabs do not, like most other crustaceous animals, live near
salt water, but take up their abode for the greatest part of the year
in holes in the ground, hollow trunks of trees, and other places of
the same description, and inhabit the mountainous districts of the
islands, many miles from the sea-shore; but, although they make these
places their usual haunt, it is necessary for them, once a year,
to repair to the sea, for the purpose of depositing their spawn.
They prepare for their annual migration about the month of April or
May, and, having mustered in immense numbers, the procession sets
forward, with all the regularity of an army, under the guidance of an
experienced commander.

Their destination being the sea, they instinctively move in a direct
line to the nearest coast; no obstacle which they can possibly
surmount will induce them to turn from their course; for if even a
house stands in their way, they endeavour to scale its walls, in which
they sometimes succeed; and should a window remain open, they are not
unlikely to direct their march over the bed of some heedless sleeper.
If, however, a large river crosses their track, they continue to follow
its course without attempting to cross it.

It is said, that they are commonly divided into three battalions, of
which the first consists of the strongest and boldest males, who, like
pioneers, march forward to clear the route. They are often obliged
to halt for want of rain, and go into the most convenient encampment
till the weather changes. The main body consists of females, who never
leave the mountains till the rain has set in for some time; they then
descend in regular order, formed into columns of the breadth of fifty
paces, and three miles in length, and so close that they almost cover
the ground. Three or four days after this, the rear-guard follows, a
straggling undisciplined tribe, consisting of males and females, but
neither so robust nor vigorous as the former parties. The night is
their chief time of proceeding. When terrified, they march back in a
confused manner, holding up their nippers and clattering them loudly,
to intimidate their enemies. Their general food consists of vegetables;
but if any of their companions should become maimed, and unable to
proceed, they are greedily devoured by the rest.

After a march of two, and sometimes three months, in this manner,
they arrive at their destined spot on the sea-coast; they immediately
enter the water, and after the waves have washed over them several
times, retire to holes in the rocks, and other hiding-places, where
they remain until the period of spawning. They then once more seek
the water, and, shaking off their eggs, leave them to the chance of
being hatched, or devoured by tribes of hungry fish, who have already
repaired to the spot in countless shoals, in expectation of their
annual treat. The eggs that escape are hatched under the sand; and,
soon after, millions at a time of the little Crabs are seen quitting
the shore, and slowly travelling up to the mountains. The old ones,
however, are not so active to return: they have become so feeble and
lean, that they can hardly crawl about. Most of them, therefore, are
obliged to continue in the flat parts of the country till they recover;
making holes in the earth, into which they creep, and cover themselves
up with leaves and dirt; here they throw off their old shells, and
continue almost without motion for about six days, during which time
they become so fat, as to be considered delicious food. In about six
weeks, the new shell has become tolerably hard, and the creatures may
be seen slowly returning to their mountain-haunts. In some of the
sugar-islands, it is said they form no inconsiderable portion of the
food of the negroes, who are extremely dexterous in their mode of
seizing them, so as to avoid their nippers.


THE HERMIT, OR SOLDIER CRAB,

(_Pagurus bernhardus_.)

This singular species of Crab has obtained its name from its habit of
remaining, as it were, secluded, in any empty shell, or hole of a rock,
it may fancy.

[Illustration: THE HERMIT CRAB, (_Pagurus bernhardus_.)]

The hinder part of its body, particularly the tail, being constantly
secure from injury, has its covering reduced to almost a membranous
state, while the tail, which assists the other species in swimming, is
almost obliterated; but in those which have chosen a shell for their
hermitage, some hook-like appendages are observed, which enable them to
maintain a secure hold of their borrowed dwelling. When the body has
grown too large for the shell occupied by the animal, it is obliged to
seek another of a larger size. The numerous combats they enter into
when seeking a new dwelling, have caused this animal to receive the
additional name of the Soldier Crab.

“The Soldier when about to seek a new habitation, is still seen,”
says an amusing writer, “in its own shell, which it appears to have
considerably outgrown; for a part of the naked body is seen at the
mouth of it, which the habitation is too small to hide. A shell,
therefore, is to be found, large enough to cover the whole body;
and yet not so large as to be unmanageable and unwieldy. To answer
both these ends is no easy matter, nor the attainment of a slight
inquiry. The little Soldier is seen busily parading the shore, along
that line of pebbles and shells that is formed by the extremest wave;
still, however, dragging its old incommodious habitation at its tail,
unwilling to part with one shell, even though a troublesome appendage,
till it can find another more convenient. It is seen stopping at one
shell, turning it and passing it by, going on to another, contemplating
that for a while, and then slipping its tail from its old habitation,
to try on a new. This, also, is found to be inconvenient; and it
quickly returns to its old shell again. In this manner, it frequently
changes, till at last it finds one light, roomy, and commodious: to
this it adheres, though the shell be sometimes so large as to hide the
body of the animal, claws and all.”

Yet it is not till after many trials, and many combats also, that the
Soldier is thus completely equipped; for there is often a contest
between two of them for some well-looking favourite shell, for which
they are rivals. They both endeavour to take possession; they strike
with their claws; they bite each other, till the weakest is obliged to
yield, by giving up the object of dispute. It is then that the victor
takes possession, and parades in his new conquest three or four times
back and forward, upon the strand, before his envious antagonist.

When this animal is taken, it sends forth a feeble cry, endeavouring
to seize the enemy with its nippers; which if it fasten upon, it will
sooner die than quit the grasp. The wound is very painful, and not
easily cured.

On the English coasts the Hermit Crab is generally found in the shell
of the whelk, or when of a small size in that of the periwinkle; they
not unfrequently, however, remain in some cranny of a rock, or under
the protecting cover formed by a group of pebbles, in the interstices
of which they hide themselves.

The ancients were well acquainted with the Soldier Crab, as is evident
from the following translation of the lines of one of their poets:

    The Soldier Crabs unarmed by nature, left
    Helpless, and weak, grow strong by harmless theft.
    Fearful they crawl, and look with panting wish
    For the cast crust of some new-covered fish;
    Or such as empty lie, and deck the shore,
    Whose first and rightful owners are no more.
    They make glad seizure of the vacant room,
    And count the borrowed shell their native home;
    Screw their soft limbs to fit the winding case,
    And boldly herd with the crustaceous race.
    But when they larger grow they fill the place,
    And find themselves hard-pinched in scanty space,
    Compelled, they quit the roof they loved before,
    And busy search around the pebbly shore,
    Till a commodious roomy seat be found,
    Such as the larger shell-fish living owned.
    Oft cruel wars contending soldiers wage,
    And long for the disputed shell engage;
    The strongest here the doubtful prize possess,
    Power gives the right, and all the claim confess.


THE LOBSTER, (_Astacus europæa_.)

The well-known and delicious shell-fish, the Lobster, is found in great
abundance in all the northern parts of Europe. The north of Scotland
is famous for the Lobster, but it is still more plentiful on the coast
of Norway. The crab is more frequently found in shallow water, but the
Lobster prefers those spots where the water is of considerable depth.
The methods of taking Lobsters are various,—the most usual is by means
of what are called Lobster-pots; these are a sort of trap, formed of
twigs, and baited with garbage; they are made like a wire mouse-trap,
so that when the Lobsters get in there is no possibility of returning.
These pots are fastened to a cord, and sunk in the sea, their place
being marked by a buoy. Another method of taking them is by means of a
kind of bag-net, baited with animal substances. This fishery is only
carried on in the night. They are brought in vast quantities to the
London market from the Orkneys and from the Norway coast.

Lobsters are much alarmed at the noise of thunder, or any other
sudden shock; the consequence of which is, that in their fright, they
frequently cast their claws. This also often happens when the poor
creatures are thrown into the boiling-pot. As these animals frequent
clear water, their habits have been more noticed than those of the
crab. Their mode of feeding is sufficiently curious. In general, the
pincers of one of the large claws are furnished with knobs, while
the other large claw is more like a saw on its edge; holding, then,
its food in the knobbed claw, it dexterously pulls it to pieces with
the other. Their movements in the water are exceedingly graceful and
lively, and they are capable of darting forward to a considerable
distance with the rapidity of the flight of a bird. Their colour, when
in their native element, is not black as might be imagined, but a
beautiful deep blue.

A whimsical idea of the horror Lobsters are said to have of pigs, seems
to have prevailed in some parts of the Continent. It is said that in
Brandenburgh, where the fishery is very abundant, the wagoners who
transport them by land are obliged to keep watch during the night, to
prevent swine from passing the wagon, for if one only was to go by,
they say, not a single Lobster would be alive in the morning!


THE RIVER CRAY-FISH, (_Potamobius fluviatilis_.)

The fresh-water Cray-fish very much resembles the lobster in
appearance, but is considerably broader in its proportions. It is
commonly found in the tributary streams of large rivers, inhabiting the
banks, in which it burrows, and feeding on any animal substance that
may happen to come in its way.

The Cray-fish is taken in various ways, sometimes by the hand, which
is thrust into the holes in which they burrow. Another method is thus
described:—

Procure a dozen little rods, about five feet in length, and the
thickness of the thumb,—split them at the smallest end, and by way
of bait, place a frog, or a piece of putrid flesh in the cleft; take
then the rods by their thickest end, and hold the bait at the entrance
of the little holes where you suspect your prey to be; if they are
there, they will generally come out to seize the bait. As soon as you
perceive them, hold a small landing-net underneath, and raise the bait
suddenly, and the Cray-fish will either be brought up along with the
bait, or will fall back into the net.

Another method noticed, consists in first burying a dead cat, or a
hare, in a dunghill, for eight days, and then placing it in the midst
of a bush of tangled thorns and brambles, which is thrown into the
water, in the place frequented by the Cray-fish. After it has remained
there a few hours it may be drawn up, when the shell-fish will be found
partaking of their delicate fare, and the tangled bush will effectually
prevent their escape.


THE PHOSPHORESCENT SHRIMP.

The luminous appearance of the ocean at night is a fact well-known
to all who have been a voyage by sea; and it has been ascertained,
that the causes of this beautiful phenomenon are the phosphorescent
properties which are possessed by many of the smaller inhabitants
of the deep. Among these, the little animal, figured above, is very
frequently met with.

[Illustration: NOCTILUCA BANKSII magnified.

The line above shows the natural length.]

The light of this creature, which is very brilliant, appears to issue
from every part of the body; but in another crustaceous animal, found
by Captain Tuckey, in the Gulf of Guinea, the luminous property resided
in the brain, which, when the animal was at rest, resembled a most
brilliant amethyst, about the size of a large pinhead; from this there
started, when it moved, flashes of a brilliant silvery light.

The author we have lately quoted, says,—

“Meditating upon this subject, I think it not improbable, that the
Deity, who has done nothing in vain, and whose omniscience extends to
every epoch, foreseeing that man would invent the means of tempting the
trackless ocean, and explore the most distant regions of our planet,
has given it as one means of rendering his nights less gloomy, and
of diminishing the number of his dangers; especially, if we consider
that this luminosity is seen only in the night-season,—is vivid in
proportion to the darkness, disappearing even before the feeble light
of the moon,—and also that it increases with the agitation of the sea,
so that, during the prevalence of storms, it greatly diminishes the
dense gloom which at such times is often impenetrable to the moon, and
the stars, throws such a light upon the ship and rigging as to enable
sailors to execute their allotted tasks with certainty, and at all
times points out to the cautious mariner the lurking danger of sunken
rocks, shoals, and unknown coasts, by the phosphorescent, or snowy
appearance which it gives to the breakers, so as to render them visible
at a considerable distance.”


THE OPOSSUM SHRIMP, (_Mysis chamæleon_.)

This small species of Shrimp, although it has much the same outward
appearance as the common shrimp, except that it is considerably
smaller, is, when duly examined, one of the most singularly-formed
creatures of the class to which it belongs. It is found in tolerable
abundance along the British coasts, but the northern seas literally
swarm with them; there, in spite of their small size, they are destined
to become the food of the stupendous whale, whose enormous mouth
encloses myriads at a time.

[Illustration: _Mysis chamæleon._]

The Opossum Shrimp belongs to a group of crustaceous animals which have
been called fissipeds, (_split-feet_,) on account of each of their
feet being divided nearly throughout its whole length; the inner limb
being constructed for progression and the seizing of their prey, and
the outer for swimming and giving that motion to the water which is
essential to the organs of breathing, which are, as it were, wrapped
round the base of each limb, and fully exposed to the action of the
element. In the other Crustacea, which they most nearly approach, such
as shrimps, prawns, &c., there is a single row of five feet on each
side: but the genus we are now describing possesses as many as four
rows of feet, each containing eight, so that in all, the number of feet
amounts to as many as thirty-two,—sixteen adapted for swimming, and
sixteen for seizing their prey. In consequence of this organization,
the Shrimps seek their food in the sands at the bottom, while the
present genus frequent the surface.

The most singular portion of their formation, and that to which they
are indebted for a name, is a kind of pouch which the female possesses,
fixed beneath the body, and formed of two concave pieces of shell; this
pouch, which is very capacious, considering the size of the animal, is
destined to receive the eggs, which are deposited in it, enveloped in
a kind of jelly-like substance, most probably forming the food of the
young when first hatched. As fast as the young assume the lengthened
form of the perfect animals, they are found to arrange themselves in
this pouch closely and regularly side by side, with their heads towards
the breast of the mother. After this manner they lie closely compacted
together, and present a perfectly symmetrical arrangement, easily
observed from the translucency of the valves of the pouch, and the
large size and blackness of their eyes. The males of the Opossum Shrimp
are not so numerous as the females, and are without the singular pouch
we have described.

We have already noticed the fact of these Shrimps being the food of the
Greenland whale, in the northern seas, but in these climates they serve
as food for herrings.

It is in looking closely into the structure of these little animals
that we see the perfection of the Divine Artist. Nature’s greater
productions appear coarse indeed to these elaborate and highly-finished
master-pieces, and in using more and more powerful magnifiers we still
continue to bring new parts and touches into view. If, for instance,
after observing one of their members with the naked eye, which has
informed us that the part we have been examining is composed but of one
piece, we employ a magnifying glass with a low power, the same part
appears jointed, or composed of several pieces articulated together.
Employing a higher magnifier, it appears fringed with long hairs,
which, on further scrutiny, seem to be themselves fringed with hairs
still more minute; many of these minute parts also, are evidently
jointed, and perform sensible motions. But what idea can we form of the
various muscles which put these parts in movement, of the nerves which
actuate them, and the vessels which supply them with the nourishment
necessary for growth and support, and which we know, from comparison
with other creatures, they must possess!

The Opossum Shrimps, we have seen, are the prey of the larger
inhabitants of the deep; but they, in their turn, destroy others that
are smaller than themselves,—seizing upon every animal substance they
are able to manage that comes within their reach, and, if placed in a
vessel of sea-water by themselves, devouring each other.

The species represented in the engraving has been called the _Mysis
chamæleon_, from its colour varying according to the substances on
which it feeds, through all the gradations of gray, black, brown, and
pink.


_ORDER CRUSTACEA HETEROBRANCHIÆ._

(_Crustacea with Organs of Breathing variously placed, never
concealed._)

The Crustacea which form this order differ much more from each other
than those which are arranged in the last order, and consequently we
find among them some very singular in their outward formation. Few of
the species appear to be used as food by mankind, but they constitute a
great portion of the nourishment of fishes and other inhabitants of the
water. They are at times used by fishermen as bait. Many of them are
very minute, and form most excellent objects for the microscope. They
have been divided into several sections, according to their outward
form; but as so little is known of their habits, we shall confine
ourselves to a description of some of the best known.


THE SPOTTED SQUILL, (_Squilla maculata_.)

The Squill seems to form a connecting link between the last and present
order. It is the only genus of the heterobranchial Crustacea in which
the eyes are placed on footstalks; the head, instead of being distinct,
appears in a great measure drawn into the corslet. It has been called
the Sea Mantis, from its bearing some resemblance to an insect of that
name, on account of the singularly-formed hooks with which two of its
foot-jaws are armed.

The species shown in the engraving is found in the Indian Seas; it is
the largest of the genus.

The shell with which these creatures are covered has very little
consistence, more resembling hardened skin than shell. They frequent
the sandy bottom of the sea.

[Illustration: _Squilla maculata._]

There is a small species which is found in fresh water, in which the
young, after the eggs are hatched, remain for some time in shelter
under the plates with which the body of the mother is covered.


THE COMMON CLOPORTUS, (_Cloportus ascellus_.)

This animal is very common upon old walls and under stones. It is
somewhat like the wood-louse, but more flat; it is essentially a
dweller on the land, but it cannot exist except in damp places, where
the moisture is sufficient to keep its branchiæ pliable; it belongs to
a group of small Crustacea known by the name _Oniscus_. Some, as we see
in the present instance, frequent the land, but the greater portion
inhabit the water.

[Illustration: _Cloportus ascellus._

(Fig. 1, much magnified; fig. 2, natural size.)]

Among those which inhabit the latter element, there is a minute species
which is very injurious to timber. It excavates a cylindrical hole for
its dwelling, and increases in number so rapidly, that in a few years
timber which is covered with water is rendered useless. The temporary
wood-work used during the time the Bell-Rock Lighthouse was in the
course of erection, was destroyed, to a great extent, by this little
creature. When the wood had been under water for three years, beams ten
inches square were reduced to seven inches; at the rate of one inch
a year. Another species, _Cymothoa_, attaches itself to the backs of
different species of fishes, living upon the juices of their body.

A crustaceous animal nearly allied to this last is described in the
fifth volume of the _American Philosophical Transactions_; it is
accompanied by engravings which we have copied, but the animal is
not drawn with sufficient accuracy to be referable to any particular
species; by this account it appears that, instead of attaching itself
to the body of the fish, the parasite makes safe its lodgement on the
roof of the mouth. The author thus describes it.

[Illustration: _Head of Alewife._

Part of lower jaw removed to show the insect.]

[Illustration: The insect seen from above.]

“Among the fish that at this early season of the year (February) resort
to the waters of York River, in Virginia, the Alewife, the Oldwife,
called also the Bay Alewife, arrives in very considerable shoals, and
in some seasons their number is almost incredible. They are fully of
the size of a large herring, and are principally distinguished from the
herring by a bay or red spot, above the gill-fin. They are, when caught
from March to May, full-roed and fat, and at least as good a fish for
the table as the herring.

“In this season, each of these Alewifes carries in her mouth an insect
about two inches long, hanging with its back downwards, and firmly
holding itself by its fourteen legs to the palate.

“It is with difficulty it can be separated, and never, perhaps, without
injury to the jaws of the fish. The fishermen, therefore, consider
the insect as essential to the life of the fish; for when it is taken
out, and the fish is again thrown into the water, he is incapable
of swimming, and soon dies. I endeavoured in numerous instances to
preserve both the insect and the fish from injury, but was always
obliged, either to destroy the one or injure the other.

“I have sometimes succeeded in taking out the insect in a brisk and
lively state. As soon as he was set free from my grasp, he immediately
scrambled nimbly back into the mouth of the fish and resumed his
position. In every instance he was disgustingly corpulent and
unpleasant to handle, and it seemed that, whether he had obtained
his post by force or favour; whether he be a traveller or constant
resident, or what else may be his business where he is found, he
certainly fares sumptuously every day.

“The fish whose mouth he inhabits, comes about the same time with the
shad into the rivers of Virginia from the ocean, and continues to
travel upwards from the beginning of March to the middle of May. As
long as they are caught on their passage up the river, they are found
fat and fall of roe. Every fish which I saw had the Oniscus in his
mouth, and I was assured, not only by the more ignorant fishermen, but
by a very intelligent man who came down now and then to divert himself
with fishing, that in forty years’ observation he had never seen a Bay
Alewife without the louse.”

The Oniscus itself, as the author states, is not without its enemies,
many of them being caught with two or three leeches attached to their
body, and adhering so closely that their removal cost them their heads.


THE MOLUCCA CRAB, (_Polyphemus gigas_.)

Why the singular creature here represented should have the name
Polyphemus given to it, is hard to guess. Polyphemus, as every
schoolboy knows, was the fabled giant overcome by Ulysses, who is
represented as having one eye in the centre of his forehead; whereas,
this creature has two eyes and one horn. It is interesting from its
being so nearly allied to many very minute species.

The Polyphemus sometimes reaches the length of two feet; there are but
two species, which only differ from each other in the shape of their
buckler. That we have represented is found in the Indian Ocean, and has
been called the Molucca Crab.

The tail, or rather the horn, of the Polyphemus, is greatly dreaded by
the fishermen, from the idea that its wound is venomous. The natives
employ it to point their arrows, and as they are in the habit of
poisoning the points of these weapons, it is most likely from this
circumstance that the idea we have noticed originated, for there is no
other ground for the belief.

[Illustration: _Polyphemus gigas._]

During the night-time they lie half out of the water, and are then very
easily taken, as they appear to take but little notice of anything
until their danger becomes imminent.

It is but a small portion of their flesh that is considered good for
food, but the eggs, which are very numerous, are reckoned a delicacy.

These Crabs are in the habit of leaving the water and walking to a
considerable distance over the wet sands,—but if incommoded by the
sun, they hurry back as fast as they are able to their native element.
When walking, none of their legs are visible. Most authors say that, if
this Crab is laid on its back, it must inevitably perish, unless the
waters return in time, but one observer asserts that it has the power
of righting itself with the assistance of its tail.


THE CRAB-LIKE LIMULUS, (_Limulus cancriformis_.)

The Limuli are found in deep ditches of fresh water, marshes, &c.; they
are frequently met with congregated together in great numbers; their
principal food in the Spring appears to be tadpoles.

[Illustration: _Limulus cancriformis._ (Natural size.)]

“This genus,” says Lamarck, “is almost isolated among the group in
which it is placed. Its body is covered with a great horny buckler,
very thin, and made of a single piece, of a roundish oval form. The
head is confounded with the trunk, and the antennæ are very short. They
possess three eyes, two in front, and one, very small, further back.
Their legs are very numerous,—the two in front, much the largest,
spread out in the form of oars, and furnished at their extremity with
silky articulated bristles.”


THE WATER FLEA, (_Cyclops quadricornis_.)

There are as many as twelve known species of the Water Flea. That
represented in the engraving is extremely common, and forms a most
interesting object for the microscope. We have availed ourselves of Mr.
Pritchard’s popular description of this curious creature.

“The Author of Nature, to whom all things are alike easy of execution,
as if intending to teach man a lesson of humility, and that no part of
creation, however minute, is beneath his consideration, has conferred
on these animals, that are barely perceptible to our unassisted vision,
more elegance and variety of form, more richness in their colouring,
and more beauty and exquisite finishing, than on the whale or the
elephant, which mainly excite our admiration, by the magnitude of the
mass of living matter they present to us.

[Illustration: _Cyclops quadricornis._

(Fig. 1, highly magnified; fig. 2, natural size.)]

“These little crustaceous animals may be found at all seasons of the
year, near the surface of the water; they are, however, most abundant
in July and August. I have collected great numbers of them on a warm
day in the latter month, with a small cloth net, immersing it about an
inch below the surface. They are mostly colourless in ponds covered
with herbage, but in small collections of rain water, on a loamy soil,
are of a fine rich colour.

“The body of this creature is covered with crustaceous or shelly
plates, which overlap each other, and admit both of a lateral and
vertical motion between them. Their ends do not meet on the side, but
have sufficient space between them for the insertion and play of the
organs of respiration. The rostrum, or beak, is short and pointed: it
is a prolongation of the first segment which forms the head. A little
above the beak, a single eye is imbedded beneath the shell, of a dark
crimson colour, nearly approaching to blackness. The true form of this
organ it is difficult to determine. Mr. Baker gives it the shape of two
kidney-beans placed parallel to each other, and united at their lowest
extremities. When viewed laterally, it appears round, while in some
other positions it is square.”

The eggs are curiously placed in two bags, presenting an appearance
similar to clusters of grapes, and of considerable magnitude, compared
with the size of the animal. These egg-bags are seen in the engraving,
(which represents a female,) projecting from each side of the hinder
portion of the shell. The centre of each egg is of a deep opaque
colour, which in some specimens is green, in others red.

The young of the Cyclops, when first excluded from the egg, are
extremely minute, and so different from the mother, that Müller has
described them as forming two distinct genera.


THE SMALL WATER FLEA, (_Cyclops minutus_.)

This species of the Water Flea differs from the last, in having its
body divided into a greater number of segments; it is also much
smaller; it is equally active with that last described, but its form
renders it more graceful in its motions. “These little creatures,” says
Mr. Pritchard, “seem to possess great discernment and cunning; for, if
approached, they remain motionless on the plant on which they reside,
in the apparent hope that they may be overlooked; but when a fit
opportunity occurs, they suddenly bend the body, and spring away with a
kind of vaulting leap.”

[Illustration: _Cyclops minutus_, much magnified.]

They inhabit the various species of confervæ, and may often be met
with in great numbers on the stalks and underside of healthy duckweed,
growing on the surface of the water. They are most numerous in April
and May, and disappear as the heat of the season increases. They will
not live in stagnant water containing much decomposed vegetation, and
require, therefore, to be kept for observation in a large vessel of
clean water. They are easily caught after a shower of rain, on the
under surface of the duckweed, by taking out a little with a basin or
cloth net. When found, they appear busily engaged in search of prey,
moving about with great activity, and examining every portion of the
plant in the most scrutinizing manner. In this pursuit the body is not
bent as in the magnified representation in the engraving, but is kept
in a straight crawling position. Their natural length is about the
three hundredth part of an inch.

The female of the last species has two outward receptacles for the
eggs; in this there is but one, and that is placed on the under part of
the animal near the tail.


THE HAIRY CYPRIS, (_Cypris pubera_.)

These singular little creatures are found in stagnant fresh water: they
are very small, and, at first sight, appear like a bivalve shell. The
animal which is enclosed in this two-valved case, opens and shuts it
at will; when it does this, it throws out from one end of the shell
numerous whitish hair-like members; it is by moving these that it is
enabled to swim with considerable celerity, and it never stops until
it meets with some object on which it can rest. Its two antennæ, which
issue from the fore part of the shell, are long, very flexible, and
bent backwards; their articulations are numerous, which gives them
great freedom of motion. The movements of these antennæ contribute
materially to the swimming powers of the creature.

At the place where the head is united to the body, a small black point
is seen,—this is the eye of the animal.

[Illustration: _Cypris pubera._

(Fig. 1, highly magnified; fig. 2, natural size.)]

The Cypris changes its shell like the rest of the Crustacea; it is
found in marshes where vegetable substances are growing. Sometimes they
are so numerous, that the water appears covered with them; they are
more usually found in Spring and Autumn than at any other part of the
year; from this it is inferred that there are two broods in the course
of the year.

The drying up of marshes during the Summer heats, destroys immense
numbers every season. It appears, however, from observation, that in
this case, some of these tiny creatures manage to bury themselves in
the mud, where they hermetically close their shells, and remain in a
kind of dormant state, until rain or other causes have again filled the
marshes with water.

A species nearly allied to this, the _Artemia Salina_, the Lymington
shrimp, or brine-worm, is able to live in the brine of the salt-pans,
which is so strongly impregnated with salt, as to destroy any other
Crustaceous animal.

Myriads of these animalculæ are to be found in the salterns at
Lymington, in the open tanks or reservoirs, where the brine is
deposited previous to boiling. A pint of this brine contains about a
quarter of a pound of salt. These tanks are called clearers, as the
liquor becomes clear in them, an effect which the workmen attribute,
in some degree, to the rapid and continual motion of the brine-worm,
or the particles which cloud the liquor serving for its food; but this
is mere conjecture. So strongly persuaded, however, are the workmen of
this fact, that they are accustomed to transport a few of the worms
from another saltern if they do not appear at their own. They increase
astonishingly in the course of a few days.

It is observable that the brine-worm is never seen in the sun-pans,
where the brine is made by the admission of sea-water during the
Summer, and which are emptied every fortnight; but only in the pits and
reservoirs, where it is deposited after it is taken out of the pans,
and where some of the liquor constantly remains, when it becomes much
diluted with rain water. From October till May, (during which time the
manufacture is at a stand,) a few only of the worms are visible; but at
the approach of Summer, young ones appear in great numbers.

                         THE END.

                           LONDON:
              JOHN W. PARKER, ST. MARTIN’S LANE.




                        [LIST NO. 1.]

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                           * THE INSTRUCTOR;

                                  OR,
               PROGRESSIVE LESSONS IN GENERAL KNOWLEDGE

                              A SERIES OF
               ELEMENTARY BOOKS, ESPECIALLY ADAPTED FOR
                         SCHOOLS AND FAMILIES.

      Under the general title of THE INSTRUCTOR, is
      comprised a series of little books, by means of which children
      may be led through a progressive course of Exercises in various
      branches of Elementary Knowledge. These books may be put
      into the hands of such children as can readily spell common
      words, and read easy lessons.—The object of the work is not
      only to furnish reading lessons, but also to carry the pupil
      _forward_,—to impart _information_, and exercise
      the mind.

        The first Six Volumes, in Thirty-six Numbers, contain the
      following subjects, with numerous Engravings:

                   VOLUME I. (or in Nos. 1 to 6.)
  TALES and CONVERSATIONS on Familiar Subjects.

                   VOLUME II. (or in Nos. 7 to 12.)
  The HOUSE. MATERIALS used in BUILDING. FURNITURE. FOOD and
        CLOTHING.

                   VOLUME III. (or in Nos. 13 to 18.)
  The UNIVERSE. The THREE KINGDOMS of NATURE. THE HUMAN FORM.
        LESSONS on HEALTH.

                   VOLUME IV. (or in Nos. 19 to 24.)
  The CALENDAR; The Year, Months, Weeks, Days. The SEASONS.
        APPEARANCES of NATURE.

                   VOLUME V. (or in Nos. 25 to 30.)
  DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY: The various Divisions of the World;
        their People and Productions; with MAPS.

                   VOLUME VI. (or in Nos. 31 to 36.)
  ANCIENT HISTORY.

       London: JOHN W. PARKER, PUBLISHER, WEST STRAND.


                              FOOTNOTES:

[1] This is one of the rare exceptions to the usual plan resorted to
by nature in the formation of a shell, as noticed in the introductory
chapter.

[2] The insect from which our most beautiful scarlet dyes are prepared.

[3] See Book of Fishes, p. 51.

[4] The skin or shell with which the animal is covered before
transformation.

[5] It has been quaintly said on the subject of depriving the leech of
its food, that “Those persons do not consider that blood is the most
favourite and salutary nourishment of this extraordinary creature; and
I would ask such inconsiderate persons how they would feel themselves,
if, immediately after eating a hearty dinner, any person was to give
them a violent emetic.”

[6] A kind of sea-weed, (_Fucus natans_.)