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                                   THE
                           FOOTPRINTS OF TIME:

                             AND A COMPLETE
                                ANALYSIS
                             OF OUR AMERICAN
                          SYSTEM OF GOVERNMENT,

                                 WITH A
                CONCISE HISTORY OF THE ORIGINAL COLONIES
               AND OF THE UNITED STATES, IN CHRONOLOGICAL
                       ORDER: FACTS AND STATISTICS
                              FROM OFFICIAL
                                SOURCES.

                          BY CHARLES BANCROFT.

                         R. T. ROOT, PUBLISHER,
                            BURLINGTON, IOWA.
                                  1875.

         Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1874,
                             BY R. T. ROOT,
    In the office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington, D. C.



[Illustration: George Washington

Painted by G. Stuart Engraved by A.B. Walter, Phila.]




PREFACE.


It is the object of this book to supply the means of forming an accurate
idea of the American government. The author has adopted the proposition
that the highest style of government is one “_of_ the people, _by_ the
people, and _for_ the people,” and believes that a constant progress,
commencing in the earliest times, has reached its full development in
the Great Republic. He therefore traces THE FOOTPRINTS OF TIME through
all history; notes the gradual unfolding of institutions, the rise and
fall of empires, the causes that produced and destroyed the ancient
republics, and the origin of the forces that give so much more strength
and stability to modern civilization. All this he considers essential to
a correct appreciation of the wonderful events of our age and country.

He then proceeds to a close and clear analysis of the whole structure
of the government. Each general division, with its sub-divisions, is
examined in detail, but successively; so that a definite picture of it,
with all its branches, operations, and relations to other parts, stands
before the mind as a sharply defined whole. The Executive, Legislative,
and Judicial divisions—the dependent parts of each kept in proper
place—come in order, one after the other, before the mind, the structure,
powers and working of each being fully explained.

The book is indeed a compilation, and the matter in large part from
official sources, but collected from an astonishingly large number of
books, all of which are not to be found even in the largest public
libraries; but the labor and merit of gathering so much from all
directions and compressing a library into a form and compass so
convenient, and so well arranged, in so few and well chosen words, has
been great indeed.

All the works heretofore brought before the public proposing to meet this
want have been fragmentary, or have treated at too great length but a
portion of the subject. A complete summary, or Citizens’ Manual, is here
furnished, that includes a sufficiently detailed Analysis of the entire
structure of the government, developing in a clear and comprehensive
manner the organization, powers, relations, and mode of working of
each department, small or large, the principles on which they rest and
the spirit that permeates them all. It lays our history so far under
contribution as to show us the occasion that produced each institution,
the gradual growth of the grand edifice and the causes that controlled
and shaped the whole. In short, it gives us an adequate reason for the
form of our institutions, even so far back as the earlier history of
humanity, when the tendencies that have borne this fruit first began to
appear in human history.

                                                           THE PUBLISHER.




INTRODUCTION.


It is our happiness to live in an age whose master-pieces of
accomplishment, in science, industry and commerce, put to shame the
extravagant fictions of Oriental tales and the wonders ascribed to the
gods and heroes of ancient mythology. The changes produced by recent
investigations and discoveries are so vast and so rapid that it is
difficult to follow them or comprehend the power and thoroughness of
the transformations that are taking place in the world around us. The
applications of steam and electricity astonish us by their wide spread
influence on the condition and relations of men; the ease and speed of
movement and intercourse, constantly increasing, are ever putting us in
new and unfamiliar situations. We have hardly accustomed our thoughts
and habits to one before we are hurried on into another. The constantly
clearer and more abundant light shed by science and the press does not
suffice to keep our minds fully up to the progress that goes on in all
departments of life.

It is plain that we have entered on a New Era, the most extraordinary
and momentous the world has ever seen. The old and imperfect is being
cleared away and everything thoroughly reconstructed. The explanation is
that we are now setting up the grand Temple of Civilization, the separate
stones and pillars of which each nation and age was commissioned to hew
and carve, and, so to speak, left in the quarry to await the time when,
all the material being ready, the Master Builder should collect all the
scattered parts and raise the whole edifice at once, to the astonishment
and joy of mankind.

All the institutions and civilizations of the past may be considered
temporary, erected in haste from the materials nearest at hand, not for
permanence, but to serve the present turn while the special task of the
nation or age was being performed. The races and ages nearer the birth
of mankind worked on rougher parts of the edifice, that entered into the
foundations; those grand races, the Greek and the Roman, furnished the
noble outline which the nations of modern Europe perfected while they
supplied what was still lacking for use and adornment.

America was reserved, designedly, for so many ages, to furnish a suitable
and unencumbered location for the central halls and mightiest pillars
of the completed structure. Our fathers cleared the ground and laid
the foundation deep down on the living rock, that is to say, on Human
Rights. That they seldom failed to place stone, pillar and column in just
position the work, as we find it, proves, and we have little to do but to
clear away the rubbish, beautify the grounds, and put the whole to its
proper use.

We begin to see that Time, Thought and Experience have not wrought in
vain, that Progress is not a phantom of the imagination, that the human
race is essentially a Unit, that it has been growing through all the
centuries and is now approaching the prime of its manhood, just ready
to enter on its special career with its grandest work still to do. The
energies of all the races are preparing for unheard of achievements. The
world was never so completely and so wisely busy as now, and America
stands between modern Europe and ancient Asia, receiving from, and
giving to, both. Her institutions are founded on principles so just
and so humane that, when administered with due wisdom and skill, they
will embarrass and restrain the proper activities of men at _no point_.
America stands a _model_ which other nations will carefully copy, in due
time, as they can adapt themselves and change their institutions. It may
not be a _literal_ copy, a servile imitation; but there is little doubt
that our Declaration of Independence will finally enter, in spirit and
potential influence, into the intimate structure of all governments.

It is the Course of Human Progress, and the important elements that were
successively added as each leading phase of civilization appeared, that
is endeavored to be traced in the Historical Review of the First Part of
this book. While following the general march of events chronologically,
we have stopped here and there to take a general survey, in order the
better to understand the significance of detached facts, or to examine a
new influence that enters among the forces moulding the future. Our space
did not allow an exhaustive process; nor was it desirable. We have taken
note of only the more important landmarks of Progress. Too much detail
would confuse the mind by engaging it in an intricate mass of facts. It
is the _thread_ of events, that joins the nations and ages together, or
the _channel_ by which they sent down to our day—from Asia to Europe, and
from Europe to America—each their special contribution to the political
wisdom and the free institutions of America, that we have endeavored to
find.

We hope we have not underrated any people or any time, and that we have
not _overrated_ the value and glory of America. America is yet young. Its
founders, the authors of its Constitution, were unaware of the singular
excellence and nobility of their work. Like all other people, they built
according to their genius and instincts. Time only could show whether
they built for immortality. They feared and trembled over their work; but
Time has set on it his seal of approval. Our people are busy using their
liberties and energies, each for his individual benefit, as is quite
right and proper; since the welfare of individuals makes the prosperity
of the community. But a government left to take care of itself is prone
to do that work only too well. We have done well and wisely in important
crises; but a more intelligent and constant watchfulness over the
ordinary course of public affairs would have been still better.

It is plain that the general mind among us has grown clearer and more
accurate in its judgments as experience has accumulated, for the original
direction toward popular freedom has not changed. Various incongruities
have been laid aside and oversights corrected, the severe strain of
civil war and an unheard of rapidity of growth have not shaken, but
more clearly revealed the strength and unity of the nation. Yet, more
intelligence and more care would have saved us many shocks and made our
success more pronounced and more brilliant. “Knowledge is power,” when
wisely applied; and a more accurate acquaintance with their government
and its history will enable American Citizens to mould it more wisely
still, to correct all defects of administration, and to speedily reach
that minimum of governmental interference with the efforts and interests
of the citizens which shall give them the fullest liberty consistent with
security and surrender the whole round of human life, as completely as
possible, to the beneficent action of natural law.

                                                                    C. B.




CONTENTS.


                               PART FIRST.

             THE FOOTPRINTS OF TIME, OR HISTORICAL PROGRESS.

                                CHAPTER I.

    HISTORICAL PROGRESS IN THE OLD WORLD                                29

    SECTION I. The Dawn of History—Uncertainty of Tradition—Aid
    afforded by recent studies—Ethnology, Philology,
    etc.—Primitive Home of Mankind—The three great races—The first
    Migrations—Commencement of Civilization—China—The Euphrates—The
    Hamites in Egypt.

    SECTION II. Direction of Pre-historic Growth—Rudeness
    of early races—Character of the Primitive Man—Testimony
    of language—Imperfection of Turanian Growth—Seen in
    China—Superiority of Indo-European races.

    SECTION III. Gradual Development—Condition of the first
    Men—Establishment of the Family—Patriarchal Authority—The
    Growth of Monarchy—Origin of the Priesthood—Development of both
    in Chaldea and Egypt—Influence of War and Commerce.

    SECTION IV. Ancient Monarchies—Five Monarchies on the Euphrates
    and Tigris—The Scythian, the two Hamitic, the Assyrian and the
    Medo-Persian Monarchies—Testimony of the ruins—Mysterious and
    Singular character of Egypt—Moses and the Jewish State—Tyre and
    its Commerce.

    SECTION V. The Grecian States—Origin, intelligence and
    vigor of the Greek race—Their Mythology and Heroic
    History—Their opposition to the dangerous centralizing
    tendencies of Monarchy—Greek Republics—Colonization—Sparta
    and Athens—Commencement of Authentic History—Foundation of
    Rome—Chronological review during the time of the Roman Kings.

    SECTION VI. The Roman Republic—Character of the Romans—Greeks
    and Romans compared—Roman constancy.

    SECTION VII. Greece and Rome—The influence of each on the
    future of mankind—Chronological history from B. C. 500 to B. C.
    133—The great career of the Roman Republic.

    SECTION VIII. Decay of the Republic—Unhappy effects of conquest
    and wealth on Roman character—Death of the Gracchi—The Civil
    Wars—Marius, Sylla, Crassus, Pompey, Julius Cæsar—The Senate
    Suspends the Constitution and ends the Republic—Death of Cæsar.

    SECTION IX. The Roman Empire—Impossibility of restoring
    the Republic—Triumvirate and wars of Augustus, Antony and
    Lepidus—Augustus Emperor of the World.

    SECTION X. Influence of Christianity—The Jewish State—Influence
    on it of Egypt, Asia and Greece—The New Morality of
    Christianity—The persecution it provokes—Its growing influence
    on life and manners—Unhappy effect of state patronage.

    SECTION XI. The services of Great Men to Mankind—Difficulties
    of progress among the Ancients—Assistance rendered by Great
    Men—Office of early Poets—Of Legislatures—Philosophers,
    Socrates, Plato, Aristotle—Orators, Demosthenes and
    Cicero—Influence of Great conquerors on progress—Alexander the
    Great—Hannibal the unfortunate—Cæsar, the successful—Brutus,
    the Patriot—Augustus the Emperor—The elements of greatness in
    all men—Jesus Christ the Perfect Man.

    SECTION XII. The Christian Era—Chronological history of the
    Emperors—The triumph of Christianity and its corruption—The
    fall of the Empire.

    SECTION XIII. Rise of Modern Nations—Incursions of
    Barbarians—Their settlement in Gaul—Spain, Africa,
    Italy and Britain—Mahomet and the great success of his
    followers—Charlemagne and the Popes—Failure to found a Western
    Empire.

    SECTION XIV. The Feudal System—Results from the condition of
    the Empire and the character of the invaders—Rise and character
    of Chivalry—The Crusades.

    SECTION XV. The Liberties of the People—Influence of the
    Crusades—Revival of Commerce and Learning.

    SECTION XVI. The Situation on the Discovery of America.

    SECTION XVII. Conclusion—Summary of Progress—The work assigned
    to America.

                               CHAPTER II.

    THE DISCOVERY OF AMERICA                                           148

    Geographical ignorance of the Ancients—Columbus and his
    Ideas—His difficulty in getting a hearing—Queen Isabella of
    Spain—Sets sail for the New World—Why he thought it Asia—Origin
    of the name America.

                                CHAPTER III.

    HISTORY FROM 1492 TO 1763                                          151

    Various Discoveries—Sir Humphrey Gilbert fails twice
    to establish a Colony—Sir Walter Raleigh—Settlements
    in Florida—Jamestown—Landing of the Puritans—Other
    Settlements—Liberal character of Colonial Governments—Colonies
    resist oppression—Indian Wars—French Wars—Training they give
    the Colonies—Capture of Louisburg—Braddock’s Defeat—Colonists
    as Soldiers.

                               CHAPTER IV.

    HISTORY—ORIGIN OF THE REVOLUTION                                   162

    British resolve to tax Colonies—Folly of that
    measure—Resistance in the Colonies—British repeal the tax,
    BUT CLAIM THE RIGHT—Indignation in the Colonies—Taxes
    again tried—Soldiers sent to Boston—“Boston Massacre”—Tax
    on Tea—Colonies Organize against it—“Boston Tea
    Party”—Philadelphia—Boston Port Bill—First Congress—“American
    Association”—Battle of Lexington—Second Congress—Siege of
    Boston—Bunker Hill—British driven out—Battles in Canada.

                                CHAPTER V.

    FORMATION OF THE ORIGINAL UNION                                    173

    History of the various stages of Union among the
    States—Adoption of the Articles of Confederation.

                               CHAPTER VI.

    DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE                                        175

    Noble character of this Document—It speaks for all men and all
    times—The Declaration.

                                CHAPTER VII.

    ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION                                          181

    Full text of the Articles adopted in 1777, forming the
    Constitution for 12 years.

                              CHAPTER VIII.

    REVOLUTIONARY WAR FROM 1776 TO 1783                                191

    Battle of Long Island—Silent retreat at night—Washington
    driven across the Delaware—His success in the Jerseys—Battles
    near Philadelphia—Surrender of Burgoyne—Treaty with the
    French—French fleet—British evacuate Philadelphia—Washington’s
    success again in the Jerseys—Southern War—Defeat of
    Gates—Treason of Arnold—Gen. Green and Cornwallis—Lafayette and
    Cornwallis—Surrender of Cornwallis at Yorktown—Review of the
    War—Financial Difficulties—Character of the People—Peace at
    Last!

                               CHAPTER IX.

    THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES                              203

    The Constitutional Convention of 1787—Defects of the Articles
    of Confederation—Caution of Statesmen and the People—Result of
    the Convention—Full text of the Constitution and Amendments.

                                CHAPTER X.

    THE CONTINENTAL CONGRESS                                           225

    Names of Presidents of the Continental Congress—The various
    Seats of Government from 1774 to 1789.

                              PART SECOND.

    THE GOVERNMENT UNDER THE CONSTITUTION                              226

    The Three Branches of the Government—Arrangement of this
    Work—Excellence of the Organization—Comparison of the United
    States with Mexico—With Ireland—_Why it has prospered_.

                        THE EXECUTIVE DEPARTMENT.

                                CHAPTER I.

    THE PRESIDENT                                                      229

    His place in the Government—He is its active force—Conditions
    of birth, age, and residence—How he is elected—His powers and
    duties—List of all the Presidents.

                               CHAPTER II.

    THE VICE-PRESIDENT                                                 234

    His position mainly honorary—His only duty—When he may become
    President—List of Vice-Presidents.

                              CHAPTER III.

    THE CABINET                                                        236

    Number and offices of members—Their duties—President’s will
    supreme—Their means of aiding him—The character and ability
    required.

                               CHAPTER IV.

    DEPARTMENT OF STATE                                                239

    Title of chief officer—Conducts our Foreign business—Range of
    his duties—Qualifications required—Lists of Secretaries of
    State.

                                CHAPTER V.

    OUR REPRESENTATIVES IN FOREIGN LANDS                               243

    The dignity of their Official Character—The
    immunities it confers—Ambassadors—Ministers
    Plenipotentiary—Ministers-Resident—Charge
    d’Affaires—Commissioners—The high abilities required in Foreign
    Ministers.

                               CHAPTER VI.

    TREATIES—EXTRADITION TREATIES                                      246

    Nature of a Treaty—Its binding power—Has the force of Law—The
    Russian Treaty in full—What Extradition Treaties are—What
    classes of criminals they apply to—Countries with which we have
    Extradition Treaties.

                              CHAPTER VII.

    BUSINESS REPRESENTATIVES                                           256

    Consuls and their duties—Their official character—Their
    number—Extra powers in Turkey, etc.

                              CHAPTER VIII.

    PASSPORTS                                                          258

    Their character—Their protective power—Who give them.

                               CHAPTER IX.

    DEPARTMENT OF THE TREASURY                                         260

    Its importance—Secretary of the Treasury—Great extent of his
    department—Its thorough organization—The security of public
    funds—The various bureaus—List of Secretaries of the Treasury.

                                CHAPTER X.

    THE FINANCIAL SYSTEM OF THE UNITED STATES                          263

    How government income is obtained—Duties—Internal
    Revenue—Difference of views—Finance a study for the people.

                               CHAPTER XI.

    DUTIES AND TARIFFS                                                 266

    Explanation of terms—Ease of raising revenue from Tariffs—Two
    kinds of Tariff—What is a Protective Tariff—Tonnage.

                              CHAPTER XII.

    COLLECTION OF DUTIES                                               272

    Custom Houses—Their number and location—Officers and their
    duties—Their compensation—Revenue Cutters—Ship’s papers.

                              CHAPTER XIII.

    GOVERNMENT COINAGE                                                 278

    The Mint—Relations to the United States Treasury—Artistic
    skill—Coins—Assay offices—Their relation to commerce and to
    individuals.

                              CHAPTER XIV.

    NATIONAL BANKING                                                   283

    Relations of Currency to the Treasury—Government control of
    Banks and their issues—Security of Currency.

                               CHAPTER XV.

    FINANCIAL CONDITION OF THE UNITED STATES                           286

    Great resources of the country—Aggregate wealth of
    the people—Resources of the general government—Public
    lands—Mines—National wealth—The National Debt—Reasons for not
    paying it at once—_Table of Statistics_—Public Debt for every
    year—National Securities.

                              CHAPTER XVI.

    WAR DEPARTMENT                                                     291

    Secretary of War—Organization of his department—Various
    Bureaus—List of Secretaries of War.

                              CHAPTER XVII.

    THE U. S. ARMY                                                     294

    Its history shows great military ability—The peaceful policy of
    the country.

                               CHAPTER XVIII.

    THE MILITARY ACADEMY                                               295

    Its object and location—The results secured.

                              CHAPTER XIX.

    DEPOTS OF WAR MATERIAL                                             298

    Armories and Arsenals—Their uses—Location—Officers.

                               CHAPTER XX.

    ARTICLES OF WAR                                                    299

    Peculiar relations of military forces to civil
    government—Object of Articles of War—Range and vigor of their
    provisions.

                              CHAPTER XXI.

    MILITARY HOSPITALS AND ASYLUMS                                     300

    Their object—Their location—Their excellent management—Their
    success in the Civil War.

                              CHAPTER XXII.

    NAVY DEPARTMENT                                                    302

    Secretary of the Navy—His duties—Various Bureaus—List of
    Secretaries of the Navy.

                               CHAPTER XXIII.

    THE UNITED STATES NAVY                                             306

    The U. S. a commercial country—Gratifying success of the early
    navy—The importance of this arm to the country—Its value to us
    abroad—Number of U. S. vessels of war.

                              CHAPTER XXIV.

    NAVY YARDS                                                         309

    Their location and number—Materials and stores—Workshops and
    repairs.

                              CHAPTER XXV.

    THE NAVAL ACADEMY                                                  309

    Its purposes, location and value.

                              CHAPTER XXVI.

    THE NAVAL OBSERVATORY                                              311

    Dependence of Navigation on Astronomical Science—Value of
    Observatory.

                               CHAPTER XXVII.

    COAST SURVEY                                                       312

    Necessity of this work—Scientific accuracy—Value for commerce
    and defense.

                              CHAPTER XXVIII.

    LIGHT HOUSES                                                       314

    Why and where they are built—Official Superintendence—Light
    Money.

                              CHAPTER XXIX.

    LETTERS OF MARQUE AND REPRISAL                                     316

    Objects of Privateering—Immorality and injustice of it.

                              CHAPTER XXX.

    NAVY AND MARINE HOSPITALS                                          318

    The purpose of those institutions—Their means of support—Their
    location.

                              CHAPTER XXXI.

    DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR                                         319

    History of this department—Secretary of the Interior—Bureaus of
    the department—List of Secretaries.

                               CHAPTER XXXII.

    PUBLIC LANDS                                                       322

    How the government obtained them—What disposition is made
    of them—Land offices—Sale of Lands—Pre-emption—Bounty
    Lands—Homesteads—School Lands.

                              CHAPTER XXXIII.

    HOW TO SECURE PUBLIC LANDS                                         326

    Pre-emption Laws—Land Warrants—Soldiers’ Homestead Laws—List of
    Land Offices.

                               CHAPTER XXXIV.

    PATENTS                                                            336

    Patent office—Commissioner of Patents—Mode of obtaining a
    Patent.

                              CHAPTER XXXV.

    PENSIONS                                                           339

    The object of Pensions—Pension office—Amount of Pensions—How
    paid—Pension Laws of various dates.

                               CHAPTER XXXVI.

    INDIAN AFFAIRS                                                     351

    Aboriginal inhabitants—Mode of acquiring their lands—Indian
    Policy—Reservations—Annuities—Agents—Indian Territory—Condition
    and number of Indians—Their probable extinction.

                              CHAPTER XXXVII.

    CENSUS BUREAU                                                      355

    How the census is taken—Value of census statistics—Tables of
    Population.

                             CHAPTER XXXVIII.

    DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE                                          357

    The objects of this department—Commissioner of
    Agriculture—Buildings and grounds—Extent of information
    collected and circulated—Value of this department.

                               CHAPTER XXXIX.

    POST OFFICE DEPARTMENT                                             360

    Postmaster General—Various Bureaus—Extent of organization—Its
    remarkable vigor and success—List of Postmasters General.

                               CHAPTER XL.

    RATES OF POSTAGE                                                   365

    Letters—Papers—Packages—Foreign Rates.

                              CHAPTER XLI.

    REGISTERED AND DEAD LETTERS                                        368

    Security of registered letters—Certainty of finding the
    thief—Description of the whole process—Facts about dead letters.

                              CHAPTER XLII.

    THE ATTORNEY GENERAL                                               372

    Why he is a cabinet officer—Range of his duties.

                              CHAPTER XLIII.

    PRESIDENTIAL ELECTORS                                              374

    Object of the authors of the Constitution—Why Electors failed
    to meet their expectation—How they are elected and discharge
    their duties.

                              CHAPTER XLIV.

    HISTORY OF PRESIDENTIAL ELECTIONS FROM WASHINGTON TO GRANT         377

                              CHAPTER XLV.

    CABINETS OF ALL THE PRESIDENTS                                     390

                          LEGISLATIVE DEPARTMENT.

                              CHAPTER XLVI.

    CONGRESS                                                           400

    Careful separation of the different branches of
    government—Powers and duties of Congress—Organization and
    powers of the Senate—Of the House of Representatives.

                               CHAPTER XLVII.

    CONGRESSIONAL DISTRICTS, CONGRESSMEN                               405

    Mode of electing Members of House of Representatives—Advantages
    of the district plan—Number of districts.

                              CHAPTER XLVIII.

    CONGRESSIONAL LIBRARY                                              407

    The objects of the Library—Who may use it—Duties of the
    Librarian.

                              CHAPTER XLIX.

    COPYRIGHTS                                                         408

    The object of Copyrights—Mode of applying for them—Fees—Full
    directions from the Librarian of Congress.

                                CHAPTER L.

    PRESIDING OFFICERS OF CONGRESS                                     411

    Speaker of the House—How he is chosen—President of the
    Senate—Their duties and powers—List of all the Speakers of the
    House.

                               CHAPTER LI.

    SUBORDINATE OFFICERS OF CONGRESS                                   414

    Secretary of the Senate—Clerk of the House—Their duties—The
    Sergeant-at-Arms—The Doorkeeper—The Postmaster.

                              CHAPTER LII.

    CONGRESSIONAL WORK                                                 415

    Mode of doing business in
    Congress—Organization—Bills—Committees—Reports—Connection
    of two Houses—President’s signature—Veto—Passing over the
    veto—Resolutions and their character—Amount of business
    done—Members of Congress and the People.

                              CHAPTER LIII.

    PUBLIC PRINTING                                                    418

    How it was formerly done—Changes made—People should inform
    themselves.

                              CHAPTER LIV.

    SIGNAL SERVICE                                                     420

    Origin of Signal Service—Scientific and useful character—Mode
    of conducting it—School of Instruction—Grades of officers—Their
    duties—Number of Stations—Smithsonian Institution—Its Origin,
    Objects and Value.

                               CHAPTER LV.

    REPORTS                                                            424

    Mode of doing Legislative and Executive business—Reports useful
    to furnish information—To facilitate business.

                              CHAPTER LVI.

    IMPEACHMENTS                                                       426

    Who may be impeached—House of Representatives the
    Accuser—_Senate the Court_.

                         THE JUDICIAL DEPARTMENT                       427

    Importance of this Department in our System—Constitution of the
    Department.

                              CHAPTER LVII.

    THE SUPREME COURT                                                  428

    The high range of its duties—Its original and appellate
    Jurisdiction—Its Judges—Their term of office—Officers of the
    Court—List of Supreme and Associate Justices.

                               CHAPTER LVIII.

    CIRCUIT COURTS                                                     431

    Their powers and uses—Circuits—Judges.

                              CHAPTER LIX.

    DISTRICT COURTS                                                    434

    Their jurisdiction—Appointment of Judges—Number of
    districts—Places of holding.

                               CHAPTER LX.

    ADMIRALTY AND MARITIME JURISDICTION                                436

    Confined to naval affairs—Belongs to District Courts.

                              CHAPTER LXI.

    COURT OF CLAIMS                                                    437

    Where it sits—Object to relieve Congress—Advantages to
    claimants against government.

                              CHAPTER LXII.

    DISTRICT ATTORNEYS                                                 439

    Business confided to them—Government lawyers.

                               CHAPTER LXIII.

    UNITED STATES MARSHALS                                             440

    Where they are employed—Connection with census.

                              CHAPTER LXIV.

    GRAND JURY                                                         441

    Admirable features of Grand Jury—Do not pronounce
    judgment—Security afforded to reputation.

                              CHAPTER LXV.

    LOCAL GOVERNMENTS                                                  444

    General, State, County, and Municipal governments parts
    of a whole—No conflict—The harmonizing authority in the
    Supreme Court—How State governments are formed—Their
    powers—Modeled on the General Government—Various
    Courts—Subdivisions—Counties—Towns—School districts—Minor
    divisions indispensable.

                              CHAPTER LXVI.

    INDIVIDUAL STATES                                                  447

    Circumstances of discovery of each—When and where
    settled—Facts in early history—The part each of the
    “Old Thirteen” bore in the Revolutionary struggle—The
    Surface—Climate—Agriculture—Products—Mineral
    Wealth—Prosperity—Area—Population in 1870—Circuit and District
    Courts—Number of Representatives in Congress—Ports of entry
    and delivery—Capital—Time of holding elections—Time of meeting
    of Legislature—Form of enacting clause—Complete list of United
    States Senators from each State.

    THE STATES.                                                       PAGE.

      Alabama                                                          497
      Arkansas                                                         504
      California                                                       515
      Colorado                                                         529
      Connecticut                                                      473
      Delaware                                                         475
      Florida                                                          506
      Georgia                                                          448
      Illinois                                                         495
      Indiana                                                          490
      Iowa                                                             508
      Kansas                                                           522
      Kentucky                                                         481
      Louisiana                                                        487
      Maine                                                            499
      Maryland                                                         464
      Massachusetts                                                    471
      Michigan                                                         502
      Minnesota                                                        518
      Mississippi                                                      493
      Missouri                                                         501
      Nebraska                                                         526
      New Hampshire                                                    467
      New Jersey                                                       469
      New York                                                         453
      North Carolina                                                   450
      Nevada                                                           525
      Ohio                                                             485
      Oregon                                                           520
      Pennsylvania                                                     456
      Rhode Island                                                     477
      South Carolina                                                   462
      Tennessee                                                        483
      Texas                                                            511
      Vermont                                                          479
      Virginia                                                         459
      West Virginia                                                    524
      Wisconsin                                                        518

                               CHAPTER LXVII.

    MOTTOES AND NAMES OF THE STATES                                    531

    Mottoes translated—Origin and meaning of name—Familiar name.

                              CHAPTER LXVIII.

    THE NATIONAL DOMAIN                                                534

    Public domain after the Revolutionary War—Various acquisitions
    of territory by the General Government—Character of a
    Territorial government—Organized by Congress—Appointment
    of officers—Territorial Legislature—When a State may be
    formed—Constitution to be approved by Congress—Admission may be
    vetoed by the President.

                              CHAPTER LXIX.

    INDIVIDUAL TERRITORIES                                             537

    Discovery and early history of each—When
    organized—Surface—Climate Agricultural and mineral
    resources—Future prospects and desirableness as a
    location—Area—Population in 1870.

    TERRITORIES.                                                      PAGE.

      Alaska                                                           547
      Arizona                                                          544
      Dakotah                                                          543
      District of Columbia                                             549
      Idaho                                                            545
      Montana                                                          546
      New Mexico                                                       537
      Washington                                                       540
      Wyoming                                                          548
      Utah                                                             539

                              CHAPTER LXX.

    THE ANNEXATION POLICY                                              550

    Causes of increase of national area—A traditional
    policy—Importance of national unity—The Mexican
    War—Causes—Annexation of Territory—Excuses urged—We shall never
    do it again—Superior steadiness of American people—The probable
    future of annexation.

                              CHAPTER LXXI.

    CENSUS STATISTICS                                                  556

                               PART THIRD.

                     THE PEOPLE AND THE GOVERNMENT.

    The government for the people alone—Early distrust of the
    masses and its causes—Embodied in the Federal party—Causes of
    its fall—Absorption of foreigners—Favorable results—Future of
    the people.

                                CHAPTER I.

    SUFFRAGE AND CITIZENSHIP                                           562

    Who are citizens—Advance in extent of suffrage—Who are
    voters—Citizens of States and of United States.

                               CHAPTER II.

    CITIZENS OF FOREIGN BIRTH                                          564

    Naturalization—Various steps in naturalization—Digest of laws.

                              CHAPTER III.

    ELECTIONS                                                          567

    Who are entitled to vote for State officers—For United States
    officers—History of general elections—People obtain direct
    control.

                               CHAPTER IV.

    RATIO OF REPRESENTATION                                            569

    Changes with each census—Reason for it—Data—Present ratio and
    number of Members of Congress.

                                CHAPTER V.

    OATHS AND BONDS                                                    574

    Reasons for them—“Iron-clad oaths”—Who give bonds—Amount of
    bonds required.

                               CHAPTER VI.

    GOVERNMENT PRISONS                                                 577

    Vigor of the government—Mildness in punishment—Why it owns no
    prisons.

                              CHAPTER VII.

    PROCLAMATIONS                                                      578

    Who make them—Their significance.

                              CHAPTER VIII.

    COMMISSIONERS                                                      580

    Various classes of officers of this name.

                               CHAPTER IX.

    OFFICIAL REGISTER                                                  581

    Officers and salaries—When published—Where obtained.

                                CHAPTER X.

    THE UNITED STATES FLAG                                             582

    Significance of the Flag—History of its origin—The
    “Star-Spangled Banner” and Ft. McHenry.

                               CHAPTER XI.

    THE GREAT SEAL                                                     585

    Uses of Seals—How applied—Who keeps the Great Seal—History of
    the Great Seal—Jefferson, Adams, etc.—Failure of committees to
    please—Efforts of Secretary of Congress—Adams and the English
    Baronet—Description of the Seal.

                              CHAPTER XII.

    THE ORIGIN OF LAW                                                  588

    Origin of law in various kinds of government—In the U.S. all
    law springs from the People—The fundamental law—Legislative
    acts—Laws by Treaty—Universal law.

                              CHAPTER XIII.

    LAW OF NATIONS                                                     591

    Its origin—Standard authorities on International Law—How it is
    enforced—General features of Law of Nations—United States and
    England—A future Supreme Tribunal.

                              CHAPTER XIV.

    RELATION OF U. S. GOVERNMENT TO RELIGION                           594

    Does not support religion—Shows respect to the sentiments of
    all its people—Consequent policy.

                               CHAPTER XV.

    CHAPLAINS                                                          596

    Why employed—No sect preferred—Salaries—Where employed.

                              CHAPTER XVI.

    COMPROMISES                                                        598

    Necessity of them from the commencement—Constitutional
    Compromise—Missouri Compromise of 1820—Mason and Dixon’s
    Line—Compromises of 1850—Their failure brings on the Civil War.

                              CHAPTER XVII.

    TREASON                                                            602

    Defined by the Constitution—The punishment inflicted.

                               CHAPTER XVIII.

    POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY OF THE U. S.                                   603

    Sectional divisions—Their disappearance—Circuit
    Courts—States—District Courts—Congressional
    Districts—Counties—Towns—School Districts.

                              CHAPTER XIX.

    HISTORY OF THE U. S. FROM 1783 TO 1812                             606

    Prostration of the country after the war—Congress has no
    effective control of finances—Negligence of the States—Shay’s
    rebellion in Mass.—Vigorous action of Gen. Lincoln—Virginia
    urges call of a Constitutional Convention—Meeting and
    result of the Convention—Last acts and dissolution of
    Continental Congress—Washington’s first Administration—The
    rise of parties, Federal and Anti-federal—Washington’s
    second Administration—Difficulties with England—With
    France—Country prospers—Adams’ Administration—Naval
    war with France—Jefferson’s Administrations—Louisiana
    purchased—Increasing trouble with England—Madison’s
    Administrations—War declared.

                               CHAPTER XX.

    THE WAR OF 1812                                                    620

    Causes of the war—Disasters in Canada—Successes on
    the sea—Barbarity of British and Indians—Incompetence
    of U. S. officers—Second Campaign—Brilliant naval
    successes—Mortification of the British—Political opposition
    to the war embarrasses the Government and encourages the
    enemy—Third Campaign an American success—Gen. Scott in
    Canada—Defeat of the British at Plattsburg, on Lake Erie;
    before Baltimore, at New Orleans.

                              CHAPTER XXI.

    HISTORY FROM 1815 TO 1846                                          629

    Results of the war highly favorable to the U. S.—Gains respect
    abroad—Party bitterness subsides—Compromise of 1820—Great
    prosperity—Florida Purchase—Monroe’s two Administrations—J. Q.
    Adams’ Administration—Sections divide on the Tariff—Jackson’s
    two Administrations—Nullification of South Carolina—Jackson’s
    promptness—Seminole war—Van Buren’s Administration—Financial
    disasters—Harrison and Tyler—Admission of Texas—Election of
    Polk.

                              CHAPTER XXII.

    THE MEXICAN WAR—FROM 1848 TO 1860                                  638

    Causes of the war—Battles of Palo Alto and Resaca de la
    Palma—Taking of Monterey—Battle of Buena Vista—Gen. Scott
    in Mexico—His long succession of victories—Enters the
    City of Mexico—Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo—Increase of
    territory—Discovery of gold in California—California applies
    for admission as a State—Raises the violent opposition of
    Slave States—Compromises of 1850—Taylor and Fillmore—Pierce’s
    Administration—Repeal of the Missouri Compromise—Troubles
    in Kansas—Buchanan’s Administration—Preparation for
    Secession—Growth of the Republican party.

                               CHAPTER XXIII.

    THE CIVIL WAR                                                      645

    Real causes of the Civil War—The elections of Nov., 1860—Made
    the pretext for Secession—South Carolina Secedes—Forts and
    property of the government seized in the South—Southern States
    successively Secede—Southern Confederacy formed—Want of energy
    in the Administration—Inauguration of Lincoln—The Union to be
    defended.

                              CHAPTER XXIV.

    FIRST PHASE OF THE WAR                                             651

    Firing on Ft. Sumter—It electrifies the North—Call for
    troops—General mustering for war—Capture of Harper’s Ferry and
    Gosport Navy Yard, Fighting in the border States—Experience
    gained in the general skirmishing—Reluctance to join the great
    issue—Battle of Bull Run—Washington saved, if the battle
    is lost—Immense preparations by sea and land—Confederate
    government in Richmond.

                              CHAPTER XXV.

    SECOND PHASE OF THE WAR                                            658

    The large armies have acquired much discipline and
    experience—Movement of McClellan on Richmond—Movement flanking
    Confederate positions on the upper Mississippi—Severe
    battles near Richmond—McClellan’s failure—Success in the
    West—The rising fortunes of Grant at Donnelson, Henry, and
    Pittsburg Landing—Advance of Lee—Pope’s failure—Battles in
    Maryland—Lee’s retreat—Bragg’s advance and retreat—Battle of
    Fredericksburg—General results of the Campaign.

                              CHAPTER XXVI.

    CAMPAIGN OF 1863                                                   664

    Emancipation proclamation—The year remarkable for the large
    number of engagements and formidable character of the
    operations—Battle of Chancellorsville and advance of Lee into
    Penn.—His defeat at Gettysburg and return to Va.—Capture of New
    Orleans—Taking of Vicksburg—Defeat at Chickamauga retrieved by
    Grant—General results of the Campaign.

                               CHAPTER XXVII.

    CAMPAIGN OF 1864                                                   670

    Struggle of Grant and Lee in Virginia—Sherman’s “March to the
    Sea”—“Beginning of the end.”

                              CHAPTER XXVIII.

    CONCLUDING CAMPAIGN                                                675

    General discouragement in the South—Capture of Seaboard
    cities—Re-inauguration of the President—Fall of Petersburg and
    retreat of Lee—Close of the War—Assassination of Lincoln.

                              CHAPTER XXIX.

    HISTORY FROM 1865 TO 1875                                          680

    Opposed reconstruction policy of Congress and President
    Johnson—Financial condition—Patrons of Husbandry—Election and
    re-election of Gen. Grant.

                              CHAPTER XXX.

    PARLIAMENTARY RULES                                                698

                              CHAPTER XXXI.

    STATISTICS OF THE WORLD                                            721

                               SUPPLEMENT.

    LEGAL FORMS—BY JUDGE J. C. POWER, OF THE FIRST DISTRICT OF IOWA    725

    Legal form of Will—Statement of Testator—Disposition
    of Property—Appointment of Executors—Statement of
    Witnesses—Circumstances of Signature—Necessity of
    two Witnesses—Articles of Copartnership—Statement of
    Agreement—Conditions Mutually agreed to—Signature—Agreement
    to continue Copartnership—Agreement to dissolve
    Copartnership—Power of Attorney—How signed and
    acknowledged—Form of Submission to Arbitration—Form of Award
    of Arbitrators—General Form of Agreement—Agreement for sale
    of personal property—Agreement for sale of Real Estate—How
    executed and acknowledged—Form of Lease—Form of Warranty
    Deed—Form of acknowledgement of execution of Deed—Witnesses
    to signature—Mortgage Deed—Negotiable Note—Non negotiable
    Note—Note transferable by delivery—Due bill—Receipt—What
    statements required in Receipt.




THE FOOTPRINTS OF TIME.




PART FIRST.




CHAPTER I.


SECTION I.

THE DAWN OF HISTORY.

1. The early traditions of every nation that has undertaken to relate the
story of its origin, have given us a confused account of supernatural
persons and events which the judgment of more enlightened times has
almost uniformly considered fabulous and impossible. It has always been
an interesting inquiry how much of fact was veiled under this mythical
dress, and a great variety of ingenious and contradictory explanations
have been produced by the learned in all ages. In most cases, as in
Greece, the national religion has been based on these legends which form
its authority and explanation, and they passed with the people of all
early times as facts which it was impious to question. So the wise and
good Socrates was supposed to have denied the existence of the national
gods, and was condemned to death. This sacred guard placed over early
traditions, increased at once the interest and the difficulty involved in
their examination.

2. During the present century the improved methods, larger range and more
exact style of inquiry, and the assistance and hints which one branch
of study has given to others, have produced the most surprising and
satisfactory results. These inquiries are not yet complete; they seem, on
the contrary, to have only commenced, and promise, ultimately, to satisfy
all the useful purposes and legitimate curiosity of mankind; still, their
conclusions, so far as they go, are unimpeachable. They prove themselves.

The study of Ethnology, which gives an account of the races of mankind;
a critical comparison of all languages, ancient and modern; the patient
study and ingenious deciphering of architecture and inscriptions found
in ancient ruins, and various relics of human activity imbedded in the
soil of different countries, have thrown down the barriers which the
glowing imaginations of the poets and the want of authentic documents in
early times had raised, and have given us a clue to many of the secrets
of history, and a safe guide through some of the dark passages of man’s
primitive life.

To show how this is done would require a treatise on Ethnology, another
on Comparative Philology, a third on Antiquarian Research, and a fourth
on the Geological Antiquities of Man. Each of these brings a large and
valuable contribution to early history. We give only a brief summary of
their conclusions.

3. The human race appears to have had its birth on the high table lands
of central Asia, south and east of the Caspian Sea. The structure and
growth of language, and the remains of early art, indicate an extremely
infantile mental condition and successive emigrations from the primitive
home of the race. Families and tribes which had remained together long
enough to build up a common language and strong general features of
character and habit, at length separated and formed a number of families
of allied races.

4. The first emigrations were made by the Turanian nations, which
scattered very widely. Turanian means “outside,” or “barbarian,” and was
given by the later and better known races who found them, commonly in
a very wild, undeveloped state, wherever they themselves wandered in
after times. There are reasons for believing that the first Turanian
migration was to _China_; that they were never afterward much interfered
with, and that they early reached a high stage of civilization. It has
certainly many very crude and primitive features. Having worked out all
the progressive impulses dwelling in the primitive stock of their family
almost before other races were heard of, and being undisturbed, their
institutions stiffened and crystalized and made few improvements for
thousands of years. Chinese history presents a curious problem not yet
fully investigated.

Another stream of Turanian emigration is believed to have settled the
more north-easterly portions of Asia. Some time after the tide set down
through Farther India, and to the islands of Malaysia. In still later
periods Hindoostan was peopled by Turanian races; the ancestors of the
Mongols and Turks were spread over the vast plains of northern and
central Asia; and somewhat later still an irruption into Europe furnished
its primeval people. The Finns and Lapps in the north, and the Basques
of Spain, are the living representatives of the ancient Turanian stock,
while the Magyars, or Hungarians, are a modern branch of the same race,
which made an irruption into Europe from Asia in the ninth century of the
Christian era. The first appearance of this race in written history was
in the establishment of a powerful empire at Babylon, which must have
been cotemporary with the earliest Egyptian monarchy, and seems, from the
inscriptions on the most ancient ruins, to have been conquered by, and
mingled with, an Egyptian or Hamite family. It came to an end before the
Assyrian Empire appeared, but seems to have reached a very considerable
degree of development.

5. The other two great families of related languages, and therefore of
common stock or race, are the Semitic and the Aryan. But previous to
the appearance of either of these on this buried stage of history is a
family, apparently related, distantly, to the Semites, but who might have
separated from the common stock of both before them, called Hamites, who
founded the very ancient and mysterious Egyptian monarchy. A section of
this race conquered the Turanians of Babylon, and established the largest
dominion then known to men. The Chedor-Laomer of Abraham’s day was one
of its mightiest sovereigns, and ruled over a thickly-settled region a
thousand miles in length by five hundred in breadth. Faint traces of
it are found in profane history, and the Bible narrative is sustained
and largely amplified by inscriptions on ancient ruins. A second Hamite
empire in Babylon is believed to have followed this, continuing four
hundred years, carrying agriculture and the peaceful arts to a high state
of development.

6. Egypt was peopled by the Hamitic race, who founded two kingdoms,
afterwards united. Here, social, political, and industrial institutions
developed very early in great strength. Their language, the pictorial
representation of their social, political, and religious affairs, and
the grand and gloomy majesty of their works of art, imply a long period
of growth before they reached the maturity in which we find them when
written history commences. Their institutions, even in the earliest
historic times, showed signs of the decrepitude and decay of age. The
vastness and the grim maturity of their monuments and language seem to
lend much support to their claim of an immense antiquity. The future
study of their remains of art and literature will settle some important
problems in the chronology of the human race. The children of Ham were
clearly the first to lead off in the march of civilization.

The Semitic family, deriving its name from Shem, or Sem, the eldest son
of Noah, is not as large nor as widely spread as the Turanian and Aryan,
but has exerted an even greater influence on human destiny. It never
strayed much from Asia, except to people small portions of Africa. They
early appear in Western Asia as the successors of the second Hamitic
empire in Babylon and Assyria. Settled in Phenicia, on the eastern shore
of the Mediterranean sea, they became the first maritime and commercial
people, and, with their colony established in Carthage, in the north
of Africa, exerted a powerful influence in promoting the civilization
of the ancient world. The Semites early peopled the Arabian peninsula,
and established a state in Ethiopia, as some believe, before Egypt had
attained its full development. The Ethiopians established a flourishing
commerce on the Red Sea, with the eastern coasts of Africa, and with
India, and contributed greatly to the resources of ancient Egypt.

They have always been a religious race, and gave the three great
religions, Judaism, Mohammedanism, and Christianity, to the world, as
well as some of the most debasing superstitions and forms of idolatry
ever known. The larger part of the population of Asia is still Turanian,
and the Semites now occupy about the same area as in prehistoric times;
but the Hamites have been overpowered and have lost their clearly
distinctive character as a family, unless represented by the negro tribes.

7. The third great family, the Aryan, called also the Japhetic, from
Japhet, the third son of Noah, and from the regions they peopled and made
illustrious by their genius and activity, the Indo-European, was the last
to leave the birthplace of mankind. The other races were incapable of
carrying the fortunes of humanity beyond a certain point, of themselves
alone, as the history of Turanian China, Hamitic Egypt and the Semitic
Mohammedans and Jews clearly proves. The history of the Aryans shows
them to possess inexhaustible mental power and physical stamina, with a
vigorous ambition, always dissatisfied with the present, and constantly
seeking something better in the future and the distant, that have
produced the happiest effect on the destinies of the human race.

8. It would seem that while the Turanians, Hamites, and Semites were
taking the lead of the world and building up the empires of prehistoric
times, whose mighty ruins have been the wonder of later ages, the Aryans
were all united in following peaceful pursuits, which the common features
of their languages indicate were chiefly the care of flocks and herds.
They were much farther removed from barbarism than any of the other races
when they began their wanderings. Warlike, agricultural and nautical
terms, and the names of wild animals are not often found in the common
vocabulary; while family relations, domestic animals and their uses, the
heavenly bodies in connection with worship and the priestly relation of
the father of the family, and terms indicating a considerable cultivation
of sensibility and thoughtfulness, imply a purer social and religious
condition, and more elevated mental traits, than in the primitive
forefathers of the other families. Their language was highly picturesque,
and its peculiar terms for natural phenomena are believed by some to have
originated the mythological histories of the ancient Greeks and Romans
and Teutonic nations. The ancient language used epithets and names,
so glowing with personality, that the imaginative descendants of the
primitive stock, when their early history was forgotten, believed them
to contain an account of the origin of things, and the early deeds of
gods and heroes; and the genius of the poets clothed the supposed marvels
in the immortal dress of fiction which we find in Homer and Hesiod, in
Virgil, the Indian Vedas, and the Sagas and Scalds of northern Europe.
This, at least, is the conclusion reached by some of the most eminent
scholars and philologists, whose study of the formation and growth of
languages has thrown so much light on the ante-historical periods. These
myths, the germs of which were embodied in their language, embellished
by the supposed inspired genius of the poets, formed the literature and
theology of the early historic nations, and were received as undisputed
truth.

9. The first migration of the Aryan family appears to have occurred
through the passes of the Caucasus, northwest to the northern part of
Asia Minor and Southern Europe. The Turanian nations, or “barbarians,”
were everywhere found in advance of them, in a very degraded condition,
and the native spirit and ambition of the Aryan people rendered them
the uniform conquerors. Afterward, another migration southward peopled
India, and, in the earliest historic times, the part of the family still
remaining in the ancient home of the race established the brilliant
empire of the Medes and Persians, who extended their sway over all the
central and western parts of Asia, broke down the ancient monarchy of
Egypt, and, in the height of their power and glory, swept like a tempest
into Europe with the purpose of subjugating a few self-governing tribes
of their own race dwelling on the shores and among the mountains of
the small peninsula of Greece. The failure of the mighty empire in
this effort, through the indomitable resolution of a handful of hardy
republicans, forms one of the most glorious pages of history. It was a
grand era in the development of civilization, and Grecian culture became
the inheritance of the world.


SECTION II.

THE DIRECTION OF PRE-HISTORIC GROWTH.

1. The three classes of indications on which we rely for a knowledge of
the advance of mankind previous to the period when authentic history
comes to our aid—the researches of geologists among the accidental traces
of man’s early activities, the ruins of ancient cities, and the study of
the growth of language—unite in testifying to an extremely rude, feeble
and childish condition of the earliest representatives of the race,
and to a progressive improvement in knowledge and capacity, precisely
like what occurs in the case of every individual of our kind. A fourth
more general observation also confirms this view. This is the obscurity
that covers the early ages. Aside from the Bible narrative, a cloud
rests on the early history of every people. A long period passes before
they begin to reflect, to look around and back toward their origin,
and still another of groping thought and study before they are led to
record their reflections and experiences. The necessities and habit of
social intercourse give rise to language and gradually mature it; a long
period would necessarily pass before the natural aversion to other than
desultory labor, the increase of population and the habit of obedience to
an authority requiring continued painful toil, would render the massive
monuments of some of the earlier peoples possible, and before their
attempts at architecture could mature and originate the elaborate ruins
which time has not been able to destroy during so many centuries.

2. One of the most striking traits of pre-historic times is the
simplicity and awkwardness that characterize childhood. The Chinese
language has been remarked upon as showing the extremely infantile cast
of mind among the people who formed and retained it to our times. Each
word is a sentence, standing by itself originally; the tone and gesture
give it much of its signification. It would seem as if its authors had
never grown to the idea of an elaborated sentence. There is an average of
eight words, spelled and pronounced exactly alike, for every sound used.
There are, it is said, 212 characters pronounced _che_; 138 pronounced
_foo_; and 1165 which all read _e_, and each letter is a word, a phrase
and a sentence, and may be an adjective, a noun, or a verb, or all three
together. The difficulty of expressing shades of meaning, or all that
may be in the thought, where so much must be acquired before expression
is possible, has kept the Chinese mind, in many respects, in a state
of childhood, though they have preserved a stability of character and
institutions nowhere else observed. The primitive mind and habits are
maintained as if crystalized. The principle of decay, so universal
elsewhere, would seem, by some singular process, banished from a vast
nation, as it is in the human body in Egyptian mummies. The same feature
is observable in a smaller degree among the Hindoos, and seems to have
characterized the ancient Egyptians.

3. Such a habit of fixity among the early races, whose position secured
them from disturbance by the more restless tribes, was favorable to the
construction of the stupendous monuments which have been the wonder of
after ages. All those races have been remarkably exclusive. It was not
until nearly four hundred years after the era of authentic history that
Egypt was freely open to all the Greeks. These observations apply only
to those portions of the human family which were stranded in some quiet
nook outside of the current of movement that carried along the most of
mankind. Change of place, intercourse, conflict and conquest were the
chief early educators. The isolated nations, after exhausting the power
of their first impulses, ceased to improve. Their minds, institutions and
habits stiffened and petrified. Nor did the families that wandered far
from the general centre of movement usually acquire any high degree of
development. They were characterized by unsettled habits; not favorable
to highly organized institutions.

4. It was around, and westward of, the common centre of the race that a
course of steady improvement went on. Here the laws of inheritance and
suggestion, the stimulus of constant friction, and the infusion of newer
and more enterprising blood worked the freest and developed the elements
of a true civilization the soonest. If the legendary history of Greece is
not to be trusted in its details, it at least establishes the certainty
of active movement and incessant conflict out of which was, at length,
evolved a noble, if incomplete, civilization. The Greeks were near enough
to the scene of stirring action in Western Asia to be benefited by its
influence without having their institutions frequently disturbed and
broken up before they had reached any degree of maturity, as was the
case with the Assyrians, Persians and Phenicians. They reaped the fruit,
without sharing the disasters, of the great surgings back and forward
which we find to have been the condition of the Asiatic peoples at the
time reliable history begins to observe them. It appears to have been the
same in that region (Western Asia) as far back as monument, legend, or
science can trace. The fruit of this shock of races and mental activity
matured on the spot the greatest and best religious systems the world
has ever known, the three greatest of which have survived to our own
day, viz.: the Judaic, the Christian and the Mohammedan. The germs of the
other two were contained in the system of Abraham and Moses. Thus the
three most important influences needed for the progress of civilization
in the true direction were supplied in pre-historic times—the seething
and surging of the nations in the West of Asia, a high religious ideal,
and the primary discipline of the Greeks.

5. The lantern of science has guided us on the Track of Time by his
advancing Footprints down to the period when the grand luminary, Written
History, begins to shine from the hills of Greece. Looking over what was
then known of Asia we find it a vast battlefield, on the western border
of which were the Jews, receiving lessons of instruction or chastisement
from the surrounding nations, and slowly evolving the Master Religion of
the world, the massive grandeur of Egypt is dimly visible in the south,
and on the eastern horizon rise the immense walls and towers of the huge
cities of Nineveh and Babylon. On the north and west all is darkness,
though we subsequently learn that the elements of a high culture among
the Etrurians of Italy were waiting their destruction at the hands of
valiant Rome, yet to be. The Phenicians were beginning to scour the sea
and to build up a flourishing commerce, and the cities of Greece had
already learned, from the tyranny of their petty kings, the advantages of
free government.

The period of authentic history is held to have commenced seven hundred
and seventy-six years before the Christian era. In that year the Greeks
began to record the name of the conqueror in the Olympian games—a
national and religious festival, which had been commenced long before—and
it was called the First Olympiad. It formed the first definite starting
point of the true and fairly reliable historians who, some four hundred
years later, began to write a carefully-studied account of what was
known of their own and of other countries. It was the time when dates of
passing events first began to be stated in the records of the cities and
kingdoms of Greece, and marks the beginning of a real civilization and
culture, and the course of events began to be rescued from the magnifying
and marvel-loving imaginations of the people.

6. The seven hundred and fifty years that follow are in the highest
degree interesting and important; for they record the achievements of
the early manhood of humanity, as represented by the nations that were
most advanced in civilization, or contributed to the general progress of
the world. Men developed their inherent capacities far more during that
period than in all the previous centuries, however numerous they may have
been. It was followed by about five hundred years of gradual decline, and
that by a thousand years of confusion caused by the corruption of the old
society and the imperfection of its elements, together with the irruption
of vast hordes of barbarians, who brought in fresh and vigorous, but
untamed blood, with rude and fierce manners. They were gradually tamed
by fusion with the cultured races, and out of this union arose a
civilization broader and more just, toward the perfection of which we
ourselves are now rapidly advancing, and which, by its multiform vigor
and unlimited resources, seems above the reach of decay. Its power of
infusing new life into worn-out peoples and renewing the youth of nations
as well as of civilizing barbarians appears irresistible.

From this outlook we return to consider the steps by which Time has led
us to such a desirable eminence.


SECTION III.

THE GRADUAL DEVELOPMENT OF INSTITUTIONS.

1. Man, at first, had no institutions. He existed in the simplest and
most spontaneous way, finding shelter in caves and clefts of the rocks
and beneath the primeval forests, groping his way by strong instincts
which soon began to dawn into intelligence of the lowest and most
material kind. How long he led a purely _animal_ life we have no means
of knowing; but we may suppose that the necessities of self-preservation
and his powerful social instincts very soon developed the germs of the
family and of language.

Childhood is comparatively long, and many generations must have passed
before language could have acquired the distinctness and fixity that
permitted it to come down through so long a period, and by so many
different channels, to us. Yet there is plain evidence of an Eastern
origin of all the various families of the race, and of a considerable
mental development previous to the wanderings that peopled the East,
the West, and the South. It has been remarked by Geologists that the
introduction of any class of animal life was never made by its very
_lowest_ orders, but usually by a class intermediate in organization
between the highest and the lowest; some of the very lowest orders being
represented in our own time.

2. A tolerably hardy race, which could endure the exposures and overcome
the difficulties that must be greater for the first few generations than
ever afterward, as we have every reason to believe, was first introduced.
It has been common to suppose that man must have been supplied with a
fund of knowledge, and a basis of language, to have successfully met the
difficulties of his condition; but the uniform law that the _faculties_,
the _innate capabilities_ of his race, are conferred on him, and that he
works them out by a process of development is observable in his entire
history, so far as we can trace it. All needful capacities being lodged
in him, with strong appetites and instincts to impel him to the objects
most vitally necessary to his own preservation and the continuance of his
species, and the material from which to work out his predestined ends
being placed within his reach, it is made his indispensable duty and his
glory to realize those ends, soon or late, by his own endeavors. The
evidences of his early activity, unearthed here and there by geologists,
show him to have advanced by degrees from the lowest points, and such
corroborative proof as the earliest forms of language afford are
decidedly in the same direction.

3. Many of the terms employed for the first and most familiar objects
with which the necessities of life brought him in contact, show the very
imperfect extent of his early knowledge and resources, and they gradually
change in a way to indicate, most significantly, a slow and laborious,
but constant enlargement of ideas by experience. He advanced then,
as now, by degrees. The races latest in development, as well as most
vigorous and intelligent, were the Aryan, or Indo-European. They have
left the most definite traces of their early condition and advancement
in the common elements of their various languages, which show very
clearly how much time and toil were required to work out the features of
their first Institution—The Family. The proper family type established
relations of protection and dependence, of care and trust, of purity
and tenderness, of provident foresight, and the shelter and comforts of
Home. Apparently it was many centuries after the other races had begun to
migrate that this last and most valuable stock commenced to be “fruitful
and multiply,” to tame animals for their use, to enclose and render their
habitations comfortable, and to organize and designate their family
relations down to son-in-law and daughter-in-law, as well as to name the
most common domestic animals and occupations.

4. The fact doubtless existed long before common experience and common
consent had settled on the terms that have remained the same in the
language of the Hindoos, the Greeks, the Romans, and the Germanic
families; but by many certain signs we know that it was only gradually
that the tenderness and beauty and usefulness of this institution had
laid the sure foundation of a future vigorous and virtuous civilization.
This race devoted themselves mainly to the care of flocks and herds,
though we find among them the knowledge of wheat and some other grains;
they had very little experience of war until they separated and began
their wanderings, as we infer from the fact that their common terms are
nearly all peaceful—those designating a warlike habit differing in all
the various branches of the stock.

The Family, with them, was usually founded on marriage—the union of one
man and one woman—which laid great restraints on vice and preserved the
growing society from manifold evils. The other races—Turanian, Hamitic
and Semitic—appear to have been much more careless in this respect, and
admitted a vicious element into the base of society, which loosened the
bonds of relationship and discipline. They practiced polygamy, which
magnified the position of the father, while it deprived him of the closer
and more intimate relations to his household on which refinement depends,
and degraded the mother who became the simple minister of pleasure to,
and the means of increasing the influence of, the Patriarchal head. This
point is very vividly shown in the earlier history of the Israelites
where the unhappy effects of polygamy are distinctly portrayed. From the
same source we see how the first institution among men gradually grew
into the Tribe, and the foundations of Organized Government were laid.

5. Population rapidly increased, the original progenitor, or the
oldest of his male descendants, became the fountain of authority and
influence, and was, in many cases, the chief or king, exercising an
undefined control, sometimes absolute and despotic, and again that of a
merely nominal head, the variations taking every shade between the two.
Occasionally, special gifts, as energy, foresight and skill, favored by
circumstances, raised one in the tribe to eminence, and he became the
acknowledged ruler to the exclusion of the patriarch, or hereditary heir
of the patriarchal office, as in the case of Joseph in Egypt, and, in
later times, Moses, Joshua and the Judges.

6. Again, a pastoral life being abandoned, the people gathered for
various reasons in towns, and cities were built up, where the original
style of government became impossible, from the mixed character of
the population; the oldest, or family government, being founded on
relationship and traditional respect. The need of leadership and the
service rendered by some member of the community founded a despotic
authority. In many cases a city was founded by an adventurer who had
gathered supporters around him by some special ability, or by some
accidental pre-eminence, as we see in Nimrod and Romulus; or, as often
occurred, the head of a family or tribe which forsook the pastoral life
and founded a city, from a patriarch or chieftain became a king.

Government, in early times, was very imperfectly organized. It gradually
advanced with some people to a high point; while with others it continued
in a very undeveloped state for long periods—some races never having
reached any high stage at all, or only temporarily under some talented
individual.

The first settled governments are found in fertile river valleys where
the cultivation of the soil arrested roving and desultory habits, and
often formed the nucleus of an empire. There is reason to believe that
the first emigration from the early home of the race was toward the east,
that a state was soon formed in China which became considerably civilized
and fairly well organized the earliest of all. Their national traditions
and some of their recorded dates claim a vast antiquity. It is not yet
determined by scholars how much credit is to be allowed to these claims.

7. As it appears at present, two other governments were organized at
nearly the same time, one in the lower valley of the Euphrates and the
other on the Nile. It is also possible that a fourth was built up in
India nearly cotemporary with these. Certain similarities between the
ancient ruins of Egypt and India, and the traditions in the latter
country have given rise to the suspicion; but no certainty has yet been
reached. Several systems of chronology, independent of each other,
are found in Egypt, all agreeing as to its enormous antiquity, but
disagreeing in some important points, and satisfactory tests have not
yet been met with, so that the early days of Egypt are very obscure.
The evidences of a clearly defined progress are presented in its
monuments, but the earliest bear so strong a resemblance to the later
that there is some reason for supposing that the first inhabitants had
reached a considerable degree of maturity before settling there. As yet,
however, that point is only an inference—the most probable escape from a
difficulty. The empires established on the Euphrates, and north of that
on the Tigris, mark the steps of progress very distinctly, and furnish
fairly satisfactory means of computing their general chronology.

8. In all these cases it appears from monuments, traditions, and from
whatever information the records of the Bible and other histories give
us, that when men began to gather in communities, cultivate the ground
and build cities, their governments were controlled by kings. Despotic
sovereignty was the natural and necessary instrument of government.
The vigorous will of an admired chief concentrated the energies of the
community, and a state was formed. The beginnings were very rude and
improvement was slow, never reaching beyond the simple application of
force as to the structure and modes of government. But another element,
founded on the religious nature of mankind, which also had entered as
an important influence into family government from the earliest times,
became organized in the early days of monarchy, viz.:


THE INSTITUTION OF A PRIESTHOOD.

9. It would appear, from such traces of a religious tendency as are found
in the primary languages, that the religious instinct was awakened by an
observation of the forces of nature, which struck the mind with wonder,
admiration, or terror. The mysteries of growth, the power of winds and
storms and waters, the calm beauty, beneficence and brilliance of the
sun, moon and stars riding undisturbed in the heavens, impressed man with
a sense of something superior to himself. The moods of nature suggested
some unknown being with a varying disposition like his own. His wants,
his hopes and fears, and his sense of helplessness soon led him to seek
to propitiate these unknown powers. The first religion, among all the
primitive nations, seems to have been a worship of the powers of nature.
The head of the family was naturally the first priest of the family. This
office increased the respect in which he was held by his multiplying
descendants, and contributed to strengthen his authority.

10. But when, in the organization of cities and states, patriarchal
influence decayed, and was replaced by the authority of the chieftain or
the king, a class of men was set apart to fill the office of religious
instructors, to discover the art and conduct the acts of general worship.
The great mystery and uncertainty surrounding the objects of worship,
required exclusive study and a supposed purity and elevation of mind
impossible to others which soon raised the priesthood into an institution
much revered. It acquired great influence, and afforded an opening to
ambition only inferior to that of the chief or king. The two commonly
united for mutual support, and thus mankind gained two institutions
destined to be of incalculable value, as well as of almost boundless
injury. In the earlier ages they must have been an almost unmixed
good. They disciplined, the one the labors, the other the minds, of
communities. They were the two most powerful instruments for initiating
progress. They moulded the mass, gave it form, and directed its energies.

To a certain degree they each formed a check on the excessive tendencies
of the other. But, the power of each fairly established, they often
united to set very hurtful limits to spontaneous action. The king used
his power to the common injury, and the priests their knowledge to the
common debasement. The first exhausted the sources of prosperity and
growth among his people to gratify his caprices and pleasures, and the
priesthood promoted degrading superstitions and a gross idolatry to
strengthen their influence. It was for the interest of both to keep the
people in pupilage, and check all tendencies to independent action or
thought. Had it been possible for them to be wise and high-minded, the
race would have been saved many centuries of debasement and misery.

11. These evils were, in some degree, checked by influences which have
ever since been the mainspring of progress—_War_ and _Commerce_. In early
times, relationships of blood or of immediate interest were the chief
bonds among men. All outside the family, tribe, or nation were usually
held as enemies; and passion, interest, or ambition in the ruler led to
constant conflict. But the shock of peoples awakened their minds, made
them acquainted with each other, made their inventions and arts in some
degree common property, and mingled the thought and blood of different
races; and this greatly enlarged the ideas and capacities of both
conquerors and conquered. The acquaintance made in this way, with men and
countries, led to an interchange of products, during quiet times, and
trade and commerce soon sprung up. This, appealing to the best interests
and instincts of the most enterprising among the people, has always
been a powerful instrument of advancement. It led to distant voyages
and travels, to observation and intercourse, with a view to pecuniary
advantage, to inventions and improvements in industry and art, that kept
the peoples so related in a state of constant progress.

12. A growing population required increasing attention to agriculture and
the mechanic arts, and increasing wealth led to architectural display
and the increase of instruments of luxury, the production of which
disciplined the skill of the artisan and contributed to the general
growth. All these were the elements and foundation of civilization. An
organization commenced, and a state founded, the king soon found leisure
to look about and envy the wealth and territories of his neighbor. He
made war and commenced a career of conquest, or fell, under defeat,
into his neighbor’s hand, when time took a step forward, and a new
consolidation, wider and higher than the former, was laid on a broader
base. Slowly but surely an advance was made.

13. We are now to observe this gradual development in the successive
history of five monarchies in Asia and the kingdom of Egypt, down to the
time when they all fell before the conquering power of Greece, under
Alexander the Great, which introduces new and far higher elements of
progress among the civilized races, and forms the full opening of a new
Era.


SECTION IV.

ANCIENT MONARCHIES.

1. The Chaldean Monarchy was the first in order of time. It seems very
likely that the first settlement which, in the slow development of the
earliest races, finally produced an organized kingdom on the lower part
of the Euphrates, was made somewhere in the neighborhood of 3000 years
before the Christian Era. It is, however, a matter of dispute between
the best authorities whether it can be placed so far back. The monuments
of that age are difficult to decipher, but it seems pretty certain that
a Scythian or Turanian government preceded that which the traditions of
ancient history, the statements of the Bible, and the indications of
the ruins unite in placing at 2234 B. C. The founder appears as Nimrod,
or Bilu-Nipur. Many indications render it fairly certain that the early
formative stages of a kingdom had already passed, and that Nimrod merely
changed the capital. The first people had learned to subdue their soil,
had begun to build and to bring language and art to some degree of order,
when it appears that a Hamitic race, more advanced than they, and showing
strong likeness to the early Egyptians, mingled with them. In the first
inscriptions the language is Turanian, but the character Hamitic, or
Egyptian. So far as can be judged, the displacement was peaceful and
gradual. About the time above named, a man of great genius, Nimrod, a
Hamite, or Cushite, as he is termed in the Mosaic record, a “mighty
hunter,” as his name implies, founded a kingdom farther up the Euphrates,
and on the plain which lay between the rivers Euphrates and Tigris.

2. The existence of the first empire is dimly made out, and that is
all. Nimrod had clearly a foundation to build on, and he made a great
impression on his own times. After his death he was deified under the
name of Bel, and became the favorite among the fifteen or sixteen
principal deities of the early Chaldeans. These gods and goddesses seem
to represent the heavenly bodies; while the earlier Turanian worship
was a veneration of the powers of nature. Nimrod’s dynasty appears to
have covered a period of about two hundred and fifty years, including
the reigns of eleven kings. They made great advancement in draining the
marshy valley and regulating the supply of moisture to the growing crops.
They became expert in the manufacture of cloths and in building with
bricks which are covered with inscriptions. The priesthood acquired a
strong development at this time, as appears in the ruins and inscriptions
of their temples. The kings do not appear to have been very warlike, or
to have extended their dominion far.

3. A second Chaldean kingdom was founded about 1976 B. C. It is called
Elam in the Bible, and furnishes the first known example of what was
afterward so often seen in that region—an extensive kingdom formed by
a series of rapid conquests, that fell to pieces again as soon as a
vigorous hand failed to uphold it. The kingdom continued till about B. C.
1500. Kudur-Lagamer, the Chedor-Laomer of the Mosaic account, overran a
territory one thousand miles in length by five hundred in width. In one
of his incursions into Palestine his forces were defeated by Abraham,
which ended a control over that region lasting twelve years. There is no
indication that the following sovereigns exerted authority beyond Chaldea
and Babylonia.

There, however, they grew rich and civilized, extending their commerce
to India and Egypt, becoming famous and envied for their splendor and
luxury. A single small dwelling house of that period has been preserved
in the ruins of Chedor-Laomer’s capital “Ur of the Chaldees,” south of
Babylon. It was built on a platform of dried bricks, the walls of great
thickness, with two arched doors, and, apparently, lighted from the
roof. The rooms were long and narrow. Iron was at that time unknown. All
implements were of stone or bronze. Religion seemed to increase in its
grossness, apparently under the policy of the priesthood, who laid the
foundation of astronomical science and began to acquire the reputation
for hidden knowledge for which they became famous in after centuries.
Nothing of any importance is related of the kings of this monarchy except
the one conqueror. Despotism and priestly craft kept most of the feeble
tendencies to political improvement curbed—waiting for better times. That
arrived with the advent of the _Assyrian Empire_, about B. C. 1500.

4. It appears that for a long time before, a family, or tribe,
of Shemites had been settled in Chaldea, where they acquired its
civilization and arts, and some time about B. C. 1600 emigrated north,
settling on the river Tigris. They were a strong race, physically and
mentally, quite too fierce and resolute to be held in leading-strings by
the Chaldean priesthood. The country they occupied was higher and more
varied, abundantly supplied with stone, which was wanting in Babylonia
and Chaldea.

Here, in process of time, the most vigorous and progressive race that
had yet been seen among the families of man, built up a succession of
cities within a small circuit, each of which was, at different times, the
capital, and which were all finally united and made the famous Nineveh
of the Greek historians, and the immense “city of three days’ journey,”
visited by the Jewish prophet, Jonah. Within a few years these ruins have
been examined by competent men of science with great care, and have been
found to confirm the Bible narrative, in all essential points, and most
of the glowing descriptions of profane historians; while their higher
style of art and greater vigor and pride of achievement led them to build
monuments and engrave records that promise to make us very intimately
acquainted with their social, political and moral life.

5. They seem to have acquired the habit in Chaldea of raising a vast
elevated mound for their more important buildings. The largest mound is
found to be nearly one hundred feet high, and to cover an area of one
hundred acres, and on the summit of this were placed their temples and
the palaces of their kings. This immense foundation, it is said, would
require the labor of twenty thousand men for six years. After this were
to be constructed their vast buildings, covered with sculptures and
adorned with statues. Another mound, higher but embracing a smaller
area—about forty acres—served the same purpose.

They were extremely religious in their way, but the vigor of the kings
appears to have overshadowed the priesthood much more than in Chaldea. It
seems to have been about three hundred years after the establishment of
this enterprising stock in Assyria that they became famous for foreign
conquest. Babylon had been gradually rising in importance, often in
subjection, more or less nominal, to the growing northern power, but
retaining its own kings and habits.

6. The reign of Shalmaneser I., about 1290 B. C., was distinguished by
his building a new city and improving his kingdom; and his successor,
in 1270, signalized his reign by establishing, for a time, a complete
sovereignty over Babylon, and the historical Assyrian empire is commonly
dated from that event. For a century and a half there are few important
records. Tiglath-Pileser I., in B. C. 1130, commenced a series of
efforts to extend his dominions by conquest, which his success led
him to describe with unusual detail. It embraces five campaigns and a
description of the conquest of all the neighboring people. He established
a compact and powerful empire, which was surrounded by wild tribes whose
conquest was of little honor or value, and whom it was difficult to
hold long in subjection. In a return from a campaign against Babylon,
which he had conquered, he suffered a great reverse, losing the images
of his gods which he kept in his camp for protection and assistance in
his enterprises; and they were carried to Babylon, remaining there, it
is said, 400 years. A long period of apparent quiet was followed, after
more than two hundred years, by another warlike king who pushed his
conquests to the Mediterranean sea. His public works were larger and more
magnificent than those of any of his predecessors. He has recorded ten
successful campaigns.

7. His son, Shalmaneser II., increased the number, extent and
thoroughness of the conquests of his father. Still, most of the countries
conquered retained their laws and government, simply paying an annual
tribute, and the conquest set lightly on them. Babylon seems to have
retained comparative independence. In the following reign, Babylon was
captured and remained some time tributary to Assyria and the Ninus, or
Iva-lush IV., whose wife was the celebrated Semiramis, still further
extended Assyrian power. The wonderful tales related by Grecian
historians of Semiramis are not confirmed by the monuments. She appears
to have been an energetic Babylonian princess, the principal queen of
Ninus, who ruled conjointly with him. The novelty of a female ruler in
that rude age, and the splendor of the empire at the time, seem to have
originated the fabulous tales related of her.

8. At this time the development of the people of all the western parts
of Asia was so great, and the wars as well as peaceful intercourse of
different nations had so stimulated them all, that improvement kept a
tolerably even step. Multitudes of populous cities and kingdoms existed
in all directions. The magnificence of Solomon belongs to this period,
the Jewish monarchy having reached the height of its glory and power,
too high to be long endured by the proud and enterprising Assyrians.
Commerce filled the east with activity and manufactures flourished, in
some directions reaching a high degree of excellence. A true progress
marked the general course of human effort. The psalms of David show to
what a lofty point the religious ideas of that age were capable of being
carried. Industrial pursuits and agriculture reached, in the next hundred
and fifty years, the highest development they ever attained in some
regions.

9. In the midst of this busy industry Nineveh rose, peerless in grandeur,
enriching herself with the tribute and spoils of all countries,
beautified by the master race, which was wise enough not to dry up the
sources of their prosperity by the destruction of cities and kingdoms.
The common policy, up to nearly the close of her splendid career, was
to leave the real resources of all conquered nations untouched. After
defeating her opposer in a battle, she received the submission of the
king, imposed a heavy tax, or forced contribution, and an engagement to
pay a definite annual tribute, and went on her way to subdue another
nation to a like formal control. With misfortune, or a change of rulers
in the dominant kingdom, the subject-kings would withhold tribute, raise
an army, and the whole work of conquest had to be repeated.

Thus the empire consisted of a stable nucleus, Assyria, and a vast
floating mass of half independent kingdoms, states and cities which
were now submissive and now in revolt. We may easily conceive how this
comparatively mild mode of warfare would contribute to the general
advance of the whole population. This mingling and clash of armies,
surging to and fro of vast bodies of men, and the knowledge and culture
received from the great and wealthy capital made the school of that
period for the education of humanity.

10. The Assyrian annals show a continued growth in splendor and power and
extent of dominion until the very eve of its fall. In the course of that
time Egypt was invaded and partially subdued for the first time; and, in
the impatience of frequent revolt, the practice commenced of removing
whole nations from their original homes, supplying their place by others.
Thus the Ten Tribes were transported from their homes in Samaria, and
other nations brought to occupy their places.

The last king of Assyria inherited an authority that extended farther
and over larger numbers than had ever before been known. The vigorous
governing race were perhaps corrupted and weakened by a thousand years
of power and success; but various extraordinary circumstances united to
bring on a sudden catastrophe. A considerable part of the central kingdom
was devastated by an irresistible host of Scythians, immediately after
which the Medians, who were as fierce and warlike as the Assyrians in
their best days, attacked Assyria. A large army, sent by the king to meet
the invaders, went over to the enemy by the treachery of its general,
Nabopolassar, and the combined armies laid siege to Nineveh, which
fell, the king burning himself and his family in his palace. Nineveh
was destroyed, and Nabopolassar received as his reward the kingdom of
Babylonia, and the Assyrian conquests in the south and west. He founded
the

11. Babylonian Empire, which has made a greater impression on posterity
than Nineveh. He was a man of great energy and resources. The treasures
and captives of that mighty city, that fell to his share, were employed
in rebuilding and improving Babylon. During his reign of twenty-one
years, and the forty-three years of his still more illustrious son and
successor, Nebuchadnezzar, that city was made the wonder of the world.
Each side of it was fifteen miles in length, the river Euphrates passing
through its center. They repaired the wall, which was eighty-seven feet
thick and more than three hundred feet high. This wall was so immense
as to contain more than twice the cubic contents of the great wall of
China, which is 1,400 miles in length, and the vast enclosed space was
filled with palaces, temples, hanging gardens, and all the impressive
evidences of boundless power and resources in which the gross ambition
of that period delighted. A second wall was built within the first, the
river was, for a time, turned out of its bed and its bottom and sides
paved with masonry, and huge walls erected on either bank; canals and
aqueducts, for agricultural purposes, of the most stupendous character,
were constructed all over the broad valley. The wealth and energies of
the richest and most populous part of Asia, as then known, were employed
to build up the great capital and improve the central province.

12. The Jews were kept there, as captives, for seventy years, all the
treasures of their city and temple, and the accumulated wealth of their
nation, were poured into the Babylonian treasury, and their people
employed, with other countless multitudes, in the construction of its
walls and buildings, and the cultivation of its fields. Tyre, the most
renowned commercial city of ancient times, was taken, after a siege of
thirteen years, and much of Egypt was reduced.

It was the culmination of the centralizing system of the Assyrians and
Chaldeans which had lasted for two thousand years.

13. A dominion so resting on physical force, and gorged with booty
wrested from others, with no moral power or national spirit underlying
it, could not last long. A more vigorous and warlike power rose by the
union of the Persians and Medes under the Persian warrior, Cyrus, who,
after a series of conquests farther north and west, in Asia Minor, turned
his arms against Babylon. The walls were impregnable, but the river
proved a source of weakness. It had been once diverted from its course
to pave its bed within the city; the hint was accepted, and, on a night
of feasting and carelessness, it was again turned aside to give free
entrance to the besiegers, and the Babylonian Empire fell in the very
height of its pomp and glory. We find a regular progress in organization,
in most institutions, from the first Chaldean to the last Babylonian
Empire. In popular religion alone was there an increasing grossness,
which reached its limit about this time by the fall of the Chaldean
priesthood, purer practices and ideas were circulated by the Jews in
their captivity, and the Magian religion was reformed by Zoroaster.

14. The Medo-Persian Empire lasted for 200 years. Those nationalities
were both of the Aryan or Indo-European race. They had long been
maturing on the highlands bordering the north and east of Chaldea and
Assyria, with which their connection was close enough to communicate the
general value of the growing organization, but too slight to drag them
down to its level. They brought now, to the common stock of progress,
the freshness of youth and the healthy habits and pure blood of the
mountaineer. They had a higher capacity for organization, by which the
experience and progress of the older nations, for more than two thousand
years, was prepared to profit. They had already subdued Asia Minor
and their vast Empire soon extended from India to the sea that washed
the shores of Greece. A complicated civil and military organization
consolidated this extensive region more perfectly than before by armies
and governors located in each nation and principal city; a system of easy
communication was introduced; and the preparation for the higher Greek
models of thought, and the severe regularity of Roman institutions went
on apace.

15. Babylon fell gradually into decay, being only occasionally the
capital of the Persian Empire; the love of the sovereigns of that race
for their native highlands leading them to build splendid capitals in the
borders of their own country. A reform of great significance occurred
about this time in the Persian national religion, which gradually
displaced the debasing superstitions and gross idolatry of all the
nations of the Empire.

The government was still despotic, somewhat relieved by the more humane
and independent habits and traditions of a hardier race. A number of
changes of dynasty by violence occurred, but they were merely revolutions
of the palace. The vast wealth and power inherited from the subject
empires gradually corrupted the conquerors. Their armies became vast
crowds of comparatively undisciplined troops, who were accustomed to bear
everything before them by their irresistible weight. Their conquests on
the northern and eastern coasts of Asia Minor brought them in conflict
with the Greeks, who had many colonies long settled in that region, and
the Persians soon undertook to subdue that intelligent and independent
people. Their signal failure had the effect to greatly stimulate the
development of the Greek national spirit, and to awaken its intellectual
enthusiasm, and the mighty armies of the Persians were destined to be
annihilated by the small but resolute forces of the little republics.

16. Thirteen sovereigns ruled during the continuance of the Persian
empire. Except the conquest of Egypt, they did not very greatly extend
the boundaries formed by Cyrus; but the national features of the subject
peoples were gradually effaced, and the whole brought to the common level
of civilization. When Alexander, the great Grecian soldier, appeared
with his army of 35,000 men he scattered the hosts of the Persian king,
Darius, as the wind drives the leaves of the forest; and the vast empire,
so long accustomed to bow to the fate of battles, became the unresisting
heritage of the conquerer.

These five great monarchies were continuous—in part on the same soil—the
centre having always been the fertile valleys of the Euphrates and the
Tigris; the successor stepping into the place and carrying out the
general plans of his immediate predecessor, but on a broader scale and
in an increasingly enlightened manner. Through all these long centuries
a mysterious, and, apparently, still more ancient race had occupied
Egypt, only occasionally interfering with, or being disturbed by, the
surging sea of strife that raged and foamed so near them, which at length
forced them from their seclusion and bore them on in the general tide of
improvement.

17. The Egyptian monarchy presents many very curious and difficult
problems. Possessing the most perfect organization in the earliest times
of which we have any knowledge, the traces of its beginnings quite fail
us, although, more than any other nation, it loved to build great and
impressive monuments and record on them, in the most minute manner, the
singular habits and monotonous daily life of its people. The first of
those monuments, which, by many signs, must date very nearly as far back
in the remote past as the earliest dawn of organization among any other
people of whom we can gather any certain traces, indicate a long settled
state, a high degree of organization, considerable culture and great
resources.

18. The first king, who is called Menes by several independent and very
ancient authorities, made his reign memorable by a system of vast and
useful public works. It is conjectured that the previous rulers were the
sacerdotal class and that, up to that time, they had no kings. The habits
of the people were quiet and peaceful, and they seem to have been first
gathered around temples. In all stages of their history, down to the time
when foreign intrusion by force disorganized their peculiar institutions,
the priesthood was the most influential element in their constitution,
and their sway seems to have been, in some respects, singularly mild and
beneficent. Except for the extreme inflexibility and minuteness of their
regulations, which repressed all spontaneous growth, and the gross and
absurd worship of animals which they introduced, they might be considered
an unmixed blessing to those early times. It is certain that they were
successful in controlling men and moulding them to their own views
without producing discontent or revolt.

19. Everything in Egypt was remarkable—its river, its country, and the
institutions and habits of its people. The Egyptians dwelt in the valley
of the Nile for a space of 500 miles above its mouth; but this valley was
so narrow that the habitable part of it contained only about 6,000 square
miles in all. It was shut in by the Red sea on the east and by trackless
deserts on the west, and a fall of rain was so rare as to be considered
a prodigy. In June each year their mysterious river, whose sources are
yet almost unknown, began to rise till it covered the whole valley like
a vast sea. The rise and fall occupied the summer months and to the
middle of October. The waters left a rich coating of mud and slime,
which rendered the valley fertile beyond measure. The productive season
occupied the remainder of the year, and their agricultural resources were
only limited by their skill in spreading and husbanding the fertilizing
waters. Vast canals and reservoirs covered the whole valley. Lake Moeris,
a reservoir partly natural and partly artificial, was said by the first
Greek historian, Herodotus, to have been 400 miles in circuit. When the
waters had reached their highest point, the cisterns, canals and lakes
were filled and the waters kept in reserve for late periods of the year,
and a succession of crops.

20. The mysterious character of the river seems to have deeply impressed
the nation with awe and reverence for unseen powers, and contributed to
the influence of the priestly caste. Their peculiar source of wealth
and the amount of leisure periodically afforded, perhaps led to the
construction of the temples and palaces, whose gloomy strength is as
mysterious as their river, or the origin of the people. Far back in the
twilight of time, Thebes, the “city of a hundred gates,” was a colossal
capital. Its vast temples and palaces were built on a scale of grandeur
that seems almost superhuman; yet, before history begins its narrative in
Greece, Thebes had had its youth, its long period of splendor and glory,
its hoary age, and was already a thing of the past, and nearly in ruins;
not by violence or conquest, but by the natural transfer of the center of
activities to another region. Considering the small extent of Egypt, its
always overflowing population, and the tenacious habits of the Egyptians,
nothing could more impressively show its great age.

21. Egyptian sculpture was descriptive of religious ceremonies on the
temples, and on the palaces of domestic life and general habits, and
furnishes us with details of the whole social structure and all their
industrial pursuits, as well as the events in the campaigns of their few
warlike monarchs. Add to these the minute delineation of their temple
service and religious teachings, and its ruins describe the entire round
of its ancient life.

The people were divided into classes, or castes, the son being obliged
to follow the occupation of the father; and all branches of business
and industry, public and private, were arranged in the most methodical
manner. The priest, the soldier, the husbandman, the artisan of whatever
branch, was so because his ancestors had been such for numberless
generations. A king could be selected either from the priestly or the
soldier caste; but he must previously have been initiated into all the
mysteries of the priesthood, and therefore Moses, the acknowledged
heir of the throne, “was learned in all the wisdom of the Egyptians.”
Otherwise, not belonging to the priestly caste, he must have remained
in ignorance. With this exception, the priest alone had the key of
knowledge, and all the employments requiring intellectual studies,
or scientific culture, as we should now say, were filled from that
class. They kept all records, measurements, and apportionments of land;
prescribed the times, seasons, and conduct of all public transactions;
were the constitutional advisers of the king; they were physicians,
astronomers, philosophers, and guides of the people in every respect.
They alone did the thinking, and they guarded their prerogative with the
most jealous care.

22. A people are debased and gross in proportion to their ignorance,
and the ignorant masses of Egypt were amused with the greatest possible
multiplication of gods, and their leisure and simple minds fully occupied
in religious ceremonies and absurd fictions. But the priests were as wise
and moderate as they were crafty and persistent. Their discipline was
extremely judicious and well administered, and was laid on the king as
well and sternly, as to his general life, as on the lowest peasant. The
priesthood were as absolute, as impartial, and as unvarying from age to
age as it is possible to conceive. Their services to humanity were very
great. They laid the foundation among men, of unvarying law, of diligence
in the employment of time, of exactness in the division of labor, and
inculcated, in an effective way, the idea of divine justice and of
immortality.

23. Their “wisdom” was the highest and the most fruitful that was,
perhaps, possible in their times; their fame was wide-spread, and their
influence on the legislation of other lands has laid all ages under
great obligations. The political economy of the Jews was the product of
one of their most intelligent disciples, and the fact that he was so
probably added greatly to his influence and success with his own people;
and all the great legislators, philosophers, and historians of Greece
went to them to complete their education. In after times, when the nation
lost its liberty and became the province of a distant kingdom, they sunk
the priest in the scholar, and Egypt had the largest libraries and the
most eminent philosophers in the world. After Greece was carried, as it
were, bodily, to Rome, far down into the Christian Era, Alexandria was
the university of the world.

The history of Egypt is thus entirely peculiar, being mainly that of its
own influential class. They impressed a peaceful, generally virtuous,
laborious, as well as monotonous character on its history, and, besides
the vast monuments which the patient industry they inspired reared up,
and the names of their interminable list of kings, there was, perhaps,
little to record.

24. The entire number of their dynasties of kings, as they have handed
them down to us, is thirty-two, the last being the Ptolemies, founded by
a Greek general of that name, after the death of Alexander the Great,
which lasted more than three hundred years, closing B. C. 44. The first
twelve dynasties are called the Old Empire, whose period it is impossible
to determine accurately. The five following dynasties are ascribed to the
reign of foreigners, called “shepherd kings,” who are supposed to have
established their authority between the times of Joseph and Moses, and
are called the Middle Empire; while thirteen dynasties, including the
royal families that reigned down to the time of the conquest of Egypt by
the Persians, comprise the New Empire. They were generally exclusive,
shut up within themselves, too much absorbed in exact observance of
the endless routine prescribed by their priests to be inclined to the
ambition of foreign conquest; but several of their kings gathered large
armies and invaded Palestine and Syria, or made a trial of strength with
the Assyrians or Babylonians. They never made permanent conquests in that
direction. Some of the later kings became friendly to the Greeks, and
employed them in their armies, to the great disgust of their subjects,
the soldier caste retiring, almost in a body, to Ethiopia, and refusing
to return. The kingdom soon after fell into the hands of foreigners, and
the accumulated discipline, knowledge and wealth of that wise people
became the inheritance of humanity.

Nebuchadnezzar was the first who made a conquest of Egypt, but the
country soon regained its independence. It was not till after the death
of Cyrus, and when the details of the new Medo-Persian kingdom had been
settled, that Cambyses, the son of Cyrus, subdued the whole of Egypt, and
made it a Persian province, in which condition it remained most of the
time to the Grecian invasion.

25. About twenty-five hundred years before the time of Alexander the
Great, the cities of Sidon and Tyre were founded, in Phenicia, on the
eastern shore of the Mediterranean sea. Their territory extended only
twenty miles back, from the sea. They were of the Semite race, and their
enterprising spirit led them to build ships and become at first pirates
and then merchants. They were thrifty and grew rich, improved their
vessels and became famous for their commerce. They at length planted
colonies for trading purposes on the northern coasts of Africa, in Sicily
and in Spain.

One of those colonies, Carthage, became more wealthy and powerful than
the parent state. The merchandise they gathered from distant countries
they distributed through Asia by a land trade, and their caravans reached
Nineveh, Babylon and Persia, and, for long periods, were almost the
only link that joined Egypt to the rest of the busy and growing world.
They learned many useful things among the Egyptians, among others the
invention of letters, or at least hints on which they improved. Many
flourishing cities were built up by this internal commerce in places
surrounded by desert regions, as Baalbek and Palmyra in Syria, and
Petra in Arabia, a city excavated in the rocks, which, lying between
Syria and Phenicia in the north and the rich districts of Arabia in the
south, and between Babylon and Persia on the east and Egypt on the west,
became a great mercantile depot. The Phenicians were the busiest and most
enterprising people of ancient times. Their vessels reached the shores
of England, where they had valuable mines of tin, as of silver in Spain;
they visited the northwest coasts of Africa and the Madeira islands, and
brought the rich products of India and gold from eastern Africa to the
markets of the world. The amount of their contributions to civilization
and progress by making known the discoveries and arts of distant nations
to each other, by causing roads and inns to be built, and facilitating
communication, was immense; as well as by awakening the love of gain
and turning the activities of a part of mankind from warlike to more
peaceful and useful pursuits. The arts and inventions that have done the
most, in the long run, for the improvement of men, as shipbuilding and
writing, were communicated from one nation to another. Their commercial
routes were the highways over which the intelligent and inquiring Greeks
traveled in search of the knowledge which they used for the education of
their people. Tyre was destroyed by Alexander B. C. 332; but he replaced
it the same year by building Alexandria, at the mouth of the Nile.

26. We have thus seen nations and institutions gradually unfolding,
passing through a period of youth, of vigorous organic action, and
finally decaying, to give place to another of higher order which
inherited all its general gain and proceeded to carry still further the
banner of civilization. As this process continues the field widens, and
with the increasing number and variety of the elements engaged in acting
upon one another, the product becomes more valuable, the organization
more complete and the institutions more useful.

The institutions purely political, however, the modes of government and
the style of administering them, are imperfect, at best. They are too
arbitrary, too restrictive; the masses are too large and too closely
crowded to permit free play to the component parts. The mingling of the
whole was, at first, evidently necessary to prevent the crystalizing of
the separate nationalities and the arrest of progress; but when that
process was stopped and a plastic condition and progressive tendency
assured, the absolute despotism of the king and the priest stood in the
way of advance. They had educated society and developed its resources
until a power of vast combination had been gained; then a change must
be introduced, or the entire resources of the civilized world would be
employed to repress its further advancement, the fountains of wealth
would be exhausted and the springs of activity dried up. This barrier
against a destructive centralization had long been preparing among the
Grecian states.


SECTION V.

THE GRECIAN STATES.

1. They were of the Aryan race, and showed a high capacity to receive
the lessons taught by the experience and genius of all the past,
and make them the stepping-stone to a higher civilization and freer
institutions. They were preceded in the occupation of Greece by the
Pelasgi, of the same stock, but too rude and uncultured to leave many
traces of their presence except the ruins of immense cyclopean buildings,
without inscriptions, indicating only a dawning culture, but a vigorous
combination of physical force. The mythic history of Greece is in part a
veiled and distorted account of the struggles of Hellens, or true Greeks,
against those uncouth aborigines; the actual facts being mingled by
the lively creative fancy of their poets with the religious traditions
brought from their original home. The highly picturesque language of
the primitive Aryan people accorded with the imaginative and observant
character of that family, and its inclination to extemporize some
plausible explanation of the natural phenomena which awakened their
attention, and, apparently, suggested the general course of invention
and embellishment adopted by the poets, who were the historians, the
theologians, and the only literary class of their period. Thus the early
speculations and crude religious ideas assumed, in poetic hands, an
exceedingly fanciful and marvelous garb; and their heroes, who succeeded
in overcoming the difficulties of a new settlement, and in laying the
foundation of their communities in a rude country filled with men and
beasts almost equally wild and savage, were endowed by their grateful and
admiring descendants with superhuman qualities, and wonder and reverence
ascribed to them a descent from the gods.

2. A characteristic feature of Grecian heroic mythology is the number
and mutual contests of these mythical heroes which indicate a leading
characteristic of the nation—a disposition toward independence and
decentralization. Every small community had its divine hero, and insisted
on maintaining its government in its own hands. In the early times the
immediate descendants of these local benefactors commonly obtained the
sovereignty, more or less qualified, over their city and community.
They all greatly respected the tie that bound them together in kinship
as one race; but they never would permit it to deprive them of local
independence. If they had a king he should be of their own tribe and
choice; if they were ruled with harshness it should be only because
they chose to submit to their own tyrant. They seldom permitted another
community to manage their internal affairs. Various leagues were early
formed among contiguous cities or states closely related by origin; but
they dealt only in matters of common interest, and if one city or king
was acknowledged as the head, it was only in a general sense for the sake
of realizing some general plan.

3. This instinctive and resolute refusal to accept a centralized
government was a new and important feature in the history of men in a
civilized, or highly organized state. It was the direct opposite of that
which characterized Asiatic and African civilization, and held the Greek
race open to a spontaneous growth and a mental development which made
them the benefactors of the human family. With less individuality and
mental force, or a less favorable time and situation, it would have kept
them forever barbarous; but time had matured them and the nations about
them, and their restless spirit of inquiry and constant movement among
themselves stood in the place of the foreign action and shock of races
that proved so beneficial and necessary to the Asiatics. The Egyptian,
Chinese and Hindoo peoples reached a certain point of well regulated
order, apparently by an original impulse, and stopped; the Chaldean,
Assyrian and Persian races kept in the stream of progress by a sort of
mechanical or forcible stir and intermingling of races and civilizations;
and the principle accomplished, in each case, all it was capable of. Time
and progress then transferred the care of the best interests of mankind
to _intelligence_ as embodied in the Greek race. Without being conscious
of such a high destiny, they fulfilled it with fidelity, and remained
true to themselves and faithful to the impulses of their own minds
until humanity required training of a different kind, and another race,
receiving their mental culture, added to it administrative ability and
carried the old world as high as it could possibly go on its ancient base.

4. It seems probable that about B. C. 2000, or in the time of Abraham,
the progenitors of the Greeks reached that country from the highlands
east of the Caspian Sea. Greece extends about 220 miles from north to
south, and 160 from east to west, with a very irregular outline, and
contains about 34,000 square miles, much of this being mountainous and
barren. The separation of the different states by these mountain ranges
much favored the disposition of the people to local independence, and
formed a bold and hardy race. Access from three sides to the sea led to
commerce and colonization, while it brought them into frequent contact
with the most civilized people of the east without endangering their
independence, and the lofty mountains on the north were an effectual
barrier to the irruption of the wild and wandering tribes of northern
Asia and Europe. Early in the history of the Greeks colonies came from
Egypt and Phenicia and introduced the arts of those countries, then the
most civilized in the world. This was about the time that the Jewish
nation was founded by Moses, and we can easily understand that the native
intelligence of the Greeks and their teachable spirit, led them to profit
greatly by this early light.

5. The most celebrated traditions of this people relate to an expedition
by the collective young chivalry of Greece, called the “Argonautic,”
which indicates their enterprising spirit and early acquaintance with the
sea, and also seems to have introduced the habit of planting colonies.
Two wars against Thebes, in the central part of Greece, induced by the
ambition and combinations of the kings of the various States, seem to
have made much impression on the whole nation, while a combination of
nearly all of its petty sovereigns, gathering an immense army, stated
at 100,000 men, to punish an injury done to one of their number by the
King of Troy, on the opposite coast of Asia, occupied ten years, and
filled the whole country with confusion. This was soon followed by an
event called the Return of the Heracleidæ, or descendants of Hercules—a
mythic hero of great celebrity—to their ancient dominion in the southern
peninsula, called the Pelopenesus. It appears to have been attended
by the migration of one tribe into the domains of another, which they
forcibly dispossessed and produced the emigration of the conquered
people into Asia, where they formed extensive colonies—independent—but
preserving a love for their race, and forming an important element in
Greek progress.

6. The commotions and miseries of this period and of subsequent times,
which had their rise mainly in this, most of which were due to the
restless ambition and personal quarrels of their kings, came at
length to disgust the spirited and progressive people with that form
of government, and before the time that authentic history begins they
had very generally set aside the kings and established a democracy; and
where this was not the case, as in Sparta, the power of the kings became
so limited that they were little more than leading magistrates in their
respective cities. This was not often done by violent revolution, but
generally in a quiet way, showing the steady and intelligent resolution
of the people.

This rare nation knew how to adapt its governments to its needs. Not
that everything went on without struggle or difficulty, nor that they
did not share in the rude and sanguinary passions of their times. Their
governments were often unsettled; there were frequent conflicts among
aspirants for place and power in the state; they had a balance of power
among the leading states to maintain; and the want of a strong central
authority led to innumerable collisions and sometimes to desolating wars.
But amidst all the confusion and imperfection of an early civilization
they still maintained such an independence of any superior in each state
that they could settle their internal affairs to suit themselves. They
were yet uneducated men, in the enthusiastic young manhood of the world,
but with spirit enough to be free.

7. That freedom had many defects. The true character of freedom was
imperfectly apprehended in that age of the world. It was often violent;
and much Grecian blood was shed by Greeks. It was frequently turbulent;
and sometimes the strife of parties and factions did great injury to
the welfare of the state. It was usually a restricted liberty in which
all the inhabitants did not share, for the slave, the freedman, and the
foreigner were admitted to no influence in the government, or in framing
the laws; and there was always much oppression and injustice somewhere.
It was not a well understood and well balanced liberty, as we comprehend
it, but it left room for a large amount of free and spontaneous action.
It made little account of the _individual_; that point was to be learned
and made duly prominent after the lapse of more than two thousand years.
The Greek identified himself with his state. He would not have it large
in order that each free citizen might have a personal influence in it.
His public life was an education to him; and the very defects of his
institutions fitted them more perfectly to meet the wants of that age
than anything more complete could have done.

8. They developed rapidly under a system so free from restraint, coupled
with a nature so ardent, and a thirst for knowledge so absorbing. Still
it was at least two hundred years after they had re-arranged their
primitive modes of government before they reached a degree of order
and system that influenced them to record events as they passed, and
observe the world outside of their state, and even then their most
learned men wrote little. Men were absorbed in their private matters,
or in the affairs of the state. They thought little of the future; they
were devoting themselves diligently to the only means of education that
existed in those days, intercourse and action. Their priesthood was
quite different from what we found it in Chaldea and Egypt. They did not
form a class, nor attempt to exercise an influence on government. They
were appointed from the body of the citizens to offer sacrifices and
conduct religious ceremonies. The high spirited and active minded Greeks
were not fit subjects for the dominion of a priestly caste. Although
Cecrops, an Egyptian, settled and civilized Athens, and introduced
some of the social arrangements of his country, he did not plant the
all-controlling priesthood. The Athenians, of all other Greeks, were the
thoughtful, progressive intelligence of the nation. The poets compiled
the geneaologies and histories of the gods, the heroes, and the past
records of the people. There was no other literature, there were no other
sources of information but those from which the poets drew—tradition and
inherited customs. Of these the poets explained the origin and reason,
and no one thought of questioning their tales. They were supposed to be
inspired; and their marvelous legends rested, to a certain extent, on
monuments, habits, and oral tradition. Their lively narratives charmed
and satisfied the public mind and gratified their pride. It was only in
later years that the philosophers explained them away.

In the early days they had no standard by which to criticise them. All
they required was that they should offer a pleasing explanation. The
wisest of the Greeks came, ultimately, to believe in one God who ruled
with wisdom and justice, and they laid the foundation of all useful
knowledge by teaching men to think and reason; but true science was not
possible in their age of the world. They, however, prepared the way for
it.

9. Their religion was cheerful and bright, they had altars and temples in
great numbers, and countless ceremonies in honor of particular deities.
One class of these was festivals, or games, established, according to
tradition, by their divine heroes. The Olympian Games were the most
celebrated, and took place every fiftieth month at Olympia. In the year
776 B. C. they began to record the name of the victor in these games,
and as that was done ever afterward, this became a fixed date and the
interval between each was called an Olympiad. It was the beginning of
reliable history, although it was one hundred and fifty years later that
men of real wisdom, extensive observation and careful study began to
flourish. But the eagerness with which the people sought information, and
the honor in which they held men of thought and wisdom, encouraged study,
reflection and travel for the sake of knowledge, so that this class, in
time, became extremely numerous.

Their researches, and systems of what they held to be truth, were often
imperfect, and, in many parts, false; but they were upright and earnest
in the studies that were then possible, and did as much good, one might
say, by their failures as by their successes. Inquirers, in after times,
noted _where_ and _how_ they failed; so that all their pioneer work was
useful—their mistakes for a warning, their success for instruction.

10. The course of Grecian development took two contrary directions, under
the two leading states, Sparta and Athens. The last represents the
generally received idea of Greece—as a land where the people were lively
and beautiful, intelligent and richly endowed with _taste_ in the arts,
or an exquisitely quick and thorough _judgment_ of _fitness_, developed
to the very highest point. Sparta, on the other hand, through its whole
career, was a military state. Somewhere about one hundred years before
the first Olympiad (B. C. 776), a lawgiver, named Lycurgus, had reformed
the institutions of the Spartan state with the avowed and only object
to render it capable of producing the most vigorous and hardy warriors.
He made an equal distribution of lands, which were cultivated by the
ancient inhabitants, reduced to slavery. They were called Helots, and
were treated with great cruelty. Lycurgus abolished every species of
luxury, subjected the young, both boys and girls, to the most rigorous
training, and discouraged all the amenities of family and social life
that he supposed might interfere with the rude hardiness of the soldier.
The whole intelligence, activity and vigor of the Greek mind was, in
this state, confined to military life. These institutions continued to
exist in Sparta for more than five hundred years. Among any other race
they would have secured to them the supreme dominion of the nation; but
among this liberty loving people they merely sufficed to render them
the general leaders in war, and _one_, only, among the most powerful
and respectable Greek states. Besides, this experiment shows that there
is little real advantage in systematically trampling down the native
instincts of humanity in order to promote superiority in a particular
direction.

11. The entirely spontaneous character of the Athenians made them, in
general, the equal of the Spartans in military fame, and gloriously
eminent in many other directions. But the various members of the Greek
nation seem to have been made, by their intelligence and the earnestness,
the completeness, of all their lines of development, the pioneers of
humanity in their experiments. They exhausted all the capacities of a
complete military education in an entire state, and presented the most
perfect achievements of a genius that had no models to commence on, in
poetry, in painting, in sculpture, in philosophy and in such elements of
science as were possible to humanity in their day.

It is worthy of remark that most of the Greek colonies, the Phenicians
and their colonies, and a great part of the numerous nations in Italy
became republican about the same time—as did the Romans later—and that
those states which preserved hereditary monarchy, or tyrants—as those
kings were called who were elected by the populace—had counterbalanced
the individual despotism of the kingly office by various institutions
that controlled and limited it.

12. At the period when history began to be carefully written and dates
accurately given, civilization was under full career and rapidly moving
westward. The Greeks had been struggling with the difficulties of
the early times for more than a thousand years and had already begun
to mature the institutions and to show the traits of character that
afterwards made them so eminent and so useful in advancing the progress
of mankind. The Tyrians, or commercial people of Phenicia, had formed
the net-work of communication with all the parts of the earth then
sufficiently civilized to produce anything which could be useful to
the rest of the world, and Italy was alive with the energies of the
primitive races, mainly Aryan—some of them transplanted from the East,
and possessing many of the highest elements of the ancient culture—who
fought the Romans with a vigor and persistence that contributed much to
the discipline and strong development of that remarkable people, to whose
instruction the Greek colonies in eastern Italy added not a little.

From this point the advance of the center of development toward the
western continent, and of mental preparation for more perfect ideals of
government was continuous. A more complete view of this progress will be
gained by considering the general events of each century apart, or in
chronological order.

13. B. C. 776. This is the first definite and positive date in reliable
history and commences the First Olympiad. The Olympic religious and
national festival was celebrated by foot and chariot races, boxing,
wrestling, etc., and was commenced by religious sacrifices and
ceremonies, mainly in honor of the god Apollo. This peaceable assembly
of all the representatives of the Grecian race was one of the chief
means of maintaining the national union, and greatly promoted the
maintenance and importance of a kind of national congress, called the
Amphictyonic League. The first object of this League was the protection
of their common worship; but it came to have, afterward, considerable
importance as a political body; its decrees having the character and
force of the Laws of Nations in modern times. It was composed of two
delegates from each of the twelve leading states of Greece, and held two
meetings yearly; one at Delphi, where was a celebrated temple and oracle
of Apollo, and one at Thermopylæ. The twelve chief cities of the Æolian
colonies of Greece in Asia Minor, and also the same number of Ionian
colonies on the same coast more to the south, had each Amphictyonic,
or International Leagues; but the Greeks from all the various regions
they settled, as well as from the mother country, took a pride in
participating in the Olympic games.

14. B. C. 753. This is one of the most important dates in the history
of mankind. In this year, Rome, “The Eternal City,” was founded by a
band of adventurers and outlaws, under the lead of the twin brothers,
Romulus and Remus. A spirit of adventure was the most characteristic
feature of that era, in Greece and about the Mediterranean sea, together
with a passion for colonizing, or founding new states. Education, or
growth, seems to pursue parallel lines in the same era, so that the same
general tendencies move the masses of widely separated nations. Greece
began, at this period, to send out a large number of colonists, in rapid
succession, to Italy and the islands of the Mediterranean. The tendency
had commenced more than three centuries before, but the colonies had
not gone far from the native state, and only one had been established in
Italy, at Cumæ. Carthage, a commercial colony of the Tyrians, had been
founded 127 years before, and was now beginning to rival the parent city.

Rome gathered its population from all the neighboring states. The
mingling of races has always been favorable to the progress of mankind.
A single race, isolating itself and receiving no new blood or impulses
from without becomes stationary and fixed in all its habits and
advancement ceases beyond a certain point. The men who founded Rome were,
apparently, a crowd of adventurers who had resolved to found a state.
After building the walls of their city and providing themselves with
habitations, they were destitute of wives—a serious want which would soon
leave their new city without inhabitants. They remedied it in true Roman
style—by violence. They made a festival without the walls to celebrate
the founding of their state, and invited their nearest neighbors, the
Sabines, to take part in it. The Sabines came with their wives and
daughters. At a concerted moment the young Romans each seized a young
Sabine woman, and carried her off into the city; the gates were closed
and each proceeded to make his captive his wife.

The Sabines were powerless to prevent the deed, but they soon made war on
their violent sons-in-law, and the young city would have been destroyed
but for the interference of the stolen women who had become satisfied
with the bold deed which gave them valiant husbands. The Sabines were
induced to unite with the young state so far as to build a new city
adjoining and take part in its rising fortunes. Romulus was elected king
by his followers, but popular institutions were established to limit his
power, under the strong instinct of vigorous organization that, from the
first, characterized the new nation. The people maintained their right to
make laws in conjunction with the king, and preserved a limited monarchy
for 250 years. At this time the prophet Isaiah flourished in Judea, and
the kingdom of Samaria was approaching extinction.

15. B. C. 747. The Chaldeans established, or revived, their dominion
in Babylon, under their king, Nabonassur, and seem to have been
independent of Assyria for a time, but afterward to have been brought
into a qualified subjection to that enterprising monarchy. It commences
authentic history in the East, so far as well ascertained dates are
concerned. In that year the Chaldean astronomers or priests, first
introduced the Egyptian solar year, which furnished an accurate mode of
measuring time. This was about the commencement of the Sixth Olympiad.
Egypt was approaching its most perfect condition under its ancient system.

B. C. 743. Messenian war of 23 years—Sparta conquers Messene.

16. B. C. 735. A colony from Corinth founded the celebrated city of
Syracuse in Sicily, and a fashion of colonizing seems to have obtained in
Greece, which continued for a hundred years. The native enterprise of the
Greeks, the great increase of inhabitants in their small territory, and
the commotions and contests of parties in their states, which preceded
the establishment of more complete popular governments, were probably the
ruling causes of these foreign emigrations, and all contributed to the
increase of knowledge, improvement in navigation, and the prevalence of
a commercial spirit. Miletus, the leading Greek city of Ionia, in Asia
Minor, became almost as powerful and prosperous by her commerce as Tyre
in her best days. There were Grecian colonies on the coast of Africa
west of Egypt, on the eastern coast of Italy, several in Sicily, one
in France. They were, generally, very enterprising and prosperous, and
diffused Greek intelligence and culture over a large part of the world
as known at that time. They usually established a republican government.
Syracuse remained republican for 251 years.

17. B. C. 728. The Assyrian Empire was now having its palmiest days, and
spreading its dominion over all the central parts of western Asia, from
the Mediterranean to the Persian Gulf. At this time Shalman-assur, or
Shalmaneser, the king of Assyria, led away the Ten Tribes of Israel into
a hopeless captivity, and planted a different race in Samaria. Soon after
this time the Ethiopians from the upper Nile established their dominion
in Egypt, without apparently changing the general condition of things
there. Three Ethiopian kings successively reigned in Egypt, and made
conquests in Asia to some extent.

18. B. C. 600. About the beginning of this century the foundation of
Greek philosophy was laid by Thales of Miletus, a Greek city in Asia. He
represents the growth and acuteness of the Greek mind and the approach
of its period of greatest activity. He travelled into Egypt in search
of wisdom, and was the most able astronomer of his times. He calculated
an eclipse of the sun, which, coming on just when two armies, the
Median and Lydian, were about to engage in battle, so terrified them
that they immediately separated and made peace. He was celebrated as a
mathematician, and taught many truths concerning the existence of God
which were far in advance of his time, and undertook to account for the
origin of all things in a very bold and independent manner. He was one
of the famous “Seven Wise Men” of Greece. Solon was held to be the first
among the seven. He was an Athenian law-giver and writer, and established
a very wise and enlightened system of government in Athens. He was a
pure-hearted and clear-sighted man, enjoying the universal respect of
the Greeks. Chilo, another of the seven, was a Spartan magistrate,
held in the highest esteem for his wisdom. Pittacus of Mitylene, was
a law-giver, held in high honor. Bias of Priene, in Ionia, was a very
noble-hearted and public-spirited citizen, of universal reputation for
wisdom. Cleobulus, of the island of Rhodes, was remarkable for his skill
in answering difficult questions, and Periander of Corinth, the ruler, or
tyrant, of that place, was the last of the seven. They were all living
at the same time. They were only the most eminent among a people who
could fully appreciate mental ability. The spirit of inquiry continued
to spread rapidly for two hundred years, when the greatest masters, who
immortalized themselves and their race by their genius, appeared.

19. In the early part of this century the kingdom of Lydia, in the
central part of Asia Minor, rose to great wealth and power. The Lydian
kingdom was ancient—many of its customs being similar to those of the
Egyptians—and the Etrurians of Italy, a much more polished and cultivated
people than the Romans who conquered them, are thought, by some eminent
historians, to have been a Lydian colony planted in Italy in unknown
times. The Lydian kings made war on the Asiatic Greek colonies and
reduced many of them to subjection. Crœsus, the last king of Lydia, was
proverbial for his vast wealth. He was conquered by Cyrus, the Persian,
in the middle of the next century.

679 B. C. Numa, the second king of Rome, is said to have died. The Romans
abstained from war during nearly the whole of his reign, which was
occupied in settling the internal affairs of the new state, especially
those relating to religion. He was followed by Tullus Hostilius, a very
warlike prince, who did much to extend the Roman state.

20. About 650 B. C. a great change was introduced into Egypt, by
Psammeticus, its king, who, having several rival claimants to the throne,
employed the services of Greek soldiers to overcome them. For the first
time the country was freely opened to foreigners, and the power of the
priesthood broken. Thus the Greeks were instrumental in changing the
current of Egyptian history.

The Median Kings began to make head in the east, and ventured—after
various successful efforts to extend their dominion in other
directions—to make direct war on Nineveh. At the close of the century,
by the aid of the rebellious Nabopolassar, they succeeded in taking and
destroying that city, and the whole of that immense empire was divided
between Media and Nabopolassar, who made Babylon his capital.

21. B. C. 590 to 500. Events in this century begin to crowd thick upon
each other. The Greeks rapidly advanced; the Romans succeeded, amid
constant wars, in securely establishing their state in Italy, marching
from conquest to conquest, not without heavy reverses at times, from
which they soon recovered.

    598—Nebuchadnezzar took Jerusalem for the first time.

    594—Solon was made archon at Athens, with almost unlimited
      power to change the existing institutions, and he introduced
      many very useful reforms.

    588—Jerusalem was destroyed by Nebuchadnezzar, and the Jews
      carried into captivity to Babylon, where they remained
      seventy years. Soon after, Nebuchadnezzar conquered Tyre,
      after a siege of many years, but he found himself in
      possession of the walls only, for the inhabitants had built
      another city on an island near by, but inaccessible to the
      conqueror, and left him a barren conquest.

    560—The most memorable event that followed was the union of
      Media and Persia under the military prowess of Cyrus. He
      first employed the forces of the Medo-Persian kingdom in
      Asia Minor, conquering Lydia and the rest of that region,

    549—and dethroning Crœsus. Babylon and Egypt had both
      entered into an alliance with Crœsus against Cyrus, but
      before they could send Crœsus effectual aid Cyrus had
      triumphed. He then turned his arms against Babylon

    538—which he took by stratagem after a long siege. Egypt
      was afterward obliged to become tributary to the universal
      conqueror.

    534—Cyrus, who had before been the Persian general of the
      united armies under the Median king, Cyaxares, who was his
      maternal uncle, succeeded to the kingdom, and soon after sent
      the Jews home to their native land. During this period the
      Greeks swarmed on the eastern part of the Mediterranean sea
      and carried on nearly all its commerce, the Tyrians being
      mainly confined to the trade with India, Arabia and the
      various parts of the Persian empire.

    529—Occurred the death of Cyrus, full of years and glory.
      History has described him as the most amiable of all the
      great conquerors. He was succeeded by his son, Cambyses, who,
      to punish the revolt of the Egyptians

    525—invaded that country and made it a Persian province.

    522—Cambyses died and was succeeded by a Persian nobleman,
      Darius Hystaspes, the line of Cyrus being extinct. He finally
      broke the power of the priesthood in his dominions, which
      perished at once in Egypt and Babylon, where they had so long
      reigned supreme over the minds of men.

    515—The second temple was dedicated at Jerusalem.

    510—In this year occurred a very important event in Roman
      history—the establishment of the republic. Kings had reigned
      there two hundred and forty-three years.


SECTION VI.

THE ROMAN REPUBLIC.

1. The Romans, more than any other people of ancient times, understood
how to establish a well ordered state. Respect for order and law
among them was very great. The idea of a government with a definite
constitution, which the rulers should always respect, and which should
be an adequate bulwark to the people against oppression, had never
occurred to any of the Asiatic nations. The nearest approach to it among
the Greeks was in Sparta; but as their aim was directed, not so much
to the general welfare of the state as to training a race of soldiers,
their experiment was a failure. The Greeks had a great impatience of
subjection; they had no great ambition to rule, but were impulsive, and
each state wanted freedom to pursue its own particular fancy. Their
exhaustless energy and acute minds were devoted to the pursuit of ideal
objects. Even the sober and resolute Spartan put aside every other
consideration in order to realize his idea of a well formed, thoroughly
trained, and invincible warrior. Weakly and deformed children were
destroyed in their infancy, by order of the state. The young women were
subjected to the most rigorous physical training, that they might become
mothers of hardy children. Physical training was one of the passions
of all Greece, originating in their delight in beauty and symmetry of
person. Sports that contributed to this were as pleasing to the Greeks as
to our modern school-boys.

2. Athens, which most perfectly represented the Grecian mind, esteemed
a fine poet, an able writer, a skillful painter or sculptor, as much
as an enthusiastic scholar of our day can do. They had a passion for
beauty, and their love of liberty was in great part produced by their
ardent longing for mental freedom and the gratification of their mental
tastes. The worship of their gods was chiefly their admiration for
superhuman majesty, sublimity, and beauty, as they conceived them, and
their theology was compounded of their thirst for knowledge and their
love of the mysterious, the grand, the terrible, and the beautiful. Life
was of no value to them, if they could not gratify these instincts, and
their tenacity in maintaining their liberties found its inspiration in
them. They were a nation of mental enthusiasts. They had no love of
conquest for the sake of power. They were invaded by the Persians, and
a handful of Greeks conquered its immense hosts with ease, by their
intelligence and ardor. It was only when they saw the splendor and
wealth of the East, and felt that they could repeat the glorious deeds
of their mythic heroes, that they became enthusiastic over the romantic
idea of conquering a magnificent empire. It was the mental charm of the
undertaking that gave to Alexander his miraculous success.

But the Greeks were not practical. They wanted worldly wisdom. The
Lacedemonians of Sparta had no adequate object when they sacrificed
almost all that common humanity holds dear, to rear up model soldiers.
Their ambition was confined mainly to preserving the headship of their
state among the petty republics of Greece; and the resources of all the
states were wasted in the effort to preserve a balance of power among the
various members of the nation; or in struggles of the more powerful to
obtain a leading influence. They had little political wisdom, when the
independence of their territories was secured and the governments that
restrained them too much from their favorite enthusiasms were abolished.
Athens and all Greece admired immensely the wise measures of Solon, when
he reformed the government and gave it excellent laws. But they had not
the prudence to maintain them. In ten years all was again confusion. Most
of their great men who possessed a special genius for government, were
abandoned when they showed the most ability for benefitting their country
by their wise statesmanship. Pericles alone, who was the most perfect
embodiment of Grecian character, preserved his influence to the last; but
it was by falling in perfectly with the tone of Grecian feeling, and he
laid the foundation of innovations that corrupted and finally overthrew
their liberty. He was as little practical and prudent as his countrymen.
Beautiful in person, cultivated in mind, possessed of exquisite taste
in literature and art, to which he devoted himself with boundless
enthusiasm, Greece could always appreciate him. His age was the glory
and joy of Greece; but when more homely political virtues were required
to preserve his creations and protect this literary and artistic state,
the people could not follow them. Their best statesmen were ostracised,
banished, or slain, when their practical genius was most needed.

3. Rome was the opposite of this. She had a genius for producing and
preserving a constitution, adding to it by slow degrees, maintaining
checks and balances that preserved the machinery in working order, and
rendered it capable of producing the most valuable results that were
possible in those times. To rule was her passion. She was not wanting in
intelligence, but it was the homely prudence of common life, the skill
to adapt means to ends. Of all the nations, she was the first to carry
organization into every part of her government, and conduct everything by
inexorable system and order. If Rome was resolved to rule others, she was
no less resolved to rule herself. The mission of Greece was in the domain
of thought, to develop the intellectual capabilities of mankind. That of
Rome also required intelligence, but of a lower and more material kind.
She was to teach mankind to follow an orderly development, to introduce
system, to prevent ruinous clashing of interests, to teach respect for
law. Greece taught the world to think to purpose; Rome to govern with
effect. Each served an important purpose. Without either the world was
not prepared for Christianity, which added moral order, nor for true
science, which was the mature fruit of these three, and prepared the
perfect civilization which was to be developed to its conclusion in a New
World.

4. Rome commenced, not with the king, but with the _Senate_—a body of
experienced men, who made the laws and appointed a king to administer
them. The king, except in time of war, was only the executive, the
chief magistrate. The later kings were restive under this restraint and
sought to place themselves above law, and the Romans at once dismissed
them, appointing various officers to fill their place. The fundamental
principles of government were not changed at all, or very little, except
by the subsequent course of development. The Romans knew how to adapt
their invincible spirit of order to all changing circumstances, and when
external changes arose corresponding changes were developed, in a regular
manner, within.

Thus the Roman _spirit_ was constant under the regal government,
throughout the republic, and to the close of the empire, and had then
become so thoroughly established in laws and institutions as to govern
the development of the new states that rose out of its ruins and
produced modern civilization.

At first the Roman government consisted only of the Senate and the king.
The Senate was chosen from the body of citizens, and represented them.
In the course of time the descendants of the first people became the
aristocracy, called patricians, who enjoyed great privileges. A class
was gradually formed called the _plebs_, or common people, who, for some
time, had no share in the government. The patricians alone could hold
office, and marriage between them and plebians was illegal. But, says
an able writer, “the Roman commons were the greatest commons the world
ever saw, except the commons of England and America.” In the course of
time, by wise and prudent management, and taking advantage of favoring
circumstances, resulting from the fact that they supplied the body
of soldiers to the state, without revolution, breaking the laws, or
violating the ancient constitution, they obtained changes or additions
to it, one after another, until they had acquired a due influence in the
conduct of affairs and became fully a match for the patricians. It was a
new lesson to mankind, and one that has had great influence on the good
order of society in all later times.

5. The religious system of that great people was conducted with as much
worldly prudence as all their other affairs. Their religious ceremonies
were, in great part, derived from the Etruscans. They were conducted
with much pomp by state officers, appointed for the purpose, embodying
all the superstitions of the time, and embracing comparatively little of
the lofty sentiment that was so prominent in Greece. Their religion was
an affair of state, and intimately connected with the political working
of the government. The gravest public business was made to depend on the
flight of birds, on omens and accidents, and on the appearance of the
entrails of the animals offered in the sacrifices. An artful use of these
circumstances enabled the officers in power to compass many political
ends. Their original gods were those of Greece, adapted to their
purposes and national character; but they readily adopted the divinities
of all the nations they conquered. Their religion was in a high degree
cool and calculating.

The preceding observations apply especially to the periods of Greece and
Rome when their peculiarities were most fully developed in the days of
their greatest glory. Though always more or less characteristic, in later
times they melted more or less into one another, or were toned down and
transformed by decay and a rising spirit of innovation. Especially were
they displaced by Christianity.


SECTION VII.

GREECE AND ROME.

1. We are now prepared to return to the year

    500 B. C.—and follow events in chronological order, with a
      fair appreciation of their import. Just before the close
      of the last century, Darius Hystaspes, the king of Persia,
      sent an army into Europe, to the north of Greece, to
      chastise the Scythians, and it conquered Thrace. The Greek
      colonies in Asia Minor, which had been recently added to
      the Persian empire, became restive under foreign control,
      and when the Persian army returned home,
    500—organized a rebellion and took and burned the city of
      Sardis, the ancient capital of Lydia. They were assisted by
      the European Greeks; but the vast resources of Persia soon
      enabled Darius to take vengeance on them, and Miletus was
      besieged and destroyed. Darius summoned the Grecian states
      to offer their submission, but Athens and Sparta sent back
      a defiance. Darius thereupon gathered a large armament and
      prepared to invade
    495—Greece, which he commenced by the conquest of Macedon. But
      a tempest destroyed his ships and 20,000 men, and the
      expedition returned to Persia. In the same year the
      Roman plebeians obtained their first success against the
      patricians, by which the debts of the poor plebeians to the
      wealthy patricians were cancelled and Tribunes of the People
      appointed.

    490—This year the glory of Greece broke forth. Darius having
      sent another and larger army into Greece, it advanced on
      Athens and encamped at Marathon, within twenty-two miles of
      the city. The Persian host was said to number from 100,000
      to 200,000 men. The Athenians had but 10,000 citizens, but
      armed 20,000 slaves, and the city of Platæa sent them 1,000
      troops. Miltiades, the very able Athenian general, marched
      out and, taking a good position, offered battle. It was
      the 20th of September. The little army of the Greeks
      obtained a complete victory and the Persians returned home in
      confusion. The great services of Miltiades were rewarded with
      imprisonment, on a frivolous charge, and he died there of his
      wounds.

    485—Darius Hystaspes, the Persian king, died while preparing
      a still larger armament for the invasion of Greece.

    484—An insurrection in Egypt completely subdued by the
      Persians.

    480—Xerxes, king of Persia, invaded Greece with a million
      soldiers. The battle at the pass of Thermopylæ was fought
      by a thousand Spartans under Leonidas, their king, and all
      but one slain. The Persian fleet was beaten the same day by
      Themistocles, the Athenian admiral. Xerxes soon advanced on
      Athens, which was abandoned by its inhabitants and burned by
      the Persians. Soon after, Themistocles fought the Persian
      navy again at Salamis and totally destroyed it. Xerxes,
      leaving a large army in Greece, returned to Asia.

    479—The battle of Platæa ended the Persian invasion. The
      allied Greek army numbered 70,000, under Pausanias, the
      Spartan king; the Persians 300,000. The Persians are said
      to have had 200,000 slain, and their army was totally
      routed. Another victory was gained on the coast of Asia Minor
      the same day, and the last remnants of the Persian fleet
      destroyed.

    478—Athens was rebuilt and surrounded with walls from the
      treasures of the conquered Persians. This was the age
      of great men in Greece. Phidias, her greatest sculptor,
      flourished at this time. The Persians, at the time of their
      first invasion, brought a piece of marble to commemorate
      the victory of which they were confident. The Greeks caused
      Phidias to produce out of it a statue of Nemesis, the goddess
      of vengeance, and set it up on the field of Marathon.

    478—Themistocles died in banishment about this time, and
      Aristides of old age. Both were leading statesmen and
      generals of Athens during the Persian war.

    470—Socrates, the most eminent philosopher of all ancient
      times, was born this year.

    ”—The death of Xerxes by assassination occurred this year.

    466—Cimon, son of Miltiades, was now the great man of
      Athens. He was soon superseded by Pericles. From 480 B. C.
      to 430 was the golden period of Athens. She was pre-eminent
      politically, conducting the war of the Grecian allies
      against Persian supremacy on the western shores of Asia and
      in the Mediterranean sea. Republican liberty was everywhere
      predominant. The greatest writers, painters and sculptors
      lived in this period or immediately after it. Socrates,
      Plato, Aristotle, philosophers; Æschylus, Sophocles,
      Euripides, tragic poets; Zeuxis and Apelles, painters; and
      Phidias in sculpture, were a few among the many great names
      which are found in or immediately following this period.

    457—Cincinnatus was made dictator at Rome. During this
      period the Romans laid the foundation of their dominion over
      all Italy by waging successful war with the Etruscans and
      Samnites, the most vigorous and powerful of their opponents.

    450—The Decemvirate was appointed at Rome. They were ten
      magistrates empowered to produce a more perfect code. It was
      called the “Laws of the Twelve Tables.” The plebeians about
      this time succeeded in wresting important privileges from the
      patricians, which more equally balanced the different powers
      of the state.

2. Athens was the centre of civilization, and Greek culture and ideas
were penetrating all the nations in her vicinity. Rome was rapidly
developing and Carthage was at the summit of her glory. She had control
of much of the Spanish or Iberian peninsula. Persia, after absorbing all
the old monarchies of the east, was declining. The “march of empire” was
distinctly defining its “westward course.”

It was about the middle of this century that Herodotus, the “Father of
History,” was rising to fame, and a few years later Xenophon, the Greek
general and historian, was born. Thucydides, another historian, dates
from this period. The great career of history now fairly commenced.

    443—Herodotus emigrated from Halicarnassus, in Asia, to
      Greece.

    431—The Peloponnesian war, a bitter contest between Athens
      and Sparta, commenced. It lasted twenty-three years, and was
      again revived, ending in the conquest of Athens by Sparta.
      This war was followed, after some time, by the rise of the
      power of Thebes, under their famous general, Epaminondas, who
      broke the power of Sparta. Thebes sunk into insignificance
      after his death, and Philip of Macedon commenced the
      subjugation of all Greece. He was followed by Alexander the
      Great, who, in return for the loss of republican liberty,
      rendered Greece illustrious by conquering the Persian empire,
      and imbuing all the Eastern World with its philosophy and
      arts. For all these great events one hundred years were
      required.

    429—The death of the illustrious Pericles occurred in this
      year.

    ”—Plato, the disciple of Socrates, and, in some points,
      superior to him in mental discipline, was born.

    420—About this time Alcibiades, the nephew of Pericles,
      became prominent in Athenian affairs. He had brilliant
      powers, but little principle.

    406—The battle of Ægospotamos, gained by Lysander the
      Spartan, broke the power of Athens.

    404—Athens was taken by Lysander, its walls demolished, and
      the government of the “Thirty Tyrants” established by the
      Spartans. Alcibiades, banished from Athens, was assassinated
      by the Persians, at the instigation of the Spartans.

    401—Occurred the battle of Cunaxa, in Babylonia, between
      Cyrus, the brother of Artaxerxes, king of Persia, and that
      king. Cyrus, who had been governor, or satrap, in Asia Minor,
      gathered a large army including more than 10,000 Greeks.
      Cyrus was killed and his own army defeated, but the Greeks
      repelled all assaults. Their generals having been decoyed
      into the power of the Persians, on the plea of making terms
      with them, were treacherously slain. The army appointed
      other commanders, chief among whom was Xenophon, afterward
      the celebrated historian, and they made good their return to
      Greece. It was finely described by Xenophon, and known as the
      “Retreat of the Ten Thousand.”

    400—Socrates taught doctrines too pure and high-toned for his
      countrymen to understand, and was condemned to drink poison,
      as a dangerous man and despiser of the gods, in the 70th year
      of his age. The Athenians soon repented it.

    396—The capital of Veii, taken by the Romans, ended the
      contest with the Etruscans.

    389—Rome was conquered and, except the capitol, destroyed, by
      the Gauls under Brennus. The barbarians soon retired and the
      city was rebuilt.

    384—Aristotle, the most learned of the Grecian philosophers,
      was born at Stagira, in Macedon. He laid the foundation of
      scientific study, and was the tutor of Alexander the Great.

    371—Epaminondas defeated the Spartans at Leuctra, and

    362—again at Mantinea, where he was killed.

    360—Philip became king of Macedon, and soon began to
      undermine the liberties of Greece in a very artful way.

    357—The “Sacred War” against the Phocians, who had plundered
      the temple of Apollo, at Delphi, commenced.

    356—Birth of Alexander the Great. Rutilius, the first plebean
      dictator at Rome.

    349—Death of Plato, the brightest light of Grecian
      philosophy. He systematized and enlarged the doctrines of
      Socrates.

    338—Occurred the battle of Chaeronea between Philip and
      the allied Athenians and Thebans. The Greeks were totally
      defeated and their liberty lost. Demosthenes, the most
      celebrated orator of the Greeks, spent his whole life and
      his magnificent eloquence in the effort to rouse the Greeks
      against Philip; but Philip was too crafty and the Greeks too
      little accustomed to act in concert. For nearly a hundred
      years the states of Greece had been exhausted by wars among
      themselves, and they were too weary of fighting to make
      the necessary effort against so powerful and skillful an
      adversary.

    336—Philip was assassinated on the eve of an expedition
      against Persia, as chief of the Grecian states. This popular
      idea consoled them for the loss of liberty. Alexander
      succeeded his father.

    335—Thebes rebelled against Alexander, and he took and
      destroyed that ancient city.

    334—Alexander carried out the project of his father and
      invaded the Persian empire. The battle of the Granicus, his
      first great victory, took place this year.

    333—Darius, the Persian king, was again thoroughly defeated
      in the battle of Issus. Damascus, in Syria, was taken and
      Tyre besieged by Alexander.

    332—Tyre was taken and finally destroyed, and Alexandria, at
      the mouth of the Nile, founded.

    331—A final battle at Arbela, in Assyria, overthrew the
      Persian Empire. Darius escaped, but was murdered by Bessus,
      one of his officers. Four years were spent by the Greeks in
      subduing the wild tribes on the eastern border of the Empire,
      and settling the government of these vast conquests.

    327—Alexander invaded India and was constantly triumphant
      till his soldiers refused to go farther from home. They had
      grown tired of conquering, and Alexander reluctantly returned
      to Babylon to consolidate his government.

    323—Alexander died of a fever, the result of excessive
      drinking. He left no heir, and his generals divided his
      empire.

    322—The Samnites obtained a temporary success by surprising
      a Roman army in a narrow defile of the mountains called
      the Candine Forks, and subjected it to a humiliating
      capitulation. The Romans never bowed before misfortune or
      defeat. They prosecuted the war with invincible resolution
      until the Samnite power was wholly broken, a contest, in all,
      of about 50 years, which was soon followed by the complete
      subjugation of the whole peninsula.

3. In this year died the two greatest Grecians, Demosthenes, the orator,
by suicide; and Aristotle, by old age. On the death of Alexander,
Demosthenes aroused the Athenians to make a stand for their liberties.
Few of the Grecian states joined them and they were totally defeated
by Antipater, the governor appointed by Alexander. Demosthenes avoided
punishment by taking poison. The Achaian League, about forty years after,
maintained the liberties of Greece for fifty years or more, which then
fell before the invincible Romans. For many years all the eastern world
was in confusion from the struggles of competitors for the Empire of
Alexander. Ptolemy established himself soon and firmly in Egypt, and
Seleucus, after various

    312—Reverses, obtained full possession of the eastern parts
      of the empire, Babylonia, Assyria and Persia. This year is
      called the era of the Seleucidæ. Asia Minor and Greece were a
      scene of the greatest confusion for seventy years, so far as
      rulers were concerned. But nearly all these were Greeks, and
      Greek culture and philosophy exerted a wide spread influence.
      In the end it became fully evident that the want of genius in
      the Greek mind to organize, and steadiness in Greek character
      to sustain, settled institutions was absolute. They had,
      at different times, men of the greatest ability, but when
      they passed away their plans and institutions perished with
      them. The acute and accomplished Greeks were ever children
      in the science of government, and the advent of Rome alone,
      whose special skill was in government, saved the world from
      irretrievable anarchy or fatal despotism.

    300—The Roman plebeans completed their struggle for
      constitutional liberty by acquiring a share in the priestly
      office, which was essential to the full value of their other
      victories over the patricians, and the Roman constitution was
      complete. It was maintained very fairly for more that one
      hundred and fifty years, when the spoils of their conquests
      corrupted the virtue of the citizens and produced the
      internal disorder that, about a century later still brought
      about the establishment of the Roman Empire. Yet the forms
      of government, municipal and other regulations, and the
      administration of justice, though often interfered with in
      particular cases, were so well settled on sound principles,
      and secured so uniformly the welfare of society, that they
      were preserved longest from general ruin, and revived first
      in more modern times. Greek thought and culture, and Roman
      law remained indestructible.

    290—The Samnites, Sabines and Gauls, being all defeated,
      Rome was virtually mistress of Italy, although the Grecian
      cities on the eastern coast remained to be subdued. They had
      little strength in themselves against a power so warlike,
      and invited Pyrrhus, the king of

    281—Epirus, to their assistance. He twice defeated the Roman
      consuls, but they inflicted on him so much loss that they
      vainly offered him battle immediately after, and rejected all
      his overtures to treat for peace. He was at length vanquished
      and obliged to abandon Italy to the Republic.

4. The Romans soon subdued all opposition and began to look about for
other lands to conquer.

    264—The Carthaginians, on the opposite coast of Africa,
      had become a colossal power, and sought to establish their
      control over Sicily—not an easy task, since it had many
      colonies of Greeks whose national spirit and bravery did
      not desert them. In this year a call for assistance from a
      plundering band who had captured a Greek city, a part of
      whom had also invited Carthaginian aid, brought Rome and
      Carthage in conflict. The Carthaginians were enraged at this
      interference with an island which they had long intended to
      make their own, and raised an immense army to drive out the
      intruders. The Romans defeated the army and took Agrigentum,
      one of the best strongholds of the Carthaginians on the
      island.

    260—The Carthaginians were masters of the sea, and the Romans
      had little knowledge of naval affairs. Taking a Carthaginian
      vessel which had been driven ashore for a model, they, in
      a short time, created a fleet and worsted their enemies on
      their own special element.

    256—The Romans again defeated the Carthaginians in a sea
      fight near the island of Lipara.

    255—The Romans determined to carry the war into Africa,
      and fitting out a large fleet, inflicted a still heavier
      loss on the Carthaginian armaments, landed in Africa and
      defeated an immense army. The Carthaginians sued for peace,
      but the terms proposed by Regulus, the Roman general, were
      so severe that they resolved to continue the war. A Grecian
      general, Xanthippus, took command of their army and totally
      defeated the Romans, taking Regulus prisoner, and destroying
      or
    248—capturing all his army but 2000. The Romans lost
      three fleets by storms, but conquered once in a sea fight,
      and defeated an army in Sicily. The Carthaginians again
      sought peace, but the Romans would not abate their first
      terms, and continued the war until the
    240—Carthaginians, completely humbled, accepted the severe
      alternative of submission or destruction. The temple of
      Janus, the god of war, never shut but in time of absolute
      peace, was now closed for the second time since the building
      of the city.

      The people, whose special occupation was war, soon grew
      tired of peace, and carried on various conflicts with the
      Gauls settled at the foot of the Alps in the
    227—north of Italy. They invaded Illyria, on the east coast of
      the Adriatic Sea, whose people were very troublesome pirates.
      This war was again renewed with a more complete defeat of the
      Illyrians. They had before this subdued Sardinia and Corsica.

    219—The Carthaginians pursued their conquests in Spain, and
      the celebrated Hannibal took Saguntum, which
    218—brought on the second Punic war, as the war with Carthage
      was termed.

    217—Hannibal, with great celerity, crossed the Pyrenees and
      the Alps—having first completed the conquest of Spain—and
      defeated the Romans in the battle of Ticinus, and again at
      Trebia.

    217—The Achaian confederacy, now in the height of its glory
      in maintaining the liberties of Greece, united all the Greeks
      in a confederacy under the influence of Philip, king of
      Macedon, with the hope of arresting the power and ambition of
      Rome.

    216—Hannibal inflicted a dreadful defeat on the Romans near
      the Thrasymenean Lake. The Romans were greatly alarmed, and
      made Fabius Maximus dictator, whose habit of refusing a
      pitched battle, wearing out his adversary by skirmishes and
      cutting off his supplies, is called “The Fabian Policy.” This
      plan is, by maneuvering and delay, to wear out and destroy
      an invader in detail without peril of defeat in battle. The
      Romans kept armies in Spain to prevent the Carthaginians from
      sending reinforcements to Hannibal.

    215—At the close of this year Fabius resigned his
      dictatorship and the consuls appointed to succeed him
      abandoned his policy. They offered battle to Hannibal at
      Cannæ and the army was annihilated. 40,000 Romans were slain
      on the field. These defeats had destroyed the flower of
      their fighting population, but Roman courage and resolution
      always rose with defeat. They did not despair, but raised a
      fresh army and put Fabius again at its head, against whom the
      talents of Hannibal were vain. They fomented disturbances in
      Greece to keep Philip, King of Macedon at home, and besieged
      Syracuse in Sicily, which had joined the Carthaginians,

    212—for three years, and then took it by stratagem. Archimedes,
      a celebrated mathematician of Syracuse, who had protracted
      the siege by his ingenious and powerful engines was killed in
      the sack of the city. Soon
    210—after the whole island was subdued and remained a Roman
      province.

    206—Asdrubal, the brother of Hannibal, general of the
      Carthaginian forces in Spain, crossed the Pyrenees and the
      Alps to reinforce Hannibal, but was defeated by the Romans
      and slain before Hannibal knew of his march.

    202—Scipio, who had conquered in Spain, led an army into
      Africa, Hannibal being considered too formidable to attack,
      though his forces were very small. Scipio put 40,000
      Numidians, allies of Carthage, to the sword, besieged the
      neighboring cities and defeated a large Carthaginian army.
      Hannibal was now called home to defend the metropolis. He
      fought a battle with raw
    201—troops, at Zama, and was defeated—20,000 Carthaginians
      being slain. The Carthaginians begged for peace, Hannibal
      declaring that the war could not be protracted. The Roman
      terms left them little but their city. Such was the fruit of
      inflexible resolution.

5. The Romans are an example of a people, who, from first to last, had
one clearly defined end, to which everything else was subservient. They
formed their state for conquest, and that idea controlled the Kingdom,
the Republic and the Empire. They were much wiser than the Spartans,
for, devoting themselves to war, they meant to secure and enjoy all the
fruits of conquest, and they did all that was possible to promote the
prosperity of their people that they might produce warriors in abundance;
but they relied mainly on actual war for discipline. They were constantly
exercised in the art in the field and the orderly and sensible instinct
of the race made discipline a matter of course. They were sometimes
defeated when they encountered unfamiliar difficulties, or by the
mistakes of their leaders, but never abandoned a purpose once adopted and
never sued for peace.

Morally, the object they set before them was entirely unjustifiable,
according to the standard of national rights accepted in our day. But
such a conception never entered the minds of men in the ancient times. It
is the fruit of modern civilization alone. The Romans, and many a nation
after them, must work out the destructive consequences of that doctrine
that “Might makes Right” before the universal sense of mankind would
recoil from it. It was the accepted doctrine of the ancients, and has not
yet disappeared from the world.

    197—Sicily, Spain and Carthage were conquered, and Roman
      valor looked around for opportunities of winning fresh
      laurels. Philip of Macedon, an ambitious prince, threatened
      the Athenians, who implored help from Rome. An army
      immediately proceeded to Greece, penetrated into Macedonia,
      and completely defeated Philip at Cynocephalæ.

6. The Romans were now the mightiest people in the civilized world.
Their obstinate contests with the vigorous nations of the West had often
perilled the existence of their state, and a people of ordinary stamina
and persistence would not, at the best, have risen above the rank of
the Etruscans and Samnites, nor have made Rome greater than Syracuse or
Carthage. They, however, matured and grew into an invincible power, whose
solid and stately grandeur struck the intelligent but unpractical Greeks
with admiration, and all the old peoples of the East with awe.

The Romans were not without admiration for the ancient valor and the
graceful culture of the Greeks. When, two hundred and fifty years before,
the Romans revised their laws, under the Decemvirate, they sent to Athens
to obtain models from that republic. Athens was now treated by them with
much consideration, and finally became the University City of the Empire.
When Roman influence became paramount after the battle of Cynocephalæ
they did not at once proceed with brutal force against the land of
Beauty and Art, but took it under their protection, and proclaimed
the full liberty of the Grecian States. It filled the Greeks with
transport, and for some time Rome played the noble and dignified part of
a disinterested protector; but when the Achaians, under their excellent
and talented leader Philopœmen, sought to realize the fact of liberty,
the Romans abandoned that pretence and made Greece a Roman province.
Thus the whole of Europe that was sufficiently civilized to maintain a
settled government was ruled by the Roman Republic. The period of rude
and restless valor among the Greeks was past. The stage of cultivation
they had reached inclined them to the quiet and elegant refinements of
the scholar, and they readily received the Roman rule which suppressed
the turbulence of ambitious adventurers and suffered no oppression but
their own. The Romans represented the strength of the male element in
human nature, the Greeks the grace of the female. They now coalesced,
were married, so to speak, and the product of their union was, in the
course of ages, modern civilization, which, when mature, was to share the
eminent qualities of both.

7. The broken fragments of Alexander’s immense empire in Western Asia and
Egypt were all that now stood between Rome and the mastery of the world.
The Roman people were too well convinced that it was their grand destiny
to achieve universal dominion to hasten prematurely the conquest of the
primitive home of civilization. They watchfully waited until the course
of events should throw the dominions of the Seleucidæ and the Ptolemys
into their hands, without offending the majesty of the republic by an
undignified violence and haste.

    190—Antiochus the Great, who now reigned over the empire of
      the Seleucidæ, with true Grecian imprudence, became ambitious
      of conquests in Europe. He invaded Greece
    191—and was defeated at Thermopylæ by the Romans and driven
      into Asia. The younger Scipio, brother of the conqueror of
      Hannibal, followed and totally defeated
    189—him at Magnesia, in Asia Minor. He purchased peace by
      the loss of all the fruits of his ambition, but was left in
      possession of the Syrian kingdom. The failure to destroy so
      powerful an enemy appears to have brought on the two Scipios
      the rebuke of the republic, the conqueror of Carthage having
      aided his brother in the war. They were condemned to a heavy
      fine, which Scipio Africanus refused to pay and went into
    183—exile, where he died. His death occurred in the same year
      that Hannibal, pursued by the vengeance of the Romans for
      having aided Antiochus, committed suicide by taking poison
      to avoid falling into their hands; and in this year also
      Philopœmen, the last patriotic hero
    170—of Greece, was slain by his enemies. Perses, king of
      Macedon, revolted, and, after some successes, was finally
      overthrown under the walls of Pydna and dethroned.

    168—The Carthaginians could not altogether forget their
      ancient greatness, and having displeased the Romans by some
      independence of action, it was resolved to
    148—destroy their city. With the courage of despair they
      set the Romans at defiance, and defended themselves with
      a resolute bravery that engaged the lively sympathies of
      all after times for their painful fate. For two years they
      maintained the combat against their pitiless foes, who could
      pardon everything but rivalry in their
    146—sweeping ambition, and then perished in the ruins of
      their once glorious metropolis. A revolt of the Achaians
      was punished, in the same year, by the destruction of the
      splendid city of Corinth, in Greece.

    140—The embers of independence in Spain broke forth in war,
      which was checked by the assassination of Viriathes, a
      patriotic chieftain of great ability, and
    133—quenched in blood by the self-destruction of the citizens
      of Numantium. About the same time the republic acquired the
      kingdom of Pergamus, covering the richest parts of Asia
      Minor, by the will of Attalus, its king, who, on his death,
      bequeathed it to Rome. This led, in a few years, to contests
      with the neighboring Asiatic sovereigns, and resulted, in
      about half a century, in the conquest and reduction into the
      state of Roman provinces of all Western Asia.


SECTION VIII.

DECAY OF THE ROMAN REPUBLIC.

1. But while Rome was thus steadily advancing to universal dominion,
great and unfortunate changes were taking place in its internal
constitution. The spoils of Carthage and the east, rich in accumulations
of the industry, commerce and art of two thousand years, flowed into
Rome and was gathered into the hands of those in power; the equilibrium
between the plebeans and the patricians was lost; the selling of captives
taken in war filled Italy with slaves; and the inequality of conditions
produced the most disastrous consequences.

    133—The eldest son of a noble house, the Gracchi, undertook
      to stem the torrent that was sweeping away the ancient
      barriers of the constitution, and to raise the people from
      the misery into which the increase of patrician wealth and
      power and the innumerable multitudes of slaves had plunged
      them. In the year in which Numantia fell and Spain was
      thoroughly subdued, Tiberius Gracchus was slain in a tumult,
      produced by the patricians, who determined that his project
      should not succeed. He had attempted to revive the old
      agrarian law, by which the landed possessions of the republic
      were shared among the people as well as the patricians, which
      would have rescued the plebeans from poverty and oppression;
      but the patricians were too powerful and too violent. He was
      removed by assassination.

    2. 121—Twelve years later his brother, Caius Gracchus,
      attempted the same thing and was likewise slain. This point
      was vital to the internal liberties of Rome. The failure of
      the Gracchi announced the overthrow of the constitution;
      and, after seventy years of civil anarchy and the murderous
      conflict of rival factions, the empire was found the only
      refuge against the ruin of the state. Vigorous Rome, who
      could govern all the world but herself, must have a master,
      and became the prey of the strongest. It is a melancholy
      history, a sad conclusion for a people whose strength and
      grandeur of character had made them masters of the world, but
      a perfectly legitimate result of the immoral principle that
      lay at the foundation of the state. That principle legalized
      the doctrine of force, or robbery on the grandest scale. They
      carried it out with great consistency and skill, with all
      the ability of a race eminently sagacious and steady in the
      pursuit of an end. The conservative force that dwelt in their
      organization, so instinctively and exceptionally wise, and
      the power of religious faith, strong in a hardy and simple
      people, however weakened by pagan ignorance and superstition,
      long maintained the integrity of their institutions—but
      Greek culture, too imperfect not to culminate in skepticism,
      came in to confuse their moral sense at the same time that
      boundless wealth flowed into their hands to corrupt their
      manners, that slavery assumed gigantic proportions to
      demoralize labor, and the conquest of the world relieved them
      from the severe discipline that might not, otherwise, have
      left them the leisure to become deeply vicious.

      The sternness of even Roman character was unequal to the
      heavy strain and virtue gave way. The native vigor of the
      race made them as excessive in unrestrained passion as wise
      in council and invincible in war. The cruelty and rapacity
      that were common in the civil wars of the Republic, and
      under many of the early emperors, educated giants in crime,
      and only the Roman spirit in the army, and the vigorous
      organization everywhere maintained through the institutions
      established in the subject world by Roman law, could have
      held its vast dominions together. Rome had vitality and sense
      to govern others, even in the midst of civil war.

    3. From the death of the Gracchi to the consulship
    107—Of Marius, Rome was in a tumult of corrupt intrigue,
      which rendered easy the usurpation and inhuman cruelty of
      Jugurtha, king of Numidia. Marius, a plebian of the lowest
      rank, became consul. He was unequaled at once as a general
      and a tyrant. He conquered
    106—Jugurtha, who was brought to Rome and starved in prison.
      In the same year Cicero, the great Roman orator, was born.

      A vast horde of Cimbri and Teutons from northern
    105—Europe, invaded Gaul and defeated several Roman consuls.

    100—Marius led an army against these barbarians and defeated
      them, more than 100,000 being slain or made prisoners. He was
      equally successful in a second engagement. During the war
      200,000 barbarians were slain and 90,000 taken prisoners. A
      revolt of the slaves was put down about the same time with
      circumstances of extreme cruelty. More than a million of
      these unfortunates were slain or thrown to wild beasts for
      the amusement of the Roman populace.

    4. 100—In this year Julius Cæsar, one of the greatest men of
      any time, and virtual founder of the Roman Empire, was born.
      His supreme ability put an end to civil dissention and saved
      society from total ruin.

    90—The Italian allies revolted against Rome. They claimed the
      privileges of Roman citizenship, which the Senate refused.
      A war of three years followed and half a million of men
      perished, when, having conquered them, the Senate granted
      their first request.

    88—Mithridates, king of Pontus, talented and ambitious,
      sought to drive the Romans out of Asia and Greece, and
      warred with them for twenty-five years. Sylla procured the
      banishment of his rival, Marius, and conducted the war
      against Mithridates.

    86—Marius regained power in the absence of Sylla and
      slaughtered his enemies, the patricians, without mercy, but
      soon after died.

    83—Sylla, after obliging Mithridates to sue for peace,
      hastened to Rome, conquered his enemies, and slew more than
      6,000 Roman citizens in revenge.

    81—Sylla caused himself to be made perpetual dictator
    77—But after three years resigned and soon after died
      from the effects of his vices. Civil war was continued for
      a time in Spain and Italy, but finally put down by Pompey,
    70—the greatest general of the patrician party.

      The war of the gladiators—men trained to fight in the
      theatres for the amusement of the populace—broke out under
      an able leader, Spartacus, who, collecting an army of
      120,000 gladiators, endangered Rome itself, but
    70—he was conquered by Crassus. Spartacus was defeated and
      killed. It was the inhuman oppression of the patricians that
      produced all these dreadful conflicts.

    65—Pompey and Crassus, by paying court to the people,
      were made consuls. Pompey proceeded to Asia and made war
      on Mithridates, who was again formidable,
    63—whom he defeated and slew in battle. He subdued nearly all
      western Asia, visiting Jerusalem, and treating the Jews with
      kindness. He also cleared the Mediterranean of pirates, who
      had always infested it.

    62—A dangerous conspiracy of Cataline, a patrician of the
      most corrupt morals, at the head of the depraved young
      nobility of the time, would have been successful but for the
      ability and eloquence of Cicero, who was consul. Cataline and
      his fellow conspirators were taken and slain.

    59—Cæsar, Pompey, and Crassus formed the first “Triumvirate,”
      and divided the rule of the world between them. Cæsar was
      the head of the popular party. He
    57—took Gaul as his government. Here he spent eight years
      in his “Gallic wars,” showing unparalleled talents as a
      general, training his army to become invincible in battle,
      and completely subduing the fierce Gauls. He
    55—entered Britain and laid the foundation of civilization
      there, thus carrying the march of empire to its farthest
      bounds in Europe.

    5. 49—He was ordered to return and lay down his authority by
      the Roman Senate, headed by Pompey, who was now his enemy.
      They were the rival champions of the two parties in the
      state, the people and the patricians, whose quarrels had so
      long filled Rome with tumult and slaughter. The tribunes
      in Cæsar’s interest interposed a veto, which the Roman
      Constitution authorized them to do. The Senate voted to
      suspend the Constitution, which really terminated the Roman
      Republic, Jan. 7, B. C. 49. Cæsar at once crossed the river
      Rubicon, the boundary of his government, and marched his army
      on Rome. Pompey and the aristocratic party fled in haste,
      leaving the public treasure behind. In sixty days Cæsar had
      possession of all Italy. Sicily, Sardinia, and Spain were
      next conquered from the officers of Pompey, when he returned
      to Rome, and was created dictator by his party. He treated
      all his enemies with clemency. Pompey had gone into Greece,
    48—where he gathered a large army. Cæsar followed with
      his veteran legions, and defeated him in the battle of
      Pharsalia in Thessaly. Pompey fled to Egypt, where he was
      treacherously slain, to the great indignation of Cæsar, who
      would shed no blood but in necessary battle. Thus he became
      sole master of the world.

      In a conflict with the Egyptians in Alexandria Cæsar set on
      fire their fleet, he being attended by but few troops, and
      the conflagration extended to the Alexandrian Library, filled
      with inestimable treasures of ancient literature, which
      were destroyed, to the great loss of future generations.
      Cæsar soon subdued Egypt,
    47—defeated Pharnaces, son of Mithridates, and returned to Rome.

    46—He soon passed into Africa, where he defeated his enemies.
      The celebrated Cato, an inflexible enemy of Cæsar, committed
      suicide rather than submit to him. In Spain he soon after
      defeated the sons of Pompey, the last of his foes in arms.
      He rebuilt Carthage and
    45—Corinth. He projected many great public works and useful
      reforms. The whole power of Roman sovereignty
    44—was formally conferred on him by the people, when he was
      suddenly assassinated by a band of senators and certain
      conspirators, who imagined it possible to restore the ancient
      Republic. His nephew, Augustus, succeeded him soon after.

    43—The eminent Cicero, never a friend to Cæsar, was
      assassinated by the connivance of Augustus.

    42—The republican and aristocratic conspirators were defeated
      by Augustus and Antony at Philippi, in Greece. Brutus and
      Cassius, the republican leaders, and assassins of Cæsar, were
      slain. The second “Triumvirate,” composed of Augustus, Antony
      and Lepidus, having acquired possession of all the powers of
      the state, ruthlessly murdered thousands of their political
      enemies. They soon grew jealous of each other, and fought and
      intrigued for eleven years, Augustus, with great prudence,
      firmly settling himself in Rome, and Antony becoming the
      slave of the beautiful and infamous Cleopatra, queen of Egypt.

    31—At length, at the battle of Actium, Antony was defeated,
      and soon after both Antony and Cleopatra committed suicide.
      Egypt became formally a Roman province, and Augustus absolute
      emperor of the world.


SECTION IX.

THE ROMAN EMPIRE.

1. B. C. 28—In this year Augustus, having fully consolidated his power,
was formally recognized emperor. During all the contests of factions, and
when Rome was itself in the throes of revolution, the subjection of all
the provinces to the imperial city, and whoever was in power there, was
rigorously maintained. The inhabitants were protected from invasion, and
if they were often oppressed by Roman governors, it was far less than
under their native rulers, and, in general, they were not desirous of a
change. Roman law and order, and the power of appeal from great injustice
to the Roman senate or emperor, maintained a state of generally tranquil
prosperity, only disturbed by the contests of rivals for the control of
the imperial city and its power.

A long period of almost absolute quiet followed the establishment of
the empire, which gave Rome and Italy great satisfaction, after nearly
a hundred years of civil war. It is called the “Augustan Age,” when
industry and commerce, literature and the arts, reached their highest
development.

The Roman Empire and the Christian era commenced nearly together. During
the thirty years that followed the battle of Actium, which secured to
Augustus the sole control of the civilized world, by the defeat of his
last rival, Antony, he was occupied in organizing the vast machinery of
his government, and centralizing all the parts of the administration in
his own person. For near three hundred years Western Asia and Greece had
been a scene of violent commotion. Rival adventurers were constantly
seeking to reconstruct the empire of Alexander. Some of these had the
genius and the good fortune to succeed, in part at least, and swayed a
powerful scepter over a large region during their own lives, and, in some
instances, their dominions were held together for several generations.
But there was no sufficient base for a strong and permanent government.
There was no stable element on which to rest it. The Greeks were brave,
intelligent and enterprising, and no Asiatic people could withstand a
Greek army under Greek leaders; but the Greeks were too restless, too
easily carried away by enthusiasm for a new leader or a new idea to be
capable of upholding an empire.

2. Thus, Asia and Greece had been a vast battle field, and the battles
served no general interest and founded no permanent state. The Greeks
grew tired of supporting the claims of each new aspirant, who returned
their favor by depriving them of liberty, and the whole eastern world
readily submitted to the Romans, under whom there was, at least, a
prospect of civil order. Augustus, then, had little trouble in settling
the affairs of the whole empire, and, about thirty years after the
battle of Actium, finding the entire world quietly content and the
administration everywhere in fair working order, directed the gates
of the temple of Janus to be closed, and a census to be made of all
his subjects. At this time Jesus Christ was born and the Christian era
commenced.

The Roman Empire under Augustus was the culmination of the ancient and
pagan civilization. It had great vitality, and strength enough to rule
the world four hundred years longer; but it had also fatal weaknesses. We
have seen that the existence of the empire originated in the inability
of the old society to free itself from the vices which long and great
prosperity had developed. It had no purifying element strong enough to
drive out the disease which its moral weakness had allowed to fasten on
it. It was, in fact, based on wrong and could not but perish. Its fall
was only a question of time. Its ferocious valor and contempt of the
rights of nations broke down the very virtue that was essential to the
stability of society. The Romans were robbers on a grand scale, and it
was very natural that, when there were no more foreign nations to slay
and plunder, the citizens should fall to cutting each others throats and
robbing their neighbors. As this would lead to the immediate ruin of
society and the state, the empire, which gave them an absolute master,
was a necessity.

3. But a full comprehension of the moral laws on which society,
institutions and states are founded, was the last to be gained.
Most modern nations have not yet attained it, notwithstanding that
Christianity has so long stated the principles with clearness and force.

The common mind of humanity could master them only by growth through
thousands of years and innumerable experiences. The object of all earthly
experience is to develop the value of the _individual man_; and the
object of society, of institutions and of government, is to protect the
rights and to favor the development of _each man_ of the race. When
this end is fully secured, history will have solved its problem. As the
commencement of the Christian era was the turning point of history in
some most important respects, it is proper to glance back and forward
over the state of this problem, and the relation of Christianity to it,
before proceeding with the general course of events.

At first men were like children, with everything to learn; and, like
children, they learned one thing at a time; and they also made an
addition to their common stock of knowledge at every remove of the
centre of growth. In Asia and Egypt the general lesson was industry and
obedience, while the Jews, on the western shore, more or less assisted by
the Assyrians, the Egyptians and the Greeks, labored at the development
of a pure religion which culminated in Christianity. The removal of the
centre to Greece added mental and artistic culture, and the further
westward journey to Rome gave them a new class of most important ideas
concerning public organization, law and order.

4. If each of these lessons had been perfect in themselves the addition
made by Christianity, which defined the relations between men, the law of
human rights and the doctrines essential to the stability and purity of
society, would have enabled mankind to build up satisfactory institutions
and a complete civilization from the Roman period. But the elementary
lessons were very incomplete. The Asiatics became very superstitious;
the Greeks could teach men the _art_ of thinking, or exercising their
minds, but they could not find the true starting point; they did not
discover what subjects it was useful, and what it was useless, to reason
upon; and wasted a good part of the thought of their times on profitless
questions. Their failure to obtain a clear and valuable result from
philosophy made men skeptical and contributed much to the decline of
civilization in the time of the Roman empire. The Romans built their
whole structure of law and order on _force_ and a wholesale violation
of the rights of mankind, and the minds of men became greatly confused.
The doctrine of the Epicurean philosophers—“Let us eat and drink for
to-morrow we die”—a despair of working out the problem of life to a
satisfactory answer, became the most popular in the empire. The splendor
and glory of Oriental, Grecian and Roman civilization seemed to end
in degrading servility and superstition, in the endless and absurd
speculations of so-called philosophers, and in the vast brutal tyranny
of the emperors. The east failed of a pure religion that was generally
accepted. Greek philosophy did not have science to guide her thought, and
Rome could not be just as well as strong.

5. It was only in modern times that these lessons were made complete.
The discoveries in Geography, in Astronomy, in Natural Philosophy, in
Chemistry, in Geology, made men acquainted with the structure of the
universe, the properties and the laws of matter, and corrected the
extravagances of the ancient speculative philosophy. For want of science,
Greek thought wandered about in an unreal world and lost a good part of
its labor. A long experience under the control of this, corrected thought
was required to construct a science of Government that should supply what
was wanting to Roman jurisprudence, and Christianity itself could not
be rightly understood while so many false theories and wrong practices
prevailed.

But the ancient times were as essential to the building up of the modern
as the modern to the completion of the ancient. It was the renewed
study of the Greek classics, of Roman law, and of the original teachings
of Christianity, under more favorable circumstances, and after many
new experiences for a thousand years, that gave birth to all our later
improvements in religion, in government and in science. The Asiatic Jews
gave us in Christianity, a pure and simple worship, and a system of
public morality so perfect that no society has yet been able to embody it
completely in practice, although it is now recognized, very generally, as
the highest conceivable standard, to be constantly aimed at and conformed
to as far as possible; the Greek Philosopher, Aristotle, gave us the
first notions of science, and Roman law formed the base of modern legal
practice.

6. The difficulties of progress are very great. It is not easier for
nations to unlearn what they have learned amiss in their youth, than
for individuals. No nation that has matured institutions has ever yet
thoroughly reformed them. The best and most clear sighted minds discover
their defects and show what is to be remedied; but the force of habit
and the veneration men feel for what is old, offer so much resistance
to complete reforms that it has been necessary to establish and build
up institutions on new principles on fresh ground. So all the light and
power of science, of the reformed religion, of a more complete system of
law, the greater intelligence of the masses of men and the activity of
commerce and trade did not suffice to do for modern Europe what has been
done with ease in America. But Europe furnished the ideas which America
worked out; and the sight of those principles embodied in institutions
that greatly improved the condition of mankind has reacted on Europe, and
bids fair, in time, to produce a novelty in human experience—a complete
regeneration of old nations and governments. When Greece rose to power it
subjected but lightly, and only superficially transformed, the nations
of Asia; Rome absorbed them both, and Christianity gave its simple and
noble lessons to them all. But the slight influence of Greece, Rome
and Christianity on the old nations of western Asia is shown in the
rise and permanence of Mohammedanism, so inferior, in all respects, to
Christianity. After a career of more than twelve hundred years, it still
rules many more millions than were contained in all the Roman Empire in
its most prosperous days.

7. But the power of a progressive civilization constantly increases, and
will, by and by, be equal to the thorough reform of even crystalized
China. Without America, Europe would be still struggling with the
incipient stages of reform. With it, she has gone far toward correcting
the imperfections which existed one hundred years ago, and will presently
complete the process. With these general observations, we proceed to
examine the influence of Christianity on the old civilization.


SECTION X.

THE INFLUENCE OF CHRISTIANITY.

1. It was developed on the western borders of Asia, and was the
completion or perfect development of the system of religion existing
among the Jews from a very early period. Soon after Abraham, the father
and grand patriarch of the Jews, had given his descendants the outlines
of the system, they were led, by circumstances, to Egypt, and remained
there for many generations. When they left Egypt, it was under the
leadership of one of the greatest of the world’s great men, who had been
heir apparent of the Egyptian throne, and was consequently versed in all
the mysterious wisdom of the priesthood of that country. That he became
wiser than they is evident from the history of his contest with them
before the king when endeavoring to gain his consent to the migration of
his people from the country. Instructed in all the celebrated “wisdom
of the Egyptians,” together with the reflections and additions of forty
solitary years as a shepherd in Arabia, he produced a remarkable system
of mingled theology and legislation which has come down as a sacred
record to our day.

2. The Jews were, nine hundred years afterwards, transported as a nation
to Babylon, remained there for more than two generations, and received
such light as the Babylonian priests and Persian magi were able to give
them. The conquest of Asia by the Greeks and the vicinity of Judea to
commercial Tyre, furnished them all the aid these nations could give in
the line of religious suggestion. A Jew produced, in the early days of
the Roman Empire, the simple, yet sublime teachings of Christianity. It
had the comprehensiveness and directness requisite to give it authority
as a universal religion. In few, but plain and convincing words, it laid
down the principles of human rights and of divine law. It defined the
nature and stated the sanctions of virtue in the clearest terms; tore
away every covering from vice and denounced without fear the favorite
ambitions and follies of men. It seems almost incredible that such a
system should have had its origin even among a people like the Jews, and
at the time when the Roman Empire represented the highest civilization of
the world.

3. The Jews, as a nation, however, rejected and bitterly persecuted it,
and the Romans, who were, on principle, extremely tolerant of all foreign
religions, soon became extremely hostile. It was humble, unostentatious,
very simple in all its forms, carefully refrained from all interference
with established government, and presented many new and consoling truths,
with great force. It would have seemed that it had only to speak to gain
a hearing and take a leading place at once in the work of the future. The
few unprejudiced among the great, and thousands of the poor and oppressed
whom the cruel power of the Romans had deprived of nationality, property
and personal liberty, and many whose minds recoiled from the vices,
crimes and skepticism of the age, heard and embraced it with joy. But it
rebuked with most severity the ambitions, the injustice and the love of
luxury that were most prevalent in that age and that were most distinctly
Roman. It was peculiarly severe against all other systems of religion,
and that formed the strongest barrier against its immediate spread over
the pagan world at large. It was, therefore, persecuted with the greatest
rigor for three hundred years.

4. But persecution called public attention to it and won it sympathy,
and it continually spread beneath the surface of society. The brutal
features of Roman character were gradually softened; very gradually,
indeed, for Roman manners and morals were an Augean stable which it was
a more than herculean task to cleanse; but after a time, the gigantic
crimes of a Marius, a Sylla, a Nero, or Domitian became impossible, and
the horrors of the theatre, where gladiators killed each other and men
were thrown to wild beasts for the amusement of the populace, became
rare. Atrocious crimes awakened a disgust that showed a different view
and a new standard of judgment in the community. Christianity created a
purer moral atmosphere even in Rome, and while it was persecuted with the
utmost barbarity.

5. It is then no matter of surprise that Christianity did not at once
meet with general acceptance, and did not fully reconstruct Roman society
and manners. The marvel is that it could be produced at all by an age to
whose whole spirit it was so absolutely contrary. It was the doctrine of
peace proclaimed among nations who knew no occupation so glorious as war;
whose institutions all rested on conquest; whose dominant race—admired
as much as feared—was the very genius and embodiment of martial force
arrayed against the independence of all nationalities by an organization
the most complete. It proclaimed the _rights_ of _man_ and the equality
of all classes and persons before the Divine Law, to a people who had
plunged in a common ruin Carthage and Corinth, the Republics of Greece,
and the absolute rulers of monarchical Asia. It scorned equally gorgeous
ceremonies of worship, the subtleties of an imperfect philosophy and
pride of place and power.

It is not possible to imagine a greater contrast to all the modes of
habit and thought prevalent in those times. The most sensual of all
races it exhorted to spirituality, to the most cruel and insolent it
preached meekness and forbearance. It placed the slave to whom the
recognized laws of war left no rights, beside the master who gloried in
setting his foot on the neck of the prostrate; and recognized as equals
the great and the small, the ignorant and the wise, the bond and the free.

We cannot be surprised that it did not obtain immediate currency, that
it was everywhere scorned and cast out, that it aroused unheard of
persecutions, and that it could only obtain, a triumph when the old Roman
inflexibility and fierceness had died out of its degenerate children, and
the spirit of the ancient world was burned out in the hot fires of its
own passions. Character does not change in a day, and the ruling impulses
of a race can be modified only by slow degrees. Such is the supreme law
which has ruled all history.

6. From all these causes Christianity was slow in penetrating society
and moulding institutions; but it spread so extensively that a clear
sighted emperor at length found it politic to profess Christianity in
order to gain the support of so large and vigorous an element against
his rivals in power. Constantine was victorious and proceeded to make
Christianity the state religion. It had maintained its growth by its real
superiority and ever after remained the most powerful and productive
among the influences that aided the progress of mankind. It was actively
aggressive and had made the barbarians who overthrew Rome converts to
the faith before the invasion, and thus broke the force and diminished
the disastrous effects of that event. In after times, no sooner did
a barbarian tribe appear and establish itself in any part of the old
empire than Christianity commenced the work of teaching and proselyting,
which aided much in restoring order and repairing ruin. Had Christianity
preserved its purity its usefulness and power would have been much
greater.

7. But as it gained in numbers and in position it lost internal strength.
Both Oriental and Greek philosophy tainted its simple doctrines and
introduced in various forms the hurtful speculations so dear to the
ancients; and when it became the court religion the simplicity of its
ceremonies was gradually replaced by the pomp and splendor of pagan
worship. Constantine and his successors in the empire assumed the virtual
headship of the church, called councils and packed them for political
purposes, and pronounced for or against supposed heresies. The offices of
the church became the rewards of ambition and gradually a hierarchy, or
regular gradation, was established in the priesthood, and both faith and
manners came to be strangely in contrast with their original simplicity.
Yet, Christianity, aping the forms and infected with the superstitions
of paganism, and become the tool of the aspiring, was still alive with a
youthful vigor by which she eased the fall of the old civilization, and
was abundant in valuable service for the civilization yet to be.


SECTION XI.

THE SERVICES OF GREAT MEN TO MANKIND.

1. It is difficult for us to comprehend the embarrassments which a want
of diffused information presented to the progress of the ancient days.
With no books, or, at best, but very few, with little or no record of
the past, or the distant present, but what confused, distorted and
uncertain tradition and rumor could give, with almost no _instruments_
of thought and education, it would seem natural that they should fall
into a hopeless barbarism. That they raised themselves so far out of a
condition so low and so helpless, that they created so many instruments
for _us_, is a proof of the wonderful capacity for advancement that lies
in humanity, and a prophecy of stupendous things yet in store for mankind.

2. One of the most important elements of their progress lay in their
_great men_. It is indispensable that a man, to become great, or famous,
by exercising a wide influence, should represent in a large, well defined
and successful way, the general tendency and aspiration of his times. He
must unite a clear perception of these tendencies in his mind, with the
power to give them adequate expression in his words or deeds. He must be
so far ahead of his times as to be able to clearly work out what is lying
unexpressed in the general mind, but not so far ahead that it cannot come
into sympathy and co-operation with him; else he will not be recognized
as great. Great men are a summary of their times, or of the people they
dwell among; they gather its tendencies to a point and express the
undefined desire of that period. Their value for later times is that
they represent the spirit of their race at that time in a form to make a
striking impression, and those who have the good fortune to represent the
qualities of the best races, or of nations at the most important stage
of their history, become the general exemplars of mankind; teaching in a
forcible and striking way the lessons which have been wrought out in the
experience of a whole people for ages.

3. The poets are the first of these great men of whom history gives us
any account, except, perhaps, the heroes whose deeds they sung, which
are more or less uncertain, because they clothed the common tradition of
their times in an imaginative and fictitious dress. The poets Homer and
Hesiod had great influence on early Greece. They summed up its theology
and the history of its admired heroes, and gave expression to the early
thought and literary turn of that people.

Their legislators came next. They gave expression to the genius of their
people in institutions and laws. Lycurgus arranged the Spartan state into
a military school. His laws remained in force more than five hundred
years. Solon was the legislator of Athens and his laws were much admired
for their wisdom and justice. The Greeks could think more wisely than
they could act. Lycurgus organized the warlike spirit in Greece as well
as Sparta. The small Grecian states, determined to keep Sparta and each
one of the other states from destroying their individual liberties, were
trained by the necessity of combating the vigorous military organization
of Sparta to great ability in war.

Under Pericles, a republican statesman of Athens, nearly a century
later than Solon, the full glory of the Grecian genius shone forth. He
encouraged his countrymen to give the support to art and literature that
produced the famous master pieces which have made Greece illustrious and
influential to this day.

4. Socrates appeared soon after. He was the apostle of thought. His
influence in leading men to use direct and effective modes of examination
and reasoning was incalculable, and has perhaps had more effect on the
world than the victorious career of Alexander or of the Romans. He was
followed by Plato, a disciple of his, who pushed out to further results
the same principles. He is called the prince of philosophers, and has
exerted a world-wide influence. He had not the simplicity and plain
directness of Socrates, though his mind was more polished, and he was
more learned. Some scholars, however, consider his masterpieces to
indicate as powerful a mind as the world has produced. He spent twelve
years in travel, and used all the means of education, and study then
to be found. His works are still the delight of the most accomplished
scholars.

5. Aristotle began his career in the last years of Plato. He was the
tutor of Alexander the Great. He followed a different line of study,
wrote on logic, or the art of reasoning, on the natural sciences, and
introduced method in the exercise of the mind and in study. Herodotus,
Xenophon, Thucydides, and many other great writers, artists and
sculptors, lived about the same period; and thus Grecians did for the
mind what the Romans did for law and government—laid down the fundamental
principles which formed the basis of real progress.

The free government of Athens encouraged oratory and the art of
persuasion. Demosthenes was the most celebrated orator among the Greeks,
and if his state had only been more powerful he would have conquered
Philip of Macedon. He was indeed one of the greatest orators of all
times. Cicero, among the Romans, was a writer and orator of almost equal
merit. They both lived just at the downfall of the liberties of their
states, and they spoke with more effect to the times after them than to
their contemporaries. If they did not succeed in preserving the liberties
of Greece and Rome, they made a great impression, the name of Liberty
was consecrated by their noble words, and those who destroyed it made
infamous by their burning invectives. When a more favorable time came for
restoring it, they lived again in influence, and triumphed by the memory
and record of their great patriotism and powerful eloquence.

6. Great conquerors and warriors, in all times, have also been
representative men, giving expression and gratification to the warlike
spirit of their people, and producing great changes that have been
favorable to the real advancement of mankind. The energies they stirred
up, and the mingling of nations they produced generally promoted
civilization. Alexander the Great displayed the wonderful genius and
fertility in resources that was peculiarly Greek. His nation was almost
consoled for the loss of their liberties by the conquests to which he led
them. He opened to their study unknown regions, and gave their mental
genius a broader play and a fuller occupation. They, to such an extent
as change was possible with old civilizations, _Hellenized_ the East and
prepared the way for the reception of Christianity. Alexander, in three
great battles, conquered the great Persian Empire with a small army. He
never suffered defeat, and died at thirty-three years of age. Had he
lived, he might have done what Hannibal could not do—have crushed the
rising power of the Roman republic. It would have been a misfortune, for
the Romans did incalculable service to humanity. Greek learning exerted
its influence on the East for two hundred and fifty years before its
final conquest by the Romans. Alexander did great service to mankind
by his military success. Hannibal is an instance of a great man not as
fully representative of his own people, perhaps, and whose misfortune
it was to have to struggle against a people whose united genius was
greater, more inventive, and more patient than his own. The Roman Pompey
represented the aristocratic element of his people, and though a great
general, hardly deserved to succeed. Julius Cæsar possessed the merciful
character and intelligence of the Greek and the prodigious energy and
resolution of the Roman. His conquest of Gaul and Britain introduced
civilization into the lands that were, five hundred years later, to begin
a new career for mankind. His thorough subjection of the Gauls preserved
the ancient civilization from the inroads of the vigorous Germans until
all was ready for the new order of things. More than any other great man,
he may be said to have been representative of the best spirit of his
time. Perceiving that the Roman republic was dead, and could not possibly
be restored, from the strength of the vices ruling in the state, he
repressed its anarchy and set aside its forms, wisely and prudently, with
as little bloodshed or cruelty us possible. He thoroughly represented the
practical sense and immense vigor of the true Roman. He has been severely
reproached for destroying the republic, but the republic virtually
fell with the Gracchi, seventy-five years before, and he established
the only government that could possibly preserve the Roman state from
disorganization.

7. The office of all these, and multitudes of other great men,
less representative of the greater qualities of their fellows, or
representative of less striking features of their times, has been to sum
up the character of their people, and present their special features,
_condensed_, for the observation of mankind, and by their position as
leaders, to give their times an opportunity for powerful development,
as well as to show what mankind are capable of. In this last view
they stimulate individuals to aspiration and effort. Millions of men,
probably, have had the qualities of Alexander and Cæsar, millions more
those of Demosthenes and Cicero, of Socrates, Plato and Aristotle,
and so of all the different classes of great men, but have wanted the
opportunities and peculiar stimulants to develop them. Whoever can
appreciate them, can, with a favorable balance of faculties to give
equally sound judgment, together with equally favorable circumstances,
imitate them. Modern times have shown multitudes of men who, their
character and talents taken as a whole, have shown themselves far greater
than any of the ancients. Culture and the mingling of races will,
perhaps, finally make _all_ men greater than the greatest of the ancients.

8. Brutus, one of the murderers of Cæsar, wished to restore the glories
of the ancient Roman republic, and thought Cæsar stood in the way. He
removed him by violence, and found the difficulties greater than ever.
A hundred years of conquest had sapped the virtues of the Roman people,
and Brutus killed himself in despair, saying: “O Virtue! thou art but a
name!” To Cæsar succeeded Augustus, by a necessity of things. Without
Cæsar’s clemency, he deluged Rome with the blood of its citizens.
Afterward, however, his rule was less sanguinary, and for thirty years he
ruled with mildness, though with despotism. The limited amount of virtue
in pagan civilizations wore out; and notwithstanding the intelligence
of Greece and the good sense of Rome, the ancient world was obliged to
close its career as it began, by absolute monarchy. It remained for the
modern world to find, among its more abundant resources, the means of
forever preserving itself from decline. Education and purity, science and
religion, freedom and fraternity among all races and nations; a knowledge
and wisdom not conceived by the ancients, a replacing of war and
violence, which are essentially demoralizing, by peaceful means, which
shall benefit all and injure none; perfectly free intercourse under the
guidance of absolute justice and benevolence; such is the way by which
the modern world will work out the problem impossible for the old world
to solve. America has gone far toward the goal. In time, all nations will
be persuaded to join her in attaining it.

9. Before we proceed with the chronology of the Christian Era we must
briefly notice the _one perfect man_, Jesus Christ. To pronounce on
the miraculous and divine claims made for his character and deeds would
carry us outside of our theme. We can only deal with him as with other
historical men, in his historical character and relations. These are
extremely remarkable.

That individual sprang, like Socrates, from the poorer classes, and,
like him without the advantages of education, produced a system which
proved a marvel of perfection, adapted to all times, but most perfectly
to the most perfect state of mankind, and consequently growing up with
the progress of nations to an ever-increasing influence. Its moral
precepts, even in our day, are as far ahead of our civilization as that
is behind a perfect condition. This man made an extraordinary impression.
In three hundred years, by merely publishing his ideas in a quiet way,
which was the only mode the hostility of the Roman rulers would permit,
his followers overthrew the prevailing religious systems which had been
established as many thousand years, and spread his influence world-wide.

His birth became the commencement of the Era of Humanity. Like Socrates,
he went about among the people with a few chosen friends, setting forth
his ideas, chiefly in conversation. He did not write; the simple record
of his life and a few of his discourses being recorded by his disciples.
Again, like Socrates, his life was ended by violence. All the records
of that life show that he was as perfect as we can conceive. In no
respect does he seem to have wanted any feature of a noble manhood, in
any degree, nor to have shared the prejudices or defects of his age. He
lived as we may conceive man to live when his mental and moral habits are
accurately adjusted and harmonized with his relations and his duties,
which he has learned perfectly to appreciate. His public career lasted
but three years and a half, and shines in history a beam of light.
He inspired his appreciative followers with rapturous admiration, a
passionate attachment to his person, and pleasure in obedience to his
teachings, stronger than death; and in those whose plans and prejudices
he crossed, and whose ambitions he rebuked, a deadly hatred which could
only be satisfied with his blood.

10. Immediately after his death his followers commenced to publish
and enforce his teachings with great success, and on the outbreak of
persecution, without making opposition, they scattered in all directions,
proclaiming them with undiminished zeal. Very soon their converts
numbered tens of thousands, in all parts of the Roman Empire. Persecution
increased their fervor and their numbers, without leading them to
revolt or resistance, until, in the course of time, an emperor found it
politic to profess Christianity. This high patronage, and the active
part the emperors took in the affairs of the church from that time,
had the effect to corrupt its simplicity of manners, as the adhesion
of Greek philosophers, who imported into its doctrines their crude
theories, adulterated its teachings, and much that was quite foreign to
its essential character continued associated with its promulgation and
institutions for fifteen hundred years, and, indeed, remnants of the same
foreign element yet linger in it.

Notwithstanding the embarrassing load which the fantastic distortion of
its original simplicity and directness laid upon it, it continued to
exert great influence, and seems destined to return, in time, to its
original form and purity, and to employ its primitive power to crown the
work of civilization.

11. Such is the historical report of the man who introduced into the
process of human progress an element of unexampled power. An impartial
estimate of the influence of Jesus Christ on history must allow that
he is the most important character that has ever appeared among men.
The unhappy association of his ideas with the vagaries of an imperfect
philosophy and the unwholesome ambitions of power, greatly curtailed
their usefulness; but the simple majesty of his character and his
discourses could not always be obscured, and the luster of both has never
shone more clearly nor exerted more influence than they do in this age.

The course of the history of Christianity will be seen to be intimately
connected with every stage of advancement from the time the Roman Empire
began to wear out; it was the nucleus which survived its fall, around
which the surging waves of invasion raged in vain, and which immediately
began the work of reconstruction.


SECTION XII.

THE CHRISTIAN ERA.

    4—By some chronological confusion the new era has been made
      to begin four years before the appearance of the founder of
      Christianity. When Augustus had settled the whole empire he
      ordered the temple of Janus to be closed and a census taken
      of all its inhabitants, which numbered one hundred and twenty
      millions. On this occasion Jesus Christ was born.

    10—A Roman army under Varus was defeated and cut to pieces in
      Germany. It was the severest defeat the Romans had suffered
      since the overthrow and death of Crassus, by the Parthians,
      sixty-three years before.

    14—The Emperor Augustus died and was succeeded by his
      step-son, Tiberius.

    29—Jesus Christ was crucified by Pontius Pilate, Roman
      governor of Judea, at the solicitation, and on the
      accusation, of the leading Jews.

    37—Tiberius died and was succeeded by Caligula. The
      commencement of the reign of Tiberius was wise and moderate,
      but he soon became violent and cruel. Caligula was a still
      greater monster of wickedness.

    40—Growing weary of his cruelty he was assassinated by one
      of his officers, and his uncle, Claudius, was raised to the
      throne. He was of feeble intellect and became the tool of
      infamous favorites. He was poisoned by order of his wife,
      Agrippina.

    54—Nero, the son of Agrippina by a former husband, was
      made emperor at seventeen years of age. He exceeded all
      description in folly, extravagance and crime. His violence
      and barbarity fell generally on the patricians and members of
      his court, but he was esteemed by the common people, as were
      most of the emperors, who spent vast sums on theatres and
      spectacles for their amusement. The two bases of the empire
      were the populace and the army. The emperor was terrible
      and tyrannical chiefly to the patricians, while the army
      made him formidable to the provinces and the barbarians. A
      conflagration which some attributed to the orders
    64—of Nero lasted nine days and destroyed the greater part of
      Rome. Nero cast the blame on the Christians, who had become
      numerous, and raised a horrible persecution against them.

    66—The Jews rebelled and defied the Roman Empire.

    68—Nero was dethroned by the Roman senate and army, and
      committed suicide to avoid punishment for his crimes.

    69—Three emperors, Galba, Otho and Vitellius, were placed on
      the throne in succession, but rebellions were raised against
      them and all were put to death. Vespasian, then besieging
      Jerusalem, was proclaimed emperor by his army at the desire
      of the rulers of the eastern provinces, and, in the same
      year, overcame all opposition and commenced the first reign
      since Augustus that was free from disgraceful profligacy and
      public crime.

    70—Titus, the son of Vespasian, captured and destroyed
      Jerusalem. Vespasian, during a reign of ten years, restored
      order and prosperity to Rome and the empire, but not without
      great labor and danger.

    79—Titus succeeded as emperor, and was remarkable for his
      clemency and care for his subjects. During his reign occurred
      the most fearful eruption of the volcano Vesuvius on record.
      Herculaneum and Pompeii, two wealthy and flourishing cities,
      were destroyed, being buried by the ashes. Pliny, an eminent
      writer, was suffocated while observing the eruption.

    81—Titus died, to the great grief and loss of mankind, and
      was succeeded by his brother, Domitian, who was one of the
      most infamous rulers that ever desolated the earth. He raised
      a violent persecution against the Christians for refusing to
      adore his statues and worship him as a god. Among the victims
      was his own cousin, Clemens, who had embraced Christianity. He
    96—was assassinated by his wife and officers in
      self-defense, and the senate proclaimed Nerva, a native of
      Crete, emperor. He was remarkable for his lenity and all
      the gentle virtues. He was followed, after a reign of two
    98—years, by Trajan, whom he had adopted as his colleague
      and successor, who is said to have been the greatest and most
      deserving person of his time. He was, by birth, a Spaniard,
      was wise and successful as a warrior and statesman, and
      extremely noble as a man. He bridged the Danube and the
      Euphrates rivers and conquered both the Germans and Parthians
      on the north and east of the empire. A stain on his memory
      was the persecution of the Christians.

    117—He was succeeded by Adrian, in whose reign all the Roman
      laws, or annual edicts of the prætors, were compiled into one
      body, and law assumed the dignity of a science. He promoted
      literature, but continued the persecution of the Christians.
      A rebellion of the
    139—Jews was punished with merciless severity. He was
      followed by Antoninus Pius, who suspended all persecution
      of Christians, promoted the best interests of all parts of
      the empire, and introduced, during a prosperous reign of
      twenty-two years, the most important reforms into every part
      of the government.

    161—Marcus Aurelius, called the Philosopher, succeeded.
      He carried on a successful war with the Germans, and made
      the welfare of his subjects his special care, but was
      seduced, by the pagan philosophers, into a persecution of
      the Christians. Having discovered his error he stopped it,
      toward the close of his reign. Commodus,
    180—his son, inherited the purple. He also inherited a
      vicious and cruel disposition, and received a demoralizing
      education from his mother. He was a monster of vice and
      cruelty. He was assassinated in
    192—his bed by his own family and guards to save their lives.
      Pertinax reigned three months, but, attempting to restrain
      the license of the soldiery, he was murdered by them. The
      soldiers in Rome then proclaimed that the empire was for
      sale, and a rich merchant, Didius, bought it from them and
      reigned in Rome two months,
    193—when he was also slain by the army. Septimus Severus,
      an able general, seized the purple which he secured against
      many rivals, and retained for eighteen years. His vigor alone
      prevented general anarchy, but he was systematically cruel.

    211—Caracalla, his son, succeeded. He was a bloody and
      atrocious tyrant, supported on the throne only by his
      soldiers, whose aid he secured by large pay. He was
    217—murdered by the commander of his guards, Macrinus,
      who succeeded in acquiring his place, but was soon
    218—murdered by the soldiers. They raised Heliogabalus,
      a young Syrian priest of fourteen years of age, through the
      assurance of his female relatives that he was the son of
      Caracalla, to the purple. He is described as the most cruel
      and infamous of all the Roman emperors.

    222—After four years of horrible crime, he was slain in a
      mutiny of his guard and his body thrown into the Tiber.
      Alexander Severus succeeded. He was apparently a secret
      admirer of Christianity and a model
    235—prince. He was murdered by Maximin, a Thracian peasant,
      who had, by his valor, risen to high command in the army, who
      seized the reins of power. He was successful in war, but his
      severity provoked mutiny in
    238—various parts of the empire, and he was slain by his
      own soldiers. Gordian succeeded, a heroic youth of a noble
      family. He was successful in war, but was murdered
    244—by his own prime minister, Philip, an Arabian, who became
      emperor. He favored the Christians, and reigned five years.
      In his reign, the thousandth year of the foundation of Rome
      was celebrated by public
    249—games. He was slain in a revolt by Decius, the general
      of his army, who occupied the throne. He raised a most
      violent storm of persecution against the Christians, who were
      despoiled of their goods and driven to caves and deserts.
      From this time is dated the sect of
    250—anchorites, or hermits, who imagined they could acquire
      superior holiness by abandoning society and devoting
      themselves to meditation and prayer. The idea appears to
      have been derived from the Persian Magians, who, in this
      century restored the ancient dynasty and religion of the
      Persians, or Parsees, in Persia. During the political and
      social disorganization that soon commenced the anchorites
      became numerous, and the system was extensively prevalent
      for a thousand years to the great injury of active and true
      Christianity.

    251—Decius was slain in a battle with the Goths, who had
      invaded the empire, and Gallus became emperor.

    253—He was put to death by Emilianus, who attempted to seize
      the reins of government, but the army elected Valerian,
      governor of Gaul. The empire was invaded by the Goths on
      the north and the Persians under their king, Sapor, on the
      east. From this time, it had to
    259—fight for its life. Valerian was defeated by Sapor
      and remained nine years in captivity, Gallienus, his son,
      becoming emperor. He was extremely incompetent and a
      multitude of rival claimants for the supreme authority arose
      in all directions. They were called the “Thirty Tyrants.” One
      of them, Odenatus, king of Palmyra, in the Syrian desert,
      defeated Sapor, and Gallienus proclaimed him his colleague.
      On the death of Odenatus, his wife, Zenobia, assumed the
      title of “Queen of the East,” conquered Egypt and ruled a
      wide region with success and splendor. Both Goths
    262—and Persians invaded Asia Minor. Gallienus was murdered
    268—and Claudius succeeded. He defeated the Goths
    270—but died in a pestilence. Aurelian succeeded. He was an
      able general. He subdued the Germans and
    272—Goths, and conquered Zenobia, one of the most remarkable
    275—women of history. Aurelian was assassinated by some
      victims of his severity, and Tacitus, a Roman senator
      succeeded, but died in seven months, and was followed by
      Probus. He was a vigorous general, and drove back the
      barbarians on all sides, but attempting to employ his
      soldiers in labor on public works, they
    282—revolted and murdered him. Carus, the captain of the
    283—imperial guard, was raised to the throne. Dying the
      next year, his sons, Carinus and Numerianus, inherited his
      authority, but Numerianus was assassinated in a
    284—few months by his father-in-law, and Diocletian, said to
      have been formerly a slave, was proclaimed emperor by the
      army. This was called “The Era of the Martyrs,” from the long
      and bloody persecutions against the Christians. This was the
      tenth general attack on them, and proved to be the last. The
      barbarians pressing in great force on all sides, Diocletian
      appointed several colleagues, and their united ability drove
      the invaders back.

    305—Diocletian resigned his power to Galerius, who appointed
      three associates, making a division of the empire. One of
      these, Constantius, died in Britain, and was succeeded
    306—by his son, Constantine. For a time, there were six
      emperors, but one was killed, Galerius died, and Constantine
      conquered the others.

    312—Constantine changed the whole character of the empire
      by embracing Christianity and relying largely on that
      element for the support of his power, while he disbanded the
      Pretorian, or royal Guard, which had for two hundred years
      assumed to make and unmake emperors, and whose example,
      imitated by the other armies, kept the world periodically
      disturbed by the disputes and battles of rival claimants
      to the imperial purple. By the
    313—edict of Milan, Constantine abolished all laws unfriendly
      to Christianity; he restored the authority of the senate
      and magistrates, and removed his capital from Rome to
      Constantinople.

    324—The pagan element was now so worn and decrepit that no
      general disorders resulted. Whatever was left rallied under
      Licinus, who was conquered by Constantine. It appears to have
      been the strength of the Christian element and its essential
      hostility to the Roman principle of violent subjugation that
      produced so many and fierce persecutions. Had it not been
      for the pressure of barbarians on the empire the prevalence
      of that system would have preserved society and the state
      for a thousand years more, as it actually did in the Eastern
      empire; but every thing that man has the management of must
      be affected by his limitations, his mistakes and his follies.
      Christianity needed a better ally, a fresher and purer
      society, built up by the young blood and better instincts of
      another and newer people.

      Constantine paid great respect to the clergy of the church
      and took a leading part in its general counsels—a great
      mistake and a great misfortune.

    325—His spiritual supremacy was virtually acknowledged at the
      council of Nice which he convoked.

    330—Constantine died leaving his vast dominions to his three
      sons, who, in the course of ten years, were reduced to one,
      Constantius. After a troubled reign of twenty
    361—years more, he died, and was succeeded by his cousin
      Julian, called the “Apostate,” from his renouncing
      Christianity and laboring to restore the pagan religion. In
      this he signally failed. He undertook to rebuild the Jewish
      temple at Jerusalem, without success.

    363—He was mortally wounded in an invasion of Persia, and was
      succeeded by Jovian, who restored imperial favor
    364—to the Christian religion. He died after one years
      reign and Valentinian was elected emperor by the council
      of ministers and generals. He divided the empire with his
      brother, Valens, and afterward Rome and Constantinople
      usually had each an emperor. Valentinian died
    375—and was succeeded by his son, Gratian.

    378—The Huns appeared in Europe, having wandered from
      the borders of China, and defeated Valens with dreadful
      slaughter. Valens himself was among the slain. This was the
      commencement of the great migrations that finally overwhelmed
      the Roman Empire of the west.

    379—Gratian, left sole emperor, appointed Theodosius, called
      The Great, his colleague, who subdued the Goths, repelled the
      Huns, and restored order.

    383—Gratian was murdered by the usurper Maximus.

    388—Theodosius conquered and put Maximus to death and
      restored Valentinian II., brother of Gratian, to the
      throne of the western empire. In a few years the whole
    394—empire was reunited by the death of Valentinian.
      Theodosius soon died, universally lamented, leaving the two
      empires to his sons, Honorius and Arcadius.

    402—Alaric, the Goth, invaded Italy and, though defeated,
      endangered the safety of Rome.

    408—Theodosius II. succeeded to the empire of the east.

    410—Alaric again invaded Italy and sacked Rome. Alaric soon
      after died and his forces were persuaded, by negotiations, to
      leave Italy, but they permanently established themselves in
      Spain and Southern Gaul (France). Thus the empire began to
      fall to pieces.

    425—Honorius died and Valentinian III. became emperor.

    429—The Vandals soon conquered the Roman provinces
      in Africa, under their king, Genseric. They extended
    440—their conquests to Sicily.

    447—Attila, called the “Scourge of God,” appeared at the head
      of the Huns, and Theodosius made a humiliating treaty with
      him to save his dominions from desolation.

    448—In the next year the Saxons and Angles were invited
      into Britain by the civilized Romans, to protect them from
      the Picts and Scots, and laid the foundation of the modern
      Anglo-Saxon race, and the Franks invaded Gaul laying the
      foundations of the modern kingdom of France. England received
      its name from the Angles—France from the Franks.

    451—Attila, the Hun, invaded Gaul, and was defeated at
    452—Chalons, by the united Romans and Visigoths. Attila
      then invaded Italy and laid it waste, but died before he
    454—had completed the ruin of the empire. Valentinian
      III. was murdered, and the Vandals from Sicily invaded Italy
      and sacked Rome.


SECTION XIII.

THE RISE OF MODERN NATIONS.

    476—After a succession of puppet emperors in Rome, Odoacer
      abolished the name and took the title of king of Italy.
      He was a German in command of the auxiliaries in Roman
      pay. Thus ended, in disaster and disgrace, the once mighty
      Roman Empire. Its ruin was gradual and the barbarians who
      overthrew it had already embraced Christianity, so that the
      institutions of the church did not share its fall.

    486—Clovis, king of the Franks, defeated the Romans and
      Gauls at the battle of Soissons. The Ostrogoths invaded
    492—Italy under Theodoric the Great, deposed Odoacer, and
      founded a new kingdom.

    496—Clovis defeated the invading Germans and embraced
    500—Christianity. Clovis next defeated the Burgundians.
    507—He subdued the Visigoths and all France was united under
      one rule. He was of the Merovingian line, or dynasty, of
      kings, which lasted over two hundred years, during which the
      remains of Roman civilization and the influence of the church
      were gradually modifying and penetrating the character of a
      new and energetic race.

    527—Justinian became the ruler of the Eastern or Grecian
      Empire.

    534—His generals waged war with the Vandals in Africa and the
      Ostrogoths in Italy, and after eighteen years of conflict,
      succeeded in reconquering part of Italy, which the Greek
      emperors continued to hold nominally for about three hundred
      years; the seat of their representative being at Ravenna. He
      was called an Exarch. Rome itself was left, substantially,
      to the control of the Christian bishop. When the Lombards
      founded a kingdom
    568—in the north of Italy they were prevented, by the exarch
      and bishop, from spreading over the southern part; and when
      the exarch threatened to become too powerful to suit the
      views of the bishop, he supported the Lombards. Thus the
      temporal or political power of the popes arose, and they were
      the politic authors of the “Balance of Power” theory, or
      system, that has played so large a part in European history.
      The result has been exceedingly favorable to progress in
      all directions, since it has secured the independence of
      states, and a more various and perfect civilization by the
      development of the special genius of each people. Many
      circumstances conspired to support this idea, in later times,
      and render it very prominent and influential.

      This gradual advance of the bishop of Rome in political
      influence associated him with the mighty memories of the
      “Eternal City,” and suggested the idea of a spiritual empire
      over all Christendom, which gradually became realized and
      quite changed the character of Christianity for near 800
      years. Hurtful as it ultimately became, by reviving a
      universal despotism over conscience and freedom of thought,
      it was long powerful for good by giving a common centre
      to Europe, broken into fragments as it was by the rise of
      feudalism. That was disorganizing; this was centralizing,
      and kept the channels of communication open and the
      missionary spirit and the elements of a restored learning in
      activity. Its influence in commencing and carrying forward
      the crusades, which substantially broke the strength of
      feudalism, was of immense importance.

    622—Mahomet arose in the Arabian peninsula, and his new
      religion spread with astonishing rapidity. In one hundred
    732—years from the death of Mahomet the Saracens had
      established a vast empire, covering two thirds of the Roman
      empire, viz.: all of the old Persian empire, Egypt, and all
      of northern Africa and Spain, and threatened to inundate
      Europe. They poured a vast army over the Pyrenees into
      France. This was defeated in a great battle at Tours, by
      Charles Martel, who founded a new dynasty, replacing the
      Merovingian, called the Carlovingian, and made France the
      most powerful, as it became the leading, nation in Europe,
      for promoting civilization during many centuries.

      By this means the center of political influence, “The Star
      of Empire,” took another step westward. His son, Pepin le
      Bref, or the Short, caused himself to be
    752—crowned king of France by the Roman Pontiff, Stephen
      II., which added to his own prestige, as it also did to that
      of the pope. It was a sort of league between the rising
      temporal and spiritual powers in Europe, and set an example
      long followed. Charlemagne, or Charles the Great, the son of
      Pepin, ascended the throne in 771,
    771—and by his intelligence, energy, and wise statesmanship,
      by his encouragement of learning, his organizing talents
      and his success in conquering and civilizing the seething
      mass of nationalities in Germany, he may be said to have
      really founded modern civilization during his long reign
      of forty-three years. He conquered the Lombard kingdom in
      Italy, and was crowned by the pope, Adrian I, “Emperor of
      the Romans,” kneeling at the altar in Rome; but he virtually
      confirmed the temporal authority of the popes, and associated
      their influence in all his conquests. He thoroughly broke
      the spirit of the pagan Saxons, in northwestern Germany, by
      a war of thirty-three years, carried his conquests east over
      most of the present Austrian empire, civilizing and bringing
      the barbarians into the pale of Christendom by the aid of
      Christian missionaries, and conquered some portions of Spain
      from the Saracens.

      It seemed as if the history of the western Roman Empire,
      which had fallen three hundred years before, was to be
      repeated. That was the hope and dream of both Charlemagne
      and the Roman Pontiff, who joined hands to realize it. This
      new western emperor had great abilities and the church was
      very strong. The centre of Europe had so long been within
      the reach of civilizing influences, and had attained such a
      point of development in its various nationalities, that they
      readily accepted permanent institutions, when presented by a
      power so strong as that of the mighty Frank ruler.

    814—But when he died, it was found that there was no other
      hand strong enough to wield his sceptre. All the memories of
      the old empire, all the influence of the Christian church,
      the remains of the Roman organization, and the ripening vigor
      of new races, which had begun to lay aside their barbarous
      impulses, were united to aid the vast designs of this great
      statesman. But the tendencies of the new society, in general,
      were in a different direction. The Germanic civilization
      was totally different from the Roman, and had there been a
      succession of rulers as large minded and strong willed as
      Charlemagne, they could not have repeated the history of the
      ancient world. The tendency of the races that overthrew the
      empire was invincibly against centralization, and instead of
      a new Roman Empire in western Europe, appeared the Feudal
      System.


SECTION XIV.

THE FEUDAL SYSTEM.

1. This system was the direct opposite of centralization. Under it all
Christendom broke up into fragments; the king exerted but a loose general
control, that continued to decrease for several centuries; and most of
the real authority was exerted by the feudal lords from their fortified
castles, which, for three hundred years, had been springing up over all
the territory conquered from the Romans. It had its true origin in the
marked _personal assertion_, the strong _individuality_ of the Teutonic
Race, which was, and is, one of its most prominent traits. While in their
native barbarous state their armies were formed for their expeditions of
foreign conquest, that proved so fatal to the Romans, on the voluntary
principle. The prowess and fame of a leader, or chief, drew to him a
multitude of warriors, longing for activity and booty. So long as he
could lead them to success, to gain their individual ends, they obeyed
him. When he failed to reward their ambition they held themselves free to
leave him.

2. It was not immense disciplined armies, but innumerable bands,
organized in this way, that, through a long course of years, gradually
overran Britain, Gaul, Spain and Italy. For four hundred years the
civilized world had been accustomed to the control and protection of
a distant ruler whose powerful armies rendered resistance vain, and
all thought of organization for self-protection against the terrible
barbarians was wanting when they were attacked. Each city or region
defended itself as well as possible, or submitted at once. The
conquerors took what they wanted and passed on to other lands, or
spread themselves out over the province. They usually settled in the
country parts, fortifying the country seats of the richer inhabitants,
or building themselves castles near the larger towns, to hold them in
awe. The leader considered himself the owner of the conquered territory,
and divided it among his followers, who settled themselves, each in his
new domain, as its owner and ruler. The conquered inhabitants were his
subjects from whom he took tribute. The conquerors were few in number in
proportion to the conquered; but there was little resistance throughout
the old Roman provinces. Organization and spirit were wanting to them,
and resistance would provoke complete ruin, since the conqueror could
easily call to his aid any number of his fellows in return for a share of
the spoils. Thus they gave what was demanded and made themselves content
with what was left.

The cities paid tribute, the cultivators gave a portion of their
harvests to the new rulers. The territory not given to his followers was
considered the property of the original leader. In return for the gift
each of the recipients of territory was held bound to aid him in his
wars, and each larger chief stood in similar relations to the king of his
tribe or nation. Out of this grew, at length, what was called the Feudal
System, feudal being derived, by some, from the old German words “fee,”
salary, and “od,” landed possessions—a payment, or salary, in land, for
services rendered, with a certain obligation to the giver.

3. The kings of the Franks—the German nation that conquered Gaul—up to
the time of Charlemagne, labored to consolidate their power and rule like
the Roman emperors. But the genius of their race and the peculiarities
of the situation were both opposed to that purpose. Charles Martel,
Pepin, his son, and Charlemagne, his grandson, were all rulers of great
vigor, and the last, apparently, succeeded for a time. But the military
strength lay only in the scattered feudal chieftains, each of whom
sought to build up his own power on his own estates. It was not possible
to maintain a strong central government for any length of time, or
under an ordinary man. For two hundred years these petty lords grew in
strength at the expense of the king. They were still held to him by the
necessity of supporting him in war, by a system of checks, which, in
time, were increased, and still more enlarged, when the people began
to make themselves felt in the twelfth century; but from the fifth to
the fifteenth century feudalism was the prevailing system in all the
civilized European nations.

4. It was a very rude and violent period, but some of the most happy
traits of modern life grew out of it. The isolation of the feudal lord
in his fortified chateau or castle, where his wife and children were
his only equals, combined with the constant influence of the church,
gradually elevated the condition of the woman, the rudeness and violence
of the time were modified by the rise of chivalry, which was, in great
part, founded on this new respect for the gentler sex, and sympathy for
her helpless condition when exposed, without a powerful protector, to
unrestrained insolence and passion; and the feudal system held all the
elements of society in suspense until the mighty forces—revived learning,
the printing press, and a new commerce and industry—were ready to take a
prominent part in making it what we now find it—far superior to the old
society.

5. Feudalism held men apart, and individually subject to the refining
influence of Christian precepts, from the fifth to the ninth century,
when the romantic practice of chivalry became popular as a relief from
the tedium of isolation, and a channel for the flow of the softer
sentiments of respect for woman, of compassion for weakness, and, at the
same time, a vent for the martial spirit which the constant conflicts
of the time cultivated. The age of chivalry indicates that Christianity
was powerfully moulding the character of the new nations. Working on
qualities as stern and rude as those of the old Roman of the Republic,
its partial control, the beginnings of its power, were manifested in
a romantic way. The isolation of feudal life, and a sense of wrong in
employing all their energies in unceasing contests of ambition produced
the chivalric outbreak and the crusades. The knights of chivalry were
feudal lords and gentlemen, trained in all the warlike arts of the period
and in all the courtesies which the new influence of female society
produced. When starting forth as knight-errants, they were exhorted
by the stern feudal warrior to valor, and by the Christian priest to
gentleness toward the weak and defenseless, and they made it the business
of life to wander about on horseback incased in armor, displaying their
warlike accomplishments and combatting petty tyranny. There was little
power in the king to right the wrongs of his subjects, and brutal
violence in the feudal lords had no other effectual punishment. Chivalry
flourished for more than five hundred years; but its most useful days
were from 1000 to 1200. It was the first, and seems to later times a
somewhat amusing indication of a more humane social state than the world
had ever known.

6. The crusades commenced about 1100, the object being to rescue the
sepulcher of the founder of Christianity from unbelievers. It first
engaged the sympathy of the people at large, then of the feudal nobility
and finally interested the ambition of kings. For two hundred years
a large part of the best blood of Europe was poured out in Palestine
in a vain effort to expel the Saracens from it. The transportation of
armaments and supplies to that country from various parts of Europe
gradually led to commerce and skill in navigation; so much of ancient
civilization and knowledge as still existed in the Eastern, or Greek
Empire at Constantinople, was introduced into modern Europe, which at the
same time was relieved of its more turbulent and adventurous elements;
and a heavy blow was given to the smaller feudal proprietors by the
expense incurred in a distant expedition where they died without issue,
reduced their families to poverty, or whence they returned penniless
to mortgaged estates. It rapidly hastened the movement, begun by other
influences, to reduce the number of feudal proprietors, and render
government more vigorous over increasingly large territories.


SECTION XV.

THE LIBERTIES OF THE PEOPLE.

1. Between 1000 and 1200 the independent and enterprising spirit—the
individualism—that we have seen at the base of European character, and
which first produced the Feudal System, began to move among the masses
in various ways and laid the foundation for that influence of the People
that was afterward to become the most powerful element in political life.

It first presented itself in the development of industrial arts and
commerce in cities which obtained, as corporations, the rights, or a part
of the rights, of the feudal proprietor, which they proceeded to exercise
under the form of Free Cities in Germany, privileged Communes in France
and commercial Republics in Italy.

2. A second development, highly favorable some centuries later to the
reaction of popular freedom against centralizing despotism in the
government, was the religious protest against the claims of the church
over freedom of thought. This spirit grew up in Germany, and its first
remote beginnings are to be found in the imperial title conferred by
the pope on Charlemagne. In the course of time (A. D. 963) that title
was inherited by the German rulers who, for a long time, struggled for
the control of Italy and a feudal superiority over the popes. This was
carried on for two centuries with much acrimony, in which the terms
Guelph, the general name of those who supported the side of the popes,
and Ghibellines, of those who rallied to the emperor, came to be the
watchwords of Germany and Italy. The popes triumphed in this contest,
which prevented the establishment of a vast and powerful political
despotism, and gave the church a temporal kingdom in a part of Italy,
with an immense spiritual empire highly embarrassing to free mental
growth. The reaction against this spiritual control produced the
Protestant Reformation of the sixteenth century, in which was wrapped up
the germ of modern Republicanism.

3. The Crusades loosened the bonds of Feudalism, taught nations and
rulers to act together to gain a common object, enlarged the experiences
of men immensely, and cultivated and organized the spirit of personal
adventure which afterwards expended itself on commerce.

It was at about the crisis of this period (1215, A. D.) that the Magna
Charta—the foundation of English constitutional liberty—was produced;
that the Hanseatic League and Free Cities began to flourish in Germany;
the commercial republics of Venice, Genoa and Florence rose in Italy; and
the communal corporations in France sprang up. They were all more or less
stimulated by influences growing out of the Crusades, and brought forward
the _people_ and their distinct and separate interests and activities
into political importance. This was the beginning of an entirely new
order of things, which required a new continent for its full development.

4. A first circumstance, above all favorable to the liberties of the
people, was the Invention of Printing, producing rapid diffusion of
information, the coincident revival of learning and the foundation of
modern science. All these, working together with various other agencies,
gradually swept away feudalism, checked the towering spiritual tyranny of
the church and corrected a crowd of minor evils that embarrassed society,
enterprise, and progress in the science of government.

The intermediate stage in this progress appeared like a return to old
principles. The dissolution of feudalism left the governments of Europe
centralized. The lords inheriting feudal rights had become intolerable
despots. For a certain period the authority of the king was the bulwark
behind which the people sheltered themselves from the oppressions
of their feudal superiors, and they united with him to reduce the
feudal nobility to the comparatively harmless condition of the modern
aristocracy, whose greatest distinction is social pre-eminence. It left
them, indeed, a high, but not overwhelming, position in the body politic,
which the growing education and wealth of the middle and lower classes
constantly tended to reduce. This change was commencing when America
was discovered. The feudal chiefs labored to extend and strengthen
their power at the expense of each other, of the king and the people.
The increasing activity and importance of commerce, trade and industry
required the support of a broad legislation that could not be obtained
while nations were broken up into petty lordships, principalities
and kingdoms almost independent of each other, and whose rulers were
often hostile to or at war with each other; while the support of so
many rulers became a heavy burden on the resources of the people. The
king represented the nation and was the rallying point of reform. To
strengthen him was to promote the larger interests of the country.

5. For these reasons, and from the resistance offered by the feudal
institutions, which had existed a thousand years, authority became
centralized in the monarch to an extravagant degree, and this at a time
when freer institutions were most required by the larger and wiser
views of the people. The great usefulness of the Roman Catholic Church
in civilizing and educating the modern nations and founding a center
or common bond between them, which produced a degree of unity in their
progress, had continually added to her power, while the disposition
to free thought was ever becoming more pronounced. Thus two despotic
forces, each claiming absolute obedience in their respective spheres,
were rising in strength to a degree extremely embarrassing to the growing
intelligence and increased activities of the commonalty. The traditional
authority of the church and the king came, in the course of a hundred
years after the discovery of America, to directly oppose the most
important interests and instincts of mankind.

6. The progress of the people, as distinct from that of their
governments, may then be described as starting in the last great service
done for Europe by the church—the organization of the Crusades. The
feudal system separated men too much for healthy progress, and this
singular display of religious zeal united the various nationalities in
a common effort, and stirred up powers that had long slumbered. It was
in this period that the adventurous and comprehensive activities of
modern life commenced. Wealth had been largely confined to the feudal
nobility. It now began to flow out through the general community. The
nobles expended vast sums in fitting out princely retinues to lead to the
Holy Land, for which their estates were security. They died, or returned
penniless, and their lands passed into the hands of the commercial
classes, whose successful diligence had made them wealthy. It was the
first heavy blow to feudal institutions, and laid the foundation of the
power of the people.

Corporations and cities which had obtained the rights of feudal
proprietors, employed them for the purposes of self-government, and
so used an instrument of despotism to shield and sustain a virtual
democracy. With this freedom of action, popular liberty, controlled in
a general way by feudal obligations to the prince, king, or emperor,
grew fast and strong protected by the growing despotisms of the church
and the state. The Hanseatic League, in the north of Germany, was, in
the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, perhaps as wealthy and powerful
as any king or emperor in Christendom; and in the sixteenth, the small
commercial province of the Netherlands could defy the whole power of
Spain, with the wealth of the Indies at her back.

7. The revival of learning, and the invention of the art of printing,
gave an immense impulse to this uprising of the people, commenced
near three hundred years before; about the same time the Portuguese
discovered the way to India by the Cape of Good Hope, Columbus threw
open the “Gates of the West,” and the wealth of both Indies flowed in a
full stream through the channels of commerce and trade; that is to say,
into the hands of the busy and industrious people. All events seemed
to conspire to build up a base for the power and development of the
commonalty.

This growing intelligence and strength among the masses, with the habit
of ruling themselves under feudal forms, made a conflict with the two
arrogant despotisms inevitable in the near future. Feudal institutions
were still a serious and vexatious embarrassment to freedom of movement,
and a very heavy tax on industry, and the only legal way to remove it was
by strengthening the central or kingly power, which continued to increase
for more than a hundred years; but the conflict with priestly despotism
was entered on at once. A vast rebellion against the church commenced,
called “The Reformation of the Sixteenth Century,” which embraced nearly
all the most enterprising and commercial nations.


SECTION XVI.

THE SITUATION ON THE DISCOVERY OF AMERICA.

1. We have said that great men were a kind of summary of the tendencies
of their period; an expression of a wide-spread thought or state of
mind, which their fortunate combination of faculties and more favorable
circumstances enabled them first to state, or embody, with distinctness;
that the great following they obtained, and the extensive influence
which enabled them to make great changes, were due to a coincident
development in their generation of the same thoughts and tendencies. This
explains the existence of _eras_ in all departments of life. Men grow,
or progress, silently, from one to the other; when the general progress
has reached the suitable point it breaks out in a leader more bold and
positive than the rest.

The discovery of America was such an era; and the sudden advance in
many ways at about the same time was the result of gradual growth during
many centuries. It was shown by the sudden appearance of great men in
different spheres. Columbus lived in the midst of a great era. Printing,
the use of the compass, the science of astronomy and the successful
protest against spiritual despotism all commenced their great career
just before, or just after him. The great painters, whose works are
now so much esteemed, were all living in 1500. Copernicus discovered
the true planetary system in the year Columbus died. Gunpowder, which
enabled Cortez to conquer the Mexican Empire, came into general use
about the same period. Luther commenced the Reformation, while the first
adventurers were creeping, with amazed curiosity, around the shores of
the American continent. The foundation of all the sciences was then laid.
Correct principles were enunciated for religion, government and thought;
and the laws of nature, of human relations and of religious liberty were
promulgated almost simultaneously.

2. But not all the European nations, and not _all_ of any one nation,
were prepared for this vast advance. The southern part of Germany, and
the people in general in southern Europe, resisted what they regarded
as a dangerous innovation, and the reform spread only north and west.
The close connection instituted by Constantine between church and state,
which was renewed under Charlemagne, raised at this time, a long series
of religious wars, which contributed to embarrass Protestantism in the
same way by the necessity under which it lay, (or supposed it lay,) of
seeking the protection of princes. Luther’s reorganized church became
the state religion of northern Europe, and fell under government control
in Switzerland and Holland. Henry VIII. of England, while yielding, like
a true Englishman, to the general tendency of his people, in taking the
reformed faith under his protection constituted himself its head.

In the long contest between Catholic and Protestant, it became apparent
that full religious liberty was not then possible in Europe; and the
more, that a political element was involved in the contest. Free thought
naturally led to free institutions, and the leading European governments
were, by the breaking up of feudalism, centralized and made more despotic
than ever. Thus its tendency to political revolution organized strong
governments against it, or prevented its development by the check of
governmental supremacy.

3. While this contest was working itself out in the firm establishment of
Protestantism under state patronage in northern Europe, and its entire
extinction in the stronger and more conservative southern monarchies,
the discovery and subjugation of Mexico and Peru, with their wealth of
precious metals and tropical productions, together with the trade with
the East Indies by the Cape of Good Hope, passage to which was discovered
before the daring venture of Columbus, had greatly enriched Europe. A
large part of this wealth passed immediately, or in process of time,
into the hands of the people as the result of personal adventure or of
the activity of commerce, trade and industry. The maritime regions of
northern Germany, Holland and England gathered much of this golden fruit;
the maritime republics of Italy fell into decay; and Spain spent its vast
treasures in war. It was led to this suicidal policy by various royal
marriages which united the German Empire, Spain and the Netherlands under
one scepter. This vast ascendancy, united with great wealth, excited the
alarm of other nations, and contributed to strengthen the Reformation.
The Protestant princes of Germany and the king of France united to reduce
this dangerous pre-eminence in order to uphold the existing nationalities
of Europe, or the Balance of Power, as it was called. Thus the emperor,
Charles V., was led to pour out the treasures of Mexico and Peru to
sustain his political aspirations, and his wars turned the wealth of the
Indies into the channels of commerce and industry.

His successor, Philip II., still uniting Spain and the Netherlands,
undertook to crush the reformed faith in the latter states, and failed
in a war of nearly half a century. This vast expense made Spain, the
richest country of Europe, the poorest, still to the profit of commerce
and the greater strength of Protestant lands. The United Netherlands
became free Protestant states and remarkably prosperous.

4. The English people advanced in laying the foundations of a free
constitution from the time of the Magna Charta in 1215. They became
strongly Protestant, and finally their commons engaged in a contest
with the king, Charles I., for the maintenance of popular rights.
He resisted to the last extremity, and the commons precipitated a
revolution that dethroned and beheaded him, and established a republic.
This was premature and expired with the great leader, Cromwell, who
had successfully headed it. Royal power was restored, but a few years
later was rearranged and so modified as to be suited to the independent
but moderate tendencies of the people. A certain part of the English
people, however, aspired to more complete liberty than a monarchy could
afford them, and passed over the sea to secure freedom of conscience and
political enfranchisement in the New World.

With the moderate and steady maintenance of their rights, characteristic
of Englishmen, they were governed under charters from the English
sovereigns who, for the sake of extending their dominions, allowed them
much freedom. European governments could not conform to the demands of
progress by loosening the bands of arbitrary rule, and the new colonies
became the refuge of such as aspired to more liberal institutions, as
well as of adventurers in search of gain. Thus the English colonies
became the escape valve of European politics and society, the Appendix of
the Reformation, and the Hope of Liberty.


SECTION XVII.

CONCLUSION.

1. We see here again the operation of the constant law that impelled men,
or moved the “Star of Empire,” westward. The form of the continents,
the character of the surface and the climate, provided a natural and
desirable opening only in that direction. The overplus of population,
the discontent of some part of the people with existing government, the
restlessness of adventurers, or the requirements of trade and commerce
produced a migration. The colony, instructed by the experience of the
parent state, was free to improve on its institutions. Colonies have
almost always prospered more than the mother country. Transplanting
seemed to improve both the stock and the institutions. Greece was
colonized from Asia, as was Rome; Miletus, Syracuse, and other Greek
colonies excelled the mother cities in wealth, and though the free
structure of Grecian government allowed a natural development at home and
made Athens the metropolis, yet its marvelous genius was nourished and
stimulated by the colonies. Carthage was greater and stronger than Tyre,
and contended with Rome for the control of the world; the most western
nations of Europe were colonized from Rome and Germany, and have taken
the lead in later progress, while America has always displayed the lusty,
fertile vigor of a young life.

Thus the conformation of the surface of the earth, and the peculiarly
fruitful character of a transplanted civilization, have always furnished
an escape from the embarrassing fixity of an old state, in the same
western direction, and the old and the new unite to establish frequent
stages of progress. In this way a continuous growth has been secured that
impresses on advancing culture the same unity, from first to last, that
we see in the growth and mental development of the individual man.

2. We have seen the aggregation and primary discipline of mankind in the
simple but extensive despotisms of western Asia, varied in Palestine
by a theocratic system which has produced the world’s great religion,
and in Egypt by the predominance of a learned priestly caste. We saw
an improvement made in Greece to meet the demands of intellectual
development. Their intelligence, however, was a spontaneous outburst, of
necessity immature. Two thousand years of training, and the addition of
many new elements were required before mind could _rule_ the world; but
Greece, by the attractiveness of her art and culture, set men at work on
the great problem of politics and life.

Rome followed to organize government and consolidate the civilizations,
to ripen their fruit and transmit the seed to a more favorable time, and
to new and better races. A complete civilization was impossible without
well digested science, which had its remote roots in Greece; and law,
which was gradually produced by the grand Roman republic; and a clear
understanding of the profound yet simple precepts of Jesus Christ.

3. Western Europe received all the wisdom and experience of the ancient
world, and labored well at the grand problem, though she did not
completely solve it. She, however, made an immense advance toward it, and
her children, rich in her experience, instructed at once by her success
and her mistakes, and aided always by her wisdom, found (let us hope) in
America the goal of their noblest aspirations. Thus we find the spirit
of progress traversing the whole course of human history, constantly
advancing through all the confusion of rising and falling states, of
battle, siege and slaughter, of victory and defeat; through the varying
fortunes and ultimate extinction of monarchy, republic and empire;
through barbaric irruption and desolation, feudal isolation, spiritual
supremacy, the heroic rush and conflict of the Cross and the Crescent;
amid the busy hum of industry, through the marts of trade and behind
the gliding keels of commerce; through the bloody conflicts of commons,
nobles, kings and kaisers to New and Free America. There the Englishman,
the German, the Frenchman, the Italian, the Scandinavian, the Asiatic and
the African all meet as equals. There they are free to speak, to think,
and to act. They bring their common contributions of character, energy
and activity to the support and enlargement of a common country, and the
spread of its influence and enlightenment through all the lands of their
origin. As America is the common ground on which all the currents and
ideas of all the civilizations meet, so also it is the point from which
return currents, hastened by lightning and by steam, seek again every
quarter of the earth with kindly greetings, to renew the relations broken
in the original separation of the races, and to cement, by exchanges
mutually profitable, a new and better unity of mankind. As the heart
in the human body receives the current of blood from all parts of the
system, and, having revitalized it, returns it with fresh elements of
strength, so America adopts the children of all lands only to return a
manhood ennobled by a sense of its own dignity through the practice of a
system of self-government which improves the condition and promotes the
interest of each while it produces harm to none.

4. America, then, will colonize Ideas, extensively, when her institutions
are thoroughly matured. The process, indeed, commenced with her birth,
and her Spirit sails with her ships in every sea and visits all lands.
All the past has contributed to the excellence of her foundation, and
modern Europe has supplied her with the most desirable building material
both of ideas and of men. Without Asia, Greece and Rome, there would have
been a very imperfect modern Europe; and without modern Europe, America
must have begun at the beginning, with all the lessons, discoveries and
discipline of thousands of years to learn. Happily, we seem authorized to
believe that, as she concludes the possible great migrations of humanity,
she has so well learned the lessons of experience as to have given due
flexibility and capacity of improvement to all her institutions, and,
when necessary can _reconstruct_ herself _within_ herself. If this be
true, she will reach the goal of all progress by furnishing to each
individual among her citizens such aid as a state can give to make the
most of himself, to reach the fullest expression of his value.




CHAPTER II.

THE DISCOVERY OF AMERICA.


1. Civilization, or the history of it, at least, commenced in the Eastern
continent. The Western was, until a comparatively recent period, quite
unknown to those who recorded the progress of mankind, and the events by
which it was marked. The science of the most learned men and nations of
ancient times did not extend to a comprehension of geography beyond the
limits of their own countries, and of the countries conquered by their
rulers, or those which, bordering on these, held some relations with them.

2. The world appeared to be a flat surface, and no one thought of
questioning that it was so _only_ in appearance. It was reserved for a
daring Genoese sea captain, about four hundred years ago, to conceive the
happy idea that this appearance was deceptive; that it was really round;
and that, by sailing westward, the distant East, or India, might be
readily reached. Columbus, having become fully satisfied that this theory
was correct, and not being rich enough to fit out an expedition himself,
endeavored to convince others, who had the means, of the truth of his
views, and to induce them to aid him to put them to the test.

3. The Genoese, living by commerce, and, at that time wealthy and
powerful, gave him no encouragement. They even regarded him as a madman.
He applied to the Governments of Portugal, England, and Spain, but gained
little attention for many years. At length Queen Isabella, of Spain,
became interested in his theories, and, with much effort, assisted
him to put them to proof. He set sail August 3, 1492, with three small
vessels, on an unknown sea. His crew were filled with fear to find
themselves so far from land, and sailing toward unknown dangers. He had
great difficulty in calming their terrors, and was in great danger of
perishing in the mutiny they contemplated. He was saved by the opportune
appearance of land on the 11th of October. He had reached the group of
islands lying between North and South America. The one first discovered
was called, by the natives whom he found inhabiting it, Guanahani. He
named it, in remembrance of his peril, San Salvador—St. Savior. Supposing
he had reached the Indies lying to the eastward of Asia, and not dreaming
of a new continent, he called the inhabitants Indians. Cuba and Hayti,
larger islands lying further south, were soon after discovered, and he
hastened to carry back the wonderful tidings of his discovery to Spain.
He reached home seven months and eleven days after his departure.

4. He and his discoveries immediately became famous. The world had never
been struck with a surprise so great, and all Europe was in a ferment
at the news. He soon returned as Viceroy of the newly discovered lands,
to establish a colony and extend his researches. Five years later, in
1498, he discovered the main land near the river Orinoco, in the northern
part of South America. He died in 1506, unaware of the magnitude of his
discoveries, still believing he had only reached India from the west, and
treated with much ingratitude by the government he had so much benefited
by his bold genius. The first published account of the new continent was
by a Florentine, Amerigo Vespucci, who visited the main land in 1499,
claimed the merit of the discovery, and gave it his name, America. His
claim has long been disallowed, and Columbus duly honored as the real
discoverer, though the name was never changed.

5. It is believed that North America was known to the mariners of the
North of Europe as early as the tenth century; and that settlements, that
afterwards perished, were made from Iceland and Greenland as far south
as the shores of New England. This, however, is only a dim tradition,
there being no detailed and authentic history of these events left on
record so far as is yet known.

6. An English mariner, by descent a Venitian, disputes with Columbus the
first sight of the main continent in 1498. He first touched the coast of
Labrador, and sailed as far south as Florida in the next year. It was
near a hundred years later before a permanent settlement was made within
the territory that is now the United States, by the English, though the
city of St. Augustine was founded in Florida by the Spaniards in 1565.

In 1607 a settlement was made at Jamestown, on the Potomac river, in
Virginia, and in 1620 the Puritans of England, persecuted there for their
religious views, sought liberty of worship in the new world, establishing
a colony at Plymouth, in the eastern part of New England. Others
followed in succession until many distinct colonies had been planted on
the eastern coast of the United States; all of which—except Florida,
belonging to the Spaniards, on the south, and Canada, settled by the
French, on the north—were under the control of, and received their laws
from, England.




CHAPTER III.

CHRONOLOGICAL HISTORY OF ANGLO AMERICAN COLONIZATION FROM 1492 TO 1763.


    1493—October 12, Christopher Columbus discovered land
      belonging the Western Hemisphere—one of the Bahama Islands.
      He touches at Cuba and Hayti before his return.

    1497—John Cabot, master of an English vessel, and his son
      Sebastian, touched at Newfoundland in June, and soon after
      explored the coast of Labrador.

    1498—Columbus, on his third voyage, discovers the American
      Continent, near the mouth of the Orinoco river, in South
      America.

      —Sebastian Cabot, in a second voyage, first of Europeans,
      explores our Atlantic coast as far south as Maryland.

    1499—Amerigo Vespucci, or Americus Vespucius, a Florentine
      merchant, conducts a vessel to the coast of South America.
      Returning to Europe he publishes a book, claiming to have
      first discovered the continent, and it receives his name,
      America.

    1500—Columbus is sent to Spain in chains by a Spanish officer
      whom the jealousy of Ferdinand, the Spanish King, placed
      over him. Treated with injustice and neglect, he died at
      Valladolid, Spain, in 1506.

    1512—Ponce de Leon, a Spaniard in search of the “Fountain of
      Youth,” discovers Florida, near St. Augustine.

    1524—John Verrazani, a Florentine, commanding a French
      vessel, touches the coast near Wilmington, North Carolina,
      and explores it north to Nova Scotia. He wrote a narrative
      describing the country and the Indians.

    1535—James Cartier, a French navigator, discovers the St.
      Lawrence.

    1541—He builds a Fort at Quebec, but soon abandons it.

      —De Soto, a Spaniard, discovers the Mississippi. He traveled,
      with six hundred men, through Georgia and Alabama, and fought
      a bloody battle with the Indians near Mobile. These Indians
      had a walled town of several thousand inhabitants. Thence he
      traveled west to the Mississippi and Red Rivers. He died at
      the mouth of the Red river, May 21, 1542.

    1553—Persecution of the English Puritans commences.

    1562—French Huguenots attempt a settlement in Florida. They
      gave the name Carolina to the coast on the north. The first
      colony is discouraged, and returns. In the year 1564 another
      Huguenot colony is founded on the River May.

    1565—Melendez, a Spaniard, founds St. Augustine, September 8th,
      with five hundred colonists. It was the first permanent
      settlement in the United States.

      —Melendez destroys the French colony.

    1567—The Chevalier Gouges (French) attacks St. Augustine, and
      puts to death two hundred Spaniards in retaliation.

    1578—The first English settlement contemplated. Queen Elizabeth
      grants a patent to Sir Humphrey Gilbert “to such remote,
      heathen, and barbarous lands as he should find in North
      America.” He makes two attempts to plant a colony—in 1579
      and in 1583—fails in each, and perishes with his vessel,
      September 23, 1583.

    1584—Sir Walter Raleigh receives a similar patent, and sends
      two vessels to the shores of Pamlico Sound. Queen Elizabeth
      names the country Virginia.

    1585—Raleigh sends a colony to Roanoke Island, but it is
      unfortunate, and returns home.

    1587—He sends another colony, but the Spanish Armada
      threatening England, he could not send it supplies for some
      time, and when visited, later, no trace of it could be found.
      Discouraged, he gives up his patent to a London company of
      merchants, who content themselves to trade with the Indians.

    1602—Bartholomew Gosnold visits New England.

    1603—Henry IV., King of France, grants Acadia (Nova Scotia)
      to Sieur de Monts, who founds a colony on the Bay of Fundy,
      at Port Royal in 1605.

    1606—James I., King of England, establishes the London and
      Plymouth companies for settling North America.

    1607—The Plymouth company land a colony at the mouth of the
      Kennebec river. It is unfortunate, and returns to England.

      —The London company send out an expedition, which,
      accidentally discovering Chesapeake Bay, enter, and found a
      colony on James River, at Jamestown. The romantic Captain
      John Smith was one of the colonists. This was the first
      permanent English settlement in North America.

    1608—Smith seeking, by orders from the London company, a
      passage to the Pacific ocean, up the Chickahominy, is taken
      prisoner by the Indians, condemned to death, and saved by
      Pocahontas.

      —Quebec founded by the French under Champlain.

      —The English Puritans, persecuted in England, take refuge in
      Holland.

    1609—Lord Delaware is appointed Governor of Virginia, which
      receives a new charter, and a considerable accession of
      numbers.

      —Part of the expedition, however, was shipwrecked, and the
      colony, embracing a large unruly and indolent element, is
      near perishing. Pocahontas repeatedly saves them from the
      Indians. Hudson river and Lake Champlain discovered.

    1610—Lord Delaware, having been delayed, arrives (after the
      discouraged colonists had embarked to return to England) with
      supplies, and saves the settlement.

    1613—Pocahontas marries John Rolfe, an Englishman.

      —The Dutch erect a fort at New York.

    1615—They build Fort Orange, near Albany.

    1619—The first General Assembly elected by the people is
      called in Virginia, by Governor Yeardley. Eleven boroughs, or
      towns, were each represented by two Burgesses, or citizens.
      It was the dawn of civil liberty in Virginia, and a germ of
      the future republic.

    1620—Convicts are sent to Virginia, and negro slaves
      introduced.

      —September 6th, the Puritans, discontented in Holland, set
      sail in the Mayflower, from Plymouth, England, for America,
      under the auspices of the “Plymouth Company.”

      —December 21st they land on Plymouth Rock, and, amid great
      hardships, found a religious colony.

      —James I. grants a charter to the Grand Council of Plymouth
      for governing New England.

    1621—A district called Mariana granted to John Mason.

      —Plymouth colony makes a treaty with Massasoit.

      —Cotton first planted in Virginia.

    1622—Sir Ferdinand Gorges and John Mason obtain a charter
      of Maine and New Hampshire. They plant a colony on the
      Piscataqua river.

      —An Indian conspiracy nearly proves fatal to the Virginia
      colony. March 22d, at noon, an attack is made on all the
      settlements, and in an hour nearly a fourth part of the
      colony is massacred. The colonists, in a bloody war,
      thoroughly chastise the Indians.

    1624—Virginia becomes a royal province, but stoutly maintains
      its legislative authority.

    1625—Death of Robinson, the distinguished Puritan divine, in
      Holland.

    1629—Massachusetts colony patented, and settlement made at
      Salem, by John Endicott.

      —Charlestown, Mass., founded.

      —The Dutch colonize the west side of Delaware river.

    1630—Patent of Carolina made to Sir Robert Heath.

    1631—Massachusetts General Court confines the privilege of
      voting to church members.

      —Clayborne plants a colony on Kent Island.

      —The Dutch erect a trading fort at Hartford.

    1632—Maryland granted to Lord Baltimore.

    1633—Connecticut colony founded.

    1636—Roger Williams founds Providence.

    1637—Pequod war in Connecticut.

    1638—Rhode Island settled by followers of Anne Hutchinson.

      —Harvard college founded.

      —Swedes and Finns settle Delaware.

      —Colony of New Haven founded. Persecution in Massachusetts.

    1640—Montreal, Canada, founded.

    1641—New Hampshire united to Massachusetts.

    1643—The germ of the American Union is planted by a
      confederation of Plymouth, Massachusetts, Connecticut, and
      New Haven. It was for mutual protection and support, and was
      kept alive about forty years.

    1645—Clayborne causes an insurrection in Maryland.

      —The Mohawks mediate between the Dutch and Algonquins.

      —Witchcraft superstition commences.

    1646—John Elliott becomes a missionary to the Indians.

    1649—The Mohawk war on the French settlements and Jesuits.

    1650—Common School laws passed in Connecticut.

    1651—English “Navigation Act” forbids colonists to trade
      with any country but England, and restricts trade among the
      colonies. Thus the English make all the profits. English
      merchants set the price of purchases and sales.

    1651—Persecution of the Quakers in Massachusetts.

      —Proprietary government subverted in Maryland.

    1657—Elliott translates the Bible into the Indian language.

    1662—Winthrop obtains a liberal charter for Hartford and New
      Haven.

    1663—Carolina granted to a company of Noblemen.

    1664—The Dutch conquer the Swedes on the Delaware.

      New York granted to the Duke of York, who sends a force to
      dispossess the Dutch. It is done without fighting.

      New Jersey granted to Berkely and Carteret.

    1665—Lake Superior discovered by Father Allouez.

    1668—St. Mary’s, between Lake Superior and Lake Huron, the
      first French settlement within the boundaries of the United
      States, founded.

    1670—Mr. Locke’s philosophical constitution introduced in
      Carolina. It soon proved an absurd failure.

    1673—The Upper Mississippi discovered by Marquette.

    1675—King Philip’s war in New England. He was a warrior of
      great ability and activity. Fourteen towns were destroyed by
      the Indians, and six hundred inhabitants killed. Philip is
      killed August 12, 1676, and the Indian tribes very nearly
      destroyed.

    1676—Three of the Regicides (Judges of Charles I., King of
      England) came to New England.

      —New Jersey divided into East and West Jersey, at the
      suggestion of Wm. Penn.

      Bacon’s rebellion in favor of popular rights, in Virginia.

    1677—Virginia obtains a new charter.

      Massachusetts purchases Maine.

    1678—Sir Edmund Andross, royal governor of New York, usurps
      the government of the Jerseys.

    1679—New Hampshire becomes a royal province, but the people
      make a successful stand for their legislative privileges.

      —Massachusetts having disregarded the Navigation Act, Edward
      Randolph was sent as Inspector of Customs. He failed to
      enforce the act, and in 1682 the charter of Massachusetts was
      annulled.

    1680—Charleston, South Carolina, founded.

    1681—Wm. Penn receives a grant of Pennsylvania from Charles
      II.

      —Penn restores the proprietary government in the Jerseys.

      —He founds Philadelphia; makes a treaty with the Indians; and
      governs East Jersey.

    1682—La Salle visits and names Louisiana.

    1686—Sir Edmund Andross being made Governor-General over New
      England, proceeds in a very tyrannical manner. He endeavored
      to get possession of the charter of Connecticut, but failed,
      though he took possession of the government.

    1688—New York and New Jersey came under the jurisdiction
      of Andross; but James II., the tyrannical King of England,
      being deposed, Massachusetts imprisoned Andross. Rhode
      Island and Connecticut resumed their charter governments;
      but Massachusetts, having given offense by resistance to the
      Navigation Act, never recovered her original charter.

      —France having espoused the cause of the dethroned king, a
      war broke out between France and England, known as “King
      William’s” war.

    1689—The government of New York is seized by Jacob Leisler
      for King William.

    1690—May 1st, a Congress of colonial delegates meets at New
      York to concert measures for the common defense.

    February 18th, destruction of Schenectady, N. Y., and
      massacre of the inhabitants by the Indians, sent by the
      French, from Canada.

      —March 18th, Salmon Falls, New Hampshire, on the Piscataqua
      river, is destroyed by the French and Indians. Casco, Maine,
      is also destroyed.

      —Sir William Phipps, Governor of Massachusetts, invades
      Canada, unsuccessfully.

      —French Protestants settle in Virginia and Carolina.

    1691—Slaughter becomes Governor of New York. He executes
      Leisler.

    1692—Massachusetts receives a new charter. Her limits are
      enlarged, but her privileges restricted.

      —Texas settled by the Spaniards, at Bexar.

    1695—Rice brought to Carolina, from Africa.

    1697—The Peace of Ryswick terminates King William’s war.

    1698—Piracies of Captain Kidd. He was tried and executed in
      England, in 1701.

    1699—Pensacola is settled by the Spaniards.

    1701—William Penn grants a new charter to Pennsylvania.

    1702—The Jerseys united and joined to New York.

      “Queen Anne’s war” breaks out. New England suffered much from
      the ravages of the Indians.

      —Governor Moore, of South Carolina, attacks St. Augustine,
      but without success.

      —Mobile founded by d’Iberville, with a colony of Canadian
      French.

      —The Massachusetts Assembly contend with the royal governor
      for their former liberties. Their charter is still further
      restricted.

    1703—Delaware (called The Territories) is separated from
      Pennsylvania.

    1706—The French and Spaniards invade Carolina. They are
      repulsed with loss.

    1707—Detroit, Michigan, settled by the French.

    1710—Many thousand Germans, from the Palatinate, settle in
      the colonies, from New York to the Carolinas.

    1712—A war with the Tuscaroras, in North Carolina, results in
      their complete defeat. They unite with the Iroquois.

    1713—Crown Point, on Lake Champlain, and Niagara, are
      fortified by the French.

      The Peace of Utrecht closes Queen Anne’s war.

    1715—In a war with the Yamassees, South Carolina loses four
      hundred inhabitants, but expels the Indians.

    1716—Natchez founded by the French.

    1717—Father Rasles, a Jesuit Missionary at Norridgwock,
      Maine, excites the Indians to drive out the English from
      Maine. He is the last of the Jesuit missionaries, and is
      slain in the capture of Norridgwock, in August, 1724, by New
      England troops.

    1718—New Orleans founded by the French.

    1720—A royal government supersedes the proprietary, in
      Carolina.

    1723—First settlement made in Vermont.

    1729—North and South Carolina erected into separate
      governments.

    1732—A company in England prepare to settle Georgia.

    1733—General Oglethorpe, with a colony, arrives in Georgia.

    1736—Many Scotch Highlanders and Germans settle in Georgia.

    1738—Insurrection of the slaves in South Carolina.

    1740—General Oglethorpe invades Florida. He is repulsed. The
      Moravians settle in Pennsylvania.

    1742—The Spanish invade Georgia, but retire with loss.

    1744—“The Old French War” begins.

    1745—The New England colonies raise a force and capture
      Louisburg, the “Gibraltar of America,” from the French.

    1748—The treaty of peace of Aix la Chapelle, restores
      Louisburg to France, to the great disgust of the colonies.

    1750—The French and English both claim the Mississippi and
      Ohio valleys. Lawrence Washington, and others form the Ohio
      Company. Parliament grants it six hundred thousand acres of
      land on, or near, the Ohio river. The French dispute the
      possession, and threaten summary ejectment.

    1753—George Washington is sent by Governor Dinwiddie, of
      Virginia, as an envoy to the French and Indians in Ohio.

    1754—The French build Fort Du Quesne (now Pittsburgh).
      Washington defeats a French party headed by De Jumonville.
      The French are reinforced by fifteen hundred men, and
      Washington with four hundred men, after defending himself one
      day, capitulates.

      —The British government, in expectation of a speedy war
      with France, recommend the colonies to form a Union for
      defense. Delegates from seven colonies meet at Albany,
      June 14, 1754. A plan of Union was drawn up by Benjamin
      Franklin. Connecticut rejected it as giving too much power to
      the English government. Parliament rejected it as giving too
      much to the colonies.

    1755—Braddock’s defeat in Pennsylvania.

      —War with the Cherokees, in Tennessee.

      —The French, under Dieskau, are defeated at Lake George.

    1756—War was formally declared, two years after it actually
      begun.

    1757—Fort William Henry, being attacked by an overwhelming
      force of French and Indians, surrenders, and the garrison are
      massacred by the Indians.

    1758—July 6, Louisburg captured by the English under General
      Amherst.

      —General Abercrombie is repulsed in an attack on Fort
      Ticonderoga, and Lord Howe, much liked in the colonies, is
      killed.

      —August 27, Fort Frontenac, now Kingston, Canada, taken by
      Col. Bradstreet.

      —November 25, Fort Du Quesne taken by the English, under
      General Forbes.

    1759—General Wolfe, commander of the English, and General
      Montcalm, of the French army, meet in battle on the Heights
      of Abraham, near Quebec. Wolfe’s army conquered, but both
      commanders lost their lives. Quebec capitulated.

      George III. ascends the throne of England.

    1760—September 8th, Canada surrendered to the English.

      Massachusetts vigorously opposes “Writs of Assistance”
      (search warrants for goods that had not paid the duty).

    1761—The Cherokees reduced to peace by Colonel Grant.

      In October, Mr. Pitt, the English Prime Minister, always a
      friend of the colonies, resigns.




CHAPTER IV.

CHRONOLOGICAL HISTORY OF THE ANGLO-AMERICAN COLONIES, FROM 1763 TO JULY
4, 1776.


In February, 1763, The Peace of Paris, concluded between the governments
of England and France, closed the war in America that had been so painful
to the colonies from the part which the French persuaded the Indians to
take in it. But, while the colonies bore a large part of the burden,
(they had raised $16,000,000 of its expenses, and had lost, in battle
or in hospital, 30,000 men,) of a war that drove the French out of all
their possessions in Canada and east of the Mississippi river; they were,
at the same time, trained to act in concert, which paved the way for a
future confederation, and hardened them to war. Being called into battle
under celebrated English commanders, and to fight side by side with
European veterans, they had opportunity to learn the art of war, as well
as to compare themselves with the soldiers of the mother country and of
France. This comparison was favorable to them, and inspired them with
confidence in their own ability.

The fatal blunders of Gen. Braddock, and the skill and bravery of
Washington and his provincial troops which, alone, saved the British
army from entire annihilation in the Pennsylvania wilderness, was never
forgotten. They felt themselves, even as raw militia, equal to the best
European soldiers, when on their own ground.

It was a great mistake of the Home Government to put on an arrogant
tone with them just when they had learned their strength. In the
year 1764 that government, plunged in debt by its long wars with the
continental powers, (it amounted to $700,000,000,) and on the plea that
the colonies who had been protected, should bear a fair share of the
pecuniary burden, determined to impose taxes on them. Previously they had
restricted their commerce to English ports, had laid duties on various
imports, and assumed authority to change the governments of the colonies
without their consent. This had produced much dissatisfaction, but had
no further immediate effect than to lead them to remonstrance, evasion,
or legal resistance. The proposal to lay _internal taxes_ was quite
another affair. Submission to this they thought would be fatal to their
liberties. They resisted with general moderation, respectfully, but with
determined resolution.

The British ministry were provoked by this resistance, holding it to
be rebellion; and determined to put it down, by force, if need be.
The struggle continued for ten years with growing obstinacy on either
side. The home government was exceedingly obtuse or it would have
either proceeded to extremes at once or yielded the whole case, as it
finally determined to do in 1776, when it was too late. In this period
of lively discussion, and of organization to secure the strength of
union in resistance, the separate colonies were gradually moulded
into a nation, imbued with common sympathies and ideas, and moved by
common interests. They had not thought of independence during all this
preliminary struggle. The war had lasted a year before that idea became
prominent. That was not, even then, regarded as an _end_, so much as
an indispensable _means_ to secure their liberties. Thus we see that
no taint of _conspiracy_ attached to the revolutionary struggle. The
colonies were thoroughly loyal, until loyalty came to mean loss of
liberty, and the rights enjoyed by Englishmen in England. The exercise
of arbitrary power they felt it right to resist; but they exhausted all
other modes and means of resistance before they resorted to arms.

They did not even make a first attack. They waited till armies were sent
to subjugate them, and until those armies commenced the attack; then the
whole country rose in the stern resolve to right their wrongs.


1763.

The Peace of Paris was signed in February of this year. July 7th began
“Pontiac’s War,” with the simultaneous attack on all the forts in the
peninsula of Michigan, and the whole frontier of Pennsylvania and
Virginia. Pontiac was an Ottawa chief, of great ability, and had drawn
many Indian tribes into the war. It was virtually ended in September of
the same year.


1764.

    April 5.—“The Sugar Act” was passed in the English
      Parliament. This levied duties on coffee, pimento, French and
      East India goods, and forbade iron and lumber to be exported
      except to England. It was for the avowed purpose of raising
      a revenue, and raised instead a storm of indignation. The
      Massachusetts House of Representatives said: “If we are taxed
      and not represented, we are slaves.”


1765.

    Feb. 27—Was passed the obnoxious Stamp Act. Also the military
      law was made to authorize the ministry to send any number of
      troops to the colonies, for whom the colonists were to find
      “quarters, fire-wood, bedding, drink, soap, and candles.”

    May 29—Patrick Henry introduced five “Resolutions” into
      the Virginia House of Burgesses, claiming for Virginians
      the rights of British subjects; that only their own
      representatives could lawfully tax them; declaring the
      attempt to vest that power in any other hands subversive of
      both British and American liberty.

    Sept. 1—The Pennsylvania Assembly passed similar resolutions.

    Oct. 7—A congress of delegates, or committees, from nine
      colonies, met in New York. It was the first Continental
      Congress. Its spirit harmonized with that of Massachusetts,
      Virginia, and Pennsylvania, and its “Declaration of Rights
      and Grievances” was cordially approved by all the colonial
      assemblies.


1766.

    Mar. 29—The Stamp Act could not be enforced in America, and
      it was repealed by Parliament; but the repeal was followed by
      another act asserting the power and right of Parliament “to
      bind the colonies in all cases whatsoever.” Thus yielding the
      _thing_ and asserting the _principle_, they both strengthened
      the colonies by a sense of their power, and exasperated them
      by a total denial of their Declaration of Rights.

    May—Yet their triumph filled the colonies with joy, and
      gratitude toward the King and their English friends. Virginia
      voted the King a statue.


1767.

    June—But their exultation was short-lived. In this year taxes
      were levied on tea, paints, paper, glass, and lead. This led
      to the determination, on the part of the colonies, to pay no
      more taxes or duties at all.

    Oct. 28—The Governor of Massachusetts having refused to
      call the General Court (or legislative body of the colony)
      together, a public meeting was held and resolutions passed
      to encourage “economy, industry, and manufactures,” and a
      committee appointed to get subscribers to an agreement to
      discontinue the importation of British goods not absolute
      necessaries. This was imitated in other colonies.


1768.

    Feb. 11—Massachusetts General Court issues a general circular
      to other colonial assemblies, inviting coöperation for the
      defense of colonial rights. Those bodies mostly gave cordial
      replies. This General Court having

    July—been dissolved, the new one being called on to rescind
      this circular, refused by a vote of ninety-two to seventeen.
      These seventeen became the butt of public scorn.

    Sept. 12—Four regiments of British troops ordered to Boston.

    ” 22—The governor had been desired, by a Boston “town
      meeting,” to call a General Court. He refused, and the
      “meeting” issued a call for delegates from the towns to
      a colonial convention. More than a hundred towns were
      represented in the convention meeting this day. Their main
      effort was to vindicate the

    ” 28—colony from the charge of a rebellious spirit. The day
      after this meeting adjourned two regiments of British troops
      arrived in Boston.


1769.

    Jan’y—Parliament severely censures all the colonial acts, and
      directs that persons arrested in the colonies for treason be
      sent to England, to be tried.

    May—The Virginia Assembly take strong ground against this,
      and agree with the Massachusetts Convention.

    ” 31—The Massachusetts General Court assembles, but refuses
      to transact business in the midst of an armed force. After
      long contest with them the Governor adjourned them to
      Cambridge.

    June 13—Required to support the troops, they respectfully
      and temperately, but firmly, refuse, and decline to vote any
      supplies for government till their grievances are redressed.

    July 15—All the colonies manifest the same spirit.


1770.

    Mar. 5—The indignation of Boston at the presence of troops
      breaks out into an affray. The troops fire on the citizens.
      Three are killed and five wounded. It was called the “Boston
      Massacre.”

    April—British Parliament repeals the last tax on all articles
      but tea. The non-importation agreements had exerted a great
      influence in promoting economy, encouraging manufactures, and
      bringing “home-made” into fashion. The graduating class in
      Harvard College took their degrees in “home-spun” this year.


1771.

    Throughout this year the same disputes were maintained
      between the governors and colonial legislatures as formerly;
      but as the home government did not push the struggle to an
      issue, there was comparative quiet, but no yielding.


1772.

    June 10—The Gaspe, a British revenue schooner, burned by a
      party from Providence, Rhode Island. Parliament offers six
      hundred pounds sterling and a pardon to any accomplice who
      will confess and give up the offenders. They were well known
      by colonists, but no legal evidence could ever be obtained.

    Oct. 28—A committee appointed in Boston to state the rights
      of the colonists and correspond with other sections on this
      subject. They publish an address, which is extensively
      circulated. Franklin, agent for the colonies in England,
      republishes it there.


1773.

    March—This address led to the first measures for a political
      union of the colonies.

    July—The British ministry attempt to import tea into the
      colonies.

    Oct. 2—The people of Philadelphia declare that any one who
      shall “aid or abet in unloading, receiving, or vending the
      tea is an enemy to his country.”

    Nov. 3—The Boston consignees required by the people to
      resign. They refuse.

    ” 5-19—A legal town meeting takes them in hand, and at length
      they resign.

    Dec’r—Three ships loaded with tea having arrived, the
      people labor for near a month to have them sent back. Not
      succeeding, the cargoes are all emptied into the sea.


1774.

    Mar. 25—Parliament retaliated by the “Boston Port Bill,”
      closing it to commerce.

    May 13-20—Meetings held in the principal cities to consider
      the state of affairs, recommended the assembly of a
      Continental Congress. This body was appointed in all the
      provinces but Georgia. There were fifty-three delegates.

    Sept. 4—These assemble at Philadelphia, and Peyton Randolph,
      of Virginia, is chosen President. They publish a “Declaration
      of Colonial Rights.” They agree on fourteen articles as the
      basis of an “American Association” to support these rights.
      This body was henceforth the real government, all their
      directions being obeyed by the people. They completed the
      organization of the Union and took preliminary measures for
      defense in case of attack.


1775.

    Feb. 1—Lord Chatham introduced a bill in Parliament which
      might have accommodated all differences, but it was treated
      with great discourtesy. Parliament determines to humble and
      subdue the colonies.

    April 19—Battle of Lexington. General Gage sends eight
      hundred British troops to destroy some colonial military
      stores at Concord, twenty miles from Boston. The “minute
      men” assembled at Lexington, are fired on and dispersed. The
      troops march to Concord, destroy the stores, and hastily
      retreat before the gathering minute men, who assail them on
      all sides. They would have been completely destroyed but for
      a timely reinforcement at Lexington of nine hundred men and
      two cannon. The loss of British killed and wounded was nearly
      three hundred; of the provincials eighty-five. Boston is
      immediately beleagured by some twenty thousand minute men.

    ” 22—Massachusetts Legislature assembles. It sends
      depositions, proving that the soldiers fired first, to
      England, with an address to the English people, declaring
      that they will “die or be free.” This body voted a levy of
      thirteen thousand men for the protection of the colony.

    May 10—The second Continental Congress assembled at
      Philadelphia.

      Colonels Ethan Allen and Benedict Arnold surprise the
      fortress of Ticonderoga, on Lake George, New York. Its small
      force of three officers and forty-four privates cannot defend
      it, and they surrender without fighting. Crown Point, on Lake
      Champlain, is occupied without resistance.

      Peyton Randolph again chosen President of Congress.

    ” 24—Peyton Randolph being called home, John Hancock, of
      Massachusetts, is chosen President of Congress.

    ” 25—Generals Howe, Clinton, and Burgoyne, with large British
      reinforcements, arrived at Boston.

    June 15—George Washington unanimously chosen
      commander-in-chief of the Continental forces.

    ” 17—The battle of Bunker Hill (or Breed’s Hill), near
      Boston. The British were twice repulsed, with great loss,
      when the ammunition of the Americans failing, they retreated
      in safety. British loss over one thousand; American, four
      hundred and fifty. British forces engaged, three thousand;
      American, less than fifteen hundred. The British commander
      burned Charlestown during the battle. General Warren,
      American, was killed.

    ” 23—Congress issue bills of credit for $2,000,000.

    ” 30—Articles of War are agreed to in Congress.

    July 8—A last petition to the King is sent by Richard Penn,
      grandson of William Penn.

    ” 17—Another million dollars in bills of credit is issued.
      The liability for these was distributed among the Colonies.

    ” 26—Benjamin Franklin appointed first Postmaster General.

    Aug. 30—General Schuyler embarks on Lake Champlain, for an
      expedition against Canada. He leaves the command with General
      Montgomery. Early in September General Arnold starts with
      eleven hundred men to Canada by Maine.

    Sept. 24—Ethan Allen is taken prisoner, near Montreal.

    Oct. 18—Falmouth (now Portland, Maine) burned by the British.

    ” 22—Peyton Randolph, of Virginia, died. He was the first
      President of Congress.

    Nov. 3—Montgomery captures St. Johns, Canada.

    ” 13—Montreal surrendered to the Americans under Montgomery.

    ” 20—$3,000,000 more in bills of credit issued by Congress,
      payable in eight years.

    Dec. 7—Lord Dunmore, British Governor of Virginia, defeated
      near Norfolk, Virginia.

    ” 13—A navy of thirteen vessels created by Congress. Letters
      of marque and reprisal granted.

    ” 21—The British Parliament pass a bill declaring all
      American vessels and goods, and those of all persons trading
      with them, a lawful prize, and authorizing the impressment
      of American sailors into the royal navy, where they might be
      required to fight against their own cause and friends.

    ” 31—General Montgomery and Colonel Arnold make an
      unsuccessful attack on Quebec. Montgomery is killed, Arnold
      wounded, and four hundred men killed, wounded, or taken
      prisoners. Arnold withdrew, but kept Quebec blockaded through
      the winter.


1776.

    Jan. 1—Lord Dunmore, Royal Governor of Virginia, ravages the
      coast and burns Norfolk, but is obliged to fly to Bermuda.

    ” 20—Georgia prepares to join the other twelve colonies.

    Feb. 4—McIntosh, with an American force, destroys several
      vessels loading for England, near Savannah, Georgia.

    ” 17—Four millions more of paper money issued by Congress.

    March 4—Washington fortifies Dorchester Heights, overlooking
      Boston, which renders it untenable by the British.

    ” 10—The inhabitants and merchants of Boston plundered of
      their lighter property by the British army.

    ” 17—The British embark for Halifax, and Washington occupies
      the town.

    ” 18—Sir Archibald Campbell sails into Boston, and his whole
      force of seventeen hundred men are taken prisoners.

    ” 23—Congress declares all British vessels a lawful prize.

    April 26—Washington removes his army to New York.

    May 3—Sir Peter Parker, with ten ships of war and seven
      regiments, joins the force from Boston under General Clinton,
      at Cape Fear.

    ” 15—Congress declared that all authority under the British
      crown ought to be totally suppressed and government conducted
      by colonial representatives alone. This was only an
      expression of their sense of the danger to their interests
      and liberties of allowing British agents to act.

    June 7—Richard Henry Lee, of Virginia, moved the Declaration
      of Independence.

    ” 8—American army in Canada, under General Sullivan, make
      an unsuccessful attack on the enemy. They are pressed by
      superior numbers, and retreat in good order, though with a
      loss of one thousand men prisoners, out of Canada, losing all
      their conquests.

    ” 11—Congress appointed Thomas Jefferson, John Adams,
      Benjamin Franklin, and Robert R. Livingston a committee to
      prepare the Declaration of Independence.

    ” 28—British fleet attack Fort Moultrie, on Sullivan’s
      Island, near Charleston, South Carolina, but were defeated
      with loss of two hundred men, one vessel, and death of Lord
      Campbell, the ex-royal Governor.

    July 4—_Declaration of Independence_ by the Congress at
      Philadelphia.




CHAPTER V.

FORMATION OF THE ORIGINAL UNION.


“The Boston Tea Party” provoked the English Parliament into passing
“The Boston Port Bill,” closing that city to commerce. This act led to
immediate measures for assembling delegates, representing twelve colonies
in North America (Georgia, only, was not represented), for the purpose
of consultation on the measures required for the protection of colonial
rights. This body, called “The Continental Congress,” assembled in
Philadelphia, September 5, 1774. It drew up a “Declaration of Colonial
Rights;” and, for the purpose of enforcing them, agreed to accept as
a basis of common action fourteen articles, known as “The American
Association.”

This was the origin of the American Union. Though it did not assume
organic political power, and its ordinances were only advisory in form,
it was better obeyed than most governments. Arrangements were made for
another Congress in May following. Its day of meeting was hastened by the
battle of Lexington, and it immediately proceeded to assume the powers
of a General Government, at the request of _some_ of the provincial
Legislatures, and with the tacit consent of _all_. It received its
authority from its representative character; from the imperious necessity
of a head to organize and direct; and from the voluntary obedience
rendered to its mandates. It performed all the functions of a government
until all prospect of reconciliation with Great Britain was lost, when,
June 11, 1776, a committee was appointed to prepare “A Declaration of
Independence.” This was adopted and signed July 4, 1776.

On the 12th of July, a committee of one from each State reported on the
terms of confederation, and the powers of Congress; but differences of
opinion, and the pressure of military affairs prevented action on it. On
the 9th of September, 1776, the name “United Colonies of America” was
discarded for that of “United States of America.” Georgia had appointed
delegates on the 4th of July, so that there were “Thirteen United States.”

On Saturday, November 15, 1777, “Articles of Confederation and Perpetual
Union of the United States of America” were agreed to in Congress, and
sent to the States for approval. Eight of the State Legislatures had
ratified these articles on the 9th of July, 1778; one ratified July 21st;
one July 24th; one November 26th, of this year; one February 22d, 1779;
and the last, March 1, 1781.

This document was little more than a digest of the powers before assumed
by Congress, and tacitly acknowledged by the States from the commencement
of the war. This, now legal, bond had existed before as a free, though
unspoken, submission to the dictates of prudence and patriotism.




CHAPTER VI.

DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE.


This immortal state paper—“the general effusion of the soul of the
country” at the imperiled state of liberty, and of the rights of
Englishmen—was given to the world on the 4th of July, 1776. The war of
the Revolution had been raging more than a year, and many of the leading
minds of the country had been actuated by the hope that their wrongs
would be redressed, and the mother country and her colonies reconciled.
The course of events had convinced them, however, that there would be no
redress, and that no reconciliation was possible other than that based on
a slavish surrender of rights and privileges dear to free men.

And hence a more decided course was approved by the people, and finally
adopted by their delegates in Congress, on the 2d day of July, 1776.
This resolution changed the old thirteen British colonies into free and
independent States. And now it remained to set forth the reason for this
act, together with the principles that should govern this new people.
By this declaration the new Republic, as it took its place among the
powers of the world, proclaimed its faith in the truth, reality, and
unchangeableness of freedom and virtue. And the astonished nations, as
they read that all men are created equal, started out of their lethargy,
like those who have been exiled from childhood when they suddenly hear
the dimly remembered accents of their mother tongue.

    THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE.

    When, in the course of human events, it becomes necessary for
    one people to dissolve the political bands which have connected
    them with another, and to assume among the powers of the earth,
    the separate and equal station to which the laws of nature and
    of nature’s God entitle them, a decent respect to the opinions
    of mankind requires that they should declare the causes which
    impel them to the separation.

    We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are
    created equal; that they are endowed by their Creator with
    certain inalienable rights; that among these are life, liberty,
    and the pursuit of happiness. That to secure these rights,
    governments are instituted among men, deriving their just
    powers from the consent of the governed; that, whenever any
    form of government becomes destructive of these ends, it is the
    right of the people to alter or to abolish it, and to institute
    a new government, laying its foundation on such principles, and
    organizing its powers in such form, as to them shall seem most
    likely to effect their safety and happiness. Prudence, indeed,
    will dictate that governments long established should not be
    changed for light and transient causes; and, accordingly, all
    experience hath shown that mankind are more disposed to suffer,
    while evils are sufferable, than to right them by abolishing
    the forms to which they are accustomed. But when a long train
    of abuses and usurpations, pursuing invariably the same object,
    evinces a design to reduce them under absolute despotism, it is
    their right, it is their duty to throw off such government, and
    to provide new guards for their future security. Such has been
    the patient sufferance of these colonies, and such is now the
    necessity which constrains them to alter their former systems
    of government. The history of the present King of Great Britain
    is a history of repeated injuries and usurpations, all having
    in direct object the establishment of an absolute tyranny over
    these States. To prove this, let facts be submitted to a candid
    world:

    He has refused his assent to laws the most wholesome and
    necessary for the public good.

    He has forbidden his Governors to pass laws of immediate and
    pressing importance, unless suspended in their operation till
    his assent should be obtained; and when so suspended, he has
    utterly neglected to attend to them.

    He has refused to pass other laws for the accommodation of
    large districts of people, unless those people would relinquish
    the right of representation in the legislature; a right
    inestimable to them, and formidable to tyrants only.

    He has called together legislative bodies at places unusual,
    uncomfortable, and distant from the depository of their public
    records, for the sole purpose of fatiguing them into compliance
    with his measures.

    He has dissolved representative houses repeatedly for opposing,
    with manly firmness, his invasions on the rights of the people.

    He has refused, for a long time after such dissolution, to
    cause others to be elected; whereby the legislative powers,
    incapable of annihilation, have returned to the people at large
    for their exercise; the State remaining, in the meantime,
    exposed to all the danger of invasion from without, and
    convulsions within.

    He has endeavored to prevent the population of these States;
    for that purpose, obstructing the laws for naturalization
    of foreigners; refusing to pass others to encourage their
    migration hither, and raising the conditions of new
    appropriations of lands.

    He has obstructed the administration of justice, by refusing
    his assent to laws for establishing judiciary powers.

    He has made judges dependent on his will alone, for the tenure
    of their offices, and the amount and payment of their salaries.

    He has erected a multitude of new offices, and sent hither
    swarms of officers to harass our people, and eat out their
    substance.

    He has kept among us, in times of peace, standing armies,
    without the consent of our legislature.

    He has affected to render the military independent of, and
    superior to, the civil power.

    He has combined with others, to subject us to a jurisdiction
    foreign to our constitution, and unacknowledged by our laws;
    giving his assent to their acts of pretended legislation.

    For quartering large bodies of armed troops among us:

    For protecting them, by a mock trial, from punishment for any
    murders which they should commit on the inhabitants of these
    States:

    For cutting off our trade with all parts of the world:

    For imposing taxes on us without our consent:

    For depriving us, in many cases, of the benefits of trial by
    jury:

    For transporting us beyond seas to be tried for pretended
    offenses:

    For abolishing the free system of English laws in a neighboring
    province, establishing therein an arbitrary government, and
    enlarging its boundaries, so as to render it at once an example
    and fit instrument for introducing the same absolute rule into
    these colonies:

    For taking away our charters, abolishing our most valuable
    laws, and altering fundamentally, the powers of our government:

    For suspending our own legislatures, and declaring themselves
    invested with power to legislate for us in all cases whatsoever.

    He has abdicated government here, by declaring us out of his
    protection, and waging war against us.

    He has plundered our seas, ravaged our coasts, burnt our towns,
    and destroyed the lives of our people.

    He is, at this time, transporting large armies of foreign
    mercenaries to complete the work of death, desolation, and
    tyranny, already begun, with circumstances of cruelty and
    perfidy scarcely paralleled in the most barbarous ages, and
    totally unworthy the head of a civilized nation.

    He has constrained our fellow-citizens, taken captive on the
    high seas, to bear arms against their country, to become
    the executioners of their friends and brethren, or to fall
    themselves by their hands.

    He has excited domestic insurrections amongst us, and has
    endeavored to bring on the inhabitants of our frontiers, the
    merciless Indian savages, whose known rule of warfare is an
    undistinguished destruction of all ages, sexes, and conditions.

    In every stage of these oppressions, we have petitioned for
    redress, in the most humble terms; our repeated petitions
    have been answered only by repeated injury. A prince, whose
    character is thus marked by every act which may define a
    tyrant, is unfit to be the ruler of a free people.

    Nor have we been wanting in attention to our British brethren.
    We have warned them from time to time, of attempts made by
    their Legislature to extend an unwarrantable jurisdiction
    over us. We have reminded them of the circumstances of
    our emigration and settlement here. We have appealed to
    their native justice and magnanimity, and we have conjured
    them, by the ties of our common kindred, to disavow these
    usurpations, which would inevitably interrupt our connections
    and correspondence. They, too, have been deaf to the voice of
    justice and consanguinity. We must, therefore, acquiesce in the
    necessity which denounces our separation, and hold them, as we
    hold the rest of mankind, enemies in war, in peace, friends.

    We, therefore, the representatives of the UNITED STATES OF
    AMERICA, in GENERAL CONGRESS assembled, appealing to the
    Supreme Judge of the World for the rectitude of our intentions,
    do, in the name, and by the authority of the good people of
    these colonies, solemnly publish and declare: That these United
    Colonies are, and of right ought to be, FREE AND INDEPENDENT
    STATES; that they are absolved from all allegiance to the
    British crown, and that all political connection between them
    and the State of Great Britain, is, and ought to be, totally
    dissolved; and that, as FREE AND INDEPENDENT STATES, they have
    full power to levy war, conclude peace, contract alliances,
    establish commerce, and to do all other acts and things which
    INDEPENDENT STATES may of right do. And, for the support of
    this declaration, and in a firm reliance on the protection of
    DIVINE PROVIDENCE, we mutually pledge to each other our lives,
    our fortunes, and our sacred honor.

    The foregoing declaration was, by order of Congress, engrossed,
    and signed by the following members:

                                                      JOHN HANCOCK.

      _New Hampshire._

          JOSIAH BARTLETT,
          WILLIAM WHIPPLE,
          MATTHEW THORNTON.

      _Rhode Island._

          STEPHEN HOPKINS,
          WILLIAM ELLERY.

      _Connecticut._

          ROGER SHERMAN,
          SAMUEL HUNTINGTON,
          WILLIAM WILLIAMS,
          OLIVER WOLCOTT.

      _New York._

          WILLIAM FLOYD,
          PHILIP LIVINGSTON,
          FRANCIS LEWIS,
          LEWIS MORRIS.

      _New Jersey._

          RICHARD STOCKTON,
          JOHN WITHERSPOON,
          FRANCIS HOPKINSON,
          JOHN HART,
          ABRAHAM CLARK.

      _Pennsylvania._

          ROBERT MORRIS,
          BENJAMIN RUSH,
          BENJAMIN FRANKLIN,
          JOHN MORTON,
          GEORGE CLYMER,
          JAMES SMITH,
          GEORGE TAYLOR,
          JAMES WILSON,
          GEORGE ROSS.

      _Massachusetts Bay._

          SAMUEL ADAMS,
          JOHN ADAMS,
          ROBERT TREAT PAINE,
          ELBRIDGE GERRY.

      _Delaware._

          CÆSAR RODNEY,
          GEORGE REED,
          THOMAS M’KEAN.

      _Maryland._

          SAMUEL CHASE,
          WILLIAM PACA,
          THOMAS STONE,
          CHARLES CARROLL, of Carrollton.

      _Virginia._

          GEORGE WYTHE,
          RICHARD HENRY LEE,
          THOMAS JEFFERSON,
          BENJAMIN HARRISON,
          THOMAS NELSON, JUN.,
          FRANCIS LIGHTFOOT LEE,
          CARTER BRAXTON.

      _North Carolina._

          WILLIAM HOOPER,
          JOSEPH HEWES,
          JOHN PENN.

      _South Carolina._

          EDWARD RUTLEDGE,
          THOMAS HEYWOOD, JUN.,
          THOMAS LYNCH, JUN.,
          ARTHUR MIDDLETON.

      _Georgia._

          BUTTON GWINNETT,
          LYMAN HALL,
          GEORGE WALTON.




CHAPTER VII.

ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION AND PERPETUAL UNION BETWEEN THE STATES.


_To all whom these Presents shall come, We, the undersigned Delegates of
the States affixed to our names, send greeting_—Whereas, the Delegates
of the United States of America, in Congress assembled, did, on the 15th
day of November, in the year of our Lord 1777, and in the Second Year of
the Independence of America, agree to certain Articles of Confederation
and Perpetual Union between the States of New Hampshire, Massachusetts
Bay, Rhode Island and Providence Plantations, Connecticut, New York, New
Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, South
Carolina, and Georgia, in the words following, viz.:

_Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union between the States of New
Hampshire, Massachusetts Bay, Rhode Island and Providence Plantations,
Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland,
Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia._

ARTICLE 1. The style of this Confederacy shall be “The United States of
America.”

ART. 2. Each State retains its sovereignty, freedom, and independence,
and every power, jurisdiction, and right, which is not by this
confederation expressly delegated to the United States in Congress
assembled.

ART. 3. The said States hereby severally enter into a firm league of
friendship with each other, for their common defense, the security of
their liberties, and their mutual and general welfare, binding themselves
to assist each other against all force offered to, or attacks made upon
them, or any of them, on account of religion, sovereignty, trade, or any
other pretense whatever.

ART. 4. The better to secure and perpetuate mutual friendship and
intercourse among the people of the different States in this Union,
the free inhabitants of each of these States—paupers, vagabonds, and
fugitives from justice excepted—shall be entitled to all privileges and
immunities of free citizens in the several States; and the people of each
State shall have free ingress and egress to and from any other State, and
shall enjoy therein all the privileges of trade and commerce, subject
to the same duties, impositions, and restrictions, as the inhabitants
thereof respectively, provided that such restriction shall not extend so
far as to prevent the removal of property, imported into any State, to
any other State of which the owner is an inhabitant; provided, also, that
no imposition, duties, or restriction shall be laid by any State on the
property of the United States, or either of them.

If any person guilty of or charged with treason, felony, or other high
misdemeanor in any State, shall flee from justice, and be found in any of
the United States, he shall, upon demand of the Governor, or executive
power of the State from which he fled, be delivered up and removed to the
State having jurisdiction of his offense.

Full faith and credit shall be given in each of these States, to the
records, acts, and judicial proceedings of the courts and magistrates of
every other State.

ART. 5. For the more convenient management of the general interest of the
United States, Delegates shall be annually appointed, in such manner as
the legislature of each State shall direct, to meet in Congress on the
first Monday in November, in every year, with a power reserved to each
State, to recall its Delegates, or any of them, at any time within the
year, and to send others in their stead, for the remainder of the year.

No State shall be represented in Congress by less than two, nor more than
seven members; and no person shall be capable of being a Delegate for
more than three years in any term of six years; nor shall any person,
being a Delegate, be capable of holding any office under the United
States, for which he, or another for his benefit, receives any salary,
fees or emolument of any kind.

Each State shall maintain its own Delegates in any meeting of the States,
and while they act as members of the Committee of the States.

In determining questions in the United States in Congress assembled, each
State shall have one vote.

Freedom of speech and debate in Congress shall not be impeached or
questioned in any court or place, out of Congress, and the members
of Congress shall be protected in their persons from arrests and
imprisonments, during the time of their going to and from, and attendance
on Congress, except for treason, felony, or breach of the peace.

ART. 6. No State, without the consent of the United States in Congress
assembled, shall send an embassy to, or receive an embassy from, or
enter into any conference, agreement, alliance, or treaty with any King,
Prince, or State; nor shall any person holding any office of profit or
trust under the United States, or any of them, accept of any present,
emolument, office, or title of any kind whatever from any King, Prince,
or Foreign State; nor shall the United States in Congress assembled, or
any of them, grant any title of nobility.

No two or more States shall enter into any treaty, confederation, or
alliance whatever between them, without the consent of the United States
in Congress assembled, specifying accurately the purposes for which the
same is to be entered into, and how long it shall continue.

No State shall lay any imposts or duties which may interfere with any
stipulation in treaties, entered into by the United States in Congress
assembled, with any King, Prince, or State, in pursuance of any treaties
already proposed by Congress, to the Courts of France and Spain.

No vessels of war shall be kept up in time of peace by any State except
such number only, as shall be deemed necessary by the United States in
Congress assembled, for the defense of such State, or its trade; nor
shall any body of forces be kept up by any State in time of peace, except
such number only, as in the judgment of the United States in Congress
assembled, shall be deemed requisite to garrison the forts necessary for
the defense of such State; but every State shall always keep up a well
regulated and disciplined militia, sufficiently armed and accoutred,
and shall provide and have constantly ready for use, in public stores,
a due number of field-pieces and tents, and a proper quantity of arms,
ammunition, and camp equipage.

No State shall engage in any war without the consent of the United States
in Congress assembled, unless such State be actually invaded by enemies,
or shall have received certain advice of a resolution being formed by
some nation of Indians to invade such a State, and the danger is so
imminent as not to admit of a delay, till the United States in Congress
assembled can be consulted; nor shall any State grant commissions to any
ships or vessels of war, nor letters of marque or reprisal, except it be
after a declaration of war by the United States in Congress assembled,
and then only against the Kingdom or State, and the subjects thereof,
against which war has been so declared, and under such regulations
as shall be established by the United States in Congress assembled,
unless such State be infested by pirates, in which case vessels of war
may be fitted out for that occasion, and kept so long as the danger
shall continue, or until the United States in Congress assembled shall
determine otherwise.

ART. 7. When land forces are raised by any State for the common defense,
all officers of, or under the rank of colonel, shall be appointed by the
legislature of each State respectively, by whom such forces shall be
raised, or in such manner as such State shall direct, and all vacancies
shall be filled up by the State which first made the appointment.

ART. 8. All charges of war, and all other expenses that shall be incurred
for the common defense or general welfare, and allowed by the United
States in Congress assembled, shall be defrayed out of a common treasury,
which shall be supplied by the several States, in proportion to the value
of all land within each State, granted to or surveyed for any person, as
such land and the buildings and improvements thereon shall be estimated
according to such mode as the United States in Congress assembled
shall, from time to time, direct and appoint. The taxes for paying that
proportion shall be laid and levied by the authority and direction of the
legislatures of the several States, within the time agreed upon by the
United States in Congress assembled.

ART. 9. The United States in Congress assembled shall have the sole
and exclusive right and power of determining on peace and war, except
in the cases mentioned in the sixth article—of sending and receiving
ambassadors—entering into treaties and alliances: provided that no treaty
of commerce shall be made whereby the legislative power of the respective
States shall be restrained from imposing such imposts and duties on
foreigners as their own people are subjected to, or from prohibiting
the exportation or importation of any species of goods or commodities
whatsoever—of establishing rules for deciding in all cases what captures
on land or water shall be legal, and in what manner prizes taken by land
or naval forces in the service of the United States shall be divided
or appropriated—of granting letters of marque and reprisal in times of
peace—appointing courts for the trial of piracies and felonies committed
on the high seas, and establishing courts for receiving and determining
finally appeals in all cases of captures, provided that no member of
Congress shall be appointed a judge of any of the said courts.

The United States in Congress assembled shall also be the last resort on
appeal in all disputes and differences now subsisting, or that hereafter
may arise, between two or more States concerning boundary, jurisdiction,
or any other cause whatever, which authority shall always be exercised
in the manner following: Whenever the legislative or executive authority
or lawful agent of any State in controversy with another shall present
a petition to Congress, stating the matter in question, and praying for
a hearing, notice thereof shall be given by order of Congress, to the
legislative or executive authority of the other State in controversy, and
a day assigned for the appearance of the parties by their lawful agents,
who shall then be directed to appoint, by joint consent, commissioners
or judges to constitute a court for hearing and determining the matter
in question; but if they cannot agree, Congress shall name three persons
out of each of the United States, and from the list of such persons each
party shall alternately strike out one, the petitioners beginning, until
the number shall be reduced to thirteen, and from that number not less
than seven nor more than nine names, as Congress shall direct, shall,
in the presence of Congress, be drawn out by lot, and the persons whose
names shall be so drawn, or any five of them, shall be commissioners
or judges to hear and finally determine the controversy, so always as
a major part of the judges who shall hear the cause shall agree in the
determination; and if either party shall neglect to attend at the day
appointed, without showing reasons which Congress shall judge sufficient,
or, being present, shall refuse to strike, the Congress shall proceed
to nominate three persons out of each State, and the Secretary of
Congress shall strike in behalf of such party absent or refusing; and the
judgment and sentence of the court to be appointed, in the manner above
prescribed, shall be final and conclusive; and if any of the parties
shall refuse to submit to the authority of such court, or to appear or
defend their claim or cause, the court shall, nevertheless, proceed to
pronounce sentence or judgment, which shall in like manner be final and
decisive, the judgment or sentence and other proceedings being in either
case transmitted to Congress and lodged among the acts of Congress for
the security of the parties concerned: provided that every commissioner,
before he sits in judgment, shall take an oath, to be administered by
one of the judges of the Supreme or Superior Court of the State where
the cause shall be tried, “well and truly to hear and determine the
matter in question, according to the best of his judgment, without favor,
affection, or hope of reward:” provided also that no State shall be
deprived of territory for the benefit of the United States.

All controversies concerning the private right of soil claimed under
different grants of two or more States, whose jurisdictions, as they may
respect such lands and the States which passed such grants, are adjusted,
the said grants, or either of them, being at the same time claimed to
have originated antecedent to such settlement of jurisdiction, shall, on
the petition of either party to the Congress of the United States, be
finally determined, as near as may be, in the same manner as is before
prescribed for deciding disputes respecting territorial jurisdiction
between different States.

The United States in Congress assembled shall also have the sole
exclusive right and power of regulating the alloy and value of coin
struck by their own authority, or by that of the respective States;
fixing the standard of weights and measures throughout the United States;
regulating the trade and managing all affairs with the Indians not
members of any of the States—provided that the legislative right of any
State within its own limits be not infringed or violated; establishing
or regulating post offices from one State to another, throughout all the
United States, and exacting such postage on the papers passing through
the same as may be requisite to defray the expenses of the said office;
appointing all officers of the land forces in the service of the United
States, except regimental officers; appointing all the officers of the
naval forces, and commissioning all officers whatever in the service of
the United States; making rules for the government and regulation of the
said land and naval forces, and directing their operations.

The United States in Congress assembled shall have authority to appoint
a committee to sit in the recess of Congress, to be denominated “A
Committee of the States,” and to consist of one delegate from each
State, and to appoint such other committees and civil officers as may be
necessary for managing the general affairs of the United States under
their direction; to appoint one of their number to preside—provided that
no person be allowed to serve in the office of president more than one
year in any term of three years; to ascertain the necessary sums of money
to be raised for the service of the United States, and to appropriate
and apply the same for defraying the public expenses; to borrow money
or emit bills on the credit of the United States, transmitting every
half year to the respective States an account of the sums of money so
borrowed or emitted; to build and equip a navy; to agree upon the number
of land forces, and to make requisitions from each State for its quota,
in proportion to the number of white inhabitants in such State, which
requisition shall be binding; and thereupon the legislatures of each
State shall appoint the regimental officers, raise the men, and clothe,
arm and equip them in a soldierlike manner, at the expense of the United
States; and the officers and men so clothed, armed, and equipped, shall
march to the place appointed, and within the time agreed on by the United
States in Congress assembled; but if the United States in Congress
assembled shall, on consideration of circumstances, judge proper that any
State should not raise men, or should raise a smaller number than its
quota, and that any other State should raise a greater number of men than
the quota thereof, such extra number shall be raised, officered, clothed,
armed and equipped in the same manner as the quota of such State, unless
the legislature of such State shall judge that such extra number cannot
be safely spared out of the same, in which case they shall raise,
officer, clothe, arm and equip as many of such extra number as they judge
can be safely spared; and the officers and men so clothed, armed and
equipped shall march to the place appointed, and within the time agreed
on by the United States in Congress assembled.

The United States in Congress assembled shall never engage in a war, nor
grant letters of marque and reprisal in time of peace, nor enter into any
treaties or alliances, nor coin money, nor regulate the value thereof,
nor ascertain the sums and expenses necessary for the defense and welfare
of the United States, or any of them, nor emit bills, nor borrow money on
the credit of the United States, nor appropriate money, nor agree upon
the number of vessels of war to be built or purchased, or the number of
land or sea forces to be raised, nor appoint a commander-in-chief of the
army or navy, unless nine States assent to the same; nor shall a question
on any other point, except for adjourning from day to day, be determined
unless by the votes of a majority of the United States in Congress
assembled.

The Congress of the United States shall have power to adjourn to any
time within the year, and to any place within the United States, so that
no period of adjournment be for a longer duration than the space of six
months; and shall publish the journal of their proceedings monthly,
except such parts thereof relating to treaties, alliances, or military
operations, as in their judgment require secrecy; and the yeas and nays
of the delegates of each State on any question shall be entered on the
journal when it is desired by any delegate; and the delegates of a State,
or any of them, at his or their request, shall be furnished with a
transcript of the said journal, except such parts as are above excepted,
to lay before the legislatures of the several States.

ART. 10. The committee of the States, or any nine of them, shall be
authorized to execute, in the recess of Congress, such of the powers
of Congress as the United States in Congress assembled, by the consent
of nine States, shall, from time to time, think expedient to vest them
with; provided that no power, be delegated to the said committee, for the
exercise of which, by the Articles of Confederation, the voice of nine
States, in the Congress of the United States assembled is requisite.

ART. 11. Canada, acceding to this confederation and joining in the
measures of the United States, shall be admitted into, and entitled to
all the advantages of, this union; but no other colony shall be admitted
into the same unless such admission be agreed to by nine States.

ART. 12. All bills of credit emitted, moneys borrowed, and debts
contracted by or under the authority of Congress, before the assembling
of the United States, in pursuance of the present confederation, shall be
deemed and considered as a charge against the United States, for payment
and satisfaction whereof, the said United States and the public faith are
solemnly pledged.

ART. 13. Every State shall abide by the determinations of the
United States in Congress assembled on all questions which, by this
confederation, are submitted to them. And the articles of this
confederation shall be inviolably observed by every State, and the union
shall be perpetual; nor shall any alteration at any time hereafter be
made in any of them, unless such alteration be agreed to in a Congress
of the United States, and be afterwards confirmed by the legislatures of
every State.

_And whereas_, It hath pleased the Great Governor of the World to
incline the hearts of the legislatures we respectively represent in
Congress to approve of and to authorize us to ratify the said Articles
of Confederation and perpetual union: Know ye that we, the undersigned
delegates, by virtue of the power and authority to us given for that
purpose, do by these presents, in the name and in behalf of our
respective constituents, fully and entirely ratify and confirm each and
every of the said Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union, and all
and singular the matters and things therein contained. And we do further
solemnly plight and engage the faith of our respective constituents,
that they shall abide by the determinations of the United States in
Congress assembled on all questions which, by the said confederation,
are submitted to them; and that the articles thereof shall be inviolably
observed by the States we respectively represent, and that the union
shall be perpetual. In witness whereof we have hereunto set our hands in
Congress. Done at Philadelphia, in the State of Pennsylvania, the ninth
day of July, in the year of our Lord 1778, and in the third year of the
Independence of America.




CHAPTER VIII.

THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR FROM 1776 TO 1783.


    July 4—The British troops had been driven from Boston
      about the middle of March. From that time to the last of
      June no British soldiers had a foothold anywhere in the
      thirteen colonies. England had been preparing, however. The
      aid of German troops had been secured, and an expedition
      made ready. It was a fortunate respite, after a great
      success, and finding the mother country inexorable in her
      determination, in which to carefully consider the situation.
      That consideration had produced that noble protest of freemen
      against tyranny—The Declaration of Independence. It now
      remained to make it good by force of arms against a rich and
      powerful European empire, which was summoning its energies
      to the work of subjugation. On the 28th of June General Howe
      landed the late garrison of Boston, and other troops, on
      Staten Island.

    July 12—Lord Howe arrived from England; Gen. Clinton returned
      from his repulse at Fort Moultrie, several Hessian regiments
      soon after arrived, and the British force amounted to 24,000;
      Gen. Carleton was near Lake Champlain with 13,000 men. The
      forces under Washington did not amount to half as many, but
      the British had a salutary respect for American prowess, and
      were laboring to win the American leaders back by promises of
      pardon.

    Aug. 27—The battle of Long Island. The Americans, 9,000
      strong, are attacked by the British, 15,000 strong. The
      Americans are worsted, but hold their intrenched camp.
      Washington silently and safely retreats during the night.
      The Americans lost 1,600 in killed, wounded and prisoners.
      British killed and wounded, 400.

    Sept. 1—General Howe sends General Sullivan (American, taken
      prisoner in the late battle), to Congress to discuss a
      compromise of the dispute between England and the Colonies.
      Benjamin Franklin, John Adams, and Edward Rutledge, are
      appointed to meet English commissioners. They meet on Staten
      Island, but can make no arrangements.

    Sept. 15—British army takes possession of New York. General
      Washington’s army being largely made up of militia, which
      come and go, he adopts “The Fabian Policy” of avoiding
      general engagements, keeping the enemy harrassed and in
      constant movement. This saved the American cause.

    Sept. 26—Benjamin Franklin, Silas Deane, and Arthur Lee
      appointed commissioners to France.

    Nov. 1—Henry Laurens, of South Carolina, chosen President of
      Congress.

    Nov. 16—Fort Washington, at the north end of Manhattan
      Island, assaulted by the British, in force. The fort was
      taken with 2,000 prisoners. The British loss was 1,200 in
      killed and wounded.

    Nov. 18—Americans evacuate Fort Lee, on the Hudson, above New
      York.

    Nov. 28—Washington retreats across the Delaware into
      Pennsylvania.

    Dec. 7—Gen. Lee disobeys the instructions of Washington and
      is taken prisoner by the British.

    Dec. 8—A British naval force takes possession of Newport,
      Rhode Island.

    Dec. 12—The British army being stationed along the Delaware,
      in New Jersey, Congress adjourns from Philadelphia to
      Baltimore.

    Dec. 26-27—Washington suddenly crosses the Delaware and
      surprises Trenton. He captures 1,000 Hessians and six cannon,
      with a loss of four killed. In this year about 350 British
      merchant vessels had been taken by Americans.


1777.

    Jan. 2—Washington having re-occupied Trenton, Lord Cornwallis
      marches a strong force to attack him.

    Jan. 3—The American army silently retreat in the night and
      capture Princeton, with 300 prisoners. British loss in killed
      and wounded, 100. American loss about the same. General
      Mercer killed.

    Feb. 6—Letters of Marque and Reprisal granted by the English
      against American commerce.

    March 4—Congress returns to Philadelphia.

    ” 23—American stores destroyed at Peekskill, New York.

    April 26—Danbury, Connecticut, burned by the British.

    May 24—This outrage is retaliated by Colonel Meigs, of
      Connecticut, who lands on Long Island with 200 men, destroys
      twelve vessels, large quantities of provision and forage,
      takes ninety prisoners, and retreats without the loss of a
      man.

    May 27—Button Gwinnett, of Georgia, one of the signers of the
      Declaration of Independence, is killed in a duel.

    June 22—Gen. Howe evacuates New Brunswick, New Jersey, and
      retires in order to draw Washington into a battle. Washington
      advances till he penetrates the design of the enemy, when he
      retreats to a strong position and foils the British.

    June 30—General Howe embarks 16,000 troops at Staten Island
      for Philadelphia. About this time the French Marquis De
      Lafayette, a youth of nineteen, arrived in America, with
      twelve other foreign officers, to aid the American cause.

    July 1—British Gen. Burgoyne appears before Fort Ticonderoga.

    ” 5—Americans evacuate Ticonderoga.

    ” 7—Americans retreating from Ticonderoga, are defeated at
      Hubbardton.

    ” 7—United States frigate Hancock captured by three English
      vessels.

    ” 29—Burgoyne’s army, constantly victorious, reaches the
      Hudson.

    Aug. 3—British Gen. St. Leger invests Fort Stanwix (Utica,
      New York).

    ” 6—American Gen. Herkimer defeated near Fort Stanwix.
      American loss 400. Gen. Herkimer killed.

    ” 16—Battle of Bennington, Vermont. A victory for the “Green
      Mountain Boys.” British lost 200 killed, 600 prisoners, 1,000
      stand of arms, 1,000 swords, and four cannon. American loss
      fourteen killed and forty-two wounded. This turned the tide
      against Burgoyne.

    ” 22—Gen. Arnold raises the siege of Fort Stanwix. St. Leger
      loses his artillery, tents, and stores.

    ” 11—Washington’s army defeated by the British at the battle
      of the Brandywine, near Wilmington, Delaware. Washington
      retreats in good order.

    ” 18—Congress adjourns from Philadelphia to Lancaster,
      Pennsylvania.

    ” 19—Battle of Stillwater between Gates, American, and Gen.
      Burgoyne. Burgoyne held the field, but lost 500 men; Gates
      300.

    Sept. 16—Washington advances across the Schuylkill to attack
      the British, when a violent storm stops the conflict. The
      arms of the Americans are rendered unserviceable by the rain.

    ” 20—Gen. Wayne, surprised at Paoli, retreats with loss of
      300 men.

    ” 26—The British enter Philadelphia.

    Oct. 4—Battle of Germantown. Washington, with an inferior
      army, is again defeated. British loss 600. American loss over
      1,000.

    ” 7—Battle of Saratoga. Burgoyne is defeated, and part of
      his camp with stores and ammunition, much needed by the
      Americans, captured. British loss 400. They retreated in the
      night.

    ” 15—Kingston, New York, burned by the British. They had taken
      forts Clinton and Montgomery, defending the river below,
      October 6th. This was an effort to aid Burgoyne, but it
      failed, being too late, and they retreated down the river.

    ” 17—Gen. Burgoyne surrenders his whole army to Gen. Gates.
      The prisoners amounted to 5,647. Burgoyne had lost about
      4,000 since his capture of Ticonderoga. Thirty-five brass
      field-pieces and 5,000 stand of arms fell into the hands
      of the Americans. Washington, as commander-in-chief, had
      diminished his own army till it was much inferior to the
      British he was facing, to secure the success of the northern
      army against Burgoyne. This was the turning point of the war.
      Its immediate result was a treaty of alliance with France.

    ” 22—Count Donop, with 1,200 Hessians, attacks the American
      fort at Red Bank, below Philadelphia, and is repulsed by
      Colonel Green with 400 men. Donop is killed, and the British
      retire with a loss of 500 men and two vessels of war.

    Nov. 15—“The Articles of Confederation” adopted by Congress.

    ” 16-18—Americans abandon Mud Island, and Fort Mercer, below
      Philadelphia.

    Dec. 11—Washington establishes his army in winter quarters
      at Valley Forge. During this year American prisoners were
      treated with great cruelty at New York. General Gates, who
      had really succeeded in capturing Burgoyne only by the aid of
      Generals Schuyler and Arnold, intrigues against Washington.
      When this became known the general indignation killed the
      scheme.


1778.

The American cause was really gained by the war of the previous year. The
Americans were so far unanimous, and so spirited, that the British had
not been able to get a permanent hold on any part of the country, save
what was occupied by their armies in force.

    Jan. 30—A treaty of alliance is made with France.

    Mar. 4—The American frigate Alfred, of twenty guns, captured
      by two English vessels of war.

    ” 20—The American Minister presented at the French Court.

    Apr. 18—Count d’Estaing leaves Toulon, France, with a fleet
      to aid the Americans in the war.

    Jun. 12—Philip Livingston, of New York, one of the signers of
      the Declaration of Independence, died.

    ” 17—The British Parliament having appointed three
      Commissioners, the Earl of Carlisle, Lord Auckland, and
      Governor Johnstone, to treat for peace with the colonies,
      on the basis of granting everything they had asked, except
      independence, Congress replies, refusing all intercourse
      unless the independence of the States were first recognized,
      and the English army withdrawn. Two years before, this
      would have been eagerly accepted. England had lost, at the
      beginning of this year, twenty thousand men, and 550 vessels,
      taken by American cruisers, worth twelve million dollars, and
      had spent one hundred million dollars on military armaments
      in America.

    ” 18—The English, afraid of being blockaded in the Delaware
      river, by the French fleet, evacuate Philadelphia.

    Jun. 28—Battle of Morristown; Washington wins. The British
      retreat in the night. Lord Cornwallis commanded.

    July 4-5—“The massacre of Wyoming” by the Indians, under Tory
      influence. About 400 troops, and most of the inhabitants
      killed.

    Aug. 15—General Sullivan besieges the English in Newport.

    ” 28-29—Count d’Estaing, who was to have supported General
      Sullivan by a naval attack on Newport, Rhode Island, having
      suffered severe loss in an engagement with the English fleet,
      and withdrawn to Boston to refit, Sullivan retires, but is
      attacked by the British. He repulses them, and retreats from
      Rhode Island.

    Dec. 29—Savannah, Geo., taken by the British.


1779.

The British direct their main efforts, this year, to the Southern States,
and overrun Georgia and part of South Carolina.

    Mar. 3—American force under Ashe surprised by
      Brigadier-General Prevost; loss 1,600.

    May 2—Verplank’s Point, on the Hudson river, surrenders to
      British forces.

    ” 10—Norfolk and Portsmouth taken and partially burned by
      the British. Stony Point, on the Hudson, evacuated by the
      Americans and occupied by the British.

    ” 12—Prevost makes an attempt on Charleston, South Carolina,
      but fails.

    June 6—Patrick Henry, a distinguished patriot, died, aged 63.

    ” 20—Gen. Lincoln, American, attacks Prevost, at Stone River.
      He is repulsed, and Prevost retires to Georgia.

    July 4—Governor Tryon makes a descent, in Connecticut,
      destroys the shipping at New Haven, and burns Fairfield,
      Norwalk, and Greenwich. He is called off

    July 16—from this barbarous work by the alarm of Gen. Clinton
      at the attack of Gen. Wayne on Stony Point. It was a
      complete surprise. Sixty of the British were killed and 550
      made prisoners. American loss, 100.

    ” 19—Major Lee (“Light Horse Harry”) captured the garrison at
      Paulus’ Hook (Jersey City). The British lost 30 killed, and
      159 prisoners.

    Aug. 29—Gen. Sullivan is sent with an army to punish the
      Indians for the massacre of Wyoming and Cherry Valley. He
      defeats them in a fight near Elmira, New York, and lays waste
      their country. He burned more than forty of their towns, and
      destroyed their provisions and crops.

    Sept. 24—Paul Jones, in a desperate naval engagement with
      seven English vessels, on the coast of Scotland, captures two
      of the enemy’s vessels.

    Oct. 9—The combined French and American forces make an attack
      on Savannah, Geo. They are repulsed with a loss of 1,000 men.
      Count Pulaski was killed.

      Joseph Hewes, of N. C., Thomas Lynch, of S. C., and George
      Ross, of Pa., signers of the Declaration of Independence,
      died during this year.


1780.

    Jan.—The British send a large force to capture Charleston, S.
      C., and overrun that State.

    Feb. 11—British troops are landed on St. Johns Island, and
      the fleet blockades Charleston.

    May 6—Fort Moultrie, being invested by sea and land,
      surrenders to the British.

    ” 12—Charleston surrendered by Gen. Lincoln.

    ” 29—Col. Tarleton surprises Buford, American, at Waxhaws.
      Buford is totally defeated. South Carolina is now treated
      as a royal province, all opposition being overcome, for the
      present.

    June 23—A sharp action between the British Generals
      Kniphausen and Clinton, with 6,000 troops, and Gen. Greene,
      with 1,500. The town of Springfield was burned, but Greene,
      taking a strong position, stopped the advance of the enemy,
      and he retired to Staten Island.

    July 10—The Count de Rochambeau, with a fleet and 6,000
      French troops, arrives at Newport, R. I. They are blockaded
      by the British.

    Aug. 6—Col. Sumter gains a brilliant victory at Hanging Rock,
      S. C.

    ” 16—Battle of Camden, between Lord Cornwallis and Gen. Gates.
      The American army was superior in numbers (5,600; Cornwallis
      not much more than 2,000). Gates’ army was largely composed
      of militia, which caught a panic at the first attack. The
      Americans lost 1,800 killed, wounded, and prisoners. British
      loss, 325.

    ” 18—Tarleton surprises and totally defeats Sumter.

    Sept. 21—Major André, of the British army, arranges with
      Arnold for the surrender of the fortress of West Point, on
      the Hudson, to the British. The plot miscarries, Arnold
      escapes, and André is captured.

    Oct. 2—Major André is hung as a spy.

    ” 7—The British commander, Ferguson, is defeated and killed
      by a body of American back-woodsmen, at Kings Mountain,
      South Carolina. 300 British killed and wounded, and 800 made
      prisoners.

      John Hart, of New Jersey, one of the signers of the
      Declaration of Independence, died this year.


1781.

    Jan.—An insurrection broke out among the Pennsylvania and
      other troops of the American army in this month, on account
      of the failure of Congress to pay them. It threatened serious
      consequences, but was subdued by the moderation and influence
      of Washington.

    ” 4—Arnold, the traitor, landed in Virginia, and laid waste the
      country.

    ” 17—Battle of the “Cowpens,” South Carolina. Colonel Morgan,
      American, totally defeated Colonel Tarleton, who lost six
      hundred men, with his baggage and artillery. Morgan lost
      eighty men.

    Feb. 23—George Taylor, of Pennsylvania, signer of the
      Declaration of Independence, died.

    ” 28—Richard Stockton, of New Jersey signer of the Declaration
      of Independence, died.

    ” 15—Battle of Guildford Court House North Carolina. Gen.
      Greene, American commander, and Lord Cornwallis, after long
      skirmishing, came to a battle. Greene’s army was mostly
      raw militia, which broke and fled. Greene was worsted, but
      retreated in quiet. His loss was 400; Cornwallis’, 500. So
      heavy a loss was as bad as a defeat to Cornwallis.

    Apr. 25—Battle of Hobkirks Hill. General Greene attacked by
      Lord Rawdon. The Americans driven from the field. Loss on
      each side, 250.

    May 10—Lord Rawdon evacuates Camden, South Carolina.

    ” 21—Several British forts in South Carolina captured by Marion
      and Sumter, the British losing in them 800 troops.

    ” 28—The American frigate Alliance captures two British sloops
      of war.

    June 5—General Pickens, with militia, captures Augusta,
      Georgia. Lafayette had been maneuvering with the British
      forces in Virginia since April, with great ability. Though
      much inferior, he constantly held them in check, and avoided
      a battle.

    July 6—Cornwallis, after a sharp skirmish with Lafayette,
      at Jamestown, retires to Portsmouth, Virginia. The British
      troops had, in three months, destroyed $10,000,000 worth of
      property in Virginia.

    Aug. 1—Cornwallis takes post at Yorktown, Virginia, and
      fortifies it. His force consists of 8,000 men.

    ” 17—It is arranged that the combined French and American
      forces shall attack Cornwallis, in Virginia.

    ” 25—Supplies and money for the American armies landed at
      Boston, from France.

    Sept. 5—Forts Trumbull and Griswold, in Connecticut, taken
      by the British, under Arnold, with circumstances of great
      atrocity, and New London burned.

    ” 8—Battle of Eutaw Springs. Both sides claim the victory.
      The loss was about equal—seven hundred on each side. The
      advantage, in the end, was in favor of the Americans, though
      they were repulsed. The British soon retired.

    ” 10—The French fleet enter the Chesapeake Bay with heavy
      artillery for the siege of Yorktown, while De Grasse, the
      French Admiral, with a large squadron, guards the entrance
      against the British.

    Oct. 6—The allied army, 16,000 strong, commence the siege of
      Yorktown.

    ” 19—Cornwallis surrenders Yorktown, and 7,000 troops,
      prisoners of war.

    ” 25—Colonel Willett repulses 600 tories, at Johnstown, New
      York, with loss.

    Dec. 31—Henry Laurens, United States Minister to France,
      sometime a prisoner in London, England, was exchanged for
      Gen. Burgoyne.


1782.

The war was now practically concluded. The finances of the United States,
the sad condition of which had so much interfered with the collection and
support of strong and well-disciplined armies, had been lately supported
by loans from France and Holland. The Americans were stronger than ever,
the British could not hold possession even of the Southern States, where
there were more royalist inhabitants than further north; and the aid of
France on the sea really made the Americans invincible. England could no
longer raise the money or the troops to continue the struggle.

The year 1782 was mostly spent in negotiations. The difficulties of
arranging the terms were great; and the boundaries of the new Government
were a subject of much dispute.

    Mar. 4—Resolutions were passed in the English Parliament, in
      favor of peace.

    Apr. 19—Holland acknowledges American independence.

    July 11—Savannah, Georgia, evacuated by the British, and
      occupied by General Wayne. The British carried off 5,000
      negroes. Great discontent arose in the army in regard to
      pay, and only the great influence of Washington, and the
      wise moderation of American statesmen in Congress, prevented
      serious outbreaks.

      Franklin, Adams, Jay, and Laurens, were the American
      Commissioners who arranged terms of peace.

      Various Indian wars raged on the frontiers during this year.


1783.

    Jan. 20—The preliminary treaty, providing for the cessation
      of hostilities between England and the United States, was
      signed.

    Feb. 5—The Independence of the United States acknowledged by
      Sweden.

    Mar. 24—The Independence of the United States acknowledged by
      Denmark. The Independence of the United States acknowledged
      by Spain.

    Apr. 19—Cessation of hostilities officially proclaimed in the
      United States—just eight years from the beginning of the war.
      Estimated loss of men during the war, seventy thousand.




CHAPTER IX.

THE CONSTITUTIONAL CONVENTION OF 1787.


The successful termination of the Revolutionary War of seven years made
the United Colonies which had commenced it, in fact, as well as in their
Declaration, Free and Independent States. Toward the close of the war
they had adopted Articles of Confederation. These were soon found to
be inadequate to secure the general welfare, and without sufficient
authority to carry their measures into effect. No sufficient means were
supplied by them to maintain the public credit, and all the interests of
the country languished.

They formed the Bond of Union for six years or more, and served an
excellent purpose in calling the attention of statesmen and the people to
the points most important in the constitution of a vigorous government.
It was the trial essay, and the intelligence of the leading men of that
period turned it to great profit.

In 1786 the legislature of Virginia proposed a convention of
commissioners to improve the condition of trade and commerce. These
commissioners met and recommended Congress to call a General Convention
to revise the Articles of Confederation. This convention assembled in
May, 1787, in Philadelphia; all the States except Rhode Island being
represented. George Washington was chosen president. The members of
this convention were the representatives of a people who had proved
their firmness and attachment to liberty during a long war and against
great difficulties. The delegates were men of tried patriotism, and the
event has proved their wise and discriminating foresight. The system
of government they planned is their most eloquent eulogy. The severe
tests to which the expansion of the nation and the conflicts of sections
and interests have subjected it, have served only the more fully to
reveal how perfectly they comprehended the principles of a republican
government, and their singular skill in arrangement. They combined the
utmost vigor with the greatest security of rights. It is a glorious
monument to their political insight. They, themselves, were not aware how
profound was the wisdom, how complete the adaptation of its provisions.
They signed it with many misgivings, on the 17th of September, 1787,
after four months of diligent labor. It was then presented to the people
for their ratification. They were cautious and prudent in those times,
and could not appreciate as we do now, the extreme value of the work that
had been accomplished. Time was required to bring out its excellences,
and show how few and comparatively unimportant were its defects. It was
examined with careful attention, and finally adopted as follows:

  By Convention of Delaware          7th December, 1787
   ”       ”       Pennsylvania     12th December, 1787
   ”       ”       New Jersey       18th December, 1787
   ”       ”       Georgia             2d January, 1788
   ”       ”       Connecticut        9th January, 1788
   ”       ”       Massachusetts     6th February, 1788
   ”       ”       Maryland            28th April, 1788
   ”       ”       South Carolina         3rd May, 1788
   ”       ”       New Hampshire        21st June, 1788
   ”       ”       Virginia             26th June, 1788
   ”       ”       New York             26th July, 1788
   ”       ”       North Carolina   21st November, 1789
   ”       ”       Rhode Island          29th May, 1790

As shown above, two years passed before it was finally ratified by all
the States. Both the delay and the final unanimity in its acceptance,
giving testimony to the prudence and thoughtfulness of the people.

Electors of President and Vice-President were chosen in the winter of
1788-1789. March 4th had been appointed as the time for the government
to go into operation, but a delay in assembling the members of Congress
deferred the inauguration of Washington, as first President, until
April 30th. Congress immediately organized the new government, and, in
conjunction with the President, appointed the necessary officers. Some
minor provisions were added or changed by the first Congress in the
manner provided by the Constitution itself, that is, by a two-thirds vote
in both Houses, and ratification by three-fourths of the States.

Ten amendments were made at this time. The eleventh amendment was added
in 1794. The twelfth in 1803. The thirteenth, fourteenth and fifteenth
amendments have been added since 1863.

A resolution to amend is passed by the requisite majorities in both
Houses, sent to the legislatures of the States, and, when three-fourths
of them have approved it, the Secretary of State causes the resolution
and amendment to be published in all the States and Territories, and it
becomes valid as part of the Constitution.

Containing the wisest provisions of English law, it rejects all that is
not in harmony with our circumstances, and our fundamental doctrine that
all men have equal rights to life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness.
This it keeps continually in view, and, by the sense of dignity and worth
which it tends to promote in the humblest man, gradually educates him up
to the standard necessary for a free citizen, and, by its respect for the
rights of all, tends to induce in each the same disposition.

The wisest men of the Republic, by infusing into this document their own
self-respect, and respect for others, gave tone and direction to all the
future. Their own _characters_ were so far imparted to their work as to
exert a salutary influence on the destiny of the people whose fundamental
law they compiled.

This document is the law of the land, obliging the highest to obedience,
to justice, and right, and raising the lowest to an equal share in its
political privileges, and to its vigorous protection. Consequently
a steady improvement in these respects has marked the growth of the
country, and the benign influence of this respect for _man_ and his
_rights_ has gone forth from the American Republic as a Regenerator among
the nations of the earth.


CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA, AND ITS AMENDMENTS.

We, the People of the United States, in order to form a more perfect
union, establish justice, insure domestic tranquillity, provide for the
common defense, promote the general welfare, and secure the blessings
of liberty to ourselves and our posterity, do ordain and establish this
CONSTITUTION for the United States of America.


ARTICLE I.

SECTION 1. All legislative powers herein granted shall be vested in a
Congress of the United States, which shall consist of a Senate and House
of Representatives.

SEC. 2. The House of Representatives shall be composed of members chosen
every second year by the people of the several States, and the electors
in each State shall have the qualifications requisite for electors of the
most numerous branch of the State Legislature.

No person shall be a Representative who shall not have attained to the
age of twenty-five years, and been seven years a citizen of the United
States, and who shall not, when elected, be an inhabitant of that State
in which he shall be chosen.

Representatives and direct taxes shall be apportioned among the several
States which may be included within this Union, according to their
respective numbers, which shall be determined by adding to the whole
number of free persons, including those bound to service for a term
of years, and excluding Indians not taxed, three-fifths of all other
persons. The actual enumeration shall be made within three years after
the first meeting of the Congress of the United States, and within
every subsequent term of ten years, in such manner as they shall by law
direct. The number of Representatives shall not exceed one for every
thirty thousand, but each State shall have at least one Representative;
and until such enumeration shall be made the State of New Hampshire
shall be entitled to choose three, Massachusetts eight, Rhode Island and
Providence Plantations one, Connecticut five, New York six, New Jersey
four, Pennsylvania eight, Delaware one, Maryland six, Virginia ten, North
Carolina five, and Georgia three.

When vacancies happen in the representation from any State, the Executive
authority thereof shall issue writs of election to fill such vacancies.

The House of Representatives shall choose their Speaker and other
officers, and shall have the sole power of impeachment.

SEC. 3. The Senate of the United States shall be composed of two Senators
from each State, chosen by the Legislature thereof for six years; and
each Senator shall have one vote.

Immediately after they shall be assembled in consequence of the first
election, they shall be divided as equally as may be into three classes.
The seats of the Senators of the first class shall be vacated at the
expiration of the second year, of the second class at the expiration of
the fourth year, and of the third class at the expiration of the sixth
year, so that one-third may be chosen every second year; and if vacancies
happen by resignation or otherwise, during the recess of the Legislature
of any State, the Executive thereof may make temporary appointments until
the next meeting of the Legislature, which shall then fill such vacancies.

No person shall be a Senator who shall not have attained to the age of
thirty years, and been nine years a citizen of the United States, and
who shall not, when elected, be an inhabitant of that State for which he
shall be chosen.

The Vice-President of the United States shall be President of the Senate,
but shall have no vote unless they be equally divided.

The Senate shall choose their other officers, and also a President _pro
tempore_, in the absence of the Vice-President, or when he shall exercise
the office of President of the United States.

The Senate shall have the sole power to try all impeachments. When
sitting for that purpose they shall be on oath or affirmation. When the
President of the United States is tried, the Chief Justice shall preside.
And no person shall be convicted without the concurrence of two-thirds of
the members present.

Judgment, in cases of impeachment, shall not extend further than to
removal from office, and disqualification to hold and enjoy any office of
honor, trust, or profit under the United States; but the party convicted
shall nevertheless be liable and subject to indictment, trial, judgment,
and punishment according to law.

SEC. 4. The times, places, and manner of holding elections for Senators
and Representatives shall be prescribed in each State by the Legislature
thereof; but the Congress may at any time by law make or alter such
regulations, except as to the places of choosing Senators.

The Congress shall assemble at least once in every year, and such meeting
shall be on the first Monday in December, unless they shall by law
appoint a different day.

SEC. 5. Each house shall be the judge of the election, returns, and
qualifications of its own members, and a majority of each shall
constitute a quorum to do business; but a smaller number may adjourn from
day to day, and may be authorized to compel the attendance of absent
members in such manner and under such penalties as each house may provide.

Each house may determine the rules of its proceedings, punish its members
for disorderly behavior, and, with the concurrence of two-thirds, expel a
member.

Each house shall keep a journal of its proceedings, and from time to time
publish the same, excepting such parts as may in their judgment require
secrecy; and the yeas and nays of the members of either house on any
question shall, at the desire of one-fifth of those present, be entered
on the journal.

Neither house, during the session of Congress, shall, without the consent
of the other, adjourn for more than three days, nor to any other place
than that in which the two houses shall be sitting.

SEC. 6. The Senators and Representatives shall receive a compensation for
their services, to be ascertained by law, and paid out of the Treasury of
the United States. They shall in all cases, except treason, felony, and
breach of the peace, be privileged from arrest during their attendance
at the session of their respective Houses, and in going to and returning
from the same; and for any speech or debate in either House they shall
not be questioned in any other place.

No Senator or Representative shall, during the time for which he was
elected, be appointed to any civil office under the authority of the
United States, which shall have been created, or the emoluments whereof
shall have been increased during such time; and no person holding any
office under the United States, shall be a member of either house during
his continuance in office.

SEC. 7. All bills for raising revenue shall originate in the House of
Representatives; but the Senate may propose or concur with amendments as
on other bills.

Every bill which shall have passed the House of Representatives and the
Senate, shall, before it becomes a law, be presented to the President of
the United States; if he approve he shall sign it; but if not, he shall
return it, with his objections, to that House in which it shall have
originated, who shall enter the objections at large on their journal,
and proceed to reconsider it. If, after such reconsideration, two-thirds
of that House shall agree to pass the bill, it shall be sent, together
with the objection, to the other House, by which it shall likewise be
reconsidered, and if approved by two-thirds of that House, it shall
become a law. But in all such cases the votes of both Houses shall be
determined by yeas and nays, and the names of the persons voting for
and against the bill shall be entered on the journal of each House
respectively. If any bill shall not be returned by the President within
ten days (Sundays excepted), after it shall have been presented to him,
the same shall be a law, in like manner as if he had signed it, unless
the Congress, by their adjournment, prevent its return, in which case it
shall not be a law.

Every order, resolution, or vote to which the concurrence of the Senate
and House of Representatives may be necessary (except on a question of
adjournment), shall be presented to the President of the United States,
and before the same shall take effect shall be approved by him, or,
being disapproved by him, shall be repassed by two-thirds of the Senate
and House of Representatives, according to the rules and limitations
prescribed in the case of a bill.

SEC. 8. The Congress shall have power—

To lay and collect taxes, duties, imposts and excises, to pay the debts
and provide for the common defense and general welfare of the United
States; but all duties, imposts, and excises shall be uniform throughout
the United States;

To borrow money on the credit of the United States;

To regulate commerce with foreign nations, and among the several States,
and with the Indian tribes;

To establish a uniform rule of naturalization, and uniform laws on the
subject of bankruptcies throughout the United States;

To coin money, regulate the value thereof, and of foreign coin, and fix
the standard of weights and measures;

To provide for the punishment of counterfeiting the securities and
current coin of the United States;

To establish post offices and post roads;

To promote the progress of sciences and useful arts, by securing, for
limited times, to authors and inventors, the exclusive right to their
respective writings and discoveries;

To constitute tribunals inferior to the Supreme Court;

To define and punish piracies and felonies committed on the high seas,
and offenses against the law of nations;

To declare war, grant letters of marque and reprisal, and make rules
concerning captures on land and water;

To raise and support armies, but no appropriation of money to that use
shall be for a longer term than two years;

To provide and maintain a navy;

To make rules for the government and regulation of the land and naval
forces;

To provide for calling forth the militia to execute the laws of the
Union, suppress insurrections, and repel invasions;

To provide for organizing, arming, and disciplining the militia, and for
governing such part of them as may be employed in the service of the
United States, reserving to the States respectively the appointment of
the officers, and the authority of training the militia according to the
discipline prescribed by Congress.

To exercise legislation in all cases whatsoever over such district (not
exceeding ten miles square) as may, by cession of particular States and
the acceptance of Congress, become the seat of the government of the
United States, and to exercise like authority over all places purchased
by the consent of the Legislature of the State in which the same shall
be, for the erection of forts, magazines, arsenals, dock yards, and other
needful buildings; and

To make all laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into
execution the foregoing powers, and all other powers vested by this
Constitution in the government of the United States, or in any department
or officer thereof.

SEC. 9. The migration or importation of such persons as any of the States
now existing shall think proper to admit, shall not be prohibited by the
Congress prior to the year one thousand eight hundred and eight, but a
tax or duty may be imposed on such importation, not exceeding ten dollars
for each person.

The privilege of the writ of habeas corpus shall not be suspended,
unless when in cases of rebellion or invasion the public safety may
require it.

No bill of attainder or _ex post facto_ law shall be passed.

No capitation or other direct tax shall be laid, unless in proportion to
the census or enumeration hereinbefore directed to be taken.

No tax or duty shall be laid on articles exported from any State.

No preference shall be given by any regulation of commerce or revenue to
the ports of one State over those of another; nor shall vessels bound to,
or from one State, be obliged to enter, clear, or pay duties in another.

No money shall be drawn from the Treasury, but in consequence of
appropriations made by law; and a regular statement and account of the
receipts and expenditures of all public money shall be published from
time to time.

No title of nobility shall be granted by the United States; and no person
holding any office of profit or trust under them, shall, without the
consent of the Congress, accept of any present, emolument, office, or
title, of any kind whatever, from any king, prince, or foreign State.

SEC. 10. No State shall enter into any treaty, alliance, or
confederation; grant letters of marque and reprisal; coin money; emit
bills of credit; make anything but gold and silver coin a tender in
payment of debts; pass any bill of attainder, _ex post facto_ law, or law
impairing the obligation of contracts, or grant any title of nobility.

No State shall, without the consent of the Congress, lay any imposts or
duties on imports or exports, except what may be absolutely necessary
for executing its inspection laws, and the net produce of all duties and
imposts laid by any State on imports or exports, shall be for the use of
the Treasury of the United States; and all such laws shall be subject to
the revision and control of the Congress.

No State shall, without the consent of Congress, lay any duty on tonnage,
keep troops or ships of war in time of peace, enter into any agreement
or compact with another State, or with a foreign power, or engage in war,
unless actually invaded, or in such imminent danger as will not admit of
delay.


ARTICLE II.

SECTION 1. The Executive power shall be vested in a President of the
United States of America. He shall hold his office during the term of
four years, and, together with the Vice-President chosen for the same
term, be elected as follows:

Each State shall appoint, in such manner as the legislature thereof may
direct, a number of electors, equal to the whole number of Senators and
Representatives to which the State may be entitled in the Congress; but
no Senator or Representative, or person holding an office of trust or
profit under the United States, shall be appointed an elector.

[The electors shall meet in their respective States, and vote by ballot
for two persons, of whom one at least shall not be an inhabitant of the
same State with themselves. And they shall make a list of all the persons
voted for, and of the number of votes for each; which list they shall
sign and certify, and transmit sealed to the seat of the government
of the United States, directed to the President of the Senate. The
President of the Senate shall, in the presence of the Senate and House
of Representatives, open all the certificates, and the votes shall then
be counted. The person having the greatest number of votes shall be the
President, if such number be a majority of the whole number of electors
appointed; and if there be more than one who have such majority, and
have an equal number of votes, then the House of Representatives shall
immediately choose by ballot one of them for President; and if no person
have a majority, then from the five highest on the list the said House
shall in like manner choose the President. But in choosing the President,
the vote shall be taken by States, the representation from each State
having one vote; a quorum for this purpose shall consist of a member or
members from two-thirds of the States, and a majority of all the States
shall be necessary to a choice. In every case, after the choice of the
President, the person having the greatest number of votes of the electors
shall be the Vice-President. But if there should remain two or more
who have equal votes, the Senate shall choose from them by ballot the
Vice-President.][1]

    [1] This clause within brackets has been superseded and
    annulled by the 12th amendment.

The Congress may determine the time of choosing the electors, and the
day on which they shall give their votes; which day shall be the same
throughout the United States.

No person except a natural born citizen, or a citizen of the United
States at the time of the adoption of this Constitution, shall be
eligible to the office of President; neither shall any person be eligible
to that office who shall not have attained the age of thirty-five years,
and been fourteen years a resident within the United States.

In case of the removal of the President from office, or of his death,
resignation, or inability to discharge the powers and duties of the
said office, the same shall devolve on the Vice-President, and the
Congress may by law provide for the case of removal, death, resignation,
or inability, both of the President and Vice-President, declaring
what officer shall then act as President, and such officer shall act
accordingly, until the disability be removed, or a President shall be
elected.

The President shall, at stated times, receive for his services a
compensation which shall neither be increased nor diminished during the
period for which he shall have been elected, and he shall not receive
within that period any other emolument from the United States, or any of
them.

Before he enters on the execution of his office, he shall take the
following oath or affirmation:

“I do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I will faithfully execute the
office of President of the United States, and will, to the best of my
ability, preserve, protect, and defend the Constitution of the United
States.”

SEC. 2. The President shall be commander-in-chief of the army and navy
of the United States, and of the militia of the several States, when
called into the actual service of the United States; he may require the
opinion, in writing, of the principal officer in each of the Executive
departments, upon any subject relating to the duties of their respective
offices, and he shall have power to grant reprieves and pardon for
offenses against the United States, except in cases of impeachment.

He shall have power, by and with the advice and consent of the Senate, to
make treaties, provided two-thirds of the Senators present concur; and he
shall nominate, and by and with the advice of the Senate, shall appoint
ambassadors, other public ministers and consuls, judges of the Supreme
Court, and all other officers of the United States whose appointments
are not herein otherwise provided for, and which shall be established by
law; but the Congress may by law vest the appointment of such inferior
officers as they think proper in the President alone, in the courts of
law, or in the heads of departments.

The President shall have power to fill up all vacancies that may happen
during the recess of the Senate, by granting commissions which shall
expire at the end of their next session.

SEC. 3. He shall from time to time give to the Congress information
of the state of the Union, and recommend to their consideration
such measures as he shall judge necessary and expedient; he may, on
extraordinary occasions, convene both Houses, or either of them, and
in case of disagreement between them, with respect to the time of
adjournment, he may adjourn them to such time as he shall think proper;
he shall receive ambassadors and other public ministers; he shall take
care that the laws be faithfully executed, and shall commission all the
officers of the United States.

SEC. 4. The President, Vice-President, and all civil officers of the
United States, shall be removed from office on impeachment for, and
conviction of treason, bribery, or other high crimes and misdemeanors.


ARTICLE III.

SECTION 1. The judicial power of the United States shall be vested in one
Supreme Court, and such inferior courts as the Congress may from time to
time ordain and establish. The Judges, both of the Supreme and inferior
courts, shall hold their offices during good behavior, and shall, at
stated times, receive for their services a compensation, which shall not
be diminished during their continuance in office.

SEC. 2. The judicial power shall extend to all cases, in law and equity,
arising under this Constitution, the laws of the United States, and
treaties made, or which shall be made, under their authority;—to all
cases affecting ambassadors, other public ministers, and consuls;—to all
cases of admiralty and maritime jurisdiction;—to controversies to which
the United States shall be a party;—to controversies between two or more
States;—between a State and citizens of another State;—between citizens
of different States;—between citizens of the same State claiming lands
under grants of different States, and between a State, or the citizens
thereof, and foreign States, citizens, or subjects.

In all cases affecting ambassadors, other public ministers, and consuls,
and those in which a State shall be a party, the Supreme Court shall have
original jurisdiction.

In all the other cases before mentioned, the Supreme Court shall have
appellate jurisdiction, both as to law and fact, with such exceptions,
and under such regulations as the Congress shall make.

The trial of all crimes, except in cases of impeachment, shall be by
jury; and such trial shall be held in the State where the said crimes
shall have been committed; but when not committed within any State, the
trial shall be at such place or places as the Congress may by law have
directed.

SEC. 3. Treason against the United States shall consist only in levying
war against them, or in adhering to their enemies, giving them aid and
comfort. No person shall be convicted of treason unless on the testimony
of two witnesses to the same overt act, or on confession in open court.

The Congress shall have power to declare the punishment of treason, but
no attainder of treason shall work corruption of blood, or forfeiture,
except during the life of the person attainted.


ARTICLE IV.

SECTION 1. Full faith and credit shall be given in each State to the
public acts, records, and judicial proceedings of every other State. And
the Congress may, by general laws, prescribe the manner in which such
acts, records, and proceedings shall be proved, and the effect thereof.

SEC. 2. The citizens of each State shall be entitled to all privileges
and immunities of citizens in the several States.

A person charged in any State with treason, felony, or other crime, who
shall flee from justice, and be found in another State, shall, on demand
of the Executive authority of the State from which he fled, be delivered
up, to be removed to the State having jurisdiction of the crime.

No person held to service or labor in one State, under the laws thereof,
escaping into another, shall, in consequence of any law or regulation
therein, be discharged from such service or labor, but shall be delivered
up on the claim of the party to whom such service or labor may be due.

SEC. 3. New States may be admitted by the Congress into this Union; but
no new State shall be formed or erected within the jurisdiction of any
other State; nor any State be formed by the junction of two or more
States, or parts of States, without the consent of the Legislatures of
the States concerned, as well as of the Congress.

The Congress shall have power to dispose of and make all needful rules
and regulations respecting the territory or other property belonging to
the United States; and nothing in this Constitution shall be so construed
as to prejudice any claims of the United States, or of any particular
State.

SEC. 4. The United States shall guarantee to every State in this Union
a Republican form of government, and shall protect each of them against
invasion, and on application of the Legislature, or of the Executive
(when the Legislature cannot be convened), against domestic violence.


ARTICLE V.

The Congress, whenever two-thirds of both Houses shall deem it necessary,
shall propose amendments to this Constitution, or, on the application
of the Legislatures of two-thirds of the several States, shall call a
convention for proposing amendments, which, in either case, shall be
valid to all intents and purposes, as part of this Constitution, when
ratified by the Legislatures of three-fourths of the several States, or
by conventions in three-fourths thereof, as the one or the other mode of
ratification may be proposed by the Congress. Provided that no amendment
which may be made prior to the year one thousand eight hundred and eight
shall in any manner affect the first and fourth clauses in the ninth
section of the first article; and that no State, without its consent,
shall be deprived of its equal suffrage in the Senate.


ARTICLE VI.

All debts contracted, and engagements entered into, before the adoption
of this Constitution, shall be as valid against the United States under
this Constitution, as under the Confederation.

This Constitution, and the laws of the United States which shall be made
in pursuance thereof, and all treaties made, or which shall be made,
under the authority of the United States, shall be the supreme law of the
land; and the judges in every State shall be bound thereby, anything in
the Constitution or laws of any State to the contrary notwithstanding.

The Senators and Representatives before mentioned, and the members of the
several State Legislatures, and all executive and judicial officers, both
of the United States and of the several States, shall be bound by oath or
affirmation, to support this Constitution; but no religious test shall
ever be required as a qualification to any office or public trust under
the United States.


ARTICLE VII.

The ratification of the Conventions of nine States shall be sufficient
for the establishment of this Constitution between the States so
ratifying the same.

DONE in Convention by the unanimous consent of the States present, the
seventeenth day of September, in the year of our Lord one thousand seven
hundred and eighty-seven, and of the Independence of the United States of
America, the twelfth. IN WITNESS WHEREOF, We have hereunto subscribed our
names.

                                                GEO. WASHINGTON,
                                   _President, and Deputy from Virginia_.

_New Hampshire._

      JOHN LANGDON,
      NICHOLAS GILMAN.

_Massachusetts._

      NATHANIEL GORHAM,
      RUFUS KING.

_Connecticut._

      WM. SAM’L JOHNSON,
      ROGER SHERMAN.

_New York._

      ALEXANDER HAMILTON.

_New Jersey._

      WIL. LIVINGSTON,
      WM. PATERSON,
      DAVID BREARLEY,
      JONA. DAYTON.

_Pennsylvania._

      B. FRANKLIN,
      ROBT. MORRIS,
      THOS. FITZSIMONS,
      JAMES WILSON,
      THOMAS MIFFLIN,
      GEO. CLYMER,
      JARED INGERSOLL,
      GOUV. MORRIS.

_Delaware._

      GEO. READ,
      JOHN DICKINSON,
      JACO. BROOM,
      GUNNING BEDFORD, JUN’R,
      RICHARD BASSETT.

_Maryland._

      JAMES M’HENRY,
      DANL. CARROLL,
      DAN. OF ST. THOS. JENIFER.

_Virginia._

      JOHN BLAIR,
      JAMES MADISON, JR.

_North Carolina._

      WM. BLOUNT,
      HU. WILLIAMSON,
      RICH’D DOBBS SPAIGHT.

_South Carolina._

      J. RUTLEDGE,
      CHARLES PINCKNEY,
      CHAS. COTESWORTH PINCKNEY,
      PIERCE BUTLER.

_Georgia._

      WILLIAM FEW,
      ABR. BALDWIN.

                                            WILLIAM JACKSON, _Secretary_.


ARTICLES IN ADDITION TO, AND AMENDATORY OF, THE CONSTITUTION OF THE
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA.

Proposed by Congress, and ratified by the Legislatures of the several
States, pursuant to the fifth article of the original Constitution.


ARTICLE I.

Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion,
or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom
of speech, or of the press; or the right of the people peaceably to
assemble, and to petition the government for a redress of grievances.


ARTICLE II.

A well regulated militia being necessary to the security of a free State,
the right of the people to keep and bear arms shall not be infringed.


ARTICLE III.

No soldier shall, in time of peace, be quartered in any house without
the consent of the owner, nor in time of war, but in a manner to be
prescribed by law.


ARTICLE IV.

The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers,
and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be
violated; and no warrants shall issue but upon probable cause, supported
by oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the place to be
searched, and the persons or things to be seized.


ARTICLE V.

No person shall be held to answer for a capital or otherwise infamous
crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a Grand Jury, except in
cases arising in the land or naval forces, or in the militia when in
actual service in time of war or public danger; nor shall any person
be subject for the same offense to be twice put in jeopardy of life
or limb; nor shall be compelled in any criminal case to be a witness
against himself, nor be deprived of life, liberty, or property, without
due process of law; nor shall private property be taken for public use,
without just compensation.


ARTICLE VI.

In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the right to a
speedy and public trial, by an impartial jury of the State and district
wherein the crime shall have been committed, which district shall have
been previously ascertained by law, and to be informed of the nature and
cause of the accusation; to be confronted with the witnesses against him;
to have compulsory process for obtaining witnesses in his favor; and to
have the assistance of counsel for his defense.


ARTICLE VII.

In suits at common law, where the value in controversy shall exceed
twenty dollars, the right of trial by jury shall be preserved, and no
fact tried by a jury shall be otherwise re-examined in any court of the
United States, than according to the rules of the common law.


ARTICLE VIII.

Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines imposed, nor
cruel and unusual punishments inflicted.


ARTICLE IX.

The enumeration, in the Constitution, of certain rights, shall not be
construed to deny or disparage others retained by the people.


ARTICLE X.

The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor
prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States respectively,
or to the people.


ARTICLE XI.

The judicial power of the United States shall not be construed to extend
to any suit in law or equity commenced or prosecuted against one of the
United States by citizens of another State, or by citizens or subjects of
any foreign State.


ARTICLE XII.

The electors shall meet in their respective States, and vote by ballot
for President and Vice-President, one of whom, at least, shall not be an
inhabitant of the same State with themselves; they shall name in their
ballots the person to be voted for as President, and in distinct ballots
the person voted for as Vice-President, and they shall make distinct
lists of all persons voted for as President, and of all persons voted
for as Vice-President, and of the number of votes for each, which list
they shall sign and certify, and transmit sealed to the seat of the
government of the United States, directed to the President of the Senate.
The President of the Senate shall, in presence of the Senate and House of
Representatives, open all the certificates, and the votes shall then be
counted. The person having the greatest number of votes for President,
shall be the President, if such number be a majority of the whole number
of electors appointed; and if no person have such majority, then from
the persons having the highest number not exceeding three on the list of
those voted for as President, the House of Representatives shall choose
immediately, by ballot, the President. But in choosing the President,
the votes shall be taken by States, the representation from each State
having one vote; a quorum for this purpose shall consist of a member or
members from two-thirds of the States, and a majority of all the States
shall be necessary to a choice. And if the House of Representatives
shall not choose a President whenever the right of choice shall devolve
upon them, before the fourth day of March next following, then the
Vice-President shall act as President, as in the case of the death or
other Constitutional disability of the President. The person having the
greatest number of votes as Vice-President, shall be the Vice-President,
if such number be a majority of the whole number of electors appointed,
and if no person have a majority, then from the two highest numbers on
the list, the Senate shall choose the Vice-President; a quorum for the
purpose shall consist of two-thirds of the whole number of Senators, and
a majority of the whole number shall be necessary to a choice. But no
person Constitutionally ineligible to the office of President shall be
eligible to that of Vice-President of the United States.


ARTICLE XIII.

SECTION 1. Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude, except as a
punishment for crime, whereof the party shall have been duly convicted,
shall exist within the United States, or any place subject to their
jurisdiction.

SEC. 2. Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate
legislation.


ARTICLE XIV.

SECTION 1. All persons born or naturalized in the United States and
subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United States,
and of the State wherein they reside. No State shall make or enforce any
law which shall abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens of the
United States; nor shall any State deprive any person of life, liberty,
or property, without due process of law, nor deny to any person within
its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws.

SEC. 2. Representatives shall be appointed among the several States
according to their respective numbers, counting the whole number of
persons in each State, excluding Indians not taxed; but when the right
to vote at any election for the choice of electors for President and
Vice-President of the United States, Representatives in Congress, the
executive and judicial officers of a State, or the members of the
Legislature thereof, is denied to any of the male inhabitants of such
State, being twenty-one years of age and citizens of the United States,
or in any way abridged except for participation in rebellion or other
crimes, the basis of representation therein shall be reduced in the
proportion which the number of such male citizens shall bear to the whole
number of male citizens twenty-one years of age in such State.

SEC. 3. No person shall be a Senator or Representative in Congress,
or elector of President and Vice-President, or hold any office, civil
or military, under the United States or under any State, who, having
previously taken an oath as a Member of Congress, or as an officer of
the United States, or as a member of any State Legislature, or as an
executive or judicial officer of any State, to support the Constitution
of the United States, shall have engaged in insurrection or rebellion
against the same, or given aid or comfort to the enemies thereof.
But Congress may, by a vote of two-thirds of each house, remove such
disability.

SEC. 4. The validity of the public debt of the United States authorized
by law, including debts incurred for payment of pensions and bounties
for services in suppressing insurrection or rebellion, shall not be
questioned. But neither the United States nor any State shall assume
or pay any debt or obligation incurred in the aid of insurrection or
rebellion against the United States, or any loss or emancipation of any
slave, but such debts, obligations, and claims shall be held illegal and
void.

SEC. 5. The Congress shall have power to enforce, by appropriate
legislation, the provisions of this act.


ARTICLE XV.

SECTION 1. The right of citizens of the United States to vote, shall not
be denied or abridged by the United States, or by any State, on account
of race, color, or previous condition of servitude.

SEC. 2. Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate
legislation.




CHAPTER X.

PRESIDENTS OF THE CONTINENTAL CONGRESS, AND THE VARIOUS SEATS OF
GOVERNMENT FROM 1774 TO 1789.


  Peyton Randolph, Virginia         5th Sept.,  1774
  Henry Middleton, South Carolina   22d Oct.,   1774
  Peyton Randolph, Virginia         10th May,   1775
  John Hancock, Massachusetts       24th May,   1775
  Henry Laurens, South Carolina     1st Nov.,   1777
  John Jay, New York                10th Dec.,  1778
  Samuel Huntingdon, Connecticut    28th Sept., 1779
  Thomas McKean, Delaware           10th July,  1781
  John Hanson, Maryland             5th Nov.,   1781
  Elias Boudinot, New Jersey        4th  ”      1782
  Thomas Mifflin, Pennsylvania      3d   ”      1783
  Richard Henry Lee, Virginia       30th ”      1784
  Nathaniel Gorham, Massachusetts   6th Jan.,   1786
  Arthur St. Clair, Pennsylvania    2d Feb.,    1787
  Cyrus Griffin, Virginia           22d Jan.,   1788

The seat of government was established as follows: At Philadelphia, Pa.,
commencing September 5th, 1774, and May 10th, 1775; at Baltimore, Md.,
December 20th, 1776; at Philadelphia, Pa., March 4th, 1777; at Lancaster,
Pa., September 27th, 1777; at York, Pa., September 30th, 1777; at
Philadelphia, Pa., July 2d, 1778; at Princeton, N. J., June 30th, 1783;
at Annapolis, Md., November 26th, 1783; at Trenton, N. J., November 1st,
1784; and at New York City, N. Y., January 11th, 1785.

On the 4th of March, 1789, the present Constitution, which had been
adopted by a convention and ratified by the requisite number of States,
went into operation.




PART SECOND.

THE GOVERNMENT UNDER THE CONSTITUTION.


The plan of this part of our work requires us to give a complete view of
the government of the United States, and in such detail as to be adequate
to all the purposes of the citizen and the student who wish to understand
its structure and modes of working. It will be found, we think, a clear,
concise, and complete account of what it is indispensable to the American
to know.

There are three branches, each independent, having its sphere of general
action entirely distinct, and clearly defined by the Constitution;
yet working in harmony with the others, and locking in, so to speak,
with them at special points, like the cogs of a system of wheels.
The adjustment was more perfect than the authors of the Constitution
themselves believed; probably because the spirit of the whole was in
harmony with the people whose interests it was designed to guard.

These three branches are the Legislative, the Executive, and the
Judicial. All the institutions or general subdivisions of each are given
in connection, with such explanations and data as they seem to require.
We commence with the Executive, as being most immediately in contact
with the people at large, having a wider field, and a larger number of
distinct organizations and agents. This branch exhausted, we present
the Legislative, and finally the Judicial, closing with such matters as
belong to the government as a whole.

No human government is perfect, neither can exact and equal justice
be done in every case by human laws. But the scope and design of our
legislation and jurisprudence is to dispense justice to all, to place
all on an equality before the laws, and to give the same rights to the
rich and to the poor. No privileged class is known to our laws, and the
lowest may aspire to the highest places of distinction and honor; many
have done so, and have reached the most exalted positions. The fullest
religious liberty is granted to all; every man may worship as he pleases,
when and where he pleases, without molestation or fear. He is not, as in
many other countries, taxed to support a church established by law. He
may pay for religious purposes as much or as little as he pleases, and to
any church he prefers, or he may pay nothing, and no one can call him to
account or use any compulsion whatever in this matter.

Every citizen has a vote for the choice of his rulers, and through his
representatives a voice in making the laws by which he is governed.

As to his business or calling, he may do that which best suits his
interests or his tastes. He may go when or where he desires, he may stay
in the country or leave it without restraint or hindrance; in short, he
may do whatsoever seemeth good to him, provided he does not infringe on
the rights of others.

To this liberty, to these equal rights, privileges, and advantages do we
attribute our rapid growth and power. The advantages and benefits of so
wise, so liberal, and so beneficent a government are not unknown to the
people of other countries where they do not enjoy so much freedom; and
this accounts for the wonderful immigration to the United States from
nearly every country in Europe. This flow has continued for more than
three-quarters of a century, and is still unabated. It has added many
millions to the natural increase of our population, while very few of
our own people ever leave their own country with the hope of bettering
their condition, or of finding a government under which they can enjoy
more liberty or better protection. To gain a clearer conception of the
intimate connection between a good government and the prosperity of the
country, let us, for example, place Mexico in contrast with the United
States. Mexico was settled long before the United States, and in climate
and mineral wealth has the advantage of us; yet the ever unsettled
condition of its government, together with intolerance of any but the
Catholic religion, has prevented any increase of population or any
advancement in anything which gives a nation respectability, greatness,
or power.

Let us draw another contrast by considering Ireland. An oppressive
government has diminished the population, prevented any advancement, and
impoverished the country. We might draw many such contrasts between the
United States and other countries in Europe, Asia, Africa, and South
America, which would convince any one who has the power to trace causes
to effects, and effects to causes, that a just and liberal government is
an essential condition upon which the prosperity of any country depends.




THE EXECUTIVE DEPARTMENT.




CHAPTER I.

THE PRESIDENT.


1. Congress legislates, or enacts laws; the officers of the Supreme Court
decide whether those laws are in conformity with the Constitution; but
the real ruler, the actual possessor of power, is the President. In the
language of the first section of the second article of the Constitution,
“The executive powers of the government shall be vested in a President
of the United States of America.” The other branches of the government
decide _what_ is to be done, and what is constitutionally legal, and the
President is the agent. He executes, or puts in actual operation, the
measures determined on by them. Should he attempt to do anything not
so prescribed, or to do anything in an improper manner, contrary to or
different from the manner prescribed by the law, he may be impeached and
removed, and all the subordinate officers and agents of the government
released from the obligation to obey him.

2. The other branches are composed of many persons. He has no associate.
The execution of the law requires vigor and decision, such as can be
found only in a single mind and will. All history shows that there is
constant danger of power being misused, whether one, two, or any number
of men are the depositaries of it; but one man is much better than two
or more, when vigor and promptness are required. All the securities
and checks that could be applied without embarrassing his necessary
freedom of action have been provided. They can not, indeed, supply the
want of judgment and uprightness, and so no absolute security against
mismanagement can exist; but the danger may be in large part avoided by
carefulness in the selection of the man who is to wield the whole power
of a great nation.

It is an office of great dignity, responsibility, and power, and requires
a man of great ability and probity to properly fill it.

3. The President is elected for four years, and may be reëlected if the
people see fit. Several times in our history the President has been once
reëlected, and so held the office for eight years; but none have been
twice reëlected, though there is no law against it. The term commences
and terminates on the fourth day of March. He is elected by the people,
every voter having an equal influence in the choice; but it is not done
by voting for him directly, but by voting first for men called electors,
who cast their votes according to the wish of the people. This system we
shall hereafter examine.

4. A Vice-President is elected at the same time and in the same way, who,
in case of the President’s death, removal, resignation, or inability
to discharge the duties of his office, becomes acting President during
the remainder of his term, or while the disability continues. The
first Congress passed a law giving the President a salary of $25,000
per annum, with the use of a furnished house, and it remained the same
until 1873, when it was raised to $50,000 per year. He is forbidden by
the Constitution to receive any other public income during his term of
office, nor is he at liberty to accept presents from any foreign power.

Before entering on the duties of his office he is required to take an
oath “to preserve, protect, and defend the Constitution of the United
States,” to the best of his ability.

5. It is required that he shall be a native-born citizen of the United
States, that he shall have been fourteen years a resident in the United
States, and that he shall not be less than thirty-five years of age;
which are designed to insure his attachment to American interests, his
thorough acquaintance with American affairs, and the full maturity of his
mind and character.

6. It is his duty to appoint such officers in every department of the
public service as are not otherwise provided for. He usually sends the
nomination to the Senate for their approval or consent, and when that
is given appoints them by commission, signed with his name, to the
office. In this manner he nominates the Justices of the Supreme Court,
ambassadors, resident ministers, chargé-d’affaires, consuls, and other
representatives of the government abroad, all the Heads of Executive
Departments, and the more important subordinate officers of each
department. When the Senate is not in session he may appoint all these
directly, to serve until it meets again. The clerks and minor officers
are usually appointed by Heads of Departments. In all other cases the
advice and consent of the Senate are required before the appointment and
commission can be legal.

7. It is his duty to make treaties with Foreign Powers, but these require
confirmation by two-thirds of the Senate to be valid. He receives the
Representatives of Foreign Powers, and superintends all diplomatic
intercourse with them and with our own Representatives abroad.

He is commander-in-chief of the army and navy, and must sign the
commissions of all the officers in each. He may grant reprieves and
pardons at his discretion, except in cases of impeachment, and he is
required to approve and sign the laws passed by Congress before they can
take effect. If he does not approve a law he “vetoes” it by returning
it to Congress, with his reasons for not signing it. If that body
reconsiders it and reënacts it by a two-thirds vote of each house, it may
become a law without his signature.

8. He may call extra sessions of Congress for special reasons, and may
adjourn it in case of disagreement between the two houses as to the
time of adjournment. It is his duty to give information to Congress, at
the commencement of each session, of the state of the country, and to
recommend to it such legislative enactments as he may judge are required.
This is called “The President’s Message,” and is looked for with much
interest in this and in foreign countries, since his position makes him
intimately acquainted with every subject relating to the public welfare.
When he considers that the occasion demands it, or when he is requested
by Congress to give information on a special point, he communicates with
them by similar documents, called messages.

He may be impeached for treason, bribery, or other high crimes, by the
House of Representatives, and tried by the Senate, the Chief Justice of
the Supreme Court presiding over that body during the trial, and in case
of conviction is removed from office.

9. It will be seen that he possesses great power, and that he is almost
overwhelmed by responsibilities. The members of his cabinet are his
constitutional advisers, and share more or less of this responsibility,
although his will may override them all if he so chooses.

There are many provisions for preventing an abuse of power in the
Constitution and in the laws of Congress, but all history proves that
nothing but watchfulness and wisdom on the part of the people can
preserve to them their rights and liberties. Power, wherever lodged, is
naturally aggressive. Fortunately the people themselves in this country
are the _source_ of power, and may legally restrain its exercise in their
representatives and executive officers, when it threatens to become
excessive.

The following are the names of all the Presidents, from Washington, the
first, down to the present incumbent:

George Washington, Va., 30th April, 1789, to 4th March, 1797—seven years
ten months and four days.

John Adams, Mass., 4th March, 1797, to 4th March, 1801—four years.

Thomas Jefferson, Va., 4th March, 1801, to 4th March, 1809—eight years.

James Madison, Va., 4th March, 1809, to 4th March, 1817—eight years.

James Monroe, Va., 4th March, 1817, to 4th March, 1825—eight years.

John Quincy Adams, Mass., 4th March, 1825, to 4th March, 1829—four years.

Andrew Jackson, Tenn., 4th March, 1829, to 4th March, 1837—eight years.

Martin Van Buren, N. Y., 4th March, 1837, to 4th March, 1841—four years.

William H. Harrison, O., 4th March, 1841, to 4th April, 1841—one month.

John Tyler, Va., 4th April, 1841, to 4th March, 1845—three years and
eleven months.

James K. Polk, Tenn., 4th March, 1845, to 4th March, 1849—four years.

Zachary Taylor, La., 4th March, 1849, to 9th July, 1850—one year four
months and five days.

Millard Fillmore, N. Y., 9th July, 1850, to 4th March, 1853—two years
seven months and twenty-six days.

Franklin Pierce, N. H., 4th March, 1853, to 4th March, 1857—four years.

James Buchanan, Pa., 4th March, 1857, to 4th March, 1861—four years.

Abraham Lincoln, Ill., 4th March, 1861, to 15th April, 1865—four years
one month and ten days.

Andrew Johnson, Tenn., 15th April, 1865, to 4th March, 1869—three years
ten months and twenty days.

Ulysses S. Grant, Ill., 4th March, 1869, to 4th March, 1877—eight years.

Of these William H. Harrison died 4th April, 1841, just one month after
his inauguration. On the death of Harrison, Tyler, the Vice-President,
became acting President. Taylor died 9th July, 1850, and Fillmore,
Vice-President, became acting President. Lincoln was assassinated on the
14th April, 1865, one month and ten days after he was inaugurated upon
his second term, and Andrew Johnson, the Vice-President, became acting
President—this being the third time that such an event has occurred since
the government went into operation.




CHAPTER II.

THE VICE-PRESIDENT.


This officer is elected by the people at the same time, and in the same
manner, as the President, and for the same term. He must be a native
citizen of the United States, and thirty-five years of age.

His high-sounding title would lead one who is but little acquainted with
our government to think that he stands next to the President himself in
dignity and power; that on his shoulders rests a large amount of the
duties and responsibilities of the administration. Such, however, is not
the case. He is, in fact, nearer a cipher than any of the high officers
of State. He is merely the presiding officer of the Senate, with not even
the power to vote, except in case of a tie vote in that body, when he
may give the casting vote. It is only in case of the death, resignation,
impeachment, or disability of the President to discharge his duties, that
the Vice-President becomes an officer of much power or dignity.

The following is a list of all the Vice-Presidents:

John Adams, Mass., April 30th, 1789, to March 4th, 1797—seven years, ten
months and four days.

Thomas Jefferson, Va., March 4th, 1797, to March 4th, 1801—four years.

Aaron Burr, N. Y., March 4th, 1801, to March 4th, 1805—four years.

George Clinton, N. Y., March 4th, 1805, to April 30th, 1812—seven years,
one month, and sixteen days.

Elbridge Gerry, Mass., March 4th, 1813, to November 23d, 1814—one year,
seven months, and nineteen days.

Daniel D. Tompkins, N. Y., March 4th, 1817, to March 4th, 1825—eight
years.

John C. Calhoun, S. C., March 4th, 1825 to March 4th, 1833—eight years.

Martin Van Buren, N. Y., March 4th, 1833, to March 4th, 1837—four years.

Richard M. Johnson, Ky., March 4th, 1837, to March 4th, 1841—four years.

John Tyler, Va., March 4th, 1841, to April 4th, 1841—one month.

George M. Dallas, Pa., March 4th, 1845, to March 4th, 1849—four years.

Millard Fillmore, N. Y., March 4th, 1849, to July 9th, 1850—one year and
four months.

William R. King, Ala.

John C. Breckenridge, Ky., March 4th, 1857, to March 4th, 1861—four years.

Hannibal Hamlin, Me., March 4th, 1861, to March 4th, 1865—four years.

Andrew Johnson, Tenn., March 4th, 1865, to April 15th, 1865—one month and
eleven days.

Schuyler Colfax, Ind., March 4th, 1869, to March 4th, 1873—four years.

Henry Wilson, Mass., March 4th, 1873, to March 4th, 1877—four years.

Of these, Clinton died April 20th, 1812; from which time till March 4th,
1813, the Vice-Presidency was vacant.

Gerry died November 23d, 1814; from which time till March 4th, 1817, the
Vice-Presidency was vacant.

Tyler became acting President upon the death of President Harrison; and
until March 4th, 1845, the Vice-Presidency was vacant.

Fillmore became acting President upon the death of President Taylor, July
9th, 1850; and until March 4th, 1853, the Vice-Presidency was vacant.

King was elected with President Pierce, in 1852, but died April 18th,
1853. He never took his seat, and the Vice-Presidency was vacant till
March 4th, 1857.

Johnson became acting President upon the death of President Lincoln,
April 15th, 1865, and the Vice-Presidency again became vacant, and
remained so until March 4th, 1869.




CHAPTER III.

THE CABINET.


1. The members of the President’s Cabinet are seven in number, viz.:
Five Secretaries, at the head of their respective departments, of
State, Treasury, War, Navy, and Interior; and the Postmaster General,
and Attorney General. It is through these departments and their various
bureaus, officers, agents, and clerks, that the President performs most
of the duties of his position, viz.: that of _executing_, or putting in
force, the laws of Congress. He must, therefore, necessarily take them
into his counsels, and arrange, by their assistance, the conduct of
public affairs. Each one has the affairs of his department so thoroughly
systematized that he can tell, with a little examination, the means at
his disposal for carrying into effect any special measure; and precise
records of the whole state of the public service may, at all times, be
found in their offices.

2. They are also selected for their several positions from among those
regarded as the most eminent statesmen of the country, and each is
supposed to be specially adapted, by his experience, acquirements, and
capacity, for his special position, as well as in harmony with the
general policy adopted by the President. They are, therefore, properly,
and _ex officio_ (by virtue of their office), his advisers. No one
else can tell as well as they the condition of public affairs at any
particular time, nor, in consequence, give as good advice on any special
measure requiring such knowledge. Without their aid the President would
have few means of judging what was best, or possible, to be done at any
particular crisis. They furnish the material for his decisions, and the
instruments to execute them. They are heads of the Executive Departments,
and, together with the President, who is the head of them all, bringing
them all into harmony, and under the control of a single purpose and
will, they are called the administration. They administer, or carry on,
the government.

3. In other countries these administrative heads are usually called
Ministers, probably because they _serve_ the ruler—servant being the
original meaning of the term minister—and are commonly chosen among
the members of the legislative bodies—perhaps because that brings the
government into closer sympathy with the legislators, and promotes
harmony of action; but with us, no member of the Cabinet can have a
seat in, or take any part in the proceedings of, Congress. Great care
was taken to keep the different branches of the government distinct
and independent of each other. Each branch, and each subdivision, is
kept separate, and confined to its own range of duties, being united to
the others only by its head, so that confusion and conflict might be
impossible.

4. Each sub-department reports at stated intervals to its head, and he
to the President, and through him to Congress; and at the same time they
present such suggestions and arguments for legislation in regard to their
several departments as their knowledge, experience, and reflections may
have convinced them to be desirable. They are supposed to give their
whole time and thought to the care and improvement of their several
branches of the public service, and to be in condition to know what
further improvement should be provided for by law, better than any one
else.

5. Under Washington’s administration the departments and members of
Cabinet were but three—of State, of the Treasury, and of War. In 1798,
during the administration of John Adams, the Department of the Navy was
added, and its Secretary took his seat in the Cabinet. It then had only
four members down to Jackson’s administration (1829 to 1837), when the
Postmaster General was made a Cabinet officer, which increased the number
to five. During Mr. Tyler’s administration (1841-1845) the Attorney
General was made a member, and the number was then six. At the close of
Mr. Polk’s term as President, in 1849, the Department of the Interior was
created, and its chief given the seventh seat in the Cabinet; since which
time there has been no increase. Congress may, at their discretion, as
the country grows, and the public service with it, create other great or
independent departments requiring its representative to have a seat in
the Cabinet, that the state of the entire service may be readily known
from the officer most familiar with each branch.




CHAPTER IV.

DEPARTMENT OF STATE.


1. As the Chief Executive of a government cannot, for want of time,
attend to all the details of the business belonging to his office, he,
according to the usage of all times, appoints various officers to attend
to the different branches of public business. In most countries these
officers, who are next in importance to the chief of the government, are
called Ministers. In accordance with the practice of using plain and
simple terms which was adopted in this country at the beginning, they are
called Secretaries. They are subordinates of the President and supposed
to act in his name and under his direction.

2. They are not specially named in the Constitution, but are several
times referred to as Heads of Departments, and thus it was assumed that
there would be such offices and officers, and their appointment was
provided for. The first Congress under the Constitution organized these
Executive Departments, the President nominating and the Senate confirming
the appointment of the more responsible officers.

3. The first of these in rank is called the Department of State, and its
head is named the Secretary of State. He is, by a law passed in 1853,
aided by an Assistant Secretary, appointed in the same manner as himself.
The numerous under officers required by the extensive business falling to
this department are appointed by the Secretary at its head.

4. This Department has charge of such business as may arise between this
government and the governments of other countries. In most countries
it is called the Department, or Ministry, of Foreign Affairs, but the
term Department of State was preferred here. The great Seal of the
United States is in his keeping, and it is his duty to affix it to
all civil commissions given to officers of the United States who are
appointed by the President and Senate, or by the President alone. It
is his duty, under the supervision and control of the President, to
conduct the correspondence with, and give instructions to, the Foreign
Ministers, Consuls, and Agents of the government abroad, to take charge
of the official business and intercourse of the government with the
representatives of foreign governments sent to us, and to attend to such
other business arising from our Foreign Relations as shall be committed
to him by the President.

5. It is his duty to keep in his office the original copies of all acts,
resolutions, and orders of Congress. He must deliver to each Senator and
Representative in Congress, and to the Governor of each State, a printed
copy of the same; and during the session of each Congress he must publish
the acts and resolutions passed by it in one newspaper in the District
of Columbia, and in not more than two in each State and Territory of the
United States. He must also publish in like manner all amendments of
the Constitution, and all public treaties made and ratified between the
United States and any foreign State, Prince, or Power, or with any of the
Indian tribes.

6. And at the close of each session of Congress he must cause to be
published 11,000 copies in book form of all the laws, etc., as before
stated; and to distribute the same as directed by law to the President
and Vice-President, and to every ex-President; to all the members of the
Senate and House of Representatives; to all the heads of the various
departments and bureaus; to all the Judges of the United States Courts,
their Clerks and Marshals; to all our Foreign Ministers, Consuls, and
Public Agents; in short, to all the important officers of the government
at home and abroad; in order that all who are in government employ
may know what the laws are, and what changes have been made in acts
formerly existing. The remaining copies are distributed to the States and
Territories according to the number of Representatives in Congress from
each of them.

7. It is also made the duty of the Secretary of State to give passports
to our own citizens who wish to travel in foreign countries; to cause
passports to be issued by such Diplomatic or Consular officers of the
United States as the President shall direct; to give such information to
our people through the newspapers as he may from time to time receive
from our Diplomatic and Consular agents abroad, as he may deem important
to the nation, respecting our commercial interests in foreign countries,
and to prepare a form of passport for the ships and vessels of the United
States.

8. In the execution of extradition treaties between us and foreign
governments, it is lawful for the Secretary of State, under his hand and
seal of office, to issue an order for the rendition of any person who
has been found guilty of crime in a foreign country, to any properly
authorized person; that such criminal may be taken out of the United
States to the country where the crime was committed.

9. It will be seen that, in addition to the duties connected with our
Foreign Relations, he is a kind of General Secretary of the Legislative
branch of the government, which probably led to his being called
Secretary of State rather than Secretary of Foreign Affairs. The highest
officer, in most other governments, under the Executive, is commonly
called Prime Minister; but he usually has care of the general interests
of the government, internal as well as external, and the term would not
be fitting to the Secretary of State.

Our Foreign Relations require to be managed with great wisdom and skill,
since they often involve peace and war, and the general prosperity of the
country. It therefore requires a man of great ability, and of extensive
knowledge. He is a member of the Cabinet, and one of the advisers or
counselors of the President. His appointment is for four years, or
during a Presidential term; but he may be removed by the President at
any time, if he deems it advisable.

10. As a matter of historical reference, we append the names of all the
statesmen who have filled this high office, commencing with the first,
placing them in the order of the dates of their appointments, together
with the States from which they came:


SECRETARIES OF STATE.

  Thomas Jefferson, Va., Sept. 26th, 1789.
  Edmund Randolph, Va., Jan. 2d, 1794.
  Timothy Pickering, Mass., Dec. 10th, 1795.
  John Marshall, Va., May 13th, 1800.
  James Madison, Va., March 5th, 1801.
  Robert Smith, Md., March 6th, 1809.
  James Monroe, Va., April 2d, 1811.
  John Quincy Adams, Mass., March 4th, 1817.
  Henry Clay, Ky., March 7th, 1825.
  Martin Van Buren, N. Y., March 6th, 1829.
  Edward Livingston, La., May 24th, 1831.
  Louis McLane, Del., May 29th, 1833.
  John Forsyth, Ga., June 27th, 1834.
  Daniel Webster, Mass., March 5th, 1841.
  H. S. Legaré, S. C., May 9th, 1843.
  A. P. Upshur, Va., June 24th, 1843.
  John Nelson, Md., Feb. 29th, 1844.
  John C. Calhoun, S. C., March 6th, 1844.
  James Buchanan, Pa., March 5th, 1845.
  John M. Clayton, Del., March 7th, 1849.
  Daniel Webster, Mass., July 20th, 1850.
  Edward Everett, Mass., Dec. 9th, 1851.
  William L. Marcy, N. Y., March 5th, 1853.
  Lewis Cass, Mich., March 6th, 1857.
  Jeremiah S. Black, Pa., Dec. 14th, 1860.
  William H. Seward, N. Y., March 5th, 1861.
  Elihu B. Washburne, Ill., March 5th, 1869.
  Hamilton Fish, N. Y., March 11th, 1869.
  Hamilton Fish, N. Y., reappointed March 4th, 1873.




CHAPTER V.

OUR REPRESENTATIVES IN FOREIGN LANDS.


1. Nations have business with each other, as individuals have; and their
governments employ agents to represent them and transact business in
their name. By these means their political and commercial relations and
intercourse are regulated, treaties are made, and any disputes that may
arise between them settled. Officers of this character have been employed
from very early times, and by all nations. They are considered to be
clothed with the authority and dignity of the government they represent,
and therefore the office has ever been held in great honor, and men
most familiar with the affairs of their own nation, of most extensive
knowledge, prudence, and wisdom, are supposed to be selected for so
eminent a service.

2. By the law (or general consent) of nations ambassadors are exempt from
arrest, imprisonment, or prosecution. Any interference with them in this
way might hinder the execution of the duties assigned them, and be a
great damage to the public welfare, and an offense of that kind committed
against them is considered as a dishonor to the government whose
agents they are. On the other hand they require much judgment and tact
that their conduct may not bring discredit on their government. Their
inviolable character is carried so far as to exempt their servants from
arrest, and their property from seizure for debt. The law of Congress
protecting the Representatives of foreign governments to this country is
but a re-enactment, or acceptance, of what has been known as the Law of
Nations for many centuries all over the civilized world. A violation
of this established usage among nations, without due atonement and
satisfaction, would be recognized as a sufficient cause for war against
the nation so offending.

3. Our own foreign ministers of all grades are appointed by the
President, by and with the advice and consent of the Senate. They are
not, however, the representatives of the President, but of the government
of the United States. We said of all grades, for there are grades of
these officials, different in dignity and power. They are distinguished
also by different names which indicate their rank, viz.: Ambassadors,
Envoys Extraordinary and Ministers Plenipotentiary, Ministers Resident,
and Chargé d’Affaires.


AMBASSADORS.

4. This title in our country has no very specific meaning. It designates,
however, a minister of the highest grade; but does not distinguish
between one who goes to reside in the country whither he is sent, and
one who is sent for some special purpose; such as that of negotiating
a treaty of peace, or some other particular matter with which he is
charged, and when that is accomplished returns home. In the latter case
he is frequently styled a commissioner, because he was duly authorized,
and _commissioned_ by his government to act for it; but in both cases the
officer is an ambassador, for that word means a person authorized and
sent to transact business for his government.


ENVOYS EXTRAORDINARY AND MINISTERS PLENIPOTENTIARY.

5. These titles designate ministers of the highest class; but generally
refer to such as go to reside in the country where sent, and with full
power to act for their government, in all matters and things of a
diplomatic character.

Where negotiations become necessary between the two nations, permanent
ministers of this grade are only sent to great powers—governments of the
higher class.


MINISTERS RESIDENT.

6. These are not considered so high in rank as those termed envoys
extraordinary and ministers plenipotentiary. Yet they are clothed with
nearly the same powers, but are sent to countries of less importance, and
receive less salaries.


COMMISSIONERS.

7. There are a still lower grade of ministers (if we may call them so),
or government agents, who reside abroad. They are sent to look after
the interests of our government and its citizens in places of not much
importance, and where there is but little to do. They also receive but
small pay.


CHARGE D’AFFAIRES.

8. These officials rank as the lowest grade of ministers or diplomatic
officers, and are not clothed with much authority or power, excepting
when authorized to act in the room of a minister of higher rank, whose
place is for the time being vacant. In this case consuls have been
authorized to act in place of ministers; but not unless authorized to do
so by the President of the United States.


SECRETARIES OF LEGATION.

9. Secretaries of Legation may with propriety be noticed under the
general head of ministers, although they are not ministers of any
grade, but are appointed by the same powers that appoint ministers, and
accompany them merely as their secretaries. In the absence of a chargé
d’affaires, they are sometimes authorized to act in his place. The
position is not one of great dignity, nor is the compensation large.




CHAPTER VI.

TREATIES—EXTRADITION TREATIES.


1. A treaty is a written contract, entered into by two nations, on some
question of interest or intercourse between them. It is precisely of the
nature of a contract between two persons when they bind themselves to do,
or not to do, certain things specified in the contract. That would be a
treaty between individuals. Treaties between nations are only different
in the solemn and formal manner of arranging and confirming these
agreements.

2. Treaties have often been of great service to the world, both in
ancient and modern times. By these negotiations, wars have been
prevented, friendly relations maintained, and commercial intercourse
kept up, advantageously to both parties. Treaties may be negotiated by
any persons properly authorized by their governments to do so; and any
government may authorize such persons as they see fit, to perform these
important acts. In many cases the ordinary ministers who represent their
governments to other governments, negotiate ordinary treaties. But in
cases where something of an extraordinary character is to be arranged,
special ministers or commissioners are sent for this express purpose.
This was the case at the treaty of Ghent (so called from the name of the
place where the commissioners met to arrange it), in 1814; by which a
peace was brought about between England and the United States, after the
last war between those powers. Special ministers, or commissioners, as
they were denominated, were appointed and sent for this very purpose. A
treaty of peace was agreed upon by the commissioners of the respective
countries, and hostilities ceased as soon as the news reached the United
States.

3. In some cases our government has authorized its commanding generals to
make a treaty with the hostile nation. It has also given the same power
to the commanders of our national vessels; and also, in a few cases, to
our consuls, in countries at a great distance from home, such as China,
Japan, Siam, and Turkey.

The persons authorized to negotiate a treaty, rarely act without
instructions from their government, as to the times and conditions of the
proposed treaty. Much, however, must be left to the sound judgment and
discretion of the negotiators as to the details.

4. It must be borne in mind that a treaty, although mutually agreed
upon by the agents of the nations concerned, is not binding upon either
party until properly ratified according to the forms of the respective
governments interested. The modes of ratification differ in different
governments. In ours the Constitution confers this power upon the
President, by and with the advice and consent of two-thirds of the Senate.

In absolute monarchies this power rests in the hands of the King or
Emperor alone. As before stated, every government may confer the power to
negotiate a treaty upon such agents as it pleases. It also has the power
to prescribe such modes of ratifying or confirming it, as it pleases.

5. But when once made and approved, it becomes binding not only upon
the respective governments that made it, but upon all the citizens and
subjects of that government. It has been held in this country by our
greatest lawyers and statesmen, that the provisions of a treaty bind
Congress, the President, and every citizen as much as any Constitutional
provision or act of Congress. And for this reason our treaties are
published in the papers in every State and Territory in the Union, in the
same manner, and to the same extent, as the laws of Congress.

6. The violation of a treaty by either of the parties thereto, is
reprehensible and criminal. It is derogatory to the character of any
nation or individual that does it. It destroys the confidence of one
nation in the other, leads to unfriendly feelings and acts between the
parties, and may bring on a war, if satisfaction is not given. Yet such
things have been done, and evil consequences have always followed. “If
you make a bargain, stick to it,” is a common, trite, and wise saying.

Just here it seems proper to call attention to the fact that the
Constitution prohibits any State from making any treaty with any foreign
government. The reason for this provision is very obvious, for, if
allowed, a State might confer privileges upon foreign powers which
would be incompatible with the interests of other States. Therefore
the treaty-making power is kept wholly in the hands of the general
government, for in it every State has its representatives, and a voice in
every treaty which it makes.

7. So numerous are the treaties which the United States has made with
nearly every civilized nation upon earth, that it would require a very
large volume to contain them. They are published with the laws, and
generally in English and in the language of the nation with whom the
treaty is made. They may be found in the United States Statutes at Large.
It would require too much space in a work of this kind, to give even
their titles.

8. Wars have been stopped; boundary lines between nations have been
established; commercial intercourse arranged; the purchase and sale of
lands, and a variety of other things have been the subjects, and formed
the matter of treaties. Several of our most important ones relate to the
purchase of territory. We acquired the States of Louisiana, Arkansas, and
Missouri, by a treaty with France in 1803. It was called the Louisiana
purchase; for it was nothing more than a purchase and sale of lands. We
also acquired Florida of Spain, in 1819, in the same way, and California
and New Mexico of Mexico, in 1847.

9. The immense quantities of land purchased of the Indians, were
obtained by treaties with them. We are sorry to say that in some cases
they have treacherously violated their treaty obligations; but at the
same time it should be said by way of extenuating their offense, that
our own government agents appointed for the purpose of taking care of
the interests of the poor Indians, have, in connection with the white
traders among them, shamefully cheated and wronged them, and provoked
them not only to disregard their obligations, but to perpetrate murders,
robberies, and thefts upon the whites who live near them. At different
times during the years past, the Indians have been very hostile to us,
and have waged war against the whites in their vicinity for the reasons
above stated. “Honesty is the best policy.”

10. In the early part of the year 1867, a treaty was negotiated by
William H. Seward, our Secretary of State, on the part of the United
States, and Edward de Stoekl, the Russian Minister to the United States,
on the part of Russia, for the cession of the Russian possessions in
North America to the United States.

This treaty may be regarded as one of the most important of all our
treaties with foreign powers; for by it the United States acquire between
350,000 and 400,000 square miles of territory, in addition to our
already immense possessions; and it places by far the greater part of
the Northwestern coast of North America under the control of the United
States government.

For the purpose of giving a specimen of a treaty, and showing some of the
details of this negotiation, we here insert it in full, as agreed upon by
the contracting parties. $7,000,000 in gold is the consideration which
the United States paid Russia for this territory. This treaty has been
ratified by the United States and Russian governments, and the money,
($7,000,000 in gold) has been appropriated for the purpose, and paid to
the Russian Minister.


THE RUSSIAN TREATY.

The following is the text of the Russian-American treaty:

The United States of America, and his Majesty, the Emperor of all
the Russias, being desirous of strengthening, if possible, the good
understanding which exists between them, have for that purpose appointed
as their plenipotentiaries, the President of the United States, William
H. Seward, Secretary of State, and his Majesty the Emperor of all the
Russias, Mr. Edward de Stoekl, his Envoy Extraordinary and Minister
Plenipotentiary to the United States, and the said plenipotentiaries,
having exchanged their full powers, which were found to be in due form,
have agreed upon and signed the following articles:

ARTICLE I. His Majesty, the Emperor of all the Russias, agrees to cede to
the United States, by this convention, immediately upon the exchange of
the ratifications thereof, all the territory and dominion now possessed
by his said Majesty on the continent of America and in the adjacent
islands, the same being contained within the geographical limits herein
set forth, to wit: The eastern limit is the line of demarcation between
the Russian and British possessions in North America, as established by
the convention between Russia and Great Britain, of February 28 (16),
1825, and described in articles third and fourth of said convention in
the following terms: Commencing from the southernmost point of the island
called Prince of Wales’ Island—which point lies in the parallel of 50
deg. 40 min. north latitude, and between the 131st and 133d deg. of west
longitude, meridian of Greenwich—the said line shall ascend to the north
along the channel called Portland Channel, as far as the point of the
continent where it strikes the 56th degree of north latitude. From this
last mentioned point the line of demarcation shall follow the summit
of the mountains situated parallel to the coast as far as the point of
intersection of the 141st degree of west longitude of the same meridian,
and finally from the said point of intersection the said meridian line
of the 141st degree in its prolongation as far as the Frozen Ocean. With
reference to the line of demarcation laid down in the preceding article,
it is understood—first, that the island called Prince of Wales’ Island
shall belong wholly to Russia, and now, by this cession, wholly to the
United States; second, that whenever the summit of the mountains which
extend in a direction parallel to the coast from the 56th degree of north
latitude to the point of intersection of the 141st degree west longitude
shall prove to be at the distance of more than ten marine leagues from
the ocean, the limit between the British possessions and the line of
coast which is to belong to Russia as above mentioned—that is to say, the
limit of the possessions ceded by this convention—shall be formed by a
line parallel to the winding of the coast, and which shall never exceed
the distance of ten marine leagues therefrom. The western limit, within
which the territories and dominion conveyed are contained, passes through
a point in Behring’s Strait on the parallel of 65 deg. 30 min. north
latitude, at its intersection by the meridian which passes midway between
the island of Krusenstern, or Ignaalook, and the island of Ratmanog,
or Noonerbook, and proceeds due north without limitation into the same
Frozen Ocean. The same western limit beginning at the same initial point,
proceeds thence in a course nearly northwest through Behring’s Strait and
Behring’s Sea, so as to pass midway between the north-west part of the
island of St. Lawrence and the south-east point of Cape Choukottki to
the meridian of 172 deg. west longitude. Thence, from the intersection
of that meridian, in a south-westerly direction, so as to pass midway
between the island of Attou and the copper island of the Koranddorski
couplet or group in the North Pacific Ocean, to the meridian of 193 deg.
west longitude, so as to include in the territory conveyed the whole of
the Aleutian Islands east of that meridian.

ART. II. In the cession of territory and dominion made by the preceding
article, are included the right of property in all public lots and
squares, vacant lands, and all public buildings, barracks, and other
edifices which are not private, individual property. It is, however,
understood and agreed that the churches which have been built in the
ceded territory by the Russian government shall remain the property of
such members of the Greek Oriental Church resident in the territory as
may choose to worship therein. Any government archives, papers, and
documents relative to the territory and domain aforesaid, which may be
now existing there, will be left in possession of the agent of the United
States; but an authenticated copy of such of them as may be required will
be at all times given by the United States to the Russian government, or
to such Russian officers or subjects as may apply for them.

ART. III. The inhabitants of the ceded territory, according to their
choice, reserving their natural allegiance, may return to Russia within
three years; but if they should prefer to remain in the ceded territory,
they, with the exception of uncivilized tribes, shall be admitted to
the enjoyment of all the rights, advantages, and immunities of citizens
of the United States, and shall be maintained and protected in the free
enjoyment of their liberty, property, and religion. The uncivilized
tribes will be subject to such laws and regulations as the United States
may from time to time adopt in regard to aboriginal tribes of that
country.

ART. IV. His Majesty, the Emperor of all the Russias, shall appoint, with
convenient dispatch, an agent or agents, for the purpose of formally
delivering to a similar agent or agents, appointed on behalf of the
United States, the territory, dominion, property, dependencies, and
appurtenances which are ceded as above, and for doing any other act which
may be necessary in regard thereto; but the cession, with the right of
immediate possession, is nevertheless to be deemed complete and absolute
on the exchange of ratifications, without waiting for such formal
delivery.

ART. V. Immediately after the exchange of the ratifications of this
convention, any fortifications or military posts which may be in the
ceded territory shall be delivered to the agent of the United States, and
any Russian troops which may be in the territory shall be withdrawn as
soon as may be reasonably and conveniently practicable.

ART. VI. In consideration of the cession aforesaid, the United States
agree to pay, at the Treasury in Washington, within —— months after the
exchange of the ratifications of this convention, to the diplomatic
representative, or other agent of His Majesty, the Emperor of all the
Russias, duly authorized to receive the same, —— million dollars in gold.
The cession of territory and dominion herein made is hereby demanded to
be free and unincumbered by any reservations, privileges, franchises,
grants, or possessions, by any associated companies, whether corporate
or incorporate, Russian or any other, or by any parties except merely
private individual property holders; and the cession hereby made conveys
all the rights, franchises, and privileges now belonging to Russia in the
said territory or dominion and appurtenances thereto.

ART. VII. When this convention shall have been duly ratified by the
President of the United States, by and with the advice and consent of the
Senate, on the one part, and on the other by His Majesty, the Emperor
of all the Russias, the ratifications shall be exchanged at Washington
within —— from the date hereof, or sooner, if possible. In faith whereof
the respective plenipotentiaries have signed this convention, and thereto
affixed the seals of their arms.


EXTRADITION TREATIES.

1. Treaties have been made from time immemorial between rulers and
nations for the purpose of promoting the interests of one or both parties
in their commercial relations, or to secure allies in war; but the kind
of treaties mentioned at the head of this section are of modern origin;
and shows strongly the progress of nations toward a substantial unity of
interests and of discipline.

2. The security of society demands that when men commit a crime in
one place they shall not be able to find a safe asylum to which they
may fly whenever the retributions of the law, which watches over the
welfare of the citizen, threaten to overtake them. The readiness with
which criminals can pass from one country to another since steam has
made travel so speedy and pursuit for any long distance so difficult,
increases the evil. When criminals fly to another country they cannot be
punished there, since their courts have no jurisdiction over a criminal
from another nation, unless the act was committed in the country where
they were established; nor are governments usually willing to deliver an
individual on accusation only, unless there is an express stipulation,
or treaty to this effect, between them. To overcome the difficulty a
treaty was made in 1842 between this country and England, in which it was
mutually agreed that each country, on the demand of the government of the
other, should give up criminals of certain kinds named in the treaty,
when these after the crime had fled into their jurisdiction. It worked
well, since it multiplied the chances of punishment, and tended to check
crime.

3. Subsequently, treaties of the same kind were made between the United
States and the following countries:

  France                               in  1843
  Prussia, and 17 other German States   ”  1852
  Switzerland                           ”  1855
  Baden                                 ”  1857
  Sweden                                ”  1860
  Venezuela, South America              ”  1861

The time is probably not distant when treaties of this sort will be
made between us and all the civilized nations of the world; for the
intercourse between us and foreign nations is greater than ever before.

The effect of these international arrangements is to render the
perpetration of crime more dangerous than it would be if they did
not exist. Flight from the country where the crime was committed was
formerly one of the most effectual methods of escaping the penalty. But
extradition treaties, Atlantic cables, and land telegraphs, have nearly
spoiled this game.

3. An extradition treaty, then, is a mutual agreement between two
nations to deliver up, each to the other, upon demand and proper proof
of criminality, such persons as have committed crimes in one country and
then fled to the other, that they may be taken back, tried, and punished
where the offense was committed. But these demands for escaped criminals
can not be sustained if made for every crime whatever. They will only be
complied with when the crime is one which is named in the treaty itself.
These crimes, upon examination of a number of such treaties, we find to
be: 1. Murder, or an assault with an intent to commit murder. 2. Piracy.
3. Arson. 4. Robbery. 5. Forgery, or the uttering of forged papers, or
the making or circulating counterfeit money, either paper or coin. 6.
Rape. 7. Embezzlement, and 8. Burglary.

4. It should be observed that a mere demand for an alleged offender is
not sufficient. Proof enough to convince the judge before whom the case
is brought must accompany the demand. He must be satisfied that the party
demanded has committed the alleged offense; when this is done the judge
reports his finding to the Secretary of State, whose duty then is, under
his hand and seal of office, to issue the final writ of extradition;
after which the criminal may be taken out of the United States (by force,
if necessary), and back to the country where he committed the crime,
there to be dealt with according to the laws which he violated.

5. In some of our extradition treaties it is expressly stipulated that
neither party (government) shall be bound to surrender its own citizens,
or any person for merely a political offense. In others it is agreed that
the provisions in the treaty shall not apply to cases where the crime
was perpetrated before the treaty was made. This plea, we think, would
be held to be a good defense in all cases, whether so stipulated in the
treaty or not.

6. The treaties between different nations for the surrender of criminals
are so analogous to one of the provisions contained in our Constitution,
that to insert it here will give the reader a clear comprehension of its
meaning. It is found in the second section of article 4, and reads thus:

“A person charged in any State with treason, felony, or other crime, who
shall flee from justice, and be found in another State, shall, on demand
of the executive authority of the State from which he fled, be delivered
up, to be removed to the State having jurisdiction of the crime.”




CHAPTER VII.

BUSINESS REPRESENTATIVES.


1. These officers, called Consuls, are employed by most civilized
nations, all those at least who have an extensive intercourse with
foreign countries, and they are recognized by the Law of Nations as being
clothed, when acting in their official capacity, with the authority and
inviolability of their respective governments. Their place of official
business is protected by the flag of their country, an insult to which
renders reparation or war necessary to maintain its honor. Consuls are
agents of their governments, but most of their duties have reference to
the interests of private citizens who may be within their Consulate.
There may be a great number of them in one country, and they are usually
located in the seaports.

2. The Constitution provides that the President and Senate shall appoint
all our Consuls. The President signs their commissions, which bear the
great seal of the United States, and which prove to the government where
they are sent that they are duly appointed and authorized to discharge
the duties of Consuls at the ports or places to which they have been
appointed.

3. In order to show the nature of a Consul’s duties, such as the laws
impose upon him, we will state the substance of several acts relating to
this subject.

1. Whenever a vessel belonging to a citizen of the United States arrives
at the port where he is stationed, it is his duty to receive the ship’s
papers, and to see if they are all correct.

2. It is his duty to provide for sick, disabled, and destitute American
seamen, and to send them home by some vessel going to the United States.

3. He must hear the complaints of seamen, and settle disputes between the
captain and men; and for good cause he may discharge the whole ship’s
crew.

4. It is made his duty to receive and take care of the personal property
of any citizen of the United States who has died within his Consulate,
and to send any balance which may be left after paying his debts and
necessary expenses, to the treasury of the United States, to be held in
trust for the legal claimants. He must also give notice to the Secretary
of State of the death of such person.

4. For the purpose of carrying out and executing certain treaties made
between the United States and China, Japan, Siam, and Turkey, Consuls to
those countries have been empowered with judicial functions. They were
allowed to act as judges, and to try and punish citizens of the United
States who had committed crimes there. These, however, were extraordinary
powers in special cases, and by no means common to the consular office.

5. In the absence of a minister or diplomatic agent of the United States,
the President may authorize a Consul to perform the duties of such
foreign minister; but these powers are rarely conferred on them. Their
ordinary duties relate to commercial affairs, and to such as are before
stated.

6. A Vice-Consul, or deputy Consul, is one appointed to act temporarily
in case of sickness or absence of the Consul. His powers, while acting,
are the same as those of the Consul in whose place he acts. Every Consul
is required to give bonds for the faithful performance of his duties.

7. Our commerce has been extended to almost every part of the globe, and
for this reason we need a great number of these officials. Their services
are required at all great seaports, and at many smaller ones. The
compensation varies according to the amount of business to be transacted
by them, from $7,500 down to $500. Some do not receive any salary, but
are allowed the fees they are authorized to charge for their services.

8. It is his duty to give his government and countrymen all such
information as he possesses in relation to the laws and practices of
the country to which he is sent, which it would be important for them
to know; and especially is it his duty to look after the interests and
welfare of his countrymen when they are within his Consulate, and to see
that no wrong or injustice is done to them by the people or government
where he resides.




CHAPTER VIII.

PASSPORTS.


1. These are written documents, in due official form, signed and sealed
by the proper authority, to convey official information, or serve as a
means of protection, and to readily distinguish the American Citizen
abroad, or to give a permission or authority to go where those not having
passports are forbidden to go. The passport conveys authentic information
to whom it may concern, to what nation the bearer of the passport
belongs; and second, to protect him, and secure to him all the rights and
privileges which the government has a right to claim for its citizens by
virtue of any treaty of amity and friendship existing between it and the
country whither its citizens may go.

The passport informs the world that the bearer of it is a citizen of the
United States, and that he travels under its protection, and that it
would demand and exact satisfaction of any one who wronged or injured him
who bears such credentials.

2. In the United States, the Secretary of State is the officer authorized
by law to issue passports. He has the authority also to cause them to be
issued in foreign countries by our foreign ministers and consuls, under
such restrictions and rules as may be designated by the President. This
is allowed as a matter of convenience to our citizens who happen to be
in foreign countries without them; who need their protection, and who
would be subjected to much delay and expense by going or sending home to
procure them.

Passports are not granted to any other than citizens of the United
States, whether issued by the Secretary or by any diplomatic or consular
agent of our government.

3. Besides these passports, which are given only to our own citizens
when in foreign countries, or who intend to go there, there is another
kind issued to foreigners who wish to go among the Indians in the Indian
territory, or on the Indian reservations. Indeed, our own citizens are
not allowed to go among them without permission. But foreigners cannot go
without a passport from the Secretary of War, which specifies the route
over which the bearer must pass, and the length of time he is allowed
to remain among them. This is done to prevent unfriendly foreigners
from fomenting mischief, or from exciting unkind feelings towards our
government or people. Such unfriendly feelings have been created by
foreigners, and we have often experienced the bitter fruits of it,
especially in times of war.

4. Still another kind of passports is used in this country, and should
be noticed under this head. They are passports for American ships or
vessels. When they are about to sail for a foreign port, the laws of the
United States require each to procure one, under a penalty or fine of
two hundred dollars upon the master if he departs from the United States
for a foreign country (other than some port in America), without it. The
passport is prepared by the Secretary of State and is approved by the
President. This is given to the master by the collector of the port from
which the vessel sails, and is one of the ship’s papers, by which her
nationality is known, and her protection shown to be that of the United
States.




CHAPTER IX.

DEPARTMENT OF THE TREASURY.


1. If the Executive Department that has charge of the public moneys
is not highest in nominal rank, it certainly does not hold a less
important and interesting place in the estimation of the country and of
the world than the Department of State. Every part of the government is
dependent on this for its efficiency. It is the heart of the country.
The in-and-out-flowing of the tide of money from the central point marks
the pulses of the nation’s prosperity. Especially has this been the
case since the Civil War, and the immense developments and changes that
followed it. The banking system, making the Treasury responsible for the
issue of all the hundreds of millions of bank notes used in the business
of the country, adds immensely to the importance of the United States
Treasury.

2. The management of this Department is committed to the Secretary of
the Treasury. He is selected for that office by the President, and when
his nomination is approved by the Senate his appointment takes place. He
holds office during a presidential term, unless sooner removed. He is a
member of the Cabinet and one of the President’s advisers.

3. The financial policy adopted by the country depends very much on
his views on that difficult question, and the interests and wealth of
millions on the ability and integrity he possesses. He is therefore
chosen on account of his real or supposed qualifications on questions of
finance.

He is aided in his duties by an Assistant Secretary, a Comptroller and
Second Comptroller, five Auditors, a Treasurer and his assistant, a
Register and his assistant, a Commissioner of Customs, a Comptroller
of the Currency and his deputy, and a Solicitor of the Treasury. All
these have their offices in connection with the Treasury Department at
Washington. In several of the large cities are sub-treasuries, each
presided over by an assistant Treasurer, where public funds are received
and disbursed. The Treasurers of the Mints are also, many of them,
Assistant Treasurers of this Department. All these are appointed by the
President and Senate in the same manner as the Chief Secretary.

4. The sums of money actually handled, and the accounts of all moneys
received and disbursed without passing into the vaults of the Treasury,
amount to many hundreds of millions annually, and require the constant
service of some hundreds of clerks. These all need to have clean hands
and pure hearts, which is, unfortunately, more rare among men of all
classes than could be wished. Yet the whole is reduced to so accurate a
system that a loss at any point immediately produces a disturbance in the
whole machinery, and a short examination suffices to reveal the point of
difficulty and the person responsible for it. Accordingly, losses and
defalcations are seldom experienced in or near the central point of the
Department. If they occur, which is sometimes the case, it is usually
some officer at a distance who is found to be at fault, whose sphere
of operations lies far from the centre and only occasionally passes
under scrutiny. Each has his separate sphere of duties which no one else
interferes with, and assumes his own responsibility; and probably no
other institution in the world loses less in proportion to the amount of
money involved and the number of persons handling it.

5. Every account must be carefully examined and approved by the proper
officer before it can be presented for settlement and the money paid out,
and whatever moneys may flow in, none can flow out but according to some
law of Congress definitely appropriating it.

All officers having the handling of public funds are required to give
security for the faithful discharge of their duties. This must, by the
requirement of the law, be done before they can enter their respective
places.


SECRETARIES OF THE TREASURY.

  Alexander Hamilton, N. Y., Sept. 12, 1789.
  Oliver Wolcott, Ct., Feb. 4, 1795.
  Samuel Dexter, Mass., Dec. 31, 1800.
  Albert Gallatin, Pa., May 14, 1801.
  George W. Campbell, Tenn., Feb. 9, 1814.
  Alexander J. Dallas, Pa., Oct. 6, 1814.
  William H. Crawford, Ga., Oct. 22, 1816.
  Richard Rush, Pa., Mar. 7, 1825.
  Samuel D. Ingham, Pa., Mar. 6, 1829.
  Louis McLane, Del., Aug. 8, 1831.
  William J. Duane, Pa., May 29, 1833.
  Roger B. Taney, Md., Sept. 23, 1833.
  Levi Woodbury, N.H., June 27, 1834.
  Thomas Ewing, O., Mar. 5, 1841.
  Walter Forward, Pa., Sept. 13, 1841.
  John C. Spencer, N.Y., Mar. 3, 1843.
  George M. Bibb, Ky., June 15, 1844.
  Robert J. Walker, Miss., Mar. 5, 1845.
  W. M. Meredith, Pa., Mar. 7, 1849.
  Thomas Corwin, O., June 20, 1850.
  James Guthrie, Ky., Mar. 5, 1853.
  Howell Cobb, Ga., Mar. 6, 1857.
  Philip F. Thomas, Md., Dec. 10, 1860.
  John A. Dix, N.Y., 1861.
  Salmon P. Chase, O., Mar. 5, 1861.
  William P. Fessenden, Me., July, 1864.
  Hugh McCulloch, Ind., 1864.
  George S. Boutwell, March 11, 1869.
  W. A. Richardson, March 17, 1873.
  B. H. Bristow, Ky., June 3, 1874.




CHAPTER X.

THE FINANCIAL SYSTEM OF THE U. S.


1. Revenue, or the income of the government, is derived from various
sources. A tax—or duty, as it is often called—laid on goods imported into
the country, is one of the most important. It is easy for a government to
manage without producing a very sensible effect on the people, and has
been a favorite mode of raising a revenue with nearly all governments
since commerce became general.

2. The sale of public lands has, in this country, been a source of large
revenue; though the desire to encourage emigration and develop the
unsettled parts has led the government to sell them for a nominal sum.
Still, these lands were so attractive and extensive as to sell rapidly
and produce a considerable income. The Post Office Department has been
a source of income, in great part supporting itself. Duties paid on the
tonnage of vessels, the forfeiture of goods smuggled, or introduced into
the country without paying the lawful tax or duty, and the forfeiture
of vessels used in that unlawful trade, prizes taken in war, and fees
required to be paid to various officials when their services are
employed, are minor sources of revenue.

3. When all these are not sufficient, as in time of war, or when an
immense war debt is to be paid, direct taxes are laid on the property and
business of the country. This is called


THE INTERNAL REVENUE,

and is borne with more or less patience, according as the people regard
the end to be gained important. The revenues of the States are mostly
derived from this source. They are not allowed to raise their revenue
from foreign commerce, since that would be a tax on goods liable to be
paid by the people of another State.

4. The necessity of laying large direct taxes does not, in this country,
often arise in case of the General Government; but during and after the
gigantic Civil War between the North and South, when enormous expenses
had to be met, and the credit of the government sustained, the direct
taxes became very large indeed. In 1861 Congress passed the “Internal
Revenue Law,” by which twenty millions of dollars were to be annually
raised from direct taxes on houses and lands in each of the States and
Territories.

By subsequent acts not only houses and lands were taxed, but almost every
sort of property and business. Licenses were required for persons to
carry on their profession, trade, or business; incomes were taxed; deeds,
mortgages, notes, bonds, bank checks, and papers of almost every kind
were invalid unless they had a revenue stamp upon them. Manufacturers had
to pay a certain per-centage on whatever they made. Scarcely any calling,
trade, profession, or business escaped it, directly or indirectly.

5. To carry out these provisions, the whole country was divided
into Revenue Districts, corresponding, so far as convenient, with
Congressional Districts. An officer of the Treasury Department, called
the Commissioner of Internal Revenue, was appointed, charged with the
duty of preparing instructions, forms, blanks, stamps, and licenses, to
be used in the collection by the multitude of minor officers employed,
and of overseeing the whole work. Each district had its chief officer,
and his deputies, assessors, and collectors, by whom the money at length
reached the Treasury at Washington. It created an army of officers to
be paid. It was laid aside as soon as possible, and taxation made less
onerous and expensive. The remarkable prosperity of the country at that
particular period made it easier to bear. Direct taxes laid by the
General Government are more economically collected by the State or local
officials, in all ordinary cases. This was a very extraordinary and
pressing one, and the people were so eager to put their debt in the way
of extinction that it was endured with much patience for several years,
when most of this cumbrous and costly machinery was laid aside.

6. The vast war debt, the large number of government officers employed
in attending to the interests of so large and prosperous a country, the
support of the army and navy, the great number of foreign representatives
and agents of the government, and the public works necessary for
the development or protection of the country, make a large revenue
indispensable.

7. It is best when the people are free and intelligent that they be
governed as little as possible—or rather that they govern themselves as
much as possible, and that as few officials as may be live on the fruits
of other people’s labor. There must necessarily be an army of them, at
the least; but such arrangements should be made that public expenses may
be reduced, to the lowest point, and republican simplicity everywhere
reign.

The principle and habit of public economy should be earnestly insisted
on, since the handling of immense sums of public money is much more
demoralizing than the acquisition of private wealth in legitimate ways.
It is a strong temptation to men of weak moral character; and private
property is more likely to be carefully used and economically expended
than public funds. The smaller the revenue, consistent with the general
development of the country, the better.




CHAPTER XI.

DUTIES AND TARIFFS.


1. Duty is a term used to designate a sum paid by foreign merchandise
coming to our country for sale, for the privilege of entering and being
offered to purchasers. Tariff is a rate, or scale, of duties.

2. Ever since intercourse has become frequent between different nations
commerce has been occupied in effecting interchanges of the products and
industries of each country with others. Each country has peculiarities
that specially fit it for the production or manufacture of some article,
or list of articles, which others would be unable to produce, or would
produce at greater inconvenience and expense, and which is of high value
to all, or many of the others. The social principle has proved to be of
extreme value to the improvement of men, and to their happiness; and we
might say that, in this unequal distribution of capacities in the lands,
and the races who inhabit them, the exercise of the social principle, on
a broad scale, was made, by nature, indispensable.

3. Each nation, then, devotes itself to its special features of
production, and exchanges its surplus with others for what it wants of
their different surplus, to mutual profit. Just as A is a farmer, and
raises grain, while B is a mechanic. Each has a natural adaptation to
the business he pursues, and each needs what the other produces. So they
exchange, and each has the full benefit of the success and different
genius and resources of the other. Commerce is the same in principle, and
interchange becomes constantly more extensive.

4. Government naturally regulates commerce because it is one of the
general interests of the country. It finds an indefinite amount of
foreign merchandise waiting to enter to be put on sale. It was long ago
discovered that here was a convenient mode of producing a government
income without disturbing the people with a constant demand for money to
pay its expenses. Whatever foreign goods had to pay for permission to
enter, was quietly added to the price afterward, and so the people paid
their taxes to the government in an indirect way in the form of a Duty.
They pay the price asked, if it be within their means, without knowledge,
or thought, of what part goes to the government, unless they study the
subject carefully.

It has always been the case, then, that a government could get all the
money it wanted, from this source, in ordinary times, with very little
trouble. That mode is naturally a favorite with them. Whether it is the
best way for the people is another question, which has been, at different
times, very warmly debated in our government. It is not our place here to
take up the argument, but it is worthy of a careful study by the people.

5. A Tariff of duties is established to carry on the government. There
is another object that has had many advocates, and has quite commonly
exerted an influence to raise the tariff on some things. It is stated
in the preamble, or introduction, to the first act passed by the first
Congress, on this subject, July 4th, 1789, “Whereas, it is necessary for
the support of the government, for the discharge of the debts of the
United States, _and the encouragement and protection of manufactures_,
that duties be laid on goods, wares, and merchandise imported.” It was
considered important to protect and encourage our manufactures, by
putting so high a price on the same kind of foreign goods that ours would
have the advantage and sell at a _less price_ or greater profit.

This might have been a wise measure, in the early days of the country,
when there were few manufactures. Whether it has been so since, or is so
now, is not so clear.

6. Every man should make up his mind what is right and best and act as
he sees to be most for the general good. It has two disadvantages. It
embarrasses the interchange that we have described as so profitable, and
under a high tariff sometimes practically forbids it. It is unsocial,
and we declare by it, that we will, so far as possible, live within
ourselves, and have as little to do with our neighbors as we can.
Besides, it is our own people who have to pay the duty, mainly, if they
use the foreign goods; or the higher price on domestic goods if they buy
them; so that one class of the people, that is, the mass of them, pay
another small class large sums to manufacture what might be bought from
foreigners with less money. It is a fine thing for the manufacturers, but
not quite so fine for those who buy them, unless they feel like making
their countrymen a present for every piece of goods he will manufacture
for them, beside the proper cost as made by others.

It has the advantage of encouraging industries of different kinds; and
has been believed to contribute greatly to the general prosperity in
that way. Some think it best to let all those things arrange themselves,
and leave each nation to bring us what they can produce cheapest and
sell them more of what we can produce cheapest. They believe this is the
secret of prosperity, besides being more social. It is a question to be
carefully examined. It seems probable, that, in the end, all nations will
agree on this policy, and raise their revenue in some other way. It is
perhaps too soon to expect that, as yet.

We have never been without a tariff, though there has been much
discussion in Congress, and between parties, whether it should be
protective or not. So it has often changed from low to high and back
again. The necessities of our war, and the heavy debt, made it important,
in the highest degree, to raise all the revenue we could, and the subject
has not been much discussed for many years.

7. The Duties are mostly collected in the cities, and, as foreign goods
come mainly by water, in the seaports of the country. Duties are often
called Customs, and the places where they are collected Custom Houses;
and the officers Custom House Officers. These places are located in
ports along our sea coast, and there are some thousands of custom house
officers of all grades. The buildings erected by the government have cost
many millions of dollars. The larger part of the duties are collected in
the great seaport cities, as Boston, New York, Baltimore, New Orleans,
and San Francisco.

Places, designated for foreign vessels to present their goods for
examination and collection of the duty, are called Ports of Entry. If
they are delivered at some other place, where there is no custom house
they are called Ports of Delivery.

8. Congress alone has power to lay these duties. There are two modes
of imposing them; sometimes one and sometimes the other being adopted,
according to the views of the Congress legislating. They are called
specific and ad valorem duties. Ad valorem means, according to the
cost, and is counted on the cost in the country the article comes from.
Specific duties are so much on the article, without regard to the cost.
On many things imported there is no duty, and they are called “free
goods.”

Changes are continually made in the tariff to conform to the requirements
of the Treasury, the desires of the people, and the changing views of the
legislators.


DRAWBACKS.

9. When the duties on foreign goods have been paid, and they are
afterwards exported, the duties which have been paid are refunded to the
owner. The money thus paid back is called a drawback. All imported goods
are entitled to drawback whenever they are taken out of the United States.


BOUNTIES ON EXPORTED GOODS,

take money out of, instead of putting it in the treasury, yet the
government in a few cases has allowed bounties upon exported articles.
Fish taken by American vessels, refined sugar and distilled spirits
made from imported sugar and molasses, are examples. This was done to
encourage domestic industry and enterprise.


CUSTOMS REVENUE FOR FIFTY-ONE YEARS.

A Comparative Statement showing the Customs Revenue, Amount of Dutiable
and Free Goods Imported, and the Average Rate of Duty on Imports, every
year from 1821 to 1871, inclusive.

  -----+--------------+------------------------------------+--------------
       |   Receipts   |               IMPORTS.             |*Per cent. on
  YEAR.|    from      +------------+-----------+-----------+dutiable.
       |   Customs.   |   Free.    | Dutiable. |  Total.   |   |aggregate.
  -----+--------------+------------+-----------+-----------+------+-------
  1821 |$18,475,703 57|$ 10,082,313|$52,503,411|$62,585,724| 35.6 | 29.5
  1822 | 24,066,066 43|   7,298,708| 75,942,833| 83,241,541| 31.7 | 28.9
  1823 | 22,402,024 29|   9,048,288| 68,530,979| 77,579,267| 32.7 | 28.8
  1824 | 25,486,817 86|  12,563,773| 67,985,234| 80,549,007| 37.5 | 31.6
  1825 | 31,653,871 50|  10,947,510| 85,392,565| 96,340,075| 37.1 | 32.8
  1826 | 26,083,861 97|  12,567,769| 72,406,708| 84,974,477| 34.6 | 30.7
  1827 | 27,948,956 57|  11,855,104| 67,628,964| 79,484,068| 41.3 | 35.1
  1828 | 29,951,251 90|  12,379,176| 76,130,648| 88,509,824| 39.3 | 33.8
  1829 | 27,688,701 11|  11,805,501| 62,687,026| 74,492,527| 44.3 | 37.1
  1830 | 28,389,505 05|  12,746,245| 58,130,675| 70,876,920| 48.8 | 40.0
  1831 | 36,596,118 19|  13,456,625| 89,734,499|103,191,124| 40.8 | 35.4
  1832 | 29,341,175 65|  14,249,453| 86,779,813|101,029,266| 33.8 | 29.0
  1833 | 24,177,578 52|  32,447,950| 75,670,361|108,118,311| 31.9 | 22.4
  1834 | 18,960,705 96|  68,393,180| 58,128,152|126,521,332| 32.6 | 15.0
  1835 | 25,890,726 66|  77,940,493| 71,955,249|149,895,742| 36.0 | 17.2
  1836 | 30,818,327 67|  92,056,481| 97,923,554|189,980,035| 31.6 | 16.2
  1837 | 18,134,131 01|  69,250,031| 71,739,186|140,989,217| 25.3 | 12.4
  1838 | 19,702,825 45|  60,860,005| 52,857,399|113,717,404| 37.8 | 17.3
  1839 | 25,554,533 96|  76,401,792| 85,690,340|162,092,132| 29.9 | 15.8
  1840 | 15,104,790 63|  57,196,204| 49,945,315|107,141,519| 30.4 | 14.1
  1841 | 19,919,492 17|  66,019,731| 61,926,446|127,946,177| 32.2 | 15.6
  1842 | 16,662,746 84|  30,627,486| 69,534,601|100,162,087| 23.1 | 16.6
  1843 | 10,208,000 43|  35,574,584| 29,179,215| 64,753,799| 35.7 | 15.7
  1844 | 29,236,357 38|  24,766,881| 83,668,154|108,435,035| 35.1 | 26.9
  1845 | 30,952,416 21|  22,147,840| 95,106,724|117,254,564| 32.5 | 26.4
  1846 | 26,712,668 00|  24,767,739| 96,924,058|121,691,797| 26.5 | 21.9
  1847 | 23,747,865 00|  41,772,636|104,773,002|146,545,638| 22.5 | 16.2
  1848 | 31,757,071 00|  22,716,603|132,282,325|154,998,928| 24.0 | 20.4
  1849 | 28,346,739 00|  22,377,665|125,479,774|147,857,439| 23.0 | 19.2
  1850 | 39,668,686 00|  22,710,382|155,427,936|178,138,318| 25.2 | 22.3
  1851 | 49,017,568 00|  25,106,587|191,118,345|216,224,932| 26.0 | 22.6
  1852 | 47,339,326 00|  29,692,934|183,252,508|212,945,442| 26.0 | 22.2
  1853 | 58,931,865 00|  31,383,534|236,595,113|267,978,647| 25.0 | 22.0
  1854 | 64,224,190 00|  33,285,821|271,276,560|304,562,381| 23.5 | 21.1
  1855 | 53,025,794 00|  40,090,336|221,378,184|261,468,520| 23.0 | 20.3
  1856 | 64,022,863 00|  56,955,706|257,684,236|314,639,942| 25.0 | 20.3
  1857 | 63,875,905 00|  66,729,306|294,160,835|360,890,141| 21.5 | 17.7
  1858 | 41,789,621 00|  80,319,275|202,293,875|282,613,150| 20.0 | 14.8
  1859 | 49,565,824 00|  79,721,116|259,047,014|338,768,130| 19.0 | 14.6
  1860 | 53,187,511 00|  90,841,749|279,872,327|362,166,254| 19.0 | 14.7
  1861 | 39,582,126 00|†117,469,962|218,180,191|335,650,153| 18.14| 11.79
  1862 | 49,056,398 00|† 69,136,705|136,635,024|205,771,729| 35.90| 23.84
  1863 | 69,059,642 00|  44,826,029|208,093,891|252,919,920| 33.19| 27.30
  1864 |102,316,153 00|† 54,241,944|275,320,951|329,562,895| 37.16| 31.04
  1865 | 84,928,260 00|  54,329,588|194,226,064|248,555,652| 43.75| 34.17
  1866 |179,046,630 00|  69,728,618|375,783,540|445,512,158| 47.65| 40.12
  1867 |176,417,811 00|  45,203,970|372,627,601|417,831,571| 47.34| 42.22
  1868 |164,464,596 00|  29,379,149|342,245,659|371,624,808| 48.05| 44.25
  1869 |180,048,427 00|  41,454,568|395,859,687|437,314,255| 45.48| 41.17
  1870 |192,878,265 00|  46,560,050|415,817,537|462,377,587| 46.37| 41.71
  1871 |              |  57,851,808|483,641,966|541,493,774|      |
  -----+--------------+------------+-----------+-----------+------+-------

* The percentages in these columns are approximately, not absolutely
correct, owing to the fact that the rates are computed upon the value of
merchandise, etc., imported, instead of the value of goods entering into
consumption in the respective years.

† These amounts do not include imports into the Southern ports during the
war, from which no revenue was derived, namely, in 1861, $17,089,234; in
1862, $90,789; and in 1864, $2,220.


TONNAGE.

11. Tonnage designates the capacity of a vessel for carrying goods,
which depends on the tons of weight it can receive, and is computed by
assigning so much space, in height, length, and breadth, to each ton. A
revenue, additional to that raised from the goods brought in vessels, is
produced by a tax on the tonnage, or carrying capacity of vessels.

It is laid, not only on foreign vessels, trading with our seaports, but
on our own vessels; a distinction being made so as to produce protection
in favor of our own commerce and ship-builders. This also is paid by
those who buy the goods brought in these vessels; since whatever duty is
laid on the carrying trade must be made up by the higher price of the
article brought. It is a way of levying taxes without directly calling
the attention of the people to the fact.

12. It is worthy of careful consideration whether the country would not
gain as much, by removing all these embarrassments to commerce with other
countries, and different points on our coasts, as has been gained by free
trade between the different States. The Constitution forbids taxes to be
levied on inter-State commerce, or trade, and the country is undoubtedly
the gainer by such a provision.

In 1790 a tonnage duty of 50 cents per ton was laid on foreign vessels,
and six cents on American vessels. During the Civil War the tonnage duty
was raised ten cents per ton on both foreign and American shipping.

Tonnage is collected only once a year by the collector of the port where
the vessel happens to be.




CHAPTER XII.

COLLECTION OF DUTIES.


1. The Tariff, or Scale of Duties, laid by the Laws of Congress, on
goods brought from foreign countries, requires to be paid when they are
first introduced; or we might say, _before_ they are introduced. All
these goods are stopped as they approach the boundary line, or _on_ the
boundary line, and carefully examined; and they can go no farther until
the duties imposed by Congress are received. When they have “passed the
Custom House” they may be as freely sold as goods produced at home. No
government officer has any right to interfere with them. They have paid
the duty and have the freedom of the land. If they, by any chance or
effort, get in by any other way, they are treated as stolen goods, and
may be seized and confiscated. However much they may have cost their
owners, however highly they may prize them, however unquestioned was
their ownership before they passed the limits of the country, if they are
introduced by any other than the Custom House Door, all right and title
to them by the former owners ceases, and they become the property of the
government.

2. So carefully is this point guarded that not only are government
officers provided for the sole purpose of watching against this illegal
introduction of goods, but a premium is offered to unofficial persons to
secure their aid. Any one who can point out (and prove the fact) goods
of any kind, liable to duty, that have not passed the custom house, and
paid that duty, is entitled to half the value of the goods; the other
half belonging to the government. Smuggling, as bringing goods into the
country without paying the duty is called, is held to be robbery of the
government, and ranks as a serious offense; and it really is so, as long
as the government produces its income, or part of it, in this way. The
law makes it part proprietor in the property until its claim is settled.
Besides, to take from the government is to take from the people; since
they must make up, in some other way, for what is subtracted in this.

3. To secure this payment of Duty, then, a large number of officers of
different grades are appointed, not only to examine the goods, determine
the amount required to be paid, receive the money and keep all the
accounts connected with it, but to take care that all the goods, of
whatever kind, that are not permitted an entrance free of duty, shall
duly pass examination, and be “entered,” as it is called, at the custom
house.

4. The Head of these officers is the


COMMISSIONER OF CUSTOMS.

He superintends the Customs Bureau in the Treasury Department. He
is nominated, and, with the consent of the Senate, appointed by the
President. All the accounts of officers employed in the collection of
duties on imports pass through his bureau for examination and adjustment;
he prepares the forms of all papers used in this department of the
revenue; directs the form of keeping the accounts; brings suits when
necessary for the recovery of money due from officers of the department;
and makes a report of any neglect of duty to Congress. A complete
summary, therefore, of the past and present condition of the customs
department may be found, at any time, in his office. With so perfect a
system of supervision it does not matter how extensive the organization
may be. No confusion is possible. There are more than 30,000 persons
employed Under this officer; and they are scattered through the whole
country where there are Ports of Entry or Delivery, as well as keeping
guard along the whole coast line and frontier of the United States; yet
they are under as complete discipline and surveillance as the army or
navy. This bureau was organized in 1849; its business having previously
been under the oversight of the First Comptroller of the Treasury. It has
general supervision of the conduct and accounts of all customs officials.
The highest in rank below this are


THE COLLECTORS.

5. Wherever there is a Port of Entry a Collector is appointed to
superintend the collection of duties, receive the money, and transmit
it to the United States Treasury. He is the principal officer of the
Collection District connected with this Port, which often embraces
several Ports of Delivery, and is required to see that all is properly
conducted in his district. He receives his appointment directly from the
President and Senate, and is removable at the pleasure of the President.

6. As, in ordinary times, the most of the revenue required for the
support of the government is derived from Customs, this is a responsible
office. Great care is required to secure the services of competent and
faithful men, and the bonds they are required to give are large. He
nominates the subordinate officers connected with his custom-house, and
the Secretary of the Treasury appoints them, if he sees no objection.

7. The Collectors take care that all the goods, on which Congress has
imposed a duty, pay the amount due. To this end he often requires one or
more deputies. The entire commerce of the part of the country falling
in his district, with other countries, passes under his examination. He
receives all reports, manifests, and documents required to be exhibited
by all vessels, domestic and foreign, on their entry into his port,
and all accounts of all the goods they have on board. On these he must
estimate the duties, receive the moneys, or bonds securing their payment,
and grant all permits for landing the goods. He transmits, quarterly, all
the moneys collected in his department, with an accurate account of all
the transactions of his office during the quarter, to the Secretary of
the Treasury. These accounts pass to the Customs bureau, and the money to
the Treasurer of the United States.

8. His duties, as described in the previous section, make him acquainted
with all the imports of the country, in his District or Port. He is also
required to examine the manifests of all the vessels, and the accounts of
their cargoes, that leave his port for a foreign country. This secures
a knowledge of all the exports of the country. It is his duty to give
clearances, or permits, to all vessels leaving for foreign ports. It
is unlawful for any vessel to depart without this document. A ship’s
clearance can be properly given only when her manifest, or detailed
account of the quantity, kind, and value of her cargo is ascertained to
be correct.

9. We give the form of a ship’s Manifest, and also of a Clearance.


A SHIP’S MANIFEST.

“Report and manifest of the cargo laden on board of the ____, whereof
____ is master, which cargo was taken on board at the port or ports of
____, burthen ____ tons, built at ____, in the State of ____, and owned
by ____, merchants at ____, and bound for ____.”

This, together with a particular description of the marks and numbers of
every bale, box, case, barrel, bundle or parcel on board of the vessel,
is the manifest. It must be given to the collector of whatever port the
vessel arrives at; and the master of her must swear that it is in all
respects a true and accurate account of all the cargo on board, to the
best of his knowledge and belief.

10. The collector of the port can then compute the duties to be paid upon
each article, and when these are paid, or secured to be paid, he gives
permits to land the cargo, and deliver the goods to their respective
owners. Then come in the duties of weighers, gaugers, measurers and
inspectors of the customs, after permits are obtained to land the goods.
If they are such as require to be weighed, gauged, or measured, these
officers are sent to do it; and the inspector must allow nothing to leave
the ship until he has examined the marks and numbers, to see if they
correspond with the permit and the manifest. If he suspects that there
is an attempt to defraud the government by false names and marks, he is
authorized to open the package, box, case, cask, or whatever contains the
goods, and to examine them. In this way smuggling is prevented, and the
revenues arising from duties on imported goods secured.


A SHIP’S CLEARANCE.

This document is couched in the following terms:

“_District of ____, Port of ____, ss._

“These are to certify, to all whom it may concern, that A. B., master
or commander of the ship (brig, barque, schooner) burthen ____ tons or
thereabouts, mounted with ____ guns, navigated with ____ men, ____. ____
built, and bound for ____, having on board ____, hath here entered and
cleared his said vessel according to law.

“Given under our hands and seals, at the custom-house of ____, this ____
day of ____, one thousand ____, and in the ____ year of the Independence
of the United States of America.”

This is signed by the collector and by the naval officer of the port,
when the commander is prepared to depart with his vessel to his
destination.

11. The compensation of collectors is not all given in the form of a
salary, but in part the fees for services rendered, and part of the
forfeitures of smuggled goods. In the larger ports it is enormous, but
in the smaller ones is often insignificant. It is a common mode of
doing business of this kind, and is supposed to stimulate the activity
and secure the faithfulness of the officer in preventing frauds on the
government. The working of this plan is sometimes complained of as
inspiring an over-officiousness embarrassing to trade and unnecessarily
annoying to importers; and as producing too great an inequality in
incomes. It is difficult to make a system quite perfect. Whether this
admits of improvement remains to be seen.


SURVEYORS

12. Are next in rank and authority to the Collectors. They are appointed
in the same manner and receive their compensation in the same way. The
Surveyor’s duty is to superintend the inspectors, weighers, measurers,
and gaugers in his port; to visit all vessels arriving in it; make a
detailed report of them to the Collector; and examine all goods entered
for the benefit of drawback.


THE NAVAL OFFICER

13. Of a port, is another of the superintendents, appointed to oversee
the collection of the revenue. His appointment depends on the President
and Senate, and his compensation on the amount of business done in his
port, in the same manner as the Collector and Surveyor. His duties are,
to some extent, parallel to those of the Collector; or he may be called
a local examiner and auditor of the Collector’s work and accounts, for
the sake of accuracy and correctness. He receives copies of all manifests
and entries, and computes the duties on all goods, keeping a separate
record of them. He must countersign permits, clearances, certificates,
debentures, and other documents issued by the Collector. He examines the
Collector’s accounts, bonds, and expenditures, and certifies to them, if
correct.

A great number of deputies and employees are required to carry out the
details of the collection of duties, since the entire amount of imports
into the country are required to be carefully examined.


REVENUE CUTTERS

14. Are employed to guard against smuggling. They are vessels of small
size, some steamers, and others sailing vessels, properly manned and
armed, of high powers of speed; and are stationed as a coast guard near
the ports, and lines of ocean travel, to prevent the landing of imported
goods before they have paid the duty. Their officers are appointed by the
President and Senate.

They look after all the ships going into any port, or any that may
approach the coast; board them when within four leagues (or 12 miles)
of the coast; examine the manifest of the cargo and every part of the
vessel; put proper fastenings on the hatches, to prevent unlawful
communication with the hold until the Custom’s officers have discharged
their duty; and place a watch on board to remain until the vessel is
delivered into the charge of the proper revenue officer.

15. They are revenue officers, and under the control of the Secretary
of the Treasury, and the Collectors at the ports near which they are
stationed. In case the President judges it best, they may be called on,
at his direction, to coöperate with the Navy, and, in case they are
disabled in the discharge of their duty at such times, are entitled to be
treated in the same manner as officers and sailors in the Navy.

16. These vessels carry a pennant and ensign with such marks on them as
the President may designate. If any vessel liable to seizure refuses
to bring to at the direction of the commander of the Cutter, he is
authorized to fire into it after having shown his pennant and ensign,
and compel it to submit to be boarded and examined. Much depends on the
vigilance of these revenue cutters, as the sums paid on goods imported
amount to a great many millions of dollars, and want of due precaution
would cause the income of the government to be defrauded of large sums.

The commanders of revenue cutters report all matters relating to their
duties weekly to the Collector of the port.




CHAPTER XIII.

GOVERNMENT COINAGE.


1. The United States mint, located at Philadelphia, is one of the most
important establishments of the government. An act of Congress, passed in
1792, was the first step towards its creation. Its design was, and its
principal business has been, to coin the precious metals into money.
It has been for more than eighteen hundred years the usage of civilized
governments to coin their own money. Ours, at a very early period of its
existence, began to do the same thing, and will probably continue to do
it as long as it shall exist. Before the art of coining was known, the
precious metals were used as a standard of value, but they passed from
one to another by weight. The plan of cutting them into small pieces, and
then stamping their value upon them, by which their worth could be known
as soon as seen, was an improvement upon the former mode. This process is
denominated coining. It has of late been brought so near perfection that
our pieces of money are fine specimens of art.

2. The officers, who manage and conduct the operations of this
establishment, are a Director, a Treasurer, an Assayer, a Melter and
Refiner, a Chief Coiner, and an Engraver. They are all appointed by the
President and Senate in the usual manner. The director appoints the
assistants and clerks.

All must give bonds for the faithful performance of their respective
duties upon which they enter under oath. The duties of these different
officers may almost be known by the names they bear. The director is the
head of the institution, and the others act under his general direction,
each having his appropriate duties to perform. In the month of January
of each year the director must make a report to the President of the
operations of the mint and its branches for the preceding year.

3. Any person may take gold or silver bullion or ores to the mint and
receive it back in coin, for a very trifling expense. Before it is
coined, after its value has been determined by the assayer, the director
will give a certificate for it, which is of the same value as the bullion
deposited.

4. We have stated that the principal business at the mint is the
conversion of the precious metals into coin or money. But this is not
its exclusive business. Another part is to melt and assay these metals,
and to run them into ingots or bars either of pure or standard gold and
silver, according to the wish of its owner.

Until 1835 the mint at Philadelphia was the only establishment in the
United States for coining money. But in that year a law was passed
establishing branch mints at New Orleans, in Louisiana; at Charlotte, in
North Carolina; and at Dahlonega, in Georgia. In 1852, another branch
was established in California; in 1862, another at Denver, in Colorado
Territory; and in 1863, another at Carson City, in Nevada Territory,
since made a State; in 1864, another at San Francisco, in California,
and another at Dallas City, in Oregon. Except the one in California, but
little has ever been done at these branches. They are all similar to the
principal one at Philadelphia; and the laws relating to that are made to
apply to these branches.

6. The Constitution gives Congress the exclusive right to coin money, and
prohibits all the States from doing it. This Congress does by the laws it
passes in relation to the subject, and the various officers and workmen
employed to execute the work are only the agents of Congress.

The various coins which Congress has from time to time ordered to be made
are of the following names and value:

  _Gold._        _Value._
  Eagle,          $10 00
  Half-Eagle,       5 00
  Quar. Eag.,       2 50
  Doub. Eag.,      20 00
  Three Dols.,      3 00
  One Dollar,       1 00

  _Silver._       _Value._
  Dollar,          $1 00
  Half-Dollar,        50
  Quar. Dol.,         25
  Dime,               10
  Half Dime,           5
  Three ct. piece,     3

  _Copper._
  One cent,
  Two cents,
  Three cents,
  and formerly ½ c.
  But these are now discontinued.

7. Our coins are not made of pure gold and silver; a certain amount of
other metals being added to produce a coin that will be less affected by
the friction of constant use. This alloy, or mixture, of the precious
metals is called Standard gold or silver, since a definite amount of
the alloy is required in all the coinage of the government for currency
purposes. It does not alter the value of the coin; that being dependent
on the actual merchantable value of the sum of the metals used. By the
law of 1837, standard gold and silver were declared to be nine hundred
parts of pure metal, and one hundred parts alloy—equal to one-tenth
alloy. Gold coins are alloyed with silver and copper, equal parts of
each. Silver coins are alloyed with copper alone. Gold is declared to be
worth fifteen times as much as silver by weight.

In addition to our own coins, Congress has, from time to time, passed
laws declaring the value of foreign coins, and making them a legal
tender. But these laws were all repealed by the act of 1857, and it was
made the duty of the director of the mint to have them assayed, and to
determine their weight, fineness, and value; for they are still used by
banks and merchants, and pass at the value determined by the mint.

The mint, up to 1861, had coined in gold, silver, and copper coin,
800,662,475 pieces, worth $799,923,362.


THE UNITED STATES MINT.

Statement of Domestic Gold and Silver deposited at the United States Mint
and Branches, for Coinage, to June 30th, 1872.

  ---------------------+----------------+---------------+-----------------
          FROM.        |     GOLD.      |    SILVER.    | GOLD AND SILVER.
  ---------------------+----------------+---------------+-----------------
  California           | $642,965,026.09|    $156,423.03| $643,121,449.12
  Montana              |   30,648,265.24|     176,838.57|   30,825,103.81
  Colorado             |   20,338,420.96|   1,114,543.43|   21,452,964.39
  Idaho                |   17,141,523.84|     291,681.59|   17,433,205.43
  Oregon               |   11,594,979.33|       1,863.74|   11,596,843.07
  North Carolina       |    9,865,252.97|      44,110.95|    9,909,363.92
  Nevada               |    1,010,280.17|   8,539,868.04|    9,550,148.21
  Georgia              |    7,232,346.96|         403.83|    7,232,750.79
  Virginia             |    1,629,188.79|           ----|    1,629,188.79
  South Carolina       |    1,379,121.92|           ----|    1,379,121.92
  Lake Superior        |            ----|   1,062,540.81|    1,062,540.81
  Arizona              |      975,401.39|      39,873.08|    1,015,274.47
  New Mexico           |      823,021.29|           ----|      823,021.29
  Utah                 |      146,147.18|     261,204.71|      407,351.89
  Nebraska             |       24,381.57|     200,976.53|      225,358.10
  Alabama              |      213,750.66|           ----|      213,750.66
  Wyoming Territory    |      138,878.12|          86.48|      138,964.60
  Tennessee            |       81,529.69|           ----|       81,529.69
  Washington Territory |       67,745.38|           ----|       67,745.38
  New Mexico and Sonora|            ----|      51,653.31|       51,653.31
  Dakota               |        5,760.00|           ----|        5,760.00
  Vermont              |        5,611.97|           ----|        5,611.97
  Kansas               |        1,009.62|         468.00|        1,477.62
  Sitka                |          397.64|           ----|          397.64
  Maryland             |          108.00|           ----|          108.00
  Other Sources        |   85,226,912.42|       2,751.15|   85,229,663.57
  Parted from Silver   |    4,690,402.30|           ----|    4,690,402.30
  Fine Bars            |            ----|   5,298,490.02|    5,298,490.02
  Parted from Gold     |            ----|   5,821,721.97|    5,821,721.97
  ---------------------+----------------+---------------+-----------------
     Total             | $836,205,463.50| $23,065,492.24| $859,270,962.47
  ---------------------+----------------+---------------+-----------------


ASSAY OFFICE.

1. In 1853 the Secretary of the Treasury was authorized to establish an
office in the city of New York for the receipt, melting, refining and
assaying of gold and silver bullion and foreign coins, and for casting
the same into bars, ingots, or disks. The assistant treasurer of the
United States in New York, is treasurer of this assay office, and the
Secretary of the Treasury appoints such other clerks, assistants, and
workmen as shall be necessary for the management of its business.

2. Persons having gold or silver bullion, ores or foreign coin, may
deposit them in his office, and it will be refined and assayed (at
no more cost than the actual expense of doing the work), its value
ascertained, and the owner will be paid for it in coins of the same value
and metal as that deposited. It is not coined in this office, but cast
into bars, ingots or disks—either of pure metal or of standard fineness,
as the owner may prefer—the true weight and value of which are stamped
thereon; and the owner may either take them in payment for his bullion or
foreign coin, or it will be coined for him at the United States Mint, if
he wishes. The bars spoken of are often kept in that form, and are used
as coin among banks, brokers, and merchants, who receive and pay large
amounts of the precious metals. With them it passes as coin, for its
exact weight and value are stamped upon it.

3. This establishment was located at New York more for the convenience
of those who do business there, than for the necessity of such an
institution; for at the mint at Philadelphia there is a department
for doing the same work as is done here. But at New York there is a
larger amount of foreign coin than in any other place, and it is often
advantageous to its owners to have it converted into American coin, that
it may be used with greater facility. Although many foreign coins do
circulate in this country, but few know their value. Consequently they
do not pass so readily; and for this reason they are melted and run into
bars of known value, or re-coined into American money.




CHAPTER XIV.

NATIONAL BANKING.


1. The present banking system was established by an act of Congress in
1863. The plan is quite different from any before in use, and commends
itself to the whole country by the stability it gives to the currency in
use in the transaction of its business, and the security it furnishes
against loss of values common under the old systems. They are managed by
private parties and corporations, apart from the government, but under a
certain degree of supervision, and by its authority. By the act referred
to any number of persons not less than five may associate themselves
together for the purpose of banking, by compliance with the following
conditions:

2. First: They must, under their hands and seals, make a certificate
which shall specify—

1. The name assumed by such association.

2. The place where its business is to be conducted.

3. The amount of its capital stock (which cannot be less than $50,000),
and the number of its shares.

4. The names of its shareholders, and the number of shares held by each.

5. The time when such association shall commence business.

6. A declaration that said certificate is made to enable such persons to
avail themselves of the advantages of this act.

3. This certificate must be properly acknowledged before some competent
person, and must be sent to the comptroller of the currency in the
Treasury Department, to be recorded and kept by him. When this, and all
other acts which the law requires, has been done by the association, the
comptroller of the currency gives them a certificate under his hand and
official seal, to that effect, and that they are authorized to commence
business. This constitutes the association a corporation. They have the
right to make and use a common seal, and have all the rights, and are
liable to all the responsibilities of ordinary legalized corporations;
and may exist not to exceed twenty years from the passage of this
act. Every shareholder is made personally liable for the debts of the
association or bank, to the amount of the par value of his stock.

4. In order to secure the holders of bills issued by these banks, they
must deposit with the Treasurer of the United States, United States
bonds bearing interest to an amount not less than one-third of the
capital stock paid in. These bonds are safely kept by the Treasurer. The
comptroller of the currency then issues to the bank an amount of bank
notes equal to the amount of bonds thus deposited, less ten per cent.
In case the bank should fail to redeem its circulating bills, its bonds
are sold, and with the proceeds the comptroller of the currency redeems
them, or orders them to be paid at the United States Treasury. The bonds
held by the Treasurer as security for the redemption of the bills issued
by the association, must be transferred to him in trust; thus giving him
entire control of them in case it becomes necessary to sell them in order
to redeem the bills of any association which may have failed to pay them
on demand.

5. This act has brought a great number of banks into existence, besides
organizing most of the banks formerly existing under State laws under
this system; so that we have a nearly uniform system of banking all over
the United States. The bills of these banks pass in any part of the
country, which was not often the case formerly. In case the bank should
be mismanaged, or fail to pay for any cause, there is ample security for
their redemption deposited in the United States treasury, where they will
be paid on presentation.

6. The bill-holder is also better protected against counterfeits than he
was under the old system; for all the bills issued by these associations
are engraved by the government, and the plates and dies on which they
are printed are kept by the comptroller of the currency in the Treasury
Department. The engraving is done in the best possible manner, and it is
exceedingly difficult to counterfeit them. Besides this, they all have
the imprint of the seal of the Treasury on their face, and are numbered
and countersigned by the treasurer and register. With all these guards
and precautions, we have the best paper currency ever used since the
establishment of the government.

7. This act necessarily threw upon the Treasury Department a great
increase of labor, and in order to provide for it a separate bureau was
created, which is denominated the bureau of currency, the chief officer
of which is called the comptroller of currency. He acts under the general
direction of the Secretary of the Treasury. This bureau is charged with
the execution of this and all other laws that may be passed by Congress
respecting the national currency. The comptroller of the currency is
appointed by the President and Senate, has a deputy, receives a salary
of $5,000 per year, holds his office five years, has an official seal,
gives bonds to the amount of $100,000, and takes and subscribes the oath
of office prescribed by the Constitution and the laws. His duties are
numerous and very responsible, he having hundreds of millions under his
care.

The term national banks, given to these institutions, and national
currency to the bills they issue, were given from the fact that they
were organized by an act of Congress, and that the security for the
redemption of their bills consists exclusively of national bonds; no
other securities will be taken.




CHAPTER XV.

FINANCIAL CONDITION OF THE UNITED STATES.


1. The United States government belongs to its people. Those people own
property estimated at upwards of thirty billions of dollars. The public
lands belonging to the government are between one and one and a half
billions of acres. Besides, the public domains contain gold, silver,
iron, coal, and a large number of other mineral deposits, chiefly in
regions worthless for agricultural purposes, of unknown, but ascertained
to be, at least, a very great quantity—enough to make all its present
inhabitants millionaires if (besides paying the debt) their value could
be divided among them. The capacity of the country for production is very
far beyond what is drawn from it now. The future will probably increase
it a thousand fold, for we are yet a new people, and in the act of
settling ourselves to the work of development.

We are very rich, if all our resources are taken into account, yet we are
in debt. In five years from the commencement of the civil war the public
debt had run up from less than one hundred million dollars to over two
billion seven hundred millions. This we began to reduce at once, for as
a nation we do not like to be in debt; and it was, December 1st, 1873,
a little over two billion one hundred and fifty millions. The debt is,
indeed, a trifle compared with our vast national property; but we do
not wish to sell our property at a loss, nor disturb the regular course
of business; so it stands to be gradually paid in the regular course of
things, as we find it to be convenient.

It is a vast sum, but gives more trouble by reason of the desire and
determination of the people to pay it soon, and sacrifice no property,
than from any inability to meet it.

We add a table of the Public Debt for every year since 1791, a Statement
of the debt in detail Dec. 1st, 1873, and various Statistics relating to
the finances, resources, and business of the country.


THE PUBLIC DEBT OF THE UNITED STATES, IN EACH YEAR, FROM 1791 TO 1874.

  1791           75,463,476.52
  1792           77,227,924.66
  1793           80,352,634.04
  1794           78,427,404.77
  1795           80,747,587.38
  1796           83,762,172.07
  1797           82,064,479.33
  1798           79,228,529.12
  1799           78,408,669.77
  1800           82,976,294.35
  1801           83,038,050.80
  1802           80,712,632.25
  1803           77,054,686.30
  1804           86,427,120.88
  1805           82,312,150.50
  1806           75,723,270.66
  1807           69,218,398.64
  1808           65,196,317.97
  1809           57,023,192.09
  1810           53,173,217.52
  1811           48,005,587.76
  1812           45,209,737.90
  1813           55,962,827.57
  1814           81,487,846.24
  1815           99,833,660.15
  1816          127,334,933.74
  1817          123,491,965.16
  1818          103,466,633.83
  1819           95,529,648.28
  1820           91,015,566.15
  1821           89,987,427.66
  1822           93,546,676.98
  1823           90,875,877.28
  1824           90,269,777.77
  1825           83,788,432.71
  1826           81,054,059.99
  1827           73,987,357.20
  1828           67,475,043.87
  1829           58,421,413.67
  1830           48,565,406.50
  1831           39,123,191.68
  1832           24,322,235.18
  1833            7,001,032.88
  1834            4,760,081.08
  1835              351,289.05
  1836              291,089.05
  1837            1,878,223.55
  1838            4,857,660.46
  1839           11,983,737.53
  1840            5,125,077.63
  1841            6,737,398.00
  1842           15,028,486.37
  1843           27,203,450.69
  1844           24,748,188.23
  1845           17,093,794.80
  1846           16,750,926.33
  1847           38,956,623.38
  1848           48,526,379.37
  1849           64,704,693.71
  1850           64,228,238.37
  1851           62,560,395.26
  1852           65,131,692.13
  1853           67,340,628.78
  1854           47,242,206.05
  1855           39,969,731.05
  1856           30,963,909.64
  1857           29,060,386.90
  1858           44,910,777.66
  1859           58,754,699.33
  1860           64,769,703.08
  1861           90,867,828.68
  1862          514,211,371.92
  1863        1,098,793,181.37
  1864        1,740,690,489.49
  1865        2,682,593,026.53
  1866        2,783,425,879.21
  1867        2,692,199,215.12
  1868        2,643,753,566.38
  1869        2,652,533,662.28
  1870        2,509,270,608.00
  1871        2,303,573,543.00
  1872        2,197,743,440.72
  1873        2,153,489,155.96
  Apr. 1874   2,152,690,728.62
  Oct. 1875   2,122,466,227.


UNITED STATES BONDS.

SIXES OF 1861.—Dated 1861, and redeemable in twenty years from January
1st and July 1st of that year. Interest six per cent. in gold, payable
semi-annually—January 1st and July 1st. These Bonds were issued in three
series: Under Act February 8th, 1861, $18,415,000; dated variously in
1861. Under Acts July 17th and August 5th, 1861. $50,000,000; dated
November 16th, 1861. Under Acts July 17th and August 5th, 1861, in
exchange for 7-30’s, $139,317,150; dated November 16th, 1861. Under Act
March 3d, 1863, and principal made especially payable in gold coin,
$75,000,000; dated June 15th, 1864. Total issue, $282,732,150.

FIVE-TWENTIES OF 1862.—Commonly termed _Old_ Five-Twenties, dated May
1st, 1862. Redeemable after five years, and payable in twenty years
from date. Interest six per cent. in gold, payable the first of May and
November. Issued under Act February 25th, 1862, $514,771,600.

FIVE-TWENTIES OF 1864.—Dated November 1st, 1864. Redeemable after five,
and payable in twenty years. Interest, six per cent. in gold, payable 1st
of May and November. Issued under Act March 3d, 1864 (principal specified
as payable in gold), $3,882,500. Issued under Act June 30th, 1864,
$125,561,300. Total issue, $129,443,800.

FIVE-TWENTIES OF 1865.—Dated July 1st, 1865. Interest, six per cent. in
gold, payable January and July. They are redeemable in five years, and
payable in twenty years. Issued under Act March 3d, 1865, in exchange for
7-30 notes converted, and amount, August 1st, 1868, to $372,346,350.

FIVE-TWENTIES OF 1865.—Dated November 1st, 1865. Redeemable after five,
and payable in twenty years. Interest, six per cent. in gold, payable 1st
of May and November. Issued under Act March 3d, 1865, $197,777,250.

FIVE-TWENTIES OF 1867. Dated July 1st, 1867. Redeemable in five, and
payable in twenty years. Interest, six per cent. in gold, payable 1st of
January and July. Issued under Act March 3, 1865, in exchange for 7-30
notes, and amount, August 1st, 1868, to $371,346,350.

FIVE-TWENTIES OF 1868.—Dated July 1st, 1868. Redeemable in five, and
payable in twenty years. Interest, six per cent. in gold, payable 1st of
January and July. Issued under Act March 3d, 1865, in exchange for 7-30
notes, and amount, August 1st, 1868, to $39,000,000.

TEN-FORTIES.—Dated March 1st, 1864. Redeemable in ten and payable in
forty years. Interest, five per cent. in gold, payable on the 1st of
March and September on all Registered Bonds, and on all Coupon Bonds of
the denomination of $500 and $1,000. On the $50 and $100 Bonds, interest
is paid annually, March 1st. Issued under Act March 3d, 1863, and
Supplement, March 3d, 1864; principal, payable in gold, $194,291,500.

FIVES OF 1870.—Redeemable at the pleasure of the United States, after
May 1, 1881, in gold. Interest, five per cent. in gold, payable
quarterly—February, May, August, and November 1st. Exempt from all
taxation. Issued under Acts of July 14th, 1870, and January 20th, 1871.
Amount, $200,000,000.

U. S. PACIFIC RAILROAD CURRENCY SIXES.—Dated January 16th, 1865, and
variously thereafter. These Bonds are issued by the Government, under
Acts July 1st, 1862, and July 2d, 1864, to companies receiving their
charter from Congress, which gives them the right to construct railroads
to and from the Pacific Coast, and on the completion of each twenty
miles of track, to receive at the rate of $16,000, $22,000, or $48,000
per mile, according to the difficulty of constructing the same. They are
payable thirty years from date of issue, and are registered in Bonds
of $1,000, $5,000, and $10,000. Amount issued to September 1st, 1870,
$64,618,832. All of the Bonds are issued “Coupon” or “Registered.” Coupon
Bonds can be changed into Registered Bonds, but Registered Bonds cannot
be changed into Coupons. Coupon Bonds are in denominations of $50, $100,
$500, and $1,000: the Registered Bonds the same, with addition of $5,000
and $10,000.

  --------------------+-----------------+-----------------+---------------
                      |     Real and    |     Real and    |     Real and
         STATES       |     Personal    |     Personal    |     Personal
          AND         |     Estate.     |     Estate.     |     Estate.
      TERRITORIES.    +-----------------+-----------------+---------------
                      |       1870.     |       1860.     |      1850.
  --------------------+-----------------+-----------------+---------------
     United States    | $30,068,518,507 | $16,159,616,068 | $7,135,780,228
                      +-----------------+-----------------+---------------
     States           |  29,822,535,140 |  16,086,519,771 |  7,115,600,800
                      +-----------------+-----------------+---------------
  Alabama             |     201,855,841 |     495,237,078 |    228,204,332
  Arkansas            |     156,394,691 |     219,256,473 |     39,841,025
  California          |     638,767,017 |     207,874,613 |     22,161,872
  Connecticut         |     774,631,524 |     444,274,114 |    155,707,980
  Delaware            |      97,180,833 |      46,242,181 |     21,062,556
  Florida             |      44,163,655 |      73,101,500 |     22,862,270
  Georgia             |     268,169,207 |     645,895,237 |    335,425,714
  Illinois            |   2,121,680,579 |     871,860,282 |    156,265,006
  Indiana             |   1,268,180,543 |     528,835,371 |    202,650,264
  Iowa                |     717,644,750 |     247,338,265 |     23,714,638
  Kansas              |     188,892,014 |      31,327,895 |           ----
  Kentucky            |     604,318,552 |     666,043,112 |    301,628,456
  Louisiana           |     323,125,666 |     602,118,568 |    233,998,764
  Maine               |     348,155,671 |     190,211,600 |    122,777,571
  Maryland            |     643,748,976 |     376,919,944 |    219,217,364
  Massachusetts       |   2,132,148,741 |     815,237,433 |    573,342,286
  Michigan            |     719,208,118 |     257,163,983 |     59,787,255
  Minnesota           |     228,909,590 |      52,294,413 |           ----
  Mississippi         |     209,197,345 |     607,324,911 |    228,951,130
  Missouri            |   1,284,922,897 |     501,214,398 |    137,247,707
  Nebraska            |      69,277,483 |       9,131,056 |           ----
  Nevada              |      31,134,012 |            ---- |           ----
  New Hampshire       |     252,624,112 |     156,310,860 |    103,652,835
  New Jersey          |     940,976,064 |     467,918,324 |    200,000,000
  New York            |   6,500,841,264 |   1,843,338,517 |  1,080,309,216
  North Carolina      |     260,757,244 |     358,739,399 |    226,800,472
  Ohio                |   2,235,430,300 |   1,193,898,422 |    504,726,120
  Oregon              |      51,558,932 |      28,930,637 |      5,063,474
  Pennsylvania        |   3,808,340,111 |   1,416,501,818 |    722,486,120
  Rhode Island        |     296,965,646 |     135,337,588 |     80,508,794
  South Carolina      |     208,146,989 |     548,138,754 |    288,257,694
  Tennessee           |     498,237,724 |     493,903,892 |    201,246,686
  Texas               |     159,052,542 |     365,200,614 |     52,740,473
  Vermont             |     235,349,553 |     122,477,170 |     92,205,049
  Virginia            |     409,588,133 |     793,249,681 |    430,701,082
  West Virginia       |     190,651,491 |            ---- |           ----
  Wisconsin           |     702,307,329 |     273,671,668 |     42,056,595
                      +-----------------+-----------------+---------------
         Territories  |     245,983,367 |      73,096,297 |     20,179,428
                      +-----------------+-----------------+---------------
  Arizona             |      $3,440,791 |            ---- |           ----
  Colorado            |      20,243,303 |            ---- |           ----
  Dakota              |       5,599,752 |            ---- |           ----
  District of Columbia|     126,873,616 |      41,084,945 |     14,018,814
  Idaho               |       6,552,681 |            ---- |           ----
  Montana             |      15,184,522 |            ---- |           ----
  New Mexico          |      31,349,793 |      20,813,768 |      5,174,471
  Utah                |      16,159,995 |       5,596,118 |        986,083
  Washington          |      13,562,164 |       5,601,466 |           ----
  Wyoming             |       7,016,748 |            ---- |           ----
  --------------------+-----------------+-----------------+---------------


THE AVERAGE WEALTH TO EACH INDIVIDUAL.

   1. New York      $1,483.27
   2. Massachusetts  1,463.03
   3. Connecticut    1,441.30
   4. Rhode Island   1,366.28
   5. California     1,140.15
   6. Pennsylvania   1,081.31
   7. New Jersey     1,038.49
   8. Ohio             838.73
   9. Illinois         835.34
  10. Maryland         824.37
  11. New Hampshire    793.66
  12. Delaware         777.35
  13. Indiana          754.58
  14. Missouri         746.48
  15. Nevada           732.72
  16. Vermont          711.99
  17. Wisconsin        665.90
  18. Michigan         607.41
  19. Iowa             601.03
  20. Oregon           567.06
  21. Nebraska         563.26
  22. Maine            555.35
  23. Minnesota        520.60
  24. Kansas           518.36
  25. Kentucky         457.46
  26. Louisiana        444.51
  27. West Virginia    431.32
  28. Tennessee        395.89
  29. Virginia         334.31
  30. Arkansas         322.81
  31. South Carolina   294.99
  32. Mississippi      252.67
  33. North Carolina   243.39
  34. Florida          235.23
  35. Georgia          226.47
  36. Alabama          202.46
  37. Texas            194.30


FINANCIAL CONDITION OF THE STATES OF THE UNION.

  ---------------+-----------+----------------+-------------+------------+
                 |           |                |             |            |
                 | Populat’n |     Assessed   |             |  Floating  |
     STATES.     |   1870.   |    Valuation.  | Funded Debt.|   Debt.    |
                 |           |                |             |            |
  ---------------+-----------+----------------+-------------+------------+
  Alabama        |   996,992 |   $143,139,262 |  $5,661,800 |   $600,108 |
  Arkansas       |   484,471 |     90,196,763 |  10,771,000 |    800,000 |
  California     |   560,247 |    527,203,982 |   1,982,500 |    266,669 |
  Connecticut    |   537,454 |    348,855,457 |   4,970,000 |     none   |
  Delaware       |   125,015 |     64,787,223 |        ---- |       ---- |
  Florida        |   187,748 |     30,000,000 |   4,664,000 |    848,269 |
  Georgia        | 1,184,109 |    243,620,466 |   8,186,500 |       ---- |
  Illinois       | 2,539,891 |    884,731,999 |   2,060,151 |     none   |
  Indiana        | 1,680,637 |    654,519,016 |     176,890 |     none   |
  Iowa           | 1,194,020 |    366,076,206 |     300,000 |     none   |
  Kansas         |   364,399 |    127,690,937 |   1,342,275 |    201,109 |
  Kentucky       | 1,321,011 |    403,296,567 |      none   |       ---- |
  Louisiana      |   726,915 |    228,666,654 |  21,801,800 |  2,291,608 |
  Maine          |   626,915 |    224,552,406 |   6,186,100 |     none   |
  Maryland       |   780,894 |    419,323,067 |  10,911,679 |     none   |
  Massachusetts  | 1,457,351 |  1,696,599,969 |  25,876,104 |     none   |
  Michigan       | 1,184,059 |    630,000,000 |   2,209,000 |     none   |
  Minnesota      |    439,76 |     84,135,332 |      none   |     none   |
  Mississippi    |   827,922 |    148,159,873 |     347,150 |    683,207 |
  Missouri       | 1,721,295 |    572,293,377 |  18,748,000 |     none   |
  Nebraska       |   122,993 |     69,873,819 |      none   |     none   |
  Nevada         |    42,491 |     12,129,110 |     556,000 |     none   |
  New Hampshire  |   318,300 |    149,065,290 |   3,914,195 |    226,050 |
  New Jersey     |   906,696 |    603,665,497 |   2,796,300 |     none   |
  New York       | 4,382,759 |  2,129,626,386 |  32,392,101 |     none   |
  North Carolina | 1,071,361 |    123,507,628 |  29,900,045 |  7,813,898 |
  Ohio           | 2,665,260 |  1,524,323,118 |   8,583,546 |       ---- |
  Oregon         |    90,923 |     34,744,460 |     290,477 |     76,884 |
  Pennsylvania   | 3,521,951 |  1,313,236,042 |  27,303,495 |     none   |
  Rhode Island   |   217,353 |    244,278,854 |   2,638,500 |     none   |
  South Carolina |   705,606 |    183,913,337 |  15,851,627 |  5,306,398 |
  Tennessee      | 1,258,520 |    272,674,352 |  20,966,382 |  5,200,000 |
  Texas          |   818,579 |    222,504,073 |   1,166,832 |    644,745 |
  Vermont        |   330,551 |    102,366,300 |     380,000 |     none   |
  Virginia       | 1,225,163 |    365,437,708 |  30,478,741 |  1,289,405 |
  West Virginia  |   442,014 |    132,356,703 |  15,239,371 |    644,703 |
  Wisconsin      | 1,054,670 |    390,454,875 |      18,157 |       ---- |
                 +-----------+----------------+-------------+------------+
    Total        |38,115,641 |$15,762,006,108 |$318,670,718 |$26,893,053 |

  --------------+--------------+-------------+-------------+--------------
                |              |   Receipts  |             |
                |Town, County, |  from Taxes |             |   Year
     STATES.    |and City Debt.|     and     |Expenditures.|   ended.
                |              | Investments.|             |
  --------------+--------------+-------------+-------------+--------------
  Alabama       |  *$4,799,136 |  $1,064,960 |  $1,461,055 |Sept. 30, 1873
  Arkansas      |    1,285,693 |     944,611 |     974,728 |Sept. 30, 1872
  California    |  *14,660,065 |   3,104,242 |   2,771,382 |June  30, 1873
  Connecticut   |   *9,813,006 |   2,654,465 |   1,528,693 |March 31, 1873
  Delaware      |     *526,125 |        ---- |        ---- |----
  Florida       |     *897,141 |     257,234 |     304,215 |Dec.  31, 1872
  Georgia       |  *15,209,212 |   1,678,412 |   1,345,687 |Dec.  31, 1872
  Illinois      |  *37,300,932 |   4,049,543 |   3,762,328 |Nov.  30, 1872
  Indiana       |   *3,651,203 |   2,191,529 |   2,399,276 |Oct.  31, 1872
  Iowa          |   *7,508,635 |   1,154,993 |   1,182,340 |Oct.  31, 1873
  Kansas        |   *4,848,976 |     958,538 |     963,728 |Nov.  30, 1872
  Kentucky      |  *15,061,004 |   2,016,494 |   2,029,718 |Oct.  10, 1873
  Louisiana     |  *28,065,707 |   4,312,034 |   4,371,429 |Dec.  31, 1872
  Maine         |   *8,556,724 |   1,334,860 |   1,147,544 |Dec.  31, 1872
  Maryland      |  *15,715,102 |   1,876,369 |   2,350,654 |Sept. 30, 1872
  Massachusetts |  *40,940,657 |   5,661,295 |   5,465,882 |Dec.  31, 1872
  Michigan      |   *4,340,203 |   1,915,122 |   1,632,171 |Sept. 30, 1872
  Minnesota     |   *2,438,797 |     799,272 |     876,181 |Nov.  30, 1872
  Mississippi   |     *798,185 |   1,249,276 |   1,596,829 |Dec.  31, 1872
  Missouri      |   32,537,776 |   3,467,742 |   3,526,113 |Dec.  31, 1872
  Nebraska      |   *1,841,964 |     529,352 |     369,808 |Dec.  31, 1872
  Nevada        |   *1,343,199 |     538,492 |     392,361 |Dec.  31, 1872
  New Hampshire |    7,210,527 |     928,606 |     779,803 |May   31, 1873
  New Jersey    |  *19,858,104 |   2,491,195 |   2,515,556 |Oct.  31, 1872
  New York      |  188,373,280 |  18,569,403 |  13,926,875 |Sept. 30, 1873
  North Carolina|   *2,573,991 |     700,477 |     801,809 |Sept. 30, 1872
  Ohio          |   17,559,498 |   4,607,798 |   4,411,952 |Nov.  15, 1872
  Oregon        |     *111,903 |     337,316 |     384,987 |Sept.  9, 1872
  Pennsylvania  |  *57,915,469 |   7,048,637 |   4,666,702 |Nov.  30, 1872
  Rhode Island  |   *3,025,142 |     700,133 |     634,501 |April 30, 1873
  South Carolina|   *5,409,320 |   1,658,083 |   1,655,601 |July  30, 1873
  Tennessee     |  *10,285,389 |   1,938,330 |   1,074,064 |Dec.  31, 1872
  Texas         |   *1,105,266 |   1,105,710 |   1,105,641 |Aug.  31, 1872
  Vermont       |   *2,592,200 |     627,490 |     348,075 |July  31, 1872
  Virginia      |   *8,530,416 |   2,421,945 |   2,761,310 |Sept. 30, 1873
  West Virginia |     *561,767 |     679,690 |     719,545 |Sept. 30, 1873
  Wisconsin     |    8,880,029 |   1,624,559 |   1,648,023 |Sept. 30, 1873
                +--------------+-------------+-------------+---------------
    Total       | $586,131,743 | $86,598,187 | $77,786,566 |




CHAPTER XVI.

WAR DEPARTMENT.


Men, unfortunately, have never been able to so arrange their mutual
relations as to dispense with violent and deadly contests. Although they
are less frequent and shorter now than formerly, they are more costly
and more destructive, and every nation is still, as formerly, obliged to
anticipate the possibility of war and to make provision for its sudden
occurrence, that it may not be borne down and overwhelmed by the first
shock. It is an event so probable, even, and especially if the country
should be in a defenseless state, that it has become a maxim of prudence
with statesmen to avoid war by being prepared for it. The nation that can
best repel an attack is least likely to be attacked.

Most governments, like our own, had their birth and early history in the
confusion and devastation of that great destroyer of life and property;
and it is natural that the first leisure of peace should be occupied in
preparing themselves, in the most effective manner possible, for both
defensive and offensive operations in case of its return.

The Constitution contemplates the existence of an army and navy for
warlike purposes, and makes the President Commander-in-chief of both. The
first Congress assembled under the Constitution hastened, in its first
session, to provide him an army and navy to command by organizing the
Department of War. At its head was placed the Secretary of War, and so
necessary was it deemed to the dignity and security of the nation that he
was made one of the principal officers of the government, having a seat
in the cabinet and being regarded as one of the advisers of the Chief
Magistrate. He is appointed by the President with the consent of the
Senate. A Chief Clerk, to be appointed by the Secretary, was provided
for by the act of 1789 creating the Department, who was the second
authority in it, and acted as Secretary, in case of a vacancy; but when
the Civil War raised this Department to great prominence, in 1861, a law
was passed authorizing the appointment of an Assistant Secretary, and, in
1863, two additional Assistant Secretaries were provided for by law; all
to be appointed by the President. This last measure was temporary only,
designed to expire when returning peace should reduce the Department to
its ordinary condition.

At first the affairs of the national navy were managed by the Secretary
of War. This was changed, as we shall see, when our commerce and foreign
relations became more important.

The Secretary of War ranks next to the President in military authority
and dignity, and has the whole oversight, under him, of the army and its
affairs. He makes out military commissions to be signed by the President,
has the care of providing for the support, clothing, pay, and equipment
of the army, and of all military stores required to keep the army in
efficient drill, and in readiness against a possible war. He has the care
of all books, records, and papers relating to the army and to military
affairs. The names, grades, time of enlistment, term of service, and time
of mustering out of all officers and privates in the army, whether in the
regular or volunteer service, are to be found in his office. All military
accounts are kept and adjusted under his supervision. These cares and
duties have become so numerous and important as to require a careful
organization of the Department into sub-departments, or bureaus, as the
Commissary’s, the Quartermaster’s, and the Ordnance bureaus. The general
management of the whole depending on the Secretary of War, he evidently
requires to be a man of judgment, thoroughly versed in military affairs,
and of eminent organizing ability.

A Solicitor, to have charge of the legal business of this Department, was
provided for by law in 1863, to be appointed by the President and the
Senate.


SECRETARIES OF WAR.

  Henry Knox, Mass., Sept. 12, 1789.
  Timothy Pickering, Pa., Jan. 2, 1795.
  James McHenry, Md., Jan. 27, 1796.
  James Marshall, Va., May 7, 1800.
  Samuel Dexter, Mass., May 13, 1800.
  Roger Griswold, Ct., Feb. 3, 1801.
  Henry Dearborn, Mass., March 5, 1801.
  William Eustis, Mass., March 7, 1809.
  John Armstrong, N. Y., Jan. 13, 1813.
  James Monroe, Va., Sept. 27, 1814.
  William H. Crawford, Ga., March 2, 1815.
  Isaac Shelby, Ky., March 5, 1817.
  G. Graham, Va., April 7, 1817.
  John C. Calhoun, S. C., Oct. 8, 1817.
  James Barbour, Va., March 7, 1825.
  Peter B. Porter, N. Y., May 26, 1828.
  J. H. Eaton, Tenn., March 9, 1829.
  Lewis Cass, Mich., Aug. 1, 1831.
  Benjamin F. Butler, N. Y., March 3, 1837.
  Joel R. Poinsett, S. C., March 7, 1837.
  John Bell, Tenn., March 5, 1841.
  John McLean, O., Sept. 13, 1841.
  John C. Spencer, N. Y., Oct. 12, 1841.
  James M. Porter, Pa., March 8, 1843.
  William Wilkins, Pa., Feb. 15, 1844.
  William L. Marcy, N. Y., March 5, 1845.
  George W. Crawford, Ga., March 6, 1849.
  Charles M. Conrad, La., Aug. 8, 1850.
  Jefferson Davis, Miss., March 5, 1853.
  John B. Floyd, Va., March 6, 1857.
  Joseph Holt, Ky., Dec. 30, 1860.
  Simon Cameron, Pa., March 5, 1861.
  Edwin M. Stanton, Pa., Jan. 13, 1862.
  Ulysses S. Grant, Ill., 1868.
  J. M. Schofield, 1868.
  John A. Rawlins, Ill., Mch. 5, ’69. Died Sept. 6, ’69.
  Wm. T. Sherman, Sept. 9, 1869.
  Wm. W. Belknap, Oct. 25, 1869.
    ”      ”      reappointed March 17, 1873.




CHAPTER XVII.

THE UNITED STATES ARMY.


1. The military successes of the United States would seem to prove
undeniably, that, if the nation had adopted a career of conquest as did
Ancient Rome, it might have played an important part in the history of
warlike peoples. The undisciplined militia shut up a strong army in
Boston in 1774, and, had not their powder failed, would very likely have
forced the British to evacuate that place immediately after the battle of
Bunker Hill.

2. Washington’s army, made up in large part of militia, seemed always on
the point of dissolution, and yet the British, after spending more than a
hundred millions in fitting out armies against them, and possessing the
important superiority of free movement on the sea, for the transportation
of forces easily and rapidly to any desired point, never could gain a
permanent foothold, though opposed only by a ragged, famished, and half
disorganized army.

3. The war of 1812—the Mexican War—and the Civil War, all bear testimony
to the excellence of the material for military operations to be found
among us. Yet we are a peace loving people. The government has never had
more than the skeleton of an army in times of peace. While the Great
Powers of Europe keep up armies of half a million of men, our army,
very soon after the late gigantic war, was reduced to less than 30,000
men; barely enough to keep the Indians in order, garrison the frontiers
slightly, and furnish a nucleus of soldiers and trained officers in case
of a war. By a law of Congress, it was enacted that every sound and
healthy man, with a few exceptions in special cases, between the ages of
18 and 45, should be enrolled and equipped for military duty. Then, by
the laws of the States, they are required on certain days in each year
to meet in companies, regiments or brigades, for drill and practice in
military exercises.

4. By these means military organizations are kept up in every part of the
country, together with some knowledge of the military art. These, in time
of war or domestic insurrection, may be called out with but a few days’
notice; and a large army of citizen soldiers can be raised in a very
short time. With such facilities for raising men, it is unnecessary to
keep a standing army of much magnitude. A few thousand men to guard our
fortifications and military posts are sufficient.

The late civil war between the South and the North gave ample evidence of
this; for when it became necessary to raise a million of men, it was done
in a short time, and after a little practice they became good soldiers.




CHAPTER XVIII.

THE MILITARY ACADEMY.


1. The success of military affairs in time of war depends, in great
measure, on a thorough knowledge of the science of war, and especially
of engineering, so often requiring to be applied with haste and accuracy
to the _con_struction or _de_struction of military defenses. It requires
a complete knowledge of certain branches of mathematics, and an
understanding of their application to warlike purposes. Various other
special studies are required to prepare men for prompt and able action
in military operations. For the purpose of keeping a corps of officers,
well fitted to meet these requirements, ready for possible occasions


A MILITARY ACADEMY

was established. It is located on the west bank of the Hudson river, at
West Point, in the State of New York, and about 50 miles from the city of
New York, and is one of the government institutions. It had its origin in
an act of Congress passed as early as 1802. Under this act this far-famed
military school was commenced, but on a scale, in every respect, very
much inferior to what it has since become.

2. Its name explains its character and objects. It was established and
has been continued at a great expense, for the purpose of teaching
and training up young men in the science and art of war, that in any
emergency the country might have a sufficient number of men, educated
and skilled in all such arts and sciences as appertain to war. Hence,
mathematics, engineering, gunnery, drawing, natural and experimental
philosophy and military tactics, are among the principal branches taught.
In all of these, able professors give instruction to the cadets, as the
pupils are called. Chemistry, geology, and the French language are also
taught at this institution. The instruction is thorough, the discipline
excellent, and some of the graduates of this celebrated school rank high
among the scientific men of the country.

3. Congress controls and regulates this establishment, as it does all
other departments, institutions, and works belonging to the government.
It enacts all laws relating to its officers, professors, and cadets, and
to the management of the institution.

4. By a law passed in 1843, the number of cadets to be admitted was made
to correspond with the number of Senators and Representatives from each
State. Every State and Territory is entitled to send as many cadets
as it has Senators and Representatives in Congress. This gives each
Territory, however, but one; as a Territory has no Senators, and but one
Representative. By the same law the District of Columbia is allowed one.
To give every part of the country an equal chance, it was enacted that
each Congressional district in each State and Territory should be allowed
to send one cadet, to be educated at West Point. These are generally
nominated for appointment by the Congressmen from their respective
districts, and the President appoints. The cadet must be an actual
resident of the district for which he is appointed.

5. In addition to these, it is provided by the same act, that ten
more cadets may be appointed at large; _i. e._, without regard to
Congressional districts. In order to be admitted as a cadet, the
candidate must be well versed in reading, writing, and arithmetic;
must not be under 14 nor over 21 years of age; and must sign articles,
agreeing to serve the United States eight years. After he has finished
his studies and has graduated, he is considered as a candidate for a
commission in the army, according to the duties he may be competent to
perform.

6. The Military Academy may be considered a branch of the War Department.
Men who have been educated there have rendered the country signal service
in times of war, have made able commanders, and have proved themselves
thoroughly skilled in military science. Not only in the military service
has it been a benefit to the country, but in the civil walks of life.
Many of its graduates have distinguished themselves as engineers,
astronomers, and in other scientific professions and useful employments.

7. There is an annual examination of the cadets, and of the general
affairs of the institution, by a committee appointed by the President,
for that purpose.

It is composed of Congressmen and military officers. It is the duty of
these examiners to attend the examination, inspect its discipline, and
course of instruction, look after its fiscal affairs, and all other
matters relating to the Academy, and report the same to the Secretary of
War, for the use of Congress.




CHAPTER XIX.

DEPOTS OF WAR MATERIAL.


We have seen that the government can be sure of the support of the
citizens in time of war and that they furnish the best kind of material
of that description for military purposes. An army of great effectiveness
can be organized in a comparatively short time, when important interests
of the country are at stake. Not so, however, with the arms they require
to use for offensive purposes. These require time and skilled workmen to
construct them. They are therefore kept in readiness for use in Depots
constructed for the purpose.

As early as 1794, Congress enacted that three or four arsenals and
magazines, with an armory attached to each, should be established for the
safe keeping of military stores. An arsenal is a place where arms and
military stores are kept. An armory is a place where arms are made or
repaired. The armories where arms are manufactured are at Springfield,
in Massachusetts, and at Harpers’ Ferry, in Virginia. But there are many
others where they are repaired.

In 1808, the President was authorized to purchase sites and to erect
as many more arsenals and manufactories of arms as he might deem
expedient. Each of these establishments was formerly under the direction
of a superintendent; but they are now placed under the direction of
the Ordnance Department. The office of superintendent of the armories
at Springfield and Harpers’ Ferry, was also abolished in 1842; and
its duties have since been performed by such officers of the ordnance
corps as were designated by the President. In each armory there is
employed a master armorer, who superintends the workmen. In addition
to those already named there are arsenals and armories at Pittsburgh
and Bridesburg, in Pennsylvania; at Washington City; at Watervliet, in
New York; Watertown, Mass.; at Columbus, Ohio; at Indianapolis, in
Indiana; and at Rock Island, in Illinois. They are parts of the military
establishment of the country, and belong to the War Department.




CHAPTER XX.

ARTICLES OF WAR.


1. An army is designed, in idea, to supply a powerful instrument of
offense and defense, that shall so thoroughly organize and fuse together
a large number of individuals that the whole shall act as one, and
be perfectly under the control of the directing mind. An army fully
realizing this idea, would suppress, in its military acts, all thoughts
and sentiments of its individuals, and be used by its commanding general
as he would use his own hand, arm and foot. It should move at his will,
strike where, as long and as heavily as he saw best, and be to him a
perfect machine as to obedience.

2. This idea is seldom more than partially realized; but it is the aim
of all military drill, discipline, and law. The Articles of War are the
body of laws enacted by Congress defining the relations of soldiers to
their officers, so as to secure as fully as possible among a free people
this thorough subordination, defining the conduct of the soldier toward
his superior, prescribing the duty of the officer, and securing as far as
possible in connection with such subordination the rights of the soldier.

3. They contain general directions concerning the organization,
enlistment, and discharge of men, rules for leaves of absence, punishment
for absence without leave, or for desertion, and other penalties for
conduct improper or criminal in a soldier. Many of these rules are
very strict and the penalties severe, since a neglect to obey might
endanger the safety of an army or the country, or interfere with the most
important operations. War is a very exacting pursuit.

4. It is relaxing also in some directions and rules are made requiring,
and often without effect, obedience to some of the most common principles
and practices of morality. It often becomes quite impossible to enforce
these amid the fierce excitement and wild disorder of active warfare.

5. Offenses committed in the army are not tried before a civil tribunal,
but by a military court called a “Court Martial,” for the guidance of
which a special code of rules is prepared. These are characterized by the
brevity, decisiveness, and summary action that is so important to the
effectiveness of all military affairs. The decisions of a court martial
may impose all punishments even to condemning a man to death; but they
are subject to modification, or commutation, or even may be wholly set
aside by the President of the United States, who is Commander-in-Chief of
the Army.

The Articles of War relate to all things important to the welfare,
effectiveness, and safety of an army, and aim to provide for the comfort
and protect the rights of the individual as well as circumstances permit.
They consist of one hundred and one articles. The first one requires
every officer in the army to subscribe to them before he enters on his
duties.




CHAPTER XXI.

MILITARY HOSPITALS AND ASYLUMS.


1. It is plainly a dictate of humanity that a government should provide
for the comfort and skillful treatment of those persons who are wounded
in its service, or who become diseased under the hardships of a military
life and are disabled from active duty. Our century is specially
distinguished by the benevolent care bestowed on the indigent and the
suffering, in all civilized countries, and we have reason to expect that
the United States would take a leading place in this care for her own
citizens.

2. This has been done, and all the thoughtful attention that the case
called for has been given to hospitals and asylums for the disabled and
suffering, both of the Army and Navy, equally in peace and war.

3. In 1851, Congress passed an act for the establishment of military
asylums, for the purpose of making the same provision for wounded and
disabled soldiers as had already been made for that class of seamen.
These institutions are located in different sections of the country where
deemed most eligible and convenient for those who need such a place of
refuge. They are placed under the government of a board of commissioners,
consisting of the general in chief, and eight other military officers of
high rank, who submit their acts to the Secretary of War for his approval.

4. The officers of these asylums must be taken from the army, and consist
of a governor, a deputy governor, and secretary, who is also treasurer.
The funds for their support are raised by a tax of twenty-five cents
per month on the soldiers, to which are added the fines and penalties
adjudged against soldiers by courts martial, with forfeitures for
desertion, &c.

Persons receiving pensions from the government may be admitted into these
asylums upon condition that they surrender their pensions to the use of
the institution while they remain in it.

The commissioners are authorized to buy sites and buildings for these
institutions, and to receive donations of them. They also furnish them
with whatever is necessary for the comfort of the inmates, and make such
laws and regulations for their government as they deem proper.

Deserters, mutineers, and habitual drunkards, are excluded from the
benefits of these asylums.


INSANE ASYLUM.

5. Among these benevolent institutions provided by a generous government
for the support of those who have faithfully served their country, the
insane asylum ought to be noticed. The title of this establishment is
“the government hospital for the insane.” Its objects are the cure and
kind treatment of the insane of the army and navy, and of the District
of Columbia. It is under the control of a board of nine visitors, all
of whom must be citizens of the said District. They are appointed by
the President, and annually report to the Secretary of the Interior the
condition of the asylum and its inmates. They serve without compensation.

6. The superintendent must be a physician. There is a farm attached to
the asylum, which is under the direction of the superintendent, who
receives patients upon the order of the Secretary of the War, or the
Navy, and upon the order of the Secretary of the Interior. He may receive
indigent insane persons residing in the District of Columbia. If other
than indigent persons are admitted, they must pay for the privilege a sum
not less than the cost of their support.

7. The military hospitals in time of war are for temporary purposes, and
are established wherever the army happens to be, and especially near
where the great battles have been fought, that immediate relief may be
given to the sick and wounded. These are established by the commanders
of the army, and are under their control. And here let it be recorded to
their praise, that since military hospitals were known, never have any
been seen which for order, cleanliness and efficiency in administering to
the comfort and care of the sick and wounded soldiers, surpassed those of
the United States during the late civil war.




CHAPTER XXII.

NAVY DEPARTMENT.


The position of the United States naturally gives it great prominence as
a naval power. Situated between the two great oceans, with thousands of
miles of coast on each, and a profusion of good harbors, bays, and great
rivers, accessible to large ocean vessels for long distances into the
interior; with a soil of great fertility, and numerous and inexhaustible
sources of mineral wealth, besides all the conditions favorable to the
establishment and success of manufactures—it requires large foreign
markets for its various products, and an extensive commerce is essential
to its development. It should be, and perhaps it is, the strongest naval
power in the world.

The War of Independence was much increased in length and difficulty by
the want of a navy, the maritime resources of England giving her a great
superiority in striking suddenly, and in force, at distant points.

It was natural, then, that so important an arm, for both attack and
defense, should be prepared to act with energy, and this was one of the
first cares of the new government; and so efficient did this branch of
national strength become in the thirty years of peace, to the war of 1812
with England, that the easiest and some of the most important successes
of the Americans, in that conflict, were on the sea.

The care of Naval affairs was, at first, committed to the Secretary of
War. In 1798 it was erected into a separate Department, and a Secretary
placed at its head. He was entitled to a seat in the Cabinet, as one of
the advisers of the President, and received his appointment by nomination
of the President and concurrence of the Senate, in the same manner as the
Heads of other Departments.

As the President is the highest officer, in command, in the Navy, he
ranks as second, and acts under his direction. It is his duty to procure
naval stores and materials, and to oversee the places where they are
deposited; to attend to the construction, equipment, armament, and
employment of vessels of war, to make out the commissions of naval
officers; to see that efficiency and discipline are maintained in the
service; and to assume the control of the movements of the vessels of war
that are kept cruising in every sea for the protection of our commerce
and citizens in foreign parts, and the preservation of the international
rights and dignity of the United States.

3. A chief clerk was formerly the second officer in rank in the
Department, but, in 1861, provision was made, by Congress, for an
Assistant Secretary, who should act as Secretary in the absence of that
officer.

Formerly there were five bureaus in this department, but in 1862, three
more were added, making eight, as follows:

  1. A Bureau of Yards and Docks.
  2. A Bureau of Equipment and Recruiting.
  3. A Bureau of Navigation.
  4. A Bureau of Ordnance.
  5. A Bureau of Construction and Repairs.
  6. A Bureau of Steam Engineering.
  7. A Bureau of Provisions and Clothing.
  8. A Bureau of Medicine and Surgery.

The President and Senate appoint all the heads of these bureaus, and
select them principally from officers of high rank in the navy. They are
all appointed for four years.

The Secretary appoints all the numerous clerks employed in the various
bureaus and assigns their duties.

He must annually report to Congress the condition of his department,
the manner and amount of all expenditures, furnish estimates for the
expenses of the following year, and give such advice in regard to
the naval interests of the country as his intimate knowledge of that
branch of the service may suggest. He requires an intimate knowledge of
maritime affairs, and of International law, and a high and enlightened
appreciation of the policy to be pursued in our official and commercial
intercourse with all foreign nations.

The following list embraces the names of all the Secretaries of the Navy,
from George Cabot, the first, to George M. Robeson, the present incumbent:

  George Cabot, Mass., May 3, 1798.
  Benjamin Stoddert, Mass., May 21, 1798.
  Robert Smith, Md., July 15, 1801.
  J. Crowninshield, Mass., May 3, 1805.
  Paul Hamilton, S. C., March 7, 1809.
  William Jones, Pa., Jan. 12, 1813.
  B. W. Crowninshield, Mass., Dec. 17, 1814.
  Smith Thompson, N. Y., Nov. 9, 1818.
  John Rogers, Mass., Sept. 1, 1823.
  S. L. Southard, N. J., Sept. 16, 1823.
  John Branch, N. C., March 9, 1829.
  Levi Woodbury, N. H., May 23, 1831.
  Mahlon Dickerson, N. J., June 30, 1834.
  J. K. Paulding, N. Y., June 20, 1830.
  G. E. Badger, N. C., March 5, 1841.
  Abel P. Upshur, Va., Sept. 13, 1841.
  David Henshaw, Mass., July 24, 1843.
  T. W. Gilmer, Va., Feb. 12, 1844.
  John Y. Mason, Va., March 14, 1844.
  George Bancroft, Mass., March 10, 1845.
  John Y. Mason, Va., Sept. 9, 1846.
  William B. Preston, Va., March 7, 1849.
  William A. Graham, N. C., July 20, 1850.
  J. P. Kennedy, Md., July 22, 1850.
  J. C. Dobbin, N. C., March 5, 1853.
  Isaac Toucey, Ct., March 6, 1857.
  Gideon Welles, Ct., March 5, 1861.
  Adolph E. Borie, Pa., March 5, 1869.
  George M. Robeson, N. J., June 25, 1869.
    ”          ”     reappointed March 17, 1873.




CHAPTER XXIII.

THE UNITED STATES NAVY.


1. The original thirteen States were all on the Atlantic coast, and had
each one or more sea ports. They were naturally given to commerce, and
the second Continental Congress, in December, 1775, resolved to form a
navy of thirteen vessels of war. Eight were soon fitted out; but the
superiority of England on the sea, and the great financial difficulties
with which Congress had to struggle during, and for some years after,
the Revolutionary War, made it impossible to give any great degree of
development to naval affairs. The sea swarmed with American privateers
during the war, and many hundreds of English merchant vessels were
captured; but Congress never was able to collect a formidable fleet.
The daring exploits of Paul Jones, in European waters, and the bold and
successful raids of Privateersmen under Letters of Marque and Reprisal
gave indication of what might be looked for in the future, but they could
not cope with British fleets.

2. The Navy Department was for some time under the control of the
Secretary of War; but, as the finances began to improve, care was taken
to develop this important branch of national power, and a special
Secretary appointed. In the war of 1812 with England 25 years of peace
had unfitted the people for great _immediate_ success in the army; but
the navy was the pride and glory of the nation. The disasters attending
military operations for the first year or two were more than compensated
by the brilliant and solid advantages gained by our men of war.

3. This gave a great impulse to the naval tendencies of the nation, and
it soon became the settled determination of the people to supersede
England as the strongest naval power. She had been _Mistress_ of the
Seas; there were strong reasons for our ambition to become _Masters_,
at least in American waters. We had an extensive line of coast, and
our “Monroe Doctrine,” that Americans ought to rule America, and
that European governments should never be permitted to acquire a
preponderating influence in North America, rendered a strong navy
important. Our people, however, are so largely commercial that skillful
mariners are always at command; and the government has never maintained,
in time of peace, a very large naval force.

4. What they can do in time of need was demonstrated during the
Civil War, when the navy was increased in two years by more than 400
vessels—many of them very expensive and powerful; proving in actual
conflict the inability of the strongest land fortresses to resist them.
The thousands of miles of the Atlantic and Gulf coast blockade, that was
rendered so effective as to _smother_ the Confederate government, so to
speak, destroying its finances by rendering its cotton unavailable, is
the best comment on the naval resources of the United States. The extreme
boldness and vigor with which the Confederate cruisers that managed to
escape the blockade fell on our merchant vessels, and laid waste our
commerce, is another point in the argument; for they were Americans, and
demonstrated the natural prowess of Americans on the sea, of which we
could well be proud but that it did fatal harm to our mercantile marine.

5. Not half of the vessels belonging to the navy are, however, now (in
time of peace) in commission—that is, in active service. The rest are
either laid up, or in process of repair. Most of those in commission are
employed in what is called squadron service. The Secretary of the Navy in
a late report enumerates seven of these squadrons; viz.: the European,
the Asiatic, the North Atlantic, the South Atlantic, the North Pacific,
the South Pacific, and the Gulf squadrons. The names given to these
squadrons indicate their whereabouts, and their cruising grounds. These
squadrons consist of six, eight, ten, twelve or fifteen vessels, as the
work to be done may require. It is their duty to visit the seaports of
the various countries along the coasts of which they cruise, in order to
protect our merchantmen against pirates or enemies of any description,
which may molest them or interfere with their rights and privileges; and
also to look after the interests and dignity of the United States.

6. The squadrons are under command of a high naval officer of the rank
of commodore or rear admiral, whose ship is called the flag ship of
the squadron. Many of our naval officers have distinguished themselves
for bravery, skill, and patriotic devotion to their country, and have
occupied the highest positions of honor, and the most exalted places in
the esteem and affection of their countrymen.

In 1862, Congress enacted that there should be nine grades of officers in
the navy, and that their corresponding rank with military officers should
be as follows:

  1. Rear-Admiral         with      Major-General.
  2. Commodores            ”        Brigadier-Generals.
  3. Captains              ”        Colonels.
  4. Commanders            ”        Lieutenant-Colonels.
  5. Lieut.-Commanders     ”        Majors.
  6. Lieutenants           ”        Captains.
  7. Masters               ”        First-Lieutenants.
  8. Ensigns               ”        Second Lieutenants.
  Midshipmen have no corresponding rank in the army.




CHAPTER XXIV.

NAVY YARDS.


1. We have seen that the Secretary of the Navy has several different
Bureaus, having each its separate part of naval interests and stores to
care for. The material for the equipment of the army is, in large part,
stored in arsenals and armories; in the navy in or near Navy Yards.
Here are gathered such stores and materials as are required for the
construction or repairs of vessels, and hundreds of skilled workmen,
constantly employed in rendering the navy effective; replacing vessels
that have become unseaworthy, repairing damages, or building such vessels
of special construction as the varying demands of the service may require.

2. These are established at different places along the coast, most
convenient for the purpose. There is one at Philadelphia, Pa., at
Brooklyn, N. Y., at Portsmouth, Va., at Pensacola, Fla. Here vessels
are laid up when not in “commission” or active service, or are sent for
repairs, or to obtain their stores before departing to their distant
stations. All the officers necessary for keeping all these matters in
order are stationed at these yards; and the Navy Department, by these
means, preserves the same perfect system of organization and efficiency
as we have seen to characterize other branches of the executive
administration.




CHAPTER XXV.

THE NAVAL ACADEMY.


1. Naval affairs, quite as much as military, perhaps even more, require
the aids of science, and a careful and thorough training. Much of this,
indeed, is gained in active service, but for this a basis of scientific
study must be laid, and this school of preliminary instruction is called
the Naval Academy. As a preliminary even to this, the government has
established schools on board of ships, for the instruction of boys in
navigation and naval warfare. These are called apprentices; and for good
conduct and proficiency in their studies, they are advanced to the Naval
Academy, and placed in the line of promotion.

2. This school is now established at Annapolis, in the State of Maryland,
near Washington. Like the Military Academy, it has its superintendent and
professors. The pupils are called midshipmen. They are taught navigation
and such other branches of science as are necessary to make them good
seamen and naval officers. They are selected upon nearly the same plan
as cadets. Each Congressional District in every State and Territory is
entitled to send two students to be educated at the Academy. The District
of Columbia is also entitled to send two. Besides which, the President is
allowed to appoint ten additional ones at large, and three more from the
boys enlisted in the navy.

3. After their graduating examination, if they pass, they are
commissioned as ensigns in the navy, and rank according to merit. Before
admission, they are examined according to the regulations made by the
Secretary of the Navy, and must be between the ages of fourteen and
seventeen years, sound, robust, and of good constitution.

4. The course of study in this, as well as in the Military Academy, is
adapted to the profession which the students are expected to follow—the
one in the navy, the other in the army. More are educated at these great
national schools than the government needs in time of peace. Many of the
graduates are engaged in civil employment. Thus these institutions have
been of great service to the country, outside of the army and navy, for
they have added to the number of well-educated and scientific men, who
may be useful in any of the walks of life. Their graduates elevate the
standard of intelligence in the community, especially when they engage in
the work of instruction.

Both of these institutions are supported at the expense of the
government. The tuition and board of cadets in one, and of the midshipmen
in the other, costs them nothing.




CHAPTER XXVI.

THE NAVAL OBSERVATORY.


1. An observatory is a building erected for astronomical purposes,
and supplied with the necessary apparatus for studying the heavens. A
thorough knowledge of certain portions of astronomy is indispensable to
the commander of a vessel, since it is by means of this alone that he
can ascertain his exact position on the open ocean out of sight of land.
Nautical Science and Astronomy have advanced hand in hand; and to perfect
the former as much as possible the United States Government established
the Naval Observatory. This institution is located in Washington, and was
originated by act of Congress in 1842, and put in operation in 1844.

2. This institution owes more to that enlightened and truly patriotic
President, John Q. Adams, than to any other man. He recommended it as far
back as 1823, and again in his first message to Congress. But political
opposition to the man prevented his recommendations from being acted upon
till nearly 20 years after they were made. This opposition was finally
overcome, and we, and posterity after us, will reap the fruits of Mr.
Adams’ suggestions and labors.

3. The observatory was built and furnished with various astronomical and
philosophical instruments, and a corps of professors were appointed to
watch the movements of the heavenly bodies, and to make such observations
and experiments as would enable them to determine many unsettled
questions which relate to the science of navigation; and incidentally
to another great government work, having especial reference to the same
subject; that is, the coast survey.

The coast survey has already been of great service to the interests of
navigation—whether national or commercial vessels are regarded—and, when
finished, much greater benefits are to be expected. When a sufficient
number of observations and experiments shall have been made at the naval
observatory, and published to the world, much valuable information will
be added to what is already known. And indeed it would be disreputable
to a nation having so large a navy and such a vast number of merchant
ships upon the ocean, to do nothing for or add nothing to the science
of navigation. It would be an unwise policy if economy only were
studied, and we would justly deserve the reproach of being penurious,
short-sighted, and miserably wanting in disposition to promote the
general good of the world.

4. The professors are assiduous in their labors, and publish the results
of their observations and the facts they have determined. These are not
only of use to our own seamen, but to those of all nations who are doing
business on the great deep. Here the charts made by the coast survey are
deposited, and from hence all our national vessels are furnished with
them, and with all the nautical instruments they require.

The charts, instruments and books relating to astronomy and navigation,
found here, make it the headquarters and depot of nautical science in the
United States.




CHAPTER XXVII.

THE COAST SURVEY.


1. While the Naval Observatory is a government institution for studying
the heavens in the interest of the Navy; the Coast Survey is an
organization employed in a thorough and scientific study of the shores of
our country for a sufficient distance out from the land to ascertain all
the features concealed by the water that may have a bearing on the safety
of our navy and commerce. One examines the heavens, the other the depths
of the waters. They are both of great importance.

2. This government undertaking has not been as vigorously prosecuted
as some other enterprises conducted by it. As early as 1807, Congress
passed an act authorizing the President to have this work done. Much of
it has been done, yet it is not finished at this day. Our acquisition of
Florida, Texas, and California has greatly extended our sea coast since
the work was commenced, and its accomplishment has cost more time and
labor than was anticipated at the beginning, yet we think it ought to
have been completed in much less than 60 years.

3. This work, like that relating to light houses, is under the management
of a board, consisting of a superintendent, two principal assistants,
two naval officers, and four officers of the army. These nine constitute
the board. Then there are as many officers of the army and navy
employed in the execution of the work as are deemed necessary. And the
public vessels, by direction of the President, may be used in order to
facilitate the work, for much of it must be done at sea. The survey
extends 20 leagues from the shore. The surveyors must make accurate
charts of the whole coast, in which are laid down all the islands,
shoals, roads or anchorage grounds within twenty leagues of any part
of the shore of the United States. The courses or distances between
the principal capes or headlands must be laid down, together with the
soundings (depths of water) and everything else necessary to make a
complete and accurate chart of every part of our coasts.

4. An annual report of this work must be made to Congress in December of
each year, accompanied with charts, showing the progress of the work, the
number of persons employed, the expenses incurred, the amount of work
finished, and what is unfinished. These reports and charts are carefully
preserved, and copies of them may be had at Washington for the use of our
naval and merchant ships, to which they are of great service, as guides,
whenever they are on or near the coast. This work, in its utility, is not
confined to ourselves; but the important information obtained by it is
of great use to the navigators of all nations who come into our ports or
cruise on our coasts. They derive the same benefits from this work that
we derive from theirs of the same kind. It is creditable to any nation to
do such things as are beneficial to the world, such acts as contribute
to the welfare of humanity. Shipwrecks belong to the list of terrible
calamities which often befall those “who go down to the sea in ships,
that do business in great waters.” Whoever diminishes these is a public
benefactor.




CHAPTER XXVIII.

LIGHT HOUSES.


1. These, with Buoys, and Beacons, are a necessary practical supplement
to the labors of the Coast Survey. Buoys and Beacons indicate the shoals,
or dangerous rocks and reefs beneath the surface of the water, in the
daytime; while light houses indicate the same, and show the mariner the
bearings of the land, in the night; and, by studying, in connection with
these, the charts of the coast supplied by the Coast Survey, he may make
his way as securely in the night or day through the concealed dangers of
the treacherous waters as a landsman along a beaten highway. They are
way-marks along the sea coast, at the entrance of harbors, and on lakes
and rivers. They speak a language very well understood by the seaman; and
are invaluable for the protection of his vessel from the dangers of the
Deep.

2. Keepers are appointed by the government to keep them in repair, and
to see that they are properly lighted every night. We have no means of
knowing the number of these useful establishments, but there must be
several hundred of them; for we have more sea coast than any other nation
upon the globe, with a still greater length of lake and river shore. They
are located at prominent points, and at dangerous places, all along the
extensive lines of coast and shores.

3. To the end that light houses should be constructed and kept in repair,
and that competent men might have the whole matter in charge, a law of
1852 authorized the President to appoint two officers of the navy of high
rank, one officer of the corps of engineers of the army, one officer
of the topographical engineers, and two civilians of high scientific
attainments, to form a LIGHT HOUSE BOARD for the United States. This
board is attached to the Treasury Department, and the Secretary of
the Treasury superintends its operations. The board has in charge the
building, illumination, and inspection of light houses, light vessels,
buoys, beacons, sea marks, and their appendages.

4. The Secretary of the Treasury is president of the board, and may
convene them whenever he deems it necessary.

The law makes it the duty of the board to divide the whole of the sea,
gulf, and lake coasts, into light house districts; not exceeding 12 in
number. An officer of the army or navy is assigned to each district, as a
light house inspector.

They have the control of everything relating to light houses, light
ships, buoys, beacons, or other means of directing vessels in and out of
port, or of guiding them while sailing along the coast in the night.

5. As foreign vessels receive the same benefits from our light houses
as our own, there is nothing unfair or illiberal in requiring them to
contribute something towards the expense of maintaining them. For this
purpose Congress has imposed a tax, or laid a duty of 50 cents per ton
on all foreign vessels entering any ports of the United States. This is
called “LIGHT MONEY.” It is collected in the same way as tonnage duties
are, _i. e._, by the collector of the port where the ship arrives. Light
money is not required of vessels owned by citizens of the United States,
provided that they are regularly registered as the law directs, or have a
sea letter.

7. A sea letter is a document or certificate, given by the collector of a
port, to the captain of an American vessel, certifying that she belongs
to a citizen or citizens of the United States. Armed with this, the
captain can prove to all whom it may concern, anywhere in the world, the
ownership and nationality of his vessel. This is a protection to her and
her cargo, especially in times of war. It is one of a ship’s papers.




CHAPTER XXIX.

LETTERS OF MARQUE AND REPRISAL.


1. The somewhat barbarous custom has prevailed among nations, from early
times, of making war in every possible way upon the citizens of a hostile
country, and of taking or destroying their property, on the principle
that injury to the citizens of the power warred against would diminish
its power of defense and attack.

This has been carried into effect on the sea by authorizing private
vessels to be fitted out for warlike purposes and preying on the commerce
of the enemy. Such authority is given by Letters of Marque and Reprisal.
The Constitution confers on Congress the power to do this; and Congress
authorizes the President to do it. A law was passed in 1863 expressly
conveying it to him.

2. It is a formal commission given to the commander of a private armed
vessel, called a privateer, authorizing him to capture the ships and
goods of the subjects of a nation with which we are at war. When such
letters are issued by the United States they are signed by the President
and sealed with the great seal. Without such commission, thus signed
and sealed, any capture made by the commander of a private vessel
would be piracy. If a capture is made, it must be made according to
the laws of war, as recognized by civilized nations, and according to
the instructions given by the President. Any conduct on the part of a
privateer, contrary to these rules, would vitiate his proceedings, and he
would not be entitled to the property he had captured.

3. The captured vessel is called a prize, and must be taken into some
port of the United States, or into some port of a country in amity with
the United States, where legal proceedings are taken before some court
of competent jurisdiction; and the capture and all the circumstances of
it inquired into; and if all is found to have been done according to the
laws of civilized nations, the captured vessel and cargo is condemned
as a prize. But if not condemned, the captors lose her. When adjudged
to be a lawful prize, the ship and cargo are sold, and the money is
divided between the officers and men, according to rank, and according
to the laws of Congress on this subject. These laws give the whole to
the captors, when the ship taken is of equal or superior force to the
ship making the capture; but if of inferior force, then the United States
takes one-half.

4. Privateering, as this business is called, was once considered a
lawful and honorable mode of warfare. It was generally practiced between
belligerent nations; but in later days its propriety and morality have
been questioned. It is beginning to be looked upon as a kind of robbery
not very distantly related to piracy. That it is robbery no one can deny,
and, query, “Can it be justified on the ground that the robber and the
robbed are the subjects of nations at war with each other?”

5. In Europe an effort has been made to do away with this species of
warfare. We hope it will yet succeed, and that all nations will agree
to abolish this system of plunder. Innocent parties are generally the
sufferers, while but small injury is done to the power of the hostile
nation.




CHAPTER XXX.

NAVY AND MARINE HOSPITALS.


1. These institutions are still more important for sailors than for
soldiers; as the sailor is more likely to have lost his adaptation to any
kind of business on land, and to lose sight of family relations by reason
of his long absences to foreign regions. The government very early took
this subject in hand and made ample, and extremely comfortable, provision
for disabled seamen belonging to its navy.

2. In 1811 an act was passed to establish navy hospitals, for the
exclusive use of such seamen as belonged to the navy. This new
institution was at first placed under the management of a board of
commissioners known as the commissioners of navy hospitals. This
commission consisted of the Secretaries of the Navy, Treasury, and War.
But in 1832 this was changed, and the Secretary of the Navy was made
sole trustee of the navy hospital fund, which was made up of $50,000
appropriated by Congress for that purpose, together with twenty cents per
month collected from seamen belonging to the navy, and the fines imposed
on navy officers, seamen, and marines.

The commissioners were authorized to purchase or erect suitable buildings
for navy hospitals.


THE MARINE HOSPITALS.

3. These are located near important seaports. At these places seamen
depart for, and arrive from their voyages, and are found in the greatest
numbers; and here the funds for the support of the marine hospitals are
collected, as is the tonnage on ships, viz.: by the collectors of the
ports. For this purpose the law authorizes the collectors of customs
to demand and receive the sum of twenty cents per month from the wages
of every sailor; and every master of a vessel is obliged to render to
the collector an accurate account of the number of seamen on board his
vessel, and of the time they have been employed by him, since his last
entry into any port of the United States. These twenty cents the captain
must pay the collector, but he is allowed to deduct it from each seaman’s
wages. In this manner the funds for the building, furnishing, and support
of the marine hospitals are raised. The collectors of the ports pay
them into the United States Treasury, and the Treasurer disburses them
to the directors of the hospitals as they are needed. The directors are
appointed by the President. They appropriate the funds, and have the
general direction and management of the institutions.

4. These provisions are contained in an act entitled, “An act for the
relief of sick and disabled seamen,” passed in 1798. Seamen, whether
in the merchant service or in the naval service of the United States,
were indiscriminately taxed for the support of these hospitals; and
both have the same rights, privileges and benefits in them. The money
thus collected from seamen is called “hospital money,” and the fund is
denominated “the marine hospital fund.” In 1864 there were 24 marine
hospitals in the United States.




CHAPTER XXXI.

DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR.


1. At the first general census, in 1790, there were but little over three
millions and a half of inhabitants in the United States, and these mostly
settled along the Atlantic seaboard; the country was oppressed with
debt, and not recovered from the effects of a desolating war. Its public
business, therefore, was comparatively small in amount, and was readily
managed by the three Departments, of State, of the Treasury, and of War.
The energy of the people, and the great resources at their command,
enabled them to surmount all their difficulties in a short time, and the
country entered on a career of remarkable prosperity. Its public business
kept pace with the general expansion, and new departments were from time
to time created, to improve the efficiency of the public service.

2. In 1849 Congress passed a law creating the Department of the Interior,
and a Secretary of the Interior, having a seat in the Cabinet, appointed
in the same manner, and possessing the same rank, as the other members of
the Cabinet, was installed in office.

3. The bureau of the Commissioner of Patents was transferred from the
Department of State, and the General Land Office from that of the
Treasury.

The supervisory power before exercised by the Secretary of the Treasury
over the accounts of the marshals, clerks, and other officers of all
the courts of the United States, was placed in the hands of the new
Secretary. The office of the Commissioner of Indian Affairs, heretofore
attached to the War Department, was also transferred to this; and the
powers and duties of the Secretary of War, in relation to Indian affairs,
were devolved on the Secretary of the Interior.

4. The Secretaries of War and of the Navy were by the same act relieved
of their duties in regard to the Commissioner of Pensions, and those
duties were thereafter to be performed by the Secretary of the new
department.

The Census Bureau, heretofore attached to the State Department, and
the duties of the Secretary of State in relation thereto, were also
transferred to this department.

To the Secretary was also given the supervisory power over the lead and
other mines belonging to the United States, heretofore executed by the
Secretary of the Treasury.

The powers of the President over the Commissioners of Public Buildings
were also transferred to him.

5. He was also charged with the control over the Board of Inspectors and
Warden of the Penitentiary of the District of Columbia.

The Secretary of the Interior has the same power in appointing and
removing clerks and other subordinates in his department, that the
Secretaries of the other departments had over these several bureaus
before they were transferred to this department.

This office has a seal, which must be affixed to the commissions of all
its subordinate officers.

The President and Senate appoint the Assistant Secretaries.

From the foregoing it is easy to understand what branches of the public
service are conducted in this office, and what are the duties of its
Secretary.

6. The following is a list of all who have filled the office of Secretary
of the Interior since the establishment of the department:

  Thomas H. Ewing, Ohio, March 7, 1849.
  T. M. T. McKennan, Pa., 1850.
  Alexander H. H. Stuart, Va., Sept. 12, 1850.
  Robert McClelland, Mich., March 5, 1853.
  Jacob Thompson, Miss., March 6, 1857.
  Caleb B. Smith, Ind., March 5, 1861.
  John P. Usher, Ind., Jan. 7, 1863.
  James Harlan, Iowa, 1865.
  Orville H. Browning, Ill., 1866.
  Jacob D. Cox, Ohio, March 5, 1869.
  Columbus Delano, Ohio, Nov. 1, 1870.
      ”       ”    reappointed March 17, 1873.




CHAPTER XXXII.

PUBLIC LANDS.


1. ALL the land in the United States, to which individuals or
corporations have not acquired a legal title, is held by the general
government. This includes the land, or the part of it not under special
reservation, belonging to the Indians. As the settlements push on into
the territory roamed over by the thinly scattered Indian tribes, an
equitable arrangement is made with them, by which certain Reservations,
large enough for their purposes are set aside for their occupation; and
an indemnity, commonly in the form of an annuity, is made them for the
lands to which they renounce their right. As they are gradually melting
away, their lands will soon become all, or nearly all, the property of
the government.

2. The lands free for settlement are sold under certain regulations; and
given to certain classes—to soldiers, to actual settlers for Homesteads,
to corporations to aid in promoting the public welfare—as Railroads and
Colleges—and to support education in various ways; and the remainder held
until required for use in the expansion of the country.

Nearly 200,000,000 acres have been given to assist in building railroads
through unsettled parts of the country. A large part of this, however,
has been only conditionally given, and not yet appropriated by the
corporations. Many millions more have been given to the States as a fund
in aid of public schools and collegiate institutions—and one thirty-sixth
part is reserved, in every new township surveyed, for the benefit of
public schools in that township. The rest is sold, at very low rates, to
any who will buy.

3. To manage this property a bureau was established by act of Congress,
in 1812, called The General Land Office. It was under the oversight of
the Secretary of the Treasury until 1849, when the Department of the
Interior was established, to which it was then transferred. Its head is
called


COMMISSIONER OF THE GENERAL LAND OFFICE.

4. He is appointed by the President and Senate, must take the usual
official oath before entering on his duties, and must give the usual
official bond. He keeps the seal of his office, and fixes an impression
of it upon all papers emanating from the Land Office. He, with his clerks
and assistants, forms the bureau, keeps all the records and papers
pertaining to the public lands, and performs all duties relating thereto.
He receives reports from surveyors and from the district land officers,
gives them their instructions, and reports to the President and to
Congress when required to do so.

He issues all patents for lands granted by the United States, and sends
and receives by mail all papers and documents relating to his official
business, at public expense. Every patent for land is issued in the name
of the United States, is signed by the President and by the Commissioner
of the Land Office, and is then recorded in books kept for that purpose.


SURVEYORS GENERAL AND DEPUTY SURVEYORS.

5. When it is deemed necessary and expedient to bring the lands in any
particular State or section of the country into market, a surveyor
general is appointed for that State or section, and also a sufficient
number of deputy or assistant surveyors to perform the work; which is
done under the direction of the surveyor general, who is himself directed
by law as to the manner of procedure. He is appointed for four years,
taking the usual oath, and gives bonds for the faithful performance of
his duties.


MODE OF SURVEYING THE PUBLIC LANDS.

6. The law directs how the lands shall be surveyed and mapped. Where
it is practicable, they are laid out into square miles, each of which
contains 640 acres, and is called a section.

These sections are then sub-divided into halves, quarters, and eighths
of sections; that is, into lots of 320, 160, and 80 acres. The boundary
lines are all run north and south, and east and west. Thirty-six of these
sections, which make a plat of six miles square, are put into a township.
These townships are designated by numbers, but when inhabited are named
by the inhabitants as their fancy dictates.


SALE OF THE PUBLIC LANDS.

7. After the lands have been surveyed and properly mapped into townships
and sections, they are brought into market and offered for sale in such
quantities as are wanted by the purchaser; from 40 acres, one-sixteenth
of a section, up to a whole section; or as many sections as the buyer
pleases to take.


DISTRICT LAND OFFICES.

8. District land offices for the sale of lands are established for this
purpose at as many places in the State or Territory where the lands are
situated, as is deemed necessary for the convenience of purchasers. Here
are kept maps of all the lands lying in the district, and buyers may make
their selections both of quantity and location as suits them. Here they
will find


A REGISTER OF THE LAND OFFICE AND A RECEIVER OF PUBLIC MONEY FOR LANDS.

9. The first named officer will register the application made for land
in a book kept for that purpose, and the second will receive the money
paid for it. These officers are appointed by the President and Senate,
and report their proceedings to the General Land Office at Washington.
The receiver transmits all moneys received by him to the United States
Treasury once in a month or once in three months, as directed.


SCHOOL LANDS.

10. As before stated, the public lands are surveyed into sections of
one mile square, and thirty-six of these sections make a township. For
the purpose of encouraging education, Congress has enacted that section
number 16, in every township, shall not be sold, but reserved for the
township, to be applied to the support of common schools in that town.
By this measure the government appropriated one thirty-sixth part of its
lands to aid the work of educating the children in the new States. And in
addition to this it has made other munificent donations of land for the
establishment and support of colleges and other institutions of learning.

11. In addition to all this the United States have donated large tracts
of land to the several States in which it lay, to aid them in building
their State houses, &c. Large quantities of land have also been given to
aid the construction of railroads.


HOMESTEADS.

12. The government has always sold its lands at a very low price,
preferring to give the people cheap farms, rather than to raise more
revenue from this source.

But in 1862, Congress passed an act called “the Homestead Law,” the
object of which was to cheapen the public lands to a mere nominal price
to heads of families, male or female, or to persons 21 years of age or
over, or to persons who had served in the army or navy of the United
States, whether 21 years old or not. By the provisions of this act such
persons are allowed, for the trifling sum of ten dollars, to enter upon
and claim 160 acres of land, provided the claimant swears that the land
is applied for his or her own use, and for settlement and cultivation.
But no patent (deed) is to be given until the applicant has actually
settled upon and cultivated the land for the space of five years. Such
applicant must also make affidavit that he has never borne arms against
the United States.

By this liberal policy, persons of very limited means may provide
themselves with comfortable homes for life; and the unoccupied lands
will be settled and occupied faster than if the old price of one dollar
and twenty-five cents per acre had been demanded. The revenue from the
sale of lands will of course be less, but the wealth of the country will
undoubtedly be increased by the measure.

13. Exceedingly rich and valuable mines of gold, silver, copper, lead
and other minerals have been found upon the public lands. That the
benefits of mining them might be extended to the many, instead of being
monopolized by a few, a different rule for selling them has been made.
After they have been surveyed, mapped and described, they, like other
lands, are offered for sale, but in quantities of not more than 40 acres.
These are generally sold at auction, but no bid less than five dollars
per acre will be received. If not sold at public sale, they are then
subject to private sale at that price.




CHAPTER XXXIII.

HOW TO SECURE PUBLIC LANDS.


There are two classes of public lands subject to entry; one at $1.25 per
acre, known as _minimum_, and one at $2.50, known as _double minimum_,
the latter being the alternate sections along the lines of railroads.
Title may be acquired by purchase at public sale, or by “private entry,”
and in virtue of the Pre-emption and Homestead Laws.

_At Public Sale._—Lands are offered at auction to the highest bidder,
pursuant to proclamation or public notice.

_Private Entry._—Lands subject to private entry, are those which have
been once offered at public sale without finding purchasers. In order to
acquire title to these lands, a written application must be made to the
Land Register of the District in which the land is located, describing
the tract desired. The Register certifies the fact to the Receiver,
stating price, and the applicant then pays the money and takes a receipt,
and at the close of the month the Register and Receiver make return of
the sale to the General Land Office, when a patent or full title issues
on due surrender of the receipt, and will be delivered at the option
of the purchaser, at the General Land Office in Washington, or by the
Register at the District Land Office.

_Land Warrants._—When lands are to be located with land warrants,
application must be made as in cash cases, accompanied by an assigned
warrant. When the tract is $2.50 per acre, $1.25 per acre must be paid in
addition to the warrant. Receipts are given and patents delivered, as in
the preceding case. At the time of location, a fee of 50 cents for a 40
acre warrant, and a corresponding amount for larger ones, must be paid to
the Register, and a like sum to the Receiver.

_Agricultural College Scrip._—This may be used in the location of lands
at private entry, but is only applicable to lands subject to entry at
$1.25 per acre, and is restricted to a technical “quarter section,” and
to three sections in each township of land. The proceeding to acquire
title is the same as in cash and warrant cases, the fees being the same
as on warrants. This scrip may be used in payment of pre-emption claims.

_Pre-emption._—Any person being the head of a family, or widow, or
single man over 21 years of age, and a citizen of the United States,
or a person who has filed his declaration to become such, by settling
upon and improving any of the “offered,” “unoffered,” or unsurveyed
lands of the United States, may obtain a pre-emption right to purchase
160 acres so occupied, at the regular government price, whether it be
$1.25 or $2.50 per acre. Where the tract is “offered” land, the settler
must file with the District Land Office his statement as to the fact
of settlement, within thirty days thereafter, and within one year must
make proof to the Land Office, of his actual residence and cultivation,
and secure the land by payment in cash or Land Warrant. Where the land
has been surveyed and not offered at public sale, the statement must be
filed within three months after settlement, and payment made within 21
months. Where settlement is made upon unsurveyed lands, the settler is
required to file a statement within three months after the survey, and
pay within eighteen months thereafter. No person is entitled to more than
one pre-emption right.

_The Homestead Privilege._—The Homestead laws give to every citizen
the right to a Homestead of 160 acres minimum, or eighty acres double
minimum. To obtain Homestead, applicant must swear that he is the head
of a family, or over the age of twenty-one, a citizen, or has declared
his intention to become such; and that the entry is for his exclusive
use and benefit, and for actual settlement and cultivation. When an
applicant has made actual settlement upon the land he desires, he must
make affidavit of the fact before the Land Register, and pay fees
amounting, on 160 acres of minimum land, to $18, or an equal sum for
eighty acres of double minimum, for which he gets a receipt; and after
five years’ occupation and cultivation of the land, he is entitled upon
proof of such cultivation to a patent or full title to the Homestead. Any
loyal person in the naval or military service of the United States, may
acquire a Homestead by reason of his family occupying land and making
the application in his stead. All officers, soldiers, and sailors who
have served in the army or navy for ninety days and remained loyal, may
enter 160 instead of 80 acres of double minimum lands. The fees above for
entering Homestead apply to surveyed lands in Michigan, Wisconsin, Iowa,
Missouri, Minnesota, Kansas, Nebraska, Dakota, Alabama, Mississippi,
Louisiana, Arkansas, Florida, Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois. In California,
Nevada, Oregon, Colorado, New Mexico, Washington Territory, Arizona,
Idaho, Utah, Wyoming, and Montana, the fees are $22 instead of $18. A
settler having filed a pre-emption declaration, may change his filing
into Homestead, and receive the benefit of the Homestead laws. If a
Homestead settler does not wish to remain five years on his land before
obtaining title, he may pay for it in cash or Land Warrants. Lands
obtained under the Homestead laws are exempt from liability for debts
contracted prior to the issuing of the patent.

_United States Land Offices_ are located at Fort Des Moines, Council
Bluffs, Fort Dodge and Sioux City, Iowa; Menasha, Falls of St. Croix,
Stevens’ Point, La Crosse, Bayfield and Eau Claire, Wisconsin; San
Francisco, Marysville, Humboldt, Stockton, Visalia, Sacramento, and Los
Angeles, California; West Point, Beatrice, Lincoln, Dakota City, and
Grand Island, Nebraska; Taylor’s Falls, St. Cloud, Du Luth, Alexandria,
Jackson, New Ulm, and Litchfield, Minnesota; Oregon City, Roseburg, and
Le Grand, Oregon; Topeka, Junction City, Humboldt, and Augusta, Kansas;
Carson City, Austin, Belmont, and Aurora, Nevada; Vermilion, Springfield,
and Pembina, Dakota; Denver City, Fair Play, and Central City, Colorado;
Boonville, Ironton, and Springfield, Missouri; Mobile, Huntsville, and
Montgomery, Alabama; New Orleans, Monroe, Natchiloches, Louisiana;
Detroit, East Saginaw, Iona, Marquette, and Traverse City, Michigan;
Little Rock, Washington, and Clarksville, Arkansas; Boise City, and
Lewiston, Idaho; Chillicothe, Ohio; Indianapolis, Indiana; Springfield,
Illinois; Jackson, Mississippi; Tallahassee, Florida; Olympia, and
Vancouver, Washington Territory; Helena, Montana; Prescott, Arizona; Salt
Lake City, Utah.


PRE-EMPTION LAWS.

A pre-emption right is the right of a squatter upon the lands of the
United States to purchase, in preference to others, when the land is
sold. Such right is granted to the following persons: Any citizen of the
United States; any person who has filed his declaration of intention
to become a citizen; any head of a family; any widow; any single woman
of the age of twenty-one years or over; and any person who has made a
settlement, erected a dwelling-house upon, and is an inhabitant of the
tract sought to be entered—_provided_ such settlement was made since June
1, 1840, and previously to the time of application for the land, which
land must, at the date of the settlement, have had the Indian title
extinguished, and been surveyed by the United States.

A person bringing himself within the above requirements by proof
satisfactory to the Register and Receiver of the land district in which
the land may lie, taken pursuant to the rules hereafter prescribed,
will, after having taken the affidavit required by the Act, be entitled
to enter, by legal subdivisions, any number of acres, not exceeding one
hundred and sixty, or a quarter-section, to include his residence; and
he may avail himself of the same at any time prior to the day of the
commencement of the public sale, including said tract, where the land has
not yet been proclaimed.

Where the land was subject to private entry, June 1, 1840, and a
settlement shall thereafter be made upon such land, or where the land
shall become hereafter subject to private entry, and after that period
a settlement shall be made, which the settler is desirous of securing,
notice of such intention must be given within thirty days after such
settlement; and, in all such cases, the proof, affidavit and payment must
be made within twelve months after such settlement.

The tracts liable to entry are embraced under the following designations:
_First_, a regular quarter-section, notwithstanding the quantity may
vary a few acres from one hundred and sixty; or a quarter-section,
which, though fractional in quantity by the passage of a navigable
stream through the same, is still bounded by regular sectional and
quarter-sectional lines; _second_, a fractional section containing
not over one hundred and sixty acres, or any tract being a detached
or anomalous survey made pursuant to law, and not exceeding such
quantity; _third_, two adjoining half-quarter-sections (in all cases
to be separated by a north and south line, except on the north side
of township, where the surveys are so made as to throw the excess or
deficiency on the north and west sides of the township), of the regular
quarters mentioned in the first designation; _fourth_, two half-quarter
or eighty-acre subdivisions of a fractional or broken section, adjoining
each other, the aggregate quantity not exceeding one hundred and sixty
acres; _fifth_, a regular half-quarter and an adjoining fractional
section, or an adjoining half-quarter subdivision of a fractional
section, the aggregate quantity not exceeding one hundred and sixty
acres; _sixth_, if the pre-emptor do not wish to enter one hundred and
sixty acres, he may enter a single half-quarter section (made by a north
and south line), or an eighty-acre subdivision of a fractional section;
_seventh_, one or more adjoining forty-acre lots may be entered, the
aggregate not exceeding one hundred and sixty acres; and, _eighth_,
a regular half-quarter, a half-quarter subdivision, or a fractional
section, may each be taken, with one or more forty-acre subdivisions
lying adjoining, the aggregate not exceeding one hundred and sixty acres.
Forty-acre tracts, or quarter quarter-sections, may be entered in the
same manner that eighty-acre, or half-quarter sections, have been.

Only one person upon a quarter-section is protected, and he the one who
made the first settlement, provided he conform to the other provisions
of the law. A person who has once availed himself of the provisions
of the Pre-emption Act, cannot, at any future period, or at any other
land office, acquire any other right under it. No person, who is the
proprietor of three hundred and twenty acres of land in any State or
Territory of the United States, or who quits or abandons his residence on
his own land to reside on the public land in the same State or Territory,
is entitled to the benefit of the Pre-emption Acts.

The approval of the tracts by the local land office is the evidence
of the survey; but the land is to be construed as surveyed when the
requisite lines are run on the field, and the corners established by the
deputy surveyor. No assignment or transfers of pre-emption rights are
recognized at the land office; the patents issuing to the claimants, in
whose names alone the entries are made.

The following description of lands are not liable to entry: _first_,
lands included in any reservation by any treaty, law, or proclamation of
the President of the United States, and lands reserved for salines and
for other purposes; _second_, lands reserved for the support of schools;
_third_, lands acquired by either of the last two treaties with the Miami
Indians in Indiana, or which may be acquired of the Wyandot Indians in
Ohio, or any other Indian reservation, to which the title has been, or
may be extinguished at any time during the operation of the Pre-emption
Acts, by the United States; _fourth_, sections of lands reserved to the
United States, alternate to other sections granted to any State for
the construction of any canal, railroad, or other public improvement;
_fifth_, sections, or fractions of sections, included within the limits
of any incorporated town; _sixth_, every portion of the public lands
which has been selected as a site for a city or town; _seventh_, every
parcel or lot of land actually settled and occupied for the purposes of
trade and agriculture; and, _eighth_, all lands in which are situated any
known salines or mines.

Persons claiming the benefit of the Pre-emption Acts are required to
file duplicate affidavits, such as are specified by law, and to furnish
proof, by one or more disinterested witnesses, of the facts necessary
to establish the requisites mentioned in the first paragraph of this
article; such witnesses having first been duly sworn or affirmed by some
competent authority.

If adverse claims are made to the same tract, each claimant is to be
notified of the time and place of taking testimony, and allowed to
cross-examine the opposite witnesses, and to furnish counter-proof,
itself subject to cross-examination. If, by reason of distance, sickness,
or infirmity, the witnesses cannot personally appear before the register
of the land office, their depositions, taken in conformity with the
following regulations, may be received:

The notice to adverse claimants must be in writing, and served in time to
allow at least one day for every twenty miles which the party may have to
travel in going to the place of taking evidence. The proof, in all cases,
should consist of a simple detail of facts merely, and not of broad and
general statements. If the pre-emptor be “the head of a family,” the
witnesses must state the facts constituting him such; whether he be a
husband having a wife and children, or a widower, or an unmarried person
under twenty-one years of age, having a family, either of relatives or
others, dependent upon him, or hired persons. All the facts relative to
the settlement in person, inhabitancy, or personal residence, the time of
its commencement, the manner and extent of its continuance, as also those
sharing the apparent objects, must be stated. It must be stated that the
claimant made the settlement on the land in person; that he has erected a
dwelling upon the land; that he lived in the same, and made it his home,
etc. In the event of a decision by the land officer against the claimant,
he may appeal to the Commissioner of the Land Office at Washington.

No entry will be permitted until the affidavit required of the claimant
is taken. Duplicates thereof must be signed by the claimant, and the fact
of the oath being taken must be certified by the register or receiver
administering the same; one copy to be filed in the Register’s office,
and the other to be sent to the Land Office at Washington.

A purchaser of public land is only required to make written application
to the Register of the local land office for the tract desired to be
entered, and to pay to the Receiver the purchase money therefor. Blank
forms of such application are furnished gratuitously at the Land Office
where the tract is desired to be entered.


SOLDIERS’ HOMESTEAD LAW OF 1872.

The following is the full text of the Amendatory Soldiers’ Homestead
Bill, approved by the President on the 3d of April, 1872.

_Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United
States of America in Congress assembled_: That every private soldier and
officer who has served in the army of the United States during the recent
rebellion for ninety days or more, and who was honorably discharged,
and has remained loyal to the government, including the troops mustered
into the service of the United States by virtue of the third section
of an act entitled “An act making appropriations for completing the
defenses of Washington, and for other purposes,” approved February 13th,
1862, and every seaman, marine, and officer who has served in the navy
of the United States, or in the marine corps, during the rebellion, for
ninety days, and who was honorably discharged, and has remained loyal
to the government, shall, on compliance with the provisions of an act
entitled “An act to secure homesteads to actual settlers on the public
domain,” and the acts amendatory thereof, as hereinafter modified, be
entitled to enter upon and receive patents for a quantity of public
lands (not mineral) not exceeding one hundred and sixty acres, or
one quarter-section, to be taken in compact form according to legal
subdivision, including the alternate reserved section of public lands
along the line of any railroad or other public work not otherwise
reserved or appropriated, and other lands subject to entry under the
homestead laws of the United States: _Provided_, the said homestead
settler shall be allowed six months after locating his homestead within
which to commence his settlement and improvements: _And provided also_,
the time which the homestead settler shall have served in the army, navy,
or marine corps aforesaid shall be deducted from the time heretofore
required to perfect title, or if discharged on account of wounds
received, or disability incurred in the line of duty, then the term of
enlistment shall be deducted from the time heretofore required to perfect
title, without reference to the length of time he may have served:
_Provided, however_, that no patent shall issue to any homestead settler
who has not resided upon, improved and cultivated his said homestead for
a period of at least one year after he shall commence his improvements as
aforesaid.

SECTION 2. That any person entitled under the provisions of the foregoing
section to enter a homestead, who may have heretofore entered under the
Homestead law a quantity of land less than one hundred and sixty acres,
shall be permitted to enter under the provisions of this act so much land
as, when added to the quantity previously entered, shall not exceed one
hundred and sixty acres.

SECTION 3. That in the case of the death of any person who would be
entitled to a homestead under the provisions of the first section of this
act, his widow, if unmarried, or in case of her death or marriage, then
his minor orphan children, by a guardian duly approved and officially
accredited at the Department of the Interior, shall be entitled to all
the benefits enumerated in this act, subject to all the provisions as
to settlement and improvements therein contained: _Provided_, that if
such person died during his term of enlistment, the whole term of his
enlistment shall be deducted from the time heretofore required to perfect
the title.

SECTION 4. That where a party, at the date of his entry of a tract of
land under the Homestead laws, or subsequently thereto, was actually
enlisted and employed in the army or navy of the United States, his
services therein shall, in the administration of said Homestead laws, be
construed to be equivalent, to all intents and purposes, to a residence
for the same length of time upon the tract so entered: _Provided_,
that if his entry has been canceled by reason of his absence from said
tract while in the military or naval service of the United States, and
such tract has not been disposed of, his entry shall be restored and
confirmed: _And provided further_, that if such tract has been disposed
of, said party may enter another tract subject to the entry under said
laws, and his right to a patent therefor shall be determined by the
proofs touching his residence and cultivation of the first tract and his
absence therefrom in such service.

SECTION 5. That any soldier, sailor, marine, officer, or other person
coming within the provisions of this act may, as well BY AN AGENT as in
person, enter upon said homestead: _Provided_, that the said claimant in
person shall, within the time prescribed [SIX MONTHS FROM DATE OF ENTRY]
commence settlement and improvement on the same, and thereafter fulfill
all the requirements of this act.

SECTION 6. That the commissioner of the General Land Office shall have
authority to make all needful rules and regulations to carry into effect
the provisions of this act.”




CHAPTER XXXIV.

PATENTS.


1. These originated in the desire of the founders of the government
to encourage invention, in the belief that the general welfare of the
country would be promoted by such a stimulus to genius, and the power to
grant patents was expressly bestowed on Congress. That this was a very
wise forethought there is no doubt. The hope of reward has given birth
to innumerable inventions, among which some have been of incalculable
value to the country, increasing its wealth almost beyond our power to
estimate. It is, however, worth considering if there may not be a limit
to the usefulness of the system, in its present form, in the changed
conditions of the country. It is often the case that what accomplished
the greatest good in its proper day, is at length outgrown, and becomes
an embarrassment, requiring to be either essentially modified or laid
aside.

2. A patent right is an exclusive right, granted by an officer
denominated the Commissioner of Patents, in conformity to law, to the
inventor or discoverer of any new and useful article. The exclusive
right is conferred by acts of Congress, on compliance of the inventor
with certain conditions which are clearly specified in the law. The
evidence that such exclusive right has been conferred on any individual,
is contained in a document, called “letters patent,” issued at the
patent office in Washington; signed by the Secretary of the Interior,
(formerly by the Secretary of State), countersigned by the Commissioner
of Patents, and sealed with the seal of his office. Thus protected, he
alone can make, use and sell the article he has invented, for the term of
fourteen years; and upon showing a good reason therefor, the commissioner
will extend the term seven years longer, or Congress will pass a special
act for that purpose.

3. This was the law up to 1861; and is still in force as to patents
granted anterior to that date. But a new act was then passed, extending
the term of an original patent to seventeen, instead of fourteen years,
and prohibiting any extension of such patents.

An inventor, before he can obtain a patent, must swear that he believes
he is the inventor or discoverer of the art, machine, or improvement,
for which he solicits a patent. He must also give in writing a clear,
minute description of it; and, when necessary, must make and deliver
a model of his invention; which in all cases must be something new,
unused and unknown before, or his application will be rejected. There is
considerable expense attending the procurement of a patent right.

4. But when obtained, no person except the patentee, has any right to
make, sell, or use the article patented, until the time has expired for
which this exclusive right was granted, without the permission of the
patentee. Any person doing so is liable to a heavy penalty, and may be
prosecuted in the Circuit Court of the United States; this court having
original jurisdiction in all cases arising under the patent laws. But a
writ of error or an appeal lies to the Supreme Court of the United States.

5. The Patent Office, when first established, was a bureau of the State
Department, and the Commissioner of Patents acted under the direction of
the Secretary of State. But after the creation of the Department of the
Interior, in 1849, it was transferred to it, became a bureau of the new
department, and the commissioner now acts under the general direction of
its secretary.


THE COMMISSIONER OF PATENTS

6. Is appointed by the President and Senate. His duties are best
explained in the language of the law itself, which, in speaking of the
creation and appointment of this official, says that his duties shall be
“to superintend, execute and perform all such acts and things touching
and respecting the granting and issuing of patents for new and useful
discoveries, inventions and improvements, as are herein provided for, or
shall hereafter be by law directed to be done and performed.”

He has the charge and custody of all books, records, papers, models,
machines, and all other things belonging to the patent office; and has
the privilege of sending and receiving letters and packages by mail,
relating to the business of the office, free of postage. He has the
power to appoint his clerks, examiners and subordinates; among whom are
patent office agents, who may be appointed in not more than twenty of
the principal cities and towns in the United States. It is their duty to
forward to the patent office all such models, specimens and manufactures,
as shall be intended to be patented.

7. In cases of appeal from the decision of the commissioner, the appeal
may be made to the board of examiners, or to the Chief Justice of the
District Court of the United States for the District of Columbia. There
is a seal for the patent office, which the commissioner keeps, and which
he must affix to patents when granted, and to other papers and records
issued from his office, which are wanted as evidence in other places.

He is also authorized to publish a classified and alphabetical list of
all patents issued at the patent office. This he frequently does, for the
information of the public.




CHAPTER XXXV.

PENSIONS.


Pensions are a provision, made by the general government, for the
officers and privates of the army and navy disabled in the service of the
country. They peril their lives for the protection of the public, and
it has always been regarded as just that a support, proportioned to the
extent of injury received, should be given to them, or to those dependent
on them in case of their death. It is properly a continuance of pay in
consideration of the services rendered. It does not often amount to a
full support, and is graduated by the amount each received, according to
rank.


A COMMISSIONER OF PENSIONS

Was appointed and placed at the head of a bureau, at first in the War
Department, but afterward transferred to the care of the Secretary of the
Interior. It is a Pension Office, in fact. This commissioner is appointed
by the President and Senate in the same manner as other important
officers. It is his duty to carry into effect the pension laws. He is
authorized to appoint pension agents in all the States and Territories,
who receive and distribute the money due to pensioners in their several
districts, the agents receiving from the government a percentage for
their services.

There has always been a large number on the list. At first they were
the disabled soldiers and sailors of the Revolutionary War; then of the
War of 1812 with England, followed in 1846 by the Mexican War. But all
these were few compared with the number disabled in the Civil War. The
amount appropriated by Congress for the year 1873-4, for pensions was
$30,480,000. The law carefully protects the pensions against frauds and
forbids its attachment by any legal process whatever. The nation is
grateful to its brave defenders.

The proper officials to whom all applications should be made, by letter
or petition, in Washington, are, by a soldier having his discharge, to
the Paymaster General; when the discharge paper is lost, to the Second
Auditor of the Treasury; when by those who represent a deceased person,
to the second Auditor of the Treasury; when for commutation of rations,
to the same officer; when for pensions, or any matter connected with
pensions, to the Commissioner of Pensions.

Instructions have been prepared for all applicants, by the Commissioner
of Pensions for the purpose of preventing fraud or misunderstanding. They
are, in substance:

    INSTRUCTIONS.

    By the act of Congress approved July 14th, 1862, and amendatory
    acts, pensions are granted as follows:

    1. Invalids, disabled in the military or naval service of the
    United States, in the line of duty.

    2. Widows of persons who have been killed or have died in the
    military or naval service of the United States.

    3. Children under sixteen, of the classes of persons on account
    of whose death widows are entitled; provided said widows have
    died, or have remarried.

    4. Mothers of all classes of persons on account of whose death
    widows are entitled, provided said mothers were dependent on
    the deceased for support and no minor child survived.

    5. Fathers, the same as mothers, in case of the death of the
    latter.

    6. Brothers and sisters, under sixteen, provided they were
    dependent for support upon the person on account of whose
    decease they claim.

The First Section of the Act of July 14th, 1862, showing the rates of
pension to the several classes and grades, is as follows:

_Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the
United States of America, in Congress assembled_, That if any officer,
non-commissioned officer, musician, or private of the army, including
regulars, volunteers, militia, or any officer, warrant, or petty
officer, musician, seaman, ordinary seaman, flotillaman, marine, clerk,
landsman, pilot, or other person in the navy or marine corps, has
been, since the fourth day of March, eighteen hundred and sixty-one,
or shall hereafter be, disabled by reason of any wound received or
disease contracted while in the service of the United States, and in
the line of duty, he shall, upon making due proof of the fact according
to such forms and regulations as are or may be provided by, or in
pursuance of law, be placed upon the list of invalid pensions of the
United States, and be entitled to receive, for the highest rate of
disability, such pension as is hereinafter provided in such cases,
and for an inferior disability an amount proportionate to the highest
disability, to commence as hereinafter provided, and continue during the
existence of such disability. The pension for a total disability for
officers, non-commissioned officers, musicians and privates employed
in the military service of the United States, whether regulars,
volunteers, or militia, and in the marine corps, shall be as follows,
viz.: lieutenant-colonel and all officers of a higher rank, thirty
dollars per month; major, twenty-five dollars per month; captain, twenty
dollars per month; first lieutenant, seventeen dollars per month; second
lieutenant, fifteen dollars per month; and non-commissioned officers,
musicians and privates, eight dollars per month. The pension for total
disability for officers, warrant or petty officers, and others employed
in the naval service of the United States, shall be as follows, viz.:
captain, commander, surgeon, paymaster, and chief engineer, respectively,
ranking with commander by law, lieutenant commanding, and master
commanding, thirty dollars per month; lieutenant, surgeon, paymaster,
and chief engineer, respectively, ranking with lieutenant by law, and
passed assistant surgeon, twenty-five dollars per month; professor
of mathematics, master, assistant surgeon, assistant paymaster, and
chaplain, twenty dollars per month; first assistant engineer and pilots,
fifteen dollars per month; passed midshipman, midshipman, captain’s, and
paymaster’s clerk, second and third assistant engineers, master’s mate,
and all warrant officers, ten dollars per month; all petty officers,
and all other persons before named employed in the naval service, eight
dollars per month; and all commissioned officers, of either service,
shall receive such and only such pension as is herein provided for the
rank in which they hold commissions.


ACT OF JULY 4, 1864.

Various supplementary Acts have been passed by the Act of July 14, 1862,
modifying in some particulars the provisions of previous legislation.

By the Act of July 4, 1864, it is provided that biennial examinations
will hereafter be made by one surgeon only, if he is regularly appointed,
or holds a surgeon’s commission in the army. Examinations by unappointed
civil surgeons will not be accepted, unless it can be shown that an
examination by a commissioned or duly appointed surgeon is impracticable.

_Increased Pensions in Certain Cases._—A pension of twenty-five dollars
per month is granted to those having lost both hands or both eyes in
the military service of the United States, in the line of duty, and
twenty dollars per month to those who, under the same conditions, shall
have lost both feet, if such parties were entitled to a lower rate of
pension under the act of 1862. This higher pension will date only from
the 4th day of July, 1864, in case of pensioners already enrolled, or of
applicants discharged prior to that date.

_Evidence of Muster-in._—In accordance with the 11th Section of the
Act of July 4, 1864, evidence of the muster-in of the soldier will not
be required in any case, but there must be positive record evidence of
service. Evidence of muster-in in the case of commissioned officers is
still required.


ACT OF JUNE 6, 1866.

The Supplementary Pension Act, approved June six, eighteen hundred and
sixty-six, provides increased rates of pensions over those granted by the
Act of July fourteen, eighteen hundred and sixty-two, in the following
cases, viz.:

1. Twenty-five dollars per month to all those invalids entitled, under
the Act of July fourteen, eighteen hundred and sixty-two, to a lower rate
of pension, on account of service rendered since March four, eighteen
hundred and sixty-one, “who shall have lost the sight of both eyes, or
who shall have lost both hands, or been permanently and totally disabled
in the same, or otherwise so permanently and totally disabled as to
render them utterly helpless, or so nearly so as to require the constant
personal aid and attendance of another person.”

2. Twenty dollars per month to those invalids who, being entitled under
like conditions to a lower rate of pension, “shall have lost both feet,
or one hand and one foot, or been totally and permanently disabled in the
same, or otherwise so disabled as to be incapacitated for performing any
manual labor, but not so much so as to require constant personal aid and
attention.”

3. Fifteen dollars per month to those invalids who, under like
conditions, “shall have lost one hand or one foot, or been totally and
permanently disabled in the same, or otherwise so disabled as to render
their inability to perform manual labor equivalent to the loss of a hand
or a foot.”

In order to obtain the benefits of the foregoing provisions, pensioners
already enrolled will file an application in accordance with form F,
appended hereto. Proof in addition to that on file with the previous
application need not be forwarded, except as shall be specially required
in each case, after the application is received. The applicant need
only be examined by a pension surgeon when expressly required, on due
notice from this office. Applicants not already pensioned, who believe
themselves entitled to the benefit of the foregoing provisions, will
specifically set forth such claim in their declarations, carefully
stating the nature of the disability on account of which such higher
rate of pension is claimed. The declaration must be made before some
officer of a court of record, or before a pension notary designated by
this office, as provided by the third section of the act of July four,
eighteen hundred and sixty-four.

The above specified increased rates of pension will be allowed only
to those disabled since the fourth day of March, eighteen hundred and
sixty-one, and will date only from the sixth day of June, eighteen
hundred and sixty-six.

_Teamsters, Artificers, and other Enlisted Men_,—not embraced in the
terms of the Act of July fourteen, eighteen hundred and sixty-two, or of
Acts supplementary thereto, are, by the tenth section of the Act of June
six, eighteen hundred and sixty-six, included in the administration of
the pension laws, in the class of non-commissioned officers and privates.

_Minor Children to be Pensioned, in Certain Cases, instead of the
Widow._—The eleventh section provides that when any widow, entitled to
a pension under previous Acts, has abandoned the care of a child or
children of her deceased husband, under sixteen years of age, “or is an
unsuitable person, by reason of immoral conduct, to have the custody of
the same,” the pension shall be paid to the duly authorized guardian of
such child or children, while under the age of sixteen years, and not to
the widow. The proper proof in such case, as provided by this section, is
the certificate of the judge of any court having probate jurisdiction,
“that satisfactory evidence has been produced before such court” to the
effect above indicated. In presenting an application under this section,
the guardians of the minor child or children will make a declaration in
accordance with the appended form G.

_Pensions Granted to Dependent Fathers and to Dependent Orphan
Brothers._—By the twelfth section the provisions of the Act of July
fourteen, eighteen hundred and sixty-two, are extended so as to include
the dependent brother or brothers of a deceased officer, soldier or
seaman, and the dependent father of such deceased persons, under like
limitations as apply in the case of dependent sisters and mothers; but
not more than one pension is granted on account of the same person, or
to more than one of said classes. The forms prescribed for the latter
cases may be used, with obvious variations, in applications made by
dependent fathers or on behalf of dependent brothers.

_Limitations as to Number and Date of Pensions._—The thirteenth section
declares that but one pension shall be granted to any person at the same
time; and that when application is not made within three years after the
death or discharge of the party on whose account a pension is claimed,
such pension, if allowed, “shall commence from the date of filing
the last paper in said case by the party prosecuting the same.” This
limitation applies to all classes of pensions.

_Evidence of Marriage of Colored Applicants._—The fourteenth section
provides that habitual recognition of the marriage relation between
colored parties—that is, in the absence of the usually required
proof—when shown by “proof satisfactory to the Commissioner of Pensions,”
shall be accepted as evidence of marriage, and the children of such
parties shall be regarded as if born in lawful wedlock. When the usual
proof of marriage can be furnished, it will be required as heretofore.
When only evidence of cohabitation and mutual recognition can be
adduced, as provided in this section, the testimony of two credible and
disinterested witnesses will be required, who must state how long they
have been personally acquainted with the parties, and for how long a
period the latter are known to have recognized each other as man and
wife. If such acquaintance is deemed to be of too recent date to warrant
the acceptance of this testimony, or if there is reason to doubt, in
any instance, that the marriage relation existed in good faith, more
specific instructions will be issued, adapted to the circumstances of the
particular case.


ACT OF JULY 25, 1866.

_Provost Marshals, Enrolling Officers, and others Entitled to the
Benefits of the Pension Laws._—The first section of the Act of July
twenty-five, eighteen hundred and sixty-six, extends the benefits
conferred by the pension laws to provost marshals, deputy provost
marshals, and enrolling officers disabled in the line of their official
duty as such, and to the widows or dependents of such officers in like
manner.

Declarations will be made in accordance with the instructions issued
under the Pension Act of July fourteen, eighteen hundred and sixty-two,
and supplementary Acts. The grade of such officers, for the purpose
of determining the rates of pensions under this section, is fixed as
follows: Provost marshals will rank as captains; their deputies as first
lieutenants; and enrolling officers as second lieutenants.

_Increased Pensions to Widows, and Orphan Children Under Sixteen Years
of Age._—The second section of this act allows to those who are or shall
be pensioned as widows of soldiers or sailors, two dollars per month
additional pension for each child (under sixteen years of age) of the
deceased soldier or sailor by the widow thus pensioned.

On the death or remarriage of such widow, or on the denial of a pension
to her, in accordance with the provisions of section eleven of the Act
of June six, eighteen hundred and sixty-six, the same amount to which
she would otherwise be entitled, under this and previous provisions, is
allowed to the minor children. The number and names of the children,
with their ages, must be proved by the affidavits of two credible and
disinterested witnesses. The provisions of this section only include
the children of the widow, and not those of her deceased husband by a
previous marriage. The widows of minor children of officers are not
entitled to this increase. Declarations for an increase under this
section, if for the widow, will be made in accordance with form H,
appended hereto; and if for minor children, according to form I. The
pension certificate must be sent with all applications filed subsequently
to September four, eighteen hundred and sixty-six.

_Increase of Pensions under Acts prior to July 4, 1862._—All pensioners
under Acts approved prior to July fourteen, eighteen hundred and
sixty-two, are, by the third section of the present act, granted the same
rights as those pensioned under acts approved at or since that date, so
far as said Acts may be applicable, with the exception of soldiers of the
Revolution or their widows. This section applies only to pensioners who
were such at the date of the approval of this Act.

Declaration of claimants under this section will be made in accordance
with the forms previously issued under Act of July fourteen, eighteen
hundred and sixty-two, and subsequent pension acts, with the necessary
modifications, and the pension certificates will be returned.

_Invalid Pensions of Claimants Dying while their Applications are
Pending, the Evidence being Completed._—The fourth section of this act is
construed in connection with the tenth section of the Act of July four,
eighteen hundred and sixty-four, and the sixth section of the Act of
June six, eighteen hundred and sixty-six, to which it is supplementary.
If an applicant for invalid pension dies while his claim is pending, the
evidence having been completed, the pension, under the provisions of this
section and of those sections of previous acts above referred to, is
disposed of as follows:

1. If he left a widow, or minor child, or children under sixteen years
of age, or other dependent relatives, and died of wounds received or of
disease contracted in the service or in the line of duty, no invalid
pension certificate will issue, but such widow or dependent relatives
will receive a pension, in their own right, taking precedence in the
order prescribed by law in other cases.

2. If the claimant left a widow or dependent relatives, but did not die
of wounds received, or disease contracted in the service and in the line
of duty, so that neither widow nor dependent relatives would be entitled
to a pension on his account, then the certificate will be issued in his
name, and the pension paid to the widow or to the dependent relatives,
as the case may be, in the same order in which they would have been
pensioned, if entitled, as set forth in the preceding paragraph.

3. If the claimant left no widow or dependent relatives, the certificate
will issue in his name, and the pension will be drawn by his executor or
administrator.

_Certain Accrued Rights Reserved under Repealed Enactments._—The fifth
section reserves all rights that may have accrued under the fifth section
of the pension Act of July four, eighteen hundred and sixty-four, and the
third section of the pension Act of March three, eighteen hundred and
sixty-five, though repealed by the first section of the Act of June six,
eighteen hundred sixty-six.

_Widows Remarrying while their Claims are Pending_,—Are entitled, under
the sixth section, if their claims are otherwise valid, to receive
pensions to the date of remarriage, if the deceased officer, soldier
or sailor, on whose account they claim, left no legitimate child under
sixteen years of age.

                                                   JOSEPH H. BARRETT,
                                              _Commissioner of Pensions_.

  PENSION OFFICE, August 4, 1866.


ACT OF JULY 27, 1868.

SECTION 1.—_Dependent Relatives._—In this section precedence is given to
the dependent relatives hereinafter mentioned, in the following order,
to wit: First, mothers; secondly, fathers; thirdly, orphan brothers and
sisters under sixteen, who shall be pensioned jointly; and the persons
enumerated shall each be entitled in their order, after the death of the
one preceding.

SECT. 2.—_Invalids Disabled Subsequent to Passage of this Act._—This
section specifies as to pensions by reason of disabilities incurred
subsequent to the passage of this Act, and enumerates the circumstances
under which said disabilities must have been contracted.

SECT. 3.—_Unclaimed Pensions._—This section provides that pensions
remaining unclaimed for fourteen months after the same have become due,
shall be adjusted at the Pension Agency instead of at the office of the
Third Auditor; and the failure of any pensioner to claim his or her
pension for _three_ years, shall be deemed presumptive evidence that
the same has legally terminated. On a new application, with evidence
satisfactorily accounting for such failure, the pensioner may be restored
to the rolls.

SECT. 4.—_Increase of Pensions of Widows and of Children by a former
Wife._—This section gives an increase of two dollars per month for each
minor child of a deceased soldier, to commence from the death of their
father, and continue until they severally attain the age of sixteen
years; and provides that the children of a former marriage shall be
“entitled to receive two dollars per month, to commence from the death
of their father, and continue until they severally attain the age of
sixteen years, to be paid to the guardian of such child or children for
their use and benefit; _Provided, however_, That in all such cases such
widow is charged with the care, custody, and maintenance of such child
or children, the said sum of two dollars per month for each of said
children shall be paid to her for and during the time she is or may have
been so charged with the care, custody, and maintenance of such child or
children, subject to the same conditions, provisions and limitations as
if they were her own children by her said deceased husband.”

SECT. 5.—_Widows and Minors not Debarred, etc._—By this section no widow
or guardian to whom an increase of pension has been or may hereafter be
granted on account of minor children, shall be deprived thereof by reason
of their being maintained or educated at the expense of the State or of
the public.

SECT. 6.—_Extension of Limitation._—This section provides that all
pensions applied for within five years after the right thereto shall
have accrued, and which have been or may be granted under the Act of
July 14, 1862, or Acts supplementary thereto, shall commence from the
discharge or death of the person on whose account the pension has been
or shall be granted; and in cases of insane persons and minors, who were
without guardians or other proper legal representatives previous to
said limitation, applications may be filed in their behalf after its
expiration. This section applies solely to cases in which the title to
pension has accrued subsequent to March 4, 1861.

SECT. 7.—_Arrears._—In which notification of title to arrears of pension,
under the foregoing section is provided for; and also that no claim agent
or other person shall be entitled to compensation for services in making
application for such arrears.

SECT. 8.—_Widow’s Pension to Children, etc._—In which the requirement
of the certificate of the court that satisfactory evidence has been
adduced of the abandonment of the care of the minor child or children of
a deceased soldier by his widow, or of her unsuitableness to have custody
of them is dispensed with. The furnishing of satisfactory evidence
thereof to the commissioner shall be sufficient to cause the suspension
of said widow’s pension.

SECT. 9.—_Pending Claim may be Completed by Heirs._—In which if any
person entitled to a pension has died since March 4, 1861, his heirs or
legal representatives shall be entitled to receive the accrued pension;
provided no widow or minor child survives the applicant.

SECT. 10.—_Remarriage._—This section provides for pension to the widow
or dependent mother, from the death of soldier to the date of claimant’s
remarriage, (provided no children under sixteen survive.)

SECT. 11.—_Extension of Time._—This section provides for the continuance
in force of the Act of July 4, 1864, from the 4th July, 1867, for five
years.

SECT. 12.—_Loss of an Eye._—This section allows twenty-five dollars
as a pension for total loss of sight from wounds received or disease
contracted in the service, though the pensioner may have had only one eye
when entering the service.

SECT. 13.—_Pension by reason of Right Accrued since Revolution._—By this
section all persons pensioned by reason of services rendered since the
war of the Revolution, and prior to March 4, 1861, are placed on the same
footing with those pensioned under Acts passed since that time; and
grants eight dollars per month to the widows of revolutionary soldiers
and sailors now pensioned at less than that amount.

SECT. 14.—_Limbs to Officers._—By this section captains in the army and
lieutenants in the navy, and those of less rank, who have lost a leg or
an arm in such service, shall be entitled to receive an artificial limb
upon the same terms as privates in the army.

SECT. 15.—_Special Acts._—By this section all pensions granted by special
Acts shall be subject to be varied in amount, according to the provisions
and limitations of the pension laws.

SECT. 16.—_Repealing Clause._—By this section all Acts and parts of Acts
inconsistent with the foregoing provisions of this Act be and the same
are hereby repealed.




CHAPTER XXXVI.

INDIAN AFFAIRS.


When America was discovered, in 1492, the whole continent was thinly
populated (except in some few regions where a considerable degree of
civilization and skill in agriculture had been attained, as in Mexico and
Peru) by roving tribes of natives, of unknown origin. These were called,
by Europeans, Indians, from the erroneous idea of Columbus, and the men
of that age at first, that there was only one continent; and that they
had reached the eastern shore of Asia, when America was discovered.

The whole of the region comprising our country was in the possession of
a great number of these tribes. Their number, when permanent settlements
began to be made, is not known, but probably amounted, in all the vast
territory, to only a few million—perhaps two or three. They divided
the country between them, in an indefinite way, war and hunting being
their chief occupations. They attempted very little cultivation of the
soil. The settlements of the Indians were as indefinite and moveable as
their boundaries, and they attached little value to land. Territory was
acquired from them partly by force and partly by purchase. These last
were usually made for a nominal sum, and with little comprehension, on
their part, of the importance and future effects of its alienation.

As the settlements of Europeans extended, frequent and barbarous wars,
greatly exasperating the whites, arose as a revenge for private injuries,
or in retaliation of encroachments on their hunting grounds. As these
always ended, ultimately, in favor of the settlers, and the Indians were
driven farther back, the country was taken possession of as the spoils of
conquest. These desolating contests, and the easily-acquired vices of the
whites constantly diminished their numbers. They were so inherently wild
men that the conquered remnants usually withered and faded away under the
process of civilization.

When, after the War of the Revolution, the settlements came to be
consolidated and extensive, under the rapid growth of the population,
lands were reserved for these remnants; treaties were made with them, as
with independent nations; and, from their improvidence and carelessness
as to the economical preservation of their resources, the indemnities
allowed them for the lands to which they renounced all claim were paid to
them in installments, or as annuities, by the government. This system has
been continued to the present day, and has occasioned the establishment
of the


INDIAN BUREAU OF THE INTERIOR DEPARTMENT.

It is presided over by the Commissioner of Indian Affairs, appointed in
the usual way by the President and Senate. Numerous Superintendents and
agents are appointed to reside near the different locations assigned to
the Indians, to conduct the business under his supervision, and receive
and distribute the goods and moneys given by treaty to each tribe. They
give bonds for faithfulness in the employment of funds destined for the
Indians. They are appointed for four years, and report and account to the
Department of the Interior.

Except a few who are taxed, the Indians are not counted among our
population as citizens. They have, therefore, no representative in
Congress, nor, except the criminal law to some extent, are they amenable
to other of our laws than such as the treaties have established.
Their internal government is conducted by themselves alone, neither
governor, judge, nor courts being established, as in other Territorial
jurisdictions.

They are difficult to control, however, not recognizing, as civilized
people do (except a small number who are far on the way to civilization),
the obligations of treaties and pledges. Dishonest and self-seeking
men often take advantage of their ignorance and their love of ardent
spirits and trinkets, to cheat and injure them. To remedy this as far as
possible, white men are not permitted to reside on their reservations
unless by special license of the government. Nor can they alienate their
lands to white men not officials acting under government supervision.

All pains are required to be taken by the government officers to promote
their interests, and schools and missions are encouraged among them, and
agricultural implements are furnished so far as they can be persuaded
to use them. In short, it is the benevolent and enlightened aim of
the government to act as the guardians of their true interests, to
encourage mental and moral culture among them, and assist them toward the
acquisition of the arts and comforts of civilized life.

It will easily be comprehended that many difficulties oppose themselves
to this effort with a race whose instincts are so wild and fierce, and
who adopt our vices so much more readily than our virtues, and are so
easily influenced by bad and designing men. Still, progress is made, as
will be seen in the case of


THE INDIAN TERRITORY.

It is situated south of the 37th degree of north latitude, and west of
the States of Arkansas and Missouri. Texas bounds it on the south. It
has 71,127 square miles, and is about a third larger than the State of
Illinois. It is very fertile, for the most part, and a beautiful region.
It is inhabited, in great part, by Indians who have been transferred from
the regions east of the Mississippi, mostly Cherokees, Creeks, Choctaws,
and Seminoles. Some of these were removed by persuasion, and some by
force, from their former homes, where they were disturbed by proximity to
the rapidly increasing white population.

Each tribe has its own section of the Territory. Here they practice their
own customs unmolested, and conduct their own government. Many of them,
especially the Cherokees, are intelligent and industrious. They have
churches and schools and factories, highly-cultivated farms and good
buildings. Improvement is so marked among them that it is not improbable
that they may at some future time become a State in our Union. At present
they are amenable to the Circuit and District Courts of the adjoining
States when certain crimes are committed by them against the whites in
those States, but our courts have no authority over their relations to
one another.

The population of the Territory is 70,000. The entire Indian population
of the country is over 300,000. They are scattered over the States and
Territories between the Missouri river and the Pacific coast, and those
outside the Indian Territory are often at war with each other and with
our citizens, requiring many troops and a large expense to keep them
in subjection. It is probable that, as a race, they will soon become
extinct, except, perhaps, those in the Indian Territory. They are uneasy,
and dangerous neighbors to the whites in those sparsely-settled regions.
The amount appropriated to the Indians by Congress for the year 1873-4,
was $5,513,937, which was exclusive of their annuities, or funds invested
for them, of which they receive the annual interest.




CHAPTER XXXVII.

CENSUS BUREAU.


1. A census is an enumeration, or counting, of the inhabitants of
any country. History informs us that this was done in very ancient
times. One of the books in the Old Testament (Numbers) was named from
the circumstance that it contains an account of the numbering of the
Israelites, by the order of Moses. That numbering was a _census_ of the
people composing the Jewish nation. It not only gives us the total number
of the people, but that of each tribe; much after our own mode of doing
the same thing. We take ours by States, and we find the total of the
whole nation. In ancient times a census seems to have been taken more
for military than for any other purpose. This is one of the objects in
the present day; but in modern times many uses are made of a census. It
not only shows the military power of a nation, but when taken with the
distinction of sex, and age, with an account of the births, marriages,
and deaths during each year, it throws much light upon a variety of
interesting topics; such as the longevity, the rate of mortality, the
ratio of increase, and the average duration of human life. These, and
many other important facts are obtained by a census.

2. In the United States the census is the only means by which Congress
determines the number of Representatives each State is entitled to
have in that body. Hence the Constitution itself makes provision for
the enumeration of the people once in ten years—called a decade. The
first was made in 1790, the next in 1800, and so on every tenth year.
If the number of any year ends with a cipher, we know that the United
States census was taken, or will be taken, in that year, whether we look
backward or forward.

3. Up to the present time, according to the provisions made in the
Constitution, a census has been taken nine times, and under the head
of recapitulation (see index) we find what it was each time. We also
find that from the first (1790), to the last (1870), the population had
increased from 3,929,827, to 38,838,180. Therefore it approximates very
nearly to 40,000,000; indicating a growth unparalleled by any nation in
ancient or modern times.

We will next state how this great national work is performed. The
Constitution simply declares that it shall be done, but the laws specify
_how_ it shall be done, and _who_ shall do it.

The United States Marshals are the officers designated by the law as the
persons who shall make the enumeration of the people in each State and
Territory; in addition to which they are also required to procure other
statistical matter, as directed by Congress.

4. In order to accomplish this work, it is necessary to employ a number
of assistant marshals, one of whom must visit every house in his
district, and ascertain the number of persons belonging to it, together
with such statistical information as is required. This is all returned
to the Marshal, and by him sent to the Department of the Interior at
Washington, where, under the direction of the Secretary of the Interior,
it is made into a report, and then laid before Congress, to be used by
it in apportioning to the States their quota of Representatives. This
apportionment is actually made in the Department of the Interior, and
then laid before Congress for its examination and approval. The Marshal
appoints and commissions his deputies, who must be sworn to perform the
duties assigned to them, to the best of their ability.

5. In the department of the Interior there is a board whose duty it is
to superintend the work of taking the census. It prepares, prints, and
sends to every Marshal the blanks to be used by him and his assistants;
and when they have made returns of their work, the board arranges
them preparatory to laying them before Congress. After this they are
published, and make a valuable work of reference; for they contain a
vast amount of statistical information—such as the number of acres of
land under cultivation, the number of bushels of grain of every kind
produced in the year; the number of horses, cattle, sheep, swine, &c.,
raised; the number of manufacturing establishments, and the amount of
their productions; the number of churches, schools, colleges, &c.; the
number of deaf, blind, idiotic, and insane persons; together with much
other matter, quite too voluminous for insertion here.

6. All this is done by order of Congress, and of course paid for from the
United States Treasury.

Elsewhere in this book (see index) we give a tabular statement of the
population of each State and Territory, at each time the census has been
taken by the United States. It shows the increase at each decade from
1790, the first time it was taken, to 1870—the last at this date. This
table also shows the increase in the number of States, from the original
13 to the present 37, besides the Territories, which alone are larger
than the original 13 States, and nearly as numerous.




CHAPTER XXXVIII.

THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.


Was established by an act of Congress, May, 1862. It is not, like
the other Departments of the Executive Branch of the government,
superintended by a Secretary with a seat in the President’s Cabinet. Its
Head is called The Commissioner of Agriculture, and he is appointed by
the President, by and with the advice and consent of the Senate, like
other civil officers. The creation of this office is a recognition of
the extreme importance of this industry to the prosperity and welfare
of the nation. Our country is eminently an agricultural one; and the
interests confided to this department are those of a class of the people
more numerous than any other, and on the success of whose labors depends
the well being of all. In proportion as this industry attains a high
state of development, and is generally prosperous, do the professional,
mercantile, and manufacturing classes increase in wealth. It is the
foundation on which they build.

The great fertility of our country, and the breadth of area adapted to
all the most useful products of the world, and the need of instruction,
suggestion, and aid in properly adapting agricultural products to the
soil and climate, by the large number of settlers in regions with whose
peculiarities they are but partially familiar, give a special interest
and value to this new Department.

Its duty is to watch over this large field and make such suggestions
to Congress in regard to legislation as shall seem called for; to
disseminate such practical information among the people as it may be
able to acquire by intelligent observation in this and other countries;
and the testing and dissemination of rare and untried plants of other
countries that promise to increase our agricultural resources.

For experiments in the latter case, a propagating garden and grounds
are provided, and the most skillful and intelligent officers, bringing
all the lights of science to their assistance, devote themselves to the
study of these plants, as to the soil and climate best adapted to them,
the proper modes of cultivation, and to acclimating them to our country.
This branch of the department sends, to suitable sections of the country,
such plants and seeds as it has reason to believe it will be profitable
to introduce and cultivate. This usage, continued for many years, will,
no doubt, contribute very greatly to the variety of useful products which
add to our comfort and wealth.

The department keeps skillful chemists and naturalists constantly
employed to gather information of various kinds, that may be useful to
agriculturists. The character of soils, the influences of climate, the
best system of farming, the diseases of domestic animals, and plants
and their cure, the best mode of preserving crops from the ravages of
insects, and many others are the subjects of careful investigation, and
the information thus gained is freely communicated to the country at
large.

There is a statistical division, in which facts are gathered from the
whole country and published monthly. This serves many useful purposes.
It also collects data, for purposes of comparison and instruction, from
foreign countries. Whatever facts it may be most useful for farmers to
know, whatever crops it may be most profitable for them to produce, and
whatever improvements in the modes of agriculture and in agricultural
implements are discovered to be possible are communicated to all without
cost.

Agricultural education receives much attention from the department, and
all the facts and influences that can aid in making farmers thoroughly
intelligent in their own pursuit, are gathered and employed with effect.
Agriculture cannot but improve immeasureably under this fostering care,
and this Department is likely to become one of the most important and
useful in the government. It is yet in its infancy, but has already
accomplished much good.

The commissioner reports annually to Congress. He has power to appoint
such officers as Congress considers necessary. In 1868 a fine building
for this department was completed at a cost of $140,000. It contains
a chemical laboratory with all the necessary apparatus and materials,
and a museum, or collection of specimens, of value in the study of
agriculture, store-rooms for seeds to be sent throughout the country, &c.
The beauty of the building and grounds adds a very attractive feature to
the National Capital, and the Institution itself is a favorable comment
on the wise and provident care bestowed by the government on the leading
interest of the people.




CHAPTER XXXIX.

POST OFFICE DEPARTMENT AND POST MASTER GENERAL.


This department of the government, whose head, the Post Master General,
is a member of the Cabinet, exists by virtue of Section 8, Article 1st of
the Constitution, where are these words: “Congress shall have the power
to establish post offices and post roads.”

From small beginnings, in early colonial times, and continued through
the Revolutionary War, it has grown to be one of the largest and most
important departments of the government. The security, speed, and
cheapness of intercourse between all parts of the country and with
foreign lands, is of the utmost importance to business and commerce; it
encourages social intercourse and intimate relations among the people,
and is of no small consequence in developing their intelligence and
promoting their improvement.

By successive laws of Congress it has been perfected to its present
state of excellence. The duties connected with it are performed by many
thousands of persons in every part of the country. They are of average
intelligence and education, and must be trained to their work almost
without personal instruction or supervision, yet so complete is the
organization, and so pervading the influence of the central power, the
regulations so simple, clear, and precise, that mistakes are extremely
rare, considering the great number of transactions, and instances of
misconduct in office are probably less frequent than in any other branch
of the public service, though employing persons well trained and under
close surveillance.

The Post Master General is appointed by the President and the Senate for
four years. His office is in the General Post Office at Washington. He
has three assistants, appointed in the same manner as himself. He has
a seal of his office, an impression from which must be affixed to the
commission of every postmaster in the United States; and also to all
copies of papers and documents that may be wanted from his office. This
only can give them official value of the same importance as the original
papers. He must give bonds as security for faithfulness in office, and
take the usual official oath.

He has the entire direction and management of the Department, and the
appointment of all local postmasters (in law considered as his deputies),
whose salary is less than $1,000 per annum. All others are appointed by
the President and Senate.

That its business may be more conveniently arranged and prepared for
his final action, it is distributed among several bureaus, or minor
departments as follows:


THE APPOINTMENT OFFICE.

Includes the divisions of appointments; bonds given by postmasters,
agents, and clerks; salaries and allowances, where they are not provided
for by law; free delivery in cities; and the agency of blanks used in
the extensive business and reports of the department. This office is in
charge of the First Assistant Post Master General.


THE CONTRACT OFFICE.

This includes the divisions of contracts for carrying the mails, by
persons or companies; the inspection of the entire process of carrying
the mails, to secure their safe, regular, and prompt delivery; mail
equipment, or the supply of all the material and conveniences for
transportation of the mail, furnished by the department; special agents,
and mail depredations, which has the care of all violations of law and
the conduct and accounts of all agents employed for the suppression and
prevention of abuses; and the Topographical, which has charge of maps and
diagrams of mail routes, and geographical information, required for the
various branches of the service. It is in charge of the Second Assistant
Post Master General.


THE FINANCE OFFICE.

This is separated into the divisions of Finance, which has charge of the
entire cash receipts, transfers, and disbursements of the department;
of postage stamps and stamped envelopes, newspaper wrappers, and postal
cards; registered letters and seals; and the examination of Dead Letters
and their return to the writers. Dead letters are those not taken out of
the office to which they were sent. After being advertised three weeks in
some newspaper near the office where they were sent, they are returned
to the General Post Office, where they are examined; and if they contain
money or valuable papers they are returned to the writers and an account
of them kept at the General Post Office. The sums, so lost and taken care
of, amount annually to tens of thousands of dollars. The Third Assistant
Post Master General has charge of it.


THE MONEY ORDER OFFICE.

The Money Orders System furnishes very convenient and safe banking
facilities for the transfer of money in small sums. It diminishes as much
as possible the exposure of money to loss by theft or otherwise, through
the plan of depositing in one office, and sending a certificate of such
deposit which is good for the money at another office. Immense sums are
so exchanged and business facilitated without any actual passage of the
money from one point to the other. When it is necessary to preserve the
balances it is done by, and at the risk of, the department.

No more than fifty dollars can be sent in one order, nor more than three
orders to the same person in one day. The number of these offices is more
than 1,400.

The rates of commission on money orders are,

  On orders not exceeding $10       5 cents.
  Over $10, and not exceeding $20  10 cents.
    ”  $20,    ”       ”      $30  15 cents.
    ”  $30,    ”       ”      $40  20 cents.
    ”  $40,    ”       ”      $50  25 cents.

No fractions of cents allowed in orders.

When a money order has been lost or destroyed, a duplicate can be got, by
the person who bought the order or by the person it was bought for, by
applying either at the office where the order was bought or at the office
where it should be paid. The Money Order Department is in charge of the
Superintendent of the Money Order System.

An international money order system, between the United States and
Switzerland, went into operation September 1st, 1869, whereby the
exchange of Postal orders between the two countries is effected through
the agency of two Post Offices termed International Exchange Offices. The
Office of New York City being set apart for the United States, and that
of Basle, in Switzerland, for that country. The amount drawn for cannot
exceed fifty dollars in one order, three orders only can be obtained by
the same person in one day. The system works satisfactorily, and will no
doubt be extended to Great Britain, and perhaps other European Nations at
an early day.


THE OFFICE OF FOREIGN MAILS.

It has the care of all foreign postal arrangements and the supervision of
the ocean mail service. It is presided over by a Superintendent.


THE AUDITOR OF THE TREASURY FOR THE POST OFFICE DEPARTMENT.

This is a bureau of the Treasury Department, which, for convenience,
is located in the General Post Office. To this officer is assigned
the duty of auditing the accounts of the Post Office Department, all
communications relating to the accounts of postmasters, mail contractors,
and other agents of the Department, are addressed to this officer.

The head of so large and important a department of the public service is
properly a chief officer of the government and has a seat in the cabinet.


NUMBER OF POST OFFICES AND MILES OF POST ROADS IN THE U. S.

  In 1790 there were but 75 post offices, and 1,875 m. of post-roads.
     1800     ”         903      ”           20,817          ”
     1810     ”       2,300      ”           36,400          ”
     1820     ”       4,500      ”           72,492          ”
     1830     ”       8,450      ”          115,176          ”
     1840     ”      13,463      ”          155,739          ”
     1850     ”      18,417      ”          178,672          ”
     1860     ”      28,498      ”          240,594          ”
     1870     ”      28,492      ”          231,232          ”


POSTMASTERS GENERAL.

  Samuel Osgood, Mass., Sept. 26, 1789.
  Timothy Pickering, Mass., Aug. 12, 1791.
  Joseph Habersham, Ga., Feb. 25, 1795.
  Gideon Granger, Ct., Nov. 28, 1801.
  Return J. Meigs, O., March 17, 1814.
  John McLean, O., June 25, 1823.
  William T. Barry, Ky., March 9, 1829.
  Amos Kendall, Ky., March 1, 1835.
  John M. Niles, Ct., May 18, 1840.
  Francis Granger, N. Y., March 6, 1841.
  Charles A. Wickliff, Ky., Sept. 13, 1841.
  Cave Johnson, Tenn., March 5, 1845.
  Jacob Collamer, Vt., March 7, 1849.
  Nathan K. Hall, N. Y., July 20, 1850.
  S. D. Hubbard, Ct., Aug. 31, 1852.
  James Campbell, Pa., March 5, 1853.
  Aaron V. Brown, Tenn., March 6, 1857.
  Joseph Holt, Ky., March 14, 1859.
  Horatio King, Jan. 1, 1861.
  Montgomery Blair, Md., March 7, 1861.
  William Dennison, O., Oct. 1, 1864.
  Alexander W. Randall, Wis., July 15, 1866.
  J. A. J. Creswell, Md., March 5, 1869.
    ”       ”        reappointed March 17, 1873.
  Marshall Jewell, July 1874.




CHAPTER XL.

RATES OF POSTAGE IN THE UNITED STATES


On each letter weighing not more than one-half ounce three cents, and for
each additional half-ounce or fraction thereof, three cents.

All packages containing matter not in itself chargeable with letter
postage, but in which is enclosed or concealed any letter, memorandum, or
other thing chargeable with letter postage, or upon which is any writing
or memorandum; and manuscripts for publication in newspapers, magazines,
or periodicals—three cents for each half-ounce or fraction thereof.
Weight of packages limited to four pounds.

On local or drop letters, at offices where free delivery by carriers is
established, two cents for each half ounce or fraction thereof; and where
free delivery has not been established, one cent for each half ounce or
fraction thereof.

On seeds, cuttings, bulbs, roots and scions, one cent for each ounce or
fraction thereof. Weight of packages limited to four pounds.

On pamphlets and occasional publications, all transient printed matter,
unsealed circulars, book manuscripts, proof sheets, corrected proof
sheets, maps, prints, engravings, etc., one cent for each ounce or
fraction thereof. Weight of packages limited to four pounds.

On samples of ores, metals, minerals, and merchandise, one cent for each
ounce or fraction thereof. Weight of packages limited to four pounds.

On books, one cent for each ounce or fraction thereof. Weight of packages
limited to four pounds.

All domestic matter, including newspapers, magazines and periodicals sent
to actual subscribers from a known office of publication, must be prepaid
by postage stamps affixed thereto.

Newspapers issued weekly, or oftener, and sent from publishers or news
agents, to subscribers or dealers, two cents per pound; and if not issued
as often as weekly, three cents per pound.

Papers sent miscellaneously, and not regularly, postage the same as on
books.


FOREIGN POSTAGE.

  -----------------------------------------------------+--------+---------
                                                       |        | News
                                                       |Letters |papers
                     FOREIGN COUNTRIES.                |  per   |  not
                                                       |  ½ oz. |exceed’g
                                                       |        | 4 oz.
  -----------------------------------------------------+--------+---------
  Alexandria, Egypt, British closed mail via           |        |
    Southampton                                        |   16   |   4
  Aspinwall, U. S. packet *                            |   10   |   2
  Australia, British mail via Southampton              |   16   |   4
     ”            ”       ”   Brindisi                 |   22   |   8
     ”     German mail, direct, via Brindisi           | † 20   |  12
  Austria, including Hungary, German mail, direct      | †  6   |   3
     ”         ”       ”         ”   closed mail via   |        |
    England                                            | †  7   |   4
  Belgium, by direct steamers                          | †  6   |   3
      ”    via Great Britain                           | †  8   |   4
  Bermuda, U. S. packet *                              |   10   |   2
  Brazil                                               |   15   |   3
    ”    British mail                                  |   28   |   4
  British Columbia (Letters unpaid 10 cents per ½ oz.) | †  6   |   2
  Canada, England, Wales, Ireland and Scotland (unpaid |        |
    10c. per ½ oz.)                                    | †  6   |   2
      Postal Cards to Canada or British Columbia one   |        |
    cent extra.                                        |        |
  Central America *                                    |   10   |   2
  Chili, via Panama                                    |   22   |   4
  China, via San Francisco                             |   19   |   2
       ”     Southampton                               |   28   |   6
       ”     Brindisi                                  |   34   |   8
  Constantinople, German mail, direct                  |   10   |   6
         ”           ”   closed mail, via England      |   11   |   7
  Cuba, U. S. packet *                                 |   10   |   2
  Denmark *                                            |    7   |   4
  East India, British, via San Francisco               |   10   |   —
   ”     ”        ”     British mail, via Southampton  |   22   |
   ”     ”        ”           ”        ”  Brindisi     |   28   |   8
  Ecuador                                              |   20   | * 2
  Egypt, except Alexandria British mail, via           |        |
    Southampton                                        |   20   |   6
  Falkland Islands, British mail, via Southampton      |   16   |   4
  France, direct *                                     |   10   |   2
  Germany, via Hamburg or Bremen, direct               | †  6   |
    ”  closed mail, via England                        | †  7   |
       Postal Cards to Germany one cent additional.    |        |
  Gibraltar, British mail, via Southampton             |   16   |   4
  Gold Coast,    ”       ”         ”                   |   16   |   4
  Great Britain and Ireland                            | †  6   |   2
  Greece, German mail, direct                          | † 14   |   9
  Guatemala, U. S. packet *                            |   10   |   2
  Havana, U. S. packet *                               |   10   |   2
  Hawaiian Islands, U. S. packet (Newspapers one cent  |        |
    per ounce)                                         |    6   |   —
  Holland                                              |   10   |   4
  Honduras, via St. Thomas                             |   18   |   4
  Hong Kong, including Canton, Amoy, Swatow, and       |        |
    Foo-Chow, U. S. packet                             |   10   |   2
  Hong Kong, British mail, via Southampton             |   28   |   6
  Italy *                                              | † 10   |   4
  Jamaica, U. S. packet *                              |   10   |   2
  Japan, U. S. packet                                  |   10   |   —
  Java, British mail, via Southampton                  |   28   |   6
  Jerusalem, German mail, direct                       | † 11   |   7
      ”         ”   closed, via England                | † 12   |   8
  Malta, British mail, via Southampton                 |   16   |   4
  Mexico, U. S. packet (by sea)                        |   10   |   3
  Morocco, British mail, via Southampton               |   16   |   4
  Natal,         ”        ”      ”                     |   28   |   4
  Netherlands, same as Holland.                        |        |
  Newfoundland                                         |    6   |   2
  New South Wales, British mail, via Southampton       |   16   |   4
  New Zealand,           ”        ”      ”             |   16   |   4
  Norway, via England and Christiana                   |   10   |   4
  Panama, U. S. packet                                 |   10   |   3
  Paraguay, U. S. packet (Newspapers 4 cents each)     |   18   |   4
  Peru, British mail, via Panama,     ”                |   22   |   4
  Portugal, British mail, via Southampton              |   16   |   6
  Prince Edward Island (Unpaid letters 10 cents each   |        |
    ½ oz.)                                             |    6   |   2
  Russia, German mail, direct                          |   10   |   6
    ”       ”    closed mail, via England              | † 11   |   7
  Sandwich Islands (Newspapers one cent per two ounces)|    6   |   —
  Shanghai, U. S. packet                               |   10   |   2
  Sierra Leone, British mail, via Southampton          |   16   |   4
  Spain, German mail, direct                           |   11   |   6
    ”    via New Orleans *                             |   10   |   2
  Sweden and Norway, by direct steamers for U. S.      | †  6   |   2
  Sweden, via England and Christiana                   |    9   |   4
  Switzerland, via England                             | † 10   |   4
       ”        ”  Germany                             | †  8   |   3
  Vancouver’s Island (Letters, if unpaid, 10 cents per |        |
    ½ oz.)                                             | †  6   |   2
  West Indies, except otherwise stated, via St. Thomas |   18   |   4
  -----------------------------------------------------+--------+---------

* Denotes that the postage is the United States postage only, which must
be prepaid on matter sent and collected on matter received.

† Denotes that prepayment of postage is optional; in all other cases it
is compulsory.

GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.—Letters wholly unpaid or insufficiently
prepaid are subject on delivery, in addition to the deficient postage,
to a fine of 6 cents in the United States and 3d. in Great Britain. Book
manuscript and corrected proof may be sent at book-packet rate of postage.




CHAPTER XLI.

REGISTERED AND DEAD LETTERS.


REGISTERED LETTERS.

Within the last few years the Registered Letter Department has grown to
enormous proportions. In former times the registering of a letter was
only a notice to those handling it that it was valuable, the process
being to simply paste a Registered Letter Bill to the letter and place
it among the ordinary letters. If any officer was dishonest and wanted
the letter, all he had to do was to take it and destroy the bill, and
the chances of detection were very slight. The fee was small and the
safety smaller. Under the new system which has been in operation some few
years, and is copied from England, the safe transmission and delivery of
money and valuables is almost certain. Only letters or other mail matter
on which letter rates of postage are fully prepaid can be registered.
Each postmaster is furnished with all the proper blanks, including
the package envelopes and seals. The latter is a large whitish brown
envelope, longer and broader than an ordinary official size envelope,
and “Registered Letter” printed in large red letters across the face.
The seal is similar to a postage stamp, only larger, and is placed over
the lap after the envelope is sealed, and then cancelled. When a letter
is presented for registration at any post office, the postmaster must
require that the name and post office address of the writer thereof be
endorsed on its face; he must also see that the postage, as well as the
fee for registering, is fully prepaid by stamps affixed to such letter;
he will then fill out a receipt, entering thereon the number of the
letter, the date and name of his office, the name and address of the
writer, and the address of the letter, sign and deliver it to the person
presenting the letter. The postmaster then makes out his “registered
letter bill” and “return registered letter bill” each of which contains
a full description of the letter consisting of address and number. The
registered letter bill is then placed in the package envelope with the
letter. The package is then sealed up and the name of the post office for
which it is destined, and the number and stamp of the mailing office are
plainly marked upon the package. It is then ready for delivery to the
route agent or postal clerk upon whose route it properly belongs, who is
required to give a receipt for it, and also to keep a complete record of
it, as are all officers of the Department who handle registered matter
in transit. He must also take a receipt from the officer to whom he next
delivers the package. The return registered letter bill is sent in an
ordinary envelope in the regular mail to the office of final destination,
which will, by reason of the fact that no registered letters are sent
in through mails, and only in charge of postal clerks upon day trains,
nearly always reach the office in advance of the registered letter; and
the postmaster, then knowing that such letter is on the way, is on the
lookout for it, and if it comes in due time signs the receipt and returns
it to the mailing office. All this is done for a fee of only eight cents
in addition to the regular postage.

If a registered letter should not reach its destination in a reasonable
length of time after the receipt of the return bill, the post master
will notify the post master at the mailing office of the non-receipt of
the letter. It then becomes the duty of the last mentioned officer to
inform a special agent of the fact, who will make out what is called
a “tracer,” which is a complete description of the letter, with blank
space for each person who handled the original letter to state, from
his records and receipts, exactly what disposition he made of it and
whose receipt he holds; he then passes it along to the next. Thus by
this complete chain of records and receipts, though it may reach from
the Atlantic to the Pacific, a registered letter may be readily traced
to its final destination, or until the records cease. If a break should
occur in the chain and the loss be fastened upon any post office or mail
agent, the case is rigidly “investigated” by the proper officer, and if
it appears that the loss occurs through carelessness, the loser is made
to pay the value of the lost letter, and receive a severe reprimand, and
if it should occur again is very apt to be dismissed the service. If the
special detective is convinced that the missing letter is stolen, he then
takes a different course and commences his system of “decoys,” etc., to
catch the thief, and is almost always successful, as the man who robs the
mails always becomes careless, and grows bolder with each repetition of
the offense.

The amount and extent of the registered letter business may be judged
when it is stated that during the month of January, 1874, at the post
office in New York over sixty thousand registered letters were received,
nearly thirty thousand of which were for delivery in the city, and the
rest for other places, New York being a distributing office.


DEAD LETTERS.

About all that people know or understand of the workings of the Dead
Letter bureau of the Post Office Department is that if a letter is not
delivered in due time it is sent to the Dead Letter Office, and there
opened and returned to the writer. When, each year, they see the report
of the Postmaster General, the amount of money and number of letters that
are returned to the senders seems enormous, but when it is considered
that millions of letters and thousands of dollars are carried and safely
delivered correctly each year in the United States, the number that
fails of delivery, by contrast, does not seem so great. During the month
of November, 1873, nearly ten millions of letters were received and
dispatched in New York City.

Every effort is always made to return money or any articles of value
which may be found in dead letters. It is required that everything
valuable shall be registered free when returned to the owners; but if for
any reason it cannot be delivered to the rightful owner, it is held in
the Department subject to the owners control for four years, and after
that time it is conveyed to the Treasury, and goes towards decreasing
the annual deficit in the Post Office Department. All letters which are
properly stamped and addressed, and go to their destination, but are
not delivered at the end of one week, by reason of the person addressed
not being found, are advertised, either by publishing once in a daily
or weekly paper, or by posting the list in a conspicuous place in the
office. At the end of four weeks all then undelivered are sent to the
dead letter office. The matter of advertising in newspapers is left to
the discretion of the Postmaster General, and it is but few of the larger
offices that are allowed to do so. The compensation is fixed by law at
one cent for each letter, which is to be paid by the person receiving
the letter; but by reason of the fact that by far the larger portion of
those advertised are not delivered, the expense is so great that but
few offices can be allowed to advertise. All letters which are dropped
into an office without stamps or only part paid, or the address is not
readable, are sent at once to the Dead Letter office, except in some few
offices where a bulletin board is provided for the purpose of displaying
to the public letters of this character. When a letter which is wholly
or in part unpaid, and upon which the address is legible, is found to
contain a valuable enclosure a printed circular is sent to the party
addressed requesting that the requisite amount of postage be forwarded in
stamps and the letter will be forwarded to its proper address.

A great many articles which are of value only to the senders or the
persons for whom they are intended, such as little baby shoes, stockings,
photographs, etc., etc., find their way to the Dead Letter office.
Special effort is always made to deliver things of this character.
Perhaps the little shoe or stocking may have belonged to some little one
whose feet are still forever, and is being sent to a grandmother or some
other near relation as a memento of the little one that is gone. Such
articles as this may be of no possible value to any one but the owners,
but the post office authorities make as great an effort, even greater
to deliver this class of articles, than they do money or jewels. At the
present time in the Dead Letter office are great stores of small articles
of very little or no value to any but the owners, waiting to be called
for.




CHAPTER XLII.

ATTORNEY GENERAL.


It will be readily perceived that, in a country developing so rapidly as
ours, producing, thereby, an almost unbroken series of new situations,
requiring a cautious application of old laws and the constant enactment
of new ones, and so, a danger of confusion of legislative rules, that the
President and his Cabinet would need a legal adviser of eminent ability,
and of extensive acquirements in legal affairs, to give instruction and
counsel on various lines of action contemplated by the executive branch
of the government, and of the lawful course to be taken in the numerous
particular cases constantly coming up for determination. Besides,
various suits require to be instituted or defended in the courts, by the
government, and some officer is needed to prosecute or defend them in its
name and interest.

To answer these requirements, the office of Attorney General was created
by the first Congress in 1789. He is a member of the Cabinet, is
nominated by the President, and confirmed by the Senate, and is removable
at the pleasure of the President. He has an assistant and various clerks
to aid him in the discharge of his responsible duties.

By an act passed in 1861 he is made Superintendent of all the Attorneys
and Marshals in all the Judicial Districts of the United States. His
office is at the seat of Government.

The following is a complete list of the Attorneys General:


ATTORNEYS GENERAL.

  Edmund Randolph, Va., Sept. 26, 1789.
  William Bradford, Pa., June 27, 1794.
  Charles Lee, Va., Dec. 10, 1795.
  T. Parsons, Mass., Feb. 20, 1800.
  Levi Lincoln, Mass., March 5, 1801.
  Robert Smith, Md., March 2, 1805.
  John Breckinridge, Ky., Dec. 1806.
  Cæsar A. Rodney, Del., Jan. 20, 1807.
  William Pinckney, Md., Dec. 11, 1811.
  Richard Rush, Pa., Feb. 10, 1814.
  William Wirt, Md., Dec. 16, 1817.
  John McPherson Berrien, Ga., Mar. 9, 1829.
  Roger B. Taney, Md., July 20, 1831.
  Benjamin F. Butler, N. Y., Nov. 15, 1833.
  Felix Grundy, Tenn., July 7, 1838.
  Henry D. Gilpin, Pa., Jan. 11, 1840.
  John J. Crittenden, Ky., Mar. 5, 1841.
  Hugh S. Legaré, S. C., Sept. 13, 1841.
  John Nelson, Md., July 1, 1843.
  John Y. Mason, Va., Mar. 5, 1845.
  Nathan Clifford, Me., Oct. 16, 1846.
  Isaac Toucey, Ct., Jan. 21, 1848.
  Reverdy Johnson, Md., Mar. 7, 1849.
  John J. Crittenden, Ky., July 20, 1850.
  Caleb Cushing, Mass., Mar. 5, 1853.
  Jeremiah S. Black, Pa., Mar. 6, 1857.
  Edwin M. Stanton, Pa., Dec. 14, 1860.
  Edward Bates, Mo., Mar. 5, 1861.
  James Speed, Ky., Dec. 1864.
  Henry Stanberry, O., July, 1866.
  William M. Evarts, N. Y., 1868.
  Eben E. Hoar, March 5, 1869.
  Amos T. Akerman, Ga., July 8, 1870.
  George H. Williams, Oregon, 1871.
  Edward Pierrepont, New York, 1875.




CHAPTER XLIII.

PRESIDENTIAL ELECTORS.


An Elector, in the sense of the Constitution, is one who has been
appointed to choose or elect the President of the United States. Electors
have been chosen in various ways. At first they were often appointed by
the State Legislatures, or these passed a law directing their election
by the people. This has gradually disappeared, and now the people, by
law of Congress assemble on the first Tuesday after the first Monday in
November preceding the close of a presidential term, and vote for the
electors. The electors in each State are called its Electoral College.
They meet on the first Wednesday in December following their election,
in their respective States, and vote by ballot for a President and
Vice-President. These cannot both, according to the Constitution, be
citizens of the same State. They count, certify, and seal these votes
and send the sealed package by a messenger, appointed for that express
purpose, to the President of the United States Senate. On the second
Wednesday in February following, the members of the Senate and House of
Representatives assemble together, the packages are opened and the votes
counted in their presence, and the result is officially proclaimed.
It is evident that this is now a mere form, and the President and
Vice-President are virtually determined by the people in November. It is
not in harmony with the other parts of our system of government, which
aims at simplicity and practical usefulness, and it will probably soon
be dispensed with. It was originally designed, by those who framed the
Constitution, to act as a check to party spirit, and was expected to
serve a very useful purpose. They felt the great importance attaching
to the office of Chief Magistrate, on whom they had conferred so much
power, and thought, by this means, to raise his election above disturbing
influences. It was not expected that the candidates for those offices
would come in question, in the popular elections. The choice was designed
to be left with the electors, with whom, being chosen by the people for
that purpose, it was supposed they would feel safe in leaving it. It was
believed that a select body of eminent men would act with more prudence
and wisdom than the people at large. But the people felt themselves
competent to judge for themselves, and have, like imperious sovereigns,
imposed their choice on the Electors, so that that part of our
constitutional machinery has become a dead letter. The people know their
own minds better, and are more resolute in imposing their will on their
representatives than was expected; and they have favorably disappointed
the best hopes of those who believed most in their discretion. So we see
that the failure of the Electoral System, planned by the Fathers of the
Republic, is an honorable commentary on the ability of the people for
self-government.

Their success in making their own choice authoritative has led them
to overlook the incongruity of the system, so that they have never
resolutely required it to be abolished. Perhaps the idea that it might be
useful in some important crisis of national affairs has had an influence
to prevent interference with it. As its retention is attended with
considerable expense, when questions of Economy come to take a leading
place in public policy it is likely to be laid aside, in form, as well as
in fact.

The elections for President, Congressmen, Governors of the States and
their Legislatures, determining the general policy of the government,
and the class of men who shall be appointed to the various minor offices
under its control; those who feel a strong interest in that policy from
their judgment of its effect on the welfare of the country, or their
desire to promote special measures; and those who are anxious to obtain
or hold office, are very warmly interested in them. They divide into
parties according to their views and exert themselves to the utmost to
influence the result.

Most human affairs have their good and bad side, and this is not
an exception. This party warmth is useful in causing discussion,
examination, and thought, and stirring up the people to a careful study
of their institutions and the principles of government, and the effect
which particular measures may have on the public welfare. Its tendency,
in this direction is, to make all the people statesmen—a point of the
highest importance in a free government, where the People are Sovereign.
The disadvantage is, that it often awakens an undue degree of passion and
prejudice, the parties and men who are candidates for office abuse and
misrepresent each other in order to destroy each others influence, when,
perhaps, they are equally in earnest in seeking the good of the country.
For this there is no apparent remedy, but in the intelligence and good
sense of the people themselves. They must learn to be careful and
candid in their judgment of men and measures, and to examine all sides
of a question before rendering a decision. All should strive toward this
intelligent moderation during important elections.




CHAPTER XLIV.

THE HISTORY OF PRESIDENTIAL ELECTIONS.


The Presidents of the Continental Congress—as the Legislative body of
the United States was called up to 1789, when the new Constitution went
in effect—were chosen by its members, which then consisted of only one
House, in the same manner as the Speaker of the House of Representatives
is chosen now; nor was his authority more extensive. He was simply the
presiding officer of a legislative body; and one that had by no means
the effective authority of our present Congress, although no body in the
world ever more deserved the gratitude and reverence of all time; for it
founded and gave direction and character to a great nation—it may be, the
greatest the world will ever know.

These Presidents had little, except the name, in common with the
Presidents of the United States, as the Constitution made them. The
Presidents were now to be appointed by the people, and become the
depositaries of the Power of the Nation in Action. It was fit that, in a
government deriving all its authority from the People, as the source of
power, its Special Agent, its acting Representative, should be chosen by
them.

In the summer of 1788 three-fourths of the States had ratified the
Constitution, and it became authoritative as the Fundamental Law of the
country. The Continental Congress, therefore, closed its own career by
ordering elections for the new Congress, and for the electors who were
to appoint the first President. It directed that these elections should
take place on the first Wednesday in January, 1789; that the electors
should meet on the first Wednesday in February following, to discharge
the duty to which they were appointed; and that, on the first Wednesday
in March, (which, in that year, was the fourth,) Congress should meet,
the President be inaugurated, and the new government be put in operation.

This brought all these important events close upon the heels of one
another; and on the 4th of March there was not a quorum of the Members
of Congress assembled. The States lay far apart, and the roads were bad
in those times, and at that season of the year. Though a bare quorum had
gathered by the last of March, and many measures of pressing necessity
were attended to, a full representation was waited for before the
President elect was notified that they were ready for his inauguration;
and that event took place only on the 30th of April. The presidential
term, however, was considered to have legally commenced at the time
previously ordered, and closed on that day of the year and month; so that
it became the first day of our political year. It commences and closes
the President’s term of office and ends the regular session of Congress.


FIRST ELECTION, 1789.

There were but 69 electors, and the choice of George Washington for
President, and John Adams for Vice-President, was unanimous. He had
declared, when resigning his commission as commander-in-chief, that he
took leave “of all the employments of public life,” and only the earnest
solicitations of the leading public men of the time, and their opinion
that he alone could successfully inaugurate the new government, decided
him to leave his cherished retirement. Washington’s ambition was known
to be free from spot or stain of self seeking, and his moderation and
judgment were trusted in as the sheet anchor of a new government which
many feared would become too strong for the liberties of the people.
They dreaded an abuse of power; but they had no fear of such abuse while
wielded by Washington. There was a solid foundation to Washington’s fame,
in his character.

The presidential electors were mainly chosen by the State legislatures
during the times immediately following the adoption of the Constitution.
That instrument did not decide how they should be chosen, but left it
to the discretion of the State governments. In some States conventions
chose them, and the practice was various; but after a time it proved to
be more satisfactory to refer the choice directly to the people, and
very soon the people themselves practically selected the President, the
electors being pledged to the choice of the candidate favored by their
constituents, so that their significance was lost. It is a proof of the
_popular_ character of our government. The system of electors indicated
a fear of the people; a want of confidence in their judgment and self
control. The electors, it was supposed, would be wiser, less accessible
to passion and caprice than those who elected them. The people set them
quietly aside, and proceeded to do their own work themselves, using the
electors only to register their decision. Public men have seldom ventured
to oppose the clearly formed and definite purposes of the people.


THE SECOND ELECTION, 1792.

Washington was again unanimously elected. He desired to lay down the
burdens of office; but so many perplexing questions and disturbing
influences threatened the stability of the government that he could not
be spared. His name and character were a rock of strength. John Adams
was re-elected Vice-President. Only 11 States had voted at the first
election; North Carolina and Rhode Island not having then ratified the
Constitution. They had now done so, and Vermont and Kentucky had been
admitted, so that there were 15 States voting at this election. There
were 132 electors. Washington declined another election absolutely, and
the government had proved so suitable as to be fairly settled in the
confidence of the people.


THE THIRD ELECTION, 1796.

Four persons were voted for at this election.

  John Adams       received 71 electoral votes.
  Thomas Jefferson     ”    69        ”
  Thomas Pinckney      ”    59        ”
  Aaron Burr           ”    38        ”

As, by the Constitutional provision regarding electors, the person
having the largest number of votes became President, and the one who had
the next in number became Vice-President, Adams was now President, and
Jefferson Vice-President. Tennessee had now been admitted into the Union,
and there were 16 States voting.

Conflicting views on foreign policy, and vexing questions of internal
administration began to exert a strong influence, and party spirit, for
the next twenty years, was very bitter. Mr. Adams was a Federalist; Mr.
Jefferson was an anti-Federalist.


THE FOURTH ELECTION, 1800.

The same candidates were again in the field. The political parties had
become clearly defined. Adams and Pinckney were the Federal candidates,
receiving—Adams, 64, Pinckney 63, electoral votes, while Jefferson and
Burr had each 73. They were of the anti-Federal, or Republican party.

The election did not decide which of the two, Jefferson or Burr,
should be President and Vice-President, and, by the provisions of
the Constitution, the House of Representatives decided it in favor
of Jefferson. Party heats were so great that it took 7 days and 36
ballots to reach this result. It was felt that there was a defect in the
Constitutional provision that left it undecided, in such a case, which
of the candidates was the choice of the electors for President, and
it resulted in the ratification of the 12th amendment before the next
election.

The Federal party never regained the power of administration lost at
this election, though they continued to be a strong opposition until
the close of the war of 1812. But an opposition, to criticize and
point out faults, is often more useful out of office than in; and the
Republican party was obliged to adopt substantially the general features
of the policy pursued by their predecessors, while they added some very
important ones of their own, in their disposition to favor popular rights.


THE FIFTH ELECTION, 1804.

Thomas Jefferson and George Clinton were the candidates of the
Republicans. Charles C. Pinckney and Rufus King of the Federalists.

Jefferson was popular, and received 162 votes—Clinton receiving the same.
Pinckney and King received only 14 votes. The admission of Ohio, in 1802,
made 17 States to vote at this election.

The Federal party was much weaker than in the following election.


THE SIXTH ELECTION, 1808.

James Madison was the Republican candidate for President, and Geo.
Clinton for Vice-President. Pinckney and King were again candidates on
the part of the Federalists.

  Madison received       123 electoral votes.
  Clinton    ”           113        ”
  Pinckney and King each, 47        ”

Geo. Clinton died before the end of his term. There was the same number
of States voting as in the previous election, viz.: 17.


THE SEVENTH ELECTION, 1812.

Madison was re-elected, with Elbridge Gerry as Vice-President. They each
received 128 electoral votes.

De Witt Clinton and Jared Ingersoll, the candidates of the Federal party,
received, Clinton 89, Ingersoll 57, votes. Louisiana having been recently
admitted into the Union, there were now 18 States.

War with England was formally declared this year. It had actually
begun on the ocean sometime before. It was a very trying and painful
presidential term, owing to the violent and injudicious opposition made
to the measures of the government, and the unfortunate choice of generals
for the first two years; yet the ultimate result was highly creditable to
the standing and reputation of the United States, and put an end to the
annoying and insulting interferences with our vessels and commerce that
had brought it on. It was a war waged for the honor and inviolability of
our Flag, which was ever after duly respected.


THE EIGHTH ELECTION, 1816.

James Monroe and Daniel D. Tompkins were the candidates of the
Republicans, who now began to be called Democrats. The Federalist party
was now near its end. It nominated Rufus King who received 34 electoral
votes, Monroe obtaining 183.

Indiana was admitted this year in time to vote, making 19 States.
This period marked an important era in the internal history, as well
as foreign relations, of the country. The period of trial for the
Constitution was passed, and full confidence began to be felt in the
system it had founded.


THE NINTH ELECTION, 1820.

Monroe and Tompkins were re-elected, the vote being substantially
unanimous, for the first and last time since Washington. The close
of this term made the Republican rule in the administration 24 years
in succession, under three Presidents, each once re-elected, and all
citizens of Virginia.

Four new States had been admitted during the previous term, viz.:
Mississippi, Illinois, Alabama, and Maine, so that 23 States took part in
this election.


THE TENTH ELECTION, 1824.

Four candidates were in the field for the presidency at this election.
Missouri having been admitted since the ninth election there were 24
States to vote. The whole number of electors was 261; necessary to a
choice, 131.

The candidates and votes were as follows:

  Andrew Jackson           99
  John Quincy Adams        84
  Wm. H. Crawford          41
  Henry Clay               31

By the Constitution the House of Representatives was required to select
the President from the 3 candidates having the highest number of votes.
They were to vote by States, and a majority of States would elect. J. Q.
Adams received the vote of 13 States, and was declared elected. John C.
Calhoun having received 182 electoral votes for the Vice-Presidency, was
thereby elected to that office. 18 of the States appointed the electors
by popular vote and 6 appointed them by their legislatures.


THE ELEVENTH ELECTION, 1828.

Andrew Jackson was elected President, and John C. Calhoun re-elected
Vice-President.

John Quincy Adams and Richard Rush were also candidates for President
and Vice-President, respectively. The contest was very hot and bitter.
Jackson received 178, and Adams 171 electoral votes. The Popular vote
was 650,028 for Jackson to 512,158 for Adams. The number of electors
was the same as in the 10th election. The most violent excitement
divided the north and the south on the tariff question, which culminated
during this term in the “nullification ordinance,” which Jackson met
with the decision and vigor for which he was distinguished, ending
in the submission of the nullifiers. Calhoun resigned his office as
Vice-President, Dec. 28th, 1832. He was the leader of the nullifiers.


THE TWELFTH ELECTION, 1832.

Jackson’s vigorous dealing with nullification was highly approved by the
people, and he was re-elected, with Martin Van Buren as Vice-President.

Henry Clay was the candidate of the Whig party for President, and John
Sergeant for Vice-President.

  Jackson received   682,502 popular, and 219 electoral votes.
  Clay       ”       550,189        ”      49        ”
                     -------             ----
  Jackson’s majority 132,313              170

Van Buren received 189 electoral votes for Vice-President. Twenty-four
States voted at this election.


THE THIRTEENTH ELECTION, 1836.

Van Buren was run, by the Democrats, for the Presidency, and Richard M.
Johnson for the Vice-Presidency, against Wm. H. Harrison, Hugh L. White,
Daniel Webster, and W. P. Mangum. Van Buren’s vote was 762,149 popular,
and 170 electoral. Harrison and the others united was 736,736 popular,
and 124 electoral. The whole number of electors being 294, the number
necessary to a choice was 148. Johnson failed by one electoral vote
to be elected to the Vice-Presidency, and the case went to the Senate
for decision, as directed by the Constitution. The remaining electoral
votes for Vice-President being divided between 3 candidates, Johnson was
appointed by the Senate.

Michigan and Arkansas having been admitted this year took part in the
election, making 26 States.


THE FOURTEENTH ELECTION, 1840.

The Whig party this year concentrated on Wm. H. Harrison for President,
and John Tyler for Vice-President.

The Democrats opposed them with Van Buren and Johnson again. The country
had been passing through a financial crisis of extreme severity during
the thirteenth presidential term, and this election, involving the
decision of a financial policy, was very exciting.

Harrison was an Ohio farmer, and, the Democrats said, “lived in a log
cabin and drank hard cider.” The Whigs took the hint, built log cabins
to hold their campaign gatherings in, drank much hard cider, and sung
stirring political songs.

  Harrison’s popular vote was 1,274,783—his electoral vote 234
  Van Buren’s        ”        1,128,702          ”          60
                              ---------                    ---
  Majority,                      46,081                    174

Tyler’s vote as Vice-President was the same as Harrison’s.

Harrison died on the 4th of April, one month after his inauguration, and
John Tyler succeeded to the Presidency. His term was made remarkable by
his disagreement with the measures of Congress, on financial questions.

This was the first time a Vice-President had been called on to serve as
a substitute for the President. There were 26 States taking part in this
election.


THE FIFTEENTH ELECTION, 1844.

The slavery question entered into this election as a leading point.
The Republic of Texas asked admission into the Union. As it would be
certain to be a slave State, and many of the people objected to extending
that institution while others favored it, the parties took it up; the
Democrats favoring the admission, the Whigs opposing.

James K. Polk was the candidate for President, and Geo. M. Dallas for
Vice-President, run by the Democrats.

The Whigs opposed against them Henry Clay and Theodore Frelinghuysen.

  The vote for Polk and Dallas was 1,335,834, electoral vote 170
       ”    Clay and Frelinghuysen 1,297,033,        ”       105
                                   ---------                 ---
  Polk and Dallas’ majority,          38,801                  65

This was the third time Mr. Clay had been defeated as a candidate for the
Presidency, to the great regret of many, even of those who voted against
him.

The war with Mexico followed as a consequence of the policy of the United
States government, decided upon in this election. Texas had formerly been
a part of Mexico, and that country considered its admission into the
Union as an act of hostility to herself.


SIXTEENTH ELECTION, 1848.

The Whigs were successful in this election, owing to a division in the
ranks of the Democratic party. The Whigs nominated Gen. Zachary Taylor
for President, and Millard Fillmore for Vice-President; the Democrats
Lewis Cass for President, and Wm. O. Butler for Vice-President; the Free
Soil Democrats—who opposed the extension of slavery—Martin Van Buren for
President, and Charles F. Adams for Vice-President.

The vote resulted thus:

  Taylor and Fillmore’s popular vote 1,362,024, electoral vote 163
  Cass and Butler’s          ”       1,222,419,        ”       127
  Van Buren and Adams’       ”         291,678.

The third ticket secured no electoral votes.

Four new States had been admitted into the Union since the 15th election,
viz.: Texas, Florida, Iowa, and Wisconsin; and 30 States voted this year.

Gen. Taylor died July 9th, 1850, one year, four months, and four days
after his inauguration, and Mr. Fillmore filled out his term of office.


THE SEVENTEENTH ELECTION, 1852.

During the previous Presidential term the subject of slavery, and the
strategy of politicians in favor of and against it, absorbed public
attention. The repeal of the Missouri Compromise of 1820 opened the whole
question, and a trial of strength as to which side should occupy the
new territory, was prepared for. The crisis of preparation had not been
reached when this election occurred, and comparatively little interest
was taken in it.

The Democrats nominated Franklin Pierce for President, and Wm. R. King
for Vice-President; the Whigs chose as their candidates Gen. Winfield
Scott for President, and Wm. A. Graham for Vice-President.

Pierce and King received, of popular votes 1,590,490, of electoral, 254.
Scott and Graham received, of popular votes, 1,378,589, of electoral,
42. Pierce’s majority, on popular vote, 211,901, on electoral, 212.

California had been admitted since the 16th election, and there were 31
States to vote in this.

This was the last election in which the Whig party nominated a candidate.
The contest in regard to slave and free territory absorbing all the
interest of the country, the parties were rearranged, those in favor
of slavery, or wishing to leave that institution undisturbed, gathered
to the Democratic party; while those wishing to actively oppose the
extension of slavery to territory not yet occupied by it, united, under
the name of the Republican party, the Whigs becoming extinct, as a party.


THE EIGHTEENTH ELECTION, 1856.

The Democrats nominated James Buchanan, and John C. Breckenridge for
President and Vice-President; the Republicans, John C. Fremont and
William L. Dayton. A third party, in favor of putting only native
Americans in office, voted for Millard Fillmore and Andrew J. Donnelson.
The result was the following:

Popular vote for Buchanan and Breckenridge 1,803,029, electoral, 174.
Popular vote for Fremont and Dayton 1,342,164, electoral, 114. Popular
vote for Fillmore and Donnelson, 874,625, electoral, 8.

Buchanan had only what is called a plurality popular vote; the two others
united had a majority over him of 413,760 votes. A majority of electoral
votes, however, was 149, and he received 174, and a majority of 52
electoral votes over the others united.

Only 31 States voted at this election. Mr. Buchanan was much blamed for
not taking more vigorous measures to quench the secession movement that
commenced in the last months of his administration. The contrast between
his course and Jackson’s in 1832 was very marked.


THE NINETEENTH ELECTION, 1860.

The Republican party nominated Abraham Lincoln for President, and
Hannibal Hamlin for Vice-President. The south, finding it impossible to
uphold the slavery extension system against the growing Republican party,
and the compromise that had protected that system having been laid aside
in 1850, must submit to the gradual extinction of slavery, or withdraw
from the Union. They chose the latter, and favored the division of the
Democratic party, which was still much the largest, into several parts.
Three tickets of that party were run, against one in the Republican,
which assured the election of Lincoln.

The Northern Democrats voted mainly for Stephen A. Douglas and H. V.
Johnson; the Southern Democrats for John C. Breckenridge and Joseph
Lane; and those who wished to stop the contest on the slavery question
altogether, on both sides, voted for John Bell and Edward Everett. The
result was as follows:

  The vote for Lincoln and Hamlin was 1,866,452, electoral 180
       ”       Douglas and Johnson    1,370,157,     ”      72
       ”       Breckenridge and Lane    847,953,     ”      39
       ”       Bell and Everett         590,631,     ”      12

The three divisions of the Democrats together had a popular majority
of 947,289 over the Republicans, but the latter had a majority of 57
electoral votes over all the others united.

Two new States had been admitted since the eighteenth election, Minnesota
and Oregon, and there were 33 States voting. The census of 1860 gave the
population as 31,148,048. All the votes cast at this election amounted
to 4,680,193, the largest number by more than 500,000 that had ever been
known. The Southern States seceded within a few months, and the Civil War
began. It was remarkable as the most gigantic war of its kind, perhaps of
any kind, known in history; and for the obstinate bravery and resolution
displayed on both sides. It continued during this entire presidential
term.


THE TWENTIETH ELECTION, 1864.

The election this year was confined to the States that had remained loyal
to the Constitution and the Union. Eleven States had seceded.

The Republicans re-nominated Lincoln for President, with Andrew Johnson
for Vice-President. The Democratic party nominated Gen. Geo. B. McClellan
for President, and Geo. H. Pendleton for Vice-President. The result was
as follows:

  The popular vote for Lincoln and Johnson was 2,223,035
        ”      ”       McClellan and Pendleton 1,811,754
                                               ---------
    Lincoln’s popular majority                   411,281

  Electoral votes for Lincoln     212
       ”       ”      McClellan    21
                                  ---
    Lincoln’s electoral majority  191

The total number of popular votes was 4,034,789. Lincoln’s vote at this
election was the largest that had ever been cast for one candidate,
though there were less votes cast by all parties by 600,000 than in the
nineteenth election. Two new States, Kansas and West Virginia, had been
admitted since the previous election, which with the 11 in rebellion
omitted, left 24 States voting.

The civil war closed with the submission of the seceded States to the
general government soon after Lincoln’s re-inauguration; but he was
assassinated about the same time, on the evening of April 13th, 1865,
and died on the following day, leaving a nation in mourning, and the
civilized world struck with horror. Andrew Johnson acted as President
during the remainder of this term. Mr. Johnson’s administration was
marked by the great difference in the policy of reconstructing the
seceded States adopted by him and by the Congress, by the limitations
which the latter threw around him, and the attempt to impeach him, which
failed by a few votes.


THE TWENTY-FIRST ELECTION, 1868.

Gen. Ulysses S. Grant was nominated by the Republicans for President, and
Schuyler Colfax for Vice-President.

The nominees of the Democratic party were Horatio Seymour and Francis P.
Blair.

Grant’s popular majority was 309,588. Questions of reconstruction and
finance were determined by this election, the people upholding the policy
pursued by Congress since the close of the war.


THE TWENTY-SECOND ELECTION, 1872.

Grant was nominated by the Republican party for President, and Henry
Wilson for Vice-President. The Democrats nominated Horace Greeley for
President, and B. Gratz Brown for Vice-President. A second Democratic
party had a ticket, nominating Chas. O’Connor and J. Q. Adams.

Grant’s popular majority was 762,991; and he received 218 electoral
votes. 30 States gave him majorities, Pennsylvania reaching 137,000
majority in his favor. The whole popular vote at this election was
6,431,149. The colored people voted for the first time, under the
amendment to the Constitution abolishing the distinction in citizenship
in regard to color.

The elections are now held on the same day in all the States, by a
general law. The number of States voting at the 22d election was
thirty-seven. This election set a final seal on the policy of the
Republican party, leaving the country free to turn its attention to other
questions relating to its internal interests.




CHAPTER XLV.

CABINETS OF ALL THE PRESIDENTS.


For convenience of reference we insert a list of the members of the
Cabinet in each administration from 1789 down to 1874, to which is added
the name of the Vice-President of each presidential term, though he is
not a member of the Cabinet.


FIRST ADMINISTRATION, FROM 1789 TO 1797—7 YEARS, 10 MONTHS, AND 4 DAYS.

  George Washington, Va., President.
  John Adams, Mass., Vice-President.


CABINET.

  Thomas Jefferson, Va., Secretary of State.
  Edmund Randolph, Va.,      ”          ”
  Timothy Pickering, Mass.,  ”          ”
  Alexander Hamilton, N. Y., Secretary of the Treasury.
  Oliver Wolcott, Conn.,         ”          ”
  Timothy Pickering, Mass., Secretary of War.
  James McHenry, Md.,           ”       ”
  Henry Knox, Mass.,            ”       ”


SECOND ADMINISTRATION, 1797 TO 1801—4 YEARS.

  John Adams, Mass., President.
  Thomas Jefferson, Va., Vice-President.


CABINET.

  Timothy Pickering, Mass., Secretary of State.
  John Marshall, Va.,           ”        ”
  Oliver Wolcott, Ct., Secretary of the Treasury.
  Samuel Dexter, Mass.,    ”             ”
  James McHenry, Md., Secretary of War.
  Samuel Dexter, Mass.,   ”        ”
  Roger Griswold,         ”        ”
  George Cabot, Mass., Secretary of the Navy.
  Benjamin Stoddert, Md.,    ”         ”


THIRD ADMINISTRATION, 1801 TO 1809—8 YEARS.

  Thomas Jefferson, Va., President.
  Aaron Burr, N. Y., Vice-President.
  George Clinton, N. Y.,     ”


CABINET.

  James Madison, Va., Secretary of State.
  Samuel Dexter, Mass., Secretary of the Treasury.
  Albert Gallatin, Pa.,     ”             ”
  Henry Dearborn, Mass., Secretary of War.
  Benjamin Stoddert, Md., Secretary of the Navy.
  Robert Smith, Md.,         ”           ”


FOURTH ADMINISTRATION, 1809 TO 1817—8 YEARS.

  James Madison, Va., President.
  George Clinton, N. Y., Vice-President.
  Elbridge Gerry, Mass.,       ”


CABINET.

  Robert Smith, Md., Secretary of State.
  James Monroe, Va.,      ”        ”
  Albert Gallatin, Pa., Secretary of the Treasury.
  George W. Campbell, Tenn.,   ”           ”
  Alexander J. Dallas, Pa.,    ”           ”
  William Eustis, Mass., Secretary of War.
  John Armstrong, N. Y.,      ”        ”
  James Monroe, Va.,          ”        ”
  William H. Crawford, Ga.,   ”        ”
  Paul Hamilton, S. C., Secretary of the Navy.
  William Jones, Pa.,         ”         ”
  B. W. Crowninshield, Mass.  ”         ”


FIFTH ADMINISTRATION, 1817 TO 1825—8 YEARS.

  James Monroe, Va., President.
  Daniel D. Tompkins, N. Y., Vice-President.


CABINET.

  John Q. Adams, Mass., Secretary of State.
  William H. Crawford, Ga., Secretary of the Treasury.
  Isaac Shelby, Ky., Secretary of War.
  John C. Calhoun, S. C., ”       ”
  B. W. Crowninshield, Mass., Secretary of the Navy.
  Smith Thompson, N. Y.,          ”          ”
  Samuel L. Southard, N. J.,      ”          ”


SIXTH ADMINISTRATION, 1825 TO 1829—4 YEARS.

  John Q. Adams, Mass., President.
  John C. Calhoun, S. C., Vice-President.


CABINET.

  Henry Clay, Ky., Secretary of State.
  Richard Rush, Pa., Secretary of the Treasury.
  James Barbour, Va., Secretary of War.
  Peter B. Porter, N. Y.,    ”     ”
  Samuel L. Southard, N. J., Secretary of the Navy.


SEVENTH ADMINISTRATION, 1829 TO 1837—8 YEARS.

  Andrew Jackson, Tenn., President.
  John C. Calhoun, S. C., Vice-President.
  Martin Van Buren, N. Y.,      ”


CABINET.

  Martin Van Buren, N. Y., Secretary of State.
  Edward Livingston, La.,     ”          ”
  Louis McLane, Del.,         ”          ”
  John Forsyth, Geo.,         ”          ”
  Samuel D. Ingham, Pa., Secretary of the Treasury.
  Louis McLane, Del.,         ”          ”
  William J. Duane, Pa.,      ”          ”
  Roger B. Taney, Md.,        ”          ”
  Levi Woodbury, N. H.,       ”          ”
  John H. Eaton, Tenn., Secretary of War.
  Lewis Cass, Mich.,           ”     ”
  Benjamin F. Butler, N. Y.,   ”     ”
  John Branch, N. C., Secretary of the Navy.
  Levi Woodbury, N. H.,      ”        ”
  Mahlon Dickerson, N. J.,   ”        ”


POSTMASTERS GENERAL,

And for the first time considered members of the Cabinet,

  John McLean, O.
  William F. Barry, Ky.
  Amos Kendall, Ky.


EIGHTH ADMINISTRATION, 1837 TO 1841—4 YEARS.

  Martin Van Buren, N. Y., President.
  Richard M. Johnson, Ky., Vice-President.


CABINET.

  John Forsyth, Geo., Secretary of State.
  Levi Woodbury, N. H., Secretary of the Treasury.
  Joel R. Poinsett, S. C., Secretary of War.
  Mahlon Dickerson, N. J., Secretary of the Navy.
  James K. Paulding, N. Y.,    ”          ”
  Amos Kendall, Ky., Postmaster General.
  John M. Niles, Ct.,    ”        ”


NINTH ADMINISTRATION, MARCH 4, 1841, TO APRIL 4, 1841.

  William Henry Harrison, O., President.
  John Tyler, Va., Vice-President.


CABINET.

  Daniel Webster, Mass., Secretary of State.
  Thomas Ewing, O., Secretary of the Treasury.
  John Bell, Tenn., Secretary of War.
  George E. Badger, N. C., Secretary of the Navy.
  Gideon Granger, N. Y., Postmaster General.


TENTH ADMINISTRATION, APRIL 6, 1841, TO MARCH 4, 1845.

  John Tyler, Va., (acting) President, by death of Harrison.


CABINET.

  Daniel Webster, Mass., Secretary of State.
  Abel P. Upshur, Va.,       ”         ”
  John C. Calhoun, S. C.,    ”         ”
  Thomas Ewing, O., Secretary of the Treasury.
  Walter Forward, Pa.,     ”           ”
  John C. Spencer, N. Y.,  ”           ”
  George M. Bibb, Ky.,     ”           ”
  John Bell, Tenn., Secretary of War.
  John C. Spencer, N. Y.,  ”     ”
  James M. Porter, Pa.,    ”     ”
  William Wilkins, Pa.,    ”     ”
  George E. Badger, N. C., Secretary of the Navy.
  Abel P. Upshur, Va.,          ”          ”
  David Henshaw, Mass.,         ”          ”
  G. W. Gilmer, Va.,            ”          ”
  John Y. Mason, Va.,           ”          ”
  Hugh S. Legaré, S. C., Attorney-General.
  John Nelson, Md.,         ”       ”
  Francis G. Granger, N. Y., Postmaster General.
  Charles A. Wickliffe, Ky.,      ”        ”


ELEVENTH ADMINISTRATION, MARCH 4, 1845, TO MARCH 4, 1849.—4 YEARS.

  James K. Polk, Tenn., President.
  George M. Dallas, Pa., Vice-President.


CABINET.

  James Buchanan, Pa., Secretary of State.
  Robert J. Walker, Miss., Secretary of the Treasury.
  William L. Marcy, N. Y., Secretary of War.
  George Bancroft, Mass., Secretary of the Navy.
  John Y. Mason, Va.,          ”          ”
  Cave Johnson, Tenn., Postmaster General.
  John Y. Mason, Va., Attorney General.
  Nathan Clifford, Me.,   ”       ”
  Isaac Toucey, Ct.,      ”       ”


TWELFTH ADMINISTRATION, MARCH 4, 1849, TO JULY 10, 1850—1 YEAR AND 4
MONTHS.

  Zachary Taylor, La., President.
  Millard Fillmore, N. Y., Vice-President.


CABINET.

  John M. Clayton, Del., Secretary of State.
  George W. Crawford, Geo., Secretary of War.
  William M. Meredith, Pa., Secretary of the Treasury.
  William B. Preston, Va., Secretary of the Navy.
  Thomas Ewing, Ohio, Secretary of the Interior.
  Jacob Collamer, Vt., Postmaster General.
  Reverdy Johnson, Md., Attorney General.


THIRTEENTH ADMINISTRATION, JULY 10, 1850, TO MARCH 4, 1853.—2 YEARS AND 8
MONTHS.

  Millard Fillmore, (acting) President by death of Taylor.
  No Vice-President.


CABINET.

  Daniel Webster, Mass., Secretary of State.
  Thomas Corwin, Ohio, Secretary of the Treasury.
  Charles M. Conrad, La., Secretary of War.
  William A. Graham, N. C., Secretary of the Navy.
  Alexander H. H. Stuart, Va., Secretary of the Interior.
  Nathan K. Hall, N. Y., Postmaster General.
  John J. Crittenden, Ky., Attorney General.


FOURTEENTH ADMINISTRATION, MARCH 4, 1853, TO MARCH 4, 1857.

  Franklin Pierce, N. H., President.

William R. King, of Ala., who was elected Vice-President with Mr. Pierce,
but died before he took his seat, and there was no Vice-President during
Pierce’s administration.


CABINET.

  William L. Marcy, N. Y., Secretary of State.
  James Guthrie, Ky., Secretary of the Treasury.
  Jefferson Davis, Miss., Secretary of War.
  J. C. Dobbin, N. C., Secretary of the Navy.
  Robert McClelland, Mich., Secretary of the Interior.
  James Campbell, Pa., Postmaster General.
  Caleb Cushing, Mass., Attorney General.


FIFTEENTH ADMINISTRATION, MARCH 4, 1857, TO MARCH 4, 1861.

  James Buchanan, Pa., President.
  John C. Breckenridge, Vice-President.


CABINET.

  Lewis Cass, Mich., and Jeremiah S. Black, Pa., Secretaries of State.
  Howell Cobb, Ga., Philip F. Thomas, and John A. Dix, N. Y., Secretaries
    of the Treasury.
  John B. Floyd, Va., and Joseph Holt, Ky., Secretaries of War.
  Isaac Toucey, Ct., Secretary of the Navy.
  Jacob Thompson, Miss., Secretary of the Interior.
  Aaron V. Brown, Tenn., Joseph Holt, Ky., and Horatio King, Postmasters
    General.
  Jeremiah S. Black, Pa., and Edwin M. Stanton, Pa., Attorneys General.


SIXTEENTH ADMINISTRATION, MARCH 4, 1861, TO APRIL 14, 1865,—4 YEARS, 1
MONTH, AND 10 DAYS.

  Abraham Lincoln, Ill., President.
  Hannibal Hamlin, Me., Vice-President, first term, and Andrew Johnson,
    Tenn., Vice-President, second term.


CABINET.

  William H. Seward, N. Y., Secretary of State.
  Salmon P. Chase, Ohio, William P. Fessenden, Me., Hugh McCulloch, Ind.,
    Secretaries of the Treasury.
  Simon Cameron, Pa., Edwin M. Stanton, Pa., Secretaries of War.
  Gideon Welles, Conn., Secretary of the Navy.
  John P. Usher, Ind., Secretary of the Interior.
  Montgomery Blair, Md., William Dennison, O., Postmasters General.
  Edward Bates, Mo., James Speed, Ky., Attorneys General.


SEVENTEENTH ADMINISTRATION, APRIL 15, 1865, TO MARCH 4, 1869.

  Andrew Johnson, acting President.
  No Vice-President.


CABINET.

  William H. Seward, N. Y., Secretary of State.
  Hugh McCulloch, Ind., Secretary of the Treasury.
  Edwin M. Stanton, Pa., Ulysses S. Grant, Ill., and J. M. Schofield,
    Secretaries of War.
  Gideon Welles, Conn., Secretary of the Navy.
  James Harlan, Iowa, Orville H. Browning, Ill., Secretaries of the
    Interior.
  James Speed, Ky., Henry Stanbery, Ohio, William M. Evarts, N. Y.,
    Attorneys General.
  William Dennison, Ohio, Alexander W. Randall, Wis., Postmasters General.


EIGHTEENTH ADMINISTRATION, MARCH 4, 1869, TO MARCH 4, 1873.

  Ulysses S. Grant, Ill., President.
  Schuyler Colfax, Ind., Vice-President.


CABINET.

  Elihu B. Washburne, Ill., Secretary of State.
  Hamilton Fish, N. Y.,        ”          ”
  George S. Boutwell, Mass., Secretary of the Treasury.
  John A. Rawlins, Secretary of War.
  William T. Sherman,  ”        ”
  William W. Belknap,  ”        ”
  Adolph E. Borie, Pa., Secretary of the Navy.
  George M. Robeson, N. J.,   ”         ”
  Jacob D. Cox, Ohio, Secretary of the Interior.
  Columbus Delano, O.,    ”           ”
  J. A. J. Creswell, Md., Postmaster General.
  Eben Rockwood Hoar, Mass., Attorney General.
  Amos T. Akerman, Ga.,         ”        ”


NINETEENTH ADMINISTRATION, MARCH 4, 1873, TO MARCH 4, 1877.

  Ulysses S. Grant, Ill., President.
  Henry Wilson, Mass., Vice-President.


CABINET.

  Hamilton Fish, N. Y., Secretary of State.
  W. A. Richardson, Ill., Secretary of the Treasury.
  B. H. Bristow, Ky.,          ”             ”
  W. W. Belknap, Iowa, Secretary of War.
  George M. Robeson, N. J., Secretary of the Navy.
  Columbus Delano, Ohio, Secretary of the Interior.
  J. A. J. Creswell, Md., Postmaster General.
  Marshall Jewell, Conn.,     ”        ”
  George H. Williams, Oregon, Attorney General.
  Edward Pierrepont, N. Y.,      ”       ”


UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT. 1875.


THE EXECUTIVE.

  ULYSSES S. GRANT, of Illinois, _President of the United
    States_                                                 Salary $50,000
  HENRY WILSON, of Massachusetts, _Vice-President of the
    United States_,                                            ”    10,000


THE CABINET.

  HAMILTON FISH, of New York, _Secretary of State_          Salary $10,000
  B. H. BRISTOW, of Kentucky, _Secretary of the Treasury_      ”    10,000
  WILLIAM W. BELKNAP, of Iowa, _Secretary of War_              ”    10,000
  GEORGE M. ROBESON, of New Jersey, _Secretary of the Navy_    ”    10,000
  COLUMBUS DELANO, of Ohio, _Secretary of the Interior_        ”    10,000
  EDWARD PIERREPONT, of New York, _Attorney-General_           ”    10,000
  MARSHALL JEWELL, of Connecticut, _Postmaster-General_        ”    10,000


THE JUDICIARY.


_SUPREME COURT OF THE UNITED STATES._

  MORRISON R. WAITE, _Chief Justice_                        Salary $10,500
  NATHAN CLIFFORD, of Me., _Associate Justice._
  NOAH H. SWAYNE, of Ohio,          ”
  SAMUEL F. MILLER, of Iowa,        ”
  DAVID DAVIS, of Illinois,         ”
  STEPHEN J. FIELD, of Cal.,        ”
  WILLIAM M. STRONG, of Pa.,        ”
  JOSEPH P. BRADLEY, of N.J.,       ”
  WARD HUNT, of New York,           ”

Salary of Associates $10,000. Court meets first Monday in December, at
Washington.


MINISTERS TO FOREIGN COUNTRIES


   COUNTRY.       CAPITAL.          MINISTERS.             SALARY. APP’T’D.

           _ENVOYS EXTRAORDINARY AND MINISTERS PLENIPOTENTIARY._

  Austria       Vienna          Hon. Godlove S. Orth, Ind. $12,000  1868
  Brazil        Rio Janeiro     James R. Partridge, Md.     12,000  1871
  Chili         Santiago        Cornelius A. Logan, Kansas  10,000  1873
  China         Pekin           Frederick F. Low, Cal.      12,000  1869
  France        Paris           Elihu B. Washburne, Ill.    17,500  1869
  Great Britain London          Robert C. Schenck, Ohio     17,500  1870
  Italy         Rome            George P. Marsh, Vt.        12,000  1861
  Mexico        Mexico          John W. Foster, Indiana     12,000  1878
  Peru          Lima            Francis Thomas, Md.         10,000  1872
  Germany       Berlin          J. C. Bancroft Davis,       17,500  1867
  Russia        St. Petersburgh George H. Boker, Pa.        17,500  1873
  Spain         Madrid          Caleb Cushing, Mass.        12,000  1874

                          _MINISTERS RESIDENT._

  Argentine
    Republic    Buenos Ayres    Julius White, Ill.           7,500  1872
  Belgium       Brussels        J. R. Jones, Ill.            7,500  1869
  Bolivia       La Paz          John T. Croxton, Ky.         7,500  1872
  Central Amer.
    States      San Jose        George Williamson, La.      10,000  1873
  Denmark       Copenhagen      M. J. Cramer, Ky.            7,500  1870
  Ecuador       Quito           E. Rumsey Wing, Ky.          7,500  1870
  Greece        Athens          J. Meredith Read, Pa.        7,500  1873
  Hawaiian
    Islands     Honolulu        Henry A. Pierce, Mass.       7,500  1869
  Japan         Yeddo           John A. Bingham, Ohio       12,000  1873
  Netherlands   Hague           Charles T. Gorham, Mich.     7,500  1870
  Portugal      Lisbon          Benjamin Moran, Va.          7,500  1870
  Sweden and
    Norway      Stockholm       C. C. Andrews, Minn.         7,500  1869
  Switzerland   Berne           Horace Rublee, Wis.          7,500  1869
  Turkey        Constantinople  Hon. Horace Maynard, Tenn.   7,500  1870
  Uruguay &
    Paraguay    Montevideo      John L. Stevens, Me.        10,000  1871
  U.S. of
    Colombia    Bogota          William L. Scruggs, Ga.      7,500  1873
  Venezuela     Caracas         William A. Pile, Mo.         7,500  1871

                 _MINISTERS RESIDENT AND CONSULS GENERAL._

  Hayti         Port-au-Prince  E. D. Bassett, Pa.           7,500  1869
  Liberia       Monrovia        J. Milton Turner, Mo.        4,000  1871




LEGISLATIVE DEPARTMENT.




CHAPTER XLVI.

CONGRESS.


1. All government consists of three steps, series, or departments. It has
a Rule by which its action is governed; and this embraces the general
principles guiding all action, as well as the special rules of conduct
in regard to limited classes of actions—the next step in the series is
the action demanded to put its rules in actual force—to apply them—the
third is, to determine the application of the rule when supposed to
be violated, and the agreement of the special rule with the general
principle. That is to say, government is divided into the Legislative,
or law making power; the Executive, or law enforcing power; and the
Judicial, or law discriminating, or judging, power.

2. In some governments all these are in the same hands, and this produces
a Despotism. In others they are variously divided or mixed. In our
country the separation between them is made as distinct as possible. The
People are regarded as the source or fountain of Power. The Constitution
represents, in its general Principles or Rules, the Will and purposes
of the People; and outside of the principles or regulations of this
instrument no legislation is valid. The Constitution, emanating from
the people, defines the boundary of all the Departments. Congress
is the law-making power, enacting within the prescribed limits. The
Judiciary takes care that these limits are not overstepped by legislative
enactments, or executive action. The executive power, or the President,
is the concentrated force, the vigorous Arm, of the government.

It is Congress, the Legislative Authority, that we have now to consider.

3. The National Congress is a body of men representing, and acting in the
place of, the people. They are elected by the people to enact laws for
the public good—to do all—and no more nor less—than the people would do,
if it were possible for them to assemble in one great body and make the
laws by which they wish to be governed.

It was constituted as wisely, to guard against the errors to which
humanity is liable, as the experience of the past permitted to the
thoughtful and patriotic statesmen who had charge of the organization
of the government, when the successful termination of the War of
Independence left the interests of a new Nation in their hands. England,
from which they had mostly sprung, and which governed them until that
period, was in possession of the freest and most enlightened government
of those times, in the Old World; and they copied from her institutions
and general structure what they judged adapted to our circumstances;
prudently avoiding untried experiments, as far as possible.

4. Congress, like the English Parliament, consists of two Houses,
one, the House of Representatives, (answering to the English House of
Commons) being directly elected, for a short term, by the people, so as
to express their views and interests as clearly as possible; the other,
the Senate, (answering partially to the English House of Lords) appointed
by the State Legislatures for a longer term, and from among statesmen
of acknowledged ability and mature character and experience. This was
expected to supply the necessary check to hasty and ill considered
action, as they were required to mutually agree on all laws enacted.

5. Both are required to assemble, at the same time, in the Capitol
at Washington, on the first Monday in December of each year. This is
the regular session—extra sessions being occasionally called by the
President when unusual circumstances demand it.

The members of the House of Representatives are elected for two years,
the members of the Senate for six. As the first contains by far the
largest number, a Congress is said to exist for two years, and the 20th
Congress would be the one existing during the 40th and 41st years of the
Republic, dating from the first Congress in 1789.


THE SENATE

6. Is composed of two persons, chosen by the legislature of each State,
to represent it as a whole. It makes no difference whether the State be
large or small, whether population counts by the million or the thousand.
The States are sovereign in their sphere, and this constitution of the
Senate keeps that fact in view, operates against undue centralization of
power, and oppression of the smaller States by the larger.

7. A Senator must be thirty years of age, must have been nine years
a citizen, (he may have been born in a foreign State, and a citizen
of it previously,) and must be a citizen of the State—(a voter in it)
at the time of appointment. He is appointed for six years. The Senate
is arranged in three classes so that the terms of one-third of the
whole number shall expire every two years. They may be re-elected as
often as the State legislatures choose. In one case, a Senator was
continued thirty years in the Senate, without intermission. It has equal
legislative power with the House of Representatives, except that it
cannot originate laws for raising money, but it must approve and adopt
all laws made by the House to render them valid. It has some powers that
do not belong to the House. It confirms or rejects the nominations of the
President, to office, and the treaties he makes with foreign powers, and
is the only High Court of Impeachment.

8. When the Senate meets to consider the nominations of the President
to office, it is called an Executive Session, and only a majority of
votes is required to approve or confirm them; but when a treaty is to
be ratified, or judgment given in a case of impeachment, a vote of
two-thirds of the members present is required.

The Vice-President of the United States is the presiding officer of
the Senate; but in case of a vacancy in that office, when he is acting
as President, or if he be absent, it chooses a president from its own
members.


THE HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES

9. Is composed of persons elected by the people in the various States, in
proportion to the number of inhabitants. A Representative is elected for
a term of two years. He must be twenty-five years of age, must have been
a citizen of the United States seven years, and must be a citizen of the
State he represents. This is often called the “Lower House,” or popular
branch of the National Legislature, as the Senate is sometimes called the
“Upper House,” because it is more select, and greater in dignity.

10. The House of Representatives has the sole power of presenting
articles of Impeachment, and it alone can originate laws for raising
revenue. A larger part of the laws are actually originated in it,
because it is more numerous, its members better known to the people
whom they immediately represent, and the people are better acquainted
with them; and more petitions for particular laws are sent to them.
Each representative is voted for by the people of his Congressional
District alone, and not by all the people of each State; and he specially
represents the views and wants of his District.

In each branch of Congress, when a Bill, or plan of a law, has been
passed, it is sent to the other House, where it is referred to a
Committee who examine it, and report on it to the House; by which it is
discussed and adopted, amended, or rejected according to its judgment,
and returned to the House in which it originated. By this method every
law is meant to be subjected to a careful and cool investigation, its
defects discovered and corrected, and its appropriateness clearly made
manifest. Whoever will examine, with care and thoroughness the whole
structure of our government will everywhere discover traces of the same
wisdom and watchful foresight. He will see reason for more admiration
of the prudent statesmanship of those who organized our institutions,
and feel less surprised at the wonderful prosperity of the country, and
at the strength of the government when subjected to the severest trial.
Everything human is more or less imperfect, and we shall never be without
subjects of complaint, and opportunities for improvement; but every
American, well informed concerning his own and foreign governments, will
discover many weighty reasons for self-congratulation and pride that
our first statesmen and people were so wise and prudent in laying the
foundation, and that their successors have built on it with so much skill.

11. The presiding officer in the House of Representatives is called “The
Speaker,” and is chosen by the House, at the beginning of each Congress.
He serves during its two years of existence. The Clerk of the House and
its minor officers are chosen by its members—and each House makes its
own rules, or Parliamentary Laws. The term Congress properly covers both
branches of the National Legislature; but, by custom, the members of
the upper house are called Senators, and those of the lower Members of
Congress, (commonly abbreviated to M. C.)

12. The Compensation of Members of Congress was originally fixed at eight
dollars a day, but has, of late years, been several times changed. In
1856 it was made $3,000 per session, or $6,000 for a Congress of two
years. In 1866 it was increased to $5,000 per session, and, in 1873 to
$7,500 per session, the Speaker of the House, and the President of the
Senate, by this last law, receiving $10,000 per year; but it produced so
much dissatisfaction among the people that the law was changed at the
following session, and they now receive $5,000 per annum.

13. The members of each house receive the same compensation. Mileage is
allowed them in addition to the salary. This has been forty cents per
mile, by the usual routes between the members residence and Washington.
In 1865 it was reduced to twenty cents per mile, which still seems
more adapted to the days of stages and slow traveling than to the
modern improvements in rapidity and cheapness. They formerly enjoyed
the franking privilege, so called, i. e.: they could send letters and
documents through the mails free. This was abolished in 1873, and they
now pay their postage, the same as other people.

14. The first Congress under the Constitution met in New York City, where
two sessions were held, when it was removed to Philadelphia. It remained
there until 1800, when Washington became the capital. The Capitol there,
in which Congress meets, is one of the largest buildings in the world;
and the offices for the different executive Departments are immense
structures. In 1874 there were 37 States and therefore 74 Senators. The
number of Representatives was fixed by a law of March, 1873, at 292, at
which number it will remain until the next census in 1880.




CHAPTER XLVII.

CONGRESSIONAL DISTRICTS—CONGRESSMEN.


1. Each State is entitled to a number of Representatives in Congress
proportioned to its inhabitants; but, instead of counting the whole
number together, and leaving all the people in the State to vote for all
the representatives of their State, it is divided into districts, each
containing the prescribed number entitled to representation. The voters,
then, in each district, select or nominate the men they wish to vote
for—and thus they find it easy to send men they know and on whom they can
rely to secure their interests. Besides, it is more convenient for them
to meet and ascertain by consultation who would be most acceptable to
the majority of those interested. Each Member of Congress, therefore, is
chosen by a single district. The districting of States is done by their
State Legislatures.

2. Sometimes a State is admitted into the Union before it has as many
inhabitants as the law requires to one Congressman, in which case the
law is relaxed, and they are permitted at least one Representative.
Contiguous counties or towns are set apart in this way and numbered as
1st, 2nd, 3rd, &c., Congressional District. In large cities as many
wards, lying together, as include the requisite number, are erected into
Districts. In case the number of Congressmen allotted to a State is
larger than the number of districts, those in excess are voted for by the
State at large. They are arranged as soon as possible after every census,
so that this does not often occur. In the Western States the number
continually increases and changes must be made after each census. By this
means the balance of power gradually follows the emigration from East to
West.


CONGRESSMEN.

3. We have already remarked, in the chapter on Congress that, though the
term Congressman properly applies to the members of both Houses, it is by
common usage, confined to members of the lower House, those of the upper
House being distinguished as Senators, so that the abbreviation M. C.
(Member of Congress) is understood to specify a Representative.

4. These are the only members of any branch of the government who are
chosen and elected directly by the people, and we may see herein the
propriety of their having the control of all enactments for raising
money, this being a point of vital interest to the people. The short term
assigned them, (two years,) and their election by Districts, enables
the people to interfere very soon if their purse strings are drawn
too widely open—a very satisfactory reflection to the economical. Any
citizen, whether native or foreign born, may become a Member of Congress,
if he can obtain the consent of the voters in his district; but he must
have been a citizen during the previous seven years. It is an office of
dignity and responsibility, and the welfare of the country depends on the
wisdom of the people in their choice.




CHAPTER XLVIII.

CONGRESSIONAL LIBRARY.


1. In the capitol there is a large library, consisting of two parts;
one part called the Congressional library, the other, the law library.
The latter is made a part of the former by an act of Congress. Both
are subject to the same laws and rules, and both are supported by
appropriations made by Congress.

This institution, called as a whole, “The Congressional Library,”
contains the works supposed to be useful to legislators, but is
not confined to their use alone. Its use has been extended to the
judges of the Supreme Court; to all the heads of departments; to the
Attorney General; to all the members of the diplomatic corps, (foreign
ministers); to the secretary of the Senate; to the clerk of the House of
Representatives, to the chaplains of Congress, to all ex-Presidents, and
to the solicitor of the Treasury.

2. It has a librarian, appointed by the President and Senate, who is
allowed to appoint two assistants. No book or map is allowed to be taken
out of the library by any person, except the President, Vice-President,
members of the Senate and of the House of Representatives.

People in general, who are interested to do so, may obtain information
from the books and records when properly authorized, under such
restrictions as the circumstances require.

3. Here are kept all the laws which have ever been enacted by Congress,
together with a record of all its proceedings, the laws of all the
different States, with many of those of foreign countries; also a
large collection of books on promiscuous subjects, useful to Members
of Congress and to those who have to administer the government. No
where else can so complete a history of the acts and proceedings of the
government be found, as in the Congressional library at Washington.

This institution dates back to the year 1800, when an act was passed
making the first appropriation of $5,000 for its establishment. The books
purchased with this $5,000, with those belonging to both Houses, were
placed together, and thus this library was commenced.




CHAPTER XLIX.

COPYRIGHTS.


A Copyright is an exclusive privilege given to any citizen, or resident
in the United States to print, publish, or sell any book, map, chart,
engraving, or musical composition of which he or she is the author or
proprietor. This right is given by the laws of Congress. No State can
give it. The object is to encourage authors, and to compensate them for
their labors, which they could not be sure of obtaining if any one might
publish and sell their productions. A copyright conveys all the rights of
ownership, and may be bought and sold like other property.


DIRECTIONS FOR SECURING COPYRIGHTS UNDER THE REVISED ACT OF CONGRESS,
WHICH TOOK EFFECT JULY 8, 1870.

1. A printed copy of the title of the book, map, chart, dramatic or
musical composition, engraving, cut, print, photograph, or a description
of the painting, drawing, chromo, statue, statuary, or model or design
for a work of the fine arts, for which copyright is desired, must be sent
by mail, prepaid, addressed, “Librarian of Congress, Washington, D. C.”
This must be done before publication of the book or other article.

2. A fee of 50 cents, for recording the title of each book or other
article, must be inclosed with the title as above, and 50 cents in
addition (or $1 in all) for each certificate of copyright under the seal
of the Librarian of Congress, which will be transmitted by return mail.

3. Within ten days after publication of each book or other article, two
complete copies of the best edition issued must be sent, to perfect the
copyright, with the address

    LIBRARIAN OF CONGRESS, WASHINGTON, D. C.

It is optional with those sending books and other articles to perfect
copyright, to send them by mail or express; but, in either case, the
charges are to be prepaid by the senders. Without the deposit of copies
above required, the copyright is void, and a penalty of $25 is incurred.
No copy is required to be deposited elsewhere.

4. No copyright hereafter issued is valid unless notice is given by
inserting in every copy published, on the title page or the page
following, if it be a book; or, if a map, chart, musical composition,
print, cut, engraving, photograph, painting, drawing, chromo, statue,
statuary, or model or design intended to be perfected as a work of the
fine arts, by inscribing upon some portion of the face or front thereof,
or on the face of the substance on which the same is mounted, the
following words, viz.: _Entered according to act of Congress, in the year
____, by ____, in the office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington._

The law imposes a penalty of $100 upon any person who has not obtained
copyright who shall insert the notice “_Entered according to act of
Congress_,” etc., or words of the same import, in or upon any book or
other article.

5. Any author may reserve the right to translate or dramatize his own
work. In this case notice should be given by printing the words, _Right
of translation reserved_; or, _All rights reserved_, below the notice
of copyright entry, and notifying the Librarian of Congress of such
reservation, to be entered upon the record.

6. Each copyright secures the exclusive right of publishing the book or
article copyrighted for a term of twenty-eight years. At the end of that
time, the author or designer, or his widow or children, may secure a
renewal for the further term of fourteen years, making forty-two years in
all. Applications for renewal must be accompanied by explicit statement
of ownership in the case of the author, or of relationship in the case of
his heirs, and must state definitely the date and place of entry of the
original copyright.

7. The time within which any work copyrighted may be issued from the
press is not limited by any law or regulation, but depends upon the
discretion of the proprietor. A copyright may be secured for a projected
work as well as for a completed one.

8. Any copyright is assignable in law by any instrument of writing,
but such assignment must be recorded in the office of the Librarian of
Congress within sixty days from its date. The fee for this record is
fifteen cents for every 100 words, and ten cents for every 100 words for
a copy of the record of assignment.

9. A copy of the record (or duplicate certificate) of any copyright entry
will be furnished under seal, at the rate of fifty cent each.

10. In the case of books published in more than one volume, if issued
or sold separately, or of periodicals published in numbers, or of
engravings, photographs, or other articles published with variations, a
copyright is to be taken out for each volume of a book, or number of a
periodical, or variety, as to size or inscription, of any other article.

11. To secure a copyright for a painting, statue, or model or design
intended to be perfected as a work of the fine arts, so as to prevent
infringement by copying, engraving, or vending such design, a definite
description must accompany the application for copyright, and a
photograph of the same, at least as large as “cabinet size,” must be
mailed to the Librarian of Congress within ten days from the completion
of the work.

12. Every applicant for a copyright must state distinctly the name and
residence of the claimant, and whether the right is claimed as author,
designer, or proprietor. No affidavit or formal application is required.

Up to 1849 the Secretary of State had the care of issuing copyrights. It
was then assigned to the newly created Department of the Interior, and so
remained until 1870, when it was transferred to the Librarian of Congress.




CHAPTER L.

PRESIDING OFFICERS OF CONGRESS.


1. These are the President of the Senate and the Speaker of the House
of Representatives. The latter is chosen by ballot of the Members of
the House. As this position gives him considerable influence over the
course of legislation the party having a majority in the House are
careful to select one on whose sympathy with their views and aims they
can rely. When there is nearly or quite a balance of parties, it becomes
an important and difficult matter to adjust; and has, in some instances,
required a long struggle to elect the Speaker. The result, in such a
case, usually determines which shall control the general legislation of
that Congress.

2. The President of the Senate, under ordinary circumstances, is
determined by the Constitution, that instrument devolving the office on
the Vice-President. It is the only active duty assigned him while the
President is in condition to perform the duties belonging to that office.
It seems to befit his relations, being the highest honorary place in the
government below that of President, subjects him to no superior, and,
from the part the Senate takes in the responsibilities of the President,
makes him acquainted with the general conduct of affairs; which may be an
important advantage to him should he be called to act as President. In
the latter case, and in case of the decease, resignation, or disability
of the Vice-President, the Senate proceeds to elect its President in
the same way as in the House of Representatives, i. e.: by ballot, for a
candidate among its own members.

3. Their duties are to open every sitting of their respective Houses by
calling the members to order at the appointed time, on the appearance
of a quorum to cause the journal of the preceding day to be read, to
preserve order and decorum during the deliberations, to decide questions
of order that may arise, (from which an appeal may be taken to the House,
at the instance of any two members,) to formally state, and call for the
votes on, a question to be decided, and to declare the result of the same
after the vote has been taken.

This is the regular routine duty of a presiding officer. They, as
the recognized Heads of their respective Houses, have the general
oversight of its interests, and a general control of the conduct of its
business. They examine the Journal to see that it is correct, may order
the galleries and lobby to be cleared in case of any disturbance by
spectators, and have general control over the unoccupied rooms in the
capitol belonging to their respective Houses. They are required to sign
all acts, addresses, and joint resolutions, and appoint the members of
all committees whose appointment is not specially directed by the House
to be otherwise made. In all cases of ballot the Speaker of the House
must vote; but he is not required to vote in other cases unless there is
a tie, (an equal number for and against,) when he must give the casting
vote. The President of the Senate may vote only in case of a tie.

When the House of Representatives goes into Committee of the Whole, the
Speaker leaves the chair, but appoints a chairman to preside for the time
being; and when the President of the United States is impeached before
the Senate the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court presides.

4. Their duties are very distinctly defined in the rules adopted by each
House for their guidance, but many opportunities for exerting great
influence often arise, and many cases requiring great tact and judgment
and an intimate knowledge of Parliamentary Law. They receive a much
larger salary than ordinary Members of Congress.

The following are the names of all the Speakers of the House of
Representatives. A list of Vice-Presidents is given in the chapter
devoted to that officer.

  Frederick A. Muhlenburgh, Penn.,  1789 to 1791
  Jonathan Trumbull, Conn.,         1791 ”  1793
  Frederick A. Muhlenburgh, Penn.,  1793 ”  1797
  Jonathan Dayton, N. J.,           1797 ”  1798
  Theodore Sedgwick, Mass.,         1798 ”  1801
  Nathaniel Macon, N. C.,           1801 ”  1807
  Joseph B. Varnum, Mass.           1807 ”  1811
  Henry Clay, Ky.,                  1811 ”  1814
  Langdon Cheeves, S. C.,           1814 ”  1815
  Henry Clay, Ky.,                  1815 ”  1820
  John W. Taylor, N. Y.,            1820 ”  1821
  Philip P. Barbour, Va.,           1821 ”  1823
  Henry Clay, Ky.,                  1823 ”  1825
  John W. Taylor, N. Y.,            1825 ”  1827
  Andrew Stevenson, Va.,            1827 ”  1835
  John Bell, Tenn.,                 1835 ”  1837
  James K. Polk, Tenn.,             1837 ”  1839
  Robert M. T. Hunter, Va.,         1839 ”  1841
  John White, Ky.,                  1841 ”  1843
  John W. Jones, Va.,               1843 ”  1845
  John W. Davis, Ind.,              1845 ”  1847
  Robert C. Winthrop, Mass.,        1847 ”  1849
  Howell Cobb, Ga.,                 1849 ”  1851
  Lynn Boyd, Ky.,                   1851 ”  1856
  Nathaniel P. Banks, Mass.,        1856 ”  1858
  James L. Orr, S. C.,              1858 ”  1859
  William Pennington, N. J.,        1860 ”  1861
  Galusha A. Grow, Penn.,           1861 ”  1863
  Schuyler Colfax, Ind.,            1864 ”  1869
  James G. Blaine, Me.,             1869 ”  1873
          ”                         1873 ”  1875




CHAPTER LI.

SUBORDINATE OFFICERS OF CONGRESS.


1. The Secretary of the Senate and Clerk of the House of Representatives,
are the officers next in rank in the two bodies forming Congress.
They are appointed by vote of their respective Houses. They are not
necessarily selected from among the members of the Senate or House, as is
the custom in case of the presiding officers, but may be chosen by the
members at will.

2. Their chief duties are in connection with a record or journal of
the proceedings of their respective Houses. This is an official and
correct account of all the transactions of each body, is examined by
the presiding officer, and read before the members for criticism and
approval. They cause this journal to be printed and a copy be delivered
to each member at the commencement of every session of Congress, as also
to the Executive and to each branch of the Legislature of every State.
So also they arrange, cause to be printed, and distribute to the members
all the current documents of each House that may be useful to them in the
discharge of their duties, as often as the case requires. All contracts
for furnishing anything required by Congress, or for any labor done for
it, are made with, or approved by, the Clerk of the House and Secretary
of the Senate.

3. They act also as treasurers of the special, or contingent funds
of Congress, from which payments are made on their order, after the
accounts, on which the order is based, are approved by the Committee of
Accounts; and give bonds in a large sum for the faithful use of these
funds, making a detailed report of all expenditures.


THE SERGEANT-AT-ARMS

4. Is a kind of police and executive officer, who aids or acts under the
direction of the presiding officer in keeping order, and executes the
commands of Congress. All arrests ordered by Congress are made by him or
his deputies, and all legal processes served by him. He bears a mace as
the symbol of his office when on duty. He keeps the accounts of the pay
and mileage of the members of Congress, prepares checks, and draws and
pays the money to them.

5. The other officers are a Doorkeeper—whose business it is to see that
only the proper persons gain admission to the sessions of Congress,
and watches over, and is responsible for, the furniture contained in
the rooms of the capitol placed in his charge—and a postmaster, whose
business it is to superintend a postoffice kept in the capitol for the
accommodation of members of Congress. Various clerks, deputies, and
messengers are employed under most of these officers, to aid them in the
discharge of their duties.




CHAPTER LII.

CONGRESS AT WORK.


1. Congress is required by the Constitution to assemble on the first
Monday in December of each year. It may, by a law duly made to that
effect, change that time, but no permanent change has ever been made. As
soon after that time as a quorum of its members, which the Constitution
declares shall be a majority of each House, has assembled each House
proceeds to the election of officers (which, however, is done only every
other year,) and the arrangement of its committees, and it is ready for
work.

2. As soon as the organization is ascertained to be complete the other
House of Congress and the President are informed of the fact, after which
propositions, or bills as they are called, of new laws, or repeals or
revisals of old ones are entertained. Of these there is never any lack.
They are taken up in regular order, referred to an appropriate committee
for examination, a report is in due time made by the committee, discussed
at such length as the members see cause for, in a regular manner, and
finally are voted on. Sometimes, if the members are not satisfied with
the information presented on some point or points, they return them to
the committee with instructions to investigate further, and make another
report; sometimes they “lay them on the table,” that is, put them aside
for future action; or they accept, amend, or change them to meet their
views, and then accept or reject them altogether.

3. When a bill has reached a vote and been accepted by the House in
which it originated, it is sent to the other House, by which it is taken
up, referred to a committee, usually passing through substantially the
same course and form of consideration as in the first case, laid aside,
amended, accepted or rejected according to circumstances, and returned
to the former House. If it is accepted by both they then send it to the
President, who carefully considers it. If it meets his approbation, he
signs and returns it to Congress, and it becomes the Law of the Land,
and all to whom it refers are bound to obey it, it being the duty of the
President to see that it is enforced. It is called an “Act of Congress,”
because it is the proper exercise of its law making authority, and
because all such laws are preceded by the clause, “Be it enacted by the
Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America, in
Congress assembled.”

4. If the President does not think it a suitable law, and is unwilling
to assume the responsibility of signing it, he returns it to Congress,
with his reasons for not doing so. If Congress is not satisfied with
these reasons it may take another vote on it, and if the members in its
favor amount to two-thirds of each House, it becomes a law without the
signature of the President. This power of the President to decline to
sign a law of Congress is called his “Veto.” Sometimes it is carried over
the veto, and sometimes it fails for lack of the requisite number in its
favor.

5. The larger part of Congressional laws are passed in this way, which is
the regular Parliamentary form; but sometimes its authority is expressed
by a Resolution instead of a bill. This is a kind of informal way of
passing a law, though it usually takes that form because of the peculiar
character of the subject of the Resolution; as an amendment to the
Constitution would be commenced by a resolution passed by both Houses;
but, as Congress has not the sole power over that question, it requiring
the concurrence of three fourths of the States, it is put in that form.
When some demand is to be made by Congress on the President, or on
various officers of the government, and in a variety of other cases, a
resolution has the force of law, disobedience to which would involve a
penalty. Many resolutions merely express the views of Congress, and are
of force and value only on account of the respectability and dignity of
the body expressing them. Some resolutions require to be passed in both
Houses to acquire legal force, and are then called Concurrent Resolutions.

A bill must pass through the regular forms of printing, reference to a
committee, report, placing in order on the records, and calling up at a
proper time for consideration and decision. This is very proper to avoid
hasty action before all the bearings of the case have been examined;
but would consume too much time if required in every case. A resolution
may be debated and decided at once, and it facilitates the progress of
business, in the class of cases to which it is applicable.

6. The amount of business to be done by Congress is immense. Each
branch of the executive department makes a yearly report to it, which
must be considered and suitable laws passed; many hundreds of laws are
commonly asked to be passed, repealed, or revised, by the President or
the people; and all the interests of a great and growing country looked
after. Those who are at a distance cannot always judge accurately of the
difficulties it meets with in endeavoring to give satisfaction to all,
nor of the different appearance which questions may present when closely
examined and looked at on all sides, and Congress has a great deal of
short-sighted criticism to bear.

Congressmen cannot always tell what is best more than other people, nor
always find themselves able to do what they prefer, or judge to be best,
and the account to which they are held is sometimes unjust; yet, on the
whole they have always respected, and sought to serve, the views and
interests of the people as a whole, and deserve much praise. The country
has become prosperous and free under their legislation, and what the
majority of the people clearly call for is always done for them.

7. The more carefully the people whom they represent watch them at work,
and study the subjects they are required to legislate on, the less reason
will they find for denunciation of them, and the more intelligently
will they be able to lay out their work for them. They are the servants
of the people, notwithstanding they seem to command and order, and are
liable to be dismissed and turned out of place if they do not give
satisfaction. They are men like ourselves, with interests, temptations,
and weaknesses. We should aid them in their work, and assist them to walk
uprightly by our intelligence and careful regard for reason and right.
Our representatives will always, in character and conduct, present a
fair statement of what we are ourselves. If we are just, honest, and
high-minded they will not dare to be otherwise than faithful and true,
and if we are intelligent we shall never put ignorant and vile men in
office. So the Congress of the United States of America will always be a
truly Representative Body.




CHAPTER LIII.

PUBLIC PRINTING.


1. Among the Institutions of the government is that heading this chapter.
The amount of printing required to be done for Congress, the various
branches of the government, and for the benefit of the people, is very
great indeed. All the proceedings of both Houses of Congress as recorded
by the secretaries are required to be printed under authority; since many
copies are required by the members and for general purposes. All the
laws are printed in great numbers for circulation among the many millions
interested; and when a bill is proposed it requires to be printed for the
use of the several hundred members who need it for examination and study,
although it often never becomes a law.

2. The President’s Messages, and all the reports of heads of departments
and bureaus; the reports and commissions of army and navy officers,
of investigating committees, of various superintendents, agents, and
government employees, and many other things are printed, sometimes
only for use of Congress; sometimes for extensive circulation. Thus it
is easily seen that the government printing is a heavy expense, and a
very large part is indispensable; though many believe that a judicious
selection of documents and a careful study as to the number of some of
them printed might largely reduce the expense, without injury to the
public welfare. We do not wish to pay for the printing of documents that
are never read. It is a waste of the people’s money; yet, we must not
forget that it is of the utmost importance that the people should become
intimately acquainted with all the affairs of the government. Perhaps
Congress is sometimes wiser than the people, and that many documents
are wisely printed, and unwisely left unread by those most interested.
Economy and intelligence are to be equally regarded.

3. Until 1860, the government hired men to do this work, and a printer
was employed by each house of Congress. But great complaints were made
of the enormous expense to which the country was subjected in this item
of its expenditures; and at the date named, Congress passed an act
establishing a government printing office, to be under the direction of a
superintendent of public printing. The sum of $150,000 was appropriated
for the purchase of necessary buildings, machinery, and materials for the
purpose. By the provisions of the act it was made the superintendent’s
duty to overlook all the public printing and binding, not only of
Congress, but of all the departments, and of the United States courts; to
purchase all necessary materials and to employ all the workmen required.
And that Congress may know how the establishment is conducted and at
what expense, the superintendent is required to report to Congress at
the commencement of every session, the work done, the number of hands
employed, and the exact state and condition of the establishment. He is
prohibited from paying more for work done in this office than is given
for the same services in private printing offices in Washington.

4. The superintendent is also charged with the duty of procuring all
blank books, maps, drawings, diagrams, views, and charts, which may be
ordered by Congress, or by the heads of departments and bureaus. But the
superintendent himself is not left to act always as he may think proper,
for in many cases he must have the approval of the joint committee on
printing of both Houses of Congress.

5. This is a very proper effort to curtail expenses. It remains to be
seen how successful it may be. The constant watchful oversight of the
Sovereign People can alone succeed in keeping all things in due order.
When the representatives of the people become careless and wasteful the
admonition of the people is never without its effect.




CHAPTER LIV.

THE SIGNAL SERVICE.


1. The present organization of this institution dates from the beginning
of the civil war, and was originally purely military in its aims and
purposes. It is still conducted by the War Department, and partly for its
own purposes; but its value to agricultural and commercial interests is
constantly becoming more apparent and more extensive, and will probably,
in the end, so overshadow its military relations as to reduce them to
a very subordinate place in importance. The civil uses of this service
are based on the science of meteorology, which is largely occupied with
weather changes, the origin, progress, and laws of Storms. Its value to
the people consists in its accurate prediction of changes in the weather,
and the warning it is able to give, sometimes many hours or even days
in advance, of dangerous storms. Its estimate of weather probabilities,
based on observations reported daily from prominent points covering the
whole country, are published in all the daily papers, usually found
accurate, and are of great value to certain classes of the people. When a
storm threatens to endanger the safety of shipping a signal is displayed
in the port to give warning, and much property and many lives are often
saved. It makes an accurate and scientific study of the weather and all
the laws controlling its changes, by a large corps of enlightened and
trained observers, all whose facts, constantly reported, systematized,
and studied by competent persons, are likely to produce, in time, a most
important and useful body of knowledge on that subject.

2. The objects of the Signal Service require its officials to be
connected with the United States army, to have the use of the Electric
Telegraph, to be familiar with Meteorology, and skillful in the use of
the scientific instruments employed in the study of atmospheric changes.
By means of the telegraph, the army, though scattered over the whole
country, and especially the frontiers and more inaccessible parts, may be
almost instantaneously, and all at the same time, communicated with. It
would be possible, by telegraphs, signals, and railroads, to concentrate
the whole army from the numerous points where its fragments are located,
from Maine to Texas, and the Atlantic to the Pacific, at one point in as
short a time as it formerly took a body of soldiers to march a hundred
miles.

3. It is a singularly striking instance of the vigor and effectiveness of
control supplied by science, invention, and modern progress, by which our
vast increase in numbers and in extent of territory are neutralized, the
interests, sentiments, and habits of the people unified so that sectional
jealousies and contests are made rare and slight, and the people of
remote parts of the country made practically better acquainted with each
other than formerly were the inhabitants of adjoining States.

4. Subordination and thoroughness of system are secured by its connection
with the army, which probably also secures its advantages to the
country at much less cost than would be the case were it an independent
institution. The army is ambitious to be as useful as possible to the
country. There is a Signal School of Instruction and Practice at Fort
Whipple, in Va., which is to this Service what the Military and Naval
Academies are to the Army and Navy. The most suitable persons are
selected from the army or especially enlisted, and carefully schooled and
tested through a sufficiently long period to render them fully competent
for the delicate duties imposed on them.

5. There are about 90 Signal Stations, a few being located in Canada and
the West Indies. The whole is under the direction of the Chief Signal
Officer, who reports to the Secretary of War. There is a large and
carefully arranged organization, under constant supervision by competent
persons. Several Boards of Examination are employed in selecting suitable
persons for the different duties required in the Service, and in testing
their advancement toward a thorough fitness for each position to be
occupied.

The first or lowest grade is for the “field” signal service, requiring
a knowledge of army signals and telegraphy—this being the original
military value of the institution—the second grade includes those who
are competent to act as assistants to observers in the scientific
or meteorological part of the work; and the third (called Observer
Sergeants) includes those who have so complete a knowledge of the
scientific principles involved and of the use of the instruments employed
as to be fitted to take charge of Stations of Observation, and make the
constant and minute reports on which the conclusions of the Central
Office are based.

The Stations are from time to time inspected, and the whole system kept
in the most accurate order. Very much depends on the intelligence and
unremitting attention of the Observers.

This is, probably, the beginning of a work of the greatest practical
value to commerce and agriculture. It will continually expand and grow
more exact and useful, and from its relations to the diffusion of
important and useful knowledge we have placed it with


THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION.

1. Though there are no doubt many minor failures to meet the wishes,
and secure the interests of the people and some, perhaps, that are
really serious—though in these the people bear a good share of the
blame—the government has pursued an enlightened policy in respect to the
encouragement of Science, and the diffusion of useful knowledge. What it
can properly do in the interest of the whole people has been done. The
Smithsonian Institution is not wholly a government establishment; but
the official machinery by which it was at first set in motion, and is
continued in operation, belongs to the government. The funds with which
it was founded, were furnished by an individual, and he a foreigner.
The history runs thus: A noble-hearted Englishman, whose name was John
Smithson, residing in the city of London, bequeathed all his property to
the United States of America, for the purpose of founding in Washington
an establishment to be known as the “Smithsonian Institution,” for the
purpose of increasing and diffusing knowledge among men. The United
States accepted the bequest, and in 1846 passed an act for the purpose
of carrying out the beneficent design of Mr. Smithson. This act created
“an establishment,” as it is denominated in the act, by the name before
stated. It might have been called a corporation, for it has perpetual
succession, and many of the powers incident to a corporation.

2. By this act the President and Vice-President of the United States, the
Secretary of State, the Secretary of the Treasury, the Secretary of War,
the Secretary of the Navy, the Postmaster General, the Attorney General,
and Chief Justice, the Commissioner of the Patent Office, and the Mayor
of Washington—during the time they shall hold their respective offices,
together with such other persons as they may elect honorary members—were
constituted the establishment under the name of the Smithsonian
Institution.

3. It is located at Washington, and is managed by a board of regents,
composed of the Vice-President of the United States, the Chief Justice
of the United States, the Mayor of Washington, three members of the
Senate, and three members of the House of Representatives; together with
six other persons. The board choose their own officers, and report their
proceedings to Congress at each session thereof.

4. In order to carry out Mr. Smithson’s noble design of founding this
institution, rooms have been prepared for the reception of all objects
of art, natural history, plants, and geological and mineralogical
specimens which now or hereafter may belong to the United States, and
such as may hereafter be obtained. These are classified and arranged
so as to facilitate their examination and study. A vast collection
has already been obtained and deposited in the institution, and it is
constantly increasing by donations, by the researches and industry of its
professors, and by exchanges made with kindred institutions at home and
abroad. These are open to the examination of the public, and offer an
opportunity to students and others to extend their scientific knowledge.
This, together with the reports of its professors, of experiments and
new discoveries, make it indeed an institution “for the increase and
diffusion of knowledge among men.”




CHAPTER LV.

REPORTS.


1. Congress being the law-making power of the government, it is evident
that, to know precisely what laws it is important to enact, to change,
or to repeal, they should be kept well informed of all that is done
by government officials, and the precise condition of every branch of
the public service. The President’s Messages are of the nature of
reports made by the Chief Executive to the legislative body for its
information and guidance. So it is enacted that the Secretaries of State,
Treasury, War, Navy, Interior, and Postmaster General, together with the
commissioners of the different bureaus, and boards attached to these
departments, shall annually report to Congress. Heads of departments
report directly to Congress. So do many of the commissioners who are at
the head of bureaus. Boards report to the heads of departments to which
they are attached.

2. In this way Congress is kept advised of whatever is done in every
department, bureau, or board, to which any of the public business is
entrusted. These reports not only furnish the law-making power with such
information as it needs, but serve as a check to any official misconduct.
The annual reports of the Secretaries of the Treasury, War, and Navy,
together with that of the Postmaster General, are State papers which rank
in importance next to the annual message of the President. To them the
people look for a detailed account of the state and condition of those
great departments over which these Secretaries preside, and which so
materially affect the pecuniary and other great interests of the nation.

3. The foregoing remarks upon reports, throw light upon the movements of
the machinery by which the government is operated, and show how officials
are held responsible to the superior power.

In this connection we may notice another kind of reports, which come
from another source. After each Congress has convened and organized, the
President of the Senate and the Speaker of the House appoint what are
denominated the standing committees of each of these bodies.

When bills are presented to be passed into laws, or petitions are sent
in, they are always referred to the appropriate committee, which examines
them and reports to the body (of the Senate or House) their conclusions
upon the merits or demerits, propriety or impropriety, of granting the
petition, or of passing the bill under consideration.

These reports generally govern the action of Congress when they come to
vote upon the passage of the law. But that is not always the case; the
body of either House may think differently from its committee, and act
contrary to its recommendations.




CHAPTER LVI.

IMPEACHMENT.


1. In the second article, section four, of the Constitution, these words
are found: “The President, Vice-President, and all civil officers of
the United States, shall be removed from office on impeachment for, and
conviction of treason, bribery, or other high crimes and misdemeanors.”

2. Impeachment is a procedure against office holders only, for the
purpose of removing them from office. It inflicts no other punishment;
but the guilty party may afterwards be prosecuted for his crime in a
court of law, and punished in such manner as the law directs.

3. The House of Representatives alone can present charges looking to the
trial of an officer of the government by impeachment. Its action, in such
a case, is similar to that of a Grand Jury. It charges that the official
has violated the law and should be tried, in order, if guilty, to be
removed from office. It appoints a committee to conduct the prosecution
before the Senate, to which these charges are presented.

4. The Senate alone has the power to try the accused party. When trying
a case of impeachment it acts as a court, and from its decision there is
no appeal. The President cannot pardon a criminal who has been impeached.
When the President of the United States is tried, the Chief Justice
of the Supreme Court presides, but in no other case. No person can be
convicted in a trial of impeachment, unless two-thirds of the Senate
concur in finding the accused guilty of the alleged offense.




THE JUDICIAL DEPARTMENT.


This is the third Branch of the government, as determined by the
Constitution, and is of supreme importance and dignity. Its sphere is to
interpret the Constitution, to decide controversies, to try offenders
and to pronounce sentence on them, to enforce rights, and to keep the
whole organism of the government in proper place and proportion. It is
attached to the governmental machinery as a Regulator. Without it the
other Departments must be the judges of the extent of their own powers;
the Constitution would be practically inoperative to prevent inharmonious
or mischievous legislation; and the executive would possess the authority
to try as well as punish offenses.

The officers of this Department of the government are expected to be men
of much weight and dignity of character, of wide legal culture, and are
selected for, and continued in, office under such circumstances as to
guarantee, to a fair extent, the requisite distinction and impartiality.

All this we shall see as we proceed to analyze its different branches.
These consist of the United States Supreme Court, the Circuit Courts,
the District Courts, and the Court of Claims. The local courts in the
District of Columbia, and the Territorial Courts, though similar to the
State Judiciaries, are connected, by their relations to the General
Government, with this Department.

The importance of this branch of the government has become more evident
as time has passed, and the conflict of parties has put the whole to
test. The acrimonious party spirit of our early post revolutionary
history, which continued into Monroe’s administration, was, in great
part, the result of a want of due confidence in, and respect for, the
judiciary. Experience showed that our people were law abiding, and that
the Legislative and Executive powers, equally with the people, were
willing to submit to the official interpretation of the Constitution, and
all ready to join hands to maintain its authority.




CHAPTER LVII.

THE SUPREME COURT.


1. This is the highest tribunal in the United States. If the whole
government be figuratively regarded as an arch this is the “Key Stone of
the Arch” without which the whole structure would crumble and fall. In
all cases of dispute as to the meaning of the Constitution and the range
of powers it confers, or implies, it has sovereign power to decide; and
from that decision there is no appeal. Its declaration, as to the meaning
and application of the Constitution and the body of statutes enacted
under it, becomes the law of the land. It is the great bulwark against
tyrannical use of power, and conflicting enactments, whether by National
or State Legislatures.

2. This court has one Chief Justice and nine Associate Justices, all
appointed by the President, by and with the advice and consent of the
Senate. They are appointed for life, or during good behavior; they may
be impeached for bribery or other high crimes, and then removed from
office. They may also resign; but if they conduct themselves properly and
choose to retain their offices, there is no power by which they can be
removed, except the power of death. The Constitution itself makes this
provision, in order that the judges may be removed as far as possible
from the influence of party politics. It is therefore expected that their
decisions will not be biased by party or political considerations; and
it may not be amiss to say that the provisions for keeping the judges of
the United States Courts in office for life, meets with almost universal
approbation; and has caused many to hope that the States would alter
their Constitutions and adopt the same plan; believing it to be the
surest way of preserving a pure and independent Judiciary, on which
depend the rights and liberties of every citizen of the commonwealth.

3. This court holds but one term in a year, which commences on the first
Monday of December, and sits until it has disposed of the business before
it. Its sessions are always held at Washington, the capital of the
nation; there it has access to the Congressional and Law Libraries, and
to all the departments and records of the government when necessary.

There is a class of causes which may be commenced in this court. In these
cases it has original jurisdiction. They are such as affect ambassadors,
other public ministers, and consuls; and those in which a State shall be
a party. In other cases it has only appellate jurisdiction. The greater
part of its business is to hear and determine appeals from inferior
courts, mainly from the United States Circuit Courts; and in some
instances from the highest State courts.

4. It has not only original, but exclusive jurisdiction in causes where a
State is a party, and when proceedings or suits against ambassadors, or
other public ministers or their servants, are instituted. Its power to
try appeals from lower courts, called _appellate_ jurisdiction, gives it
the position of the highest court in the nation.

It has power also to restrain or to prohibit proceedings in the United
States District Courts, when acting as courts of Admiralty; or in cases
of maritime jurisdiction. The judges of this court hold the Circuit
Courts, and allot themselves among the judicial circuits.

The practice and rules of procedure in this court are very similar to
those of the Courts of Chancery and King’s Bench, in England. Issues of
fact are tried by jury, the same as in other courts.


OFFICERS OF THE COURT.

5. The officers of this tribunal are the Judges, the Attorney General,
a clerk, a crier, and a reporter. The three last named are appointed by
the court. It is the duty of the Marshal of the District of Columbia to
attend this court, and to serve process issuing from it.

An Attorney or Counsellor-at-Law, to be admitted to practice in this
court, must have been a practitioner in the Supreme Court of the State
where he lives.

6. The following are the names of all the Chief Justices of the Supreme
Court of the United States, from its establishment to the present time;
with the dates of their appointments, and the States from which they were
appointed:

  John Jay, N. Y., Sept. 26, 1789.
  John Rutledge, S. C., July 1, 1795.
  William Cushing, Mass., Jan. 27, 1796.
  Oliver Ellsworth, Ct., March 4, 1796.
  John Jay, N. Y., Dec. 19, 1800.
  John Marshall, Va., Jan. 27, 1801.
  Roger B. Taney, Md., Dec. 28, 1835.
  Salmon P. Chase, O., Dec. 1864.
  Morrison R. Waite, O., Jan. 21, 1874.

7. The following are the names of the Associate Justices with the dates
of their appointment and the States from which they were appointed:

  John Rutledge, S. C., 1789.
  William Cushing, Mass., 1789.
  Robert H. Harrison, Md., 1789.
  James Wilson, Pa., 1789.
  John Blair, Va., 1789.
  James Iredell, N. C., 1790.
  Thomas Johnson, Md., 1791.
  William Paterson, N. J., 1793.
  Samuel Chase, Md., 1796.
  Bushrod Washington, Va., 1798.
  Alfred Moore, N. C., 1799.
  William Johnson, S. C., 1804.
  Brockholst Livingston, N. Y., 1807.
  Thomas Todd, Va., 1807.
  Gabriel Duvall, Md., 1811.
  Joseph Story, Mass., 1811.
  Smith Thompson, N. Y., 1823.
  Robert Trimble, Ky., 1823.
  John McLean, O., 1829.
  Henry Baldwin, Pa., 1830.
  James M. Wayne, Ga., 1835.
  Philip P. Barbour, Va., 1836.
  John McKinley, Ala., 1837.
  John Catron, Tenn., 1837.
  Peter V. Daniel, Va., 1841.
  Samuel Nelson, N. Y., 1845.
  Levi Woodbury, N. H., 1845.
  Robert C. Grier, Pa., 1846.
  Benjamin R. Curtis, Mass., 1851.
  James A. Campbell, Ala., 1853.
  Nathan Clifford, Me., 1858.
  Noah H. Swayne, O., 1862.
  Samuel F. Miller, Iowa, 1862.
  Stephen J. Field, Cal.
  David Davis, Ill., 1862.
  William Strong, Pa., 1870.
  Joseph P. Bradley, N. J., 1870.
  Ward Hunt, N. Y., 1873.




CHAPTER LVIII.

CIRCUIT COURTS.


The next in dignity, power, and jurisdiction are the United States
Circuit Courts. While the Supreme Court is always held in Washington,
these are held in every State at such times and places as special law
of Congress directs. These are often changed so as to accommodate both
the people in the States and the judges of the Court. As now arranged,
the whole Union is divided into nine circuits, each circuit comprising
several States, according to the size and population of the States. The
places are arranged with reference to convenience of access by all the
people in the circuit.

This Court is similar in design and authority to the Supreme Court;
indeed it is but a branch of it; the same officers presiding, and the
same class of questions being adjudicated by it, viz.: those involving
Constitutional Law; and this authority, so important to uniformity of
interpretation of constitutional provisions, and to the enjoyment of
rights guaranteed by that instrument to citizens of all the States, is
made pervading—is carried within the reach of all.

2. The Circuit Courts are held by the Judges of the Supreme Court, who
allot the circuits among themselves, and then travel each through his own
circuit, until he has visited and held a session in every State which
lies within it. A Judge of the Supreme Court is the presiding and supreme
magistrate in every Circuit Court, but the Judge of the District Court
of the district in which the Circuit is held, sits with the Judge of the
Supreme Court, as Associate Justice.


JURISDICTION.

3. These Courts have both original and appellate jurisdiction. Causes
may be appealed from the District Courts to the Circuit. They also have
concurrent jurisdiction with the State courts, where the matter in
dispute exceeds the sum of $500, and the United States are plaintiffs;
or where an alien is a party, or where the suit is between citizens of
different States. They have exclusive jurisdiction in all cases of crimes
against the United States, except where the law especially confers the
power on other courts. It extends to all cases under the revenue laws of
the United States.

4. There is also a certain class of cases (too tedious to be described
here in detail,) which may be removed from State and from District
Courts, into these courts, and be tried and determined in the same manner
as if they had been commenced here.

The officers of Circuit Courts are, first, the Judges; second, the
District Attorney of the district in which the court is held; third, the
Marshal of the district; and fourth, a Clerk, who is appointed by the
court.

5. It may be interesting, and perhaps useful to know how the different
circuits are formed, and what States lie in each. They have been from
time to time increased in number, as the number of the States increased.
In some cases States have been at first placed in one circuit, and
afterwards detached and placed in another.

6. By the Acts of 1862 and 1863, the circuits were arranged as follows:

First Circuit—Rhode Island, Massachusetts, Maine and New Hampshire (by
Act of 1820).

Second Circuit—Vermont, Connecticut, New York (Act of 1837).

Third Circuit—New Jersey and Pennsylvania.

Fourth Circuit—Maryland, Virginia, Delaware and North Carolina.

Fifth Circuit—South Carolina, Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi and Florida.

Sixth Circuit—Louisiana, Texas, Arkansas, Kentucky and Tennessee.

Seventh Circuit—Ohio and Indiana.

Eighth Circuit—Michigan and Illinois.

Ninth Circuit—Wisconsin, Missouri, Kansas, Iowa and Minnesota.

Tenth Circuit—California and Oregon.

But in 1866 this arrangement of the circuits was again changed; and
this was done, we suppose, to make the circuits approximate nearer to
the number of Associate Justices, as reduced from nine to six by the
same act; for, it was then enacted that hereafter there should be no
more Associate Justices of the Supreme Court appointed, until they were
reduced (by death or resignation), to six.

7. The circuits by this last act were reduced to nine, and were arranged
as follows:

First and Second Circuits to remain as before.

The Third was made up of the States of Pennsylvania, New Jersey and
Delaware.

The Fourth, of Maryland, Virginia, West Virginia, North Carolina and
South Carolina.

The Fifth, of Georgia, Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana and Texas.

The Sixth, of Ohio, Michigan, Kentucky and Tennessee.

The Seventh, of Indiana, Illinois and Wisconsin.

The Eighth, of Minnesota, Iowa, Missouri, Kansas and Arkansas.

The Ninth, of California, Oregon and Nevada.

We have inserted both of these circuit arrangements, because one new
State (Nebraska), has been admitted since the act passed. Others will
soon come in, and very probably the old number of circuits and judges
will be restored.




CHAPTER LIX.

DISTRICT COURTS.


1. We come now to the lowest grade of United States courts, excepting the
local courts in the District of Columbia, and the Territorial Courts.
A United States District Court is held by a District Judge in every
district. Every State constitutes at least one district, several of the
larger States are divided into two, and some into three. There are at
the present time fifty-nine Judicial Districts, and consequently the
same number of District Judges, District Attorneys, District Clerks and
Marshals. The Judges, Attorneys and Marshals are all appointed by the
President and Senate; the Clerks by the respective courts.


TERMS.

2. By the law of 1789 every District Judge was required to hold four
sessions a year, at such times and in such places as Congress directed.
This is done to this day in a great majority of the States; but by later
laws, in some of the districts only two or three sessions a year are
required.


JURISDICTION.

3. These courts have exclusive jurisdiction in all admiralty and maritime
causes. These relate to maritime contracts, and to crimes against the
laws of the United States, committed on the sea and on navigable lakes
and rivers. It embraces in this country all contracts respecting vessels
and navigation; such as chartering, repairing, and fitting them out,
seamen’s wages, &c. They have in some cases concurrent jurisdiction with
the Circuit Courts, as in cases of piracy, and exclusive cognizance of
cases where seizures are made for a violation of the revenue laws, or
laws relating to imports and navigation; and causes against consuls and
vice consuls where the amount claimed does not exceed $100. In short,
they have concurrent jurisdiction with the Circuit Courts, of all crimes
against the laws of the United States, the punishment of which is not
capital. The trial of issues of fact in all causes except civil causes of
admiralty and maritime jurisdiction, must be by jury.

4. Appeals are taken from these courts to the Circuit Courts. The judges
are appointed like those of the Supreme Court, for life, or during good
behavior, and receive various amounts as salary, some more and some less,
according to the amount of services to be performed in their respective
districts.

5. When vessels are captured in time of war, either by the public armed
vessels or by private armed ships, the facts and circumstances of the
capture must be brought before a United States Circuit or District
Court for adjudication; when the vessel and cargo are either condemned
as a prize, or restored to their owners. When either of these courts
adjudicate such cases, it is called a Prize Court.

We give the number of Judicial Districts in each State as they now exist,
and the total number in all the States. They are as follows:

  Alabama, 3.
  Arkansas, 2.
  California, 2.
  Connecticut, 1.
  Mississippi, 2.
  Missouri, 2.
  Nevada, 1.
  New Hampshire, 1.
  Delaware, 1.
  Florida, 2.
  Georgia, 2.
  Illinois, 2.
  Indiana, 1.
  Iowa, 1.
  Kansas, 1.
  Kentucky, 1.
  Louisiana, 2.
  Maine, 1.
  Maryland, 1.
  Massachusetts, 1.
  Michigan, 2.
  Minnesota, 1.
  District of Columbia, 1.
  New Jersey, 1.
  New York, 3.
  North Carolina, 3.
  Nebraska, 1.
  Ohio, 2.
  Oregon, 1.
  Pennsylvania, 2.
  Rhode Island, 1.
  South Carolina, 2.
  Tennessee, 3.
  Texas, 2.
  Vermont, 1.
  Virginia, 1.
  West Virginia, 1.
  Wisconsin, 1.

  Total, 59.




CHAPTER LX.

ADMIRALTY AND MARITIME JURISDICTION.


In ancient times—and long before this government existed—civilized
and commercial nations had codes or laws which related especially to
transactions upon the sea. Those respecting ships of war and warlike
operations at sea were called the laws of Admiralty; those respecting
vessels engaged in commercial affairs were called Maritime laws; and the
courts empowered with jurisdiction to hear and try causes, or to take
any judicial proceedings in those cases, were styled Courts of Admiralty
and Maritime Jurisdiction. These laws, in many respects, differed so
materially from the laws relating to affairs on land, that the authority
and power to take proceedings in and adjudicate upon them was conferred
upon a particular class of courts. Hence we see the origin of the names
of such tribunals.

In this country the United States District Courts have been designated
by the laws as the courts which shall have original and exclusive
authority to adjudicate this class of causes; yet an appeal from the
District to the Circuit Courts may be taken.


KIND OF CASES.

The word Maritime designates that which relates to the sea. Yet, in
the United States, cases which come within Admiralty and Maritime
jurisdiction are not restricted to the sea, or to transactions relating
to business or crimes done on it, but are made to embrace those which
occur on navigable lakes and rivers, and include seizures made for the
violation of the laws of impost, navigation, or trade, suits for the
recovery of seamen’s wages, contracts for building, repairing or fitting
out vessels, and, briefly, all contracts where the subject-matter relates
to the navigation of the sea. The District Courts have Admiralty and
Maritime jurisdiction in all these cases, without regard to the amount
claimed, and in criminal as well as in civil suits.

The foregoing remarks show the workings of our judicial system, as it
applies to business done, and crimes committed upon the high seas.




CHAPTER LXI.

COURT OF CLAIMS.


1. This court was established by act of Congress in 1855. The law reads
thus: “A court shall be established to be called the Court of Claims, to
consist of three judges, to be appointed by the President and Senate, and
to hold their offices during good behavior; and the said court shall hear
and determine all claims founded upon any law of Congress, or upon any
regulation of an Executive department, or upon any contract express or
implied, with the government of the United States; which may be suggested
to it by a petition filed therein; and also all claims which may be
referred to said court by either house of Congress.”

2. On the third of March, 1863, the jurisdiction of this court was
enlarged, and two additional judges appointed (making five), from the
whole number of which the President was authorized to appoint one a Chief
Justice for said court.

3. The mode of commencing proceeding before this tribunal is by petition;
in which the claimant must fully set forth his claim, how it arose, its
amount, and the parties interested therein. After the case has been heard
and determined, the court reports to Congress what its decision is, and
if favorable to the claimant, a bill is passed for his relief.

4. It holds one session a year, in Washington, commencing on the first
Monday in October, and continuing as long as the business before it
requires. It not only tries claims against the government, but by its
enlarged jurisdiction, conferred in 1863, it also tries counter claims
and set-offs which the United States may have against the claimant.
Appeals are taken from the Court of Claims to the Supreme Court of the
United States, when the amount in controversy exceeds $3,000.

5. Before the establishment of this court, the only remedy persons
having claims upon the government had, was by petitioning to Congress
for relief; which experience proved to be a long, tedious, and expensive
mode of obtaining their dues. The petition now goes to this court, where
it is heard and adjudicated in the same form, and by the same rules of
procedure which are observed in other courts; for Congress has conferred
upon it all the powers commonly possessed by other courts of law. It also
has a seal.

6. It has greatly facilitated the settlement of claims against the
government, and has relieved Congress of a great amount of labor, which
was urgently pressed upon it at every session.

7. In addition to the five judges, it has a Solicitor, an Assistant
Solicitor, and a Deputy Solicitor, all of whom are appointed by the
President and Senate; and are officers of the court, whose duty it is
faithfully to defend the United States in all matters and claims before
this court.

A bailiff, a clerk, a crier and messenger, all of whom are appointed by
the court, make up the remaining officials.

The claimants stand in the relation of plaintiffs, and the government in
that of defendant.




CHAPTER LXII.

DISTRICT ATTORNEYS.


These officers are next in rank to the Judges of the Circuit and District
Courts with which their duties are connected. Their relation to the
government, in the class of cases that come before those courts, is the
same as that of the Attorney General in the Supreme Court. They are
its official legal counselors in all cases involving the interests of
the General Government before the Circuit and District Courts in their
several districts. They are appointed in the same manner; that is,
nominated by the President, and confirmed by the Senate. It is their duty
“to prosecute in such district all delinquents for crimes and offences
cognizable under the authority of the United States, and all civil
actions in which the United States shall be concerned.” They are his
clients, and he must enforce their rights, and defend them, in the same
manner that any attorney protects and defends his client in any of the
State courts. In case of necessity, he may appoint a substitute to act in
his place. All fees over and above what he is allowed as compensation for
his services, he must report and pay into the United States Treasury.

3. He must defend collectors of the customs and other revenue officers
in his district, when suits are brought against them in their official
capacity, and must report to the Solicitor of the Treasury the number of
suits determined and pending in his district. And when prize cases have
been determined, or are pending in the District Court of his district, he
must report the state and condition of each case to the Secretary of the
Navy.

District Attorneys are appointed for four years, but may be removed at
the pleasure of the President. Their compensation depends on the amount
of business to be done in their respective districts. When important
ports of entry, such as New York or Boston, lie in their districts, their
duties are very numerous, and they receive a corresponding compensation.




CHAPTER LXIII.

UNITED STATES MARSHALS.


1. United States Marshals are the ministerial officers of the United
States courts. Their duties and responsibilities are very similar, and
nearly identical with the duties and responsibilities of sheriffs in the
courts of the several States. They are appointed by the President and
Senate, for a term of four years. They appoint their own deputies, and
their compensation consists of fees instead of a salary; and depends
entirely upon the amount of business they have to transact. There is a
Marshal in every Judicial District in the United States, and there are
fifty-nine of these districts in all. Every State forms at least one
district, while the larger States are divided into two or three.

2. A District Court is held in every district; and it is the Marshal’s
duty to attend the sittings of these courts, and also those of the United
States Circuit Courts, when they happen to sit in his district. The
Marshal for the District of Columbia must also attend the sittings of
the Supreme Court, and execute its precepts. We have said that they are
the ministerial officers of the United States courts; for it is their
duty to serve all writs and precepts emanating from them, whether of a
civil or criminal character; and to execute the judgments and decrees of
these tribunals; and for this purpose they are authorized by law, (if
necessary,) to command such assistance as they may need in the execution
of their duties. Before they enter upon the duties of their office, they
must be bound to the United States for the faithful performance of them,
and must solemnly swear to do them, without malice or partiality; and
that they will take only lawful fees. They are also held answerable for
the delivery to their successors of all prisoners who may be in their
custody at the time of their removal, or at the expiration of their term
of office.

3. They also have the custody of all vessels and goods seized by any
officer of the revenue. It is their duty also to summon, and to pay
jurors and witnesses in behalf of any prisoner to be tried for a capital
offense, under the laws of the United States. In the remarks made under
the head “Census,” we stated that it was made the duty of the Marshals to
superintend and direct the enumeration of the people; and to collect such
statistical facts as the law requires. This they do through deputies,
whom they appoint for that special purpose.

The United States Marshal is also required, on the first day of January
and July of each year, to make a return of all the fees and emoluments of
his office to the Secretary of the Interior; and if they amount to more
than $6,000 per year, he must pay the surplus into the Treasury of the
United States.




CHAPTER LXIV.

GRAND JURY.


1. By turning to the fifth article of the amendments to the Constitution,
you will find these words: “No person shall be held to answer for
a capital or otherwise infamous crime, unless on a presentment or
indictment of a Grand Jury; except in cases arising in the land or naval
forces, or in the militia, when in actual service, in time of war or
public danger.” This constitutional provision makes a Grand Jury a very
important agent or instrumentality in the execution of the laws, and also
a safeguard of the liberties and rights of the people. It secures every
person from the expense and disgrace of a trial for infamous crimes,
unless a Grand Jury of his countrymen shall find upon inquiry and
investigation, that there are good reasons for believing that the person
so charged has committed the alleged offense.

2. This provision not only protects those who are charged with these
crimes against the laws of the United States, but those also who may be
charged with such offenses against the laws of any State; for no State
can arrest and try any person for a capital or infamous crime without
these preliminary proceedings of a Grand Jury; and should it do so, the
United States Supreme Court would set its laws aside, as contrary to the
Constitution of the United States. Here we see that the government is
just as careful to protect its citizens from injustice by hasty judicial
proceedings as it is to punish them after a fair and impartial trial.

3. A Grand Jury, when called to take cognizance of violations of the laws
of the United States, to find indictments against those who are charged
with them, is summoned by a judge of a United States court in the circuit
or district where the alleged crime has been perpetrated; and it must
take notice of all crimes against the laws of the United States, which
may be brought to its knowledge, within the circuit or district in which
it sits. Hence, if ordered by a Circuit Judge, its powers extend over all
those States which lie in that circuit. But when ordered by a District
Judge, its powers extend only to that district in which it sits, and a
district never embraces more than one State, and in many cases a State is
divided into two or three districts.

4. This shows us how much more extensive is the jurisdiction of a Grand
Jury, when acting under the laws of the United States, than when acting
under State laws. In the former it extends generally all over a State,
and sometimes over several States. But in the latter it is confined to
the county in which it sits.


GRAND AND PETIT JURIES.

A Grand Jury never acts but in criminal cases. A Petit Jury acts in both
criminal and civil cases. The finding or conclusion arrived at by a
Grand Jury is called a presentment, or an indictment. The finding of a
Petit Jury is called its verdict.

5. Second, a Grand Jury sits alone (not in the presence of the court),
and deliberates upon such matters of a criminal character as it possesses
knowledge of, or which may be brought to its notice by the court or by
other persons; and when it finds that great evils exist, and wrongs have
been perpetrated, it presents them to the court, and calls the attention
of the law officers to them; which is equivalent to a recommendation that
judicial proceedings should be commenced to abate the evil, or to punish
the wrong-doer. This is called a presentment of the Grand Jury.

And when they find, upon such evidence as they have, that a great crime
has been perpetrated, or that they have good reason so to believe, and
that it has been perpetrated by some person specified, they report their
finding or conclusion to the Court. This is called an indictment by the
Grand Jury; after which the person so charged is arrested, if at large,
and can be found, and is either imprisoned or held to bail for his
appearance at court to stand trial.

6. A Grand Jury never tries a case. It only says to the court by its
presentment or indictment, that the case presented, or the person
indicted, ought to be brought before the court, and tried for the alleged
wrong or crime.

A Petit Jury sits with the court, hears the pleadings and arguments of
counsel on both sides, listens to the evidence of witnesses; and then
hears the charge of the judge, as to the law applicable to the case;
after which they withdraw and deliberate alone upon the case, and if they
agree in a criminal case, their verdict is “Guilty,” or “Not Guilty;” if
in a civil suit, they say how much one party is indebted (if any), to the
other.

7. The object aimed at in that article of the Constitution which stands
at the head of this chapter, is to protect persons from false charges
of crime, and hasty adjudication of such charges; for it substantially
amounts to a declaration that no person shall be punished for a capital
or infamous crime, unless one jury, before trial, shall, upon information
and belief, charge him with the offense; and another, after trial, shall
find him guilty of the alleged crime.

The above remarks are as applicable to Grand and Petit Juries, acting
under State, as those which act under the United States laws.




CHAPTER LXV.

LOCAL GOVERNMENTS.


1. The Supreme power in the United States is lodged in the general
government, with its three branches: Legislative, Executive, and
Judicial. The authority of this government, however, is restricted to
the powers expressly conferred on it by the Constitution; all other
power being reserved to the States, or the people. The States also are
sovereign in their own limits, over all questions not expressly assigned
to the General Government. Instead of conflict of authority there is true
harmony. The people elect the members of both the classes of legislators
and executives, and both are equally employed in attending to the
interests of the people confided to their care; the first to General, the
second to Local interests. All the members and officers of each are the
servants of the Sovereign People.

2. As soon as the general government was organized under the
Constitution, there arose two parties. One wished to render the General
Government prominent in order to secure concentration of strength and
vigor of action; the other desired to exalt the State governments in
the fear that the general government might prove ambitious of too much
power, and disregard the welfare of the people. As in almost all party
platforms, both these seemed to take too narrow a view. Washington was
held to sympathize more with the first, Jefferson was the acknowledged
leader of the second. Together they secured a very fair mingling of
both these principles in the administration and general policy of the
country. A strict adherence to the meaning and spirit of the Constitution
would not seem to give special favor to either, or allow a conflict of
interests.

3. The Supreme Court, or the Judiciary, is the regulating, or reconciling
element, which the Constitution set over the whole to see that no undue
or improper action should defeat its purposes, and that no collisions of
authority should occur. Its decision is final, it being the last resort
in cases of appeal; and, as the only final and authoritative interpreter
of Constitutional Law, it may revise the action of all other branches of
both general and local government, and put them in harmony.

4. It is plain that the authors of the Constitution intended to fuse
the separate elements, or States, into one whole, where general matters
were concerned; and to leave those elements perfectly free and absolute
control of all questions involving only their separate and local
concerns. The _People_, and their welfare, are the aim and end of both
organizations. The possession of power for ambitious ends by general,
State, or municipal organizations, or by individuals, was apparently as
foreign to the thought of the whole Constitutional convention of 1787 as
it seems always to have been to the mind of Washington. That great man
was the leader of clear-sighted and pure-minded statesmen, and whatever
weaknesses and faults have existed at any time (and there have always
been an abundance of them, as there were in the times of Washington)
among political leaders, it must be allowed that the Fathers had worthy
sons who knew how to work correctly the problems left them by their
predecessors. A single question proved quite unmanageable to the sons, as
it had before to the fathers, and had to be settled by an appeal to arms;
but it demonstrated the strength of the people and the ability of our
institutions to withstand the severest shocks.

5. The original States adopted the Constitution after deliberate study,
and all the States since admitted virtually do the same. Their general
structure in their legislative, executive, and judicial arrangements
is substantially the same as that of the General Government. The State
Legislatures consist of two Houses, chosen in different ways, and for
different terms; the relations between them being similar to those of
Congress. Every State has a governor, answering to the President of the
United States, who is the executive officer of the State government. The
courts in all are organized on the same principle as the Supreme Court
of the general government. Although there are small variations from the
model, in various States, they do not affect the general resemblance;
and, due allowance being made for the different subjects to be treated,
the analysis of the general, or of any of State governments, will give a
sufficiently correct view of all.

6. A State cannot make treaties with a foreign power, nor declare war
against it. It cannot raise a revenue by duties on imports, nor control
the postal service, or matters involving the interests of other States.
It has therefore no Department for Foreign relations, its Secretary of
State dealing only with State affairs. It has no Department of War, or
Navy, and no Postmaster General. The Governor’s signature is necessary
to the validity of laws passed by the two branches of the legislature,
and in most of the States he has a veto power similar to that of the
President. He has an executive council answering to the Cabinet. The
courts are more numerous than those of the general government, to meet
the wants of all classes of the people; ranging from a Supreme or
Constitutional court, whose office it is to interpret and apply the
constitution of the State; through all grades, of Common Pleas, Circuit,
District, Police, and Recorder’s courts down to neighborhood courts
held by Justices of the Peace, or Aldermen. There are various others in
different States for special purposes.

7. States are subdivided for purposes of local government into counties
and towns; and these into smaller portions for educational and other
purposes.

Thus the whole is like an extensive system of machinery, wheel being
fitted to wheel. From the lowest to the highest the people of each
local division have entire control over the subjects in which they only
are interested; and there is very little opportunity for the exercise
of arbitrary power. Executive officers may be changed by election, or
impeachment, if they do not give satisfaction, or prove unfaithful; and
as many securities as it is possible to devise are provided against
abuses, or, if a majority in any State (or the United States) believe
that an improvement can be made, there are constitutional and legal
methods for securing it.

Thus our country is insured against serious discontents for which no
remedy is at hand; and from the revolutions and internal disturbances
that interrupt the progress, and destroy the resources of so many other
countries. It is a government _of_, _for_, and _by_ the people. The
value of any institution or office in the United States, from the school
district and director to State legislature, Congress, governor, or
President, is determined by the relation it bears to the Public Welfare;
and when it ceases to be useful there are, as there ought to be, legal
means for laying it aside.




CHAPTER LXVI.

INDIVIDUAL STATES.


The original thirteen States are here arranged in the order of size—the
one having the largest area being placed first. They are ranked according
to their _present_ area, the claims of some of them at first extending to
territory since erected into States; and one, Virginia, has been divided.
Her former area would have ranked her as first.

The States that follow are placed in the order of their admission into
the Union.


[Illustration]

GEORGIA.

This State was the last settled of the original thirteen. It was founded
in the benevolent anxiety of Gen. James Oglethorpe and others to relieve
the distresses of the poor in England. Those imprisoned for debt were
sent out in large numbers. With this object was connected the desire
to prevent the extension of the Spanish settlements in Florida, and
the English government favored the undertaking. This class of settlers
proving indolent and improvident, a better was attracted by laying off
many towns, in the best locations, and offering fifty acres free to
every actual settler. Many Scotch and German emigrants improved this
opportunity, to the great advantage of the colony.

Gen. Oglethorpe imitated the wise conduct of Penn, in his treaties with
the Indians.

He commenced his settlement at Savannah, in 1733, cheerfully assisted by
the South Carolinians, who were pleased to see a barrier placed between
them and the Spaniards. Oglethorpe had several conflicts with them, and
succeeded in protecting his colony. The introduction of slaves was at
first forbidden; but, as the colony seemed to fall behind the neighboring
provinces for want of laborers, the restriction was removed. In 1752 the
company gave up their charter, and Georgia became a royal province. It
took part with the other colonies in resistance to the aggressions of the
English ministry, at the Revolutionary period, and its condition during
the war was similar to that of North and South Carolina. Being new, and
on the frontier, it was not conspicuous.

The northern part of the State is uneven, the central and lower sections
productive under a wise and careful culture, but easily exhausted under
bad management. She has long navigable rivers, and her manufacturing
and commercial capabilities are excellent. The system of slave-labor
and the misfortunes of the Civil War have embarrassed her progress, but
the energy of her people is fast raising her to her proper rank as a
flourishing State.

Georgia has an area of 52,009 square miles, equal to 33,285,760 acres.
She was named after George II.

The population in 1870 was 1,200,000, which entitles her to nine
Representatives in Congress.

The State lies in the fifth judicial circuit, and has two judicial
districts; also four ports of entry—Savannah, Brunswick, St. Mary’s, and
Hardwicke; and two ports of delivery—Augusta and Sunbury.

The capital is Atlanta. The State election is held on the first Tuesday
in August. The Legislature meets on the second Wednesday in January.

The enacting clause of her laws is: “Be it enacted by the Senate and
House of Representatives of the State of Georgia in General Assembly met;
and it is hereby enacted by the authority of the same.”


UNITED STATES SENATORS.

  William Few,          from  1789  to  1793.
  James Gunn,             ”   1789   ”  1801.
  James Jackson,          ”  {1793   ”  1795.
                             {1801   ”  1806.
  George Walton,          ”   1795   ”  1796.
  Josiah Tatnall,         ”   1796   ”  1799.
  A. Baldwin,             ”  {1796   ”  1805.
                             {1805   ”  1807.
  J. Melledge,            ”   1806   ”  1809.
  George Jones,           ”   1807   ”  1807.
  W. H. Crawford,         ”   1807   ”  1813.
  Charles Tait,           ”  {1809   ”  1813.
                             {1813   ”  1819.
  W. B. Bullock,          ”   1813   ”  1813.
  William W. Bibb,        ”   1813   ”  1816.
  G. M. Troup,            ”  {1815   ”  1818.
                             {1829   ”  1833.
  John Forsyth,           ”  {1819   ”  1819.
                             {1829   ”  1837.
  F. Walker,              ”   1819   ”  1821.
  John Elliot,            ”   1819   ”  1821.
  Nicholas Ware,          ”   1821   ”  1823.
  T. W. Cobb,             ”   1824   ”  1828.
  O. H. Prince,           ”   1828   ”  1829.
  John P. King,           ”   1833   ”  1837.
  W. Lumpkin,             ”   1837   ”  1841.
  J. M. Berrien,          ”  {1825   ”  1829.
                             {1841   ”  1851.
  A. Cuthbert,            ”   1837   ”  1843.
  W. T. Colquitt,         ”   1843   ”  1849.
  H. V. Johnson,          ”   1848   ”  1849.
  W. C. Dawson,           ”   1849   ”  1855.
  Robert Toombs,          ”   1853   ”  1861.
  R. M. Charleton,        ”   1852   ”  1853.
  Alfred Iverson,         ”   1855   ”  1861.
  Joshua Hill,            ”   1871   ”  1873.
  Foster Blodgett,        ”   1871   ”  1871.
  Thomas M. Norwood,      ”   1871   ”  1877.
  John B. Gordon,         ”   1873   ”  1879.


[Illustration]

NORTH CAROLINA.

A Florentine navigator, sent out by Francis I., King of France, first
published an account of this region. He visited it in 1524. Ribault, a
French protestant, sent out with a colony by Admiral Coligni, in 1564,
named the southern coast Carolina, from Charles IX. (in Latin Carolus),
King of France. The colony was not permanent. In 1585 Sir Walter Raleigh
made an unsuccessful attempt to establish a colony on Roanoke Island.
Some fifty years later the colonists of Virginia made a settlement in the
limits of this State, called Albemarle. This territory was patented to
a company of noblemen. The first colony, founded before this patent was
issued, and enjoying entire liberty, became an asylum from the religious
intolerance, almost universal at that time. In 1666 they numbered 800.

Many French Huguenots, attracted by this freedom and the mild climate
and extreme fertility of the soil, settled here and added greatly to the
industrious and virtuous elements of the population. The revolutionary
struggle was singularly bitter and bloody in this State and South
Carolina, from the number and sanguinary character of the royalists and
tories, and from the partisan or guerrilla mode of warfare adopted.

The majority were, however, determined and valiant patriots, and rendered
it impossible for the British to establish a firm control over this part
of the country.

The eastern surface is low, the western mountainous, and much of the
midland is covered with pine forests which produce large quantities of
turpentine. The soil is favorable to agriculture. Yams, rice, and cotton,
in addition to the cereals, are raised with success. The fisheries in
Albemarle Sound are an important source of wealth. A large number of
minerals are found in the State. Like most of the Southern States, its
resources have been but partially developed.

This is one of the original thirteen States, and has an area of 50,704
square miles, equal to 32,450,560 acres, with a population of 1,069,614
(one-third colored), and entitled to eight members of Congress. North
Carolina, by act of 1866, was located in the fourth judicial circuit,
which is composed of Maryland, Virginia, West Virginia, North Carolina,
and South Carolina; and is divided into three judicial districts, called
the districts of Albemarle, Pamlico, and Cape Fear. The collection
districts, and the ports of entry and delivery in this State have been so
often modified and discontinued that there is some uncertainty as to the
number. There are, as near as we can determine, ten districts, ten ports
of entry, and nine ports of delivery.

Raleigh is the capital. There the Legislature meets biennially on the
first Monday in November. The State election is held on the first
Thursday in August.

The enacting clause of the laws is as follows: “Be it enacted by the
General Assembly of the State of North Carolina, and it is hereby enacted
by the authority of the same.”


UNITED STATES SENATORS.

  Samuel Johnson,       from  1789  to  1793.
  Benjamin Hawkins,       ”   1789   ”  1795.
  Alexander Martin,       ”   1793   ”  1799.
  Timothy Bloodworth,     ”   1795   ”  1801.
  Jesse Franklin          ”  {1799   ”  1805.
                             {1807   ”  1813.
  David Stone,            ”   1801   ”  1813.
  James Turner,           ”   1805   ”  1816.
  Nathaniel Macon,        ”   1815   ”  1828.
  James Iredell,          ”   1828   ”  1831.
  Montford Stokes,        ”   1816   ”  1823.
  John Branch,            ”   1823   ”  1829.
  Bedford Brown,          ”   1829   ”  1840.
  Willie P. Mangum,       ”  {1840   ”  1853.
                             {1831   ”  1836.
  Robert Strange,         ”   1836   ”  1840.
  William A. Graham,      ”   1840   ”  1843.
  William H. Haywood,     ”   1843   ”  1846.
  George E. Badger,       ”   1846   ”  1855.
  Asa Biggs,              ”   1854   ”  1858.
  David S. Reed,          ”   1855   ”  1859.
  Thomas L. Clingman,     ”   1858   ”  1861.
  Thomas Bragg,           ”   1859   ”  1861.
  Joseph C. Abbott,       ”   1868   ”  1871.
  John Pool,              ”   1868   ”  1873.
  Zebulon B. Vance,       ”   1871   ”  1873.
  Matthew W. Ransom,      ”   ----   ”  1877.
  Augustus S. Merriman,   ”   1873   ”  1879.


[Illustration]

NEW YORK.

The “Empire State” is very fortunately situated for the promotion of all
the interests that form the basis of prosperity of a Nation. It contains
the commercial metropolis of the country, which is connected, by its
great navigable river, the Hudson, and the Erie canal, with the fertile
interior and the commerce of the chain of great lakes in the west; while
Lakes Ontario and Champlain furnish the means of profitable trade with
Canada on the north. As its natural commercial facilities are unrivaled,
so also, every auxiliary that can be furnished by art is employed to
develop its resources and to attract trade and manufactures.

Its river was discovered by the celebrated navigator, Captain Henry
Hudson, in 1609, and he gave it his name. He was employed, at this time
by the Dutch, who claimed and settled the territory in the following
year. They established posts on Manhattan Island, where New York now
stands, and at Albany—calling the country in general, New Netherlands.
They held it until 1644; laying claim, also, to Connecticut and New
Jersey. Their rule was despotic, and when the Duke of York, afterward
James II., King of England, sent a squadron to enforce English claims
to it, the inhabitants declined to resist, and it became an English
colony without a struggle. The city and colony received the name of New
York and continued henceforth in English hands. Its position favored
a steady-growth in population and wealth; and it took an active part
in the Revolution. Its central position made it the pivot of the war,
the leading struggles taking place in or near it. New York city was
held by the British during most of the war, but the skillful strategy
and watchfulness of Washington, and the valor of his officers and
troops preserved the river in American hands throughout. It ratified
the Constitution July 26th, 1788, and soon outstripped every State
in all things, except education, no State being able to compare with
Massachusetts in that respect.

New York is the largest and richest city in the Union. The State abounds
in salt and mineral springs, and its central and western parts are
unexcelled for agriculture; while the eastern, more mountainous, but
nearer to markets, and more abundant in water power, is equally favorable
to grazing and manufactures.

Its area is 47,000 square miles, equal to 30,080,000 acres. The
population in 1870 was larger than that of any other State, being
officially stated at 4,364,411. It has thirty-three Members of Congress.

It forms part of the second judicial circuit, and has three judicial
districts; eleven ports of entry, and fourteen ports of delivery, with
the privilege of eight or nine others if the President of the United
States deems them necessary.

The Capital is Albany. The State elections are held on the Tuesday after
the first Monday in November, and the Legislature meets on the first
Tuesday in January in each year. The style of the enacting clause is: “Be
it enacted by the people of the State of New York represented in Senate
and Assembly.”


UNITED STATES SENATORS.

  Philip Schuyler,      from  1789  to  1791.
  Rufus King,             ”  {1789   ”  1796.
                             {1813   ”  1825.
  Aaron Burr,             ”   1791   ”  1797.
  John Lawrence,          ”   1796   ”  1800.
  John S. Hobart,         ”   1798   ”  1798.
  William North,          ”   1798   ”  1798.
  James Watson,           ”   1798    Resigned.
  Governeur Morris,       ”   1800   ”  1803.
  John Armstrong,         ”  {1800   ”  1802.
                             {1803   ”  1804.
  DeWitt Clinton,         ”   1802   ”  1803.
  Theodore Bailey,        ”   1803   ”  1804.
  Samuel L. Mitchell,     ”   1804   ”  1809.
  John Smith,             ”   1804   ”  1813.
  Obadiah German,         ”   1809   ”  1815.
  Nathan Sanford,         ”  {1815   ”  1821.
                             {1825   ”  1831.
  Martin Van Buren,       ”   1821   ”  1829.
  Charles Dudley,         ”   1829   ”  1833.
  William L. Marcy,       ”   1831   ”  1833.
  Nath’l P. Tallmadge,    ”   1833   ”  1844.
  Silas Wright,           ”   1833   ”  1844.
  Daniel S. Dickinson,    ”   1844   ”  1851.
  Henry A. Foster,        ”   1844   ”  1845.
  John A. Dix,            ”   1845   ”  1849.
  William H. Seward,      ”   1849   ”  1861.
  Hamilton Fish,          ”   1851   ”  1857.
  Preston King,           ”   1857   ”  1863.
  Ira Harris,             ”   1861   ”  1867.
  Edwin D. Morgan,        ”   1863   ”  1869.
  Roscoe Conkling,        ”   1867   ”  1879.
  Reuben E. Fenton,       ”   1869   ”  1875.
  Francis Kernan,         ”   1875   ”  1881.


[Illustration]

PENNSYLVANIA.

“The Keystone State” has been eminently fortunate in three various ways.
Its founder, William Penn, happily united benevolence and high political
wisdom, with a thrifty and prudent economy, and possessed sufficient
influence and tact to infuse his colony with his own qualities to a large
degree, and the advantages acquired in the beginning, have shed their
favoring influence on all its future, to the present time.

Penn, as proprietor of his province, had almost kingly power; yet, as a
law-giver, he acknowledged the liberties of the people, and accustomed
them to many of the forms of self-government afterward incorporated into
the Constitution of the United States. His just and conciliatory conduct
toward the Indians, and the exemption of Pennsylvania from barbarous
Indian wars, in consequence, proves the utility of the practice of
unvarying justice and kindness toward them; and stands in strong and
significant contrast with the opposite course, so often pursued, and with
results so distressing.

A colony was established by Penn in the southeastern part of the State,
in the year 1682. The government was conducted by a governor, a council
of three, and a House of Delegates, chosen by the people. The largest
religious liberty was allowed, and punishment of crime was mitigated from
the severity, customary in those times, to something like the mildness
now practiced among us.

The colony enjoyed seventy years of enlightened government, and prospered
greatly. A large immigration of hardy and thrifty Germans and Swedes
spread over the State and supplied, in Revolutionary times, the
“fighting material” which the religious principles of the Quakers forbade
them to furnish.

The second eminent advantage of the State, was in its central position,
the facilities furnished to commerce and trade by the Delaware river on
its eastern boundary, and the Ohio, on the west, connecting it with the
valley of the Mississippi.

The third superiority, later in development in some of its features,
relates to its wealth of resources. Lying midway between north and south,
its climate is temperate and mild. Its soil on the eastern border and
along the valleys of its numerous rivers is of great fertility; while its
inexhaustible coal deposits are far more valuable in promoting the steady
growth of her citizens in wealth than mines of gold. Iron, copper, zinc,
marble and slate are, apparently, inexhaustible. Her railroads and canals
furnish a suitable means for the development of these resources, and the
transportation for all her valuable commodities to profitable markets,
and prove her later citizens to have inherited the economic wisdom and
thrift of the founder of their State.

Pennsylvania valiantly bore the share in the struggles and sacrifices
of the Revolution to which her position, her wealth and numbers, called
her. Philadelphia—“The City of Brotherly Love” (the name means this,) was
the first capital of the Republic. It was there that the Declaration of
Independence was originated and signed.

Its area is 46,000 square miles, equal to 29,440,000 acres. The
population in 1870 was 3,515,993, entitling her to twenty-seven
Representatives in Congress.

It is in the third judicial circuit; and forms two judicial districts.
There are two ports of entry, and two collection districts. Harrisburg is
the capital; the Legislature assembling on the first Tuesday in January,
the State elections being held the second Tuesday in October.

The enacting clause of her laws is: “Be it enacted by the Senate and
House of Representatives of the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania in General
Assembly met; and it is hereby enacted by the authority of the same.”


UNITED STATES SENATORS.

  William Maclay,       from  1789  to  1791.
  Robert Morris,          ”   1789   ”  1795.
  Albert Gallatin,        ”   1793   ”  1794.
  James Ross,             ”   1794   ”  1803.
  William Bingham,        ”   1795   ”  1801.
  Peter Muhlenburgh,      ”   1801   ”  1802.
  Samuel Maclay,          ”   1803   ”  1808.
  Michael Leib,           ”   1808   ”  1814.
  Andrew Gregg,           ”   1807   ”  1813.
  Abner Lacock,           ”   1813   ”  1819.
  Jonathan Roberts,       ”   1814   ”  1821.
  Walter Lawrie,          ”   1819   ”  1825.
  William Findlay,        ”   1821   ”  1827.
  William Marks,          ”   1825   ”  1831.
  Isaac D. Barnard,       ”   1827   ”  1831.
  George M. Dallas,       ”   1831   ”  1833.
  William Wilkins,        ”   1831   ”  1834.
  Samuel McKean,          ”   1833   ”  1839.
  James Buchanan,         ”   1834   ”  1845.
  Daniel Sturgeon,        ”  {1839   ”  1851.
                             {1845   ”  1849.
  Simon Cameron,          ”  {1857   ”  1861.
                             {1867   ”  1873.
  James Cooper,           ”   1849   ”  1855.
  Charles E. Buckalew,    ”   1863   ”  1869.
  Richard Broadhead,      ”   1851   ”  1857.
  William Bigler,         ”   1855   ”  1861.
  Edgar Cowan,            ”   1861   ”  1867.
  David Wilmot,           ”   1861   ”  1863.
  John Scott,             ”   1869   ”  1875.
  Simon Cameron,          ”   1873   ”  1879.
  Wm. A. Wallace,         ”   1875   ”  1881.


[Illustration]

VIRGINIA.

“The Old Dominion,” as this State has been called, in familiar style,
has certain high claims to such a distinctive appellation. It was the
colony in which the first permanent settlement was made, and for fourteen
years before the perils of the wilderness were encountered by the Puritan
Fathers of New England, it confronted famine and Indian hostility. Its
people were quite different in character from those of most of the other
colonies. While many were from the lowest classes, a goodly number of
the gentry and nobility of England were transplanted to this colony.
Some were men of wealth, character and influence; and the hereditary
value of that element became conspicuous when revolutionary times came,
and the colonial government, which had been from the first, kept closely
dependent on the royal will, being set aside, permitted to this class
a free field of action. None were more eloquent, more zealous, more
valiant or wise, during the “time that tried men’s souls.” The talents,
patriotism, and wisdom of Washington, Jefferson, Madison, Monroe, and
many others almost equally useful, attest the quality of the Virginian
stock of patriots, and shed honor on their native State.

It was settled in 1607, at Jamestown. The infant colony was long
exposed to danger of destruction by Indian hostility; but, favored by
circumstances, grew up to strength, and became a protection to others.
An almost constant struggle was maintained with the royal governors,
who were disposed to encroach on their liberties. Notwithstanding the
number of decayed and worthless _gentlemen_, and the dregs of the English
populace, who entered as components into her population, as a whole,
they proved worthy of the republic they so largely helped to rear. Their
best blood was spilled in its cause, and their material support was never
withheld in time of need.

This State is much varied in surface. In the southeast it is low and
level; in the west and northwest mountainous, with numerous large streams
and fertile vallies, and a charming climate. Its mineral wealth of coal,
iron and salt is very great; its water power for manufacturing purposes
unsurpassed; and its commercial position everything to be desired. None
of these advantages have been more than partially improved; and the
future of the State is destined to be exceedingly brilliant. Old and
nourishing colleges testify to the interest taken in education; and
railroads and other means of internal development have already prepared
the way for its greatness. She exports tobacco, flour, oysters, and
cotton, and her agricultural wealth is constantly improving.

Virginia is also one of the original thirteen States, and had an area
previous to the division in 1862, of 61,352 square miles, equal to
39,265,280 acres; but after West Virginia was set off as a separate
State, there were but 38,352 square miles left of this once great State,
equal to 24,545,280 acres.

The population in 1860 amounted to 1,596,318, which entitles the State to
nine Members of Congress. By the division the number of Representatives
was cut down to nine; the new State receiving three out of the twelve.
Population in 1870, 1,224,830.

Virginia lies in the fourth judicial circuit, which by the act of 1866,
was composed of this State, Maryland, West Virginia, and North Carolina
and South Carolina. There were two judicial districts in this State,
anterior to the division; the Eastern and the Western. There is now but
one.

There were also twelve collection districts in this State, and twelve
ports of entry, all of which remain the same as they were before West
Virginia was cut off, for they were all located on the Atlantic coast, or
on the bays and rivers running into the Atlantic Ocean; there are also
ten ports of delivery.

Richmond is the capital. The State election is held on the Tuesday after
the first Monday in November. The Legislature meets on the first Monday
in December.

The enacting clause of the laws of Virginia is: “Be it enacted by the
General Assembly.”


UNITED STATES SENATORS.

  William Grayson,      from  1789  to  1790.
  Richard H. Lee,         ”   1789   ”  1792.
  John Walker,            ”   1790   ”  1790.
  James Monroe,           ”  {1790   ”  1794.
                             {1792   ”  1794.
  John Taylor,            ”  {1803   ”  1805.
                             {1822   ”  1824.
  Stephen T. Mason,       ”   1794   ”  1803.
  John Tazewell,          ”   1794   ”  1799.
  Wilson C. Nichols,      ”   1799   ”  1804.
  Abraham B. Venable,     ”   1803   ”  1804.
  William B. Giles,       ”   1804   ”  1815.
  Andrew Moore,           ”   1804   ”  1809.
  Richard Brent,          ”   1809   ”  1815.
  James Barbour,          ”   1815   ”  1825.
  Armistead T. Mason,     ”   1816   ”  1817.
  John W. Eppes,          ”   1817   ”  1819.
  James Pleasant,         ”   1819   ”  1822.
  John Randolph,          ”   1825   ”  1827.
  Littleton W. Tazewell,  ”   1824   ”  1832.
  John Tyler,             ”   1827   ”  1836.
  William C. Rives,       ”  {1832   ”  1834.
                             {1836   ”  1845.
  Benjamin W. Leigh,      ”   1834   ”  1836.
  Richard E. Parker,      ”   1836   ”  1837.
  William H. Roane,       ”   1837   ”  1841.
  William S. Archer,      ”   1841   ”  1847.
  Isaac S. Pennybacker,   ”   1845   ”  1847.
  James M. Mason,         ”   1847   ”  1861.
  R. M. T. Hunter,        ”   1847   ”  1861.
  John W. Johnston,       ”   1870   ”  1877.
  John F. Lewis,          ”   1870   ”  1875.
  Robert E. Withers,      ”   1875   ”  1881.


[Illustration]

SOUTH CAROLINA.

The first permanent settlement in this State was made in 1670, at Port
Royal, where the French Huguenots had failed three-quarters of a century
before. The noble company who had received a charter for the settlement
and government of the Carolinas employed the celebrated philosopher,
John Locke, to draw up a philosophical plan of government, which they
attempted to carry into effect to the great annoyance of the colonists.
It proved impracticable, and was finally abandoned.

The French introduced the culture of the vine with success, and rice was
brought at an early day from Madagascar, the cultivation of which became
extensive.

Many vexations were endured by the colonists by the injudicious
management of the proprietary government, and at length they, by
petition, obtained a revocation of the charter, receiving, in 1720, a
governor appointed by the crown. They endured for many years all the
horrors of warfare with the Tuscarora Indians, whom they finally defeated
and expelled. Rutledge, Sumpter, and Marion were distinguished leaders of
the patriots during the occupation of the State by the British forces;
employing with success a partisan warfare, and defying the efforts of a
superior British force to hold the State in subjection.

The climate has been likened to that of Italy, and the products of the
north and of the tropics are equally cultivated. The State abounds in
agricultural and manufacturing resources, and has a fine commercial
position.

South Carolina is one of the original thirteen States, and has an area
of 29,385 square miles, making 18,806,400 acres, with a population, in
1870, of 728,000, (over half colored,) which gives her five Members of
Congress.

By an act of 1866, South Carolina was located in the fourth judicial
circuit; it is divided into two judicial districts, called the Eastern
and Western.

There are three collection districts in this State, and four ports of
entry, to-wit: Georgetown, Charleston, Beaufort and Port Royal; but no
ports of delivery.

The capital is Columbia. The State elections are held on the fourth
Monday in November. The Legislature meets on the third Wednesday in
October.

The enacting clause of the laws is as follows: “Be it enacted by the
Honorable the Senate and House of Representatives, now met and sitting in
General Assembly, and by authority of the same.”


UNITED STATES SENATORS.

  Pierce Butler,        from {1790  to  1796.
                             {1802   ”  1804.
  Ralph Izard,            ”   1789   ”  1795.
  Jacob Read,             ”   1795   ”  1801.
  John Hunter,            ”   1796   ”  1798.
  Charles Pinckney,       ”   1798   ”  1801.
  Thomas Sumpter,         ”   1801   ”  1810.
  John E. Calhoun,        ”   1801   ”  1802.
  John Gaillard,          ”   1804   ”  1826.
  John Taylor,            ”   1810   ”  1816.
  William Smith,          ”  {1816   ”  1823.
                             {1826   ”  1831.
  William Harper,         ”   1826   ”  1826.
  Robert J. Hane,         ”   1823   ”  1832.
  Stephen D. Miller,      ”   1831   ”  1833.
  John C. Calhoun,        ”  {1832   ”  1842.
                             {1845   ”  1850.
  William C. Preston,     ”   1833   ”  1842.
  Daniel E. Huger,        ”   1842   ”  1845.
  George McDuffie,        ”   1842   ”  1846.
  Andrew P. Butler,       ”   1846   ”  1857.
  Franklin H. Elmore,     ”   1850   ”  1850.
  Robert W. Barnwell,     ”   1850   ”  1852.
  William Desaussure,     ”   1852   ”  1852.
  Josiah Evans,           ”   1852   ”  1858.
  James H. Hammond,       ”   1857   ”  1860.
  James Chestnut,         ”   1858   ”  1861.
  Arthur P. Hayne,        ”   1858.
  Thomas J. Robertson,    ”   1868   ”  1877.
  Frederick A. Sawyer,    ”   1868   ”  1873.
  John J. Patterson,      ”   1873   ”  1879.


[Illustration]

MARYLAND.

This territory at first was included in the patent to the Virginia
colony; but was, in 1632, re-patented to Lord Baltimore, an English
nobleman, who had embraced the catholic faith, and sought, in the
American wilderness, an asylum where he and his co-religionists might
enjoy the freedom from persecution denied them in England. It was called
Maryland from the queen of Charles I., King of England. A part of this
patent was covered by that subsequently made to William Penn, and
produced much trouble between the descendants of these men, and their
respective colonies. A settlement was commenced, mainly by catholic
gentlemen, in 1634, and called St. Mary’s, on a branch of the Potomac.

The wise liberality that distinguished the settlement of Pennsylvania
marked all the earlier history of Maryland. They cultivated friendly
relations with the natives and with their neighbors. Lord Baltimore was
liberal in his expenditures for the growing colony, and gave them a
liberal government. When the civil war commenced in England, resulting
in the death of Charles I. and the rise of Cromwell to power, the first
troubles of the colonists of Maryland began, and continued until 1716,
when the heirs of the original proprietor resumed their rights and
maintained them until the Revolution.

This State was one of the original thirteen, and gave a hearty support to
the patriot side during the war for freedom.

The surface of the country is, in great part, low and sandy; the climate
agreeable and the soil favorable to agricultural pursuits. Her commercial
position is excellent, being situated on either side of Chesapeake bay
and bounded by the Potomac river on the west. The District of Columbia,
containing the National Capital, was located on the last named river
within her limits.

Maryland has an area of 11,124 square miles—equal to 7,119,360 acres.
The population in 1870 was 780,806, which gives her six Representatives
in Congress. By an act of Congress, passed in 1866, this State was put
in the fourth judicial circuit, which is composed of Maryland, Virginia,
West Virginia, North and South Carolina. Maryland constitutes one
judicial district; has ten ports of entry, viz.: Baltimore, Chester,
Oxford, Vienna, Snow-Hill, Annapolis, Nottingham, St. Mary’s, Georgetown,
and Havre de Grace; and twelve ports of delivery.

Annapolis is the capital. The State election is held on the Tuesday
after the first Monday in November. The Legislature meets on the first
Wednesday in January.

The enacting clause of the laws is as follows: “Be it enacted by the
General Assembly of Maryland.”


UNITED STATES SENATORS.

  Charles Carroll,  }   from  1789  to  1793.
    (of Carrollton) }
  John Henry,             ”   1789   ”  1797.
  Richard Potts,          ”   1793   ”  1796.
  John E. Howard,         ”   1796   ”  1803.
  James Lloyd,            ”   1797   ”  1800.
  William Hindman,        ”   1800   ”  1801.
  Robert Wright,          ”   1801   ”  1806.
  Samuel Smith,           ”  {1803   ”  1815.
                             {1822   ”  1833.
  Philip Reed,            ”   1806   ”  1813.
  R. H. Goldsborough,     ”  {1813   ”  1819.
                             {1835   ”  1836.
  Robert G. Harper,       ”   1816   ”  1816.
  Alexander C. Hanson,    ”   1816   ”  1819.
  William Pinckney,       ”   1819   ”  1822.
  Edward Lloyd,           ”   1819   ”  1826.
  Ezekiel F. Chambers,    ”   1826   ”  1835.
  Joseph Kent,            ”   1833   ”  1838.
  John S. Spence,         ”   1836   ”  1841.
  William D. Merrick,     ”   1838   ”  1845.
  John Leidsker,          ”   1841   ”  1843.
  James A. Pearce,        ”   1843   ”  1862.
  Reverdy Johnson,        ”  {1845   ”  1851.
                             {1863   ”  1868.
  David Stuart,           ”   1849   ”  1850.
  Thomas G. Pratt,        ”   1850   ”  1857.
  Anthony Kennedy,        ”   1857   ”  1863.
  Thomas H. Hicks,        ”   1862   ”  1864.
  John A. J. Cresswell,   ”   1865   ”  1867.
  Philip F. Thomas,       ”   ----   ”  1867.
  George Vickers,         ”   1868   ”  1873.
  William T. Hamilton,    ”   1869   ”  1875.
  George R. Dennis,       ”   1873   ”  1879.
  Wm. Pinckney Wythe,     ”   1875   ”  1881.


[Illustration]

NEW HAMPSHIRE.

This State is often called “The Old Granite State,” as well from its
mountainous character as the resolute spirit of its inhabitants. It is
small, having an area of only 9,280 square miles, which make 5,939,200
acres. Its population in 1870 was 318,300, entitling it to three
Representatives in Congress.

The first settlement was founded at Dover, in 1624, by the English. It
suffered much from Indian wars, and its growth was slow. It was made a
separate province in 1680, having previously been under the jurisdiction
of Massachusetts. It was one of the original thirteen States, and took an
active and vigorous part in the Revolutionary War.

Its soil is light and unfavorable to agriculture, but furnishes good
pasturage and produces fine cattle. It contains the White Mountains,
the highest in New England. Its streams are utilized for manufacturing
purposes. Quarries of marble and granite abound. Minerals, and precious
stones of several varieties are found in various parts of the State. The
hardy and enterprising sons to whom it has given birth are to be found in
every State in the Union.

It lies in the first judicial circuit; constitutes one judicial district;
and is embraced in one collection district, and therefore has but one
port of entry. There are three ports of delivery.

The capital is Concord. The Legislature assembles on the first Monday in
June, the State election being held the second Tuesday in March.

The enacting clause of the laws runs thus: “Be it enacted by the Senate
and House of Representatives in General Assembly convened.”


UNITED STATES SENATORS.

  Paine Wingate,        from  1789  to  1793.
  John Langdon,           ”   1789   ”  1801.
  Samuel Livermore,       ”   1793   ”  1801.
  Simeon Olcott,          ”   1801   ”  1805.
  James Sheafe,           ”   1801   ”  1802.
  William Plummer,        ”   1802   ”  1807.
  Nicholas Gilman,        ”   1805   ”  1814.
  Nahum Parker,           ”   1807   ”  1810.
  Charles Cutts,          ”   1810   ”  1813.
  Jeremiah Mason,         ”   1813   ”  1817.
  Thomas W. Thompson,     ”   1814   ”  1817.
  David L. Morrill,       ”   1817   ”  1823.
  Clement Storer,         ”   1817   ”  1819.
  John F. Parrott,        ”   1819   ”  1825.
  Samuel Bell,            ”   1823   ”  1835.
  Levi Woodbury,          ”  {1825   ”  1831.
                             {1841   ”  1845.
  Isaac Hill,             ”   1831   ”  1835.
  Henry Hubbard,          ”   1835   ”  1841.
  John Page,              ”   1836   ”  1837.
  Franklin Pierce,        ”   1837   ”  1842.
  Leonard Wilcox,         ”   1842   ”  1842.
  Charles G. Atherson,    ”  {1843   ”  1849.
                             {1852   ”  1853.
  Benning W. Jenness,     ”   1845   ”  1846.
  Joseph Cilley,          ”   1846   ”  1847.
  John P. Hale,           ”  {1847   ”  1853.
                             {1855   ”  1865.
  Moses Norris,           ”   1849   ”  1855.
  Jared W. Williams,      ”   1853   ”  1854.
  John S. Wells,          ”   1855   ”  1855.
  James Bell,             ”   1855   ”  1857.
  Daniel Clark,           ”   1857   ”  1866.
  George C. Fogg,         ”   1866   ”  1867.
  James W. Paterson,      ”   1867   ”  1873.
  Aaron H. Cragin,        ”   1867   ”  1877.
  Bainbridge Wadleigh,    ”   1873   ”  1879.


[Illustration]

NEW JERSEY.

This State was first settled at Bergen by the Swedes sent over by the
Christian hero-king, Gustavus Adolphus, in the year 1638. They, however,
soon fell under the control of the Dutch, who claimed the territory. The
next settlement was made at Elizabethtown, from Long Island, in 1664. New
Jersey came into the hands of the English along with New Netherlands,
but soon became an independent province; Philip Carteret becoming its
first governor, in 1665. It was for some time under the control of the
celebrated Quaker, William Penn, received a liberal form of government,
and, not suffering from the Indians enjoyed prosperity for many years.
Afterwards it passed through various vicissitudes in its government, was
for a time joined to New York, but recovered its independent existence
in 1738; and was one of the original thirteen States, taking a very
prominent part in the Revolution. Its territory, lying between New York
and Philadelphia, was the field on which the hostile armies fought and
manouvered, for some years. It ratified the Constitution unanimously,
December 18th, 1787. It has been rewarded for its patriotism and devotion
to liberty by unbroken prosperity. Its manufactures are in a flourishing
state. Its vicinity to the great commercial centres of the Atlantic
coast; the mildness of its climate, and the adaptation of its soil to
the growth of fruit and vegetables have made it the Garden State of the
Union. Its agricultural wealth is much increased by its abundant beds of
marl and peat. The extreme north is hilly and the extreme south low and
sandy. Education receives much attention.

It has an area of 8,320 square miles, or 5,324,800 acres. The
population, by the census of 1870, was 905,794, which gives her seven
Representatives in Congress.

This State lies in the third judicial circuit, and forms one judicial
district. There are six ports of entry, and as many collection districts;
and also eight ports of delivery.

Its capital is Trenton. The State election is held on the Tuesday after
the first Monday in November, and the Legislature assembles the second
Tuesday in January.

The form of the enacting clause is as follows: “Be it enacted by the
Senate and General Assembly of the State of New Jersey.”


UNITED STATES SENATORS.

  Jonathan Elmer,       from  1789  to  1791.
  William Patterson,      ”   1789   ”  1790.
  Philemon Dickerson,     ”   1790   ”  1793.
  John Rutherford,        ”   1791   ”  1798.
  Fred’k Frelinghuysen,   ”   1793   ”  1796.
  Richard Stockton,       ”   1796   ”  1799.
  Franklin Davenport,     ”   1798   ”  1799.
  James Schureman,        ”   1799   ”  1801.
  Jonathan Dayton,        ”   1799   ”  1805.
  Aaron Ogden,            ”   1801   ”  1803.
  John Condit,            ”   1803   ”  1811.
  Aaron Kitchell,         ”   1805   ”  1809.
  John Lambert,           ”   1809   ”  1815.
  Mahlon Dickerson,       ”   1817   ”  1833.
  James J. Wilson,        ”   1815   ”  1821.
  Samuel L. Southard,     ”  {1821   ”  1823.
                             {1833   ”  1841.
  Joseph McIlvaine,       ”   1823   ”  1826.
  Thos. Frelinghuysen,    ”   1829   ”  1835.
  Ephraim Bateman,        ”   1826   ”  1829.
  Garret D. Wall,         ”   1835   ”  1841.
  Jacob Miller,           ”   1841   ”  1853.
  William L. Dayton,      ”   1842   ”  1851.
  John B. Thompson,       ”   1853   ”  1863.
  William Pennington,     ”   1858   ”  1858.
  William Wright,         ”  {1853   ”  1859.
                             {1863   ”  1866.
  Robert F. Stockton,     ”   1851   ”  1853.
  John C. Ten Eyck,       ”   1859   ”  1865.
  Richard S. Field,       ”   1862   ”  1863.
  James W. Wall,          ”   1863   ”  1863.
  John P. Stockton,       ”   1865   ”  1866.
  F. T. Frelinghuysen,    ”   1867   ”  1869.
  Alexander G. Cattell,   ”   1866   ”  1871.
  John P. Stockton,       ”   1869   ”  1875.
  F. T. Frelinghuysen,    ”   1871   ”  1877.
  Thos. F. Randolph,      ”   1875   ”  1881.


[Illustration]

MASSACHUSETTS.

The “Bay State,” so named from the deep encroachments of the sea on her
eastern border, was settled in 1620, at Plymouth, by English Puritans;
a class of sternly pious men, who abandoned England to find freedom
of worship in the savage wilds of America. They were men of great
resolution and intelligence, and succeeded in imbuing the new colony
with a fair degree of their own virtue. They suffered much, at first,
from deprivation of the comforts they had left in England, and from the
hostility of the Indians. They were too much in earnest to be tolerant,
and persecutions of pretended witches, of Quakers and Baptists, have
given them an unenviable notoriety.

This State was a leading one among the original thirteen, and the
first to take up arms and to be invaded by the British forces at the
commencement of the War of the Revolution. Her influence on the national
character has been great.

This State is the first in the Union for cotton and woolen manufactures,
its cotton mills alone employing about twenty-five thousand hands. In
extent of all its manufactures it is third in the Union. The soil is
sterile in great part, but the energy of the people finds abundant other
sources of wealth. Commerce and fisheries receive much attention, and
produce much wealth.

Education is carefully attended to, and its public school system a model
for other States. She has an area of 7,800 square miles. Her population
in 1870 was 1,457,351, and entitles her to eleven Members of Congress. It
is in the first judicial circuit, and forms one judicial district. There
are fourteen ports of entry, and twenty-five ports of delivery in this
State.

Boston is the Capital, the metropolis of New England, and an important
center of intellectual and business energy. The Legislature meets on
the first Wednesday in January, and the State elections are held on the
Tuesday after the first Monday in January.

The enacting clause is: “Be it enacted by the Senate and House of
Representatives, in General Court assembled, and by the authority of the
same, as follows:”


UNITED STATES SENATORS.

  Tristram Dalton,      from  1789  to  1791.
  Caleb Strong,           ”   1789   ”  1796.
  George Cabot,           ”   1791   ”  1796.
  Theo. Sedgewick,        ”   1796   ”  1799.
  Benj. Goodhue,          ”   1796   ”  1800.
  Samuel Dexter,          ”   1799   ”  1800.
  Dwight Foster,          ”   1800   ”  1803.
  Jonathan Mason,         ”   1800   ”  1803.
  John Q. Adams,          ”   1803   ”  1808.
  Timothy Pickering,      ”   1803   ”  1811.
  James Lloyd,            ”  {1808   ”  1813.
                             {1822   ”  1826.
  Joseph B. Varnum,       ”   1811   ”  1817.
  Christopher Gore,       ”   1813   ”  1816.
  Eli P. Ashmun,          ”   1816   ”  1818.
  Harrison Gray Otis,     ”   1817   ”  1822.
  Prentiss Mellen,        ”   1818   ”  1820.
  Elijah H. Mills,        ”   1820   ”  1827.
  Nathaniel Silsbee,      ”   1826   ”  1835.
  Daniel Webster,         ”  {1827   ”  1841.
                             {1845   ”  1850.
  Rufus Choate,           ”   1841   ”  1845.
  John Davis,             ”  {1835   ”  1841.
                             {1845   ”  1853.
  Isaac C. Bates,         ”   1841   ”  1845.
  Robert C. Winthrop,     ”   1850   ”  1851.
  Robert Rantoul,         ”   1851   ”  1851.
  Edward Everett,         ”   1853   ”  1854.
  Julius Rockwell,        ”   1854   ”  1855.
  [2]Henry Wilson,        ”   1855   ”  1873.
  Charles Sumner,         ”   1851   ”  1874.
  George S. Boutwell,     ”   1873   ”  1877.
  William Washburn,       ”   1874   ”  1875.
  Henry L. Dawes,         ”   1875   ”  1881.

    [2] Elected Vice President, and when inaugurated Mr. Boutwell
    was elected to fill out the unexpired term.


[Illustration]

CONNECTICUT.

This State takes its name from its principal river, which, entering from
the north, runs through the State nearly in the center. It was settled in
1633 from Massachusetts, the fertility of the valley of the Connecticut
attracting them to brave the perils of conflict with the Indians, and
with the Dutch, settled where New York now stands, who laid claim to it.
The Dutch withdrew, the Indians were subdued in many bloody battles,
and a Puritan State—exceeding, if possible, the religious strictness of
the Massachusetts colony, and not behind her in energy, in virtue, in
attention to education, and love of liberty—soon grew up to wealth and
prosperity.

A decisive battle in 1636, on the Mystic river, annihilated the Pequod
Indians.

Connecticut, in 1700, followed the example set by Massachusetts in 1638,
by founding Yale college, which, to this day, very fairly rivals Harvard
in the former State. Both have contributed largely to the intelligence
and culture of the American people. It took a leading part in the
Revolution; ratified the constitution June 9th, 1788; and has displayed
the zeal in promoting the public good that has been so prominent in the
cultivation of her educational and material interests.

The surface of the State is uneven and rocky. Manufactures and commerce
are the leading interests, although agriculture is not neglected. It is
rich in minerals. Gold, silver, lead, iron, copper and bismuth are found,
while marble, of fine quality, and granite abound.

Its area is small, embracing only 4,674 square miles, or 2,991,360
acres. It has four representatives in Congress. The population in 1870
was 537,418. It is part of the second judicial circuit, and constitutes
one judicial district. She has five ports of entry, and five collection
districts, with twenty-two ports of delivery.

It has had two capitals ever since the first two colonies, established at
Hartford and New Haven, were united; and holds her State election on the
first Monday in April. The Legislature meets the first Wednesday in May.

The enacting clause runs thus: “Be it enacted by the Senate and House of
Representatives in General Assembly convened.”


UNITED STATES SENATORS.

  Oliver Ellsworth,     from  1789  to  1796.
  William S. Johnson,     ”   1789   ”  1791.
  Roger Sherman,          ”   1791   ”  1793.
  S. M. Mitchell,         ”   1793   ”  1795.
  Jonathan Trumbull,      ”   1795   ”  1796.
  Uriah Tracey,           ”   1796   ”  1807.
  J. Hillhouse,           ”   1796   ”  1810.
  C. Goodrich,            ”   1807   ”  1813.
  S. W. Dana,             ”   1810   ”  1821.
  David Doggett,          ”   1813   ”  1819.
  James Lanman,           ”   1819   ”  1825.
  E. Boardman,            ”   1821   ”  1823.
  H. W. Edwards,          ”   1823   ”  1827.
  Calvin Willey,          ”   1825   ”  1831.
  Samuel A. Foot,         ”   1827   ”  1833.
  G. Tomlinson,           ”   1831   ”  1837.
  Nathan Smith,           ”   1833   ”  1835.
  John M. Niles,          ”  {1835   ”  1839.
                             {1843   ”  1849.
  Perry Smith,            ”   1837   ”  1843.
  Thaddeus Betts,         ”   1839   ”  1840.
  J. W. Huntington,       ”   1840   ”  1847.
  R. S. Baldwin,          ”   1847   ”  1851.
  Truman Smith,           ”   1849   ”  1855.
  Isaac Toucey,           ”   1852   ”  1857.
  Francis Gillette,       ”   1854   ”  1856.
  L. S. Foster,           ”   1855   ”  1867.
  James Dixon,            ”   1857   ”  1869.
  Orris S. Ferry,         ”   1867   ”  1879.
  W. A. Buckingham,       ”   1869   ”  1875.
  Wm. W. Eaton,           ”   1875   ”  1881.


[Illustration]

DELAWARE.

The first settlement of Delaware was made by the Swedes, in pursuance
of the policy of the valiant Gustavus Adolphus, king of Sweden. European
wars, in which he was engaged, and in which he lost his life in 1633,
deferred the project, but it was carried into effect in 1638, near the
present city of Wilmington. They extended their settlements from the
entrance of Delaware bay far up the river, until the Dutch, from New
Netherlands, who claimed the country, attacked and reduced them to
submission, uniting New Sweden, as it had been called, to their own
colony, in the year 1655. It fell, with that colony, into the hands of
the English in 1664. It was included in the grant made to William Penn,
in 1692. It was long attached to Pennsylvania, but in 1703 received
permission to form a separate government, on the wise and liberal
plan pursued by Penn. This form of government continued through the
Revolutionary war.

The surface of the State is level, or gently undulating, the climate is
agreeable, except that, in winter, the sea breeze is somewhat harsh; the
soil is sandy but fertile. Grain and fruit are raised, peaches being
produced in great profusion. Her commercial and manufacturing business is
limited, and she is destitute of mineral wealth.

It is next to Rhode Island in size, containing the small area of 2,120
square miles, or 1,356,800 acres. Population 125,015.


UNITED STATES SENATORS.

  George Read,          from  1789  to  1793.
  R. Bassett,             ”   1789   ”  1793.
  John Vining,            ”   1793   ”  1798.
  Kensey Johns,           ”   1794   ”  1795.
  Henry Latimer,          ”   1795   ”  1801.
  Joshua Clayton,         ”   1798   ”  1799.
  W. H. Wells,            ”  {1799   ”  1804.
                             {1813   ”  1817.
  Samuel White,           ”   1801   ”  1810.
  J. A. Bayard,           ”   1804   ”  1813.
  O. Horsey,              ”   1810   ”  1821.
  N. Van Dyke,            ”   1817   ”  1826.
  C. A. Rodney,           ”   1822   ”  1823.
  T. Clayton,             ”  {1824   ”  1827.
                             {1837   ”  1847.
  D. Rodney,              ”   1826   ”  1827.
  H. Ridgely,             ”   1827   ”  1829.
  L. McLane,              ”   1827   ”  1829.
  J. M. Clayton,          ”  {1829   ”  1837.
                             {1845   ”  1849.
  A. Naudain,             ”   1830   ”  1836.
  R. H. Bayard,           ”   1836   ”  1845.
  P. Spruance,            ”   1847   ”  1853.
  John Wales,             ”   1849   ”  1851.
  J. A. Bayard,           ”   1851   ”  1864.
  M. W. Bates,            ”   1857   ”  1859.
  J. P. Comeygs,          ”   1856   ”  1857.
  W. Saulsbury,           ”   1859   ”  1871.
  G. R. Riddle,           ”   1864   ”  1867.
  J. A. Bayard,           ”   1867   ”  1869.
  Thomas F. Bayard,       ”   1869   ”  1881.
  Eli Saulsbury,          ”   1871   ”  1877.


[Illustration]

RHODE ISLAND.

This is the smallest of the States, having an area of but 1,306 square
miles, or 835,840 acres.

It was settled in 1636 by Roger Williams, and became an avowed place
of refuge for persecuted christians of all names, but especially for
Baptists, among whom Mr. Williams was a leader. It was chartered as a
separate colony in 1644, and the excellent constitution framed under it
lasted until 1818. It was one of the original thirteen States and took
an earnest share in the struggles of the revolution, though it was not
represented in the convention that framed the Constitution, and did not
ratify it until 1790.

Its citizens are mainly engaged in the manufacturing and commercial
pursuits for which their excellent harbors and streams furnish eminent
facilities. It has always been prosperous, its people being distinguished
for industry and activity. Its population was, in 1870, 217,356.

Rhode Island forms part of the first judicial circuit; constitutes one
judicial district; and has three ports of entry, and seven of delivery.
It has two capitals, having been originally formed of two separate
colonies. These are Providence and Newport. The election for State
officers is held on the first Wednesday in April. The Legislature is held
twice in the year, in May and January. The style of her enacting clause
is: “It is enacted by the General Assembly, as follows.”


UNITED STATES SENATORS.

  Theodore Foster,      from  1790  to  1803.
  Joseph Stanton,         ”   1790   ”  1793.
  William Bradford,       ”   1793   ”  1797.
  Ray Green,              ”   1797   ”  1801.
  Charles Ellery,         ”   1801   ”  1805.
  Samuel L. Potter,       ”   1803   ”  1804.
  Benjamin Howland,       ”   1804   ”  1809.
  James Fenner,           ”   1805   ”  1807.
  Elisha Matthewson,      ”   1807   ”  1811.
  Francis Malbone,        ”   1809   ”  1809.
  C. G. Champlin,         ”   1809   ”  1811.
  Jeremiah B. Howell,     ”   1811   ”  1817.
  William Hunter,         ”   1811   ”  1831.
  James Burrill,          ”   1817   ”  1821.
  James D’Wolf,           ”   1821   ”  1825.
  Nehemiah R. Knight,     ”   1821   ”  1841.
  Asher Robbins,          ”   1825   ”  1839.
  Nathan F. Dixon,        ”   1839   ”  1842.
  James F. Simmons,       ”  {1841   ”  1847.
                             {1857   ”  1862.
  William Sprague,        ”   1842   ”  1844.
  John B. Francis,        ”   1844   ”  1845.
  Albert C. Green,        ”   1845   ”  1851.
  John H. Clarke,         ”   1847   ”  1853.
  Charles T. James,       ”   1851   ”  1857.
  Philip Allen,           ”   1853   ”  1859.
  Samuel G. Arnold,       ”   1862   ”  1863.
  Henry B. Anthony,       ”  {1859   ”  1865.
                             {1865   ”  1877.
  William Sprague,        ”   1862   ”  1875.
  Ambrose E. Burnside,    ”   1875   ”  1881.


[Illustration]

VERMONT.

This State received its name from the French name of its range of
mountains, (“verd mont” meaning “Green Mountain.”) It was settled in
1731, and was at first considered part of New Hampshire, and afterwards
claimed by New York. These claims were vigorously resisted, but it
had no organized government until 1777. It did good service in the
Revolution; but was not admitted into the Union until 1791, making the
fourteenth State. Col. Ethan Allen at the head of 270 “Green Mountain
Boys” took possession of Forts Ticonderoga and Crown Point in the name of
the Continental Congress, in 1775, and thus assured the northern water
communication with Canada to the Americans.

The climate of Vermont though cold, is pleasant and even, the soil
fertile in the valleys, and the streams supply excellent water power,
which, however, is little used. Maple sugar is produced in abundance,
while its facilities for raising stock are equal to those of New
Hampshire. Granite, marble of fine quality, and slate quarries abound.
Its provision for education is very liberal.

It has three representatives in Congress; forms part of the second
judicial circuit, and constitutes one judicial district. One port of
entry and two of delivery are authorized to be named by the President of
the United States.

Montpelier is the capital. The State election is held on the first
Tuesday in September, and the Legislature meets on the first Wednesday in
October.

The enacting clause begins: “It is hereby enacted by the General Assembly
of the State of Vermont.”


UNITED STATES SENATORS.

  Moses Robinson,       from  1791  to  1796.
  Stephen R. Bradley,     ”  {1791   ”  1795.
                             {1801   ”  1813.
  Elijah Paine,           ”   1795   ”  1801.
  Isaac Tichenor,         ”  {1796   ”  1797.
                             {1815   ”  1821.
  Nathaniel Chipman,      ”   1797   ”  1803.
  Israel Smith,           ”   1803   ”  1807.
  Jonathan Robinson,      ”   1807   ”  1815.
  Dudley Chase,           ”  {1813   ”  1817.
                             {1825   ”  1831.
  James Fisk,             ”   1817   ”  1818.
  William A. Palmer,      ”   1818   ”  1825.
  Horatio Seymour,        ”   1821   ”  1833.
  Samuel Prentiss,        ”   1831   ”  1842.
  Benjamin Swift,         ”   1833   ”  1839.
  Samuel S. Phelps,       ”   1839   ”  1851.
  Samuel C. Crafts,       ”   1842   ”  1843.
  William Upham,          ”   1843   ”  1855.
  Solomon Foote,          ”   1851   ”  1866.
  Samuel S. Phelps,       ”   1853   ”  1854.
  Lawrence Brainard,      ”   1854   ”  1855.
  Jacob Collamer,         ”   1855   ”  1865.
  Luke P. Poland,         ”   1865   ”  1867.
  George F. Edmunds,      ”   1866   ”  1881.
  Justin S. Morrill,      ”   1867   ”  1879.

[Illustration: VIEW IN THE BLUE GRASS REGION, KENTUCKY.]


[Illustration]

KENTUCKY.

Kentucky was formed from the territory of Virginia, and in point of
seniority is the fifteenth State of the American Union, having been
admitted on the first of June, 1792.

The _sobriquet_ of “dark and bloody ground” applied to Kentucky is very
suggestive of the sanguinary conflicts of her pioneer population with the
aboriginal lords of the soil. The celebrated Daniel Boone was among the
first white men to explore the wilderness of Kentucky. The first white
settlement was commenced at Boonesborough, about the year 1769. The area
of the State is 37,680 square miles, equal to 24,115,200 acres.

The climate is mild, and adapted to the production of cereals, grapes,
and fruits. The soil is very fertile. The surface presents a varied
aspect in its several portions. The southeastern part of the State is
mountainous, the central and northern portions are undulating, sometimes
hilly. The river bottoms are very productive. The State is well timbered.
Apple, pear, peach, plum and various other fruit trees are cultivated
with great success. The staple products are corn, tobacco and hemp.
Horses, mules and cattle are raised. Kentucky abounds in bituminous coal,
lead, iron pyrites, marble, freestone, gypsum, and cliff limestone.

The population in 1870 was 1,321,000. She is entitled to ten
representatives in Congress, is in the sixth judicial circuit and forms
one judicial district, has one port of entry, Louisville, and two ports
of delivery, viz.: Paducah and Columbus. Frankfort is the capital.

The State elections are held on the first Monday in August. The
Legislature meets on the first Monday in December, and is composed of two
houses—the Senate consisting of 38 members elected for four years; and a
House of Representatives elected for two years. The enacting clause of
the laws is: “Be it enacted by the General Assembly of the Commonwealth
of Kentucky.”


UNITED STATES SENATORS.

  John Brown,           from  1792  to  1805.
  John Edwards,           ”   1792   ”  1795.
  Humphrey Marshall,      ”   1795   ”  1801.
  John Breckenridge,      ”   1801   ”  1805.
  Buckner Thurston,       ”   1805   ”  1810.
  John Adair,             ”  {1805   ”  1806.
                             {1806   ”  1807.
                             {1810   ”  1811.
  Henry Clay,             ”  {1831   ”  1842.
                             {1849   ”  1855.
  John Pope,              ”   1807   ”  1813.
  George M. Bibb,         ”  {1811   ”  1814.
                             {1829   ”  1835.
  Jessie Bledsoe,         ”   1813   ”  1815.
  George Walker,          ”   1814   ”  1814.
  William T. Barry,       ”   1814   ”  1816.
  Isham Talbot,           ”  {1815   ”  1819.
                             {1820   ”  1825.
  Martin D. Hardin,       ”  {1816   ”  1817.
                             {1817   ”  1819.
                             {1835   ”  1841.
  John J. Crittenden,     ”  {1842   ”  1849.
                             {1855   ”  1861.
  Richard M. Johnson,     ”  {1819   ”  1823.
                             {1823   ”  1829.
  William Logan,          ”   1819   ”  1820.
  John Rowan,             ”   1826   ”  1831.
  James T. Moorehead,     ”   1841   ”  1847.
  Jos’h R. Underwood,     ”   1847   ”  1853.
  Thomas Metcalf,         ”   1848   ”  1849.
  Archibald Dixon,        ”   1852   ”  1855.
  David Meriwether,       ”   1852   ”  1852.
  J. B. Thompson,         ”   1853   ”  1859.
  Lazarus W. Powell,      ”   1859   ”  1865.
  J. C. Breckenridge,     ”   1861   ”  1861.
  Garrett Davis,          ”   1861   ”  1873.
  James Guthrie,          ”   1865   ”  1868.
  Thomas C. McCreery,     ”   1868   ”  1879.
  John W. Stevenson,      ”   1871   ”  1877.


[Illustration]

TENNESSEE.

Tennessee belonged to the territory of North Carolina while a colony,
and was settled by emigrants from it in 1757. They built Fort Loudon in
East Tennessee, but were destroyed, or driven away, by the Indians, in
1760. Settlement was soon resumed, but continually harrassed by Indian
attacks. In 1774 Col. Lewis and Capt. Shelby attacked and defeated them.
They remained quiet until after the Declaration of Independence, when
the Cherokees were stirred up by British emissaries. From 1776 to 1779
three several expeditions were made against them, the Indians being
decisively defeated each time. The Cherokees and Shawnees were warlike
tribes, and continued, for some years, to make occasional attacks on the
settlements, which did not, however, prevent their steady growth.

In 1789 North Carolina renounced her claim to the territory, and in
1790 it became a separate province, being admitted into the Union as a
Sovereign State in 1796, making the sixteenth, or the third admitted
after the Revolutionary war—Vermont, in 1791, being the first; and
Kentucky, in 1792, the second.

This State has an area of 45,600 square miles, or 29,184,000 acres. It
had a population in 1870 of 1,257,983.

Tennessee is very agreeably diversified with mountain, hill and dale,
containing within its limits fertility of soil, beauty of scenery, and a
delightfully temperate climate. The State is generally healthy. The soil
in the main is good, and while among the mountains it is not arable, it
is favorable for grazing, and stock is largely exported.

Indian corn, tobacco, and cotton are the great staples.

Gold has been found in the south-east portion of the State. Among the
other minerals found here are iron in abundance, some lead, silver, zinc,
marble of very fine quality, and various others. The State is entitled
to ten Representatives in Congress; is in the sixth judicial circuit;
has three judicial districts; and has two ports of delivery—Memphis and
Knoxville.

Nashville is the capital. The State election is held on the first Monday
in August, and the Legislature meets on the first Monday in October,
once in two years. The Legislature consists of a Senate of twenty-five
members, and a House of Representatives of seventy-five members.

The enacting clause of the laws of this State is: “Be it enacted by the
General Assembly of the State of Tennessee.”


UNITED STATES SENATORS.

  William Blount,       from  1796  to  1797.
  William Cocke,          ”  {1796   ”  1797.
                             {1799   ”  1805.
  Andrew Jackson,         ”  {1797   ”  1798.
                             {1823   ”  1825.
  Joseph Anderson,        ”   1797   ”  1815.
  Daniel Smith,           ”   1797   ”  1809.
  Jenkin Whiteside,       ”   1809   ”  1811.
  George W. Campbell,     ”   1811   ”  1818.
  Jesse Wharton,          ”   1814   ”  1815.
  John Williams,          ”   1815   ”  1823.
  John H. Eaton,          ”   1818   ”  1829.
  Hugh L. White,          ”   1825   ”  1840.
  Felix Grundy,           ”   1829   ”  1840.
  Ephraim H. Foster,      ”  {1838   ”  1839.
                             {1843   ”  1845.
  A. O. P. Nicholson,     ”   1840   ”  1843.
  Alexander Anderson,     ”   1840   ”  1841.
  Spencer Jarnagin,       ”   1841   ”  1847.
  Hopkins L. Turney,      ”   1845   ”  1851.
  John Bell,              ”   1847   ”  1853.
  James C. Jones,         ”   1851   ”  1857.
  Andrew Johnson,         ”   1857   ”  1863.
  David T. Patterson,     ”   1865   ”  1869.
  J. S. Fowler,           ”   1865   ”  1871.
  William G. Brownlow,    ”   1869   ”  1875.
  Henry Cooper,           ”   1871   ”  1877.
  Andrew Johnson,         ”   1875   ”  1881.


[Illustration]

OHIO.

The first permanent settlement in this important State was made on the
7th day of April, 1788. Though this fine territory lay nearest to the
most populous and enterprising of the original States, the intrigues of
the French before the Revolution, the hostility to which they excited
the Indians, and the difficulties arising from the various claims
of different States to the lands, which rendered titles insecure,
prevented any permanent settlement until about the time when the present
Constitution of the United States was originated. All these difficulties
were now removed, and emigration, long restrained, rushed like a flood
down the Ohio. 20,000 persons, during this year (1788), passed down the
river in pursuit of new homes. Cincinnati and many other places were
settled about this time. From 1790 to 1795 there was much suffering
from the hostility of the Indians; but this period having passed, the
settlements multiplied and grew apace.

The settlers were, in large part, from New England; accustomed to wring a
thrifty living from a rocky soil; and their industry soon brought great
results from this more generous field. The population increased rapidly.
In 14 years it amounted to 72,000; and was admitted into the Union with
that number Nov. 29th, 1802.

The climate is healthy and mild, the soil generally very fertile, and her
inhabitants have made the most of it. Coal, iron, and marble are very
abundant. Manufactures have not been much developed in this State, but
they are steadily growing. The lake on the north, and the river on the
south, with more than 5,000 miles of railway and canals, furnish all the
elements of a great and steady growth.

It was, on its admission, the seventeenth State in the Union.

It has an area of 39,964 square miles, equal to 25,576,960 acres. The
population in 1870 was 2,622,214, entitling her to twenty Members of
Congress.

It is in the sixth judicial circuit, and forms two judicial districts,
the Northern and Southern.

This State has three ports of entry—Cleveland, Toledo, and Portland; and
four ports of delivery, to be located where the President directs.

The capital of this State is Columbus. The State election is now held on
the second Tuesday of October. The Legislature meets on the first Monday
of January, biennially.

The enacting clause of the laws is as follows: “Be it enacted by the
General Assembly of the State of Ohio.”


UNITED STATES SENATORS.

  John Smith,           from  1803  to  1808.
  Thos. Worthington,      ”  {1803   ”  1807.
                             {1810   ”  1814.
  Edward Tiffin,          ”   1807   ”  1809.
  Return J. Meigs,        ”   1808   ”  1810.
  Stanley Griswold,       ”   1809   ”  1809.
  Alexander Campbell,     ”   1809   ”  1813.
  Jeremiah Morrow,        ”   1813   ”  1819.
  Joseph Kerr,            ”   1814   ”  1815.
  Benjamin Ruggles,       ”   1815   ”  1833.
  William A. Trimble,     ”   1819   ”  1821.
  Ethan A. Brown,         ”   1822   ”  1825.
  Wm. Henry Harrison,     ”   1825   ”  1828.
  Jacob Burnett,          ”   1828   ”  1831.
  Thomas Ewing,           ”  {1831   ”  1837.
                             {1850   ”  1851.
  Thomas Morris,          ”   1833   ”  1839.
  William Allen,          ”   1837   ”  1849.
  Benjamin Tappan,        ”   1839   ”  1845.
  Thomas Corwin,          ”   1845   ”  1851.
  Salmon P. Chase,        ”   1849   ”  1855.
  Benjamin F. Wade,       ”   1851   ”  1869.
  George Ellis Pugh,      ”   1851   ”  1861.
  John Sherman,           ”   1861   ”  1879.
  Allen G. Thurman,       ”   1869   ”  1881.


[Illustration]

LOUISIANA.

The Spaniards, who found so much gold in other parts of the American
continent, made repeated explorations of the region lying near the
mouths of the Mississippi in the hope of discovering it there. Failing in
this, they made no settlements. The French planned the establishment of a
vast empire covering the best territory now in the bounds of the United
States, and explored the Mississippi and its tributaries with untiring
courage and zeal, both from the Great Lakes and from the mouth of the
river. A few years after La Salle had perished in his bold wandering, a
French naval officer, Lemoine D’Iberville, formed the first settlement in
Louisiana (so named after the French King, Louis XIV., by La Salle.) This
was in 1699; but no great progress was made until the Mississippi Company
was formed in France, under the idea that Louisiana was rich in gold and
diamonds; when, in 1718, eight hundred persons emigrated from France
and settled at New Orleans. In 1732 the colony contained, in all, seven
thousand five hundred persons, and continued to prosper until 1763, when,
by the peace of Paris, all the French possessions in America except the
territory west of the Great River, were given up to England. This remnant
soon passed to the Spaniards, and again to the French, from whom it was
bought by President Jefferson for $15,000,000, in 1803.

This purchase was regarded, even by Jefferson, as probably exceeding the
powers of the government, under the Constitution; but it was essential
to the development, unity, and greatness of the country. The Mississippi
Valley is the heart of North America, and the use of the river as
necessary to the value of the prairie States lying east of it, as to the
defense and strength of the country. The possession of it could, alone,
make the United States a great power among nations. Napoleon Bonaparte,
then First Consul of the French Republic, designed, in ceding it to the
United States, to give England, his relentless enemy, a powerful rival;
but even his keen foresight could not have anticipated the wonderful
growth in which the Louisiana Purchase was so necessary an element.

The surface of Louisiana is low, and the southern part often overflowed
by the high water of the rivers. Many islands of great fertility and
beauty lie along the coast; one of them consisting of an immense bed or
mine of rock salt. Fruits grow to great perfection and orange trees are
specially fruitful, a single tree often bearing 5,000 oranges. Cotton
and cane sugar are the principal staples. New Orleans has an extensive
commerce, and manufactures will sometime find in it a profitable field.
The palmy days of this, as of all the other Southern States, is in the
future; her most valuable resources having been scarcely touched. New
Orleans will naturally become the third great commercial city of the
Union, New York and San Francisco, only, being likely to take precedence
of her.

Louisiana was admitted into the Union April 8th, 1812, making the
eighteenth State.

She has an area of 46,431 square miles, equal to 29,715,840 acres. The
population in 1870 numbered 732,731; she has six Representatives in
Congress.

Louisiana forms a part of the fifth judicial circuit, and constitutes two
judicial districts, viz.: the eastern and western districts of Louisiana.
This State has one collection district, denominated the district of New
Orleans; which city is the only port of entry. The shores of the river
Ohio, and all the rivers emptying into the Mississippi, are attached
to the district of New Orleans, though most of them do not lie in the
State. Several of the cities and towns on these rivers are made ports of
delivery. Collection districts are not always confined to one State.

New Orleans is the capital. The Legislature meets on the first Monday
in January, once in two years. The State election is held on the first
Monday in November.

The enacting clause of her laws is as follows: “Be it enacted by the
Senate and House of Representatives of the State of Louisiana, in General
Assembly convened.”


UNITED STATES SENATORS.

  Thomas Posey,    October to December, 1812.
  James Brown,          from {1812  to  1817.
                             {1819   ”  1824.
  Allan B. Macgruder,     ”   1812   ”  1813.
  Eligius Fromentin,      ”   1813   ”  1819.
  W. C. C. Claiborne,     ”   1817   ”  1818.
  Henry Johnson,          ”  {1818   ”  1824.
                             {1843   ”  1849.
  William Kelly,          ”   1822   ”  1825.
  Dominique Bouligny,     ”   1824   ”  1829.
  Josiah S. Johnston,     ”   1824   ”  1833.
  Edward Livingston,      ”   1829   ”  1831.
  Geo. A. Waggaman,       ”   1831   ”  1835.
  Alexander Porter,       ”   1833   ”  1837.
  Robert C. Nichols,      ”   1833   ”  1841.
  Alexander Morton,       ”   1838   ”  1842.
  Alexander Barrow,       ”   1841   ”  1847.
  Charles M. Conrad,      ”   1842   ”  1843.
  Pierre Soulé,           ”  {1847   ”  1847.
                             {1849   ”  1855.
  Solomon W. Downs,       ”   1847   ”  1853.
  John Slidell,           ”   1853   ”  1861.
  Judah P. Benjamin,      ”   1853   ”  1861.
  John S. Harris,         ”   1868   ”  1871.
  Wm. Pitt Kellogg,       ”   1868   ”  1873.
  J. R. West,             ”   1871   ”  1877.


[Illustration]

INDIANA.

1. Indiana was first explored by the enterprising French Jesuits, who
highly appreciated the beauty, resources, and grand future of the vast
Mississippi valley. Wiser than their sovereign, Louis XIV., they would
have taken firm and effectual possession of all this region, from the
Great Lakes to the Gulf, but Louis was too much occupied with his
palaces, the splendor of his court, the banishment of Protestants,
and war with his neighbors to lend a due support to their plans. They
explored the region in 1682, formed a settlement at Vincennes in 1730,
and made friends of the Indians. The career of the French, in Europe and
America, was checked by the extravagance of the Court, and disastrous
wars; and this little colony remained for nearly three generations
solitary and stationary in the wilderness; fraternizing with the Indians
and enjoying life as only the French can under such dreary circumstances.

2. After the Revolution all this region was included in the Northwest
Territory. The grim earnestness of the Americans in pushing their
fortunes alarmed, without conciliating, the Indians, and for a long time
a deadly struggle alone could preserve the growing settlements from
total extinction. The brave and talented Tecumseh and his twin brother,
the Prophet, made a desperate effort to drive back or exterminate the
settlers; but they were conquered, and the Indians retreated, step by
step, before the advancing flood of emigration. In 1809 Indiana was
erected in to a separate Territory, and admitted into the Union as
a separate State on the 11th of Dec., 1816. It is 275 miles long by
135 in width. The surface is mainly level or gently undulating; the
irregularities in the southern part, seldom rising more than two hundred
feet, but with a rocky foundation to the soil, presenting many advantages
to manufactures along the streams; these facilities are increased by
the extent and value of bituminous coal deposits which underlie nearly
one-fourth of the area of the State.

3. Indiana has a happier mixture of prairie and woodland than any
other western State. Its commercial facilities are great. Reaching
Lake Michigan on the northwest, Chicago forms a fine metropolis for
the northern parts; while the Ohio on the south furnishes cheap
transportation to Cincinnati and Pittsburg toward the east, or New
Orleans to the southwest. Lying between the fertile and busy regions
west and the great eastern markets, it is crossed in all directions by
railroads. It is in the centre of the most highly favored part of the
Union, and its advantages and resources seem boundless. Its staple in
agriculture is corn, but all the grains, vegetables, and fruits of the
temperate zone are raised with success. The climate is mild, but it lies
in the region of variableness in weather characterizing all the western
States in its latitude.

The resources of the State have been in a course of rapid and
uninterrupted development for 60 years, but they are so great, and there
are so many other inviting fields luring emigrants further west, that a
comparatively small part of its wealth has yet been reached. There is a
magnificent provision for education, and its intelligent and enterprising
citizens are worthy of the Great Republic.

4. Indiana was the nineteenth State in the Union. She has an area of
33,809 square miles, equal to 21,637,760 acres. Her population in
1870 was 1,673,046, which entitles her to thirteen Representatives in
Congress. Indiana is the seventh judicial circuit, and forms one judicial
district. There is no port of entry in this State; but there are three
ports of delivery, to-wit: Evansville, New Albany, and Madison which are
attached to the New Orleans collection district.

The capital is Indianapolis. The State election is held on the second
Tuesday of October. The Legislature meets only once in two years, on the
first Wednesday of January.

The enacting clause of her laws is in these words: “Be it enacted by the
General Assembly of the State of Indiana.”


UNITED STATES SENATORS.

  James Noble,          from  1816  to  1831.
  W. Taylor,              ”   1816   ”  1825.
  W. Hendricks,           ”   1825   ”  1837.
  N. Hanna,               ”   1831   ”  1833.
  John Tipton,            ”   1833   ”  1839.
  O. H. Smith,            ”   1837   ”  1843.
  A. S. White,            ”   1839   ”  1845.
  E. A. Hannegan,         ”   1843   ”  1849.
  J. D. Bright,           ”   1845   ”  1852.
  J. Whitcomb,            ”   1849   ”  1855.
  C. W. Cathcart,         ”   1852   ”  1853.
  John Pettit,            ”   1853   ”  1855.
  G. N. Fitch,            ”   1857   ”  1861.
  H. A. Lane,             ”   1861   ”  1867.
  D. Turpee,              ”   1863   ”  1863.
  J. A. Wright,           ”   1862   ”  1863.
  T. A. Hendricks,        ”   ----   ”  1869.
  O. P. Morton,           ”   1867   ”  1879.
  Daniel D. Pratt,        ”   1869   ”  1875.
  Joseph E. McDonald,     ”   1875   ”  1881.


[Illustration]

MISSISSIPPI.

This State was explored by De Soto, a companion of Pizarro, in his
cruel conquest of Peru, in 1541, and later by the enterprising French
governor of Canada, La Salle, in 1684. The first settlement was made by
the French, at Natchez, in 1716. It was one of a chain of settlements by
which they proposed to connect the basins of the St. Lawrence and the
great lakes with the Mississippi valley and the Gulf of Mexico.

The Natchez Indians gave the early colonists great trouble, but were
finally so completely conquered that the national name became extinct,
the few remnants surviving, becoming incorporated with other tribes. They
were supposed to have anciently emigrated from Mexico or South America,
some of their customs being similar to those of the Peruvians.

In 1763 the French ceded all this territory to England, except that of
Louisiana, which became the possession of Spain.

The Choctaw Indians held possession of the northern part of the State for
a long time, and became considerably civilized.

The northern part of the State is prairie, the soil being extremely
rich, while the south is sandy. The surface is generally level or
undulating. Commerce and agriculture form its principal resources; though
neither have been highly developed. Cotton is the principal staple. It is
remarkably well adapted to the growth of fruit, though it has been very
little cultivated. The State is well supplied with railroads, which, with
the Mississippi flowing the whole length of her western boundary, furnish
ample transportation for all the produce of her fertile soil.

The Territory of Mississippi became a State in 1817; making the
twentieth State. The area is 47,156 square miles, equal to 30,179,840
acres. The population in 1870 numbered 834,170; which entitles her to
six Representatives in Congress. The State lies in the fifth judicial
circuit, and is divided into two judicial districts, viz.: the Northern
and Southern districts of Mississippi. She has three ports of entry,
viz.: Natchez, Vicksburg, and one near the mouth of Pearl river, to
be established whenever the President may direct; also three ports of
delivery, viz.: Grand Gulf, Ship Island and Columbus.

Jackson is the capital. The State election is held on the Tuesday after
the first Monday in November, and her Legislature meets biennially on the
Tuesday after the first Monday in January.

The enacting clause of the laws is in these words: “Be it enacted by
the Senate and House of Representatives of the State of Mississippi in
General Assembly convened.”


UNITED STATES SENATORS.

  Walter Leake,         from  1817  to  1820.
  Thomas H. Williams,     ”  {1817   ”  1829.
                             {1838   ”  1839.
  David Holmes,           ”   1820   ”  1825.
  Powhattan Ellis,        ”   1825   ”  1833.
  Thomas B. Reed,         ”   1826   ”  1829.
  Robert Adams,           ”   1830   ”  1830.
  George Poindexter,      ”   1830   ”  1835.
  John Black,             ”   1832   ”  1838.
  R. J. Walker,           ”   1835   ”  1845.
  James F. Trotter,       ”   1838   ”  1838.
  John Henderson,         ”   1839   ”  1845.
  Jesse Speight,          ”   1845   ”  1847.
  Joseph W. Chambers,     ”   1845   ”  1847.
  Jefferson Davis,        ”  {1847   ”  1851.
                             {1857   ”  1861.
  Henry S. Foote,         ”   1847   ”  1853.
  John W. Rea,            ”   1851   ”  1851.
  Walter Brooks,          ”   1852   ”  1852.
  Albert G. Brown,        ”   1854   ”  1861.
  Stephen Adams,          ”   1852   ”  1857.
  Henry R. Revels,        ”   1869   ”  1871.
  James L. Alcorn,        ”   1871   ”  1877.
  Adelbert Ames,          ”   ----   ”  1875.
  Henry R. Pease,         ”   ----   ”  1877.
  Branch K. Bruce,        ”   1875   ”  1881.


[Illustration]

ILLINOIS.

Illinois was first visited by Europeans in the persons of French
Jesuit missionaries in the year 1672, who explored eastern Wisconsin
and northern Illinois in that year. The oldest permanent settlement in
the valley of the Mississippi was made at Kaskaskia, in this State, in
the year 1720, by the French. The name of the State is derived from
the aboriginal inhabitants. In the Indian dialect it was “Illini,” and
signified a perfectly formed man. The French settlers changed the name to
Illinois. This State was formed from what was known as the Northwestern
territory, and was the twenty-first of the American Union. It was
admitted and became an independent State on the 3d day of December,
1818. It has an area of 55,405 square miles, equal to 35,459,200 acres.
Its population in 1870 was 2,539,638. Extending through more than five
degrees of latitude, Illinois has quite a variety of climate. The surface
is level. The soil is fertile and the agricultural capabilities of this
State are not surpassed by any sister State, if indeed by any portion of
earth’s surface, of equal extent. Her staple products are corn, wheat,
oats, potatoes, hay, and products of the dairy, besides large quantities
of fruit. The State is rich in minerals. A large portion of the lead
producing region of the country is in this State. Bituminous coal is
found in almost every county in the State. Copper is found in large
quantities in the north, and iron in both south and north. Lime, zinc,
marble of excellent quality, freestone, gypsum, and other minerals, are
found in various parts.

The State is entitled to nineteen representatives in Congress, and forms
a part of the seventh judicial circuit. It forms two judicial districts,
viz.: northern and southern. It has one port of entry, Chicago, and four
ports of delivery, viz.: Alton, Quincy, Cairo, and Peoria. The capital
is Springfield. The State election is held on the Tuesday after the
first Monday in November. The legislature meets biennially on the first
Monday in January. The enacting clause of the laws is as follows: “Be it
enacted by the people of the State of Illinois represented in the General
Assembly.”


UNITED STATES SENATORS.

  J. B. Thomas,         from  1818  to  1829.
  N. Edwards,             ”   1818   ”  1824.
  John McLean,            ”  {1824   ”  1825.
                             {1829   ”  1830.
  D. J. Baker,            ”   1830   1 month.
  E. K. Kane,             ”   1825  to  1836.
  J. M. Robinson,         ”   1830   ”  1841.
  W. L. D. Ewing,         ”   1835   ”  1837.
  R. M. Young,            ”   1837   ”  1843.
  S. McRoberts,           ”   1841   ”  1843.
  J. Semple,              ”   1843   ”  1847.
  Sidney Breese,          ”   1843   ”  1849.
  S. A. Douglas,          ”   1847   ”  1861.
  James Shields,          ”   1849   ”  1855.
  L. Trumbull,            ”   1855   ”  1873.
  O. H. Browning,         ”   1861   ”  1863.
  W. A. Richardson,       ”   1863   ”  1865.
  Richard Yates,          ”   1865   ”  1871.
  John A. Logan,          ”   1871   ”  1877.
  Richard J. Oglesby,     ”   1873   ”  1879.


[Illustration]

ALABAMA.

This State was, at first, held by Georgia under her colonial charter,
but was given up to the general government, in 1802, for the sum of
$1,250,000. It then became a part of the Mississippi territory, but was
separated when Mississippi became a State, in 1817.

It was settled in 1711, at Mobile, by the French, it being a part of the
territory explored and claimed for France by La Salle in 1684. The Indian
name of Alabama means “Here we rest.” Its soil can scarcely be excelled
for fertility in the world. It has every variety of climate, from the
high and stern severity of a mountain region in the north, through all
gradations, to the heat and luxuriant vegetation of the tropics along the
southern coast. The center abounds in coal and iron, and various other
minerals are found in abundance. Until the Revolution it was a hunting
ground for the Indians. Being then stirred up by British emissaries, and
threatening the security of the frontiers, they were severely chastised.
After the return of peace, when the growing wealth and population of
the original States excited them to enterprise, the territory invited
population by its surpassing fertility, and it graduated to the
importance of a sovereign State by admission into the Union, Dec. 14th,
1819, forming the twenty-second State.

It has an area of 50,722 square miles, equal to 32,462,080 acres, and
had a population in 1870 of 966,988, by which she is entitled to eight
Representatives.

It forms a part of the fifth judicial circuit, and is divided into three
judicial districts, the Northern, Middle and Southern.

It has one port of entry, (Mobile,) and two ports of delivery, viz.:
Tuscumbia and Selma.

The capital of the State is Montgomery.

The State election is held on the Tuesday after the first Monday in
November. The Legislature meets on the third Monday in November.

The enacting clause of its laws is as follows: “Be it enacted by the
Senate and House of Representatives of the State of Alabama, in General
Assembly convened.”


UNITED STATES SENATORS.

  William R. King,      from {1819  to  1844.
                             {1846   ”  1852.
  John W. Walker,         ”   1819   ”  1822.
  Henry Chambers,         ”   1825   ”  1826.
  Israel Pickens,         ”   1826. Superseded the same year by—
  John McKinley,          ”  {1826   ”  1831.
                             {1837   ”  1841.
  Gabriel Moore,          ”   1831   ”  1837.
  Clement C. Clay,        ”   1837   ”  1841.
  Arthur P. Bagby,        ”   1841   ”  1849.
  Dixon H. Lewis,         ”   1844   ”  1847.
  Benjamin Fitzpatrick,   ”   1852   ”  1861.
  Jeremiah Clemens,       ”   1849   ”  1853.
  Clement C. Clay, Jr.,   ”   1853   ”  1861.
  Willard Warner,         ”   1868   ”  1871.
  George Goldthwaite,     ”   1871   ”  1877.
  George E. Spencer,      ”   1868   ”  1879.


[Illustration]

MAINE.

This State forms the northeastern boundary of the Republic; Canada and
New Brunswick lying north and east. It was at first a province, granted
by charter to Sir Ferdinand Gorges, by the King of England, in 1638; but
was united with Massachusetts by purchase in 1652. It was settled by
the English, at Bristol, in 1625. It was admitted as a State into the
Union March 15th, 1820, being the twenty-third in order of admission. It
contains 31,766 square miles, or 20,330,240 acres in area. In 1870 the
population was 626,463.

It has now five Representatives in Congress.

The northern part of this State is almost a wilderness, and furnishes
large quantities of lumber, which are floated down her large rivers, and
supplied, in great abundance, to the Atlantic seaports, and the West
Indies. Ship-building is an extensive branch of industry, the great
length and irregular line of coast forming numerous harbors. It has
extensive fisheries, and a large sea-faring population. Its numerous
streams are highly favorable to manufactures, though comparatively little
has as yet been done in this direction. The climate is severe and the
soil somewhat sterile, so that it ranks low as an agricultural State. It
has received comparatively few additions to its population by foreign
immigration; and its inhabitants are mainly from the old English stock,
and the State ranks high in morality. It depletes itself by furnishing,
like many other of the older States, annually, a large number of
vigorous, enterprising young men to settle the new and fertile regions of
the west.

It forms part of the first judicial circuit, and constitutes one
judicial district. It has thirteen ports of entry, and thirty-two ports
of delivery.

The capital is Augusta, on the Kennebec river.

The State elections are held on the second Monday of September; and the
Legislature meets on the first Wednesday of January in each year.

The enacting clause of its laws is: “Be it enacted by the Senate and
House of Representatives, in Legislature assembled.”


UNITED STATES SENATORS.

  John Holmes,          from  1820  to  1833.
  John Chandler,          ”   1820   ”  1829.
  Albion P. Harris,       ”   1827   ”  1829.
  Peleg Sprague,          ”   1829   ”  1835.
  Ether Shepley,          ”   1833   ”  1836.
  John Ruggles,           ”   1835   ”  1841.
  Judah Dana,             ”   1836   ”  1837.
  Reuel Williams,         ”   1837   ”  1843.
  George Evans,           ”   1841   ”  1847.
  John Fairfield,         ”   1843   ”  1847.
  Wynan B. S. Moore,      ”   1848   ”  1848.
  James W. Bradbury,      ”  {1847   ”  1853.
                             {1848   ”  1857.
  Hannibal Hamlin,        ”  {1857   ”  1861.
                             {1869   ”  1881.
  Amos Nourse,            ”   1857   ”  1857.
  William P. Fessenden,   ”  {1853   ”  1864.
                             {1865   ”  1869.
  Lot M. Morrill,         ”   1861   ”  1877.
  Nathan A. Farwell,      ”   1864   ”  1865.


[Illustration]

MISSOURI.

This State was first settled by the French, at or near the present
capital, in the year 1719. Here a fort was established, called Fort
Orleans, and the neighboring lead mines were worked the next year.
St. Genevieve, the oldest town in the State, was settled in 1755, and
St. Louis in 1764. In 1763 it, with all the territory west of the
Mississippi, was assigned by treaty to Spain. This territory was ceded
back to France in 1801, and with Louisiana was purchased by the United
States in 1803. It remained a part of Louisiana until the admission of
the State of that name, when the remaining portion of that purchase was
called Missouri. In 1821 it was admitted into the Union, forming the
twenty-fourth State. This State has an area of 67,380 square miles, equal
to 43,123,200 acres.

Her population in 1870 was 1,715,000, entitling her to thirteen
Representatives in Congress.

The climate of Missouri is variable; in winter the thermometer sinks
below zero; the summers are excessively hot; the air is dry and pure.
The State is quite as healthful as any in the west. The soil is good and
of great agricultural capabilities. The great staple is Indian corn. The
other products cultivated largely are hemp, wheat, oats, tobacco. Sheep
and cattle are considerably raised, and fruit culture is successful.

This State is in the eighth judicial circuit; and forms two judicial
districts, the Eastern and Western. It has no port of entry, and but one
port of delivery, Hannibal.

The capital is Jefferson City. The State election is held on the Tuesday
after the first Monday in November, and the Legislature meets on the last
Monday of December. The enacting clause of the laws is: “Be it enacted
by the General Assembly of the State of Missouri as follows.”


UNITED STATES SENATORS.

  Thomas H. Benton,     from  1821  to  1851.
  David Barton,           ”   1821   ”  1831.
  Alexander Buckner,      ”   1831   ”  1833.
  Lewis F. Linn,          ”   1833   ”  1843.
  David R. Atchison,      ”  {1843   ”  1849.
                             {1849   ”  1855.
  Gratz B. Brown,         ”   1863   ”  1867.
  Henry S. Geyer,         ”   1851   ”  1857.
  Trusten Polk,           ”   1857   ”  1861.
  James S. Green,         ”   1856   ”  1861.
  Waldo P. Johnson,       ”   1861   ”  1862.
  John B. Henderson,      ”   1862   ”  1869.
  Charles D. Drake,       ”   1867   ”  1871.
  Carl Schurz,            ”   1869   ”  1875.
  Francis P. Blair,       ”   1871   ”  1873.
  Lewis V. Bogy,          ”   1873   ”  1879.
  Frank M. Cockrell,      ”   1875   ”  1881.


[Illustration]

MICHIGAN.

The name of this State is a contraction of two words in the Chippewa
language, meaning “Great Lake,” and was applied, by the Indians, to
the two surrounding the lower peninsula. It was explored by Jesuit
missionaries, who established numerous missions among various Indian
tribes, and pushed their way, through perils and fatigues, west to
the Mississippi, which, they followed far north and south; to be soon
outstripped by the adventurous La Salle. Detroit was founded about 1701.
The settlements made little progress under French rule; and when, in
1763, it passed under English control, the conspiracy of Pontiac nearly
destroyed them. It was not till 1796 that the United States government
took possession of the territory. Its growth was much retarded by the war
of 1812, when it endured, for two years, all the barbarities of Indian
war.

A territorial government was organized in 1805. In 1818 the lands
were brought into the market, since which its prosperity has been
uninterrupted. It is remarkable in its position, and eminently so by
its resources. The southern peninsula is very productive. The northern
peninsula contains the richest copper mines in the world, and unlimited
supplies of iron, while the quantity of the finest lumber, and the
facilities for transporting it are superior. The fish taken in its lakes
are excellent and abundant; its people are enterprising and intelligent;
and its State authorities have established one of the best Universities
in the Union. Its future promises to become equal at least to that of the
most favored State.

The Territory of Michigan was changed into a State preliminarily June
15, 1836, and was fully admitted to an equality with all the States
January 26, 1837, making the twenty-fifth State (Arkansas was admitted
on the same day). Her area is 56,243 square miles, equal to 35,995,520
acres. The population in 1870 was 1,184,296, which entitles her to nine
Representatives in Congress. By an act of 1866, Michigan was located in
the sixth judicial circuit; and forms two judicial districts, and has
four collection districts and four ports of entry, viz.: Detroit, Port
Huron, Grand Haven, and Michilimackinac; also five ports of delivery (if
the President deem them necessary).

The capital is Lansing. The State election is held on the Tuesday after
the first Monday in November. The Legislature meets biennially on the
first Wednesday in January.

The enacting clause of the laws is as follows: “The people of the State
of Michigan enact.”


UNITED STATES SENATORS.

  Lucius Lyon,          from  1836  to  1839.
  John Norvall,           ”   1836   ”  1841.
  Augustus S. Porter,     ”   1839   ”  1845.
  William Woodbridge,     ”   1841   ”  1847.
  Lewis Cass,             ”   1845   ”  1857.
  Alpheus Felch,          ”   1847   ”  1853.
  Thomas Fitzgerald,      ”   1848   ”  1849.
  Charles E. Stewart,     ”   1853   ”  1859.
  Zachariah Chandler,     ”   1857   ”  1875.
  Kinsley S. Bingham,     ”   1859   ”  1861.
  Jacob M. Howard,        ”   1862   ”  1871.
  Thomas W. Ferry,        ”   1871   ”  1877.
  Isaac P. Christiancy,   ”   1875   ”  1881.


[Illustration]

ARKANSAS.

Arkansas was originally a portion of the Territory of Louisiana. It
remained a part of that territory until 1812, when the present State of
Louisiana was admitted into the Union. The remainder of the territory
was then formed into the Missouri Territory, and so remained until 1821
when Missouri was admitted into the Union, and Arkansas was erected
into a separate territory, bearing the present name. In 1836, a State
constitution was formed at Little Rock, and Arkansas became a State in
the Union. It constituted the twenty-sixth State. It has an area of
52,193 square miles, equal to 33,406,720 acres. The population in 1870
was 483,197, which entitles her to four Representatives in Congress. The
eastern portion of the State, extending back one hundred miles from the
Mississippi, is generally a vast plain covered with marshes, swamps, and
lagoons. The Ozark mountains which enter the northwest part of the State
divide it into two unequal parts, of which the northern has the climate
and productions of the Northern States, while the southern portion,
in climate and productions, resembles Mississippi and Louisiana. The
lowlands of Arkansas are unhealthy, while the more elevated portions of
the State will compare favorably with the most healthful and invigorating
portions of the Northwest. There is a great variety of soil in this
State. While some portions, like the river bottoms, are exceedingly
fertile, other parts are sterile and barren.

The staple products are Indian corn, cotton and live stock. Arkansas
gives indications of rich mineral resources.

This State lies in the eighth judicial circuit, and forms two judicial
districts, the eastern and western. It has no ports of entry or delivery.

The capital of the State is Little Rock. She holds her State election the
first Monday in November. The Legislature meets but once in two years, on
the first Monday in January. The enacting clause of the laws is: “Be it
enacted by the General Assembly of the State of Arkansas.”


UNITED STATES SENATORS.

  William S. Fulton,    from  1836  to  1844.
  Ambrose H. Sevier,      ”   1836   ”  1848.
  Chester Ashley,         ”   1844   ”  1847.
  William K. Sebastian,   ”   1848   ”  1861.
  Solon Borland,          ”   1848   ”  1853.
  Robert W. Johnson,      ”   1853   ”  1861.
  Charles B. Mitchell,    ”   1861   ”  1861.
  Alexander McDonald,     ”   1868   ”  1871.
  Benjamin F. Rice,       ”   1868   ”  1873.
  Powell Clayton,         ”   1871   ”  1877.
  Stephen W. Dorsey,      ”   1873   ”  1879.


[Illustration]

FLORIDA.

This peninsula was discovered by Ponce de Leon, a companion of Columbus,
in 1512, on Easter Sunday, called by the Spaniards Pascua Florida, which,
with the profusion of flowers found at this early season in that tropical
region, caused him to name it Florida—“the flowery land.” It was first
colonized by French Huguenots, for whom Admiral Coligni desired to find
an asylum in the new world, from the fierce bigotry of the times. The
first settlers (1564) became discouraged and returned; the second colony,
established in 1566, was destroyed by the Spaniards. These founded a
settlement in 1565 at St. Augustine, which was the oldest town in the
United States settled by Europeans. It remained in their hands until
1763, when, by the terms of the “Peace of Paris,” it fell into the hands
of the English. It was returned to Spain in 1783.

It was acquired from Spain by treaty made with the United States in
1819, but the American authorities did not take possession until July,
1821. The consideration given by our government was about five million
dollars. It is a point running out from the Southeast border of our
territory, of but little elevation above the sea level, and swampy, but
covered with an exuberant growth of vegetation with a chain of lakes
from south to north through the center. The warmth of the climate, where
no winter is ever known, promotes the growth of the rarest and most
beautiful flowers; the clustering vines and dense foliage render its
forests almost impenetrable, and its delicate mosses are the wonder and
delight of the naturalist; while the splendid plumage of its tropical
birds, flitting among the lemon and orange groves, laden at once with
bud, flower and fruit, combine to add the scenery of the equatorial
regions to the homely but more useful vegetable growth and beauty of
our temperate zone. It is a resort of invalids during the rigors of the
northern winter, its otherwise excessive heat being tempered by the sea
breezes from either side. With its marshes drained and its vegetable
growth subdued and guided by the industrious agriculturist, its supply of
the fruits and other production of warm climates would be inexhaustible.
It is but partially settled, and its agricultural, commercial, and
manufacturing facilities but slightly developed. Its wealth of resources
remain to reward the enterprise and industry of the future. The railroad
connections between its cities and other States furnish a sufficient
basis for improvement.

Florida was admitted into the Union, March 3, 1845; making the
twenty-seventh State. This State has an area of 59,268 square miles,
equal to 37,931,520 acres. The population in 1870 amounted to 187,756.
She has two Representative in Congress.

Florida lies in the fifth judicial circuit, and forms two judicial
districts; and has seven ports of entry—St. Augustine, Key West,
Apalachicola, Pensacola, Magnolia, St. John’s River, and Fernandina; and
two ports of delivery—Palatka and Bay Port.

The capital is Tallahassee. The State election is held on the Tuesday
after the first Monday in November. The Legislature meets on the Tuesday
after the first Monday in January.

The enacting clause of the laws is: “Be it enacted by the Senate and
House of Representatives of the State of Florida, in General Assembly
convened.”


UNITED STATES SENATORS.

  David L. Yulee,       from  1845  to  1861.
  J. D. Wescott,          ”   1845   ”  1851.
  Jackson Morton,         ”   1849   ”  1855.
  S. R. Mallory,          ”   1851   ”  1861.
  A. S. Welch,            ”   1868   ”  1869.
  Thomas W. Osborn,       ”   1868   ”  1873.
  Abijah Gilbert,         ”   1869   ”  1875.
  Simon B. Conover,       ”   1873   ”  1879.
  Chas. W. Jones,         ”   1875   ”  1881.


[Illustration]

IOWA.

1. The name of this State in the Indian tongue is said to mean “_This is
the Land._” Few States have a surface, soil, and position so uniformly
excellent for all their different sections. A high rolling prairie, well
drained by streams, of great fertility, and almost no sterile or waste
land; beautiful to look upon in its alternations of rise and fall, of
prairie, stream, and timber; bounded on its extremes by the two mighty
branches of the “Father of Waters,” with numerous smaller rivers hundreds
of miles in length within its limits; its southern region underlaid by
a vast bed of coal, its northern rich in deposits of lead; a climate
free from the severity of Minnesota and Wisconsin winters, and from the
intemperate heats of Missouri and Kentucky summers, it is a land to
be satisfied with; and justifies the picturesque name given it by its
ancient appreciative owners.

2. It was first visited by Europeans in 1673. Marquette and Joliet,
two French Jesuit missionaries, whom the vast magnitudes of the North
American continent seemed to stimulate like new wine, roamed alone
over these immense distances, preserved by their characteristic French
cordiality from the suspicion and hostility of the numerous warlike
Indian tribes—who everywhere received them with hospitality, treated
them with respect, and dismissed them with assistance—passed, in that
year, down the Mississippi, and, landing a little above the mouth of the
Moingona—which, from the similarity of sound, they corrupted into Des
Moines, (Monk’s River)—they fearlessly followed an Indian trail fourteen
miles into the interior to an Indian village. Some tradition or prophecy
had forewarned the Indians of venerable white visitors, and they were
received at once as expected and honored guests. The new religion they
announced, and the authority of the king of France which they proclaimed,
raised no remonstrance or hostile feeling, and they were sent on their
way down the river with the “Pipe of Peace.” The grand visions of the
future entertained by these and other French explorers were never
realized by that nation. It was more than a hundred years later that the
first settlement was made by Julian Du Buque on the site of the present
city of that name. He obtained a grant of 180,000 acres from the Indians,
established a trading post, and worked the lead mines, with great profit;
but the time had not come for dispossessing the Indians, and almost fifty
years more passed before any other settlement was attempted.

3. In 1832 the Winnebagoes, Sacs, and Foxes united under the Winnebago
chief, Black Hawk, to invade and repossess the lands in Illinois which
they had ceded to the government. Gen. Atkinson met and defeated them
on the Upper Iowa, taking Black Hawk and his son prisoners. They were
taken east, kindly treated, and set at liberty; and in the following
year a treaty was made which ultimately extinguished the Indian title
to the whole of Iowa, the Indians removing west of the Missouri. In the
same year a settlement was made at Burlington. The time for Iowa had
come. In 1834 it was joined to the Territory of Michigan, in 1837 was
reorganized as part of the Wisconsin territory, and, in 1838, became a
separate territory with the capital at Burlington. March 3d, 1845, it was
conditionally, and Dec. 28th, 1846, fully admitted into the Union as a
Sovereign State. In 1840 it had a population of over 40,000, in 1850 of
nearly 200,000. A steady growth followed, and she has now, probably, a
million and a half of inhabitants. Four parallel lines of railroad pass
entirely across the State from east to west, three from north to south,
and various others are in process of building or form intersecting lines.
She is scarcely yet fully launched into her career of greatness. When her
virgin soil shall all be broken up and its hidden wealth evoked by her
intelligent and skillful agriculturists, when the full tide of commerce
on her two great rivers shall have set in to supplement her railroads,
and mature organization shall have made all her resources available, she
will take her proper place in the first rank of States in the Union,
and her citizens will repeat with satisfaction and pride the Indian
declaration, “This is the Land.”

Iowa was the twenty-eighth State, on its admission, in 1845. It has an
area of 55,045 square miles, equal to 35,228,800 acres. The population
in 1870 was 1,191,802, which entitles her to nine Representatives in
Congress. This State lies in the eighth judicial circuit, and makes
one judicial district. She has no port of entry, but has three ports
of delivery, to-wit: Burlington, Keokuk, and Dubuque; all of which are
attached to the collection district of New Orleans, in the State of
Louisiana.

Des Moines is the capital. The State election is held on the second
Tuesday of October. The Legislature meets biennially on the second Monday
in January.

The enacting clause of her laws is in these words: “Be it enacted by the
General Assembly of the State of Iowa.”


UNITED STATES SENATORS.

  George W. Jones,      from  1848  to  1859.
  Augustus C. Dodge,      ”   1848   ”  1855.
  James Harlan,           ”  {1856   ”  1865.
                             {1867   ”  1873.
  James W. Grimes,        ”   1859   ”  1869.
  Samuel J. Kirkwood,     ”   1866   ”  1867.
  James B. Howell,        ”   1870   ”  1871.
  George G. Wright,       ”   1871   ”  1877.
  William B. Allison,     ”   1873   ”  1879.


[Illustration]

TEXAS.

This State forms the southwestern portion of the United States. The first
settlement in Texas was made on Matagorda bay, under the French led by La
Salle, in 1685. It passed into the possession of the Spanish in the year
1690.

After the independence of Mexico, in 1822, Texas remained a Mexican
province until the revolution of 1836, when it gained its independence.
It continued an independent republic, modeled on the United States, until
1845, when, the Texan Congress having accepted the conditions imposed by
the Congress of the United States, it became the 29th State in the Union.
It has an area of 237,504 square miles, equal to 152,002,560 acres. The
population in 1870 was 797,500, which entitles her to six members of
Congress.

This State embraces every variety of surface; mountain, plain, hill, and
desert waste lie within its limits. The climate is free from the extremes
of both the temperate and torrid zones, producing, in the north, many
of the products of the temperate, and in the south many of those of the
torrid zone. The variation in the temperature from the season of winter
to that of summer is quite small, giving the State as equable a climate
as any in the world. While it shares the genial climate of the “sunny
South” it is free from all the deadly swamp exhalations of the lower
Mississippi States. The soil, on the whole, is as fertile as any in the
world. It furnishes the very best natural pasture all the year round.
Cotton in large quantities—Indian corn, wheat, rye, oats and other small
grains—tobacco, indigo and rice, are the staple products. The grape,
mulberry and the vanilla, are indigenous and abundant. Cayenne pepper
is grown in vast quantities. Fruit is no less various and abundant than
its other products. The peach, nectarine, fig, plum, quince and a great
variety of berries flourish here. Oranges, lemons, limes and melons,
grow well. Live stock of all varieties and in vast numbers fatten on the
plains, and are shipped in all directions to supply every demand.

Texas abounds in minerals. Rich silver mines are already worked
successfully at San Saba. Gold in small quantities has been found west of
the Colorado river. Coal is abundant. Iron is found in many parts of the
State. There are also salt lakes and salt springs, copper, alum, lime,
agates, chalcedony, jasper and a white and red sandstone.

Texas lies in the fifth judicial circuit, and makes two judicial
districts, the eastern and the western. There are three collection
districts in the State. The respective ports of entry for these districts
are Galveston, La Salle, and Brazos Santiago. To these are attached nine
ports of delivery.

The capital is Austin. The Legislature is composed of a Senate, elected
for four years, and a House of Representatives, elected for two years.
The sessions of the Legislature are biennial and are held in December.
The Governor is elected for four years.


UNITED STATES SENATORS.

  Thomas F. Rusk,       from  1846  to  1856.
  Samuel Houston,         ”   1846   ”  1859.
  Pinckney J. Henderson,  ”   1857   ”  1858.
  Matthias Ward,          ”   1858   ”  1861.
  John Hemphill,          ”   1869   ”  1871.
  Lewis T. Wigfall,       ”   1859   ”  1861.
  J. W. Flannagan,        ”   1869   ”  1875.
  Morgan C. Hamilton,     ”   1871   ”  1877.
  Samuel B. Maxey,        ”   1875   ”  1881.


[Illustration]

WISCONSIN.

1. This State was visited and crossed by the early French explorers about
1665, and a settlement was made at Green Bay in 1669 and soon after
on the Mississippi, at Prairie du Chien. It was the policy of these
enterprising men to connect the French settlements on the lower St.
Lawrence by a chain of stations on the lakes and rivers with the mouth of
the Mississippi. This would have passed through the heart of the country
and have laid open its chief resources at once. It was a bold conception.
We see it nowhere among the English explorers and settlers, who seemed
not to like to lose sight of their ships; but it is quite in keeping with
the grand and rapid genius of the French; and, as in so many other cases,
by attempting too much they lost the whole. The English, if slower, were
sure, and consolidated their possessions on the coast, gradually pushing
westward as they were able to hold their ground.

2. The French explorers have left traces of their untiring activity in
the names of rivers and places, and even Indian tribes, but the attention
of their home government was soon withdrawn from them. No further
extension was given to settlement for near 150 years, notwithstanding it
was so easy of access from the south by the Mississippi river, and from
the east by the chain of great lakes. Very fortunately, as it now seems,
all this vast and valuable territory in the heart of the continent,
equal, perhaps in its natural wealth, to the original resources of the
whole of Europe, was reserved to reward the labors and consolidate the
beneficent power of a Nation of Freemen, carefully trained and adapted to
their high destiny.

3. The tide of emigration flowed westward by way of the Ohio river, and
the States south were settled and admitted into the Union long before
Wisconsin received even a Territorial government. This occurred in 1836,
and in 1840 the census gave it but little over 30,000 inhabitants.
Population now flowed steadily to it and we find, in 1850, over 300,000
inhabitants. It was admitted into the Union in 1848, making the thirtieth
State. Its high latitude probably had something to do with this deferred
settlement, the milder winters of the more southern range of States
attracting the emigrants first. The climate, however, has important
advantages over the States in question, being drier, less changeable, and
not so subject to extremes. It is very healthy, and probably the oldest
man in the country was living, hale and hearty, in this State, a few
years ago, at the patriarchal age of 139. The climate is milder than in
the same latitude farther east.

4. The surface is a high rolling prairie, open and mostly treeless,
except near streams and bodies of water in the south, but in the north
covered with timber. Vast forests of pine grow on the northern slope,
which is some 1,200 feet above the level of the sea. Some parts of the
State fall 600 feet below that elevation; and a succession of ridges
having a general direction east and west, separate the rivers flowing
into Lake Superior, Green Bay, and Lake Michigan, while many streams
flow southwest into the Mississippi. The State is 285 miles long by 255
wide. Its beautiful prairies, gratefully returning a bountiful harvest
to the intelligent farmer; its numerous charming lakes and ponds; its
remarkable commercial advantages by lakes and rivers, supplemented by
canals and railroads; its great manufacturing facilities, and valuable
mineral deposits, give great promise to its future. Wheat is the leading
agricultural staple, but all the grains, vegetables, and fruits of the
Northern States well reward cultivation. It has an area of 52,924 square
miles, equal to 34,511,360 acres. In 1870 the population amounted to
1,055,167, which gave her eight Members of Congress. Wisconsin lies in
the seventh judicial circuit (which is composed of Wisconsin, Indiana
and Illinois,) and forms one judicial district. It has one collection
district, one port of entry (Milwaukee,) and five ports of delivery,
viz.: Southport, Racine, Sheboygan, Green Bay and Depere.

The capital of the State is Madison. The Legislature meets on the second
Wednesday in January. The State election is on the Tuesday after the
first Monday in November.

The enacting clause of her laws is as follows: “The people of Wisconsin,
represented in Senate and Assembly, do enact as follows.”


UNITED STATES SENATORS.

  Henry Dodge,          from  1848  to  1857.
  Isaac P. Walker,        ”   1848   ”  1855.
  Charles Durkee,         ”   1855   ”  1861.
  James R. Doolittle,     ”   1857   ”  1869.
  Timothy O. Howe,        ”   1861   ”  1875.
  M. H. Carpenter,        ”   1869   ”  1875.
  Angus Cameron,          ”   1875   ”  1881.

[Illustration: THE DOMES OF THE YOSEMITE.]


[Illustration]

CALIFORNIA

Is said to have been visited by the Spaniards in 1542, and by Sir Francis
Drake, a celebrated English navigator, in 1578. The first mission was
founded by Spanish Catholics in 1769. It was sparsely settled by Mexican
rancheros, who occupied themselves chiefly in raising cattle. In 1846
Fremont, who had been conducting an exploring party across the great
plains and the Rocky Mountains, defeated in conjunction with Commodore
Stockton, the Mexican forces in California, and took possession of it in
the name of the United States; to which it was definitely ceded by the
treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, Feb. 2nd, 1848; the United States government
paying Mexico for that territory and New Mexico $15,000,000, besides
paying $3,500,000 indemnity, due from Mexico to citizens of the United
States.

Scarcely had this arrangement been made, when it was published that
California was rich in gold, and adventurers from all sections of the
Union, and various countries of the Old World, rushed in like a flood.
For some years, society there, composed in large part, of the wildest
and most ungovernable elements of old communities, was like a seething
volcano; but, to the immortal honor of American citizens, it was subdued
by the superior resolution and summary vigor of the better class of
emigrants from the States, and was admitted into the Union on the 7th of
Sept. 1850, with a clause in its Constitution prohibiting slavery. The
discussion in Congress on this point came near precipitating the Civil
War that broke out ten years later. The difficulty between the slavery
and anti-slavery parties was adjusted by compromise measures, for the
time, but only served to allay the agitation produced by conflict of
interests and opinions, which was irreconcilable.

California “The Golden,” proved extraordinarily rich in precious metals
and other minerals, as quicksilver, platinum, asphaltum, iron, lead, and
rare qualities of marble. Its gold mines alone from 1858 to 1868 produced
over $800,000,000.

It is a broken country, traversed by two ranges of mountains. The valleys
are exceedingly productive. They are unexcelled for wheat; all kinds of
fruit grow in the greatest perfection; and the grape culture promises
to equal, if not to excel, the products of the most famous vineyards
of Europe. Surprising as is her mineral wealth, her agricultural
possibilities are far greater, and her commerce is already immense, and
bids fair, from her position and relations to Eastern Asia, and the
western parts of South America, to rival that of the Atlantic States.

The world was ripe for the discovery of these unparalleled treasures,
and civilization was prepared to use them for the good of mankind. The
ready passage across the vast and inhospitable deserts of the American
continent, by means of railways, has already changed (and will probably
change still more in the future) the course of commerce; and San
Francisco and New York may hope to rule, in large part, the commerce of
the world.

California is remarkable for the salubrity of its climate, where the
rigors of winter (save on the mountains), and the excessive heats of
summer are equally unknown, and for the variety and magnitude of its
natural curiosities. Of the last the Yosemite valley and the Big Trees
are the most prominent. She has near 1,000 miles of railroad, and has
made ample provision for education.

California was the thirty-first State. It has an area of 188,982 square
miles, equal to 120,948,480 acres. The population in 1870 was 560,285,
entitling her to four Representatives in Congress.

By act of 1866, this State, with Oregon and Nevada, constitutes the ninth
judicial circuit, and forms two judicial districts. California has seven
ports of entry, viz.: San Francisco, Monterey, San Diego, Sacramento,
Sonoma, San Joaquin and San Pedro; also, one port of delivery, Santa
Barbara. California was obtained from Mexico by conquest in 1846.

The capital is Sacramento. She holds her State election on the first
Tuesday in September. Her Legislature meets on the first Monday in
December, but meets only once in two years.

The enacting clause of her laws is: “The people of the State of
California, represented in Senate and Assembly, do enact as follows.”


UNITED STATES SENATORS.

  John C. Fremont,      from  1850  to  1851.
  William M. Gwin,        ”   1850   ”  1861.
  John B. Weller,         ”   1851   ”  1857.
  H. P. Haun,             ”   1859   ”  1862.
  David C. Broderick,     ”   1856   ”  1859.
  Milton S. Latham,       ”   1860   ”  1866.
  John Conness,           ”   1863   ”  1869.
  Cornelius Cole,         ”   1867   ”  1873.
  J. A. McDougall,        ”   1861   ”  1867.
  Eugene Casserly,        ”   1869   ”  1875.
  Aaron A. Sargent,       ”   1873   ”  1879.
  John S. Hagar,          ”   ----   ”  1875.
  Newton Booth,           ”   1875   ”  1881.

[Illustration: DELLS OF THE ST. CROIX RIVER, MINN.]


[Illustration]

MINNESOTA.

This State might be called the Mother of Rivers, since it contains the
high watershed, or tableland, where the rivers sending their waters to
two oceans, in three directions, have their sources. The head waters
of the Mississippi, the St. Lawrence, and the streams flowing into the
frozen ocean of the north are all found here. In 1680 the unwearied La
Salle visited the head waters of the Mississippi, but this region was
long left to the sole occupation of the Indians.

Fort Snelling, near St. Paul, was built in 1819. No other territory was
acquired, by extinction of the Indian title to the soil, until 1837; and
in 1849 the civilized population gathered about the trading posts and
missions amounted to less than 5,000. It then received a Territorial
government. A considerable portion of the State having in 1851 been
ceded, by treaty with the Indians, to the government, was immediately
entered on by the settlers; and in 1858 it was prepared to take rank
among the sovereign States. It was admitted in May of this year, by act
of Congress.

In 1862 the State passed through the appalling crisis of an Indian
massacre of the outlying settlements. It began without warning, in the
midst of fancied security, and before adequate protection could be
forwarded, some 500 men, women, and children were murdered with all
the accompaniments of savage cruelty. Some $3,000,000 of property was
destroyed. In a short time sufficient force was gathered to overpower the
savages, and they were in large part removed from the State.

The surface is undulating and high, and the soil, in good part, extremely
fertile. Portions are open and rolling prairie; the remainder heavily
wooded. Though the winters are long and cold, the air is dry and
invigorating, and the climate healthy. It is specially favorable to
the growth of wheat. Commerce is favored by the Mississippi, navigable
to St. Paul, and by good harbors on Lake Superior, as well as by
numerous railways. Its provision for education is excellent, and a State
University at St. Anthony’s Falls promises to form a suitable crown to
its intellectual advantages.

This State was admitted into the Union on the 11th day of May, 1858, and
made the thirty-second State. It has an area of 83,531 square miles,
equal to 53,459,840 acres. The population in 1870 amounted to 435,511.
This State is entitled to three Members of Congress.

It lies in the eighth judicial circuit, which is composed of Missouri,
Iowa, Kansas, Arkansas and Minnesota. Minnesota forms one judicial
district, and has no ports of entry or delivery.

St. Paul is the capital. The Legislature meets annually on the Tuesday
after the first Monday in November. The State election is held on the
Tuesday after the first Monday in January.


UNITED STATES SENATORS.

  Henry M. Rice,        from  1857  to  1863.
  James Shields,          ”   1857   ”  1859.
  Alex. Ramsey,           ”   1863   ”  1875.
  Daniel Norton,          ”   1865   ”  1871.
  Mort. S. Wilkinson,     ”   1859   ”  1865.
  William Windom,         ”   1871   ”  1877.
  S. J. R. McMillan,      ”   1875   ”  1881.


[Illustration]

OREGON.

Was discovered by Spanish adventurers in the sixteenth century. In 1792
Capt. Grey, of Boston, discovered the Columbia river and entered it,
securing the sovereignty of the country to the United States by right
of first exploration. It was more thoroughly explored by Lewis and
Clark, appointed for that purpose by the United States government, in
1804-5-6. The northern part, (now Washington Territory,) was claimed by
Great Britain, and the conflicting claims produced long and dangerous
diplomatic contention, which was finally peaceably ended in favor of the
United States.

In 1811 a fur trading company established a fort and settlement at the
mouth of the Columbia, which was taken possession of by the English
in the latter part of 1813. The country was claimed by them until
1846, when the boundaries were settled by treaty; giving Oregon to the
United States. Settlement from the States, however, commenced in 1839,
and continued to increase until 1848, when a territorial government
was organized. The excitement consequent on the discovery of gold in
California drew off many of its citizens; but was, in part, counteracted
by the extraordinary inducements made to actual settlers. A State
constitution was adopted by the people Nov. 9th, 1857, but it was not
admitted, by act of Congress, into the Union, until Feb. 14th, 1859,
making the thirty-third State.

The surface of the country is divided by three ranges of mountains, the
Cascade, Blue and Rocky mountains. The Cascade Range has the highest
peaks found in the United States. The climate is mild near the coast,
but more severe in higher eastern parts. The high eastern regions are
volcanic, containing vast tracts of lava, entirely sterile; the middle
is well adapted to grazing, in many parts. The valuable farming lands
are in the western division, along the various tributary streams of the
Columbia. Wheat is the great staple; rye, oats, and vegetables, are grown
with success. Fruit is also produced in abundance. Its supply of coal and
copper is said to be unlimited; and it is specially celebrated for its
extensive forests of gigantic trees. Manufactures and commerce are, as
yet, undeveloped; but will be important in the future. Little has been
done in the way of internal improvement.

Oregon has experienced the disadvantage of growing up in the shade of her
splendid neighbor, California, but has a solidly prosperous future before
her.

It has an area of 95,274 square miles, equal to 60,975,360 acres. The
population amounted in 1870 to 90,922, which did not reach the number
required to entitle it to a Member of Congress according to the fixed
ratio. But every State is entitled to one member, whatever its population
may be. By act of 1866, the States of Oregon, Nevada and California
were constituted the ninth judicial circuit. Oregon forms one judicial
district, and has one collection district, and one port of entry.

The capital is Salem, where her Legislature meets once in two years, on
the second Monday of September. The State election is held on the first
Monday in June.


UNITED STATES SENATORS.

  Joseph Lane,          from  1859  to  1861.
  Delazon Smith,          ”   1859   ”  1860.
  Edward D. Baker,        ”   1861   ”  1861.
  Benj. F. Harding,       ”   1862.
  James W. Nesmith,       ”   1861   ”  1867.
  Benjamin Stark,         ”   1861   ”  1862.
  Geo. H. Williams,       ”   1865   ”  1871.
  Henry W. Corbett,       ”   1867   ”  1873.
  James K. Kelly,         ”   1871   ”  1877.
  John H. Mitchell,       ”   1873   ”  1879.


[Illustration]

KANSAS.

1. Nearly every State in the American Union has some advantage that
is peculiar to it, or that it shares in a degree so eminent as to
distinguish it from all others. Kansas is not an exception, and some of
these are exceedingly attractive. They enter, to some extent, into the
painful and bloody history of its first settlement; the mighty tragedy
of the Civil War having enacted its prelude on her fertile plains. The
Kansas and Nebraska Bill, in 1854, repealed the Missouri Compromise, and
this territory was opened to a trial of strength between Freedom and
Slavery; the contest being transferred from the floors of Congress and
the Representatives of the people to the settlers of the soil, who were
to determine whether slavery should, or not, exist in it, as a State.
The attraction of a decisive political struggle was added to the many
favorable features of position, climate, and intrinsic value. Southern
people sought to introduce their peculiar institution, and northern
people resisted. There was much disorder and bloodshed. Every effort
was made, by strategy and force, on the one side and the other. The
southern party was signally defeated and there was henceforth no hope
of preserving to the slave States a balance of power in the national
government, and the civil war followed, almost as a natural consequence.

2. Kansas is larger by more than 3,000 square miles than the whole of
New England. It lies very near the geographical centre of the country,
and stretches a friendly hand, by the Pacific Railroads, to both the
Atlantic and Pacific States. A good part of her soil is declared to
be much superior to that of ordinary prairie land in richness, and
to average four feet in depth. It is fairly watered and timbered, and
freely produces everything, except the proper tropical products of
the extreme south, that is grown in the United States. The climate is
that of Virginia, without its excessive heat; which may, perhaps, be
considered balanced by its occasional excessively sharp and cutting
winds in winter. These, however, are tolerably rare, and the winters,
for the most part, short and mild, the climate being, on the whole very
healthy. Its deposits of salt are exceedingly rich, and other minerals
abound in various parts. Its commercial position is excellent, and
its manufacturing capabilities all that the future will be likely to
require. Its resources, under suitable development, cannot be considered
inferior to any other equal area in the country; which is speaking in the
strongest language we can command, considering what may be said of so
many different localities.

3. The eastern surface is a succession of waves, or undulations, the
valleys generally extending north and south. A narrow section west of
it, stretching across the State is more level and the soil lighter.
Beyond this long reaches of level, fertile, and well watered lands
are adapted to flocks and herds. These are much higher than the river
beds, the valleys of which abound in bottoms, beautiful in appearance
and situation, and of inexhaustible fertility. Vast beds of coal, a
good quality and abundant quantity of iron ore, and petroleum and lead
have been discovered. Corn and wheat are the leading staples, and it is
believed that fruit culture will soon become a leading interest of this
promising State.

Kansas was admitted into the Union as a State, Jan. 29, 1861, making the
thirty-fourth State. Kansas has an area of 78,841 square miles, equal
to 50,187,520 acres. The population in 1870 was 362,812, giving her
three Representatives in Congress. This State is in the eighth judicial
circuit, and forms one judicial district. It has no ports of entry or
delivery.

Topeka is the capital. The State election is held on the Tuesday after
the first Monday in November. The Legislature meets on the second Tuesday
in January.

The enacting clause of the laws is as follows: “Be it enacted by the
Legislature of the State of Kansas.”


UNITED STATES SENATORS.

  James Henry Lane,     from  1861  to  1866.
  Samuel C. Pomeroy,      ”   1861   ”  1873.
  E. G. Ross,             ”   1866   ”  1871.
  Alexander Caldwell,     ”   1871   ”  1877.
  [3]Robert Crozier,      ”             1877.
  James M. Harvey,        ”   ----   ”  1877.
  John J. Ingalls,        ”   1873   ”  1879.

    [3] Appointed by Governor to fill vacancy.


[Illustration]

WEST VIRGINIA.

This is the only State ever formed, under the Constitution, by the
division of an organized State. The interests of West Virginia were
always different from those of the eastern part; and when, at the
commencement of the Civil War, the eastern part seceded, the western
remained loyal and was erected into a separate State; thus realizing the
ancient wish of its citizens.

The act of Congress organizing it as a State was passed December
31st, 1862, with condition that it should take effect 60 days after
proclamation of its admission by the President of the United States.
This proclamation was issued April 21st, 1863; and it was admitted to
representation in Congress as a sovereign State June 20th thereafter. A
temporary government without representation in Congress had been formed
in May, 1862. It was the thirty-fifth State admitted into the Union.

It is varied in surface, from high mountain ranges, hilly and undulating
midlands, to level and rich river bottoms; and is nearly all available
either for cultivation or grazing; while its valuable deposits of coal
lie very near the surface in nearly all parts of the State. Iron abounds,
and timber of the best quality. Its manufacturing facilities are great;
and its canals and railroads, with the Ohio river on its northwestern
border, furnish the means of making it one of the richest States in the
Union. The climate is healthy, and the scenery picturesque, and in places
it rises to wild grandeur.

It has an area of 23,000 square miles, or 14,720,000 acres.

The population, in 1870 was 445,616. This State has now three Members of
Congress. West Virginia was subsequently put into the fourth judicial
circuit, and constitutes one judicial district. Parkersburg, also, was
made a port of delivery.

Charleston is the capital. The State election is held on the fourth
Thursday in October. The Legislature meets on the second Tuesday in
January.


UNITED STATES SENATORS.

  Peter G. Van Winkle,  from  1863  to  1869.
  Waitman T. Willey,      ”   1863   ”  1871.
  Arthur J. Boreman,      ”   1868   ”  1875.
  H. G. Davis,            ”   1871   ”  1877.
  Allen T. Caperon,       ”   1875   ”  1881.


[Illustration]

NEVADA.

“The Snowy Land” derives its name from the Sierra Nevada, or Snowy Range
of mountains forming the eastern boundary of California. It lies in
the western part of the basin of the Great Salt Lake and among those
mountains, in whose rocky bosom was found the stimulus that has changed
so much of the Pacific slope, and the Rocky Mountain region, from a wild
and dismal waste to populous and thriving States.

Gold was found in moderate quantities among the mountains, and population
began to scatter slowly over them about 1850, and soon settlers began
to improve the valleys at the foot of the mountains on the east for
agricultural purposes. Carson county was organized by the territorial
government of Utah in 1854; but in June, 1859, rich deposits of silver
were found; and emigration began to pour in rapidly. In March, 1861, the
Territory of Nevada was organized, and the same month, three years later,
it was admitted into the Union, making the thirty-sixth State.

The history of these States, so rich in precious metals, puts to the
blush the fantastic fables of the Arabian Nights. The silver mines of
Nevada are believed to be the richest in the world. The celebrated silver
mines of Potosi, in South America, never produced over $10,000,000 a
year, while in 1867, one mine in Nevada produced $17,500,000, and is
thought to be almost, or quite, inexhaustible. The climate, like that of
California, is healthy; the seasons are divided into wet and dry, and
agriculture is dependent on irrigation. With time and pains its products
will be considerable. It has much wild and sublime scenery, and some
natural curiosities; as Lake Mono, with its waters so sharply acid as to
destroy cloth and leather immersed in it. Its gloomy surroundings, and
the great distance from the tops of the precipitous rocks surrounding
its shores to the surface of the water lend an impressive and fearful
character to its severe desolation. It lies below the reach of the winds,
and no living thing can exist in its waters.

It has an area of 63,473 square miles, or 40,622,720 acres. The
population in 1860, while yet a Territory, was 6,857. In 1870 it had
increased to 42,491. In conformity with the Constitutional provision that
every State shall have one Representative in Congress, Nevada has one.
This State lies in the ninth judicial circuit, and forms one judicial
district, called the district of Nevada.

Carson City is the capital. The State election is held on the first
Tuesday in November; and the Legislature meets on the first Monday in
January.

The enacting clause of the laws is in the following words: “The people
of the State of Nevada, represented in Senate and Assembly, do enact as
follows.”


UNITED STATES SENATORS.

  James W. Nye,         from  1865  to  1873.
  William M. Stewart,     ”   1865   ”  1875.
  John P. Jones,          ”   1873   ”  1879.
  Wm. Sharon,             ”   1875   ”  1881.


[Illustration]

NEBRASKA.

1. Formed a part of the Louisiana Purchase from the French government
in 1803. It received a Territorial government in 1854, and was, by the
provisions of the Kansas-Nebraska Bill, equally with Kansas, exposed
to the introduction of slavery; but the Southern people limited their
efforts in that direction to Kansas, and Nebraska did not share in its
disorder and bloodshed.

2. The greater portion of the country consists of a high, rolling
prairie. The soil in the eastern part of the State is nearly the same as
that of the adjoining portions of Iowa and Kansas. It is a rich loam,
finely pulverized, and admirably adapted to cultivation. The second
district, near the center of the State, is strictly pastoral. The third,
or western section, has a fair soil, but is destitute of timber, and
insufficiently supplied with water.

Throughout the fertile portion of the State, wheat, corn, oats, and other
cereals, and vegetables and fruits yield largely. Vast herds of buffaloes
formerly roamed over its prairies; but they are now mostly exterminated.
The altitude of Nebraska secures to it a dry, pure, and salubrious
atmosphere. Rain is not abundant, but, in the eastern part, is sufficient
for the purposes of the agriculturist. Salt, limestone, and coal are
found in various localities, and not improbably other minerals will be
found in paying quantities. The State is too new to fully estimate all
its resources and capabilities.

3. The educational advantages are good. The Common School System, modeled
on that of Ohio, is well supplied with funds, embracing one-sixteenth of
the public land, or 2,500,000 acres. 90,000 acres were given to endow a
State Agricultural College, and 46,081 acres to the State University.

Its commercial facilities are supplied by the Missouri River, the Pacific
and other railroads, and are amply sufficient to develop its resources.
The future of the State has many elements of promise. No public debt
impedes its growth, and within the last few years it has increased in
wealth and population more rapidly than any of the adjoining States or
Territories. An unknown, but certainly not limited, amount of wealth
still lies locked up in its soil, and its relation to ocean commerce
by the mighty Missouri, and to inter-State trade by lying in the great
traveled route between the Atlantic and Pacific States, with a remarkably
fine, healthy climate, and the ease with which its soil is worked,
contribute to form a powerful attraction to labor and capital, and we
have no reason to suspect any decrease in its rapid progress.

4. On its admission, in 1867, it was the thirty-seventh State. It has an
area of 122,007 square miles, or 78,084,480 acres.

Population in 1870, 123,000. It forms the ninth judicial district, and
has no ports of entry or delivery.

The capital is Lincoln. The State election is held on the second Tuesday
in October. The Legislature meets on the Thursday after the first Monday
in January.


UNITED STATES SENATORS.

  John M. Thayer,       from  1867  to  1871.
  Thomas W. Tipton,       ”   1867   ”  1875.
  Phineas W. Hitchcock,   ”   1871   ”  1877.
  Algernon S. Paddock,    ”   1875   ”  1881.

[Illustration: CHIMNEY ROCKS OF THE WEST.]


[Illustration]

COLORADO

Was formed from parts of Kansas, Nebraska and Utah. Its Territorial
government was organized by act of Congress, March 2nd, 1861. It
is situated west of Kansas, on the great route from the Pacific to
the Atlantic States, and on the dividing ridge, or backbone, of the
continent. The rivers that find their head waters within the territory
run southeast and south to the Gulf of Mexico, and southwest to the Gulf
of California. The surface is nearly equally divided between a plain,
gently descending from the abrupt mountain wall of rock constituting the
eastern flank of the Rocky Mountains, and the mighty mass of that chain,
with its peaks, rising nearly three miles above the surface of the sea,
now forming an elevated plateau, and again sending off spurs and lateral
ranges containing beautiful valleys, or, in a more lavish and genial
mood, taking a wide circuit inclosing an immense sunken plain containing
hundreds of square miles of charming, well watered farming land called
parks. Of these there are seven. It is a magnificent region, and contains
all the elements of extreme mineral and agricultural wealth. It has mines
of gold, silver, copper, lead, and iron. Coal abounds in all parts, oil
flows from the wells with a little encouragement, and salt is easily
obtained in some parts. An immense soda-fountain is found near Colorado
City, called Fontaine qui Bouille (boiling fountain) and there are
indications of cinnabar, platina, and precious stones.

The climate is fine, the general temperature like Southern Pennsylvania
or Maryland; and, from the elevation, the air is very dry and pure. The
plain rises by imperceptible degrees to 5,000 feet, (about one mile,)
above the level of the sea, at the foot of the mountains. The numerous
valleys, the parks, and much of the sloping plain, form as fine an
agricultural region, with proper irrigation, as any State possesses, and
much of the remainder furnishes excellent pasturage through the entire
year. Occasionally heavy snow falls and for a few days extreme cold
prevails, but these are exceptional years; and it does not lie long. Its
effects can be guarded against with prudent care. Corn, wheat, and other
small grains and vegetables reach their greatest perfection here.

It furnishes excellent manufacturing facilities along the unfailing
mountain streams in the valleys, and will no doubt ultimately unite with
Montana and Southwestern Dacotah to supply the immense central part of
our domain with all the products of manufacturing genius and skill.

Denver the capital and principal city, is situated near the eastern base
of the mountains, where these put on their severest and sublimest aspect.
Clear lakes are set like stars, here and there, and the beautiful and
grand in scenery are nowhere more striking, or more agreeably combined.

The Territory contains 106,475 square miles in area, and the population
in 1870 numbered 29,706.

Several attempts have been made to obtain the admission of Colorado as
a State into the American Union. An act to enable the people to form a
constitution and State Government was passed by Congress, March, 1864.
The constitution, framed under this act, was rejected by the people of
the territory. Another constitution was framed and adopted in 1865, but a
bill, passed by Congress for its admission, was vetoed by the President.
Another attempt made in 1867 likewise failed by the President’s veto;
since which time it quietly remained under its Territorial government,
until March 3, 1875, when it was admitted by Act of Congress.




CHAPTER LXVII.

MOTTOES AND NAMES OF THE STATES.


UNITED STATES—_E Pluribus Unum_, “Out of Many, One.”

ALABAMA—Has no motto. Name, from its principal river, means “Here we
rest,” and denotes the satisfaction of the Indians with its agreeable
landscape and climate.

ARKANSAS—_Regnant populi_—“The people rule.” Has the Indian name of its
river. Is called the “Bear State.”

CALIFORNIA—_Eureka_, her Greek motto, means “I have found it.” Derives
her name from the bay forming the peninsula of lower California.

COLORADO—Latin motto, _Nil sine numine_, means “Nothing can be done
without divine aid.” Named from the river.

CONNECTICUT—_Qui transtulit Sustinet_, “He who brought us over sustains
us.” Name from her river, which means, in the Indian tongue, “The long
river.” Is called the “Nutmeg State.”

DELAWARE—Motto, Liberty and Independence. Was named from Lord Delaware,
an English statesman. Is called “The Blue Hen.”

FLORIDA—Motto, “In God is our trust.” Name from the abundance of flowers
when discovered, on Easter Sunday. In Spanish Florida means flowery.

GEORGIA—Motto, “Wisdom, justice and moderation.” Named from George II,
King of England when it was settled.

ILLINOIS—Motto, “State Sovereignty, National Union.” Name derived from
an Indian tribe, also applied by them to Lake Michigan and her largest
inland river. Means “We are the men.” Is called the “Sucker State.”

INDIANA—Has no motto. Name suggested by its numerous Indian population.
It is called the “Hoosier State.”

IOWA—Motto, “Our liberties we prize, our rights we will maintain.” Its
Indian name means “This is the Land.” Is called the “Hawk Eye State.”

KANSAS—Motto, _Ad astra per aspera_, “To the stars through difficulties.”
Name means “Smoky water,” and is derived from one of her rivers.

KENTUCKY—Motto, “United we stand, divided we fall.” Bears the Indian name
of one of her rivers. The Indians termed it the “dark and bloody ground.”
It was the battle field of Northern and Southern Indians. Is called the
“Blue Grass State.”

LOUISIANA—Motto, “Union and confidence.” Named from Louis XIV, King of
France. It is called “The Creole State.”

MAINE—Latin motto, _Dirigo_, “I direct;” indicative of sovereignty. Was
named for a province of France. Is called “The Pine Tree State.”

MARYLAND—Latin motto, _Crescite et multiplicamini_, “Increase and
multiply.” Name from the Queen of England, the wife of Charles I.

MASSACHUSETTS—Latin motto, _Ense petit placidam sub libertate quietem_,
“By the sword she seeks placid rest in liberty,” or “Conquers a peace.”
The name was acquired from an Indian tribe and the bay on her coast. Is
called the “Bay State” from her numerous bays.

MICHIGAN—Latin motto, _Tuebor_, and, _Si quæris peninsulam amœnam
circumspice_. “I will defend.” “If you seek a pleasant peninsula, look
around you.” The name is derived from two Indian words meaning “Great
Lake,” by them applied to Huron and Michigan lakes. Is called “The
Wolverine State.”

MINNESOTA—French motto, _L’Etoile du Nord_, “The Star of the North.” The
name, meaning whitish water, (foam of the falls,) is derived from the
Indians.

MISSOURI—Latin motto, _Salus populi suprema lex esto_, “Let the welfare
of the people be the supreme law.” Named from her great river. It means
“Muddy water.”

MISSISSIPPI—Has no motto. It is named from the river, whose name
signifies “The Father of Waters.”

NEBRASKA—Motto, “Equality before the law.” Its name is derived from one
of its rivers, meaning “broad and shallow, or low.”

NEW HAMPSHIRE—Has no motto. It is named from a county in England.
Familiar name is “The Old Granite State.”

NEW JERSEY—Motto, “Liberty and Independence.” Named for the Island of
Jersey on the coast of England.

NEW YORK—Latin motto, _Excelsior_, “Higher.” Named from the Duke of York.
Is called “The Empire State.”

NORTH CAROLINA—Has no motto. It was named for Charles IX, King of France.
It is called “The old North,” or “The Turpentine State.”

NEVADA—Latin motto, _Volens et potens_, “Willing and Able.” It was named
from its mountains. Spanish name means “Snowy.”

OHIO—Latin motto, _Imperium in imperio_, “An empire in an empire.” It
took its name from the river on its south boundary. It is familiarly
called “The Buckeye State.”

OREGON—Latin motto, _Alis volat propriis_, “She flies with her own
wings.” Name is derived from her principal river.

PENNSYLVANIA—Motto, “Virtue, liberty and independence.” Named from Wm.
Penn, “Penn’s woods.” Is called the “Keystone State.”

RHODE ISLAND—Her motto is “Hope.” Named from the Island of Rhodes, in the
Mediterranean Sea. Is familiarly called “Little Rhody.”

SOUTH CAROLINA—Latin motto, _Animis opibusque parati_, “Ready in will and
deed.” Has the Latin name of Charles IX, of France (Carolus). Is known as
the “Palmetto State.”

TENNESSEE—Motto, “Agriculture, Commerce.” Has the Indian name of one of
her rivers. She is called “The Big Bend State.”

TEXAS—Has no motto. Has preserved its Mexican name. Is called “The Lone
Star State.”

VERMONT—Motto, “Freedom and Unity.” Has the French name of her mountains
(_Verd Mont_, “Green Mountains”).

VIRGINIA—Latin motto, _Sic semper tyrannis_, “So always with tyrants.”
Was named from Elizabeth of England, the “Virgin” Queen. It is called
“The Old Dominion.”

WEST VIRGINIA—Latin motto, _Montani semper liberi_, “Mountaineers are
always free.” Retained the former name, when divided from Virginia.

WISCONSIN—Latin motto, _Civilitas successit barbarum_, “The civilized man
succeeds the barbarous.” Has the Indian name of one of her rivers. It is
called “The Badger State.”




CHAPTER LXVIII.

THE NATIONAL DOMAIN.


1. When the War of Independence closed, and the people and government
had leisure to look about them and estimate their situation, they found
the organized States covering the coast from Nova Scotia to Florida,
(then in possession of Spain.) There was no vacant territory near the
ocean; but west of the States—which run back only a few hundred miles—was
a vast region, peopled by a few tribes of Indians and, in Kentucky and
Tennessee, by a few hundred whites. These with singular hardihood and
self reliance, had not hesitated to brave a thousand perils to get
possession of the charming valleys and fertile savannahs of the eastern
part of the great Mississippi Valley. The settlements were made near the
mountains that skirted the western boundaries of the original States.
Beyond, to the Mississippi river, extended as beautiful and fertile a
territory as any land could boast; many times larger than the original
territory, whose people, poor and few as they were, had fought for and
won it by persistent bravery. It lay in virgin beauty and wealth, the
prize of their strong hands and courageous hearts. The future of the new
government once determined, and the fundamental Law of the Land adopted,
they prepared to take possession by organizing a government over those
already there, surveying and laying off the unsettled lands, and bringing
them into market for sale and settlement.

2. The States had owned all the property, and held all the real power,
up to the adoption of the present Constitution. It was now agreed that
the unsettled lands should be considered as the common property of
the whole country, and be administered by the General Government. It
was not without much difficulty, and many severe contests, that this
point was so settled. There were two parties; one headed by Alexander
Hamilton who wished a strong, consolidated central government; the other,
afraid to confer on it too much power lest it should prove a tyrannical
master, wished to preserve most of the substance of power in the State
governments. They were led by Thomas Jefferson. The adoption of the
Constitution was difficult, and the struggle over it perilous to the
confederation. It embraced the main views of the first party. But for the
personal influence of Washington, who had presided over the Convention
that framed it, and had, as it were, been its father, it could not have
received the approval of the majority of the people. The people allowed
their fears to be overruled by their trust in his wisdom and prudence.

He alone it has been believed could have put its machinery in successful
operation; and the admirable manner in which the statesmen, in Congress
and the executive offices, infused the spirit of freedom and moderation
into the administration, following in the lead of the revered “Father of
his Country,” settled it in the confidence and affections of the people.

3. We have dwelt on this point because it is intimately related to the
organization and government of the Territories, and to the provision
made for the increase of States. It was important that they should be
in harmony with the original ones, and there were no means of securing
this and providing against the future growth of governments, differing
from those of the original States, but by giving the central power a
general control over them. The Constitution conferred it on Congress.
Ohio, and all the territory north of the Ohio river, was obliged to
wait till this point was settled, before it could be opened to the
entrance of emigrants. This region was early erected into a separate
government, by Congress, called the Northwest Territory. The region
south of the river was treated in the same manner a little later. In 1800
the Mississippi Territory was organized; thus covering all the ground
originally belonging to the New Republic. These were, as population
increased, divided into sections, of convenient size for the purpose of
local self government, and states created as fast as the requisite number
of citizens had collected within such limits; and the remainder continued
under the preliminary territorial rule.

4. In 1802, the vast region west of the Mississippi was bought of the
French government. This extended the National Domain from the mouth
to the head waters of this river, and westward, north of the Spanish
possessions, to the Pacific ocean. Many new States and Territories have
been formed from it. The process of multiplication has not yet ceased in
this region. In 1819 Florida was purchased; a part of Mexico was obtained
in 1848, and again in 1853; and the increase of territory continued by
the acquisition of Alaska in 1867. This policy has become, in a manner,
traditional, and it is not unlikely that it may be continued to some
extent in the future.

5. The government of the territories is established by act of Congress;
the President nominates and the Senate confirms the Governor, Secretary,
and Judges of the courts; and Congress passes all the general laws for
the government of the inhabitants. A Territorial Legislature is elected
by the inhabitants, which takes charge of all the local interests of
the Territory. All these laws and organizations are temporary, and pass
away when a State government is founded. Commonly, an act of Congress
authorizes the election of Delegates to a Convention for framing a
State Constitution; though the Territorial Government sometimes takes
the initiative. This constitution is then submitted to the popular vote
of the citizens in the Territory; and if they favor it, presented to
Congress for its approval. If it is in harmony with our usages, and
republican principles, Congress accepts it, and, if the President does
not see cause to veto it, a new State has come into existence. In this
manner the number of the States has become nearly three times as numerous
as at the beginning.




CHAPTER LXIX.

THE INDIVIDUAL TERRITORIES.


The territories are here arranged in the order of seniority, the one
which first received a territorial government taking the lead. The
District of Columbia is older than any of them as acknowledged National
property, the Louisiana Purchase having been made since it was ceded to
the general Government; but it was the last to receive a territorial
organization, Congress governing it directly without giving it
representation until 1871. It is placed last for that reason.


NEW MEXICO

Was visited at an early period by Spaniards, who, excited by the success
of the followers of Cortez and Pizarro in discovering rich mines of gold
and silver, sought the wealth in the dangers and hardships of travel
which is more often, if more slowly, found as the reward of patient
toil. An expedition from Florida made the formidable overland journey to
New Mexico, in 1537; and another from Mexico, after visiting the Gila
River, passed eastward beyond the Rio Grande in 1540. In 1581 its mineral
wealth became known and a mission was attempted; but no settlement was
made until 1600, when formal possession was taken by an adequate army.
The missions now became very successful and the mines were worked.
Many of the natives were considerably advanced in some of the arts of
civilization. In 1680 the natives revolted, from the severe servitude to
which they were subjected, and drove the Spaniards out of the country.
They only recovered it in 1698. It was never very numerously peopled by
whites. In 1846 it was conquered by General Kearney, and in 1848 ceded to
the United States by the treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo. The difficulties
of transportation and the wild and lawless character of the inhabitants
has prevented any extensive emigration to it by Americans. It is an
elevated table-land, nearly 7,000 feet above the surface of the sea,
crossed by several ranges of mountains sometimes rising 10,000 feet above
the general surface of the country. The atmosphere is dry; little rain
falls; and agriculture is usually successful only with irrigation. In the
valleys, where this is employed, the fertility of the soil is marvelous.
Often two crops are raised, on the same land, in the year. Wheat and
other grains are raised in great perfection. Cotton is successful in
some parts, fruit can be raised in abundance, and the soil is said to be
specially favorable to the grape, the wine rivaling that of France.

Gold and silver abound, but the mines have never been effectively worked
for want of transportation and the requisite capital. Stock raising
is a profitable occupation in this Territory. Much of the land unfit
for cultivation produces grass which cures in drying during the hot
months, and preserves all its nutritious qualities. Sheep and mules are
extensively raised. When the Pacific railroad shall open the country
to immigration, and order, industry, and capital make the most of its
resources, it will be ranked among the favored parts of the Union.

It has many natural curiosities, and much wild and beautiful scenery.
The length of the Rio Grande, in its windings in the Territory, is about
1200 miles; and its valley from one to twelve miles wide. Its Territorial
government was organized in 1850. The population, in 1870, was 91,878.
Many tribes of Indians roam over the territory and through Texas,
Arizona, and northern Mexico. Most of the people are Roman Catholics. It
includes an area of about 100,000 square miles. Every free white male
inhabitant living in the territory at the time of its organization had
the right of suffrage, that right being regulated in other respects by
its legislative Assembly.


UTAH

Was formerly a part of the Mexican territory of Upper California, and
was acquired by the United States in 1848, by the treaty of Guadalupe
Hidalgo. It was too distant, desolate, and dangerous a region for much
settlement by Mexicans, and has little known history anterior to the
explorations of Fremont between 1843 and 1846.

The first American settlement was made by the Mormons, in July, 1847,
and was supposed by them to be out of the territory of the United
States, and beyond the reach of possible interference. Here, in the
depths of the desert, they determined to build up a peculiar religious
society embracing customs abhorrent to the views and institutions of
modern civilized States. Their success was a surprise to the world,
and probably to themselves; the capacity of the depths of the Great
American Desert, as it was called, for cultivation, exceeding all
previous expectation. But the war with Mexico, then in progress, threw
this, before inaccessible, desert into the limits of the American Union;
and the discovery of gold in the neighboring territory of California,
throwing them almost midway between the old western settlements and the
new Eldorado, subjected them to contact with, and interference by, the
tide of modern civilization, as it flowed toward the setting sun; and in
ten years from their first appearance in the Great Central Basin of the
continent, they came again into hostile conflict with the established
authorities they thought to have finally escaped. Though their conflict
with the United States government, imbued with the habits and prejudices
with which they antagonized, was deferred by the troubles which
precipitated the Civil War, and their institutions remained substantially
intact until that was past; the Pacific Railroad was then built through
their territory, and, if they are no longer persecuted, and their
peculiarities opposed by deadly force, the moral influence and dissolving
power introduced by numbers is more surely wasting away the foundations
of their political and religious edifice.

Utah was organized as a territory by act of Congress Sept. 9th, 1850.
Brigham Young, the head of the Mormon church, became the first governor.
In 1854 it was vainly attempted to remove him; and in 1857 an army was
sent to enforce Federal authority. A final conflict was avoided by
compromise. In 1862 the Mormons attempted to get admission into the Union
as a State, with their “peculiar institutions,” but failed. A Territorial
Government exists, but has little force, or vitality, while the Mormons
are large in numbers. According to the habits of our people, conflict
is avoided so far as possible, to await the more peaceable and natural
solution of the difficulty by moral forces.

Utah is unique in one respect; though lying nearly a mile above the
surface of the sea, and having a complete system of lakes and rivers,
there is no visible connection of these with the ocean. It is a continent
embosomed within the depths of a continent. The Great Salt Lake is 100
miles long by 50 broad, and its waters are very salt—three parts of the
water producing one of pure salt. No fish can live in it. It receives
the contents of many considerable streams. Whether they are kept in
subjection by evaporation alone, or have a concealed outlet to the ocean
is unknown. The soil, though in its natural state an apparent desert, is
extremely fertile when irrigated, and produces wheat and other cereals
in great profusion. Its mountains are believed to be rich in silver and
gold; but the Mormons have discouraged mining, and very little has been
done in that direction.

Cotton is highly successful in the southern settlements, and experiments
with flax and silk culture have been very favorable. The climate is mild
and healthy.

Utah is a highly promising section of our national domain. Its population
in 1870 was 86,786; its area about 87,500 square miles.


WASHINGTON TERRITORY

Was organized in 1853, and then contained a much larger area. It was at
first a part of Oregon, and its meagre early history was the same. The
Straits of San Juan de Fuca were visited and named by a Spanish navigator
in 1775. The English government claimed the territory north of the
Columbia and for some years there was a joint occupation by both nations
by special agreement. The difficulties concerning this boundary came near
involving the two nations in war, but it was settled in 1846, giving the
United States the territory to the 49th parallel of latitude. Vancouver
Island was assigned to Great Britain.

Washington is estimated to contain, west of the Columbia river, where
it flows down from British America, 22,000 square miles of arable land.
There is much that is adapted only to grazing, and vast quantities
covered with forests in the wild mountain regions of the eastern part of
the territory.

It has an almost inexhaustible supply of coal, and more or less of the
precious metals. The great distinction of Washington territory is its
forests. The warm ocean currents from the Indian ocean, after traversing
the eastern coasts of Asia, are thrown across the North Pacific against
the western shores of North America, and effect an important modification
in the severity and humidity of the temperature of our Pacific slope. The
climate is much milder and more equable than in the same latitude east
of the mountains, and the moisture is highly favorable to forest growth.
It is the best ship building timber in the world. The trees are immense,
often reaching a height of 300 feet with a diameter of 8 to 12 feet.

The portion of Washington territory lying west of the Cascade mountains
is rich farming land, heavily timbered; while east of the Cascades the
country is open prairie, well watered, with small and thinly wooded
valleys. The land immediately about Puget Sound is sandy, not valuable
for farming though producing timber, but a little way back is unrivaled
in richness.

Corn does not thrive well, but wheat, oats, potatoes, &c., are very
prolific. Large quantities of butter, cheese, and wool are produced.
There is little snow in the winter and that soon melts away, except
far up in the mountains. Washington shares with Oregon the possession
and use of the Columbia river. There are fine fisheries on the coast
and excellent oysters, and these produce a considerable trade. Immense
quantities of lumber are exported to all parts of the Pacific coast of
both North and South America, and even to Buenos Ayres on the South
Atlantic. The French come here for their best and cheapest masts and
spars. Thus we see that this corner of the Republic brings to the common
stock of national treasures some of its best and most valuable material
of wealth, and is prepared to whiten the Pacific with the sails of the
unlimited commerce which is already beginning to grow up between us and
the Asiatics. Puget Sound can float with ease the navies of the world on
its peaceful bosom. The Northern Pacific railroad will originate here,
probably, another great commercial emporium. Washington will, in due
time, become a great and wealthy State.

Its area is about 70,000 square miles; and the population in 1870 was
23,901.


DACOTAH.

This territory received an organization and government in 1861. It
contains 240,000 square miles; and is greater in extent than all New
England together with the great and wealthy States of New York and
Pennsylvania; and possesses some peculiar advantages.

The Missouri River passes from southeast to northwest diagonally through
it, navigable for its whole length, a distance of more than a thousand
miles; the Red River of the North skirts its eastern line, its valley
being unrivalled for its richness, and adaptation to the growth of wheat.
Except the extreme northern part it is said to have the dry, pure, and
healthy climate of Southern Minnesota, with the soil of Central Illinois.

It is free from the damp, raw, and chilly weather prevailing in Iowa and
Illinois, and from the embarrassments to agriculture often experienced
in these States from excessive spring rains; while, in late spring and
early summer, copious showers supply sufficient moisture to promote a
rapid vegetable growth. The surface east and north of the Missouri is an
undulating prairie, free from marsh, swamp, and slough, traversed by many
streams and dotted with innumerable lakes, of various sizes, whose woody
and rocky shores and gravel bottoms supply the purest water, and lend the
enchantment of extreme beauty to the landscape.

It has all the conditions of climate, soil, and transportation, for
the most profitable production of the two great staples of American
agriculture, wheat and corn. West of the Missouri the country becomes
more rolling, then broken and hilly, until the lofty chain of the Rocky
Mountains is reached. These mountains cross the southwestern section. A
most desirable stock raising region is furnished here, and mining will
flourish in the mountains. In 1870 it had a population of 14,181. Yankton
is the capital.


ARIZONA.

The Spaniards visited the valley of the Colorado at an early day; but the
distance from Mexico, and the warlike character of the Indians, did not
favor settlement beyond what was gathered about the few missions that
were constructed so as to answer for fortresses.

The part of this territory lying between Sonora, (of which it formed
part,) and California was acquired to the United States by the Gadsden
treaty, made with Mexico Dec. 30th, 1853. The American government paid
$10,000,000 for it. A Territorial government was organized Feb. 24th,
1863, and embraced part of New Mexico, containing, altogether, an area of
121,000 square miles, or 77,440,000 acres.

Efforts had been made previously to settle the country and develop
its mines; and an overland mail stage route was established. This
proved a success; but the fierce hostility of the Apache Indians, and
the desperate character of such whites as had gathered there, fleeing
from justice in California and Sonora, discouraged the immigration of
law-abiding citizens; and the breaking out of the Civil War withdrew the
soldiers in garrison there for the protection of the country. After the
war the main stream of emigration followed the line of the newly opened
Pacific railroad. The development of the mines required capital and
machinery and, though they are thought to be the richest in the world,
nothing could be extracted from them by individuals without means. So the
population has increased slowly, the census of 1870 giving 9,658.

It is a strange and somewhat fearful land; in great part a region of
desolate mountains and deep canons. There are many sections susceptible
of cultivation that would produce immense returns under irrigation, but
most of the efforts in this direction have miscarried from the desolating
ravages of the Indians. The rainless season reduces the whole country to
the semblance of a desert. It is, however, declared to have more arable
land in proportion to its surface than New Mexico, or California; and
will probably, in time, have a large and prosperous farming community.
Cotton is easily cultivated, and sugar cane, in the lower parts, produces
abundantly. Grains, vegetables, and melons are produced in the greatest
possible perfection, and mature in an incredibly short space of time.

When the Apaches are subdued, and society is reduced to order, it will
become a favorite resort of the thrifty farmers of the older States, and
the diligent German and other foreign immigrants.

It contains many traces of a race that has disappeared; some of their
dwellings yet remaining in a partially ruinous state. They were probably
Aztecs, the race that ruled Mexico before the conquest by Cortez, or are
more ancient still. Hideous idols are found, and various indications of a
barbarous worship.

The completion of the Southern Pacific railway will introduce the hum
of industry among its desolate mountains and along its numerous fertile
valleys, and the acquisition of the mouth of the Colorado, a large
river opening into the head of the Gulf of California, will give it a
profitable commerce. Arizona lies south of Utah, to which it is superior
in the number and size of its streams, its larger quantity of timber, and
the amount of rain-fall in some parts, which is deemed, in some sections,
sufficient to dispense with the necessity of irrigation.


IDAHO.

This territory was organized March 3rd, 1863. It originally embraced
a vast territory lying on both sides of the main chain of the Rocky
Mountains; but the eastern portion has since been erected into the
territory of Montana. It has about 90,000 square miles of territory, and
had, in 1870, 14,998 inhabitants.

Idaho has very little history prior to the organization of its
Territorial government. Its chief attraction to settlers lies in its
mines, as yet, and the population is floating, and, in large part, rough
and sometimes disorderly. The difficulty of reaching it has prevented
its rapid growth. It is exceedingly rich in the precious metals and this
will, in time, attract a large population. The eastern and northern
parts are very mountainous, abounding in wild and striking scenery and
in natural curiosities. The soil in the southern, central, and western
parts, is fertile, producing wheat and other small grain, and vegetables
very successfully, but is unfavorable for corn from the late frosts of
spring and the early cold of autumn. Snow falls to a great depth in the
mountains; but the streams are numerous, and there is much choice farming
land, which may, ultimately, serve to support its mining population.

It runs from the northern boundary of Utah to the south line of British
America; Washington Territory and Oregon, lying west. When railroads
shall render it accessible, and open the way for its treasures to a
market, it will be filled with an industrious and hardy population who
will find all the elements of a prosperity as great as any section of
the Union enjoys. It has three beautiful lakes—the Coeur d’Aline, the
Pen d’Oreille, and the Boatman—of some size, and navigable for steamers.
Boisé City is the capital.


MONTANA TERRITORY

Was organized May 26th, 1864. It lies among the Rocky Mountains, in
part on the western slope, but extending into the eastern valleys; and
contains the sources of the streams forming the Missouri river; while
Idaho lies west among the Blue mountains where the tributaries of the
Columbia rise.

Montana abounds in mines of gold and silver; and these are said to be
much richer than those of California. The average yield of ores in
the latter State is $20 per ton, but the average in Montana is stated
to be four times that amount. Great as is the yield of gold mines here
it is declared that the ease with which silver is separated from its
combinations in the ore will make that branch of mining more profitable.
Copper also abounds. This territory has several eminent advantages over
other mining districts. It is reached by steamboats on the Missouri
river, from St. Louis, without transhipment: navigation being free to Ft.
Benton, in the heart of Montana. The river voyage from St. Louis to Ft.
Benton, is made in 28 days.

There is a large and constant supply of water, a point of great
difficulty in most of the other mining regions; and the country
everywhere furnishes easy natural roads, the principal range of the
Rocky Mountains not presenting the broken and rugged character of most
other ranges. Associated with this point is the important fact of great
agricultural capability. It is one of the best grazing regions west of
the Mississippi. Small grain and fruit are grown with the greatest ease,
as also the more important vegetables. There is abundance of timber for
all purposes of home consumption.

The area is stated at 153,800 square miles. The population in 1870 was
20,594.


ALASKA TERRITORY

Was acquired to the United States by treaty with Russia in the year 1867,
for $7,200,000. It is a vast region containing 394,000 square miles, with
24,000 inhabitants.

It was first explored by command of Peter the Great of Russia in 1728. A
government was first established on Kodiak island in 1790. In 1799 the
Russian American fur company was chartered by the Emperor Paul.

The northern portion is a tolerably compact body of mainly level
country about 600 miles square, and a line of coast runs south for a
long distance, including many islands. The Aleutian group of islands is
included. The principal value of the region to Russia was the fur trade.
The annual export of these amounted to only a few hundred thousand
dollars. American thrift will probably make much more of it.

The country is much warmer than its high latitude would seem to
imply—Sitka in the southern part having about the same mean temperature,
by the thermometer, as Washington! It is, however, extremely damp. In
one year there were counted only 66 entire days without rain or snow.
The coast is broken with mountains. The peninsula of Alaska has some
very high mountains—Mt. St. Elias and Mt. Fairweather being estimated at
15,000 to 18,000 feet above the sea. The islands of the Aleutian group
are volcanic in origin. There are several rivers, the largest, the Yukon,
or Kwickpak being 2,000 miles long, and navigable for 1,500 miles. There
are vast supplies of timber, much being pine, found nowhere else on
the Pacific coast. Vegetables, and some grains, may be raised without
difficulty, and the soil, in parts, is rich. Abundant supplies of coal
are believed to exist. The precious metals and iron, it is thought, are
to be found there, but the country has been very imperfectly explored.

In the lively and extensive trade that is likely to grow up with Japan,
China, and the East Indies, it will no doubt be found of great value, and
its resources contribute to the wealth of our country.


WYOMING TERRITORY

Was organized by act of Congress July 25th, 1868, and is the youngest of
the territories. Its area is stated at 100,500 square miles, and it had a
population, in 1870, of 9,118.

The Pacific railroad passes through it, to which its settlement is
probably mainly due. Montana lies on the north; Dacotah and Nebraska on
the east; Colorado and Utah on the south, with the northern part of Utah
and Idaho on the west.

The main chain of the Rocky Mountains crosses it from northwest to
southeast which maintain here the same general characteristic as in
Montana, viz.: that of a rolling upland. Its outlying ranges are
more broken. Most of the country is good arable, or grazing land,
sufficiently fertile to give excellent returns for labor, though, in
large part, requiring irrigation. A few regions are remarkably sterile,
but they are limited in comparison with the fertile lands.

Gold mining has been successful, to a considerable extent; coal is
extremely abundant and accessible; the supplies for the Pacific railroad
being obtained in this territory. Iron has been found in considerable
quantities, together with lead and copper ores. Oil and salt springs
promise to be productive.

Thus without, as yet, developing any eminent specialty, the resources
of this Territory seem to promise all the requisites of prosperity to
a large population; while the climate is mild and extremely healthy,
and the great thoroughfare between the east and the west furnishes all
necessary facilities for transporting its supplies to the best markets.
More intimate knowledge of its mineral deposits may perhaps give it a
higher rank as a mining State.


THE DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA.

The first Congress convened under the new Constitution in 1789, held
its session in New York. The seat of government was then removed to
Philadelphia. There was much dissension as to where it should be
permanently located. The North and the South, were each equally obstinate
in their desire to locate it in their own section, and the quarrel
threatened a rupture of the confederacy. The great political question of
the time was the debts of the States contracted in carrying on the War of
Independence. The South, disliking a strong central-government, opposed
giving the charge of the finances of the country into its hands; while
the North, strongly approved the plan of clothing it with authority to
concentrate the strength of the nation to a reasonable extent, so that it
might be able to act with vigor, and make the country formidable to its
enemies. The reservation of as much power as possible to the individual
States was a vital question with the South, since it wished to maintain
Slavery, and it was always foreseen that the north must preponderate,
ultimately, in the general government; and the north was unfriendly
to slavery. The Constitution could make its way in the South only by
compromise as to slavery.

The question was a very difficult and delicate one to adjust, but with
much tact Jefferson and Hamilton, usually antagonists in politics, united
to urge a compromise; the North conceding the location of the national
capital, and the South the assumption, by the general government, of the
State debts. This was accomplished in 1790, and Washington selected the
site on his own Potomac, Virginia and Maryland uniting to give a tract
ten miles square, extending to both sides of the river. A new city was
laid out, and buildings erected which were occupied for the first time
in 1800. This small territory, the government and control of which was
lodged wholly in Congress, was called “Columbia.” This possession of
its own capital was considered important in order to avoid a possible
conflict of Federal and State authority.

The capital city was located on the Maryland side, and called Washington.
The territory on the Virginia side was, in 1846, re-ceded to Virginia. On
Feb. 21st, 1871, the District was made a territory, with a legislature
for its internal government, and the right to be represented by one
member in the House of Representatives.

The population in 1870 was 131,706. Washington is adorned with many
immense buildings erected for the various departments of the government,
and the capitol itself is one of the largest in the world, and cost
$5,000,000. It is worthy of the great nation represented in its halls.




CHAPTER LXX.

THE ANNEXATION POLICY.


1. The original States of the American Union were all on the Atlantic
seaboard. The central States were separated from the fertile valleys and
plains of the Mississippi and its tributaries by mountains, while those
lying at the northern and southern extreme found, in the vast forests
filled with fierce and hostile savages, a still greater barrier against
settlement westward. The “Old Thirteen” found their hands and thoughts
sufficiently occupied with the establishment of their liberties, and the
ultimate western boundaries of the country were left to be settled in
future years. Fortunately for us England was too much occupied with the
immense debt the useless American war had cost her to make difficulties
over the cession of the western regions to us; and, at the peace, we
were in possession of the whole region from the Atlantic ocean to
the Mississippi river. That was enough and more for the present; but
the people were enterprising. We offered a home, freedom, and great
opportunities to the oppressed and poor of other lands, and that region
was soon sufficiently peopled to show what other regions were required to
secure the prosperity of all.

2. It soon became clear that the development of the Western States east
of the Mississippi required the possession of the lower part of the river
and the territory on its western bank. Circumstances were favorable to
its acquisition, and Louisiana, extending from the mouth of the river
far up toward its head waters, including several hundred thousand square
miles of as valuable land as was to be found on the continent, was
purchased. It entered into the vindictive policy of Napoleon Bonaparte
to injure England by strengthening America, and it was obtained for
the comparatively insignificant sum of fifteen million dollars. This
annexation was altogether essential to the security and development of
the larger part of the original territory.

3. Florida was discovered and settled by the Spaniards, who claimed
the coast along the Gulf of Mexico to the Mississippi river. Though it
was not commercially or agriculturally important to us, it became in
the hands of a power not very friendly, the support and refuge of the
barbarous and resolutely hostile Indians of our southern border. It was
necessary to nearly exterminate them to obtain peace, but no absolute
security could be assured while the Spanish territory protected them in
their retreat before our armies. Peace, security against the Indians,
and freedom from the intermeddling of a European Power required the
acquisition of that peninsula and the Gulf Coast. After twenty years of
occasional negotiation it was purchased for five millions of dollars.
This was the most convenient way, also, of settling an account for
spoliations on our commerce which we held against Spain, and the only
means she then possessed of making payment. Thus another annexation was
made under the pressure of circumstances.

4. By this time a sufficient degree of expansion and strength had
been acquired by the New Nation to inspire in it great confidence in
itself and grand views of its future, and the “Monroe Doctrine,” that
the United States would refrain from all meddling with the politics of
Europe, but would resolutely oppose the meddling of any European power
with the politics of this continent, was adopted. This doctrine did not
propose any interference with other governments already established
here, but America was to be left to its present possessors, and European
ambition was to look elsewhere for kingdoms to conquer or found. A
tacit protectorate over all America was assumed, in order to prevent
the entrance of any other element that might build up a system hostile
to our interests and progress. It was a legitimate conclusion from the
principles and necessities that had led to the inauguration of the
annexation policy. The nation claimed that it had a right to keep the
ground clear from obstacles to its natural development. It was a system
of growth and protection involving no ideas of conquest by force, and no
menace to governments already established.

5. The third addition to our territorial area took place under
circumstances which all true Americans will ever regret. If stated by
our enemies it would be said that, after encouraging the settlement
of the territory of a neighbor by our own citizens, and giving them
covert support in withdrawing that territory from its proper owners, we
took possession of it, and when they naturally undertook to protect, or
recover it, we made a war of invasion on them, employed our superior
skill and vigor to disarm their State, and took as much more of their
territory as suited our purposes; in short, that we picked a quarrel, and
being the strongest bound and robbed them.

6. It cannot be agreeable to lovers of justice and defenders of equal
rights, that there should be so much of truth in this statement as to
render it impossible to clearly and distinctly prove the contrary. There
was, however, an element of the necessary and unavoidable, even in
this, that was more in harmony with the previous system of acquisition
than appeared on the surface. Texas presented, perhaps, the finest
climate and the greatest facilities for money-making on the continent.
The Mexicans inherited the religion and hatred of protestants with the
haughty, repelling spirit of the Spaniards, and wished to preserve the
old Spanish policy of separating themselves from us by a broad barrier
of desert and wilderness. They did not wish to settle Texas themselves,
nor feel willing that any one else should. It is inevitable that
enterprise and strength, impelled by self-interest, will disregard such
wishes. Americans are neither perfect nor magnanimous enough to stand
on ceremony when their interests are concerned. The best that can be
said of them is that they are more moderate and self-contained than any
other people. The necessities of the institution of slavery required
more territory to balance the rapid increase of free States, and this
precipitated the movement that was inevitable sooner or later from other
causes. Indeed the first patent of territory obtained in Texas, from the
Mexican government, was by a native of Connecticut. The rapid growth
of commerce in the Pacific ocean, the agreeable climate and fertile
soil of California, and the unsettled, wilderness state of that region,
caused the commercial nations of Europe to look at it with longing eyes.
The Monroe doctrine was in danger of being violated. England had fully
prepared to plant a colony there when it was taken possession of by the
American forces.

7. Thus the enterprise and energy of the nation, which had still
further developed its instinct, or anticipations and plans, of future
greatness, required to use the vast resources of the Gulf region, and to
extend settlements to the Pacific Slope in order to develop the mineral
resources of that region and prepare to build up its commerce with
Eastern Asia. The northern parts of Mexico were useless to her, since she
had neither population to occupy them, nor strength to subdue the Indians
who roamed over them in scattered bands. There is a justice and propriety
which has the force of Natural Law in allowing the active and vigorous
to take possession of the natural resources that others can not or will
not develop. The earth was made for mankind as a whole, and what cannot
benefit one race, another, that is able to employ it for its own and the
general good, has some show of right in entering upon. That, at least,
must be the justification of our ancestors in intruding themselves upon
the lands and hunting grounds of the aboriginal inhabitants of America,
and our only excuse for making war with the Indians, forcing them to part
with their lands, confining them to reservations, and denying to King
Philip, Powhattan, and Tecumseh the admiration and esteem we give to the
patriotic defenders of our native land and natural rights.

8. It is to be regretted that the vast and valuable territory acquired
from Mexico should be the spoil of conquest rather than the fruit
of peaceful negotiation; but the eagerness of the speculator, the
unreasonable pride and selfishness of the Mexican, and the peculiar
requirements of our internal conflict over slavery put to silence, for a
time, the voice of moderation and equity, and we annexed near 1,000,000
square miles of territory by force. The payment of $18,500,000, when we
might have taken it without, was an indication that our ordinary sense of
justice was not altogether quenched.

9. We may reasonably consider that this was exceptional, and that the
confusion of judgment and the disorder consequent on the life and death
struggle of the institution of slavery, which were in a few years
to produce the most terrible civil war known to history, led us into
the comparatively moderate aggression and violence that marked this
annexation to our territorial area. Our traditional policy is to acquire
peaceably, and with a satisfactory remuneration, such territory as the
national progress and development demand. It is contrary to the spirit of
our institutions to oblige the majority of the inhabitants of any region
not within our boundaries to form a part of the Republic.

10. Two annexations have been made since the Mexican war. Arizona was
obtained by treaty and purchase from Mexico, in 1854, and Alaska by
treaty and purchase from Russia, in 1867. The first is valuable for its
mineral treasures. It was useless to Mexico, though we gave $10,000,000
for it. It will ultimately be worth to us hundreds of millions, and its
ruins of an ancient people will be replaced by a thriving population of
intelligent freemen. Alaska is specially valuable in relation to our
future commerce with Asia, and for its fisheries and fur trade. Its
internal resources are, as yet, scarcely known.

11. The superior stability of American institutions and the love of
law and order of the American people may make annexation desirable and
profitable to the more volatile and unsteady Southern States of America,
but it is probable that no labored efforts to induce annexation will be
tolerated by the mass of the people. We may fairly judge that we have
reached our natural boundaries; that the advancement of neighboring
governments in order and intelligence will suffice to give protection
to the comparatively small numbers who may find a better field for
their energies without than within the Union; and that if any future
annexations are made it will be by the purchase of uninhabited regions
that may be more valuable to us than to their owners; or that, if any
inhabited regions are incorporated into the Union, it will be at the
instance and desire of its own inhabitants rather than of our people.
We are the special champions of popular and all other rights, and shall
never be likely to forget ourselves again so far as to repeat the Mexican
war, however pressing our desires.




CHAPTER LXXI.

CENSUS STATISTICS.


Population of the United States and Territories from 1790 to 1870.

Transcriber’s Note: Some of the figures in this table are unreadable and
are represented by X. Several copies of the book were checked and all
have the same printing error. Later editions use different figures in
that column and can’t be relied on to fill in the missing data.

  -----------------+----------------+------+------+------+-------+-------+
                   |                |      |      |      |       |       |
       STATES.     |WHERE SETTLED.  | 1790 | 1800 | 1810 | 1820  | 1830  |
  -----------------+----------------+------+------+------+-------+-------+
  Alabama          |Mobile          |  ----|  ----|  ----| 127901| 309527|
  Arkansas         |Arkansas Post   |  ----|  ----|  ----|  14255|  30388|
  California       |Monterey        |  ----|  ----|  ----|   ----|   ----|
  Connecticut      |Windsor         |238141|251202|262042| 275102| 297675|
  Delaware         |Cape Henlopen   | 59096| 64273| 72674|  72749|  76748|
  Florida          |St. Augustine   |  ----|  ----|  ----|   ----|  34730|
  Georgia          |Savannah        | 82548|162101|252433| 340983| 516823|
  Illinois         |Kaskaskia       |  ----|  ----| 12282|  55102| 157445|
  Indiana          |Vincennes       |  ----|  4875| 24520| 147178| 343031|
  Iowa             |Dubuque         |  ----|  ----|  ----|   ----|   ----|
  Kansas           |Fort Leavenworth|  ----|  ----|  ----|   ----|   ----|
  Kentucky         |Boonesboro      | 73077|220955|406511| 564135| 687917|
  Louisiana        |Iberville       |  ----|  ----| 76556| 152923| 215739|
  Maine            |York            | 96540|151719|228705|  98269| 399455|
  Maryland         |St. Marys       |319728|341584|380546| 407350| 447040|
  Massachusetts    |Plymouth        |378718|423245|472040| 523159| 610408|
  Michigan         |Detroit         |  ----|  ----|  4762|   8765|  31639|
  Minnesota        |Fort Snelling   |  ----|  ----|  ----|   ----|   ----|
  Mississippi      |Natchez         |  ----|  8850| 40352|  75448| 136621|
  Missouri         |St. Genevieve   |  ----|  ----| 20845|  66577| 140455|
  Nebraska         |----            |  ----|  ----|  ----|   ----|   ----|
  Nevada           |----            |  ----|  ----|  ----|   ----|   ----|
  New Hampshire    |Dover           |141899|183762|214360| 244022| 269328|
  New Jersey       |Bergen          |184139|211949|245555| 277426| 320823|
  New York         |Albany          |340120|586756|959049|1372111|1918608|
  North Carolina   |Roanoke River   |393751|478103|555500| 638829| 737987|
  Ohio             |Marietta        |  ----| 45365|230760| 581295| 937903|
  Oregon           |Astoria         |  ----|  ----|  ----|   ----|   ----|
  Pennsylvania     |Delaware Co.    |434373|602361|810091|1047507|1348233|
  Rhode Island     |Providence      | 69110| 69122| 77031|  83015|  97199|
  South Carolina   |Port Royal      |249073|245591|415115| 402741| 581185|
  Tennessee        |Fort Loudon     | 35791|105602|261727| 422761| 681904|
  Texas            |Matagorda       |  ----|  ----|  ----|   ----|   ----|
  Vermont          |Brattleboro     | 85416|154465|217713| 235749| 280652|
  Virginia         |Jamestown       |748308|880200|974622|1065129|1211405|
                   |                |      |      |      |       |       |
  West Virginia    |----            |  ----|  ----|  ----|   ----|   ----|
  Wisconsin        |Pr. du Chien    |  ----|  ----|  ----|   ----|   ----|
                   |                |      |      |      |       |       |
    TERRITORIES.   |                |      |      |      |       |       |
                   |                |      |      |      |       |       |
  Arizona          |----            |  ----|  ----|  ----|   ----|   ----|
  Colorado         |----            |  ----|  ----|  ----|   ----|   ----|
  Dakota           |----            |  ----|  ----|  ----|   ----|   ----|
  Idaho            |----            |  ----|  ----|  ----|   ----|   ----|
  Montana          |----            |  ----|  ----|  ----|   ----|   ----|
  New Mexico       |----            |  ----|  ----|  ----|   ----|   ----|
  Utah             |----            |  ----|  ----|  ----|   ----|   ----|
  Washington       |----            |  ----|  ----|  ----|   ----|   ----|
  Wyoming          |----            |  ----|  ----|  ----|   ----|   ----|
  Dist. of Columbia|----            |  ----|14,093|24,023| 33,039| 39,834|
  -----------------+----------------+------+------+------+-------+-------+

  -----------------+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+-------
                   |        |        |        |        |Slaves  |Slaves
       STATES.     |  1840  |  1850  |  1860  |  1870  |in 1790 |in 1860
  -----------------+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+-------
  Alabama          |  590756|  771623|  964201|  996988|   ---- | 435132
  Arkansas         |   97574|  209897|  435450|  483179|   ---- | 111104
  California       |    ----|   92597|  379994|  560285|   ---- |   ----
  Connecticut      |  309978|  370792|  460147|  537418|   2759 |   ----
  Delaware         |   78085|   91532|  112215|  125015|   8887 |   1798
  Florida          |   54477|   87445|  140425|  187756|   ---- |  61753
  Georgia          |  691392|  906185| 1057286| 1200609|  29264 | 462232
  Illinois         |  476183|  851470| 1711951| 2539638|   ---- |   ----
  Indiana          |  685866|  988416| 1350428| 1673046|   ---- |   ----
  Iowa             |   43112|  192214|  674913| 1191802|   ---- |   ----
  Kansas           |    ----|    ----|  107206|  362872|   ---- |   ----
  Kentucky         |  779828|  982405| 1155684| 1321001|  11830 | 225490
  Louisiana        |  352411|  517762|  708002| XXXX731|   ---- | 333010
  Maine            |  501793|  583169|  628279| XXXX463|   ---- |   ----
  Maryland         |  470019|  583034|  687049| XXXX806| 103036 |  87188
  Massachusetts    |  737699|  994514| 1231066|1XXXX351|   ---- |   ----
  Michigan         |  212267|  397654|  749113| 1184296|   ---- |   ----
  Minnesota        |    ----|    6077|  172173|  435511|   ---- |   ----
  Mississippi      |  375651|  606526|  791305|  834170|   ---- | 436696
  Missouri         |  383702|  682044| 1182012| 1715000|   ---- | 114965
  Nebraska         |    ----|    ----|   28841|  123000|   ---- |   ----
  Nevada           |    ----|    ----|    6857|   42491|   ---- |   ----
  New Hampshire    |  284574|  317976|  326073|  318300|    158 |   ----
  New Jersey       |  373306|  489555|  672035|  905794|  11423 |   ----
  New York         | 2428921| 3097394| 3880735| 4364411|  21324 |   ----
  North Carolina   |  753419|  869039|  992622| 1069614| 100572 | 331081
  Ohio             | 1519467| 1980329| 2339511| 2662214|   ---- |   ----
  Oregon           |    ----|   13294|   52465|   90922|   ---- |   ----
  Pennsylvania     | 1724033| 2311786| 2906115| 3515993|   3787 |   ----
  Rhode Island     |  108830|  147545|  174620|  217356|    952 |   ----
  South Carolina   |  594398|  668507|  703708|  728000| 107194 | 402541
  Tennessee        |  829210| 1002717| 1109801| 1257983|   3417 | 275784
  Texas            |    ----|  212592|  604215|  797500|   ---- | 180682
  Vermont          |  291948|  314120|  315098|  330552|   ---- |   ----
  Virginia         | 1239797| 1421661| 1246690| 1224830|}      {| 472516
                   |        |        |        |        |}293427{|
  West Virginia    |    ----|    ----|  349628|  445616|}      {|  18371
  Wisconsin        |   30945|  305391|  775881| 1055167|   ---- |   ----
                   |        |        |        |        |        |
    TERRITORIES.   |        |        |        |        |        |
                   |        |        |        |        |        |
  Arizona          |    ----|    ----|    ----|   9,658|   ---- |   ----
  Colorado         |    ----|    ----|  36,538|  39,706|   ---- |   ----
  Dakota           |    ----|    ----|   2,576|  14,181|   ---- |   ----
  Idaho            |    ----|    ----|    ----|  14,998|   ---- |   ----
  Montana          |    ----|    ----|    ----|  20,594|   ---- |   ----
  New Mexico       |    ----|  61,547|  83,009|  91,852|   ---- |   ----
  Utah             |    ----|  11,380|  40,699|  86,786|   ---- |   ----
  Washington       |    ----|    ----|  11,168|  23,901|   ---- |   ----
  Wyoming          |    ----|    ----|    ----|   9,118|   ---- |   ----
  Dist. of Columbia|  43,712|  51,687|  75,080| 131,706|   ---- |   ----
  -----------------+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+-------

  Total population in 1790          3,929,827
            ”         1800          5,305,937
            ”         1810          7,239,814
            ”         1820          9,638,131
            ”         1830         12,866,020
            ”         1840         17,069,453
            ”         1850         23,191,876
            ”         1860         31,747,514
            ”         1870         38,538,180
  To which add Indians and
    others in Indian territory,
    not included in Census            304,192
  Grand total in 1870              38,842,372

NOTE.—Returns of the colored population of the United States received
at the Census Office show a total in all the States and Territories
of 4,857,000, being an increase of 9.35-100 per cent. since 1860. The
State of Georgia has the largest colored population; Virginia, Alabama,
Mississippi, South Carolina, North Carolina and Louisiana follow next in
order.

As shown in the last census (1870), the seven leading States rank,
according to population, as follows: (1) New York; (2) Pennsylvania; (3)
Ohio; (4) Illinois; (5) Missouri; (6) Indiana; (7) Massachusetts. Thus
_four_ out of the seven most populous States are “new States;” that is,
they were not included in the original “thirteen.” In 1789, the four
States at the head of the list were: (1) Virginia; (2) Pennsylvania; (3)
North Carolina; (4) Massachusetts. At present, Virginia (if the State had
not been divided) would have ranked in the seventh place, or next _after_
Indiana. In absolute increase of inhabitants, Pennsylvania heads the
list of the old States in the last decade: and the total population of
said State is about equal to that of the thirteen States of Connecticut,
Arkansas, West Virginia, Minnesota, Kansas, Vermont, New Hampshire, Rhode
Island, Florida, Delaware, Nebraska, Oregon and Nevada. The aggregate
population of the six New England States of Massachusetts, Maine,
Connecticut, New Hampshire, Vermont and Rhode Island falls considerably
short of that of Pennsylvania. The States west of the Mississippi,
including the Pacific States, have about _one-sixth_ of the whole
population of the United States.

The ratio of increase in population from 1790 to 1800 was 35.02 per
cent.; from 1800 to 1810, 36.45 per cent.; from 1810 to 1820, 33.13 per
cent.; from 1820 to 1830, 33.49 per cent.; from 1830 to 1840, 32.67 per
cent.; from 1840 to 1850, 38.57 per cent.; from 1850 to 1860, 37.75 per
cent.; from 1860 to 1870, 22.34 per cent. Supposing the increase during
this decade (since 1870) to be 30 per cent. there would be in 1875 nearly
45,000,000 inhabitants. We have reason to suppose it to be at least 35
per cent. This, in 1880, would give 52,437,192.




PART THIRD.

THE PEOPLE AND THE GOVERNMENT.


1. All government is professedly for the good of the people; but in
point of fact, nearly every government that has ever been instituted has
been in the interest of an individual, a family, or a class. American
statesmen, in forming our government, admitted the superior rights of no
man or class of men. It was carefully organized to exclude all claims
or pretenses of that kind, with a single exception, at first, which
afterward disappeared in the tempest of a civil war. The executive, the
various members of the government, and the law makers depend on the
people for their elevation. At first they possessed only the dignity,
privileges, and rights of the people at large, and, their term of office
expired, they return to the same level, honored, indeed, if they have
been faithful servants; if not, carrying to their dishonored graves the
reproaches and contempt of their fellow-citizens, but retaining, in
neither case, a vestige of the power and exaltation over others that
clothed them when in office, the contrary of which so often makes an
unworthy man respectable in a different form of government.

2. That the masses of the people would be able to exercise a true
sovereignty without abusing it was always doubted until the trial was
made in this country. A very respectable class of statesmen in the early
days of the Republic, sympathized in this doubt, and it even crept
into the Constitution in the form of electors who were to choose the
President; intimating a distrust of the wisdom and sound discretion of
the voters in the choice of the Chief Magistrate. The liberty allowed to
the Legislatures of the States to determine the manner in which electors
should be chosen, while it recognized State authority on one side, on the
other implied a hesitation to trust so important a matter directly to the
people; and for a long time they were only indirectly consulted as to the
choice of a President.

3. It was not, however, caused by a desire to keep power from them,
but rather to avoid the unhappy effect of popular heat and rashness,
so often observed in popular governments before attempted. This
distrustful party first took control of the government, retained it
during three presidential terms, and for many years afterwards formed an
influential minority whose criticisms were of importance in establishing
a traditional policy for the government. This party—the Federalists,
headed by Washington and Hamilton—sought to found a strong and stable
government that should be able to fully protect the country from foreign
interference and domestic discord. Their control over the administration
was somewhat abruptly closed by acts considered arbitrary, interfering
with full freedom of speech and of the press—the “Sedition Laws” as they
were called. Jefferson and the Republican party demanded the largest
popular freedom, and had the conduct of the government for twenty-four
years, impressing on its habits and policy the respect for the opinions
of the people at large that has ever since characterized it. The people
gradually gained control of presidential elections and practically set
the electors aside, making and enforcing their own choice in general
elections.

4. The exercise of popular sovereignty has gradually been enlarged, no
qualification but that of age and nativity being now generally required,
and the government may fairly be considered to represent the views of
a majority of the people, and not only of the native, but also of the
foreign born; since the great mass of the latter are, by naturalization,
absorbed into the mass of citizens. They come to make a permanent home
with us, from a preference, as it is fair to assume, for republican
institutions; and it is considered right that they should have a voice in
the conduct of them. Nor have the American people seen cause to regret
their liberality in this respect. Citizens of foreign birth have usually
proved as thoughtful and wise as the rest of the population, and as
worthy of citizenship. They bring to us wealth in their labor if not in
their purses, and soon become thoroughly American in their habits and
sympathies. The government and the people cordially welcome them, and
find themselves the stronger and richer by so doing.

5. It must not be forgotten that the strongest fears of popular
influence on the government, the stability of our institutions, and the
maintenance of the good order necessary to the security of property
and the general prosperity, were entertained at the first; that the
prophecies of the foreseers of evil have been almost uniformly false
during its whole course; and that the relation between the people and the
general government has constantly grown closer, to the great advantage
of both. The first war into which the country was plunged after the
Revolution—that of 1812—was comparatively a failure, in its earlier part,
for want of this mutual confidence. Later the people and the government
have been more closely allied, and the government has been strong while
the people have seen their cherished ends gained.

There has been continual advance in liberality of administration, in
efficiency of organization, and in the completeness of social order. We
have no reason to suppose that a tendency, continued through a hundred
years and favored by so many circumstances that are common to all nations
in our generation to a degree never before known, will be changed. Rather
we may confidently expect that with increased intelligence, experience,
and prosperity that tendency will be strengthened.




CHAPTER I.

SUFFRAGE AND CITIZENSHIP.


1. The right pertaining to citizenship, to vote for such officers as are
elected by the people, is called suffrage. When that right is acquired
with respect to one class of officers it always extends to the whole,
from petty town or city officials, to high officers of the State and
United States government—all, in short, who obtain office directly from
the people.

2. The Constitution defines who shall be regarded as citizens of the
United States, and all such are declared by it to be also citizens of
the State in which they reside. It declares “all persons, born, or
naturalized in the United States, and subject to its jurisdiction” to be
citizens. Indian tribes are mostly regarded as foreign nations, and have
such rights as treaties give them, but are not taxed and do not vote;
therefore they are not regarded as citizens.

3. Yet suffrage does not belong to _all_ citizens. The special regulation
of the voting prerogative was not assumed by the Constitution, nor
delegated to Congress, and it is generally conceded that it belongs to
the State governments. The regulations in the States are not uniform,
but in no State do women or minors vote. This cuts off a large part of
the citizens, nearly three-fourths belonging to these classes. Minors
are supposed, however, to be represented, as to their interests, by
their guardians, and females by husbands or brothers. Some of the States
make minor restrictions as to length of residence in the State, and
require a certain amount of property to constitute a voter, and in some
naturalization is not required—so that the range of the right of suffrage
varies within small limits, in different States. Whatever rule is adopted
by the States has been accepted as the basis of suffrage for that State
by the general government, when members of Congress and President and
Vice-President are voted for.

4. It seems to be a loose point in the regulations, otherwise so
admirable, since it may work a considerable inequality under given
circumstances; and, in some cases, might change the policy of the
government. It is a question worthy of consideration whether there
should not be an amendment to the Constitution establishing uniformity
of suffrage in all the States. This point has caused much discussion
in the State governments and various changes have been, from time to
time, made in many of them. These have been, usually, in the direction
of liberality—tending to enlarge the scope of suffrage. The property
qualification, quite common in earlier times, is now rare. The fifteenth
amendment, recently adopted, has largely increased the number of voters.

5. The experience of the Republic, thus far, has been in favor of the
doctrine that it is safe to trust the people with their own interests,
and that the responsibilities of self-government, when they are laid
on them under the favorable circumstances that exist among us, tend to
improvement instead of disorganization. Whether this will always be the
case it may not be safe to assume, and a prudent regard to possibilities
should not be neglected; but we should not forget that those who founded
American liberty ran great risks of anarchy in the eyes of their
contemporaries. We ought to be able safely to continue a policy of
suffrage which they introduced with results so fortunate.

6. Education needs to be encouraged, and this has always received much
attention. It is probable that but for the very liberal provision made in
this respect, the fate of our government would have been very different.
Many foreigners who had no early education, have been naturalized, and
the colored people born in the country have been made citizens. If the
remainder of the people had not been intelligent, it would no doubt have
been extremely dangerous. It has led to some serious local interruptions
of order and prosperity, but they have been, so far, temporary; and the
general effect has been to awaken ambition for education; the children of
new-made citizens have enjoyed the same facilities as others to acquire
intelligence necessary to a citizen; and the right of suffrage, when
extended to the ignorant and degraded has seemed to produce the general
effect of destroying a dangerous class by raising them gradually to
intelligence and self-respect and respect for the laws, by making them
the political equals of those who are socially and intellectually far
above them.

7. As we grow in numbers all influences like this take a wider range,
and acquire more power, and sometimes produce different results, when
they become extensive, from what was the case when more limited, from
the difference of influence in modifying causes; and there has always
been fear of trouble from the extension of suffrage to too many ignorant
persons. It is well to be cautious; but we ought to venture as far as
possible for the sake of improving and elevating all classes of our
people.

8. It is also a question worthy of attention if women who own property
that is taxed ought not to possess the right of suffrage. The war that
made us a Nation was begun because we refused to be taxed unless we
could be represented, and have a vote in the body laying the taxes. The
principle appears to be precisely the same; and what we fought for then
should not be denied now.




CHAPTER II.

OUR CITIZENS OF FOREIGN BIRTH.


Whatever fault we may sometimes find with the conduct of our government;
however much self-seeking to the neglect of the public good there may be
among officials; however many weaknesses, errors, and violations of law
may call for our severest reprobation, and, in moments of depression,
lead us to look gloomily and doubtfully toward the future; yet it is not
to be denied that the Home of real Freedom is with us. Mismanagement is
but temporary, or limited, and easily admits of remedy, with time and
care; our advantages are permanent and extensive. In eighty years the
population has become nearly twelve times as numerous as at the beginning
of that period, and this rapid growth in numbers has been made up largely
from the disposition of foreigners to make a permanent home among us.
Those who are oppressed, who suffer restraint in their interests or
belief, or wish for a wider career for themselves or their families—who
want a free field for business enterprise, for mental and moral
development, or full play for their abilities to influence their fellow
men, come to us. Here they find fair opportunity for what may be lacking
elsewhere. They come here by millions; the poor, by industry, become
rich; the oppressed leave persecutions and galling burdens behind them;
and genius finds full play for its aspirations in whatever direction its
energies may be turned.

At the time of the last Census there were 5,566,546 persons in the Union,
and forming part of our population, of foreign birth. A large part of
these have become citizens by Naturalization. The remainder, or their
descendants, if they remain here, will become citizens by that process,
or by lapse of time.

After they have become familiar with our institution, ideas, and habits,
they are incorporated with the body of our citizens and are a part of the
Nation. The naturalized citizen may become, in time, a State officer,
or member of Congress, if he can make himself acceptable to his fellow
citizens; or he may possibly live to see his son President of the United
States.

Congress alone has power, under the Constitution, to enact naturalization
laws. Suffrage, or the right of voting, is left to the regulation of the
States, within certain limits; but every citizen, made such by law of the
General Government, is also a citizen of the State in which he resides,
and will acquire, within such times as State regulations shall determine,
the right to vote.

State laws regarding suffrage vary. Some States even admit aliens who are
not citizens of the United States to the right of suffrage and to other
privileges; and most require any citizen to reside a prescribed length of
time in the State before he can vote. A uniform regulation in all the
States would be desirable.


HOW TO BECOME A CITIZEN.

Any alien, having arrived in the United States after the age of eighteen
years, may be admitted to the rights of citizenship, after a declaration,
upon his part, or oath or affirmation, before the Supreme, Superior,
District, or Circuit Court of, or any court of record having common
law jurisdiction in, any of the United States, or of the territories
thereto belonging, or before a Circuit or District Court of the United
States, or the Clerk or Prothonotary of any of the aforesaid courts,
two years at least before his admission, that it is his _bona fide_
intention to become a citizen of the United States, and to renounce
forever all allegiance and fidelity to any foreign prince, potentate,
State or sovereignty whatever, and particularly by name, the prince,
potentate, State, or sovereignty, whereof such alien may at any time
have been a citizen or subject; if such alien has borne any hereditary
title, or been of any of the orders of nobility in the kingdom or State
from which he came, he must, moreover, expressly renounce his title or
order of nobility, in the court in which his application is made, which
renunciation is to be recorded in such county; and the court admitting
such alien must also be satisfied that he has continuously resided in
the United States for five years, at least, immediately preceding his
naturalization, and also within the State or Territory wherein such court
is at the time held, at least one year immediately previous to such
naturalization; and that during such five years he has been of good moral
character, attached to the principles of the Constitution of the United
States, and well disposed to the good order and happiness of the same;
the oath of at least two citizens of the United States is requisite to
prove the fact of such residence; and, at the time of his application
to be admitted to citizenship, he must make, upon oath or affirmation,
the same declaration of renunciation and abjuration of allegiance to
any foreign power, and also make oath or affirmation to support the
Constitution of the United States; all of which proceedings are to be
recorded by the Clerk or Prothonotary of the proper court.

If any alien, having legally filed his declaration of intention to become
a citizen and taken the necessary oath or affirmation, die before he is
actually naturalized, his widow and children are entitled to all the
rights and privileges of citizens, upon taking the required oaths or
affirmations.

Any alien arriving in the United States under the age of eighteen years,
and continuously residing therein until the time of his application for
citizenship, may, after reaching the age of twenty-one years, and having
been a resident within the United States for five years, including the
three years of his minority, be admitted a citizen, without making the
formal declaration of intention required in other cases; but at the time
of his admission he must make such declaration, and further satisfy the
court, upon oath or affirmation, that, for the three years immediately
preceding, it had been his _bona fide_ intention to become such citizen,
and in all other respects must comply with the naturalization laws of the
United States.

Severe penalties for counterfeiting any evidence of citizenship, or
disposing of a certificate of naturalization to any person other than the
one for whom it was issued, are imposed by act of Congress.




CHAPTER III.

ELECTIONS.


1. A pure democracy is a government in which all the people who have the
proper qualifications for voting personally take part—or have the right
to do so—in the discussion of public measures, and enactment of the
laws. This is not practicable unless the State consist of a small number
of persons; and a representative democracy is substituted, in which
the masses of the people exercise the voting and ruling prerogative
by appointing a small number of substitutes to act in their place and
represent them. This appointment of representatives is for the most part
the only direct way in which the people of this country are able to take
part in the government. Though the theory is that the people alone are
sovereign, this is the only way in which sovereignty can exert itself.
Even if present in a legislative assembly, they cannot discuss or vote
unless they are Representatives, duly elected.

2. Elections, then, are of the highest importance. If a citizen would
exert his sovereign authority, as one of the depositaries of power, he
must take part in them. Representatives elected to make laws are expected
to express the will of the majority of the people whom they represent.
They are pledged, expressly or tacitly, to do so. If they disobey the
will of their constituents, there is no immediate redress. They can be
displaced only at the close of the term for which they were elected.
There is some inconvenience and danger attending this method; though
the fear of the displeasure of their constituents is usually sufficient
to secure faithfulness. Where the people are numerous, (there are now
more than 135,000 persons to each representative,) it becomes a matter
of much interest to know what is their will. It is ascertained by the
elections. The people vote for a candidate, or nominee, known to hold
certain political principles. As men do not often see or think alike
there is generally more than one principle, or system of views, regarding
public measures, involved in every election, and therefore more than one
candidate. The result of the vote shows the will of the majority. The
same question generally occupies the attention of the whole country, and
the elections to Congress determine the policy of the government, so far
as legislation is concerned.

3. The same remarks apply to the election of the President and the
members of the State governments. The choice of men for the State
legislatures determines the policy and political principles of the
State government, and as the majority in State legislatures appoint the
Senators, the character of Congress and its measures are influenced
by State elections. The choice of the President is not, in theory,
made directly, since Electors are chosen, who afterwards vote for the
President; but it is understood that they will vote for a certain man;
and it has been so invariably their custom to do so, that the result
is considered as settled by the direct vote of the people. Should the
Electors do otherwise the people would be very much surprised and
displeased, and those Electors would have little prospect of appointment
to office again. Very few men in office are willing to seriously offend
their constituents, so that practically, the people vote directly for the
President and Vice-President they prefer.

4. Of all our elections none is considered of so much importance as the
Presidential. These come every four years, because the Constitution
provides that the term for which a President is chosen, shall be four
years. Our elections, both for the general and State governments, are by
ballot, instead of _viva voce_, (the living voice,) as in some countries.

The ballot is a small piece of paper, with the name of the candidate or
candidates printed or written upon it, and then folded in such a manner
as to hide them, so that no one but the voter can tell what names are on
his ballot. A vote by _viva voce_, is when the voter, in the presence of
the inspectors of the election, audibly and clearly calls out the name of
the candidate for whom he votes, and thus proclaims in the hearing of all
present how he votes. But the ballot enables the voter to vote secretly
if he chooses to do so.




CHAPTER IV.

RATIO OF REPRESENTATION.


1. The ratio of representation simply means the ratio between the
whole population of the United States, and the whole number of their
Representatives in Congress; and this of course includes the ratio
between the people of any individual State, and the Representatives it
is entitled to; both being estimated upon the same basis, and determined
by the same rule.

2. The distinctive characteristic of our government is, that it is a
_popular_ government. Its power is vested in the people. They elect
their rulers, who are the servants of the people, and these rulers are
expected to carry out the people’s wishes. Upon such a system, it is a
matter of the first importance, to distribute this power equally among
all the people, and after having fixed upon the ratio between the whole
population and the whole number of Representatives; or, in other words,
after having determined how many members shall compose the lower House
of Congress, the next step is to apportion these members among all the
States in the ratio of their population. If one State has twice the
number of inhabitants that another has, it will be entitled to twice
the number of Representatives in Congress. If one has ten times the
inhabitants that another has, it will be entitled to ten times the number
of Representatives, and so on; with this one exception, which is, that
by a provision in the Constitution, every State, without regard to its
population, is entitled to one Representative in the lower House.

3. The adjustment of this matter is all provided for in the Constitution,
that is, in its general features; but it devolves upon Congress in every
tenth year to re-adjust and re-apportion the Representatives among the
several States, according to the population of each State as shown by the
last census, which is taken every tenth year; and when the apportionment
is once made, it remains the same for the next ten years, when the census
is taken again, and a new apportionment is made.

4. Up to the present time (1874,) this has been done nine times. It was
done the first time by the convention which formed the Constitution. That
apportionment is found in the Constitution, and is as follows:

  To New Hampshire,      3
     Massachusetts,      8
     Pennsylvania,       8
     Delaware,           1
     Rhode Island,       1
     Connecticut,        5
     New York,           6
     New Jersey,         4
     Maryland,           6
     Virginia,          10
     North Carolina,     5
     South Carolina,     5
     Georgia,            3

By this it will be seen that the first Congress consisted of but 65
members.

The Constitution also provided that Representatives should not exceed
one to every 30,000 people. The next year after the government went
into operation, (1790,) the first census was taken, and as soon as the
result was known, a new apportionment was made. This was done in 1792,
and was made upon the ratio of one Representative to every 33,000 of
representative[4] population.

    [4] The Representative population includes all free persons,
    white or black; to which (according to the provisions of the
    Constitution), three-fifths of all the slaves were to be added.
    But this proviso, now that slavery is abolished, has become a
    nullity.

5. In 1800, the second census was taken; and when Congress made the
apportionment, which was done in 1803, it did not change the ratio, but
left it at one Representative to every 33,000 of the representative
population.

In 1810, the third census was taken, and in 1811 the ratio was fixed at
one Representative for every 35,000 of the population.

In 1820, the fourth census was taken, and in 1822 Congress fixed the
ratio at one Representative for every 47,000 of the population.

In 1830, the fifth census was taken, and in 1832 the ratio was fixed at
one Representative to every 47,000 of the population.

In 1840, the sixth census was taken, and in 1842 Congress again declared
that the ratio should be one Representative to every 70,000 of the
population.

6. In 1850, the seventh census was taken, and in conformity with the law
passed this year, the number of members was for the first time limited;
the limit being 233; and the Secretary of the Interior was ordered to
take the census returns, and divide the whole representative population
by the number 233, and to make the quotient the ratio between the
Representatives and the people.

7. We have never seen the result of the Secretary’s estimate, but, taking
the population of 1850 and dividing it by 233, would produce a quotient
of nearly 94,000; and this we take as the ratio, after the time when
it was done, 1852; that is, one Representative to every 94,000 of the
population.

8. The eighth census was taken in 1860, and on it an apportionment
was based, which allowed one Representative for every 127,000 of the
population.

In 1850 Congress adopted the principle of permanently fixing the
number of members of Congress, to save the trouble of doing it as
heretofore, every ten years. An act was passed limiting it to 233;
but notwithstanding this limitation, it was provided that if any new
State came in, it should have its member, which would add to the
number. But this increase was to continue no longer than until the next
apportionment, when the number was to fall back again to the old figure.

In 1862 the law was modified to make the whole number of members
consist of 241 after the 3d of March, 1863. In 1870 the ninth census
was taken, and in 1872 Congress decided that after March 3d, 1873, the
Representatives should comprise 292 members, being one Representative for
every 135,239 of the population and apportioned them among the several
States as follows:

  Alabama,             8
  Arkansas,            4
  California,          4
  Connecticut,         4
  Delaware,            1
  Florida,             2
  Georgia,             9
  Mississippi,         6
  Missouri,           13
  Nebraska,            1
  Nevada,              1
  New Hampshire,       3
  New Jersey,          7
  New York,           33
  North Carolina,      8
  Ohio,               20
  Illinois,           19
  Indiana,            13
  Iowa,                9
  Kansas,              3
  Kentucky,           10
  Louisiana,           6
  Maine,               5
  Maryland,            6
  Massachusetts,      11
  Michigan,            9
  Minnesota,           3
  Oregon,              1
  Pennsylvania,       27
  Rhode Island,        2
  South Carolina,      5
  Tennessee,          10
  Texas,               6
  Vermont,             3
  Virginia,            9
  West Virginia,       3
  Wisconsin,           8

9. But it must be borne in mind that Congress has the power to alter all
this, and to enact that Congress shall consist of any other number of
members, although it is not probable that this will be done soon.

10. The foregoing statements will show the general plan upon which the
House of Representatives is constituted, and how the several States
are constantly changing the number of their Representatives, and their
relative power and influence in Congress. This can be readily understood
by remembering the fact that new States come into the Union every few
years, and that the population increases much more rapidly in the Western
States than in the Eastern, and that, consequently, the West is rapidly
gaining power in Congress, while the Atlantic States are losing it.

11. In the apportionment no regard is had to the Territories or to their
population. In this adjustment, the States and their population only are
regarded, and the number of members is all given to the States. Every
Representative from a Territory is an addition to that number, but it
must be remembered that a Territorial member has no right to vote on any
question, but has only the right to debate; and for this reason he is
not, in the fullest sense, a member, and is not counted in adjusting the
number of which the House is made to consist.




CHAPTER V.

OATHS AND BONDS.


1. An oath is an appeal to God, by him who makes it, that what he has
said, or what he shall say, is the truth. It is the most solemn form
under which one can assert or pronounce anything. To utter a falsehood
while under oath is perjury, a crime of the darkest hue. One which
God has declared he will punish, and one which is made infamous, and
punishable by fine and imprisonment by the laws of the land.

2. The Constitution (Art. 6, Sec. 3) requires that Senators and
Representatives, and members of the several State Legislatures, and all
executive and judicial officers, both of the United States, and of the
several States, shall be bound by oath or affirmation to support the
Constitution. Then in the second article, section eight, the form of the
oath required of the President before he enters upon his duties, is given
in these words:

“I do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I will faithfully execute the
office of President of the United States, and will to the best of my
ability preserve, protect and defend the Constitution of the United
States.”

3. This is all the Constitution says about oaths; but it is enough to
show that no man (unless he commit perjury,) can accept office, either
under the United States or any State government, unless he in good faith
will support the Constitution.

But in the laws enacted by Congress, we find that not only official oaths
are required; but in a great variety of other cases, men who transact
business with the government are required to verify their accounts and
statements with an oath. This is particularly the case with those who
do business with the custom house; such as merchants, shipowners, and
masters of vessels. Many oaths must be put in the form of affidavits;
that is, the oath must be written and signed by the deponent, that the
statements made may be preserved.

4. The form of official oaths varies according to the nature of the
duties to be performed by the deponent. The oath must be taken before the
officer enters upon his duties. Should he neglect or refuse to do this,
his acts will be illegal, and he would make himself liable to punishment.

After the late civil war broke out, Congress for the purpose of
preventing those who had voluntarily taken part in the rebellion, from
holding thereafter any office under the government, passed an act
requiring every one before he could accept any office, either in the
civil, military, or naval departments, to take an oath in the following
form:

5. “I, A. B., do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I have never voluntarily
borne arms against the United States, since I have been a citizen
thereof; that I have voluntarily given no aid, countenance, counsel or
encouragement to persons engaged in armed hostility thereto; that I have
neither sought, nor accepted, nor attempted to exercise the functions
of any office whatever, under any authority or pretended authority in
hostility to the United States; that I have not yielded a voluntary
support to any pretended government, authority, power or Constitution,
within the United States, hostile or inimical thereto. And I do further
swear (or affirm) that to the best of my knowledge and ability, I will
support and defend the Constitution of the United States, against all
enemies, foreign and domestic; that I will bear true faith and allegiance
to the same; that I take this obligation freely, without any mental
reservation or purpose of evasion, and that I will well and faithfully
discharge the duties of the office on which I am about to enter. So help
me God.”

So strong and comprehensive an oath as this was never before required
from any officer of the government. It answers the requirements of the
Constitution, and substantially comprehends all contained in any other
forms heretofore used. It is at once an oath of allegiance, an oath of
support of the Constitution, and an oath to discharge faithfully the
duties of the office taken. This goes by the name of the TEST oath, and
frequently “The Iron-clad Oath.”

6. The object of the test oath was, during the Civil War, to prevent the
entrance into any office of a person who might be secretly unfriendly to
the government, and use his position to the advantage of its enemies. So
comprehensive and minute an oath would allow no chance of mental evasion
to a conscientious person, and would lay the offender under the liability
of severe punishment. It is evidently proper to bind all officers of
the general and State governments under the strongest and most solemn
obligation to a faithful and honest discharge of their duties.

7. Whoever receives an office in the United States, which is connected
with the revenue in any way, so that public money passes through his
hands, is required to give a bond as security for such money. These
bonds give the government a claim on their property if the money is not
accounted for according to the directions of the law. They are signed by
one or more persons who must show that they have the means to pay the
amount for which they become security. The amount of security required
depends on the sums of money that are to pass through the hands of the
official, or which is likely at any time to accumulate in his possession.
The government takes all the care it can that there shall be no risk of
loss of the public property, and the bond is designed to afford adequate
security for all that any officer may have charge of.

8. By this means two important ends are gained. No person can get an
office who has no friends and no reputation for uprightness sufficient
to induce those that know him to risk their own property on his honesty
and faithfulness. It was designed to be a sure means for the government
of finding out who were to be trusted. If he has not property himself, so
that he can secure his bondsmen to their satisfaction, he must have so
high a character for integrity that they are willing to risk their money
in his hands, or he cannot obtain an office. Security for public funds,
and a high degree of personal worth are both expected to be gained by
this requirement.

On the whole, this works very well indeed, in both respects, but there
seems no security, that is quite infallible, against roguery, unless it
be in the extreme care of the people, and their constant watchfulness
over all the affairs of the country and all the men who represent them.
It is difficult to make a house so strong that a thief cannot get into it
by force or stratagem, and rogues who wish to steal from the public funds
may band together and help one another to get into office and then divide
what spoil they can secure; or unforeseen events may bring more money
than was properly secured into an officer’s hands, or those whose duty it
is to see that he disburses the funds at the right times may be careless
or dishonest.

9. The only sure way is to take care that none but men of proved
integrity get into office, and to take all pains to cultivate honesty
in the community at large. The money lost by the government is probably
much less in proportion than in the private business of the country.
Great watchfulness is really exercised, and when such a case occurs
it is immediately known through the whole country. Not many men are
willing to run so much risk of punishment and public reprobation. Too
much care, however, cannot be taken to prevent corruption in public
life. It destroys the purity and soundness of _character_ on which our
institutions are founded. A republic cannot exist without a high standard
of virtue.

10. Every official is required to take an oath, or make a solemn
affirmation to discharge the duties of his office faithfully. Though we
cannot expect to be quite secure against the trickery and insincerity
of false and corrupt men, yet we have reason, on the whole, to
congratulate ourselves on the general security of public property, and
the watchfulness of the people over their servants in places of trust.




CHAPTER VI.

GOVERNMENT PRISONS.


1. The United States government has always endeavored to continue, as
it commenced, to rule with vigor, and to preserve a wholesome respect
for its own authority and the rights of all its citizens, while it has,
beyond all other governments, probably, that have ever existed sought to
avoid arbitrariness and severity; keeping in mind the principle lying
at the foundation of its institutions that it exists, not for itself,
but for the good of the people. It has assumed that the people generally
would not require coercion to submit to its regulations, and has not,
therefore, made that ample provision for punishment and intimidation that
is usual among governments.

In confirmation of this we call attention to the fact that the general
government does not own, and has never built, prisons for the confinement
of offenders against its laws. Imprisonment, as the mildest form of
punishment, has, indeed, very often been inflicted, more often than any
other form of punishment. How does this occur when they own no prisons?
The answer is that they use the prisons of the States wherever they will
allow it. This arrangement between the general and State governments has
been made in nearly if not all the States; the United States paying for
the support of their prisoners.

2. But in case any State should refuse to make such an agreement, the
United States marshal of any district where a prisoner is to be confined,
is authorized to procure some building where the prisoners may be safely
confined in the district where they have been tried and convicted, or
where they have been arrested and are held for trial.

This is a far more economical plan than it would be for the United States
to build prisons all over the country, and then to employ keepers of
them. It exemplifies the friendly relations existing between the States
and the general government.




CHAPTER VII.

PROCLAMATIONS.


1. A Proclamation is an official notice published by one high in
authority, for the purpose of giving reliable and authoritative
information to the people that something has been done, or will soon
be done, which is important for them to know, that they may act, or
refrain from acting according to the information contained in the
proclamation. These proclamations are made known to the country through
the most extensive channels of information that can be used for conveying
intelligence to everybody in the Republic. In our day, and in our
country, the newspapers are the best means that can be used for this
purpose. But in ancient times, and before the art of printing was known,
swift riders or runners were dispatched to every part of the kingdom
or country over which the proclamation was to be made known. These
messengers carried it with them, and proclaimed it in the ears of all the
people.

2. These documents are official acts brought before the people in due
form and solemnity. Sometimes they are only recommendations; at others
they have all the force of organic law, or the acts of Congress.

It has, for some years, been the custom of the Executive to designate
some day toward the close of the year as a day of thanksgiving,
recommending the day to be observed in a religious manner. Important
changes in the commercial affairs between us and some foreign country are
made known by the same method.

3. A memorable proclamation was made by President Lincoln, in 1862,
by which he made known to the country, and especially to the Southern
States, that if they continued their war against the United States for
one hundred days after its issuance, he would then, in virtue of his
authority as commander-in-chief of the army and navy, liberate the slaves
in all the seceded States. At the expiration of the time, which was on
the first of January, 1863, he issued another proclamation, in and by
which he did emancipate all the slaves in every State which had warred
against the United States government.

The blockading of our ports at the commencement of the civil war, and the
imposition of an embargo upon our shipping, previous to the last war
with England, were both subjects which brought out proclamations from the
President who then filled the Executive chair.

4. The above examples show the character of the cases which cause
proclamations to be issued. In some instances they have the authority
of law; in others they are merely recommendations; and in others only
communicate important intelligence in regard to our public affairs at
home or abroad.




CHAPTER VIII.

COMMISSIONERS.


1. As it is one purpose of this work to give a clear and complete account
of the mode of conducting the affairs of the general government, we
have thought it best to call attention to the class of officers named
at the head of this chapter; and especially since persons acting under
this title are assigned to a variety of duties, sometimes permanent and
sometimes temporary. In the first place, they act as heads of bureaus
in the various departments. These commissioners are permanent officials
of the government, established and provided for by law; such are the
commissioners of the land office, patent office, pension office, &c.

2. Another class of commissioners can hardly be considered officers,
but rather temporary or special agents. In the multifarious duties
devolving upon Congress, the President, and all the departments, it not
unfrequently happens that it is impracticable for them to do certain
things necessary to be done. The business to be transacted may be at a
great distance from the capital, even in a foreign country. In these
cases commissioners are appointed to do such business. They have been
appointed to negotiate a peace, to make treaties of various kinds between
us and other powers, and to negotiate with the Indians for the purchase
of their lands. The United States courts appoint them to take bail, or
to take testimony to be used on trials, and do various other things
necessary in trials and proceedings before them.

3. Congress frequently appoints commissioners to obtain information, or
to investigate some matter on which they expect to legislate. In all
cases they must report their proceedings, either to Congress, to the
President, or to the head of the department under whose instruction they
act. Permanent commissioners report once a year, or oftener if required,
that Congress may know the condition of affairs in their respective
bureaus. Special commissioners, after they have performed the work
assigned, make their report; after which their duties cease, and their
commission comes to an end.

4. The lowest grade of diplomatic agents are called commissioners. We
are thus represented at the present time in the Republics of Hayti and
Liberia.

5. By recent acts of Congress, the powers of commissioners in some cases
have been enlarged. They now examine persons charged with crimes against
the laws of the United States; hold them to bail, discharge them, or
commit them to prison; and do other magisterial acts, preliminary to the
trial of the accused. When acting in such cases, they are clothed with
some of the powers of a court.




CHAPTER IX.

OFFICIAL REGISTER.


1. Congress, in 1816, passed an act authorizing and requiring the
Secretary of State, once in two years, to print and publish a book called
“the official register,” in which he was ordered to register the name
of every officer and agent of the government, in the civil, military
and naval departments, including cadets and midshipmen, together with
the compensation received by each; the names of the State and county
where born; and the name of the place where employed, whether at home or
abroad.

To the list of persons employed in the Navy Department, the Secretary of
the Navy is required to subjoin the names, force and condition of all
the ships and vessels belonging to the United States, and when and where
built.

This work has been published and distributed, as the law directs, ever
since the passage of the act, and is sometimes denominated “the blue
book.” It is a very convenient and useful publication, as it shows
in compact form the whole official force of the government in each
department, together with the cost of maintaining it.

As it contains only names and dates and facts relating to persons,
comparatively few would take the pains to read it, and but a small number
is published. It can be found in the Congressional library at Washington,
where twenty-five copies of each edition are deposited.




CHAPTER X.

THE STARS AND STRIPES.


A nation’s Flag represents its sovereignty. It is adopted by its supreme
authority as a symbol or sign of itself, and wherever it waves the fact
of the substantial control of that authority, at that point, is thereby
asserted. If there is a struggle between two powers for control, the
presence of the flag proves that the authority it represents still
maintains itself, and its subjugation is declared by lowering its flag
and by the substitution of another in its place.

The flag is, therefore, an expression to the eye of the condition of
things; and attracts the sympathies and antipathies, the joys and
sorrows, the hopes and fears of those interested in the sovereignty it
represents. It is the rallying point of sentiment and of energy. The
affection and reverence bestowed on our country will light up into a
patriotic flame at sight of its flag. It is associated with all the
heroic deeds and achievements that adorn our national history, and with
the loss of all those we honored and loved who followed and fought for
it, and gave their lives in its defense. Our “Star Spangled Banner”
has been a thousand times baptized in blood dearer to us than our own,
and the sight of it recalls all these sacrifices so cheerfully made to
establish or to preserve our institutions. The flag of the United States
may well call forth more enthusiastic affection, pride, and hope than
any other in the world; for it symbolizes not only home, country, and
associations dear to Americans, but the justice, liberty, and right of
self government that are dear to all mankind. Humanity at large has a
deep interest in it.

Its history is this: Soon after the Declaration of Independence the
Continental Congress appointed a committee to confer with Gen. Washington
and “design a suitable flag for the nation.” After the painful and
depressing defeat on Long Island, the retreat through the Jerseys and
across the Delaware, when everything seemed lost for the new government,
Washington suddenly struck the vigorous blows at Trenton and Princeton
that confounded the enemy and drove him back to Staten Island. Congress
and the country were cheered with a hope and a resolution that never
afterwards failed them; for in the next campaign occurred the capture of
Burgoyne, followed by the treaty with France; and the close of the war in
our favor was henceforth only a question of time.

In the month of May or early June, 1777, following the staggering blow
Washington had given the British army in Jersey, the committee referred
to above, and Washington, completed the design for a flag. This was
accomplished and the first flag made at the house of a Mrs. Ross, in Arch
St., Philadelphia. The house is still standing—No. 239. She had a shop
where she followed the “upholder” trade, as it was then called—the same
as our upholstering. One day the Commander-in-chief, Hon. Geo. Ross, a
relative of hers, and certain members of Congress, called on her, with a
design for a flag—thirteen red and white stripes, alternate with thirteen
six pointed stars—and requested her to make the flag. She consented but
suggested that the stars would be more symmetrical and more pleasing
to the eye if made with five points, and folded a sheet of paper and
produced the pattern by a single cut. This was approved and she finished
a flag the next day. Mrs. Ross was given the position of manufacturer of
flags for the government, which descended to her children.

This was the flag that led our armies to victory during the remainder of
the war, waved over the crestfallen soldiers of Burgoyne and Cornwallis,
and at the mast head of John Paul Jones on the English coast. In 1794
this flag was changed, though its chief features were retained. Congress
then ordered that the flag should consist of fifteen stripes, alternate
red and white, and fifteen stars, white on a blue field. There were then
fifteen States. The stars and stripes were equal, and a stripe and a star
were added with the advent of each new State. This was changed in 1818,
as the States increased and the flag threatened to become too large,
by reducing the stripes to thirteen, representing the original Union,
and the stars were made equal to the number of States. No change has
since been made except to add a star whenever the union increased by the
admission of a State.

“The Star Spangled Banner,” a stirring patriotic song which is to
Americans what the “Marseillaise” is to the French, was composed by
the author during the cannonade of Fort McHenry, near Baltimore, by
the British fleet co-operating with an army which was to attack it,
simultaneously with the fall of the fort, by land, Sept. 13th, 1814. The
poet had gone on board the fleet under a flag of truce before the attack
began, to negotiate about some prisoners, and was obliged to remain
until the next day, the cannonade continuing during the night. If the
fort surrendered Baltimore would be taken; and the fate of Washington,
pillaged and burned a few days before, filled the people with the anxiety
which is expressed by the poet, to know if the flag still waved in the
morning “over the Land of the Free and the Home of the Brave.” The joy
of all America may be conceived when Admiral Cockrane drew off his
fleet and took the British army on board, while the “Stars and Stripes”
continued to float gaily on the breeze over Fort McHenry.




CHAPTER XI.

THE GREAT SEAL OF THE UNITED STATES.


1. The use of seals to give authority to documents, and to establish
their genuineness, comes down to us from a remote antiquity. It is much
easier to counterfeit a signature alone, than the impression of a seal,
and when both occur on a document it is considered fairly safe to be
relied on as a sign of authority.

They are usually emblematic of some event, or sentiment attaching to the
history or prevailing tendency and feeling of a country. They are used
on documents or papers issued by the government. Some of the Departments
have a special seal for their own use, in cases where the signature of
the President is not required. If it is not affixed to the proper papers
they fail to become legal and have no authority.

2. The usual mode of affixing the seal formerly was by placing melted wax
on the paper and pressing the seal on it giving a fac simile or perfect
representation of it. As this required time and business increased with
the growth of the country, Congress passed an act making it lawful to
affix the seal by making the impression directly on paper.

The custody of the Great Seal is with the Secretary of State, whose duty
it is to affix it to all civil commissions issued to officers of the
United States appointed by the President and Senate, or by the President
alone. But it is forbidden to be affixed before the President has signed
it. The seal alone without the signature has no value. It is used to show
the genuineness of the President’s signature.

3. The Secretary of State and all the other secretaries of the great
departments, each have a seal of office which is affixed to commissions,
and to other instruments emanating from their respective offices.

Several of the most important bureaus are required by law to have seals
of office; for example, the Land Office and the Patent Office. When the
United States gives a patent (title) to land, it must be sealed by the
Land Office seal. A patent right must be issued under the seal of the
Patent Office.

4. One of the most common and important uses of seals arises from the
necessity people are often under to have copies of records, maps,
and various other papers, the originals of which are in some of the
departments at Washington, to be used as evidence in courts, where trials
and other legal proceedings are pending. In order to provide for this
necessity, Congress has enacted that copies of such records, maps and
papers belonging to any of the government offices, under the signature of
the head of such office, or of its chief clerk, with the seal affixed,
shall be as competent evidence in all cases as their originals would be.


HISTORY OF THE GREAT SEAL.

1. Soon after the formal establishment of the Republic by the Declaration
of Independence, Benjamin Franklin, John Adams, and Thomas Jefferson were
appointed a committee to prepare a seal. They employed an artist and
furnished various devices; Jefferson combining them all at the request
of the others. The paper still exists in the office of the Secretary of
State at Washington. They reported Aug. 10th, 1776, but for some unknown
reason, probably neglect, it was not acted on.

In 1779 another committee was appointed, to make a device. They reported
May 10th, 1780. It was not acceptable, and was recommitted, being again
reported a year afterwards, but not adopted. In 1782 a third committee
was appointed, but could not satisfy Congress in their report. It was
then referred to the Secretary of Congress, Charles Thomson, who procured
various devices that were unsatisfactory.

After vainly striving to perfect a seal which should meet the approval
of Congress, Thomson finally received from John Adams, then in London,
an exceedingly simple and appropriate device, suggested by Sir John
Prestwitch, a baronet of the West of England, who was a warm friend of
America, and an accomplished antiquarian. It consisted of an escutcheon
bearing thirteen perpendicular stripes, white and red, with the chief
blue, and spangled with thirteen stars; and, to give it greater
consequence, he proposed to place it on the breast of an American eagle,
displayed, without supporters, as emblematic of self-reliance. It met
with general approbation, in and out of Congress, and was adopted in
June, 1782; so it is manifest, although the fact is not extensively
known, that we are indebted for our national arms to a titled aristocrat
of the country with which we were then at war. Eschewing all heraldic
technicalities, it may be thus described in plain English: Thirteen
perpendicular pieces, white and red; a blue field; the escutcheon on the
breast of the American eagle displayed, holding in his right talon an
olive-branch, and in his left a bundle of thirteen arrows, and in his
beak a scroll, inscribed with the motto _E Pluribus Unum_. For the crest,
over the head of the eagle, which appears above the escutcheon, a golden
glory breaking through a cloud, and surrounding thirteen stars, forming a
constellation of white stars on a blue field.

_Reverse._—A pyramid unfinished. In the zenith, an eye in a triangle,
surrounded with a glory. Over the eye, the words _Annuit Cœptis_—“God
has favored the undertaking.” On the base of the pyramid, are the
numeral Roman letters MDCCLXXVI; and underneath the motto, _Novus Ordo
Seculorum_—“A New Series of Ages”—denoting that a new order of things had
commenced in the Western hemisphere. Thus, after many fruitless efforts,
for nearly six years, a very simple seal was adopted, and yet remains the
arms of the United States.




CHAPTER XII.

THE ORIGIN OF LAW.


1. The origin of law varies with the character or class of the government
under which it is made. Where all authority is concentrated in the hands
of one man his will becomes law whenever expressed, or when expressed
in some regular and formal way. More generally laws are originated, in
our days, in civilized countries where there is a monarchial government,
by the ruler in conjunction with representatives of the people or some
classes of them. In point of fact, rulers are always obliged to regard
the habits, traditions, and feelings of the people more or less, or they
may be obliged by a revolution, or the intrigues of the ambitious founded
on their discontent, to retire to private life. The real prominence
of the people in their governments is constantly becoming greater in
all civilized lands, and it seems highly probable that, before many
generations have passed, all governments not founded on an acknowledgment
of the Sovereignty of the People will be incapable of maintaining
themselves.

2. In the United States of America the source of all authority, and the
origin of all law, is in the people alone. The fact that laws are made
by Representatives does not alter the principle at all. They are simply
the substitutes or agents of the people. Where there are many people any
other than a Representative Democracy is impossible. These are chosen
from among their equals, and when their term of office has expired return
to the common level. If they are ambitious of more than one term of
office they must take special care not to offend the majority that first
elected them.

3. The first signal exercise of the law making power by the people was in
the adoption of the Constitution as the Fundamental Law. This established
the character of the government, prescribed the duties and limits of
the legislative and executive branches, and organized a third branch to
watch over the action of the other two and keep it in harmony with the
Constitution. This Instrument then became the source or foundation of all
_special law_. It is a comprehensive statement of the will of the people,
but it may be changed or enlarged in a prescribed way. It is binding on
all legislators and executives. Whatever may be enacted or done by them
not in accord with it is null and void; the Supreme Court being bound so
to announce when the fact shall be proved before it. The Constitution
is the Law of the Land. Any laws enacted by Congress, or by State
Legislatures, not contrary to it, are valid and binding; but any attempt
to set aside any of its provisions, or disregard its true intent, would
be usurpation and a violation of the rights of the people. The term State
Sovereignty can, consequently, be true only in a limited and secondary
sense, this being a higher Sovereignty still.

4. The larger part of the general laws by which we are governed are made
by Congress, that body having been instituted to that special end. It
is composed of a popular House, or one chosen directly by the people,
and one more select, chosen by the State Legislatures to represent their
States as a whole. If the Legislature represents the will of the people
of the State accurately, as it always does unless some change in popular
opinion takes place suddenly after it has been elected, the Senators as
well as Representatives will embody the views of the people in their
respective States. So we see that the people are Sovereign and law really
originates with them. Laws, indeed, may be made by their agents that do
not suit them; but, if they cannot induce them to repeal such laws by
petition, remonstrance, or otherwise, at once, by waiting a little until
the terms of such members expire they can replace them by others pledged
to carry out their views. Thus the general policy of the government is
determined by the people at the general elections. They give the law
to the law makers, and appoint the executives who will administer them
in the spirit they approve. The whole matter is within their control
as a point of power, and still more so from the natural deference the
Representatives of the people feel toward the wishes of those on whose
favor they depend. The deep indignation or contempt of their fellow
men will seldom be incurred, even if they have no ambition for further
electoral honors.

5. The treaties made by the President, which require to be ratified
by the Senate to become binding, and the approval of the House of
Representatives if money is required to carry them into effect—since only
that branch can dispose of the property of the country, or originate laws
for raising money—have also the force of general laws. The whole country
is bound to act in conformity with their provisions. We have, then, three
kinds of law, or laws from three different sources that are alike binding
on the whole country: the Constitution, which is unchangeable except by
vote of the Legislatures or conventions of three-fourths of the States;
the laws of Congress, which may be made and repealed at their pleasure;
and treaty law, which involves the consent of a foreign State, but
requires the assent of the President and one or both bodies of Congress,
and which may be abrogated or modified at the united pleasure of all the
parties concerned in making it.

6. There is a fourth species of law more general still and more or less
of which is often involved in treaties with foreign governments. This
is the Law of Nations, or the principles acknowledged by all civilized
nations as binding on them in their intercourse with each other. The only
binding force it possesses is in the general practice of mankind, and
the authority of public opinion. This is commonly effective, since all
law depends really on the approval of the people for its efficacy, or at
least on their silent submission if they disapprove.

7. In every State in the Union the people elect a Legislative body which
makes such local laws as the people wish to be governed by, and as their
special circumstances require; but they are not permitted to legislate
on general questions, to make any law contrary to the Constitution,
or to the laws of Congress, nor are its laws binding on any but the
citizens of the State in which they are made, or such others as may
be residing there. Each State has a Constitution which determines the
special organization of its government, and limits and defines the powers
of its different branches; but it is required to be in harmony with the
Constitution of the United States. The Constitution, Legislature and
officers of a State are determined by vote of its people.

8. After this examination we reach this conclusion: That there is no
institution in the United States that has not been virtually established
by the people, its fundamental law was adopted by them of their own
free will and may be changed when they see fit; and that if all the
laws, of whatever kind, that are binding on them, are not such as they
prefer, they are, at least, originally responsible for them, and have
in their hands the means of changing them within a reasonably short
period. In fact their demand or the zeal of their Representatives for
their interests usually originates whatever laws are made. The constant
general prosperity of the country since the establishment of the present
government, the increase of intelligence and self respect among the
people, and the beneficial influence exerted by the United States on the
world tend to confirm and settle its principles and laws on a permanent
foundation.




CHAPTER XIII.

THE LAW OF NATIONS.


1. The laws of any nation are the rules by which it is governed, a
violation of which renders the offender liable to the infliction of
certain penalties. These laws, in many nations, are carefully and
systematically arranged in the beginning, as in the United States; in
others, as in England, they are gradually produced, the course taken in
dealing with the first of a class of similar cases furnishing a precedent
that is equal in force to a general law.

2. From very early times the different nations who had intercourse with
each other began to follow certain rules, which commonly originated
in the mode last mentioned above; and many of them became generally
recognized as the proper guide in international intercourse. These
customs came, at length, to be called the Law of Nations. Writers of
eminence carefully investigated them, and studied the principles on which
they were founded. These writers are held to be authorities as to this
law, and the principles they have laid down are generally acknowledged,
by civilized nations in modern times, as the standard of International
Law.

3. There is no possibility, in the present state of the world, of
organizing a tribunal with authority to impose penalties for violations
of this law by individual nations; though it is to be hoped that may
some time be the case. The only representative of such a tribunal is the
general opinion of the civilized world; and nations must, themselves,
act as supreme judges and executors of the law as it applies (or as they
choose to hold it as applying) to their disputes. When they cannot come
to an agreement with their adversaries, they commonly Declare War, and
endeavor to right themselves by force.

4. This is not, by any means, an equitable or satisfactory way of
avenging wrongs. The aggressor may be the strongest; and the offense, in
that case, will be greatly increased. It causes the penalty, in any case,
to fall very heavily on many innocent heads, and produces lamentable and
wide-spread desolation. Yet it is sometimes better than tame submission;
and the right to make war when grievous wrong has been suffered, or
indignity offered to the national honor, is recognized by the Law of
Nations; and certain rules are applied by it as a guide in honorable
warfare. There is nothing but self-respect, and respect for the opinions
of the civilized world, to keep belligerent nations within the limits of
these rules. They are, however, continually becoming better defined, and
Public Opinion has more and more weight in each succeeding generation.

5. Some of the more important features of International Law (or the Law
of Nations) are, that every nation has the right to regulate her own
internal affairs without interference from others, unless some of these
regulations may seriously affect the interests of a foreign power; that
national boundaries are to be respected; that bodies of water lying
within a national territory, and the seacoast for three miles from the
shore, are under its exclusive jurisdiction; and that a nation may take
measures to protect its own citizens who may be traveling or doing
business in other countries, unless they violate its laws; and then it
may first examine the case before the accused is given up for trial and
punishment to a foreign court. There are many other rules. These will
serve as examples.

6. One class of these laws requires special mention, because they are
often more carefully defined than most other international customs. These
are Neutrality Laws. Those now in force in the United States were enacted
in 1818. They are only a formal recognition by our highest legislative
authority—Congress—of the Law of Nations as generally accepted by other
governments. The leading regulations are, that our citizens shall not
interfere, but at their own risk and peril, in contests between other
nations; that no armament shall be fitted out in our territory for the
purpose of making war on any power with which we are at peace; and
making it unlawful for an American vessel to carry “Contraband of War”
(or war material) to either of two warring nations. It forbids granting
to one nation rights not allowed to the other with which it is at war.
Neutrality Laws are designed to avoid causes of unfriendly feeling, and
to prevent the improper interference of our citizens in the quarrels of
other nations.

7. Our government believed itself wronged in the course of the recent
Civil War by England. It claimed that the English government had not
been at proper pains to preserve a neutral attitude; and complaint being
made, the two governments agreed to appoint a Commission to examine and
arbitrate the case—the decision, whatever it might be, to be accepted
by both parties. This was done, at Geneva, in Switzerland; and probably
prevented a war between the two countries. It is to be hoped that
all national disputes may hereafter be settled in this reasonable and
Christian way.

8. Treaties are international laws binding on the two or more parties
making the contract; and our Foreign Representatives (as ambassadors,
ministers resident, etc.) deal with International Law as arranged by
treaties and the Laws of Nations.




CHAPTER XIV.

RELATION OF GOVERNMENT TO RELIGION.


1. Religion has always exerted so much influence on men that it has been
customary for governments to assume more or less control over it; and,
as the leaders of religious systems have commonly been glad to get the
support of governments, there has usually existed what is called a “Union
of Church and State,” the government endorsing the views of some special
religious system, and giving more or less support to its officials;
sometimes, even refusing to tolerate any other; or, if tolerated,
reserving its special recognition and favors, and whatever material
support it chose to give to religious establishments to that termed
National, alone; that church returning the favor by using its great
influence with the people to support the measures of the government.

It is very distasteful to many men who differ from the views of the
favored system to be required to support it, and to be frowned upon by
the government if they do not feel inclined to connect themselves with it.

2. The Founders of our government were wise enough to leave the people
to arrange religious questions according to their pleasure. They were
not unbelievers in religion, but thought, as most of our citizens now
think, that entire liberty should be left to all to act in religious
matters as they felt able and inclined. All religious systems are equally
tolerated—no government support is given specially to any. Some people
do not approve of religious oaths (an affirmation in the name of God, or
calling God to witness that what is said is true,) and from such persons
a solemn affirmation or statement, answers the purposes of the law.

Although neither the Constitution, nor Congress in its laws, prescribe a
religious profession of any kind, and the Constitution prohibits Congress
from making laws respecting the establishment of a State religion, or
interfering with the free exercise of it, and declares that “no religious
test shall ever be required, as a qualification to any office or public
trust, under the United States,” neither do they discourage religion.
Respect is shown, in many ways, to religion. Congress usually appoints
a chaplain, now of one denomination, and now of another; it allows
chaplains in the army and navy, and provides them a salary; and, of late
years, the President recommends a day of National thanksgiving to God
once a year, for the blessings we enjoy, and sometimes proclaims a day
of fasting and prayer. It shows all due respect to the religious beliefs
among the people, but leaves all free to practice any form of it, or to
reject them all.

3. Entire religious liberty is a rarity in the world, and is much more
favorable to the purity and weighty influence of religious teachings than
a State religion. Many of the colonies that afterwards became States,
were founded by persons who fled from religious persecution in the
countries of the Old World, and multitudes have emigrated here to secure
freedom in the enjoyment of their religious views and practices, or even
entire freedom to reject all religion if they could not believe in any,
though that is seldom the case.

Our example has been much approved and is having much influence on other
nations.


TOLERATION OF OPINIONS,

4. Is characteristic of the American Government. Liberty of the Press,
or freedom to state any views a man may entertain, is as complete as
liberty in religious matters. Very severe things are sometimes written
and published of the government, and sometimes things that would do
much harm if they were generally believed, and no notice is taken of it,
unless some one sees fit to contradict it or prove it to be incorrect.

If a man injures another’s character by writing things that are false,
he can be tried, and, if convicted, punished by the courts. Vile and
indecent writings are prohibited; but otherwise there is entire freedom.
Falsehood and error are left to be destroyed in a natural way by the
truth.

This is a great gain to the truth since error has often been protected,
in other countries, by government authority, on the conviction that it
was the truth, to the great prejudice of truth itself.

5. Although, during the Civil War, there was some restraint put upon the
freedom of publishing things that might be hurtful to the government, the
instances were not very numerous, and, at the close of the war the spirit
of toleration was shown in a way very creditable to our people, and very
praiseworthy in our government, which left the way open to a speedier
reunion of sentiment and sympathy in the sections that had fought each
other so bravely.

The brave and resolute can afford to be just to each other, and to allow
entire freedom of opinion to all. In this respect we have fairly earned
the right to call ourselves a nation of freemen.




CHAPTER XV.

CHAPLAINS.


1. Regard to the religious habits of a large number of the people has led
Congress to appoint, or permit the appointment, of chaplains to supply
such religious instruction and services in the army and navy as might be
felt desirable by those concerned.

Though chaplains are not properly officers of the government, they are
employees of it, for they are appointed by its authority, and paid from
its treasury. Those in the army receive the same pay and emoluments as
a major of infantry; or this was the compensation allowed by act of
Congress in 1812. But by an act of 1862, it was fixed at $100 per month,
and two rations per day, for those in the army or hospitals. By the act
of 1812, one chaplain was allowed to every brigade; but by an act of 1861
(during the civil war,) one for every regiment was allowed.

Navy chaplains, in 1835, received $1,200 per year. But in 1860 this was
raised to a lieutenant’s pay; and this in 1862 was $1,800 per annum.

Chaplains in Congress receive $750 per annum.

2. The United States also employ a chaplain in the military academy at
West Point.

From the foregoing it will be seen that in time of war, with one
chaplain for every regiment, and one for every ship of war, and others
in hospitals and military posts, quite a large number of clergymen are
employed by the government.

This provision for the religious instruction of those who cannot, from
their peculiar position, attend the preaching of the Gospel, or other
religious services, is certainly an indication that our government
respects religion, and looks after the spiritual as well as the temporal
interests of its army and navy.

3. In the appointment of chaplains, the government pursues a liberal
course. No particular preference is given to any denomination, but
they are appointed from almost every religious sect, and allowed to
conduct religious services after the forms of the church to which they
respectively belong.

Every body knows what the duties of a chaplain are. So we need not
explain them here, and will only add that a faithful chaplain in the
army in time of war has much to do besides preaching and holding
regular services. The wounded, the sick, and the dying, should be
the particular objects of his attention. He should not only minister
religious instruction and consolation to them, but look after their
physical comforts. Many of these clergymen, during the late most
unfortunate civil war, distinguished themselves by their exertions to
promote the bodily comforts of those unfortunate men, as well as to give
them religious instruction, not refusing to nurse the sick and wounded
wherever they could relieve their pains or mitigate their sufferings.




CHAPTER XVI.

COMPROMISES.


1. In a large and prosperous country there are very likely to arise
antagonisms of interest and sentiment which will require the strong
pressure of some common and more imperative interest to overawe and
reconcile by a process of mutual concession, called Compromise.

The States of the two sections—North and South—were unlike in several
general respects; but it was in nothing so marked as in regard to
Slavery. This system was introduced in Virginia in the same year that
the Plymouth colony was founded in Massachusetts, and spread to all the
colonies, in time; but never was much practiced north of Maryland. In all
the Southern colonies it took deep root from the first. It formed the
subject of the most difficult


COMPROMISE OF THE CONSTITUTION.

2. This compromise consisted of concessions made by each section. The
North conceded the return of fugitives from their Southern masters, when
escaped to the north, and an enumeration of three-fifths of the slave
population in computing the representation in Congress. This was a great
sacrifice for that section to make, for its people were, at heart, deeply
hostile to Slavery. Both their interests and sentiments made it important
to exclude it from the new States where they were likely to settle in
considerable numbers. But a close and strong union of the States was
a vital point with them. Commerce, trade, and manufactures, to which
they were largely given, required resources and vigor in the central
government, to maintain the public credit at home, and secure respect and
safety abroad. The South conceded the final close of the Slave Trade at
a given time (1808). Outside of the Constitution it, at the same time,
conceded the “Ordinance of 1787,” by which Slavery was excluded from the
territory north of the Ohio river. Thus the North and South divided the
country between them.

3. This was, however, a very troublesome subject, and affected so many
legislative questions as to be constantly coming up for debate. The
sentiments of the Northern people grew more hostile to the institution,
and the South stood on guard with growing apprehension and anger, as
this state of feeling developed in the North; and, at the same time, it
became evident that the more rapid growth of the northern population gave
them an increasing preponderance in Congressional representation. They
jealously watched over the rights of the State governments from their
fear of Congressional or executive interference, and industriously sought
means to extend their area and increase the number of Slave States.
They were always much assisted by a large party in the north of those
who cherished the Union and were fearful of its dissolution. They were
ever pouring oil on the troubled waters, and mediating between the two
extremes.


THE MISSOURI COMPROMISE.

4. The arrangement of the Slavery question so termed was made in 1820,
and took effect as to the State of Missouri in 1821. In the five years
that followed the close of the last war with England there was great
activity in settlement of the unoccupied territory, and the country
gave indications of the power of rapid development that has so strongly
characterized it since. The South foresaw the loss of its balance of
power if too many of the new States were organized as free. Missouri
had included a clause in her Constitution, presented for the approval
of Congress, prohibiting slavery. This clause the South demanded should
be stricken out. It produced great excitement and hot discussion
throughout the country, and seemed to threaten the stability of the
Union. Both sections were resolute in maintaining their principle, but
both appreciated the necessity of strength in the government and harmony
between the sections, and each made a sacrifice for the sake of these.
Missouri was required to admit slavery, and the condition was annexed
that no more Slave States should be formed north of its southern line.
This was a concession trying to both sides. The North became a party to
the extension of Slavery, and the South gave definite limits to her power
of expansion. Each, however, gained something: the South a State above
the limits before virtually fixed, and the North a definite and final
limit to the extension of a hated institution. This was quite generally
satisfactory, and for many years set that question at rest.

5. “Mason and Dixon’s Line” was the term applied to the boundary between
the Free and Slave States. This name originated in colonial times.
The royal grants to colonial proprietors or companies were often very
carelessly made, and those to Lord Baltimore, the founder of Maryland,
and William Penn, the proprietor of Pennsylvania, were specially
indefinite, giving rise to adverse claims that nearly produced war along
the border. Commissioners were at length appointed, who employed Mason
and Dixon, eminent English astronomers and surveyors, to establish the
boundary, which they did satisfactorily. The importance of the question
settled, and the reputation of the surveyors for scientific accuracy,
attached their name to the boundary permanently. It acquired political
significance afterwards, as the boundary between Maryland, the most
northern of the slave States, and Pennsylvania, the most southern of the
original free States. When new States were formed, with the Ohio river as
a boundary from its point of departure out of Pennsylvania, that name was
extended in its application to the whole dividing line between the free
and slave States—south or north of Mason and Dixon’s Line meaning, in
slave or free territory.

6. After some years the southern statesmen began again to feel
apprehensive of a loss of their equality of power in the general
government, so rapidly did the northern territories fill up. They began
to look for more territory, and favored the settlement, independence,
and annexation of Texas. Though long resisted, they succeeded in the
election of 1844, with this annexation and a probable war with Mexico as
test questions, and added not only Texas but New Mexico and California
to the territory wherein slavery, by the Missouri Compromise, would be
admissible.

7. Their satisfaction was not very durable. The discovery of gold in
California filled it with inhabitants so soon, and these so largely from
the free States, that in two years from its definite acquisition it
petitioned for admission into the Union with a clause in its Constitution
prohibiting Slavery. This was very exasperating to the South, and
after a long and violent contest could be carried by the North only by
the passage of the Fugitive Slave Law—a re-enactment of a part of the
Compromise of the Constitution with provisions so vigorous and effective,
could they have been enforced, as to be, in the highest degree, offensive
to a considerable part of the northern people. Utah was given a
Territorial government as a concession to the South, and the Slave Trade
was abolished in the District of Columbia as her corresponding concession
to the North. These were the four compromise measures of 1850, the result
of a discussion lasting nearly a year, engendering great bitterness on
both sides, and failing to satisfy either.

8. The attempt to enforce the Fugitive Slave Law proved ineffectual, in
the end; the rooted aversion of the Northern people to Slavery, kept
in abeyance before by less offensive compromises, being fully aroused.
This produced in the Southern people a bitter indignation as showing a
disposition to rebel against a constitutional provision in their favor.
They procured, in 1854, the repeal of the Missouri Compromise in the
famous “Kansas and Nebraska Bill,” and sought to introduce Slavery into
Kansas. A civil war in that Territory followed, which resulted in
the triumph of the Northern party. The extinction of Slavery was now
apparently but a question of time, the hostility to it in the North
becoming so out-spoken and averse to Compromises acceptable to the South,
that they began to look forward to separation, which they endeavored to
accomplish from 1860-5. A civil war, such as only Americans could wage,
was carried on during these years. The resolution, bravery, and military
talents of either side were never excelled; but the resources of the
North seemed inexhaustible. Her numbers, activity, and the inventive
genius of her skilled artisans gave her an immense superiority. This
war is a cause at once of pride and grief to every true American. In
the contest Slavery, the cause of it, disappeared, the Constitution was
amended, and the necessity of Compromises on this question forever ceased.




CHAPTER XVII.

TREASON.


1. This is an offense aiming at the existence of the government; and
in all other governments it has ever been customary to punish it with
extreme severity. Many things are considered to be of the nature
of treason, and, as such, severely punished in most countries. The
Constitution defines treason to be “levying war against the United
States, or adhering to their enemies, giving them aid and comfort;”
so that the highest or capital crime alone may be pursued with its
penalties. This is another evidence of the extreme moderation of the
founders of the government, which we have had occasion to notice so often
in our examination.

2. An act of Congress passed April 30th, 1790, defines it in the same
sense and orders that the convicted offender shall be hung.

By another act passed 17th July, 1862, it was made discretionary with the
court trying the case to put the offender to death, or to imprison him
for not less than five years, and to fine him for a sum not less than ten
thousand dollars. The penalty for this crime, even in its mildest form,
is very severe; thus showing how atrocious this offense is considered.

3. None but a person owing allegiance to the United States can commit
treason against them. The same acts which would be treason in a citizen
would not be treason if perpetrated by a foreigner.

“Misprision of treason” is the concealment of it by a person who knows it
has been committed. This also is a grave offense, and is punishable by a
seven years’ imprisonment, and a fine not exceeding one thousand dollars.

4. Any person tried for treason, must be indicted by a grand jury, and
tried by a petit jury in the Circuit Court of the United States within
three years after the crime has been committed; otherwise it is barred by
limitation—or, in other words, outlawed.




CHAPTER XVIII.

POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.


1. Geography proper describes the general character of a country, as its
rivers, bays, gulfs, plains, mountains and natural divisions. Leaving
this to other works we confine ourselves to those divisions made by the
government for convenience in administering its affairs.

Formerly there was a separation into North and South, by “Mason and
Dixon’s Line,” between which there existed a marked difference of
governmental, social, and industrial policy. The States south of that
line might hold slaves, while in those north of it that institution was
illegal. That difference was abolished by the thirteenth amendment to the
Constitution, as a result of the Civil War. The next largest—and these
exist now—are those made by the


CIRCUIT COURTS.

2. These often comprise several States and are changed, by act of
Congress, when the convenience of the Associate Judges of the Supreme
Court, who preside over them requires it. The next largest political
divisions are


THE STATES.

3. These exercise sovereign powers in all matters where control has not
been expressly delegated by the Constitution to the National Congress.
The other political boundaries are ever liable to change, to meet the
requirements of changing circumstances. These are definitely fixed, any
change being very rare and unlikely after they are duly organized and
admitted into the Union as States. Each of the original thirteen colonies
became States, with the boundaries they had as colonies at the time of
the Revolutionary War. The others received such boundaries as suited
the convenience and wishes of the people when they were admitted. Their
object is to prevent the centralization of too much power in the general
government, and to render legislation on local affairs and interests
more convenient, and more satisfactory to the people of each State. The
State having the least number of inhabitants numbers between 40,000 and
50,000; the one having the largest number contains between 4,000,000 and
5,000,000. The number of the States determines the number of Senators in
Congress, two being allotted to each; so that a State may be considered
as a Senatorial District.


DISTRICT COURTS

4. Produce another class of political divisions. These attend to legal
differences involving the laws of the general government, but of a
secondary class. They are more numerous than the Circuit Courts. In some
States there is but one, and some have several, according to size and
population.


COLLECTION DISTRICTS.

5. Another class of districts has been formed, for the purpose of
collecting the duties on imported goods. These are called “collection
districts.” They extend along, and embrace the whole sea coast and the
shores of navigable lakes and rivers. In a few instances they are located
inland, at points where goods may be brought into the United States
by land. Each collection district has a port of entry, and very often
several ports of delivery; also a collector of customs, and generally a
custom house.

6. Another class of collection districts was formed during the late civil
war. They grew out of the war, and were established for the collection
of the tax termed the “internal revenue,” which had to be levied to pay
the war expenses. These districts differ entirely, both in their objects
and in the territory embraced within them, from those established for
the purpose of collecting duties on imports, and correspond as far as
practicable with the Congressional districts in each State.


LAND DISTRICTS.

7. Land districts may also be noticed among these divisions. In every
State and Territory where there are public lands for sale, after they are
surveyed and mapped, they are divided into districts—two, three or four,
in each State and Territory—as convenience and economy may dictate. In
each district a land office is established for the sale of the lands in
said district.


LIGHT HOUSE DISTRICTS.

8. Again, the whole of our sea coasts, both on the Atlantic and Pacific
oceans, together with the shores of the navigable lakes and rivers, are
divided into twelve light house districts (or their number must not
exceed that,) for the purpose of building, repairing, illuminating and
superintending the light houses on all the coasts and shores wherever
located. These are the principal divisions we have to notice. It is
important to have a knowledge of them, for with such knowledge we can
better understand how government affairs are conducted.




CHAPTER XIX.

CHRONOLOGY OF THE U. S. FROM 1783 TO 1812.


1783.

Washington’s army had lain in camp at Newburg, N. Y., since the surrender
of Cornwallis. The Preliminary treaty of peace was signed Jan. 20th, at
Paris; but it was not officially announced in the camp at Newburg, until
April 19th; just eight years from the Battle of Lexington that commenced
it!

    July—Congress prepared to disband the army, and Washington
      to resign his commission as Commander-in-Chief.

    ” 21—The great difficulty Congress had to contend with was
      raising money to pay the troops. Congress had no authority,
      under the Confederation, to lay taxes or impose duties. It
      exhausted its own credit in the issue of paper money which
      soon became of little value. It made some foreign loans, and
      persuaded the States, which alone could lay taxes, to raise a
      small sum. But this did not suffice to pay the army at last.
      There was much suffering and discontent.

      On this day a body of soldiers, in large part new recruits,
      who had comparatively little to complain of, without
      muskets, but wearing side arms, beset the doors of Congress
      in Philadelphia, for three hours. No violence was offered.
      Congress adjourned to Princeton, N. J.

    Sept. 3—The final and definite Treaty of Peace between
      England, France, and the United States, in which the
      independence of the latter was acknowledged, its boundaries
      defined, and various matters of interest arranged to the
      profit of the United States, was signed at Paris.

    Nov. 2—A proclamation is issued by Congress for disbanding
      the army.

    ” 25—The British troops evacuate New York, and it is occupied
      by American troops under Gen. Knox.

    Dec. 4—Long Island and Staten Island abandoned by the
      British. Washington takes leave of his officers, at New York.

    ” 25—He resigns his commission to Congress, in a public
      audience, given him at Annapolis, Md., where Congress was
      then sitting, and goes home to Mt. Vernon.

      Cæsar Rodney, a signer of the Declaration of Independence,
      died this year.


1784.

The want of public credit was very much felt. There was no authority
sufficient to raise money to meet the interest, even, on the debt; and
this produced great distress.

    Nov. 1—The Continental Congress meets at Trenton, N. J.
      Richard Henry Lee, of Va., is chosen President.

    Oct. 4—A treaty with the Six Nations, who had sided with the
      British during the war, was made at Ft. Schuyler (formerly
      Ft. Stanwix—now Utica, N. Y.).

      Commerce begins to revive. Reciprocity treaties were made,
      and trade with eastern Asia commenced this year by a voyage
      to China, from New York.


1785.

    Jan.—Congress adjourns to New York, where it continued to
      hold its sessions for some years.

    Mar. 10—Thomas Jefferson appointed to fill the place of
      Franklin, as Minister to France; Franklin wishes to return
      home. He had been there nine years.

    July—Commercial treaties negotiated with Prussia, Denmark,
      Portugal, and Tuscany.

      The treaty with Prussia stipulated that, in case of war
      between that country and the United States, there should be
      no privateering.

    ” 13—Stephen Hopkins, of R. I., a signer of the Declaration
      of Independence, died.

    ” 28—Wm. Whipple, of N. H., a signer of the Declaration of
      Independence, died.

    ” ”—Treaties made with the Cherokees, Choctaws, and
      Chickasaws.


1786.

Financial troubles were now approaching a crisis. In 1784-5 the
importations from England had amounted to $30,000,000. The exportations
to only $9,000,000. Paper money was depreciated so much as to be of
little value. Debt oppressed government and people; want of vigorous
authority was everywhere felt; and many disorders in Tennessee, Kentucky
and elsewhere, begin to threaten the internal peace of the country.

    June 19—Gen. Nathaniel Greene, an able commander in the
      Revolutionary armies, died. He manouvered against Cornwallis
      in North and South Carolina with great ability.

    Dec. 5—Shay’s Rebellion broke out in Mass. That State wished
      to raise money to aid Congress in paying the interest on
      the federal debt. The people felt unable to pay it. They
      mobbed the courts but were dispersed by troops under Gen.
      Lincoln. Three were killed and one wounded, in an attack
      the insurgents made on an arsenal. There was little other
      fighting. Fourteen persons were tried and condemned to death
      but afterwards pardoned.


1787.

These and other events convinced the people that an important change in
the government was necessary. It became clear that a vigorous central
authority, alone, could answer the purpose. The States were nearly
independent of each other; but this produced conflicts and want of
harmony, which nearly ruined them all.

A congress of deputies to consider commercial questions, called by Va.
had, in Sept., 1786, recommended a convention to revise the Articles of
Confederation.

    Feb. 2—The Continental Congress assembled, electing Gen. St.
      Clair, President.

    ” 12—Congress approves the call for a Constitutional
      Convention.

    May 25—The convention assembled in Philadelphia, and elected
      Gen. Geo. Washington, President.

    July 11—The Continental Congress organize the Northwest
      Territory—north of the Ohio river. Preparations were
      immediately made for settling it.

    Sept. 28—The Constitution, as signed by the members of the
      convention, laid before Congress, which sends it to the State
      Legislatures for approval.

      Arthur Middleton of S. C., and Thomas Stone of Md., signers
      of the Declaration of Independence, died, Jan. 1st and Oct.
      5th, respectively.

    Dec. 7—Delaware ratifies the Constitution.

    ” 12—Pennsylvania accepts the Constitution.


1788.

    July 4—The anniversary of Independence is kept with great
      display, in Philadelphia, in special honor of the adoption of
      the new Constitution.

      By the close of July nine more States had ratified the
      Constitution, and it went into operation.

    Sept. 13—Congress selects the first Wednesday of Jan. (1789)
      for the appointment of Presidential electors; the first
      Wednesday in February for their appointment of President
      and Vice-President; and March 4th (the first Wednesday that
      month) for the new government to go into operation.


1789.

    Jan. 4—Thomas Nelson, of Va., signer of the Declaration of
      Independence, died.

    Feb. 13—Ethan Allen, of Revolutionary fame, died.

    April 30—Washington inaugurated as first President.

    May 12—A Tariff Bill for raising a revenue reported in
      Congress. This became a law, and went into effect Aug. 1st,
      1789.

    ” 20—The Department of Foreign Affairs (afterwards called
      State Department,) organized.

      The Treasury Department is next established, followed by the
      War Department, to which the Navy was joined for the present.

      The Judiciary was then constituted. Salaries, and the rules
      for parliamentary procedure were determined. The Postmaster
      general had long been an officer of the government, and
      required less change than most of the others. This made a
      very busy session. Congress also passed a resolution to add
      ten amendments to the Constitution—which were submitted to
      the States and afterward ratified. Congress adjourned the
      last of September.

      The democratic tone of the government, and the spirit applied
      to the interpretation of the Constitution by the first
      Congress, has generally prevailed ever since. That tone and
      spirit were truly republican.

    Nov. 8—The President made a tour through New England.

    ” 13—North Carolina ratified the Constitution.

      Many Indian treaties were made this year.


1790.

    Jan. 8—Congress reassembled. This session was scarcely
      inferior in interest and importance to the first from the
      variety of new questions required to be settled, and the more
      perfect development given to former ones.

    Feb. 8—Provision was made for payment of the foreign debt.

    Mar. 1—An act ordering a census to be taken was passed.

    ” 24—A naturalization law was originated.

    Apr. 15—A patent law was constructed.

    ” 30—Treason was defined and the penalty determined on.

    May 29—The Constitution ratified by Rhode Island; making up
      the whole number of thirteen States.

    ” 31—“An act to encourage learning” secured copyrights to
      authors.

    July 16—Three very exciting debates that had occupied much of
      the time of Congress, had a bearing on the location of the
      National Capital, which was this day permanently settled.
      The President was authorized to determine the site on the
      Potomac, and have the buildings erected so as to be ready
      for occupation in 1800. Agreeably to this act Maryland and
      Virginia ceded the District of Columbia to the United States.

      Gen. Putnam, a brave Revolutionary soldier, Benjamin
      Franklin, of Pa., Wm. Hooper, of N. C., and Francis
      Hopkinson, of N. J., all except Putnam signers of the
      Declaration of Independence, died this year.

      The Territory South of the Ohio was organized this year.
      The financial system of the country was established, the
      slavery question debated and settled in accordance with
      the compromise of the Constitution, and the State debts
      transferred to the United States.

    Aug. 12—Congress adjourned to meet next in Philadelphia and
      thereafter until 1800.

    ” 13—A treaty with the Creek Indians solemnly ratified by
      Washington.

    Dec. 6—The Third Session of Congress commenced. The President
      congratulates Congress on the improvement of the finances,
      and the prosperity of the country.


1791.

    Feb.—The United States Bank established. It was to have a
      capital of $10,000,000—its charter to run twenty years.

    ” 4—Kentucky voted admission into the Union in the next year
      (Jan. 1st, 1792).

    ” 18—Vermont having (Jan. 20th) ratified the Constitution
      and asked admission into the Union, it is granted this day.
      The immediate prosperity that followed the adoption of the
      Constitution of 1787, the strength, vigor, and moderation
      seen to be combined in its arrangement of the government, led
      most of the States to remodel their State Constitutions on
      it, in a short time.

    July—The subscription to the stock of the National Bank is
      all taken in a few hours after the books are opened.

    Aug.—Great Britain first sends a minister to the United
      States Government.

    Sep. 17—An expedition of 2,000 troops, under Gen. St. Clair,
      starts from Ft. Washington against the Indians in the
      Northwest Territory.

    Nov. 4—Gen. St. Clair is surprised and defeated by the
      Indians. There were 600 killed—the whole loss amounted to
      upward of 900. Several other smaller expeditions had been
      sent against the Indians in the course of the year. One, Gen.
      Harmer’s, had been defeated. Internal taxes on spirits were
      first commenced this year. Benj. Harrison, of Va., a signer
      of the Declaration of Independence, died this year. A voyage
      around the world, by way of Oregon, China, and the Cape of
      Good Hope, had opened wide fields to commerce. The first
      census was now completed. The Second Congress, assembled at
      Philadelphia, Oct. 24, was occupied in arranging the new
      ratio of Representatives. It was a very difficult matter to
      settle from the sectional struggles that entered into the
      question.


1792.

    Feb. 16—A bounty for fishing vessels provided.

    ” 20—The Post Office Department reorganized.

    Apr. 2—The establishment and regulations of the U. S. Mint
      are embodied in a law.

    ” 14—Act apportioning Representatives passed. This gave the
      next House of Representatives in Congress 105 members.

    May 8—Laws organizing the Militia are passed.

    Dec. 8—Henry Laurens, first President of the Continental
      Congress, died. The second presidential election this
      year resulted in the re-election of Washington and
      Adams. Washington received all the electoral votes—the
      anti-federalists opposing only Mr. Adams, whose electoral
      vote was 77, the candidate of the opposition receiving 50.
      Much seditious opposition was made in North Carolina and
      Pennsylvania to the excise law,—the tax on spirits. The
      President issued a proclamation against them, Sept. 29th.


1793.

    Jan. 24—The proclamation of the French Republic is greeted
      in Boston with a celebration in its honor. The close and
      friendly relations of the United States with France, arising
      from their aid to us in the Revolutionary War, led the French
      minister, Genet, to a course of conduct inconsistent with
      the existence of our friendly relations with England. The
      U. S. Government decided to proclaim neutrality—the people
      sympathized strongly with France. Washington and his cabinet
      pursued a strict neutral course, in which the people finally
      acquiesced, and Genet’s recall was solicited and obtained.

    Feb. 12—A Fugitive Slave law passed.

    July 23—Roger Sherman, signer of the Declaration of
      Independence, died.

    Oct. 8—John Hancock, of Mass., the first signer of the
      Declaration of Independence, died. This year laid the
      foundation of the policy of neutrality or non-interference
      with the European wars, that became the settled policy of the
      United States.

      The year was also distinguished by the violence of party
      feeling.

    Dec. 2—Congress assembles at Philadelphia.

    ” 31—Jefferson resigns his seat in the Cabinet. He was
      Secretary of State.


1794.

    Mar. 11—An act is passed for building four ships of war,
      which laid the foundation of our present navy.

      Some hostile English “Orders in Council” led to arrangements
      for fortifying the harbors of the country.

    ” 22—The Slave trade is regulated by law, no American
      vessel being allowed to supply slaves to another nation.
      The importation of slaves into this country had been
      allowed until the year 1808, by Art. 1st, Sec. 9th, of the
      Constitution.

    ” 26—As a retaliation on the British “Orders in Council” for
      seizing all goods going to France in American vessels, an
      embargo was laid on all shipping which was continued 60 days.
      This stopped all commerce for the present.

    June 5—A law relating to neutrality passed in Congress.

    ” 19—Richard Henry Lee, of Va., died; Abraham Clark, of N.
      J., and John Witherspoon, of N. J., later, all signers of the
      Declaration of Independence, died.

    July 16—An insurrection breaks out against the excise law in
      western Pennsylvania, by an armed attack on the officers of
      the law. An army of 15,000 men was raised and marched into
      that region, the appearance of which immediately restored
      order.

    Aug. 20—Gen. Wayne inflicts a thorough chastisement on the
      Indians of Ohio, on the Maumee river.

    Nov. 4—Congress again assembles.

    ” 28—Baron Steuben, a German, who had done us great service
      as an officer in the Revolutionary war, died, aged 61.


1795.

This year a commercial treaty was negotiated with England, which was the
cause of violent demonstrations of the two parties. Only the firmness and
moderation of Washington and his supporters saved the country from war
with that power.

    Jan. 23—Gen. Sullivan died. He had been an able Maj. Gen. in
      the Revolutionary war.

    ” 29—A more stringent naturalization law passes.

    May 19—Josiah Bartlett, of N. H., signer of the Declaration
      of Independence, died.

    Aug. 3—A Treaty with the Northwestern Indians concluded,
      which closed the Indian war.

    Sept 5—A treaty is concluded with Algiers, which closed a war
      with those pirates, whose attacks had been so disastrous to
      our commerce.

    Oct 20—A treaty of boundaries, and which opened the
      Mississippi to navigation, is concluded with Spain.

    Dec. 7—The fourth Congress meets.


1796.

    March 24—The U. S. House of Representatives require the
      President to send them the papers relating to the British
      treaty. The President declines, denying that they form part
      of the treaty making power.

    April 30—The exciting struggle on the British treaty is
      closed, by a provision made by the House of Representatives
      for carrying it into effect.

    June 1—An act is passed admitting Tennessee into the Union.

    ” 29—A new treaty is made with the Creek Indians, and the
      Southern, as well as the Northern Indians, are pacified.

    Sept. 19—Washington’s Farewell address is issued, to let
      the people know that he would not accept office again. A
      presidential election was held this autumn, in which John
      Adams was elected President. Serious difficulties began to
      rise with France, which took great offense at the treaty with
      Great Britain.


1797.

    Feb. 3—Mr. Pinckney, American Minister to France, was refused
      a reception, by the French government, and obliged this day
      to leave the country. Much violence was done about this time,
      to American commerce, by the French.

    Mar. 4—John Adams is inaugurated President of the United
      States.

    ” 25—A special session of Congress is called to consider the
      threatening posture of our relations with France.

    June 14—Congress imposed a fine of $10,000 and ten
      years imprisonment on any American who should engage in
      privateering, in any way, against a nation with whom we were
      at peace.

    July 3—The President transmits to Congress information of
      Spanish troubles on the southern and western frontier. These
      were afterwards discovered to have aimed at detaching the
      Mississippi and Ohio valleys from the United States, and
      erecting them into an independent power, in close alliance
      with Spain.

      Two new envoys are sent to France. These envoys spent many
      months in Paris, treated with insolence and neglect.

      In this year Francis L. Lee, of Va., Carter Braxton, of Va.,
      and Oliver Wolcott, of Conn., signers of the Declaration of
      Independence, died.


1798.

The French government continues to labor to draw the United States into
a war with them against England. Two of the three Commissioners are
required to leave France.

    April 3—The Mississippi Territory organized.

    ” 14—The navy is taken from the control of the Secretary of
      War, and a Navy Department with a Secretary, organized.

    June 12—All commercial intercourse with France suspended.
      In anticipation of war the naturalization law is amended;
      an “Alien Act” passed; and the navy and army largely
      strengthened.

    ” 21—The President announces the failure of the Commissioners
      sent to France, to make peace.

    July 8—A limited naval warfare with France is authorized, and
      several U. S. vessels of war go to sea.

    ” 16—An additional naval armament provided for.

    ” 17—Washington accepts the appointment of Commander-in-Chief
      of the Army, which is being raised in expectation of war.

    ”—About this time some 365 armed vessels had been
      commissioned by the U. S. government, besides the regular
      navy, to make war on the armed vessels of France. This
      armament was, however chiefly used for defense.

      Lewis Morris, of N. Y., James Wilson, of Pa., and Geo. Read,
      of Del., signers of the Declaration of Independence, died
      this year.


1799.

At the commencement of this year Congress provided for the raising of am
army of 40,000 men.

    Feb. 18—By invitation of the French government, the President
      nominates another embassy to France.

    Feb. 7—The French frigate l’Insurgente captured in the West
      Indies by the U. S. frigate Constellation.

    April—The Legislature of New York abolishes Slavery in that
      State.

    Dec. 14—Gen. Washington’s death, in the 68th year of his age.

      Wm. Paca, of Md., a signer of the Declaration of
      Independence, died this year.

      A change in the government of France, and the vigorous action
      of the U. S. government in arming for war, induced the
      French to retreat from their unfriendly position and offer
      to arrange the difference. The refusal of our government to
      entangle themselves with European politics became a settled
      principle, of great value to us; though it was strongly
      opposed by the Anti-Federalists.


1800.

    Jan. 23—Edward Rutledge, of S. C., signer of Dec. of Ind.
      died.

    Feb. 1—The U. S. frigate Constellation beats without
      capturing the French frigate La Vengeance.

    April 4—General bankruptcy law passed by Congress.

    May 7—The Territory of Indiana organized by act of Congress.

    ” 10—An act authorizing the election of a Territorial
      Assembly in the Territory of Mississippi, organized some
      years before, was passed.

    July—The government is moved to the new capital at Washington.

    Oct. 1—The envoys to France arrange a convention, or
      temporary treaty, which prevents the formal outbreak of war,
      though it had long continued to be waged on the sea. More
      than 50 vessels had been captured from the French this year.
      The gratitude of Americans to France for her aid, formerly,
      made a large part of the people very unwilling to declare
      war; but her arrogant demands and war on our commerce had the
      good effect to separate the country from all close alliances
      in Europe.

    Nov.—The fourth presidential election resulted in the
      defeat of the Federalist party, by the election of Thomas
      Jefferson as President. Its opponent, the anti-federalist,
      or Republican party, feared a strong central government; yet
      when they came into power they adopted the same policy. Any
      other policy would have ruined the country.


1801.

    Feb. 16—The Convention with France, to remain in force eight
      years, ratified.

    Mar. 3—The Sixth Congress terminates, and with it the
      administration of President Adams.

    ” 4—Jefferson inaugurated President. The trial of the
      Constitution was now past. It was permanently settled in the
      respect of the people, and had made the country respected
      by other nations. The “Sedition Laws” passed in July,
      1798, became inoperative at this time, by the provision
      accompanying them. They had been framed for the suppression
      of dangerous political intrigues in time of war. Party spirit
      was exceedingly bitter at this time, and these laws produced
      much excitement, but contributed to the safety of the
      government.

    June 10—The Basha of Tripoli declares war on the United
      States.

    ” 14—Benedict Arnold died in London.

    Aug. 6—The U. S. vessel of war Experiment, captures a
      Tripolitan vessel in the Mediterranean sea.

    Dec. 7—The Seventh Congress assembles. The reaction, at this
      time, in public sentiment, produced by the French Revolution,
      the excesses of which resulted in a military despotism under
      Napoleon Bonaparte, infused a spirit of moderation and
      caution into the politics of the United States under the new
      party now in power, that was highly beneficial. Extreme views
      were checked, and no serious change was made in the general
      policy of the country.


1802.

    Jan. 4—The reapportionment of Representatives in Congress
      by the census of 1800, was made. No change in the number of
      inhabitants to one Representative (one to every 33,000) was
      introduced. The foundation of a Military Academy at West
      Point, N. Y., was laid at this time.

    April 14—The Naturalization Laws, made very stringent in the
      last administration to correspond with a state of war, were
      liberalized.

    April 30—An act authorizing the formation of a State
      Constitution in Ohio, preparatory to its admission into the
      Union, is passed.

    May 3—Washington, D. C., incorporated as a city.

    Oct. 16—Commerce on the Mississippi by American citizens,
      suspended by the Spanish authorities at New Orleans.

      It became evident that the possession of the Mississippi
      River and territory near it was of the highest importance
      to the welfare of the West, and measures looking toward the
      acquisition of it began to be taken.

      A large reduction was made this year in the public debt, and
      the policy of economy in public expenditure became a leading
      feature of the administration.


1803.

    March 3—The anxiety of the people in regard to the navigation
      of the Mississippi leads Congress to invest the President
      with extraordinary authority to negotiate, or use force, in
      his discretion. He was authorized to call on the States to
      furnish 80,000 men, if need be.

    April 30—A treaty is concluded with Napoleon Bonaparte for
      the purchase of the whole of the Louisiana Territory for
      $15,000,000.

    Aug. 13—By a treaty with the Kaskaskia Indians a large part
      of Illinois is opened to settlement.

    Oct. 31—The U. S. frigate Philadelphia ran on a sunken rock
      in the harbor of Tripoli, and was captured. The American
      fleet had captured or destroyed several Tripolitan vessels of
      war during the summer.

    Dec. 20—The President takes possession of Louisiana.


1804.

    Feb. 2—Geo. Walton, of Geo., signer of the Declaration of
      Independence, died.

    ” 15—New Jersey passes a law freeing all the slaves born in
      the State after the next 4th of July.

    ” 16—Lieut. Decatur, of the U. S. Navy, ran into the harbor
      of Tripoli in the night and burned the Philadelphia—captured
      by the Tripolitans, some time before. This done he withdrew
      in safety, in the sloop he had employed for the bold
      enterprise.

    July 11—Alexander Hamilton, an eminent statesman, was killed
      in a duel with Aaron Burr, Vice-President of the United
      States. He was 48 years old and his death was considered as a
      public calamity.

    Aug. 3—Com. Preble attacks Tripoli, sinks two vessels,
      captures three more, and bombards the city.

      The city was blockaded during the remainder of the year and
      through the winter.

    Nov. 18—Gen. Philip Schuyler died at Albany, N. Y.

      Jefferson was re-elected President in this month.


1805.

Great commercial prosperity marked this period. France and England were
at war and most of the carrying trade fell to American vessels. The
peaceful acquisition of Louisiana, and the prosperity of the west in
consequence, contributed much to the development of the country. The
grand era of progress in the United States began to dawn, though overcast
by threatening difficulties with Spain and England.

    March—Chief Justice Chase having been impeached by the House
      of Representatives, was acquitted by the Senate.

    ” 4—Jefferson’s second inauguration as President.

    June 3—A treaty of peace made with Tripoli.

      A Territorial Legislature is authorized in the Territory of
      Orleans, and the Territory of Louisiana organized.

    June 11—The Territory of Michigan is organized. It was very
      thinly settled, but separated by so great a distance from the
      inhabited parts of Indiana Territory as to require a separate
      government.

    July 4—Large cessions of land are obtained, by treaty and
      purchase, from the Indians. Most of their lands in Ohio,
      Indiana, and along the Ohio River were acquired in an
      equitable manner. Large cessions are obtained this year from
      the Creeks and Cherokees, who received a fair equivalent.

    Sept. 12—Wm. Moultrie, a distinguished Revolutionary soldier,
      died.

      Measures are set on foot to purchase Florida from the
      Spaniards. There seemed no alternative but such a purchase
      or a war. Difficulties with England began to increase.
      Several American vessels with valuable cargoes are seized by
      the British.


1806.

    Jan. 16—Two million dollars are voted that the President may
      commence negotiations with Spain for Florida. The British
      continue to violate our flag by impressing seamen on our
      vessels.

    March 26—A retaliatory law was enacted by Congress forbidding
      the importation of certain English goods, to take effect in
      November in order to give time for negotiation. Provision was
      also made for increasing the army and navy.

      The summer of this year was disturbed, in the west, by rumors
      of a design to separate the Louisiana Territory and Western
      States from the Union, by the establishment of an independent
      government.

    Apr. 10—Gen. Horatio Gates, an officer of the Revolution,
      died.

    Dec.—The session of Congress commencing the first of this
      month was largely occupied with a law forbidding the slave
      trade after 1808. There was much violent debate but the law
      was enacted early in the next year.

      Robt. Morris, of Pa., on the 8th of May; Geo. Wythe, of Va.,
      on the 8th of June; James Smith, of Pa., on the 11th of July,
      signers of the Declaration of Independence; and Gen. Henry
      Knox, an officer of the Revolution, on the 25th of Oct.,
      died. Gen. Knox was Secretary of War during Washington’s
      administration.


1807.

    Feb. 10—An act for commencing the Coast Survey, and
      appropriating $50,000 for that purpose, is passed.

      The English had defeated and almost annihilated the French
      and Spanish navies, and became very tyrannical toward neutral
      nations, which begins to injure our commerce. Bonaparte
      retaliates in the same spirit which doubles the difficulty.

    Mar. 18—A treaty made by American ambassadors with England
      was rejected by our government because the British refused
      to allow that British born citizens could become American
      citizens by naturalization. These the English government
      claimed the right of impressing from our vessels, which we
      denied.

    June 22—A British ship of war, the Leopard, fires into the
      American frigate Chesapeake while unprepared to resist, and
      took several men from her. Three Americans were killed, and
      eighteen wounded. It greatly exasperated the Americans.

    July 2—The President ordered all English ships of war to
      leave American waters.

    Aug. 25—Com. Preble, of the U.S. navy, died.

    Sept. 15—Aaron Burr tried for treason, (he was the leader of
      the conspiracy believed to have endeavored to detach the
      Mississippi Valley from the Union,) was acquitted for want of
      evidence, though generally believed guilty.

    Nov. 26—Oliver Ellsworth, U. S. Chief Justice, died.

    Dec. 17—Bonaparte’s “Milan Decree” subjects American
      commercial vessels to seizure.

    ” 22—This and like British “Orders in Council” caused
      Congress to lay an embargo, forbidding any vessels to sail
      from our ports.


1808.

    Jan. 1—The act of Congress, passed in the previous session,
      to carry out the provision of the Constitution to abolish the
      slave trade at this time, goes into effect to-day.

    Apr. 17—Bonaparte orders the seizure and confiscation of all
      American vessels in France, or that should afterwards arrive
      there.

    Nov. 7—The tenth Congress assembles again. Much discussion is
      had over the embargo, but it is finally determined to make
      it still more stringent and place the country in a state of
      defense.

    ”—A presidential election this month results in the choice
      of James Madison for the next term. He was a republican, or
      democrat, in politics.


1809.

    Jan. 9—An act is passed “more effectually to enforce the
      embargo.”

    Feb. 3—Illinois organized under a Territorial Government.

    ” 27—The embargo is partially repealed.

    Mar. 3—The Tenth Congress closes, at the same time as the
      Administration of Jefferson. Madison was inaugurated the
      next day. He served two terms. A war with Great Britain was
      commenced in his first, and ended in his second term.

    ” 9—Thos. Haywood, of S. C., signer of the Declaration of
      Independence, died.

    Apr. 19—An arrangement of the difficulties with England
      concluded with the British Minister, Erskine, and, in
      the expectation of permanent peace, the Embargo and
      Non-intercourse acts cease by proclamation of the President.

    May 22—An extra session of the eleventh Congress meets.

    July 20—News arrives of the rejection by the English
      government of the Erskine treaty.

    Aug. 9—The President forbids, by proclamation, all
      intercourse with Great Britain and France.

    Nov. 8—A new English minister having been sent, his arrogant
      tone causes the U. S. government to decline further
      intercourse with him.


1810.

    Mar. 23—Bonaparte orders the sale and confiscation of 132
      American vessels (detained in France by previous decree) and
      their cargoes, and the same confiscation is ordered of all
      American vessels afterward entering French ports. The 132
      vessels and their cargoes were worth $8,000,000.

    Aug. 5—The French government announces the revocation of
      their confiscation act, to take effect Nov. 1. A deadly
      struggle had been, for many years, going on between Napoleon
      Bonaparte and England. This hostility of France to American
      commerce was in retaliation, of the British “Orders in
      Council” against neutral commerce trading with France.
      England had nearly destroyed the French navy and considered
      herself mistress of the seas. She wished to reduce American
      commerce to the condition of colonial times, which, with
      impressment of seamen, was the cause of the present struggle.
      Our commerce was constantly growing, our people spirited, and
      resolved to have their rights and Flag respected.


1811.

    Feb. 26—An act passed establishing naval hospitals.

    May 16—The American frigate President, and the British sloop
      of war Little Belt, fire into each other. The Little Belt
      is disabled. This was a retaliation of the firing of the
      British ship Leopard on the American Chesapeake, four years
      before, and also of the capture of an American merchantman
      bound to France, off New York, by a British vessel about
      this time. Several instances of impressment, by the British,
      from American vessels, had lately occurred, and there was a
      feeling of great exasperation toward England. The English
      government had not yet made any atonement for the attack on
      the Chesapeake.

    June 1—Gen. Eaton, prominent in the war with Tripoli, died.

    ” 19—Samuel Chase, Chief Justice of the U. S., died.

    Aug. 2—Wm. Williams, of Conn., died. The two last were
      signers of the Declaration of Independence.

      The relief of American commerce from outrages by the French
      proved delusive, and many grievous wrongs are suffered this
      year.

    Nov. 7—Two twin brothers of the Shawanese tribe of Indians
      (Tecumseh and the Prophet) had been for some years engaged in
      forming a conspiracy among a large number of Indian tribes
      on the Northwestern frontier to exterminate the whites. Gen.
      Harrison’s army is attacked by the Indians this day, at
      Tippecanoe. They are defeated by Gen. Harrison.

    Dec. 2—The ratio of Representation is revised on the census
      of 1800, and fixed at 35,000.


1812.

    Jan.—Various acts are passed for putting the army and navy in
      a condition for war.

    Apr. 4—An embargo is laid on American shipping, by act of
      Congress.

    ” 8—Louisiana admitted into the Union as a State.

    ” 20—Geo. Clinton, Vice-President of the United States, died.

    June 4—The Territory of Missouri organized.

    ” 23—The British government repeal the obnoxious “Orders
      in Council,” but refuse to give up the right of search and
      impressment on American vessels. The American government
      refuses to be satisfied with this; besides, it had already
      declared war, June 18th.




CHAPTER XX.

THE WAR OF 1812.


We have stated in connection with the appropriate events, the causes of
this war which had accumulated during the last five years at a rapid
rate. The seizure and captures of American vessels by Great Britain
amounted to 917; by France to 558. Upwards of 6,000 cases of impressments
were recorded in the American Department of State; and in all these our
Flag had been violated. It was estimated that about as many more had been
made, of which no official information had been received. The Americans
were averse to war and had long borne these injuries in the hope that
a settlement might be reached by negotiation; but they insisted on the
inviolability of our Flag, and the right of naturalization. On the
commencement of hostilities 2,500 of these impressed sailors, claiming
to be American citizens, refused to fight against America, and were
imprisoned by the English government, where most of them were kept to the
close of the war.

    Aug. 24—The English government, however, had the magnanimity,
      when news arrived of the Declaration of War by the United
      States, to allow all American vessels then in their ports six
      weeks to dispose of their lading and to depart undisturbed.

      The great success of the war on the American side was on
      the sea, where it was much more seriously detrimental and
      mortifying to the English than victories on the land would
      have been. The land forces were generally inefficiently
      conducted, though the close of the war was signalized by the
      victory of Gen. Jackson, at New Orleans, which was extremely
      gratifying to American pride.

    July 12—Gen. Hull, with 1,800 troops, invades Canada.

    Aug. 8—After various mishaps, Hull retreats to Detroit.

    ” 9—Col. Miller defeats Tecumseh and a body of British troops
      at Maguaga.

    ” 15—Ft. Dearborn (now Chicago) was abandoned by its small
      garrison, by the orders of Hull. During their retreat they
      were attacked, and most of them massacred by the Indians.

    ” 16—Gen. Hull surrendered Detroit and all the military
      forces and stores in the territory to the British. He was
      afterward sentenced to death by a court-martial, but
      pardoned by the president, though degraded from all military
      command.

    ” 19—The U. S. frigate Constitution, Capt. Hull, does great
      honor to the American arms by the capture of the English
      frigate Guerriere. This vessel had challenged the American
      vessels in a contemptuous way. She had 79 killed and wounded,
      the Constitution only 13. There were 10 impressed American
      seamen on the Guerriere.

    Sept. 7—The U. S. frigate Essex captures the Alert in 8
      minutes.

    Oct. 13—In another invasion of Canada by Gen. Van Rensselaer,
      though much gallantry was displayed, an unexpected British
      reinforcement obliged the surrender of 700 men after 160 had
      been killed and wounded.

    ” 18—The U. S. sloop of war Wasp captures the British sloop
      of war Frolic, which was the strongest vessel. The Frolic had
      100 killed and wounded, the Wasp but 10. Both were captured
      by a British 74 pounder the same day.

    ” 25—Capt. Decatur, of the frigate United States, captures
      the Macedonian, a British frigate. British loss 104, American
      only 7.

    Nov. 22—The U. S. brig Vixen is captured by the English
      frigate Southampton. Both were afterward shipwrecked.

      A presidential election in this month secured the re-election
      of Madison.

    Dec. 29—The U. S. frigate Constitution, Commodore Bainbridge,
      captures the British frigate Java, off the coast of Brazil.
      American loss 44, British 151. These naval victories with
      so little loss produced much exultation in America, and
      much surprise and mortification in England. The Americans
      were able seamen, and had long burned to avenge the insults
      and contempt of the English navy. Americans are capable of
      extraordinary vigor when thoroughly aroused. The operations
      on land had been much interfered with by the strenuous and
      almost treasonable opposition of the anti-war party, and
      this continued to be an embarrassment during nearly its
      whole course. The general disfavor with which this violent
      opposition was regarded, however, and the sympathy felt for
      the President, so embarrassed, procured his re-election.


1813.

Military operations this year were, in part, more creditable and
encouraging. The regular force amounted to about 55,000 men; an act had
been passed authorizing the construction of four 74 gun ships, and six
forty-fours; and for an increase of the navy on the lakes.

    Jan. 22—A disastrous enterprise at Frenchtown (now Monroe,
      Mich.) results in the loss of nearly 900 American troops
      under Winchester. The wounded were left by Gen. Proctor, the
      British commander, to be massacred by the Indians.

    ” 23—Geo. Clymer, of Pa., signer of the Declaration of
      Independence, died.

    ” 26—An act of Congress authorizes the President to borrow
      $16,000,000.

    ” 27—He is authorized to issue Treasury notes to the amount
      of $5,000,000.

    Feb. 24—The Hornet captures the British brig Peacock, on the
      coast of South America.

      The Delaware and Chesapeake bays are blockaded by the British
      about this time.

    Mar. 4—Madison is inaugurated for his second term.

    ” 8—The emperor of Russia having offered his services as
      mediator between the United States and England, the President
      appoints commissioners to treat for peace.

    Apr. 10—The British attack Lewiston, Del., but are repulsed
      after having bombarded it several days.

    ” 27—Americans under Gen. Pike, capture York, Upper Canada,
      with a large quantity of stores. Gen. Pike is killed.

    May 1—The British Gen. Proctor besieges Gen. Harrison in Fort
      Meigs.

    ” 5—Gen. Clay coming to his assistance Proctor retreats. Col.
      Dudley, making a sortie from Ft. Meigs, is drawn into an
      ambuscade and loses 650 men. He is himself mortally wounded.

      The British Admiral Cockburn barbarously ravages the shores
      of Chesapeake bay.

    ” 27—Ft. George, at Niagara, surrenders to the Americans, and
      Sir Geo. Prevost is repulsed from Sacketts Harbor, N. Y., by
      Gen. Brown.

    June 1—The U. S. frigate Chesapeake captured by the British
      frigate Shannon. American loss 133; British loss about half
      as many. Capt. Lawrence of the Chesapeake is mortally wounded.

    ” 6—Gens. Chandler and Winder surprised in the night by the
      enemy they were going to attack. The two generals are taken
      prisoners, but their troops repulse the enemy and retire.

    ” 23—Col. Boerstler, in command of an American force of 600
      men, is surrounded by a superior force at Beaver Dams and
      compelled to surrender.

    ” 25—Admiral Cockburn, failing in his attack on the American
      forces at Craney Island, Va., lands at Hampton and commits
      many outrages.

    July 31—American Com. Chauncy lands at York, U. C., captures
      and destroys stores, and the British do the same at
      Plattsburg, on lake Champlain.

    Aug. 2—Gen. Proctor with 1,000 British and Indians attacks
      Col. Croghan with 160 men, at Ft. Stephenson, Lower Sandusky,
      O., and is repulsed with a loss of 150.

      About this time the American frigate Essex, Capt. Porter,
      cruising in the Pacific ocean, captured 12 armed British
      whalers.

    ” 13—The American sloop-of-war Argus, cruising in the English
      Channel, captured 21 British merchantmen, but was herself
      captured by the Pelican after a severe engagement.

    ” 30—Tecumseh had stirred up the Creek Indians to war, and
      they attacked Ft. Mims, which they set on fire and captured,
      massacring all but 20 out of 400 men, women and children.

    Sept. 3—The American brig Enterprise captures the Boxer on
      the coast of Maine.

    ” 10—Perry’s victory on Lake Erie. He captures the whole
      fleet (6 vessels) of the enemy. His laconic dispatch to Gen.
      Harrison was, “We have met the enemy, and they are ours.”

    Oct. 5—Battle of the Thames (Upper Canada). Gen. Harrison,
      commanding the Americans, defeated the British and Indians,
      under Gen. Proctor and Tecumseh. The latter was slain. The
      British lost about 600 in killed, wounded and prisoners; the
      Americans 17 killed and 30 wounded.

    ” ”—Commodore Chauncy captures 5 British vessels on Lake
      Ontario.

    Nov. 2—Gen. Coffee attacks the Creek Indians at
      Tallushatches, Ala. 200 warriors are killed.

    ” 9—Gen. Jackson defeats the Indians at Talladega, Ala.,
      killing 290 of them. Two other battles with the Indians
      occurred this month, and one in Dec. in which they were
      defeated with great slaughter, and little loss to the
      Americans. Yet so spirited and resolute were they as to
      require to be almost exterminated before they would make
      peace.

    ” 11—1,200 Americans, under Gen. Boyd, engage 2,000 British,
      under Lt. Col. Morrison, and are repulsed with a loss of 339.
      British loss 180.

    Dec. 10—Ft. George, at Niagara, evacuated and the town of
      Newark burned by the Americans.

    ” 19—Ft. Niagara is taken by the British and Indians who
      massacre the garrison. Youngstown, Lewistown, the Tuscarora
      Indian village, and Manchester, all in N. Y., are burned, in
      retaliation of the destruction of Newark.

    ” 30—The British burn Black Rock, Buffalo, three vessels
      of Perry’s fleet, and large quantities of provisions. Gen.
      Proctor justifies it as a proper retaliation. The burning of
      Newark was barbarous, but was avenged tenfold. Naturalized
      Irishmen, taken by the British in our armies this year,
      were sent to England to be tried for treason. An equal
      number of English officers were imprisoned by the American
      government and notice given to the governor of Canada that
      they should receive the same treatment and fate as our Irish
      soldiers. This had its effect, and the latter remained simply
      prisoners of war. This claim, and corresponding action on
      the part of the English government, which was one of the
      principal causes of the war, was, from this time, practically
      relinquished. In December an embargo was laid by Congress
      on American goods and provisions, to prevent their being
      employed to supply the British blockading force and armies.
      It produced great discontent in New England, where a large
      part of the people were dependent on commerce, and were
      thrown into great distress. There was much factious, and even
      seditious, opposition to the government.


1814.

The army operations had been unsuccessful in Canada during the last
of the campaign, owing, it was thought, to the inefficiency of the
commanders, and perhaps partly to the want of experience of their
subalterns. Changes, that were proved much for the better, were made,
and the campaign of this year, in this quarter, showed a more honorable
record. Since the commencement of the war till this year, the English
government had been carrying on an immense European war, which was
closed by the abdication of Bonaparte and his banishment to the island
of Elba. They prepared for a more vigorous effort in America, by sending
considerable armies of the veterans of Wellington, who had conquered in
Europe. They had received, the impression that the opposition to the war
and the republican party, would coöperate with them, and that they might
re-establish their dominion over their former colonies.

But they did not comprehend American character. Party politics have
always been conducted in a bitter and hostile spirit, but that hostility
has not been directed against their _institutions_. Extreme attachment
to these, and jealous care to preserve all rights guaranteed by the
Constitution, has always led the opposition to a close and sharp
criticism of all measures of the party in power differing from their
own interpretation of Constitutional rights. When these institutions
are really in danger all parties unite in a defense, the obstinacy and
vigor of which carries everything before it. It stops at no obstacles,
hesitates before no sacrifices, and counts no odds. This became apparent
to the British during the summer, dispelled forever their dream of
conquest, and led to a peace at the close of the campaign. The British
sent 14,000 troops to Canada this spring, which was supported, in July
and August, by a large reinforcement. A strong naval force, with a large
body of troops, was sent to invade the heart of the country and capture
Washington. After failing in maintaining their ground here, they were
directed against the gulf coast and the Mississippi river, ending in
their decisive defeat by Gen. Jackson, at New Orleans, Jan. 8th, 1815,
nine days before the treaty of peace, signed at Ghent, in Belgium, Dec.
24, was known in America.

    Mar. 24—A loan of $25,000,000 authorized by Congress.

    ” 27—Gen. Jackson’s defeat of the Indians at Great Horseshoe
      Bend, Ala. This battle accomplished the subjection of the
      Creek Indians. Jackson had fought them on the 21st, 24th
      and 27th of Jan., when they came near defeating him, but
      notwithstanding their fierce and obstinate bravery, he
      conquered each time, and finally, nearly exterminated them.

    ” 28—The brilliant career of the U. S. frigate Essex, in the
      Pacific ocean, is terminated by its capture, at Valparaiso,
      Chili, by the British frigate Phebe and another sloop of war.

    ” 30—Gen. Wilkinson is repulsed in an advance into Canada,
      at La Colle, and is afterwards tried by court martial. Gen.
      Brown is given the command of the Niagara frontier, and Gen.
      Izard of northern N. Y.

    April 21—The U. S. sloop of war Frolic captured by the
      British frigate Orpheus.

    ” 27—The U. S. sloop of war Peacock captures the British
      brig-of-war Epervier with $118,000 specie on board.

    May 7—A British force captures and destroys the American fort
      at Oswego, N. Y., and carries off several guns.

    ” 29—The Americans capture a British force at Sandy Creek, N.
      Y.

    June 9—The U. S. sloop of war Rattlesnake captured by a
      British 50 gun ship.

    ” 12—The U. S. sloop Syren captured by a British 74.

    ” 28—The U. S. sloop of war Wasp captures the British sloop
      of war Reindeer, in the British Channel.

    July 3—Gen. Brown captures Ft. Erie, near Niagara, U. C.

    ” 5—Battle of Chippewa, Canada. Gens. Brown, Scott, and
      Ripley, with about 3,000 men, were opposed by the British
      Gen. Riall with an equal number of the veterans of Waterloo.
      Gen. Scott attacked them with such prudence and valor as to
      conquer a largely superior force before Gen. Ripley could
      come up to his aid. It was a splendid test of American
      mettle. Loss of the British 514, of Scott 328. The British
      fall back to Ft. George.

    ” 11—The British make a descent on the coast of Maine.

    ” 25—Gen. Scott engages a British force of seven times his
      number, and holds his ground for some hours when Gen. Ripley
      comes to his aid, and they drive the British from the field;
      but having only 1,600 men left, while the British have 5,000,
      they retire next day. The British lost 878, the Americans 860.

    Aug. 4—Americans besieged in Ft. Erie.

    ” 8—First meeting of the U. S. and English commissioners to
      treat for peace, who arranged the terms at the close of this
      year. The English were very high in their demands till the
      failure of their much vaunted veteran troops.

    ” 9—The British make an unsuccessful attack on Stonington,
      Conn. A treaty is made with the Creek Indians.

    ” 15—The British repulsed from Ft. Erie with the loss of 962
      men. The Americans lost 84.

    ” 20—A British force landed from the fleet in the Chesapeake,
      marches on Washington.

    ” 24—The battle of Bladensburg, near Washington. The
      Americans, much inferior in numbers, were defeated. The
      British, under Gen. Ross, entered Washington the same day.
      They destroyed much private property, as well as public
      stores, buildings and documents.

      Not deeming it prudent to remain, the British retreated from
      Washington to their vessels, leaving the people greatly
      exasperated at conduct unworthy of the army of a civilized
      nation.

    ” 27—Alexandria, Va., delivers up the public stores and
      shipping there and much merchandise as a ransom from plunder
      and burning.

    Sept. 1—The U. S. sloop of war Wasp captures the British
      sloop Avon. After taking three other prizes in European
      waters, she disappeared and was never again heard of—supposed
      to have foundered at sea. The British Gen. Prevost advances
      toward Plattsburg, N. Y., with 12,000 veteran troops.

    ” 11—The battle of Plattsburg. Com. McDonough, American, with
      4 vessels, 10 gun boats and 850 men, captures the British
      Com. Downie’s fleet of 4 vessels, 12 gun boats and 1,000 men.
      A simultaneous attack by Prevost on Plattsburg miscarried
      by the failure of the fleet and panic of the soldiers. They
      return, in disorder, to Canada.

    ” 12—The British who had captured Washington, appear near
      Baltimore and land a force which repulses the Baltimore
      militia, and, next day advances toward the city; but the
      attack seems so formidable to them that they retreat in the
      night to their vessels and depart. The British admiral could
      not reduce Ft. M’Henry so as to co-operate in an attack on
      the city by water. The patriotic song, “The Star Spangled
      Banner,” was written during this bombardment of Fort M’Henry.
      Gen. Ross, the British commander, was killed soon after the
      landing of the troops.

      About this time various attacks are made at different places
      on the coast of New England, and the British pretend, by
      proclamation, to take possession of all of Maine east of the
      Penobscot river and annex it to New Brunswick.

    ” 17—A sortie is made from Ft. Erie and the works of the
      enemy surprised and taken with a loss to him of 1,000 men in
      killed, wounded and prisoners.

      Thus, in the midst of ravages and alarms on the coast, the
      destruction of our commerce, the stagnation of business,
      the financial difficulties of the government that almost
      amounted to bankruptcy, and the complaints of the peace
      party, (which produced much alarm by the calling of a
      convention of the New England States, in December of this
      year, at Hartford, Conn.,) the honor of the United States
      was preserved. The formidable armies in Canada had been
      baffled and defeated, the capture of Washington followed
      immediately by the withdrawal of the invaders, and a strong
      point made which had its effect in substantially gaining the
      cause that had brought on the war, for the Americans, in the
      treaty negotiations in progress. The British now turned their
      attention to the Mississippi river and the coast of the gulf
      of Mexico.

    Nov. 7—Gen. Jackson takes Pensacola from the British, who
      were laboring to raise the Indians to war again.

    Dec. 15—A British fleet captures the flotilla on Lake Borgne,
      La.

    ” 22—12,000 British troops land below New Orleans, and
      repulse the Americans.

    ” 24—The treaty of peace is signed at Ghent, but is not known
      in America until Feb. following.


1815.

    Jan. 8—Gen. Jackson, with only 6,000 men, had intrenched
      himself in front of the British, who now made an assault on
      his position. They were repulsed with great slaughter, losing
      their general, Packingham, and near 2,000 men. Jackson lost
      but 7 killed and 6 wounded. The British retreated to their
      vessels.

    ” 15—The U. S. frigate President captured by four English
      vessels.

    Feb. 18—Ft. Bowyer, near Pensacola, Fla., invested by the
      British fleet. It surrenders on the 21st.

    ” 17—The treaty of peace which arrived at New York on the
      11th by the British sloop of war Favorite, ratified by the
      American government and Peace proclaimed.

    ” 24—Congress authorizes the loan of $18,400,000, and the
      issue of treasury notes to the amount of $25,000,000.

    ” 28—The naval war was continued some time longer. The U.
      S. frigate Constitution captures two British vessels of
      war, the frigate Cyane and the sloop Levant, off the island
      of Madeira. In March the U. S. frigate Hornet captured the
      British brig Penguin, on the coast of Brazil.

      The British government, elated by their triumph over
      Bonaparte, their large army accustomed to conquer in Europe,
      and the fleets set free from the blockade of the Continent,
      thought to make an easy conquest of America. But all their
      attempts were defeated. Had peace been made a little later
      the Americans might have obtained much better terms.

      This war had been waged under many difficulties by the
      American administration. The country and its institutions,
      were new, and there was no such reserved fund of wealth and
      credit, as is always found in an old and well organized
      state. They depended largely on commerce, which was almost
      destroyed by the great naval force of Great Britain, and the
      embargo policy. Our navy was gallant and successful; but the
      government lacked the means, and the unanimous support of the
      people, requisite to increase it to the necessary strength.
      The administration did not act with the vigor and efficiency
      calculated to bring all sections and classes to its support,
      and the people had not yet the experience and knowledge of
      the value and strength of their own institutions needful to
      inspire confidence, so that they were critical and difficult
      to please, and this spirit impaired the efficiency of nearly
      all government measures. What they undertook could be only
      imperfectly done. The old soldiers of the Revolution were
      dead or unfit by age for good service, and time was necessary
      to train others and ascertain who had the necessary military
      capacity for conducting operations with success. Yet, under
      all these great difficulties, the United States came out of
      the war with the respect of the world, such as it had never
      before enjoyed. It became formidable to Europe as a great and
      vigorous power with which it was not safe to trifle.

      This was still more clear when the government declared war on
      the Dey of Algiers, one of the pirate princes of the North
      of Africa, which, for hundreds of years, had made war on the
      commerce of all nations almost with impunity. Having violated
      their treaty with us, the President sent out an adequate
      naval force

    June 17-19—which captured two Algerine vessels of war, and
      threatened Algiers. The Dey, intimidated, immediately made
      peace, giving liberty to all prisoners without ransom, and
      full satisfaction for the injuries done to our commerce. No
      European nation had before so humbled these pirates, and it
      at once raised the credit of our government, and gained us
      respect and esteem.

    June 30—The last hostile act at sea took place in the Straits
      of Sunda, in the East Indies, where the U. S. brig of war
      Peacock captured the Nautilus, a British sloop of war. Thus
      the three American vessels at sea when the war closed, each
      came home crowned with laurels. The British vessels captured
      during the war numbered 1,750—the American 1,683. The spirit
      and energy of the Americans, under all their embarrassments,
      gave an unmistakable indication of the future greatness and
      power of the United States.


1816.

The last two years’ experience had taught the government and the people
many important lessons by which they hastened to profit. The coast was
fortified, the navy increased, manufactures and commerce encouraged, and
the best measures that the wisdom of the times could suggest, employed
to restore the finances. The violently factious opposition of parties
was much moderated by the confidence gained to our government and
institutions, and the evident folly of excessive fears. The Second U.S.
Bank was chartered for 20 years, with a capital of $35,000,000.

    Nov. 5—Governeur Morris, an eminent and excellent American
      statesman died.

    Dec. 11—Indiana admitted into the Union as a State. James
      Monroe was, this autumn, elected President.




CHAPTER XXI.

HISTORY OF THE U. S. FROM 1817 TO 1846.


MONROE’S ADMINISTRATION.

A new era for America commenced with this administration, or rather,
reached its period of uninterrupted development; for the whole past
history of the country had been a preparation for it, but especially so
the late war and its results. The failure of the French revolution, and,
finally, the failure of Napoleon Bonaparte and the re-establishment of
the old monarchy in France, as a result of the excesses, first of the
French republic, and then of the military interference of Bonaparte with
the existing state of things in Europe, had an important influence in
modifying the politics of the republican party in the United States; so
that they came partially in Jefferson’s administration, and completely by
the close of Madison’s, to follow the wise and vigorous policy pursued
by Washington and the federal party; while the general government and
the institutions of the country became deeply imbued with the regard to
popular rights, and attention to the interests and will of the people
that formed the leading idea of Jefferson and the original democrat,
or, as it was then called, the republican party. Thus the two points of
supreme importance, vigor in the general government, and security to the
people, were happily mingled and wrought into the spirit and form of our
institutions.

The leading events of Monroe’s two administrations were the attention
given to internal improvements—among which may be mentioned the Erie
canal in New York, and the encouragements to manufactures—the acquisition
of Florida from Spain, and a definite settlement of the slavery question
(for the next thirty years only, as it proved,) by the Missouri
compromise. The people now began to feel and act together, as a single
nation, and material progress was rapid.


1817.

    Mar. 3—The observance of the neutrality laws strictly
      enjoined on citizens of the United States by Congress.

    ” 4—James Monroe, the fifth President, inaugurated. With his
      administration commences “the era of good feeling,” as it was
      called. The bitterness of party controversy ceased.

    June 24—Thos. McKean, of Del., signer of the Declaration of
      Independence, died.

    Dec.—Mississippi admitted into the Union, and Alabama erected
      into a territory.

    ”—A war broke out with the Seminole Indians, on the borders
      of Florida. It came near involving us in a war with Spain.
      Internal taxes are abolished by Congress.


1818.

    Mar. 18—A law enacted giving pensions to indigent officers
      and soldiers.

    April 4—The Flag of the U. S. rearranged; the stripes to
      represent the thirteen original States, the stars the present
      number of States.

    ” 18—Illinois is authorized to form a state constitution.

    May 24—Gen. Jackson took Pensacola, Fla., from the Spaniards
      on account of the support given by them to the Indians.

    Oct. 20—A treaty of commerce and for settling boundaries is
      made with England.


1819.

    Feb. 23—A treaty for the session of Florida ratified by
      Congress, but not by the king of Spain until Oct. 20th, 1820.

    Mar. 2—Arkansas organized into a territory.

    Dec. 14—Alabama admitted into the Union.

      In this year commenced the discussion on the balance between
      the north and the south in relation to slavery. Missouri
      and Maine both desire admission as States. The discussion
      resulted in a settlement of the whole question Feb. 27th,
      1821, by the application of the “Missouri Compromise” to the
      admission of that State.


1820.

    Feb. 15—Wm. Ellery, of R. I., signer of the Declaration of
      Independence, died.

    Mar. 15—Maine admitted into the Union.

    Aug. 23—Com. Perry, the hero of Lake Erie, died in the West
      Indies.

      The 4th census was taken in this year.


1821.

    Mar. 4—James Monroe inaugurated on his second term.

    ” 22—Com. Decatur died at Washington.

    Aug. 22—Gen. Jackson takes possession of Florida as its
      Governor. The U. S. government paid $5,000,000 for Florida.
      The Spanish officers were reluctant and dilatory in giving
      up their places, and Gen. Jackson had occasion for his
      remarkably decisive action in dealing with them. The
      governor, Don Cavalla, refusing to give up certain papers
      according to the treaty, he sent him to prison until all the
      papers were produced, and banished six other Spanish officers
      who interfered with him.


1822.

    June—A commercial treaty is negotiated with France. Capt.
      Allen, of the U. S. schooner Alligator, engages a band of
      pirates in the West Indies, captures one of their schooners,
      and recaptures five American vessels. Capt. Allen is killed.

      The ports of the West India islands are opened to American
      commerce by the English government.

      Com. Truxton, a meritorious naval officer—Gen. Stark, the
      hero of Bennington, Vt.,—and Wm. Lowndes, a statesman of S.
      C., died this year.

      A new arrangement of the ratio of Representation gives one
      member of Congress to 40,000 inhabitants.


1823.

Com. Porter makes a successful expedition against the West Indian pirates.

This year our government acknowledged the independence of the South
American Republics, and ministers were appointed to Mexico, Columbia,
Buenos Ayres, and Chili.

A treaty for the mutual suppression of the slave trade was made by Great
Britain and the United States.


1824.

    April—American and Russian commissioners settle the
      boundaries between the two countries.

    Aug. 15—Lafayette arrives from France. He was everywhere
      received as the guest of the people with the utmost affection
      and reverence. He spent a year visiting all parts of the
      Union.

      A presidential election this autumn does not result in a
      choice, and the House of Representatives made selection
      of John Quincy Adams, from the candidates, according to a
      provision of the Constitution, anticipating such a case. A
      protective tariff was made this year to encourage cotton
      manufactures.


ADMINISTRATION OF JOHN QUINCY ADAMS.


1825.

    Mar. 4—J. Q. Adams inaugurated sixth President.

    ” ”—An act of Congress establishes a navy yard at Pensacola,
      Fla.

    June 11—Dan. D. Tompkins, Vice-President with Monroe, died.

    Nov. 10—Com. McDonough, the hero of Lake Champlain, died.


1826.

    July 4—John Adams and Thos. Jefferson, whose lives were
      identified with the foundation and development of our
      institutions, simultaneously died on this day.

    Sept. 11—Wm. Morgan, an anti-mason, mysteriously disappears,
      and is never again heard of.


1827.

An Anti-Mason party is formed, opposing secret societies. Much “political
capital” is made of it.

    Jan.—The first considerable railroad was begun, and completed
      in May. It was nine miles long, a beginning of the wonderful
      transformation that was to be produced by this agent.


1828.

    Feb. 11—De Witt Clinton, governor of N. Y. and originator of
      the Erie canal, died.

      The tariff was amended and enlarged this year. This tariff
      was violently opposed in the South and produced the
      “Nullification Ordinances” of S. C., some time later.

      In the fall of this year Gen. Andrew Jackson was elected
      President.


1829.

    Feb. 29—The Virginia Legislature passes a resolution denying
      the right of Congress to pass a protective tariff law.

    Mar. 4—Andrew Jackson inaugurated as President.

      Dan. Webster makes his great speech against nullification.


JACKSON’S ADMINISTRATION.


1829.

    May 19—A treaty of friendship and commerce concluded with
      Brazil.

    ” ”—John Jay, ex-President of the Continental Congress, Chief
      Justice of the U. S., Governor of N. Y., etc., died. In
      purity of patriotism, moderation, and soundness of judgment,
      he came nearer to Washington than any of his contemporaries.
      He was above the reach of the violent party spirit that
      prevailed after Washington’s retirement from public life.


1830.

    May 7—A treaty made with Turkey gives U. S. commerce the
      freedom of the Black sea. The vigorous dealing of our
      government with the Barbary States secured the respect and
      friendship of Turkey.

      The important movement and interests of this year were
      connected with the progress of railroads (the first American
      built locomotive was made this year,) and the rapid rise
      of that great interest, and with the agitation produced
      by the nullification proceedings of South Carolina. That
      State claimed the right to pronounce upon, and disregard
      the enactments of Congress. This was subversive of the
      Constitution. It drew the “Key Stone” from the arch, and the
      whole structure of the Union would have fallen. No decisive
      action was reached till the year 1832.

    May 29—The office of Solicitor of the Treasury created.


1831.

    Jan. 10—The King of the Netherlands, being accepted as
      arbitrator of the northern boundary between the United
      States and the British Possessions, by the two governments,
      decides the question in our favor.

    July 4—James Monroe, ex-President of the U. S., died, aged 73.

    Oct. 1—A free trade convention meets at Philadelphia.

    ” 26—A tariff convention meets at New York. There were over
      500 delegates. It was the absorbing political topic of the
      time.


1832.

    April 1—The Black Hawk war breaks out by the attack of the
      Winnebagoes, Sacs, and Foxes from the west bank of the
      Mississippi on the settlers in Illinois, under the Indian
      chief, Black Hawk.

    ” 2—The Creek Indians sell all their lands east of the
      Mississippi river to the U. S.

    May 5—A commercial and boundary treaty concluded with Mexico.

    ” 27—A new ratio of representation based on the 5th census
      gives one member of Congress to 47,700 inhabitants.

    June 1—Gen. Sumter, a South Carolina hero of the Revolution,
      died.

    ” 9—The cholera breaks out at Quebec, Lower Canada. It swept
      over the country, following the lakes and rivers and routes
      of travel, with fearful violence.

    July—The cholera breaks up Gen. Scott’s army, on the way to
      meet Black Hawk while in vessels on the lakes.

    ” 9—Congress creates the office of Commissioner of Indian
      affairs.

    ” 10—Naval hospitals established at Charlestown, Mass.,
      Brooklyn, N. Y., and Pensacola, Fla.

    ” ”—The President vetoes the bill rechartering the U. S. Bank.

    Aug. 27—Gen. Atkinson defeats the Indians and takes Black
      Hawk prisoner.

    Nov. 14—Chas. Carroll, of Carrollton, Md., last surviving
      signer of Dec. of Ind., dies.

    ” 19—An anti-tariff convention in S. C. issues the famous
      “Nullification Ordinance.”

    ” 24—The Unionists of S. C. meet and protest against this
      ordinance.

    Dec. 10—President Jackson issues a proclamation against
      the nullifiers. He followed word with deed, garrisoning
      the forts, and sending vessels of war into the harbor of
      Charleston. His well known vigor left the nullifiers no hope
      of success, and they finally submitted.

    ” 18—A commercial treaty concluded with Russia.

    ” 20—Gov. Hayne, of S. C., defies the President in a counter
      proclamation.

    ” 28—J. C. Calhoun, of S. C., the Vice-President, resigns
      his office. President Jackson is reëlected this fall. His
      anti-nullification measures made him very popular.


1833.

    Feb. 12—Henry Clay introduces a bill on the tariff
      compromising the points at issue between the manufacturing
      States and the South.

    Mar. 3—It becomes a law, and gives general satisfaction.

    ” 4—President Jackson reinaugurated on his second term.

    May 20—The death of La Fayette, in France.

    June 1—Oliver Wolcott, Sec. of the Treasury under Washington,
      dies.

    July 27—Com. Bainbridge, a famous naval commander, dies.

    Sept. 30—President Jackson removes his Sec. of Treas. W. J.
      Duane, for refusing to carry out his policy in regard to
      the U. S. Bank. The presence of the Indians in Mississippi,
      Alabama, Georgia, and Florida, produces so much conflict and
      so frequent a necessity for chastising them that they are
      in danger of total extermination. Gen. Jackson persuades
      Congress and the Indians to arrange for their removal to
      lands west of the Mississippi. Some of the Indians quietly
      remove this year. Many resist, but all are finally persuaded
      to this course by Gen. Scott and others, except the Seminoles
      of Fla.


1834.

    Mar. 28—Congress formally censures the President for his
      course in regard to the U. S. Bank.

    Oct. 28—A conditional treaty made with the Seminoles at
      Payne’s Landing, May 9, 1832, for their removal to the Indian
      Territory west of the Mississippi, was afterwards confirmed
      by the chiefs but rejected by the people. Gen. Thompson was
      sent, at this time, by President Jackson to insist on their
      carrying out the treaty.

    Dec. 28—A council of the Indians, called by Gen. Thompson,
      seemingly accept the terms of the President.


1835.

    Mar. 3—Congress establishes branch mints in La., N. C., and
      Ga.

    May 14—A treaty with the Cherokees purchases all their lands
      east of the Mississippi for $5,262,251, and ample lands in
      exchange in the Indian Territory.

    June 3—Osceola, a Seminole chief, imprisoned by Gen. Thompson.

    July 6—Chief Justice Marshall dies, aged 80.

    Dec. 16—A destructive fire in New York. $17,000,000 worth of
      property consumed.

    ” 28—The Seminoles killed their chief, Mathla, who had been
      prominent in making the obnoxious treaty, and suddenly
      attack a U. S. force under Maj. Dade. But one man out of 110
      escaped. He was wounded and afterwards died. The same day
      Gen. Thompson and others were surprised and massacred.

    ” 31—Gen. Clinch is attacked by the Indians at Withlacoochee.
      He repulses them and retires.


1836.

Early in this year the Indians laid waste the whole country, burning the
buildings and killing all who had not taken refuge in the forts.

    Jan. 20—A treaty of friendship and commerce concluded with
      the republic of Venezuela, South America.

    Feb.—The U. S. Bank was chartered by the Legislature of Pa.

    ” 11—Gen. Gaines lands an army at Tampa Bay. He is surrounded
      by the Indians on his march toward Fort King. He repulsed
      them, but his army is nearly starved. While the army is held
      here the tribe remove their families and effects into the
      impenetrable swamps of the interior.

    Mar. 2—The Texans proclaim their independence.

    Apr. 26—Wisconsin receives a territorial government.

    ” 21—Battle of San Jacinto. Santa Anna taken prisoner.

    June 15—Michigan erected into a State, conditionally.

    ” ”—Arkansas admitted into the Union.

    ” 23—A surplus revenue having accumulated it is loaned to the
      States.

    ” 28—James Madison, the ex-President, dies, aged 86.

    July 4—Office of Commissioner of Patents created.

    Sept. 15—Aaron Burr, an able but dishonest and disloyal
      statesman, formerly Vice-President, dies, aged 81.

      The Creek Indians commenced hostilities in May of this year,
      in their usual fierce and barbarous manner. Gen. Scott and
      the State authorities of Geo. subdue them early in the summer.

      In the presidential election this fall Martin Van Buren was
      elected.

    Dec. 15—The General Post Office and Patent Office, with many
      records and articles of value, are destroyed by fire.


1837.

    Jan. 16—The U. S. Senate repealed and expunged its resolution
      of March 24th, 1834, censuring President Jackson, as having
      exceeded his Constitutional powers when he ordered the public
      funds to be withdrawn from the U. S. Bank.

    Mar. 4—Van Buren inaugurated President.

      Speculation having been carried to an extreme length for
      some time, and somewhat arrested by the “specie circular”
      requiring payments for public lands to be made in coin,
      a revulsion, producing great distress, and suspension of
      payments by the banks, occurred this spring.

    May 3—The merchants of New York present a memorial to the
      President urging him to remit the regulations of the “specie
      circular.” The President declines, but calls an extra session
      of Congress.

    Aug. 4—Texas proposes annexation to the U. S. The President
      declines to entertain the proposition.

    ” 13—The banks resume specie payments.

    Sept. 4—Congress assembled in extra session. A portion of
      the surplus revenue, which, by law of June 23d, 1836, was
      to be loaned to the States, is reclaimed to meet the current
      expenses of the government.

    ” 29—A treaty made with the Sioux Indians for the purchase of
      their lands, 5,000,000 acres, for $1,000,000.

    Oct. 1—The Winnebagoes sell their lands for $1,500,000.

    ” 12—Congress authorizes the issue of $10,000,000 in Treasury
      notes.

    ” 21—Osceola, the Seminole chief, with 70 of his warriors,
      visits the camp of Gen. Jessup. They are detained, and
      Osceola was imprisoned in Ft. Moultrie, S. C., where, in a
      few months, he died.

    Dec. 25—The battle of Okee-cho-bee fought with the Seminoles
      in the swamps of Florida, by Col. Zachary Taylor. The Indians
      are defeated.

      The Magnetic Telegraph was patented in this year.


1838.

    Jan. 5—The President issues a proclamation enjoining
      neutrality on American citizens, during the “Patriot war,” or
      insurrection in Canada.

    June 12—Iowa receives a Territorial government.

    Aug. 19—An Arctic exploring expedition, with six vessels,
      sails from Hampton Roads, Va.

      The Cherokee Indians completed their emigration to the Indian
      Territory this year.


1839.

Gen. Macomb makes a treaty early in this year with the Seminoles, which
they very imperfectly kept.

A difficulty with England in regard to our northeast boundary narrowly
avoids war, but is, at length, peaceably adjusted.

    Dec. 2—Congress assembles.

    ” 4—A Whig Convention prepares for the contest of the coming
      year by the nomination of Wm. H. Harrison for the Presidency.
      Great discontent was felt with the financial policy of Van
      Buren’s administration, and lively interest taken in the
      coming election, which made the campaign the most stirring
      and the noisiest ever experienced in this country.


1840.

    May 5—The Democrats renominate Van Buren for the Presidency.

      This year was chiefly memorable for the “Log Cabin and Hard
      Cider” election gatherings, and the extreme interest of the
      people in the elections, on financial grounds.

    June 30—Congress passes the sub-treasury bill recommended by
      President Van Buren, in 1837, but then rejected.

    Nov.—W. H. Harrison elected President, and John Tyler
      Vice-President.


1841.

    Jan. 14—Imprisonment for debts due the U. S. abolished.

    Mar. 4—Harrison inaugurated ninth President.

    ” 11—The steamer President sails from New York but is never
      again heard of. She had 109 passengers.

    ” 17—The President calls an extra session of Congress to
      consider financial questions.

    Apr. 4—President Harrison died and John Tyler became acting
      President.

    May 31—Congress convenes.

    June 25—Gen. Macomb died.

    July 6—The proceeds of the public lands ordered to be
      distributed to the States.

    ” 21—Congress orders a loan of $12,000,000.

    Aug. 9—The Sub Treasury act repealed.

    ” 16—President Tyler vetoes the National Bank bill.

    ” 18—A general bankrupt law passed.

    Sept. 9—A Second Banking Bill vetoed. This was the fourteenth
      time the veto power had been used; by Washington twice,
      Madison four times, Monroe once, Jackson five times.

    Oct. 11—Failure of U. S. Bank under the Pennsylvania charter.


1842.

    June 25—The new Ratio of Representation, based on the census
      of 1840, gives one Member of Congress for every 70,600
      inhabitants.

    July 23—Bunker Hill Monument finished and dedicated. The
      corner stone was laid by Lafayette 17 years before.

    Aug. 20—The Ashburton treaty with England, settling the N. E.
      Boundary, ratified by the U. S. Senate.

    ” 28—The U. S. fiscal year ordered to commence with July 1st.

    Oct. 2—The U. S. sloop of war Concord wrecked on the African
      coast.

    ” 14—The Ashburton-Webster treaty ratified in England.


1843.

    Mar. 3—Congress appropriates $30,000 for building Morse’s
      electric telegraph from Washington to Baltimore. It was the
      beginning of that magnificent enterprise.

      Com. Porter, minister to Turkey, dies in Constantinople.

    Apr. 18—Commences “Dorr’s rebellion” in Rhode Island.

    Aug. 26—The U. S. frigate Missouri burned, at Gibraltar,
      Spain.


1844.

    Feb. 28—A large cannon on board the war steamer Princeton,
      bursts while the President and others are visiting the
      vessel, killing Messrs. Upshur and Gilmer, secretaries of war
      and navy, and others.

    May 6—The “Know-nothing” or American excitement produces a
      serious riot in Philadelphia.

    July 7—Jo. Smith, the originator of the Mormons, killed at
      Carthage, Ill.

    Nov.—The Democratic party elected James K. Polk for
      President. The chief question entering into the election
      was on the annexation of Texas. It had been sought for some
      years but had been declined as certain to bring on a war
      with Mexico, which, as a sister republic, and much weaker
      than ourselves, had been considered to be an unworthy act.
      The Whigs, with Henry Clay as their candidate for President,
      opposed it. It was carried, in great part as a pro-slavery
      measure, although the bitter and barbarous conduct of the
      Mexicans toward Texans and American citizens had something to
      do with it.


1845.

    Jan. 16—A treaty made with China, ratified by the U. S.
      Senate.

    ” 23—An act of Congress orders presidential elections to be
      held in all the States on the first Tuesday after the first
      Monday in November.

    Feb. 28—Congress annexes Texas to the Union, by a joint
      resolution of both Houses.

    Mar. 3—Florida admitted into the Union.

    ” 4—Mr. Polk inaugurated the tenth President.

    June 18—Andrew Jackson died.

      The Congress of Texas accepted the conditions of the U. S.
      and it became a State in the American Union.

    July 30—Gen. Taylor ordered to the frontier of Texas.

    Sept. 10—Judge Joseph Story, of the U. S. Supreme Court,
      died, aged 66.

    Dec. 15—A misunderstanding had long existed between the U.
      S. and England as to the northern boundary of Oregon. Much
      excitement is now produced by a speech and resolution of Mr.
      Cass, which seemed the prelude to war with Great Britain.


1846.

    June 18—A treaty was negotiated by Mr. Packenham and Mr.
      Buchanan settling the northwest boundary satisfactorily.




CHAPTER XXII.

THE MEXICAN WAR.


Texas was a nearly uninhabited part of Mexico, lying between Louisiana
and the Rio Grande river. It was a fertile region, with a fine climate.
The Spanish possessors of Mexico, in the bigoted and bitter spirit that
was traditional with the Spaniards toward protestants, and deeply hostile
in feeling from the rather high-handed and vigorous proceedings of Gen.
Jackson before and after the cession of Florida, did not encourage the
settlement of Texas; preferring to be separated by a wilderness from the
United States. In 1821 the Mexicans finally threw off the Spanish yoke
and established an independent government.

About this time the Americans, and especially those of the South,
foreseeing the probable spread of the northern part of the Republic
to the Pacific, began to look with covetous eyes on the fine Savannas
of Texas, as an excellent field for land speculations, and also for
extending the Southern area, so as to keep its balance in the number of
slave States equal to the free States of the North, as they had been
provided for by the Missouri Compromise. It was believed to be the plan
of Mr. Calhoun, an able and far-seeing statesman, thoroughly in earnest
in the maintenance of slavery, and the political equality of the slave
with the free States. A settlement was made by people from the United
States. In a few years they grew to be numerous, and came in conflict
with the rigid Spanish Catholic laws, still maintained by the Mexicans.
The United States government made advances toward purchasing Texas, but
the Mexicans were resolute in their purpose to hold it, and bring its
people under the dominion of strict Mexican law. The Americans resisted
this with the settled determination of ultimate separation from Mexico,
and probable annexation to the United States.

The Mexicans undertook to reduce them to submission. The Texans,
supported by bold and fearless adventurers from the Southern States,
resisted. The war commenced Oct. 2d, 1835, by a battle at Gonzalez,
followed by various others. March 2d, 1836, the Texans formally declared
Independence, which they maintained by force of arms. March 3d, 1837,
the United States government recognized the Independence of Texas.
England did the same in 1842. Propositions of annexation had been made
to Presidents Jackson, Van Buren, and Tyler, successively, by the Texas
government, but as often rejected by them as tending necessarily to a war
with Mexico; that power having distinctly and repeatedly declared that
she should regard such a step as a declaration of war.

The Democratic party regaining the ascendency in the election of 1844,
made this annexation the issue of the presidential campaign. A majority
of the people were in favor of it.

The Southern view, however, was not alone in its influence on this
decision. Indignities and injuries had been inflicted by the Mexicans on
American citizens in that country; its haughty, exclusive, and unfriendly
spirit awakened strong indignation; and the Pacific coast of California,
with the mining regions of the northern interior of Mexico, both nearly
uninhabited, were objects of desire to the American people. Thus a
wish to extend the bounds of the Republic, and to chastise an insolent
neighbor, combined with the ardent wishes of the pro-slavery interest,
to lead the nation to determine on a war, somewhat ungenerously, with a
neighbor notoriously too weak and disorganized for effectual resistance
to the whole strength of the United States. The whole plan, as afterward
carried out, was arranged in the cabinet at Washington almost before
hostilities had actually commenced.


1846.

    Mar. 28—Gen. Taylor takes position with a small army at the
      mouth of the Rio Grande opposite Matamoras. This the Mexican
      government regard as a declaration of war, for which they had
      prepared and were waiting.

    Apr. 24—Hostilities commence by an attack on Capt. Thornton.
      He loses 16 men out of 63, and surrenders.

    May 8—The battle of Palo Alto. Gen. Taylor with 2,300 men
      defeats 6,000 Mexicans. Mexican loss 100 killed, 300 wounded;
      American 4 killed, 40 wounded.

    ” 9—The battle of Resaca de la Palma. The Mexicans are
      totally defeated with a loss of about 600; the Americans
      lose about 160. Gen. La Vega, (Mexican,) taken prisoner. The
      Mexicans fled in total rout across the Rio Grande. The object
      of the war, so far as Texas was concerned, was gained; but
      the Mexicans were still spirited, and California, Utah, and
      New Mexico were not gained. An invasion and march on the city
      of Mexico were the next steps.

    ” 12—Congress ordered the raising of 50,000 men, and voted
      $10,000,000 to carry on the war.

    July 6—Monterey, on the California coast is taken by the
      American navy under Com. Sloat.

    ” 9—Congress re-cedes the Virginia portion of the District of
      Columbia to that State.

    ” 30—The tariff on imported goods is reduced.

    Aug. 3—President Polk vetoes the River and Harbor Bill.

    ” 8—He vetoes the French Spoliation Bill.

    ” 18—Gen. Kearney takes possession of Santa Fe, New Mexico,
      and declared the U. S. authority established over the people.

    ” 22—California is at this time entirely in the possession of
      U. S. forces.

    Sept. 5—Gen. Taylor, with 6,000 men, commences his march on
      Monterey.

    ” 21—Gen. Worth, with 650 men, fights the Mexicans near
      Monterey.

    ” 22—The “Bishops Palace,” strongly fortified, is stormed and
      taken.

      The previous attacks were directed on the rear of Monterey.
      An advance is now made in front with success.

    ” 23—The defenses are assaulted in front and rear. The city
      surrenders. Gen. Ampudia, the Mexican commander, had about
      10,000 men and very strong fortifications. A truce of some
      weeks was agreed upon. Gen. Santa Anna having recently come
      into power, it was thought peace would be made. This proved
      delusive.

    Oct. 25—Tobasco bombarded by the U. S. fleet, and the Mexican
      vessels in the port taken or destroyed.

    Nov. 14—Tampico surrenders to Com. Connor.

    Dec. 25—Battle of Bracito. Col. Doniphan, with 500 men,
      defeats a Mexican force of 1,200. Mexican loss 200, American
      but 7 wounded, none killed.


1847.

    Jan. 8—The Mexican Congress votes $15,000,000 to carry on the
      war, to be raised on the property of the church.

    Feb. 23—The larger part of Gen. Taylor’s army was withdrawn
      from him to support Gen. Scott in his march from Vera Cruz
      on the city of Mexico. Gen. Taylor, with only 4,500 men,
      is attacked by Santa Anna with 20,000 men. Santa Anna is
      completely defeated with a loss in killed and wounded of
      2,000. American loss 264 killed, 450 wounded, 26 missing.

    Mar. 1—Gen. Kearney proclaims California annexed to the
      United States.

    ” 3—A bill admitting Wisconsin into the Union passed.

    ” 9—Gen. Scott landed 12,000 men at Vera Cruz.

    ” 18—The cannonade of Vera Cruz commences.

    ” 26—Vera Cruz capitulates to Gen. Scott.

    Apr. 18—The battle of Cerro Gordo. Santa Anna is defeated. He
      had 12,000 men. Gen. Scott 8,500. The Mexicans lost 1,100 in
      killed and wounded, and 3,000 prisoners. Gen. Scott lost in
      killed and wounded, 430. The Mexicans were vigorously pursued
      April 19, and the city of Jalapa taken possession of.

    ” 22—Gen. Worth takes possession of the town and castle of
      Perote.

    May 15—Puebla is entered. It is the second city in Mexico.
      Offers of peace were now made by the Americans but rejected
      by the Mexicans.

    Aug. 11—The army advances to the neighborhood of the city of
      Mexico.

    ” 19—The battle of Contreras. Americans successful in cutting
      the enemy’s communications. The Americans march in the night
      to attack a fortified camp which is carried at sunrise.
      American force 4,500, Mexican 7,000. Mexican loss in killed,
      wounded and prisoners, about 4,000; American, 66.

    ” 20—Cherubusco, a fortified hill, stormed and taken by Gen.
      Worth with 9,000 men. An armistice is now agreed on, and
      peace offered, but the Mexicans still hold to their first
      terms, and refuse to give up territory.

    Sept. 8—The Mexicans determine to yield only to absolute
      force, and the American army again advances. Battles of
      Molinos del Rey, and Casa Mata. The Mexicans are largely
      superior in numbers and fight with determined valor, but are
      overcome. American loss 800.

    ” 13—Battle of Chapultepec. This fortress was the last
      exterior defense to the City of Mexico. It was once the site
      of the “Palace of the Montezumas.” The Mexican force within
      and outside the fortress 20,000. The American force 7,180.
      Mexican loss in killed, wounded, prisoners and deserted,
      about 14,000; American, 900. A part of the army gained a
      foothold in the City of Mexico.

    ” 14—Gen. Scott enters Mexico in triumph.

    Oct. 9—Battle of Huamantla. Santa Anna again defeated.

    ” 18—Again at Attixco, with heavy loss. Santa Anna is now
      deserted by his troops, and resigns his office.

    Nov. 11—The Mexican Congress assembles, and appoints
      commissioners to treat for peace.


1848.

    Feb. 2—A treaty of peace signed at Guadalupe Hidalgo (a town
      four miles from Mexico).

    ” 23—John Quincy Adams expires at Washington.

    May 20—The treaty having been ratified by the President and
      Senate of the U. S., March 10, it was followed by that of the
      Mexican government on this day.

    ” 23—Peace was proclaimed in the American camp.

      The war was now over. The Mexicans relinquished all claim
      to Texas, and ceded Upper California and New Mexico to
      the United States. In return the United States gave them
      $18,500,000 of which $3,500,000 was due by a former treaty to
      citizens of this country and paid them by our government.

      It will not be easy for an American to wholly condemn an
      act that gave us California and the fertile valleys and
      vast mining territory of the Pacific slope as well as New
      Mexico, or the chastisement which the Mexicans had merited
      for their barbarity; though he may blame the eagerness for
      the acquisition of territory and the support of slavery that
      led us to invade another country and humble her pride. The
      ability of Americans as soldiers would appear by this war
      to be unrivalled, and, in that view arouses our pride. The
      moral sense of the world must ever be shocked by war, though
      there seem many cases in which it is far the least of two
      evils. Our government was fairly generous so far as it dared
      be in dealing with the vanquished, as soon as its demands
      for territory were satisfied. It is also evident that this
      territory will be better developed and governed than would
      have been the case under Mexican rule.

    Aug. 14—Oregon receives a Territorial government.

    Nov.—Gen. Taylor was elected President this month and Millard
      Fillmore Vice President.


1849.

    Jan. 26—Postal treaty with England concluded.

    Mar. 3—Minnesota receives a Territorial government.

    ” 4—Gen. Taylor inaugurated President.

    May 7—Gen. Worth, a very gallant officer of the Mexican war,
      died.

    Sept.—A State Constitution is formed by the people of
      California, which excludes slavery.

    Dec. 31—The House of Representatives ballots 63 times for a
      speaker, and now elects Howell Cobb, of Geo.

      Gold was discovered in California, in Feb. 1848, and through
      1849 emigrants—gold seekers—were arriving there by tens of
      thousands. By the end of this year it was a populous region.
      The mass of American immigrants were from the northern
      States, and disapproved of slavery, while the special end
      of the Mexican war was to procure more territory for that
      institution. At this time a violent contest was waged in
      Congress over that admission. It was not ended until late in
      the following year.


1850.

    Jan.—Gen. Twiggs obtains the consent of the Seminoles of
      Florida to emigrate to the Indian Territory.

    Feb. 13—President Taylor sends the constitution of California
      to Congress. There were many threats of secession in case
      California was admitted free.

    Mar. 7—Mr. Webster’s great speech for the Union.

    May 8—The “Omnibus Bill” reported by Henry Clay.

    ” 18—A private expedition from the south under command of
      Lopez invades Cuba. They are driven off with a loss of 30
      killed and executed as pirates, on the 19th. The remainder
      returned to Key West on the 22d of the same month.

    July 9—Death of President Taylor. Fillmore becomes acting
      President.

    Sept. 9-20—A committee of thirteen, of which Henry Clay was
      chairman, had been appointed Apr. 19th, and they had prepared
      four measures forming a compromise between the North and
      South as to slavery, which were debated and passed into
      laws, receiving the concurrence of the President: First,
      the South conceded to the North the admission of California
      as a free State, and the abolition of the slave trade in
      the District of Columbia; Second, the North conceded to the
      South a stringent Fugitive Slave Law, and the organization
      of Territorial Governments in New Mexico and Utah without
      mention of slavery, but in the understanding that they were
      finally to form slave States. The real gain was to the North,
      as anti-slavery was advanced two steps, while the Fugitive
      Law could not be generally enforced in the North from the
      invincible aversion of the people to it, and the Southern
      people were not sufficiently migratory in their habits to
      introduce slavery into distant regions not naturally adapted
      to that institution. Still the question was laid aside for
      the present.

    Nov. 19—Richard M. Johnson, a former Vice-President of the U.
      S., died.

    Dec. 16—A treaty of Amity and Commerce ratified with
      Switzerland.


1851.

    Mar. 3—A cheap postage law passed by Congress.

      John C. Calhoun, the most eminent of Southern Statesmen, died.


1852.

    June 28—Henry Clay, orator and Statesman, died.

    July 3—A branch mint established at San Francisco, Cal.

    Oct. 24—Daniel Webster died. These three were the ablest and
      most esteemed statesmen of their day.

    Nov.—The seventeenth presidential election occurred. Franklin
      Pierce was elected. He was the Democratic nominee. Gen.
      Scott, Whig, was defeated.


1853.

    Mar. 4—Pierce inaugurated President.

    Aug. 11—Proclamation of President Pierce against the invasion
      of Cuba by armed Americans.


1854.

    Mar. 23—An important treaty of commerce negotiated with the
      empire of Japan by Com. Perry, which opened a new era in the
      progress of that country, and of United States commerce and
      influence in Asia.

    May 30—The failure of the compromise measures of 1850 to
      realize the hopes of the South from the rapid development
      of anti-slavery views in the North caused the subject to be
      again agitated, and the Missouri Compromise, which stopped
      the formation of slave States north of its south boundary
      line, was repealed; the question of the admission of slavery
      into Kansas and Nebraska, both being north of that line,
      being referred by the famous “Kansas-Nebraska Bill” to the
      “squatters,” or first settlers. This was called “squatter
      sovereignty.” This measure gave satisfaction to the South,
      but was strongly reprobated by many of the Northern people.
      Both sides prepared to renew the contest there, and civil
      war raged in Kansas for near three years. Each side sought
      to secure its end which terminated in favor of the North.
      The South could not compete with it in numbers nor drive the
      extra numbers away. This was the last hope of the South for
      preserving equilibrium in the general government.

      The Democratic party in the North, anxious to soothe and
      conciliate the South, and not holding so advanced opinions
      against slavery, was still strong enough to maintain itself
      in power in the administration; but the Republican party,
      formed about this time by the dissolution of the Whig party,
      constantly grew in numbers and influence, and, by the end
      of the next administration its numbers were so large and
      the ultimate result so certain that the South resolved on
      secession rather than give up their favorite institution.


1855.

    Feb. 24—The Court of Claims, an important relief to Congress
      and to claimants against the government, was established in
      Washington, by Congress.


1856.

    Mar. 4—A Free State Legislature assembles in Kansas. It
      adopted a constitution and prepared to apply for admission
      into the Union.

    Nov.—The eighteenth presidential election took place. James
      Buchanan was elected against J. C. Fremont and Millard
      Fillmore. Buchanan was the Democratic candidate; Fremont,
      Republican, and Fillmore, American, or “know nothing”
      candidate.


1857.

    Feb. 2—Nathaniel Banks of Mass., a Republican, is elected
      Speaker of the House of Representatives. It had required two
      months and 133 ballotings to settle this point; indicating
      the nearly equal balance of parties, and the final success of
      the Republican element in the popular branch of Congress.

    Mar. 4—Buchanan inaugurated President.

      The next three years (after the decision of the Kansas
      troubles) were marked by the unnatural quiet that forebodes
      the storm. Anti-slavery feeling was maturing in the North,
      and discontent and secession tendencies in the South.


1858.

    May 11—Minnesota admitted into the Union as a State.


1859.

    Feb. 14—Oregon admitted into the Union as a State. The
      admission of these two without any corresponding ones in the
      South indicated the strength of Northern sentiment, and that
      the South had given up the struggle in that way. John Brown’s
      raid on Harper’s Ferry, in this year, as showing the tone of
      Northern feeling, still further estranged the South from the
      Union.




CHAPTER XXIII.

THE CIVIL WAR


Was the inevitable result of an antagonism of interests, sentiments,
and social structure in the two great sections of the Union—the North
and the South. The foundation of these tendencies was laid before the
formation of the Union, in early colonial times. The conflict commenced
as soon as a close union was attempted, and the Constitution was adopted
only through the personal influence of Washington and other statesmen of
that time, and from the general conviction that it was essential to the
protection of the new nation from England and other European powers. Some
provisions of the Constitution involved a compromise between the North
and the South; and a constant series of compromises was required to be
arranged from time to time, down to this period.

The institution of slavery it was believed by many of the revolutionary
fathers, would expire of itself at no distant time; but the value of
the cotton cultivated at the South, and the intimate relations that
slavery bore to the social life, made it profitable and agreeable to
that section, and they held to it with great tenacity. Meanwhile the
compromises of the Constitution grew more and more disagreeable to the
North. The requirement of that instrument—that persons held to service
in the South, and becoming fugitives in the North, should be returned
by them—was objected to on humane and religious grounds, and they found
slavery an industrial embarrassment. The enterprise and vigor of the
northern population gave their section a more rapid growth, and its
political power became continually greater.

But three ways of peacefully avoiding the conflict were open: the North
must fully carry out the spirit of concession that gave birth to the
Union, the South must consent, sooner or later, to abolish its peculiar
institutions, or they must agree to separate. Interest, habit, and the
aristocratic pride of the South forbade the second; while, in the North,
interest, religious sentiment, and the workingman’s pride as decidedly
forbade the first. The natural relation of the two sections, especially
by the Mississippi and Ohio rivers, so essential to the commercial
interests of the Western States: the improbability of maintaining
amicable intercourse, with slavery in the South, and fugitives from it to
produce constant irritation; the apparent probability that, if the right
of dissolution were conceded, the West, and the Pacific States would
follow this example; and the conviction that the true interests of the
whole country, internal and external, required an indissoluble Union,
inspired the majority of the northern people to resist disunion at every
cost. On the other hand, the South claimed the right to depart in peace.
Thus, war was inevitable; nor can it be correctly affirmed that any
party, or any generation, or either section of the Union, was properly
responsible for so lamentable a result. Each section, generation, and
party follows the line of its own interest, ideas, and habits. It is
a law of humanity, and each sees therein its duty and pleasure. While
interests do not clash very seriously, while ideas are not sharply and
clearly defined, and while habits are yet unsettled, compromises may be
readily effected. Humanity, taken together, in the most advanced society
heretofore known to men, is not yet capable of views so high, liberal,
and far-seeing as to free it from the possibility of such conflicts. It
will, however, reach that height, in the course of time.

We could not reasonably have expected either the North or the South to
have acted differently from what they did. While so gigantic a war was
an immense evil; to allow the right of peaceable secession would have
been ruin to the enterprise and thrift of the industrious laborer, and
keen-eyed business man of the North. It would have been the greatest
calamity of the age. War was less to be feared.

The Southerner, generous, warm blooded, accustomed to rule and make his
own will the law of others in his home, courageous and fiery, could not
give way. Besides secession would be less damaging to him. He would own
the outlets to much of Northern commerce, he had a bond of union of the
Southern States in the common institution of slavery, and a monopoly of
the world’s cotton that must soon secure profitable alliances in Europe.
Secession was commenced peaceably, and the Southern government fairly
consolidated before the trumpet sounded to battle. The Democratic party,
then in possession of the administration of the general government, had
long been in close relations with the South. It was impossible for it to
realize the momentous character of the crisis, or to help sympathizing
more or less with the views and feelings of the South; it was near the
close of its period of rule; and it left the active management of the
herculean difficulties of the situation to the incoming administration of
the Republican party. The whole country was quiet, failing, perhaps, as
well as the Democrats, to realize the significance of the events taking
place. It was a period of breathless waiting for what would come next.
The signal was given by the South. Fort Sumpter in South Carolina, a
national fort, was bombarded April 12th, 1861. It was an electric shock.
The North answered the summons by a note of defiance, and mustered for
war.

The South was better prepared, more alert, more accustomed to arms, and
secured, at first, many advantages. She also had the advantage of being
on the defensive when the contest became close. But, as the months ran
into years, the courage and iron resolution of the North did not falter.
She had the advantage of numbers, of the general government, of wealth,
and of naval force. Step by step she conquered, holding all she gained,
grew skillful and wise by defeat, and, April 8th, 1865, the main army
of the Confederates surrendered, and the war was over; the gallant
South succumbed to the plucky North. It was a predestined conclusion.
The free States were necessarily the strongest, and their strength was
supported and inspired by religious sentiment and enthusiasm. The Union,
so important to the world and to civil liberty, was preserved, but at
fearful cost.

Probably 500,000 lives were sacrificed altogether, on both sides; and
eight or nine billions of dollars. The desolation of the South, which had
been mainly the theater of these mighty conflicts; the extreme change
in pecuniary circumstances and social life there; the affliction, to
freemen, of the subjection, however mild and temperate, necessary under
the circumstances to be imposed, for the time, by the federal government;
the great loss of valuable life to both sides; the immense debt of the
government, with the unavoidable demoralization of certain parts of
society, everywhere, by the license of war, and many other evils form the
dark side of the picture.

Yet, nothing could outweigh the value of the Union especially when freed
from the discordant element that now disappeared. It must be long before
all wounds can be healed. When that time shall come both North and South
will be recompensed for all they have suffered.


1860.

    Nov. 6—Four parties contested this election: the Republicans
      voted for Abraham Lincoln—the Democrats for Stephen A.
      Douglas and J. C. Breckenridge. The old Whigs or Peace party,
      ignoring the dangerous political strife, voted for John Bell.
      Lincoln was elected. A simple majority of electoral votes
      would have been 157. He received 180.

    ” 7—News of Lincoln’s election received in South Carolina
      with cheers for a Southern Confederacy.

    ” 9—An attempt made to seize the arms in Ft. Moultrie.

    ” 10—South Carolina Legislature propose to raise 10,000 men.

      Election of convention to consider secession ordered.

      Jas. Chester, U. S. Senator from South Carolina, resigned.

    ” 11—Senator Hammond, of South Carolina, resigned.

    ” 15—Governor Letcher, of Virginia, calls an extra session of
      the Legislature.

    ” 18—Georgia Legislature appropriate $1,000,000 to arm the
      State.

      Major Anderson sent to Ft. Moultrie to relieve Col. Gardiner.

    ” 19—Gov. Moore calls an extra session of Louisiana
      Legislature.

    Dec. 1—Florida Legislature order the election of a convention.

      Great secession meeting in Memphis, Tennessee.

    ” 3—Congress assembles. President Buchanan denies the right
      of a State to secede, and asserts the propriety of coercion.

    ” 5—Election of secession delegates to South Carolina
      Convention.

    ” 10—Howell Cobb, U. S. Sec. of Treasury, resigned; P. F.
      Thomas, of Maryland, appointed in his place. Senator Clay, of
      Ala., resigned. Louisiana Legislature orders the election of
      a Convention, and appropriates $500,000 to arm the State.

    ” 13—Extra session of the Cabinet held to consider if
      Ft. Moultrie shall be reinforced. President opposed, and
      reinforcements not sent.

    ” 14—Gen. Lewis Cass, U. S. Sec. of State, resigns. J. S.
      Black, of Pa., appointed.

    ” 17—South Carolina Convention assembles.

    ” 18—Crittenden Compromise proposed in U. S. Senate.

    ” 19—Gov. Hicks, of Maryland, refuses to receive Mississippi
      Commissioners.

    ” 20—South Carolina Convention unanimously adopts a Secession
      Ordinance.

    ” 22—Crittenden Compromise rejected in Senate Committee.

    ” 24—People of Pittsburg, Pa., stop shipment of military
      stores, from the arsenal there, to Southern forts.

      Gov. Moore calls extra session of Alabama Legislature.
      Election to Alabama Convention; secession majority over
      50,000.

      South Carolina Members of U. S. House of Representatives
      resign.

    ” 25—Maj. Anderson abandons Ft. Moultrie for Ft. Sumter,
      Charleston Harbor. He has only 111 men.

      South Carolina Commissioners arrive in Washington. President
      Buchanan declines to receive them.

    ” 28—South Carolina authorities seize Castle Pinckney, Ft.
      Moultrie, U. S. Custom-House, and other government property;
      at Charleston.

    ” 29—John B. Floyd, U. S. Sec. of War, resigns. Joseph Holt,
      of Ky., appointed.

    ” 31—South Carolina sends Commissioners to Slave States to
      arrange the organization of a Southern Confederacy.


1861.

    Jan. 2—Gov. Ellis, of North Carolina, takes possession of Ft.
      Macon.

      Georgia troops seize Fts. Pulaski and Jackson, and U. S.
      Arsenal, at Savannah.

    ” 4—Gov. Moore, of Ala., seizes Ft. Morgan, and U. S. Arsenal
      at Mobile.

      Fast Day by proclamation of President.

    ” 7—State Conventions of Alabama and Mississippi, and State
      Legislatures of Virginia and Tennessee assemble.

    ” 8—Jacob Thompson, U. S. Sec. of Interior, resigns. Fts.
      Johnson and Caswell, North Carolina, seized by State
      authorities.

    ” 9—U. S. steamer, Star of the West, fired on in Charleston
      Harbor and driven away.

      Mississippi Convention adopt Secession Ordinance. Vote 84 to
      15.

    ” 10—Florida Convention secedes by vote of 62 to 7. Florida
      authorities seize Ft. McRae.

    ” 11—Alabama secedes by vote in Convention of 61 to 39. P.
      F. Thomas, U. S. Sec. of Treasury, resigns. John A. Dix
      appointed. The Governor of Mississippi seizes Forts Philip
      and Jackson, on the Mississippi river; Forts Pike and Macomb,
      on Lake Pontchartrain; and U. S. Arsenal at Baton Rouge.

    ” 13—Florida takes possession of Pensacola Navy Yard and Ft.
      Barrancas. Lieut. Slemmer, in command of Ft. Pickens, ordered
      by Com. Armstrong to deliver the Fort to Florida, refuses,
      and preserves that important post to the government of the
      Union.

    ” 16—Legislature of Arkansas calls a Convention. Col. Hayne,
      of South Carolina, demands of the President the surrender
      of Ft. Sumter, and is refused. Missouri Legislature order a
      convention to consider secession.

    ” 18—The Legislature of Virginia appropriate $1,000,000 for
      the defense of the State.

    ” 19—Georgia adopts Secession Ordinance by vote of 208 to 89.

    ” 21—Members of Congress from Alabama resign.

    ” ”—Jefferson Davis resigns his seat in the U. S. Senate.

    ” 23—Georgia members of Congress resign.

    ” 24—U. S. Arsenal, Augusta, Geo., seized.

    ” 26—Louisiana Legislature passes Secession Ordinance. Vote
      113 to 17.

    ” 29—Kansas, the thirty-fourth State, admitted into the Union.

    ” 30—North Carolina Legislature submits the question of
      calling a Convention to the people.

    ” ”—Revenue cutters Cass, at Mobile, and McClelland, at New
      Orleans, surrendered to Southern authorities.

    Feb. 1—Texas Convention passes Secession Ordinance, to be
      submitted to the people. Vote, 166 to 7. Louisiana government
      seize the U. S. Mint and Custom House, at New Orleans.

    ” 4—Peace Convention of Delegates from eighteen States,
      assembles at Washington; ex-President Tyler presides.

    ” ”—Delegates from seceded States meet at Montgomery, Ala.,
      to organize a Confederate Government.

    ” ”—John Slidell and Judah P. Benjamin, U. S. Senators from
      Louisiana, resign their seats.

    ” 9—Jefferson Davis and Alexander H. Stevens elected
      provisional President and Vice-President of Confederate
      States, for one year.

    ” 13—Electoral vote counted. Abraham Lincoln received 180
      votes; S. A. Douglas, 12; J. C. Breckenridge, 72; John Bell,
      39. Majority required to elect, 157.

    ” 18—Ft. Kearney, Kansas, seized by Southern forces.

    ” 23—Gen. Twiggs, U. S. commander in Texas, delivered
      his army prisoners of war, and U. S. property valued at
      $1,200,000 to Confederate authorities.

    ” 28—Territorial Government organized in Colorado.

    Mar. 1—Gen. Twiggs expelled from the army. Peace Congress
      adjourned.

    ” 2—Territorial government organized in Dacotah and Nevada.

    ” ”—Revenue cutter Dodge surrendered to the South, at
      Galveston, Texas.

    ” 4—Abraham Lincoln inaugurated 14th regular President of the
      United States.

    ” ”—The people of Texas having voted for the Secession
      Ordinance by 40,000 majority, the Convention declared the
      State out of the Union.

    ” 5—Gen. Beauregard takes command of Southern forces, at
      Charleston.

    ” 6—Ft. Brown, on the Rio Grande, surrenders to Confederate
      troops. Federal troops evacuated the fort and sailed for Key
      West, Florida.

    ” ”—Confederate Senate confirm nominations of President Davis
      to his Cabinet, viz.: R. Toombs, of Geo., Sec. of State; C.
      S. Memminger, of South Carolina, Sec. of Treasury; L. P.
      Walker, of Ala., Sec. of War; S. R. Mallory, of Fla., Sec.
      of Navy; J. H. Reagan, of Texas, Postmaster Gen.; J. P.
      Benjamin, of La., Attorney General.

    ” 11—The Constitution of Confederate States adopted in
      convention at Montgomery, Ala.; afterwards ratified by the
      several States.

    ” 28—Vote of Louisiana on secession—20,448 for, 17,926
      against—made public.

    ” 30—Mississippi Convention ratifies the Confederate
      Constitution, by 78 to 70.

    Apr. 3—South Carolina Convention ratifies Confederate
      Constitution, by 114 to 6.

    Apr. 4—Virginia Convention refuse to present a Secession
      Ordinance to the people, by a vote of 89 to 45.

    ” 7—Intercourse between Ft. Sumter and Charleston stopped by
      order of Gen. Beauregard.




CHAPTER XXIV.

FIRST PHASE OF THE WAR.


Each side hesitated to strike the first blow; but the South, being
best prepared, and to end a suspense that threatened to be hurtful to
their cause, opened the conflict by the bombardment of Ft. Sumter.
Each now hastened preparations with vigor. Yet so long had been the
intimate, friendly relations, that neither could believe in a long,
deadly struggle. More than three months passed, during which frequent
skirmishes occurred; but the leaders avoided bringing on a general
battle. The Southern forces advanced toward Washington, but stopped short
of an attack, sending out small bodies to make trial efforts, and get
possession of important points.

The battle of Bull Run was the first great, serious combat. The brilliant
bravery of Southern troops would have been overcome but for an opportune
reinforcement at the decisive moment. The leaders did not feel it safe to
pursue the vanquished Federals to Washington. There was a large reserve
force there. Thus, if they won a battle they lost the object sought—the
capture of the national Capital—and the Union forces, though defeated,
gained the most important point—the protection of Washington.

Both sides now recognized the magnitude of the undertaking; the
indomitable resolution of their opponents; and the need of thoroughly
disciplining their troops, of organizing all branches of the military
and naval service, and gathering stores, and distributing forces in
accordance with the plan proposed by each.

This period continued until Feb., 1862. The U. S. Navy was increased from
42 vessels at the beginning of the war to about 300 at the close of this
preparatory period. These blockaded the South and served for transport
and attack. Two series of operations were planned by the U. S. government
for the land forces: one in the Mississippi Valley and one in Virginia.
In the meantime the Confederate leaders saw that it was impossible to
invade the North as they had proposed without long preparation and large
armies. They organized with speed but were thrown on the defensive.


1861.

    Apr. 7—Steamer Atlantic, with troops and supplies for Ft.
      Sumter, sailed from New York.

    ” 8—The Federal Government notified South Carolina that
      provisions would be sent to Maj. Anderson, by force, if
      necessary. U. S. State Department refused to recognize the
      Commissioners from the Confederate States.

    ” 11—Troops are gathered in Washington, and oath of
      allegiance administered. Confederate Commissioners leave
      Washington.

      Gen. Beauregard demands the surrender of Ft. Sumter. Maj.
      Anderson refuses.


BOMBARDMENT OF FT. SUMTER.

    ” 12—This was the real commencement of the Civil War.
      Batteries were constructed on Morris and Sullivan islands,
      and Cumming’s Point. The Confederate forces employ Ft.
      Moultrie, and a floating battery, in addition, against Ft.
      Sumter.

      The South Carolina Legislature appropriate $500,000 to arm
      the State.

      Ft. Pickens is reinforced by the U. S. government.

    ” 14—Fort Sumter was reduced to a mass of ruins, its fire
      silenced, and Maj. Anderson capitulated with the honors of
      war, and evacuated the fort, sailing for New York.

      Gov. Yates, of Illinois, called an extra session of
      Legislature to meet April 22.

    ” 15—The President issues a proclamation commanding all in
      arms against the government to disperse in 20 days; calling
      also for 75,000 volunteers to defend Washington; and the New
      York Legislature authorizes the raising of $3,000,000 for
      their equipment and support.

      The President calls an extra session of Congress, for July 4.

    ” 16—The governors of Kentucky, Virginia, Tennessee, and
      Missouri refuse to furnish troops, under the President’s
      proclamation.

      The Confederate government calls for 32,000 men.

    ” 17—The Virginia Convention, in secret session, adopt a
      Secession Ordinance, to be submitted to the people in May.
      The vote was 60 to 53.

      Virginia forces sent to seize U. S. Arsenal at Harper’s
      Ferry, and Gosport Navy Yard, at Portsmouth.

      All the military power of the State of Virginia placed under
      the control of President Davis.

      Jefferson Davis issues a proclamation offering Letters of
      Marque and Reprisal to privateers against Federal commerce.

    ” 18—U. S. Arsenal at Harper’s Ferry destroyed by Federal
      troops, to prevent its falling into the hands of the enemy.

      Col. Coke, with 400 of 25th Penn. regiment, arrives in
      Washington for its defense.

    ” 19—U. S. steamer Star of the West seized at Indianola,
      Texas.

      Massachusetts troops on the way to Washington, attacked by a
      mob in Baltimore. Troops fired on the mob. Blood shed on both
      sides.

      President issues a proclamation declaring the coast from
      North Carolina to Texas in a state of blockade.

      Military department of Washington covering Maryland,
      Delaware, and Pennsylvania, put under command of Gen.
      Patterson.

      City Council of Philadelphia appropriate $1,000,000 to equip
      volunteers, and support their families.

    ” 20—Governor of North Carolina seizes U. S. Branch Mint, at
      Charlotte.

      Bridges and railroads in Maryland destroyed by Secessionists,
      to prevent passage of troops to Washington.

      U. S. Navy Yard, at Gosport, and property worth $25,000,000,
      destroyed by the Federals in charge, to prevent their falling
      into the hands of the enemy. Eight vessels of war were
      destroyed, and one, the Cumberland, was towed out.

      Massachusetts troops arrive at Fortress Monroe.

      Gov. Curtin calls special meeting of Penn. Legislature, for
      April 30th.

    ” 21—Federal government takes possession of Philadelphia and
      Baltimore railroad.

      Senator Andrew Johnson mobbed at Lynchburg, Va.

    ” 22—U. S. Arsenals in North Carolina and Arkansas seized.

    ” 24—Fort Smith Arkansas, seized. Cairo, Ill., occupied by
      Union troops.

      Maj. Sibley surrenders 450 U. S. troops to Col. Van Dorn, in
      Texas.

    ” 26—Gov. Brown, of Geo., forbids payment of debts to
      Northern people.

    ” 27—A steamer at Cairo, loaded with military stores for the
      South, seized.

      Blockade extended to ports of Virginia and North Carolina.

    ” 29—The Maryland House of Delegates votes against secession,
      63 to 13.

      Governors Harris of Tennessee and Moore of Louisiana seize
      government property.

    May 1—The Legislature of N. C. and Tenn. prepare for formal
      secession.

    ” 3—President Lincoln calls for 82,714 additional troops.

      Fourteen companies of Kentucky troops offer themselves to the
      government, though the Governor had refused a levy.

    ” 4—Gen. McClellan takes command of the department of the
      Ohio.

    ” 6—Virginia admitted into the Confederacy. Tennessee and
      Arkansas pass Ordinances of Secession.

    ” 10—A rebel force in St. Louis surrenders to Capt. Lyon.

      Gen. R. E. Lee takes command of Southern troops in Virginia.

    ” 13—Convention called at Wheeling to organize a new State.

    ” 14—Vessels with stores and property for the South seized at
      Baltimore.

    ” 15—Massachusetts offers U.S. Government $7,000,000 to carry
      on the war.

    ” 16—Gen. Scott orders the fortification of Arlington Heights.

    ” 17—Confederates commence fortifying Harpers Ferry.

    ” 18—Gen. Butler takes command of Department of Virginia.

    ” 19—Sewalls Pt. attacked by U S. steamers. Two schooners,
      with Southern troops, captured.

    ” 20—North Carolina formally secedes. Kentucky proclaimed
      neutral.

    ” 21—Southerners blockade the Mississippi at Memphis.

    ” 24—Alexandria and Arlington Heights occupied by Union
      troops.

    ” 26—Western Virginia voted largely in favor of the Union.

    ” 27—One hundred slaves fled to Fortress Monroe. Gen. Butler
      declared them “contraband” of war.

    ” ”—Two steamers engage the rebel batteries at Acquia Creek.

    June 1—Various skirmishes between parties of the hostile
      armies.

    ” 3—Senator S. A. Douglas, of Illinois, died.

      Battle of Philippi, Va. Union Col. Kelly wounded but
      victorious. Gen. Beauregard assumed command of Confederate
      forces at Manassas Junction. Voluntary contributions of
      northern States in aid of the Government over $32,000,000.


BATTLE OF BIG BETHEL.

    ” 10—Three Federal regiments defeated. 16 killed, 41 wounded.

    ” 11—Skirmish at Romney. Wheeling Convention meets.

    ” 14—Harper’s Ferry evacuated and burnt by Southern forces.

    ” 15—Confederate privateer, Savannah, brought, a prize, to
      New York.

    ” 17—Wheeling Convention of Unionists determine to make West
      Virginia an independent State.

    ” 18—Battle of Booneville, Mo. Gen. Lyon defeats Confederate
      Gen. Price.

    ” 20—At Cole Camp, Mo., Union men defeated; at Liberty, Mo.,
      Southerners overcome.

    ” 23—Forty-eight locomotives of Baltimore and Ohio R. R.
      destroyed by Southern forces; value, $400,000.

    ” 26—President Lincoln recognizes the Wheeling government as
      that of Virginia.

    ” 29—Southern privateer, Sumter, escapes through blockade at
      New Orleans.

    July 2—Battle near Martinsburg, Va., Gen. Patterson, Union,
      and Gen. Jackson, Confederate.

    ” 3—Southern men captured at Neosho, Mo. Consisted of 94 men.

    ” 4—Southern forces seize Louisville and Nashville railroad.

    ” 5—Congress assemble at Washington. President calls for
      400,000 volunteers, and $400,000,000 to put down the
      rebellion.

      Battle of Carthage, between Sigel, Union, and Gen. Jackson,
      Southern. Gen. Sigel retreated.

    ” 11—Nine Southern Senators expelled from U. S. Congress.

    ” 12—Battle of Rich Mountain, Va. Col. Rosecrans, Union,
      defeated Col. Pegram, taking 800 prisoners and his camp
      stores.

    ” 13—Confederates under Gen. Garnett, defeated at Carrick’s
      Ford, by Gen. Morris. Gen. Garnett killed.

    ” 15—Col. Stuart, commanding Confederate cavalry, attacks
      Union forces at Bunker Hill, Va., and is defeated.

    ” 16—Skirmishes at Millville, Mo., and Barboursville, Va.

    ” 18—Outposts of the two armies fight at Blackburn’s Ford,
      on Bull Run, some 20 miles from Washington. Southern troops
      withdraw.


BATTLE OF BULL RUN.

    ” 21—This was the first great battle. The Confederate
      government aims at the capture of Washington. Their forces,
      under Gen. Beauregard, about 22,000, afterwards strengthened
      by 6,000, are attacked by Union army under Gen. McDowell,
      with 28,000 men. It turns in favor of McDowell until arrival
      of Confederate reinforcement of 6,000, when Union army was
      totally defeated, the fugitives flying in great disorder
      to the defenses of Washington. Yet Confederates lost more
      in wounded, and failed to take the National Capital, the
      preservation of which was the supreme point to the Union
      forces. The South gained the _battle_, and the Union gained
      the _cause_.

    ” 25—Gen. McClellan takes command of the Army of the Potomac.

    Aug. 1—Confederate forces at Harpers Ferry retreat to
      Leesburg.

    ” 2—Congress authorized the raising of 500,000 men and
      $500,000,000 to suppress the insurrection, providing for the
      last by tax and tariff.

      Gen. Lyon repulses the Confederates at Dug Spring, Mo.

    ” 5—Commodore Allen bombarded Galveston, Texas.

    ” 7—Hampton, Va., burned by Southern forces.


BATTLE OF WILSON’S CREEK, MO.

    ” 10—Gen. Lyon, (Union,) with about 5,000 men, attacked
      Gen. McCullough, (Confederate,) with over 10,000. Gen. Lyon
      killed. Federal losses in killed, wounded, and missing,
      1,211; Southern losses over 1,600. Union forces retreated to
      Springfield. McCullough too much shattered to follow.

    ” 12—President Lincoln proclaimed Sept. 30, a Fast Day.

    ” 14—Gen. Fremont declared martial law in St. Louis.

    ” 15—President Davis ordered all northern men to leave the
      South in 40 days.

    ” 16—President Lincoln forbids commercial intercourse with
      the South.

    ” 23—Cherokee Indians take part with the South.

    ” 28—Capture of Forts Hatteras and Clark, N. C., by Gen.
      Butler and Com. Stringham.

    ” 31—Gen. Fremont proclaims freedom of slaves and confiscates
      property of disunionists in Missouri. President Lincoln
      countermands it.

    Sept. 1—Southerners defeated at Boonville, Va., and town
      destroyed.

    ” 4—Confederate Gen. Polk occupies Columbus, Ky. Southern
      forces, attempting to cross Potomac at Great Falls, repulsed.

    ” 10—Gen. Banks attacks Confederate Gen. Floyd, in intrenched
      camp, at Carnifex Ferry. Gen. Floyd retreats in the night.

    ” 12—Battle of Cheat Mountain, a Union victory. Col. J. A.
      Washington killed.

    ” 18—Secession members of Maryland Legislature imprisoned.

    ” 19—Arrest of Gov. Morehead and others for treason, in
      Louisville, Ky.

    ” 20—Col. Morehead, Union, besieged, at Lexington, Mo., and
      compelled to surrender with over 2,000 men, after a fight of
      four days.

    Oct. 2—Battle of Chapmanville, Va. Confederates defeated.

    ” 3—Battle of Greenbriar, Va. Federal success.

    ” 4—Confederate success at Chicamacomico, Va. Federals
      retreated.

    ” 5—Steamer Monticello drives Southern forces from
      Chicamacomico.

    ” 7—Confederate Iron Clad Merrimac appears at Fortress Monroe.

    ” 11—Confederate Commissioners Slidell and Mason escape from
      Charleston, S. C.

    ” 16—U. S. troops recapture Lexington, Mo. Battle of Pilot
      Knob, Mo. Unionists successful.

    ” 21—Battle of Balls Bluff. U. S. forces under Col. Baker,
      member of Congress, 1,900 strong, defeated with loss of 918
      men. Col. Baker killed.

      Gen. Zollicoffer defeated by U. S. troops at Camp Wild Cat,
      Ky.

    ” 25—Gen. Kelly gains a battle against Confederates at
      Romney, Va.

    ” 29—U. S. naval and military force of 27,000 men and 75
      vessels leave Fortress Monroe for the South.

    Nov. 1—Gen. Scott retires from command of the Union army.
      Gen. McClellan appointed Gen. in Chief. Gen. Floyd fails in
      his attack on Gen. Rosencranz, at Gauley, Va.

    ” 2—Gen. Fremont superseded by Gen. Hunter in Mo.

    ” 4—Houston, Mo., taken by Union troops.

    ” 7—Com. Dupont and Gen. Sherman capture Forts Walker and
      Beauregard, S. C., and occupy Beaufort and Hilton Island.

      Gen. Grant captured Confederate camp at Belmont, Mo.,
      opposite Columbus. Reinforcements arriving he retired.

    ” 8—Mason and Slidell, Confederate Commissioners to Europe,
      were taken from British steamer Trent, by U. S. ship San
      Jacinto. On subsequent demand of the English government they
      were given up.

    ” 10—Union soldiers having been killed by inhabitants of
      Guyandotte, Va., the town was burnt in retaliation.

    ” 15—The San Jacinto arrived at Fortress Monroe with Slidell
      and Mason.

    ” 28—Bombardment of Pensacola, Fla., by Ft. Pickens and U. S.
      war vessels.

    ” 27—Gen. McClellan orders observance of the Sabbath in the
      army.

    ” 29—Skirmish at Warsaw, Mo. Town partly destroyed.

    ” 30—Fight at Salem, Mo. Southern forces defeated.

    Dec. 3—Congress met at Washington.

    ” 4—Two Congressmen and Senator Breckenridge of Ky., expelled
      for treason.

    ” 5—Naval engagement at Cape Hatteras.

      Forces of U. S. army and navy reported very near 700,000 men.

    ” 9—Confederate Congress declares Kentucky a State in the
      Southern Confederacy.

    ” 13—Gen. Milroy defeats Confederate Col. Johnson, at Camp
      Alleghany.

    ” 16—Platte City, Mo., burnt by Southern forces.

    ” 17—More than 20 vessels, filled with stone, sunk at the
      entrance of Charleston and Savannah harbors.

    ” 18—Gen. Pope captured 1,300 Southerners and 1,000 stand of
      arms at Millford, Mo.

    ” 31—U. S. navy increased from 42 vessels at beginning of the
      war to 246, of all kinds, up to this date.


1862.

    Jan. 1—Mason and Slidell leave Ft. Warren, Boston Harbor, for
      England.

    ” 2—Success of Unionists on Port Royal Island, near
      Charleston, S. C.

    ” 4—Gen. Milroy defeats Confederates at Huntersville, Va.

    ” 7—Confederate defeat at Romney. U. S. troops capture stores
      in Tucker Co., Va.

    ” 8—Union victory by Gen. Palmer at Silver Creek, Mo.

    ” 10—Humphrey Marshall defeated by Union troops in Kentucky.

      Senators Johnson and Polk of Mo., expelled from the U. S.
      Senate.

    ” 11—Simon Cameron, U. S. Sec. of War, resigned; E. M.
      Stanton appointed.

      Naval engagement on the Mississippi near the mouth of the
      Ohio; Union vessels superior.

    ” 12—125 vessels and 15,000 troops, under Gen. Burnside, sail
      for the South.

    ” 18—Ex-President Tyler dies.

    ” 19—Union victory at Mill Spring, Ky., by Gen. Shoepf over
      Gen. Zollicoffer and Gen. Crittenden. Much spoil taken; Gen.
      Zollicoffer killed.

    ” 27—Bishop Ames and Gov. Fish of New York appointed to visit
      prisons in the South, to look after the interests of Union
      prisoners. Confederate authorities refuse to receive them.




CHAPTER XXV.

THE SECOND PHASE OF THE WAR.


The previous period, though abounding in battles, so-called, were really
skirmishes of detached bodies without any well defined plan. It covered
much of the surface of all the Border States, but especially Virginia and
Missouri, and was a trial of bravery and strategy in which both parties
learned how to fight, and of what metal their opponents were made.

The Second Period covered about eleven months—from the advance of the
Federal armies on the South in West and East, in Feb., to the close of
the year.

This period is defined in its commencement, by the surrounding of the
southern territory on nearly all sides by the Union forces, both naval
and military; and the inauguration of aggressive movements both by sea
and land; and in its close by the failure of the two southern Generals,
Bragg in the West, and Lee in the East, in the endeavor to break through
this beleaguering line. It was an immense and desperate conflict.

In the West it began by the attack of Grant on Fts. Henry and Donelson,
followed up by the battle of Pittsburg Landing, and various other
operations in Tennessee and Mississippi; the advance of McClellan on
Richmond, and his campaign in the Peninsula, his failure and return to
Washington; the strengthening of the Southern Army, and the advance of
Lee northward into Maryland and his defeat there. The disasters to the
Union army in Virginia served to check the successes of the Western Army
under Grant, Sherman, Buell, Rosecranz and others; the Confederate forces
in the West were increased under Bragg, who checked the advance of U. S.
troops eastward at Chattanooga, and he himself assumed the offensive, by
invading Kentucky. He was compelled to retreat again to Chattanooga. Thus
there was an alternation of great successes and great reverses on both
sides.

The Union Army commenced with about 600,000 men, and the Southern with
about 400,000. They both largely added to these during the campaign.

Meanwhile the navy was not idle. A foothold was gained in South Carolina,
and in North Carolina, as well as at Norfolk, Virginia, the mouth of the
Mississippi was opened by Admiral Farragut, and New Orleans captured.
The compression of a vast naval and land force was applied in all
directions, even west of the Mississippi. Missouri had been quieted by
driving the organized forces into the border of Arkansas, and inflicting
on them a heavy blow at Pea Ridge. This, however, was not followed up;
the disasters to the Union cause in Virginia, and the rebound of the
Confederates in East Tennessee, requiring concentration.

The South had shown the most determined bravery, and great steadiness in
disaster; and activity, and ability in making the most of circumstances.
The speed with which she collected other levies and armies and used them
within the campaign greatly impressed the authorities and people of the
Federal government. They were convinced that the blacks left at home to
till the ground, or employed in the fortifications and other labor of
the war, contributed much to the strength of the South; enabling them to
concentrate all their resources on a given point with extreme rapidity,
and to use all their best fighting material. After so vast an outlay, to
see their immense armies defied and the Northern States threatened with
invasion was discouraging. Hitherto slavery had not been interfered with
much, in deference to the sentiment in the Border States, and the views
of the democratic party. The Union administration determined to weaken
the South by abstracting as much as possible of the slave element from it
and to use it themselves. The issue of the Proclamation of Emancipation
marks a Third Phase of the War.


1862.

    Feb. 3—The Federal government decides to treat crews of
      privateers taken in arms, not as pirates, but as prisoners of
      war.

    ” 5—Jesse D. Bright, of Indiana, expelled from the U. S.
      Senate.

    ” 6—Com. Foote, acting in concert with Gen. Grant, advances
      up the Tennessee river in Ky., and captures Fort Henry.

    ” 8—Gen. Burnside and Com. Goldsborough capture forts, forces
      and war material on Roanoke Island, in Albemarle Sound, N. C.

    ” 10—Gunboats of Confederate government taken or destroyed.

    ” 12—Gen. Grant invests Ft. Donelson, on Cumberland river, Ky.

    ” 13—Gen. Curtis advances to Springfield, Mo.

      U. S. Congress determine to construct 20 iron clad gunboats.

    ” 15—Bowling Green, Ky., evacuated by Southern forces.

    ” 16—Gen. Grant captures Ft. Donelson, with 13,300 prisoners.

    ” 18—Gen. Curtis drives Confederates out of Missouri into
      Arkansas.

      Confederate Congress assemble at Richmond Va.

    ” 19—Jefferson Davis and A. H. Stevens elected permanent
      President and Vice-President of Confederate States for six
      years.

    ” 21—Defeat of Union forces at Clarksville, New Mexico.

    ” 23—Nashville, Tenn., occupied by Union forces.

    ” 27—Columbus, on the Mississippi, in Ky., evacuated by
      Confederates.

    Mar. 2—Severe encounter between Union gunboats and
      Confederate battery at Pittsburg Landing, Tennessee. Union
      success.

    ” 3—Gen. Beauregard assumes command of Southern army in
      Mississippi.

    ” 6-8—Gen. Curtis defeats Gen. McCullough at Pea Ridge, Ark.
      Curtis’ army 22,000, McCullough’s 35,000. McCullough killed.

    ” 9—First trial of Monitors. The formidable Merrimac, a
      Confederate iron clad vessel, conquered by the Monitor.

    ” 11—Gen. McClellan’s command confined to the army of the
      Potomac.

    ” 12—Com. Dupont takes possession of Jacksonville, Florida.

    ” 13—Confederates evacuate New Madrid, Mo., in haste, leaving
      $1,000,000 of military stores.

    ” 14—Newburn, N. C., captured by Gen. Burnside. Immense
      stores taken.

    ” 18—Confederate fortifications at Acquia Creek, Va.,
      evacuated.

    ” 23—Battle of Winchester, Va. Southern forces defeated.

    ” 28—Fight at Union Ranch, New Mexico. Union troops 3,000,
      Texans 1,100. Result undecided.

    Apr. 6-7—Battle of Pittsburg Landing, or Shiloh. First
      day’s battle fought by Beauregard and Johnston, Confederate
      Generals, with 40,000 available troops, by Gen. Grant with
      33,000. He was supported by gunboats in the Tennessee river.
      Attack and defense desperate, and the slaughter fearful. The
      second day Beauregard had no more than 20,000 effective men.
      Grant was reinforced by Buell, and his effective force was
      45,000. It was great honor to Union troops not to recognize
      defeat on the 6th, and highly creditable to Confederates
      to make a desperate stand and inflict an immense loss on
      Federals on the 7th. They were almost annihilated but
      retreated without immediate pursuit.

    ” 8—Island No. 10, Mississippi river, captured.

    ” 11—Ft. Pulaski captured by Gen. Hunter, commands entrance
      to Savannah, Geo. Gen. Mitchell occupies Huntsville, Ala.

    ” 12—Gen. Mitchell captures 2,000 prisoners at Chattanooga,
      East Tennessee.

    ” 16—Slavery abolished in the District of Columbia, by U. S.
      Congress.

    ” 18—Gen. McClellan’s advance attacked on the Peninsula, Va.

    ” 19—Successes of Union Gens. Burnside and Reno, in North
      Carolina.

    ” 25—Com. Farragut, passing the forts, captures New Orleans.

    ” 28—Forts Jackson and St. Philip, at mouth of Mississippi
      below New Orleans, surrender.

    ” 29—Gen. Mitchell defeats Confederates at Bridgport, Ala.

    May 1—Union cavalry captured at Pulaski, Tenn.

    ” 3—Yorktown evacuated by Southern troops. Occupied by
      McClellan.

    ” 5—Battle of Williamsburg, Va. Lasts all day. Unionists
      successful.

    ” 7—Southern Gen. Lee attacks McClellan’s army but is
      repulsed.

    ” 8—Union Gen. Milroy repulsed at McDowell’s, Va., after a
      five hour’s fight.

    ” 9—Pensacola, Fla. evacuated by Southern forces.

    ” 10—Norfolk, Va., occupied by Union forces. The Merrimac,
      Gosport Navy Yard, and vast quantities of stores destroyed by
      retreating Confederates.

    ” 15—The Agricultural Department created by Congress.

    ” 12—Natchez, on the Mississippi river, surrendered to
      Farragut.

    ” 17—Union forces drive Confederates over the Chickahominy,
      Va.

    ” 24—Southern success at Front Royal, Va., over Col. Kenley.

    ” 25—Gen. Banks, defeated at Winchester, Va., retreats across
      the Potomac.

    ” 27—Confederates defeated at Hanover, Va.

    ” 30—Union troops occupy Corinth, Mississippi.

    ” 31—Battle of Fair Oaks. Union troops repulsed.

    June 1—Battle of Fair Oaks renewed. Southern forces repulsed
      with heavy loss.

    ” 6—Gunboats capture Memphis, Tenn., and Confederate vessels.

    ” 8—Battle of Cross Keys, Va. Gen. Fremont defeats Stonewall
      Jackson.

    ” 14—Union forces defeated on James Island, near Charleston,
      S. C.

    ” 18—Union troops occupy Cumberland Gap, Tenn.

    ” 19—Congress prohibits slavery in the Territories.

    ” 26—Six days fight before Richmond commenced at
      Mechanicsville. Union forces repulsed.

    ” 27—Bombardment of Vicksburg. Gen. Fremont relieved of
      command. Battle before Richmond renewed.

    ” 28—Severe battles before Richmond; enemy repulsed at night.
      Unionists fall back.

    ” 29—Battles of Peach Orchard and Savage’s Station, Va.
      Federal repulse.

    ” 30—Battle of White Oak Swamp. McClellan continues to
      retreat toward James river. Confederates repulsed with loss.

    July 1—Battle of Malvern Hill. Southern forces repulsed. End
      of 6 days fight.

      President Lincoln calls for 600,000 volunteers.

      Internal Revenue Bill passed Congress. Polygamy forbidden in
      the United States.

      Union Pacific Railroad chartered by Congress.

    ” 7—Fight at Bayou Cache, Ark. Gen. Curtis, Union, defeats
      Gen. Pike, Southern.

    ” 9—Hamilton, N. C., captured by Federal troops.

    ” 11—Southern Gen. Morgan enters Glasgow, Ky. Gen. Halleck
      appointed Commander-in-Chief of the U. S. armies.

    ” 13—Southern forces capture Murfreesborough, Tenn. Stores
      and prisoners taken.

    ” 17—Cynthiana, Kentucky, captured.

    ” 18—Southern raid into Indiana. Gen. Twiggs died.

    ” 22—Siege of Vicksburg abandoned by U. S. forces.

      This month is generally disastrous to eastern and western
      Union armies. Confederate armies become strongly aggressive,
      and advance north into Ky., and toward Maryland.

    Aug. 3—Gen. Jeff. Thompson, Confederate, defeated near
      Memphis, Tenn.

    ” 4—U. S. Sec. of War ordered a draft of 300,000 men to serve
      for nine months.

    ” 5—Battle of Baton Rouge, La. Gen. Breckinridge defeated.

    ” 10—Battle of Cedar Mountain. Gen. Jackson fails to drive
      Gen. Banks.

    ” 16—Gen. McClellan evacuates the Peninsula.

    ” 21—Gen. Sigel obtains an important and bloody advantage on
      the Rappahannock.

    ” 26—Confederate Gen. Ewell drives Unionists from Manassas,
      Va.

      Union expedition up the Yazoo river, Mississippi, is
      successful.

    ” 27—Gen. Pope defeats Gen. Ewell at Haymarket, Va.

    ” 28—Battle of Centreville. Gen. Jackson repulsed.

    ” 29—Battle of Groveton, near Bull Run, Va. Confederates
      repulsed, but renewed the fight next day and Gen. Pope
      withdrew.

    ” 30—Battle near Richmond, Ky. Union Gen. Nelson defeated
      with heavy loss.

    ” 31—Battle of Weldon, Va., a Union victory. The general
      operations of this month by the main armies east and west
      largely in favor of the South, notwithstanding heavy losses
      inflicted and successes gained in detached engagements by
      the U. S. troops. The armies under Lee and Bragg pressed on
      northward with incredible vigor. No repulses or defeats could
      stop their headlong rush.

    Sept. 1—The last of Gen. Pope’s battles in Va., near
      Washington. Two of his generals were killed, Kearney and
      Stevens. The enemy retired, leaving their dead and wounded.
      In 6 days Pope had lost near 10,000 in killed and wounded.

      Battle at Britton’s Lane, Tenn. Confederates fled.

      Union Army evacuate Lexington, Ky. Fight at Jackson, Tenn.

    ” 2—McClellan put in command of army for the defense of
      Washington.

    ” 5—Confederate army cross the Potomac to Frederick, Maryland.

      Attack on Union troops at Washington, N. C. It is repulsed.

    ” 6—Col. Lowe recaptured Clarksville, Tenn.

    ” 8—Gen. Lee issues a proclamation to the Marylanders.

    ” 9—Col. Grierson overcomes Southern forces at Coldwater,
      Miss.

      Union forces repel the enemy at Williamsburgh, Va.

      Fredericksburg, Va., evacuated by Southern forces.

    ” 10—Great fears of invasion in Pennsylvania and Ohio.
      Philadelphia and Cincinnati begin to prepare for an attack.

    ” 11—Ganby, Va., Maysville, Ky., and Bloomfield, Mo., taken
      by Southern forces.

    ” 12—Charleston, S. C., bombarded and partially burnt. Fight
      on Elk river, Va., and at Middletown, Maryland.

    ” 13—Harper’s Ferry, Va., besieged. It surrendered on the
      15th with 11,500 men.

    ” 14—McClellan engages Lee’s army at South Mountain, Md. Lee
      retired toward the Potomac. The invasion of the North was
      stopped, for this time, in the East.

    ” 16—Munfordsville, Ky., captured by Confederates and 4,000
      prisoners taken.

    ” 17—Lee unwilling to give up his plan of invasion, makes
      another stand at Antietam creek, and a great battle was
      fought. Near 100,000 men on each side. The result was
      indecisive, the losses nearly equal, both in the neighborhood
      of 13,000. Lee retreated across the Potomac in the night, and
      Harper’s Ferry was evacuated.

    ” 20—Gen. Rosecrans defeats the Southerners with great loss
      at Iuka, Miss.

    ” 22—President Lincoln issues an Emancipation Proclamation,
      declaring all the slaves free, unless the Southern States
      discontinued the war within 100 days.

    ” 27—U. S. garrison at Augusta, Ky., surrender after a very
      gallant fight.

    Oct. 3—Battle of Corinth, Miss. Confederates defeated with
      great loss.

    ” 8-9—Battle of Perryville, Ky. Southern army having been
      arrested in its advance and obliged to retreat before Gen.
      Buell, turned on his advance and inflicted a severe blow, but
      are forced to resume their retreat.

    ” 10—Confederate cavalry, under Stuart, make a raid on
      Chambersburg, Penn. They capture 500 horses and many stores
      and hastily return to Virginia.

    ” 14—One hundred thousand dollars sent to Sanitary Commission
      from San Francisco.

    ” 15—Battle near Richmond, Ky.

    ” 19—Gen. Forrest defeated by Union forces, near Gallatin,
      Texas.

    ” 22—Southern defeat at Maysville, Ark., by Gen. Blunt.

    ” 24—An English steamer bringing military stores to the
      South, captured.

    ” 28—Confederates defeated by Gen. Herron, at Fayetteville,
      Ark.

    ” 30—Gen. Rosecrans supersedes Buell in Kentucky. Gen.
      Mitchell, the astronomer, died in S. C.

    Nov. 5—Gen. McClellan relieved of command in Va. by Gen.
      Burnside.

      Attack on Nashville by Confederates. They are repulsed.

    ” 11—Southern defeat at Garrettsburg, Ky., by Gen. Ransom.

      Exchange of prisoners effected.

    ” 16—President Lincoln enjoins on soldiers in camp and
      garrison observance of the Sabbath.

    ” 17—Cavalry fight near Kingston, N. C. Southerners beaten.

    ” 22—All political State prisoners released by U. S.
      government.

    ” 25—Newbern, N. C. attacked by Southern troops. They soon
      retire.

    ” 28—Battle of Cane Hill, Ark. A Union victory.

    Dec. 1—The Pittsburg Battery, captured on the Peninsula,
      retaken by a Union force sent from Suffolk, Va.

    ” 5—Battle of Coffeeville, Miss. Southern loss was heavy.

    ” 6—Gen. Banks’ expedition for the South sailed for New
      Orleans.

    ” 7—At Prairie Grove, Ark., Gens. Blunt and Herron defeated
      Confederates.

      Confederate Gen. Morgan captured several regiments of Western
      troops.

    ” 8—Steamer Lake City destroyed by Southerners.

    ” 9—U. S. troops burn Concordia, on the Mississippi.

    ” 13—Battle of Fredericksburg. A severe repulse to the Union
      army.

      Gen. Foster makes a cavalry raid into the interior of N. C.,
      a success.

      Commodore Parker destroys Confederate salt works, five
      schooners and two sloops.

    ” 17—Gen. Banks captures Baton Rouge, the capital of
      Louisiana.

    ” 19—Confederates retake Holly Springs, Miss., and large
      stores with 4,000 bales of cotton.

    ” 26—Indians, engaged in the Minnesota massacre, hung—38 in
      number.

    ” 27—Vicksburg attacked by Gen. Sherman and gunboats,
      unsuccessfully.

    ” 31—Battle of Murfreesboro, or Stone River, commenced with a
      Federal repulse.

      The Monitor that conquered the Merrimac, foundered at sea.

      Act of Congress admitting West Virginia into the Union as a
      sovereign State. This was to take effect 60 days after the
      President’s proclamation making this announcement.




CHAPTER XXVI.

CAMPAIGN OF 1863.


The preliminary Proclamation of Emancipation, issued Sept. 22d, 1862,
was not to take effect for 100 days, or until Jan. 1st, 1863. Meanwhile
the final details of the great operations, undertaken on both sides
during 1862, were wound up. The bold efforts of the South, in the East
and West, to transfer the war into the North, and indemnify themselves
for the strict blockade of the coast by drawing supplies from the enemy,
had resulted in defeat and withdrawal; not unaccompanied with booty,
especially in the west, where Bragg’s train of supplies was said to have
been 40 miles long. The southern people had failed in the main point,
yet they had gained much. Federal reverses in the east had stopped the
victories in the west in mid career, both by withdrawing from those
armies to the east, and adding to the Confederates from the same region.
Grant and Sherman failed at Vicksburg, and Buell at Chattanooga.

Yet these reverses to the Union arms served to stimulate the north, and
to demonstrate the energy, resources, and indomitable resolution of the
National government, and to undeceive the South as to the real sentiments
of the great body of the Democratic party from which they had hoped
aid on an invasion in force. Several of the European Powers, who would
have liked to support the South, seeing the formidable character of the
General Government, drew back in fear. The South might have foreseen that
her cause was really hopeless; but she was too American not to feel an
unconquerable resolution to carry her point or perish. She strengthened
her armies and prepared for another invasion.

The Federal armies were now (Jan. 1863,) about 800,000 strong; her navy
consisted of near 450 vessels, a large number being iron-clads. The
great events of the campaign were Lee’s invasion of Pennsylvania and his
retreat after the battle of Gettysburg, and Grant’s success at Vicksburg
and Chattanooga. The resolution of the South, enveloped in the embrace
of so mighty an antagonist, was wonderful; the unfaltering spirit, and
readiness of the northern people to furnish whatever was required for
success was still more so. The whole South, at least every State, was
the theater of many contests of more or less importance; but the main
interest centered on the Mississippi river, at Chattanooga and its
vicinity, and on Gen. Lee’s army in Virginia or Pennsylvania. It was a
contest of giants; yet, struggle as she might, the South was doomed. At
the end of this year she was still strong, her armies were veterans, her
spirit unbroken. The Federal Government had gained much, but it was step
by step, inch by inch; and, in some parts, as in Virginia, what had been
gained many times over, in territory, had been as often lost. Her general
gain over the Confederate States lay most largely in the fatal process
of exhaustion to which the vast operations of the Federal government
forced the South. Increase of numbers made the battles more bloody and
wasteful of life. The three leading events in this campaign—the capture
of Vicksburg, (the battle of Chickamauga was a Confederate victory, but
balanced by that of Chattanooga,) the battle of Gettysburg, and the
battle of Chattanooga—were all decisive against the Confederates, yet
leaving her strength for a long and vigorous contest of more than a year
and a half.


1863.

    Jan. 1—The year opened with a Confederate success at
      Galveston, Texas. An attack by sea and land resulted in the
      capture of 300 troops, the destruction of one vessel with
      its crew, and the capture of another, the Harriet Lane. Com.
      Renshaw was blown up with his vessel.

      Confederate defeat at Lexington, Tenn., after an obstinate
      fight.

      Proclamation of Emancipation issued by President Lincoln.

      Long, but indecisive battle of Stone River. Federal killed
      and wounded, 8,000.

    ” 3—Union army withdraws from before Vicksburg. Southern army
      retreats at Murfreesborough, Tenn.

    ” 7—Springfield, Mo., successfully defended by Unionists.

    ” 9—20,000 prisoners exchanged.

    ” 11—A combined attack on Fts. Hindman and Arkansas Post by
      gunboats and land forces, resulted in Union success—over
      7,000 prisoners.

    ” 12—Three Federal transports and a gunboat captured on
      Cumberland river.

    ” 13—The Southern steamer, Florida, escapes from Mobile.

    ” 17—$100,000,000 issued by the U. S. government in notes to
      pay the army.

    ” 20—Blockading vessels captured by Confederates, at Sabine
      City, Texas.

    ” 22—Attack on Vicksburg resumed. Gen. Porter dismissed from
      U. S. army.

    ” 25—A regiment of colored soldiers organized at Port Royal,
      S. C.

    ” 26—Gen. Hooker succeeds Gen. Burnside, in command of the
      Union Army of the Potomac, and Gens. Sumner and Franklin are
      relieved from duty.

      The Confederate war steamer, Alabama, destroys one vessel and
      captures another.

    Feb. 1—A second unsuccessful gunboat attack on Ft. McAllister.

    ” 5—Destruction of transports on Red River, La. Ft. Donelson
      repels Southern troops.

    ” 12—The Florida captures the Union merchant vessel, Jacob
      Bell.

    ” 13—The iron-clad, Indianola, runs the blockade at
      Vicksburg, and is captured.

    ” 18—Vicksburg bombarded by gunboats—ineffectually.

    ” 21—The Alabama, a Confederate cruiser, destroys two vessels
      on the African coast.

    ” 25—The Bureau of Currency and National Banks established by
      U. S. Congress.

    ” 26—The Cherokees return to the Union, and abolish slavery.

      Twenty-eight cars, with stores, destroyed by Confederates, in
      Kentucky.

    ” 28—Confederate iron-clad, Nashville, destroyed in Ogeechee
      river, Geo.

    Mar. 1—Third fruitless Union attack on Ft. McAllister, Geo.

    ” 2—U. S. Generals increased to 358.

    ” 3—Congress authorizes loan of $900,000,000. These are
      called _ten-forty’s_.

      The President authorized to suspend the writ of Habeas Corpus.

      U. S. Assistant Treasurer provided by act of Congress.

      Territorial government organized in Idaho.

      Two U. S. gunboats destroyed.

    ” 5—Van Dorn (Confederate) captures Springfield, Tenn., and
      many prisoners.

    ” 6—Van Dorn captures a considerable Union force at Franklin,
      Tenn.

    ” 7—Gen. Minty captures a Confederate cavalry force at
      Unionville, Tenn.

    ” 10—Colored troops captured Jacksonville, Florida.

    ” 14—Port Hudson, Mississippi river, attacked by the Union
      gunboat fleet under Com. Farragut. The flag ship disabled and
      burnt.

    ” 17—Gallant and successful exploit of Union cavalry at
      Kelly’s Ford, Va.

    ” 19—An English steamer with arms for the South destroyed off
      Charleston.

    ” 20—Defeat of Morgan (Confederate) at Milton, Tenn.

    ” 25—Two Union vessels lost before Vicksburg.

    ” 28—Confederate steamer Iris captured near Charleston, S. C.

    Apr. 1—Admiral Farragut passes the batteries of Grand Gulf.

      Great scarcity of many things in the Confederacy from the
      strictness of the blockade, and extreme depreciation of
      Confederate money. No cotton could be sold.

    ” 7—An attack on Fort Sumter by nine Union iron clads. They
      are worsted.

      The Alabama Confederate cruiser captures the U. S. ship
      Morning Star.

    ” 10—Two Union gunboats destroyed on Cumberland river.

      Van Dorn repulsed by Union General Granger, at Franklin, Tenn.

    ” 16—Com. Porter runs the batteries at Vicksburg successfully.

    ” 17—Gen. Banks vanquished Southern troops at La Teche and
      Grand Lake, La.

    ” 22—The Queen of the West captured on Grand Lake. Grigsby,
      Confederate, surprised at McMinnville, Tenn. Banks occupied
      Opelousas and Washington, Miss.

    ” 23—Gen. Hunter informs Confederate authorities that colored
      soldiers must be treated as other prisoners of war, on pain
      of retaliation.

    ” 24—Union defeat at Beverly, Va., and victories at Weber
      Falls, Ark., and on Iron Mountain Railroad, Mo.

    May 1—Gen. Grant defeated the Southern troops at Port Gibson.

      Gen. Pegram, Confederate, defeated at Monticello, Ky.

      A third defeat of Southern troops, at South Quay, Va.

      Unionists defeated at La Grange, Ark. Battle of
      Chancellorsville, Va., begins.

    ” 2—Col. Grierson, of U. S. army, finished a daring and
      successful raid through the interior of Miss. Traveled 800
      miles in 16 days. Battle of Chancellorsville continued. It
      was a Federal repulse. Loss each side 15,000.

    ” 3—Capture of Grand Gulf, Miss., by Admiral Porter.

    ” 2—Vallandigham arrested in Ohio for treason. He was sent
      South. 100 Secessionists of St. Louis sent South for treason.

    ” 10—Stonewall Jackson, an able and brilliant Southern
      general, died of wounds received in battle.

    ” 11—Gen. Logan, Union, defeats Gen. Grigg at Farnden’s
      Creek, Miss. Each had about 5,000 men.

    ” 12—Gen. McPherson captured Raymond, Miss., from
      Confederates.

    ” 13—Yazoo City, and $2,000,000 property, captured by Union
      gunboats. Gen. Grant defeats Confederate army and captures
      Jackson, Miss.

    ” 16—Gen. Grant defeats Pemberton at Baker’s Creek, Miss.,
      with heavy loss. Each had about 25,000 men. Pemberton lost
      4,000 men and next day 2,000 more.

    ” 18—Grant commences siege of Vicksburg, Miss.

    ” 26—Gen. Breckenridge, Confederate, suffered defeat in
      Tennessee.

    ” 29—An immense train arrives in Gen. Banks’ lines near Port
      Hudson: 600 wagons, 3,000 horses and mules, 1,500 cattle,
      6,000 negroes. Gen. Banks fails in several attacks on Port
      Hudson.

    June 3—A brilliant raid by a colored regiment in South
      Carolina.

    ” 11—Forrest, of Confederate cavalry, defeated at Triune,
      Tenn.

    ” 15—President Lincoln calls for 120,000 militia, to repel
      Lee’s invasion of Penn.

    ” 18—About 100,000 Southern forces enter Penn., near
      Chambersburg.

    ” 20—West Virginia admitted as a State into the Union.
      Missouri Legislature abolishes slavery.

      In this month the great events of the campaign, the taking
      of Vicksburg and opening the Mississippi river, and the
      failure of Gen. Lee’s invasion by his loss of the battle of
      Gettysburg, are rapidly approaching the grand crisis.

    July—The first days of this month formed the crisis of the
      war.

    ” 3—Gen. Lee, with 100,000 men, was defeated by Gen. Meade at
      Gettysburg, Pa., with about equal numbers. Lee retreated into
      Virginia. The Union losses at Gettysburg were 23,000. Lee had
      lost in his 17 days in the Free States 60,000 men altogether.

    ” 4—Vicksburg surrendered to Gen. Grant, after a siege of 41
      days. In the battles immediately preceding, under Grant, and
      in this siege and capitulation, the South lost near 50,000
      men. Grant’s losses were about 9,000.

      Gen. Prentice defeated a greatly superior force at Helena,
      Ark.

    ” 8—Port Hudson surrenders to Gen. Banks, with 7,000 men.

      Morgan, of Confederate cavalry, invades Indiana and Ohio with
      5,000 men. He is captured before he can return.

    ” 13—Great riot in New York city.

    ” 17—Gen. Sherman defeats Johnson, and occupies Jackson, Miss.

    ” 20—Two successful Union cavalry expeditions, in N. C. and
      Va.

    ” 23—Battle of Manassas Gap. Unionists defeat a superior
      force.

      A Confederate victory at Richmond, Ky.

    ” 31—Confederates beaten in Kentucky.

    Aug. 1—Two cavalry battles in Va.

    ” 4—Disastrous loss of U. S. steamer Ruth, on the
      Mississippi, by fire.

    ” 12—Gen. Gilmore bombarded Ft. Sumter and Charleston most of
      the month.

    ” 17—Successful cavalry raid into Mississippi to destroy
      stores.

    ” 20—Lawrence, Kansas, attacked and destroyed by guerillas.

      A guerilla war was carried on very largely this month, both
      east and west of the Mississippi.

    Sept. 1—Knoxville, Tenn., captured by Gen. Burnside.

      Gen. Blunt defeated the Confederates, and captured Ft. Smith,
      Ark.

    ” 6—Fts. Wagner and Gregg captured by Gen. Gilmore,
      Charleston, S. C.

    ” 8—Cumberland Gap taken by Gen. Burnside. 2,000 prisoners.

    ” 10—Little Rock occupied by Union forces.

    ” 19-20—A terrible battle is fought at Chickamauga (in Indian
      the “River of Death,”) in which Gen. Rosecrans with some
      50,000 to 60,000 troops is severely defeated by Bragg, with
      about 45,000. Federal losses about 15,000. Yet Bragg did not
      capture Chattanooga.

    ” 22—Severe battle at Madison Court House, Va. Union victory.

    ” 28—Gen. Burnside repulses Confederates at Knoxville, Tenn.

    Oct. 3—Union troops throw Greek fire into Charleston, S. C.

    ” 5—Chattanooga bombarded by Bragg.

    ” 9—Defeat of Wheeler’s Confederate cavalry, in Tenn.

    ” 14—Battle at Bristoe Station, Va. Favorable to U. S. troops.

    ” 16—Gen. Grant takes command of the Western armies.

    ” 17—The President calls for 300,000 more troops.

    ” 21—A battle in Alabama, in Mississippi, and in Tennessee.

    ” 27—Battle of Brown’s Ferry, near Chattanooga. Confederates
      beaten.

    ” 28—Gen. Hooker takes Lookout Mountain.

    ” 31—Gen. Hooker gains the battle of Shell Mound.

    Nov.—The main interest of the month gathers about the great
      and decisive battle of Chattanooga, between Gens. Grant
      and Bragg. All the forces to be spared on either side were
      concentrated here. Chattanooga has been called, “The back
      door of the Confederacy.”

    Nov. 5—Chattanooga bombarded by the Southern forces.

      Gen. Avery gains a Union victory at Lewisburg, Va.

    ” 6—The North is thrilled with indignation at barbarities
      ascertained to have been perpetrated in Southern prisons.

    ” 7—Gen. Meade drives Southern army across the Rappahannock.

    ” 11—The British government makes known an intended invasion
      of the North from Canada, by Confederates.

    ” 15—Gen. Banks takes Corpus Christi, Texas.

    ” 17—Charleston continues to be shelled.

      Gen. Longstreet detached from Confederate army at
      Chattanooga, with 15,000 men, to attack Burnside.

    ” 19—National Cemetery consecrated, at Gettysburg.

    ” 23-26—Battles of Chattanooga and Lookout Mountain. Southern
      forces about 60,000, Grant’s about 80,000. Confederate losses
      10,000, Union, 5,616. It was a blow never recovered by the
      Confederacy.

    ” 28—Gen. Longstreet attacks Knoxville and is repulsed with
      loss.




CHAPTER XXVII.

CAMPAIGN OF 1864.


There was a lull, for a time, in the tempest of war. The Confederate
forces had lost ground that they could hardly hope to regain. The
Mississippi river and Eastern Tennessee, both of supreme importance to
the Confederacy, were in possession of the Union armies, which grew ever
stronger. They were now about 1,000,000 men, and the navy had increased
to over 600 vessels. This force was soon put in vigorous hands, that
gripped fast what they once held. The misfortune of many commanders and
continual changes, from political rather than military considerations,
began to be well understood. Grant had gained so uniformly when others
had failed, he was recognized as so tenacious and unwearied, that he
received and held the confidence of the people and the government.
This was a point of great importance for shortening the war; for the
Southern people were still resolute, had still a vast country, were
on the defensive in a smaller region than before, and could resist
more effectively with a smaller army. It still made a most gallant
and determined resistance which the vast resources of the national
government did not enable them to overcome for a year and a half. The
country was still covered with detached bodies of troops. A desultory war
was maintained where strong armies failed to hold the ground, or were
concentrated at a few points. The great movements were in Virginia and
Georgia. The secondary in Tennessee, in Mississippi, and Texas.

It took a year to break the will of the Southern people after they were
really conquered. This period covers the year 1864; 1865 furnishes only
the dying struggles of the Confederacy, already mortally wounded.


1864.

The bombardment of Charleston continued during the preceding month. Some
cavalry movements were made, the President of the U. S. offered amnesty
to all who would take an oath of allegiance, and Gen. Butler announced
that the Confederate government refused to receive any more supplies for
Union prisoners from the North.

    Jan. 7—Three blockade runners captured.

    ” 11—Two more were destroyed, making 22 in a few months.

    ” 25—Mr. Vanderbilt, having presented a steamer worth
      $800,000 to the U. S. government, received the thanks of
      Congress.

    Feb. 1—The President of the U. S. ordered a draft of 500,000
      men.

    ” 5—Two English steamers, with supplies for the South,
      captured.

    ” 9—Cotton worth $700,000 burned at Wilmington, N. C.

    ” 20—Negro troops cover the retreat of a defeated white Union
      force at Olustee, Fla.

    ” 28—The large armies being broken up or concentrated, and
      the lines of communication very much interrupted, many Union
      cavalry raids, aiming to break the lines of communication
      by railroad completely, to lay waste the country, and to
      free the negroes, who were raising supplies for the Southern
      armies, in the far interior, were undertaken. That of Sherman
      to Meridian, in Miss., and of Grierson and Smith, and many
      smaller ones, were executed during this month. The damage to
      railroads and the supplies destroyed were incalculable. 18
      blockade runners and other vessels bringing supplies to the
      South were destroyed during the month.

    Mar. 2—Gen. Grant made Lt. General; the only one who had
      reached that dignity since Gen. Washington—Gen. Scott being
      Lt. Gen. only by brevet.

    ” 12—Gen. Grant made Commander-in-chief of the U. S. armies.

    ” 15—The President of the U. S. calls for 200,000 more men.

    ” 25—Confederate Gen. Forrest makes three assaults on
      Paducah, Ky., with loss of 1,500 men, in vain.

    ” 28—A severe defeat inflicted on Southern forces at Cane
      River, La.

    Apr. 4—Gen. Marmaduke defeated by Gen. Steele, Unionist, at
      Little Missouri, Ark.

    ” 8—Gen. Banks suffers reverses on the Red River, and
      retreats with loss.

    ” 12—Gen. Forrest takes Ft. Pillow and massacres the
      garrison, many being negroes.

    ” 21—Salt works in North Carolina destroyed—value $100,000.
      As salt was indispensable to army operations, the utmost
      effort was made to ruin as many as possible.

    ” 23—Governors of Western States offer the U.S. government
      85,000 men for 100 days. President accepts them.

    May 2—400 Union prisoners are brought to Annapolis nearly
      starved.

    ” 4—Gen. Grant crosses the Rapidan in Va. and commences
      operations in the Wilderness. He, with 140,000 men, confronts
      Lee, who has 60,000.

    ” 5—Fighting in the Wilderness for two days without decided
      result. Costs Grant 30,000 (5,000 were prisoners) and Lee
      10,000. Lee was intrenched and familiar with the ground,
      which was highly unfavorable to the Union army.

    ” 6—Gen. Sherman confronts Gen. Joe Johnson near Chattanooga.
      Sherman has near 100,000; Johnson 60,000.

    ” 7—Lee retreats toward Spottsylvania Court-House. Union army
      follows, fighting.

      To this date 150,000 Southern soldiers had been made
      prisoners during the course of the war.

    May 8—Battle of Spottsylvania; result indecisive.

    ” 10—Battle of Spottsylvania continued. Still indecisive.
      Losses to each side 10,000 men.

    ” 12—Lee and Grant fight again, without victory by either.

    ” 13—Sheridan destroyed Lee’s depot of supplies in his rear,
      at Beaver Dam.

    ” 15—Sherman drives Johnson from Resaca after two days’
      fighting.

    ” 21—Lee is flanked at Spottsylvania, and retires to the
      North Anna.

    ” 23—Morgan (Confederate cavalry) enters Ky. with 4,000 men.

    ” 25—Sheridan rejoins Grant, after a brilliant series of
      daring deeds in the rear of Lee. Gen. Stuart, a very able
      Confederate cavalry leader, is killed in this raid.

    ” 27—Grant again flanked Lee, crossing the Pamunky to
      Hanovertown.

    June 1—Battle of Cold Harbor, north of, and near, Richmond.
      It was fought with the utmost bravery and obstinacy, but
      gained no more decisive end than the destruction of men and
      material involved. This was very severe on Lee, from the
      smaller number he had to fall back on.

    ” 7—Abraham Lincoln renominated for the presidency of the U.
      S.

    ” 14—Gen. Polk (a Southern bishop) killed.

    ” 15—An unsuccessful assault for three days on Petersburg.
      Union losses 10,000 men.

    ” 18—To this time Grant had lost 64,000 men—Lee 38,000 during
      this campaign.

    ” 19—Steamer Kearsarge sinks the famous Alabama, on the coast
      of France.

    ” 20—Petersburg strongly reinforced by Lee.

    ” 27—Sherman, pushing Johnson at Keneshaw, meets a severe
      repulse. In one month he had driven Johnson 100 miles, fought
      six battles, and killed, wounded or taken prisoner 17,000
      men. He followed Grant’s principle, and “flanked” him. A
      retreat was the result.

    July 1—Public debt over $1,740,000,000.

    ” 9—Gen. Early, with 20,000 Confederate troops, passes into
      Grant’s rear, and makes a hasty march north into Maryland.
      This day he gained a victory over Gen. Wallace, but his
      losses were so great that he was hindered in his design of
      capturing Washington, though within six miles of it at one
      time. He retreats, but soon turns back.

    ” 18—President Lincoln calls for 500,000 more troops.

    ” 19—Gen. Averill (Union) gives Early a check, but finally
      falls back.

    ” 20-22—Severe battles in the neighborhood of Atlanta, Geo.
      Gen. Sherman victorious. Confederate losses in all over
      15,000; Union about 5,500. Union Gen. McPherson killed.

    ” 22—A mine, made under the fortifications of Petersburg,
      completed. It was charged with 8,000 lbs. of powder.

    ” 28—Early sent a detachment into Penn., which burnt
      Chambersburg.

    ” 30—Gen. Stoneman defeated and taken prisoner at Macon,
      Geo., by Confederates.

      The mine exploded at Petersburg, blowing up a fort and
      its garrison; but, from unskillful management, proved a
      Union disaster; 4,000 men were lost in killed, wounded
      and prisoners. A constant artillery attack was kept up on
      Petersburg through this month.

    Aug. 2—Gen. Banks puts all the negroes in his region in the
      army (Grand Gulf, La.).

    ” 3—Constant fighting at Atlanta. Hood (Confederate) repulsed.

    ” 5—Admiral Farragut enters Mobile bay with 18 vessels, and
      captures or destroys the vessels and forts. It was the last
      seaport of the Confederacy.

    ” 7—Union Gen. Averill gains a complete victory at Moorfield,
      West Va.

    ” 9—Atlanta, Geo., bombarded by Sherman’s army.

    ” 11—The Confederate vessel Tallahassee burns 5 vessels, and
      5 more in the course of Aug.

    ” 13—Mosby, Confederate, captures an immense supply train at
      Berryville, Va.

    ” 19—Success of Southern forces before Petersburg. Took 2,000
      prisoners.

    ” 21—Lee fails to dislodge Warner, who is destroying the
      Weldon R. R. In three days Grant lost 4,500 men in this
      undertaking.

    ” 31—Gen. Howard, of Sherman’s army, gains a decided victory
      at Jonesborough, Geo.

    Sept. 2—Gen. Hood evacuates Atlanta, Geo., a very important
      place, which Sherman at once occupies. Sherman had lost
      30,000 men in this campaign, the Confederates 42,000.

    ” 5—Gen. Morgan, an active Southern cavalry officer, is
      killed at Granville, Tenn.

    ” 12—Sherman sends away all the families and burns a
      good part of Atlanta, preparatory to great and brilliant
      operations.

    ” 13—General Sheridan in the Shenandoah Valley, Va.

    ” 16—A strong force of Confederate cavalry drive off 2,500
      beeves belonging to the Union army on James river.

    ” 19—Sheridan defeats Early, (at Oquequan, Shenandoah
      valley,) inflicting a loss of 8,000 men.

    ” 22—Sheridan again inflicts a loss of near 4,000 on Early,
      at Fisher’s Hill, Va.

    ” 29—Gen. Grant advances to within ten miles of Richmond, on
      the north.

      Gen. Price again invades Missouri.

    ” 30—The blockading force captured and destroyed 50 vessels
      this month.

    Oct. 5—A repulse of the Southern forces at Allatoona, Geo.

    ” 7—The Confederate steamer Florida captured by the
      Wachusett, on the coast of Brazil.

      Sheridan, having laid waste the Shenandoah valley, returns
      South.

    ” 8—Sheridan defeats the Confederates again in the Shenandoah
      valley.

    ” 11—Maryland votes for a constitution abolishing slavery.

    ” 19—Sheridan annihilated Early, at Cedar Creek, by his
      famous “ride from Winchester,” and rallying his men, after
      they had been defeated.

      Confederate refugees from Canada rob a bank in St. Albans, Vt.

    ” 23—Gen. Price defeated at Blue river, Missouri.

    ” 27—Gen. Grant closes the active campaign by an extensive
      reconnaissance.

    ” 28—Gen. Blunt defeats Price and drives him out of Missouri.
      He returns no more.

    Nov.—Gen. Hood, in command of the forces in Georgia,
      withdrew from the neighborhood of Atlanta, for the purpose
      of destroying Sherman’s base of supplies, and invading
      Tennessee and Kentucky. He had now about 40,000 men. Gen.
      Thomas was sent into Tennessee, by Sherman, with a strong
      force, to contend with him; and Sherman, breaking away from
      his northern connections, commences his celebrated “march to
      the sea,” in which he is lost to his friends for 40 days, but
      reaches Savannah in safety.

    ” 4—Johnsonville, Tenn., bombarded. 3 gunboats and 8
      transports, with $1,500,000 of stores destroyed.

    ” 8—President Lincoln re-elected. Gen. McClellan resigns his
      commission.

    ” 11—A gunboat, the Tulip, blows up on Potomac river. Her
      boiler burst.

    ” 13—Gen. Breckenridge attacks Gillem, near Morristown,
      Tenn., capturing his artillery, and several hundred prisoners.

    ” 14—Atlanta completely destroyed by Sherman, before his
      march South.

    ” 16—Gen. Stoneman attacks Breckenridge, at Marion, Tenn.,
      and captures his artillery and 200 prisoners.

      Gen. Sherman starts for Savannah through the heart of the
      Confederacy, with over 65,000 troops. He destroys railroads
      and lays the country waste wherever he is treated in a
      hostile manner.

    ” 22—Sherman’s army reach Milledgeville, the capital of
      Georgia. The Gov. and Legislature hastily retire. The
      soldiers amuse themselves by holding a mock legislature,
      passing loyal resolutions, &c.

    ” 24—The Union army in Va., receive nearly 100,000 pounds
      of turkeys, sent from the North to supply them a Christmas
      dinner.

    ” 25—An attempt to fire New York city miscarries.

    ” 30—Gen. Hood, Confederate, with 40,000 men, attacks
      Schofield, 18 miles from Nashville. Gen. Schofield had
      only 17,000 men. Hood made four attacks, and was each time
      repulsed. He lost 6,000 men. At midnight Schofield retreated
      to Nashville, and joined Thomas, followed by Hood’s army.

    Dec. 1—The U. S. navy has 671 vessels, carrying over 4,000
      guns, and 51,000 men. It has captured 324 vessels during the
      year—during the war, 1,379—267 being steamers.

    ” 5—65 blockade runners, ships and cargoes worth $12,000,000,
      have been captured or destroyed by the U. S. navy, at
      Wilmington, N. C.

    ” 6—Mr. Chase, ex-Sec. of the U. S. Treasury, appointed Chief
      Justice of the Supreme Court.

    ” 12—Gen. Sherman’s army reaches the rear of Savannah, Geo.,
      which is occupied by the Confederate Gen. Hardee, with 15,000
      men.

    ” 13—Gen. Hazen, of Sherman’s command, captures Ft.
      McAllister, near Savannah. It had been frequently attacked by
      gunboats, in vain.

    ” 15—Gen. Rousseau defeats the Southern forces under Forrest
      at Murfreesborough, Tenn., with great loss.

    ” 15-16—Battle of Nashville, Tenn., in which Gen. Hood is
      completely defeated by Gen. Thomas, Federal commander. Hood’s
      flying troops pursued 200 miles. It was one of the most fatal
      blows of the war for the South.

    ” 19—President Lincoln calls for 300,000 volunteers to finish
      the war.

    ” 20—Gen. Stoneman, Unionist, captures forts and destroys
      salt works, lead mines, and railway bridges at Saltville,
      East Tennessee.

      Gen. Sherman summons Savannah to surrender. Gen. Hardee
      retreated in the night. Gen. Sherman takes possession next
      day.




CHAPTER XXVIII.

CONCLUDING CAMPAIGN.


The year 1864 closed in general disaster to the Confederacy. Sherman had
broken the Confederate power in Georgia, destroyed its communications
with the Mississippi States, and taken Savannah. Gen. Thomas had
broken up Hood’s army, in Tennessee, and Grant had closely beleagured
the Southern army in Virginia within Richmond and its defenses; while
Sheridan had dealt blow after blow on Early, in the Shenandoah Valley,
and quite ruined his army.

The future operations required the subjugation of the interiors of
North and South Carolina, the taking of a few forts on the coast, and
the capture of Lee’s army in Richmond. The only other army of strength,
the remnant of Hood’s forces, was in the Southern interior. The Federal
government was stronger than ever, both by sea and land. The Southern
people were much discouraged; their finances ruined; their fighting
men mostly disabled, scattered, forced into submission, or, hopeless
of ultimate success, had voluntarily withdrawn from the contest in so
large numbers that the Confederate forces were everywhere inferior,
and only upheld by the indomitable pride and bravery inherent in the
Anglo-American. They would submit only when necessity absolutely
compelled them; and thus saved their honor, in their own eyes. They
had made a fatal mistake, and they reaped the full harvest of ruin.
Yet, their prolonged resistance served to utterly annihilate slavery;
raised the negroes to the honorable position of Defenders of the Union;
and, the last of Jan., 1865, an amendment to the U. S. Constitution was
prepared forever abolishing slavery in the country. In the end the blacks
became citizens. We have now but a short record to complete our View of
the Civil War. The South had still over 100,000 men in arms, but they
were surrounded, cut off from supplies, outnumbered, and pressed with
relentless vigor. This was Grant’s policy.


1865.

    Jan. 14—Vessels are sent from Boston and New York with large
      supplies from the charitable, for Southern sufferers in
      Savannah, Geo.

    ” 15—Ft. Fisher, on the coast of N. C., captured by Gen.
      Terry, in conjunction with the U. S. fleet. It is the last
      stronghold of the South on the sea.

      Edward Everett died, at Boston, Mass.

    ” 16—The magazine at Ft. Fisher exploded, killing and
      wounding 300 Union men.

    ” 17—A Federal monitor blown up by torpedoes, in Charleston
      Harbor, S. C.

    ” 20—Corinth, Miss., evacuated by Southern troops.

    ” 23—Gen. Hood surrenders his command in the Southern army to
      Gen. Taylor.

    ” 28—Gen. Breckenridge becomes Confederate Sec. of War.

    ” 29—Southern Commissioners seek an interview with President
      Lincoln at Fortress Monroe, in the interest of Peace. They
      failed to make any satisfactory terms.

    ” 31—Joint resolution of Congress to amend the U. S.
      Constitution abolishing slavery (14th Amendment).

    Feb.—Nine States ratify the Constitutional Amendment in this
      month.

    ” 5—Grant suffers a repulse at Hatcher’s Run. Loss 2,000 men.

    ” 17—Columbia, S. C., accidentally burned on its evacuation
      by Southern troops. A Confederate dollar (paper) worth but
      two cents in Richmond, Va.

    ” 18—Union troops take possession of Charleston, S. C., as
      a result of Sherman’s march from Savannah north-eastward
      toward Richmond. Many buildings in Charleston burned in the
      destruction of Confederate stores by the retiring army.

      Gen. Lee in favor of arming the negroes for the defense of
      the South. It is declined by the Confederate government,
      until too late.

    ” 25—800 Southern soldiers desert, and come into Union lines.

    Mar. 2—Sheridan completely routs Gen. Early again, taking
      1,700 troops prisoners.

    ” 4—President Lincoln inaugurated for his second term.

    ” 10—Gen. Bragg defeated, at Kingston, N. C.

    ” 15—Gen. Hardee (Confederate) defeated by Sherman’s army.

    ” 18—The Confederate Congress adjourned. It never met again.

      Battle of part of Sherman’s army with Johnston, Confederate,
      24,000 strong. Southern forces made six assaults which were
      withstood. After fighting and manouvering 3 days, Johnston
      retreated having lost 3,000 men. Sherman lost 1,646.

    ” 25—Ft. Steadman, near Petersburg, Va., captured by
      Confederates, but was immediately retaken, with 2,000
      prisoners. This attack was made by Lee, preparatory to
      evacuating Richmond. Grant had about 120,000 troops, Lee
      70,000.

    ” 29—Sheridan commences an expedition to the rear of Richmond
      to cut off Lee’s retreat South.

    ” 31—Sheridan attacked and hard pushed by Lee’s forces, but
      at night they fall back.

    Apr. 1—Sheridan, in turn, follows the Confederates, and
      drives them toward Richmond. He takes more than 5,000
      prisoners. This was the battle of Five Forks. It was fatal to
      Lee’s retreat.

    ” 2—Grant’s forces make a grand assault. It is successful,
      and Lee prepares to evacuate Richmond. President Davis leaves
      his capital in haste, for Danville, N. C. Gen. Lee commences
      his retreat in the night.

    ” 3—Richmond occupied by colored Federal troops. They find
      the city in flames.

    ” 4—President Davis endeavors to make a stand against
      disaster. He issues a proclamation from Danville.

    ” 9—Terms of surrender arranged by Gens. Grant and Lee.

    ” 10—Gen. Lee issues his farewell address to his army.

    ” 12—Confederate army yielded prisoners of war at Appomattox
      Court House, Virginia. 27,805 Confederate soldiers paroled.

      Gen. Stoneman defeats a Confederate force, at Salisbury, N. C.

      Gen. Canby, Union, occupies Mobile, Ala.

    ” 14—President Lincoln assassinated in Washington, by J.
      Wilkes Booth.

      Mr. Seward stabbed in bed, but not killed.

    ” 15—Abraham Lincoln died at 7 A. M. The whole country is in
      mourning.

      Andrew Johnson assumes the office of President of the U. S.

    ” 18—Paine, or Powell, who endeavored to assassinate Sec.
      Seward, arrested at Mrs. Surratt’s house in Washington. Mrs.
      Surratt arrested.

      Gen. Sherman arranges preliminaries for the surrender of
      all the remaining Confederate forces, with Gen. Johnston,
      commanding Southern army in N. C., with consent of
      Confederate Sec. of War and Jeff. Davis. It includes the
      basis of a general peace, and a policy of reconstruction.
      It is sent to the Federal government for their approval or
      rejection.

    ” 19—Funeral ceremonies of President Lincoln, at Washington.
      Funeral services are held all over the North. The body is
      carried in state to Springfield, Ill., stopping at prominent
      places on the route; and visited by great numbers of the
      people. 700,000 were said to have been in the procession at
      New York.

    ” 21—Gen. Sherman’s arrangement with Johnston disapproved
      by the government, and he is ordered to resume hostilities.
      Steamboat Sultana blows up on the Mississippi, and about
      1,300 U. S. soldiers returning home were killed.

    ” 24—Gen. Grant visits Sherman.

    ” 25—J. W. Booth, the assassin of the President, taken
      prisoner near Port Royal, Va. Refusing to surrender, a
      soldier shot him, contrary to orders. He died in 4 hours. No
      assassin ever met with more universal execration than Booth.
      Its necessary effect was to render the Reconstruction policy
      much more stern and painful to the South.

    ” 26—Johnston surrenders to Gen. Sherman all the Confederate
      troops in his command, on the terms granted Gen. Lee.

    ” 29—Arms and stores of Gen. Johnston’s army delivered to U.
      S. authorities, at Greensboro, N. C.

    May 2—Reward offered for capture of Jeff. Davis, of $100,000.
      He was, at first, believed accessory to the murder of
      President Lincoln.

    ” 3—President Lincoln’s remains arrive at Springfield, Ill.

    ” 4-9—All the Confederate forces disbanded, or surrendered to
      U. S. officers, east and west of Mississippi river.

    ” 10—Jeff. Davis captured in Geo., in woman’s clothes.


GENERAL DATA.

The number of volunteer troops to be mustered out of the Union army, May
1st, 1865, was 1,034,064. They were mostly discharged and paid in the
next three months. The entire enlistments in the Federal army, during the
whole war, were 2,688,523. Many were re-enlistments. It is believed that
the whole number of individuals forming the armies was only 1,500,000.
75 per cent. were native Americans, 9 per cent. Germans, and 7 per cent.
Irish. Various nationalities made up the remaining 9 per cent.

Of this million and a half 56,000 were killed in battle, 35,000 died
in hospitals of their wounds received in battle, and 184,000 died in
hospitals of disease. Many afterwards died, and others were ruined in
health for life.

It has been stated by the Adjutant General of the Confederate army, since
the close of the war, that the available Confederate force during the
entire war was 600,000, and that they never had more than 200,000 in the
field at any one time. This would seem likely to be an underestimate, but
is the nearest to official data that we have. He states the entire force
opposing the 1,000,000 men in the closing campaign to have been 100,000.
There is reason to believe that the Confederates killed, and the wounded
and sick who died in hospital, was about 300,000.

The entire amount expended by the National government, by States,
counties and towns, and contributed in other ways to the comfort or
sustenance of the army, is computed at $4,000,000,000. The support of
the Southern army cannot be ascertained, but it is thought that those
expenses and the destruction of property inflicted about an equal loss on
them.

These losses in life and property are fearful; but they are the price of
Freedom and of Nationality. The general prosperity of the country has
made it richer than before, while natural increase and immigration have
filled the places vacant by death.

The South was hopeless and exhausted at the close of the war. It had been
feared that a guerrilla war, the most desolating and bloody of all wars,
would follow the defeat of the great armies. It could result only in
destruction of what remained to the Southern people, and they submitted
quietly to their fate. Various excesses and deeds of blood were indeed
committed, but they were not sympathized with by the mass of the people.
It was only the desperate and lawless class that came to the surface
naturally in war.

Many of the influential Southern leaders counseled submission to
inevitable necessity, and themselves set the example. The policy of
reconstruction adopted by the National government, excluded, at first,
all who had taken a part in the rebellion from political influence.
The loyal element, small as it was, was alone to restore the Southern
States to their place in the Union. It was, however, proposed to admit
others, both individuals and classes, to participation in political
action as they proved themselves trustworthy and loyal to the new order
of things. After some years, and when it was felt to be quite safe, these
disabilities were nearly all removed.

The most distasteful act of the General Government, to the people of
the South, was clothing the blacks with the rights of citizens. They
received the elective franchise, and assisted to rule over their former
masters. It was considered necessary, since they had now no masters to
be interested in them, to give them the power to protect themselves, and
to elevate them to something of influence and respectability by force of
the ballot. That advantage given them, they must take their chances with
others, and win their own way. They had been loyal to the Union, which
strongly recommended this policy to the government. The Northern people
who now settled in the South and the blacks mainly reorganized the State
governments. This was the chief punishment inflicted on the Southern
people in retaliation for the war they had waged with such fearful
energy. It was a clemency quite unexampled in history. No blood was
shed after they laid down their arms. The assassination of the beloved
President Lincoln made the North thoroughly angry, but no vengeance was
taken except on those believed to be immediately connected with the
atrocious deed. The most lively indignation had long been felt at the
dreadful treatment experienced by prisoners of war in some of the prisons
of the South; but the government and the people contented themselves with
the punishment of the governor of Andersonville prison, on due civil
trial and conviction.

On the whole, the conduct of the Northern people was extremely
magnanimous. The dissolution of the Union would have been an irreparable
loss to them; they resolved not to suffer it; and, with extraordinary
energy, they put in the field more than a million and a half of men, and
near 700 vessels, to subdue it, and suffered no reverses to discourage
them until this was done. When resistance ceased and the Union was
secure, they exacted only the pledges necessary to keep it safe.
Appreciating the unfortunate condition to which nearly all the before
prosperous classes of the South were reduced, they aided them in their
distress, ceased at once all hostile action, and left them to recover
from their disasters under as favorable circumstances as their own
conduct warranted. The South naturally felt an affection for her Lost
Cause, proportionate to the sacrifices she had made and the suffering she
had endured for it. Time, and busy care to develop the vast resources
that slavery had, in great part, neglected, would gradually restore them
to right feeling, and the state of mind fitting them for citizenship.
This, in part, has already taken place, and, by and by, the Bonds of the
Whole Union will be more firmly cemented than ever before. May it be soon.




CHAPTER XXIX.

HISTORY OF THE U. S. FROM 1865 TO 1874.


    May 13—During the week ending with this day there was
      subscribed to the U. S. seven-thirty loan $98,000,000. It was
      an expression of the enthusiastic confidence of the people in
      the government and its resources.

    ” 22-23—Grand review of Gen. Sherman’s army at Washington.
      There were 200,000 men.

    ” 26—Kirby Smith, the last leader of a Southern military
      organization, surrendered his command.

    ” 30—The great Sanitary Fair opened at Chicago.

    ” 31—Gen. Hood and his staff surrendered prisoners of war.

    June 1—A day of fasting and national humiliation for the
      death of President Lincoln.

    ” 4—Toombs, of Georgia, prominent in the early days of
      secession, shot himself to avoid arrest. Yet no one was
      capitally punished for treason.

    ” 5—The four confederates of Booth, the assassin of President
      Lincoln, were found guilty. They were hanged on the 6th and
      7th. These were Harold, Atzerott, Powell and Mrs. Surratt.

    ” 11—Gen. R. E. Lee appointed president of the Washington
      College, Va. It was done by Southern people as a mark of
      respect, and to furnish him a support; he having lost his
      property in the war.

    Sept. 20—The marking of the graves of 12,000 of the
      unfortunate Andersonville prisoners completed.

    ” 29—Cession of 1,000,000 acres of land to the government by
      the Osage Indians, for $300,000.

    Oct. 20—Champ Ferguson, noted for his crimes in guerilla
      warfare, hung at Nashville, Tenn.

    Nov. 10—Henry Wirz, the inhuman keeper of Andersonville
      prison, hung, after trial and condemnation.

    Dec. 18—Secretary Seward officially announces that the 13th
      Amendment to the Constitution, abolishing slavery in the
      United States, has been adopted by three-fourths of the
      States, and it is now the law of the land.


1866.

    Jan. 1—Third anniversary of Emancipation celebrated by the
      colored people.

    ” 2—Funeral of Hon. Henry Winter Davis, U. S. Senator, at
      Baltimore.

    ” 12—The Kentucky University purchases the homestead of Henry
      Clay.

    ” 23—The 13th Constitutional Amendment reconsidered by the
      Legislature of New Jersey and passed. It had been rejected in
      the previous year.

    ” 25—Kentucky refused to pass the 13th Amendment.

    ” 31—Commissary and quartermaster warehouses burned, at Ft.
      Riley, Kansas. $1,000,000 lost.

    Feb. 2—The Civil Rights bill passed the Senate.

    ” 11—The U. S. Sanitary Commission closed with an anniversary
      meeting at Washington.

    ” 12—Memorial services in honor of President Lincoln held in
      the capitol, at Washington; address delivered by the Hon.
      Geo. Bancroft, statesman and historian.

    ” 19—President Johnson vetoed the Freedmen’s Bureau bill.

    ” 22—The 134th anniversary of Washington’s birthday
      celebrated.

    ” 26—Meeting held at Richmond to ratify President Johnson’s
      policy.

    Mar. 10—North Carolina passes a Negro Rights bill.

    ” 12—North Carolina passes a Negro Testimony bill.

      Texas Convention declares their Secession ordinance null and
      void.

    ” 13—The Civil Rights bill passed the House of
      Representatives.

    ” 19—The Reciprocity Treaty with Canada expires.

    ” 27—The Civil Rights bill vetoed by President Johnson.

    April 2—Gen. Hawley elected republican governor of
      Connecticut.

    ” 4—Gen. Burnside elected governor of Rhode Island.

    ” 6-7—Civil Rights bill passed Congress over the veto.

    ” 30—Two churches of colored people burned by incendiaries in
      Richmond, Va.

    May 15—The President vetoes the bill admitting Colorado as a
      State.

    ” 29—Gen. Scott died at West Point, N. Y.

    June 3—Gen. Meade goes to Buffalo to prevent the Fenians
      (Irish Patriots) from invading Canada.

    ” 6—President Johnson issues a proclamation forbidding
      belligerent operations against Canada from the United States.

    ” 8-13—The 14th Constitutional Amendment passed by Congress.

    July 4—Great fire at Portland, Me. Loss, $15,000,000. The U.
      S. government a heavy loser by this fire.

    ” 23—Tennessee readmitted as a State in the Union, by joint
      resolution of Congress. This was the first State readmitted
      after the war.

    ” 25—Lieut. Gen. Grant nominated General—the highest grade
      known in our military organization—never before occupied.
      Vice Admiral Farragut nominated Admiral.

    ” 27—Hon. J. H. Harlan, Sec. of the Interior, resigns. O. H.
      Browning appointed.

    ” 28—The Great Eastern reaches Hearts Content, Newfoundland,
      with the Atlantic Telegraphic Cable, which proved successful.
      It had failed in the previous year. Great rejoicings. It was
      one of the most important events of this century.

    ” 30—Great riot at New Orleans, in which many were killed.
      It was thought the result of President Johnson’s policy of
      reconstruction, which was not in harmony with the system
      adopted by Congress.

    Aug. 1—Gen. Sherman commissioned as Lieut. General.

    ” 8—Queen Emma, wife of the late King of the Sandwich
      Islands, arrives at New York, and is received as a National
      Guest.

    ” 12—Telegraphic communication between New York and Europe
      complete, by the Atlantic Cable.

    ” 31—American and English naval forces unite to break up
      piracy by Chinese junks in the East Indies.

    Sept. 6—The monument to S. A. Douglas, at Chicago,
      inaugurated. President Johnson made many speeches on his
      journey to attend this celebration, which were indiscreet,
      and disrespectful to Congress. It was called his “Swinging
      around the Circle,” in derision; a figure employed in one of
      his speeches.

    Oct. 9—Gen. Geary elected governor of Pennsylvania.

    ” 23—Dedication of The Stonewall Jackson Cemetery, at
      Winchester, Va.

    Nov. 6—State elections in 12 States are held to-day.

    ” 20—The Grand Army of the Republic, formed of the present
      and previous officers of the U. S. Army serving in the late
      war, hold a convention at Indianapolis, Ind.

    ” 22—Raphael Semmes, former Commander of the Confederate war
      steamer Alabama, appointed Professor of Moral Philosophy in
      the Louisiana State Seminary.

    Dec. 7—The Louisiana Legislature rejects the 14th Amendment
      to the Constitution.

    ” 13—Territorial Legislature of Colorado organized.

    ” 16—The U. S. frigate New Ironsides burned at League Island.

    ” 22—Massacre of nearly a hundred soldiers near Ft. Kearney.

    ” 24—U. S. Minister John A. Dix enters on his duties in
      France.


1867.

    Jan. 7—A suffrage bill for the Dist. of Columbia vetoed by
      President Johnson, but passed over the veto by Congress.
      Congress was laboring to harmonize the laws of the country
      with the changes produced by the war. President Johnson
      did his utmost to prevent the success of this policy.
      Congress, however, succeeded in carrying its point. This is
      an important and interesting history, since it shows how
      the Representatives of the People may check and neutralize
      the power of a President when his designs conflict with the
      interests of the country and the purposes of the people.

    ” 8-10—14th Amendment ratified by two States (Missouri and
      New York) and rejected by another (Virginia).

    ” 28—Nebraska bill vetoed, but passed over the veto.

      Most of the Northern States ratified the 14th Amendment in
      this month.

    Feb. 20—Military government bill passed Congress.

    Mar. 1—Nebraska proclaimed a State by the President.

    ” 2—The President vetoes the Military Government and Civil
      Tenure of Office Bills. They are passed over his veto.

    ” 4—The 39th Congress ends, and the 40th is organized.

    ” 11—Military governors assigned to various districts in the
      South.

    ” 30—The President announces the ratification of the treaty
      with Russia, by which the United States bought all her North
      American Possessions for $7,200,000.

    Apr. 3—Gen. Burnside re-elected governor of Rhode Island.

    May 13—Jeff. Davis admitted to bail in $100,000; Horace
      Greeley and others furnish the bonds.

    June 19—The Arch Duke Maximilian, Titular Emperor of Mexico,
      shot by order of the Mexican Republican government. The
      remonstrances of the U. S. government obliged the French to
      withdraw their support from Maximilian.

    July 13—The steamer Dunderberg, bought by France, sailed for
      Cherbourg.

    Aug. 1—Gov. Brownlow re-elected governor of Tennessee.

    ” 5—The President requires Mr. Stanton, Sec. of War, to
      resign. He refuses, when the President suspends him and
      appoints Gen. Grant.

    ” 23—Grand ovation to Admiral Farragut, by Russian officers
      at Cronstadt.

    Sept. 17—The National Cemetery at Antietam dedicated.

    Dec. 4—The Patrons of Husbandry, or Farmers’ Grange,
      organized, in Washington.

    ” 7—A resolution in the House of Representatives to impeach
      President Johnson fails by three votes.


1868.

    Jan. 1—Fifth Emancipation Anniversary celebrated by the
      colored people in various places.

    ” 6—Censure of the President by Congress for removing Gen.
      Sheridan from command of the 5th Military District.

    Feb. 7—The resignation of U. S. Minister to England, Hon. C.
      F. Adams, announced.

    ” 19—Senate refuse his seat to P. F. Thomas, of Maryland, on
      account of disloyalty.

    ” 20—The Legislature of New Jersey withdraws its ratification
      of the 14th Amendment. Ohio and Oregon did the same. This
      action, considered as absurd as Secession, was not recognized.

    ” 21—President Johnson expels Mr. Stanton, Sec. of War, and
      appoints Gen. Thomas. This is done in defiance of the Senate,
      by whose “advice and consent” the Constitution requires it to
      be supported.

    ” 24—The House of Representatives adopt articles of
      impeachment of the President presented by Thaddeus Stephens,
      of Pa., by a vote of 126 to 57. This was 12 more than the
      requisite two-thirds.

    Mar. 5—The Senate is organized as a Court of Impeachment,
      Chief Justice Chase presiding.

    May 16—The impeachment trial terminated by a vote in the
      Senate of 35 for, to 19 against. As a two-thirds vote was
      necessary the impeachment failed by three votes. A few
      Republican Senators incurred great odium by voting for the
      President’s acquittal.

    ” 20—Gen. Grant nominated for President by the Republican
      Convention at Chicago.

    ” 22—A Chinese embassy, headed by Hon. Anson Burlingame, who
      had been U. S. Minister to China and acquired the confidence
      of the government of China to such an extent as to be chosen
      by them as the leader of their embassy to this country and
      the governments of Europe, arrived at New York.

    ” 29—Gen. Schofield appointed Sec. of War.

    June 5—Mr. Burlingame and the Chinese embassy presented to
      the President.

    ” 6—A Bill for the re-admission of Arkansas passes Congress.

    ” 9—Bills for the re-admission of North Carolina, South
      Carolina, Georgia, Louisiana, Alabama and Florida are passed.

    ” 12—Hon. Reverdy Johnson appointed Minister to England.

    ” 20—Bill for re-admission of Ark. vetoed by the President,
      but passed over his veto by a two-thirds vote.

    ” 24—The Bill for the admission of the other States being
      vetoed by the President was likewise passed over his veto.

    July 4—Horatio Seymour of N. Y. and F. P. Blair of Mo.
      nominated for President and Vice-President by the Democrats.

      A political amnesty proclamation issued by the President.

    ” 16—Admiral Farragut received with distinguished honor by
      the Queen of England.

    ” 20—A Bill to exclude the electoral votes of the Southern
      States not re-admitted vetoed by the President and passed by
      Congress over the veto.

    ” 21—The 14th Amendment declared ratified, and a part of the
      Constitution.

    ” 28—Military government ceases in Arkansas, North and South
      Carolina, Louisiana, Georgia, Florida and Alabama.

    Aug. 6—Jefferson Davis lands in Liverpool, England.

    ” 13—U. S. steamers Wateree and Fredonia destroyed during
      an earthquake at Lima, Peru; 40,000 lives were lost in this
      dreadful catastrophe.

    Sept. 7—Negro members of the Georgia Legislature expelled on
      account of race, contrary to the 14th Amendment.

    ” 18—Battle with the Indians on Republican River. Lt. Beecher
      and others killed.

    ” 19—Riot at Camilla, Geo., caused by hostility of Southern
      people to the political privileges of the blacks. Many
      negroes killed.

    ” 29—Gen. Reynolds, military governor of Texas, forbids the
      election in that State for President, Texas not having been
      re-admitted. This was in accordance with the law of Congress
      passed the 20th of July.

    Oct. 17—The Legislature of Oregon withdraws its assent once
      given to the 14th Amendment.

    Nov. 3—U. S. Grant and Schuyler Colfax elected President and
      Vice-President. Popular majority 309,722. Electoral votes for
      Grant and Colfax, 214; for Seymour and Blair, 80. Virginia,
      Mississippi and Texas did not vote, and Nevada was not
      counted in. The whole popular vote was 5,722,984. In Florida
      the electors were chosen by the Legislature.

    ” 27—The Indians defeated by Gen. Custer, on the Washita
      river. Black Kettle, the chief, and more than a hundred
      warriors killed.

    Dec. 1—Ft. Lafayette, N. Y., destroyed by fire.

    ” 3—Political troubles in Arkansas, in which many murders are
      committed.

    ” 7—Third session of the 40th Congress begins.

    ” 15—A social gathering of the Union soldiers at Chicago.


1869.

    Jan. 7—John Minor Botts, a statesman of Va., imprisoned by
      the Confederate government during the war for his Union
      sentiments, died.

    Feb. 27—A joint resolution of Congress recommends to the
      States the adoption of the 15th Amendment to the Constitution.

    Mar. 4—Gen. Grant inaugurated eighteenth President.

    ” ”—First session of the 41st Congress commenced.

    ” 13—James Guthrie, a statesman of Ky., died.

    ” 25—Hon. E. Bates, of Mo., Att’y Gen’l under Lincoln, died.

    May 15—The Union Pacific Railroad was completed by joining
      the two ends at Ogden, Utah. Distance from Omaha to San
      Francisco 1904 miles. This completed the line of railroad
      joining the Atlantic and Pacific. The greatest triumph of
      engineering yet known was accomplished in the Nevada Mts., by
      carrying the road to a height of over 7000 feet in 105 miles.

    July 30—Hon. I. Toucey, of Conn., who had filled many offices
      in the State and United States government, died.

    Sept. 8—William B. Fessenden, of Me., a statesman of
      reputation, died.

    ” 10—John Bell, of Ky., candidate for the Presidency in 1860,
      died.

    ” 6—Gen. J. A. Rawlins, Sec. of War, died. He had been Gen.
      Grant’s Chief of Staff during the war.

    Oct. 8—Franklin Pierce, of N. H., ex-President, died.

    Nov. 7—Rear Admiral Stewart, of U. S. Navy, died.

    Dec. 24—Edwin M. Stanton, of Pa., Sec. of War during most of
      the civil war, died.

      This year closes a most important era in the history of the
      United States, and of the world. The account with the civil
      war was definitely closed, and the final seal set on the
      policy of reconstruction by the inauguration of Gen. Grant,
      and the continuance of the Republican party in power by the
      people, together with the readmission of most of the Southern
      States and the possibility of the reversal of the decision in
      regard to slavery done away by the adoption of the fifteenth
      Amendment to the Constitution, giving the elective franchise
      to the colored population. Much emphasis was given to all
      these things by the prosperity of the country, and the rapid
      reduction of the debt, by the generally wise conduct of
      the Southern people, and the slowly increasing prosperity
      of that section. These results reacted in other countries
      to strengthen the tendency to freer and more popular
      governments, and seem, in some respects to have introduced
      the Era of Republicanism. However slow may be the changes in
      this direction, they are sure to be made.


1870.

    Jan. 1—Ten years ago the cloud of civil war settled densely
      over the country, and threatened its destruction. To-day that
      tornado has been passed by nearly six years, and its ruins
      are almost buried under the new and more thrifty growth of
      all interests and industries even in the South.

    ” 20—H. R. Revels, of Miss., is chosen the first colored
      Senator who ever represented a State in Congress.

    ” 23—The U. S. steamer Oneida sunk by collision with another
      vessel on the coast of Japan. 176 lives lost.

    Feb. 22—Hon. Anson Burlingame, head of the Chinese embassy to
      the powers of Christendom, died at St. Petersburg, Russia.

    Mar. 28—Gen. G. H. Thomas dies in San Francisco, Cal.

    ” 30—The Sec. of State proclaims the ratification of the 15th
      Amendment to the U. S. Constitution by three-fourths of the
      States.

    June 15—Death of Jerome Napoleon Bonaparte, at Baltimore, Md.

    July 12—Death of Admiral Dahlgren, at Washington, D. C.

    ” 20—Death of M. Prevost Paradol, French Minister at
      Washington.

    Aug. 14—Death of Admiral Farragut, at Portsmouth, N. H.

    Sept. 7—Recognition of the French Republic by the U. S.
      government.

    Oct. 12—Death of Gen. R. E. Lee, formerly of the Confederate
      army.


1871.

Great changes have been taking place in Europe. The Emperor, Napoleon
III. taken prisoner by the Germans, his government was set aside by the
people of France who founded a Republic.

    Jan. 1—At this time the German army, under the lead of the
      King of Prussia (about this time made Emperor of Germany), is
      besieging Paris, the capital of France.

    ” 17—The San Domingo Commission sail from New York.

    ” 28—Paris capitulates to the Germans, which ends the
      Franco-Prussian war, terms of peace being soon arranged.

    Feb. 12—Alice Carey, the authoress, died at New York.

    ” 16—An important Japanese mission to the U. S. and other
      governments arrives at San Francisco.

    Mar. 1—The Germans make a triumphal entry into Paris.

    ” 20—British House of Commons votes $265,000 for the relief
      of Paris.

    Apr. 20—A Bill against the Kuklux, a secret organization of
      Southern conspirators and murderers, passed in Congress.

    May 1—The Legal Tender Act declared Constitutional by the U.
      S. Supreme Court.

    ” 31—The French government does not imitate our clemency to
      prisoners taken in rebellion. The soldiers of the Commune are
      slaughtered by thousands, by order of the Court Martial of
      the government army.

    June 18—An earthquake on Long and Staten Islands, N. Y.

    ” 20—The first Atlantic Cable of 1865, which soon broke and
      became useless, is recovered and worked.

    July 5—Earthquake at Visalia, Cal.

    ” 12—Irish Catholic riot in New York; 51 killed, 30 wounded.

    ” 30—Steamer Westfield explodes, killing near 100 people.

    Sept. 17—The Mont Cenis Tunnel, opening a passage for a
      railroad 7⅗ths miles long through the Alps from France to
      Italy, inaugurated. It had been many years building.

    Oct. 2—Brigham Young, the head of the Mormons in Utah,
      arrested for bigamy.

    ” 8—A fire nearly consumes Chicago, destroying-property worth
      $200,000,000 and many lives. Fires rage in the forests of
      Wisconsin and Michigan. Much property, some towns, and many
      persons are burned.

    ” 17—South Carolina placed under martial law.

      $2,050,000 received in aid of the people of Chicago.

    Nov. 15—Cholera appears on vessels at New York.

    ” 18—The Grand Duke Alexis, of Russia, arrives at New York.
      He travels through the country for some months.

    Dec. 9—Commissioners of the English and U. S. governments
      meet in Washington to settle the difficulties between the two
      governments arising from the spoliations of the Alabama.

    ” 16—Catacazy, the Russian Minister, called home at the
      request of our government.

    ” 29—Investigation of abuses in the New York city government
      commences. W. M. Tweed surrenders to the sheriff.


1872.

    Jan. 2—Brigham Young arrested on a charge of murder.

    Mar. 7—Trial and conviction of Kuklux prisoners in Ala.; 3
      sentenced to imprisonment for 20 years.

    Apr. 1—The colored people celebrate the adoption of 15th
      Amendment.

    May 3—Horace Greeley nominated for President by a convention
      at Cincinnati, O.

    ” 22—The General Amnesty Bill signed by the President.

    ” 30—Graves of the Union soldiers decorated throughout the
      country.

    June 6—Grant and Wilson nominated for President and
      Vice-President.

    ” 26—Trial of Stokes for the murder of Fisk begun. After
      several trials he was condemned to imprisonment for murder.

    July 24—Spotted-Tail and other western Indians visit
      Washington.

    Aug. 16—Yellow Fever appears at New York.

    Sept. 2—Father Hyacinthe, a liberal French Catholic priest,
      marries an American lady.

    ” 14—The arbitrators of the Alabama Claims, to whom the case
      had been submitted, and who had been two months sitting at
      Geneva, Switzerland, announced their award. The United
      States was to receive $15,500,000 in gold.

    Oct. 14—Wm. H. Seward, one of our most distinguished
      statesmen, is this day buried at Auburn, N. Y.

    ” 25—About this time the Horse disease commences, and spreads
      rapidly over the whole country.

    Nov. 5—In the presidential election on this day President
      Grant is re-elected.

    ” 9—A great fire in Boston, Mass. Loss $75,000,000 in
      buildings and merchandise. Insurance $50,000,000.

      In this month and December following storms of extreme
      severity caused great loss of life and property. An overflow
      of the river Po, in Italy, rendered 40,000 persons homeless.
      In the Baltic Sea 80 vessels were wrecked, some islands were
      inundated, and all their inhabitants drowned. It was not less
      severe on the coasts of England and Ireland.

    ” 29—Horace Greeley, recent candidate for President of the U.
      S., died, aged 62 years.

    Dec. 11—The King of the Sandwich Islands, Kamehameha V.,
      died, leaving no heir.

    ” 12—The actor, Edwin Forrest, dies, at Philadelphia.

    ” 17—Edward A. Pollard, editor and author, died.

      Important investigations of abuses in New York city and in
      the conduct of the Pacific Railway are made this winter, and
      many healthy reforms inaugurated. The order of Patrons of
      Husbandry becomes popular among agriculturists, and spreads
      rapidly, through the coming year.


1873.

    Jan. 7, 8, 9—A dreadful snow storm occurs in Minnesota, by
      which 70 lives are lost.

    ” 9—The ex-Emperor Napoleon III. dies at Chiselhurst, in
      England, aged 64 years.

    ” 31—At Chicago, Ill., Joel A. Matteson, ex-governor of
      Illinois, died.

    Feb. 1—M. F. Maury, formerly distinguished in the U. S. Naval
      service, dies at Lexington, Va.

    ” 9—J. W. Geary, ex-Governor of Penn., died at Harrisburg.

    ” 15—Steamer Henry A. Jones burned in Galveston Bay, Texas.
      21 lives lost.

    Mar. 3—Congress enacted a law increasing their pay, that of
      the President, and various officers of the government. It
      extended over the whole previous term of the 42d Congress,
      commencing March 4th, 1871. This law was very offensive to
      the mass of the people.

    ” 4—The wreck of the Alaska mail steamer, Geo. S. Wright,
      is reported at Portland, Oregon. All on board, 23 persons,
      perished.

    ” 16—The Boston steamer, Grace Irving, foundered. 8 lives
      lost.

    ” 17—Great fire at Lawrenceburg, Ky.

    ” 19—San Salvador, Central America, destroyed by an
      earthquake. Property destroyed estimated at from $12,000,000
      to $20,000,000; and 500 lives lost.

    Apr. 1—Steamer Atlantic wrecked near Halifax, N. S. 535 lives
      lost.

    May 5—James Orr, American Minister to Russia, died, at St.
      Petersburg, aged 51.

    ” 4—An iron bridge at Dixon, Ill., crowded with people
      witnessing a baptism, fell, killing and drowning 100 persons.

    ” 7—Salmon P. Chase, Chief Justice of the U. S., died in New
      York, aged 65.

    ” 8—Hon. Oakes Ames, M. C., died at North Easton, Mass., aged
      69.

      John Stuart Mill, a celebrated English philosopher and
      author, died at Avignon, France.

    ” 30—A second great fire in Boston, Mass.

    June 28—Hon. Horace F. Clark, prominent in railway
      enterprises, died in New York.

    ” 27—Hiram Powers, the distinguished American sculptor, died
      in Florence, Italy.

    ” 29—Jesse R. Grant, father of the President, died.

    July 4—Severe storm, very destructive to crops in Ohio,
      Indiana, Wisconsin and Missouri. 20 persons drowned in Green
      Lake, Wisconsin.

    Aug. 2—Great fire at Portland, Oregon. Loss $1,500,000.

    ” 24—A storm of unprecedented severity raged on the coast
      of British America, and, at the same time, on the coast of
      Mexico. More than 100 vessels were destroyed in and near the
      gulf of St. Lawrence. Some populous islands were quite laid
      waste. 176 sailing vessels and 12 steamers were lost in the
      Gulf of Mexico.

    Sept. 15—The propeller Ironsides foundered in Lake Michigan.
      31 lives lost.

      The Patrons of Husbandry organize about this time at the rate
      of near 1,000 granges a month.

      In this month commenced a most serious financial panic at New
      York, that spread over the whole country.

    Oct. 26—J. C. Heenan, the prize fighter, died on the Union
      Pacific R. R.

    Nov. 6—Gen. Sickles, U. S. Minister to Spain, telegraphs to
      Washington the capture of the Virginius by the Cubans.

    ” 8—Stephen R. Mallory, former Sec. of the Confederate Navy,
      died, aged 63.

    ” 19—John P. Hale, of N. H., a statesman of some celebrity,
      died.

    ” 22—The steamship Ville du Havre run into and sunk by the
      Loch Earn in mid ocean. 226 lives lost.

    ” 27—Richard Yates, ex-U. S. Senator and ex-Governor of
      Illinois, died at St. Louis, aged 55.

    Dec. 1—The 43rd Congress assembles for its first session.

    ” 14—Louis Agassiz, a distinguished naturalist and man of
      science, died at Cambridge, Mass.


1874.

    Jan.—The U. S. government narrowly escaped a war with
      Spain on account of the taking of the Virginius by Cuban
      authorities. That vessel was sailing under the American
      flag which was violated by its capture. 54 men were shot
      as pirates, some of them American citizens. The Spanish
      government disavowed the act, and gave up the vessel, Dec.
      16th, 1873. It was so much damaged as to sink while on the
      way to the United States.

    ” 2—A Revolution in Spain overthrows the government of Señor
      Castelar.

    ” 5—The President sends a message to Congress concerning the
      Spanish difficulty, now substantially settled.

    ” 8—U. S. Senate repeals the bill of March 3rd, 1873,
      increasing the pay of members of Congress.

    ” 9—Hon. Caleb Cushing nominated Chief Justice of the U. S.
      Supreme Court.

    ” 14—Nomination of Caleb Cushing recalled.

    ” 17—Death of the Siamese twins.

    ” 19—Morrison R. Waite, of Ohio, was nominated by the
      President as Chief Justice and confirmed afterward by the
      Senate.

    ” 27—Reliable intelligence of the death of David Livingstone,
      the African explorer, reaches England.

    Feb. 4—The seventh annual meeting of the National Grange
      of the Patrons of Husbandry occurs in St. Louis, Mo. 8,000
      subordinate granges have been added during the year. The
      Executive Committee state that farmers had saved $8,000,000
      during the year by their co-operative system.

    Mar. 8—Ex-President Fillmore died, in Buffalo, N. Y.

    ” 11—Death of Hon. Charles Sumner, a distinguished statesman
      and Senator from Mass., in Washington. He was born in
      Boston, Mass., Jan. 6th, 1811, and was 63 years old. He was
      of a patriotic race which originated in the county of Kent,
      England. His grandfather was a Major distinguished for valor
      in the Revolutionary army. Charles Sumner graduated from
      Harvard College in 1830, was admitted to the bar in 1834, and
      became highly distinguished as a lawyer. He succeeded Daniel
      Webster in the U. S. Senate in 1851, in which he remained
      till his death, being always conspicuous as one of the
      foremost leaders in public affairs.

    ” 24—A bill increasing the currency to $400,000,000 passed in
      the U. S. House of Representatives by 168 to 77.

    Apr. 1—The U. S. debt officially stated to be
      $2,152,690,728.62. Decrease of debt during March, 1874,
      $2,189,338.46.

    ” 14—The Senate bill increasing the currency passes the House
      of Representatives. Many protests from different parts of the
      country are presented against it as injurious to the credit
      and interests of the country. The discussion of this measure
      has occupied much of the time of Congress for some months.

    ” 18—The funeral of Livingstone, the lamented African
      explorer, takes place in London, England, where his remains
      had arrived. He was interred in Westminster Abbey, as a mark
      of distinguished honor.

    ” 17—Gov. Wm. B. Washburn is elected by the Mass. Legislature
      to represent the State in the U. S. Senate, made vacant by
      the death of Charles Sumner.

    ” 22—President Grant vetoes the Currency Bill increasing the
      issues of paper money, which defeats the measure, its friends
      in Congress not being numerous enough to pass it over the
      veto.

    ” 24—The Congressional committee on Transportation,
      after long and careful investigation, advised government
      _oversight_ of Railroads, but against government _ownership_.

    ” 28—Congress voted $90,000 in aid of sufferers by the
      inundation of the lower Mississippi.

    May 7—$100,000 were added to the above sum for the same
      purpose.

    ” 19—The system of payments to informers in customs revenue
      cases, repealed. That system appeared to have been very
      grossly abused.

    ” ”—The conflict in Arkansas ended in the retreat of Brooks
      and the reinstatement of Gov. Baxter.

    ” ”—The New York Legislature passed a Compulsory Education
      Bill, which became a law in that state.

    June 1—Mr. Richardson, Secretary of the Treasury, resigned.
      Gen. Benj. H. Bristow of Ky., was appointed to succeed him.

    ” ”—The number of subordinate Granges of the Patrons of
      Husbandry is 19,492. The number of Patrons who are voters is
      estimated at 1,000,000.

    ” 23—Congress adjourned. The sums appropriated at this
      session for carrying on the government amounted to
      $189,784,346.25. The largest item was for the Post Office
      Department—over $41,000,000.

    ” 24—Postmaster-General, John A. J. Creswell resigned, and
      Hon. Marshall Jewell was appointed in his place.

    ” 25—Telegraphic communication between the United States and
      Brazil introduced by congratulatory messages between the
      Emperor of Brazil and the President of the U. S.

    July 8—Message of Gov. Davis of Minnesota to the Sec. of War,
      announcing the entire destruction of crops in many counties
      of that state by grasshoppers.

    ” 14—Another great fire in Chicago. Loss over $4,000,000.

      Gen Custer, commanding an exploring expedition in the Black
      Hills of Dacotah, reported discoveries of rich gold mines
      there.

    ” 27—An International Congress for mitigating the sufferings
      of war by means of an International Code of Laws, convened
      at Brussels, in Belgium.

    Aug. 19—A riot between whites and blacks in Kentucky,
      resulted in several murders of blacks. The Gov. called out
      the militia to restore order.

    Sept. 2—400 Mormons sail from England for this country en
      route to Utah.

    ” 5—Gen. Sherman orders Military head quarters of the U. S.
      Army removed from Washington to St. Louis, Mo.

    ” 5—The one hundredth anniversary of the first meeting of the
      Continental Congress in Philadelphia, celebrated.

    ” 7—Great fire at Meiningen, Germany. Loss in buildings
      alone, $3,000,000.

    ” 13—Guizot, a celebrated French author and statesman, died,
      aged 87.

    ” 14—The white League, a secret organization opposed to the
      enfranchisement of the colored people, produced a conflict in
      New Orleans. 17 were killed and 32 wounded in a street fight,
      and the State government completely overthrown.

    ” 16—President Grant interfered by proclamation and the
      government

    ” 18—was surrendered to the regular authorities, under
      protest.

    Oct. 13—Elections held in 6 states returned 12 democratic
      Congressmen more than the previous number.

    Nov. 3—Elections in 23 states give a strong democratic gain,
      indicating a reaction against the government. A sense of
      the necessity of reform in various ways, and of greater
      purity and integrity of administration was wide spread. It
      had caused, in part, the rapid growth of the Patrons of
      Husbandry, and was again expressed by political reaction. It
      was a significant rebuke to those in power. A typhoon, or
      hurricane at Hong Kong, China, Sept. 22-23, destroyed 30,000
      lives and $50,000,000 of property.

      Europe is making great political improvements. In France,
      during the last three years, out of 184 elections to
      fill vacancies in the National Assembly, 152 have been
      republican—only 32 monarchists, and in Russia the government
      has decided to enforce compulsory education.

    Dec. 1—The number of Granges in the United States is 21,472.

    ” 7—The last session of the forty-third Congress commenced.
      The President’s Message strongly recommends early resumption
      of specie payments.

    ” 12—Kalakaua, King of the Sandwich Islands, reached
      Washington on a visit. He was received by the President on
      the 15th and by Congress on the 18th.

    ” 21—Disturbances at Vicksburg, Miss., called out a
      proclamation from the President.

    ” 28—Gerrit Smith, a distinguished abolitionist and
      philanthropist, died in New York, aged 78.


1875.

    Jan. 1—Monarchy was restored in Spain. Alphonso XII, son of
      the ex-queen Isabella, was proclaimed King, and received the
      support of the army and navy. It was only a few months before
      that most of the European governments recognized the Spanish
      Republic.

    ” 4—Gen. Sheridan took command of the Department of the Gulf,
      at New Orleans. On that day the Legislature of Louisiana was
      organized, and United States troops, acting under the orders
      of the speaker and of Gov. Kellogg, ejected several members
      who, it was alleged, were not entitled to seats. It produced
      much excitement throughout the country, the opposition
      denouncing it as an unexampled interference of the Federal
      Executive with State government. Congress sustained the
      action of the President, but exerted its influence to quiet
      the excitement in Louisiana, and a compromise was effected
      under which it gradually ebbed away.

    ” 12—Toung-tchi, Emperor of China, died, aged 19 years.

      The emigrants arriving at the port of New York during the
      year 1874, numbered 149,762; a decided falling off, the
      arrivals having for some years, amounted to 250,000. The
      governments of Germany are endeavoring to remove the causes
      of emigration which threatens to affect their resources
      seriously.

    Feb. 3—A proposed reciprocity treaty with Canada, was
      rejected by the Senate.

    ” 5—The civil rights Bill, adopted by the Senate during the
      last session, was amended by an omission relating to schools
      and adopted by the House. It was accepted by the Senate Feb.
      27th, and signed by the President, March 1st.

    ” 25—A Republic was definitely recognized in France.

    Mar. 2—A Bill increasing the Tariff was passed by the Senate.

      Gen. Lorenzo Thomas of the U. S. army died, aged 71.

    ” 3—A law admitting Colorado as a state was passed.

    ” 4—A law, passed in haste in the last hours of the session,
      restored the Franking Privilege to members of Congress until
      Dec. 1, and increased the postage on newspapers and packages
      for the people. The forty-third Congress came to a close.

    ” 5—The Senate convened in extra session in accordance with
      a call previously made by the President. G. S. Orth was
      confirmed U. S. Minister to Austria, and Horace Maynard U. S.
      Minister to Turkey.

    ” 10—A new treaty with Belgium was ratified.

    ” 18—The Senate ratified the treaty with Hawaii, which
      renders the interests of the Sandwich Islands substantially
      identical with those of the United States.

    ” 20—A destructive tornado in Georgia caused great loss of
      life and property.

    ” 24—The Senate, after officially approving the action of the
      President in Louisiana, closed its special session.

      F. E. Spinner, United States Treasurer, resigned, and John C.
      New, of Ind. was appointed his successor.

    Apr. 19—The centennial anniversary of the battle of Lexington
      was celebrated with great interest. This battle was the
      first decisive step in the War of Independence. Its scenes
      and their consequences were dwelt on by some of the most
      distinguished literary Americans, and honored by the presence
      of the President of the United States and many of its most
      eminent authorities.

    ” 23—Three Steamers burned at New Orleans, in which fifty
      lives were lost.

    ” 28—A fire at Oshkosh, Wis., destroyed a square mile of the
      city. Loss in property over $2,000,000.

    May 7—A Bill for suppressing religious orders introduced into
      the German Parliament. It subsequently became a law.

      The Steamship Schiller was wrecked on the coast of Great
      Britain. Three hundred and eleven lives were lost.

    ” 10—Centennial anniversary of the capture of Fort
      Ticonderoga by Ethan Allen.

    ” 15—Attorney General Williams resigned and Judge Edwards
      Pierrepont was appointed his successor.

    ” 17—John C. Breckenridge, formerly Vice President of the
      United States, and a general in the Confederate army during
      the Civil War, died, aged 54.

    ” 18—A fearful earthquake in New Granada, South America. The
      city of Cucuta was completely destroyed; between two and
      three thousand lives were lost and more than $8,000,000 of
      property destroyed.

    ” 20—Celebration of the Mecklenburg, N. C., Declaration of
      Independence, with great enthusiasm.

    ” 30—The Steamer Vicksburg, on a voyage from Canada to
      England, was wrecked in a field of ice. 80 lives were lost.

    June 17—Centennial anniversary of the battle of Bunker Hill
      was celebrated with great eclat. Its most interesting feature
      was the fraternal spirit manifested by the North and South
      toward each other. Several Southern States were represented
      by bodies of soldiers.

    ” 30—Business failures since Jan. 1, of this year reported at
      3,377, with liabilities amounting in all to $74,940,869.

    July 8—Gen. Frank P. Blair, Jun., died in St. Louis, aged 54.

    ” 18—Lady Franklin, widow of Sir John Franklin, the
      unfortunate Arctic Explorer, died in England, aged 70.

      Great loss of life and property has been caused in France
      by floods. In two cities alone the damage is estimated at
      $20,000,000, and in the south of France at $75,000,000.
      Other parts of Europe have suffered heavily from the same
      cause.

    ” 23—Isaac Merrit Singer, inventor of the Sewing Machine of
      that name, died in London, England, aged 64.

      The most prominent political issue of the time is hard
      money and currency. A Democratic convention in Md., and a
      Republican convention in Minn., each, yesterday and to-day,
      adopted a hard money platform. Ohio and Pa. democratic
      conventions afterwards declared for paper money.

    ” 31—Ex-President Andrew Johnson died in Tenn., aged 67. He
      was recently elected U. S. Senator from Tennessee.

    Aug.—The Gov. of Tenn. appointed Hon. D. M. Key, to fill the
      vacancy in the Senate caused by Andrew Johnson’s death.

    ” 4—Republican government in France was strengthened by the
      passage of a Bill constituting a Senate.

      The census of population in Louisiana, gives 850,390, an
      increase of over 15 per cent. since 1870. The excess of
      increase of colored over white population has been 45,668.

      The census in Wisconsin gives a population of 1,236,090,
      being an increase of 17⅓ per cent. since 1870.

    ” 26—The Bank of California suspended payment. It has long
      been the leading bank in the Pacific States.

    ” 27—W. C. Ralston, president of the Bank of California, was
      drowned while bathing.

    Sept. 1—Violent disturbances in Mississippi between whites
      and blacks result in many deaths.

    ” 7—The Governor of Miss. called on the President for federal
      aid to protect citizens and restore order.




CHAPTER XXX.

PARLIAMENTARY RULES.


We give in this chapter the Standing Rules and Orders for conducting
business in the House of Representatives of the United States, as a
proper compend of parliamentary rules for the people of the United
States. They are naturally a standard of procedure in all public bodies
in this country so far as the circumstances are parallel; they have been
carefully compiled and adopted by our highest popular Legislative Body
during the course of more than three-quarters of a century, and may
therefore be considered thoroughly well adapted to the genius of our
people and the character of our institutions; and they were originally
based on Jefferson’s Manual, compiled by him for the use, and at the
request of the Senate when, as Vice-President of the United States, he
became its presiding officer, and was digested by him from the usages of
the English Parliament and other Legislative bodies in Europe.

The value of this manual is attested by its use continued to the present
day, so far as it is applicable. The Rules of the House are therefore
representative of the wisdom of the Old World on this point as well as of
the usages of the New.

They deserve to be carefully studied by American citizens above any other
body of parliamentary rules for several reasons besides those mentioned
above. Hardly any other will be likely to contain so many points of
adaptation to popular use; every one should be fairly acquainted with
the prevailing usages that he may be ready to act his part well if
called on to preside in any public meeting; all who read the reports of
congressional doings require such acquaintance with parliamentary usage
to fully appreciate many points in such reports, and these Rules are a
fine illustration of the spirit of our government and the genius of the
American people.

We see, in the most impressive manner, that the utmost pain is taken to
make Legislative work orderly, decorous, and as rapid as is consistent
with due care that what is done shall be well and carefully done; that
no pains are spared, _in regulations_, that every legislator shall have
the means of knowing all that is his special business to know; and we
discover that proper care is taken to see that economy and faithfulness
are constantly observed by all the officers of the government. If this
is not always actually the case there is, at least, no fault in the
_arrangements, rules and orders_ to that effect. All the people should
know to what they may properly hold their Representatives accountable,
and they will be prepared to judge of the extent of obedience or
transgression. The Rules are just and good. Let the people see that they
are properly observed.

The House of Representatives has 160 Rules, the Senate 52, and the
Joint Rules of the House and Senate, regulating their intercourse with
each other, number 22. Whatever of difference exists between them is
unimportant after due allowance is made for the different character and
constitution of the two bodies. The principles on which they are founded
are identical.


STANDING RULES AND ORDERS FOR CONDUCTING BUSINESS IN THE HOUSE OF
REPRESENTATIVES OF THE UNITED STATES.


THE DUTY OF THE SPEAKER.

1. He shall take the chair every day precisely at the hour to which the
House shall have adjourned on the preceding day; shall immediately call
the members to order; and, on the appearance of a quorum, shall cause the
journal of the preceding day to be read.

2. He shall preserve order and decorum; may speak to points of order in
preference to other members, rising from his seat for that purpose; and
shall decide questions of order, subject to an appeal to the House by any
two members—on which appeal no member shall speak more than once, unless
by leave of the House.

3. He shall rise to put a question, but may state it sitting.

4. Questions shall be distinctly put in this form, to wit: “As many as
are of opinion that (as the question may be) say _Aye_;” and after the
affirmative voice is expressed, “As many as are of the contrary opinion
say _No_.” If the Speaker doubt, or a division be called for, the House
shall divide; those in the affirmative of the question shall first rise
from their seats, and afterwards those in the negative. If the Speaker
still doubt, or a count be required by at least one-fifth of the quorum
of the members, the Speaker shall name two members, one from each side,
to tell the members in the affirmative and negative—which being reported,
he shall rise and state the decision to the House.

5. The Speaker shall examine and correct the journal before it is read.
He shall have a general direction of the hall, and the unappropriated
rooms in that part of the capitol assigned to the House shall be subject
to his order and disposal until the further order of the House. He shall
have a right to name any member to perform the duties of the chair, but
such substitution shall not extend beyond an adjournment.

6. No person shall be permitted to perform divine service in the chamber
occupied by the House of Representatives, unless with the consent of the
Speaker.

7. In all cases of ballot by the House, the Speaker shall vote; in other
cases he shall not be required to vote, unless the House be equally
divided, or unless his vote, if given to the minority, will make the
division equal; and in case of such equal division, the question shall be
lost.

8. All acts, addresses, and joint resolutions, shall be signed by the
Speaker; and all writs, warrants, and subpœnas, issued by order of the
House, shall be under his hand and seal, attested by the clerk.

9. In case of any disturbance or disorderly conduct in the galleries or
lobby, the Speaker (or Chairman of the Committee of the Whole House,)
shall have power to order the same to be cleared.


OF THE CLERK AND OTHER OFFICERS.

10. There shall be elected at the commencement of each Congress, to
continue in office until their successors are appointed, a clerk,
sergeant-at-arms, doorkeeper, and postmaster, each of whom shall take an
oath for the true and faithful discharge of the duties of his office,
to the best of his knowledge and abilities, and to keep the secrets of
the House; and the appointees of the doorkeeper and postmaster shall be
subject to the approval of the Speaker; and, in all cases of election by
the House of its officers, the vote shall be taken _viva voce_.

11. In all cases where other than members of the House may be eligible
to an office by the election of the House, there shall be a previous
nomination.

12. In all other cases of ballot than for committees, a majority of the
votes given shall be necessary to an election; and where there shall not
be such a majority on the first ballot, the ballots shall be repeated
until a majority be obtained. And in all ballotings blanks shall be
rejected, and not taken into the count in enumeration of the votes, or
reported by the tellers.

13. It shall be the duty of the clerk to make and cause to be printed
and delivered to each member at the commencement of every session of
Congress, a list of the reports which it is the duty of any officer or
department of the government to make to Congress; referring to the act
or resolution and page of the volume of the laws or journal in which it
may be contained, and placing under the name of each officer the list of
reports required to be made, and the time when the report may be expected.

14. It shall be the duty of the clerk of the House at the end of each
session, to send a printed copy of the journals thereof to the Executive,
and to each branch of the Legislature of every State.

15. All questions of order shall be noted by the clerk, with the
decision, and put together at the end of the journal of every session.

16. The clerk shall, within thirty days after the close of each session
of Congress, cause to be completed the printing and primary distribution
to members and delegates, of the Journal of the House, together with an
accurate index of the same.

17. There shall be retained in the library of the clerk’s office, for the
use of the members there, and not to be withdrawn therefrom, two copies
of all the books and printed documents deposited in the library.

18. The clerk shall have preserved for each member of the House an extra
copy, in good binding, of all the documents printed by order of either
House at each future session of Congress.

19. The clerk shall make a weekly statement of the resolutions and bills
(Senate bills inclusive) upon the Speaker’s table accompanied with a
brief reference to the orders and proceedings of the House upon each, and
the date of such order and proceedings; which statement shall be printed
for the use of the members.

20. The clerk shall cause an index to be prepared to the acts passed at
every session of Congress, and to be printed and bound with the acts.

21. All contracts, bargains, or agreements, relative to the furnishing
any matter or thing or for the performance of any labor for the House of
Representatives, shall be made with the clerk, or approved by him, before
any allowances shall be made therefor by the Committee of Accounts.

22. It shall be the duty of the sergeant-at-arms to attend the House
during its sittings; to aid in the enforcement of order under the
direction of the Speaker; to execute the commands of the House from time
to time; together with all such process, issued by authority thereof, as
shall be directed to him by the Speaker.

23. The symbol of his office (the mace) shall be borne by the
sergeant-at-arms when in the execution of his office.

24. The fees of the sergeant-at-arms shall be for every arrest, the sum
of two dollars; for each day’s custody and releasement, one dollar; and
for traveling expenses for himself or a special messenger, going and
returning, one-tenth of a dollar for each mile necessarily and actually
traveled by such officer or other person in the execution of such precept
or summons.

25. It shall be the duty of the sergeant-at-arms to keep the accounts for
the pay and mileage of members, to prepare checks, and, if required to
do so, to draw the money on such checks for the members, (the same being
previously signed by the Speaker, and endorsed by the member,) and pay
over the same to the member entitled thereto.

26. The sergeant-at-arms shall give bond, with surety, to the United
States, in a sum not less than five nor more than ten thousand dollars,
at the discretion of the Speaker, and with such surety as the Speaker
may approve, faithfully to account for the money coming into his hands
for the pay of members.

27. The doorkeeper shall execute strictly the 134th and 135th rules,
relative to the privilege of the hall. And he shall be required, at the
commencement and close of each session of Congress, to take an inventory
of all the furniture, books, and other public property in the several
committee and other rooms under his charge, and shall report the same to
the House; which report shall be referred to the Committee on Accounts,
who shall determine the amount for which he shall be held liable for
missing articles.

28. The postmaster shall superintend the post-office kept in the capitol
for the accommodation of the members.


OF THE MEMBERS.

29. No member shall vote on any question in the event of which he is
immediately and particularly interested, or in any case where he was
not within the bar of the House when the question was put. And when any
member shall ask leave to vote, the Speaker shall propound to him the
question, “Were you within the bar before the last name on the roll was
called?” and if he shall answer in the negative the Speaker shall not
further entertain the request of such member to vote: Provided, however,
that any member who was absent by leave of the House, may vote at any
time before the result is announced.

30. Upon a division and count of the house on any question, no member
without the bar shall be counted.

31. Every member who shall be in the house when the question is put,
shall give his vote unless the House shall excuse him. All motions to
excuse a member from voting, shall be made before the house divides, or
before the call of the yeas and nays is commenced; and the question shall
then be taken without debate.

32. The name of a member who presents a petition or memorial, or who
offers a resolution for the consideration of the House, shall be inserted
on the journals.

33. No member shall absent himself from the service of the House unless
he have leave, or be sick and unable to attend.


OF CALLS OF THE HOUSE.

34. Any fifteen members (including the Speaker, if there be one), shall
be authorized to compel the attendance of absent members.

35. Upon calls of the House, or in taking the yeas and nays on any
question, the names of the members shall be called alphabetically.

36. Upon the call of the House, the names of the members shall be called
over by the clerk, and the absentees noted; after which the names of the
absentees shall again be called over; the doors shall then be shut, and
those for whom no excuse or insufficient excuses are made may, by order
of those present, if fifteen in number, be taken into custody as they
appear, or may be sent for and taken into custody, wherever to be found,
by special messengers to be appointed for that purpose.

37. When a member shall be discharged from custody, and admitted to his
seat, the House shall determine whether such discharge shall be with or
without paying fees; and in like manner whether a delinquent member,
taken into custody by a special messenger, shall or shall not be liable
to defray the expenses of such special messenger.


ON MOTIONS, THEIR PRECEDENCE, ETC.

38. When a motion is made and seconded, it shall be stated by the
Speaker; or, being in writing, it shall be handed to the chair and read
aloud by the clerk, before debated.

39. Every motion shall be reduced to writing if the Speaker or any member
desire it. Every written motion made to the House shall be inserted
on the journals, with the name of the member making it, unless it be
withdrawn on the same day on which it was submitted.

40. After a motion is stated by the Speaker, or read by the clerk,
it shall be deemed to be in the possession of the House, but may be
withdrawn at any time before a decision or amendment.

41. When any motion or proposition is made, the question, “Will the House
now consider it?” shall not be put unless it is demanded by some member,
or is deemed necessary by the Speaker.

42. When a question is under debate, no motion shall be received but to
adjourn, to lie on the table, for the previous question, to postpone to a
certain day, to commit or amend, to postpone indefinitely; which several
motions shall have precedence in the order in which they are arranged;
and no motion to postpone to a certain day, to commit, or postpone
indefinitely, being decided, shall be again allowed on the same day, and
at the same stage of the bill or proposition.

43. When a resolution shall be offered, or a motion made, to refer any
subject, and different committees shall be proposed, the question shall
be taken in the following order:

The Committee of the Whole House on the state of the Union; the Committee
of the Whole House; a Standing Committee; a Select Committee.

44. A motion to adjourn, and a motion to fix the day to which the House
shall adjourn, shall be always in order; these motions and the motion to
lie on the table, shall be decided without debate.

45. The hour at which every motion to adjourn is made shall be entered on
the journal.

46. Any member may call for the division of a question before or after
the main question is ordered, which shall be divided if it comprehend
propositions in substance so distinct that, one being taken away, a
substantive proposition shall remain for the decision of the House. A
motion to strike out and insert shall be deemed indivisible; but a motion
to strike out being lost, shall preclude neither amendment nor a motion
to strike out and insert.

47. Motions and reports may be committed at the pleasure of the House.

48. No motion or proposition on a subject different from that under
consideration shall be admitted under color of amendment. No bill or
resolution shall, at any time, be amended by annexing thereto, or
incorporating therewith, any other bill or resolution pending before the
House.

49. When a motion has been once made, and carried in the affirmative or
negative, it shall be in order for any member of the majority to move
for the reconsideration thereof, on the same or succeeding day; and such
motion shall take precedence of all other questions, except a motion to
adjourn, and shall not be withdrawn after the said succeeding day without
the consent of the House; and thereafter any member may call it up for
consideration.

50. In filling up blanks, the largest sum and longest time shall be first
put.


ORDER OF BUSINESS OF THE DAY.

51. As soon as the journal is read, and the unfinished business in
which the House was engaged at the last preceding adjournment has been
disposed of, reports from committees shall be called for and disposed of;
in doing which the Speaker shall call upon each standing committee in
regular order, and then upon select committees; and if the Speaker shall
not get through the call upon the committees before the House passes
to other business, he shall resume the next call where he left off,
giving preference to the report last under consideration: Provided, That
whenever any committee shall have occupied the morning hour on two days,
it shall not be in order for such committee to report further until the
other committees shall have been called in their turn. On the call for
reports from committees on each alternate Monday, which shall commence
as soon as the journal is read, all bills reported during the first hour
after the journal is read shall be committed, without debate, to the
Committee of the Whole, and together with their accompanying reports,
printed; and if during the hour all the committees are not called, then,
on the next alternate Monday, the Speaker shall commence where such
call was suspended: Provided, That no bill reported under the call on
alternate Mondays, and committed, shall be again brought before the House
by a motion to reconsider.

52. Reports from committees having been presented and disposed of, the
Speaker shall call for resolutions from the members of each State and
delegate from each Territory, beginning with Maine and the Territory last
organized, alternately; and they shall not be debated on the very day
of their being presented, nor on any day assigned by the House for the
receipt of resolutions, unless where the House shall direct otherwise,
but shall lie on the table, to be taken up in the order in which they
are presented; and if on any day the whole of the States and Territories
shall not be called, the Speaker shall begin on the next day where he
left off the previous day: Provided, That no member shall offer more than
one resolution, or one series of resolutions, all relating to the same
subject, until all the States and Territories shall have been called.

53. A proposition requesting information from the President of the
United States, or directing it to be furnished by the head of either of
the Executive departments, or by the Postmaster General—shall lie on
the table one day for consideration, unless otherwise ordered by the
unanimous consent of the House, and all such propositions shall be taken
up for consideration in the order they were presented, immediately after
reports are called for from select committees, and when adopted the clerk
shall cause the same to be delivered.

54. After one hour shall have been devoted to reports from committees
and resolutions, it shall be in order, pending the consideration or
discussion thereof, to entertain a motion that the House do now proceed
to dispose of the business on the Speaker’s table, and to the orders of
the day—which being decided in the affirmative, the Speaker shall dispose
of the business on his table in the following order, viz.:

    1st. Messages and other Executive communications.

    2d. Messages from the Senate, and amendments proposed by the
    Senate to bills of the House.

    3d. Bills and resolutions from the Senate on their first and
    second reading, that they be referred to committees and put
    under way; but if, on being read a second time, no motion being
    made to commit, they are to be ordered to their third reading
    unless objection be made; in which case, if not otherwise
    ordered by a majority of the House, they are to be laid on the
    table in general file of bills on the Speaker’s table, to be
    taken up in their turn.

    4th. Engrossed bills and bills from the Senate on their third
    reading.

    5th. Bills of the House and from the Senate on the Speaker’s
    table, on their engrossment, or on being ordered to a third
    reading, to be taken up and considered in the order of time in
    which they passed to a second reading.

The messages, communications and bills on his table having been disposed
of, the Speaker shall then proceed to call the orders of the day.

55. The business specified in the 54th and 130th rules shall be done at
no other part of the day, except by permission of the House.

56. The consideration of the unfinished business in which the House may
be engaged at an adjournment shall be resumed as soon as the journal of
the next day is read, and at the same time each day thereafter until
disposed of; and if, from any cause, other business shall intervene, it
shall be resumed as soon as such other business is disposed of. And the
consideration of all other unfinished business shall be resumed whenever
the class of business to which it belongs shall be in order under the
rules.


OF DECORUM AND DEBATE.

57. When any member is about to speak in debate, or deliver any matter
to the House, he shall rise from his seat and respectfully address
himself to “Mr. Speaker”—and shall confine himself to the question under
debate, and avoid personality.

58. Members may address the House or committee from the clerk’s desk, or
from a place near the Speaker’s chair.

59. When two or more members happen to rise at once, the Speaker shall
name the member who is first to speak.

60. No member shall occupy more than one hour in debate on any question
in the House, or in committee; but a member reporting the measure under
consideration from a committee may open and close the debate, provided
that when debate is closed by order of the House, any member shall be
allowed, in committee, five minutes to explain any amendment he may
offer, after which any member who shall first obtain the floor shall be
allowed to speak five minutes in opposition to it, and there shall be
no further debate on the amendment; but the same privilege of debate
shall be allowed in favor of and against any amendment that may be
offered to the amendment; and neither the amendment nor an amendment to
the amendment shall be withdrawn by the mover thereof, unless by the
unanimous consent of the committee. Provided further, that the House
may, by the vote of a majority of the members present, at any time after
the five minutes’ debate has taken place upon proposed amendments to any
section or paragraph of a bill, close all debate upon such section or
paragraph, or at their election upon the pending amendments only.

61. If any member in speaking or otherwise, transgress the rules of the
House, the Speaker shall, or any member may call him to order; in which
case the member so called to order shall immediately sit down, unless
permitted to explain; and the House shall, if appealed to, decide on the
case, but without debate; if there be no appeal the decision of the chair
shall be submitted to. If the decision be in favor of the member called
to order, he shall be at liberty to proceed; if otherwise, he shall not
be permitted to proceed, in case any member object, without leave of the
House; and if the case require it, he shall be liable to the censure of
the House.

62. If any member be called to order for words spoken in debate, the
person calling him to order shall repeat the words excepted to, and they
shall be taken down in writing at the clerk’s table; and no member shall
be held to answer, or be subject to the censure of the House, for words
spoken in debate, if any other member has spoken, or other business has
intervened, after the words spoken, and before exception to them shall
have been taken.

63. No member shall speak more than once to the same question without
leave of the House, unless he be the mover, proposer or introducer of the
matter pending; in which case he shall be permitted to speak in reply,
but not until every member choosing to speak shall have spoken.

64. If a question depending be lost by adjournment of the House, and
revived on the succeeding day, no member who shall have spoken on the
preceding day shall be permitted again to speak without leave.

65. While the Speaker is putting any question, or addressing the House,
none shall walk out of or across the House; nor in such case, or when a
member is speaking, shall entertain private discourse; nor while a member
is speaking, shall pass between him and the chair. Every member shall
remain uncovered during the session of the House. No member or other
person shall visit or remain by the clerk’s table while the ayes and noes
are calling, or ballots are counting.

66. All questions relating to the priority of business to be acted on
shall be decided without debate.


OF COMMITTEES.

67. All committees shall be appointed by the Speaker, unless otherwise
specially directed by the House, in which case they shall be appointed
by ballot; and if upon such ballot the number required shall not be
elected by a majority of the votes given, the House shall proceed to a
second ballot, in which a plurality of votes shall prevail; and in case
a greater number than is required to compose or complete a committee
shall have an equal number of votes, the House shall proceed to a further
ballot or ballots.

68. The first named member of any committee shall be the chairman; and
in his absence, or being excused by the House, the next named member,
and so on, as often as the case shall happen, unless the committee, by a
majority of their number, elect a chairman.

69. Any member may excuse himself from serving on any committee at the
time of his appointment, if he is then a member of two other committees.

70. It shall be the duty of a committee to meet on the call of any two
of its members, if the chairman be absent, or decline to appoint such
meeting.

71. The several standing committees of the House shall have leave to
report by bill or otherwise.

72. No committee shall sit during the sitting of the House without
special leave.

73. No committee shall be permitted to employ a clerk at the public
expense, without first obtaining leave of the House for that purpose.

74. Thirty-one standing committees shall be appointed at the commencement
of each Congress, viz.:

TO CONSIST OF NINE MEMBERS EACH.

  A Committee of Elections.—Nov. 13, 1789.
  A Committee of Ways and Means.—Jan. 1802.
  A Committee on Appropriations.—March 2, 1865.
  A Committee on Banking and Currency.—March 2, 1865.
  A Committee on the Pacific Railroad.—March 2, 1865.
  A Committee on Claims.—Nov. 13, 1794.
  A Committee on Commerce.—Dec. 14, 1795.
  A Committee on Public Lands.—Dec. 17, 1805.
  A Committee on the Post Office and Post Roads.—Nov. 9, 1806.
  A Committee for the District of Columbia.—Jan. 27, 1808.
  A Committee on the Judiciary.—June 3, 1813.
  A Committee on Revolutionary Claims.—Dec. 22, 1813.
  A Committee on Public Expenditures.—Feb. 26, 1814.
  A Committee on Private Land Claims.—April 29, 1816.
  A Committee on Manufactures.—Dec. 8, 1819.
  A Committee on Agriculture.—May 3, 1820.
  A Committee on Indian Affairs.—Dec. 18, 1821.
  A Committee on Military Affairs.—March 13, 1822.
  A Committee on Militia.—Dec. 10, 1835.
  A Committee on Naval Affairs.—March 13, 1822.
  A Committee on Foreign Affairs.—March 13, 1822.
  A Committee on the Territories.—Dec. 13, 1825.
  A Committee on Revolutionary Pensions.—Dec. 9, 1825.
  A Committee on Invalid Pensions.—Jan. 10, 1831.
  A Committee on Railways and Canals.—Dec. 15, 1831; April 9, 1869.
  A Committee on Mines and Mining.—Dec. 19, 1865.
  A Committee on Freedmen’s Affairs.—Dec. 4, 1866.
  A Committee on Education and Labor.—March 21, 1867.

TO CONSIST OF FIVE MEMBERS EACH.

  A Committee on Patents.—Sept. 15, 1837.
  A Committee on Public Buildings and Grounds.—Sept. 15, 1837.
  A Committee of Revisal and Unfinished Business.—Dec. 14, 1795.
  A Committee on Accounts.—Nov. 7, 1804.
  A Committee on Mileage.—Sept. 15, 1837.

TO CONSIST OF SEVEN MEMBERS.

  A Committee on Coinage, Weights and Measures.—Jan. 21, 1864: March
    2, 1867.

75. It shall be the duty of the Committee of Elections to examine and
report upon the certificates of election, or other credentials, of
the members returned to serve in this House, and to take into their
consideration all such petitions and other matters touching elections
and returns as shall or may be presented or come into question, and be
referred to them by the House.

76. It shall be the duty of the Committee on Appropriations to take into
consideration all Executive communications and such other propositions in
regard to carrying on the several departments of the government as may be
presented and referred to them by the House.

In preparing bills of appropriations for other objects, the Committee
on Appropriations shall not include appropriations for carrying into
effect treaties made by the United States; and where an appropriation
bill shall be referred to them for their consideration, which contains
appropriations for carrying a treaty into effect, and for other objects,
they shall propose such amendments as shall prevent appropriations for
carrying a treaty into effect being included in the same bill with
appropriations for other objects.

77. It shall also be the duty of the Committee on Appropriations, within
thirty days after their appointment, at every session of Congress,
commencing on the first Monday of December, to report the general
appropriation bills for legislative, executive, and judicial expenses;
for sundry civil expenses; for consular and diplomatic expenses; for
the army; for the navy; for the expenses of the Indian Department;
for the payment of invalid and other pensions; for the support of the
Military Academy; for fortifications; for the service of the Postoffice
Department, and for mail transportation by ocean steamers; or, in failure
thereof, the reasons of such failure. And said committee shall have leave
to report said bills (for reference only) at any time.

78. It shall be the duty of the Committee of Claims to take into
consideration all such petitions and matters or things touching claims
and demands on the United States as shall be presented, or shall or may
come in question, and be referred to them by the House; and to report
their opinion thereupon, together with such propositions for relief
therein as to them shall seem expedient.

79. It shall be the duty of the Committee on Commerce to take into
consideration all such petitions and matters or things touching the
commerce of the United States as shall be presented, or shall or may come
into question, and be referred to them by the House; and to report, from
time to time, their opinion thereon.

80. It shall be the duty of the Committee on the Public Lands to take
into consideration all such petitions and matters or things respecting
the lands of the United States as shall be presented, or shall or may
come in question, and be referred to them by the House; and to report
their opinion thereon, together with such propositions for relief therein
as to them shall seem expedient.

81. It shall be the duty of the Committee on the Post-Office and
Post-Roads to take into consideration all such petitions and matters or
things touching the post-office and post-roads as shall be presented,
or shall come in question, and be referred to them by the House; and to
report their opinion thereon, together with such propositions relative
thereto as to them shall seem expedient.

82. It shall be the duty of the Committee for the District of Columbia to
take into consideration all such petitions and matters or things touching
the said District as shall be presented or shall come in question, and
be referred to them by the House; and to report their opinion thereon,
together with such propositions relative thereto as to them shall seem
expedient.

83. It shall be the duty of the Committee on the Judiciary to take into
consideration such petitions and matters or things touching judicial
proceedings as shall be presented or may come in question, and be
referred to them by the House, and to report their opinion thereon,
together with such propositions relative thereto as to them shall seem
expedient.

84. It shall be the duty of the Committee on Revolutionary Claims to take
into consideration all such petitions and matters or things touching
claims and demands originating in the Revolutionary war, or arising
therefrom, as shall be presented, or shall or may come in question, and
be referred to them by the House, and to report their opinion thereupon,
together with such propositions for relief therein as to them shall seem
expedient.

85. It shall be the duty of the Committee on Public Expenditures
to examine into the state of the several public departments, and
particularly into laws making appropriations of money, and to report
whether the moneys have been disbursed conformably with such laws;
and also to report from time to time such provisions and arrangements
as may be necessary to add to the economy of the departments, and the
accountability of their officers.

86. It shall be the duty of the Committee on Private Land Claims to take
into consideration all claims to land which may be referred to them, or
shall or may come in question; and to report their opinion thereupon,
together with such propositions for relief therein as to them shall seem
expedient.

87. It shall be the duty of the Committee on Military Affairs to take
into consideration all subjects relating to the military establishment
and public defense which may be referred to them by the House, and to
report their opinion thereupon; and also to report, from time to time,
such measures as may contribute to economy and accountability in the said
establishment.

88. It shall be the duty of the Committee on the Militia to take into
consideration and report on all subjects connected with the organizing,
arming and disciplining the militia of the United States.

89. It shall be the duty of the Committee on Naval Affairs to take into
consideration all matters which concern the naval establishment, and
which shall be referred to them by the House, and to report their opinion
thereupon; and also to report, from time to time, such measures as may
contribute to economy and accountability in the said establishment.

90. It shall be the duty of the Committee on Foreign Affairs to take
into consideration all matters which concern the relations of the United
States with foreign nations, and which shall be referred to them by the
House, and to report their opinion on the same.

91. It shall be the duty of the Committee on the Territories to examine
into the legislative, civil and criminal proceedings of the Territories,
and to devise and report to the House such means as in their opinion
may be necessary to secure the rights and privileges of residents and
non-residents.

92. It shall be the duty of the Committee on Revolutionary Pensions to
take into consideration all such matters respecting pensions for services
in the Revolutionary war, other than invalid pensions, as shall be
referred to them by the House.

93. It shall be the duty of the Committee on Invalid Pensions to take
into consideration all such matters respecting invalid pensions as shall
be referred to them by the House.

94. It shall be the duty of the Committee on Roads and Canals to take
into consideration all such petitions and matters or things relating
to roads and canals, and the improvement of the navigation of Rivers,
as shall be presented or may come in question, and be referred to them
by the House, and to report thereupon, together with such propositions
relative thereto as to them shall seem expedient.

95. It shall be the duty of the Committee on Patents to consider all
subjects relating to patents which may be referred them; and report their
opinions thereon, together with such propositions relative thereto as may
seem to them expedient.

96. It shall be the duty of the Committee on Public Buildings and Grounds
to consider all subjects relating to the public edifices and grounds
within the city of Washington which may be referred to them; and report
their opinion thereon, together with such propositions relating thereto
as may seem to them expedient.

97. It shall be the duty of the Committee of Revisal and Unfinished
Business to examine and report what laws have expired, or are near
expiring, and require to be revived or further continued; also to examine
and report, from the journal of last session, all such matters as were
then depending and undetermined.

98. It shall be the duty of the Committee of Accounts to superintend
and control the expenditures of the contingent fund of the House of
Representatives; also to audit and settle all accounts which may be
charged thereon.

99. It shall be the duty of the Committee on Mileage to ascertain and
report the distance to the sergeant-at-arms for which each member shall
receive pay.

100. There shall be referred by the clerk to the members of the Committee
on Printing on the part of the House, all drawings, maps, charts, or
other papers which may at any time come before the House for engraving,
lithographing, or publishing in any way; which committee shall report
to the House whether the same ought, in their opinion, to be published;
and if the House order the publication of the same, that said committee
shall direct the size and manner of execution of all such maps, charts,
drawings, or other papers, and contract by agreement, in writing, for all
such engraving, lithographing, printing, drawing, and coloring, as may
be ordered by the House; which agreement, in writing, shall be furnished
by said committee to the Committee of Accounts, to govern said committee
in all allowances for such works, and it shall be in order for said
committee to report at all times.

101. It shall be in order for the Committee on Enrolled Bills and the
Committee on Printing to report at any time.

102. Seven additional standing committees shall be appointed at the
commencement of the first session in each Congress, whose duties shall
continue until the first session of the ensuing Congress.

    COMMITTEES, TO CONSIST OF FIVE MEMBERS EACH.

    1. A committee on so much of the public accounts and
    expenditures as relates to the Department of State;

    2. A committee on so much of the public accounts and
    expenditures as relates to the Treasury Department;

    3. A committee on so much of the public accounts and
    expenditures as relates to the Department of War;

    4. A committee on so much of the public accounts and
    expenditures as relates to the Department of the Navy;

    5. A committee on so much of the public accounts and
    expenditures as relates to the Post Office;

    6. A committee on so much of the public accounts and
    expenditures as relates to the Public Buildings; and

    7. A committee on so much of the public accounts and
    expenditures as relates to the Interior Department.

103. It shall be the duty of the said committees to examine into the
state of the accounts and expenditures respectively submitted to them,
and to inquire and to report particularly—

Whether the expenditures of the respective departments are justified by
law;

Whether the claims from time to time satisfied and discharged by the
respective departments are supported by sufficient vouchers, establishing
their justness both as to their character and amount.

Whether such claims have been discharged out of funds appropriated
therefor, and whether all moneys have been disbursed in conformity with
appropriation laws; and

Whether any, and what, provisions are necessary to be adopted, to
provide more perfectly for the proper application of the public moneys,
and to secure the government from demands unjust in their character or
extravagant in their amount.

And it shall be, moreover, the duty of the said committees to report,
from time to time, whether any, and what, retrenchment can be made in the
expenditures of the several departments, without detriment to the public
service; whether any, and what, abuses at any time exist in the failure
to enforce the payment of moneys which may be due to the United States
from public defaulters or others; and to report, from time to time, such
provisions and arrangements as may be necessary to add to the economy of
the several departments and the accountability of their officers.

It shall be the duty of the several committees on public expenditures to
inquire whether any officers belonging to the branches or departments,
respectively, concerning whose expenditures it is their duty to inquire,
have become useless or unnecessary; and to report from time to time,
on the expediency of modifying or abolishing the same; also to examine
into the pay and emoluments of all officers under the laws of the United
States; and to report from time to time such a reduction or increase
thereof as a just economy and the public service may require.


OF COMMITTEES OF THE WHOLE.

104. The House may at any time, by a vote of a majority of the members
present, suspend the rules and orders for the purpose of going into the
Committee of the Whole House on the State of the Union; and also for
providing for the discharge of the Committee of the Whole House, and the
Committee of the Whole House on the State of the Union, from the further
consideration of any bill referred to it, after acting without debate on
all amendments pending and that may be offered.

105. In forming a Committee of the Whole House, the Speaker shall leave
his chair, and a chairman to preside in committee shall be appointed by
the Speaker.

106. Whenever the Committee of the Whole on the State of the Union, or
the Committee of the Whole House, finds itself without a quorum, the
chairman shall cause the roll of the House to be called, and thereupon
the committee shall rise, and the chairman shall report the names of the
absentees to the House, which shall be entered on the journal.

107. Upon bills committed to a Committee of the Whole House, the bill
shall be first read throughout by the clerk, and then again read and
debated by clauses, leaving the preamble to be last considered; the body
of the bill shall not be defaced or interlined; but all amendments,
noting the page and line, shall be duly entered by the clerk on a
separate paper, as the same shall be agreed to by the committee, and so
reported to the House. After report, the bill shall again be subject to
be debated and amended by clauses, before a question to engross it be
taken.

108. All amendments made to an original motion in committee shall be
incorporated with the motion, and so reported.

109. All amendments made to a report committed to a Committee of the
Whole House shall be noted and reported, as in the case of bills.

110. No motion or proposition for a tax or charge upon the people shall
be discussed the day on which it is made or offered, and every such
proposition shall receive its first discussion in a Committee of the
Whole House.

111. No sum or quantum of tax or duty, voted by a Committee of the Whole
House, shall be increased in the House until the motion or proposition
for such increase shall be first discussed and voted in a Committee of
the Whole House; and so in respect to the time of its continuance.

112. All proceedings touching appropriations of money shall be first
discussed in a Committee of the Whole House.

113. The rules of proceedings in the House shall be observed in a
Committee of the Whole House, so far as they may be applicable, except
the rule limiting the times of speaking; but no member shall speak twice
to any question until every member choosing to speak shall have spoken.

114. In Committee of the Whole on the State of the Union, the bills
shall be taken up and disposed of in their order on the calendar; but
when objection is made to the consideration of a bill, a majority of
the committee shall decide, without debate, whether it shall be taken
up and disposed of, or laid aside; provided, that general appropriation
bills, and, in time of war, bills for raising men or money, and bills
concerning a treaty of peace, shall be preferred to all other bills at
the discretion of the committee; and when demanded by any member, the
question shall first be put in regard to them; and all debate on special
orders shall be confined strictly to the measure under consideration.


OF BILLS.

115. Every bill shall be introduced on the report of a committee, or by
motion for leave. In the latter case, at least one day’s notice shall be
given of the motion in the House, or by filing a memorandum thereof with
the clerk, and having it entered on the journal; and the motion shall be
made, and the bill introduced, if leave is given, when resolutions are
called for; such motion, or the bill when introduced, may be committed.

116. Every bill shall receive three several readings in the House
previous to its passage; and the bills shall be dispatched in order as
they were introduced, unless where the House shall direct otherwise; but
no bill shall be twice read on the same day, without special order of the
House.

117. The first reading of a bill shall be for information, and if
opposition be made to it, the question shall be, “Shall this bill be
rejected?” If no opposition be made, or if the question to reject be
negatived, the bill shall go to its second reading without a question.

118. Upon the second reading of a bill, the Speaker shall state it as
ready for commitment or engrossment; and if committed, then a question
shall be, whether to a select or standing committee, or to a Committee of
the Whole House; if to a Committee of the Whole House, the House shall
determine on what day; if no motion be made to commit, the question shall
be stated on its engrossment; and if it be not ordered to be engrossed on
the day of its being reported, it shall be placed on the general file on
the Speaker’s table, to be taken up in order. But if the bill be ordered
to be engrossed, the House shall appoint the day when it shall be read
the third time.

119. General appropriation bills shall be in order in preference to any
other bill of a public nature unless otherwise ordered by a majority of
the House.

And the House may, at any time, by a vote of the majority of the members
present, make any of the general appropriation bills a special order.

120. No appropriation shall be reported in such general appropriation
bills, or be in order as an amendment thereto, for any expenditure not
previously authorized by law, unless in continuation of appropriations
for such public works and objects as are already in progress, and
for the contingencies for carrying on the several departments of the
government.

121. Upon the engrossment of any bill making appropriations of money for
works of internal improvement of any kind or description, it shall be in
the power of any member to call for a division of the question, so as
to take a separate vote of the House upon each item of improvement or
appropriation contained in said bill, or upon such items separately, and
others collectively, as the members making the call may specify; and, if
one-fifth of the members present second said call, it shall be the duty
of the Speaker to make such divisions of the question, and put them to
vote accordingly.

122. The bills from the Court of Claims shall, on being laid before the
House, be read a first and second time, committed to a Committee of the
Whole House, and, together with the accompanying reports, printed.

123. A motion to strike out the enacting words of a bill shall have
precedence of a motion to amend; and, if carried, shall be considered
equivalent to its rejection. Whenever a bill is reported from a Committee
of the Whole, with a recommendation to strike out the enacting words, and
such recommendation is disagreed to by the House, the bill shall stand
recommitted to the said committees without further action by the House.

124. After commitment and report thereof to the House, or at any
time before its passage, a bill may be recommitted; and should such
recommitment take place after its engrossment, and an amendment be
reported and agreed to by the House, the question shall be again put on
the engrossment of the bill.

125. All bills ordered to be engrossed shall be executed in a fair round
hand.

126. No amendment by way of rider shall be received to any bill on its
third reading.

127. When a bill shall pass, it shall be certified by the clerk, noting
the day of its passage at the foot thereof.


LOCAL OR PRIVATE BUSINESS.

128. Friday and Saturday of every week shall be set apart for the
consideration of private bills and private business, in preference to any
other, unless otherwise determined by a majority of the House.

129. On the first and fourth Friday and Saturday of each month the
calendar of private bills shall be called over (the chairman of the
Committee of the Whole House commencing the call where he left off the
previous day,) and the bills to the passage of which no objection shall
then be made shall be first considered and disposed of. But when a bill
is again reached, after having been once objected to, the committee shall
consider and dispose of the same, unless it shall again be objected to by
at least five members.


OF BILLS ON LEAVE AND RESOLUTIONS.

130. All the States and Territories shall be called for bills on
leave and resolutions on each alternate Monday during each session
of Congress; and, if necessary to secure the object on said days,
all resolutions which shall give rise to debate shall lie over for
discussion, under the rules of the House already established; and
the whole of said days shall be appropriated to bills on leave and
resolutions, until all the States and Territories are called through.
And the Speaker shall first call the States and Territories for bills
on leave; and all bills so introduced during the first hour after the
journal is read shall be referred, without debate, to their appropriate
committees; provided, however, that a bill so introduced and referred
shall not be brought back into the House upon a motion to reconsider.


OF PETITIONS AND MEMORIALS.

131. Members having petitions and memorials to present, may hand them
to the clerk, indorsing the same with their names, and the reference or
disposition to be made thereof; and such petitions and memorials shall
be entered on the journal, subject to the control and direction of the
Speaker; and if any petition or memorial be so handed in, which, in the
judgment of the Speaker, is excluded by the rules, the same shall be
returned to the member from whom it was received.


OF THE PREVIOUS QUESTION.

132. The previous question shall be in this form: “Shall the main
question be now put?” It shall only be admitted when demanded by a
majority of the members present; and its effect shall be to put an end
to all debate, and to bring the House to a direct vote upon a motion to
commit if such motion shall have been made; and if this motion does not
prevail, then upon amendments reported by a committee, if any; then upon
pending amendments, and then upon the main question. But its only effect,
if a motion to postpone is pending, shall be to bring the House to a
vote upon such motion. Whenever the House shall refuse to order the main
question, the consideration of the subject shall be resumed as though no
motion for the previous question had been made. The House may also, at
any time, on motion seconded by a majority of the members present, close
all debate upon a pending amendment, or an amendment thereto, and cause
the question to be put thereon; and this shall not preclude any further
amendment or debate upon the bill. A call of the House shall not be in
order after the previous question is seconded, unless it shall appear,
upon an actual count by the Speaker, that no quorum is present.

133. On a previous question there shall be no debate. All incidental
questions of order arising after a motion is made for the previous
question and pending such motion, shall be decided, whether on appeal or
otherwise, without debate.


OF ADMISSION ON THE FLOOR.

134. No person except members of the Senate, their secretary, heads of
departments, the President’s private secretary, foreign ministers, the
Governor for the time being of any State, Senators and Representatives
elect, and Judges of the Supreme Court of the United States and of the
Court of Claims, shall be admitted within the hall of the House of
Representatives, or any of the rooms upon the same floor or leading into
the same.


OF REPORTERS.

135. Stenographers and reporters, other than the official reporters of
the House, wishing to take down the debates, may be admitted by the
Speaker to the reporters’ gallery over the Speaker’s chair, but not on
the floor of the House; but no person shall be allowed the privilege of
said gallery under the character of stenographer or reporter without a
written permission of the Speaker, specifying the part of said gallery
assigned to him; nor shall said stenographer or reporter be admitted to
said gallery unless he shall state in writing for what paper or papers
he is employed to report; nor shall he be so admitted, or, if admitted,
be suffered to retain his seat, if he shall become an agent to prosecute
any claim pending before Congress; and the Speaker shall give his written
permission with this condition.


UNFINISHED BUSINESS OF THE SESSION.

136. After six days from the commencement of a second or subsequent
session of any Congress, all bills, resolutions, and reports which
originated in the House, and at the close of the next preceding session
remained undetermined, shall be resumed and acted on in the same manner
as if an adjournment had not taken place. And all business before
committees of the House at the end of one session shall be resumed at
the commencement of the next session of the same Congress as if no
adjournment had taken place.


MISCELLANEOUS.

137. Whenever confidential communications are received from the President
of the United States, the House shall be cleared of all persons, except
the members, clerk, sergeant-at-arms, and doorkeeper, and so continue
during the reading of such communications, and (unless otherwise directed
by the House) during all debates and proceedings to be had thereon. And
when the Speaker, or any other member, shall inform the House that he has
communications to make which he conceives ought to be kept secret, the
House shall, in like manner, be cleared till the communication be made;
the House shall then determine whether the matter communicated requires
secrecy or not, and take order accordingly.

138. The rule for paying witnesses summoned to appear before this House,
or either of its committees, shall be as follows: for each day a witness
shall attend, the sum of two dollars; for each mile he shall travel in
coming to or going from the place of examination, the sum of ten cents
each way; but nothing shall be paid for traveling home when the witness
has been summoned at the place of trial.

139. Maps accompanying documents shall not be printed, under the general
order to print, without the special direction of the House.

140. No extra compensation shall be allowed to any officer or messenger,
page, laborer, or other person in the service of the House, or engaged
in or about the public grounds or buildings; and no person shall be an
officer of the House, or continue in its employment, who shall be an
agent for the prosecution of any claim against the government, or be
interested in such claim otherwise than an original claimant; and it
shall be the duty of the Committee of Accounts to inquire into and report
to the House any violation of this rule.

141. When the reading of a paper is called for, and the same is objected
to by any member, it shall be determined by a vote of the House.

142. When a question is postponed indefinitely, the same shall not be
acted upon again during the session.

143. Every order, resolution, or vote, to which the concurrence of the
Senate shall be necessary, shall be read to the House, and laid on the
table, on a day preceding that in which the same shall be moved, unless
the House shall otherwise expressly allow.

144. The rules of parliamentary practice, comprised in Jefferson’s
Manual, shall govern the House in all cases to which they are applicable,
and in which they are not inconsistent with the standing rules and orders
of the House, and joint rules of the Senate and House of Representatives.

145. No standing rule or order of the House shall be rescinded or changed
without one day’s notice being given of the motion therefor; nor shall
any rule be suspended, except by a vote of at least two-thirds of the
members present; nor shall the order of business, as established by the
rules, be postponed or changed, except by a vote of at least two-thirds
of the members present; nor shall the Speaker entertain a motion to
suspend the rules, except during the last ten days of the session, and
on Monday of every week at the expiration of an hour after the journal
is read, unless the call of the States and Territories for bills on
leave and resolutions has been earlier concluded, when the Speaker may
entertain a motion to suspend the rules.

146. All election of officers of the House, including the Speaker,
shall be conducted in accordance with these rules, so far as the same
are applicable; and pending the election of a Speaker, the clerk shall
preserve order and decorum, and shall decide all questions of order that
may arise, subject to appeal to the House.

147. These rules shall be the rules of the House of Representatives of
the present and succeeding Congresses unless otherwise ordered.

148. An additional standing committee shall be appointed at the
commencement of each Congress, whose duties shall continue until the
first session of the ensuing Congress, to consist of five members,
to be entitled a “Committee on a Uniform System of Coinage, Weights,
and Measures;” and to this committee shall be referred all bills,
resolutions, and communications to the House upon that subject.

149. The names of members not voting on any call of the ayes and noes
shall be recorded in the journal immediately after those voting in the
affirmative and negative, and the same record shall be made in the
Congressional Globe.

150. It shall be the duty of the Committee on the Pacific Railroad to
take into consideration all such petitions and matters or things relative
to railroads or telegraph lines between the Mississippi valley and the
Pacific coast, as shall be presented or shall come in question, and be
referred to them by the House, and to report their opinion thereon,
together with such propositions relative thereto as to them shall seem
expedient.

151. It shall be the duty of the Committee of Ways and Means to take into
consideration all reports of the Treasury Department, and such other
propositions relative to raising revenue and providing ways and means
for the support of the government as shall be presented or shall come
in question, and be referred to them by the House, and to report their
opinion thereon by bill or otherwise, as to them shall seem expedient;
and said committee shall have leave to report for commitment at any time.

152. It shall be the duty of the Committee on Banking and Bank Currency
to take into consideration all propositions relative to banking and the
currency as shall be presented or shall come in question, and be referred
to them by the House, and to report thereon by bill or otherwise.

153. It shall be the duty of the Committee on Mines and Mining to
consider all subjects relating to mines and mining that may be referred
to them, and to report their opinion thereon, together with such
propositions relative thereto as may seem to them expedient.

154. The allowance of stationery to each member and delegate shall be
of the value of seventy-five dollars for a long session, and forty-five
dollars for a short session of Congress.

155. The hall of the House shall not be used for any other purpose than
the legitimate business of the House, nor shall the Speaker entertain any
proposition to use it for any other purpose, or for the suspension of
this rule: Provided, That this shall not interfere with the performance
of divine service therein, under the direction of the Speaker, or with
the use of the same for caucus meetings of the members, or upon occasions
where the House may, by resolution, agree to take part in any ceremonies
to be observed therein.

156. There shall be appointed at the commencement of each Congress a
standing Committee on Freedmen’s Affairs, to consist of nine members,
whose duty it shall be to take charge of all matters concerning freedmen,
which shall be referred to them by the House.

157. When an act has been approved by the President, the usual number of
copies shall be printed for the use of the House.

158. Messages from the Senate and the President of the United States,
giving notice of bills passed or approved, shall be reported forthwith
from the clerk’s desk.

159. Estimates of appropriations, and all other communications from the
executive departments, intended for the consideration of any of the
committees of the House, shall be addressed to the Speaker and by him
submitted to the House for reference.

160. There shall be appointed to each Congress a Committee on Education
and Labor, to consist of nine members, to whom shall be referred all
petitions, bills, reports, and resolutions on those subjects, and who
shall from time to time report thereon.

161. Pending a motion to suspend the rules the Speaker may entertain one
motion that the House do now adjourn; but after the result thereon is
announced, he shall not entertain any other dilatory motion till the vote
is taken on suspension.

162. Whenever a question is pending before the House, the Speaker shall
not entertain any motion of a dilatory character except one motion to
adjourn and one motion to fix the day to which the House shall adjourn;
but the previous question on the engrossment and third reading of any
bill or joint resolution shall not be ordered during the first day
of its consideration, unless two thirds of the members present shall
second the demand: provided, that this rule shall not apply to House
resolutions offered in the morning hour of Monday: and provided further,
that it shall not apply to any proposition to appropriate the money, the
credit, or other property of the United States, except the regular annual
appropriation bills.




CHAPTER XXXI.

THE STATISTICS OF THE WORLD.


  ------------------------+-----------+---------+----------+---------------
          COUNTRY.        |Population.| Square  | Title of |  Capital.
                          |           | miles.  |  Ruler.  |
  ------------------------+-----------+---------+----------+---------------
                          |           |         |          |
  NORTH AMERICA.          |           |         |          |
                          |           |         |          |
  Arctic Region           |       ----|  600,000|----      |None.
  Bermuda                 |     12,000|       46|Governor  |Hamilton.
  Columbia (Brit.)        |     54,600|  230,000|Governor  |N. Westminster.
  Costa Rica              |    150,000|   16,250|President |San Jose.
  Greenland               |     10,000|  380,000|Inspector |Lichtenfels.
  Guatemala               |  1,180,000|   44,778|President |Guatemala.
  Honduras                |    500,000|   47,092|President |Comayagua.
  Honduras (Brit.)        |     25,635|   13,500|Lt. Gov   |Belize.
  Mexico                  |  8,743,614|  773,144|President |Mexico.
  Mosquito                |     16,000|   26,000|King      |Blewfields.
  New Britain             |    200,000|1,800,000|----      |York Factory.
  New Brunswick           |    285,777|   27,720|Lt. Gov.  |Fredericton.
  Newfoundland            |    146,536|   40,200|Governor  |St. John’s.
  Nicaragua               |    400,000|   58,169|President |Managua.
  Nova Scotia             |    387,800|   19,650|Lt. Gov.  |Halifax.
  Ontario                 |  1,620,842|  180,000|Lt. Gov.  |Toronto.
  Prince Edward Island    |     93,338|    2,173|Lt. Gov.  |Charlottetown.
  Quebec                  |  1,190,505|  210,000|Lt. Gov.  |Quebec.
  San Salvador            |    750,000|    7,230|President |San Salvador.
  St. Pierre              |      2,250|      120|Com.      |St. Pierre.
  United States           | 40,000,000|3,578,392|President |Washington.
                          |           |         |          |
  SOUTH AMERICA.          |           |         |          |
                          |           |         |          |
  Argentine Confederacy   |  1,800,000|  826,828|President |Buenos Ayres.
  Bolivia                 |  1,987,352|  535,760|President |Chuqueaca.
  Brazil                  | 11,780,000|3,231,047|Emperor   |Rio Janeiro.
  Cayenne                 |     27,560|   30,000|Governor  |Cayenne.
  Chili                   |  2,084,945|  139,335|President |Santiago.
  Colombia                |  2,794,470|  357,179|President |S. Fe de
                          |           |         |          | Bogota.
  Demerara, etc.          |    148,900|   76,000|Governor  |Georgetown.
  Ecuador                 |  1,040,371|  218,984|President |Quito.
  Falkland Islands        |        686|    7,600|Governor  |Port Louis.
  Paraguay                |  1,337,431|  126,352|President |Asuncion.
  Patagonia               |    120,000|  315,000|----      |None.
  Peru                    |  3,374,000|  510,107|President |Lima.
  Surinam                 |     64,270|   38,500|Governor  |Parimaraibo.
  Uruguay                 |    387,421|   66,716|President |Monte Video.
  Venezuela               |  1,565,000|  426,712|President |Caracas.
                          |           |         |          |
  WEST INDIA ISLANDS      |           |         |          |
                          |           |         |          |
  Antigua                 |     36,412|      183|Governor  |St. John’s.
  Bahamas                 |     35,287|    3,021|Governor  |Nassau.
  Barbadoes               |    152,127|      166|Governor  |Bridgetown.
  Burmudas                |     11,796|     ----|Governor  |Hamilton.
  Curacoa                 |     30,000|      580|----      |Williamstadt.
  Cuba                    |  1,500,000|   43,383|Capt. Gen.|Havana.
  Dominica                |     26,882|      290|Lt. Gov.  |Rosseau.
  Grenada                 |     36,672|      133|Lt. Gov.  |St. George.
  Guaduloupe, etc.        |    134,544|      534|----      |Basse Terre.
  Hayti                   |    572,000|   11,718|President |Port au Prince.
  Jamaica                 |    441,255|    6,400|Capt. Gen.|Spanish Town.
  Martinique              |    121,145|      322|----      |Port Royal.
  Montserrat              |      7,645|       47|President |Plymouth.
  Nevis                   |      9,822|       50|Adminis.  |Charlestown.
  Porto Rico              |    620,000|    3,895|Capt. Gen.|San Juan.
  St. Bartholomew’s       |     10,000|       25|----      |Gustavia.
  St. Christopher, etc.   |     26,940|      103|Lt. Gov.  |Basse Terre.
  St. John’s              |      3,000|       72|----      |
  St. Lucia               |     29,519|      250|Adminis.  |Castries.
  St. Martin’s (S.)       |      3,500|       11|          |
  St. Thomas              |     13,463|       37|          |
  St. Vincent             |     31,755|      131|Lt. Gov.  |Kingston.
  San Domingo             |    136,500|   18,000|President |San Domingo.
  Santa Cruz etc.         |     35,000|       81|----      |Christianstadt.
  Tobago                  |     15,410|       97|Lt. Gov.  |Scarboro.
  Trinidad                |     84,438|    1,754|Governor  |Port Espana.
  Turk’s Island           |      4,372|      450|President |Grand Turk.
  Virgin Islands          |      6,051|       57|President |Road Town.
                          |           |         |          |
  EUROPE.                 |           |         |          |
                          |           |         |          |
  Andorra                 |     12,000|      149|Rep.      |Andorra.
  Austria                 | 35,677,455|  240,381|Emperor   |Vienna.
  Belgium                 |  4,984,451|   11,373|King      |Brussels.
  Denmark                 |  1,608,362|   14,734|King      |Copenhagen.
  Faroe and Iceland       |     75,909|   40,258|          |
  France                  | 38,192,064|  209,428|President |Paris.
  Germany                 |           |         |          |
  _Northern Confederation_|           |         |          |
    Anhalt                |    197,041|    1,026|Duke      |Dessau.
    Bremen                |    109,572|       74|Burgom    |Bremen.
    Brunswick             |    302,792|    1,425|Duke      |Brunswick.
    Hamburg               |    305,196|      156|Burgom    |Hamburg.
    Hesse Darmstadt (N.)  |    257,479|    1,280|G. Duke   |Darmstadt.
    Lippe Detmold         |    111,352|      438|Prince    |Detmold.
    Lippe Schaumburg      |     31,186|      171|Prince    |Buckburg.
    Lubeck                |     48,538|      107|Burgom    |Lubeck.
    Mecklenburg Schwerin  |    560,618|    5,190|G. Duke   |Schwerin.
    Mecklenburg Strelitz  |     98,770|    1,052|G. Duke   |New Strelitz.
    Oldenburg             |    315,622|    2,469|G. Duke   |Oldenburg.
    Prussia               | 24,039,668|  136,806|King      |Berlin.
    Reuse Greiz           |     43,889|      145|Prince    |Greiz.
    Reuss Schleiz         |     88,097|      320|Prince    |Schleiz.
    Saxe Altenburg        |    141,426|      510|Duke      |Altenburg.
    Saxe Coburg Gotha     |    168,851|      760|Duke      |Coburg.
    Saxe Meiningen        |    180,335|      956|Duke      |Meiningen.
    Saxe Weimar           |    282,928|    1,404|G. Duke   |Weimar.
    Saxony                |  2,423,401|    5,779|King      |Dresden.
    Schwarzb. Rudolstadt  |     75,116|      374|Prince    |Rudolstadt.
    Swarzb. Sondershausen |     67,533|      332|Prince    |Sonderhausen.
    Waldeck               |     56,807|      433|Prince    |Corbach.
  _Southern Confederation_|           |         |          |
    Baden                 |  1,434,970|    5,912|G. Duke   |Carlsruhe.
    Bavaria               |  4,824,421|   29,373|King      |Munich.
    Hesse Darmstadt (S.)  |    565,659|    1,690|G. Duke   |Darmstadt.
    Lichtenstein          |      8,320|       62|Prince    |Lichtenstein.
    Wurtemberg            |  1,778,396|    7,532|King      |Stuttgardt.
  Great Britain           | 31,817,108|  120,769|Queen     |London.
    Gibraltar             |     24,175|        2|Governor  |Gibraltar.
    Heligoland            |      2,300|         |Governor  |Heligoland.
    Malta                 |    143,003|      115|Governor  |Malta.
  Greece                  |  1,096,810|   18,347|King      |Athens.
    Ionian Islands        |    251,712|    1,006|          |
  Italy                   | 25,766,217|  114,389|King      |Rome.
  Monaco                  |      1,887|       15|Prince    |
  Netherlands             |  3,652,070|   12,685|King      |Hague.
    Luxemburg             |    199,958|      991|          |
  Portugal                |  3,829,618|   36,494|King      |Lisbon.
    Azores and Madeira    |    363,658|    1,483|          |
  Russia                  | 78,400,000|7,862,568|Czar      |St.
                          |           |         |          |  Petersburgh.
  San Marino              |      5,770|       22|Repub     |San Marino.
  Spain                   | 16,302,625|  195,607|Repub     |Madrid.
  Sweden                  |  4,158,757|  128,776|King      |Stockholm.
    Norway                |  1,712,628|  120,295|          |
  Switzerland             |  2,510,494|   15,722|President |Berne.
  Turkey                  | 10,510,000|  131,295|Sultan    |Constantinople.
    Montenegro            |    196,238|    1,709|Prince    |Cettinge.
    Roumania              |  3,864,848|   46,710|Prince    |Bucharest.
    Servia                |  1,078,281|   21,218|Prince    |Belgrade.
                          |           |         |          |
  ASIA.                   |           |         |          |
                          |           |         |          |
  Anam (C. China)         |  9,000,000|  198,043|Emperor   |Hue.
  Arabia                  |  4,000,000|1,026,040|          |Muscat.
  Borneo                  | 25,000,000|  300,000|          |
  British India           |192,012,137|1,545,336|Gov. Gen. |Calcutta.
  Burmah                  |  4,000,000|  190,517|Comm.     |Ava.
  Ceylon                  |  2,081,395|   24,454|Governor  |Colombo.
  China                   |477,500,000|4,695,334|Emperor   |Pekin.
  Japan                   | 35,000,000|  149,399|Mikado    |Yeddo.
  Java                    | 14,168,416|   51,336|Gov. Gen. |Batavia.
  Persia                  | 11,000,000|  562,344|Schah     |Teheran.
  Siam                    |  6,298,990|  309,024|King      |Bangkok.
  Tartary                 |  7,870,000|  640,516|          |Bokhara.
  Turkey in Asia          | 16,463,000|  660,870|          |
                          |           |         |          |
  AFRICA.                 |           |         |          |
                          |           |         |          |
  Abyssinia               |  3,000,000|  148,392|Emperor   |Gondar.
  Algeria                 |  2,921,846|  259,313|Gov. Gen. |Algiers.
  Cape of Good Hope       |    566,158|  200,610|Governor  |Cape Town.
  Egypt                   |  7,465,000|  659,081|Viceroy   |Cairo.
  Gambia                  |      6,939|       21|Adminis.  |Bathurst.
  Gold Coast              |    262,000|    6,000|Adminis.  |Cape C’st
                          |           |         |          | Castle.
  Lagos                   |    110,000|         |          |Lagos.
  Liberia                 |    717,500|    9,567|President |Monrovia.
  Madagascar              |  5,000,000|  232,315|Queen     |Antinarivo.
  Morocco                 |  2,750,000|  672,300|Sultan    |Fez.
  Natal                   |    193,103|   16,150|Lt. Gov.  |Port Natal.
  Sierra Leone            |     41,497|      468|Governor  |Freetown.
  St. Helena              |      6,444|       47|Governor  |James Town.
  Tripoli                 |    750,000|   61,760|Bey       |Tripoli.
  Tunis                   |  2,000,000|   50,000|Bey       |Tunis.
  Zanzibar                |    380,000|    1,600|Sultan    |Zanzibar.
                          |           |         |          |
  AUSTRALIA.              |           |         |          |
                          |           |         |          |
  New South Wales         |    447,620|  323,437|Governor  |Sydney.
  Queensland              |    109,897|  678,600|Capt. Gen.|Port Denison.
  South Australia         |    176,298|  383,328|Governor  |Adelaide.
  Tasmania                |     98,455|   26,215|Governor  |Hobart Town.
  Victoria                |    703,817|   86,831|Capt. Gen.|Melbourne.
  Western Australia       |     21,065|  978,000|Governor  |
                          |           |         |          |
  POLYNESIA.              |           |         |          |
                          |           |         |          |
  Feejee Islands          |    200,000|    8,033|King      |
  New Guinea              |  1,000,000|  275,518|          |
  New Zealand             |    220,092|  106,261|Governor  |Auckland.
  Philippine Islands      |  2,250,000|   56,000|          |Manilla.
  Sandwich Islands        |     62,959|    7,633|King      |Honolulu.
  Society Islands         |     15,000|      700|Queen     |Tahiti.
  ------------------------+-----------+---------+----------+---------------


STATISTICS OF THE RACE.

The earth is inhabited by about 1,380,000,000 of inhabitants, namely:

  380,000,000 of the Caucasian race,
  580,000,000 of the Mongolian,
  200,000,000 of the Ethiopian,
  220,000,000 of the Malay races, and
  1,000,000 of the American Indian.

All these respectively speak 3064 languages, and possess 1,000 different
religions.

The amount of deaths per annum is 33,333,333, or 91,954 per day, 3730 per
hour, 60 per minute, or one per second. This loss is compensated by an
equal number of births.

The average duration of life throughout the globe is thirty-three years.
One-fourth of its population dies before the seventh year, and one-half
before the seventeenth. Out of 10,000 persons only one reaches his
hundredth year; only one in 500 his eightieth; and only one in 100 his
sixty-fifth.

Married people live longer than unmarried ones, and a tall man is likely
to live longer than a short one. Until the fiftieth year women have a
better chance of life than men; but beyond that period the chances are
equal.

Sixty-five persons out of one thousand marry. The months of June and
December are those in which marriages are most frequent.

Children born in spring are generally stronger than those born in other
seasons.

Births and deaths chiefly occur at night.

The number of men able to bear arms is but one-eighth of the population.


AFRICANS IN AMERICA.

It is estimated that there are some 14,580,000 persons of African descent
on this continent. In the United States they number 4,880,000; Brazil
4,200,000; Cuba and Porto Rico 1,500,000; South and Central American
Republics 1,100,000; Hayti 1,350,000; British Possessions 800,000;
French, 250,000; Dutch and Mexican 400,000.


CREEDS OF THE WORLD.

The population of the world is religiously distributed very nearly in the
following proportions:

  Christians                   388,600,000
  Buddhists                    360,000,000
  Other Asiatic religions      260,000,000
  Pagans                       200,000,000
  Mohammedans                  165,000,000
  Jews                           7,000,000

In Europe, America, Australia, and many of the Polynesian Islands,
_Christianity_ is the prevailing creed of every State. In Africa the
only independent Christian States are Abyssinia and Liberia, while
Christianity prevails in several European colonies. The largest empire
of Asia—Russia—is also a Christian country. India, the third country in
point of extent, is under the rule of a Christian government, and so is a
large portion of Farther India.

The _Mohammedan_ countries in Asia are Turkey, Persia, Afghanistan, and
the Khanates of Central Asia; in Africa—Morocco, the dependencies of
Turkey (Egypt, Tunis, Tripoli) and a number of interior States.

_Buddhism_ prevails in India, Farther India, in many parts of China, and
in Japan. The governments of Burmah and Siam are Buddhist; the government
of China adheres to the religion of Confucius; the religion of Japan is
_Sintooism_.

_Judaism_ is represented throughout the civilized world. The _Handbuch
der Vergleichenden Statistik_ of G. Von Kolb (Leipzig, 1868) gives the
following as the number of Jews in the countries named: Germany, 478,500;
Austria, 1,124,000; Great Britain, 40,000; France, 80,000; European
Russia, 2,277,000; Italy, 20,200; Switzerland, 4,200; Belgium 1,500;
Netherlands, 64,000; Luxemburg, 1,500; Denmark, 4,200; Sweden, 1,000;
Greece, 500; European Turkey, 70,000. The Jews in Portugal are estimated
at 3,000; in Syria and Asiatic Turkey, 52,000; in Morocco and North
Africa, 610,000; in Eastern Asia, 500,800; in America, 500,000.




SUPPLEMENT.

BY JUDGE J. C. POWER OF THE FIRST DISTRICT OF IOWA.

LEGAL FORMS.


FORM OF WILL.

In the name of God, Amen.

I, (give name of testator) of (residence), being of sound mind and
memory, do hereby make, publish, and declare this to be my last Will and
Testament, hereby revoking and making void all former Wills by me at any
time heretofore made.

_First_—I order and direct my Executors, as soon after my decease
as practicable, to pay off and discharge all the debts, dues, and
liabilities that may exist against me at the time of my decease.

_Second_—I give and bequeath unto my wife (name). (Here state property
bequeathed.)

_Third_—I give and bequeath unto my son (name). (Here state property
bequeathed.)

Same form for each legacy.

_Fourth_—I hereby nominate and appoint. (Here give name of person or
persons selected as Executors.)

In Witness Whereof I have hereunto subscribed my name this ____ day of
____ A. D.

                                                                ____ Name.

The above and foregoing instrument was at the date thereof signed,
sealed, published, and declared, by the said (name of testator), as and
for his last Will and Testament, in presence of us, who, at his request,
and in his presence, and in the presence of each other, have subscribed
our names as witnesses.

                                                Name. ____ ____ Residence.
                                                Name. ____ ____ Residence.

_Note._—Must be signed by the testator before acknowledged by him to
be his will—and must be signed by testator in presence of witnesses—or
acknowledged by him in presence of witnesses. Two witnesses are necessary.


ARTICLES OF CO-PARTNERSHIP.

This agreement, made and entered into this ____ day of ____, 187_, by and
between ____ of ____, and ____, of ____

Witnesseth: that the said parties hereby agree to become partners in the
business of ____ at ____ for the term of ____ years from the date hereof,
under the firm name of ____.

Said parties have each contributed the sum of ____ dollars as the capital
stock of said firm.

Both parties are to devote their entire time and skill for the common
benefit.

All expenses of the business and all losses are to be borne in common,
and the profits are to be equally divided.

Books of account are to be kept, in which shall be entered all money
received or paid, all purchaser and sales of goods, and all matters of
account relating to the business of the firm, which shall at all times be
accessible to both.

No money or other property shall be withdrawn by either partner, or
applied to his own use, except with the written consent of the other
partner; and in every such case the same shall be charged, and his share
of the profits shall be reduced in proportion to the amount withdrawn.

Once in each year a correct account shall be taken and stated on the
ledger of all stock property and assets of the firm, and of all debts and
liabilities.

At the close of the partnership a like account shall be taken and stated,
and the stock and property, and the debts, shall be equally divided after
payment of the liabilities of the firm.

No debt or claim of the firm shall be released or settled without payment
in full, unless by consent of both partners.

Neither partner shall have power to bind the firm as surety in any case;
and neither partner shall become surety for another without the written
consent of the other partner.

Witness our hands and seals this the day and date above written.

                                                         Name ____ [SEAL.]
                                                         Name ____ [SEAL.]


AGREEMENT TO CONTINUE A CO-PARTNERSHIP.

As the partnership existing between the undersigned will expire on the
____ day of ____, 187_, it is hereby agreed that said co-partnership
shall continue upon the same terms and conditions as provided in the
original articles of co-partnership for the further term of ____ from
the date of the expiration of said co-partnership as fixed by the said
articles.

Witness our hands (as in articles, giving date).


AGREEMENT for DISSOLUTION of CO-PARTNERSHIP.

The undersigned hereby agree that the co-partnership existing between
them, as is witnessed by the Articles of Co-partnership signed by us,
be, and the same is hereby, dissolved, except for the purpose of final
settlement of the business thereof, which may be settled by ____. And
upon such settlement, then said co-partnership shall be wholly dissolved.

Witness, etc. (as above).


POWER OF ATTORNEY.

Know all men by these presents, that I ____ of ____, hereby make,
constitute, and appoint ____ of ____, my true and lawful Attorney, for
me, and in my name, place, and stead, to (here state duty of Attorney)
granting unto my said Attorney full power and authority to do and perform
each and every thing necessary and proper to be done in the performance
of his duty, as fully as I might or could do if personally present,
hereby ratifying and confirming all the lawful acts of my said Attorney,
done under and by virtue hereof.

Witness my hand and seal this ____ day of ____ A. D. 187_.

                                                         Name ____ [SEAL.]

_Note._—To be signed and acknowledged as a deed for the conveyance of
real estate.


FORM OF SUBMISSION TO ARBITRATION.

Know all men by these presents, that whereas a controversy is now
existing between (name), of (residence), and (name), of (residence),
touching (here state nature of controversy):

Now, therefore, we, the said (here give names of parties), do hereby
submit said controversy to the decision and arbitration of (here
give names of three persons selected as arbitrators), of (here state
residences), and do covenant each with the other that we will faithfully
keep and abide by the decision and award that they, or any two of them,
may make in writing—said award to be made and signed on or before (here
give date).

And it is agreed by the parties hereto, that the party that shall fail to
abide by and observe said award, made in accordance with the foregoing
submission, shall forfeit and pay to the other the sum of (here insert
amount).

Witness our hands this ____ day of ____ A. D. ____.

                                                                ____ Name.
                                                                ____ Name.


AWARD OF ARBITRATORS.

The undersigned to whose arbitration was submitted the matters in
controversy between (here give names of parties) as more fully appears by
their written submission hereto attached, Report that on the day of ____
A. D. 18__, after having been duly sworn according to law, and having
given both parties ____ day’s notice in writing of the time and place of
our meeting to consider said matter, we proceeded to the discharge of
our duty; said (name of party) appearing in person (if by Att’y also so
state,) and said (name of party) appearing in person (if by Att’y also
so state.) And having heard the allegations and proofs of said parties,
and the witnesses introduced by them, and having examined the matter in
controversy submitted by them, do make and declare this as and for our
award.

Here state findings of Arbitrators.

Witness our hands this ____ day of ____ A. D. ____.

                                                                ____ Name.
                                                                ____ Name.
                                                                ____ Name.


GENERAL FORM FOR AGREEMENT.

This Agreement made this ____ day of ____ 187_, by and between ____
of ____ and ____ of ____. Witnesseth: That the said ____ for the
consideration of (here state nature of consideration) to be (if money
paid,) (if work or labor or delivery of property) to be performed or
delivered as hereafter provided, hereby agrees that (state agreement of
this party fully.)

And for the consideration above mentioned the said ____ hereby agrees,
that (state agreement of this party fully.)

In witness whereof, we hereto subscribe our names and affix our seal this
day and date first above written.

                                                         Name ____ [SEAL.]
                                                         Name ____ [SEAL.]


AGREEMENT FOR SALE OF PERSONAL PROPERTY.

This Agreement, made this ____ day of ____ 187_, between ____ of ____
and ____ of ____. Witnesseth: That the said ____ in consideration of the
agreements on the part of ____ hereafter named, agrees to and with the
said ____ that on or before the ____ day of ____, 187_, he will deliver
to the said ____ at (state place of delivery,) the following property
(state kind of property).

And the said ____ in consideration of the aforesaid agreements and
promises on the part of the said ____, hereby promises and agrees to and
with the said ____, that he will pay to him (state price to be paid) said
payments to be made as follows (state how and when.)

In witness whereof, we hereto subscribe our names and affix our seals
this the day and year first above written.

                                                         Name ____ [SEAL.]
                                                         Name ____ [SEAL.]


AGREEMENT FOR THE SALE OF REAL ESTATE.

This Agreement, made this ____ day of ____ 187_, by and between ____
of ____ and ____ of ____. Witnesseth: That for and in consideration of
the sum of ____ dollars, to be paid by the said ____ to the said ____
as follows (state manner of payment), the said ____ hereby promises and
agrees to convey by (state nature of conveyance, whether warranty or quit
claim), the following described real estate situate in ____ county, State
of ____. (Give description of land.) And the said ____ hereby promises to
pay said ____ the sum of ____ dollars as above provided.

And upon the payment in full of said amount, then said conveyance is to
be executed and delivered.

In witness whereof, we hereunto subscribe our names and affix our seals
this the day and date above written.

                                                         Name ____ [SEAL.]
                                                         Name ____ [SEAL.]

_Note._—To be executed and acknowledged as a deed for real estate.


FORM OF LEASE.

Agreement of Lease, made this ____ day of ____, between ____ of and ____
of ____, Witnesseth: That the said ____ agrees to pay to ____, ____
dollars per ____ for the rent of the house and premises on (description
of land.)

The said ____ agrees to use said premises for no other purpose than ____,
and not underlet the same without the written consent of ____. This lease
to commence on the ____ day of ____ 187_, and continue until the ____
day of ____ 187_. The rent to be paid (_state how_) to the said ____ at
____. A failure to pay the rent as agreed, or to comply with any of the
stipulations of their lease by ____, shall authorize the said ____ to
consider the same forfeited; and he may take possession of the premises
without notice and without process of law, or he may bring his action as
allowed by law to recover possession.

In witness whereof, we hereunto subscribe our names and affix our seals
this the day and date first above written.

                                                         Name ____ [SEAL.]
                                                         Name ____ [SEAL.]


FORM OF DEED.

This Deed, made this ____ day of ____ 187_, Witnesseth: That for the
consideration of ____ dollars, we ____ of ____ county, State of ____,
hereby sell and convey unto ____ of ____ county, State of ____, all the
following described real estate, situate in ____ county, State of Iowa.
(Here give a description of the land) together with all the estate,
title, and interest, dower, and right of dower of the said grantors, or
either of them.

And we hereby warrant the title to said premises against all persons
whomsoever (or if quit claim say), and we hereby quit claim all our
right, title and interest in and to said premises to the grantees herein.

Witness our hands and seals this the day and date above written.

                                                         Name ____ [SEAL.]
                                                         Name ____ [SEAL.]

  The State of ____}
  ____ County.     }ss.

Be it Remembered, That on this ____ day of ____ 187_, before me a ____
within and for said county and State, personally appeared ____, who
personally known to me to be the identical person whose name ____ affixed
to the foregoing deed as grantor, and she acknowledged the same to be her
voluntary act and deed, and the said ____, having been made acquainted
with the contents hereof, and the nature of the above instrument having
been fully explained to her, and having been examined by me separate and
apart from her husband, acknowledged that she signed and executed the
said deed freely and voluntarily, and without compulsion, and that she
does not desire to retract the same.

In witness whereof, I hereto set my hand and ____ seal this the day and
date last above written.

                                                         Name ____ [SEAL.]

_Note._—It is better in all cases to have two witnesses to the
signatures, as the fact that such signatures are witnessed will never
invalidate the conveyance; and in some States the instrument is void
without such witnesses.


MORTGAGE DEED.

This Deed, made this ____ day of ____, 187_, Witnesseth: That for the
consideration of ____ dollars, we ____ of ____ county, State of ____,
hereby sell and convey unto ____ of ____ all the following described real
estate, situate in ____ county, State of ____ to-wit: (Here describe real
estate.)

And we hereby warrant the title to said premises against all persons
whomsoever.

This deed to be void, however, on condition ____ pay. (State nature of
indebtedness, time and manner of payment.)

(If homestead say), and the property conveyed being our homestead, we
hereby expressly waive all benefit of the homestead and exemption laws,
and consent that said property shall be liable for the payment of said
indebtedness. Otherwise of force and virtue.

Witness our hands and seals this the day and date above written.

                                                         Name ____ [SEAL.]
                                                         Name ____ [SEAL.]


NEGOTIABLE NOTE.

                                             CHICAGO, Ill., May 1st, 1873.

  $200

One year after date, I promise to pay to the order of Felix Welty,
two hundred dollars, with ten per cent. interest from date, for value
received.

                                                                Name ____


NON-NEGOTIABLE NOTE.

                                            CHICAGO, Ill., May 1st., 1873.

  $200

One year after date. I promise to pay Felix Welty, two hundred dollars,
with ten per cent. interest from date, for value received.

                                                                Name ____


NOTE TRANSFERABLE BY DELIVERY.

                                                   CHICAGO, May 1st, 1873.

  $200

One year after date, I promise to pay Felix Welty or bearer, two hundred
dollars, with ten per cent. interest from date, for value received.

_Note._—If joint note say “we.” If joint and several say “we or either of
us.”

                                                                Name ____


DUE BILL.

Due Felix Welty, two hundred dollars, value received. May 1st, 1873.

                                                                Name ____


RECEIPT.

                                             CHICAGO, Ill., May 1st, 1873.

Received of Willis Moran one hundred dollars, in full of all claims or
demands, of each and every kind held by me against him.

                                                                Name ____

_Note._—If in satisfaction or payment of any particular claim, to state.





End of Project Gutenberg's The Footprints of Time, by Charles Bancroft