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  Transcriber’s Note

  Text printed in italics has been transcribed between _underscores_.
  Small capitals have been replace with ALL CAPITALS. Superscript texts
  are transcribed as ^{text}.

  Sidenotes are surrounded by ~tildes~.

  More Transcriber’s Notes may be found at the end of this text.




  CLASS BOOK
  FOR
  THE SCHOOL OF MUSKETRY
  HYTHE.

  PREPARED FOR THE USE OF OFFICERS.

  BY
  COLONEL E. C. WILFORD,
  _Assistant-Commandant and Chief Instructor_.

  HYTHE:
  W. S. PAINE, STATIONER, POST OFFICE, HIGH STREET.

  1861.




INTRODUCTION.


The School of Musketry was founded in 1853, by the then
Commander-in-Chief, the late Viscount Hardinge, as a normal school of
instruction in Musketry.

It has for its especial object the formation of officers and
non-commissioned officers to act as instructors in the several
battalions throughout the Army.

In the book of “Regulations for conducting the Musketry Instruction of
the Army,” promulgated by order of His Royal Highness the
Commander-in-Chief, it is ordered at page 33, and paragraph 35, that,
“The Commanding Officer is to assemble the officers of the battalion at
least once in each half-year, and to cause the non-commissioned officers
and men to be assembled occasionally by squads or companies, at other
times than when the annual course is proceeding, when the
officer-instructor, having previously explained the theoretical
principles detailed in the foregoing lessons, will be at liberty to
advance deeper into the subject, developing to a degree proportionate to
the rank and intelligence of his auditors, the whole history of small
arms, from the first invention of gunpowder, and the successive steps by
which the rifle-musket has attained its present efficiency; in order
that the officers and soldiers, by acquiring a thorough knowledge of the
subject theoretically, may take a greater interest in the practical part
of this most important branch of their duty.”

The following Lectures have been prepared for the use of officers
qualifying at the School of Musketry for the positions of Instructors in
their respective Regiments. They are not to be considered as complete
treatises or histories, but merely as “aids” to instruction, which can
be expanded by the Instructor in viva voce Lectures, and if bound with
an alternate ruled blank leaf, they may be corrected and enlarged when
desirable, to suit the various improvements in arms, &c., introduced
from time to time.

These Lectures are a mere compilation, extracted from a vast amount of
interesting and valuable matter, systematically arranged. The names of
the various authors upon whom wholesale plunder has been committed are
mentioned in the course of the work, and the compiler hopes this general
confession may secure their pardon.

The Theory of Gunnery has been very slightly touched upon: it cannot be
pursued by any persons unless well grounded in Mathematics, and the
short time passed by officers at Hythe wholly precludes so abstruse a
study. Our School is decidedly a practical institution; to acquire an
art or skill is our object, and we only broach the subject of Theory to
soldiers, so far as to enable them to understand the reasons for all
those rules which have to be attended to in practice.

  E. C. WILFORD,
  COLONEL.

  HYTHE, _January, 1861_.




CONTENTS


                                                                   PAGE.
  History of Gunpowder                                                 1
  Manufacture of Gunpowder                                             7
  Foreign Gunpowder                                                   20
  Explosive force of Gunpowder                                        29
  Experiments with Gunpowder                                          36
  Magazines                                                           23
  Lightning Conductors                                                24
  Greek Fire                                                           4
  Ancient Engines of War                                              39
  On Artillery                                                        62
  Portable Fire Arms                                                  73
  The Rifle                                                           86
  The Bayonet                                                         83
  Accoutrements                                                       84
  Breech-loaders                                                      92
  On Rifling                                                          95
  On Rifle Projectiles                                               101
  Theoretical Principles                                             110
  Gravity                                                            113
  Atmosphere                                                         115
  Form of Bodies                                                     119
  Causes of Deviation                                                121
  Windage                                                            121
  Rotation                                                           122
  On Eccentric Projectiles                                           124

  Extended Table of Contents




ERRATA.


  Page 6, para. 5, line 6, for “_have before stated_” read “_shall
  state_.”

  Page 20, last line but one, for “_altogether_” read “_all together_”

  Page 25, para. 3, line 5, for “_descriptive_” read “_disruptive_.”

  Page 30, para. 3, line 9, for “_expansive_” read “_expansion_.”

  Page 31, para. 3, line 1, for “_art_” read “_act_.”

  Page 32, para. 7, line 9, for “_considerable_” read “_considerably_.”

  Page 32, para. 7, line 10, for “_Robert_” read “_Piobert_.”

  Page 35, para. 3, line 1, for “_sulphurate of Potassia_” read
  “_sulphide of Potassa_.”

  Page 36, para. 4, lines 1 and 2, for “_which is a mortar_” read “_the
  chamber being_.”

  Page 40, last line but 3, for “_Polyreetes_” read “_Polyorcetes_.”

  Page 41, para. 4, line 10, for “ix” read “xii.”

  Page 53, para. 2, line 9, for “_incredible_” read “_incredibly_.”

  Page 66, para. 6, line 2, after “_has_” insert “_a_”

  Page 78, para. 5, line 3, for “753in.,” read “·753in.”

  Page 78, para. 5, line 3, for “16” read “14¹⁄₂.”

  Page 79, line 4, for “600” read “6,000.”

  Page 84, para. 2, line 1, for “_Latinat_” read “_Catinat_.”

  Page 84, para. 3, line 1, for “_masquitairy_” read “_mousquetaires_.”

  Page 86, para. 10, line 2, for “_Carabins ragees_,” read “_Carabines
  rayées_.”

  Page 86, para. 12, line 1, for “_subaltern officers_” read
  “_Non-Commissioned Officers_.”

  Page 89, line 3, for “_range_” read “_rayé_.”

  Page 89, line 3, for “_ball culot_” read “_balle à culot_.”

  Page 91, para. 4, last line, for “⁷⁄₁₀₀” read “¹⁄₁₀₀”

  Page 93, para. 8, line 1, for “_wounds_” read “_rounds_.”

  Page 98, para. 1, lines 6 and 7, for “_possible. For_,” read
  “_possible; for_”

  Page 103, para. 3, line 7, for “_proportionary_” read
  “_proportionate_.”

  Page 103, para. 5, line 4, for “_reserved_” read “_reversed_.”

  Page 105, para. 6, line 3, for “_horn-wood_” read “_hora, wood_.”

  Page 112, para. 1, line 8, after “_direction_,” insert “_b_.”

  Page 114, para. 2, line 7, for “16-48-80” read “16+48+80.”

  Page 115, para. 2, line 2, for “_sine_” read “_tangent_.”

  Page 115, para. 2, for “_plate_ 21, _fig._ 3,” read “_plate_ 22,
  _fig._ 3.”

  Page 119, para. 3, line 1, after “_moving_,” insert “_in_.”

  Plate 21, fig. 5, should be lettered as fig. 4. plate 22.




HISTORY OF GUNPOWDER.


The History of Gunpowder may well form a prelude to that of Fire Arms,
as the existence of the latter is wholly dependent on the discovery of
the former. Of all the discoveries which have been made, there is,
perhaps, none which has produced more important consequences to mankind
than the discovery of Gunpowder, as by introducing fire-arms, and a new
method of fortifying, attacking, and defending Towns, it wrought a
complete change in the whole art of war.

  ~Knock’s opinion.~

The invention of Gunpowder is completely involved in obscurity, and this
very fact is one great proof of its antiquity. Knock observes that the
invention of Gunpowder comprises several discoveries, which it is
necessary to distinguish from each other.

  ~Order of discovery.~

1st.--The discovery of Nitre, the principal ingredient, and the cause of
its detonation.

2nd.--The mixture of nitre with sulphur and charcoal, which, properly
speaking, form gunpowder.

3rd.--The application of powder to fire-works.

4th.--Its employment as a propelling agent for throwing stones, bullets,
&c.

5th.--Its employment in springing mines and destroying fortifications.

All these discoveries belong to different periods.

  ~Mr. Duten’s account.~

Mr. Dutens carried the antiquity of gunpowder very high; and refers to
the accounts given by Virgil, and others, of Salmonens’ attempt to
imitate thunder, presuming from hence that he used a composition of the
nature of Gunpowder.

  ~Known in China, A. D. 85.~

It has been said that it was used in China as early as the year A. D.
85, and that the knowledge of it was conveyed to us from the Arabs, on
the return of the Crusaders to Europe.

  ~Known in India, A. D. 250.~

The Brahmas and Indians, whose practice is recorded by Philostratus, in
his life of Appolonius Tyanœus, written about 1600 years ago. “These
truly wise men,” says he, “dwell between the rivers Hyphasis and Ganges;
their country Alexander never entered, their cities he never could have
taken, for they come not out to the field to fight those who attack
them, but they overthrow their enemies with tempests and thunderbolts,
shot from their walls.”

This is a most striking illustration of the antiquity of Gunpowder, for
if some such composition be not implied in the foregoing quotation, it
must remain for ever perfectly unintelligible.

Saltpetre, which is the principal ingredient of Gunpowder, is found in
its natural state in the East, and from this it seems highly probable
they were acquainted with the composition of Gunpowder before the
Europeans.

  ~Powder at siege of Mecca, A. D. 690.~

The Arabs are said to have employed Gunpowder at the siege of Mecca,
A. D. 690.

  ~Oldest book on gunpowder A. D. 900.~

There is a manuscript book still extant, entitled Liber Ignium, written
by Marcus Græcus, who lived about the end of the eighth century, and the
composition there prescribed is 6lbs. saltpetre, 2lbs. charcoal, 1lb.
sulphur, to be well powdered and mixed in a stone mortar.

  ~Work on gunpowder in Escurial Collection A. D. 1249.~

There is in the Escurial Collection a treatise on Gunpowder, written in
1249.

  ~Roger Bacon on powder, A. D. 1267.~

Our countryman, Roger Bacon, who was born 1214, and published works at
Oxford 1267, expressly mentions the ingredients of Gunpowder, not as any
new discovery, but as a well known composition, used for recreation. He
describes it as producing a noise like thunder, and flashes like
lightning, but more terrible than those produced by nature; and adds
that it might be applied to the destruction of an army or a city. Bacon,
in his treatise “De Secretis Operibus,” says that from saltpetre,
sulphur, and wood coals, we are able to make a fire that shall burn at
any distance we please.

  ~Tradition of Schwartz, A. D. 1320.~

  ~Mortar.~

The common tradition of Bartholdus Schwartz having invented Gunpowder
and Artillery, about 1320, is without the slightest foundation, but he
might possibly have suggested the simplest application of it to warlike
purposes, in consequence of some accidental explosion while mixing the
ingredients in a mortar. Indeed, the name, as well as the form of the
old species of artillery, which was employed to throw large bullets at
an elevation, strongly corroborate this conjecture; but Schwartz cannot
lay any claim to originality of invention.

  ~Powder made in the reign of Richard II. 1378.~

Gunpowder was made in England in the fourteenth century, as Richard II.
commissioned Sir Thomas Norwich to buy, in London, or in any other
place, certain quantities of “sulphur, saltpetre, and charcoal,” for
making Gunpowder.

  ~Tartaglia on Powder, A. D. 1500.~

Tartaglia, at the commencement of the sixteenth century, sets down
twenty-three different compositions, made use of at different times, the
first of which, being the most ancient, consists of equal parts of
nitre, sulphur, and charcoal.

  ~Ancient gunpowder weak.~

Gunpowder, for some time after the invention of artillery, was of a
composition much weaker than what we now use, or than that ancient one
mentioned by Marcus Græcus; but this, it is presumed, was owing to the
weakness of their first pieces, rather than to the ignorance of a better
mixture.

  ~Graining.~

The change of the proportion of the materials composing it was not the
only improvement it received. The invention of graining it is doubtless
a considerable advantage to it; for powder, at first, was always in the
form of fine meal, such as it was reduced to by grinding the materials
together. It is doubtful whether the first graining of powder was
intended to increase its strength, or only to render it more convenient
for the filling into small charges, and the charging of small arms, to
which alone it was applied for many years, whilst meal-powder was still
made use of in cannon. But at last the additional strength which the
grained powder was found to acquire from the free passage of the fire
between the grains, occasioned the meal-powder to be entirely laid
aside.

  ~Tartaglia wrote, 1537.~

  ~William Bourne, 1577.~

That powder was first used in meal, and continued in its old form for
cannon long after the invention of graining it for small arms, are facts
not to be contested. Tartaglia expressly asserts that in his time
cannon-powder was in meal, and the musket-powder grained. And our
countryman, William Bourne, in his “Art of Shooting in great Ordnaunce,”
published forty years after Tartaglia, tells us, in chap. I, that
serpentine powder, (which he opposes to corn, or grained-powder) should
be as fine as sand, and as soft as flour: and in his third chapter he
says that two pounds of corn-powder will go as far as three pounds of
serpentine-powder.

  ~Tartaglia on the proportions.~

We learn from Tartaglia, that the cannon-powder was made of four parts
saltpetre, one part sulphur, and one part charcoal; and the
musket-powder of forty-eight parts saltpetre, seven parts sulphur, and
eight parts charcoal; or of eighteen parts saltpetre, two parts sulphur,
and three parts charcoal. These compositions for musket powder are very
near the present standard; the first having, in one hundred pounds of
powder, about one pound of saltpetre more than is at present allowed,
and the second three pounds more.

  ~Nye’s treatise on the proportions.~

Nye, in his treatise on fireworks, gives the proportions of the
ingredients, and the dates when they are used, thus in 1380 equal parts
of each were employed. This would be about as efficient as a common
squib of the present time. In 1410, three parts saltpetre, two sulphur,
and two charcoal. In 1520, for the best powder, four parts saltpetre,
one sulphur, and one charcoal, and afterwards, five saltpetre, one
sulphur, and one charcoal.

  ~Early gunpowder mere mixture.~

In fact, Gunpowder was merely those substances, combined, with little or
no purification. It was not at first corned or grained, as at present,
but remained in its mealed state, and was called “serpentine powder,” in
several accounts of stores in the time of Edward VI., and Elizabeth.

  ~Two kinds.~

Soon after this two kinds of powder were used for the same gun, one in
its mealed state (for priming only) as being more readily ignited by the
match, the other, corned or grained, for the charge in the gun barrel.

  ~Powder first used to explode mines in 15th century.~

The application of powder to mines, and to the destruction of
fortifications, does not appear to have been in practice before the end
of the fifteenth century.

  ~Elizabeth had powder made, 1558 to 1603.~

Camden, in his life of Queen Elizabeth, says that she was the first who
procured Gunpowder to be made in England, that she might not pray and
pay for it also to her neighbours; but it has been stated that it was
previously made in the reign of Richard II.

  ~Charles I. from A. D. 1625 to 1649.~

Sir Henry Manwayring, in his Seaman’s Dictionary, presented to the Duke
of Buckingham, in the time of Charles 1st, under the word powder, tells
us, “There are two kinds of powder, the one serpentine-powder, which
powder is dust (as it were) without corning. The other is “corn-powder;”
though he informs us the serpentine-powder was not used at sea. Indeed,
when that book was written, it is believed powder was usually corned,
for the foreign writers on artillery had long before recommended its
general use.

  ~Causes which checked the progress of Fire-Arms.~

  ~Fire-Arms supposed to extinguish bravery, and to be contrary to
  humanity.~

  ~Fire-Arms expensive and powder difficult to procure.~

Various circumstances tended to check the progress of fire-arms, and the
improvement of artillery, for a long period after the invention of
gunpowder. Custom made most people prefer the ancient engines of war.
The construction of artillery was very awkward and imperfect; and the
bad quality and manufacture of gunpowder, so that it could produce but
little effect; and there was a general aversion to the newly invented
arms, as calculated to extinguish military bravery, and as being
contrary to humanity; but above all, the knights (whose science was
rendered completely useless by the introduction of fire-arms) opposed,
with all their might, this invention, to which may be added the great
cost and difficulty of procuring gunpowder.

  ~Rockets in India.~

It is known that iron rockets have been used in India as military
weapons, time out of mind. (See plate 4, fig. 3.)


GREEK FIRE.

  ~Discovered by Callinicus. A. D., 617.~

The Greek Fire has been highly extolled for its wonderful effects, but
it owed much of its effect to the terrors and imagination of the
beholders. It is said by the Oriental Greeks, to have been discovered by
Callinicus, an architect of Heliopolis or Balbeck, in the reign of the
Emperor Constantine Pogonatus, who, it is said, forbad the art of making
it to be communicated to foreigners, but it was at length known, and in
common use, among the nations confederated with the Byzantines.

  ~Known in China, 917.~

It is also said to have been known in China in 917, being 300 years
after Constantine Pogonatus, under the name of “The oil of the
cruelfire,” and was carried thither by the Kitan Tartars, who had it
from the King of Ou.

  ~Wild fire from the Saracens.~

It was thrown by machines, by the hand, and by cross bows, fastened to
the heads of arrows. The Crusaders obtained a knowledge of a sort of
wild fire from the Saracens, which could only be extinguished by dust or
vinegar. It was composed of the gum of resinous trees, reduced to powder
with sulphur, to which was added naptha, and other bitumens, and
probably nitre.

  ~Wild fire in the Holy Wars.~

  ~Geoffrey de Vinesauf’s account.~

  ~Father Daniel’s account.~

  ~Used at the siege of Dieppe.~

It is much spoken of in all the Holy Wars, as being frequently employed
by the Saracens against the Christians. Procopius, in his history of the
Goths, calls it Media’s oil, considering it an infernal composition
prepared by that sorceress. Geoffrey de Vinesauf, who accompanied
Richard I. to the Crusades, says that it could not be extinguished by
water, but that sand thrown upon it abated its virulence, and vinegar
poured upon it put it out. Father Daniel says this wild fire was not
only used in sieges, but even in battles, and that Philip Augustus, King
of France, having found a quantity of it ready prepared at Acre, brought
it with him to France, and used it at the siege of Dieppe, for burning
the English vessels in that harbour.

  ~Greek fire and gunpowder, both used at the siege of Ypres, 1383.~

The Greek fire was used long after the invention of firearms; when the
Bishop of Norwich besieged Ypres, 1383, the garrison is said by
Walsingham to have defended itself so well, with stones, arrows, lances,
and certain engines called guns, that they obliged the English to raise
the siege with such precipitation, that they left behind them their
great guns, which were of inestimable value.

Greek fire was probably a more recent invention than Gunpowder.

       *       *       *       *       *

  ~Powder used by Arabs, 14th century.~

It is ascertained that Gunpowder was employed by the Arabs as an agent
for throwing bolts and stones, about the commencement of the fourteenth
century, and that the Moors first availed themselves of its advantages
in their wars with the Spaniards. From Spain, the use of Gunpowder and
Artillery gradually extended itself to France, and thence over the other
States of Europe.

       *       *       *       *       *

Some idea of the importance of Gunpowder may be formed by the estimate
of the enormous quantity employed in sieges, and warfare generally.

  ~Quantity used in sieges.~

At the siege of Ciudad Rodrigo, January, 1812, 74,978lbs. were consumed
in 30¹⁄₂ hours; at Badajos, March, 1812, 228,830lbs. in 104 hours, and
this from the great guns only.

  ~San Sebastian and Zaragoza.~

At the two sieges of San Sebastian, 502,110lbs. At Zaragoza, the French
exploded 45,000lbs. in the mines, and threw 16,000 shells.

  ~Sebastopol.~

During the siege of Sebastopol, extending over a period of eleven
months, the enormous quantity of 2,775,360lbs., or 1,239 tons of
gunpowder, were expended by ourselves alone; 9,076 tons of shot and
shell having been launched by us on that memorable occasion, from 476
pieces of heavy ordnance; of which only 11 actually burst, though 269
were rendered unserviceable.

  ~Quantity made.~

Some of our private manufactories make from 8 to 10,000 barrels of
powder a year in time of peace, and from 10 to 14,000 during war.

  ~Quantity proved by Government.~

  ~Quantity in store in 1783.~

The quantity of powder received and proved from Faversham, at the Royal
Magazines, and from the several powder makers contracting with
Government, amounted, during the several years from 1776 to 1782
inclusive, to 244,349 barrels of 100 lbs. each, being equal, on an
average, to 3,490,700lbs. annually. The quantity of powder in store in
Great Britain, Guernsey, Jersey, and the Isle of Man, in 1783, was about
80,000 barrels.

  ~Gunpowder used for works of peace.~

Sir George Staunton observes, that gunpowder in India and China seems
coeval with the most distant historic events, and that the Chinese have
at all times applied it to useful purposes, as the blasting of rocks,
and also in the preparation of fireworks, in which they greatly excel
other nations.

  ~Powder used at Woodhead tunnel.~

In blasting the Woodhead tunnel, in the county of Chester, not less than
three thousand five hundred barrels of gunpowder, weighing about one
hundred and sixty tons, were used in its formation. The average number
of men employed was about a thousand; and during the six years the works
were in progress, twenty-six men were killed. There were about 400 minor
accidents, many of them attended with loss of limb, and the sum total of
the casualties, in proportion to the men employed, was greater,
according to Mr. Edwin Chadwick, than was suffered by the British army
in the battles of Talavera, Salamanca, Vittoria, and Waterloo.

  ~Powder used on S. Eastern Railway.~

In the formation of the South-Eastern Railway, the blasts of the cliffs
between Dover and Folkestone have astonished even scientific men. On one
occasion 18,500 pounds of gunpowder were ignited by galvanic action at
the same instant, which severed from the Round-down cliff, the height of
which is 375 feet above the level of the sea, more than 1,000,000 tons
of chalk. The fallen mass extended 1200 feet into the ocean, and covered
a space of 18 acres. By another statement, the quantity of earth moved
by the explosion was 400,000 cubic yards, and was a saving to the
Company of £7,000.

  ~No. of men employed at Waltham Abbey.~

  ~Quantity made.~

There are 134 men employed in the Government works at Waltham Abbey in
the manufacture of gunpowder, who make about 9,000 barrels a year. The
premises are near two miles long, consisting of detached mills, &c., on
a small stream, which runs through the whole length of the premises and
communicates with the Thames, whereby there is water-carriage to the
Government Powder Magazines at Purfleet. The barges conveying powder are
not allowed to anchor in the river off London during the night. Where
two buildings are adjacent, there are frequently heavy buttresses of
masonry between them, and lightning conductors are placed in great
numbers.

  ~Saving to Government.~

There is a great saving, amounting to upwards of £300,000, in the cost
of powder, when compared to the price paid to the merchants in seven
years of the war from 1809 to 1815, from the Government having Waltham
Abbey, Faversham, and Ballincollig.

  ~Improved Quality.~

At Waltham Abbey, in a very few years after it was constructed, the
powder was so improved, that the charge of powder to the weight of shot
was reduced from one-half to one-third; therefore two barrels were used
instead of three--an advantage in stowing on board ship as well as in
the field.

  ~Made by Contract.~

A great part of the powder for H. M. Government has at present to be
supplied by merchants. The contracts are made out sometimes for them to
supply their own saltpetre, and at others for the Government to furnish
it pure, at the rate of 77·5 lbs. per barrel of 100 lbs., they finding
the other materials and manufacture, a corresponding reduction in price
being made: as, however, it has to come up in nearly all respects to the
sample, the requirements of which we shall state, certain proofs have to
be undergone before being received for the different services.

  NOTE.--The foregoing is mainly compiled from Robins’s _New Principles
  of Gunnery_, by Hutton; _Engines of War_, by Wilkinson; and
  _Projectile Weapons of War_, by J. Scoffern, M.B.




ON THE MANUFACTURE OF GUNPOWDER.


  ~Composition of powder.~

Gunpowder is an explosive propellant agent; a mechanical combination and
intimate mixture of saltpetre, charcoal, and sulphur, in certain fixed
proportions, the result of successive experiments.

  ~Ought to keep without deterioration.~

To be effective, Gunpowder should,

1st.--Preserve itself in a good state, whether in magazine or in
carriage.

  ~Leave no residue.~

2nd.--Leave as little residue as possible after ignition.

  ~Combine quickness and power.~

3rd.--Should combine a certain quickness of combustion with great
explosive force.


SALTPETRE, OR NITRE.

  ~Nitre.~

  ~Where found.~

  ~Unfit in natural state.~

The principal ingredient in Gunpowder is an abundant production of
Nature, and is a combination of nitric acid with the vegetable alkali.
It is never found pure, being always contaminated with other salts and
earthy matter. It is principally found in the East Indies, Ceylon, and
South America, and is sometimes produced from decayed animal and
vegetable matter. It is totally unfit for Gunpowder until it has been
refined; for, being combined with muriates of soda, lime, magnesia, and
other salts, which absorb moisture, the close contact of the ingredients
would be deranged by their presence, the strength of the powder
weakened, and the power of resisting the action of the atmosphere
greatly lessened. As for the efflorescent salts it may contain, they are
noxious only inasmuch as, possessing no particular useful property, they
interpose their atoms between the more combustible ingredients, and
impede the rapidity of deflagration.

  ~Two methods of refining.~

There are two methods of refining saltpetre at Waltham Abbey:--1st, the
Old Method, of re-crystallizing three times; and 2nd, the New Method,
which has only just been adopted, both of which we shall here briefly
describe.


OLD METHOD.

  ~Old method.~

  ~Saltpetre fuzes at 600°.~

About 35 cwt. of the grough saltpetre, as it is termed, viz., as it is
imported in its impure state, is put into a copper capable of holding
500 gallons, with 270 gallons of water, in the proportion of about
1¹⁄₂lbs. of nitre to 1lb. of water, (which proportion varies with the
quality of the saltpetre). This is allowed to boil, and the impurities
are skimmed off as they appear on the surface. Cold water is
occasionally thrown in to precipitate portions of the chloride, which
otherwise would remain on the top by the action of boiling. After being
allowed to boil from three and a half to four hours, the furnace doors
are thrown open, when the chlorides and salts fall to the bottom. In
about two hours, a copper pump is lowered into the liquor, which is
pumped out into a wooden trough, having four or five brass cocks, under
which are suspended canvas filtering bags in the shape of a V. The
solution is then filtered, and run off into pans, containing about 36
gallons, and allowed to remain for twenty-four hours, to crystallize,
when they are set up on edge, to drain off the liquor which remains
uncrystallized, and which is called mother liquor. The saltpetre thus
obtained is called once-refined, and undergoes the same process twice
again, the only difference being that there is a greater proportion to
the water each time, viz. 1³⁄₄lb. to 1lb. of water the second time, and
2lb. to 1lb. of water the third time: moreover, the third time, a small
quantity of ground charcoal is put into the solution, and it passes
through double filters, which brings it to a very fine pure white colour
when melted. The mother water which remains in the pans after each
crystallization is conveyed away by gutters to cisterns under the
building; it is then evaporated in iron pots to one quarter of its
original bulk, filtered, and allowed to crystallize. The saltpetre
obtained from the first mother water is considered one stage inferior to
grough; that from the second, equal to grough; that from the
treble-refined, equal to once-refined saltpetre. The water left from
every stage is treated in the same way, so that actually nothing is lost
of the pure material. Saltpetre treble-refined by this process is
perfectly pure, and fit for the manufacture of Gunpowder; and in order
to free it from moisture, as well as for the convenience of storage and
transport, it is melted in iron pots holding about 4 cwt., by raising it
to a temperature of 600° Fahrenheit, and cast into gun-metal circular
moulds holding about 38lbs. each. It must be observed that it requires
about two hours to bring the saltpetre into a liquid state, and that,
after this, the furnace doors are thrown open, to lower the heat to the
proper temperature for casting into the moulds. When the cakes are cold,
they are packed away in barrels containing 1 cwt., 1 qr. each, and put
into store. Care must be taken, in melting the saltpetre, not to raise
it to too high a temperature, as this would reduce the quantity of
oxygen, and form nitrite of potash, which would render it unfit as an
ingredient in the composition of Gunpowder.

  ~A neutral salt.~

Saltpetre is a neutral salt, the constituents of which are 46.55 potash,
and 53.45 nitric acid; the latter consisting of two volumes nitrogen and
five of oxygen. It is white, and of a fresh, sharp, and slightly bitter
taste. It crystallizes in six-sided prisms. Exposed to the air, it
remains permanent unless impure, or that the atmosphere is very moist.


NEW METHOD.

  ~New method.~

Forty cwt. of the grough saltpetre is put into a copper with 270 gallons
of water, and treated in precisely the same way as we have before
described for the first refining; it is then filtered and run off into
large troughs, about 10 feet long by 6 feet wide, and 9 inches deep,
lined with sheet copper; this liquor is then kept in a state of
agitation by a wooden rake, until nearly cold. By this process a large
quantity of very minute crystals are formed, which are collected as they
form by a wooden hoe, and shovelled with a spade on to a framework
covered with copper sieving resting on the opposite sides of the trough,
and allowed to drain. These fine white crystals, which have exactly the
appearance of snow, when they have drained sufficiently, are raked over
in a washing cistern adjoining, which is about 6 feet long, 4 feet wide,
and 3ft. 6in. deep, and fitted with a false wooden bottom that can be
removed at pleasure. Cold water is allowed to run on to the saltpetre in
this cistern till it is nearly level with the top. After remaining for
an hour it is drained off, and filled again with fresh water, which is
drained off after about another hour. The saltpetre thus obtained is
perfectly pure, and equal in every respect to the treble-refined by the
old method. The water remaining in the cisterns after agitation, is left
till the next morning, when a quantity of larger crystals are formed on
the bottom and sides; these are equal to once-refined by the old method,
and are used with grough; the mother-liquor is then drained off, and
evaporated in the usual way. The water from each washing is conveyed
into cisterns, and used with grough saltpetre instead of water; but, as
it contains a small portion of saltpetre in solution, a lesser quantity
of grough is used to make the proportions correct.

  ~Drying.~

The saltpetre flour, however, contains a certain degree of moisture,
which has to be dried off in the following way: two large copper trays,
about 10 feet by 6 feet, with a 3-inch rim, are fixed over flues heated
by a furnace, 4 inches of sand being between the flues and the bottom of
the trays; the saltpetre is spread about 2 inches deep all over, and
raked about till dry; it is then barrelled up for use. It takes about
two hours to dry 5 cwt.

  ~Comparison of the two methods.~

On comparing the two systems, there cannot for one moment be a doubt as
to the immense advantages of the latter over the former. As an example,
in the refinery where this new process is carried on, the result (that
is to say, pure saltpetre) is obtained in one day instead of six, with
less than one half the amount of labour and coals.

  ~Why new method best.~

On reflection, the reason of the great gain of time by this process will
suggest itself. In the former method, when allowed to remain quiet, the
crystals formed are very large, and the spaces left in them always
contain a certain amount of mother-water, which necessitates its being
crystallized three times to perfectly free it from the liquor. In the
latter, the crystals are so minute that there is practically no space
for the mother-water to collect; consequently, by careful washing, the
saltpetre is obtained perfectly pure.


CHARCOAL.

  ~Charcoal.~

  ~Object of charring.~

  ~Best wood for charcoal.~

Wood charcoal is the woody fibre that remains after the liquid and more
volatile parts have been driven off by the fire in the process of
charring. The temperature resulting from the combustion of charcoal is
much higher than that from burning wood, in consequence of the absence
of the large quantity of water which wood contains, amounting to between
50 and 60 per cent.; the object, therefore, of charring wood is the
removal of moisture, and also, what is of great importance, the
expulsion of those matters contained in it which become volatile before
they are burned, thus rendering a large amount of heat latent. The woods
generally used in this country in making charcoal for gunpowder are the
alder, willow, and dogwood. There are about 60 acres of wood grown for
charcoal at Waltham Abbey. The alder is cut every eight years, and the
willow in six years. It is used after one year. Other woods are
sometimes used by English and foreign manufacturers, but none produce a
powder of such quality as obtained from the above. It is usually
considered that better charcoal is distilled when the wood is allowed to
season for a time; but recent experience has shown that wood only lately
cut and peeled, after being desiccated in a hot chamber, will make
equally good charcoal with that which has been seasoning for three or
four years.

  ~First process.~

All the wood which is cut in the Government grounds or purchased from
merchants, is stripped of the bark, on account of its being impregnated
with salts and gummy substances, cut into lengths of 3 feet for the
convenience of loading the iron slips, which are a little above this
length, and stacked in the wood-yard.

  ~Cylinder charcoal.~

  ~Quantity produced.~

  ~Qualities.~

  ~Kept dry.~

  ~Absorbs.~

Cylindrical cases of the required size, fitted with lids, are filled
with wood. These cases are made to fit easily, and slide horizontally
into iron retorts built in the wall, which admit of the accurate
regulation of heat (communicated to them by furnaces underneath)
throughout the operation of charring. A great saving of time and heat is
effected by their use, as when the wood has been properly charred the
case or slip containing it may be easily withdrawn, and another
containing a fresh charge at once introduced into the retort, without
allowing the latter to cool down, as would otherwise be necessary. When
it has been sufficiently charred (which is known by experience, in
watching the burning of the gas that is produced and is conducted into
the fire), the slip is withdrawn by tackling, and at once lowered down
into iron coolers or cases, which are immediately covered up with
close-fitting lids, and then allowed to remain until all fire is
extinguished. The goodness of charcoal is an essential point in the
manufacture of gunpowder. About twenty-five to thirty per cent. is
obtained; and one cord will produce about four cwt. of charcoal. If
properly charred, it should have a jet black appearance, and when
powdered a lustre resembling velvet; it should be light and sonorous
when gently dropped, and its fracture should exhibit the same appearance
throughout; it should be so soft as not to scratch polished copper, and
ought not to exhibit any alkali when treated with pure distilled water.
Charcoal is very porous, and absorbs very greedily gases and moisture
from the atmosphere; no large store therefore is ever kept, and
particular care is taken to prepare it only in proportion as it is
required for use. At all times it must be kept exceedingly dry; when
whole it will absorb about eight per cent. its weight of moisture, and
when in powder 15 per cent., so that the fresher the charcoal is the
better for the powder.


SULPHUR.

  ~Sulphur.~

  ~How purified.~

  ~Flowers of sulphur unsuitable.~

Sulphur is a simple, combustible, solid, non-metallic, elementary body.
It is found generally in great quantities in the neighbourhood of
volcanoes. It is also obtainable from metallic ores, and readily fuzes.
At 170° Fahrenheit it begins to evaporate; at 185° to 190° it melts; at
220° it is perfectly fluid; and at 600° it sublimes. Sulphur is purified
simply by melting: that which is supplied to Waltham Abbey has been once
refined, and the following is a description of the apparatus and method
for purifying and rendering it fit as an ingredient in Gunpowder. A
large iron pot is set about three feet off the ground, or about the
height that an ordinary boiling copper is placed, having a furnace
underneath. This pot has a movable lid, which is fixed into the top of
the pot with clay, and in which lid is an iron conical plug that can be
removed at pleasure. From the pot lead two pipes, one to a large
circular dome, and another to an iron retort, rather below its level.
The last-mentioned pipe has a casing, or jacket, round it, which can be
filled with cold water. The communication of these pipes with the
melting pot can be shut off or opened, as occasion requires, by a
mechanical arrangement. About 5¹⁄₂ to 6 cwt. of the once-refined sulphur
is broken up into small pieces, placed in the iron melting pot, and
subjected to the action of the furnace. The plug in the lid, and the
pipe leading to the dome are now left open, but the pipe to the retort
closed. After from two to three hours a pale yellow vapour rises, when
the plug is put in, and the vapour conducted into the dome, where it
condenses in the form of an impalpable powder, commonly called flowers
of sulphur. A small pipe leads from the bottom of the dome, on the
opposite side, into water, to allow the escape of the air, and sulphuric
acid is taken up by this water. In about one and a half to two hours
after, the vapour becomes of a deep iodine colour, when the
communication with the dome is shut, and the one to the retort opened;
at the same time, cold water from a tank above is allowed to pass into
the jacket we have before mentioned, surrounding this pipe. The vapour
then which distils over is condensed in the pipe, and runs into the
retort below in the form of a thick yellow fluid. When nearly all has
distilled, which can be known by the jacket getting cold, the
communication is again closed with the retort, and the fluid sulphur
left an hour, to get sufficiently cool to ladle out into moulds, the
furnace door and the communication with the dome at the same time are
again thrown open, that the rest of the vapour may pass into the latter.
The flowers of sulphur thus obtained are used for laboratory purposes,
being unfit for the manufacture of Gunpowder, from the acid they
contain, and the crystalline sulphur, after being allowed to cool in the
moulds, is barrelled up and used as the third ingredient in Gunpowder.


PULVERIZING THE INGREDIENTS.

  ~Grinding.~

  ~Screening.~

The three ingredients are now ground separately to a very fine powder.
The mills (vide plate 1) which effect this, and incorporate, are so
similar, that a description will be given under the head of
“Incorporation.” After being ground in this way, the saltpetre is
passed through a slope cylindrical reel, covered with copper sieving
wire of 60 meshes to the inch, which, as it revolves, sifts it to the
required fineness, being then received in a box or bin underneath. The
charcoal and sulphur are likewise passed through similar reels of 32 and
60-mesh wire respectively, and that which remains without passing
through, is ground again under the runners. A very excellent machine has
been invented by Mr. Hall, the engineer, of Dartford, for grinding
charcoal, which makes a most useful addition to the Gunpowder factory.
It consists of a conical drum, working in a conical box, on the same
principle as a coffee-grinding machine, the axis being vertical. The
mill is fed with charcoal by a hopper, and, as it passes through in fine
powder, falls into a revolving reel, which sifts it in the same manner
as before described, the whole being covered in, to prevent the great
annoyance of dust, which was felt until lately, from the old charcoal
mill. The three ingredients having been pulverized, are now fit for the
mixing process.


MIXING THE INGREDIENTS.

  ~Mixing and proportions.~

  ~Green charges.~

The ingredients are now weighed out very accurately, in the proportion
of 75 nitre, 15 charcoal, and 10 sulphur, in 42lb. charges, viz., nitre,
31lbs. 8oz., charcoal, 6lbs. 4oz. 13drs., sulphur, 4lbs. 3oz. 3drs., and
thoroughly mixed in a machine, which consists of a cylindrical gun-metal
or copper drum, about two feet in diameter, with an axle passing through
its centre, on which there are metal flyers, like forks. The machinery
is so arranged that the flyers and drum revolve in opposite directions
when in motion, at a rate of about one hundred revolutions per minute.
Five minutes is sufficient for a thorough mixture. The composition is
then drawn off by a slip into canvas bags the proper size to hold the
42lb. charges, which are tightly tied, and taken to small magazines.
These are called green charges, and are now ready for the next process,
incorporation.


THE INCORPORATING MILL.

  ~Incorporation.~

The Incorporating Mill consists of an iron or stone circular flat bed,
about seven feet in diameter, fixed very firmly in the floor of the
building which covers it, whereon two iron or stone cylindrical runners,
from five to seven feet in diameter, fourteen to eighteen inches wide,
and each weighing from 3 to 4¹⁄₂ tons, revolve. They have a common axle,
and a vertical shaft passing through the centre of the bed is connected
with this axle, and to machinery above or below, which communicates the
motion. These runners are not equidistant from the centre, by which
arrangement in their revolution every part of the composition on the bed
is subjected to their action, which is threefold, viz., crushing,
grinding, and mixing; crushing, from the weight of the cylinders;
grinding, from the twisting motion which they are forced into from so
large a diameter revolving in so small a circle; and mixing, from a
combination of the two former motions. To prevent the powder from
falling over the side of the bed, a wooden rim, about two feet in
height, is placed at an angle of forty-five degrees with it, like the
side of a funnel, and fitted closely all round its circumference. This
is called the “curb;” and in the centre of the bed a gun-metal ring, or
“cheese,” as it is termed, about two feet in diameter, and five inches
high, concentric with the bed, prevents the powder working beyond in
that direction. Moreover, two scrapers, or “ploughs,” connected by stays
with the horizontal axle, revolve with the runners, one rubbing against
the inner, and the other the outer circle. These ploughs are made of
hard wood, shod with leather and felt, and their use is continually to
disturb and rout about the composition, and keep it under the path of
the runners, so that every part should get its share of incorporation.
The houses or sheds which cover these buildings have hitherto been
constructed of wood, with either corrugated iron or wooden roofing. The
new incorporating mills in this factory, which are just completed, are
built with three sides of strong three-foot brickwork, and the fourth
side and roof of corrugated iron and glass. They are also placed in a
line contiguous to each other, the alternate ones only facing the same
way, so that an explosion from one would probably communicate no
further, and the lighter parts of the building would blow away, leaving
the rest entire. Most of the machinery in the factory is driven by
water-wheels; the motive power of these mills is steam. A horizontal
shaft, worked by the engine, passes underneath the entire length of the
building in a cast-iron tank, and a bevel wheel on this shaft is geared
into another one on the vertical shaft under the centre of each bed,
which, communicating with the runners, gives the necessary motion.

  ~Water-tanks to prevent explosions.~

In order, as much as possible, to guard against any explosion spreading,
above each bed, placed so as just to clear the runners, is suspended or
balanced a copper tank, holding about forty gallons of water. On one
side of the tank is fixed a small shaft, which communicates with similar
cisterns over the beds of the mills on either side. The other end of the
tank rests on a flat board, which is subjected to a great part of the
force of an explosion. This consequently lifts, disengaging the support
of the tank, the contents of which drench the bed which has just
exploded, thereby putting out all fire, and cooling the machinery,
besides having a similar effect on the mills right and left, preventing,
by this means, any extension of fire.


INCORPORATING THE INGREDIENTS.

  ~Incorporation.~

  ~Mill cake.~

  ~Proof of mill cake.~

The charge is spread pretty evenly over the surface of the bed, and
moistened with from four to six pints of distilled water; the quantity
varying according to the state of the atmosphere; the runners are then
set in motion, and run from seven to eight revolutions per minute for
three and a half hours, during which time the powder is often routed up
by a copper-shod spud, and watered slightly with a fine rose watering
pot, according to the experience of the millman; at the end of this time
the mixture is thoroughly incorporated, possesses all the chemical
properties of Gunpowder, and is taken off the bed in the form of a cake,
varying from a quarter to half an inch in thickness, and of a
blackish-grey colour. This is called “Mill Cake,” and when broken, the
fracture should exhibit the same uniform appearance, without presenting
any sparkling or yellow specks; should this, however, be the case, it is
a sign of the ingredients not being sufficiently incorporated. In this
stage it undergoes certain proofs; samples of the cake are taken from
every charge that is worked, dried in an oven, and granulated; half a
drachm of this is fired in a vertical eprouvette, which it ought to
raise 3.5 inches; and half an ounce is flashed on a glass plate. If very
little residue or ash is left, it is an additional proof of its being
well incorporated, and that the millman has done his work properly.

  ~Importance of incorporation.~

Incorporation is by far the most important process in the manufacture of
Gunpowder; for, however carefully the other part of the fabrication is
carried on, should there be a failing in this, the powder will be worth
nothing.

  ~Object of manufacture.~

The great and ultimate object to be attained in the manufacture of
Gunpowder is, to produce that which shall give equal results with equal
charges; the greatest regularity should therefore be observed in this
stage. The millman should have great experience; the runners and beds
should be, as nearly as possible, the same size and weight, and driven
at the same speed throughout the factory; at any rate, each charge
should be worked to the same number of revolutions; the motion of the
runners should also be as uniform as possible, which is very
satisfactorily accomplished by each water-wheel being regulated by a
governor.


BREAKING DOWN THE MILL CAKE.

  ~Breaking down the mill cake.~

  ~Object of mealing.~

The mill cake, after it comes off the bed of the incorporating mill, is
placed in wooden tubs, and taken to small-expense magazines, and from
there, in about twelve hours, to the breaking-down house; the object of
the machine from which this takes its name, is to reduce the cake to a
convenient size for the hydraulic-press box, and also that, by being
crushed again to meal, it may get a more even pressure. It consists of a
strong gun-metal framework, in which are fixed two pairs of fine-toothed
or plain rollers, which revolve towards each other, working in spring
collars, so that on any hard substance getting in by mistake, they would
open, and allow it to pass through, thereby preventing the dangerous
friction which would otherwise result. A hopper, or upright wooden
funnel, capable of holding about 500 lbs. is fixed at one end of the
machine, and an endless canvass band 2ft. 6in. wide, having strips of
leather sewn across at intervals of four inches, passes over one roller
at the bottom of the hopper, and one at the top of the machine. When set
in motion, this conveys the cake from the hopper to the highest point of
the band; it then falls through the first pair of rollers, and from
thence through the second, passing in the form of meal into small wooden
carriages underneath, which, as they are filled, move forward by a
self-acting motion, making room for others. The mill cake thus broken
down, is fit for the press.


PRESSING THE MEAL BY THE HYDRAULIC PRESS.

  ~Hydraulic Pressure.~

The meal is now subjected to very powerful pressure; and, in order to
explain the way in which this is effected, a short description of the
apparatus must be given. The principle of the hydraulic press is so
familiar to most, that it will be unnecessary to do more than show how
the power is applied (vide plate 2).

  ~Description of box.~

A very strong oak box, 2 feet 6 inches square, and 2 feet 9 inches deep,
is constructed so that two of the sides of the lid will fall back on
hinges, or form a compact solid box when screwed firmly together.
Forty-six copper plates, 2 feet 5¹⁄₂ inches square, slide vertically
into this box, and are kept five-eighths of an inch apart by two metal
slips with corresponding grooves, which can be removed when necessary.

  ~Quantity pressed.~

  ~Amount of pressure.~

About 800 lbs. of the meal is put into this box while the plates are in
the position we have described. When full, the slips are withdrawn, the
plates being then only separated by the powder between them: the lid is
now firmly screwed down, and the box turned over by an arrangement of
pulleys, so that the plates which were vertical will now be horizontal.
The present upper side is then unscrewed, and a travelling crane, moving
on a rail overhead, is lowered till the claws attached to it hook on to
two trunnions fixed on the sides of the box; it is now hoisted by means
of a handwheel windlass, and the box being suspended, is pushed easily
by means of the rail, and deposited in this position on to the table of
the ram under the press block. The pumps are now set in motion by a
water-wheel, and are allowed to work up to the required pressure, which
is about seventy tons to the square foot; it is then conveyed from under
the block in the same manner, and very easily unloaded. The press cake
is then taken out in layers between each plate, resembling dark pieces
of slate, about half an inch in thickness. After a day or so, this
hardens so much as to be difficult to break, and the appearance of the
fracture resembles that of the finest earthenware. Many important
advantages are gained by this pressure, of which the following are the
principal:--

  ~Reasons for pressure.~

First, the density of the powder is increased, which prevents it falling
to dust in transport, or by rough usage. Secondly, its keeping qualities
are improved, for it withstands the action of the atmosphere, and
absorbs less moisture than a porous light powder. Thirdly, it produces
more grain in the manufacture than mill cake; and a less proportion,
consequently, is lost in dust. Fourthly, a closer connection of the
ingredients is obtained. Fifthly, a greater volume of inflammable gas is
produced from a certain bulk, than from a corresponding bulk of lighter
powder.

  ~Disadvantages of pressure.~

The range, however, is lessened, from a greater quantity being blown out
of a gun unignited; but this small loss is more than counterbalanced by
the former advantages, and actually it is only perceptible in newly-made
powder; for a light, porous powder soon loses its superior range from
its absorption of moisture, while that of the dense powder remains
unaltered.


GRANULATING THE PRESS CAKE.

  ~Mode of granulation.~

  ~Screening.~

The next process is granulation, or reducing this press cake into the
proper sized grain for cannon, musket, or rifle powder. The machine
which effects this is very beautifully contrived, and is entirely
self-acting, obviating the necessity of any one being in the building
while it is in motion. It resembles, in appearance and action, the
breaking-down machine, except that it is larger, and is fitted with
three pairs of toothed rollers, of different degrees of fineness,
working in the same kind of collars already mentioned, so that, on any
hard substance passing through, they would open accordingly, and thus
prevent friction. At one end of the machine is a wooden hopper, or
funnel, which is filled with the press cake. This is contrived so as to
rise gradually by the motion of the machine, and constantly to supply an
endless band, similar to the one described in the breaking-down house.
When the cake arrives at the highest point of this band, it falls over,
and is granulated between the first pair of gun-metal rollers. Under
each pair is a screen, covered with 8-mesh wire. All that is not
sufficiently small to pass through, is carried on to the next pair of
rollers; and, in like manner, that which does not pass through the
second screen is carried to the third pair. In addition to these
screens, there are three oblong sieves covered with 8- and 16-mesh wire,
and 56 cloth respectively, fixed under, and parallel to, each other,
each being separated by about four inches of space, running at an
incline just below the three pairs of rollers; these all lead to little
wooden carriages placed on the opposite side of the machine, which are
divided so as to collect the different sized grain as it passes down. To
facilitate the separation and sifting of the powder, and to prevent
masses of it forming and clogging up the wire, a shaking motion is
imparted by a circular wheel attached to the framework of these sieves
revolving against an octagonal one fixed to the machine. The grains
which pass through each screen below the rollers fall on the upper one
of these three last-mentioned sieves. That portion which passes through
this, and is retained on the 16-mesh wire, is cannon powder; that
passing through the 16-mesh sieve, and retained on the 56-cloth, is fine
grain; and a board, running also parallel underneath, retains the dust
that passes through the cloth.

  ~Chucks regranulated.~

The “chucks,” as they are called, or those grains that are too large to
pass through these different sieves, are collected in the same way as
the grain, and undergo the process of granulation again.


DUSTING LARGE-GRAIN POWDER.

  ~Object of dusting.~

  ~How performed for large-grain.~

  ~Glazed at same time.~

The keeping qualities of powder are very much improved by removing the
dust, which quickly absorbs moisture from the atmosphere. This
operation, for large-grain, is performed by cylindrical reels, about
8ft. 6in. long, and 3ft. 8in. in diameter, clothed with 28-mesh canvas,
which revolve at the rate of thirty-eight times per minute. Those for
large-grain are called horizontal reels, in contradistinction to those
for fine-grain, that are called slope reels. Each is enclosed by a
wooden case, to prevent the dust flying about the house. When the powder
has run its time, one end of the reel is lowered. It then runs out into
barrels placed to receive it. This entirely separates the dust, and
imparts a fine black gloss, which is sufficient glazing for the
large-grained powder.


DUSTING FINE-GRAIN POWDER.

  ~Dusting fine-grain.~

The fine-grain powder has a much greater proportion of dust when it
leaves the granulating house than the large-grain, and it is found
necessary, on this account, to use a different kind of reel. They
resemble those for the former powder, except that they are covered with
44-mesh canvas instead of 28, and are placed at an incline which
prevents their being choked up with the quantity of dust; each end is
also open, and a continuous stream of powder, fed by a hopper, passes
through while they revolve, and pours out at the lower end into barrels.
This process is repeated a second time, which sufficiently frees it from
dust.


GLAZING FINE-GRAIN POWDER.

  ~Glazing fine-grain.~

The fine-grain powder thus dusted, is then glazed for three hours in
barrels capable of holding 300lbs. which are 3ft. 6-in. in length, and
2ft. 8-in. in diameter, revolving at the rate of thirty two times in a
minute. By the mere friction of the grains against each other and the
inside of the barrel, a glaze is imparted, presenting a fine polished
surface to the grain.

  ~Object of glazing.~

Powder glazed in this way withstands the action of moisture to a far
greater extent than unglazed powder, and in transport very little dust
is formed.


STOVING OR DRYING POWDER.

  ~Drying.~

A drying-room, heated by steam pipes, is fitted with open framework
shelves, on which rests small wooden trays about 3ft. long, 1ft. 6-in.
in breadth, and 2¹⁄₂in. deep, having canvas bottoms; on each is spread
8lbs. of powder. This room holds about 40 barrels, or 4,000lbs., which
remains in it for twenty four hours, and is subjected to a heat of 130°
Fahrenheit for sixteen hours, communicated by steam passing through
pipes arranged horizontally on the floor of the room. The temperature is
raised and lowered gradually, otherwise the too sudden change would be
likely to destroy the texture of the grain. The ceiling and roof are
fitted with ventilators, through which all the moisture escapes, so that
there is a constant current of hot air circulating through the room. It
is of the greatest importance that the vapour should be carried off;
for, if this is not effectually done, on the decrease of temperature, it
would return to its liquid state, and form again on the powder.


FINISHING DUSTING.

  ~Final dusting.~

  ~Barrelling.~

The action of heat however produces a small portion of dust; both these
powders, therefore, when they leave the stove, are reeled in horizontal
reels, clothed with 28 and 44-mesh canvas respectively, for one hour and
a half. This perfectly separates any remaining dust, and gives the
finishing glaze to the large-grain powder. This is the final process,
and the powder thus finished is taken to the barrelling-up house;
weighed out into barrels holding 100lbs. each; marked L. G.
(large-grain), and F. G. (fine-grain), as the case may be; and stored in
magazines.


EXAMINATION AND PROOF OF GUNPOWDER.

  ~Desired properties of gunpowder.~

  ~Specific gravity.~

  ~Strength.~

  ~Purity.~

The great and ultimate object to be attained in the manufacture of
Gunpowder is, not so much to produce that which ranges the highest, as
one that shall be durable in its texture, not easily deteriorated by
atmospheric influence or transport, and one with which equal charges
shall produce equal effects. It should present uniformity in the
appearance of its grains, which should be angular, crisp and sharp to
the touch, not easily reduced to dust by pressure between the fingers,
or dusty in handling; its specific gravity should not be under 55lbs. to
the cubic foot, (that of Waltham Abbey is generally 58lbs.) taking water
at 1000ozs.; its strength is tested by firing three rounds from an 8
inch mortar, throwing a 68-pounder solid shot with a charge of 2oz. this
should give a range of from 270 to 300 feet. The distance however,
varies considerably, according to the state of the atmosphere, and the
density of the powder: for, the greater the density, the less the range
in small charges. Half an ounce flashed on a glass plate should leave
little or no residuum; should white beads or globules appear, it is a
sign of imperfect incorporation.


PROOF OF MERCHANT’S POWDER.

The following are the different proofs merchant’s powder is subjected
to:--

Lots of 100 barrels are sent in, marked with the number of the lot and
the maker’s name on the head of each barrel. 25 per cent. of these are
unheaded in the examining house; the Proof Officer then--

  ~If dusty.~

First, takes a bowl out of each barrel, and holding it about three feet
above, pours it out quickly; should there be a good deal of dust, it is
satisfactorily shown by this means.

  ~Firmness.~

  ~Size of grain.~

Secondly, it is handled and pressed between the fingers, to test the
firmness of its grain; and should there appear to be any great
difference in the proportions of different sizes to that laid down as a
standard, it is sifted and compared accordingly, being rejected should
the quantities fall short or exceed the sample in any great degree.

  ~Density.~

Thirdly, a barrel or two are selected, and the powder poured into a
hopper, under which is placed a box very carefully constructed, so as to
hold exactly a cubic foot. A slide is now withdrawn at the bottom of the
hopper, and the powder allowed to run into the box in a continuous even
stream until it is piled up; the hopper is then removed, and the powder
struck off with a straight edge, level with the top of the box. The
weight is now carefully taken, that of the latter being subtracted;
should this not amount to 55lbs. it is rejected, as not being of
sufficient density.

  ~Strength by range.~

Fourthly, samples are taken from every barrel, and lot for the firing
proof.

Firing Proof.--An average of nine rounds of sample Waltham Abbey powder
is taken, three rounds being respectively fired at the beginning,
middle, and end of the proof, from the same kind of mortar before
mentioned, with a charge of 2oz. An average of three rounds of each lot
of the merchant’s powder is also taken; should it fall short by more
than 1 in 20, it is rejected.

  ~Purity by flashing.~

Fifthly, to ascertain if any residuum or ash is left after ignition,
about half an ounce is burned on a clean glass plate, and fired with a
hot iron. The explosion should be sharp, and produce a sudden concussion
in the air; and the force and power of this concussion should be judged
by that of known good quality. Few sparks should fly off, nor should
white beads or globules appear, as it would be a sure indication, as we
have before explained, of insufficient incorporation. It is also
subjected to a second proof.

  ~Purity by weight after exposure to damp.~

Second proof.--A sample of 1lb. from each lot, carefully weighed up, and
a similar sample of the comparison powder, is exposed for three weeks in
a box perforated with holes (called a damp chest), to the action of the
atmosphere. This box is placed under cover, so that it is sheltered from
the wet, but that the moisture can get to it. If, at the end of this
time, there is a greater proportion of difference in range between them
than one-twentieth, it is rejected. The pounds are also very carefully
weighed up again, to ascertain the comparative absorption of moisture.
This is called the hygrometric test.


REMARKS ON THE PROOF OF POWDER BY THE EPROUVETTES.

  ~By eprouvettes or pendulum.~

By comparing the results of the proofs by the eprouvettes with those
furnished by the cannon pendulum (vide plate 1, fig. 2 and 3), it will
appear that the eprouvettes are entirely useless as instruments for
testing the relative projectile force of different kinds of powder, when
employed in large charges in a cannon. Powders of little density, or of
fine grain, which burn most rapidly, give the highest proof with the
eprouvettes, whilst the reverse is nearly true with the cannon.

  ~Real use of eprouvettes.~

The only real use of these eprouvettes is to check and verify the
uniformity of a current manufacture of powder, where a certain course of
operations is intended to be regularly pursued, and where the strength,
tested by means of any instrument, should therefore be uniform.

  ~Best proof, by service charges.~

The only reliable mode of proving the strength of Gunpowder is, to test
it with service charges in the arms for which it is designed; for which
purpose the balistic pendulums (vide plate 3), are perfectly adapted.

  ~Best proof for small arms.~

For the proof of powder for small arms, the small balistic pendulum is a
simple, convenient, and accurate instrument.

  ~Common eprouvette.~

The common eprouvettes are of no value as instruments for determining
the relative force of different kinds of Gunpowder.


OF THE SIZE OF GRAIN FOR GUNPOWDER.

  ~On size of grain.~

With regard to the particular size of grain for Gunpowder, I am
confident great improvements might be made, both in obtaining greater
regularity of effect and propelling force, by the adoption of a more
uniform even grain. There are at present half-a-dozen different sizes in
our cannon and musket powder; and I think it stands to reason, that the
more equal the size, the more uniform will be the ignition of all the
grains, and consequently the effect of the same charges will be much
more regular.


OBSERVATIONS ON THE MANUFACTURE OF GUNPOWDER ON THE CONTINENT AND
AMERICA.

It may not be uninteresting to have a slight knowledge of the method
employed on the Continent, &c., for the production of Gunpowder.

  ~Proportion of the ingredients.~

The proportions of the three ingredients vary slightly all over the
Continent and America, being as follows:--

                   SALTPETRE.  CHARCOAL.  SULPHUR.
  France         }    75        12.5       12.5
  Belgium        }
  Russia              73.78     13.59      12.63
  Prussia             75        13.5       11.5
  Austria             75.5      13.2       11.3
  Spain               76.47     10.78      12.75
  United States       76        14         10


PRODUCTION AND PURIFICATION OF THE INGREDIENTS.

  ~Production and purification of the ingredients.~

The nitre is purified in a similar way to the new method employed at
Waltham Abbey, though it is seldom obtained with so faint a trace of
chlorides, owing probably to its being of an inferior quality, and of
higher refraction when it is imported.

The sulphur is supplied to the manufactories in France in the form of
roll sulphur, from Marseilles and Bordeaux, where there are very large
refineries.

The charcoal is prepared from dogwood, alder, willow, hazel, and poplar,
sometimes in pits, and occasionally in cylinders, as at Waltham Abbey.
At Wetteren, and in some parts of France, it is distilled by the action
of steam. The “charbon roux” taking its name from its brownish-red
tinge, from being only partially burned, was used formerly more than
now, as the powder made from it was found to injure and exert very
pernicious effects upon fire-arms.


PULVERIZING AND MIXING THE INGREDIENTS.

  ~Pulverizing and mixing the ingredients.~

The ingredients are generally pulverized in copper drums, capable of
holding 224 kilogrammes. Part of the charcoal is mixed with the sulphur,
and part of the sulphur with the saltpetre. They are then put into
separate drums, which revolve about twenty-five times per minute for
three hours, and in which are about 500 gun-metal or bronze balls, the
size of good large marbles. The ingredients are brought to the most
minute state of division by these means, and are then mixed all
together, for one hour, in similar drums covered with leather,
containing wooden balls.


INCORPORATING PROCESS.

  ~Incorporation.~

The fine powder thus obtained is sometimes merely moistened, so as to
form a stiff paste, and passed through rollers, the cake formed, being
dried and granulated. The incorporating cylinders are used occasionally,
but the more usual plan adopted on the Continent to effect this
operation is the stamping-mill, which requires a short description. It
is nothing more nor less than the pestle-and-mortar principle, each mill
consisting of from six to twelve bronze or wooden mortars bedded in the
floor of the building; they are the shape of the frustum of a cone, the
mouth being much narrower than the base; the pestles, or stampers as
they are called, are made of wood, shod with either very hard wood or
bronze, on which project wooden teeth about twelve inches long; a
vertical movement is imparted to them by a shaft worked by the
water-wheel having similar teeth attached; in its revolution it raises
the stamper about eighteen inches, which falls again as the projection
is disengaged, twenty five times in a minute. This operation is carried
on for twelve hours, during which period the charge (about 15lbs.) is
moistened at intervals, and routed up with a copper-shod spud; at the
end of this time the cake is taken out, and left to dry and harden; it
seldom receives any pressure--although, in some manufactories, presses
are being erected.


GRANULATING.

  ~Granulation.~

The cake is then granulated in sets of sieves fitting one into the
other, having perforated zinc bottoms of different degrees of fineness,
which are suspended from the ceiling of the room by ropes, an ash spring
being attached to each box holding the sieves, the cake is put into the
uppermost one with some gun-metal balls, and shaken backwards and
forwards, which motion the spring facilitates; it is thus broken up into
different sized grains, which are separated by passing through the
several meshes.

The grain formed is then dusted in bags or shaking-frames covered with
canvas, and then glazed in barrels.


STOVING OR DRYING.

  ~Drying.~

  ~Comparative merits of foreign and English gunpowder.~

In summer the process of drying is often performed in the sun, and in
winter by the steam stove, in the following way. The powder is spread
about three or four inches thick on a large canvas tray, under which is
an arrangement of pipes, which convey the hot air forced by a fan
through a cylinder heated by steam: it is considered to be sufficiently
dried in from three to four hours, during which time it is occasionally
raked about. In some manufactories it undergoes a further operation of
being dusted, and is then barrelled up for use. Generally the great
failure in the foreign manufacture is the neglect of the principal stage
of the fabrication, viz. incorporation; with the old stamping-mill, it
is quite impossible that the process can be carried out to the necessary
extent. The Continental powder is usually very soft in its grain,
dusty, and quickly absorbs moisture from the atmosphere; its density is
below the English powder, on account of its never being subjected to
pressure; consequently it is not so durable, and forms a good deal of
dust in transport; a great amount of residue is generally left in the
gun, and its strength, as a propelling agent, is far inferior to our
powders. On being flashed on a glass plate, instead of producing a
sudden concussion, like the sharp rap of a hammer, it burns more like
composition, throwing off a quantity of sparks.


NEW RIFLE POWDER.

The following mode of manufacturing rifle powder, appeared in Garrison
Orders at Woolwich, 31st December, 1859:

  Composition in 100 parts:--

  Saltpetre    75
  Charcoal     15
  Sulphur      10
              ---
              100

The charcoal to be prepared from dogwood, burned slowly in cylinders
three hours. The composition to be worked under the runners for five and
a half hours, and submitted to a pressure of about 50 tons to the square
foot. The size of the grain to be that collected between sieves of 16
and 24 meshes. The grain to be glazed for five hours.

       *       *       *       *       *

  NOTE.--The foregoing, on the manufacture of gunpowder, is principally
  taken from an article in the Aide Memoire (1860), by Major Baddeley,
  Royal Artillery; Captain Instructor, Waltham Abbey.




ON MAGAZINES.


It is impossible to make powder magazines too dry, and every care should
be taken to ventilate them as much as possible during dry weather, by
opening all doors, windows, loopholes, &c. Magazines are generally made
bomb-proof, and are furnished with lightning conductors. They are
divided into chambers, and these again divided by uprights into bays. At
Purfleet, which is the grand depôt for gunpowder in England, there are
five magazines capable of containing 9,600 whole barrels each. Each
magazine is divided into two chambers, and each chamber into 24 bays,
and in each bay is placed 200 whole, 400 half, or 800 quarter barrels of
powder. Total in the five Magazines, 48,000 barrels, equal to 4,800,000
pounds.




LIGHTNING CONDUCTORS.

  _Principles and Instructions relative to their application to Powder
  Magazines, by_ SIR W. SNOW HARRIS, F.R.S. _Extracted from Army List
  for July, 1859._


1.--Thunder and lightning result from the operation of a peculiar
natural agency through an interval of the atmosphere contained between
the surface of a certain area of clouds, and a corresponding area of the
earth’s surface directly opposed to the clouds. It is always to be
remembered that the earth’s surface and the clouds are the terminating
planes of the action, and that buildings are only assailed by Lightning
because they are points, as it were, in, or form part of, the earth’s
surface, in which the whole action below finally vanishes. Hence
buildings, under any circumstances, will be always open to strokes of
Lightning, and no human power can prevent it, whether having Conductors
or not, or whether having metals about them or not, as experience shows.

2.--Whenever the peculiar agency, (whatever it may be), active in this
operation of nature, and characterized by the general term Electricity,
or Electric Fluid, is confined to substances which are found to resist
its progress, such, for example, as air, glass, resinous bodies, dry
wood, stones, &c., then an explosive form of action is the result,
attended by such an evolution of light and heat, and by such an enormous
expansive force, that the most compact and massive bodies are rent in
pieces, and inflammable matter ignited. Nothing appears to stand against
it. Granite rocks are split open, oak and other trees, of enormous size,
rent in shivers, and masonry of every kind frequently laid in ruins. The
lower masts of ships of the line, 3 feet in diameter, and 110 feet long,
bound with hoops of iron half an inch thick and 5 inches wide, the whole
weighing about 18 tons, have been, in many instances, torn asunder, and
the hoops of iron burst open and scattered on the decks. It is, in fact,
this terrible expansive power which we have to dread in cases of
buildings struck by Lightning, rather than the actual heat attendant on
the discharge itself.

3.--When, however, the electrical agency is confined to bodies, such as
the metals, which are found to oppose but small resistance to its
progress, then this violent expansive or disruptive action is either
greatly reduced, or avoided altogether. The explosive form of action we
term Lightning, vanishes, and becomes, as it were, transformed into a
sort of continuous current action, of a comparatively quiescent kind,
which, if the metallic substance it traverses be of certain known
dimensions, will not be productive of any damage to the metal. If,
however, it be of small capacity, as in the case of a small wire, it may
become heated and fused. In this case, the electrical agency, as before,
is so resisted in its course as to admit of its taking on a greater or
less degree of explosive and heating effect, as in the former case. It
is to be here observed, that all kinds of matter oppose some resistance
to the progress of what is termed the Electrical Discharge, but the
resistance through capacious metallic bodies is comparatively so small,
as to admit of being neglected under ordinary circumstances; hence it is
that such bodies have been termed Conductors of Electricity, whilst
bodies such as air, glass, &c., which are found to oppose very
considerable resistance to electrical action, are placed at the opposite
extremity of the scale, and termed Non-conductors or Insulators.

The resistance of a metallic copper wire to an ordinary electrical
discharge from a battery, was found so small, that the shock traversed
the wire at the rate of 576,000 miles in a second. The resistance
however, through a metallic line of Conduction, small as it be,
increases with the length, and diminishes with the area of the section
of the Conductor, or as the quantity of metal increases.

4.--It follows from these established facts, that if a building were
metallic in all its parts, an iron magazine for example, then no damage
could possibly arise to it from any stroke of Lightning which has come
within the experience of mankind; e.g., a man in armour is safe from
damage by Lightning; in fact, from the instant the electrical discharge
in breaking with disruptive and explosive violence through the resisting
air, seizes upon the mass in any point of it, from that instant the
explosive action vanishes, and the forces in operation are neutralized
upon the terminating planes of action, viz., the surface of the earth,
and opposed clouds.

5.--All this plainly teaches us, that in order to guard a building
effectually against damage by Lightning, we must endeavour to bring the
general structure as nearly as may be, into that passive or
non-resisting state it would assume, supposing the whole were a mass of
metal.

6.--To this end, one or more conducting channels of copper depending
upon the magnitude and extent of the building should be systematically
applied to the walls; these conducting channels should consist either of
double copper plates united in series one over the other, as in the
method of fixing such Conductors to the masts of Her Majesty’s Ships,
the plates being not less than 3¹⁄₂ inches wide, and of ¹⁄₁₆th and ¹⁄₈th
of an inch in thickness, or the Conductors may with advantage be
constructed of stout copper pipe not less than ³⁄₁₆ths of an inch thick,
and 1¹⁄₂ to 2 inches in diameter: in either case the Conductors should
be securely fixed to the walls of the building, either by braces, or
copper nails, or clamps; they should terminate in solid metal rods
above, projecting freely into the air, at a moderate and convenient
height above the point to which they are fixed, and below they should
terminate in one or two branches leading outward about a foot under the
surface of the earth; if possible, they should be connected with a
spring of water or other moist ground.

It would be proper in certain dry situations, to lead out in several
directions under the ground, old iron or other metallic chains, so as to
expose a large extent of metallic contact in the surface of the earth.

7.--All the metals in the roof and other parts of the building of
whatever kind, should so far as possible have metallic communication
with these Alarm Conductors, and in case of any prominent elevated
chimney, it would be desirable to lead a pointed conducting tube along
it to the metals of the roof; all of which satisfies the conditions
above specified.

8.--Remark 1.--It is now proved beyond all questions, that the
electrical discharge never leaves perfect conducting lines of small
resistance, in order to pass out upon bad conducting circuits, in which
the resistance is very great, that is an established law of nature;
hence a stroke of Lightning upon such conducting lines will be confined
to the Conductors as constituting a line of discharge of less resistance
than any other line of discharge through the building, which can be
assigned. The apprehension of “Lateral Discharge” therefore, from the
Conductor, is quite absurd; and is not countenanced by any fact
whatever; if any doubt could possibly exist, it would be now most
completely set at rest by the experience of the permanent Conductors,
applied to the masts of Her Majesty’s ships. In very many instances
furious discharges of Lightning have fallen on the masts with a crash as
if the ship’s broadside had been fired, and the solid point aloft has
been found melted; in all these cases electrical discharge robbed by the
Conductor of its explosive violence, has traversed the line of action to
the sea, through the ship, and through the copper bolts, driven through
the ship’s solid timbers, without the least damage to the surrounding
masses, whether metallic, as in the case of the massive iron hoops on
the lower masts, or not. Persons have either been close by or actually
leaning against the Conductors at the time, without experiencing any ill
consequence.

9.--Remark 2.--It has also been incontestably shown, that metallic
bodies have not any specific attractive force or affinity for the matter
of Lightning; metals are as little attractive of lightning as wood or
stone. All matter is equally indifferent to Electricity so far as
regards a specific attraction, hence the idea that metals attract or
invite Lightning is a popular but very unlearned error contradicted by
the most satisfactory evidence, and the whole course of experience; in
short, we find that Lightning falls indiscriminately upon trees, rocks,
and buildings, whether the buildings have metals about them or not.

10.--Remark 3.--A building that is hence clear, may be struck and
damaged by Lightning without having a particle of metal in its
construction; if there be metals in it, however, and they happen to be
in such situations as will enable them to facilitate the progress of the
electrical discharge, so far as they go, then the discharge will fall on
them in preference to other bodies offering more resistance, but not
otherwise; if metallic substances be not present, or if present, they
happen to occupy places in which they cannot be of any use in helping on
the discharge in the course it wants to go, then the electricity seizes
upon other bodies, which lie in that course, or which can help it,
however small their power of doing so, and in this attempt such bodies
are commonly, but not always, shattered in pieces. The great law of the
discharge is,--progress between the terminating planes of action,
viz:--the clouds and earth, and in such line or lines as upon the whole,
offer the least mechanical impediment or resistance to this operation,
just as water falling over the side of a hill in a rain storm, picks out
or selects as it were by the force of gravity, all the little furrows or
channels which lie convenient to its course, and avoids those which do
not. If in the case of Lightning you provide through the instrumentality
of efficient Conductors, a free and uninterrupted course for the
electrical discharge, then it will follow that course without damage to
the general structure; if you do not, then this irresistible agency will
find a course for itself through the edifice in some line or lines of
least resistance to it, and will shake all imperfect conducting matter
in pieces in doing so; moreover it is to be specially remarked in this
case, that the damage ensues, not where the metals are, but where they
cease to be continued, the more metal in a building therefore the
better, more especially when connected by an uninterrupted circuit with
any medium of communication with the earth.

Such is, in fact, the great condition to be satisfied in the application
of Lightning Conductors, which is virtually nothing more than the
perfecting a line or lines of small resistance in given directions, less
than the resistance in any other lines in the building, which can be
assigned in any other direction, and in which by a law of nature the
electrical agency will move in preference to any others.

11.--It follows from the foregoing principles, that a magazine
constructed entirely of iron or other metal, would be infinitely more
safe in Lightning storms than if built with masonry in the usual way;
metallic roofs for magazines, with capacious metallic Conductors to the
earth, would be unobjectionable, and a source of security.

Metallic gutters and ridges having continuous metallic connection with
the earth are also unobjectionable.

A good method of Conductors for magazines built of masonry, would be
such as already described, regard being had to the position of the
building, its extent, and most prominent points, also to the nature,
state, and condition of the soil, whether it be moist or dry, alluvial
calcareous, or of hard rock; we must also consider the extent,
disposition, and peculiar position of the metallic bodies entering into
the general structure of the building, whether the roof be flat,
pointed, or angular in various parts.

The pointed projecting extremities of the two Conductors, one or more as
the case may be, will be commonly sufficient; but, in buildings having
tall chimneys or other elevated prominent points, at a distance from the
Main Conductor, it will be requisite to guard such chimneys or other
parts, by a pointed rod, led along them to the metals of the roof, or
directly connected with the Main Conductors, by metallic connections.

12.--Pointed terminations of the Conductors in the air, are so far
important that they tend to break the force of a discharge of Lightning
when it falls on them. In fact, before the great shock actually takes
place, under the form of a dense explosion, a very large amount of the
discharge, which otherwise would be concentrated, runs off, as it were,
through the pointed Conductor; but they have no other influence.

With respect to these pointed terminations, no great care need be taken
about them, except that they should consist of solid copper rod, of
about three-quarters of an inch in diameter, and about a foot in length,
and be united by brazing to the conducting tube, elevated at such
convenient height above the walls of the building as the case may
suggest.

As a support to the Conductor, when raised above the wall, we may employ
a small staff or spar of wood fixed to the masonry.

13.--Copper linings to the doors and window shutters of magazines are
not objectionable, if requisite, as a precaution against fire; but they
are useless as a means of keeping out Lightning; on the other hand, it
is not easy to conceive a case in which the explosion of the gunpowder
is to be apprehended from the action of Lightning on the doors or
windows. Supposing, however, such metallic linings desirable as a
precaution against common cases of fire, then the masses of metal
should, according to the principles already laid down, have metallic
communication with the general system of conduction in the building and
the Main Conductor.




ON THE EXPLOSIVE FORCE OF GUNPOWDER.


  ~Advantages of Gunpowder~

The advantages of Gunpowder, as a propelling agent, over any other
explosive material are, the comparative safety attending its manufacture
and transport, and the gradual nature of its decomposition when compared
with those materials, such as fulminating gold, silver, mercury, &c. &c.
In gunpowder, the force resulting from the rapid evolution of gas in a
confined space has sufficient time to overcome the inertia of the
projectile, which is not the case with other explosive materials, the
conversion of which gaseous products is so instantaneous that nothing
can resist the intensity of their explosive action. Other advantages
suggest themselves in the use of Gunpowder, such as the comparative
cheapness of the ingredients composing it, and the ease with which they
may be obtained; for the sulphur and saltpetre are very abundant
productions of nature, and the charcoal can be manufactured cheaply and
with great facility, and if care is taken in the process of the
fabrication of powder, little deterioration will take place on its
exposure to heat or moisture.

  ~Air & Steam as propellants~

Condensed air and steam have been used as propelling agents; but the
great inconvenience attending their use quite preclude the possibility
of adapting them to war purposes.

  ~Force of Gunpowder.~

As the force and effect obtained from Gunpowder is the foundation of all
other particulars relating to Gunnery, we will briefly consider these
points.

  ~Upon what the action of powder depends.~

The action of Gunpowder is dependent upon a purely chemical process. Mr.
Robins proved that the force generated by the combustion of gunpowder,
was owing to an elastic gas which was suddenly disengaged from the
powder, when it was brought to a certain temperature, and further that
this disengaged gas had its elastic force greatly augmented by the heat
evolved by the chemical action.


  ~Ingredients are charged with a large volume of heated gas.~

The propelling power of Gunpowder is dependent on the rapid
decomposition of the nitre into its component parts; the oxygen forms
carbonic acid with the carbon in the charcoal, and the heat thus
generated by ignition changes both this and the nitrogen into a large
volume of heated gas. In a mixture of nitre and charcoal alone, the
oxidation proceeds with comparative slowness; by the addition of
sulphur, an augmentation of combustibility is gained, in consequence of
its igniting at a very low temperature; the sulphur, also, by its
presence, renders available for the oxidation of the carbon an
additional amount of oxygen, viz: that which is united with the
potassium, the latter being at once converted into sulphite upon
ignition of the powder.

  ~Weight of gas evolved.~

  ~Volume of gas evolved.~

  ~Heat of gas evolved.~

  ~Pressure of gas generated.~

  ~Strength of powder not affected by density of air, but by damp.~

It appears that the weight of gas generated is equal to three tenths of
the weight of the powder which yielded it, and that its bulk when cold,
and expanded to the rarity of Common air was 240 times that of the
powder; the barometer standing at about 30 inches. From this Robins
concluded that if the fluid occupied a space equal to the volume of the
gunpowder, its elastic force, when cold, would be 240 times the pressure
of the atmosphere, when the barometer stands as above. Mr. Robins also
considered that the heat evolved was at least equal to that of red hot
iron, and he found by experiments that air heated to this temperature
had its elasticity quadrupled, and therefore, that the force of gas from
powder is at least four times 240 = 960, or in round numbers 1,000 times
as great as the elasticity of the air measured by its pressure on an
equal extent of surface. From the height of the barometer it is known
that the pressure of the atmosphere is about 14³⁄₄lbs. upon the square
inch, so that the pressure of the elastic gas generated by the
combustion of the gunpowder upon the same area would be 14.75 by 1,000
or 14,750lbs. at the moment of explosion. He found that the strength of
Gunpowder was the same whatever might be the density of the atmosphere,
but that the moisture of the air effected it considerably, in fact that
the same quantity of powder which would give a bullet an initial
velocity of 1,700 feet per second on a day when the atmosphere was
comparatively dry, would upon a damp day give no more than 1,200 or
1,300 feet.

  ~Velocity of gas~

The velocity of the expansion of the gas is a most important point, upon
which depends, chiefly, the peculiar value of the substance as a
propelling agent. Many of the warlike machines of the Ancients produced
a momentum far surpassing that of our heaviest cannon, but the great
celerity given to the bodies projected from guns by gunpowder cannot be
in the least approached by any other means than by the sudden production
of an elastic gas. Mr. Robins found that the flame of gunpowder expanded
itself when at the muzzle of the gun with a velocity of 7,000 feet per
second.

  ~Dr. Hutton’s calculation as to:--_Volume, Temperature, Pressure_.~

  ~Temperature~

  ~Expansion.~

  ~How to calculate expansion~

  ~Absolute force of gunpowder cannot be determined.~

It has been calculated that one cubic inch of powder is converted into
250 cubic inches of gas at the temperature of the atmosphere, and Dr.
Hutton states that the increase of volume at the moment of ignition
cannot be less than eight times; therefore one inch of gunpowder, if
confined, at the time of explosion exerts a pressure of about 30,000lbs.
being 250 by 8 by 15 = 30,000lbs. on the cubic inch, or 5,000lbs. on the
square inch; and which at once accounts for its extraordinary power. The
value of the temperature to which the gases are raised, on the explosion
of the powder, has been variously estimated and it may be concluded to
rise as high as will melt copper, or 4,000° Fahrenheit. All gases expand
uniformly by heat, the expansion having been calculated with great
precision, to be ¹⁄₄₈₀th for each degree of Fahrenheit. If therefore we
take Dr. Hutton’s calculations of one volume of powder expanding into
250 volumes of gas at the temperature of the atmosphere, and if we
suppose 4,000° Fahrenheit to be the heat to which they are raised on
ignition, the expansion of gunpowder would be calculated. Thus, suppose
the gas to be at 60°, the temperature of the atmosphere, we must deduct
60° from 4,000°, which will give 3,940, being the number of degrees
remaining to which it is raised, hence

  temp.     vol.    temp.     vol.       vol.
             1                3940
   1°   :   ---    3,940°  :  ----    =  8·2
            480                480

that is, each volume of gas would at a temperature of 4000° be
increased 8·2 in volume. Gunpowder when at the temperature of the air
being expanded 250 times in volume; therefore 250 by 8·2 = 2,050 as the
increased expansion for each volume of gas generated by the explosion of
gunpowder at the temperature of 4,000° Fahrenheit. Lieut-Colonel Boxer
calculates that the heat generated by good dry powder is not under
3,000° Fahrenheit. It appears with our present knowledge, the absolute
value of the force of gunpowder cannot be determined. Still by careful
and extensive experiments no doubt a near approximation to the truth may
ultimately be arrived at, so that although much has already been done by
various eminent philosophers, there is still more to be accomplished;
and the importance of the subject ought to act as a stimulus to the
exertions of those belonging to a profession the most interested in the
question.

  ~Loss of velocity by windage.~

It has been found by experiments that in calculating the initial
velocity of a projectile, one third of the whole force was lost with a
windage of ¹⁄₁₀th inch with a shot of 1·96-in. and 1·86-in. in diameter.
The bore of the gun being 2·02-in.

  ~Definition of ignition and combustion.~

By ignition we understand the act of setting fire to a single grain, or
to a charge of gunpowder, and by combustion we mean the entire
consumption of a grain or of a charge.

  ~Quickness of combustion.~

Upon the quickness of combustion mainly depends the applicability of
gunpowder for Military purposes.

  ~Ignition by heat.~

Gunpowder may be inflamed in a variety of ways, but whatever be the
method, one portion of the substance must in the first instance be
raised to a temperature a little above that necessary to sublime the
sulphur, which can be removed from the other ingredients, by gradually
raising the compound to a heat sufficient to drive it off in a state of
vapour. The heat required for this purpose is between 600° and 680°
Fahrenheit.

  ~Progressive combustion.~

When a charge of powder is exploded in the bore of a gun, to all
appearance there would seem to be an instantaneous generation of the
whole force. But in fact it is not so, a certain time being necessary to
the complete combustion of the substance. This gradual firing is of the
utmost importance, for were it otherwise, the gun, unless of enormous
strength, must be shattered in pieces, as well as the projectile; for in
such a case, this great force being suddenly exerted upon one part only
of the material, there would not be time for the action to be
distributed over the particles, at any great distance, before those in
the immediate vicinity of the explosion, were forced out of the sphere
of action of the cohesive force, and consequently rupture must take
place.

  ~Substances which have a more violent action than powder.~

The effect of such an action may be observed by exploding detonating
powders, in which are contained chlorate of potash or fulminating
mercury. The action of that peculiar substance the chlorite of nitrogen
is still more remarkable. There is also another compound, containing
three parts of saltpetre, one part of carbonate of potash and one part
of sulphur, which when brought to a certain heat will explode with great
violence, its destructive force being very considerable; and this is
principally due to the rapidity of the evolution of the gas, for its
amount is less than that produced from gunpowder, but the complete
decomposition occurs in a much shorter time.

  ~In a damp state less quickly fired, and why.~

If gunpowder be in a damp state, the velocity of combustion will be less
than when dry, and also a longer time will be necessary to ignite it,
since the moisture upon its conversion into vapour, absorbs a certain
amount of heat which remains latent, and of which the useful effects so
far as igniting the powder is concerned, is entirely lost.

  ~Ignition by percussion.~

Gunpowder may be ignited by the percussion of copper against copper,
copper against iron, lead against lead, and even with lead against wood,
when the shock is very great. It is more difficult to ignite gunpowder
between copper and bronze,[1] or bronze and wood than between the other
substances. Again, out of ten samples which were wrapt in paper and
struck upon an anvil with a heavy hammer, seven of grained powder
exploded and nine of mealed.

  [1] Bronze consists of 78 parts copper to 20 of tin. Bell metal--78
  copper and 22 tin. Gun metal--100 copper to 8 to 10 tin. Brass--2
  copper, 1 zinc and calamine stone, to harden and colour.

  ~Influence of shape of grain on ignition.~

If the part to which the heat is applied be of an angular shape, the
inflammation will take place quicker than if it be of a round or flat
form, on account of the greater surface that is exposed to the increased
temperature.

  ~The form of the grain influences the velocity of the transmission of
  flame.~

If the grains are of a rounded form, there would be larger interstices,
and a greater facility will be afforded to the passage of the heated
gas, and therefore this shape is most favourable to the rapid and
complete inflammation of each grain in the whole charge. On the other
hand, particles of an angular or flat form, fitting into each other as
it were, offer greater obstruction to this motion, and the velocity of
the transmission of inflammation is thereby diminished.

  ~Effect of size on the velocity of transmission of inflammation.~

If the grains be small, the interstices will be small also, and the
facility to the expansion of the gas thereby diminished. In the
experiments with trains of powder, the increased surface exposed to the
heated gas was found to more than compensate for the diminished facility
to its expansion, and generally a train of small-grained powder laid
upon a surface without being enclosed, will be consumed more quickly
than a train of large-grained powder.

  ~Large grain best suited for heavy ordnance.~

But this is not the case in a piece of ordnance, a circumstance which
amongst others will account for the diminished initial velocity given to
the shot by a charge of small-grained musket powder, below that produced
by the large-grained usually adopted for this service.

  ~Velocity of the transmission of inflammation of the charge.~

  ~Estimate of Mr. Piobert.~

When a number of grains of powder are placed together as in the charge
of a gun, and a few of them are ignited at one end of the cartridge, a
certain quantity of gas is developed of a temperature sufficiently high
to ignite those in their immediate vicinity. This has also such
elasticity as to enable it to expand itself with considerable velocity.
Again, the grains which are so ignited continue the inflammation to
others in the same manner. The absolute velocity of expansion of this
gas is very considerable; but the grains of gunpowder in the charge
offer an obstruction to this motion, the gas having to wind its way
through the interstices, and consequently the velocity is considerably
diminished, but it is quite clear that it must be very much greater than
the velocity of combustion. Mr. Piobert estimates the velocity of
transmission of inflammation of a charge in a gun at about 38 feet per
second, and in all probability even this is much under the mark.

  ~Experiments made on this subject.~

Many experiments have been made by observing the velocity of
transmission of inflammation of trains of powder under various
circumstances, but they do not show us what would be the velocity in a
confined charge. The velocity increased with the section of the train,
and further when at the end first lighted, there was an obstruction to
the escape of gas, as in the case of a gun, a much shorter time was
required for complete inflammation.

  ~Time of decomposition depends upon form of grain.~

When the charge of powder in a gun is ignited the grains being enveloped
by the heated gas, we may consider that each grain is ignited over its
whole surface at once. If the grains of powder were of equal or regular
form, the time each would be consuming, might be easily calculated, but
since in ordinary cases they are irregular in form, although the grains
may be of the same weight, the time necessary for their complete
decomposition will be very different.

  ~Circumstances affecting combustion.~

The quickness of combustion will depend upon the dryness of the powder,
the density of the composition, the proportion of the ingredients, the
mode of manufacture, and the quality of the ingredients.

  ~Combustion of cubical grains considered.~

Were a cubical grain to be ignited upon its whole surface, the
decomposition may be supposed to take place gradually from the surface
to the centre, and the original cubical form to remain until the whole
is consumed, the cube becoming smaller and smaller. If, then, the rate
of burning be the same throughout, the quantity of gas generated in the
first half portion of the time will evidently be considerably more than
in the latter half, as in the latter case there will be a much lesser
surface under the influence of flame.

  ~Elongated and cylindrical grains.~

If the form of the grain be elongated, then will the quantity of gas
generated in a given time from a grain of similar weight to that of the
cube or sphere, be increased, on account of the greater ignited surface,
and consequently the time necessary for its combustion will be
diminished. If it be of a cylindrical form for example, this time must
be reckoned from the diameter of the cylinder, its length not
influencing it in the least, although as we have seen, it enters into
the consideration of the quantity of the gas generated in a given time.

  ~Large grain.~

In the ordinary large-grain powder, the majority of the grains are of
the elongated or flat form, from whence considerable advantage is
derived, particularly in short guns, since it causes the greatest
portion of the charge to be decomposed before the projectile is moved
sensibly from its original position.

  ~Mealed powder.~

If the charge be composed of mealed powder a longer time is found to be
necessary for the complete combustion of the whole than in the case
where the substance is granulated, and the initial velocity of a shot is
reduced about one third by employing the substance in that state.

  ~The effect of granulating gunpowder.~

A piece of pressed cake weighing 1·06oz., was put into a mortar, and a
globe of some light substance, placed upon it, and the powder being
consumed after ignition without ejecting the ball from the bore of the
piece. When an equal quantity was divided into seven or eight pieces,
the globe was thrown out of the mortar; breaking the cake into twelve
pieces; the ball ranged 3·3 yards; being further increased to fifty
grains, it ranged 10·77 yards; and when the ordinary powder was used,
the ball was projected 56·86 yards.

  ~Action depends upon size and form of grain.~

It will appear from the above remarks, that the force generated from the
charge of powder in a gun, will be greatly influenced by the size and
form of the grains composing it.

  ~Density of gunpowder.~

In order to obtain a gunpowder which shall possess a proper amount of
force, it is necessary that the ingredients should be thoroughly
incorporated, and the process of incorporation will in great measure
affect the density of the grains. After going through the process, it is
subjected to a certain pressure, in order that the substance in
travelling may not be reduced to a fine powder, which would cause the
velocity of transmission of inflammation to be diminished. But there is
a certain point beyond which it would not be advantageous to increase
the density, and this seems to vary with the size of the grain. With
large-grain powder the action in a musket, or in guns with small
charges, is greatest with a low density; while with very small grain,
the highest velocities are obtained generally with the gunpowder of
great density; but in heavy guns with ordinary charges, the
large-grained powder should be of considerable density in order to
obtain the greatest effect, though still it must not be too great.

  ~Advantages of glazing.~

The principal advantages of glazing are; first, that the powder so
prepared, will in travelling, owing to the smaller amount of destructive
force consequent on friction, produce less mealed powder; and secondly,
that in a damp country like England, the glazing imparts a preserving
power to the powder, as the polished surface is less likely to imbibe
moisture than the rough.

  ~Disadvantages of glazing.~

  ~Experiments as to glazing.~

  ~Glazing less hurtful to fine grains.~

The disadvantages of glazing consists in its polishing the surface, and
thus depriving it of those angular projections which cause the ignition
and combustion to be carried on with greater rapidity, by rendering the
interstices smaller, the consequence of which is, that there is not so
much gas produced previously to the projectile leaving the gun, and in
large charges a portion will be blown out unfired. There must be a limit
then to glazing, which it would not be proper to exceed. At an
experiment with glazed and unglazed powder, the ranges on the eprouvette
were 75 for glazed, and 98 for unglazed. This loss of power, consequent
on glazing, has caused it to be done away with in France and Russia.
With fine grain powder it is not of so much consequence, as it is, to a
certain degree, corrected by the size of the grain.

  ~Size of grain determined by size of charge.~

  ~Tight ramming bad.~

The rapidity with which a charge of gunpowder is consumed will depend
not only in a certain degree upon the size of the grain, but on the
manner in which the charge is put together, for if a charge is closely
pressed, the gases meeting resistance in their endeavours to escape
between the interstices, will not propagate the ignition so rapidly.
With large charges, there exists a positive advantage for the grains to
be rather large, so that the most distant parts of the charge should be
reached by the gases as quickly as possible; whilst with that of a
rifle, the charge being small, the fineness of the grain does not
interfere with the quantity of the gas developed. Whence it may
rationally be concluded that the dimensions of the grains should
increase in proportion to the quantity of the charges into which they
are to enter, that is to say, in proportion to the interstices. Ramming
down a charge tightly must therefore interfere with the velocity of
combustion.

  NOTE--The foregoing on the explosive force of gunpowder was taken from
  Lieut-Colonel E. M. Boxer’s Treatise on Artillery.


FOULING.

  ~Produce of decomposed gunpowder.~

The produce obtained by the decomposition of gunpowder are the gaseous
and the solid. The gaseous is chiefly nitrogen and carbonic acid. The
solid is sulphur and potassium, mixed with a little charcoal, but the
solid produce is nearly entirely volatilized at the moment of explosion
through the high temperature.

  ~Fouling.~

Fouling is occasioned by the deposition inside the barrel of the solid
residue proceeding from the combustion of the powder.

  ~Conditions of fouling depend on state of atmosphere~

One of the principal of these, namely, the sulphide of Potassa, is
deliquescent, or attracts water from the atmosphere. Hence, on a clear
day, when the air holds little moisture, the fouling does not attain
that semi-fluid state it so speedily attains in a damp day, and it is
not so easily removed, and tends to accumulate inside the barrel.
Fouling may also be increased or diminished, according to the quality of
the powder.

  ~Effects of Fouling.~

Fouling occasions loss of power from the increased friction, and causes
inaccuracy in direction and elevation, by filling the grooves, and thus
preventing the proper spiral motion being imparted to the projectile.


EFFECTS OF GUNPOWDER ON METALS.

  ~Difference of effect on brass and iron guns.~

The effect produced by Gunpowder on metals, in long continued and rapid
firing, is very extraordinary. Several of the guns employed at the siege
of San Sebastian were cut open, and the interior of some of the vent
holes, which were originally cylindrical, and only two-tenths of an inch
in diameter, were enlarged in a curious and irregular manner, from three
to five inches in one direction, and from two to three inches in
another, but the brass guns were much more affected than the iron. In
December, 1855, there were lying in the arsenal at Woolwich several of
the heaviest sea mortars, which had recently been used at the
bombardment of Sweaborg, and the continuous firing on that occasion had
split them into two nearly equal portions from muzzle to breech, a
trunnion being with each half.

Heavy guns for garrisons, sieges, &c., are made of cast iron; guns for
field purposes, where lightness is required, are made of gun metal.


  ~Difference of effect of brass and iron guns~

These guns are generally denominated brass guns. They can be loaded,
properly pointed at an object, and fired about four times in three
minutes, but they will not stand long continued rapid firing, or more
than 120 rounds a day, as the metal, when heated, softens, and the shot
then injures the bore. Heavy iron guns may be loaded, fired, &c., once
in two minutes. They suffer more from the total number of rounds that
have been fired from them, without reference to the intervals between
each round, than from the rapidity of the firing. Four hundred and five
hundred rounds per day have not rendered an iron gun unserviceable.


MISCELLANEOUS EXPERIMENTS.

The following experiments, extracted from Mr. Wilkinson’s “Engines of
War,” serve to illustrate the capability of metals to resist the force
of gunpowder, and may be of some practical utility, as well as prove
interesting merely as matter of curiosity.

Experiment 1.--A piece about 5 inches long was cut off the breech-end of
a common musket barrel. It was screwed at the part cut, and another plug
fitted, so as to have two plugs, one at each end, leaving an internal
space of about 3 inches. A percussion nipple was screwed into the end of
one of these plugs. This being arranged, one of the plugs was turned
out, and one drachm of gunpowder introduced. The plug was replaced, and
the powder fired by putting a copper cap on the nipple, and striking it
with a hammer. The whole force of the powder escaped at the hole in the
nipple. Two, three, four, five, and six drachms were successively
introduced, and fired in the same manner, without bursting or injuring
the piece of barrel. At last, seven drachms forced out one end, in
consequence of the screw having been carelessly fitted. This defect
being repaired, Mr. Marsh, of Woolwich, repeatedly fired it with five
drachms, merely holding it with a towel in his left hand, and firing it
with a blow of a hammer. Six drachms of powder is the full service
charge for a flint musket, and four drachms of a percussion musket; yet
this immense pressure can be resisted by a cylinder of iron not more
than one quarter of an inch thick, and not iron of the best quality.

Experiment 2.--A good musket barrel had a cylinder of brass, three
inches long, turned to fit the muzzle, and soldered in, so as to close
it air-tight. The plug, or breech-screw, was removed, and a felt wad was
pushed in with a short piece of wood, marked to the exact depth the
charge would occupy, to prevent the ball rolling forward. A musket ball
was then dropped in, and a cartridge, containing three drachms of
powder, was introduced. The breech being screwed in, left the barrel
loaded. It was fired by a percussion tube, but there was no report. On
removing the breech-screw, the ball was found to be flattened. A
repetition of this experiment, with four drachms, produced a similar
result, but the ball was rather more flattened. With five drachms, the
ball was perfectly round and uninjured. Six drachms burst the barrel
close under the bayonet stud; the ball escaped through the opening,
disfigured, but fell close to the barrel. In these experiments the
barrel always advanced, instead of recoiling, as usual.

Experiment 3.--Made at Woolwich Arsenal, with a Gomer mortar, the
chamber being bored conically, so that the shell, when dropped in, fits
closely all round, instead of being bored cylindrically, with a chamber
in the centre. The mortar being laid at an angle of 45°, one drachm of
powder was put into the bottom, and a 68-pounder iron shot over it. When
fired, the ball was projected two feet clear of the mortar. A wooden
ball, precisely the same diameter, but weighing only 5lbs., was scarcely
moved by the same charge, and with two drachms of powder it was just
lifted in the mortar, and fell into its place again. Here we find a
weight of 68lbs. thrown to the distance of two feet by the same power
which would not lift 5lbs., and the wooden ball scarcely moved by double
the powder.

This proves that the firing of gunpowder under such circumstances is not
instantaneous. In the first instance, the small quantity of powder had a
large space to fill below the ball, and a heavy weight to move;
therefore, could not stir it at all until the whole was ignited, when
the force was sufficient to throw it forward two feet. In the second
case, the first portion of gas that was generated by ignition of the
powder, was sufficient to lift the lighter weight, just enough to allow
all the force to escape round it before it had time to accumulate.

Experiment 4.--A cannon ball, weighing 24lbs., was placed exactly over
the vent-hole of a loaded 32-pounder cannon, which was fired by a train
of gunpowder, when the rush from the vent projected the 24-pounder ball
to a very considerable height in the air, although the diameter of the
hole was only two-tenths of an inch.

Experiment 5.--A most ingenious method of ascertaining the relative
quickness of ignition of different qualities of gunpowder.

A gun-barrel mounted on a carriage with wheels, and moving on a
perfectly horizontal railway, is placed at right angles to another short
railway, at any convenient distance (suppose fifty feet, or yards); on
the second railway a light carriage moves freely with any desired
velocity, being drawn forward by means of a weight and pulleys: a cord
is attached to the front of this carriage, which passes over a pulley at
the end of the railroad, and is continued up a high pole or staff over
another pulley at the top, at which end the weight is attached. A long
rectangular frame covered with paper is fixed perpendicularly on the
carriage, so that when it moves forward it passes across the direct line
of the barrel, and forms a long target. A percussion lock is attached to
the barrel, which is fired by a detent, or hair-trigger, and the wire
which pulls it is disengaged at the same instant to admit of recoil.
This wire is carried straight on to the target railroad, and fixed to a
small lever, against which the front part of the target-carriage strikes
as it is carried onwards by the weight. This constitutes the whole
apparatus. When required to be used, the barrel is loaded with gunpowder
accurately weighed, and a brass ball that fits the bore correctly: the
weight is then disengaged, and the target moves quickly along,
discharging the barrel as it passes, and the ball goes through it. With
the same powder tried at the same time, the ball constantly goes through
the same hole, or breaks into it. If the next powder tried be slower of
ignition than the preceding, the ball will pass through another part of
the target more in the rear; if quicker, more in advance; thus affording
a means of ascertaining this important quality of gunpowder with
considerable accuracy: the velocity of the target-carriage can be easily
regulated by increasing or diminishing the weight which draws it
forward. The differences in the distances between which the balls strike
the target with different kinds of powder was frequently as much as ten
or twelve inches; but it is not an apparatus commonly used, having been
merely constructed for experimental purposes.


ON THE TIME REQUIRED FOR IGNITION OF GUNPOWDER.

Gunpowder like all other inflammable substances requires to be raised to
a certain temperature, before it will ignite, viz., to a dull red heat,
or about 600° Fahrenheit. If the heat passes with such rapidity through
the powder, so as not to raise the temperature to the necessary degree,
then the powder will not ignite, from the velocity of transit, so that
it might be possible to calculate theoretically, the velocity that must
be given to a red hot ball to enable it to pass through a barrel of
gunpowder without causing explosion. The passage of electric fluid
through gunpowder may be adduced in evidence of the ignition being
dependent on the degree of velocity. The flame of all fulminating
powders will pass through the centre of a box filled with gunpowder
without igniting one grain of it. If a train of gunpowder be crossed at
right angles by a train of fulminating mercury, laid on a sheet of paper
or a table, and the powder be lighted with a red hot iron wire, the
flame will run on until it meets the cross train of fulminating mercury,
when the inflammation of the latter will be so instantaneous as to cut
off all connection with the continuous train of powder, leaving the
remaining portion of the gunpowder unignited. If on the contrary the
fulminating powder be lighted first, it will go straight on and pass
through the train of gunpowder so rapidly, as not to inflame it at all.
Were a gun to be charged with gun-cotton and gunpowder, the latter would
be fired out unignited.


EFFECTS OF ACCIDENTAL EXPLOSIONS OF GUNPOWDER.

Considering the combustible nature of the materials, accidents very
seldom occur; when they do, it is more frequently in the process at the
Mill while under the runners.

On one occasion at Waltham Abbey Mills, when the powder exploded, after
having been two hours under the runners, the doors and windows of the
Mills on the opposite side of the stream, were forced open outwards, and
the nails drawn. A similar effect took place when the Dartford Mills
blew up, January 1833, in consequence of an accident in the packing
house. A window which had been recently fitted up in Dartford Town,
about a mile and a half distant from the works, was blown outwards into
the street, and a considerable quantity of paper was carried as far as
Eltham and Lewisham, distances of eight and ten miles. The sudden
rarification of the air may account for this circumstance, the
atmospheric pressure being removed in the vicinity of the doors and
windows, they were forced open outwards by the expansive force of the
air contained within the buildings.




ON ANCIENT ENGINES OF WAR.


  ~War a painful topic.~

  ~Advantages of war being destructive.~

The Utopian may shrink from the contemplation of so painful a subject as
War, the Moralist may raise his voice against the justice of it, but the
practical philosopher can see very little chance of its cessation, and
actuated with the very best intentions, will endeavour to render War as
terrible as possible, well knowing, that as soon as certain death awaits
two rival armies, princes must fight their own battles, or war must
cease.

  ~First missile weapons, sticks and stones.~

  ~Javelin.~

  ~Sling.~

  ~Bow.~

  ~Arbalest.~

Man’s first rude attempts at missile weapons were doubtless limited to
throwing sticks and stones by the mere aid of his hands; acts in which
the monkey, the bear, and even the seal are very successful emulators. A
desire of more successful aggression, together with increased facilities
for the destruction of game and wild animals, doubtless soon suggested
to man the use of projectiles more efficient than these. By a very
slight change of form, the simple stick would become a javelin, capable
of being hurled with great force and precision. An aid would suggest
itself for casting a stone, by means of a fillet or band, subsequently
called a sling, and next would be invented the bow, which, in process of
time by subsequent additions would become the arbalest or cross-bow.

  ~Axes used as projectiles.~

It appears that axes have been used as _projectiles_: for Procopius,
describing the expedition of the Franks into Italy, in the sixth
century, tells us:--Among the hundred thousand men that King Theodobert
I. led into Italy, there were but few horsemen. The cavalry carried
spears. The infantry had neither bow nor spear, all their arms being a
sword, an axe, and a shield. The blade of the axe was large, its handle
of wood, and very short. They _hurl_ their axes against the shields of
the enemy, which by this means are broken; and then, springing on the
foe, they complete his destruction with the sword.

  ~Tomahawk used as a projectile.~

A hatchet or tomahawk is used as a projectile weapon by the North
American Indians. The difficulty of throwing such a weapon with effect,
would of course consist in causing the edge to strike the object aimed
at. Now, such a hatchet as they usually make use of, if thrown by its
handle, will revolve in a perpendicular plane about once in every three
yards, irrespective of the force with which it moves. An Indian judges
his enemy to be distant from him any multiple of 3 yards as 15, 18, 21,
and strikes him full with the edge of his weapon accordingly.

  ~“Chuckur” or disk used as a projectile.~

A circular disk or quoit is in use in India amongst the Sikhs,
particularly that sect of them called Akali, as a weapon, and in their
warlike exercises; the species used in war have a triangular section,
those thrown for amusement are flat with a sharp edge. A skilful man
will throw one of these chuckers or quoits to a distance of a hundred
and thirty yards, or more, with very considerable accuracy, the quoit
being at no period of its flight above six feet from the ground. The
sharpness of edge, combined with the rotatory motion of these quoits,
and the difficulty of avoiding them, renders them formidable weapons in
skilled hands. The Akali wear them on their turbans, of several
different sizes and weights; a small one is often worn as a bracelet on
the arm. Many of these fanatics took part in the last Sikh war, and
severe wounds made with these weapons were by no means uncommon.

  ~Armour and fortifications.~

By the time portable weapons would have been brought to some degree of
perfection, man’s increasing sciences and civilization would have led
him to make armour, to build cities, and enclose them with walls. Now
would arise the necessity for other projectiles of greater force,
inasmuch as in the event of war, the armour should be penetrated, and
walls, &c., would have to be demolished.

  ~Improved projectiles.~

  ~Change to heavy projectiles.~

  ~Catapulta.~

  ~Balistæ.~

  ~Sling principles.~

The transition from portable projectiles to those of a heavier class was
obvious enough. Enormous javelins and darts were hurled by cross-bows of
corresponding size, termed Catapultæ, (plate x.), and stones, &c., were
thrown by Balistæ (plate ix. and xii); and secondly, instruments formed
on the principle of the sling.

  ~Projectiles used with Catapulta.~

These machines threw not only large darts and stones, but also the
bodies of men and horses. Athenæus speaks of a Catapulta which was only
one foot long, and threw an arrow to the distance of half a mile. Other
engines, it is said, could throw javelins from one side of the Danube to
the other. Balistæ threw great beams of wood, lances twelve cubits long,
and stones that weighed three hundred pounds.

  ~Millstones, &c., used in England.~

Our forefathers used to cast forth mill-stones. Holinshead relates that
when Edward I. besieged Stively Castle, he caused certain engines to be
made, which shot off stones of two or three hundred weight.

  ~B. C. 1451.~

  ~B. C. 809.~

  ~First mention of Artillery.~

The first intimation of trees being cut down “to build bulwarks against
the city till it be subdued,” occurs in Deut. xx., 19, 20, but the
earliest precise mention of Artillery is in 2nd Chron., xxvi, 15, where
we are told that Uzziah “made in Jerusalem engines invented by cunning
men, to be upon the towers and upon the bulwarks, to shoot arrows and
great stones withal;” and Josephus relates that Uzziah “made many
engines of war for besieging cities, such as hurl stones and darts with
grapplers, and other instruments of that sort.” He must therefore be
considered the inventor of them, and from that time they began to be
employed in attacking and defending towns.

  ~Balistæ at Regium, B. C. 388.~

  ~At Motya B. C. 370.~

The earliest instances of projectile machines in profane history appear
to be at the siege of Regium and Motya by Dionysius, where, having
battered the walls with his rams, he advanced towards them towers rolled
on wheels, from whence he galled the besieged with continual volleys of
stones and arrows, thrown from his Balistæ and Catapultæ.

  ~At Rhodes B. C. 303.~

The next memorable instance is the siege of Rhodes by Demetrius
Polyorcetes, who brought forward a newly invented machine, called
Helepolis, (taker of Cities), with a variety of other engines, and
employed 30,000 men in the management of them.

  ~Balistæ at Cremona.~

Tacitus mentions an extraordinary engine, used by the 15th Legion at the
battle of Cremona, against the troops of Vespasian. It was a Balista of
enormous size, which discharged stones of weight sufficient to crush
whole ranks at once. Inevitable ruin would have been the consequence,
had not two soldiers, undiscovered, cut the ropes and springs. At
length, after a vigorous assault from Antonius, the Vittelians, unable
to resist the shock, rolled down the engine, and crushed numbers of
their assailants, but the machine, in falling, drew after it a
neighbouring tower, the parapet, and part of the wall, which afforded
the besiegers easier access to the city.

  ~Balistæ at siege of Jotapata.~

  ~Dead men and horses projected.~

Josephus relates that at the siege of Jotapata, “a stone from one of the
Roman engines carried the head of a soldier, who was standing by him,
three furlongs off;” that “lances were thrown with great noise, and
stones, weighing 114lbs. troy, “together with fire and a multitude of
arrows.” The dead bodies of men and horses were also thrown at this
siege, and at that of Jerusalem, A. D. 70, to inspire terror.

  ~Form of Balistæ.~

The earliest form of Balistæ appears to have been a very long beam,
suspended in a frame on a centre of motion, one end being considerably
longer than the other. To the short end was attached a great weight,
such as a chest filled with earth or stones. To the longer end a sling
was affixed, in which, after being drawn down, a stone was placed, and
on being suddenly let go, the long end flew up, and discharged the stone
with great violence.

  ~Form of Catapultæ.~

Catapultæ were sometimes constructed to discharge a flight of arrows at
once, by placing them on a rack, and causing a strong plank, previously
drawn back, to strike against their ends. The more perfect engines of
the Romans were all dependent on the elasticity of twisted cords made of
flax, hemp, the sinews or tendons of animals, from the neck of the bull,
or legs of the deer species, and ropes formed of human hair were
preferred to all others, as possessing greater strength and elasticity.
Catapultæ were immensely powerful bows, drawn back by capstans, levers,
or pulleys, having only a single cord for the arrow, (plate x.), but the
Balistæ had a broad band, formed of several ropes to project the stone,
which was placed in a kind of cradle, like a cross-bow. (plate xii.)

  ~Balistæ at battle of Hastings 1066~

The Normans appear to have introduced a kind of Field-Artillery,
consisting of instruments or machines, from which darts and stones were
thrown to a considerable distance, as they occur at the battle of
Hastings. They also employed arrows, headed with combustible matter, for
firing towns and shipping.

  ~Fiery darts, A. D. 64.~

We read in the Scriptures of “Fiery Darts.” Ephns. vi., 16.

  ~Fire from Balistæ.~

Our ancestors derived the knowledge of some composition from the
Saracens, which resembled Greek-fire, and was often thrown in pots from
the Balistæ.

  ~Fire by Arabs commencement of 13th century.~

From a treatise on the “Art of Fighting,” by Hassan Abrammah, we learn
that the Arabs of the 13th century employed their incendiary
compositions in four different ways. They cast them by hand; they fixed
them to staves, with which they attacked their enemies; they poured
forth fire through tubes; and they projected burning mixtures of various
kinds by means of arrows, javelins, and the missiles of great engines.

  ~Bombs of glass, &c.~

  ~Fire-mace.~

Vessels of glass or pottery, discharged by hand or by machines, were so
contrived, that on striking the object at which they were aimed, their
contents spread around, and the fire, already communicated by a fusee,
enveloped everything within its reach. A soldier, on whose head was
broken a fire-mace, became suddenly soaked with a diabolic fluid, which
covered him from head to foot with flame.

  ~Bombs from Balistæ.~

Bombs were also thrown from Balistæ. An engine was constructed at
Gibraltar, under the direction of General Melville, at the desire of
Lord Heathfield, for the purpose of throwing stones just over the edge
of the rock, in a place where the Spaniards used to resort, and where
shells thrown from mortars could not injure or annoy them.

  ~Onager.~

Of machines formed on the sling principle, that called Onager (plates
vii. and viii.) may be regarded as typical of all the rest. Its force
entirely depended upon the torsion of a short thick rope, acting upon a
lever which described an arc of a vertical circle. The lever had
attached to its free extremity a sling, or sometimes it merely
terminated in a spoon-shaped cavity. When bent back, it was secured by a
catch or trigger, and charged with a stone. On starting the catch by a
blow with a mallet, the lever described its arc of a circle with great
velocity, and projected the stone to a considerable distance.

I shall now briefly describe some of the portable missive weapons which
have been used by different nations.

  ~Javelin.~

  ~Arms of the early Romans.~

  ~Aid to projection.~

The Javelin, or dart, variously modified, is known under several names.
The ancients were well acquainted with it. In the Scriptures, we have
frequent notice of it; and the ancients instituted javelin matches. It
would appear that the javelin used on horseback was about five feet and
a half long, and headed with steel, usually three-sided, but sometimes
round. The Roman Cavalry, after the conquest of Greece, were armed much
like the Infantry, carrying swords, shields, and javelins with points at
both ends. Sometimes, in order to launch it with greater force, it was
not propelled by the unaided arm, but by the assistance of a thong
fastened to its butt end; and we are informed that the Greeks and Romans
projected darts and javelins by the assistance of a sling or strap, girt
round their middle.

  ~Djereed.~

  ~Pilum.~

  ~Australian mode.~

  ~Harpoon.~

At the present time, a javelin, termed Djereed, is used with
considerable effect by certain oriental nations, who invariably employ
it on horseback. The Roman infantry possessed a weapon of the javelin
kind, termed Pilum, every man of the legionary soldiers carrying two.
The point of this weapon being very long and small, was usually so bent
at the first discharge as to be rendered useless afterwards. With every
improvement that the javelin was susceptible of, it never could acquire
a long range; hence we find, that as Archery became developed, the use
of the weapon declined. Amongst savage nations, the use of the javelin
is very common, but the inhabitants of Australia have a manner of
throwing it altogether peculiar to themselves, not throwing it while
poised at the balance, but projecting it by means of a stick applied at
the butt end. This contrivance accomplishes a great increase of range,
but does not contribute to accuracy of direction. At short distances,
the penetrating force of the javelin is considerable, as is learned from
the act of harpooning a whale, a harpoon being merely a javelin.


THE SLING.

  ~Slings mentioned in Judges. B. C. 1406.~

  ~Slings used B. C. 1406.~

Means by which stones would be thrown by greater force than the hand,
would naturally be resorted to; accordingly we find the sling ranks
amongst the first of ancient offensive weapons. Numerous examples are
mentioned in Scripture, as in Judges xx., 16, “Among all this people,
there were seven hundred chosen men left-handed; every one could sling
stones at a hair breadth and not miss;” and also that of David and
Goliath, &c.

  ~Siege of Troy between 800 and 900 B. C.~

  ~Battle of the Granicus B. C. 334.~

  ~First Punic war 241 to 263 B. C.~

At the siege of Troy, the masses were organized into two kinds of
infantry: one light and irregular, carrying horn bows, short darts, and
slings; the other regular and heavy, armed with spears. At the battle of
the Granicus, B. C. 334, Alexander the Great had in his army light
infantry, consisting of slingers, bow-men, and javelin-men. The
Carthagenians had slingers in their pay before the first Punic War.

  ~Slings common in Greece.~

  ~Slingers in Roman armies.~

The Sling was very common in Greece, and used by the light armed
soldiers. Arrows, stones, and leaden plummets, were thrown from them,
some of which weighed no less than an Attic pound. Seneca reports that
its motion was so vehement that the leaden plummets were frequently
melted!!! The Romans had slingers in their armies, for the most part
inhabitants of the Islands of Majorca, Minorca and Ivica.

  ~Invention ascribed to Phœnicians and also to inhabitants of Balearic
  islands.~

Pliny ascribes the invention of slings to the Phœnicians, but Vegetius
to the inhabitants of the Balearic Islands, who were famous in antiquity
for using them. It is said, those people bore three kinds of slings,
some longer and others shorter, to be used as their enemies were nearer
or more remote; the first served them for a head band, the second for a
girdle, and the third they always carried in their hands. In fight they
threw large stones with such violence, that they seemed to be projected
from some machine, and with such exactness, as rarely to miss their aim;
being constantly exercised from their infancy, their mothers not
allowing them to have any food, until they struck it down from the top
of a pole with stones thrown from their slings.

  ~Materials of slings.~

  ~Slings with cup.~

  ~Staff-sling.~

The Latin for our English word farm is _fundus_, which originally
signifies a “stone’s-throw of land,” or as much land as could be
included within the range of a stone thrown from a sling. The materials
of which slings were composed, were either flax, hair or leather, woven
into bands or cut into thongs, broad in the centre to receive the load,
and tapering off to the extremities. Slings have been made with three
strings, with a cup let into the leather to hold the bullet or stone,
and were called “Fronde à culôt.” In plate xiii, fig. 3, there is a
representation of a slinger of the early part of the thirteenth century,
whose weapon differs from that of the Anglo-Saxon or common sling, in
having a cup for the reception of the projectile. Slings were sometimes
attached to sticks to increase their power, as, besides the ancient cord
sling, there appears in the manuscripts of the thirteenth century a
variety of this arm; the “Staff Sling.” (plate xiii, fig. 2.) It seems
to have been in vogue for naval warfare, or in the conflicts of siege
operations.

  ~Force of slings.~

  ~Used for the English, A. D. 1342.~

  ~Bullets out of slings.~

The slings projected their missiles with such force that no armour could
resist their stroke. Slings never appear to have been much used by the
English, although Froissart mentions an instance of their having been
used for them by the people of Brittany, in a battle fought in that
province during the reign of Philip de Valois, between the troops of
Walter de Manin, an English knight, and Louis d’Espagne, who commanded
six thousand men on behalf of Charles de Blois, then competitor with the
Earl of Montford for the Duchy of Brittany. Froissart says, that what
made Louis lose the battle was, that during the engagement the country
people came unexpectedly and assaulted his army with _bullets_ and
slings.

  ~Slings at the siege of Sancere, 1572.~

  ~Range.~

  ~Slings last used, 1814.~

According to the same author, slings were used in naval combats, when
stones were also sometimes thrown by hand.[2] Slings were used in 1572,
at the siege of Sancere by the Huguenots, in order to save their powder.
They were also used by the people of Brittany to such an extent against
the Roman Catholic party, that the war was called “Guerre de Fronde.”
With respect to the range of this projectile, it is said, that a good
slinger could project a stone 600 yards. This seems doubtful. The most
recent instance of slings being used in war, occurs in “Straith on
Fortification,” page 121, and which contains an extract from the siege
journal of Serjeant St. Jacques of the French Corps de Genie, who was
most successfully employed with a small French garrison in the defence
of the Castles of Monzowin, Arragon, against the Spaniards, 1814.

  [2] It is stated by Sir Robert Wilson that at the battle of Alexandria
  the French and English threw stones at each other, during a temporary
  want of ammunition, with such effect that a Serjeant of the 28th
  Regiment was killed, and several of the men were wounded. Stones were
  thrown by the English Guards at the battle of Inkerman.


THE BOW.

  ~The bow almost universal.~

This weapon under some shape or other was employed by most nations of
antiquity, but not always as a warlike instrument. Scarcely any two
nations made their bows exactly alike. The Scythian bow we are told, was
very much curved, as are the Turkish, Persian, and Chinese bows (plate
iv. figs. 1 & 2) at the present day, whilst the celebrated weapon of our
ancestors when unstrung was nearly straight.

It is now used among those savage tribes of Africa and America, to which
fire-arms have not yet reached.

  ~Bows in Scripture.~

  ~Bows B. C. 1892.~

  ~B. C. 1760.~

  ~B. C. 1058.~

  ~Manner of drawing the bow.~

  ~First used by Romans.~

We frequently read of the bow in Scripture, and the first passage in
which the use of the bow is inferred, is in Gen. xxi. 20, where it is
said of Ishmael, “And God was with the lad, and he grew, and dwelt in
the wilderness and became an archer.” But in the 16th verse it is said
that Hagar his mother, “sat her down over against him, a good way off,
as it were a _bow shot_; for she said let me not see the death of the
child”:--this verse implies an earlier practice with the bow than can be
adduced by any profane historian. In Gen. xxvii. 3, Isaac directs his
son Esau: “Now therefore take I pray thee thy weapons, thy quiver and
thy bow, and go out to the field, and take me some venison; and make me
savory meat, such as I love, and bring it to me that I may eat, and that
my soul may bless thee before I die.” The overthrow of Saul was
particularly owing to the Philistine archers; and “David bade them
teach the children of Judah the use of the bow.” The companies that came
to David at Ziklag were armed with bows, and “could use the right hand
and the left in hurling stones and shooting arrows.” (I. Chron. xii. 2.)
The bow is of very high antiquity among the Greeks, whose bows were
usually made of wood, but sometimes of horn, and frequently in either
case beautifully ornamented with gold and silver; the string generally
made of twisted hair, but sometimes of hide. The ancient Persians drew
the strings towards their ears, as is the practice still with the
English. The ancient Greeks, however, drew the bowstring towards their
breast, and represented the fabled Amazons as doing the same, and hence
the tradition of these people cutting off their right breasts, in order
to give facility for drawing the bow. Until the second Punic war, the
Romans had no archers in their armies, except those who came with their
auxiliary forces. Subsequently they became more employed, although as
far as we can learn, not by native troops, but by Orientals in their
pay.

  ~Bows of Britons.~

  ~Bows of Welsh.~

  ~Bows of Anglo-Saxons.~

The early Britons had merely bows and arrows of reed, with flint or bone
heads. Arrows were used by the Welch in Norman reigns, who were famous
archers; their bows were made of wild elm, but stout, and not calculated
to shoot a great distance, but their arrows would inflict very severe
wounds in close fight. Their arrows would pierce oaken boards four
inches thick. The bow was also a weapon of war among the Anglo-Saxons.
The Salic law shows that both the sling and the bow were used by the
contemporary Franks; and they even used poisoned arrows. The Anglo-Saxon
bow was of the form of the Grecian, but it was only under the Normans
that the bow became a master weapon; the Saxons principally using it,
like the people of Tahiti of the present day, for killing birds.

  ~No bows in France A. D. 514.~

During the reign of Clovis, the French made no use of the bow in their
armies, but it was employed during the reign of Charlemagne, who
flourished in the end of the eighth century; as a Count is mentioned,
who was directed on conducting soldiers to the army, to see they had
their proper arms; that is a lance, a buckler, a bow, two strings, and
twelve arrows.

  ~A. D. 1066. Harold shot with an arrow~

  ~Known by Danes and Saxons.~

  ~As a military weapon at the battle of Hastings.~

  ~Archery encouraged by statute.~

  ~Long bow in conquest of Ireland 1172.~

William the Conqueror was a skilful archer, and the battle of Hastings
was decided by the bow, and we hear that Harold was shot with an arrow.
Although the Anglo-Saxons and Danes were well acquainted with the bow
from the earliest period, it appears to have been only employed for
obtaining food, or for pastime, and we are perhaps indebted to the
Norman Conquest for its introduction as a military weapon. The Normans
at the battle of Hastings are said to have used the arbalest or
cross-bow as well as the long bow. Ever after this, the bow became a
favourite weapon. During the reign of Henry II., archery was much
cultivated, and great numbers of bowmen were constantly brought into the
field; and to encourage its practice, a law was passed, which freed from
the charge of murder any one who in practising with arrows or darts,
should kill a person standing near. This appears to be the first
regulation to be found in our annals, and was probably founded on the
old law of Rome. The English conquests in Ireland during the reign of
Henry II. were principally owing to the use of the long bow in battle,
which the Irish wanted. The Invasion of Ireland was headed by Richard de
Clare, Earl of Pembroke, surnamed “Strong-bow.” His force was
numerically very small, consisting chiefly of archers, and it is stated
that such was the advantage their superior arms and military skill gave
the invaders, that 10 knights and 70 archers defeated a body of 3000
Irish opposed to them, on their landing near Waterford.

  ~A. D. 1199.~

The exact time when shooting with the long-bow began in England is
unsettled, our chroniclers do not mention archery till the death of
Richard I.

During the reign of Henry III. there were among the English infantry,
slingers, archers, and cross-bow men.

  ~Cressy 1346.~

  ~Poictiers 1356.~

It seems that the long-bow was at its zenith in the reign of Edward
III., who appears to have taken great pains to increase its efficacy,
and to extend its use. The terrible execution effected by the English
archers at Cressy, and at Poictiers ten years after, was occasioned by
British archers.

  ~Homelden 1403.~

The decisive victory over the Scots at Homelden was entirely achieved by
them, and the Earl of Douglas found the English arrows were so swift and
strong, that no armour could repel them; though his own was of the most
perfect temper, he was wounded in five places. The English men-at-arms,
knights and squires, never drew sword or couched lance, the whole affair
being decided by the archers.

  ~Shrewsbury 1403.~

  ~Agincourt 1415.~

They again did terrible execution at the battle of Shrewsbury, in 1403,
where Hotspur was slain, and the battle of Agincourt was their undivided
conquest.

  ~20,000 bow-men 1455.~

  ~Bow preferred to fire-arms.~

  ~Bows at Isle of Ré, 1627.~

  ~Bows against Scots, 1644 to 1647.~

  ~Bows in William 3rd’s time.~

During the reign of Henry VI., the Parliament voted an army of 20,000
bow-men for service in France. The battle of St. Albans, 1455, seems to
have been entirely won by the archers. Although fire-arms had attained
no inconsiderable degree of perfection in the reign of Henry VIII., yet
the long-bow was still the favourite weapon. Indeed, in the reign of
Elizabeth, the musket was so unwieldy, and slow to charge and discharge,
that the bow was considered superior by many. We find that Queen
Elizabeth, 1572, engaged to furnish Charles IX. of France with 6,000
men, part to be armed with long, and part with cross-bows; and in the
attack made by the English on the Isle of Ré, 1627, it is said some
cross-bow-men were in the army. In 1643 a company of archers was raised
for the service of Charles I.; and in a pamphlet printed in 1664, there
is an account of the successes of the Marquis of Montrose against the
Scots; and bow-men are repeatedly mentioned as in the battle. The
Grenadiers of the Highland Regiments, in the time of William III., when
recruiting, wore the old red bonnet, and carried bows and arrows with
them.

The Highland bow was very short, and by no means powerful.


MERITS OF THE LONG BOW.

  ~Range of long-bow.~

  ~Accuracy of long-bow.~

The English could not accomplish more than 600 yards, except on a few
extraordinary occasions; our modern archers not more than from 300 to
500 yards. The Turkish ambassador when in England in 1795, sent an arrow
upwards of 480 yards; and there are two or three instances on record
since archery has been merely a pastime, which have exceeded it by
twenty or thirty yards. It is said of Domitian, that he would cause one
of his slaves to stand at a great distance with his hands spread as a
mark, and would shoot his arrows so correctly as to drive them between
his fingers. Commodus, with an arrow headed with a semi-circular cutting
edge, could cut or sever the neck of a bird. The story of William Tell,
who struck an apple placed upon his child’s head, is well known, and
generally regarded in the light of an historical fact. It is stated that
Robin Hood could split a hazel wand.

  ~Penetration of long-bow.~

In a journal of Edward VI., His Majesty relates that 100 archers of his
guard shot before him two arrows each, and afterwards altogether. The
object aimed at was a well-seasoned deal board, one inch thick. Many
pierced it quite through, and some struck in a board on the other side.
The distance is not mentioned, but we know that Henry VIII. prohibited
any one above the age of 25 to shoot at a mark at a less distance than
200 yards.

  ~Advantages of the long-bow.~

The long-bow was light, inexpensive, and unaffected by weather, as the
strings could be removed. Moreover, 12 arrows could be fired with
accuracy in one minute. Two feathers in an arrow were to be white, and
one brown or grey, and this difference in colour informed the archer in
an instant how to place the arrow.

  ~Disadvantages of the long-bow.~

Although arrows could be shot from a bow with far greater rapidity and
precision than balls from a musket, yet in damp weather the bow and
string might become so much relaxed that the efficacy of the instrument
became much impaired. A side wind deflected the arrow exceedingly in its
flight, and even against a moderate wind, it was difficult to shoot at
all.


_Our Forefathers encouraged to acquire skill in archery by legal
enactments, and by the founders of our public schools._


1ST. BY LEGAL ENACTMENTS.

  ~Henry 2nd from 1154 to 1189.~

We have previously stated that the first law encouraging the practice of
archery was passed in the reign of Henry II.

  ~Richard 2nd from 1377 to 1399.~

An Act of Parliament was passed in the reign of Richard II., to compel
all servants to shoot on Sundays and holidays.

  ~Edward 4th from 1461 to 1483.~

  ~Every man to have a bow.~

In the reign of Edward IV., an act was passed, ordaining every
Englishman to have a bow of his own height, and during the same reign
butts were ordered to be put up in every township for the inhabitants to
shoot at on feast days, and if any neglected, the penalty of one
halfpenny was incurred. The same monarch also passed an act, that bows
were to be sold for 5s. 4d.

  ~Cross-bows prohibited by Henry 7th & Henry 8th.~

Henry VII. prohibited the use of the cross-bow, and Henry VIII., less
than twenty years after, renewed the prohibition. He forbad the use of
cross-bows and hand guns, and passed a statute which inflicted a fine of
£10 for keeping a cross-bow in the house. Every man, being the King’s
subject, was obliged to exercise himself in shooting with the long bow,
and also to keep a bow with arrows continually in his house. Fathers and
guardians were also commanded to teach their male children the use of
the long bow.

  ~Encouraged by Philip and Mary.~

A statute of Philip and Mary mentions the quantity and kind of armour
and weapons, to be kept by persons of different estates, viz:--“Temporal
persons having £5 and under £10 per annum, one coat of plate furnished,
one black bill or halbert, one long bow, one sheaf of arrows, and one
steel cap or skull.”

  ~Prices fixed by Elizabeth.~

An act of Elizabeth, fixed the prices for long bows, at 6s. 8d., 3s.
4d., and a third sort at 2s. each bow.

  ~Encouraged by monarchs from Henry 8th to Charles 1st.~

  ~Proclamation by Charles 1st.~

Numerous statutes were passed to encourage archery in the reigns of
Henry VIII., Elizabeth, James I. and Charles I. in whose reign the
legislature interfered for the last time in 1633, when Charles I. issued
a commission for preventing the fields near London being so enclosed,
“as to interrupt the necessary and profitable exercise of “shooting,”
and also a proclamation for the use of the bow and pike together:--“A.
D. 1633.--Whereas in former tyme bowes and arrowes have been found
serviceable weapons for wars, whereby great victories and conquests have
been gotten, and by sundry statutes the use thereof hath been enjoined,
&c. &c.--and we expect that our loving subjects should conform
themselves thereunto, knowing the exercise of shooting to be a means to
preserve health, strength and agility of body, and to avoid idleness,
unlawfull disports, drunkenness, and such like enormities and disorders,
which are too frequent among our people.”


2ND.--BY THE FOUNDERS OF OUR PUBLIC SCHOOLS.

  ~Estimation of archery by founders of schools.~

The founders of our Grammar Schools appear to have considered that the
acquirement of skill in archery by their scholars was no less worthy of
attention than their moral and intellectual improvement. They provided
by their statutes sound learning and a religious education for all, but
secured the removal of such as shewed no aptitude or disposition to
learn. They also prescribed the amusements and exercises of the
scholars, and prohibited such as were calculated to lead to idle and
vicious habits. In fact, as true patriots, they understood how the sons
of free men ought to be educated in youth, and that “a complete and
generous education is that which fits a man to perform justly,
skilfully, and magnanimously, all the offices, both private and public,
of peace and war.”

  ~Harrow School, founded 1571.~

The founder of Harrow School, Mr. John Lyon, prepared a body of statutes
to be observed in the management of the School. By one of these he
limited the amusements of the Scholars “to driving a top, tossing a
hand-ball, running, shooting, and no other.” By another he
ordered:--“You shall allow your child at all times, bow-shafts,
bow-strings, and a bracer, to exercise shooting.” On the entrance-porch
to the Master’s house are two shields, the one bearing the Lion rampant,
the other, two arrows crossed, an ancient device which had its origin in
the design of the founder. This device is also impressed on the exterior
of all books which are presented by the Head-Master as prizes to those
scholars, whose improvement entitled them to such rewards. The practice
of archery was coeval with the foundation of the School, and was
continued for nearly two centuries. Every year there was a public
exhibition of archery, when the scholars shot for a silver arrow. The
last silver arrow was contended for in 1771.

  ~St. Albans School.~

At St. Alban’s Grammar School, one of the articles to be recited to such
as offered their children to be taught in the School was,--“Ye shall
allow your child at all times, a bow, three arrows, bow-strings, a
shooting glove, and a bracer, to exercise shooting.”

  ~Wilton School.~

Sir John Dean, who founded, in 1558, the Grammar School of Wilton, in
Cheshire, framed a body of statutes for the School. One of them
provides:--“That upon Thursdays and Saturdays, in the afternoons, and
upon holidays, the scholars refresh themselves, and that as well in the
vacations as in the days aforesaid, they use their bows and arrows only,
and eschew all bowling, carding, dicing, cocking, and all other unlawful
games, upon pain of extreme punishment to be done by the Schoolmaster.”

  ~Dedham School in Essex.~

The Free Grammar School of Dedham, in Essex, was endowed in 1571, and
confirmed by a Charter of Queen Elizabeth in 1574. Her Majesty’s
injunctions to the parents of the boys who should attend the school at
Dedham were:--“That they should furnish their sons with bows, shafts,
bracers and gloves, in order to train them to arms.”

  ~St. Saviour’s School in Southwark.~

One of the statutes at the Grammar School of St. Saviour, in Southwark,
decrees that “the plays of the scholars shall be shooting in long-bows,
chess, running, wrestling, and leaping:--players for money, or betters,
shall be severely punished and expulsed.”

  ~Camberwell School.~

A statute in the same words is found in the rules and orders framed for
the government of Camberwell Grammar School, which was founded in 1615,
by letters patent.


MEANS BY WHICH SKILL IN ARCHERY WAS ACQUIRED.

  ~An archer made by long training, &c.~

A successful archer could only be constituted by long training,
strength, and address, we need not therefore wonder that the practice of
the long-bow was not more copied by our neighbours, as the French
pertinaciously adhered to the use of the cross-bow.

  ~Every man had arms.~

Etienne di Perlin, a Frenchman who wrote an account of a tour in England
in 1558, says:--“The husbandmen leave their bucklers and swords, or
sometimes their bow, in the corner of the field, so that every one in
this land bears arms;” and it is also stated that all the youth and
manhood of the yeomanry of England were engaged in the practice of the
long-bow.

  ~Public matches.~

Public exhibitions of shooting with the bow continued during the reigns
of Charles II. and James II., and an archer’s division, at least till
within these few years, formed a branch of the Artillery Company. The
most important society of this kind now existing is “The Royal Company
of Archers, the King’s body-guard of Scotland.” The exact time of its
institution is unknown, but it is referred by the Scottish antiquarians
to the reign of their James I.

  ~Causes of bad shooting.~

Roger Ascham, in “Toxophilos,” states that the main difficulty in
learning to shoot, arises from having acquired and become confirmed in
previous bad habits; so that, “use is the onlye cause of all faultes in
it, and therefore children more easelye and soner may be taught to
shoote excellently then men, because children may be taught to shoote
well at the first, menne have more paine to unlearne their ill uses than
they have labour afterwarde to come to good shootinge;” and after having
enumerated a long list of faults ordinarily committed, he thus proceeds
to describe the secret of shooting straight with the long-bow.

  ~Shooting depends on the eye.~

  ~The hand obeys the eye.~

“For having a man’s eye alwaye on his marke, is the onlye waye to shoote
straighte, yea, and I suppose so redye and easye a waye, if it be
learned in youth and confirmed with use, that a man shall never misse
therein. Men doubt yet in loking at the marke what way is best, whether
betwixt the bow and the stringe, above or beneath his hande, and manye
wayes moo. Yet it maketh no greate matter which waye a man loke at his
marke, if it be joined with comlye shooting. The diversitye of mens
standing and drawing causeth divers men loke at their marke divers
wayes; yet they all had a mans hand to shoote straighte if nothinge els
stoppe. So that cumlynesse is the onlye judge of best lokinge at the
marke. Some men wonder whye in castinge a man’s eye at the mark, the
hande should go streight. Surely if he considered the nature of a man’s
eye, hee woulde not wonder at it. For this I am certaine of, that no
servaunt to his maister, no child to his father, is so obedient as
everye joynte and peece of the bodye is to do whatsoever the eye biddes.
The eye is the guide, the ruler, and the succourer of all the other
parts. The hande, the foote, and other members dare do nothinge withoute
the eye, as doth appear on the night and darcke corners. The eye is the
very tongue wherewith witte and reason doth speake to everye parte of
the bodye, and the witte doth not so soone signifye a thinge by the eye,
as every part is redye to followe, or rather prevent the bidding of the
eye. This is plaine in manye thinges, but most evident in fence and
feighting, as I have heard men saye. There every parte standing in feare
to have a blowe, runnes to the eye for help, as younge children do to
the mother; the foote, the hande, and all wayteth upon the eye. If the
eye bid the hand eyther beare of or smite, or the foote eyther go
forward or backeward, it doth so. And that which is most wonder of al,
the one man lokinge stedfastlye at the other mans eye and not at his
hand, wil, even as it were, rede in his eye wher he purposeth to smyte
next, for the eye is nothing els but a certain windowe for wit to shoote
out her heade at. This wonderfull worke of God in making all the members
so obedient to the eye, is a pleasant thing to remember and loke upon:
therefore an archer may be sure in learninge to loke at his marke when
hee is younge alwayes to shoote streight.”

The following description of the English archer is from an ancient
treatise on Martial Discipline:--

  ~Archer to wear easy dress.~

  ~Captains to see that bows &c., were in good order.~

  ~Twenty-four arrows to each man.~

“The yeoman hadde, at those dayes, their lymmes at libertye, for their
hoseyn were then fastened with one point, and their jackes were long,
and easy to shote in, so that they mighte draw bowes of great strength,
and shote arrowes of a yarde long. Captens and officers should be
skilful of that most noble weapon, and to see that their soldiers
according to their draught and strength have good bows, well nocked,
well strynged, everie stringe whippe in their nocke, and in the myddes
rubbed with wax, braser and shuting glove, some spare strings trymed as
aforesaid, everie man one shefe of arrows, with a case of leather
defensible against the rayne, and in the same shefe fower and twentie
arrows, whereof eight of them should be lighter than the residue, to
gall and astoyne the enemy with the hailshot of light arrows, before
they shall come within range of their harquebuss shot.”

  ~Encouraged from the pulpit.~

The subject of archery was not deemed, in those days, an unsuitable
theme for the pulpit, as may be seen by the following extract from one
of the seven sermons (the sixth) preached before Edward VI., within the
preaching place in the palace of Westminster, on the 12th of April,
1549, by that patriotic reformer, Bishop Latimer. With honest, plain
spoken words, in the midst of his discourse he breaks off--

  ~Training of Bishop Latimer.~

“Men of England, in times past, when they would exercise themselves,
(for we must needs have some recreation, our bodies can not endure
without some exercise), they were wont to goe abroad in the fieldes a
shooting; but now it is turned into glossing, gulling, and whooring
within the house. The arte of shooting hath bene in times past much
esteemed in this realme, it is a gift of God that He hath geven us to
excell all other nations withall, it hath been God’s instrument whereby
He hath geven us many victories against our enemies. But now we have
taken up whooring in townes, instead of shooting in the fieldes. A
wonderous thing that so excellent a gift of God should be so little
esteemed. I desire you, my Lordes, even as ye love the honour and glory
of God, and entend to remove his indignation, let there be sent forth
some proclamation, some sharpe proclamation to the justices of peace,
for they doe not thier dutie, justices now be no justices, there be many
good actes made for this matter already. Charge them upon their
allegiance that this singular benefite of God may be practised, and that
it be not turned into bolling, glossing, and whooring within the townes:
for they be negligent in executing these laws of shooting. In my time my
poore father was as diligent to teach me to shoote as to learne me any
other thing, and so I think other men did their children. He taught me
how to draw, how to lay my body in my bow, and not to draw with strength
of armes as other nations doe, but with strength of the body. I had my
bowes bought me according to my age and strength, as I encreased in
them, so my bowes were made bigger and bigger: for men shall never shoot
well except they be brought up in it. It is a goodly arte, a wholesome
kinde of exercise, and much commended in phisicke.”

The following is another extract from the same sermon:--

  ~How estimated by the people.~

“I came once myself to a place, riding on a journey homeward from
London, and I sent word over night into the towne that I would preach
there in the morning, because it was a holiday, and methought it was an
holidayes work. The church stood in my way, and I took my horse and my
company, and went thither, (I thought I should have found a great
company in the church,) and when I came there, the church door was fast
locked. I tarryed there halfe an houre and more, at last the key was
found, and one of the parish comes to me and said: ‘Sir, this is a busie
day with us, we cannot heare you, it is Robin Hood’s day. The parish
are gone abroad to gather for Robin Hood. I pray you let them not.’ I
thought my rochet should have been regarded, though I were not: but it
would not serve, it was faine to give place to Robin Hood’s men.”


PROOFS OF THE IMPORTANCE OF ARCHERY.

  ~By names of places.~

There is little at the present day in England to afford any adequate
idea of the high importance, the great skill, and the distinguished
renown of the English archers. Some few places still retain names which
tell where the bowmen used to assemble for practice, as “Shooter’s
Hill,” in Kent; “Newington Butts,” near London; and “St. Augustine’s
Butts,” near Bristol. The Butts will be found applied to spots of land
in the vicinity of schools, as for instance, the College School of
Warwick.

The fields situated to the east of the playing-fields at Eton, and known
by the name of “The Upper and Lower Shooting-fields,” were probably so
named from the ancient exercise of archery on these grounds.

  ~Armorial Bearings.~

Many of the noble and county families of Great Britain and Ireland have
the symbols of archery charged on their escutcheons; as, for instance,
the Duke of Norfolk, the Marquis of Salisbury, Lord Grey de Wilton, the
Earl of Aberdeen, the Earl of Besborough, the Earl of Portarlington, the
Baronetal family of Hales, Sir Martin Bowes, and also on the arms of
Sydney Sussex College, in Cambridge, and the seal of the Sheffield
Grammar School.

  ~Government brand.~

The mark or brand used by the Government of the present day, to identify
public property, is an arrow-head, commonly called “The King’s broad
arrow.”

  ~Surnames of families.~

There are also existing families which have derived their surnames from
the names of the different crafts formerly engaged in the manufacture of
the bow and its accompaniments; as, for instance, the names of Bowyer,
Fletcher, Stringer, Arrowsmith, Arrow, Bowman, Bowwater, &c.

  ~National proverbs.~

If reference be made to our language, there will be found many phrases
and proverbial expressions drawn from or connected with archery; some
suggesting forethought and caution, as “Always have two strings to your
bow;” “Get the shaft-hand of your adversaries;” “Draw not thy bow before
thy arrow be fixed;” “Kill two birds with one shaft.” To make an enemy’s
machination recoil upon himself, they expressed by saying, “To outshoot
a man in his own bow.” In reference to a vague foolish guess, they used
to say, “He shoots wide of the mark;” and of unprofitable silly
conversation, “A fool’s bolt is soon shot;” and as a proof of
exaggeration, “He draws a long bow.” The unready and unskilful archer
did not escape the censure and warning of his fellows, although he might
be a great man and boast that he had “A famous bow, but it was up at the
castle.” Of such they satirically used to remark, that “Many talked of
Robin Hood, who never shot in his bow.” Our ancestors also expressed
liberality of sentiment, and their opinion that merit belonged
exclusively to no particular class or locality, by the following pithy
expressions, “Many a good bow besides one in Chester,” and “An archer is
known by his aim, and not by his arrows.” To these may be added,
“Testimony is like the shot of a long-bow, which owes its efficacy to
the force of the shooter; argument is like the shot of a cross-bow,
equally forcible, whether discharged by a dwarf or a giant.”


MILITARY AND POLITICAL CONSEQUENCES OF SKILL IN THE USE OF THE BOW.

  ~Commenced at the battle of Hastings.~

  ~Achievement lasted through a period of 500 years.~

  ~England had a voluntary army.~

From the time of the battle of Hastings the English archers began to
rise in repute, and in course of time proved themselves, by their
achievements in war, both the admiration and terror of their foes, and
excelled the exploits of other nations. The great achievements of the
English bowmen which shed lustre upon the annals of the nation, extended
over a period of more than five centuries, many years after the
invention and use of fire-arms. England, therefore, in those times,
possessed a national voluntary militia, of no charge to the Government,
ready for the field on a short notice, and well skilled in the use of
weapons. Hence sprung the large bodies of efficient troops which at
different periods of English history, in an incredibly short time, were
found ready for the service of their country. These men were not a rude,
undisciplined rabble, but were trained, disciplined men, every one
sufficiently master of his weapon to riddle a steel corslet at five or
six score paces, or in a body, to act with terrible effect against
masses of cavalry; while most of them could bring down a falcon on the
wing by a bird-bolt, or with a broad arrow transfix the wild deer in the
chase.

  ~Archers defeated men-at-arms.~

  ~Value in sieges.~

Before the simple weapon of the British archer, itself but a larger form
of the simplest plaything of a child, all the gorgeous display of
knighthood, the elaborated panoply of steel, the magnificent war-horse,
the serried ranks, the ingenious devices of tacticians and strategists,
at once gave way; nothing can withstand the biting storm of the
“cloth-yard shaft.” It was equally efficacious in the field and in the
siege. The defender of town or castle could not peep beyond his bretèche
or parapet, but an English arrow nailed his cap to his head. In a field,
provided the archers were, by marsh, wood or mountain, secured from a
flank attack, they would bid defiance to any number of mounted
men-at-arms. Their shafts, falling thick as hail among the horses, soon
brought them to the ground, or threw them into utter disorder; then the
armed footmen advanced and commenced a slaughter which was scarcely
stayed but by weariness of slaying; the archers meantime continuing
their ravages on the rear of the enemy’s cavalry by a vertical attack,
prolonged, when the ordinary supply of their quivers had been exhausted,
by withdrawing them arrows from their slain enemies, to be sent forth on
new missions of death:--here is encouragement for our modern marksmen
who are armed with a far more deadly weapon.

  ~Opinion on English archers by Napoleon III.~

  ~Destroyed the prestige of cavalry.~

  ~Estimation of infantry by continental nations.~

The most complete and philosophic digest, which relates to the system of
British archery, considered from a military point of view, is that given
by the present Emperor of the French in his treatise “_Sur le Passé et
l’Avenir de l’Artillerie_.” That the British victory at Cressy was
wholly attributable to the prowess of British archers, is well known;
not so well, a circumstance pointed out by the Emperor of the French,
that thenceforward, and in consequence of that victory, the prestige of
cavalry declined. Now, there is a political, no less than military
significance in this lowering of the esteem in which cavalry had
previously been held. Horsemen were gentlemen, and infantry men of
inferior degree. Whenever and wherever British archery were _not_
brought to bear, horsemen were omnipotent, and infantry of little avail.
During the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries--the golden age of archery
in this land, when yeomen or archers were in such high repute,--France
and continental nations generally, treated foot soldiers with disdain.
The Emperor of the French, in his systematic book just adverted to,
mentions several examples where foot soldiers were ruthlessly cut down
and ridden over by their own cavalry--the men-at-arms; not that the
infantry fought ill, but that they fought too well. They were
slaughtered lest the men-at-arms should have no scope for the exercise
of their skill.

  ~Archer a yeoman.~

  ~Political results.~

English men-at-arms never sullied their fame by cruel acts like these;
not that they were better at heart: seeing that human nature is
everywhere, and under all circumstances, pretty much alike. English
infantry, mainly composed of archers, were far too valuable to be thus
used. They bore the first brunt of battle, and not unfrequently decided
it. At the time when every other foot soldier in Europe was the merest
serf, the British archer was a yeoman. He had a fixed heraldic rank; the
first of low degree. He was above the handicraftsman, however
skilful,--above the merchant--taking his rank immediately after the
gentry. The excellence of British archery, then tended to bring about a
political result; helping to establish that middle-class which, ever
since its consolidation, has been one of the sheet-anchors of our
glorious constitution.


THE ARBALEST, OR CROSS-BOW.

  ~Cross-bow, modification of long.~

In process of time a modification of the bow was invented. In place of
the original instrument, a much shorter and stiffer bow, usually of
steel, was placed transversely in a stock, bent by a lever, and
discharged by a trigger, after the manner since used for a gun.

  ~Invented in Crete or Sicily.~

The cross-bow, or arbalest, called in Latin, arcus balistarius, or
balista manualis, and in French arbalèt, is said by some to be of
Sicilian origin; others ascribe its invention to the Cretans. It is
supposed to have been introduced into France by the first crusaders, and
is mentioned by the Abbé Suger in his life of Louis le Gros, as being
used by that Prince, in the beginning of his reign, which commenced in
the year 1108.

  ~To England by Saxons.~

Verstigan seems to attribute the introduction of this weapon into
England to the Saxons, under Hengist and Horsa, but cites no authority
in support of that supposition. In a print representing the landing of
those generals, the foremost of them is delineated with a cross-bow on
his shoulder, and others are seen in the hands of the distant figures of
their followers, landed and landing from their ships.

  ~The Normans got cross-bows from Italy.~

It would appear that the Normans derived the cross-bow, with its name,
from Italy. In Domesday Book mention is made of Odo, the arbalester, as
a tenant in capite of the king of lands in Yorkshire; and the manor of
Worstead, Norfolk, was at the time of Domesday survey, held of the
Abbot of St. Benet at Holme, by Robert the cross-bow man. The names show
them to have been Normans, and these instances are sufficient to prove
the introduction of the weapon, though the few that may have been used
at the battle of Hastings might occasion its not being represented in
the Bayeux tapestry.

  ~No cross-bow among Romans.~

The absence of the cross-bow in early Roman monuments leaves it a matter
of doubt, whether an arbalester would not simply mean the engineer of a
catapult. There is no mention made of the hand cross-bow in very ancient
authorities.

  ~William II surnamed Rufus, from 1087 to 1100~

The cross-bow has been used in England (at least, on hunting excursions)
in the time of Rufus, for Wace tells us, that “Prince Henry, going the
same day to New Forest, found the string of his cross-bow broken, and
taking it to a villain to be mended, saw an old woman there, who told
him he should be king.”

  ~Henry I, 1100 to 1135.~

  ~Cross-bow in war.~

During the reign of Henry I. the cross-bow seems to have been
principally used in the chase. The projectile was in form of a short
arrow, with a pyramidical head, called a quarrel, (plate 14, fig. 2 and
4). Simeon of Durham speaks of it in the time of Henry I. thus:--“He
raised a machine from whence the archers and cross-bowmen might shoot.”

  ~Genoese celebrated for the use of.~

The Genoese were at all times most celebrated for the skilful management
of the cross-bow. The success which attended the Christians at the siege
of Jerusalem, 1100, is attributed principally to the mechanical talents
of this people.

  ~Use of forbad.~

The use of the cross-bows was general in Italy in 1139, for at that time
Pope Innocent II. particularly forbad them. The German Emperor Conrad
did the same, as we learn from William de Dole, who lived in the latter
part of the 12th century, they not being looked upon as a fair weapon.

  ~Richard I from 1189 to 1199.~

  ~Siege of Acre~

  ~Universal in Crusades.~

  ~Richard killed by.~

It is said of Richard I.:--“Truly he revived the use of this kind of
shooting, called cross-bow shooting, which had long since been laid
aside, whence he became so skilful in its management, that he killed
many people with his own hand.” It is supposed that Richard I. first
used the cross-bow as a weapon of war at the siege of Acre. In every
action, however, of which we read in the history of the second crusade,
as well as the third, in which Richard participated, cross-bows, as well
as other bows, are repeatedly noticed. It is stated that he was killed
by an arrow, said to have been shot from a cross-bow at the Castle of
Chaluz.

  ~Genoese cross-bow men.~

  ~Mounted Arbalists 1225.~

From the beginning of the 13th, and until the middle of the 15th
century, cross-bow men are uniformly mentioned as part of the Genoese
troops. From Justinius we learn, that in 1225 “Twenty Arbalestes
mounted, and one hundred on foot, with cross-bows of horn, were then
employed in the army of the state.”

The cross-bow man was an essential component of the host during all this
period. He was in the van of the battle.

  ~Battle near Damietta 1237.~

In the battle near Damietta, in 1237, “more than a hundred knights of
the Temple fell, and three hundred cross-bow men, &c., &c.”

  ~Campaign in Italy 1239.~

The Emperor Frederic, in 1239, giving an account of his Italian campaign
to the king of England, writes: “After we had, by our knights and
cross-bow men, reduced all the province of Liguria,” &c.

  ~Genoese 1245.~

  ~Treatment of.~

Five hundred Genoese cross-bow men were sent against the Milanese in
1245, and these unfortunate men being placed in front of the line, were
taken prisoners by the enemy, who, to revenge themselves for the havoc
done by their bows, cruelly punished each with the loss of an eye, and
amputation of an arm.

  ~Cross-bows at Cressy 1346.~

There were 15,000 Genoese cross-bow men in the front rank of the French
army at the battle of Cressy, 1346.

  ~At siege of Le Roche de Rién.~

The next year we find that Charles, Earl of Blois, had at the siege of
Le Roche de Rién no less than 2,000 in his army.

  ~Corporation of Arbalisters 1359.~

The “Corporation des Arbalestriers de Paris,” in 1359, consisted of two
hundred members. In 1373, their number, as fixed by a royal ordinance,
was eight hundred. They were not bound to serve beyond the limits of
their district without the consent of the Provost of Paris. There were
both foot and mounted cross-bowmen in this body.

  ~Cross-bow encouraged by Edward III.~

  ~No English in wars of Edward III.~

  ~Genoese mercenaries.~

Edward III., though he wished principally to encourage the long-bow,
could not help seeing the advantages which might be derived from the
cross-bow, from the accuracy of its shot, and its convenience on
horseback. It does not appear that, in the long wars of Edward with the
French in this century, cross-bowmen were raised in England, though they
were supplied by Genoese contractors on various occasions for service at
sea. In 1363 the king caused public proclamation to be made, in order to
encourage its use.

  ~Matches.~

There were also matches made in different parts of Europe, at which
prizes were given to the most skilful cross-bowmen.

  ~Mounted cross-bow men in France 1373.~

In the list of the Grand Masters of the Arbalesters of France under
Charles V., in 1373, appears “Marc de Grimant, Baron d’Antibes,
Captain-General of Arbalesters, both foot and horse, in the service of
the king.” And a similar notice occurs in the reign of King John,
Baudoin de Lence being Grand Master; but it would appear that the
mounted cross-bowmen were retained in much smaller numbers than the
foot.

  ~“Pavisers.”~

During the reign of Edward III. cross-bowmen seem first to have been
protected by “Pavisers,” (plate 15), or men who held before them a large
shield called a “Pavise.”

  ~Pavisers by English 1404.~

On the attack by the French and Spaniards upon the Isle of Portland in
1404, the English formed pavisers to protect themselves from the
cross-bow bolts, by taking the doors from their houses, and fixing them
upright by props. Under this cover the archers plied their arrows.

  ~Cross-bow not esteemed by English.~

  ~Forbad by Henry VII 1508 & 1515.~

  ~Forbad by Henry VIII 1535.~

  ~Decline of cross-bow.~

The English never had much esteem for the cross-bow in the field. Among
the 10,500 men led out of England by Henry VI., in 1415, there were only
ninety-eight Arbalesters, of whom eighteen were horsemen; nevertheless,
Henry VII. found it necessary to prohibit the use of the cross-bow in
1508, and, seven years after, another statute was passed, renewing the
prohibition. This interference, however, of the legislature does not
seem to have produced the intended effect, for in less than twenty years
later the use of the cross-bow had become so prevalent, that a new
statute was judged requisite, which inflicted on every person that kept
one in his house, the penalty of twenty pounds. It is from this period,
therefore, that we may date the decline of the arbalest in this
country, as these statutes produced by degrees the reformation sought
for. Not a single cross-bow man is to be seen in the paintings belonging
to the Society of Antiquaries, nor at Cowdray House, representing the
battles of Henry VIII., and painted at the period; and, to give a
finishing blow, another statute soon followed, still more decisive.


DESCRIPTION OF CROSS-BOW.

  ~Description.~

The ancient cross-bow, which differed in many particulars from those of
late times, is thus described by Father Daniel, who formed his
description from one or more then before him.

The cross-bow was an offensive weapon, which consisted of a bow fixed to
the top of a sort of staff, or stock of wood, which the string of the
bow, when unbent, crossed at right angles.

  ~Stock.~

  ~Trigger.~

The handle or bed, which was called the stock of the cross-bow, had
towards the middle a small opening or slit, of the length of two
fingers, in which was a little moveable wheel of solid steel; through
the centre of it passed a screw that served for an axis; this wheel
projected a little beyond the surface of the stock, and had a notch, or
catch, which stopped and held the string of the bow when bent. In the
opposite side of the circumference was a much smaller notch, by the
means of which the spring of the trigger kept the wheel firmer, and in
its place; this wheel is called the nut of the cross-bow. Under the
stock, near the handle, was the key of the trigger, like that of the
serpentine of a musket; by pressing this key with the hand, to the
handle of the cross-bow, the spring released the wheel that held the
string, and the string by its motion drove forward the dart.

  ~Back-sight.~

  ~Fore-sight.~

Upon the stock below the little wheel was a small plate of copper, which
lifted up and shut down, and was fixed by its two legs, with two screws
to the two sides of the stock; this was a back-sight; it was pierced
above by two little holes, one over the other, and when the plate was
raised, these two holes answered to a globule, which was a small bead,
no bigger than that of a chaplet, that was suspended at the end of the
cross-bow by a fine wire, and fastened to two perpendicular columns of
iron, one on the right, the other on the left, and this little globule,
answering to the holes in the plate, served to direct the aim, whether
for shooting horizontally, upwards, or downwards.

  ~Cord.~

The cord or string of the bow was double, each string separated by two
little cylinders of iron, equi-distant from the extremities of the bow
and the centre; to these two strings in the middle was fixed a ring of
cord, which served to confine it in the notch previously mentioned when
the bow was bent. Between the two cords in the centre of the string, and
immediately before the ring, was a little square of cord, against which
was placed the extremity of the arrow or dart, to be pushed forward by
the cord.

  ~Bent by hand.~

  ~By foot~

  ~By pulley.~

The smaller cross-bows were bent with the hand; the larger ones were at
first bent by the soldier placing his foot in a stirrup, attached to the
end of the bow; a cord was then fixed by one end to the butt of the
stock, the other end being fastened to a waistbelt. A pulley, running
upon the cord, was hooked to the bowstring, and the bow was then bent by
raising the body and keeping the leg firm.

  ~By moulinet.~

The cross-bow was afterwards furnished with the moulinet and pulleys,
(plate 13) which after the bow had been bent, could be removed for the
discharge; these consisted of an iron cylinder in a frame of the same
metal, made to turn by two moveable handles in opposite directions, and
having a cap likewise of iron to fit on the butt end of the stock. On
each side of this cap was a small pulley, the wheel of which was one
inch and a half in diameter, having attached to one of its arms a strong
cord that passed thence round an equal sized wheel, returned over the
first, and then went round one double in diameter, situated beyond the
second, and so passed to the cylinder of the moulinet, by winding which,
the power required to bend the bow was lessened to one fourth. Attached
to the arms of the greater wheels was a double claw, made to slide on
the plane of the stock, which, catching hold of the bowstring, drew it
up to the nut. An improvement of the moulinet was, that the handles of
the cylinder were both made in the same line, instead of being one up
and the other down.

  ~By windlass.~

At a later period the cross-bow was bent by a windlass, which consisted
of a bar of iron, shaped at its end into a claw, and having teeth the
whole length of one edge. This slipped through an iron box, containing a
wheel, the cogs of which fitted the teeth of the bar, and as a handle
was fixed to the axle, on turning it the string was wound up. This
apparatus was attached by a loop, which slipped over the stock, and was
kept in its place by two iron pins, that projected from the side, and
then, when bent, it could be easily removed.

  ~By steel lever.~

Another mode of bending the cross-bow was by means of a steel lever,
called the goat’s-foot lever, which was moveable. This was formed of two
legs, a catch and a handle, all acting on one pivot. The legs were
applied to the projecting pieces of iron on each side the stock, and
then the purchase was very great.

  ~Latch.~

  ~Prodd.~

There were two principal varieties of cross-bows, viz., the “Latch,”
with grooved stock, for “quarrels,” and the “Prodd,” for bullets. (Plate
14, fig. 1 and 2.)

  ~Dimensions and form of latch.~

  ~Quarrels viretons.~

In the reign of Henry VI. the stocks of cross-bows were made of hard
wood, ornamented with ivory. They were about three feet three inches
long, the bow of steel, about two feet eight inches from end to end,
weighing in all about fifteen pounds. The length of the groove for the
quarrel about one foot four inches. The arrows discharged were called
both quarrels and viretons, (plate 14, fig. 2 and 4,) some with
feathers, others without. The vireton is a French name; the feathers
being set on a little curved, made it spin round as it passed through
the air.

  ~Arquebus or barrelled cross-bow.~

  ~Slit in tube.~

  ~Fired leaden balls.~

It is stated by Captain Panôt, that the Arquebus was in use before the
invention of powder, and was but an improvement on the arbalest, or
cross-bow. The Arquebus, like the cross-bow, had a stock, upon which was
fixed a tube, intended to receive the projectile. This tube was split,
for the passage of a cord, which was held back by a kind of sheave or
pulley, which communicated motion to the projectile, on the trigger
being pulled. In general, leaden balls were fired from the arquebus. The
barrelled cross-bow was suggested by the “balista grossa de arganellis,”
which was furnished with tubes for ejecting Greek fire.

  ~Repeating cross-bow.~

In the United Service Museum, Whitehall, there is a cross-bow of
Cingalese manufacture. It strings itself, and discharges two arrows each
time in rapid succession, until the magazine is exhausted, which
contains twelve arrows, and may be replenished in a moment.

  ~Range in Henry V.~

It is evident that the different sizes and various powers of cross-bows
occasioned a great diversity in the distance of their range. Thus, in
Henry 5th’s time the range of the cross-bow is stated to have been forty
rods (220 yards), and it never appears to have been more powerful than
at that period.

  ~Range in Elizabeth’s.~

M. de Bellay says that the cross-bowman will kill at 100 or 200 paces,
which gives a great range to the arbalests of Elizabeth’s time.

Sir John Smith, however, in his observations, not long after this, very
much contracts the distance of their shot, for he says that “a cross-bow
will kill point-blank between 40 and 60 yards, and, if elevated, 120,
140, or 160 yards, or further.”

The former probably alluded to the prod, the latter to the latch.


COMPARATIVE MERITS OF THE LONG AND CROSS BOW.

How inefficient the cross-bow was found, when opposed by English
archery, appears in every page of the histories of the fourteenth
century.

  ~Why long-bow superior.~

The superiority of the long-bow mainly depended upon the strength and
skill of the archer, while a greater amount of accuracy at shorter
ranges could be had out of the cross-bow, with much less training; and
the success of the English archers when opposed to cross-bowmen may be
mainly ascribed to the more “rapid” fire of the former.

  ~Celerity the great advantage of the long-bow.~

It is generally conceded that the long-bow could deliver at least six
shafts while the cross-bow discharged one; and, “with such odds against
them, it became impossible for the bravest and most expert troops,
whether at Cressy or elsewhere, to make a stand against their opponents”.

  ~Cross-bow best on horseback.~

On the other hand, the cross-bow was decidedly a more convenient weapon
on horseback than the long-bow.


COMPARATIVE MERITS BETWEEN BOWS AND EARLY FIRE-ARMS.

The invention of gunpowder, and its application to artillery and small
arms, did not produce that sudden change in the art of war, or in
weapons, that might, on a first consideration, have been expected. Many
of the old soldiers were much divided in their opinion of the
superiority of fire-arms, nor does it appear that the government of
those days were decided upon it, as the strongest statutes for enforcing
the practice of archery were enacted after their introduction.

  ~Long-bow preferred in Edward III.~

Joshua Barnes, in his life of Edward III., observes, that “without all
question, the guns which are used now-a-days, are neither so terrible in
battle nor do such execution nor work such confusion as arrows can do;
for bullets, being not seen, only hurt where they hit, but arrows
enrage the horse, and break the array, and terrify all that behold them
in the bodies of their neighbours. Not to say that every archer can
shoot thrice to a gunner’s once, and that whole squadrons of bows may
let fly at one time, when only one or two files of musqueteers can
discharge at once. Also, that whereas guns are useless when your pikes
join, because they only do execution point-blank, the arrows which will
kill at random may do good service even behind your men of arms.”

  ~Long-bow the favourite in Henry VIII.~

Although fire-arms had attained no inconsiderable degree of perfection
in the reign of Henry VIII., yet the long-bow was still the favourite
weapon.

  ~Merits balanced in Queen Mary’s reign.~

So indifferent were the ministers of Queen Mary respecting them, that in
her ordinance respecting armour and weapons, the alternative is left to
the choice of the people, whether they should find a long-bow and sheaf
of arrows, or a haquebutt, in every case where they were by law charged
with the latter.

  ~The lighter ammunition of the harquebus an advantage.~

In the reign of Elizabeth, the musket was so slow to charge and
discharge that the bow was considered superior by many; and Mons. de
Bellay states that if archers and cross-bowmen could carry their arrows,
&c., as easy as harquebusiers do their ammunition, he would prefer the
former weapon over the latter.

  ~Arrows make more severe wounds than bullets.~

The effects of arrows sticking in horses, are said to have been
frightful. This can be easily imagined. A fire-arm bullet can be shot
quite through a horse without causing the animal to show one sign of
anguish. He goes steadily on his previous course, and makes no sign.
However fatal of necessity, a fire-arm bullet gives no immediate pain.
Not so the arrow. Planted never so lightly in a horse’s neck or flank,
the animal grew furious. Starting off into a wild gallop to escape the
barbed sting, the animal had no respite for his agony. The wilder the
pace, the greater the pain. Far from the serried squadrons where he fain
would be, sore against his will, rushed the mail-clad knight. Plunging
and rearing, the steed would throw him at last, amidst the dead and
dying; himself to die.

Though comparatively few men or horses were killed by arrow wounds at
once, few, nevertheless, recovered. The barbed arrow-head was
immeasurably more dangerous, imbedded in the flesh, than a mere lump of
lead. Hundreds of men, hale and well to-day, have had fire-arm bullets
imbedded in their flesh for years. Not so in the time of archery. The
arrow-head must be extracted, or mortification came on, and soon a cruel
death. Neither was the surgical process of extraction often happy in the
results. It would not be easy to extract a barbed arrow-head even now,
with all the appliances of modern surgery at hand.

  ~Arrow wounds more fatal.~

Another fatal consequence of arrow wounds on the field of battle was
this: men wounded thus were rarely taken prisoners. Arrows were
expensive ammunition. The battle over, detachments were sent out to
collect them; and the collection was not done too tenderly. To regain an
arrow seemed a far more meritorious act than to save the life of an
enemy. The throat of many a wounded wretch was mercilessly cut, that he
might be quiet whilst the arrow was being extracted.

  ~Bows useless in wind.~

  ~In rain.~

The defects of archery were these:--the ammunition was expensive, and
when lost, not easily replaced. The flight of arrows is never correct on
a windy day, from whatever direction the wind may blow. Rain relaxes the
bow and bowstring, so that archery then is of little use. All these are
serious defects; but there was another of more importance still. When
the archer’s ammunition was all expended, he was nearly powerless. A
sword, indeed, he carried, for close fighting; and each archer stuck
into the ground before him a sharp pointed stake as a protection against
cavalry.

  ~Hand-gun most penetration.~

  ~Silent discharge in favor of bows.~

The great advantage of the hand-gun was from its penetration, as no
armour could keep out balls, but the _silent_ discharge of the cross-bow
rendered it superior in the pursuit of timid animals, and the prodd has
continued in use to the present day, for the purpose of killing deer,
rooks, and rabbits.

  NOTE.--The articles on ancient Engines of War, and upon the Bow, are
  principally taken from the following works, viz:--“Military
  Antiquities,” by F. Grose, Esq.; “A Critical Inquiry into Ancient
  Armour,” by Sir S. R. Meyrick; “Ancient Armour and Weapons in Europe,”
  by John Hewitt; “Projectile Weapons of War,” and “Report of the Rifle
  Match at Wimbledon Common,” by J. Scoffern, M. B.; “Engines of War,”
  by H. Wilkinson, and “The Long-Bow of the Past and the Rifle for the
  Future,” by H. Britannicus.




HISTORY OF ARTILLERY.


  ~Fate of nations depends on arms.~

There is no subject more intimately connected with the history of the
world, from the remotest antiquity than the history of Arms, the fate of
nations having always depended either on the superiority of the Arms
employed, or on the superior discipline or dexterity of those who used
them, wholly independent of the numbers by which they were opposed.

  ~Artillery includes all war-engines.~

Before the introduction of gunpowder, all kinds of weapons, both
offensive and defensive, were included in the term “Artillery,” which
has since become restricted to the larger kinds of fire-arms, such as
guns, mortars, howitzers, rockets, &c. Thus we find in the I. Saml. xx.,
40, “And Jonathan gave his artillery to his lad,” when speaking of bows
and arrows. Again, in the 20th, Henry VIII., a patent was granted to
Anthony Knevt and Peter Mentas, “to be overseers of the science of
Artillery;” and in an enumeration of the different species of Artillery,
printed in 1594, are reckoned “long-bows, cross-bows, slur-bows,
stone-bows, scorpions, and catapultas.”

  ~Definition of Artillery.~

The root of the word “artillery,” is the Latin word “_ars_,” an “art.”
It has been fantastically derived from the Italian _arte di tirare_, the
art of firing. In the fourteenth century the science of war-engines was
called _artemonie_, and its productions _artillerie_, from the old
French word _artiller_, “to employ art.” Some writers state that the
word “artillery,” is derived from _arcus_ “a bow,” the earlier species
of artillery being termed _arcualia_.

  ~First invention unknown.~

  ~Names of gun--from old machines.~

It is difficult to determine with any degree of accuracy the epoch at
which gunpowder and its resultants, fire-arms, were first employed for
the purposes of war in any part of the world; and this difficulty is
increased, at least, as far as regards Europe, from the fact, that the
first engines of war, depending on the use of gunpowder, were named
after the old machines for throwing darts, stones, &c.

  ~First mention of guns.~

The earliest account which we have of gunpowder, where it is mentioned
as applied to fire-arms, exists in a code of Gentoo Laws, and is thought
by many to be coeval with the time of Moses. The notice occurs in the
Sanscrit preface to the Code of Gentoo Laws, translated by Halhed, at
page 53, viz:--“The Magistrate shall not make war with any deceitful
machine, or with poisoned weapons, or with _cannon or guns_, &c.” Halhed
observes: “It will no doubt strike the reader with wonder to find a
prohibition of fire-arms in records of such unfathomable antiquity, and
he will probably hence renew the suspicion, which has long been deemed
absurd, that Alexander the Great did absolutely meet with some weapons
of this kind in India, as a passage in Quintus Curtius seems to
ascertain.”

  ~Greek fire, earliest European combustible.~

  ~Gunpowder known before in China.~

  ~Chinese explosive shell.~

  ~Early Chinese cannon.~

The Greek fire seems to have been one of the earliest attempts in Europe
at the manufacture of a military combustible; but there is some reason
to believe that the Chinese had become acquainted with the nature of
gunpowder long before the introduction or invention of the aforenamed
substance; and they appear to have been the first who took any steps in
its manufacture, or in that of weapons of war resulting from its use.
Amongst the machines constructed by this extraordinary people, was one
called “the thunder of the earth,” which is thus described by M.
Reinaud; and M. Favé: “A hollow globe of iron was filled with a bucket
of gunpowder, mixed with fragments of metal, and was so arranged, that
it exploded on the approach of an enemy, so as to cause great
destruction in his ranks.” The “impetuous” dart of the Chinese, was a
round bamboo, about two and a half feet in length, lashed with hempen
cords to prevent its splitting, and having a strong wooden handle fixed
to one end, thus making its entire length about five feet. This was then
charged with powder of different kinds, arranged in layers, over which
were placed fire balls, which being thrown to a distance of thirty or
forty yards by the discharge, consumed any combustible materials they
might come in contact with.

  ~Guns in China, 618 B. C.~

A late writer, M. Paravey, has in a great measure established the fact,
that gunpowder and fire-arms were known to the Chinese long before the
Christian era; and it is mentioned in Chinese writings, that in the year
618 B. C., a gun was in use, bearing this inscription, “I hurl death to
the traitor, and extermination to the rebel.”

  ~A. D. 757.~

Guns are said to have been constructed in China, in 757 A. D., for the
purpose of throwing stones of the weight of from ten to fourteen pounds
to a distance of 300 paces. Whatever doubts may exist as to the earlier
history of artillery among the Chinese, it is almost beyond question,
that cannon were extensively used by them in the beginning of the 13th
century, as we have access to various reliable accounts, establishing
this fact.

  ~Artillery at Saragossa, A. D., 1118.~

  ~At Niebla, A. D., 1157.~

Condé, in his history of the Moors in Spain, states that artillery was
used by them against Saragossa in 1118 A. D., and that in 1157, A. D.
they defended themselves in Niebla, against the Spaniards, by means of
machines, which threw darts and stones, through the agency of fire.

  ~Used against the Moguls, A. D. 1232.~

In 1232 A. D. cannon throwing stone shot were used against the Moguls,
and during this war, certain machines were also employed, which being
filled with powder, and ignited at the proper time, burst with a noise
like thunder, and whose effect extended for the space of half an acre
round the spot where they exploded.

  ~Cannon bearing date 1258 found in France.~

A small brass cannon is said to have been found at the bottom of a deep
well of the Castle de Clucy, in France, with the date 1258 upon it.

  ~Cannon used against Cordova, A. D. 1280.~

  ~Iron shot, 14th century.~

In 1280 A. D., cannon were used against Cordova, after which period,
they are frequently mentioned in the records of Spain. Iron shot appear
to have been first used in that country in the beginning of the 14th
century.

  ~Cannon used by Arabians, 1312.~

Cannon are described by Arabian authors as early as 1312.

The first mention we have of the use of fire arms, after this period, is
in the life of Robert Bruce, by John Barbour, Archdeacon of Aberdeen, in
which certain engines termed, “crakeys of war,” are spoken of, as having
been used by Edward III., in his campaign against the Scots, in 1327.

  ~Cannon in France, 1338.~

It is generally believed that cannon were commonly employed in Europe
since 1338, as they were used by the French in that year to demolish
some castles.

  ~Siege of Algesiras, 1342 to 1344.~

Gunpowder is said to have been used at the siege of Algesiras by
Alphonse of Castile against the Moors, 1342 to 1344.

  ~Cannon at Cressy, 1346.~

Edward III. had four guns at the battle of Cressy, 1346. Froissart
mentions these guns in one of his manuscripts, now preserved in the
library of Amiens. A free translation of the passage referred to would
run as follows: “And the English caused to fire suddenly certain guns
which they had in the battle, to astonish (or confound) the Genoese.”
Vilani, a Florentine historian, also confirms this statement, as well as
a passage in the chronicles of St. Denis, which speaks of the use of
cannon by the English at Cressy. An ancient manuscript also mentions the
existence of gunners and artillerymen, whom Edward III. employed when he
landed before Calais in 1346, and the several stipends each soldier
received. The sentence runs thus: “Masons, carpenters, engineers,
gunners, and artillerymen, the sum of 12, 10, 6, and 3 pence per diem.”

  ~Cannon of two kinds.~

  ~Used by the Black Prince, 1356.~

  ~At St. Valery, 1358.~

The first fire-arms appear to have consisted of two kinds; a larger one
for discharging stones, called a bombard, (plate 18, fig. 3) and a
smaller for propelling darts and leaden balls, both of which were used
in 1356, by the Black Prince, to reduce the castle of Romozantin; and
two years later, the artillery of St. Valery did great execution among
its besiegers.

  ~Cannon made in England, 1377~

Cannon were made in England in the fourteenth century, and Richard II.
commissioned Sir Thomas Norwich to buy two great and two small cannon in
London, or in any other place; and also 600 balls of stone for cannon
and for other engines, to be sent to the Castle of Bristol.

  ~Cannon at St. Malo.~

When the English unsuccessfully besieged St. Malo, 400 cannon are said
to have been used, but these are supposed to have been of the smaller
kind, called hand cannon, or culverins, which were carried by two men,
and fired from a kind of tripod or rest fixed in the ground.

  ~Cannon general.~

  ~Bombards made of iron.~

  ~Bronze.~

  ~Leather, rope, &c.~

  ~Wood.~

From this period, cannon were used in all the offensive and defensive
operations of war; though a considerable time elapsed before it became a
really serviceable arm for field operations. The earlier kinds of cannon
were called bombards or bombardæ. Those first employed were clumsy,
(plate 16) and ill contrived, wider at the mouth than at the chamber.
They merely consisted of bars of iron, arranged in such a manner that
their internal aspects should form a tube. The bars were not welded
together, but merely confined by hoops. They were also made of iron bars
over a cylinder of copper, strengthened by iron hoops, driven on red
hot, and others were entirely composed of copper. Bronze was also
employed in the manufacture of artillery, as well as thin sheets of iron
rolled together; and guns made of leather, and coiled rope, over a
cylinder of copper or gun metal, were also introduced, and continued in
use for a considerable time. Guns also appear to have been made of wood.

  ~Rope mortar at Venice.~

In the arsenal at Venice there is an ancient mortar, constructed of
leather and rope, used in the siege of the island of Chioggia, near
Venice, against the Genoese, 1380. The shot is of stone, 14in. in
diameter.

  ~Cannon of paper.~

It has been heard recently, that the Chinese constructed their cannon of
prepared paper, lined with copper.

  ~Field cannon to keep up with army, 1380.~

As early as 1380 it is said the French were able to procure for the
invasion of Italy, a great number of brass cannon, mounted on carriages,
and drawn by horses, instead of oxen; these pieces threw balls of from
40lbs. to 60lbs. in weight and could always keep pace with the army.
(Plate 18, fig. 1, 3, and 4.)

  ~Large cannon 1400.~

A cannon taken at the siege of Dien in 1546, by John de Castro, and now
in Lisbon, is 20 feet 7in. in length, 6 feet 3in. in diameter in the
middle, and threw a ball of 100lbs. A Hindostani inscription on it
states that it was cast in 1400.

  ~Bolts and quarrels shot, 1413.~

  ~Red-hot iron balls used at Cherbourg, 1418.~

  ~Slow to discharge.~

Bolts and quarrels were shot from cannon in the reign of Henry V.; these
were succeeded by stones, as he ordered in 1418, “labourers to make
7,000 stones for the guns of different sorts from the quarries of
Maidstone.” We learn from Elam’s life of Henry V., that when an English
army, commanded by the Duke of Gloucester, besieged Cherbourg in 1418,
the besieged discharged _red-hot_ balls of _iron_ from their cannon into
the English camp, to burn the huts. So much time elapsed between the
loading and discharging the great guns, that the besieged had sufficient
time to repair at their leisure, the breaches made by the enormous
stones, &c., thrown from them.

  ~Cannon at Meaux, 1422.~

Five wrought-iron bombards are preserved in the “Musée de l’Artillerie,”
at Paris; which were, it is said, abandoned by the English, at the town
of Meaux, in 1422.

  ~Cannon cast, 1450.~

About the middle of the fifteenth century, the ancient method of
constructing cannon was exchanged for that of casting. A hard or mixed
metal was invented called “font metal” or bronze, and cannon were then
cast in one piece, and instead of fanciful names, they began to be
indicated by the weight of their ball, as at present.

  ~Siege of Constantinople, 1453.~

  ~Small guns with several barrels.~

  ~Large brass gun, cast at Adrianople.~

At the siege of Constantinople, by Mahomet II., stones were thrown
weighing 1,200lbs.! The cannon employed could not be discharged more
than three or four times a day. This siege was distinguished by the
re-union of ancient and modern artillery; the small arms of the
Christians discharged five, or even ten balls at the same time, as large
as walnuts; and one piece made for the Turks, by Urban, a Dane, cast a
stone bullet weighing 600lbs., which could be discharged seven times a
day, but it ultimately burst. This gun was cast of brass at Adrianople,
of stupendous and almost incredible magnitude; twelve palms is assigned
to the bore. A vacant space before the palace was chosen for the first
experiment, but to prevent the sudden and mischievous effects of
astonishment and fear, a proclamation was issued that the cannon would
be discharged on the following day. The explosion was felt or heard in a
circuit of 100 furlongs, the ball was driven above a mile and buried
itself a fathom in the ground. A carriage of thirty waggons was linked
together to carry the gun along, and drawn by a team of sixty oxen; 200
men on both sides were stationed to poise or sustain the rolling weight,
250 workmen marched before it to smooth the way, and repair the bridges,
and near two months were employed in a laborious journey of 150 miles.
This enormous gun was flanked by two of almost equal magnitude, and
fourteen batteries, mounting 130 guns, were brought to bear upon the
place. The cannon were intermingled with machines for throwing stones
and darts.

  ~Artillery of Scots 1496.~

  ~Breech-loaders.~

The Scots had a kind of artillery peculiar to themselves, called “Carts
of War.” They are described in an Act of Parliament, thus “ilk Cart twa
gunnis and ilk ane to have twa Chalmers and an Cumrand man to shute
theme.” These were breech-loaders, and in 1471, the Barons were
commanded to provide such “Carts of War” against their old enemies the
English. (Plate 18, fig. 1.)

  ~Cannon named.~

It was not uncommon to give strange names to early cannon; thus Louis
XII. had twelve brass ones cast in 1503, of enormous size, which he
named after the twelve Peers of France; the Spaniards and Portugese
christened theirs after their Saints, and the Emperor Charles V. had
twelve when he went against Tunis, which he named after the Twelve
Apostles.

  ~Cause of improvements.~

  ~Iron balls in England, 15th century.~

As a knowledge of the art of gunnery increased, great improvements took
place with regard to projectiles; and balls of iron were substituted in
the place of those formed of stone, being introduced into England in the
sixteenth century.

  ~Iron guns cast.~

  ~Hand-culverines.~

  ~Organ-guns.~

Iron guns were not cast in this country until the year 1547, foreigners
being generally employed to manufacture them. Both Henry VII. and Henry
VIII. took great pains to introduce the art of gunnery into the kingdom;
and to this end, had a number of Flemish gunners in their daily pay; in
fact, it is said, that the latter monarch himself, invented small pieces
of artillery to defend his waggons. The earlier species of field
artillery, embraced among others, a small kind of ordnance called, “hand
cannon,” or culverins, which were so light and portable, that they could
be carried and served by two men; they were fired from a rest, placed on
the ground; also “ribandequins” or organ guns; these latter consisted of
a number of tubes, placed in a row, like those of an organ, and appear
to have been of French origin, as were many of the improvements which
took place about that period, including the invention of wall pieces,
throwing leaden balls of ten to the pound.

  ~Mortars, Henry VIII.~

  ~Shells.~

  ~Varieties of cannon.~

  ~Queen Elizabeth’s Pocket-pistol.~

For mortars we are indebted to workmen of Henry VIII. as “one Peter Bawd
and one Peter Vancollen, both the king’s feed men, devised and caused to
be made certain mortar pieces, being at the mouth from eleven to
nineteen inches wide, and also certain hollow shot of cast iron, to be
stuffed with fire-work or wild-fire, for to break in pieces the same
hollow shot.” And in the first year of Edward VI. the said Peter Bawd
did make ordnance of iron of divers forms, as fawconet, fawkons,
minions, sakers, &c. His servant, J. Johnson, did like make and cast
iron ordnance cleaner and to better perfection, to the great use of this
land. His son Thomas Johnson, in 1593, made forty two cast pieces of
great ordnance for the Earl of Cumberland, demi cannon, weighing
5,000lbs. or three tons the piece. At Dover there is a culverine,
presented to Queen Elizabeth, by the States General of Holland, and
called Queen Elizabeth’s Pocket-pistol. It is 24 feet long, diameter of
bore 4¹⁄₂ inches, weight of shot 12lbs.; it was manufactured in 1544,
and is mounted on an ornamented iron carriage made in 1827, at the Royal
Carriage Department, Woolwich Arsenal. (Plate 17, fig. 2.)

  ~Mons Meg.~

There is a large gun at Edinburgh Castle, called Mons Meg; it measures
about 13 feet 4 inches in length, the diameter of the bore is about 1
foot 6 inches; it has a chamber about 4 feet long and 6 inches in
diameter. (Plate 17, fig. 3.)

  ~Field-guns, 1554.~

The battle of Remi, in 1554, was the first action in which light field
guns, having limbers, were used,--these guns accompanied the cavalry.

  ~Red-hot shot, 1580.~

Pere Daniel says that red-hot iron shot were used by Marshal Matignan,
during the siege of la Fère, in 1580.

  ~Calibre, time of Queen Elizabeth.~

In a table of ordnance, given by Fosbrooke, as being a list of the guns
used in the time of Elizabeth, and immediately preceding her, we find
how little the calibres of iron guns have altered during the last two or
three centuries, as these guns have all their antitypes among those of
the present day.

  ~Origin of canister and grape.~

  ~Improved mode of loading, by Gustavus Adolphus.~

The beginning of the seventeenth century was an important epoch in the
history of artillery; and much attention was given to this branch of the
military profession, by Henry IV., of France, Maurice, of Nassau, and
Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden. The former of these distinguished leaders,
introduced new and improved forms and kinds of missiles; such as tin
cases, filled with steel bolts or darts; canvas cartridges, containing
small balls, and hollow shot or shells, filled with combustible
materials. Gustavus Adolphus, introduced really serviceable field guns,
of a lighter construction than had hitherto been made use of, and he
also adopted the use of cartridges, with shot attached, so that these
pieces might be discharged eight times before the musket could be fired
six. It is said that he chiefly owed his victory at Leipzig, in 1631, to
guns made of leather and coiled rope, over a cylinder of copper or gun
metal. On the whole, the artillery of Gustavus was admirably organized;
and he was the first who appreciated the importance of causing artillery
to act in concentrated masses, a principle, now so fully recognized by
all artillerists.

  ~Bombs at sea.~

Bombs were first used at sea, by the French, in the bombardment of
Algiers, Oct. 28th, 1681, in the reign of Louis XIV.

  ~The largest gun.~

One of the largest cannon now existing is a brass one at Bejapoor,
called “Moolik-i-Meidan,” or “The Lord of the Plain.” It was cast in
commemoration of the capture of that place by the Emperor Alum Geer, in
1685. Its length is 14ft. 1in., diameter about 5ft. 8in., diameter of
bore, 2ft. 4in., interior length of bore, 10ft.; length of chamber
unknown; shape of gun nearly “cylindrical;” description of shot,
_stone_. An iron shot for this gun, of proper size, would weigh 1600lbs.
It is now lying in a dilapidated circular bastion on the left of the
principal gateway of the city. The trunnions are broken off, and there
is a ring on each side of it, as well as two Persian inscriptions on the
top. It is placed on three heavy beams of wood, packed round with large
stones. A number of _stone_ shot, of 2ft. 2in. in diameter, are
scattered about. This gun is said to be the heaviest piece of ordnance
in the world. It weighs about forty-two tons. An Italian of Otranto, who
served in the Mogul armies under the title of Renni Khan, had it in his
park of artillery, and used it at several battles, occasionally firing
sacks of copper coins out of it. (Plate 18, fig. 2.)

  ~Gun at Moorshedabad.~

There is a remarkable gun near the palace of the Nawab of Moorshedabad,
which measures 17ft. 8in. in length, 5ft. in circumference at the
smallest part near the muzzle, while it is only 6in. in the diameter of
the bore, and the foresight is at least four or five inches above the
muzzle. After the battle of Khallissie, which was fought about 25 miles
from here, it is supposed to have been buried under a tree. The tree,
having grown since then, has forced the gun above the ground about three
feet, where it now remains, partly encircled by the roots and trunk. It
has no name; the natives call it “the gun in the tree.” It is made of
cast iron, and is evidently of Indian manufacture, having Hindostanee
inscriptions engraved on it, but no date.

  ~Size and expense of cannon, 1688.~

Bishop Wilkins says, “These Gunpowder instruments are extremely
expensive, as a whole cannon commonly weighs 8000lbs., requiring 90 men,
or 16 horses, with a charge of 40lbs. of powder, and a ball weighing
64lbs”.

  ~Length and weight gradually reduced.~

The length and diameter of cannon became gradually much reduced,
experience having determined how much they might be diminished in weight
without injury to their safety, or to the effects they were intended to
produce.

  ~Horse artillery by Frederick the Great.~

Frederick the Great of Prussia made some improvements with regard to the
calibre of field guns, and to him may be given the credit of the
introduction of Horse Artillery.

  ~Guns bored.~

Guns, at this period, were cast hollow by means of a core, which was
kept suspended in the centre of the mould, while the metal was being run
in. Owing, however, to the great difficulty experienced in keeping this
core in a perfectly true position, several artillerists deliberated
whether guns, cast hollow or solid, had the preference, and
investigations took place as to the possibility of boring the latter,
the result of which was, that Maritz, who had a foundry at Geneva,
informed the Court of France, in 1739, that he had discovered a method
of boring guns and mortars which had been cast solid. He was at once
invited to France, where, first at Lyons, and afterwards at Strasbourg,
he secretly worked at boring pieces of ordnance, which, on trial, proved
perfectly satisfactory.

  ~Guns of ice.~

In the year 1740, a curious experiment in artillery was made at St.
Petersburgh, where guns were cut out of solid ice, from which balls of
the same substance were fired repeatedly, without bursting.

  ~Improvements.~

  ~Axle-trees.~

  ~High limbers.~

  ~Reduction of windage.~

From this period, the science of artillery progressed rapidly, and
various improvements were made in this arm of the service, such as the
introduction of iron axle-trees, and high limbers for the carriages of
field guns. The reduction of windage, (mainly owing to the invention of
carronades), and the use of cartridges and elevating screws, which
latter served to render the fire of artillery much more rapid and
regular.

  ~Rifled ordnance 1774.~

The invention of rifled ordnance is claimed by a Dr. Lind and a Capt. A.
Blair, late 69th regt. Experiments were made at Landguard Fort, 26th
August, 1774, by which it was intended to prove that shot weighing
42lbs., in the shape of a pear, would do as much execution, fired out of
an 18 pounder, with a third of the quantity of powder, as could be
effected by round balls of the same weight, fired from a 42 pounder.

  ~Perforated and fluted shot.~

Sundry trials were also made with shot perforated through the centre,
and spirally fluted on the surface, suggested by Professor Anderson, of
Glasgow, in order to prevent the common aberration in the flight of
shot.

  ~Leaden projectiles.~

  ~Breech-loading Rifled cannon.~

There were different modes of charging the rifled guns; one was, after
the powder was put in, to take a leaden bullet something larger than the
bore of the gun, and grease it well; in ramming it down with an iron
rammer hollow at one end, the spiral threads of the rifle entered and
cut into the bullet, and caused it to turn round in going down, and on
being shot out, it would rotate on an axis coincident with its flight.
Another mode was to charge them at the breech, where an opening for the
reception of the powder and ball was afterwards closed up by a screw;
but some barrels were screwed off at the breech-end to be charged, where
they were made stronger than common.

  ~Congreve’s rockets.~

The adaptation of the rocket to the purposes of war, by Sir William
Congreve, in 1806, introduced a new feature into the artillery of this
and other countries.

  ~Mr. Monk’s improvements.~

Recently, at the suggestion of a Mr. Monk, of Woolwich Arsenal, a
quantity of useless metal has been removed from before the trunnions,
and the thickness increased considerably at the breech end, where alone
it was wanted.

  ~Mallet’s monster mortar.~

The monster mortars recently constructed by Mr. Mallet, of separate
compound hoops, must be regarded as a triumph of constructive skill. The
shell is 30 inches in diameter, holding a bursting charge of 480 lbs.,
and weighing when charged 1¹⁄₂ tons (3,360 lbs.). Value of shell
charged, £25. Weight, without bed, 42 tons. Weight of bed, 8 tons.
Total, 50 tons.

  ~Cavalli’s and Wahrendorff’s~

In 1846, two rifled cannon were invented, one by Major Cavalli, of the
Sardinian Artillery; and the other by Baron Wahrendorff, a Swedish
nobleman. Both of these were iron breech-loading guns, having two
grooves in order to give the requisite rifle motion to their
projectiles.

  ~Experiments to test.~

Experiments were carried on at Shoeburyness, in 1850, with these guns.
The deviations were always in the direction of the rotation of the
projectiles; but they were so variable in amount that no allowance could
be made for them in laying the gun with respect to the object. The
Cavalli gun became unserviceable after having fired four rounds, by the
copper ring or bouche imbedded in the metal of the gun at the bottom of
the bore being damaged. The Wahrendorff gun stood well, the wedge
resisting more effectually the force of the discharge than that of the
Cavalli gun.

  ~Lancaster’s rifle gun.~

Mr. Lancaster’s novel invention of applying the rifle principle to
cannon, may be described as “a two-grooved rifle in disguise,” having a
“gaining twist,” the bore being an ellipse.

  ~Defects of.~

The chief defect in the Lancaster gun is the liability of the projectile
to jam in the bore, both in loading and firing, the former rendering the
loading difficult, while the latter endangers the safety of the gun. In
consequence of several of these guns bursting, and also from the
anticipated large range with great precision not being obtained from
them, the Lancaster guns were removed from the service after the Crimean
war.

  ~Sir W. Armstrong.~

Sir W. Armstrong submitted a proposal for his breech-loading gun to the
Duke of Newcastle, then Minister at War, towards the end of 1854; his
proposal being accepted, and a gun accordingly constructed, it was
submitted to numerous trials, both at Shoeburyness, and near Sir W.
Armstrong’s private factory at Newcastle. This gun is now made entirely
of wrought iron, although the original one had a steel bore. It is a
built-up gun, that is to say, it is composed of separate pieces, each
piece being of such moderate size as to admit of being forged without
risk of flaw or failure. By this mode of construction, great strength,
and consequently, great lightness, are secured. The shell used combines
the principle of the shrapnel and percussion shell, i.e., it may be made
to explode either as it approaches the object, or as it strikes it.
Moreover, it may be made to explode at the instant of leaving the gun,
in which case, the pieces spread out like a fan, and produce the usual
effect of grape or canister. Armstrong’s guns are now (1860) being
employed in China.

  ~Whitworth.~

Mr. Whitworth’s rifled gun, with which experiments were lately made near
Liverpool, is also a breech-loading piece, and of the following
construction. The form of the bore is that of a hexagonal spiral, the
corners of which are rounded off. The inclination of the spiral varies
with the diameter of the bore, but is in all these guns very great, the
projectiles being comparatively long.

  ~French rifled ordnance.~

Rifled ordnance were introduced into the French service just previous to
the commencement of the late Italian war of 1859, and aiming at the
greatest practical simplicity, the French government adopted only one
nature of gun for field service, and one for siege purposes, both made
of bronze. The French rifled cannon are muzzle loading, and those first
introduced had two or three grooves, but the field pieces used in Italy
had six grooves, their inclination being about one turn in 59 inches. A
number of heavy cast-iron guns are rifled with two grooves, and have
been placed on board French ships of war; and these, unless
strengthened, could be used but with very small charges.

  ~Advantages of rifled guns.~

The advantages obtained by the successful employment of rifled guns--

  Great accuracy of fire,
  Long range,
  Penetration,
  Small charge,
  Simplicity of equipment and ammunition,
  Lightness of gun.

  ~Classification of artillery.~

Artillery may be classed under the several heads of field artillery
(including artillery of position), siege artillery and artillery for the
armament of garrisons, fortresses, and coast defences; its equipment is
a combination of men, materiel, and horses necessary for these services.

  ~Three kinds of guns.~

All ordnance employed in the service, may be divided into three classes,
viz., Guns, Mortars, and Howitzers.

  ~Carronades discontinued.~

Carronades may be considered obsolete, although a certain number are
still supplied to the navy, and a few will be found mounted in some
garrisons and coast batteries.

  ~Classification of guns and their uses.~

Guns are used for projecting shot and shell, horizontally or at very low
angles, and as they are fired with large charges of powder, which are
fixed for each nature of gun, very great strength and considerable
weight are required in their construction. Guns are of two kinds, viz.,
(solid) shot guns, and shell guns. Some guns are also classed as heavy,
medium, and light. Those generally employed for field service, are made
of bronze or gun-metal; all guns of higher calibre, of cast-iron.

  ~Mortars.~

Mortars are short pieces of ordnance, used to throw shells at high
angles (vertical fire), generally 45°, the charge varying with the range
required; they are distinguished by the diameters of their bores.
Mortars are made of cast-iron or bronze; the former being principally
intended for garrisons, battering trains, the navy, &c., and the latter,
which are of small calibre, and very light, are chiefly employed in
sieges.

  ~Howitzers.~

Howitzers resemble guns in form, but are much shorter and lighter in
proportion to their calibre, and are, consequently, fired with less
charges of powder; shells and case are fired from them, but not solid
shot.

  ~Use of Howitzers.~

  ~Superseded by shell guns.~

These pieces were originally introduced for the purpose of firing shells
at low angles, and have constantly been found most useful both in the
field and in siege operations during the wars of the last and present
centuries. Since, however, the introduction of shell guns their utility
has greatly decreased, for the shell gun possesses greater accuracy and
range than the howitzer, those being in the present day of greater
importance than small weight.

  ~Artillery from the East.~

The Germans claim the invention of cannon for their countryman,
Bartholdus Schwartz, who is said to have discovered it in 1336, but
seeing that fire-arms first became prevalent in Europe in those
countries which mixed with the Saracens, we are constrained to lean to
the opinion that fire-arms were not re-invented in Europe, but
introduced from the East.

This part of our subject might be much enlarged, but we have merely
attempted to give heads of information, which can be pursued by those
who desire to do so. We must now leave it, in order to treat upon that
more immediately interesting to officers of infantry, viz., the history
of portable fire-arms.

       *       *       *       *       *

The following extract from an account of the furniture of the ship,
called the “Harry Grace de Dieu,” will give a good idea of the state of
the ordnance at the time of Henry VIII.:--

  _Gonnes of Brasse._

  Cannons,
  Di. cannons,
  Culveryns,
  D. culveryns,
  Sakers,
  Cannon perers,
  Fawcons,

  _Gonnes of Yron._

  Port pecys,
  Slyngs,
  Di. slyngs,
  Fowlers,
  Baessys,
  Toppe peces,
  Hayle shotte pecys,

  Hand gonnes complete.

Another account of ancient English ordnance in Queen Elizabeth’s time,
mentions the following:--

  Bombards,
  Bombardilles,
  Cannon royal,
  Cannon,
  Cannon serpentine,
  Bastard cannon,
  Demi cannon,
  Cannon petre,
  Culverin,
  Basilisk,
  Demi culverin,
  Bastard culverin,
  Sacar,
  Minion,
  Faulcon,
  Falconet,
  Serpentine,
  Rabinet.


ETYMOLOGIES.

CANNON.--From the Latin word _canna_, signifying a tube or cane.

HOWITZER.--From the German word _haubitz_, (derived from _haube_, top of
a furnace), in French, _obus_, or _obusier_.

CARRONADE.--From _Carron Ironworks_, near Stirling, where it was
invented in the year 1774.

BOMBARD.--From the Greek word _bombos_, or noise.

BOMBARDILLE.--A smaller kind of bombards.

BASILISK.--The name of a snake.

CULVERIN.--From the French _couleuvrine_, from _couleuvre_, a snake.

SAKER.--From _Saker_, or _Sacre_, a bird of the falcon species.

FALCON.--From the _bird_ of that name.

CANNON PERERS.--_Stone-throwers_, from the French word _pierre_, a
stone.

TOPPE PECES.--To be used in the tops, _i.e._, the stands on the ship’s
masts.

  NOTE.--The History of Artillery is mainly compiled from the
  following:--“Engines of War,” by Wilkinson; “Ancient Armour and
  Weapons in Europe,” by John Hewitt; “Military Antiquities,” by F.
  Grose; “Critical Inquiry into Ancient Armour,” by Meyrick; “Elementary
  Lectures on Artillery,” by Major C. H. Owen and Capt. T. L. Dames,
  R.A.; and “Our Engines of War,” by Capt. Jarvis, M.P., Royal
  Artillery.




HISTORY OF PORTABLE FIRE-ARMS.


  ~Form of early hand-guns.~

The earliest hand-guns differed in nothing but in size from the small
cannon of the day: they consisted of a metal tube fixed in a straight
stock of wood; the vent was at the top of the barrel; there was no lock
of any kind. The barrels were short and made of iron or brass; they were
occasionally furnished with moveable chambers. (Plate 19, fig. 1.)

  ~With trunnions.~

  ~Breech-loader.~

A specimen of hand-cannon of the early part of the reign of Henry VI.,
is made of iron, and furnished with trunnions, which from this specimen,
appear to have been appropriated to small fire-arms before they were
adopted for artillery. The breech is made of a separate piece and
screwed on to the tube, on the further end of which is a sight. It was
placed on a stock or club, and fired by hand with a match. (Plate 19,
fig. 2.)

  ~Invented 14th century.~

That hand-guns were invented, though but rarely appearing, in the
fourteenth century, seems very probable from several cotemporary
evidences. An inquisition taken in 1375, at Huntercombe, (a place
belonging to the Abbey of Dorchester) and now preserved among the
records at the Chapterhouse, Westminster, states that one Nicholas
Huntercombe, with others, to the number of forty men, armed with
“haubergeons, plates, bacenettes, cum aventayles, paletes, lanceis,
scutis, arcubus, sagittis, balistis, _et gonnes_, venerunt ad Manerium
de Huntercombe, and there made assault,” &c. It appears very improbable
that a body of men making a sudden attack upon an abbey manor-house,
would be armed with any kind of “gonnes” except hand-guns.

  ~Bohemia 1340.~

  ~Lithuanians 1383.~

Mons. Mangeot states that “canons de fusil” were said to have been first
invented in Bohemia, 1340, but that it is safer to fix the date at 1378,
when mention is made of the “arquebuse à mèche” in Germany. In the year
1381, the inhabitants of Augsburg had thirty six arquebusiers, and in
the following year they had portable fire-arms at the battle of
Rosabecque. In 1383 the Lithuanians were acquainted with hand fire-arms,
and used them at the siege of Froski. All these arms had straight
stocks.

In the excavations of the Castle of Tannenberg, dismantled in 1399,
there was found a hand-gun of brass, with part of the wooden stock
remaining, and the iron rammer belonging to it.

An early mention of the hand-gun is that of Juvenal des Ursins, who
tells us, under the year 1414, that they were used at the siege of
Arras.

  ~Siege of Lucca 1430.~

  ~Said to have been invented in Italy.~

Billius, a learned and noble Milanese, who lived at the time, says that
hand-guns were first used at the siege of Lucca, in 1430. The
Florentines were provided with artillery, which, by the force of
gunpowder, discharged large stones, but the Luccquese perceiving that
they did very little execution, came at last to despise them, and every
day renewed their sallies to the great slaughter of their enemies, by
the help of _small fire-arms_, to which the Florentines were strangers,
and which before this time were not known in Italy. Billius explains
this by saying, “That besides darts and balistas for arrows, they
invented a new kind of weapon. They carried in their hand a club, a
cubit and a half long, to which were affixed iron barrels. These they
filled with sulphur and nitre, and by the power of fire, iron balls were
thus ejected.” (Plate 19, fig. 1 and 10).

  ~Scorpion.~

About this time the scorpion (afterwards a piece of ordnance) was a tube
for firing gunpowder, held in the hand, and called by the English,
hand-cannon, and also hand-culverines.

  ~Made of brass.~

From a roll of purchases for Holy Island 1446 is,--“bought 11 hand
gunnes de ere,” from whence we learn that they were made of brass.

  ~Edward IV.~

  ~Harquebus invented.~

  ~Stock, &c., from cross-bow.~

  ~Match-lock. 1478.~

Hand-guns, or hand-cannons were used in the early part of the reign of
Edward IV., and towards the close of it, we learn from Philip de
Comines, that the harquebus was invented; this seems to have been an
improvement on the hand-gun. The Latin word used for this weapon was
arcusbusus, evidently derived from the Italian, arca-bouza, a bow with a
tube or hole; to that people, therefore, are we to ascribe the
application of the stock and trigger in imitation of the cross-bow.
Hitherto the match had been applied by the hand to the touch-hole, but
the trigger of the arbalest suggested the idea of one to catch into a
cock, which having a slit in it, might hold the match, and by the motion
of the trigger be brought down on a pan which held the priming, the
touch-hole being no longer at the top but at the side. (Plate 19, fig.
9).

  ~Hand-gun improvements.~

  ~Sighted.~

The hand-gun was _cast_ in brass, and, as a tube, was of greater length
than the hand cannon; a flat piece of brass, made to turn upon a pin,
covered the pan which contained the powder; it had also a piece of brass
fixed on the breech, and perforated to ensure the aim.

  ~Hand-guns in England 1471.~

  ~Made in England, 1474.~

The first introduction of hand-guns into England, we find, was soon
after their invention in Italy; in the year 1471, King Edward IV.,
landed at Ravenspurg, in Yorkshire, and brought with him, among other
forces, three hundred Flemings, armed with “hange-gunnes.” In 1474, he
directed “all the bombs, cannon, culverines, fowlers, surpentines, and
all other cannon whatsoever, as also powder, sulphur, saltpetre, stones,
iron, lead and other materials, fit and necessary for the same cannon,
wherever found, to be taken and provided for his use, paying a
reasonable price for the same.”

  ~Harquebusiers.~

  ~Morat 1476.~

Arquebusiers, or harquebusiers, are mentioned as troops, by Philip de
Comines, in these words, where he speaks of the battle of Morat, fought
on the 22nd of June, 1476. “The said towns had in their army, as some
that were in the battle informed me, 35,000 men, whereof fower thousand
were horsemen, the rest footmen, well chosen and well armed, that is to
say, 10,000 pikes, 10,000 halberds, and 10,000 harquebusiers.”

  ~Improvements.~

  ~Held to breast.~

  ~Bent butt.~

  ~Hackbutt.~

Hitherto the harquebuss had only a straight stock, but now it had a wide
butt end, which might be placed against the right breast, and thus held
more steadily. Many ancient pieces were held to the breast instead of
the shoulder, which will account for their being so short in the stock.
A notch was made in the butt for the thumb of the right hand, in order
to hold the piece more firmly. When the butt was bent down or hooked as
it was at a later period, it was called, from the German word Hake, a
hackbutt, haggebut or hagbut, the small sort being denominated
demi-hags.

  ~Mounted Harquebussiers.~

Philip de Commines mentions that there were at the battle of Fourniée,
in 1495, German harquebusiers, on foot and on horseback. (Plate 19, fig.
6.)

  ~Arms in time of Henry VIII.~

The small arms in the time of Henry VIII., were hand-guns, haguebuts,
demi-hagues and the pistol, and it was enacted, “that no hand-gun should
be used, of less than one yard, gun and stock included, and the haguebut
was not to be under three-quarters of a yard.” The demi-hagues were
still smaller, and gave occasion for the origin of pistols, which were
invented in the latter part of this reign, at Pistoria in Tuscany. The
dag, dagger, or tache, differed from the pistol merely in the shape of
its handle.

  ~Inconveniences of match.~

  ~Objections to fire-arms.~

  ~Rest.~

  ~Wheel-lock, 1517.~

  ~Used at Parma, 1521.~

  ~In England, 1530.~

  ~Serpentine and wheel.~

The match was a constant source of trouble to the soldier, both from the
difficulty of keeping it alight in bad weather, and from the length of
time it sometimes took to ignite the charge. It was therefore not
without justice that many persons clamoured about this time against the
introduction of fire-arms. They contended that upon no point, save that
of penetration, was the harquebuss superior or equal to the long-bow;
its great weight 16 or 18lbs. (seldom less than 12lbs.) obliged it to be
supported by a rest, which had a kind of fork to receive the musket, and
at the bottom a sharp metal spike, to strike into the ground; (Plate 19,
fig. 5, 7, and 8). When the harquebuss was shouldered the rest was
carried in the right hand, and subsequently hung upon it, by means of a
string or loop. The difficulty of keeping the powder and match dry, the
time taken to load, and its comparative inaccuracy, rendered it of low
reputation. Nevertheless it held its ground, and the next improvement
was the wheel-lock, by which a more instantaneous ignition of the charge
was secured; it was invented at Nuremberg, 1517. It consisted of a
little solid wheel of steel, fixed against the plate of the lock of the
harquebuss or pistol; it had an axis that pierced it in its centre; at
the interior end of this axis which went into the lock, a chain was
fastened, which twisted round it on the wheel being turned, and bent the
spring by which it was held; to bend this spring a key was made use of,
into which the exterior end of the axis was inserted. By turning this
key from left to right, the wheel was made to revolve, and by this
movement a little slider of copper, which covered the pan with the
priming, retired from over it; and by the same movement the cock, armed
with a flint like the cock of a fusil, was in a state to be discharged
on pulling the trigger with the finger; the cock then falling on the
wheel, produced fire, and communicated it to the priming. The wheel-lock
was first used at the siege of Parma, 1521, and was brought to England
1530. It was however complicated and difficult to repair, for which
reason it could not always be depended upon, as is proved by some
fire-arms of this description at the Tower, which are made with a
serpentine, as well as with a wheel, both acted upon by the same
trigger.

  ~Musket in Spain.~

  ~At Pavia, 1525.~

  ~Low Countries, 1567.~

The inconsiderable execution done by pieces of small calibre probably
caused the introduction of the muskets or mosquet, which originated in
Spain about the time of Francis I. They are said to have been first
employed extensively at the battle of Pavia, 1525; but, if we believe
Brantome, it was the Duke d’Alva who first brought them into use in the
armies, when during the reign of Philip II., he went to take upon him
the government of the Low Countries in the year 1567; but that only
means, he brought them more into fashion than they were till that time,
and that till then they were rarely used, at least in the field, on
account of their cumbrous nature. A Spanish army of 10,000 men sailed
from Carthagena, 27th April, 1567, _en route_ for the Netherlands, to do
which they had to cross the Alps. It was a picked body of troops, of
whom about 1,300 were cavalry. The Duke d’Alva formed them into three
divisions, and dispensed with artillery, not wishing to embarrass his
movements. Each company of foot was flanked by a body of soldiers,
carrying heavy muskets with rests attached to them.

  ~Lephanto, 1571.~

At the battle of Lephanto 1571, fought between the Venetians and Turks,
it is stated by the historian, that one chief reason why so few
Christians were killed in comparison, was because the Turks used for the
most part bows and arrows, whereas the former were supplied with
muskets.

  ~Caliver.~

A lighter kind of musket was called a caliver or calliver, which was
only a corruption of calibre, denoting that they were all of one guage,
as the original harquebuses were not of any particular length or bore;
the caliver was fired without a rest.

  ~Dimensions, 1621.~

Sir Thomas Kellie in his “Art Militaire,” published in 1621, says, “The
barrel of a musket should be four feet in length, the bore capable of
receiving bullets twelve whereof weigh a pound, previous to this some
had carried ten to the pound.”

  ~Hand-mortar, 1594.~

  ~From butt of musket.~

  ~By hand.~

  ~From muzzle.~

The hand-mortar for throwing grenades are said to have been first used
in 1594, and gave origin at a later date to the troops thence
denominated, _grenadiers_. They appear to have been fired from the
shoulder. (Plate 19, fig. 3.) In the reign of James II., a
flint-lock-musket was adapted to fire grenades from the butt, the small
of which was made to resemble a chambered mortar; the heel of the butt
formed a cover, which opened with a spring on a hinge; the priming was
put into the usual pan, and a small piece of metal moved so as to open a
communication with the powder in the chamber. A rest was formed by a
slender iron rod, about three feet long, and when not required let into
the stock, in the place usually occupied by the ramrod, and turning upon
a pivot placed a few inches in front of the guard-brass. The scouring
rod is run through metal loops on one side of the stock. Afterwards
grenades were thrown by hand, the musket being slung over the soldier’s
back, and more recently experiments were made with an iron tube about
four inches long, placed on the muzzle in the same manner as the
bayonets.

  ~Match-locks and rest, James I.~

In the time of James I., part of the infantry were armed with calivers
or muskets and rests, both of which were fired with match-locks, the
soldier carrying the match lighted at both ends.

  ~Trickerlock, 1629.~

“A match trickerlock compleat,” occurs in a schedule of 1629. This was
the adoption of what is now called a hair trigger, which was added to
the former one, and gives a more instantaneous discharge. A tricker
wheel lock of Charles I., a tricker match-lock of Charles II., and a
tricker fire-lock of James II., are preserved in Sir S. Meyrick’s
collection.

  ~Fowling pieces.~

The Earl of Albermarle in 1646, says, “It is very fit likewise that you
have in each company six good fowling pieces, of such a length that the
soldier may well be able to take aim and shoot off at ease; being placed
six on each flank of a division of foot to skirmish with an enemy. These
soldiers ought to have command, when they come within distance, that
they shoot at officers only.” We have here plainly the origin of
riflemen.

  ~Tin tube for match.~

  ~First fire-lock.~

Each musketeer formerly carried a tin tube, pierced full of holes, to
contain the match, and prevent his being discovered; in wet weather it
was necessary to carry it in the crown of his cap, to prevent it from
being extinguished. One of the earliest attempts to overcome this
difficulty is in the Arsenal, at Dresden, where there is an old
_buchse_, with a piece of pyrites fixed opposite to the touch-hole, and
which requires to be rubbed with a file, chained to it, until sparks are
elicited sufficient to fire the powder.

  ~Snaphaunce.~

The next improvement upon the wheel-lock was the snaphaunce; a flat
piece of steel, furrowed in imitation of the wheel, was placed on a
steel post, which being screwed beyond the pan, was made moveable; the
pan had a cover which required to be pushed off by the thumb, and the
furrowed piece being then brought to stand over it, on pulling the
trigger, the flint, which was substituted for pyrites, struck against
it, and gave the spark.

  ~Flint lock.~

The next step in the improvement of the musket was the introduction of
the flint-lock, now so well known, that I need not enter into the
details of its mechanism.

  ~In France, 1630.~

  ~In England, 1677.~

  ~Earl Orrery’s opinion.~

It was used in France as early as 1630, but was not employed in the army
until 1670 or 80, when it took the name of “fusil.” It was not employed
in England until about 1677, and its advantages over the matchlock are
thus described in a work addressed to King Charles II., in 1677, by the
Earl of Orrery:--“First it is exceedingly more ready, for with the
fire-lock you have only to cock, and you are prepared to shoot, but with
the matchlock, you have several motions, besides if you fire not the
matchlock as soon as you have blown your match, (which often,
particularly in hedgefights and sieges, you cannot do) you must a second
time blow your match. The match is very dangerous, either when
bandoliers are used, or when soldiers run hastily in fight to the budge
barrel, to refill their bandoliers. I have often seen sad instances
thereof. Marching in the nights to avoid an enemy or to surprise one, or
to assault a fortress, the matches often discover you, whereby you
suffer much, and he obtains much. In wet weather, the rain deads the
powder and the match too, and the wind sometimes blows away the powder,
ere the match can touch the pan; nay, in very high winds, I have seen
the sparks blown from the match, fire the musket ere the soldier meant
it, and either thereby lose his shot, or kill some one before him.
Whereas in the firelock, the motion is so sudden, that what makes the
cock fall on the hammer, strikes the fire and opens the pan at once.
Lastly, the quantity of match does much add to the baggage, it naturally
draws the moisture of the air, which makes it less fit, and if you march
without close waggons, it is the more exposed, and without being dried
again in ovens is but of half the use which otherwise it would be of,
and which is full as bad as the skeans you give the corporals, and the
sinks you give the private soldiers, being rendered useless if damp;
nothing of all which can be said of the flint, but much of it to the
contrary.”

  ~Bows to be replaced by muskets, 1596.~

In a proclamation of Queen Elizabeth dated 1596, it is stated, “You
shall bring with you all such furniture and weapon for footmen as you
stand charged withall by statute, or have formerly shewed at other
musters heretofore, changinge your billes into pikes, and your bowes
into muskettes accordinge to our sayde former letters.”

  ~Muskets with two locks.~

  ~Match-lock preferred.~

  ~Match made of.~

In France, as late as 1702, when the flint had wholly superseded the
pyrites, and the structure differed very little from our present
musket-locks, an additional cock was attached to the end of the
lock-plate, and a sliding cover placed over a hole in the hammer-seat,
for the purpose of lighting the powder by a match, if the flint failed.
The match was therefore from its simplicity, preferred from all others
for a considerable period, and is still used by the Chinese, Tartars,
Persians, and Turks, in some provinces either wholly, or partially. The
match itself was made of cotton or hemp, spun slack, and boiled in a
strong solution of saltpetre, or in the lees of wine.

  ~Iron ramrod 1740.~

In the time of Frederick the Great, (1740 to 1786), the invention of the
iron ramrod by the Prince of Dessau, trifling matter as it seems,
doubled the value of the fire of infantry. Prior to this the rammer had
been made of wood, and was called the scouring stick.

  ~Dimensions, &c. of English musket, in 1800.~

  ~Charge.~

  ~Priming, 1st. mode.~

  ~Priming, 2nd mode.~

At the commencement of this (19th) century, the weight of the English
musket and bayonet was, 11lbs. 4ozs., bayonet 1lb. 2ozs., length of
barrel 3ft. 3-in., bore ·753-in., bullets 14¹⁄₂ to the pound. Charges of
powder 6 drs., F.G. Every soldier was furnished with three flints for 60
rounds. Originally it had been necessary to put the priming into the pan
from a flask, containing a finer grained powder, called “Serpentine
powder,” but in the early flint-lock musket this was rendered
unnecessary, as in loading, a portion of the charge passed through the
communication hole into the pan, where it was prevented from escaping by
the hammer. Latterly a portion of the cartridge was bitten off, and the
pan filled with priming before loading.

  ~Objections to flint-lock.~

  ~Priming by detonation, 1807.~

  ~Experiments, 1834.~

  ~Advantages of percussion.~

  ~Reduced charge.~

  ~Reduced pull of trigger.~

The objections to the flint-lock were, that it did not entirely preserve
the priming from wet. Sometimes the flint failed to ignite the charge,
and it was necessary to change it frequently. Owing to these
imperfections, in 1807, the Rev. Mr. Forsyth obtained a patent for
priming with fulminating powder. The composition consisted of sulphate
of potash, sulphur, and charcoal, and exploded when struck by any metal
or hard substance. This composition was considered too corrosive, but
was subsequently improved, and finally applied to the musket, in the
form of the present percussion cap, which consists of chlorate of
potash, three parts; fulminating mercury two parts; and ground glass one
part. The experiments for Mr. Forsyth’s invention, commenced in 1834.
Six thousand rounds were fired from each description of arm, and the
experiments conducted in all weathers, six of each kind of arm being
used. The result proved exceedingly favourable to the percussion
principle, and may be briefly summed up as follows:--1st, out of 6,000
rounds from the flint-lock, there were 922 missfires, being 1 in 6¹⁄₂,
whereas in the percussion musket there were only 36 misses in 6,000
rounds, or 1 in 166. With the flint-lock there were 3,680 hits out of
the 6,000, and with the percussion 4,047 hits, being 7 per cent. in
favour of the latter. To fire 100 rounds with the flint required 32
minutes 31 seconds, whereas the percussion occupied only 30 minutes 24
seconds. Another advantage of the percussion musket, was that it was
capped _after_ being loaded. Hitherto a certain amount of powder had
been allowed for priming, but as this vestige of the hand-gun could be
dispensed with, a reduction of charge could be made; a total reduction
however was made from 6 to 4¹⁄₂ drs., which caused a diminution of
recoil. The 4¹⁄₂ drs. then recommended was known to be more than was
necessary for the projection of the bullet, but an extra ¹⁄₂ dr. was
retained to allow for the effect of damp or waste on service. In the
course of these experiments, it was found that the considerable force
required to pull the trigger might be advantageously reduced, and that
increased accuracy would ensue, therefore the pull of the trigger was
lessened to 7lbs.

  ~New model musket.~

The advantages of the percussion system having been satisfactorily
shown, it was decided to convert a portion of the old flint-locks into
percussions, and to establish a new model percussion musket for the
English army.

  ~Percussion at Canton.~

The following anecdote illustrates the weak points of the flint-lock.
During the Chinese war, a company of the 37th Madras Native Infantry had
been detached to the left, when, the evening closing, the order was
given to rejoin, and the whole were to retire upon Canton, and just as
it was being carried into execution, a tremendous storm of wind and rain
arose, making the air so dark, that no one could see 20 yards. The
detached company retired sounding bugles and beating drums, which were
drowned by the tempest, and they could not find the battalion. In a few
minutes the enemy got between this company and the retreating force. The
muskets would not go off, and several attempts of the enemy to close
were with difficulty repulsed with the bayonet. In the meantime, the
enemy contrived to fire off their own matchlocks, and some of the
sepoys’ muskets of men who had dropped in the retreat, by applying
matches to them. The square into which the company was formed, was thus
being diminished, while the only return that could be made, was an
occasional shot from a solitary musket, which the three officers of the
company managed to clean out, under cover of great coats held over the
muzzle. A company of Marines was dispatched for the 37th party, armed
with percussion muskets, scarcely one of which missed at the first fire,
and a few volleys sufficed to clear the way, and both detachments
reached the camp in safety, with but little loss. This happened in the
early part of 1841.

  ~Percussion introduced, 1842.~

  ~Sighted for 150 yards.~

After a “hang-fire” of about 200 years, a new pattern percussion musket
was issued in 1842. Its weight was greater than that of the old
flint-lock, being with the bayonet about 11-lbs., 6-oz., bayonet 1-lb.,
0-oz., 8-drs., bore ·753, barrel 3-ft. 3-in., length, with bayonet 6
feet, length without 4-ft. 6³⁄₄-in., a block sight for 150 yards, and a
percussion lock. For many years prior to 1839 no sight at all was
thought necessary for the musket, the bayonet stud being sufficient, but
which was totally obscured when fired with fixed bayonets. This arm
continued as the approved weapon for our infantry without improvement
until 1851, when the Minié rifle was partially introduced.

  ~Comparison with foreign muskets.~

  ~Brown Bess advocated.~

The English musket (1842) differed from all those in use on the
Continent, in having, 1st, the least accuracy, 2nd, reduced range, 3rd,
heavier, 4th, shorter, 5th, larger bore, 6th, greater windage, 7th,
double the charge of powder, 8th, the greatest recoil, and 9th, the most
expensive! _i. e._, as compared with those of France and Belgium,
Prussia, Austria, or even with the old Sikh matchlock!! And yet a “stand
up fight” was stoutly maintained for this most inefficient arm, by many
military men, as may be seen from the following extract from a note in
Part II., Vol. II., of the “Aide Memoire to the military
sciences:”--“Erroneous ideas prevail as to the precise wants of the
service with regard to the musket, and its proper qualities and utility
in the field, as well as much exaggeration as to the defects of the new
percussion musket of 1842, for the infantry of the line. It is stated
that it is too heavy and of imperfect construction. Some prefer the
French pattern, and others would lessen the weight and calibre still
more, reducing also the windage: as, however, the new regulation has
brought into use some hundreds of thousands of new muskets, and has been
approved by the highest authorities, some considerations are necessary
before a radical change can be effected beyond range and a nice accuracy
of fire. 1st, What are the essentials for a musket for the infantry of
the line? 2nd, The application of the musket to the infantry soldier. It
is evident that the most essential points are strength, and facility of
pouring into your enemies’ ranks a powerful fire. Troops do not halt to
play at long bowls; a field of battle presents a series of movements for
the purpose of outflanking or closing in upon your enemy, and when
within two hundred yards, to deliver your fire with effect. Firing at
500 or 600 yards is the business of artillery, and, therefore, to fire
at 300 or 400 yards is a misapplication of the musket, a loss of time, a
waste of ammunition, and tends to make men unsteady in the ranks.”

  ~Brown Bess tried at Chatham.~

  ~Merits of “Brown Bess” illustrated.~

The shooting powers of the musket (1842) are stated in the report on
Experimental Musketry firing carried on by Captain (now Lieut.-Colonel)
McKerlie, Royal Engineers, at Chatham, in 1846, which concludes as
follows: “It appears by these experiments, that as a general rule,
musketry fire should never be opened beyond 150 yards, and certainly not
exceeding 200 yards. At this distance, half the number of shots missed a
target 11-ft. 6-in., and at 150 yards a very large proportion also
missed. At 75 and 100 yards every shot struck the target, only 2-ft.
wide, and had the deviation increased simply as the distance every shot
ought to have struck the target 6-ft. wide at 200 yards, instead of
this, however, some were observed to pass several yards to the right and
left, some to fall 30 yards short, and others to pass as much beyond,
and this deviation increased in a still greater degree as the range
increased. It is only then under peculiar circumstances, such as when it
may be desirable to bring a fire on Field Artillery when there are no
other means of replying to it, that it ought ever to be thought of
using the musket at such distances as 400 yards.” In fact, it has been
stated that the probability of hitting one man with a musket ball at 500
yards would be as one farthing to the National Debt! On a recent
occasion, at the Cape, 80,000 rounds were fired to kill 25 men!! To put
a man “_hors de combat_” requires his weight in lead, and six times his
weight in iron!!!

  ~Price.~

  ~Fastened by bands.~

  ~Bands unsightly!!~

  ~Supposed profit of large bore.~

Our musket cost £3, the French and Belgian £1 8s. 6¹⁄₂d. In foreign arms
the barrel is fastened to the stock by bands, binding the two together,
and thus adding greatly to their strength. This mode, although
acknowledged to be infinitely superior for military purposes, by our
Inspector of small arms, was condemned as unsightly!! The French musket,
although three inches longer, is beautifully poised, being lightened
forward. Our bore being larger was considered an advantage, as their
balls could be fired out of our barrels, while our balls could not out
of their muskets. It was generally thought that the greater weight of
the English ball produced an increased range and momentum, but this was
counteracted by the excess of windage.

       *       *       *       *       *

  ~Various forms of early fire-arms.~

In former days small arms were made of various shapes and devices, and
also combined with other weapons of attack and defence.

There is in the arsenal at Venice a matchlock containing twenty barrels,
ten gun barrels, about 2¹⁄₂ feet long, and ten pistol barrels half that
length. The match exploded a gun and pistol barrel together.

The Chinese of the present day make use of a species of matchlock
revolvers, and also of another matchlock, consisting of several barrels,
placed on a common stock, diverging from each other, and fired
simultaneously. (Plate 4, fig. 4 and 5.)

  ~Shield fire-arms.~

  ~Breech-loaders.~

Soon after the invention of fire-arms, the boss, or spike, issuing from
the centre of the targets or shields, was superseded by one or more
short barrels, fired by a matchlock, and having an aperture covered with
a grating above, for the purpose of taking aim. These barrels were
loaded at the breech, the charge being put into an iron tube, or short
barrel, which was pushed in at the end, and retained there by shutting
down a lid or spring.

  ~Cross-bow and pistol united.~

There were cross-bows, which combined a pistol and cross-bow, the
wheel-lock being placed about the centre of the handle on one side,
whilst on the other was the string of the bow, and the windlass for
drawing it up.

  ~Pike and pistol.~

Pistols were frequently introduced into the butt-end of pikes, and also,
in the reign of Edward VI., in the handle of the battle-axe, the spiked
club, the martlet, and other weapons, even the dagger.

  ~Carabines with joint.~

  ~Heel plate to draw out.~

In the time of Charles I. there were esclopette carbines, made with the
butt to double back on a hinge, in order to get them into a holster; and
a little later the butt was lengthened by drawing out the steel cap
which formed its cover, now called heel plate.

  ~Revolvers in Charles I.~

  ~Double-barrelled pistols.~

In the reign of Charles I. there were also revolvers, with eight
chambers to hold the charges; and in the time of Cromwell and Charles
II. we find self-loading and self-priming guns. Pistols were made both
double-barrelled and revolving.

  ~Arrows fired out of muskets, 1591.~

In Sir Richard Hawkins’ account of his voyage in the South Sea, 1591,
mention is made of his shooting arrows from muskets with great success
at shipping: “for the upper works of their ships being musket proof,
they passed through both sides with facilitie, and wrought extraordinary
disasters, which caused admiration to see themselves wounded with small
shot when they thought themselves secure.” These wooden arrows were
called sprites or sprightes. Lord Verulam says, “it is certain that we
had in use at one time for sea fight short arrows which they call
sprights, without any other head save wood sharpened, which were
discharged out of muskets, and would pierce through the sides of ships,
when a bullet would not pierce.”

  ~Sprites required wads.~

Sir Richard Hawkins informs us, that in a discourse which he held with
the Spanish General, Michael Angell, the latter demanded, “for what
purpose served the little short arrowes which we had in our shippe, and
those in great quantity. I satisfied him that they were for our muskets.
Hereof they prooved to profit themselves after; but for that they wanted
the tampkins, which are first to be driven home, before the arrow be put
in, and as they understood not the secret, they rejected them as
uncertaine, and therefore not to be used; but of all the shot used now
adayes, for the annoying of an ennemie in fight by sea, few are of
greater moment for many respects, which I hold not convenient to treat
of in public.”

Thus it appears that bullets of metal, have been fired out of bows and
slings, stone balls out of guns, and arrows from muskets.

The following are the names of different descriptions of small arms,
viz:--

  Hand-cannon
  Hand-gun
  Arquebus
  Caliver
  Petronel
  Scorpion
  Dragon
  Musketoon
  Hague
  Demi-hague
  Esclopette
  Currier
  Fusil
  Hand-mortar
  Blunderbuss
  Musket
  Pistol
  Dag
  Tack




THE BAYONET.


  ~Pointed stake.~

It was common with archers to place a long pointed stake in the ground
to protect themselves against cavalry. On the arquebus replacing the bow
the same practice was continued.

  ~Pike.~

From the earliest ages it had been customary to arm some of the infantry
with pikes, and in the middle ages when cavalry was so much employed in
armies, it was found impossible to dispense with this weapon; for some
time after the introduction of fire-arms, only a portion of the infantry
were armed with them, and the remainder were pikemen. The proportion of
each varied at different times, from one half to two thirds, but as the
proportion of musketeers increased it became necessary to contrive some
method, by which they could defend themselves.

  ~_Marlets-de-fer_ with touch.~

  ~Rest, with touch.~

  ~Swines’ feathers.~

In the latter part of the reign of James I., some attempts were made to
convert the musketeer’s rest into a defence against cavalry.
_Marlets-de-fer_ and small pole-axes had a touch enclosed in them, which
by touching a spring opened a small valve and sprung out. The musket
rest, instead of having a wooden shaft, was now made of a thin tube of
iron, like these pole-axes covered with leather, and armed with the
touch. Rests thus armed were said to contain Swedish or Swines’
feathers. It was found however that the musketeer could not do his duty
when armed with musket, sword, and rest, (especially if he had a Swedish
feather to manage with them) which led to the abandonment of the rest
during the Protectorate.

  ~Sword stuck in muzzle.~

  ~Bayonets in France, 1671.~

To remedy the inconvenience of a Musketeer being compelled to draw his
sword and defend himself after the discharge of his piece, and to render
him more competent to act against the pikemen, a long thin rapier blade
fixed into a handle, and carried in a sheath called a Swine’s feather,
was drawn out of its scabbard, and fixed into the muzzle of his gun,
which gave him a weapon of great length. (Plate 19, fig. 11.). And this
dagger or sword, stuck into the muzzle of the gun, gave origin to the
bayonet, which was first made at Bayonne, and introduced into the French
army in 1671.

  ~Swords discontinued, 1745.~

  ~Improved bayonet.~

  ~Bayonet in Flanders, William III.~

  ~Bayonet at Killicrankie.~

Swords in general were left off in the battalion companies ever since
the year 1745, and about 1762 by the grenadiers. As a still further
improvement the bayonet was made to fit on to the side of the barrel, so
as to leave it clear. An early application of the improved bayonet took
place in the campaigns of William III., in Flanders. Three French
regiments thus armed, marched with fixed bayonets, and one of them
against the 25th regiment. Lieut-Colonel Maxwell ordered his men to
screw their bayonets into their muzzles to receive them; but to his
great surprise when they came within the proper distance, the French
threw in such a heavy fire, as for the moment to stagger his people, who
by no means expected such a greeting, not conscious how it was possible
to fire with fixed bayonets. Macaulay in the 3rd volume of his History,
states “That at the battle of Killicrankie, the King’s army being drawn
up in position, the Highlanders advanced to the attack, and immediately
after having delivered their fire, threw away their muskets and rushed
on to the charge with Claymores. It took the regular musketeer two or
three minutes to alter his missile weapon into one with which he could
encounter an enemy hand to hand, and during this time the battle of
Killicrankie had been decided.” Mackay therefore ordered all his
bayonets to be so made that they might be screwed upon the barrel.

  ~Bayonets, Marsaglia, 1693, and Spiers, 1703.~

  ~Pike abolished, 1703.~

  ~Earl Orrery in favour of pike versus musket, 1677.~

Bayonets were employed by Marshal Catinat at the battle of Marsaglia,
when the slaughter was immense. Also at the battle of Spiers, in 1703.
Thus improved, the bayonet came into general use, and the pike was
abolished in France by Royal Ordinance 1703, with the advice of Marshal
Vauban. Before the introduction of the improved bayonet, Lord Orrery, in
1677, thus speaks in favour of the pike:--“But what need I more say of
the usefulness of the pike above the musket, than that all persons of
quality carry the pike which they would not do unless it had adjudgedly
the honour to be the noblest weapon, since the bravest choose and fight
with it. I wish our companies consisted of fewer shots and more pikes,
for they are not only always in readiness but need no ammunition, which
cannot be said of the musket which requires powder, bullet, and match,
and in wet or windy weather often disappoints the service.”

  ~M. Mallet, pike versus musket, 1684.~

Mons. Mallet in his “Travaux de Mars,” speaks lightly of the
“mousquetaires,” without pikemen; he says, “A horse wounded by a
fire-arm is only more animated, but when he finds himself pierced by a
pike, all the spurs in the world will not make him advance.”

  ~Gen. Loyd, pike versus bayonet, 1766.~

  ~Pike recently discontinued.~

Even so recently as about ninety-two years ago, and ninety-five years
after the introduction of the improved bayonet, General Loyd in his
history of the war in Germany, recommends the abandonment of the system
of arming the whole of the infantry with fire-arms, “which he says are
useful only in _defensive_ warfare, and even then not more than one shot
in four hundred takes effect.” For many years after pikes were
discontinued by our infantry, the officers carried a short one, and the
sergeants only gave up their halberts within the last thirty years. The
soldiers of artillery when in Holland under the late Duke of York,
carried short pikes for the defence of their field guns.




ACCOUTREMENTS AND AMMUNITION.


  ~Armament of infantry soldier.~

  ~Bandolier.~

  ~Bandolier abandoned in France, 1684.~

  ~Flask resumed.~

  ~Patrons.~

  ~Cartridges.~

Besides his matchlock, the soldier carried a powder horn or flask, a
ball bag, slow match, a rest, and a sword. The two last changed for a
bayonet. In order to accelerate the loading, a large leather belt,
called bandolier, was worn over the shoulder. To this were hung twelve
wooden cases, each of which contained one charge, with a case of finer
powder for priming, and at the lower end a bag for balls. This system
was soon found to be inconvenient, as the cases were apt to get
entangled in passing through woods, &c. It was therefore abandoned in
France in 1684, and the flask resumed. Sir James Turner, speaking of the
pistol, says, “All horsemen should always have the charges of their
pistols ready in patrons, the powder made up compactly in paper, and the
ball tied to it with a piece of pack thread.” In this description we
have evidently the cartridge, though not expressed by name. It is a
curious fact that these were first confined to the cavalry, and that the
general adoption of the cartridge was not earlier than the common use of
the modern firelock. The Patron was an upright semi-cylindrical box of
steel, with a cover moving on a hinge, filled with a block of wood with
five perforations, to hold as many pistol cartridges.

  ~Earl of Orrery in favour of pouches.~

The Earl of Orrery, in 1677, writes, “I am, on long experience, an enemy
to bandoliers, but a great approver of boxes of cartridges for them, as
by biting off the bottom of the cartridge, you charge your musket for
service with one ramming. I would have these boxes of tin, because they
are not so apt to break as the wooden ones are, and do not, in wet
weather, or lying in the tents, relax. Besides, I have often seen much
prejudice in the use of bandoliers, which are often apt to take fire.
They commonly wound, and often kill he that wears them, and those near
him, for likely if one take fire, all the rest do in that collar. They
often tangle when they have fired, and are falling off by the flanks of
the files of the intervals to get into the rear to load again. Their
rattling in the night often discovers the designs; and if the weather be
windy, their rattling also often hinders the soldier from hearing, and,
consequently, obeying the word of command. Whereas the cartridge boxes
exempt those who use them from all these dangers and prejudices. They
enable the soldier to fire more expeditiously. They are also usually
worn about the waist of the soldier, the skirts of whose doublet and
whose coat doubly defend them from all rain, that does not pierce both,
and being worn close to his body, the heat thereof keeps the powder
dryer. Besides all this, whoever loads his musket with cartridges, is
sure the bullet will not drop out, though he takes his aim under breast
high; whereas those soldiers on service who take the bullets out of
their mouths, which is the nimblest way, or out of their pouches, seldom
put any paper, tow, or grass, to ram the bullet in, whereby if they fire
above breast high the bullet passes over the head of the enemy, and if
they aim low the bullet drops out, ere the musket is fired, and it is to
this that I attribute the little execution I have seen musketeers do in
time of fight, though they fired at great battalions, and those also
reasonably near.”

  The preceding article on Portable Fire-Arms is principally compiled
  from “Military Antiquities,” by Francis Grose; “Ancient Armour and
  Weapons of War,” by John Hewitt; “Engraved Illustrations of Ancient
  Armour,” by Joseph Skelton, F.S.A.; “A Critical Enquiry into Ancient
  Armour,” by Sir R. S. Meyrick, Knt.; and “Deane’s Manual of
  Fire-arms.”




HISTORY OF THE RIFLE.


  ~Invention of the rifle.~

We shall now direct our attention to the rifle,--its invention is
ascribed to Gaspard Zollner, of Vienna, towards the end of the fifteenth
century.

  ~1466.~

The first society for firing with the arquebuss was founded at Bâle, in
Switzerland.

  ~Rifles at Leipsic, 1498.~

In the practice of firing at a mark, at Leipsic, 1498, the greater part
of the Sharpshooters or Marksmen, were armed with the Rifles.

  ~Rifles used first for amusement.~

At first, Rifle arms were used only for amusement, and sometimes for the
defence of places, but very rarely as weapons of war in the field.

  ~Rifles used in war.~

Their employment in a campaign only dates from a little before the
middle of the seventeenth century.

  ~Landgrave of Hesse, 1631.~

In 1631, the Landgrave William of Hesse had three companies of
Chasseurs, armed with rifles.

  ~Elector Maximilian, 1645.~

In 1645, the Elector Maximilian of Bavaria formed three regiments of
Chasseurs, armed with rifles which he intended to employ principally in
the minor operations of war.

  ~Frederick William of Prussia, 1674.~

In 1647, Frederick William of Prussia, in his campaign on the Rhine,
distributed in each company of infantry, some light infantry and
Riflemen.

  ~Frederick the Great in Seven Years’ War.~

  ~By Austrians ditto.~

Frederick the Great, in order to counterbalance the Austrian Light
Troops, more particularly the Tyrolese Marksmen, whose fire was
exceedingly deadly, felt obliged during the seven years’ war to add a
company of trained light infantry to the effective strength of each
battalion.

  ~Rifles in France, 1674.~

In France the Cavalry were supplied with rifles before the Infantry.
Towards 1674 Louis XIV. created some squadrons of Cavalry armed with
“Carabines rayées.” The name was given in France to all arms which were
grooved, and it also served for the name of the corps which were first
armed with them, viz., “Carabins.”

  ~Rifles in English Life Guards.~

In 1680 eight rifle carbines were carried in each troop of English Life
Guards.

  ~Rifles in Sweden, 1691.~

In 1691 the Non-Commissioned Officers of the Swedish Dragoons received
the rifled carabin, and in 1700 those of the Prussian Cavalry received
the same rifled arms.

  ~Experiments in England, 1776.~

Experiments were tried with rifled small arms in England in the year
1776.

We read in the Scots’ Magazine, vol. 36, that “the Guards are every day
practising the use of the Rifle Gun in Hyde Park. On Saturday, April
27th, 1776, their Majesties attended a Review of the Rifle-men
yesterday, and were much pleased with the dexterity of the officer, who
loaded and fired several times in a minute, and hit the mark each time.
He lies upon his back when he discharges his piece.”

  ~Rifles in Austria, 1778.~

Austria kept 2000 Sharpshooters, having double carbines, which were
supplied with a crotch to rest them upon while shooting. Only one of the
barrels was rifled.

  ~Rifles in French infantry, 1793.~

In 1793 the first model carbine for French Infantry was made at
Versailles; at the same time the model for Cavalry was also fixed.
Rifles were soon abandoned in the French Army; they deemed them of more
trouble than profit.

  ~Rifles, English, 1794.~

In 1794 the English adopted the Rifle, which, I fancy, was first used by
a Battalion of the 60th, or Royal American Regiment.

  ~Rifles numerous in Austria, 1796.~

In 1796 there were in the Austrian Army 15 Battalions of Light Infantry,
the greater part of whom were armed with Rifles.

  ~Rifles for the 95th regt., 1800.~

In 1800, Rifles were placed in the hands of the 95th Regiment, now the
Rifle Brigade of four Battalions. These Rifles weighed about 10¹⁄₂lbs.
each, with the sword. They were sighted for 100 and 200 yards, with
seven grooves, having a quarter turn in the length of the barrel, which
was about 2 feet 6 inches, the length of the Rifle 3 feet 10 inches,
weight of sword 1lb., diameter of bore ·623. The locks were excellent,
and had a detent, to prevent the nose of the sear catching at half cock,
and it had a bolt, to prevent its going off at half cock. The ball was
spherical, and driven in with a mallet, which was afterwards dispensed
with, and a greased patch substituted.

  ~Rifle ball in two sizes.~

  ~Range of English rifle.~

During the Peninsular War, our Riflemen were supplied with balls of two
sizes, the easiest fitting being designed for use where celerity of
loading was required. Baker, who made these Rifles, says in his Work,
1825, “I have found 200 yards the greatest range I could fire to any
certainty. At 300 yards I have fired very well at times, when the wind
has been calm. At 400 yards, and at 500 yards, I have frequently fired,
and have sometimes struck the object, though I have found it to vary
much.”

  ~Rifles in 7th and 10th Dragoons.~

Colonel Dickson, R.A., says, “In the early part of the present century,
there was also introduced a rifle-arm for cavalry. The barrel 20 inches,
calibre 20 bore, grooves 7, having the same pitch as those for the
infantry; the 7th and 10th light cavalry were the only regiments armed
with them, but they were soon discontinued from being considered as
unfit for cavalry service.”

  ~Brunswick rifle.~

The Brunswick rifle was introduced in 1836. Weight with bayonet 11lbs.
5oz., length of barrel 2ft. 6-in., bore ·704. Two deep spiral grooves
with one turn in the length of the barrel. Sighted for 100, 200, and 300
yards. Bullet spherical and belted, diameter ·696. Weight of bullet 557
grains. The shooting of this arm was superior to our first rifle,
although the loading was not so easy as was desired, and a great
disadvantage existed in the bullet and cartridge being separate in the
soldier’s pouch, the grooves were deeper and rounder than those of the
ordinary rifle, the projecting zone of the ball was made to fit the
grooves, the ball was wrapped in a linen patch dipped in grease. It was
found that, although the rifle loaded easily at first, after constant
firing the barrel became very foul, rendering loading nearly as
difficult as under the old system of the indented ball. The belt on the
ball caused considerable friction while passing through the air. (Plate
20, fig. 1).

  ~Merits of the Brunswick rifle.~

By a committee of officers assembled at Enfield, it was determined that
all firing with the Brunswick beyond 400 yards was too wild to give a
correct angle of elevation. It was tested at Antwerp in 1844, in an
experiment extending to 44,000 rounds, and declared to be the worst
tried.

  ~Improvements from France.~

From France chiefly have proceeded most of the modern improvements in
fire-arms.

  ~French at discount without rifles.~

  ~Captain Delvigne’s first step to restore rifles in France.~

  ~The French desired to be on an equality with Arabs.~

  ~Expansion by chamber.~

  ~Defects of chambered rifle.~

  ~Poncharra Delvigne rifle 1833.~

The original French rifle (like our own) was loaded by force with a
strong ramrod and mallet, and they found that it gave precision with
diminution of range. For these reasons during the early campaigns of the
French Revolution, the rifle was given up in the French army; but as
their Chasseurs were found to be unequally matched against those of
other armies, who surpassed them in accuracy as marksmen, a series of
experiments were carried on at different times, with a view to its
reintroduction into their service. No satisfactory result was obtained
until the occupation of Algeria, when Mons. Delvigne, of the Guarde
Royale, took the first step in its restoration. In the flying wars kept
up against them by Abd-el-Kader, they found that masses of their men
were struck by Arab balls at distances where the French muskets were
apparently powerless, and this they afterwards found arose from the long
matchlocks of their enemies being fired at a much greater elevation than
was ever thought of by European troops. In order to put themselves on an
equality with their enemies, Mons. Delvigne showed in 1828 how the rifle
bullet could be made to enter the piece easily, and quit it in a forced
state; a method of loading as easy and simple as that of a smooth-bore
arm. Expansion was obtained by the introduction of a chamber in the
bore, which furnished an annular surface to receive the bullet, and on
its being struck a small blow with the rammer it was expanded into the
grooves. (Plate 20, fig. 2). The objection to the chambered rifle, was
that after frequently firing, a residuum collected which eventually left
the powder less room in the chamber, and of necessity it then reached
above the shoulder of the latter, so that the ball resting upon the
powder instead of upon the shoulder of the chamber, was not so readily
dilated by the strokes of the ramrod into the grooves. To remedy this
defect the wooden sabot and greased patch (plate 20, fig. 3) were
suggested by Colonel Poncharra, in 1833, introduced into the French army
1839, and employed in Algeria, 1840, but several inconveniences attended
its use.

  ~Carabine à Tige, 1842.~

  ~Defects of Tige.~

  ~Tige introduced, 1846.~

Colonel Thouvenin endeavoured to overcome these difficulties by fixing
at the bottom of the bore an iron shank, around which was placed the
powder. This stem, (plate 20, fig. 4) stopping the bullet, allowed it to
be struck in such a manner as to cause the lead to penetrate into the
grooves. There is much fouling at the breech, and around the pillar of
these rifles. They are difficult to clean, the soldier having to carry
an instrument for this purpose. The Chasseurs and Zouaves of the African
Army were armed with the tige in 1846.

At first a spherical ball had been used, and then a solid
cylindro-conical bullet was resorted to; (Plate 20, fig. 6.) Messrs.
Delvigne and Minié having long previously experimented with hollow
cylindro-conical projectiles.

  ~Minié iron cup.~

  ~French army 1850.~

Some years after these experiments, Captain Minié proposed the adoption
of a bullet which should receive its expansion by placing an iron cup in
the hollow of the base, which should be driven up by the gas, and force
the walls of the cavity outwards, thus making them enter the grooves.
(Plate 20, fig. 7.) In 1850 the Fusil rayé with balle à culot was put
into the hands of some French regiments of the line, and since then the
French Imperial Guard have been armed with the old musket rifled, and a
hollow bullet without a cup.

At present it is understood that the French are rifling all their smooth
bore arms, and the Russians are doing the same.

  ~Prussian. army.~

  ~Russian riflemen.~

  ~Austrian riflemen.~

  ~Belgium.~

  ~Portugal.~

The Prussians have many thousands of their infantry armed with a
breech-loading long range Rifle. The Russian Army is to have fifty-four
rifle regiments, with a rifle company to each other regiment of
Infantry. The Austrians are busy at work, according to their means. The
Tyrol has always supplied them with a large number of marksmen. The
Belgians are, I believe, universally armed with rifles, and even the
little Kingdom of Portugal has ordered 28,000 rifles from Belgium.

  ~Conoidal bullet, with Brunswick.~

  ~Minié rifle, introduced, 1851.~

  ~Performance and angle of Minié.~

Subsequent to the French experiments with the conoidal bullet, and the
great results obtained over the spherical from it, it was proposed to
adapt a conoidal bullet to the Brunswick Rifle. (Plate 20, fig 5.) This
was done as an experiment, and succeeded very well, but at the same time
the new arm, called the Minié pattern, 1851, was also tried, and the
shooting exhibited greater accuracy with this latter arm. Nothing
further was done with the Brunswick rifle and conoidal bullet; and the
(then called) “new regulation Minié,” was introduced into the service by
the late Marquis of Anglesea, Master-General of Ordnance, with the
approval of the late Duke of Wellington. Its weight with bayonet, was
10lbs. 8³⁄₄ozs., bore ·702, four spiral grooves, with one turn in 6 feet
6-in., powder, 2¹⁄₂ drs., bullet, 680 grs., with iron cup, diameter of
bullet, ·690, windage, ·012. When the axis is parallel to the ground at
4 feet 6-in. above it, the first graze is about 177 yards, and the angle
of elevation at 800 yards, is 3° 25.

  ~Consequences of improvements in military rifles.~

A few years previous to the Russian war, rifles had attained to a degree
of improvement in structure and adaptability to the general purpose of
war, which threatened subversion to the established notions of the
military world.

  ~Probable effect on artillery.~

  ~On cavalry.~

  ~Minié in Kaffir war.~

  ~Bullet improved.~

The artillery arm was menaced in its long rested monopoly of range and
precision, with an equilibrium in hands it had never dreamed to find it;
one which not alone would curb the wonted dash of field batteries to
within the “shortest range,” but also impress a more than wonted respect
upon the best led and most daring cavalry, for even the thinnest
formation of that arm, which it had hitherto been taught to despise. The
Minié was first used in the Kaffir war, and next at Alma and Inkerman,
when it proved that the gallant Marquis had advanced a step in the right
direction; who had ordered 28,000, but quarrels taking place among the
contractors this order was never completed. The accuracy of firing from
the Minié was improved by altering the form of the bullet from conoidal
to cylindro-conoidal, (plate 20, fig. 8.) and the iron cup from
hemispherical to a conical shape with a hole in the apex.

  ~Lord Hardinge’s desire for improvement.~

  ~Experiments at Enfield.~

Lord Hardinge, succeeding to the post of Master-General, and after to
that of Commander-in-Chief, zealously followed out the prosecution of
the now becoming fixed idea, the general adoption for British infantry,
of a pattern rifle-musket, which should combine lightness with
solidity, precision, and superior range. Lord Hardinge opened
competition to the leading British gun makers, when the following sent
in muskets for trial, viz:--Purdy, Westley Richards, Lancaster,
Wilkinson, and Greener. The Minié pattern, (51), and Brunswick, (36),
were also subjected to a course of trial before the committee assembled
at Enfield, in 1852, for the purpose of determining the best description
of fire-arm for military service.

  ~Merits of the Brunswick.~

The Brunswick rifle showed itself to be very much inferior in point of
range to every arm hitherto tried. The loading was so difficult, that it
is wonderful how the rifle regiments can have continued to use it so
long, the force required to ram down the ball was so great as to render
a man’s hand much too unsteady for accurate shooting. Colonel Gordon,
says, “It should be noticed here with the exception of Mr. Wilkinson,
every one of the makers changed either his musket or projectile during
the trials, thereby causing them to be protracted much beyond the time
originally intended.”

  ~All had reduced bores.~

  ~Elongated bullets.~

  ~Reversed cartridge.~

  ~Best shooting from short rifle.~

  ~Advantage of small bore.~

  ~Disadvantages of small bore.~

The diameter of the bore of all the new muskets was less than that
hitherto in use, all the bullets were elongated and had auxiliaries for
expansion, being metallic, or in one case a horn plug, one pattern had
cannelures and the whole required the cartridge to be reversed in
loading. It is worthy of remark that the best shooting at these trials
was from a short rifle made at Enfield, which was named the artillery
carbine, but not the one now used by the Royal Artillery. The barrel was
only 2 feet 6-in. long, and the projectile cylindro-conoidal, with an
iron cup weighing 620 grains; thus proving that great length of barrel
is not absolutely necessary in a rifle; but a certain length of barrel
is required to fire in double ranks, and so that the weapon may be
effectually used as a pike. With a small bore, a greater number of
rounds of ammunition may be carried, greater penetration, velocity,
lower trajectory, and more accuracy, than with larger projectiles of
equal weight. The alleged disadvantages of small bore are, the slender
form of cartridge and the smaller hole made in a man’s body, as stated
to be proved in the case of wild animals, in proof of which it is said
that they are found to run further when wounded with a small ball, than
they do with a large one; but this reasoning does not seem applicable to
the human race, for it is presumed that few men would be found willing
to move far when wounded by a musket ball, whether the hole in their
body was ·702 or ·530 of an inch in diameter.

  ~Objection to reversing the cartridge.~

An absurd objection was stated as to reversing the cartridge, viz:--that
drill with blank would be performed in a different manner to firing
ball, and that in action the soldier would forget to reverse his
cartridge, and put in the ball first. As we now always perform our
drill, and as our present blank cartridges require to be reversed or
will not ignite, this objection is removed. It also was said that mice,
rats, &c., &c., would eat off the lubricating mixture!!

It was proposed to give the Enfield, (1853,) a back sight to 900 yards,
when an outcry was raised against the monstrous proposition of giving to
every common soldier a delicately made back sight, whether he knew how
to use it or not!!! and those rifles first issued, were only sighted to
300 yards.

  ~The Enfield rifle.~

At the conclusion of the trials at Enfield, in August, 1852, two rifles
were made at the Royal Manufactory, in which were embodied the
improvements and alterations suggested by the experience obtained during
the course of the trials, and which was hoped would possess the
necessary requirements for a military weapon, and which proved superior
to the Minié, the Brunswick, and all those presented for trial by the
different manufacturers.

  ~Dimensions, &c., of Enfield.~

This beautiful rifle though 2¹⁄₂lbs. less than the old musket, is fully
as strong, and as capable of rough usage. Weight, including bayonet,
9lbs. 3 ozs., bore, ·577, length of barrel, 3 feet 3-in., weight of
barrel, 4lbs. 6 ozs., three grooves with spiral of one turn in 6 feet
6-in.; the barrel to be fastened to the stock by bands. The bayonet to
be fixed by means of a locking ring. The lock to have a swivel. The
bullet was of a pattern suggested by Mr. Pritchett. (Plate 20, fig. 9.)

  ~Attempts to improve the bullet.~

  ~Description of Pritchett.~

Lord Hardinge, desirous to improve the projectile, and if possible to
get rid of the cup, having requested the leading gun makers to lay any
suggestions before the small arms committee, none were submitted but one
by Mr. Wilkinson, which was not a compound. It was solid with two deep
cannelures, but it lost its accuracy when made up into a cartridge, and
made very wild practice beyond 300 yards. (Plate 20, fig. 10.)
Subsequently a bullet was proposed by Mr. Pritchett, being
cylindro-conoidal in form, with a small hollow at the base, which was
made more to throw the centre of gravity forward than to obtain
expansion thereby. This bullet weighed 520 grains, or 24 guage, and
excellent practice was made with it at Enfield, from 100, to 800 yards,
and it was accordingly introduced into the service, to the suppression
of the Minié, with iron cup; and for which Mr. Pritchett, received
£1,000.

  ~Lancaster smooth _bore_ rifles.~

Shortly after the establishment of the School of Musketry, in June,
1853, twenty Enfield rifles were sent down for trial in competition with
the Minié, and also with “Lancaster’s smooth bore eliptical rifle, with
increasing spiral and freed at the breech,” when the Enfield was found
to be superior to both. It is stated that Mr. Lancaster’s invention is
intended to overcome the inconvenience attendant on the wearing out the
rifle ridges, by the ramrod, &c.; these rifles are also easily cleaned,
the difference in width between the major and minor axis of the ellipse
was, ¹⁄₁₀₀ of an inch.

  ~Engineer Carbine.~

Carbines on this principle are now carried by the Royal Engineers, and
shoot well, and by some persons are thought to be superior to the
Enfield, 1853; they fire the same ammunition, and there is no question
but that their firing is much more accurate from using the improved
wooden plug bullet.

  ~Failure of the Pritchett.~

In May, 1855, the ammunition was found to be in a most unsatisfactory
state and unfit to be used, there being bullets of various diameters in
many of the packages of the cartridges. The correct size of the
Pritchett bullet viz., ·568, was found to produce accurate shooting, at
600 yards, while bullets of a smaller diameter fired very badly.

  ~Return to iron cup.~

To get out of this difficulty, Colonel Hay recommended the application
of the iron cup to the bullet, which was approved, when more uniform
expansion resulted and greater accuracy.

Thus by using an auxiliary to expansion there is a margin left to cover
any trifling inaccuracy in manufacture, in diameter of either bullet or
bore.

  ~Woolwich account for bad _ammunition_.~

The Woolwich authorities stated that they had seven dies at work making
bullets, and which were made small at first as they gradually wore
larger; when any one die became too large it was destroyed, and replaced
by a smaller one. To this cause they imputed the failure of our
Pritchett ammunition. It was afterwards suggested from the School of
Musketry, to procure expansion by using a wooden plug, and after most
extensive experiments, this was found to be superior to any description
of bullet yet tried at Hythe, and the wooden plug has accordingly been
established for the British army. (Plate 20, fig. 11.)

  ~On expansion.~

Uniform accuracy mainly results from the bullet continuing to receive a
sufficient and uniform expansion into the grooves, so that the
projectiles get such an amount of rotation as shall last until they have
reached the object fired at. The more perfect the expansion, the less
the accumulation of fouling and consequently accuracy is further
increased.

The Enfield has frequently been fired to 200 rounds and the loading
continued easy.

  ~Progressive grooving 1858.~

Early in 1858, the regulation rifle, (53), was changed from grooves of
uniform, ·014 in depth, to ·005 at muzzle, increasing in depth to ·015
at the breech; while new, these rifles shoot well, but they require
increased elevation at long ranges. How far these shallow grooves will
answer, or how long it will take to convert these aims into smooth bores
at the muzzle, by the continued friction of the ramrod, remains to be
seen.

  ~Origin of progressive grooving.~

  ~Advantages.~

Captain Panot, of the French service, states, “it is but a few years
since all our smooth bore barrels were reamed so that they would carry
the spherical ball of ·669, instead of ·641. It was afterwards
determined to convert these arms into rifles. To prevent weakening the
reamed up barrels, M. Tamisier proposed to vary the depth of the
grooves, making them deeper at the breech than at the muzzle.” Grooves
thus made, are said to have a greater accuracy of fire from keeping the
ball perfectly tight as it leaves the bore and destroying all windage at
the muzzle. This is called “progressive grooving.” Rifles upon this
principle require to be fired at an increased elevation, attributed to
the greater amount of friction experienced by the bullet while passing
down the barrel.

  ~Short Enfield.~

Rifle regiments and all serjeants of infantry have been furnished with a
weapon requiring the same ammunition as the regulation arm, but six
inches shorter, being mounted in steel, with a sword bayonet.

  ~Royal Navy rifle.~

A five “grooved progressive” carbine has recently been given to the
Royal Marine Artillery and the Royal Navy, with the same bore as the
Enfield.


RIFLED BREECH-LOADERS.


  ~Early guns loaded at the breech.~

It is worthy of notice that, while numerous attempts are now making to
perfect the breech-loader for sporting as well as military purposes, our
early cannon and first hand guns were loaded at the breech, and if all
mechanical difficulties could be overcome, the breech-loading principle
for portable fire-arms would deserve the preference. We can easily
understand why it did not continue in favour in early days, as this mode
includes a great deal of perfection in mechanical workmanship, and to
which the ancient gun maker was a stranger.

  ~Disadvantages of breech-loaders.~

The great argument against breech-loaders as military weapons is the
expense, their intricate construction, the escape of gas, and the
probable waste of ammunition, in the hands of an uneducated soldier. It
may be briefly answered.

  ~1st. As to expense.~

1st.--As to expense, the most destructive weapon, by preventing and
curtailing war, must in the long run be the cheapest.

  ~2nd. As to intricacy.~

2nd.--As to intricacy of construction, the soldier is the user, not the
maker of his gun; it matters not how delicate the mechanism of a watch
may be, the only question is, does it continue to go well!! And who dare
say that the brains of man shall never suggest a simple mode of
construction. Of course anything fragile would be totally unfit for
military purposes. The escape of gas has been entirely overcome.

  ~3rd. As to waste of ammunition.~

3rd.--As to waste of ammunition, is it absolutely necessary that a
soldier should remain uneducated? Are not soldiers men? And men can be
taught almost anything, or are they incapable of being taught? Does a
soldier fire how, when and where he chooses? Is it too high an
aspiration that the British army should carry the best arm that can be
made, to be placed in the hands of a taught and skilful soldier, acting
under the guidance and control of intelligent officers?

  ~Breech-loaders highly improved.~

  ~Ammunition the difficulty.~

As far as the arm only is concerned, breech-loaders have now (1860)
attained a high degree of perfection, as is proved by the deserved
celebrity of that made by Mr. Westley Richards. The only remaining
difficulty is one of ammunition. Loose powder cannot be employed in
loading with a breech as it can with a muzzle-loader. We are up to this
time under the necessity of introducing the whole of the cartridge, this
of course augments fouling and lessens accuracy; there is also increased
difficulty in producing ignition through the fold of the cartridge
paper.

  ~Capt. Brown’s compressed powder.~

Recently a most ingenious mode of compressing the grains of powder
contained in a charge into one mass, so that every description of rifle
may be rapidly loaded without any paper, has been invented by Captain
Brown, R. N., and I have every hope and confidence that the only
remaining breech-loading difficulty may now be considered overcome.

  ~Advantages of breech-loaders.~

  ~1st. Celerity.~

  ~2nd. Load lying down.~

  ~3rd. Easily cleaned.~

  ~4th. Solid ball.~

The advantages of breech-loaders, are, 1st.--Celerity of fire, about ten
rounds a minute have been attained. 2nd.--The soldier can load while
lying flat on the ground. 3rd.--The barrel can be easily cleaned and
examined as to its state. 4th.--A solid ball can be fired, and with less
windage.

  ~Self capping.~

Various modes of self capping have been brought forward, but that by
Maynard seems to merit the preference; time is further economized, and
the powers of the breech-loader thereby increased.

  ~Cavalry have breech-loaders.~

Our cavalry regiments in India, are partially armed with breech-loading
rifles, and all their pistols are rifled, and upon the tige principle.

  ~Rifles universal in English army.~

The whole of our Guards, regular Infantry, Royal Marines, Militia, and
Royal Engineers, are armed with rifles, and the Carabine used by the
Royal Artillery, is also rifled. All our Colonial corps are supplied
with rifled arms, with the exception of the Native corps, serving in the
East Indies and Ceylon.

  ~In larger numbers.~

  ~Taught to use.~

  ~Prizes.~

Thus rifles are introduced in larger numbers and of better quality in
the armies of England, in proportion to their numbers, than amongst any
other nation. While more care and expense is incurred in qualifying our
soldiers efficiently to use them. In illustration of which, it is only
needful to call attention to the simple fact that £20,000 per annum is
distributed as a stimulus to the marksmen of the British army, for which
boon all honour to our Royal Commander-in-Chief.

  ~Explosive shells.~

The idea has recently been revived to increase the destructive powers of
Infantry, by furnishing them with shells, with which they may explode
ammunition waggons, artillery limbers, &c., &c., to the distance of
1,000 yards. Captain Norton, Mr. Dyer, Colonel Jacobs, and Mr.
Whitworth, have directed their minds to this most important subject.




ON RIFLING.


It has been stated that amongst the different gun makers who assembled
at Woolwich, for the carrying on of experiments in 1851, no two agreed
upon any one thing; and in 1860, it may still be averred, with almost
equal truth, and that it yet remains an unsettled question as to the
form, width, depth, number or degree of spirality of the grooves, as
also the harmony which should subsist between the grooves, diameter of
bore, the form and weight of projectile, and the quality and quantity of
charge.

  ~Description of Rifles.~

  ~Advantages of a rifle.~

Robins, in 1742, says, “rifles though well known on the continent, being
but little used in England, it is necessary to give a short description
of their make. The rifle has its cylinder cut with a number of spiral
channels, so that it is in reality a female screw, varying from the
fabric of common screws, only in this, that its threads or rifles are
less deflected and approach more to a straight line.” The advantage of a
rifle (with a round bullet), is that the axis of rotation not being in
any accidental position, as in a smooth bore, but coincident with the
line of its flight, it follows that the resistance on the fore part of
the bullet is equally distributed round the centre of gravity, and acts
with an equal force on every side of the line of direction, and also
should the resistance be greater on one side of the bullet than the
other from irregularities on its surface, as this part continually
shifts its position round the line in which it is proceeding, the
deflections which this irregularity would occasion are neutralized. With
an elongated projectile rifling also prevents it from rotating round its
shorter axis.

  ~Rifling invented in Germany.~

  ~Rifles used 1498.~

  ~Straight grooves.~

It is to the artizans of Germany, that the rifle owes its origin, as at
the close of the fifteenth century barrels with straight grooves were
used by the citizens of Leipsic, at target practice, in 1498, and the
invention of grooving or rifling fire-arms is generally supposed to be
the result more of accident than theory. In Dean’s Manual of fire-arms,
it is stated that, “the idea of grooving arms in the direction of the
axis of the barrel to receive the residium of the powder, and thereby,
not only facilitate the loading, but increase both the bite or forcing
of the ball, by impressing upon it the grooves, and thus maintain it
during its passage through the barrel in a direction more in harmony
with the line of fire, was doubtless a conception based upon no previous
theory or practice now to be traced, but was formed in that
suggestiveness which in the individual founds for itself a theory based
upon the likelihood of possible result. Upon trial also of the straight
grooves a greater precision for short distances would have been
observed than with the smooth bore.” This must of itself therefore have
led to the establishment of a certain grade of theory which it was
endeavoured to amplify by various means, such as increasing the number
of grooves, then of changing the inclination of grooves from the
straight line to the spiral.

To deem that the practised crack “shots and armourers of a time when
target practice was the constant recreation of the citizen, and his
pride to excel in, were so brainless as to conceive no theory,
unelaborated though it may have been, and that all their even now
admired efforts in Germany, were the products of mere accident, is
therefore scarcely a rational supposition.”

  ~Spiral grooves, by Koster, of Nuremberg in 1522.~

It is stated that Koster, of Nuremburg, in 1522, first suggested giving
a spiral form to the grooves, and experience proved that much greater
accuracy of shooting was the result.

  ~Damer of Nuremberg, 1552.~

In 1552, Damer, of Nuremburg, made some great improvements in rifles,
but we are not aware of their precise nature.

  ~Koster of Nuremberg, 1620.~

Koster, of Nuremburg, who died 1630, by some authorities is said to have
discovered that straight grooves did not fulfil the intentions of their
inventor, and to have been the first who suggested spiral grooves in
1620.

  ~Robins first explained action of grooves.~

  ~Robins structure of rifles.~

  ~Modes of loading.~

The important stage next arrived at was the scientific explanation of
the true value of spiral grooves. The honor of this entirely belongs to
our countryman, Benjamin Robins, who in his Principles of Gunnery, gives
a complete and satisfactory explanation of the action of the grooves in
determining the flight of the bullet. Robins states that “the degree of
spirality, the number of threads, the depth the channel are cut down to,
are not regulated according to any invariable rule, but differ according
to the country where the work is performed, and the caprice of the
artificer. The most usual mode of charging rifles is by forcing the ball
with a strong rammer and mallet. But in some parts of Germany and
Switzerland, an improvement is made by cutting a piece of very thin
leather or fustian in a circular shape, somewhat larger than the bore,
which being greased on one side is laid upon the muzzle with its greasy
part downwards, and the bullet being placed upon it, is then forced down
the barrel with it. When this is practised the rifles are generally
shallow, and the bullet ought not to be too large.

  ~Early rifles, breech-loaders.~

As both these methods of charging rifles take up a good deal of time;
the rifled barrels which have been made in England, (for I remember not
to have seen it in any foreign piece,) are contrived to be charged at
the breech, where the piece is made larger, and the powder and bullet
are put in through an opening in the side of the barrel, which, when the
piece is loaded is fitted up with a screw. And perhaps somewhat of this
kind, though not in the manner now practised, would be of all others the
most perfect method for the construction of these sorts of barrels.”


ON THE NUMBER, FORM &c., &c., &c., OF THE GROOVES.

  ~Number of grooves.~

  ~Degree of spirality.~

Almost every description of twist, number, &c., &c., of grooves have
been tried, according to the individual tastes and theories of the
manufacturers. It is absolutely necessary to have two grooves, as a
single one would give a wrong direction. Rifles have been made with,
from two to one hundred and thirty three grooves, and in the majority of
cases, an odd seems to have been preferred to an even number. In Dean’s
Manual it is stated, that “in the numerous collections of arms that have
at various times come under our personal notice, some were rifled with
straight, but the majority with grooves in a spiral line, sometimes with
a half, sometimes a three quarter, and seldom more than a whole turn in
a length of two, two and a half and three feet; deviations based upon no
principle transmitted to us, but requiring nevertheless a decided
research for principles upon which to establish a theory; we have also
met with every one of those configurations of the spiral and form of
groove, &c., &c., which have been arrogated as modern conceits and
discoveries.”

  ~Spirality.~

Some rifles have sharp muzzle twist decreasing to the breech;--sharp
breech twist decreasing to the muzzle; an increase of twist in the
middle of the barrel decreasing at both extremities.

  ~Modification in France. 1740.~

In France a modification of the Carabine took place in 1740;--the
grooves were made to begin at eight inches from the muzzle, the unrifled
part being of the same calibre as the bottom of the grooves, so that the
bullet might pass easily; thus also facilitating the loading of the
weapon.

  ~Rifled only at muzzle.~

There is an old rifle in the United Service Institution, and also a
barrel brought from Lucknow, (in the Model Room of the School of
Musketry,) grooved only for about one foot from the muzzle, the
remainder of the barrels are smooth bored.

  ~Degree of spirality.~

The degree of spirality is found to vary from a whole turn in 1 foot
5-in., to a whole turn in 11 feet.

  ~Depth of spiral.~

The depth of grooves vary from ·005 of an inch, to about ·125; and some
rifles have been made with an alternate deep and shallow groove.

  ~Form of grooves.~

Grooves have been made round, circular, triangular, rectangular, and
indefinite, alternate round and angular, elliptical, polygonal; and some
cut deep only on one side.

  ~Proportion of groove to land.~

Some gun makers are of opinion that there should be a greater proportion
of groove or furrow than of land or plain surface, because they say the
ball is thus more firmly held, while others maintain that by diminishing
the number of the grooves, the accuracy and range would be increased,
and this has led to the opposite theory, that perhaps if anything, the
plain surface of the bore should predominate over the grooved.

  ~Form of early grooves straight.~

The earliest rifles had two straight deep creases opposite to each
other, the bullet being spherical, and furnished with small circular
knots of lead, large enough to fill the creases.

  ~Form &c., of ancient rifles.~

The greater number of ancient rifles have a whole turn, with an odd
number of deep and rounded grooves; hence we may infer these were
considered the best forms.

  ~Objects of rifling.~

As accuracy of direction is the result of a spiral motion round an axis
coincident with the flight of the bullet, communicated to it by the
grooves, it is clear that the depth, number, and form of the grooves
should be such as will hold the bullet firmly, and prevent all tendency
to strip.

  ~On the degree of spirality.~

  ~Sharp twist and large charge not cause stripping.~

The degree of spirality should be sufficient to retain the projectile
point foremost during the whole of its flight. It was at one time
supposed that if the spiral turn was great, and the charge strong, the
bullet would not conform, but strip, and that the same results would
occur even with grooves but little curved. Unquestionably this would
prove true if certain limits were to be exceeded. A false conclusion was
built upon this theory, viz., that the greater the spiral turn the less
the charge should be; and that therefore in rifles intended for war, the
greatest initial velocity being required to produce the greatest range,
the groove should have as little turn as possible; for extreme ranges
have been obtained with Jacob’s, Whitworth’s, and Lancaster’s rifles;
the first has a full turn in 24in. the second in 20in. These rifles
perform well with 90 grains of powder, and both Whitworth’s and
Lancaster’s might even fire better were the charge of powder increased
to 100 grains, the recoil might be objectionable while there would be no
symptoms of stripping.

  ~On depth of groove.~

Great depth of groove can only be hurtful, owing to the difficulty of
closing up all passage to the gas, which should not be allowed to escape
round the bullet, as this would cause deviation and shorten range. Deep
grooves become a receptacle for fouling, are difficult to clean; and
high projections must offer great resistance to the atmosphere, and
particularly to a side wind.

  ~Patches.~

When fustian or leather are used as patches, they receive and
communicate the spiral motion to the bullet, without the zone of the
projectile being at all indented, but in this case the spiral must be
diminished, otherwise the bullet would not turn with the grooves. If the
patches be made of a thick material, the grooves should be many, broad,
and not too shallow, in order to receive the folds of the patch.

  ~Shallow grooves best.~

From our present amount of experience it seems safe to conclude that the
shallower the grooves are the better, so that they perform their
intended functions.

  ~Proportion of groove to land.~

It is now generally recommended that the grooves be made broader than
the lands, _i.e._, that the rifling surface should predominate over the
unrifled part of the bore. Shallow grooves with rounded edges, have the
advantage of not leaving any angular traces on the surface of the
bullet, besides they afford a greater facility for cleaning.

  ~Circular grooving.~

Circular grooving is composed of segments of circles, leaving no sharp
edges on the bullet, and is no doubt a very good form.

  ~Gaining twist.~

  ~Cause of canting.~

An American gentleman named Chapman, who has written a very clever book
upon the rifle, is a strong advocate for the “gaining twist,” which form
prevails generally in American rifles. He states, “In a rifled barrel,
it is obvious that a bullet instantaneously started from a state of
rest, with a velocity of 5,000ft. a second, must exert at the moment of
starting, a tendency to move along the bore in a straight line. However,
meeting with the resistance that the lands employ to keep it to the
twist, it communicates to the rifle itself a certain amount of motion in
the direction of the twist of the creases, and this as the angle of the
twist increases, combined with the size of the calibre, and the weight
of the ball.”

  ~Remedy for canting.~

“If the angle of the twist at the breech end can be reduced, the bullet
at the same time leaving the muzzle with sufficient spin to last
throughout its flight, it is certain we shall have less twisting of the
rifle in the marksman’s hands, less friction of the bullet against the
lands, less tendency for the bullet to upset, (or be destroyed,) and
consequently, from obtaining a higher velocity, (because enabled to use
a greater quantity of powder,) less time for the action of regular or
irregular currents of air.”

  ~Uniform spiral by American Government.~

After careful experiments by the American Government, preparatory to the
establishing the model for their Military Rifle, it was decided that the
turn for the grooves should be uniform; and that those with an
increasing twist did not give any superiority of accuracy. The “gaining
twist,” although adopted by Mr. Lancaster, is opposed by Mr. Whitworth,
and all other Rifle manufacturers, and our increased experience does not
prove it to possess any advantages over uniform spirality. Theory would
indicate that it must occasion increased friction.

  ~Decreasing spiral.~

Mr. Greener advocates decreasing spirality. It is to be hoped he is the
only advocate for so seemingly absurd an idea. To give a certain measure
of spiral turn at the breech, to be withdrawn gradually as the bullet
reaches the muzzle, is simply ridiculous, and which, with other conceits
previously referred to, it is to be hoped are no more to be repeated.

  ~Polygonal rifling.~

By the desire of our first Patron, the late Lord Hardinge, Mr. Whitworth
was induced to turn his mechanical genius to the Soldier’s Gun, which
resulted in his adopting the polygonal form of bore. His barrel is
hexagonal, and thus, instead of consisting of non-effective lands, and
partly of grooves, consists entirely of effective rifling surfaces. The
angular corners of the hexagon are always rounded. Supposing a bullet of
a cylindrical shape to be fired, when it begins to expand it is driven
into the recesses of the hexagon. It thus adapts itself to the curves of
the spiral, and the inclined sides of the hexagon offering no direct
resistance, expansion is easily effected.

  ~Westley Richards octagonal.~

Mr. Westley Richards has followed Mr. Whitworth, by using a polygonal
bore, having applied his highly meritorious system of breech-loading to
a barrel upon the Whitworth principle, of an octagonal form.

  ~Eliptic rifling.~

  ~By Captain Berner, 1835.~

  ~By Mr. Lancaster.~

The cardinal feature of this structure is, that the bore of the barrel
is smooth, and instead of being circular, is cut into the form of an
ellipse, i.e., it has a major and minor axis. Upon being expanded by the
force of the powder, the bullet is forced into the greater axis of the
ellipse, which performs the office of the grooves, rifling the
projectile, and imparting to it the spiral or normal movement round its
own axis. In 1835 a Captain Berner submitted his elliptical bore musket
to the inspection and trial of the Royal Hanoverian Commission,
appointed for that purpose, and which gave results so satisfactory, that
it was considered admirably adapted for the Jäger and Light Infantry
Battalions. This principle has been patented by Mr. Lancaster, and the
advantages of this form have been previously adverted to.

  ~Odd number of grooves.~

It is supposed by some persons that if the number of grooves be even, so
that they will be opposite to one another, the bullet would then require
more force to enlarge it, so as to fill them properly. If the number be
unequal, the lands will be opposite to the grooves, and the lead, in
forcing, spreading on all sides, will encounter a land opposite to each
groove, which will in some measure repel it, and render its introduction
into the opposite groove more complete.

This ingenious theory is set at nought by Whitworth, Jacobs, Lancaster,
W. Richards, &c., &c., who all recommended an even number of grooves,
while the Government arms have an odd number.

  ~Drift or cant.~

If the grooves twist or turn over from left to right, the balls will be
carried to the right; and if from right to left, they will group to the
left; and this result will be great in proportion to the degree of
spirality. The causes of Drift or “Derivation” will be treated of
hereafter. We know from observation that the majority of balls strike to
the right of the mark. The recoil and _pulling_ the trigger throw back
the right shoulder, which tend to increase the “derivation” to the
right. If the twist were, then, from _right_ to _left_, the drift, error
from _pulling_, and from recoil, would tend to neutralize each other;
the twist of the grooves should therefore be from right to left, instead
of the present universal practice of from _left_ to right.

  ~On length of barrel.~

  ~Favors expansion.~

  ~Assists aiming, firing two deep: when using bayonet.~

The barrel of a gun may be looked upon as a machine in which force is
generated for the propulsion of the bullet. It is well known that the
continued action of a lesser force, will produce a much greater effect,
than a greater amount of power applied suddenly; hence mild gunpowder is
more suitable for rifle shooting than strong, or that which evolves the
whole of its gas instantaneously. Time is necessary for the entire
combustion of a charge of gunpowder, consequently more mild gunpowder
can be fired out of a long, than out of a short barrel, as if fired out
of a short barrel, some of the grains might be ejected unconsumed. All
extra length, after the last volume of gas is evolved, can only be
injurious, by causing loss of velocity from friction. A billiard ball
would travel none the further nor straighter, were it to be propelled
through a hollow tube, neither would a barrel to a cross bow aid in
killing rooks. A barrel favours expansion of the bullet, which is
produced by the force of the generated gas, opposed by the column of air
in the hollow tube and by the motion of the projectile. Facility in
aiming is promoted by the sights being distant from each other. In a
military arm a certain length is necessary in order to fire when two
deep in the ranks, and length is also advantageous, should the rifle be
used as a pike.

  ~Advantages of short rifle.~

  ~Disadvantages of short rifles.~

The short rifle can be held steadier when standing, by a weak man, and
during wind, it is handy when passing through a wood or thicket, and a
very short man has more command of his gun when loading; but with the
sword bayonet, it is heavier than the long Enfield and bayonet; while
the sword is very inconvenient when running, firing kneeling, or lying
down.

  ~Thickness of barrel.~

Great substance was at one time considered necessary for accurate
firing, it being supposed necessary to prevent vibrations in the barrel;
this is true within certain limits, and the heavier the charge, the
heavier the metal ought to be, especially at the breech, but diminishing
the thickness, has been proved in no wise to lessen the accuracy. A
heavy barrel also lessens recoil, but it would be folly to carry more
weight than would neutralize the recoil which could be produced by a
greater charge of powder than could be consumed in a given length of
barrel.

  ~Size of bore.~

The two grand requirements of a soldier’s gun are, celerity of loading,
combined with accuracy at long ranges; and the distance at which he
should have the power of firing, should be limited by the strength of
his eye. The weight of the projectile being fixed (·530 grs.), good
shooting at extreme distances can only be obtained by reducing the
diameter of the bore, which, lessening the frontage of the bullet,
causes it to experience less resistance from the air; it therefore
retains a higher degree of velocity than a larger bullet of the same
form and weight, and therefore travels further and faster. Gravity has
less time to act upon it, in a given distance, and therefore it can be
fired at a lower angle, or has what we call a lower trajectory, and its
accuracy is increased in direct proportion to the lowness of its flight,
all other things being equal.

  ~Best form of rifling still undetermined.~

While the best form, &c., &c., for rifles is not yet determined, there
are many points upon which the generality of persons seem more agreed,
viz., reduction of bore to about ¹⁄₂-in. in diameter, fewer grooves,
shorter barrel, and with increased spirality; at least, one may safely
say that ideas seem to travel in this direction.


ON RIFLE PROJECTILES.

  ~Projectiles used in early guns.~

  ~Elliptical iron bullets 1729.~

We have learned that out of early Artillery were fired bolts, darts,
bombs, stones and (more recently) iron shot. From the harquebus and
musket: arrows, darts, quarrels, sprites, iron, and lastly leaden
spherical balls. Some assert that the idea of lengthened eliptical
bullets was enunciated so far back as 1729, and that good results
followed their employment, but it is doubtful whether such really did
take place.

  ~Leutman.~

Leutman, in his “History of St. Petersburgh,” says that “it is very
profitable to fire elliptical balls out of rifled arms, particularly
when they are made to enter by force.”

  ~Robins 1742.~

Robins, in 1742, recommended the use of projectiles of an egg like form,
(see plate 20, fig. 12), they were to be fired with the heavy end in
front, to keep the centre of gravity forward.

  ~Beaufoy 1812.~

Colonel Beaufoy, in a work called “Scloppetaria,” 1812, remarks that
several experiments have been tried with egg-shaped bullets, recommended
by Robins. It was found, however, that these bullets were subject to
such occasional random ranges, as completely baffled the judgment of the
shooters to counteract their irregularity. Their deviations to windward
most likely arose from the effect of the wind on the after part, which,
as being the lightest of the two, was driven more to leeward, and
consequently acted as a rudder to throw the foremost end up to the wind.

  ~Turpin 1770.~

In 1770 Messrs. Turpin tried elongated bullets, at La Fiere, and at
Metz.

  ~Rifled guns &c., 1776.~

We are informed, in the Annual Register for 1776, and also in the Scots
Magazine for the same year, that rifled Ordnance were experimented with
at Languard Fort, &c., &c., in 1774. Dr. Lind, one of the inventors,
states that to remedy the deflection of shot, “One way is to use bullets
that are not round but oblong. But in our common guns that are not
rifled, I know no way to prevent deflection, except you choose to shoot
with a rifled bullet.”

  ~Elongated projectiles 1789.~

  ~1800 and 1815.~

Elongated Projectiles were tried in the years 2, 6, and 9 of the
Revolution, by Mons. Guitton de Moreau. They were proposed by Mons.
Bodeau. In 1800 and 1815 the Prussians tried ellipsodical bullets.
Colonel Miller, Colonel Carron, Captain Blois, and others, also
experimented with the cylindro-conical form.

  ~Captain Norton 1824.~

Captain Norton (late 34th Regt.), the original inventor of the
application of the percussion principle to shells for small arms, in
1824, completed an elongated rifle shot and shell, the former precisely
of the form of the Minié bullet, with projections to fit the grooves of
the barrel.

  ~Mr. Greener 1836.~

Mr. Greener, in 1836, presented an expanding bullet to the Government
for experiment, (plate 20, fig. 13). It is oval, with a flat end, and
with a perforation extending nearly through. A taper plug, with a head
like a round-topped button, is also cast of a composition of lead and
zinc. The end of the plug being slightly inserted in the perforation,
the ball is inserted either end foremost. When the explosion takes
place, the plug is driven home into the lead, expanding the outer
surface, and thus either filling up the grooves of the rifle, or
destroying the windage of the musket. The result was favourable beyond
calculation. Of about 120 shots by way of experiment, a man was able to
load three times to one of the old musket, and accuracy of range at 350
yards was as three to one.

  ~Mr Greener’s invention rejected.~

Mr. Greener’s invention was rejected, and the only notice he received
from the Board was, it being “a compound,” rendered it objectionable!!!

  ~Mr. Greener rewarded.~

The following extract appears in the Estimates of Army Service for
1857-8. “To William Greener, for the first Public Suggestion of the
principle of expansion, commonly called the Minié principle for bullets
in 1836, £1,000.”

  ~Wilkinson 1837.~

  ~Cork plug 1851.~

Many experiments were made by Mr. Wilkinson in 1837, with balls
precisely similar in shape to the Minié, with a conical hole in them,
using a wooden plug; and in 1851 experiments were tried at Woolwich with
a soft elastic cork, fitting the aperture in the projectile very
closely, the compression of which it was conceived would sufficiently
expand the cylindrical part, and make it fit the grooves, &c. In some
instances it succeeded perfectly, but in many the cork was driven
through the lead.

  ~Gen. Jacobs.~

  ~Form of leaden bullet destroyed.~

  ~Zinc point to bullets.~

Major-General Jacobs for many years carried on a series of experiments
with rifles, and in 1846 submitted a military rifle, with an elongated
projectile, for experiments, to the Government at home, and also to that
in India. It did not meet with approval in England, and the Company cut
the matter short by stating, that what was good enough for the Royal
Army was good enough for theirs. There is nothing peculiar in General
Jacob’s rifle. He recommends an elongated projectile (plate 20, fig. 14)
solid at the base, cast with four raised flanges to fit into the
grooves. General Jacobs states, that the desired initial velocity could
not be produced with a projectile made entirely of lead, as a slight
increase of charge had the effect of destroying the form of the
projectile. He also states that the limit of the powers of leaden balls
having been attained, it became necessary to find a method of
constructing rifle balls, so that the fore part should be capable of
sustaining the pressure of large charges of fired gunpowder, without
change of form, and retain that shape best adapted for overcoming the
resistance of the air, on which all accurate distant practice depends;
and at the same time having the part of the ball next the powder
sufficiently soft and yielding to spread out under its pressure, so as
to fill the barrel and grooves perfectly air tight. And he professes to
have solved the problem, by having the fore part of the bullet cast of
zinc, in a separate mould.

  ~Expansion by hollow bore.~

Captain Delvigne, who had been experimenting since 1828, proposed the
adoption of lengthened bullets, consisting of a cylinder terminated by a
cone, which was subsequently replaced by an ogive. He obtained a patent
dated 21st June, 1841, “For having hollowed out the base of my
cylindro-conical bullet, to obtain its expansion by the effect of the
gases produced through the ignition of the powder.”

  ~Hollow in case to throw centre of gravity forward.~

The main object of Captain Delvigne in hollowing the base was, to throw
the centre of gravity forward; but a Captain Blois, in France, had
previously tried this important suggestion. Captain Delvigne states, if
the hollow is too deep, the expansion is too great, and the consequent
friction enormous; or the gas may pass through the bullet, and leave a
hollow cylinder of lead within the barrel. Sometimes the gas will
traverse the sides of the bullet, and consequently the projectile is
deprived of a proportionate amount of velocity; if too small, the
expansion does not take place.

  ~Capt. Minié iron cup.~

Captain Minié, an instructor of the School at Vincennes, merely fitted
into this hollow an iron cup, hoping to prevent the gas forcing its way
through the bullet, and that the iron pressing upon the lead should
increase the expansion. (Plate 20, fig. 7).

  ~Groove suppressed.~

A perfect bullet was now supposed to have been discovered, of a
cylindro-ogival form, (no part was a true cylinder), having a groove
originally intended to fasten on a greased patch, and in some cases the
cartridge, but the patch being dispensed with, and the cartridge
reversed, the groove, supposed to be useless, was suppressed.

  ~Results.~

People were then surprised to find that firing lost much of its
accuracy, and the groove was replaced; when it was observed that any
variation in its shape and in its position, materially affected the
practice. Not only variations in the grooves caused great alteration in
the accuracy of fire, but any modification bearing on the trunk in rear,
or on the fore-ogive, altered the conditions of the firing, so that the
groove became lost in the midst of so many other principles, the
functions of which were so much unknown. These theoretical
considerations served, however, as a point of departure for further
investigations.

  ~Tamisier lengthened bullets.~

Captain Tamisier had not ceased for several years, concentrating his
attention on the subject. He varied the length of the cylindrical part
and the angle of the cone, and tried experiments with bullets of 5-in.
in length, and obtained considerable range, and great accuracy with
them; the recoil however was excessive, and to use such bullets heavier
arms, a smaller bore, and other modifications would be necessary.

  ~Centre of gravity formed by blunting tips.~

He endeavoured to carry the centre of gravity to the furthest possible
point forward, (which Robins suggested 100 years before), but to effect
this he was compelled to flatten the fore end of the bullet, which had
the disadvantage of increasing the resistance of the air to the movement
of projection.

  ~Path rectified by resistance in rear.~

  ~Many cannelures.~

He was then led to another plan for rectifying the path of the bullet
through each instant of projection, and which was by creating at the
posterior end, resistances, which should act in case the axis of the
bullet did not coincide with the direction of motion, and this was
carried out by cutting upon the cylindrical part, instead of one, as
many circular grooves of ·28 in depth, as that cylindrical, or rather,
slightly conical, part could contain. An increased precision in firing
was the immediate result. (Plate 20, fig 15.)

  ~Shape of cannelures.~

Feeling his way most carefully, Captain Tamisier then made a great
number of experiments in this direction, and perceived that it was
important to render the posterior surface of the grooves as sharp as
possible, so as to augment the action of the air; for these grooves lose
their shape, owing to the lead, from its malleable nature, yielding
under the strokes of the ramrod.

  ~Elongated Projectiles, whose Centres of Gravity do not correspond
  with Centre of Figure.~

  ~Action of the air.~

Elongated projectiles, whose centres of gravity do not exactly coincide
with the centre of figure, when they do not turn over, tend to preserve
their axis in the primary direction which was imparted to them, in the
same manner as an imperfectly feathered arrow flying with little
velocity, the point of the moving body being constantly above the
trajectory, and its axis making a certain angle (plate 21, fig 1) with
the target to the curve. Therefore the part A.B. of the bullet being
exposed to the direct action of the air’s resistance, the atmospherical
fluid is compressed on the surface A.B., and rarified upon that of A.C.
Hence it will be perceived that the compressed fluid supports the moving
body, and prevents its descending as rapidly as would a spherical
bullet, which is constructed to meet the same direct resistance from the
air. This trajectory will therefore be more elongated than that of the
spherical bullet in question.

  ~Remedied by the grooves.~

  ~Cause of deviation.~

  ~Remedy.~

But the resistance of the air, acting upon the groove of the projectile,
produces, on the lower part of this groove, an action which tends to
bring back its point upon the trajectory, yet with so little force, that
often, in its descent, the projectile turns over, and moves breadthways
at ranges of 1000 and 1200 yards. The lower side of the projectile,
therefore, moving in the compressed air, and the upper in the rarified
air, deviation must ensue, for, as the upper part of the bullet moves
from left to right, the bottom must move from right to left. But the
lower resistance to the motion of rotation being produced by the
friction of the compressed air, is greater than the upper resistance,
which depends on the friction of the rarified air. By combining these
two resistances, there results a single force, acting from left to
right, which produces what Captain Tamisier termed “derivation,” and it
was to overcome this derivation that this officer proposed the circular
grooves to the bullet, which he considered would act, like the feathers
of the arrow, to maintain the moving body in its trajectory.

  ~How to obtain knowledge of the bullet’s rotation.~

  ~By the arrow.~

  ~Use of feathers on arrows.~

If, however, we would wish to obtain some idea of the rotatory motion of
a bullet in its path through the air, let us consider the action of the
arrow, and see how it is constructed, so that the resistance of the air
should not act in an unfavourable manner. First, nearly all its weight
is concentrated at the point, so that its centre of gravity is close to
it. At the opposite end feathers are placed, the heaviest of which does
not affect the centre of gravity, but gives rise to an amount of
resistance in rear of the projectile, and which prevents its ever taking
a motion of rotation perpendicular to its longer axis, and keeps it in
the direction of its projection. This difficulty which the arrow finds
in changing its direction must concur in preventing its descending so
rapidly as it would do were it only to obey the law of gravity, and must
therefore render its trajectory more uniform.

  ~Similar effects on bullet with grooves.~

Let us, however, now come back to the grooves of Mons. Tamisier, and we
shall find that they concur in giving to the bullet the two actions of
the resistance of the air, which we have demonstrated with respect to
the arrow.

  ~Effect of grooves.~

Suppose that such a bullet describes the trajectory M, and A.B. be the
position of its axis, it will be seen that the lower part of the bullet
re-establishes the air compressed, whilst the upper part finds itself in
the rarified air. That, consequently the lower parts of the cannelures
are submitted to the direct action of the air’s resistance, whilst their
upper parts totally escape this action. (Plate 21, fig. 2). The
resultant of the air’s resistance evidently tends to bring back the
point of the moving body, according to the trajectory; but as this
action is produced by the pressure of an elastic fluid, it results that
the point B, after having been an instant upon the trajectory, will fall
below, in virtue of the velocity acquired; but then the upper grooves
finding themselves acted on by the action of the air’s resistance, this
action, joined to its weight, will force the point of the projectile
upwards, which will descend to come up again, so that the projectile
will have throughout its flight a vertical swing, which is seen
distinctly enough in arrows.

  ~Union of Robins and Tamisier.~

Let us connect the suggestion of Robins, with the experiments of Captain
Tamisier, to cause the posterior end to act as a rudder to guide the
projectile in its true path, as undoubtedly during the descent of a
bullet there is a tendency for the centre of gravity to fall first, as
the ball of the shuttlecock. In the first Prussian balls, and in those
used in the Tige, the centre of gravity being nearer the base, the rear
end of these balls have a tendency to fall before the foremost, but this
is most undoubtedly counteracted by grooves, while it would be
impossible to fire an elongated projectile with its centre of gravity
backwards, with any accuracy out of a smooth-bored gun.

  ~Cannelures improved shooting.~

  ~Why none in English bullet.~

Captain Jervis says that these grooves have the effect of improving the
accuracy of firing when the bullets are not perfectly homogeneous, is
certain, but the British Committee on small arms justly considered that
owing to the careful way in which the bullets are made in England by
compression, these grooves might be dispensed with.

  ~Variety of forms.~

  ~Auxiliaries to expansion, various.~

Almost every conceivable form of projectile, internal and external, have
been made and experimented upon. Auxiliaries to expansion have been
used, made of metal, horn, wood, and leather, with plugs, screws, or
cups of divers shapes. Cannelures are used, of varying forms, depth and
number.

  ~Rotation from smooth bores.~

It has even been attempted to construct bullets upon the screw
principle, so that the projectile should receive spirality from the
action of the air upon its outer or inner surface, when fired out of a
smooth bore musket.

  ~General characteristics of modern rifles.~

The general characteristics of the European rifles, up to 1850, are a
very large calibre, a comparatively light short barrel, with a quick
twist, _i.e._, about one turn in three feet, sometimes using a patch,
and sometimes not, the bullet circular, and its front part flattened by
starting and ramming down.

  ~American alterations.~

It appears that the introduction of additional weight in the barrel,
reduction in the size of the calibre, the constant use of the patch, a
slower twist, generally one turn in 6ft., combined with (what is now
known to be a detriment) great length of barrel, are exclusively
American.

  ~Picket bullet.~

A round ended picket (plate 20, fig. 16), was occasionally used in some
parts of the States, until the invention of Mr. Allen Clarke, of the
flat ended picket, which allows a much greater charge of powder,
producing greater velocity, and consequently less variation in a side
wind.

  ~On the comparative merits of rifles.~

  ~Points in a perfect rifle.~

A rifle may perform first rate at short ranges, and fail entirely at
long, while a rifle which will fire well at extreme ranges can never
fail of good shooting at short. In fact certain calibres, &c., &c., &c.,
perform best at certain distances, and in the combinations of a perfect
rifle there are certain points to be attended to, or the weapon will be
deficient and inferior.

  ~Velocity.~

It is desirable to give a bullet as much velocity as it can safely be
started with, and the limit is the recoil of the gun, and the liability
of the bullets to be upset or destroyed, for as soon as this upsetting
takes place, the performance becomes inferior, and the circle of error
enlarged.

  ~Degree of twist.~

It is clear that a bullet projected with sufficient twist to keep it
steady in boisterous and windy weather, must of necessity have more
twist than is actually necessary in a still favourable time; hence a
rifle for general purposes, should always have too much twist rather
than too little.

  ~Weight of bullet.~

The weight of the bullet must be proportioned to the distance it is
intended to be projected with the greatest accuracy; for it is a law,
that with bodies of the same densities, small ones lose their momentum
sooner than large ones. It would be madness to use a bullet ninety to
the pound at nine hundred yards, merely because it performed first rate
at two hundred yards; or a forty to the pound at two hundred yards,
because it performed well at nine hundred yards. The reason is that a
forty to the pound cannot be projected with as much velocity at two
hundred yards, as the ninety to the pound can, because the ninety uses
more powder in proportion to the weight of the bullet than the forty
does. Again, the heavier bullet performs better than the lighter one at
nine hundred yards, simply because the momentum of the light ball is
nearly expended at so long a range as nine hundred yards, and its
rotatory motion is not enough to keep it in the true line of its flight,
whereas a heavy bullet, having from its weight more momentum, preserves
for a longer distance the twist and velocity with which it started.

  ~Calibre.~

As weight of projectile is a leading element in obtaining accuracy at
long ranges, and as the weight cannot be increased beyond a certain
limit in small arm ammunition, hence a small bore is an indispensable
requisite for a perfect rifle.

  ~Result of Mr. Whitworth’s experiments.~

In the foregoing brief summary of the most important properties which
should be possessed by a first class rifle, we have dealt in
generalities, but we shall now record the experience of Mr. Whitworth,
who has entered into the most minute details, and has pointed out the
harmony which should subsist between the twist, bore, &c., and the
projectile, in the combinations of a perfect rifle.

  ~Bore and weight limited.~

Premising, that when Mr. Whitworth was solicited by the late honored
Lord Hardinge to render the aid of his mechanical genius to the
improvement or perfecting a military weapon, he was restricted as to
length of barrel, viz., 3 feet 3-in., and weight of bullet, ·530 grains.
We shall now proceed and use Mr. Whitworth’s words.

  ~Consideration for curve.~

“Having noticed the form (hexagonal) of the interior which provides the
best rifling surfaces, the next thing to be considered is the proper
curve which rifled barrels ought to possess, in order to give the
projectile the necessary degree of rotation.”

  ~Hexagonal form admits of quick turn.~

“With the hexagonal barrel, I use much quicker turn and can fire
projectiles of any required length, as with the quickest that may be
desirable they do not ‘strip.’ I made a short barrel with one turn in
the inch (simply to try the effect of an extreme velocity of rotation)
and found that I could fire from it mechanically--fitting projectiles
made of an alloy of lead and tin, with a charge of 35 grains of powder
they penetrated through seven inches of elm planks.”

  ~Degree of spiral fixed.~

  ~Diameter of bore determined.~

After many experiments, in order to determine the diameter for the bore
and degree of spirality, Mr. Whitworth adds: “For an ordinary military
barrel, 39 inches long, I proposed a ·45-inch bore, with one turn in 20
inches, which is in my opinion the best for this length. The rotation is
sufficient with a bullet of the requisite specific gravity, for a range
of 2000 yards.” Under these conditions the projectiles on leaving the
gun would be about two and a half diameters of the bore in length. “The
gun responds to every increase of charge, by firing with lower
elevation, from the service charge of 70 grains up to 120 grains; this
latter charge is the largest that can be effectively consumed, and the
recoil then becomes more than the shoulder can conveniently bear with
the weight of the service musket.

  ~Advocates of slow turn.~

  ~Effects of quick turn.~

“The advocates of the slow turn of one in 6 feet 6 inches, consider that
a quick turn causes so much friction as to impede the progress of the
ball to an injurious and sometimes dangerous degree, and to produce loss
of elevation and range; but my experiments show the contrary to be the
case. The effect of too quick a turn, as to friction, is felt in the
greatest degree when the projectile has attained its highest velocity in
the barrel, that is at the muzzle, and is felt in the least degree when
the projectile is beginning to move, at the breech. The great strain put
upon a gun at the instant of explosion is due, not to the resistance of
friction, but to the _vis inertiæ_ of the projectile which has to be
overcome. In a long barrel, with an extremely quick turn, the resistance
offered to the progress of the projectile is very great at the muzzle,
and although moderate charges give good results, the rifle will not
respond to increased charges by giving a better elevation. If the barrel
be cut shorter, an increase of charge then lowers the elevation.”

  ~Objections to increasing spiral.~

“The use of an increasing or varying turn is obviously injurious, for
besides altering the shape of the bullet, it causes increased resistance
at the muzzle, the very place where relief is wanted.”

  ~Length and spiral increased.~

  ~Diameter decreased.~

  ~Trajectory lowered.~

“Finding that all difficulty arising from length of projectiles, is
overcome by giving sufficient rotation, and that any weight that may be
necessary can be obtained by adding to the length, I adopted for the
bullet of the service weight, an increased length, and a reduced
diameter, and obtained a comparatively low trajectory; less elevation is
required, and the path of the projectile lies more nearly in a straight
line, making it more likely to hit any object of moderate height within
range, and rendering mistakes in judging distances of less moment. The
time of flight being shortened, the projectile is very much less
deflected by the action of the wind.”

  ~Proper powder for expanding bullets.~

  ~Powder for hardened bullets.~

  ~Consequences of imperfect expansion.~

  ~Advantages of hexagonal form.~

“It is most important to observe that with all expanding bullets proper
powder must be employed. In many cases this kind of bullet has failed,
owing to the use of a slowly igniting powder, which is desirable for a
hard metal projectile, as it causes less strain upon the piece, but is
unsuitable with a soft metal expanding projectile, for which a quickly
igniting powder is absolutely requisite to insure a complete expansion,
which will fill the bore. Unless this is done the gases rush past the
bullet between it and the barrel, the latter becomes foul, the bullet is
distorted, and the shooting must be bad. If the projectiles used be made
of the same hexagonal shape externally as the bore of the barrel
internally, that is, with a mechanical fit, metals of all degrees of
hardness, from lead, or lead and tin, up to hardened steel may be
employed, and slowly igniting powder, like that of the service may be
employed.”

  ~Mr. Whitworth’s claims.~

Mr. Whitworth does not lay claim to any originality as inventor of the
polygonal system, but merely brings it forward, as the most certain mode
of securing spiral motion, but he deserves to be honored by all
Riflemen, as having established the degree of spirality, the diameter of
bore, to ensure the best results from a given weight of lead, and length
of barrel.


CONCLUSION.

In achieving the important position obtained by the rifle in the present
day, it has nevertheless effected no more than was predicted of it by
Leutman, the Academician of St. Petersburg, in 1728, by Euler, Borda,
and Gassendi, and by our eminent but hitherto forgotten countryman
Robins, who in 1747, urgently called the attention of the Government and
the public to the importance of this description of fire-arm as a
military weapon.

In the War of American Independence, the rifle, there long established
as the national arm for the chase, exhibited its superiority as a _war_
arm also, in so sensible a manner, that we were constrained to oppose to
the American hunters the subsidised Riflemen of Hesse, Hanover, and
Denmark.

  ~Robins’ prophecy.~

We shall close by quoting the last words in “Robins’ Tracts of Gunnery.”

“Whatever State shall thoroughly comprehend the nature and advantages of
rifled barrel pieces, and having facilitated and completed their
construction, shall introduce into their armies their _general_ use with
a _dexterity_ in the _management_ of them; they will by this means
acquire a superiority, which will almost equal anything that has been
done at any time by the particular excellence of any one kind of arms;
and will perhaps fall but little short of the wonderful effects which
histories relate to have been formerly produced by the first inventors
of fire-arms.”

  NOTE.--The preceding articles on the Rifle, Rifling, and Rifle
  Projectiles are mainly compiled from: “New Principles of Gunnery, by
  Robins,” “Scloppetaria,” “Remarks on National Defence, by Col. the
  Hon. A. Gordon,” “Dean’s Manual of Fire Arms,” “Rifle Ammunition, by
  Capt. A. Hawes,” “Rifles and Rifle Practice, by C. M. Wilcox,” “Papers
  on Mechanical Subjects, by Whitworth,” “The Rifle Musket, by Capt.
  Jarvis, Royal Artillery,” “Des Armes Rayees, by H. Mangeot,” “Cours
  Elementaire sur les Armes Portatives, by F. Gillion,” and “Cours sur
  les Armes a feu Portatives, by L. Panot.”




THEORETICAL PRINCIPLES.


DEFINITIONS.

  ~Matter.~

Matter,--everything which has weight.

  ~Body.~

Body,--a portion of matter limited in every direction.

  ~Mass.~

Mass,--the quantity of matter in any body.

  ~Particle.~

Particle,--or material point, is a body of evanescent magnitude, and
bodies of finite magnitude are said to be made up of an indefinite
number of particles, or material points.

  ~Inertia.~

Inertia,--passiveness or inactivity.

  ~Attraction.~

Attraction,--a fundamental law of nature, that every particle of matter
has a tendency to be attracted towards another particle.

  ~Density.~

Density,--is in proportion to the closeness of the particles to each
other.

  ~Volume.~

Volume,--the space bounded by the exterior surface of a body, is its
apparent volume or size.

  ~Elasticity.~

Elasticity,--a body that yields to pressure, and recovers its figure
again; hence air and gasses are elastic bodies; lead a non-elastic body.

  ~Motion.~

Motion,--is the changing of place, or the opposite to a state of rest.

  ~Velocity.~

Velocity,--is the rate of motion; there are four rates of motion, viz.,
Uniform, Variable, Accelerated, and Retarded.

  ~1st. Uniform.~

1st. Uniform,--when a particle traverses equal distances, in any equal
successive portion of time.

  ~2nd. Variable.~

2nd. Variable,--when the spaces passed over in equal times, are unequal.

  ~3rd. Accelerated.~

3rd. Accelerated,--when the distances traversed in equal times are
successively greater and greater.

  ~4th. Retarded.~

4th. Retarded,--when the distances traversed in equal times are
successively less and less.

Acceleration or Retardation, may also be equal or unequal, that is
uniform or variable.

  ~Friction.~

Friction,--arises from the irregularities of the surfaces which act upon
one another.

  ~Force.~

Force,--any cause which produces, or tends to produce a change in the
state of rest, or of motion of a particle of matter.

  ~Measure of force.~

Forces are measured by comparison with weights. Thus any forces which
will bend a spring into the same positions as weights of 1lb., 2lbs.,
3lbs., &c., are called respectively forces of 1lb., 2lbs., 3lbs., &c.,
&c.

  ~Momentum.~

Momentum,--or quantity of motion. If a body moving at first with a
certain velocity is afterwards observed to move with double or triple
this velocity, the quantity of motion of the body is conceived to be
doubled or tripled, hence the momentum of a body, depends upon its
velocity, as the quantity of motion of a body is the product of the
velocity by the mass or weight.

  ~Laws of motion.~

The elementary principles upon which are based all our reasonings
respecting the motions of bodies, are called the “Laws of Motion,” and
as arranged by Sir Isaac Newton, are three in number.

  ~1st Law.~

1st. A particle at rest will continue for ever at rest, and a particle
in motion will continue in motion uniformly forward in a straight line,
until it be acted upon by some extraneous force.

  ~2nd Law.~

2nd. When any force acts upon a body in motion, the change of motion
which it produces is proportional to the force impressed, and in the
direction of that force.

  ~3rd Law.~

3rd. Action and reaction are equal, and in contrary directions. In all
cases the quantity of motion gained by one body is always equal to that
lost by the other in the same direction. Thus, if a ball in motion,
strikes another at rest, the motion communicated to the latter will be
taken from the former, and the velocity of the former be proportionately
diminished.

  ~Centre of Gravity.~

Centre of Gravity,--is that point at which the whole weight of the body
may be considered to act, and about which consequently, the body, when
subjected to the force of gravity only, will balance in all positions.

  ~Specific Gravity.~

Specific Gravity,--the weight belonging to an equal bulk of every
different substance, and is estimated by the quantities of matter when
the bulks are the same; or in other words, it is the density that
constitutes the specific gravity. It is agreed to make pure rain-water
the standard, to which they refer the comparative weights of all other
bodies. Lead is about eleven times the weight of the same bulk of water.

  ~Initial Velocity.~

Initial Velocity is the velocity which a bullet possesses on leaving the
muzzle of a gun; and in the speaking of the velocity of bullets fired
from the musket now used, you understand 1200 feet per second, for the
Initial Velocity.

  ~Angular Velocity.~

Angular Velocity is the velocity with which the circular arc is
described; and depends upon the perpendicular distance of the point from
the axis of rotation.

  ~Terminal Velocity.~

Terminal Velocity: if a cannon ball were to be let fall from a very
great height, it would by the law of gravity, descend with accelerated
motion towards the earth, but as the resistance of the air increases as
the squares of velocities, a point would be reached when the resistance
would be equal to the force of gravity, from whence it would fall to the
earth in uniform motion.

  ~Eccentric Body.~

An Eccentric Body, is one whose centre of figure does not correspond
with the centre of gravity.


MOTION OF A PROJECTILE.

  ~Modified by Gravity and air.~

If no force were acting upon the projectile, except the explosive force
of gunpowder, it would by the first law of motion, move on for ever in
the line in which it was discharged; this motion is modified by the
action of two forces, viz., gravity and the resistance of the air.

As the early cannons were of the rudest construction, and were used only
to force open barriers, or to be employed against troops at a very short
range, it was a matter of secondary consideration what course the bullet
took, indeed it was generally believed, that it flew for some distance
in a straight line, and then dropped suddenly. Acting upon this opinion
we find that most of the early cannon had a large metal ring at the
muzzle, so as to render it the same size as at the breech, and with such
as were not of this construction they made use of a wooden foresight
which tied on to the muzzle, so as to make the line of sight parallel to
the axis, by which they conceived that they might aim more directly at
the object which the bullet was designed to hit.

  ~Leonardo da Vinci, 1452.~

The first author who wrote professedly on the flight of a cannon shot
was a celebrated Italian Mathematician, named Leonardo da Vinci, who
explains his manner of studying phenomena, in order to arrive at safe
conclusions, thus: “I will treat of the subject, but first of all I will
make some experiments, because my intention is to quote experience, and
then to show why bodies are found to act in a certain manner;” and
taking as his motto, “Science belongs to the Captain, practice to the
Soldier,” he boldly asks: “If a bombard throws various distances with
various elevations, I ask in what part of its range will be the greatest
angle of elevation?” The sole answer is a small drawing of three curves,
(plate 20, fig. 3.), the greatest range being the curve about midway
between the perpendicular and the horizontal. Yet this small drawing is
very remarkable when we come to examine it. In the first place, we see
that he recognises the fact that the trajectory is a curve throughout
its length; secondly, that a shot fired perpendicularly will not fall
again on the spot whence it was fired. Simple as they may seem, these
two propositions recognise the force of gravity, resistance of the air,
and the rotary motion of the earth.

  ~Tartaglia, 1537.~

The next author who wrote on the flight of cannon shot was another
celebrated Italian Mathematician, named Tartaglia. In the year 1537, and
afterwards in 1546, he published several works relating to the theory of
those motions, and although the then imperfect state of mechanics
furnished him with very fallacious principles to proceed on, yet he was
not altogether unsuccessful in his enquiries, for he determined
(contrary to the opinion of practitioners) that no part of the track of
a bullet was in a straight line, although he considered that the
curvature in some cases was so little, as not to be attended to,
comparing it to the surface of the sea, which, although it appears to be
a plain, when practically considered, is yet undoubtedly incurvated
round the centre of the earth. It was only by an accident he nearly
stumbled upon one truth in the theory of projectiles, when he stated
that the greatest range obtained by equal forces is at 45°. Calculating
that at the angle 0° the trajectory was null, that by raising the
trajectory, the range increased up to a certain point, afterwards
diminished, and finally became null again when the projective force
acted perpendicularly, he concluded that the greatest range must be a
medium between these two points, and consequently at 45°.

Others thought that a shot, on leaving the muzzle, described a straight
line; that after a certain period its motion grew slower, and then that
it described a curve, caused by the forces of projection and gravity;
finally, that it fell perpendicularly. Tartaglia seems to have
originated the notion that the part of the curve which joined the
oblique line to the perpendicular, was the arc of a circle tangent to
one and the other.

  ~Galileo, 1638.~

In the year 1638, Galileo, also an Italian, printed his dialogues, in
which he was the first to describe the real effect of gravity on falling
bodies; on these principles he determined, that the flight of a cannon
shot, or of any other projectile, would be in the curve of a parabola,
unless it was deviated from this track by the resistance of the air. A
parabola is a figure formed by cutting a cone, with a plain parallel to
the side of the cone.


GRAVITY.

  ~Bullet as influenced by powder and gravity only.~

We will now proceed to consider the course of a bullet, as affected by
_two_ forces only, viz., 1st. The velocity communicated to it by the
explosion of the powder; and 2nd. By the force of Gravity.

The attraction of the earth acts on all bodies in proportion to their
quantities of matter.

  ~If no air, all bodies would fall in same time.~

  ~Gold and dry leaf in same time.~

The difference of time observable in the fall of bodies through the air,
is due to the resistance of that medium, whence we may fairly conclude,
that if the air was altogether absent, and no other resisting medium
occupied its place, all bodies of whatever size, and of whatever weight,
must descend with the same speed. Under such circumstances, a balloon
and the smoke of the fire would descend, instead of ascending as they
do, by the pressure of the air, which, bulk for bulk, is heavier than
themselves. A dry leaf falls very slowly, and a piece of gold very
rapidly, but if the gold be beaten into a thin leaf, the time of its
descent is greatly prolonged. If a piece of metal and a feather are let
fall at the same instant from the top of a tall exhausted receiver, it
will be found that these two bodies, so dissimilar in weight, will
strike the table of the air-pump, on which the receiver stands, at the
same instant. Supposing the air did not offer any resistance to the
onward course of a projectile, and that the instantaneous force
communicated to a bullet, from the explosion of the gunpowder, were to
project it in the line A.B. (plate 21, fig. 4.) from the point A., with
a velocity that will send it in the first second of time as far as C.,
then if there were no other force to affect it, it would continue to
move in the same direction B., and with the same velocity, and at the
next second it would have passed over another space, C.D., equal to
A.C., so that in the third second it would have reached E., keeping
constantly in the same straight line.

  ~Bullet under two forces, powder and gravity.~

But no sooner does the bullet quit the muzzle, than it immediately comes
under the influence of another force, called the force of gravity, which
differs from the force caused by the explosion of the powder, which
ceases to influence the bullet, after it has once communicated to it its
velocity.

  ~An accelerating force.~

  ~Effect of gravity.~

Gravity is an accelerating force, acting constantly upon, and causing
the bullet to move towards the earth, with a velocity increasing with
the length of time the bullet is exposed to its influence. It has been
found from experiment that this increase of velocity will cause a body
to move through spaces, in proportion to the squares of the time taken
to pass over the distance. Thus, if a body falls a given space in one
second, in two it will have fallen over a space equal to four times what
it fell through in the first second, and in the three first seconds it
will have fallen through a space equal to nine times that which it fell
through in the first second.

  ~Result of gravity.~

  ~Course of the bullet.~

The consequence of this principle is, that all bodies of similar figure,
and equal density, at equal distances from the earth, fall with equal
velocity; and if a body describes a space of 16ft. in the first second
of time, it will, in the next second of time, fall _three_ times 16, or
48 feet, and thus will have fallen, from the time it first dropped, four
times 16 feet, or 64 feet, because 4 is the square of 2, the time the
body was falling. In the third second, it will fall 5 times 16 feet, or
80 feet, and these sums collectively, viz., 16 + 48 + 80 = 144 feet, the
whole distance described by the falling body in three seconds of time.

From this it is evident, that instead of moving in a straight line A.
B., (plate 21, fig. 5.), the bullet will be drawn from that course.

  ~Parabolic theory.~

From the point C., draw C. F., equal to the space that the bullet may be
supposed to fall in one second of time, then at the end of the first
second of time the bullet will be at F., instead of at C., and will have
moved in the direction A. F., instead of A. C.; at the end of the next
second it will have fallen a total distance D. G., equal to four times
C. F., thus the bullet will have fallen at the end of the third second a
distance E. H., equal to nine times C. F., and it will have moved in the
line A. F. G. H. instead of the straight line A. B., in which it would
have moved, had it not been affected by the force of gravity. The curve
A. H., is of the form called a Parabola, and hence the theory is called
the “Parabolic Theory.” It is founded on the principle that the velocity
given to the bullet by the explosion of the gunpowder is continued
throughout its course, but this would only be true in vacuo, and is
therefore of little value in calculating the real course of the bullet
in the air.


ON THE TIME TAKEN TO DRAW A BALL TO THE GROUND BY THE FORCE OF GRAVITY.

  ~If fired with axis parallel to the ground.~

1st Case. Supposing a ball to be fired when the axis of the piece is
parallel to the ground and 16 feet above it, then the projectile will
strike the earth in the same length of time that it would have done, had
it been rolled out of the muzzle, quite irrespective of the velocity
with which it may have been propelled, or the consequent extent of
range; that is to say the ball will have reached the point B., (plate
22, fig. 1.), in the same length of time that it would require to fall
from the muzzle A., to the earth C.; _i. e._, in one second.

2nd Case. Were three guns to be fired at the same instant, with their
three axes parallel to the horizon as before, and loaded respectively
with ¹⁄₂ drm., 1 drm., and 1¹⁄₂ drm. of powder of the same strength,
then, although the three initial velocities and three ranges would
consequently all be different, yet the three balls would strike the
ground at the same time, _i. e._ at the points B. B. B. in one second.
(Plate 22, fig. 2.)

  ~If axis at an angle to the ground.~

3rd Case. When a ball is fired at an angle of elevation it will reach
the earth in the same length of time which it would occupy in falling
the length of the tangent of the angle of projection; hence supposing F.
G. (plate 22, fig. 3.) to be 16 feet, the ball would reach the point G.
in one second, irrespective of the distance from D. to G.


ATMOSPHERE.

Let us now take into our consideration the course of a projectile while
under the influence of _three_ forces, viz., powder, gravity, and air.

  ~Why named.~

The atmosphere, or sphere of gases, is the general name applied to the
whole gaseous portion of this planet, as the term ocean is applied to
its liquid, and land to its solid portions.

Being much lighter than either land or water, it necessarily floats or
rests upon them, and is in sufficient quantity to cover the highest
mountains, and to rise nine or ten times their height, to about 45 miles
above the sea level, so as to form a layer over the whole surface,
averaging probably between forty and fifty miles in thickness, which is
about as thick, in proportion to the globe, as the liquid layer adhering
to the surface of an orange, after it had been dipped in water.

  ~Composition of air.~

It consists essentially of two gases, called oxygen and nitrogen, and
also contains a variable quantity of aqueous vapour.

  ~Qualities of air.~

In common with matter in every state, the air possesses impenetrability.
It can be compressed, but cannot be annihilated. It has weight, inertia,
momentum, and elasticity.

In consequence of its weight is its pressure, which acts uniformly on
all bodies, and is equal to between 14lbs. and 15lbs. on every square
inch of surface at the sea-level.

  ~Early idea of air’s resistance.~

  ~How air acts.~

The first experiments that were made on projectiles, were carried out on
the idea that the resistance of the air would not materially affect the
track of a bullet which had great velocity. But the moment a body is
launched into space, it meets with particles of the air at every instant
of its movement, to which it yields part of its velocity, and the air
being a constant force, the velocity of the body decreases at every
instant from the commencement of its motion.


RESULT OF THE AIR’S RESISTANCE.

  ~Robins, 1742, showed effect of air’s resistance.~

  ~Course of ball was not a parabola.~

  ~Why not a parabola.~

It remained for Robins, 1742, in a work then published, to show the real
effect of the atmosphere upon moving bodies. He proved by actual
experiment, that a 24lb. shot did not range the fifth part of the
distance it should have done according to the parabolic theory. If a
cannon shot moved in a parabolic curve, then from the known properties
of that curve, it was evident that when fired with elevation, the angle
of descent of the bullet should have been the same as the angle at which
it was projected, and this he showed was not the case in practice. Now
Robins acknowledged the opinion of Galileo, as regards the force of
gravity, to be correct; he could not therefore attribute to him any
miscalculation on the score of gravity. He therefore concluded, that the
error of the “parabolic theory” arose from the supposition that the
bullet continued to move at the same velocity throughout its course.

  ~Ballistic pendulum.~

Robins tried a series of experiments by firing at a ballistic pendulum
at different distances; the oscillation of this pendulum enabled him to
calculate the velocity of the bullet, at the time it struck the
pendulum, and by this means he ascertained, that according to his
expectations, the bullet moved slower in proportion as it became more
distant from the point at which it was fired. This diminution he
attributed to the resistance of the air.

  ~Trajectory more curved than a parabola.~

From these considerations it is evident that instead of moving over
equal spaces A. C., C. D., D. E., (plate 22, fig. 4), at each succeeding
second of time, it will require considerably longer to traverse each
succeeding distance, and the force of gravity will consequently have
longer time to act upon it, and will have the effect of lowering the
bullet much more than it would do according to the “parabolic theory;”
moreover it is evident, that as the velocity of the bullet diminishes,
the trajectory or path followed by the bullet, will become still more
incurvated.

Having now proved the error of the “parabolic theory,” Robins began his
endeavours to calculate the actual course of the bullet, according to
this new theory which he had demonstrated, but this calculation was
necessarily attended with great difficulties, for in so doing a number
of circumstances had to be considered.

  ~Resultant.~

The resultant of the three forces acting on a projectile, (plate 23,
fig. 1), viz., gunpowder, gravity, and the resistance of the air, is a
motal force, diminishing in velocity at every instant, causing the
projectile to describe a curved line in its flight, the incipient point
of the curve lying in the axis of the bore of the piece, and its
continuation diverging in the direction of the attraction of gravity,
till the projectile obeys the latter force alone.


EXPERIMENTS IN FRANCE.

  ~Angle for greatest range.~

  ~Velocity.~

It is stated by Captain Jervis, R.A., in the “Rifle Musket,” that “From
experiments made in France, it has been found that the greatest range of
the common percussion musket, with spherical bullet fired with the
regulation charge, was at 25°; yet, by theoretical calculation, it
should be 45°; also that the usual velocity was some 500 yards per
second, whilst in vacuum it would be 19,792 yards per second.

  ~Elevation giving certain range.~

“At an angle of from 4° to 5°, the real range was about 640 yards;
without the resistance of the air, and at an angle of 4¹⁄₂°, it would be
3,674, or six times greater.”


ON THE EFFECT OF THE RESISTANCE OF THE AIR UPON THE MOTION OF A
PROJECTILE.

  ~The effect of the air’s resistance upon the motion of a projectile.~

The effect of the resistance of the atmosphere to the motion of a
projectile, is a subject of the greatest importance in gunnery. It has
engaged the attention of the most eminent philosophers, and on account
of the great difficulty of determining by experiment, the correctness of
any particular hypothesis, much difference of opinion is entertained as
to the absolute effect of this retarding force upon bodies moving in the
atmosphere with great velocities; and although sufficient is known to
guide the practical artillerist in that art to which he is devoted,
still as a scientific question, it is one of considerable interest, but
more on account of the difficulty of its solution, than from its
practical importance.

  ~Mr. Robins’ discoveries.~

To our distinguished countryman, Mr. Benjamin Robins, is due the credit
of not only being the first practically to determine the enormous effect
of the resistance of the air in retarding the motions of military
projectiles, but also of pointing out and experimentally proving other
facts with regard to this resistance, which will be noticed when
considering the subject of the deviation of shot from the intended
direction.

  ~Result of Dr. Hutton’s experiments.~

After him, Dr. Hutton made a great number of experiments upon the same
point, viz., the effect of the resistance of the air upon bodies moving
in that medium, both with great and small velocities; and the inferences
which he drew from these experiments, although not absolutely true, are
sufficiently correct for all practical purposes.


ON THE RESISTANCE OF A FLUID TO A BODY IN MOTION.

  ~Circumstances affecting the resistance which a body meets with in its
  motion in a fluid.~

The resistance which a body meets with in its motion through a fluid
will depend upon three principal causes, viz:--

1st. Its velocity, and the form and magnitude of the surface opposed to
the fluid.

2nd. Upon the density and tenacity of the fluid or cohesion of its
particles, and also upon the friction which will be caused by the
roughness of the surface of the body.

3rd. Upon the degree of compression to which this fluid, supposed to be
perfectly elastic, is subjected, upon which will depend the rapidity
with which it will close in and fill the space behind the body in
motion.

  ~The resistance of a fluid to a body as the squares of the
  velocities.~

Firstly, with regard to the velocity of the body. It is evident that a
plane moving through a fluid in a direction perpendicular to its
surface, must impart to the particles of the fluid with which it comes
in contact, a velocity equal to its own; and, consequently, from this
cause alone, the resistances would be as the velocities; but the number
of particles struck in a certain time being also as the velocities, from
these two causes combined, the resistance of a fluid to a body in
motion, arising from the inertia of the particles of the fluid, will be
as the square of the velocity.

  ~Cohesion of the particles of a fluid, and friction.~

Secondly, a body moving in a fluid must overcome the force of cohesion
of those parts which are separated, and the friction, both which are
independent of the velocity. The total resistance then, from cohesion,
friction, and inertia, will be partly constant and partly as the square
of the velocity.

  ~Result.~

The resistances therefore are as the squares of the velocities in the
same fluid, and as the squares of the velocities multiplied by the
densities in different fluids.

Hitherto, however, we have imagined a fluid which does not exist in
nature; that is to say, a _discontinued_ fluid, or one which has its
particles separated and _unconnected_, and also perfectly non-elastic.

  ~Atmosphere, and its properties bearing on the question of its
  resistance.~

Now, in the atmosphere, no one particle that is contiguous to the body
can be moved without moving a great number of others, some of which will
be distant from it. If the fluid be much compressed, and the velocity of
the moving body much less than that with which the particles of the
fluid will rush into vacuum in consequence of the compression, it is
clear that the space left by the moving body will be almost
instantaneously filled up, (plate 23, fig. 2); and the resistance of
such a medium would be less the greater the compression, provided the
density were the same, because the velocity of rushing into a vacuum
will be greater the greater the compression. Also, in a greatly
compressed fluid, the form of the fore part of the body influences the
amount of the retarding force but very slightly, while in a
non-compressed fluid this force would be considerably affected by the
peculiar shape which might be given to the projectile.

  ~Resistance increased when the body moves so fast that a vacuum is
  formed behind it.~

Thirdly. If the body can be moved so rapidly that the fluid cannot
instantaneously press in behind it, as is found to be the case in the
atmosphere, the resisting power of the medium must be considerably
increased, for the projectile being deprived of the pressure of the
fluid on its hind part, must support on its fore part the whole weight
of a column of the fluid, over and above the force employed in moving
the portion of the fluid in contact with it, which force is the sole
source of resistance in the discontinued fluid. Also, the condensation
of the air in front of the body will influence considerably the relation
between the resistances and the velocities of an oblique surface: and it
is highly probable that although the resistances to a globe may for slow
motions be nearly proportional to the squares of the velocities, they
will for great velocities increase in a much higher ratio.


ON THE VELOCITY WITH WHICH AIR WILL RUSH INTO A VACUUM.

  ~The velocity of the rush of air into a vacuum.~

When considering the resistance of the air to a body in motion, it is
important that the velocity with which air will rush into a vacuum
should be determined; and this will depend upon its pressure or
elasticity.

  ~Result.~

It has been calculated, that air will rush into a vacuum at the rate of
about 1,344 feet per second when the barometer stands at 30 inches, so
that should a projectile be moving through the atmosphere at a greater
velocity than this, say 1,600 feet per second, then would there be a
vacuum formed behind the ball, and instead of having merely the
resistance due to the inertia of the particles of the air, it would, in
addition, suffer that from the whole pressure of a column of the medium,
equal to that indicated by the barometer.




UPON THE RESISTANCE OF THE AIR TO BODIES OF DIFFERENT FORMS.


  ~Difficulties of the question.~

The influence of the form of a body upon the resistance offered to it by
a fluid, is a problem of the greatest difficulty; and although the most
celebrated mathematicians have turned their attention to the subject,
still, even for slow motions, they have only been able to frame strictly
empirical formula, founded upon the data derived from practice; while
with regard to the resistance at very high velocities, such as we have
to deal with, very little light has hitherto been thrown upon the
subject.

  ~Compressed fluid.~

When a body moves in the atmosphere, the particles which are set in
motion by the projectile, act upon those in proximity to them, and these
again upon others; and also from the elasticity of the fluid, it would
be compressed before the body in a degree dependant upon the motion and
form of the body. Moreover, the atmosphere itself partakes so much of
the nature of an infinitely compressed fluid, as to constantly follow
the body without loss of density when the motion is slow, but not when
the velocity is great, so that the same law will not hold good for both.
In an infinitely compressed fluid (that is, one which would fill up the
space left behind the body instantaneously) the parts of the fluid which
the body presses against in its motion would instantaneously communicate
the pressure received by them throughout the whole mass, so that the
density of the fluid would not undergo any change, either in front of
the body or behind it, consequently the resistance to the body would be
much less than in a fluid partially compressed like the atmosphere; and
the form of the body would not have the same effect in diminishing or
increasing the amount of resistance.

  ~When a vacuum is formed behind the ball.~

When the velocity of a body moving in the atmosphere is so great that a
vacuum is formed behind it, the action of the fluid approaches to that
of the discontinued fluid.


RESULTS OF EXPERIMENTS WITH SLOW MOTIONS.

  ~Resistance in proportion to surface.~

1st. It appears from the various experiments that have been made upon
bodies moving in the atmosphere, that the resistance is nearly as the
surface, increasing a very little above that proportion in the greater
surfaces.

  ~Resistance as squares of velocity.~

2nd. That the resistance to the same surface with _different_
velocities, is in _slow_ motions nearly as the squares of the velocity,
but gradually increasing more and more in proportion as the velocities
increase.

  ~Rounded and pointed ends suffer less resistance.~

3rd. The round ends, and sharp ends of solids, suffer less resistance
than the flat or plane ends of the same diameter. Hence the flat end of
the cylinder and of a hemisphere, or of a cone, suffer more resistance
than the round or sharp ends of the same.

  ~Sharp ends not always least resistance.~

4th. The sharper ends have not always the smaller resistances; for
instance, the round end of a hemisphere has less resistance than the
pointed end of a cone, whose angle with the axis is 25° 42′.

  ~Form of base affects resistance.~

5th. When the hinder parts of bodies are of different forms, the
resistances are different, though the fore parts are the same. Hence the
resistance to the fore part of a cylinder is less than that on the
equally flat surface of the cone or hemisphere, owing to the shape of
the _base_ of the cylinder. The base of the hemisphere has less
resistance than the cone, and the round side of the hemisphere less than
that of the whole sphere.

  ~Only proved for slow motions.~

The above refers only to _slow_ motions, and the results given, from
experiments with very small velocities; and it is to be expected, that
with very rapid motions the form of the fore, as well as the hind part,
of the projectile, will influence the amount of resistance in a much
higher degree.

  ~Form of hind part.~

That form for the hind part will be best which has the greatest pressure
upon it, when moving with a certain velocity.

  ~Best shape for fore and hind part.~

The ogivale form seems, from experiment, to fulfil the former condition.
The best form for the _hind_ part, for _rapid_ motions, has not been
determined; it may, however, be considered to be of much less importance
than the shape of the fore part.

  ~Form determined by extent of range.~

Of course the best form can be determined by extent of range, but
deductions from this will depend upon such a variety of circumstances,
the effects of some of which must be entirely hypothetical, that the
correctness of any formulæ obtained in this manner must be very
uncertain.

  ~Form suggested by Sir I. Newton.~

Sir Isaac Newton, in his “Principia,” has given an indication of that
form of body, which, in passing through a fluid, would experience less
resistance than a solid body of equal magnitude of any other form. It is
elongated.

  ~Axis of elongated bodies must be fixed.~

It is plain, however, that the minimum of resistance would not be
obtained with a shot of an elongated form, unless the axis can be kept
in the direction of the trajectory; as not only will the axis
perpetually deviate from the true direction, but the projectile will
turn over and rotate round its shorter axis, that is, if fired out of a
smooth bore.

  ~Advantages of conical bullets.~

Conical bullets have an advantage, from their pointed end, which enables
them to pass through the air with greater facility; and for the same
reason they are better calculated to penetrate into any matter than
spherical ones.

  ~Disadvantages of conical bullets.~

A _solid_ bullet cannot be pointed without sending backward the centre
of gravity. The sharper the point, the more it is liable to injury, and
if the apex of the cone does not lie true, in the axis of the
projectile, then such an imperfection of figure is calculated to cause
greater deflections in the flight than any injury which a round surface
is likely to sustain. In penetrating into solid bodies, it is also
important that the centre of gravity should be near its work.


RESISTANCE OF THE AIR, AS AFFECTED BY THE WEIGHT OF PROJECTILES.

  ~Resistance overcome by weight.~

Bodies of similar volume and figure overcome the resistance of the air
in proportion to their densities. The amount of the air’s resistance is
in proportion to the magnitude of the surface.

  ~Contents of circles.~

The superficial contents of circles are as the _squares_ of their
diameters. Hence if the ball A. (plate 23, fig. 3) be 2in. in diameter,
and the ball B. 4in., the amount of resistance experienced would be as
four to sixteen.

  ~Contents of spheres.~

The cubical contents, or weights of spheres, are in proportion to the
_cubes_ of their diameters. Hence the power to overcome resistance in
the balls A and B would be as _eight_ to _sixty-four_. Thus the power to
overcome resistance increases in much greater proportion than the
resistance elicited by increasing the surface.

  ~Advantages of elongated bullets.~

Suppose an elongated body to have the diameter of its cylindrical
portion equal to that of the ball A., _i.e._, E.F. = C.D., (plate 23,
fig. 4), and elongated so that its weight should be equal to that of the
spherical shot B., it is evident that it would meet equal resistance
from the air, to the ball A., having, at the same time, as much power to
overcome resistance as the body B.

Elongated balls, by offering a larger surface to the sides of the
barrel, are less liable to be affected by any imperfections in the bore;
whereas the spherical ball, pressing only on its tangential point, will
give to any little hollows, or undulations, wherever they occur.

  ~Balls cannot be expanded.~

  ~Elongated projectiles easily expanded.~

A spherical ball cannot be expanded into the grooves, unless there be
very little windage, except by blows from the ramrod, the gas escaping
round the circumference of the ball, and giving it an irregular motion
while passing down the barrel; but an elongated projectile can be
readily expanded, and the facility of doing so is in proportion to the
difference of length between its major and minor axis.




DEVIATIONS OF PROJECTILES FROM SMOOTH-BORED GUNS.


  ~Causes of deviation of shot.~

Very great irregularities occur in the paths described by projectiles
fired from smooth-bored guns. It is a fact well known to all practical
artillerists, that if a number of solid shot or any other projectile be
fired from the same gun, with equal charges and elevations, and with
gunpowder of the same quality, the gun carriage resting on a platform,
and the piece being laid with the greatest care before each round, very
few of the shot will range to the same distance; and moreover, the
greater part will be found to deflect considerably (unless the range be
very short) to the right or left of the line in which the gun is
pointed.

  ~Four causes of deviation.~

The causes of these deviations may be stated as follows:--1st, Windage;
2nd, Rotation; 3rd, Wind; 4th, from Rotation of the Earth.


1st CAUSE, WINDAGE.

  ~Action from windage.~

  ~False direction.~

  ~Gives rotation.~

Windage causes irregularity in the flight of a projectile, from the fact
of the elastic gas acting in the first instance on its upper portion,
and driving it against the bottom of the bore; the shot re-acts at the
same time that it is impelled forward by the charge, and strikes the
upper surface of the bore some distance down, and so on by a succession
of rebounds, until it leaves the bore in an accidental direction, and
with a rotatory motion, depending chiefly on the position of the last
impact against the bore. Thus should the last impact of a (concentric)
shot when fired from a gun be upon the right hand side of the bore, as
represented, (plate 23, fig. 5); the shot will have a tendency to
deflect to the left in the direction. While at the same time a rotation
will be given to it in the direction indicated by the arrows.




2nd CAUSE, ROTATION.


  ~Rotation without translation.~

Every body may have a twofold motion, one by which it is carried
forward, and the other by which it may turn round on an axis passing
through its centre, called a motion of rotation.

When a body has only a motion of translation all the particles of which
it is composed move with equal swiftness, and also in parallel
directions; and by the first law of motion, every particle put in such
motion will constantly move with the same velocity in the same
direction, unless it be prevented by some external cause.

  ~Rotation.~

  ~Rotation and translation combined.~

By a motion of rotation, a body without changing its place, turns round
on an axis passing through its centre of gravity. A body may have at the
same time both a progressive and rotatory motion, without either
disturbing the other, and one may suffer a change from the action of
some external force, while the other continues the same as before.

  ~Force through centre of gravity, causes progressive motion only.~

If the direction of the force be through the centre of gravity, it
causes a progressive motion only, that is, if the body was at rest
before, it will move forward in the direction of the impressed force.

  ~Effect of force on a body in motion.~

If a body had a progressive motion before, then impressed force will
cause it to move faster or slower, or to change its direction, according
as the direction of this second force conspires with or opposes its
former motion, or acts obliquely on its direction.

  ~Rotation not disturbed by second force in direction of centre of
  gravity.~

If a body, besides its progressive motion had a motion of rotation also,
this last will not be changed by the action of a new force passing
through the centre of gravity.

  ~Rotation of force does not pass through the centre of gravity.~

If the direction of the force does not pass through the centre of
gravity, the progressive motion will be altered, and the body will then
also acquire a rotatory motion round an axis passing through the centre
of gravity, and perpendicular to a plane passing through the direction
of the force and this centre.


CASES BEARING UPON THE FOREGOING THEORY.

  ~When ball is perfectly round, centre of gravity coincides with
  figure, and no windage.~

1st Case. Suppose the ball to be perfectly round, its centre of gravity
and figure to coincide, and let there be no windage. In this case the
force of the powder not only passes through the centre of gravity of the
shot, but proceeds in a direction parallel to the axis of the bore, and
there would be but small friction due to the weight of the shot.

  ~If windage then rotation.~

2nd Case. But as there is a considerable amount of friction between the
bore and the projectile in the case where there is windage, the
direction of this force being opposite to that of the gunpowder, and
upon the surface of the ball, it will therefore give rotation to the
shot.

  ~Eccentricity causes rotation.~

3rd Case. Suppose the ball to be perfectly round, but its centre of
gravity not to coincide with the centre of figure. In this case the
impelling force passes through the centre of the ball, or nearly so, and
acts in a direction parallel to the axis of the piece; but if the centre
of gravity of the ball lie out of the line of direction of the force of
the powder, the shot will be urged to turn round its centre of gravity.

  ~Angular velocity.~

The angular velocity communicated to the body will depend, firstly, upon
the length of the perpendicular from the centre of gravity upon the
direction of the impelling force, and secondly, upon the law of density
of the material or the manner in which the metal is distributed. The
direction of rotations will depend upon the position of the centre of
figure with regard to that of gravity. (Plate 23, fig. 6.)

  ~Robins’ remarks.~

Robins remarks, bullets are not only depressed beneath their original
direction by the action of gravity, but are also frequently driven to
the right or left of that direction by the action of some other force.
If it were true that bullets varied their direction by the action of
gravity only, then it ought to happen that the errors in their flight to
the right or left of the mark, should increase in proportion to the
distance of the mark from the firer only.

  ~Deflection not in proportion to distance.~

But this is contrary to all experience, for the same piece which will
carry its bullet within an inch at ten yards, cannot be relied upon to
ten inches in one hundred yards, much less to thirty inches in three
hundred.

Now this irregularity can only arise from the track of the bullet being
incurvated sideways as well as downwards. The reality of this doubly
incurvated track being demonstrated, it may be asked what can be the
cause of a motion so different from what has been hitherto supposed.

  ~1st cause of increase, deflection.~

1st Cause. Is owing to the resistance of the air acting obliquely to the
progressive motion of the body, and sometimes arises from inequalities
in the resisted surface.

  ~2nd cause, from whirling motion.~

  ~Direction of a shot influenced by position of axis round which it
  whirls.~

2nd Cause. From a whirling motion acquired by the bullet round its axis,
for by this motion of rotation, combined with the progressive motion,
each part of the bullet’s surface will strike the air in a direction
very different from what it would do if there was no such whirl; and the
obliquity of the action of the air arising from this cause will be
greater, according as the rotatory motion of the bullet is greater in
proportion to its progressive motion; and as this whirl will in one part
of the revolution conspire in some degree with the progressive, and in
another part be equally opposed to it, the resistance of the air on the
fore part of the bullet will be hereby affected, and will be increased
in that part where the whirling motion conspires with the progressive;
and diminished where it is opposed to it. And by this means the whole
effort of resistance, instead of being in a direction opposite to the
direction of the body, will become oblique thereto, and will produce
those effects we have already mentioned. For instance, if the axis of
the whirl was perpendicular to the horizon, then the incurvation would
be to the right or left. If that axis were horizontal to the direction
of the bullet, then the incurvation would be upwards or downwards. But
as the first position of the axis is uncertain, and as it may
perpetually shift in the course of the bullet’s flight, the deviation of
the bullet is not necessarily either in one certain direction, nor
tending to the same side in one part of its flight that it does in
another, but it more usually is continually changing the tendency of its
deflection, as the axis round which it whirls must frequently shift its
position during the progressive motion.

  ~Doubly incurvated track.~

It is constantly found in practice that a shot will deviate in a curved
line, either right or left, the curve rapidly increasing towards the end
of the range. This most probably occurs from the velocity of rotation
decreasing but slightly, compared with the initial velocity of the shot,
or, if a strong wind is blowing across the range during the whole time
of flight, the curve would manifestly be increased according as the
velocity of the ball decreased.


ILLUSTRATIONS OF ROBINS’ THEORY OF ROTATION.

  ~With ball and double string.~

1st Illustration. A wooden ball 4¹⁄₂ inches in diameter suspended by a
double string, nine feet long. It will be found that if this ball
receive a spinning motion by the untwisting of the string it will remain
stationary. If it be made to vibrate, it will continue to do so in the
same vertical plane. But if it be made to spin while it vibrates it will
be deflected to that side on which the whirl combines with the
progressive motion.

  ~By firing through screens.~

2nd Illustration. By firing through screens of thin paper placed
parallel to each other, at equal distances, the deflection or track of
bullets can easily be investigated. It will be found that the amount of
deflection is wholly disproportioned to the increased distance of the
screens.

  ~Bent muzzle.~

3rd Illustration. To give further light upon this subject, Mr. Robins
took a barrel and bent it at about three or four inches from the muzzle
to the left, the bend making an angle of 3° or 4° with the axis of the
piece.

By firing at screens it was found that although the ball passed through
the first screens to the left, it struck the butt to the right of the
vertical plane on which aim was taken in line of the axis of the unbent
portion of the barrel. This was caused by the friction of the ball on
the right side of the bent part of the muzzle, causing the ball to spin
from left to right.


ON ECCENTRIC PROJECTILES.

  ~How to find centre of gravity.~

Sir Howard Douglas, in his “Naval Gunnery,” states:--“The position of
the centre of gravity can be found by floating the projectile in
mercury, and marking its vertex. Then mark a point upon the shot
diametrically opposite to that point, which will give the direction of
the axis in which the two centres lie. Thus the shot can be placed in
the gun with its centre of gravity in any desired position.”

  ~Effect of eccentricity.~

“On making experiments, it appeared that not one shot in a hundred, when
floated in mercury, was indifferent as to the position in which it was
so floated, but turned immediately, until the centre of gravity arrived
at the lowest point, and consequently that not one shot in a hundred was
perfect in sphericity, and homogeneity. Shells can be made eccentric by
being cast with a solid segment in the interior sphere, left in the
shell, or by boring two holes in each shell, diametrically opposite to
one another, stopping up one with 5lbs. of lead, and the other with
wood. When the centre of gravity was above the centre of the figure, the
ranges were the longest, and when below, the shortest. When to the right
or left hand, the deviations were also to the right or left. The mean
range which, with the usual shot, was 1640 yards, was, with the shot
whose centres of gravity and of figure were not coincident, the centre
of gravity being upwards, equal to 2140 yards, being an increase of 500
yards.

  ~Ricochet of eccentric shot.~

“With respect to the ricochet of eccentric spherical projectiles, the
rotation which causes deflection in the flight, must act in the same
manner to impede a straight forward graze. When an ordinary well formed
homogenous spherical projectile, upon which probably very little
rotation is impressed, makes a graze, the bottom of the vertical
diameter first touches the plane, and immediately acquires, by the
reaction, a rotation upon its horizontal axis, by which the shot rolls
onwards throughout the graze, probably for a straight forward second
flight. But in the case of an eccentric spherical projectile, placed
with its centre of gravity to the right or to the left, its rotation
upon its vertical axis during the graze must occasion a fresh deflection
in its second flight, and it is only when the centre of gravity is
placed in a vertical plane passing through the axis of the gun, that the
rotation by touching the ground will not disturb the direction of the
graze, though the extent of range to the first graze will be affected
more or less according as the centre of gravity may have been placed
upwards or downwards. Whether the rebounds take place from water, as in
the experiments made on board the “Excellent,” or on land, as those
carried on at Shoeburyness, the shot, when revolving on a vertical axis,
instead of making a straight forward graze, suffered deflection which
were invariably towards the same side of the line of fire as the centre
of gravity; and at every graze up to the fourth, a new deflection took
place.

  ~Knowledge derived from experiments with eccentric shot.~

“The results of these very curious and instructive experiments fully
explain the extraordinary anomalies, as they have heretofore been
considered, in length of range and in the lateral deviations: these have
been attributed to changes in the state of the air, or the direction of
the wind, to differences in the strength of the gunpowder, and to
inequalities in the degrees of windage. All these causes are, no doubt,
productive of errors in practice, but it is now clear that those errors
are chiefly occasioned by the eccentricity and nonhomogeneity of the
shot, and the accidental positions of the centre of gravity of the
projectile with respect to the axis of the bore. The whole of these
experiments furnish decisive proof of the necessity of paying the most
scrupulous attention to the figure and homogeneity of solid shot, and
concentricity of shells, and they exhibit the remarkable fact that a
very considerable increase of range may be obtained without an increase
in the charge, or elevation of the gun.”

  ~No advantage in using eccentric projectiles.~

It is not to be expected that eccentric projectiles would be applicable
for general purposes, on account of the degree of attention and care
required in their service, nor would much advantage be gained by their
use, as the momentum is not altered, and it is only necessary to give
the ordinary shot a little more elevation in order to strike the same
object.

  ~Range of elongated projectiles at certain low elevations greater in
  air than in vacuo.~

There is another point of great importance with regard to the range of
elongated projectiles. It is asserted by Sir W. Armstrong and others,
that at certain low elevations the range of an elongated projectile is
greater in the atmosphere than in vacuo, and the following is the
explanation given by the former of this apparent paradox. “In a vacuum,
the trajectory would be the same, whether the projectile were elongated
or spherical, so long as the angle of elevation, and the initial
velocity were constant; but the presence of a resisting atmosphere makes
this remarkable difference, that while it greatly shortens the range of
the round shot, it actually prolongs that of the elongated projectile,
provided the angle of elevation do not exceed a certain limit, which, in
my experiments, I have found to be about 6°. This appears, at first,
very paradoxical, but it may be easily explained. The elongated shot, if
properly formed, and having a sufficient rotation, retains the same
inclination to the horizontal plane throughout its flight, and
consequently acquires a continually increasing obliquity to the curve of
its flight. Now the effect of this obliquity is, that the projectile is
in a measure sustained upon the air, just as a kite is supported by the
current of air meeting the inclined surface, and the result is that its
descent is retarded, so that it has time to reach to a greater
distance.”

  ~Charge.~

The form and weight of the projectile being determined as well as the
inclination of the grooves, the charge can be so arranged as to give the
necessary initial velocity, and velocity of rotation; or if the nature
of projectile and charge be fixed, the inclination of the grooves must
be such as will give the required results. The most important
consideration is the weight and form of projectile; the inclination of
the grooves, the charge, weight of metal in the gun, &c., are regulated
almost entirely by it. The charges used with rifle pieces are much less
than those with which smooth-bored guns are fired, for little or none of
the gas is allowed to escape by windage, there being therefore no loss
of force; and it is found by experience that, with comparatively low
initial velocities, the elongated projectiles maintain their velocity,
and attain very long ranges.

  NOTE.--The foregoing articles on “Theory,” are principally extracted
  from “New Principles of Gunnery by Robins,” “Treatise on Artillery, by
  Lieut.-Colonel Boxer, R.A.” “The Rifle Musket, by Captain Jervis,
  M.P., Royal Artillery.” “Elementary Lecturers on Artillery, by Major
  H. C. Owen and Captain T. Dames, Royal Artillery.”


THE END.

[Illustration: PLATE 1.

FIG. 1.

Powder Mill.

FIG. 2.

Old Eprouvette Pendulum

FIG. 3.

New Pattern Eprouvette

_Harry Vernon delt._

Day & Son Lith^{rs}. to the Queen.]

[Illustration: PLATE 2.

Hydraulic Press

_Enlarged section of Valve_

_Harry Vernon delt._

Day & Son Lith^{rs}. to the Queen.]

[Illustration: PLATE 3.

Robins’ Balistic Pendulum

_Harry Vernon delt._

Day & Son Lith^{rs}. to the Queen.]

[Illustration: PLATE 4.

FIG. 1.

Bow unstrung

FIG. 2.

Bow strung

FIG. 3.

Hand or Arrow Rocket

FIG. 4.

Five barrelled Matchlock

FIG. 5.

Revolving Barrelled Matchlock

CHINESE EXPLOSIVE AND OTHER WEAPONS.

FIG. 6.

Asiatic Bow

_Harry Vernon delt._

Day & Son Lith^{rs}. to the Queen]

[Illustration: PLATE 5.

FIG. 1.

Matchlock

FIG. 2.

Breech loading Gingal (Chamber in)

FIG. 3.

Breech loading Gingal (Chamber out)

CHINESE EXPLOSIVE ARMS.

_Harry Vernon delt._

Day & Son Lith^{rs}. to the Queen.]

[Illustration: PLATE 6.

FIG. 1.

FIG. 2.

FIG. 3.

FIG. 4.

_Harry Vernon dele._

MACHINES FOR THROWING DARTS AND STONES.

Day & Son Lith^{rs}. to the Queen.]

[Illustration: PLATE 7.

ONAGER (SLUNG).

_Harry Vernon delt._

Day & Son, Lith^{rs}. to the Queen.]

[Illustration: PLATE 8.

Onager (unslung).

_Harry Vernon delt._

Day & Son Lith^{rs}. to the Queen.]

[Illustration: PLATE 9.

Balista

_Arthur Walker C.^{t} 79.^{th} delt._

Day & Son Lith^{rs}. to the Queen.]

[Illustration: PLATE 10.

Catapulta.

_Dessiné par Arthur Walker._

Day & Son Lith^{rs}. to the Queen.]

[Illustration: PLATE 11.

FIG. 1.

Staff slings, Longbows, Crossbows and Flail.

FIG. 2.

Onager.

FIG. 3.

Trepied.

_Harry Vernon delt._

Day & Son Lith^{rs}. to the Queen.]

[Illustration: PLATE 12.

Detail of Springs.

Balista.

_Harry Vernon Staff Serj^{t}. del._

Day & Son Lith^{rs}. to the Queen.]

[Illustration: PLATE 13.

FIG. 1.

FIG. 2.

FIG. 3.

_Harry Vernon delt._

A Cross bow man and Slinger.

Day & Son Lith^{rs}. to the Queen.]

[Illustration: PLATE 14.

FIG. 1.

FIG. 2.

FIG. 3.

FIG. 4.

Cross-bows and Quarrels.

_Harry Vernon delt._

Day & Son Lith^{rs}. to the Queen.]

[Illustration: PLATE 15.

_Harry Vernon delt._

A Cross bow man and his Paviser.

Day & Son Lith^{rs}. to the Queen.]

[Illustration: PLATE 16.

FIG. 1.

Gun and Querrel Temp: Edward 3^{rd}. Sloane M^{ss}.

FIG. 2.

Small chambered Cannon from the Santini M^{ss}.

FIG. 3.

Santini M^{ss}. Early part of 15^{th} Cent^{y}.

FIG. 4.

Mode of mounting from Froissart.

FIG. 5.

Method of obtaining elevation.

FIG. 6.

Mode of Mounting from Valturius.

FIG. 7.

From the wreck of the “Mary Rose” Temp: Henry 8^{th}.

FIG. 8.

Hooped Cannon in wooden bed.

FIG. 9.

Ancient Screw piece.

FIG. 10.

Ancient Screw Breech loader.

FIG. 11.

Chinese Field piece Peiho 1860.

FIG. 12.

Ancient howitzer Cannon for throwing balls Filled with powder

_Arthur Walker delt._

Day & Son Lith^{rs}. to the Queen.]

[Illustration: PLATE 17.

FIG. 1.

Giorgio Martini, 15^{th}. Century, latter part.

FIG. 2.

Queen Elizabeth’s Pocket Pistol.

Mons Meg.

Chamber.

Pierrier or Paterera__16^{th}. Century.

_H. Cautly del._

Day & Son Lith^{rs}. to the Queen.]

[Illustration: PLATE 18.

FIG. 1.

Cart of War.__Temp: Henry 8^{th}.

FIG. 2.

“Moolik i Meidan.”

FIG. 3.

Bombard and Carriage.__15^{th}. Cent^{y}.

FIG. 4.

Long Serpentine of Wrought Iron.__15^{th}. Cent^{y}.

_R.G. Coles del.^{t}_

Day & Son Lith^{rs}. to the Queen.]

[Illustration: PLATE 19.

FIG. 1.

FIG. 2.

FIG. 3.

FIG. 4.

FIG. 5.

FIG. 6.

FIG. 7.

FIG. 8.

FIG. 9.

Musketeer 16^{th}. Cent^{y}.

FIG. 10.

Earliest form of Hand Gun.

FIG. 11.

FIG. 12.

_Arthur Walker, delt._

Day & Son Lith^{rs}. to the Queen.]

[Illustration: PLATE 20.

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

18

19

Day & Son Lith^{rs}. to the Queen.]

[Illustration: PLATE 21.

FIG. 1.

FIG. 2.

FIG. 3.

FIG. 4.

FIG. 5.

_Arthur Walker del._

Day & Son Lith^{rs}. to the Queen.]

[Illustration: PLATE 22.

FIG. 1.

FIG. 2.

FIG. 3.

FIG. 4.

_Arthur Walker L^{t}. 79^{th}. del._

Day & Son Lith^{rs}. to the Queen.]

[Illustration: PLATE 23.

FIG. 1.

FIG. 2.

FIG. 3.

FIG. 4.

FIG. 5.

FIG. 6.

_Harry Vernon Staff Serj^{t}. del._

Day & Son Lith^{rs}. to the Queen.]




Extended Table of Contents


                                                                    Page
  INTRODUCTION.                                                        i

  CONTENTS                                                           iii

  ERRATA.                                                             iv

  HISTORY OF GUNPOWDER.                                                1
    GREEK FIRE.                                                        4

  ON THE MANUFACTURE OF GUNPOWDER.                                     7
    SALTPETRE, OR NITRE.                                               7
      OLD METHOD.                                                      7
      NEW METHOD.                                                      8
    CHARCOAL.                                                          9
    SULPHUR.                                                          11
    PULVERIZING THE INGREDIENTS.                                      11
    MIXING THE INGREDIENTS.                                           12
    THE INCORPORATING MILL.                                           12
    INCORPORATING THE INGREDIENTS.                                    13
    BREAKING DOWN THE MILL CAKE.                                      14
    PRESSING THE MEAL BY THE HYDRAULIC PRESS.                         14
    GRANULATING THE PRESS CAKE.                                       15
    DUSTING LARGE-GRAIN POWDER.                                       16
    DUSTING FINE-GRAIN POWDER.                                        17
    GLAZING FINE-GRAIN POWDER.                                        17
    STOVING OR DRYING POWDER.                                         17
    FINISHING DUSTING.                                                17
    EXAMINATION AND PROOF OF GUNPOWDER.                               18
    PROOF OF MERCHANT’S POWDER.                                       18
    REMARKS ON THE PROOF OF POWDER BY THE EPROUVETTES.                19
    OF THE SIZE OF GRAIN FOR GUNPOWDER.                               19
    OBSERVATIONS ON THE MANUFACTURE OF GUNPOWDER ON THE CONTINENT
    AND AMERICA.                                                      20
      PRODUCTION AND PURIFICATION OF THE INGREDIENTS.                 20
      PULVERIZING AND MIXING THE INGREDIENTS.                         20
      INCORPORATING PROCESS.                                          21
      GRANULATING.                                                    21
      STOVING OR DRYING.                                              21
    NEW RIFLE POWDER.                                                 22

  ON MAGAZINES.                                                       23

  LIGHTNING CONDUCTORS.    24

  ON THE EXPLOSIVE FORCE OF GUNPOWDER.                                29
    FOULING.                                                          35
    EFFECTS OF GUNPOWDER ON METALS.                                   35
    MISCELLANEOUS EXPERIMENTS.                                        36
    ON THE TIME REQUIRED FOR IGNITION OF GUNPOWDER.                   38
    EFFECTS OF ACCIDENTAL EXPLOSIONS OF GUNPOWDER.                    38

  ON ANCIENT ENGINES OF WAR.                                          39
    THE SLING.                                                        43
    THE BOW.                                                          44
    MERITS OF THE LONG BOW.                                           45
    Our Forefathers encouraged to acquire skill in archery by legal
    enactments, and by the founders of our public schools.            47
      1ST. BY LEGAL ENACTMENTS.                                       47
      2ND.—BY THE FOUNDERS OF OUR PUBLIC SCHOOLS.                     48
    MEANS BY WHICH SKILL IN ARCHERY WAS ACQUIRED.                     49
    PROOFS OF THE IMPORTANCE OF ARCHERY.                              52
    MILITARY AND POLITICAL CONSEQUENCES OF SKILL IN THE USE OF THE
    BOW.                                                              53
    THE ARBALEST, OR CROSS-BOW.                                       54
    DESCRIPTION OF CROSS-BOW.                                         57
    COMPARATIVE MERITS OF THE LONG AND CROSS BOW.                     59
    COMPARATIVE MERITS BETWEEN BOWS AND EARLY FIRE-ARMS.              59

  HISTORY OF ARTILLERY.                                               62
    ETYMOLOGIES.                                                      72

  HISTORY OF PORTABLE FIRE-ARMS.                                      73

  THE BAYONET.                                                        83

  ACCOUTREMENTS AND AMMUNITION.                                       84

  HISTORY OF THE RIFLE.                                               86
    RIFLED BREECH-LOADERS.                                            92

  ON RIFLING.                                                         95
    ON THE NUMBER, FORM &c., &c., &c., OF THE GROOVES.                96
    ON RIFLE PROJECTILES.                                            101
    CONCLUSION.                                                      108

  THEORETICAL PRINCIPLES.                                            110
    DEFINITIONS.                                                     110
    MOTION OF A PROJECTILE.                                          111
    GRAVITY.                                                         113
    ON THE TIME TAKEN TO DRAW A BALL TO THE GROUND BY THE FORCE OF
    GRAVITY.                                                         114
    ATMOSPHERE.                                                      115
    RESULT OF THE AIR’S RESISTANCE.                                  115
    EXPERIMENTS IN FRANCE.                                           116
    ON THE EFFECT OF THE RESISTANCE OF THE AIR UPON THE MOTION OF
    A PROJECTILE.                                                    117
    ON THE RESISTANCE OF A FLUID TO A BODY IN MOTION.                117
    ON THE VELOCITY WITH WHICH AIR WILL RUSH INTO A VACUUM.          118

  UPON THE RESISTANCE OF THE AIR TO BODIES OF DIFFERENT FORMS.       119
    RESULTS OF EXPERIMENTS WITH SLOW MOTIONS.                        119
    RESISTANCE OF THE AIR, AS AFFECTED BY THE WEIGHT OF PROJECTILES. 121
    DEVIATIONS OF PROJECTILES FROM SMOOTH-BORED GUNS.                121
      1st CAUSE, WINDAGE.                                            121
      2nd CAUSE, ROTATION.                                           122
    CASES BEARING UPON THE FOREGOING THEORY.                         122
    ILLUSTRATIONS OF ROBINS’ THEORY OF ROTATION.                     124
    ON ECCENTRIC PROJECTILES.                                        124

  Original Table of Contents




Transcriber’s Notes


  The original language has been retained, including inconsistencies and
  errors in spelling, hyphenation, capitalisation, etc., except as
  mentioned below.

  Depending on the hard- and software used and their settings, not all
  elements may display as intended.

  Table of Contents: as present in the source document. The reason for
  the order of entries is not clear, and some chapters are not listed,
  nor are the sections. The structure of the text has been determined
  based on what seemed the most logical interpretation of (the lay-out
  of) the chapter and section headings in the text. The Extended Table
  of Contents in the back of the book has been created for this text on
  the basis of this assumed structure.

  The text refers to the plates by both Roman and Arabic numbers. This
  has not been standardised. The numbering of the actual plates has been
  standardised.

  Page 29, great inconvenience ... quite preclude: as printed in the
  source document.

  Page 29 and 35 (and Errata), sulphite and sulphide: as printed in the
  source document.

  Page 30 and 31, calculations: as printed in the source document.

  Page 44, Slings were used in 1572, at the siege of Sancere by the
  Huguenots, in order to save their powder: there should be a comma
  after Sancere, the Huguenots were the besieged party.

  Page 47, Our forefathers ... public schools: considered to be a
  section heading.

  Page 66, both the king’s feed men: other sources mention Peter Bawd
  and Peter Vancollen / Van Collen as freed men.

  Page 107, weight of bullet, ·530 grains: as printed in the source
  document, but unlikely to be correct.

  Page 114, paragraph on Parabolic theory: even with the corrections
  mentioned in the errata, some of the reference letters are missing; F,
  G and H are presumably the ends of the vertical lines through C, D and
  E respectively.

  Page 119, strictly empirical formula: should probably have been a
  plural.


  Changes made:

  Sidenotes have been moved to directly before, footnotes have been
  moved to directly after the paragraph to which they refer.

  Some minor obvious punctuation and typographical errors have been
  corrected silently.

  B.C./B. C. and A.D./A. D. have been standardised to B. C. and A. D.,
  respectively. Minie, Miniè (the spelling used most commonly in this
  book) and Minié have been standardised to Minié.

  The (corrected, see below) Errata have already been applied to the
  text.

  Errata: Page 32, para. 6, line 10 changed to Page 32, para.7, line 10;
  IX and XII changed to ix and xii; Page 84, para. 2, line 1 (2nd entry)
  changed to Page 84, para. 3, line 1. Subalterns changed to subaltern
  officers; Page 91, para. 5 changed to Page 91, para. 4; sign changed
  to sine.

  Page 4: Poganatus changed to Pogonatus as elsewhere

  Page 5: Talavara changed to Talavera

  Page 21: frustrum changed to frustum

  Page 30: 3490 changed to 3940

  Page 32, sidenote: Robert changed to Piobert (as in text and Errata)

  Page 35: deliquescient changed to deliquescent

  Page 38: dull read heat changed to dull red heat

  Page 52: closing quote mark inserted after Shooting-fields

  Page 54: yeoman or archers changed to yeomen or archers

  Page 61: opening quote mark inserted before Report of the Rifle Match

  Page 65: opening quote marks inserted before Musée

  Page 74, sidenote: 1491 changed to 1471

  Page 86, Bàle changed to Bâle

  Page 88, sidenote: Carabine a Tige changed to Carabine à Tige

  Page 105: cups divers shapes changed to cups of divers shapes

  Page 115: Plate 21, fig. 2 changed to Plate 22, fig. 2

  Plate 18: opening quote marks inserted before Moolik.