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CHILE AND HER PEOPLE OF TO-DAY




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[Illustration: A CHILEAN GIRL WITH THE _MANTA_.

(_See page 90_)]




                              CHILE AND HER
                                PEOPLE OF
                                 TO-DAY

                            AN ACCOUNT OF THE
                  CUSTOMS, CHARACTERISTICS, AMUSEMENTS,
                         HISTORY AND ADVANCEMENT
                        OF THE CHILEANS, AND THE
                      DEVELOPMENT AND RESOURCES OF
                              THEIR COUNTRY

                                   BY
                             NEVIN O. WINTER

              Author of “Mexico and Her People of To-day,”
                  “Guatemala and Her People of To-day,”
                   “Brazil and Her People of To-day,”
                      “Argentina and Her People of
                                 To-day”

                 ILLUSTRATED FROM ORIGINAL AND SELECTED
                        PHOTOGRAPHS BY THE AUTHOR

                             [Illustration]

                                 BOSTON
                         L. C. PAGE AND COMPANY
                                MDCCCCXII

                            _Copyright, 1912_
                         BY L. C. PAGE & COMPANY
                             (INCORPORATED)

                          _All rights reserved_

                     First Impression, January, 1912

                      _Electrotyped and Printed by
                           THE COLONIAL PRESS
                  C. H. Simonds & Co., Boston, U.S.A._




PREFACE


To the jealousy of Francisco Pizarro was due the discovery and conquest
of Chile. Reports having reached Pizarro that there were regions to the
south yet virgin, and teeming with wealth richer than that of Peru, he
sent Diego de Almagro, one of his lieutenants, with an expedition to
conquer these unknown lands. Almagro failed, and later he sent Pedro de
Valdivia with another expedition. There was another reason for sending
these expeditions, for Pizarro hoped that neither of these men would
return to Peru, since he feared their shrewdness and popularity.

Valdivia succeeded in establishing a permanent settlement, but himself
fell a victim to the hardy tribesmen of the central valley of Chile, who
were far different from the soft and mild Incas enslaved by Pizarro. He
had found that it was no easy task he had undertaken, and the sturdy race
of Araucanians was still unconquered when the Spaniards were driven out
of the country by the generations that had grown up from the time of its
first settlement.

The Chileans have ever been independent in thought and action, and they
have proved to be the best soldiers of South America. The temperate
climate, the mountainous character of the country and its isolation,
and the admixture of blood with the unconquerable Araucanians, who most
nearly resemble the North American redmen of any of the aborigines
of South America, have all contributed to the development of this
characteristic.

The government is now as stable and hopeful as that of any of the South
American nations, and, because of its natural formation, Chile has
developed into the strongest maritime nation of that continent. Its fine
bays and harbours, its coal supplies and its long seacoast, undoubtedly
destine Chile to be the master of the southern seas in the ages yet to
come. Furthermore, its vast and fertile valleys, where every product of
the temperate climate grows, and where immense herds of cattle may be
fed, its mineral wealth and vast nitrate fields, undoubtedly destine it
to a greatness on land as well as on the sea.

The history of Chile has always appealed to the writer, in common with
thousands of other people, and it has been a pleasure to trace the
development of the country from its incipiency to its present condition.
The same care has been exercised in the preparation of “Chile and Her
People of To-day” as in the other books of the series, which have been so
well received. Any repetitions that appear of expressions or ideas are
intentional and not the result of hasty or careless preparation.

The author wishes to acknowledge his obligation to The Pan-American
Bulletin for two or three photographs which appear in this work, and also
to the Bureau under which it is issued for many courtesies received at
the hands of the Director and his associates.

                                                         NEVIN O. WINTER.

    TOLEDO, OHIO, _January, 1912_.




CONTENTS


  CHAPTER                                                             PAGE

        PREFACE                                                          v

     I. THE COUNTRY                                                      1

    II. THE WEST COAST                                                  19

   III. VALE OF PARADISE                                                46

    IV. THE CITY OF SAINT JAMES                                         69

     V. THE GRANARY OF THE REPUBLIC                                     92

    VI. THE LAND OF THE FIRE                                           120

   VII. THE BACKBONE OF THE CONTINENT                                  148

  VIII. A LABORATORY OF NATURE                                         178

    IX. THE PEOPLE                                                     191

     X. AN UNCONQUERABLE RACE                                          212

    XI. EDUCATION AND THE ARTS                                         230

   XII. THE DEVELOPMENT OF TRANSPORTATION                              243

  XIII. RELIGIOUS INFLUENCES                                           261

   XIV. THE STRUGGLE FOR INDEPENDENCE                                  280

    XV. THE NITRATE WAR                                                315

   XVI. CIVIL WAR AND ITS RESULTS                                      336

  XVII. PRESENT CONDITIONS AND FUTURE POSSIBILITIES                    360

        APPENDICES                                                     391

        INDEX                                                          405




LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS


                                                                      PAGE

  A CHILEAN GIRL WITH THE _MANTA_ (_See page 90_)            _Frontispiece_

  MAP OF CHILE                                                           2

  THE ANDES FROM SANTA LUCIA                                             6

  THE WEST COAST                                                        20

  A MILK BOY IN PERU                                                    28

  ROW BOATS CROWDING AROUND A STEAMER                                   33

  THE HARBOUR OF ARICA                                                  36

  A STREET SCENE, ANTOFAGASTA                                           42

  COQUIMBO, A TYPICAL WEST COAST TOWN                                   44

  AN “ASCENSOR” IN VALPARAISO                                           47

  A CHICKEN PEDDLER, VALPARAISO                                         57

  A VENDER OF DONKEY’S MILK, VALPARAISO                                 58

  AN ATTRACTIVE HOME, VIÑA DEL MAR                                      60

  SANTA LUCIA                                                           71

  ALAMEDA DE LAS DELICIAS, SANTIAGO                                     72

  DANCING LA CUECA, THE NATIONAL DANCE                                  75

  A GROUP OF NEWSBOYS, SANTIAGO                                         81

  A MARKET SCENE, SANTIAGO                                              82

  THE OLDEST BUILDING IN SANTIAGO                                       89

  A PLANTATION OWNER                                                    97

  DRAWING AN AMERICAN THRESHER                                          99

  VIEW OF PUERTO MONTT                                                 108

  IN THE STRAITS OF MAGELLAN                                           122

  A WRECK ON THE COAST OF CHILE                                        128

  GENERAL VIEW OF PUNTA ARENAS                                         132

  PORT FAMINE, IN THE STRAITS OF MAGELLAN                              135

  THE ACONCAGUA RIVER                                                  149

  LOOKING TOWARDS ACONCAGUA                                            151

  THE SALTO DEL SOLDADO                                                154

  REFUGE HOUSE ALONG THE OLD INCA TRAIL                                157

  THE CHRIST OF THE ANDES                                              161

  THE SOLITUDE OF THE ANDES                                            163

  LOADING NITRATE                                                      186

  A GROUP OF CHILEAN GIRLS                                             206

  OX CARTS                                                             223

  THE ESCUELA NAVAL, VALPARAISO                                        233

  THE HARBOUR, VALPARAISO                                              248

  JUNCAL STATION                                                       258

  TRANSANDINO CHILENO RAILWAY, SHOWING ABT SYSTEM OF COGS              260

  A CHILEAN PRIEST                                                     268

  JOSÉ DE SAN MARTIN                                                   289

  CONGRESS PALACE, SANTIAGO                                            305

  DIGGING NITRATE                                                      316

  THE MILITARY BARRACKS, SANTIAGO                                      346

  CHILEAN SOLDIERS                                                     352

  A MARKET SCENE, VALPARAISO                                           364

  THE BATTLESHIP, “O’HIGGINS”                                          371

  A TYPICAL COAST SCENE                                                377

  THE CUSTOM HOUSE, VALPARAISO                                         388




CHILE AND HER PEOPLE OF TO-DAY




CHAPTER I

THE COUNTRY


The republic of Chile has one of the strangest configurations of any
country on the globe. It stretches over thirty-eight degrees of latitude,
thus giving it a coast line of twenty-six hundred and twenty-five miles
from its northern border to the most southerly point on the Fuegian
Archipelago. It is a long and narrow ribbon of land, at no place wider
than two hundred miles, and in places narrowing to sixty-five miles. It
has an average width of only ninety miles, while the length is fully
thirty times the average width. Placed on the western coast of North
America, in the corresponding latitude, this republic would extend from
Sitka, Alaska, to a point on the Pacific coast opposite the City of
Mexico. If the state of Texas should be stretched out into a narrow
strip of land two thousand and five hundred miles in length, it would
give a fair idea of the peculiar shape of Chile. It follows quite
closely the seventieth parallel of longitude, which would correspond
with that of Boston. This strange development has been due to the Andean
mountain range, which, with its lofty peaks and numberless spurs, forms
the eastern boundary throughout its entire length. For a long time the
boundary lines with its neighbours were in dispute, but these have all
been successfully adjusted.

[Illustration]

Within these boundaries there is naturally a wide divergence of climate.
In the north, at sea level, the vegetation is tropical, and it is
semi-tropical for several hundred miles south. If one goes inland the
mountains are soon encountered, and the line of perpetual snow is reached
at about fifteen thousand feet, but this line descends as you proceed
south. On the Fuegian Islands snow seldom disappears from sight, although
at sea level it may all thaw. The temperature everywhere varies according
to altitude and proximity to the sea. In the north it is milder than the
same latitude on the eastern coast, because of the Antarctic Current
which washes the shores, and at the south it is warmer than the same
latitude in North America. Within these extremes, from the regions which
are washed by the Antarctic seas to the banks of the Sama River, which
separates it from Peru, and between the shores where the Pacific breakers
roll and the Cordilleras of the Andes which mark the boundary with
Argentina, there are two hundred and ninety-one thousand, five hundred
square miles, and supporting a population of three and a quarter millions
of people, of many shades of colour.

One-fourth or more of the territory of Chile is made up of islands. The
largest of these, of course, is Tierra del Fuego, of which a little more
than one-half is Chilean territory. The coast from Puerto Montt to the
southern limits of the continent is notched and indented with fiords and
inlets, and scores of islands have been formed, probably by volcanic
action. Few of these have claimed any attention, and, of all those lashed
by the waves of the Antarctic seas, Tierra del Fuego is the only one
that has received any development. The sheep man has taken possession of
portions of that island, and hundreds of thousands of sheep now graze on
its succulent grasses. The island of Chiloé, near Puerto Montt, is one
of the most important of the islands, and several small foreign colonies
have been located on its rich soil. Some of the islands are very remote
from the mainland. The most isolated one is Pascua, or Easter, island,
which is at a distance of more than two thousand miles from the coast.
It is almost in the centre of the Pacific Ocean. The San Felix and San
Ambrosio groups, and that of Juan Fernandez, the reputed home of Robinson
Crusoe, are also at a distance of several hundred miles from the shores
of the republic.

From the northern boundary to Concepción, the coast line is generally
uniform and indentations are rare. There are only a few bays of any
considerable size, and only an occasional cape or promontory. From Chiloé
to Tierra del Fuego is a stretch of coast five hundred miles in length,
which a glance at the map will show is a perfect network of islands,
peninsulas and channels. This is the Chilean Patagonia. It provides
scenery as grandly picturesque as the famous fiords along the coast of
Norway, and greatly resembles that broken and rugged coast. The bays and
gulfs cut into the shores to the foothills of the Andean range. They
are of great depth. The Gulf of Las Peñas furnishes an entrance to this
labyrinth at the north, and the Straits of Magellan at the south. Some
of the passes are so narrow that they seem like gigantic splits in the
mountain ranges—grandly gloomy and narrow. Through these openings in the
rock the water rushes with terrific force owing to the action of the
tides. But, once within, the opening broadens out into little bays, where
the waters are as calm and serene as a mountain lake. These channels
are a vast Campo Santo, or God’s Acre, of wrecked vessels. Numerous as
the disasters have been the sight of a stranded boat is rare, for the
grave is usually hundreds of fathoms deep. In every case, however, the
wrecked vessel has given her name to the rock that brought disaster, and
the official charts are dotted with the names of rocks, which thus form
eternal headstones for the unfortunate vessels. One writer has given the
following account of these channels:—

“If one can imagine the Hudson River bordered continuously by
verdure-covered mountains descending precipitously into the water, and
jutting out here and there in fantastic buttress-like headlands, one has
some idea of Messier Channel. But add to this a network of long, thin
cataracts threading their way thousands of feet down through gullies and
alleys from mountain crest to water edge. Far up the mountain sides they
are so distant as to seem motionless, like threads of silver beaten into
the crevices of the rocks; but near the water their motion can be both
seen and heard as they fall amid the rocks to reach the sea.”

The southern portion of the republic terminates in two peninsulas, known
as King William and Brunswick, which are separated by the gulfs of Otway
and Skyring. The Straits of Magellan then separate the mainland from the
Fuegian Archipelago. This channel, which varies in width from one to
twenty-five miles, is three hundred and sixty-two miles in length from
Cape Pillar to Cape Virgenes, the latter being the eastern, or Atlantic,
terminus. It affords a safe passage for vessels, and is used almost
exclusively by steamers bound from one coast to the other.

[Illustration: THE ANDES FROM SANTA LUCIA.]

After forming the plateau of Bolivia, the Andes, the backbone of South
America, stretches down to the lower end of the continent. It is formed
by a succession of high mountains, with lofty peaks covered with the
eternal snows. At intervals passes are found which permit of access
from one side of the mountain to another. The highest point of this
mighty range is reached just opposite Valparaiso, Mt. Aconcagua, and
from there it descends until, at the Straits of Magellan, it reaches
sea level. It probably continues still farther, but its highest spurs
are engulfed beneath the ocean. The width also varies greatly, from
forty-five to one hundred miles. Along the Chilean border there are more
than fifty definite peaks exceeding thirty-three hundred feet in height,
and twenty-nine of more than ten thousand feet in altitude. Four are
above twenty thousand feet. Most of these were originally volcanoes,
but they are nearly all now extinct or quiescent. South of Aconcagua
is a succession of lofty volcanic peaks, such as San José de Maipu,
San Fernando, Tingueririca and others, all apparently extinct. Then
follow Nevado del Chillan, Antuco, Villarica and Osorno, all of which
occasionally emit vapour, and, lastly, the Tronador (thunderer) near the
southern extremity of the country.

By reason of its peculiar shape easy access is given to all parts of the
republic, and the exploitation of its resources has been comparatively
easy. In no place are the mountains far distant, and short spurs of
railway connect the mineral deposits with the sea. Along the coast there
are no fewer than fifty-nine ports, between which regular communication
by steamer is carried on. Fourteen of these are ports of entry, in which
customs houses are located, and the others are minor ports, at which only
national coasting steamers stop.

There are very many rivers in the country, but only a very few of them
are any aid to navigation. They are mostly short streams which are formed
by the melting snows of the Andes, and then rush onward toward the sea by
a more or less direct route. The principal rivers are all in the southern
half of the country. In the deserts of the northern section the waters
formed by melting snows are evaporated or are absorbed by the parched
soil long before they reach the sea. The Yelcho and Palena are the
largest rivers of Chile. The latter is the longest, for it cuts through a
pass in the Andes and runs back into Argentine territory for seventy-five
miles. Others are the Maullin, Calle-Calle, Bio-Bio, Bueno and Maule.
Some, such as the Bio-Bio and Maule, are navigable for short distances by
vessels of shallow draft. Their importance to commerce is insignificant,
however, when compared with the great rivers of the eastern coast. The
Bio-Bio, for instance, is only one hundred and sixty miles long. They
do furnish water for irrigation purposes, only a small portion of which
has as yet been developed. There are several lakes in Chile, of which
Llanquihue, Todos Santos, and Ranco are the most important. The two first
mentioned have steam navigation.

There are many valleys of very fertile land which can be made among the
richest agricultural lands of the world. As a rule these valleys are
small and irrigated by streams flowing from the east to the west. The
great central valley, which runs in a southerly direction for several
hundred miles from Santiago, is one of the most remarkable features of
the country and the garden of the republic. This valley is almost six
hundred miles in length from north to south, but varies considerably in
width. Its average width for the entire length is probably thirty miles.
This is the granary of the country, and the source of its principal
food supply. All of the cereals grow to perfection in this climate
and on this soil. Wheat, barley, corn, rye and oats are cultivated in
large quantities. All of the vegetables and fruits that flourish in
the temperate zone of the Northern Hemisphere also grow to large size.
Alfalfa makes a fine pasture. And yet even this fertile valley has only
been developed in part. Not more than one-fourth of the landed surface
of Chile is fitted for cultivation, but of this portion not more than
one-fourth has been touched by the agriculturist or ranchman. Hence
there are great possibilities of development yet unexploited in this
republic. Cattle and sheep are profitable and are increasing in number.
The waterfalls, also, give great possibilities of cheap power for
manufacturing purposes, and the future will probably find all of the
railroads operated by electric power, because of the cheapness with which
current can be produced. This result seems to be only the natural outcome
of existing conditions.

Such a country, with such a long extent of sea coast, would ordinarily be
an almost impossible country to handle. It has, perhaps, been fortunate
that the coast is easily reached in all parts, from the inhospitable
deserts of the northern regions to the dense forests of the south.
No country of equal size in the world has such a marvellously varied
configuration. The humming-bird follows the fuchsia clear to the Straits
of Magellan, and the penguin has followed the fish almost as far as
Valparaiso. The government has done well in managing this ribbon-like
country. Coast service has been built up and a longitudinal railway
promises an interior development. Cross lines and transcontinental routes
will provide much needed facilities for the interchange of commerce. The
telegraph and telephone have linked together hitherto remote sections,
and a creditable postal service has been created.

Chile is a republic, with the customary division into legislative,
executive and judicial branches. It is not a confederation of provinces,
as in Brazil and Argentina, but is a single state with one central
government. It is divided for governmental purposes into twenty-three
provinces and one territory. These are again divided into departments,
districts and municipalities. Congress is composed of a Senate and
Chamber of Deputies. The former is at present composed of thirty-two
members and the latter of ninety-four. Deputies are elected for a term
of three years by direct vote, in the proportion of one to every
thirty thousand inhabitants. Senators are elected for six years in the
proportion of one to every three deputies, and the terms of one-third
expire every two years. Members of the House of Deputies must have an
income of five hundred dollars a year, and a Senator must be thirty-six
years of age and is required to have an annual income four times that
sum. Congress sits from June 1 to September 1 each year, but an extra
session may be called at any time. A peculiar feature is that during
the recess of Congress a committee consisting of seven from each house
acts for that body, and is consulted by the President on all matters of
importance.

The President is chosen by electors, who are elected by direct vote, for
a term of five years. He serves the state for a salary of about eleven
thousand dollars, including the allowance for expenses. He is ineligible
to serve two consecutive terms and may not leave the country during his
term of office, or for one year after its expiration, without the consent
of Congress. He has a cabinet of six secretaries, who are known as
Ministers of Interior, Foreign Affairs, Justice and Public Instruction,
Treasury, War and Marine, Industry and Public Works. The Minister of the
Interior is the Vice-President, and succeeds to the office of President
in the event of his death or disability. Elections are held on the 25th
of June every fifth year, and inauguration of the new President follows
on the succeeding 18th of September. The cabinet may be forced to resign
at any time by a vote of lack of confidence by Congress, to whom they are
directly responsible. In addition to the cabinet there is a Council of
State consisting of eleven members, six of whom are appointed by Congress
and five by the President, who assist that official in an advisory
capacity. Furthermore, when Congress adjourns, it appoints a standing
committee of seven from each house, which acts as the representative of
that body during vacation. The President must consult with it in certain
matters, and the committee may request him to call an extraordinary
session if, in their opinion, such a course is advisable.

There is a national Supreme Court of seven members that sits at Santiago,
which is the final judicial authority. Courts of appeal consisting of
from five to twelve members also sit at Santiago, Valparaiso, Tacna,
Serena, Talca, Valdivia and Concepción. There are also a number of
minor courts which are located in the various provinces and departments.
Each province is governed by an _intendente_, who is appointed by the
President of the republic. The departments are governed by governors, who
are subordinate to the _intendentes_, and the districts by inspectors,
who are also appointed. The only popular element is the municipal
district, or commune, which is governed by a board composed of nine men,
who are elected by direct vote in each municipality.

When the Spaniards reached Chile they found native races occupying it.
In the northern portions the tribes were under at least the nominal sway
of the Incas, although separated from them either by the inhospitable
Andes or dreary desert wastes. In the great central valley, however,
the land appeared a pleasant garden, and so rich that nowhere had
the Spaniards seen anything similar either for its fertility or the
wealth of its fruits and herds. “It is all an inhabited place and a
sown land or a gold-mine, rich in herds as that of Peru, with a fibre
drawn from the soil rich in food supplies sown by the Indians for their
subsistence”—so wrote the chroniclers. They lived in comfort and had a
certain civilization. Each _cacique_ had his own ranch house, the number
of doors indicating the number of his wives, of which some had as many as
fifteen. These people were the Araucanians, who proved to be a brave and
courageous race. The Spaniards immediately began their usual cruelties
and efforts to enslave these people, but succeeded only temporarily. The
natives soon rose in rebellion. Three hundred years of warfare decimated
their ranks, but did not subdue them, and when the Spanish rule ended
these people were as unconquered as when it began. Their history has been
written in blood, but it is the struggle of a heroic race, and it is not
dimmed by the excesses and cruelties that attached to the Spaniards in
their efforts to subjugate and enslave these valiant people.

After he had conquered Peru, Pizarro sent an expedition south to explore
the country and take possession of it in the name of the King of Spain.
One of his lieutenants, Diego de Almagro, was placed in charge. He
crossed the great nitrate desert and reached as far as Copiapó, where
he was driven back by hostile Indians. He had reached a valley called
by the natives Tchili, which signified in their language beautiful,
and that name was given to the country. A few years later, in 1540,
another expedition was fitted out under Captain Pedro de Valdivia,
which was more successful. He marched as far as the present city of
Santiago, and founded a city, which has ever since remained the capital.
Although colonists came from Spain, little progress was made for a long
time because of the hostility of the Araucanian Indians. These attacks
continued until 1640, when a treaty was concluded with these indomitable
natives by which the Bio-Bio River was established as the boundary, and
both together were to resist the English and Dutch buccaneers, who had
begun to harass the coast. Early in the nineteenth century the spirit
of independence reached Chile, and insurrections against the Spanish
authorities broke out.

On the 18th of September, 1810, the Spanish authorities were deposed and
a provisional government was set up. Troops were poured in by Spain,
and it was not until 1818, when the Spanish troops were defeated in the
battle of Maipu by the Argentine general, San Martin, that freedom from
the foreign yoke was secured. General Don Ambrosio O’Higgins, an Irish
patriot who had greatly distinguished himself in the war for freedom,
was chosen as the first President, and he introduced many reforms and
endeavoured to ameliorate the condition of the natives. The Jesuit
missionaries followed in the wake of the soldiers and began their work
of converting the natives. Since that time there has been considerable
internal struggle between rival political factions, and some foreign
troubles. There was a brief war with Spain, a frightful conflict with
the neighbouring republic of Peru, and disagreements with Bolivia and
Argentina. A few years ago war with the latter country seemed inevitable
over the international boundary, but wise counsels prevailed and the
matter was successfully arbitrated. At the present time peace prevails,
although there are continual mutterings in Peru, and that country only
needs a hot-headed leader to bring about another war with Chile over the
lost revenue from the nitrate fields.

The Chileans are a brave and a courageous people. The natural boundaries
have no doubt aided in developing a national spirit and love of
independence. Truly no people in South America have fought so long and
so hard to achieve national independence. The Araucanian mixture has
brought virility and industry into the race—a far different element
than the Inca blood farther north. These Yankees of the South American
continent have accomplished much, and there is still greater promise for
the future.




CHAPTER II

THE WEST COAST


Cruising along the west coast of South America is a delightful
experience. It is the perfection of ocean travel. One is always sure of
fine weather, for it neither rains nor blows, and the swell is seldom
strong enough to make even the susceptible person seasick. In defiance
of our idea of geography the sailors speak of going “up” the coast, when
bound towards the south. The boats along this coast are built for fair
weather and tropical seas. They have their cabins opening seaward, and
the decks reach down almost to the water’s edge. Some swing hammocks and
sleep on deck, and it is very comfortable. Such vessels would not be
adapted for the stormy Atlantic, and would not live long in a storm upon
the Caribbean Sea. Sailors say that the wind is never strong enough to
“ruffle the fur on a cat’s back,” and this immense stretch of sea might
be likened unto a great mill pond. It is this part of the ocean, between
the Isthmus and Peru, that suggested to the Spaniards the name of Pacific.

Near the equator the days and nights are equal. The sun ceases doing duty
promptly at six, and reappears at the same hour the following morning.
There is no twilight, little gloaming, and darkness succeeds daylight
almost as soon as the big red ball disappears in the western sea. At
night beautiful phosphorescence may be seen. The water is so impregnated
with phosphorus, that each tiny wave is tipped with a light and the
vessel leaves a trail of fire. From above the Southern Cross looks down
upon the scene in complaisance. And thus the days pass in succession one
after the other. The temperature is not uncomfortable, as the Antarctic
Current tempers the tropical sun, and there is generally a southerly
or southwesterly wind that aids. It is a pleasanter ride, and subject
to fewer inconveniences than the ride along the eastern coast of the
continent.

[Illustration: THE WEST COAST.]

When the Stars and Stripes have faded from view at Balboa, and the jagged
backbone of the continent has disappeared into the mists on either
horizon, towards Nicaragua and Colombia, one feels that a new world has
been reached. The real South America has been entered, and, when the
good ship crosses the Line, about the third day out, home and the rest
of the world seem very far away. It is a long journey to Valparaiso,
Chile, if one takes a steamer that stops at all the intermediate
ports, as it lasts more than three weeks. There are swifter vessels,
however, that avoid Ecuador and make the journey in twelve days. The
slower vessels follow the coast line, and the passenger is given many a
view of the Andes, whose peaks are crowned with eternal snows but are
frequently wrapped in fleecy clouds. At Guayaquil, the westernmost city
of South America, it is even possible on occasions in clear weather
to see Chimborazo, eighty miles from the sea. Nowhere in the world is
there a greater assembly of lofty peaks than will be seen as the vessel
proceeds along the coast. The Spaniards called these “sierras,” because
their uneven summits resembled the teeth of a saw. Some of the peaks are
regular in outline, but more often they are irregular and even grotesque,
so that the imaginative minds of the natives have fancied resemblances
to works of nature and have given them corresponding names. Nowhere in
the world are there stranger freaks in geological formations, or more
startling contrasts. Near the coast run the foothills, which gradually
become higher and bolder until they end in the loftiest peaks. Back, and
beyond all, an occasional volcanic peak may be seen lifting itself in
solitary grandeur.

At the mouth of the Guayas River, in Ecuador, there is a dense growth
of tropical vegetation. It seems to be a veritable hothouse of nature,
where plants and trees wage a desperate war for existence against the
vines, mosses and other parasites that attack them. This is the end of
such scenes, however, for days and days. It would be difficult to find a
more dreary aspect than the coast of South America from the boundary of
Ecuador almost to Valparaiso. From the water’s edge to the Andes chain
of mountains stretches a yellow and brown desert, unrelieved by a tinge
of green, except where irrigation has been employed. At midday all is
clear, but in the evening a purple haze covers the whole landscape. It
bears a close resemblance to parts of Arizona and New Mexico in general
characteristics. Cliffs three hundred to four hundred feet high, and
which are scooped out into fantastic shapes, often form the water’s
edge. The distant mountains look gloomy and forbidding. It very seldom
rains there, perhaps once in six or seven years is a fair average. In
other places a generation can almost grow up and pass away without an
experience with rain. When it does rain, however, the desertlike plains
and slopes immediately spring into life. Where for years there has been
nothing but drifting sands appear meadows of nutritious grasses, and
flowers and plants spring up in great confusion. Wherever the seeds
come from is a mystery, but every nook and corner is soon ablaze with
vegetation.

The boats stop at many ports from Ecuador to Chile. These little towns
will be found nestling in little hollows at the foot of the hills, or
tacked on the hillside. Each one is walled away from the other, and
each is a gateway to a fertile valley or rich mining section. Sometimes
a narrow gauge railway runs back into the interior, but there are no
connections coastwise. The steamer furnishes the only communication
with the world beyond, and the arrival of the boat is an event of great
importance. Each town has its own specialty. At Guayaquil and Paita
many merchants will come aboard with Panama hats, and good-natured
bargaining will then be carried on with the passengers. Buying a hat is
a tedious matter. The seller does not expect more than about one-third
of the price he asks. If the passenger looks indifferent the native
will hunt him up and reduce his offer. “How much would the señor give?”
“Thirty soles! That would be robbery.” But the ship’s gong strikes and
the time of departure is at hand. “Here, señor, is your hat. _Muchas
gracias. Adios!_” The deal is concluded, and you have your hat at the
price you offered, if you are shrewd enough to see that a cheaper hat
was not substituted at the last minute. Deck traders board the vessel
and stay with it for days, doing a good business in almost everything
from vegetables and fruits to dry goods, and jewelry. Parrots, monkeys
and even mild-eyed ant-eaters are offered the passengers for pets.
Passengers join the boat at every stop, and, instead of hat boxes, as
American women would be burdened with, the women here all bring on board
their bird cages with their noisy occupants. Swarthy Spaniards and the
darker-hued natives join the boat, many of them dressed in gay attire,
and particularly wearing gaudy neckties and waistcoats. The boat always
anchors at some distance from the shore, while passengers and freight
are brought out either in lighters or row-boats. At some places a dozen
lighters may be filled with freight for the steamer. The ship’s crew
bring up from the hold scores of bales and boxes with labels familiar and
unfamiliar. International commerce becomes real—almost a thing of flesh
and blood. Each sling load brought up from the hold has its own tale to
tell, and everyone becomes commercialized. The crowing of roosters at
night, the bleating of sheep and bawling of the cattle remind you of a
country barnyard at times, for the boat carries its own live stock, which
are killed as the conditions of the larder demand. Thus it is that these
slow galleons float along the coast past Paita, Pacasmayo, Salaverry,
Pisco and the rest of the little ports. Five minutes after the ladder
would be lowered the deck would become a floating bazaar.

Guayaquil is the port for the equatorial republic of Ecuador. Quite a
business is done there, for more than one-third of the world’s supply of
cacao beans, from which our chocolate is made, comes through this port.
It is generally infested with more or less fever, and most people prefer
to make their stay as short as possible. One of the curious things to
attract the traveller’s attention is to see the mules with their legs
encased in trousers. This is not due to any excessive modesty on the
part of the inhabitants, for children several years old may be seen
without as much clothing on. The purpose is to protect the legs of the
animals from the bite of the gadfly, which is very numerous here. It was
near Guayaquil that Pizarro landed with one hundred and eighty men to
conquer the empire of the Incas. The capital of Ecuador, Quito, lies in
a saucer-shaped cup at the foot of Mt. Pichincha, with many other lofty
peaks in sight. It perhaps retains more of the original characteristics
than any other city of South America. It vies with the City of Mexico the
distinction of being the oldest city of the Americas. For centuries prior
to the coming of the Spaniards it was the capital of one of the branches
of the Incas, and Atahualpa used to eat his meals off plates made of
solid gold. Hitherto accessible only over a long and difficult mountain
trail, which was impassable during half of the year, Quito can now be
reached by a railroad—thanks to American enterprise. No less than twenty
volcanoes are visible from the track, of which three are active, five
dormant and twelve are classed as extinct.

Callao (pronounced Cal-ya-o) is the principal port of Peru. It is always
full of steamers and masts and has a general aspect of business. More
than a thousand vessels touch here every twelve months. Its history has
been exciting and there are many monuments to its heroes. Some warships
are generally floating in the harbour. Lima is distant but seven miles
from Callao, and it is a ride of only twenty minutes by an excellent
electric road of American construction throughout. To the hum of the
trolley one is hurried past irrigated fields, beautiful gardens and
villas, and Inca ruins many centuries old. As the boats remain at Callao
for a day the traveller is able to spend a few hours in the “City of the
Kings,” as Pizarro christened it. Lima is a wonderfully interesting city,
and its history is full of romance. It preserves in wood and stone the
spirit of old Spain as it was transplanted into the New World. Carved
balconies, which were patterned after their native Andalusia, still
overhang the narrow streets of the Peruvian capital. Up-to-date electric
cars whirl past old monastery walls where life has scarcely changed in
three centuries. The Limaños are an easy-going, pleasure-loving people,
among whom the strenuous life has few disciples. It has been the scene of
many revolutions, and the marks of street fighting are numerous. Churches
and ecclesiastical institutions abound on every hand, and ecclesiastics
are numerous on the streets. The cathedral, in which the sacristan will
show the alleged bones of Francisco Pizarro, is a fine specimen of
architecture—one of the best in the world. On another corner of the plaza
is the passageway from which the conspirators emerged on their way to
assassinate the conqueror. The building which was the headquarters of the
Inquisition in South America occupies still another site on the plaza.

[Illustration: A MILK BOY IN PERU.]

Pisco is the next port of importance, and it is situated near a rich
and fertile irrigated valley where sugar-cane grows abundantly. It is
the port also for the interior towns of Ayacucho and Huancavelica,
where numerous rich mines are found. Just a few miles out at sea are
the Chincha Islands, from which Peru obtained such a large revenue for
the guano found there. These deposits, once considered inexhaustible,
because in places they were eighty feet or more in depth, have been
almost exhausted. The great wealth received from them and nitrate has
been dissipated.

At Mollendo, the last Peruvian port, there is a railway that runs to La
Paz, the capital of the inland republic of Bolivia. It is a surf-lashed
port where vessels are sometimes unable to land their passengers and
freight. In fact the landing is through a “sort of Niagara Gorge gateway
of rock, which gives to the mere landing some of the noise and a good
deal of the excitement of a rescue at sea.” It takes three days’ travel
to reach La Paz from Mollendo, as the train only runs by day. The first
stage of the trip, as far as Arequipa, is over an almost trackless
desert, where the wind piles the sand up in movable half-moon heaps. The
sand-storms of the centuries have covered everything with these whitish
particles, and the dusted peaks and hillocks stand out without relief
of any kind. The second day brings the traveller to Lake Titicaca, the
sacred lake of the Incas, which is crossed by boat, and a side trip
will take the traveller to Cuzco, the capital of the Inca confederacy.
Lake Titicaca is the highest and one of the most wonderful lakes in
the world. It is larger than all the lakes of Switzerland together, and
lies in a hollow two and one-half miles above the waters of the ocean.
Lying in a peaceful valley, in a scene of desolate grandeur, where the
trees are stunted and only a few of the hardiest plants survive, lies La
Paz. The City of Peace, its name indicates, but this city has been the
scene of turmoil and strife entirely foreign to its name ever since the
Spaniards invaded these solitudes. Bolivia is another Tibet—one of the
highest inhabited plateaus in the world, as well as one of the richest
mineral sections.

In no part of the world, perhaps, is there such an abundance of life in
sea and air as along the coast of Peru. Soon after leaving Callao the
tedium of the voyage is relieved by the flight of millions upon millions
of birds. There are gulls, ducks, cormorants, divers of all kinds and
great pelicans with huge pouches under their bills. The sea is as
animated as the air, and schools of fish, innumerable in numbers, may be
seen darting through the water with their fins showing above its surface.
Danger besets them from above and from beneath. The divers poise on wing
every few minutes and then drop suddenly into the sea like a flash. For
a few seconds they disappear beneath the surface, and then reappear with
a fish in their bills. The lumbering and stately pelicans drop with a
mighty splash that sends up a dash of spray. These greedy birds continue
this foraging process until their pouches are so filled with fish that
they are unable to rise out of the water until the load is digested or
they disgorge themselves. The seals and sea lions keep themselves as busy
as the birds, and constantly display their sinuous and shiny bodies above
the surface, as they pursue the fish or come up to breathe.

We passed by the famous guano islands just before nightfall. The air was
filled with birds, all of which were flying toward a great island that
lifted up its rocky surface above the blue of the sea. At some distance
above the sea were the smaller birds, which, at a distance, looked like
mere specks against the sky. A little lower were the pelicans flying in
single file, and in flocks of from twelve to thirty. They seemed to play
the game of “follow the leader,” for if the leader poised his wings or
lifted himself higher all did the same. Near the surface were divers,
called “pirates” in the local parlance, in flocks of a thousand or more.
They sailed along just above the surface of the water and continually
altered their formation. With the naked eye the number of birds was
myriad, but the telescope showed ten times as many. As far as one could
see there was the same multitude of birds, all heading for this one
island. The island itself was black with the birds already settled for
the night, but each new arrival seemed to find a resting place either on
the surface of the rock or in the caves underneath. For countless ages
these birds have occupied these sterile volcanic rocks as their resting
place, and have deposited the guano which has brought millions of dollars
of wealth into the Peruvian treasury. A glimpse of this remarkable bird
life shows how the guano has accumulated in such enormous quantities.

[Illustration: ROW BOATS CROWDING AROUND A STEAMER.]

The northern part of Chile contains the dreariest section of this forlorn
coast. There are no harbours, and a tremendous surf which rolls half way
around the world before it strikes a breakwater dashes into foam upon
these beaches. Several prosperous towns are located here as a result
of the workings of nature’s laboratories. To reach these ports it is
necessary to trust yourself to one of the boatmen, who crowd around the
ladder as soon as the vessel drops anchor. Judicious bargaining is always
advisable, and never pay the boatman until he has returned you safely to
your floating hotel. The boat is guided through the surf with amazing
skill, and it is very seldom that an accident occurs. They sometimes
crowd each other off, however, in their eagerness to get the best
position at the bottom of the ladder and secure the first passengers. But
all these men are good swimmers, and the only result is a good wetting
and much amusement for the steamer’s passengers who welcome any diversion.

Arica is the first port of importance in Chile at the north. It is only a
day’s journey from Mollendo, the last Peruvian port. The Peruvian heaves
a sigh when he enters Arica, but there is some hope in it, for he trusts
to add this province to Peru’s possessions at some time in the future
again. But at Iquique the hope fades, for sovereignty is lost for ever.
Although not a large town, Arica has been the scene of several memorable
events. It was here that were built the boats which carried the troops
for the conquest of Chile. It was at that time a place of some importance
among the natives, and the valleys back of it were densely populated and
were cultivated by means of irrigation. Sir Francis Drake touched at this
place in 1579, and found a collection of Indian huts on the shore. It is
supposed to have been founded in 1250 by the Incas. It is like an oasis
in the desert to the traveller who has coasted along the shore for days
or weeks without seeing vegetation. At the present time it is famous
for its oranges. They are grown in the rich valleys that lie behind the
rather unattractive and forbidding hills next to the coast, and through
the opening in the flat-topped hills one is permitted to catch glimpses
of these valleys. Near the coast is a prehistoric cemetery filled with
dead bodies, which were embalmed with almost as great skill as the
mummies of Egypt.

Arica is a pleasant little place of several thousand inhabitants. There
is a handsome little plaza which encloses a plot of shrubbery adorned
with morning-glories and purple vine trees. One of the striking features
is the brilliant colouring of the houses. There is also a rather imposing
parochial church which is painted in the gaudiest colours that I have
seen in any country; and it would be hard to duplicate it anywhere, even
in Spanish America, a land of rich colouring. It used to be a great
market for the skins of the vicuña, which are so beautiful. In late
years, however, the skins are becoming less plentiful and the prices
have jumped accordingly. The harbour is commodious and well sheltered.
Interesting glimpses of native life are afforded by the Indian women
coming to town. Some of them ride astride, being almost concealed by the
huge panniers containing their market produce. Others trudge along by the
side of the animals.

From this city a highway runs into the interior of Peru and Bolivia,
which was constructed by the Incas a thousand years ago and has been
used ever since. To-day caravans of mules, donkeys and llamas may be
seen constantly passing up and down this ancient trail. They bring down
ore and take back mining supplies and miscellaneous merchandise. It is
known as the “camino real,” and is several hundred miles long. Near here
is supposed to be the underground outlet of Lakes Titicaca and Poopo.
One argument advanced in favour of this theory is that a certain kind of
fresh water fish that abounds in that lake is caught in considerable
numbers in the ocean near this town. It has been the scene of several
disastrous earthquakes. On August 13th, 1868, it was almost washed away,
and many of its inhabitants perished in a tidal wave which came without
warning and devastated the coast for a hundred miles. Two United States
men-of-war, which were in the harbour at that time, were lifted from
their anchorage by waves sixty feet high and carried inland a mile over
the roofs of the town. One of the vessels, the _Fredonia_, was dashed
against a ledge of rocks and entirely destroyed, while the other, the
_Wateree_, was left lying in the sand. Everyone on the former boat was
lost and about half of the latter. For many years the boat lying on the
sand was used as a boarding house for the railway employees.

[Illustration: THE HARBOUR OF ARICA.]

On June 7th, 1880, Arica was the scene of a furious battle and a terrible
massacre. At one end of the town, and directly on the sea front,
is a promontory, which rises six hundred feet above the sea almost
precipitously. On this rock, which is known as the Morro, the Peruvians
had erected a powerful battery to defend the harbour. The Chileans,
however, landed a force of four thousand men several miles below at
night. In the morning the Peruvians found themselves attacked in the
rear with no means of escape. As their guns were pointed to the sea they
were useless to defend against those back on the landward side. Although
short of small arms and ammunition, the Peruvians made a heroic defence
and engaged in a hand-to-hand contest that lasted for an hour. At the end
of that time the commander leaped over the precipice into the sea, and
his body was crushed to a pulp among the rocks. Several hundred of his
soldiers followed him, preferring to die that way to having their throats
cut by the Chileans. For months afterward their bodies could be seen
lying where they had lodged on the jutting rocks below. It is claimed
that seventeen hundred Peruvians were killed, as this was the total
strength of the garrison and no prisoners were taken. On a slab near the
slope of the rock is an inscription in whitewashed stone, “Viva Battalion
No. 4.” It was placed there by the victorious Chileans to commemorate the
heroism of the enemy.

Arica is in the province of Tacna, which is the most northerly province
in the republic, and is about the size of New Jersey. Agriculture in
this province is very limited, and there has not been much of mineral
development. There are some veins of copper and lead, and some scattered
deposits of nitrate as well that have not been worked. A railroad from
Arica runs back to the city of Tacna, the capital, which is one of the
oldest railroads in South America. It is quite an important town, and is
situated in a valley made fertile by irrigation. A railroad is now being
built across the Cordilleras from this city to connect with the Bolivian
railways. When that is completed it is believed that this line will be
the best one, as it is the shortest, and every traveller is anxious to
escape as much of the dust in crossing the desert region as possible.
It is only a little over three hundred miles from Arica to La Paz. This
road will add to the importance of Arica, for it will be one of the main
arteries of commerce from Bolivia to the outside world, but it is not
likely to help Tacna any in its growth.

The next province adjoining Tacna is Tarapacá, which is one of the
wealthiest sections in the Americas because of its nitrate deposits. It
contains the richest nitrate region in the world. From Arica the cliffs
rise up almost perpendicularly from the sea for the first day’s journey.
Pisagua, the first port as you travel “up” the coast, is a city of about
five thousand. This port does not differ much from a mining town in the
States. Although considerable shipping is done here, Pisagua fades in
importance beside its more important rivals.

“We do not want rain in Iquique.”

This statement was made to me by the manager of the nitrate trust, who
lives in that prosperous city of thirty thousand or more inhabitants, and
which is one hundred and eleven miles south of Arica. It was the first
time I had ever heard of a community that did not desire rainfall. Water
used to be brought by boat from more favoured regions, and was peddled
through the streets at so much a quart or gallon. At times it is said to
have sold as high as two dollars per gallon. A pipe line one hundred and
fifty miles long now supplies this necessary liquid to this city, and it
is sold by the metre instead of being put up in pint or quart bottles.

A walk through this city on the edge of the sea, with bare, brown and
rugged hills for a background, showed not a blade of grass, except on
the public squares and in a few diminutive courtyards within the houses,
where the hand of man supplied the necessary water for growth. It is
little wonder that lawn-mowers are a drug on the market in Iquique. The
sun is fierce, and its unrelenting rays, absorbed and reflected by the
vast area of desert waste, inflame the air to almost furnace heat. The
streets are dusty and the fine particles get into your ears and nostrils,
and you can almost taste it on your tongue. Many of the houses have a
piazza on top, or a second roof, to break the force of the sun’s rays.
The Arturo Prat Square has been made quite attractive, and is ornamented
with a very creditable statue of that hero. Business around the shipping
quarters is always lively, as it is bound to be where such an enormous
export and import trade is carried on. In 1891, during the revolutionary
fighting between the Balmacedists and Congressists, the custom house was
the scene of a stubborn battle. The town was set on fire and confusion
and disorder reigned supreme. At the present time Iquique is an important
port and more than one thousand vessels enter it each year.

The dreariness and unattractiveness of the surroundings is hard to
describe. Street cars with girls as conductors, good stores, the
telephone and other modern conveniences, and even comfortable clubs
do not make up for the lack of green vegetation. The groceries are
filled with condensed milk from England, sardines from France, sausages
from Germany, cheese from Holland, jellies and jam from Britain, and
macaroni from Italy. But fresh vegetables and meats are at a premium,
and unnatural tastes are developed. Many English live in Iquique. They
are great brandy drinkers, and show discrimination “in not exhausting
the wealth of the nitrate beds by taking too much soda in their brandy,”
as one writer says. Nevertheless the people are happy, for wealth lies
at their very doors and rain would cause great loss. By reason of this
Iquique has grown until it is second only to Valparaiso in commercial
importance. It has grown with a swiftness than can only be compared with
our own western towns. In the first days of the saltpetre era nothing
went slow and the town spread like magic. Much of the population is a
rough one and hard to govern, but the authorities have done well. The
battles that have been fought with fortune in Iquique and on this coast
have cost many lives and much privation. A few have acquired fortune,
but more have not even obtained a modest competence in return for the
deprivation and sacrifice endured. Whatever has been gained at the cost
of much labour and privation has been fully earned by some one—and
perhaps by one who did not reap the reward.

[Illustration: A STREET SCENE, ANTOFAGASTA.]

The province of Antofagasta joins that of Tarapacá on the south.
Tocopilla is the first port of importance, but Antofagasta, a little over
two hundred miles from Iquique, is the principal city. This province is
a desert in appearance similar to the other, and this city can boast no
advantages over its more northerly rival. Antofagasta is almost on the
Tropic of Capricorn, and is in about the same latitude as Rio de Janeiro,
on the Atlantic coast. It lies almost at the foot of some hills that are
quite high, and is a city of about twenty thousand. The dull-coloured
houses can scarcely be distinguished from the sombre hills at a distance.
The dust is anything but pleasant. A great deal of nitrate and some
copper are shipped from Antofagasta. There are several small wharves, but
everything has to be transferred to lighters. The harbour is a wretched
roadstead and, to get ashore, one has to brave a lashing surf. The pride
of the city is a little plaza, where considerable coaxing has caused a
little evidence of green from the grass and a few trees. A narrow gauge
railroad, two feet and six inches in width, runs from here to La Paz, and
a great deal of freight is transshipped to Bolivian towns.

The province of Atacama comes next, which does not differ much in
physical characteristics from the three previously named. In some of the
valleys, where water can be secured for irrigation, a little agriculture
is attempted. There are also a number of minerals to be found, but not so
much as in Tarapacá and Antofagasta. Caldera, the principal port, is two
hundred and seven miles from Antofagasta, and has a well sheltered bay.
The oldest railroad in South America connects this port with Copiapó, the
capital of the province. This city is situated in a fertile valley on the
banks of a river of the same name. It is an old and quite important town,
and has a number of educational institutions. It will soon be connected
with Santiago by the longitudinal railway.

The last of the northern provinces is that of Coquimbo. This province is
really at the end of the dry zone, and there are a number of rich valleys
where the land is fertile and agriculture flourishes. It is a mining
province as well, and a great deal of mineral wealth has been discovered.
Guayacan is a port, but the principal port is Coquimbo, which is only a
couple of hundred miles from Valparaiso. It has a population of probably
ten thousand. The city extends along the bay in an irregular manner for
some distance. The capital of the province is La Serena, and it is only
a few miles from Coquimbo. There is nothing especially in its favour,
although an attractive little city, but it is a relief from the dreary
places farther north which have been mentioned.

[Illustration: COQUIMBO, A TYPICAL WEST COAST TOWN.]

Every one going this way is bound for Valparaiso. The voyager, who has
journeyed twenty-six hundred miles along the Pacific coast, hails with
delight the beautiful half-moon bay in which that city is located. He
welcomes the splash of the anchor, which means a speedy transfer to the
shore and the comforts of a good hotel. Many disasters have been recorded
in this bay. In the winter terrific storms arise, and steamers oftentimes
lift their anchors and steam out into the open sea for safety. The
largest steamers are tossed about like eggshells, while the buoys bob
around like water-sprites. The enthusiastic Chilean loves to compare
it with the Bay of Naples. But it is not Naples. The waters are not so
blue, nor the skies as perfect, but it has a charm all its own. A row
boat or launch quickly transfers the traveller to the landing steps, and
courteous officials promptly pass the baggage. Then a short ride in a
rickety carriage, and the doors of the Royal Hotel hospitably open to
receive the guests.




CHAPTER III

VALE OF PARADISE


Val-paraiso means the “Vale of Paradise,” and it is the name of both a
province and a city. The name is so incongruous on this unattractive
shore as to cause a smile, for the location of Valparaiso does not merit
any such appellation. It was so named after a little town in Spain, which
was the home of Juan de Saavedra, the man who captured the Indian village
located at this point in 1536. There is only a narrow strip of land
between the bay and the barren hills behind it, which, in places, rise
up to a thousand or fifteen hundred feet in height. At one place it is
wide enough for only two streets, which are very close together. At other
places this ledge creeps back farther, but nowhere does the gap between
sea and hills exceed half a mile, and a part of this has been reclaimed
from the sea. Through the centre of this level space runs Victoria
Street, which follows the coast line the entire length of the city and
is several miles in length. It is the main commercial street, and is
lined with business houses, public buildings and even private residences.

[Illustration: AN “ASCENSOR” IN VALPARAISO.]

It used to be that all of the city was built on this narrow strip of
land. Little by little, however, the city has crept up the side of the
hills, and the streets rise in terraces one above the other. On the edges
of the cliffs in many places the poorer classes have built for themselves
dwellings of the rudest kind from all sorts of debris. Some of these are
perched upon almost inaccessible rocks, and are propped up with wooden
supports. On the extreme upper part of the rock has been built the real
residence quarter, and many fine homes are found there. It is reached by
steep and winding roads, which tire the pedestrian not used to them; but
there are a dozen inclined elevators, or “ascensors,” as they are called
in Valparaiso, which carry the passenger to the upper heights for a very
small sum. Up the steep roadway the poor horses may be seen drawing their
loads, while the drivers beat them and vociferously berate them with
their tongues.

From the heights one has a magnificent view of the bay, which is like
a half-moon, and is one of the prettiest bays in the world. It has a
northern exposure, however, and is subject to terrific storms in the
winter season, which lash the seas into a fury and the waves beat
upon the sea front with destructive force. It is still to all extents
and purposes an open roadstead, although plans have been drawn for a
breakwater to provide a sheltered harbour. The drawback has been that the
bay is very deep only a short distance from shore, and the problem of
building such a protection is a difficult one. The surface of the bay is
always dotted with vessels from almost every quarter of the globe. One
can at any time see the flags of a half dozen or more different nations
floating from the mastheads. Then there are hundreds of small lighters
which are used to carry the freight between vessel and shore, as no docks
have been constructed at which vessels can unload. In the far distance
may be seen, on a clear day, the backbone of the continent, the Andes,
with its serrated ridges and snowy summits glistening in the sunlight.
The hoary head of Aconcagua, the highest peak of the Cordilleras, can
easily be distinguished from the others by reason of its superior height.

Next to San Francisco, Valparaiso is the most important port on the
eastern shores of the Pacific. This city of two hundred thousand has as
much commerce as the average town of double that size, as it is the port
for Santiago and the greater part of Chile. A business-like character
is impressed upon the entire city. Here live the men who design and
carry out the vast nitrate and mining enterprises of northern Chile,
and practically all business, except that of politics, is managed from
this city. The docks and warehouses are at all times busy places, and
are crowded with boxes and bales from almost every commercial nation.
Banditti-like _rotos_ drive carts and wagons filled with merchandise.
One of the first sights after being set down on the landing-stage is
the two-wheeled dray of Valparaiso. It is drawn by two or three wiry
and sweating horses, on the back of one of which rides the driver, who
lashes the horses unmercifully. The ridden horse is hitched by a trace
just outside the shafts, and he is trained to push at the shaft with his
shoulder, or pull at right angles when the occasion arises, and in every
way is as clever as any Texas bronco. One of these drays with the driver
lashing his team might well figure on the escutcheon of this city.

The “U. S.” mark is less frequently seen in Valparaiso than that of
Hamburg or London, for the United States has not become such an exporting
country of manufactured products as those commercial nations of the older
world; nor is the Yankee in flesh and blood. The predominance of the
British is shown by the prevalence of the English language. Nearly every
one engaged in business has at least a slight acquaintance with that
tongue. One can not go far without crossing the path of some ruddy Briton
or voluble Irishman. Many of the best stores bear English names, and one
will see the same goods displayed as in New York or London. In fact it
is more predominantly English in appearance than any other city of South
America. There are cafés where they meet to drink their “half-and-half”
or other beverages, and there is a club where the _Times_, _Punch_, and
other favourites can be read. It is said that the foreign population
almost equals the native in numbers. Only a small part of this foreign
element is English, as there are many Italians, Germans and French, but
the English are the bankers and tradesmen, and have impressed their
characteristics more forcibly upon the city than the other nations.
There are amusements in plenty, for there are clubs, concerts and an
abundance of theatres to provide recreation as a relaxation from the
strenuous life. There are tennis grounds, football fields and a golf
course at Viña. There are many monuments over the city in the plazas and
on the new alameda, erected to the nation’s heroes, and one to William
Wheelwright, the American who did so much to aid Chile in developing her
transportation facilities. The naval school, which crowns one of the
hills, is one of the most attractive places in Valparaiso, and provides
one of the finest views of the bay and surrounding hills.

“One of the great advantages of life in Valparaiso,” says Arthur Ruhl in
“The Other Americans,” “is the absence of a professional fire department.
The glorious privilege of fighting fires is appropriated by the _élite_,
who organize themselves into clubs, with much the same social functions
as the Seventh Regiment and Squadron A in New York, wear ponderous
helmets and march in procession in great style whenever they get a
chance. One comes upon these _bomberos_ practising in the evening, on
the Avenida, for instance, in store clothes and absent-mindedly puffing
cigarettes, getting a stream on an imaginary blaze. In any emergency they
perform much the same duties as our militia.

“It is the delightful privilege of the _bombero_ to drop his work
whenever the alarm is given, dash from his office to the blaze, and
there man hose-lines, smash windows, chop down partitions, and indulge
to the fullest one of the keenest primordial emotions of man. Inasmuch
as buildings are seldom more than two or three stories in height and
built of masonry, there is comparatively little danger of a large
conflagration, and the average of one fire in four days is ‘just about
right,’ as one of my Valparaiso acquaintances explained, ‘to give a man
exercise.’ Their only unhappiness, he said, was that there were about
fifteen hundred firemen in town, and they were getting so expert that
what one could call a really ‘good’ fire was almost unknown.”

Like its commercial rival, San Francisco, Valparaiso suffered from a
destructive earthquake in 1906. Slight quakes are quite common in this
city, but the inhabitants do not seem to fear them, and go along the
even tenor of their way as though such a thing as an earthquake was
unknown. In one year as many as thirty-five shocks have been recorded,
but the one mentioned above is the only one for a half century or more in
which any lives were lost. In fact Valparaiso has had its full share of
troubles and vicissitudes of all kinds. It was captured and sacked three
times by buccaneers, twice by the British and once by a Dutch pirate. It
has suffered severely from earthquake shocks on half a dozen different
occasions, was destroyed by fire in 1858, bombarded by the Spanish fleet
in 1866, and much property was destroyed in the Balmaceda revolution a
little later. Few cities in the New World have had a career so troubled
and diversified.

The most disastrous experience in the history of Valparaiso occurred
in 1906. On the 16th of August of that year, only four months after
the destruction of San Francisco, the greater part of the city was
destroyed by an earthquake and the fire that followed. The day had been
unusually calm and pleasant. About eight o’clock in the evening the first
earthquake shock was felt, which was almost immediately followed by
others. The whole city seemed to swing backward and forwards; then came
a sudden jolt, and whole rows of buildings fell with a terrific crash.
The electric light wires snapped, and gas and water mains were broken.
The city was left in intense darkness, which was rendered all the more
horrible by the shrieks of the injured and terrified inhabitants. Fires
soon started which, fanned by a strong wind, soon became conflagrations.
Between the fires and earthquake a large proportion of the lower town was
completely destroyed, but the upper town was practically uninjured. Many
of the better-built business houses withstood the earth’s tremblings, and
the wind blew the flames in the opposite direction.

The authorities acted promptly in the matter, so that patrols of troops
and armed citizens were soon on guard. The progress of the fire was
impeded by the use of dynamite. Appeals for help were sent to Santiago
and other cities, which were responded to as promptly as possible. There
was necessarily some delay, for telegraph lines and the railroads had
likewise suffered. The shocks continued for the two following days at
irregular intervals, which likewise interfered with the work of cleaning
up the city. A terrific downpour of rain also added to the confusion of
the first night, for the vivid flashes of lightning and the clanging of
the fire-bells made it a night not easily forgotten by the inhabitants.
The killed and injured numbered at least three thousand persons. But
fifty thousand or more were rendered homeless. Thousands of these were
camped on the barren hills above the city, and thousands more were cared
for by boats in the bay.

Strangely enough no damage was done to the shipping in the bay. The
destruction was not confined to Valparaiso alone, but extended inland as
far as Los Andes, and many of the small inland cities near Valparaiso
suffered more or less damage. The property loss in Valparaiso has been
estimated at one hundred million dollars. Like San Francisco, however, a
new Valparaiso is arising which will be superior to the old. The greater
part of the destroyed district has been rebuilt in a better and more
enduring manner. The national government has advanced large sums of
money to the municipality, which, in turn, has given it under certain
conditions to those who suffered losses. To-day in the business section
of Valparaiso it would be almost impossible, after only five years, to
find evidence of this disastrous earthquake, but a little farther out its
handiwork can quickly be traced.

There is a quaint side to life in Valparaiso. A visit to the market
reveals many things of interest. One will first be impressed by the fine
fruits of Chile, for nowhere in the world can one find more delicious
pears, peaches and plums. The marketers bring their produce in huge
two-wheeled carts drawn by the slow-moving ox. The stalls presided over
by men and women fill every available inch of space, until it is almost
impossible to force one’s way through. Everywhere are groups bargaining
over fruits, vegetables or household articles, for these people dearly
love a bargain. Many show by their faces a tinge of the Indian blood that
runs in their veins.

[Illustration: A CHICKEN PEDDLER, VALPARAISO.]

The peripatetic merchants, who carry supplies from door to door, come
to the market for their stock in trade. It is invariably carried on the
back of a donkey or mule, as it is difficult to draw a loaded wagon up
the steep ascents. Their quaint cries may be heard in almost any part
of the city during the morning hours. As a rule this merchant carries
only one article, or possibly two or three, if it is vegetables. The
chicken peddler has built little coops for his birds which take the place
of a saddle. It is interesting to watch him gesticulate and praise the
excellence of his fowls to the good housewife, or the servant who comes
out in answer to his warning cry. The scissors-grinder and dealers in
notions swell the list of perigrinating business men who make the streets
vocal with their calls. The milkman carries the milk in cans swung over
the back of his mule or donkey, or else drives the cows themselves from
door to door.

“_Leche de las burras y vacas_,” meaning donkey’s and cow’s milk, was the
cry that reached my ears one morning in Valparaiso. On looking around I
saw a man leading two donkey mares and three cows through the streets.
Each donkey mare was closely followed by its pretty but comical little
colt. This is a custom imported from Spain and Italy, where goats are
also taken from door to door and oftentimes up three or four flights of
stairs to be milked. It might even be possible to find a milkman with
donkeys, cows and goats in his collection, so that a regular department
store variety of milk could be provided his customers. Add to these the
camel and reindeer, and you have the sources of the world’s milk supply.
Donkey’s milk is used a great deal for babies in South America, as it
is considered better for them than the milk of either cows or goats.
Milk delivered in this way does not need a sterilized label upon it, or
a certificate from the department of health. Furthermore, there is very
little danger of adulteration. The housekeeper reaps the benefit of this
style of milk delivery, but it must be a slow and costly method for the
dairyman. It is another evidence that primitiveness has not entirely
disappeared from Chile.

[Illustration: A VENDER OF DONKEY’S MILK, VALPARAISO.]

One other peculiar feature of life in Valparaiso is that the conductors
on all the street cars are women. This innovation was introduced in the
time of war with Peru, when men were hard to secure for that work. They
did the work so well that they have been employed continuously ever
since. It can not be said of them that they are especially attractive, or
even look very jaunty in their uniforms of blue surmounted by a sailor
hat. The fares are the cheapest I have ever found. The cars are all
double-decked. For two cents one can ride inside, and it costs only half
that rate to ride on the upper deck, which is a far better way to see
the city. The service is good, and there are more than twenty-five miles
of trolley in and about the city. The electric current for this as well
as lighting is generated by water power a few miles north of the city,
where a huge dam has been built across a stream.

A night view of Valparaiso from the bay is delightful. The many electric
lamps in all parts of the city illuminate the otherwise dark shadows, and
are reflected in the waters near the shore. Here and there move streaks
of light in the lower town, as the electric cars dash along from one end
of the city to the other; similar lines of light move up and down in a
dozen places, as the “ascensors” carry their loads between the upper and
lower town. At such times Valparaiso looks like a city of enchantment, a
chosen bit from fairyland.

A trolley line leads out to the aristocratic suburb of Viña del Mar,
where the rich people of Chile also have their summer residences. There
are some beautiful homes in this city, of splendid architecture and
surrounded by luxuriant foliage. In these villas the wearied and worried
man of business finds rest after business hours. For a few months in the
summer this resort is the centre of the social life of the republic, and
the hotel is so crowded that it is difficult to secure accommodation,
unless arranged for beforehand. There are delightful drives, when not
too dusty, and then there are tennis courts, golf links, polo grounds
and other places of recreation. A fine club building has been erected,
where the devotees of games of chance can find the alluring games that
their natures seem to crave. At Miramar is a small bathing resort, but it
is extremely dangerous, for just a short distance from shore the bottom
seems to drop to a great depth. It is used principally as a place for
promenades and dress show for the society folks, and every day a long
line of carriages wend their way out to that pleasant little bit of
beach.

[Illustration: AN ATTRACTIVE HOME, VIÑA DEL MAR.]

The great attraction of Viña, however, is the race course. Sunday is,
of course, the gala day, and the race course is crowded with lovers of
the sport. The people of Chile have passed the bull-fight period in
civilization, for the bull-fight and lottery have both been banished by
statutory enactment, and the horse races have taken their place. They vie
with the residents of Buenos Aires in their devotion to this sport. The
residents entertain house parties on that day and all attend the track.
They become very enthusiastic, and few who have the money neglect an
opportunity to stake it on the horses, for all are posted on the records
of the various animals listed in the races, and each one has his or her
favourite.

The province of Valparaiso does not extend quite to the Cordilleras,
but it does reach out several hundred miles into the Pacific. Some four
hundred miles west of Valparaiso lies the island of Juan Fernandez, which
is generally known among English-speaking people as Robinson Crusoe’s
Island.

    “Poor old Robinson Crusoe! Poor old Robinson Crusoe!
    They made him a coat of an old Nanny goat,
    I wonder how they could do so!”

Thus runs the old nursery rhyme with which all of us are familiar. There
are few reading people, young or old, who have not read that fascinating
tale of adventure, written by Daniel Defoe, which depicts the adventures
of Robinson Crusoe. And yet, perhaps, there are not so many who are
familiar with the location of the island which Defoe pretends to describe.

The island of Juan Fernandez, generally known among Chileans as
Mas-a-Tierra, is a great mass of rock almost twelve miles long by seven
miles wide, a large part of which is as barren as a desert. One side,
however, where fruits grow and the wild sheep and goats find their
sustenance, is covered with a luxuriant vegetation. It is in a desolate
location, for it is away from the trade routes and there are few vessels
that pass that way. The fishing boats that ply between Valparaiso and
the island keep up communication with the mainland. The waters of the
Pacific teem with fish, and the fishermen have found the little bays
of this small island profitable waters for their trade. It is a great
lobster-fishing ground also, and the largest lobsters by far that I ever
have seen were caught at this island.

Even to-day there are very few people who live on the island of Juan
Fernandez. Only about half of it is fertile, and access to it is so
difficult that it does not appeal to many. There is one settlement at San
Juan Bautista—St. John the Baptist—where the boats land, and one or two
other little groups of houses where a few colonists live. The attempt
that has been made by the Chilean Government to colonize it cannot be
called a success, for fewer people live there to-day than there did a
few years ago.

Were it not for the story woven about the island few people would be
interested in it to-day. It was here among these barren hills, and in
the natural caves which abound on the island, that Alexander Selkirk
lived for four years and four months, more than two centuries ago. It
was here that he met and adopted a lone Indian, whom he named Friday,
because of the day he first found him. It is little wonder that existence
was lonesome, and it is even a greater wonder that he did not lose his
mind from lack of association with other human beings. At last his
watch fires attracted the attention of a passing schooner and the lone
wanderer was taken to England, where, for a time, he became quite a hero.
He was found, as the captain of the boat said, “clad in goat-skins and
was running about as though he were demented.” There is a rock on the
island which is called “Robinson Crusoe’s Lookout,” because it is said
to be the place where the signal fires were built. It is on a high hill
and commands a view of the sea for many miles. A large cave, which is as
large as the average parlour, is supposed to have been his home. In the
sides of this rock are rusty nails said to have been driven into it by
pirates who used to make the place their rendezvous.

A marble tablet has been erected on the “Lookout.” This was placed there
by some English naval officers in 1868, for Selkirk himself was a naval
officer. Among other things this tablet says:

                              IN MEMORY OF
                            ALEXANDER SELKIRK
                                MARINER.
                A NATIVE OF LARGO, IN THE COUNTY OF FIFE,
                   SCOTLAND, WHO LIVED ON THIS ISLAND,
                    IN COMPLETE SOLITUDE, FOUR YEARS
                            AND FOUR MONTHS.

                  HE WAS LANDED FROM THE “CINQUE PORTS”
          GALLEY, 96 TONS, 18 GUNS, A. D., 1704, AND WAS TAKEN
           OFF IN THE “DUKE,” PRIVATEER, 12TH FEBRUARY, 1709.

            HE DIED LIEUTENANT OF H. M. S. “WEYMOUTH,” A. D.,
                          1723, AGED 47 YEARS.

              THIS TABLET IS ERECTED NEAR SELKIRK’S LOOKOUT
                  BY COMMODORE POWELL AND THE OFFICERS
                    OF H. M. S. “TOPAZ” A. D., 1868.

Although Defoe’s tale is not wholly true, and some of the descriptions
are incorrect, yet the story was suggested by the adventures of the
marooned mariner, and the terrors of loneliness, solitude and fear which
overwhelmed Robinson Crusoe were the same as those undergone by Alexander
Selkirk.

Pascua, or Easter, Island is situated considerably farther out in the
ocean than Juan Fernandez, and farther north. It was so named by a
Dutch navigator, who landed on the island on Easter morning, in 1722.
He carried back with him to Amsterdam the first record of its strange
monuments. The greatest length of this island is eleven miles, and its
greatest breadth is four miles. Yet here on this little speck in the
ocean, an island no larger than Manhattan Island, where the sun is warm
both summer and winter, and the climate is enervating, at one time lived
a strange and marvellous people. None of the inhabitants of the island at
the time of its discovery knew anything about the monuments or the race
that built them. The traditions which were handed down from father to
son shed no light on that subject. Some claim that they were a race of
giants, evidently inspired by the gods whom they worshipped. Others claim
they were a race that antedated the flood. There is also a theory, based
on these monuments and those on other islands of the Polynesian Islands,
that this entire group were once a part of a continent now submerged.

These people hauled mammoth stones from quarries that face the sea,
carved on them faces and cut with rude implements upon all the four
sides the story they wanted to tell. These stones were transported to
chosen sites and set up with engineering accuracy, until almost the whole
island became a gallery of monumental sculpture. Then came a new era;
the race of builders disappeared, and no one is now able to decipher
the hieroglyphics. In all there are over five hundred of these carved
statues, colossal heads and other samples of the art of these prehistoric
people. Except in a few cases the monuments face the sea, and to the
east, and they range in size from a mammoth monolith seventy feet in
height to a pigmy the size of a small boy. Some of them weigh several
tons and were transported from quarries distant as much as eight miles.
How this was done without the aid of mechanical devices is a mystery.

Besides the statues there are several immense platforms constructed of
large cut stones piled together, as if they had been shaped to conform
to the plan of an architect, and all are set with true edges without
cement and plaster. These platforms are about thirty feet high, and from
two hundred to three hundred feet in length. After a fashion they look
like immense banquet tables or council platforms. Around or upon these
tables the prehistoric chiefs may have sat in stone seats and deliberated
or made plans to conquer enemies.

On this island there are some peaks which rise as high as twelve hundred
feet above the surface of the sea, and there are walls of stone formed
from lava which for scores of centuries have lain there, and small lakes
formed in natural cups and bowls which were probably once the open mouths
of volcanoes. There are the remains of what was once a house of stone.
As the tumbled blocks now lie they mark out a structure one hundred feet
long, twenty feet wide, with walls five feet thick. Some of the slabs
are marked with geometrical figures and with representations of animals
and birds. These suggest a gigantic species, larger than any that exist
to-day. In fact all their representations of life suggest a heroic mould.
But the peculiar feature of this house is that the ceiling was not
more than five feet high, which would seem to render it unsuited for
a dwelling place. It might have been intended for a storehouse of some
sort. At the present time there are only a few hundred people living on
the island who are of the Sawaiori race, and resemble very strongly the
natives of Tahiti.




CHAPTER IV

THE CITY OF SAINT JAMES


“We will call this city Santiago (Saint James), for he has guided us
thus far,” said Pedro de Valdivia, as he staked out the level ground
surrounding a lofty rock into square blocks, one of which was given to
each of his followers.

Few cities in the world have as fine a location as this City of Saint
James. It lies in the centre of a magnificent amphitheatre, about forty
miles long and perhaps eighteen miles wide, which is enclosed by a mighty
wall of mountains on all sides save one, half of which are covered with
perpetual snows. The Mapocho River, which flows through the city through
an artificial channel, escapes from the valley through the opening on
the south, which leads into the great central valley that forms the
real heart of the republic. The great amphitheatre in which Santiago
is situated is divided into large _haciendas_, on which are erected
magnificent mansions that resemble the ancient baronial homes of England.
In these the owners live and rule almost like lords of old.

Santiago was founded as the first town in Chile. Valdivia erected a
stronghold on the rock, which he named Santa Lucia, and then set to work
to build the city at its base, which he had named after the patron saint
of Spain. The squares were laid out with the lines running east and west,
north and south. Each of his followers to whom was given a square for a
garden, was required to construct a house for his own use. Thus it will
be seen that Santiago is not a new city, nor has its growth been of the
mushroom variety. Founded in the sixteenth century, it preserves in wood
and stone, to a great extent, the spirit of old Spain transplanted to
the New World. The Spanish cavalier stalked in complete mail through the
streets of Santiago before the _Mayflower_ landed the pilgrims on the
shores of Massachusetts. The priests were chanting the solemn service of
the church here long before the English landed at Jamestown. Dust had
gathered on the volumes in the municipal library of this city centuries
preceding the building of the first little red school-house in the
United States. Before New York was even thought of, the drama of life was
being enacted daily in this beautiful valley after Castilian models.

[Illustration: SANTA LUCIA.]

But let us take a look at this ancient capital. At one side of the city
is El Cerro de Santa Lucia, a mass of volcanic rock almost as high as
the Washington Monument. It has a base of several acres, but gradually
narrows as it rises precipitously above all the buildings, until it
ends in the jagged piece of rock which crowns the summit. After the
fortress was removed it became the burial place of Jews, Protestants,
infidels and all who were forbidden burial in consecrated ground. When
these bones were finally removed they were dumped in a corner of one of
the Catholic cemeteries, and the church authorities erected a monument
with the inscription “exiles from both heaven and earth.” This freak
of nature, which geologists say was dropped by some wandering iceberg,
has been made into a delightful place, partly by private subscription
and partly at public expense. The summit is reached by several winding
roads and walks that are enclosed by walls in a most picturesque manner.
In the crevices of the rocks flowers, bushes and curious plants are
growing. Eucalyptus trees rise up, and gigantic ferns reach out so
that the hill seems a veritable garden in the air. At intervals are
kiosks for music or refreshments, and half way up is a theatre where
vaudeville entertainments are occasionally given for the entertainment
of the people. Terraces, fountains, winding walks and steps cut out of
the rock add to the beauties and comforts of Santa Lucia. On the summit
is a little chapel where the remains of Mr. Benjamine Vicuña Mackenna,
who planned this scheme and gave large sums towards its completion, lies
buried. On the way up one passes one wonderful rock formation after
another, delightful grottoes and cozy nooks, until at last all Santiago
is spread out before you like a panorama.

[Illustration: ALAMEDA DE LAS DELICIAS, SANTIAGO.]

Below is a vast expanse of flat roofs, out of which here and there rise
trees and a wealth of green. These are in the patios, or inside courts,
of the larger houses. Here and there rise the towers of the numerous
churches with which Santiago is provided. The many streets cross each
other in checkerboard fashion, thus dividing the city into square blocks.
At one side can be distinguished the Alameda de las Delicias, with its
double rows of great poplar trees, which furnish an arbour of dense
shade from one end of the city to the other, a distance of three miles,
and which leads out to the parks known as Quinta Normal and Cousiño.
This avenue, which was formerly the principal road leading into the
city, has been laid out as a broad highway more than three hundred feet
in width, with a promenade in the centre and a wide driveway on either
side. Fronting this Alameda are many very fine residences—the finest in
the city. Some of the houses are very large, containing fifty rooms or
more, and the furnishings are elaborate. The ceilings are very high,
which gives ample opportunity for decorative effect. One striking feature
is the absence of chimneys, for the Chileans are averse to artificial
heat. In the winter time it is nothing unusual for a guest to be received
by the host and his family wearing furs and heavy wraps. A few of the
newer houses have installed heating plants. With these homes the best
and most attractive part is usually hidden from the street. There are
several stands along the Alameda at which military bands discourse music
frequently. The promenade is broken by many statues of Chile’s heroes,
and others commemorating events important in Chilean history; and at
every few feet throughout its length are stone seats on which the people
rest.

One of the finest private residences in South America is that belonging
to the Cousiño family, which was erected by the late Señora Isadora
Cousiño. It was designed by a famous French architect and will compare
favourably with those of New York. It is built of brick, stuccoed in the
usual manner to resemble stone, and is imposing. Its interior decorations
are elaborate, but rather the style one would expect in a public building
than in a private home. They are all French scenes, as the work was done
by French artists. It is still one of the show places, although the
señora has been dead for many years, and her descendants have more modest
taste. She was a remarkable woman, and her chief concern seemed to be to
expend her enormous income. Her extravagance was frequently the gossip
of Europe as well as her native land. Herself the richest woman in Chile
before marriage, she married the richest man, and all his wealth was
willed to her at his death. She had millions of dollars in herds, mines,
railroads, steamships, real estate, etc. Another magnificent château at
Lota was built by her, and the _estancia_ of Macul, an hour’s ride from
Santiago, was almost a principality in itself. The land stretched from
the environs of the city to the distant Cordilleras with their mantle of
snow.

[Illustration: DANCING LA CUECA, THE NATIONAL DANCE.]

Señora Cousiño did one good thing for Santiago; she presented to the city
beautiful Cousiño Park. It is a large park of several hundred acres,
which is the popular playground of the masses. It has cheap cafés,
merry-go-rounds and other amusements, and is the nearest approach to a
Coney Island that the capital affords. There are a number of stands for
dancing where, on a Sunday especially, one may see the Chilean national
dance, La Cueca, which is a sort of refined can-can. The couples pair
off with handkerchiefs in their hands, and dance face to face, while the
musicians sit on benches near-by and thrum guitars, pick mandolins, or
play other instruments. Each dancer waves his handkerchief in the air
with graceful gestures, and sways around in attitudes which are supposed
to show grace and suppleness. A race track has also been constructed in
the centre of the park, called the “Club Hippico,” where races are held
almost every Sunday afternoon and frequently on holidays. This is the
most popular amusement in Chile. Another park, the Quinta Normal, has
been provided for the people, and in it is quite an extensive zoological
garden. Among the many “strange” and “fierce” animals kept in cages are
several species of dogs and cats, which seem very much out of place in
such surroundings. A very interesting museum also occupies a pretty site
near the entrance. A botanical garden and experiment station is also
maintained here, and an exposition building in which agricultural fairs
are held each year.

There are a number of very fine public buildings in Santiago. Perhaps the
finest is the Palace of Congress, which is a large building of modern
classical construction covering an entire square—not differing much from
many public buildings that one will find in the United States. I attended
a session of the Senate and the proceedings seemed very strange. The
members talked at random without even addressing the chair or rising
from their seats. In fact the proceedings were the most informal of any
legislative body I ever attended. Not infrequently, however, the sessions
are very stormy, and the reputation of the Spaniard for excitability is
well maintained. The National Library is almost opposite this building,
but is not an imposing building, although it contains an interesting
and valuable collection of books. La Moneda is the name given to the
residence of the President, and it also contains the offices of many of
the government departments. It is a large three-story building with quite
imposing surroundings. The President is generally attended by a military
guard during his drives around the city. Other buildings are the Palace
of Justice, in which the highest courts sit, the Army Building, and the
Intendency, or City Hall.

At one place in Santiago a beautiful marble monument has been erected
on the site of a church that was burned in 1863. Church festivals have
always played an important part in the social life of the capital. At
the time of the Christmas festivities of that year a gorgeous _fête_ was
in progress in the Jesuits’ church, which was known as the Feast of the
Virgins. The interior was festooned and decorated everywhere with light
gauze, wreaths of paper flowers and other inflammable material. Candles
had been attached to these flimsy decorations. The church was crowded
with women while high mass was being celebrated by the bishop. Suddenly
the hangings caught fire, the burning candles fell among the crowd of
worshippers and everyone rushed for the doors. As usual, the doors opened
inward, and the crowds, jammed against them, made it impossible for
them to be opened. It is claimed that almost three thousand women and
girls lost their lives in this terrible holocaust. After the fire the
bodies were found packed in a solid mass against the doors. The church
was afterwards razed to the ground by order of the government, and this
monument erected on the site. Scarcely a leading family in Santiago
escaped bereavement, and the Feast of the Virgins has ever since been
celebrated with mourning in Chile.

There are many worthy charitable institutions in Santiago. Some of
these are municipal institutions and others are church charities. Among
these are numerous hospitals for the care of the sick and unfortunate.
There is one very large orphan asylum, which cares for many hundreds
of unfortunate children—many of them of unknown parentage. The method
of reception of these unfortunate, and generally unwelcome, infants is
unique. In the rear wall is an opening with a wooden box in it which
swings in and out. The mother wishing to get rid of her baby places the
little mite in the box and swings it in. The automatic ringing of a bell
notifies the nuns inside and the baby is taken charge of by them. No
effort is ever made to find the mother, and she is thus enabled to rid
herself of her charge. Some moralists would criticize this practice, but
it is certainly better than infanticide, which is said to be an almost
unknown crime in Chile, where the ratio of illegitimate births is very
large.

The Opera House is a municipal institution and is a very fine building.
During the season opera is given here several nights each week, and
generally by Italian companies. Not only is the building furnished free,
but a good subsidy is given the management each year in order to bring
good talent here. The seats and boxes are sold by subscription for the
season as a guaranty fund and are paid for in advance, although many sell
their seats occasionally if there is a demand for them. The audiences are
very interesting, for the people dress exceedingly well and are lavish
in their wearing of jewels. There is a large foyer in which the people
promenade between acts and there are refreshment rooms where all kinds
of refreshments are served. A special box is reserved for the President
of the republic and the _intendente_ of the city. There is also a
mourning box protected by screens, where those in mourning may watch the
performance without being themselves seen.

The city of Santiago is a municipality within the province of the same
name. A little more democracy has been infused into the government than
used to prevail. The city is divided into ten sections or wards. Each of
these wards, called _circumscripciones_, elects three councillors, all
the members together constituting the municipal legislative body. They
must be citizens of at least five years’ residence in the city, must not
have any interest in national or municipal contracts, and must not hold
any other public office or commission. The three members from each ward
have certain local powers and duties principally in connection with the
elections. From its members the council elect three alcaldes, or mayors,
fixing the order of precedence among the three, also a secretary and
treasurer. The powers and jurisdiction of this body extends to the entire
government, subject only to the constitution and the organic act under
which the municipality is organized. The principal revenues are derived
from a personal tax levied for school purposes, a tax on liquors and
tobacco, a license for industries and professions, revenues derived from
city property and an annual grant from the national Congress.

[Illustration: A GROUP OF NEWSBOYS, SANTIAGO.]

It is in the market-places that one can best study the common people.
There are two markets in Santiago, both of them on the bank of the
Mapocho. At the newer one one will be sure to find some newsboys plying
their trade. “_La Union_” and “_El Mercurio_” are the cries of these busy
little newsboys, as they flit in and out among the marketers of Santiago.
They are barefooted ragamuffins, most of them, but they industriously
ply their trade. Their complexions are of different shades, for some of
the boys have Indian blood in their veins, which gives them a deeper
colouring. I posed two small boys for a picture, but before I could take
it a half dozen had crowded into it, making an interesting group. The
boys of South America, just like their counterparts in the United States,
want to take a part in everything that comes within their range of vision.

It would be difficult to find a more interesting place in Santiago
than the old market, which will soon be abandoned. Around it will be
seen the huge, two-wheeled market carts in which the produce has been
brought. Many of these marketers have been on the road for two or three
days, bringing in the products of their fertile fields for the people in
the city. The meek-eyed oxen stand or recline while chewing their cud,
no doubt enjoying to the full the brief respite from their work. The
produce displayed in the market is good. The fruits of Chile are simply
delicious in flavour, and they are large in size. The pears and peaches
of California are not better than those grown here below the equator, and
yet they have been grown with very little care in their cultivation.

One must bargain with or pay an exorbitant price to these market men and
women. If it is only a melon, or a dozen juicy pears, twice as much will
be asked as is expected. If you shake your head when a price is given,
the man or woman in charge of the stall will immediately ask, “What will
you give?” On the outside of the market building dozens of women will
be seen seated on the ground with a little pile of tomatoes, radishes,
potatoes or melons heaped up in front of them. The housewife or servant
will pass around among them making purchases and gradually filling up the
basket which she carries, or hires some boy to bear for her.

[Illustration: A MARKET SCENE, SANTIAGO.]

The poorer Chileans are a hard working people—the most industrious of
the South Americans. A walk through the sections of the city occupied by
them shows much grinding poverty. Across the Mapocho penury stretches on
all sides. The dwellings are low, with floors oftentimes below the street
level, and the interiors show unsanitary conditions and an entire lack of
the comforts of life, let alone the decencies. The improvement of such
surroundings should command immediate attention from the authorities.
The wages paid this class are not very large, so that they are compelled
to live in comparative poverty. They drink a great deal on Sundays and
holidays. Monday is a bad day to get anything done, for the peons must
have a few hours to recover from the previous day’s celebration. It
is a sort of a “_dias non_,” a day that is not. Holidays are greatly
desired, and it takes five of them to properly celebrate the “diaz y
ocho de Setiembre,” the 18th of September, the anniversary of Chilean
independence. _Fiestas_ are held in every park and plaza, and all the
banks and business houses close. Everybody, young and old, engages in the
festivities with zeal and enthusiasm. The poor people save up their money
for weeks and months in order to celebrate this occasion in the only
way that seems appropriate to them—that is, by carousing. Saturday is
beggars’ day, and every mendicant in the city is out with open palm. On
other days only the licensed beggars appear. Some beggars even come out
on horseback, for horses are remarkably cheap in Chile.

Another good view may be had of the poorer classes on the occasion of a
church celebration, such as the festival of Corpus Christi. Both church
and state take a part in this _fiesta_. The troops appear in their finest
uniforms. The infantry are gorgeous in their blue and yellow, with
helmets surmounted with white plumes. The cavalry wear blue plumes and
the bands are adorned with red plumes. The religious procession consists
of the Procession of the Cross, which is composed of various societies,
the Dominicans, Franciscans, Augustinians and other orders. The parochial
clergy follow with the Archbishop in the lead. During the procession
hundreds of women and children, and some men, kneel in the streets. Some
men doff their hats, while others look on in seemingly idle curiosity
without any special attitude of reverence.

The wealthier people take life easy. The real life is only for this
class. After breakfast, which is served from eleven to twelve o’clock,
comes the siesta. This meal is frequently an elaborate and formal
function if guests are present, and is more like a dinner. On the door
of many business houses one will see the sign “_cerrado de las 12 a 1½
horas_,” which means that they are closed between these hours. Business
calls are usually made between two and four. At six o’clock every person
who owns or can hire a carriage goes out to Cousiño Park. Everyone
dresses in his best, the men wearing silk hats and frock suits, and
the women having on fashionable gowns and large hats. In the park the
carriages parade up and down the principal drives and the occupants
nod to their acquaintances. It is quite the correct thing for men
to make audible remarks about the personal appearance of ladies, if
they are complimentary. After about half an hour of this parade they
adjourn as by mutual consent to the Alameda, which is twice as wide as
Pennsylvania Avenue in Washington, and the parade continues up one side
of the imposing avenue and down the other for another half hour. There
are all kinds of vehicles—drays, victorias, landaus, four-in-hands and
automobiles. The driving is superintended by mounted policemen, and
the scene is quite imposing, though rather stilted in the eyes of an
American. The parade then breaks up and all drive home to partake of the
dinner, which is the principal meal of the day. The politeness of the
Chileno is excessive. He will always give the lady the inner side of the
street, and would cheerfully step off the sidewalk in order to render
this courtesy. The man always extends the first greeting also to a lady
of his acquaintance.

Club life is greatly enjoyed in Santiago, for the resident of that city
is very much of a night-hawk. The Club de la Union is the best club in
the country. It was my privilege to be entertained there a number of
times. The real life does not begin until rather late, and there is
always a representative crowd of men to be found there after ten o’clock,
and gambling is sure to be indulged in in some form. While the men are
at the club the women stay at home, or attend the theatre.

When Italian opera is not being given, one-act comedies are the favourite
plays. Going to the theatre, however, usually means looking in for a
_zarzuela_ or two during the evening. Three or four of these one-act
pieces, or _zarzuelas_, are usually put on in an evening, and the house
is cleared after each performance. Those who dine late usually drop in
for the second turn, which begins about half-past nine; or one can catch
the last one, which does not begin until about eleven o’clock. Some
of these _zarzuelas_ are one-act musical plays, abridged from popular
operas, but most of them are melodrama or grotesque comedy. The audiences
are very alert and are quick to respond to appeals from the stage.

“Oh, _Mamacita_, let us go around the plaza once more, for the band
has not yet quit playing,” plead the little girls and young ladies of
Santiago. On Tuesday, Thursday and Sunday evenings a band plays in the
Plaza de Armas, which is the centre of life and business in the Chilean
capital. Then occurs the _paseo_, or promenade, so common in Spanish
towns. It usually begins before the light has yet faded from the highest
peaks of the Andes, and while the newsboys are still calling out “_Las
Ultimas Noticias_.” The girls and young ladies, the boys and young men,
all come here on these evenings. The former are always accompanied by
their mothers, as the social customs are very strict and the girls do not
enjoy as much freedom as their cousins have in North America. The mothers
sit on the benches, while the younger women and girls walk around the
plaza in pairs and groups. The young men, among whom are many officers
in German uniforms and with clanking swords, walk around in the opposite
direction, and pass audible comments on the girls who pass. Their remarks
are irritating to an Anglo-Saxon who understands the Castilian lisp, but
the girls only laugh or smile, for they are quite accustomed to it. The
same attentions bestowed on young ladies on the average American street
would result in an interference by a man in blue uniform, and possibly a
gentle use of the “big stick.” The young men exchange a few words with
those with whom they are acquainted, but not for long, for mamma keeps
her vigilant eyes on them. The girls, even little tots, are finished
coquettes, and they aim to attract attention. This is one of the few
opportunities afforded to the young people to see each other. If a young
man observes a girl by whom he is attracted he will begin inquiries as to
who she is, and perhaps even his folks will aid him in his effort to make
the acquaintance of his inamorata.

[Illustration: THE OLDEST BUILDING IN SANTIAGO.]

Within almost a stone’s throw of the Plaza is all of Chile—those who
rule and those who own—the principal club, theatres, public buildings
and residences of diplomats. The chief business streets converge at this
plaza, and the leading business houses are near it. The great cathedral
and archbishop’s palace occupy one entire side, the post office and a
government building another side, and the portales, or corridors, under
which are many booths and stores, fill up the remaining two sides. The
stores around the plaza are small and like those of old Spain. This
is the oldest business section in Santiago and was in existence two
centuries before our own national capital. Some of the stores are like
holes in the wall, with goods stacked up in the doorway and even on the
street outside. They are far different from the larger and more modern
establishments near the corner of Ahumada and Huerfanos, a block away.
There one will find splendid stores where goods from all parts of the
world can be purchased. A fine large department store has recently been
opened up in the city, which is a great improvement over any of the old
establishments. The prices in the windows look very high, but an article
marked five dollars means only about one-fifth that amount in United
States currency.

During the day many shoppers may be seen. The women trip along two by two
or roll up in their broughams, victorias or automobiles. In the morning
the women wear black gowns and the _mantas_, which are shawls folded into
a sort of bonnet which gives a very demure setting to the black-eyed,
oval, and, oftentimes, beautiful faces underneath. This is the dress worn
to the morning mass, and is not changed until after the breakfast hour.
One may sometimes see the roguish eyes of the wearer peering at him from
beneath this _manta_, even while the owner is fingering her beads and
uttering her prayers in the cathedral. Some one has described the _manta_
as “that graceful euphemism which shields the poor and disarms the vain,
hides bad taste and clumsy waists, and wrapped about the head and nipped
in in some marvellous fashion at the nape of the neck, envelops all
femininity in gracefulness and mystery.”

One’s visit is not complete without seeing a sunset from Santa Lucia.
Santiago is situated in a valley, surrounded by lofty mountains on every
side. At its back are the Cordilleras of the Andes, with their lofty
peaks which lift their eternal snows far up into the blue ethereal canopy
overhead. As the sun creeps slowly into the western sky it illumes the
red tile roof of the city and the many spires. Then its rays fall full
upon the snow-clad peaks, and long after the fiery ball has dropped
behind the lower range of mountains, which separate Santiago from the
sea, its rays continue to glisten upon the loftier peaks that form the
eastern horizon. Then, as darkness slowly falls over the landscape, the
electric lights of the city flash forth beneath you like visions in fairy
land. The whole scene, with its variations and transformations, is one
that will long linger in memory.




CHAPTER V

THE GRANARY OF THE REPUBLIC


The heart of Chile lies in the great central valley which extends south
from Santiago, through Concepción and beyond, for a distance of almost
six hundred miles. It lies between the Andes and the less lofty range
of mountains that follows the coast line. This used to be Chile almost,
but the development of the nitrate industry to the north has made that
section of much greater importance than formerly. The climate in this
valley is delightful, neither too cold nor too wet, and its nearness to
the charms of the capital has made it an attractive dwelling place for
the Chilenos for several centuries. The climate is very similar to that
of California. The same crops and fruits are raised in both places, and
the conditions of farming are also very much the same.

After leaving Santiago the railroad passes through numerous orchards
and extensive vineyards which grow around this proud city. Over the
fences of mud and stone trail the branches of peach trees, and along the
roads stretch eternal rows of solemn poplars and stiff clumps of the
eucalyptus. The waters of the Maipo ripple along near the track. There is
an appearance of enterprise and industry everywhere. Great carts drawn by
oxen, some of them with solid wheels like those of Pharaoh’s time, are
lined up at every station, as well as pack mules awaiting their burdens.
As a contrast a luxurious French or Italian automobile may be seen. Fine
_estancia_ buildings surrounded by vineyards loom up prominently along
the route, while, as a contrast, are the rude buildings inhabited by the
peons, which show absolutely no advance over centuries ago. There is the
same contrast in farming methods. Rude ploughs which merely scratch the
ground may be seen at work nearer to outfits which are strictly modern.

The valley varies in its outline, for in places the surrounding mountains
press in and diminish its width. Numerous streams which have their origin
in the Andes cut across it, and their milky-white waters restlessly
rush onward to the sea. Among these are the Cachopoal, Maraquito, the
Bueno, the Maule and the Claro (clear), whose waters are more transparent
than the others. The altitude becomes lower and the temperature
correspondingly warmer. On the eastern side the lofty volcanoes of Maipo
and its companions are plainly in sight. Cattle may be seen grazing on
the rougher lands, while great fields of wheat and other grains grow
in the more tillable portions. At the stations farther down girls, who
show by the darkened complexion their admixture with the Indians, offer
baskets of all shapes and sizes, from one the size of a pea, to the
passengers as souvenirs. In this admixture the natives have conquered the
would-be conquerors.

One of the most important places passed is Talca, which is one of the
largest cities of Chile. It has plenty of rainfall and is surrounded by
wheat farms. It has a very pretty plaza, and is ornamented with some
statuary brought from Peru at the time of the war with that country.
Two snow-clad volcanoes lift their hoary heads to the skies on the
eastern horizon, although at a considerable distance. It is situated at
a distance of about one hundred and fifty miles from the capital. The
streets are many of them lined with poplars, and magnolia trees lend
their fragrance. Vegetables and fruits grown here are of the finest, and
the inhabitants of Talca are able to live on the good things of life
after approved fashion.

As old as is this valley, there is still much undeveloped land in it.
This land is partly covered with the bramble or other scrub growth. The
only trees to be seen for hundreds of miles are those that have been
planted. Some of the soil is very rich, while some is stony and hard
to cultivate. Where irrigation has been developed the soil responds
readily to the hand of the agriculturalist. The silt carried down from
the mountains by the streams acts as a fertilizer when deposited on
the surface of the valley. South of the Bio-Bio River no irrigation is
employed, or is necessary. The coast range gradually becomes lower until
it disappears. Evergreen trees take the place of the common forms of
deciduous trees. The Rio Itata is quite an important stream, but all
the rivers of this valley fade in importance by the side of the famous
Bio-Bio. Up to 1884 this river was the frontier boundary, all the land
beyond being under the sway of the Araucanian Indians, who were a sturdy
and independent tribe. Many battles have been fought near this stream
with the Indians, who resisted Spain and the succeeding republic for more
than three hundred years. The iron horse has now crossed it and opened up
the regions beyond, although all of the southern section has a much newer
appearance than that on the other side of the river. The newer towns
remind one very much of the frontier communities in the United States.
Many of them are settlements of Europeans, and some of them have had
hard struggles for existence. Onward the route leads through Victoria,
Temuco, and Valdivia to Puerto Montt, a port and the last town of any
importance until Punta Arenas is reached. It is also beyond what might be
termed the valley proper. Nearly all of this region is extremely fertile,
and contains some of the richest land in the republic. It only needs
irrigation in the north, and a clearing of the forests in the southern
portions, to make it blossom with wheat and other valuable grains for
the support of mankind. From the orange groves of Santiago to the apple
orchards of Temuco this valley ought to be one immense garden.

[Illustration: A PLANTATION OWNER.]

This great central valley is parcelled out among large landowners, many
of whom own almost princely estates. As agriculture has always been
the chief occupation of the Chilenos, fully one-half of the population
being engaged in it, these estates have been held in the same family for
generations in many instances. A farm of a thousand acres is small, and
there are many which number thirty or forty thousand acres. Upon the
product of these broad acres the owner lives in luxury almost like the
feudal lords of old. Hundreds of peons work on the _haciendas_, just as
their forefathers did before them, and they really form a small army of
retainers, who used to be ready to fight the battles of the _hacendado_
at a moment’s call. Now they work for them for small wages, and are
always in debt. So long as they are indebted to the master they can be
compelled to remain and work it out.

Irrigation has been considerably developed in some parts. Each
_hacendado_ is a subscriber to or shareholder in an irrigation canal.
These have been constructed at a great expense and are protected by very
strict laws. They consist of main canals starting well up among the
hills, and are pierced by many small outlets, called _regadores_. Each
of these has an outlet of a fixed number of litres per second. The fields
are traversed by parallel and intersecting smaller channels, and the
water is thus conducted from place to place. Movable dams of canvas stop
the flow into these intersecting channels, so that the amount flowing can
be regulated as the needs require.

[Illustration: DRAWING AN AMERICAN THRESHER.]

It is seldom that one will see fences of wire or boards, for most of
the estates are hemmed in with walls of stone. The absence of barns
on the landscape is a striking feature, and the only buildings of any
size are the low, rambling structures which form the residence of the
_hacendado_, his _administrador_, and other heads. These usually consist
of one-storied buildings, which are built around a central _patio_,
and have wide porches floored with brick. The _patios_ are laid out
in pretty little gardens, in which the palm is sure to have its part
in the attempt at ornamentation. Great avenues of lofty trees usually
run out in every direction along the roads or irrigation channels. The
most of the estates are fairly well kept, for the Chileans are quite
progressive agriculturalists. One will find on many of these great farms
the very latest of farming implements, including steam or gasoline
tractors for certain phases of the work. Especially is this true of their
harvesting machinery, which includes the latest North American patterns.
But in one respect there are some antiquated features, and that is in
transportation. If animal power is employed it is almost invariably oxen,
and not horses or mules. They plough the ground, haul the timber, and
behind them the thousands of bushels of grain produced in this valley are
conveyed to market. These animals are yoked by the horns, which seems a
very cruel way to treat these humble but faithful servants of man. It
looks to the onlooker as though every jar of the great carts must give
pain to the oxen, and oftentimes their eyes seem almost darting from
their heads.

The vineyards of this valley cover thousands of acres, for the Chileans
drink wine as the Germans drink beer. A meal without the white or red
contents of a long-necked bottle would be incomplete. The vines are
dwarfed, and are planted in rows five or six feet apart. In many cases
they are trained upon wires, and the vineyards are not unlike those
in some parts of France. The abundance of a certain species of snail
is said to be one of the worst enemies of vitaculture. The Chilean
wines, both red and white, have quite a reputation, and the exports are
increasing each year.

The abundance of dogs about these Chilean _haciendas_ impresses the
traveller. The Chilenos are very fond of these animals, and everybody
seems to keep many of them. Most of them are obliged to forage for a
living. They naturally become rather unsavoury scavengers under such
circumstances. It is not advisable to approach a farm, especially at
night, without being accompanied by some one connected with the place,
as the dogs seem to consider it their duty to protect the household from
intrusion. Furthermore, the people living there are free to fire at any
unauthorized person, because of the prevalence of petty thieving.

Temuco is at a distance of a little less than five hundred miles from
Santiago. It is situated on the Cautin River, and is the capital of the
province of that name. Only thirty years old, this city already has a
population of twelve thousand, and covers about as much space as an
American town of the same size. Like an American town, also, its houses
are mostly of wood, a striking contrast to the older towns, farther down
the valley toward the capital. Although the temperature becomes quite
cold here at times the houses are built without chimneys, for the people
believe that fires are unhealthful. Churches, clubs and hotels have been
built, and there are saloons where almost pure alcohol is dished out to
the poor peons.

Back into the wilderness from here and other places the government has
pushed short spurs of railroads in order to open it up. The government
locates the stations and lays out the lots, which are sold at low prices
to actual settlers. The lands round about are sold at auction in good
sized blocks of fifteen hundred acres or more. This land will bring from
one to twelve dollars per hectare (about two and a quarter acres). A farm
of two thousand acres of choice land could probably be secured for five
thousand dollars in United States currency. The sales are generally made
upon the basis of one-third cash, and the balance is distributed over a
period of years. The only provision exacted by the government is that
the purchaser must fence in his newly-acquired possessions, but this is
oftentimes a great expense. This land when heavily stocked with cattle
is said to yield very good returns.

A few years ago every new immigrant was promised one hundred acres of
land, a team of oxen, a barrel of nails and enough boards to build
a small house. He was also advanced the money necessary for his
transportation. All of this had to be repaid, however, and the land alone
was the only actual gift. Under these terms many Germans were induced to
come to this land of promise. Many of these settlers have done well, and
some towns, such as Valdivia and Puerto Montt, are largely German cities.

The first German settlers arrived about 1850, and they continued to
come in considerable numbers for the next decade. The first emigrants
arrived in the German barque _Hermann_, after a journey of one hundred
and twenty days from Hamburg. She brought seventy men, ten women and five
children. They had been lured by the promises of an immigration agent who
described the country as flowing with milk and honey. When they arrived
everything was in hopeless confusion, for titles were uncertain and the
country was an almost unbroken forest. The colonists began work under
these discouraging conditions and the face of the country soon showed
alteration. Puerto Montt was founded, and a good road built through the
trackless and swampy woodland to Lake Llanquihue. The influx of Germans
has continued even to this day, and many will be found who can speak no
other tongue than that of the Vaderland.

On the journey from Santiago to Puerto Montt no less than a dozen
provinces are passed. Many of these are comparatively small, such as
O’Higgins, which is about the size of Delaware, to Llanquihue, which
corresponds with our own state of Indiana. Most of them run from the
Andes to the coast, but Arauco and Maule are purely coast provinces. The
names of the provinces in this section, and their order beginning with
the one adjoining the province of Santiago, are as follows:—O’Higgins,
Colchagua, Curico, Talca, Maule, Linares, Nuble, Concepción, Bio-Bio,
Arauco, Malleco, Cautin, Valdivia, and Llanquihue.

Along the coast between Puerto Montt and Valparaiso are several ports of
more or less importance. Among these are Constitucion, situated at the
mouth of the River Talcahuano, and Coronel. The latter is the Newcastle
of Chile, for it is in the midst of many coal mines. Many of these mines
run out under the Pacific for long distances. The seams of coal are from
three to five feet thick. They are under a strata of slate and shale,
which is so compact as to be absolutely water-tight. It is a strange
experience to run out in these mines, which form a veritable catacomb
of corridors and chambers, and realize that perhaps at that very moment
some of the great ocean steamers are majestically sailing the blue waters
directly over you. I know of no similar mines except those of Whitehaven,
England, where the galleries run out several miles under the sea and seem
to be headed for the Isle of Man.

Lota is also another mining town on this same bay, and is a town of
about fifteen thousand people. This city and Coronel are really twin
ports. Lota was founded by Matias Cousiño, who opened up the mines and
established smelter works in 1855. The company owns a large amount of
property and employs several thousand men. It furnishes huts, free
medical attendance, a church, schools and a hospital for its employees.
The sight of this town is the wonderful palace built by his widow,
which was constructed at a cost of many thousands of dollars. It is a
_château_ of white Italian marble, and stands in the centre of a French
landscape garden. There are ravines, fountains, statuary, arbours,
terraces, grottoes, artificial lakes and a small zoological exhibit on
the grounds. It blends French and English landscape gardening with some
original ideas. Few country homes in Europe can compare with it. It is
said that all the material was brought from France in the Señora Doña
Isadora Goyenecheo de Cousiño’s own ships, and the interior is adorned
with fine furniture and decorations by famous French artists. Cousiño
Park at Lota has become the pride of Chile.

By far the most important town is Concepción, also in the coal district,
and which is known as the southern capital. It has had many serious
struggles with the Indians, gaunt famine and the still more terrible
earthquake. It is really a fine city of about fifty thousand inhabitants.
The last serious earthquake occurred in 1835, when nearly the whole town
was destroyed. It is situated on the banks of the Bio-Bio River, and
has for its port Talcahuano at the mouth of that river. Talcahuano has
a splendid harbour, and is better protected than Valparaiso, as it is
sheltered by the island of Quiriquina. Whaling ships now leave it for the
Antarctic seas and bring back considerable oil and whalebone. There is
a factory here for the manufacture and refining of whale oil. It is the
Chilean Annapolis, as it is the principal naval harbour, with arsenals
and dockyards, and is also the site of a naval school. It will eventually
be the Pacific terminus of a transcontinental railroad running to Bahia
Blanca, in Argentina.

Concepción is the supply centre of Southern Chile, and does a large
wholesale business as well as some manufacturing on a small scale.
Quite a foreign colony is found there, and there are as good clubs and
hotels as in Valparaiso, its northern rival. It has forgotten all about
earthquakes and has risen above its former disasters. It is arranged very
much as other Chilean cities. There is an alameda bordered with poplars,
and there is a plaza. Lord Cochrane (pronounced Coch-rah-ne by the
Chileans), and Admiral O’Higgins are remembered in the nomenclature of
the streets. You can sit under municipal vines and fig-trees, or the pear
or cherry loaded with blossoms, if you happen to be there in September.
The markets are overflowing with fine vegetables, such as cauliflower,
lettuce, artichokes, carrots, radishes, potatoes, cabbage, etc., etc.
Indian faces are very numerous at the market and on the streets. Bands
play two or three nights in the week and the music is good. The flat
plain on which the town is situated is not especially beautiful, but
it gives unlimited opportunity for growth, and the Bio-Bio, especially
when at flood, is an impressive stream. The galvanized iron used so
extensively in construction does not add much to the beauty of the town.
As Southern Chile develops, Concepción becomes of greater and greater
importance, and it has a steady and healthy increase each year.

Osorno is a thriving city a little ways inland on a branch of the Rio
Bueno, and was a place of considerable importance in the Spanish days.
Corral is at the mouth of the river that leads back to Valdivia, a dozen
miles inland. It has a trade of considerable importance with the other
ports, and is distant from Valparaiso almost five hundred miles. The
coast is not so densely wooded as farther south, and the tide is not more
than one-fourth as high on the average. Puerto Montt is a prosperous
and progressive little town situated on Reloncavi Bay. It has a well
protected harbour and enjoys a considerable trade in lumber, wheat and
leather. The lofty Andes are plainly visible on a clear day, especially
the volcano Cabulco, which is only twenty-two miles distant. A half
century ago this port had a commerce of considerable value and was even
then exporting food products, although its population did not much exceed
a couple of thousand.

[Illustration: VIEW OF PUERTO MONTT.

Courtesy of Bulletin of the Pan American Union.]

There are innumerable islands, which lie close to the mainland, from
Puerto Montt to the Fuegian Archipelago. The largest of these is Chiloé,
which is a hundred miles long by from thirty to fifty miles in width.
It is generally considered to be one of the sloppiest islands in the
world, for that was the reputation the naturalist Darwin gave it, and his
opinion has been corroborated many times. Its length runs parallel to the
mainland, from which it is separated by a quite broad bay. The shores
are generally wild and rather inhospitable. If one lands any place,
excepting where a settler is located, the dense growth will be found
almost impenetrable, with all branches dripping with moisture, and only
an occasional sunbeam being able to push its way through the openings
in the evergreen shrubbery. Moss-covered bogs abound in which one may
sink to the waist in the mire. On this moist land everything grows with
wonderful rapidity that does not require a great amount of sunshine.
Moss, yards in length, and of great delicacy and beauty, hangs from the
branches, while ferns and polypodia scramble up the trunks. Beautifully
scalloped lichens, in brown and gold and lavender, decorate the fallen
trees wherever they can take hold, and fungi covers the larger trees.
Tough-fibred climbers of great length also decorate the trees. They are
oftentimes employed to tie up the fences instead of nails, and are also
used in weaving some of the beautiful baskets made by the natives. Brooms
made of it are likewise exported. This dense growth abounds everywhere,
with the exception of barren pampas which sometimes stretch for a quarter
of a mile or so. Cattle will sometimes wander into these thick meshes,
and no one but an Indian accustomed to the tangle can penetrate with
anything like facility in their efforts to find the recalcitrant animals.

Several thousand Indians dwell on this large island. They have been
semi-civilized for two or three centuries. They seem to have been less
warlike than the Araucanians on the mainland. Their clothing is modelled
somewhat after that of the _rotos_, for nearly all sport a white cotton
or linen shirt, which is oftentimes worn under the gaily-coloured
indigo-dyed _poncho_. The shoes are generally simply made of a piece of
raw oxhide fastened to the feet with thongs of leather. Their houses
are the very simplest of contrivances. The family that starves does so
only through indifference. Land is cheap and nature productive. Most of
them live near the seacoast or rivers, where fish are very abundant,
and edible wild-fowl of many kinds, including ducks, geese and pigeons,
are easy to capture. The forests yield a number of wild fruits and
vegetables. Among the wild fruits may be mentioned strawberries of a
delicious flavour, and a species of myrtle which bears a palatable
berry. The fruit of the luma, or kow-chow, is very abundant, and is
used in making a fermented liquor much used by the natives. They have
remained as poor as when the Spaniards came, and the population has
actually decreased in the last century. This island, as well as others,
was a feudal holding and the tyranny of the proprietors and abuses of
the merchants account for that. Justice and humanity were frequently
unknown terms. Churches are not wanting, for at one place nineteen can be
counted on islands and mainland when the weather is clear. The church is
always an important and conspicuous building in every community. A few
colonists, German, French and British, have located on this island, and
have succeeded in carving a home out of the wilderness if sufficiently
industrious. Nevertheless many of them have endured great hardships. The
Chilean government brought them over but had neglected to provide the
necessary roads.

Chiloé is the name of a province composed entirely of islands.
In addition to the large island just described, it includes the
archipelagoes of Chonos and Guaytecas, and embraces altogether no less
than a thousand islands. Many of them contain only a few inhabitants,
although the natural characteristics are similar to Chiloé itself. There
are several towns on Chiloé. One of them is Chacao, which, for two
hundred years, was the principal port. It was founded in 1567, but was
practically abandoned three hundred years later. Castro was the capital
until it was transferred to Ancud in 1834. These towns were plundered by
Dutch freebooters and also destroyed by earthquakes. Ancud is situated
pleasantly, but the bay seems to be filling up so that large vessels have
to anchor several miles out at sea. Lord Cochrane once attacked this town
and wrested it from the Spaniards. Living in this town is very cheap, for
the necessities of life can be purchased in the ample market at very low
prices. South of Ancud there is only one town of importance, Mellinca,
on the Guaytecas archipelago. With the exception of Punta Arenas it is
the most southerly settlement of any size in Chile. To-day it is much
less important than formerly, although still somewhat of a village with
probably less than a thousand population. The first establishment in
these towns is usually a distillery of aguardiente (brandy), and its
product is not a good friend of either native or settler.

The life both in air and water is very abundant. The sea is most lavish
in life of all kinds, and can furnish an almost exhaustless supply of
food for those living farther north. The robalo is a Chilean fish of fine
flavour. The corbina, which is as large as a good-sized cod, is another
good species. The pege-ruge is a sort of smelt, and the herrings abound
in countless numbers. Oyster beds too are numerous. They are all natural
beds, however, but systematic farming might make them as good as those
along our own Atlantic coast. Other mussels and edible crabs of several
species abound.

With such an abundance of sea life it is only natural that birds of the
fishing tribe should be plentiful. Huge pelicans, those dirty, unwieldy
birds, are attracted here by this abounding life. Cormorants are equally
numerous, as they are all along this coast. Penguins are also found
here. The grube, whose skin is in such demand, is also quite common.
The Antarctic goose is abundant, and the white gander on guard is a
rather beautiful black and white bird. He always occupies some prominent
rocky point, keeping watch and guard over his mate intent upon domestic
duties. Insect life is also very busy, and a red bee almost as large as
some humming-birds is especially characteristic of this region. It flies
rapidly and hovers around among the flowers almost like the humming-bird.

Opposite Chiloé, on the mainland, is the Palena River, the largest river
in Chile. The excessive rains and melting snows from the lofty peaks,
which are plainly visible when the mists have cleared away, keep the
banks filled with water. Every cloud that sweeps in from the Pacific
comes down in rain as soon as it encounters the mountains. The slopes
are dotted with wood clear up to the snow-line. The woods here, as well
as elsewhere, are seemingly impenetrable. There are many flowering trees
which add their beauty to the scene. A tall cane from which the Indians
used to make spears grows in great confusion almost everywhere. It grows
in great stools like giant bunches of rushes. The genii of vegetation
takes possession of the riches of the ground. The beautiful green of
the Chilean pine predominates. The mouth of the river is a stretch of
delta. Of course it cannot compare with the streams on the Atlantic
coast, but it is a striking river. Dancing mountain streams join it here
and there—sometimes with a leap from the hills, thus forming numerous
cascades. These white streaks of the cascades are visible on the mountain
slopes in many places. The mists keep shifting and shimmering around
the various peaks,—now revealing and again hiding the silent glens or
gullies. The abundance of wooding oftentimes almost overcomes the
beholder with the helplessness of humanity in such a region. The north
winds which bring the rains are usually warm, while the south winds which
blow up from the Antarctic regions are dry and cold. These and the west
winds, which have such a stretch of sea to blow over, bring the worst
storms, for they are not impeded for thousands of miles.

These facts lead one to speculate on the possibilities of timber
development in Chile. This republic probably contains almost as great
a proportion of wooded land as any country in the world. From the
Straits to Valdivia it is almost an unbroken forest. The trees are
sometimes almost covered with parasites. In places they are almost
matted together with the climbing bamboo, and at others they are covered
with soft cushions of the graceful liverworts and green mosses. In the
extreme southern part of the republic the trees become more stunted and
gnarled, and are not large enough to be of commercial value for lumber
purposes. This primeval forest probably extended along the coast as far
as Valparaiso, since that place was originally selected as a seaport
because the rich woods near at hand afforded material for shipbuilding.
Those forests have entirely disappeared. In the southern part of the
central valley they are being ruthlessly destroyed. It is simply cut
down and burned, while the republic as a whole imports hundreds of
thousands of dollars’ worth of timber products from other countries. It
is quite probable that an important lumber industry is still awaiting
development in Southern Chile. Much of it will certainly be valuable
for wood pulp if for nothing else, so that of the making of books and
periodicals there may still be no end. The dangerous nature of the coast
may make navigation perilous. The Pacific Ocean down there is not always
so pacific and peaceful as farther north. The change is felt soon after
leaving Valparaiso on the journey southward bound.

Chilean Patagonia, which stretches along the Pacific coast for five
hundred miles, is little known, but it is a region of wild beauty.
It is a perfect labyrinth of channels and islands, to which there is
an entrance at each end, and one near the centre through the Gulf of
Trinidad. These entrances are through narrow channels which are difficult
to find, as they are so similar to other channels which lead into
_cul-de-sacs_. Powerful currents and cross-currents rush through these
contracted channels, so that vessels have to make them at full speed or
run the risk of being dashed helplessly upon the rocky barriers. Once
within the enclosure, however, the waters are calm even when the most
violent storms rage outside. Terrific rains which are veritable deluges
frequently fall, and impenetrable mists at times enshroud everything. The
barometer moves up and down by leaps and bounds. Suddenly a rift will
appear in the clouds, denoting the breaking of the storm, and the blue
sky and bright sun will be revealed. Then the scenery becomes glorious
in its radiant beauty—an amphitheatre of overhanging mountains with
glittering snow-dad crests against a sky of dazzling blue. Then all about
will be seen little islets, covered with trees and bushes of brilliant
green and flowers of many hues.

In spite of the snow-clad mountains the temperature is usually not
extreme. The jungles will rival the Amazonian jungles. It is a perfect
compress of hollys, ferns, beeches, orchids, vines and countless thorny
bushes. It is indeed

          “The silent wilderness,
    Where the soul need not repress
    Its music, lest it should not find
    An echo in another’s mind.”

The surface is a spongy mass, and a foothold less than knee deep is rare.
This exuberant vegetation is caused by the excessive moisture which
is here precipitated. Flower-bearing bushes are numerous, and genuine
field daisies are as plentiful in places as on a New England meadow.
Cataracts are everywhere in sight and mark the mountain sides like long
white streaks. At times when the boat is near the shore their roar can be
heard. An occasional wreck may be sighted, but more of them lie unseen,
buried beneath countless fathoms of water, for the shore descends down
in an almost perpendicular line to fathomless depths. Few vessels thread
these narrows, but it is a sight never to be forgotten by one who has had
the privilege of making the trip.

The future of this great undeveloped region remains to be seen. At
present there are no inhabitants, except occasionally a stray settlement
of Indians. Exploring itself is no child’s play, and there are still
tracts of untrodden forest, although the government has had numerous
surveying parties in the field. The boundary commission has done a great
deal in making this territory better understood. It differs widely from
the broad reaches of pampa of Argentine Patagonia, where rain is scant
and desert stretches are not uncommon. When development has taken place
it may far exceed in fertility and wealth the eastern slopes, and the
broad leagues of rich plain between the Andes and the Atlantic Ocean.




CHAPTER VI

THE LAND OF THE FIRE


“Tierra del Fuego,” meaning the land of the fire, exclaimed the followers
of Magellan, as they saw the wreaths of smoke ascending through the
frosty air. It was merely the signal fires of the Indians dwelling on one
of the islands of that remote southern archipelago, when they beheld the
strange white-winged vessels of Magellan sailing through the Straits,
since named after him. The name has clung to the group of islands during
the succeeding centuries, although thousands of white people have since
placed foot on them and the name is known to be a misnomer, for no
volcanic fires exist there.

Beginning in Alaska, a chain of gigantic granite vertebrae extends clear
to Cape Horn. It clings close to the Pacific coast throughout the entire
distance, and ends in grandeur near the Antarctic Circle. Some say that
the lower end of this backbone of the American continents was shattered
by a convulsion, in which mighty masses of rock were thrown off into the
ocean, thus forming the numberless islands which lie at the southern
extremity of South America. The better theory, however, is that they were
formed by the submerging of the lower end of the Andes Mountains. When
the land sank the stormy water beat through the valleys and chiselled the
shores into incongruous shapes and labyrinths.

Between the islands and the mainland are the Straits of Magellan. Some
of the finest scenery in the world is found in this intricate waterway,
especially in what is known as Smyth’s Channel, which separates Southern
Chile from the group of islands. Smyth’s Channel is very narrow, so that
most vessels take the broader Straits. The depth has never been fathomed.
There is a grandeur in the serrated peaks, and cliffs, snowy crests,
cascades and the glaciers under a brilliant sun and deep blue sky that is
simply overwhelming. Numerous mountain peaks reveal themselves, of which
Mt. Sarmiento is the noblest, and lifts its snowy head to a height of
over seven thousand feet. Its beauty is enhanced by numerous blue-tinted
glaciers, which descend to the waters of the sea like a multitude
of frozen Niagaras. Floating glaciers are common in the Straits, and
vessels, unequipped with ice-making machinery, often tie up to one while
the crew chop enough ice to fill the refrigerators.

Few places on the earth’s surface within easy reach can compare with
the Straits of Magellan. This channel has become the great trade route
between the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. Few boats, except sailing
vessels, now take the longer route around Cape Horn, because of the
storms that lash the Antarctic seas into fury. For several hundred miles
the Straits furnish a succession of beautiful scenes; green shores
alternating with the eternal glaciers of the mountain peaks, blue waters
contrasting with the shimmering crystal of the floating icebergs. These
masses of ice are as imperishable as the glaciers of Greenland, and they
add a feature to the scenery that is not to be found elsewhere within
the ordinary course of steamers. It is a region of marvellous sunsets as
well as rugged scenery, when the weather is clear, but mist, snow or rain
often dim the view.

[Illustration: IN THE STRAITS OF MAGELLAN.]

The eastern entrance to the Straits lies between Cape Virgenes, on
the mainland, and Cape Espiritu, on the island, a distance of about
fourteen miles. For some distance the channel is wide, with the mainland
gently undulating and covered with grass. Then come the first narrows,
and afterwards the second narrows. These narrows are about two miles
in width, and there is generally a strong current through them. In the
spring the tides are thrown up to a height of fifty feet, and this is
the reason sailing vessels prefer the open waters around Cape Horn, even
though the seas are more tempestuous. When nearing Punta Arenas the
mountains become higher, and at times the way seems blocked by them.
Stunted bush and underbrush appear. After leaving Punta Arenas the shores
grow bolder and more picturesque. The snow-covered mountains and glaciers
resemble the Alaska coast or that of Northern Norway. The islands are as
numerous as in the St. Lawrence or Georgian Bay.

Nodales Peak and Mt. Victoria lift their hoary heads on the mainland,
while Mt. Buckland and Mt. Sarmiento rise to a still greater height on
the islands. The latter beautiful and majestic peak is the noblest of
them all. Its snowy head rises to a height of seven thousand three
hundred feet, with a broad base and two distinct peaks. It is generally
more or less hidden by vapour. The three Evangelistas keep their lonely
vigil where straits and ocean join on the north. Cape Pillar, the
western end of the Straits, is two hundred and forty-five miles from
Cape Virgenes, but the steamer route is almost half as long again. Old
voyagers were wont to take eighty days in this passage when the weather
was a little unfavourable. The western end is the stormiest, and the
pilot books give it a very bad reputation. South of them the Antarctic
seas are seldom free from the storm king. The weather is nearly always
bad, and oftentimes worse. In one recent year it is said that eighty-two
sailing vessels and thirty-nine steamers were lost—a fearful toll claimed
by old Neptune.

Fernando de Magelhaens, although of Portuguese birth, had entered the
Spanish service. In charge of a fleet of five small ships, the largest
of only one hundred and thirty tons, boarded and manned by a crew of
sixty-two men, he sailed from Seville on the 10th of August, 1519.
The voyage was an arduous one, and was beset not only with terrific
storms at sea but mutinies among the sailors that were scarcely less
terrifying. Only two of his vessels remained faithful, but he conquered
the mutiny with the loss of only one vessel. On the 21st of October,
1520, he entered the eastern entrance of the channel, and it was a month
later, after almost unheard-of difficulties, that he emerged into the
broad Pacific. Of the subsequent expeditions that attempted this route
the experiences were most unfortunate. In nearly every instance almost
one out of every three vessels was wrecked, some in one channel and some
in another, for there is a perfect labyrinth of channels around and
between the many islands. Some of the names indicate the experiences or
impressions of these early navigators. Fatal Bay, Port Famine, Famine
Reach, Escape Beach, Last Wreck Point, Dislocation Harbour, Thieves
Island, Useless Bay, Fury Islands, Breakneck Peninsula, Desolation
Harbour, Preservation Cove, and last, Hope Inlet, are a few of the names
that may be located on the map. In 1578, Sir Francis Drake, an English
explorer as well as freebooter, by accident found the route by the way
of Cape Horn. This great discovery stimulated navigation around South
America, for the Spaniards guarded the Straits route to the best of
their ability. The Spaniards described Drake as “a man of low condition,
but a skilful seaman and a valiant pirate.”

The Fuegian Archipelago covers a goodly territory. The islands contain
as much land as Nebraska, and are several hundred miles long from east
to west. A perfect labyrinth of tortuous, wind-swept waterways separate
the hundreds of islands which form this group. They are not all a
desolate mass of ice and snow, however, but contain plains which are
covered with succulent grasses, and slopes which are thickly wooded.
The Chilean portion of these islands, and the mainland along the coast
beyond the fiftieth parallel of latitude, is included in the territory of
Magellanes, the largest territorial division in the republic. The largest
island, called Tierra del Fuego, land of the fire, is half as large as
Illinois. It is divided longitudinally between Chile and Argentina, by
far the largest portion belonging to the former nation, and the best part
of it too.

Thirty years ago this entire island was roamed and hunted over by the
aborigines. The fact that the northern part consisted of open country,
with few ranges of hills, caused the white man to look upon it with
envious eyes, as it promised good pasturage for sheep. Then began a
warfare against the Indians which almost resulted in their extermination.
Thousands of sheep now quietly graze in the rich valleys and on the
verdant plains, and thrive very well indeed. Very little of the land
is cultivated, although probably susceptible of cultivation, but the
marketing of the products would be a difficult feature at the present
time, and the season is short. Its latitude is about that of Southern
Greenland, but the climate is probably milder, and its longitude is
approximately that of Eastern Massachusetts. In the summer the grass is
green, but in the winter the chilly winds change it to a rich brown. The
ground rats are a terrible nuisance to the farmer, as they burrow in the
fields so much that they destroy half the usefulness of a good meadow.
The mountain slopes are covered with a thick growth of trees, ferns and
mosses up to a height of a thousand feet or more, due to the great amount
of rainfall, but above that distance the growth is very stunted. It seems
strange to see green trees and green grasses amid snows and glaciers, but
such is the contrast offered by this “land of the fire.” The trees are
mostly evergreen, not very high, but very close together. A deep bed of
moss, into which a man may sink knee-deep, generally surrounds them, and
large ferns with leaves a yard long grow in places otherwise bare. Even
bright flowers make the sombre landscape seem almost gay when the sun
shines on a summer day.

Desolation Island, on the Chilean side, is a bleak and barren island well
indicated by its name, while other names are Clarence, St. Inas, and
Navarin. There are many others, from islands twenty miles in length to
some so small that a good baseball pitcher could toss a stone clear over
them. Cape Horn is a monster rock which thrusts its jagged outline into
the Antarctic seas. It is a couple of hundred miles south of the Straits
of Magellan, and more than a thousand miles nearer the undiscovered
South Pole than the Cape of Good Hope. It is surrounded by waters that
are tossed by terrific storms which mariners fear. The hulks of wrecked
vessels can be seen on every hand as reminders of the terrible tribute
which has been here levied. Glaciers are always in sight, and masses of
ice hundreds of feet high are frequently seen, seeming to threaten the
venturesome mariner for invading those beautiful waters.

[Illustration: A WRECK ON THE COAST OF CHILE.]

A number of years ago a steamer was wrecked on these shores, but the
crew managed to save sufficient provisions to sustain all those rescued
for some time. While sinking shallow wells they discovered a strata of
black sand that sparkled with particles of gold. Their reports led to
great excitement over the discovery of gold on Tierra del Fuego. Although
adventurers had sailed through the Straits for centuries, looking for
the wealth that they might obtain either honestly or dishonestly, yet
the gold deposits remained undiscovered until 1867. Their covetous eyes
had gazed upon the gold-bearing shores, and they had even filled their
water-casks in the gold-bearing rivulets without seeing the wealth. In
the few years following a number of Argentine explorers visited that
region, and found the source of some of the gold. The gold was almost
exclusively found in free particles in a layer of black sand, which was
found under the surface sand. As soon as the report of their find reached
the settlements, a number of expeditions were fitted out and sent to
that region. The best payings were found right on the beach, which was
washed by the waves of the sea at a high tide and during storms. It was
also found that the tides brought in fresh gold-bearing sands from the
seas. The miners used to sit down and smoke their pipes until the storms
passed, and then dig up the black sand with the gold in it after the surf
had gone down.

It all seemed to be pockets, so that where the gold would be found in
considerable quantities for a while, it would soon become so scarce that
mining it under the crude conditions prevailing became unprofitable. The
prospectors sailed in and out of the stormy and dangerous bays, and many
of them lost their lives. The hidden reefs and whirling tornadoes form
combinations that made navigation in the small catboats that were used
extremely perilous. Many, who were wrecked, were obliged to live upon
whatever wild food they could find for weeks, and others were killed
by the hostile Indians. The original stories said that nuggets as big
as kernels of corn were plentiful, but they were not true to fact. No
gold quartz veins were ever discovered, but in all the finds it was
simply particles mixed up with the black sand. Gold mining to-day is not
prosecuted in that region as much as it was a couple of decades ago,
although some gold is washed each year. If the whole story was known, it
would probably be found that there were more skeletons of dead miners
left on those inhospitable shores than records of wealth acquired in
Tierra del Fuego. Most of those who did find wealth got no farther than
Punta Arenas with it, for that city was to that region what San Francisco
was in the early days of California, and mining prospectors are the same
the world over.

The first attempt to establish a settlement on the Straits of Magellan
was in the latter part of the sixteenth century. Pedro Sarmiento de
Gamboa was placed in command of this expedition. His instructions were
as follows: “For the honour and glory of God and of the Virgin Mary,
His Mother and Our Lady, whom you, Captain Pedro Sarmiento, are to take
for Advocate and Patron of the ships and crews under your orders for
this discovery and enterprise in the Straits of Magellan.” After several
narrow escapes from shipwreck the expedition landed, and established a
settlement not far from the present city of Punta Arenas. From the very
first misfortune seemed to follow the colonists, and the Indians soon
became hostile. At the end of the second winter the three hundred or
more colonists had dwindled to eighteen, who were finally rescued. They
had been obliged to live on berries, shell-fish, oysters, and such other
ocean life that they were able to catch. The Indians had driven the
guanaco and other wild game into the interior where the colonists could
not reach them.

[Illustration: GENERAL VIEW OF PUNTA ARENAS.]

The continent of South America extends much farther south than Africa.
The southernmost point is Cape Frowards, which is a dark mass of rock
five hundred feet high joined by a low neck of land to snow-clad
mountains. At almost the southernmost point of the mainland lies the
little city of Punta Arenas (Sandy Point). It is situated on the Straits
of Magellan, which is sheltered from the worst storms by the many
islands that lie between it and the Antarctic seas. Punta Arenas is the
southernmost city in the world, eight hundred miles farther south than
Cape Town. There is plenty of building space left in this city still,
but a few years ago, when the boom was on, the people had visions of a
southern Chicago. Fabulous prices were asked for building lots, and real
estate agents were almost as plentiful as the Indians. That time has
passed, and the town has dwindled in population. Its latitude is about
that of Labrador, but it is much more equable than that country and the
weather is not so severe as many imagine. It is so named because built
on a sandy beach that runs out into the Straits. It is now a city of
twelve thousand people, and they seem to be contented. It is a very mixed
population. You can hear Spanish, English, German, Italian, Russian and
even the Chinese mingled with the guttural tongues of the Indians. The
Scotch are probably the most thrifty of the inhabitants, and many of them
have lived there two or three generations.

There are many rough characters in Punta Arenas, some even who have
drifted from the mining camps of our western states. It is said to be
bad policy to ask a man where he came from, or what his name was before
his arrival, as it might be an embarrassing subject. The loafing places
are the bars, where many brawls occur during the long winters. There are
probably as many saloons to the number of inhabitants as in any other
place on the globe, for nearly every other door seems to bear such a
sign. Much gambling is also done at these and in the clubs. There are
clubs, where the well-to-do gather and have their games just as they do
the world over. The principal club is the Cuerpo de Bomberos, which means
the Society of Firemen, and was organized as a volunteer fire department.
Most of the buildings are cheap one-story affairs, frequently being built
of the corrugated iron so common in this land. Punta Arenas is a free
port, and this fact has aided in its prosperity. All the vessels passing
through the Straits call there for supplies and coal, and this business,
together with the trade in whaling products, wool and furs, furnish
the inhabitants with employment. It is one of the great wool-exporting
ports of the world, having shipped more than sixteen million pounds of
that commodity in a single season, and four hundred thousand pelts. The
trade in furs is very large. One of the prettiest things sold here is an
ostrich robe made of the breasts of the young birds.

[Illustration: PORT FAMINE, IN THE STRAITS OF MAGELLAN.]

Punta Arenas is the business centre of the region extending from Port
Desire, on the Patagonian coast to Cape Horn, and from the Falkland
Islands on the east to the westernmost limits of Chile. The little
settlement that originally was established there was called La Colonia
de Magellanes. On the 21st of April, 1843, Chile first planted her
tri-coloured banner at a place near here, which was called Port Famine,
because of the disastrous end of the Sarmiento settlement, which had been
located there a couple of centuries previously.

Chile had a double purpose in establishing this post. One was its desire
to hold the territory as a national possession, and the other was to
establish a penal colony which would be so far away from the capital that
the prisoners, even if they escaped, could not return. Several hundred
prisoners were generally confined there, who were kept in subjection
by a small company of soldiers. On two occasions the convicts rebelled
and took possession of this settlement. On one of these the governor
and many of the guards were killed and the mutineers boarded a ship
that chanced to be in the harbour, but they were overtaken by a Chilean
man-of-war and overcome. The men were hung, and it is said that a man
was seen hanging from every yard-arm of the war-ship. After the first
revolt a new settlement was established on the present site of Punta
Arenas, which was given the old name. The tongue of sand there, however,
the English-speaking people called Sandy Point, and thereafter the name
Punta Arenas, which means the same in Spanish, was given it; at least it
is entirely known by that name now.

In 1877 the last revolt occurred, when the convicts revenged the
cruelties to which they had been subjected upon the commander of the
garrison and many of the soldiers. When a man-of-war appeared they fled
into the interior, where most of them died from starvation and hardships.
The establishment of the Pacific Steam Navigation Company was the cause
of the abandonment of this place as a penal colony. It proved to be a
convenient stopping place for the steamers to take on coal and supplies,
and this gave it a new life. Later came the discovery of gold, which
brought many to the settlement. Still later a Scotchman brought some
sheep from the Falkland Islands, and found that the region around Punta
Arenas and on the island opposite was well adapted for sheep raising.
Others took advantage of this experience, until the neighbourhood around
became noted for its sheep culture. Some day, if a freezing establishment
should be established here, Punta Arenas will become a still more
important place, and it is undoubtedly only a question of time until
such will be done. The town itself makes a poor foreground for the
magnificent setting of nature. It is laid out on the usual checkerboard
plan, with several streets running from the shores back up the hills.
It has a plaza and the streets are unpaved. The beach is sandy and the
streets are either filled with loose sand or mud.

Across the Straits the green hills of Tierra del Fuego may be seen
rising, and over to the south the snow-capped peaks of Mt. Sarmiento and
its neighbours appear above the horizon. To the west are mountains which
are ever green and rise boldly up to the western edge, while to the north
the hills are generally bare. At one time it was thought that coal had
been discovered and the mine was opened up; some track was built and an
old locomotive brought down. It proved, however, to be only lignite, and
so the mine has been practically abandoned.

A considerable trade has been developed in Indian curios and goods.
The Indians from the pampas and islands come here to sell their furs,
feathers, bows, hides, etc. Passengers passing through the Straits on the
various steamers usually lay in a supply of these goods, some of which
are genuine and others are prepared especially for such passengers. One
wonders at the number of palms and plants which are seen in this town
so far beyond all other settlements, for even wild flowers of certain
kinds seem to grow in great profusion, while ferns and lichens everywhere
delight the eye.

South of Punta Arenas there is only one settlement of any importance, and
that is Ushuaia. This town is situated on the Argentine side of Tierra
del Fuego, and, small as it is, it is the capital of that territory. It
stands nearer to the South Pole than any other civilized village in the
world. The barriers created by nature are almost insurmountable. To the
south is the unknown Antarctic, to the north the impassable barrier of
snow-clad peaks, and in all other directions are the fathomless channels
separating it from the other islands. Established first as a mission
settlement, its site was selected as the capital of the territory. The
Argentine flag was first unfolded over the first building erected for
the use of officials in 1884. Shortly after that work upon prisons was
begun, and it became a still more important settlement. Here, in this
isolated quarter of the globe, guarded by a few score of armed men, are
confined several hundred men, many of whom are the very dregs of humanity
sent from Buenos Aires. These unfortunates work on the roads, dress stone
for new and stronger walls, or make the garments worn by themselves and
their fellow prisoners. Few attempt to escape and fewer still succeed,
for the loneliness and desolation alone would keep a prisoner where human
companionship may be found.

Small and unimportant as this town is to-day, and wretched as it would
seem to many people, yet it has a full complement of officials with their
secretaries and servants. There is a complete list of judicial officers
and police officials, even though the police have no patrol to beat and
the court has no docket. About the only part of the official equipment
that has any work to do is the culinary department, for it takes a great
deal of cooking and preparation to provide food for every one there.
Out of a population of several hundred to-day, made up principally of
prisoners and officials, there are only a very few plain common citizens
who dwell there.

Most of the buildings in Ushuaia are frame structures, which have been
erected near the bay that bears the same name as the town. It is situated
on Beagle Channel. The houses consist of plain unpainted wooden walls,
with a roof of corrugated iron. The governor’s palace itself is not much
better than the other buildings. A few of the buildings have little green
patches, enclosed with picket fences, in which they are able to grow a
few vegetables. For a location so far south the climate is not so bad as
one would expect, as the snowfall is not as great as in the same latitude
in northern regions. In the winter time the nights are very long and
the days short. The mountains just at the back of the town cut off the
sunlight when the sun is low, so that the town only receives about four
hours of daylight. It is certainly a cheerless sort of existence that the
people lead in this southern capital. There are still one or two missions
that are conducted by English missionaries on this coastland, but they
have had very little influence upon the natives. One of the missions
consists of quite a large ranch, where the minister in charge of the
mission lives and employs the natives to do his work.

For several hundred miles north of Punta Arenas lies the formerly
unknown land of Patagonia—the land of the Pata-goas, the “big feet,” as
they were named by Magellan. One can see in that city almost any day
descendants of that race in the Tehuelche tribe of Indians who come
there to sell their furs and skins. Out upon the broad pampas away from
the town, the traveller will occasionally stumble upon the _toldos_
(huts) of the Tehuelches. These are simply made huts of the skins of
the guanaco sewn loosely together at the edges, and supported squarely
upon awkward-looking props, or posts, forked at the top to admit the
ridge-poles. The skins are fastened to the earth by wooden pegs. The
Tehuelches are the native Indians of Patagonia—the so-called giants—and
are well built specimens of manhood. These Indians live almost as
their ancestors did hundreds of years ago. They are still nomads, and
exist entirely by the chase. They do not cultivate anything whatever,
but sometimes own a few cattle. In general they still dress in skins,
although some of them have purchased store clothes at the settlements. As
a rule they are mild mannered, when sober, and do not deserve the name of
being bloodthirsty savages. Their numbers have greatly decreased, since
the first discovery of Patagonia, through dissipation and disease, and
some have estimated that the total number yet remaining will not exceed a
few hundred.

Only a few years ago the geographers labelled Patagonia “no man’s land.”
To-day millions of sheep graze over its fertile plains. It is as large as
several of our western states. It is a land of big distances and enormous
holdings. In the pasture section it is often a ride of three or four
days from one ranch to another. Most of these ranches are near the coast
or along the few rivers. As one travels into the interior a white face
becomes more and more rare; empty leagues surround you on every hand.
One accustomed to cities only would find it very lonely indeed on these
plains. One seems to stand alone with only the wind, the mirages and the
limitless distances, and the blue sky above for a canopy. The last land
to have been the habitation of the greater beasts of preceding ages,
according to geologists, Patagonia is one of the last to receive its
proper share of the human population.

There are three races of Indians who inhabit these Fuegian islands,
the Yahgans, Alacaloofs and the Onas, all of whom are very low in
intelligence. They are commonly known under the general characterization
of the Firelanders. None of them are as far advanced as the Esquimaux,
who build warm igloos for their habitation. Even though the climate is
very cold the greater part of the year these aborigines formerly wore
very little clothing, but greased their bodies with fish oil that keeps
out the cold. In recent years, however, they have begun to wear warmer
garments, when such can be obtained. The Yahgans are very treacherous,
and many murders have been traced to them. They will mingle very little
with white people, but always hold themselves aloof. Their houses are of
the most primitive character, and are frequently little more than a rude
construction of thatch on a skeleton of sticks stuck in the ground.

These Yahgans live almost entirely on sea food. They divide their time
between these rude huts and canoes, or dugouts made from the trunks of
trees, in which they paddle through the tortuous channels from one island
to another. Should a storm overtake the boat and it becomes necessary to
lighten it, the men show their instinct for self-preservation by throwing
the women and children overboard. They are not particular about food,
as to whether it is very fresh or not. There is frequently a dearth of
food, and then it is that they are driven to eat the flesh of a stranded
whale or of an animal found dead. Ground rats and the fishy-flavoured
penguin are included on their regular bill-of-fare. Their camping-places
can generally be located by the mounds of shells that accumulate. They
are as near to primitive savages as it would be possible to find on the
Americas. As usual among savage tribes, the women do the most of the
work, and assist in the hunting and fishing as well as prepare the meat
after it has once been caught. The Yahgans are short and muscular and
below medium height. Their lower limbs seem rather stunted, but above
the waist they are heavily built. Marriage is a matter of purchase and
sale, and wives are sometimes exchanged. The marriage ceremony consists
in painting the girl in a peculiar way, and then the husband takes her to
his hut or that of his parents.

The Alacaloofs, or Alakalufs, occupy the western islands and are similar
in their habits to the Yahgans. Their canoes are made of strips of bark
or planks fastened together with vines and caulked with moss. Their huts
look like New England haycocks made of boughs and covered with skins or
bark strips. They frequently row out to meet passing steamers and beg for
food. They are not an attractive people. In colour they strongly resemble
the North American red men, but they are not much over five feet in
height. The only domesticated animal owned by them is the dog. With this
tribe, as well as the Yahgans, everything is held in common and it is no
crime to take of your neighbour’s fuel or food.

The Onas are a hunting tribe and they are larger than either of the
other tribes. They occupy the prairie lands and open bush of Tierra del
Fuego. The men are active and athletic, and they are especially skilful
in stalking the guanaco of that island. They are expert in the use of
the rude bows and arrows which they make for themselves. The bows are
fashioned out of a native wood cut with shell knives, and the arrows
are made out of reeds armed with a flint or glass point. Horse meat is
a great delicacy with them. The struggle for existence has made these
people inexpressive in features and stoical in actions. A good fortune or
an ill fortune is met in much the same way. Their homes are generally
saucer-shaped hollows that have been scraped out, over which poles and
brush are piled and guanaco skins are used as doors. All the family lie
down together, and the dogs are included for warmth. They are nomads and
wander from one place to another in search of food. Fire is made with
bits of iron ore or flints and dry fungus. Some of this tribe are now
employed as servants by the white people, but most of them prefer the
wild life in the open.

With all the hardships that seem to fall to the lot of these Indians who
live so far to the south, they seem to be fairly happy and are contented
with their surroundings. This is truly fortunate. People who live in the
temperate zones are inclined to think that they are the only truly happy
ones. By travel one’s view is broadened, and at last he realizes the
truth expressed by Oliver Goldsmith in the following lines:—

              “If countries we compare,
    And estimate the blessings which they share,
    Though patriots flatter, still shall wisdom find
    An equal portion dealt to all mankind.
    The shuddering tenant of the frigid zone
    Boldly proclaims that happiest spot his own;
    Extols the treasures of the stormy seas,
    And his long nights of revelry and ease;
    The naked negro, panting at the Line,
    Boasts of his golden sands and palmy wine,
    Basks in the glare, or strives the tepid wave.
    And thanks his gods for all the good they gave.”




CHAPTER VII

THE BACKBONE OF THE CONTINENT


The trip across the continent of South America is now made very
comfortably by train. The start is from the very pleasant station of the
State Railway of Valparaiso. For a number of miles the tracks run almost
along the water’s edge, and thus afford many beautiful views of the blue
bay of Valparaiso. The trains on this road are very comfortable, for the
Chilean State Railway is one of the very few railroads in South America
that provide Pullman cars for their patrons. After leaving Viña del Mar
the line soon abandons the bay, and threads its way through the coast
range of mountains. One gets many glimpses of the higher Andes through
the passes, and there are also green glens where advantage has been taken
of the running water for irrigation. Cacti become very abundant, and one
is reminded of the plateaus of Mexico, for these silent sentinels seem to
keep watch over the herds of sheep and goats that feed on the slopes.
Any one who has seen Southern Chile first will notice the difference as
soon as the train leaves Santiago. The progressive dryness of the climate
has a pronounced effect on the vegetation. The cacti are frequently from
twelve to fifteen feet in height, and their entire surface is covered
with stout, curved spines.

[Illustration: THE ACONCAGUA RIVER.]

After creeping along the shore and then through a valley, the railroad
soon joins the Aconcagua River, which leaps and foams along, thus
forming a series of diminutive cascades. In the winter time the change
in temperature is very marked as the upward climb continues. In places
the valley spreads out to quite generous proportions, and one will
see _haciendas_ that are well kept up and which show evidence of
careful cultivation. Contrast is afforded by the sight of oxen drawing
one-handled, wooden ploughs. How powerful must have been the Moorish
influence in Spain, for these ploughs are exact duplicates of the plough
of ancient Chaldea and Egypt, which was carried along the coast of
Barbary into Spain, and left there as a heritage to the Spaniards, who
introduced it into the New World. The general impression left with the
traveller over this route, between Valparaiso and Santiago, is one of
comparative barrenness and desolation.

Viña del Mar, Limache and Quillota are three quite important towns that
are passed _en route_, the latter two of which have some important
manufacturing establishments. Llai Llai (pronounced Yi-yi) is about half
way, and this is the diverging point for the two routes. One leads to
the capital, and the other is the continuation of the transcontinental
railroad. Llai Llai is a pleasant little town of five or six thousand
inhabitants, and is situated about twenty-six hundred and twenty-five
feet above sea level. A number of fruit sellers are sure to be at the
station, and one who does not purchase a few of the delicious pears or
peaches, that are sold so reasonably, misses a great treat. They are
grown in a rich valley below which is a sort of agricultural Arcadia.

The through cars are switched to another track, a different engine is
attached to them and the traveller is soon bound for Los Andes. The
journey does not differ greatly from that already described. The city
of San Felipe is the largest town passed and it is situated amidst well
cultivated fields. It is a city of about twelve thousand. Soon afterwards
the train reaches Santa Rosa de Los Andes, which marks a break in
the journey. Here it is necessary to change trains, and frequently to
stay over night. It is at the foothills of the Andes, and one can find
many pleasant little excursions into the foothills here, if he has
the inclination to tarry for a few days. The climate is good, and the
physical wants of the traveller are very well looked after at the hotel.
A few Americans will be found there, for the railroad is operated by that
nationality.

[Illustration: LOOKING TOWARDS ACONCAGUA.]

If it is the summer time one will find Los Andes a very pleasant little
place, with quite an abundance of vegetation around it. The altitude
is about twenty-six hundred feet, which gives it a delightful climate.
Fruits grow abundantly, and the fruit-canning industry has been
considerably developed. This is in the province of Aconcagua, which
contains some of the most notable elevations in the entire republic,
and, in fact, in the entire world. This province is about as large
as Connecticut and Rhode Island combined. In addition to the eastern
boundary of lofty peaks there are numerous low hills, between which lie
fertile valleys. Through the use of irrigation agriculture flourishes
in these valleys, and there is a considerable production of grains and
wine. There are also a number of silver and copper mines in the province.
San Felipe is the capital, and is distant about seventy-eight miles from
both Santiago and Valparaiso.

“_Vamonos_,” says the conductor of the narrow gauge train, as it pulls
out of the station on its way to the limits of Chilean territory. One
will begin to take notice of his fellow-travellers. The passengers will
be found to be of many nationalities, and of many shades of colour,
for, since the railway journey is continuous, fewer people take the
much longer route via the Straits of Magellan. There will be Chilenos,
with big hats and _ponchos_, and Chilenas, whose faces are coated with
powder or paste. There will be priests in beaver hats and black gowns,
which reach to their feet. Soldiers in uniforms modelled after the
German army are quite likely to be companions as far as the border.
Americans, British, French, Germans, Italians and Argentinians—all of
these nationalities go to make up a potpourri of nations and national
characteristics. As the start is generally made in the morning, one sees
the stars disappear and the dawn break over the mountains. The gray
skies turn to a steel-blue, then to a rosy pink, until, at last, the
highest peaks are illuminated by the rays of the sun. One may leave Los
Andes clad in its summer plumage, with myriads of butterflies and moths
flitting about, but these characteristics soon disappear, for the upward
climb begins almost immediately. In the next thirty-five miles this rack
and pinion road climbs upward more than seven thousand feet. It is a much
steeper ascent than on the Argentine side, for it requires three times
the distance to reach the same level on that slope.

The track follows the course of the Aconcagua River. This river is at no
time a great stream, yet the total volume of water carried down in its
swift-flowing current must be considerable. Many glimpses of the simple
natives, and their primitive means of conveyance, are afforded on the
ancient highway that threads the same valley. On the mountainside an
occasional mud hut may be seen around and over which climb creepers and
flowering vines. The scenery is beautiful and full of variations. Every
turn of the tortuous track reveals a new scene of beauty, and there are
few railway journeys in the world that will afford a greater variety of
views than this overland route to Buenos Aires. The mountains grow from
grand to grander, as if Ossa had been piled upon Pelion. When sunlight
and shadow play upon the rock the contrasts are dazzling and the senses
gladdened. There is a prodigality of colours such as even the Yosemite,
the Grand Cañon or the Dolomites do not surpass. Guardia Viega, the
“old guard,” is one of the stations, and is so named because it was for
two centuries a guard station on the Antiguo Camino, or ancient road
between the two republics. The vegetation becomes scanter as the altitude
increases, but, scant as it is, it is a pleasing change to the traveller
coming from the other direction. Juncal, which for several years was the
terminus, is passed. One of the most beautiful views afforded is that of
the narrow gorge, known as the Salto del Soldado, the Soldier’s Leap,
through which the tempestuous waters of the river foam and toss. There
is a tradition connected with this strange freak of nature of which the
Chileans are proud. During the war of independence it is said that a
Chilean pursued by the enemy, leaped across this chasm and saved his
life. Owing to the width it is an almost impossible tale to believe.

[Illustration: THE SALTO DEL SOLDADO.]

Just beyond Juncal is a beautiful little lake, which is as opalescent and
translucent as any of the lakes of Switzerland, and several thousand feet
higher. It is the Lago del Inca, the Lake of the Incas. Pure as crystal,
and clear as an unclouded sky, this little body of water rests tranquilly
amidst as harsh and severe a setting as one could well find. Masses of
rock seem poised on ledges ready to project themselves down into valleys
with destruction in their path. The mad gods who formed these eternal
peaks must have paused for a moment in their work in order to add this
one touch of real beauty to the landscape.

Here one may also see the huge condors, flying at such heights that they
look no larger than a swallow. The glass will sometimes reveal others
that can scarcely be distinguished with the naked eye. They sail and
circle around in the rarefied air with scarcely a flap of the wing. In
the winter time the condor may be found near the coast, but in summer
they always return to the highest Andean peaks, where they rear their
young. The eggs are deposited in lofty clefts or caverns, where no form
of animal life exists that might destroy the young birds. A young condor
during the first year clings to the parent bird, for its body is too
big for its wings. This royal bird figures on the national escutcheon of
Chile as an emblem of strength and independence. The Indians surround it
with many legends, and some of them believe that the souls of the lost
enter the bodies of the condor and are thus poised between heaven and
earth, so as to see the glories of both and be able to enjoy neither,
like the doom of Tantalus.

At last Caracoles, the name given to the little station at the Chilean
end of the international railroad, is reached, at an elevation of a
little more than ten thousand feet above sea level. The tunnel is just
about the same length as the altitude, for it is ten thousand three
hundred and eighty-five feet from entrance to exit. Near the centre of
this hole bored through the Andean rock the international boundary is
passed, and, when the train emerges at Las Cuevas, the other terminus,
the traveller catches his first glimpse of Argentina. It is a scene of
vast desolation that meets his gaze. It is a picture of solitude, with
nothing to relieve it in the way of vegetation. The vivid colourings of
the stratas of rock and the white summits of the many peaks in sight,
however, make it a scene of wild glory that uplifts the soul at the
majesty of nature. One stands aghast at the marvellous richness of
colouring that is revealed on every hand.

[Illustration: REFUGE HOUSE ALONG THE OLD INCA TRAIL.]

The traveller may be thankful that he has not been obliged to traverse
this pass in the winter time. Nothing can surpass these vast ridges
clad in their winter dress. White and cold, they form a veritable
valley of desolation. It is the cold of death, the white mantle of
annihilation—something that the brain can scarcely compass. The feeling
of solitude in the midst of the whiteness everywhere almost overwhelms
the traveller with despair. In places the snow is frequently as much as
fifteen feet in depth, deep enough to bury a horse and rider. Sudden
storms are likely to overtake the traveller, and he would be snowed in in
one of the _casuchas_. These are shelters that were built at intervals
along the pass for the protection of travellers. They are dome-shaped
structures which remind one of lime-kilns. They have a small door, but
no windows, and will accommodate as many as twenty people at a time. The
interior has a brick floor and is absolutely bare. Although protected
from the weather, woe be to the traveller obliged to spend a day or two
there with a group of _arrieros_, for filth is everywhere and the stench
is almost overpowering.

Although fewer travellers ventured over this pass in the midst of winter,
the mail service continued uninterruptedly, and there was seldom a
day that some one did not attempt the crossing. A _capitas_, who was
generally a man with a little capital, would undertake to carry the
mails or other freight over the pass at a fixed price. He would then
engage his force of porters as cheaply as possible, agreeing to furnish
them with board and lodging so long as they remained with him. As time
was not specified in the mail contract, if a traveller came along the
_capitas_ would dump the mails and carry his baggage at an exorbitant
price. Everything was done up in packages weighing about sixty pounds.
Some of the porters would even undertake to carry two of these—a terrible
strain on a rough road. It is little wonder that this and unrestrained
dissipation usually gave these men a short life. Sometimes they slid
over a precipice, or were hurled to their doom by a falling stone. There
are many graves of those who met an untimely end along this route, and
it seems almost marvellous that they are not more numerous. After the
highest point was passed the porters would toboggan down the slopes,
seated on a sheepskin and guiding themselves with pointed staffs. In
this way the descent was quickly accomplished. The packages were simply
tumbled down, and oftentimes reached the bottom in a very dilapidated
condition.

The Trasandino Argentino Railway threads its way out through the valley
of the Uspallata, and follows a small stream which gradually becomes
larger as little rivulets of melted snow join it. It soon becomes more of
a stream, and is given the name of Rio (river) Mendoza. At a distance of
less than a dozen miles the station called Puente del Inca is reached,
which is so named because of a natural bridge of stratified rock at
that place, which is very similar to the Natural Bridge of Virginia.
Underneath it bubble up boiling waters which are claimed to have great
medicinal value. It is said that the Incas in pre-Spanish times knew of
the value of these waters, and their chiefs came here to receive the
benefits of its curative waters. Near here one catches a glimpse of a
marvellous freak of nature, called the Cerro de los Penitentes, the
Ridge of the Penitents. The scattered rocky peaks and points standing
up through the sloping debris of the ascent, with their remarkable
imitations of toiling wayfarers, must have greatly impressed the Spanish
pioneers when they first came upon this scene.

The route continues a picture of desolation, caused by volcanic upheavals
and the erosion of countless ages. The Mendoza River, coloured by the
various metals of the rocks over which it pours, tumbles along near the
railway as both follow one pass after another. Las Vacas, Uspallata, La
Invernada and other small stations are passed. About thirty miles before
Mendoza is reached a change begins, and poplar and larch trees, alfalfa
fields and the grape enliven the scene. Irrigation is utilized and the
melted snows cause the land to bloom with remarkable fertility. At last
the train runs into the creditable station of Mendoza, and the second
stage in the transcontinental journey is ended.

[Illustration: THE CHRIST OF THE ANDES.]

At Mendoza a change is made to the broad gauge trains of the Buenos
Aires and Pacific Railway, which will carry the traveller over the
remaining leagues of the journey. After leaving the irrigated lands of
this neighbourhood, another stretch of miserable scrub land is crossed
before the level pampas are entered. From there to Buenos Aires the
route is over as level land as is to be found on the earth’s surface.
Hour after hour the train rolls over these pampas, past small towns and
through great stretches of grain and alfalfa. At last, after about a day
and a half’s journey, the train enters the suburbs of Buenos Aires, and
finally, with a shrill shriek, rolls into the Retiro Station, which is
the end of the trip.

Grand and wonderful as is the ride through and across the Andes by
railroad, the traveller has missed one of the most striking features of
these solitudes. Almost immediately over the tunnel, and nearly three
thousand feet higher, stands the famous statue, known as the Christ of
the Andes. This statue was erected in 1904 as a symbol of perpetual
peace between the two neighbouring nations. It was cast in bronze from
the cannon of the two nations, which had been purchased through fear of
impending war. Its location is on the new international boundary line
that had just been established by arbitration. Near it is a sign with the
words “CHILE” on one side, and “ARGENTINA” on the other side.

The figure of Christ is twenty-six feet in height. In one hand it holds
the emblem of the cross, while the other is extended in a blessing, and
as if uttering the one magic word “Peace.” On one side is a tablet with
the inscription: “Sooner shall these mountains crumble into dust than the
people of Argentina and Chile break the peace to which they have pledged
themselves at the feet of Christ the Redeemer.” On another side is the
inscription:

    “He is our Peace
    Who hath made both One.”

The Cumbre, as this ridge is called, is the highest point on the old
trail. Travellers and baggage were transported over it by mule-back or in
carriages, if the almost springless vehicles could be called by such a
name, during the summer. It is a very zigzag trail up which the carriages
wound, where as many as twenty twists and turns can be counted. On the
downward trip the horses ran and jumped, until the timorous traveller
began to have visions of disaster. Accidents were rare, however, and
seldom was a vehicle overturned. Corners were turned on two wheels,
with only a few inches between the outside wheels and the edge of the
precipice.

    “The clouds have voices, and the rivers pour
    Their floods in thunder down to ocean’s floor;—
    The hills alone mysterious silence keep.”

One of the most striking aspects which impress the traveller crossing
the Andes is the terribly bleak and desolate outlook that they present.
Blades of grass here and there, or perhaps a few stunted shrubs, are
the only signs of vegetation, for of trees there are none. There seems
to be no tree line, as in most mountains. A huge expanse of yellow sand
and stone spreads out everywhere with peaks rising up on every side in
clearly defined and rugged stratification, whose many-coloured hues are
almost bewildering to the eye. Great torrents flow down the middle of the
valleys, the water being of a dull brackish hue. The fording of these
streams is a very dangerous task for the explorer, as the torrents are
exceedingly rapid and full of deep, treacherous holes.

[Illustration: THE SOLITUDE OF THE ANDES.]

On either side rise high peaks, and the traveller is always interested in
knowing the names of these peaks. If he asks the average native which is
Aconcagua, or which Tupungato, he is likely to be misinformed. There is
to the inexperienced mountain traveller a disappointment when he finally
has one of these lofty peaks pointed out, and which he knows to be above
twenty thousand feet in height, because he has expected, perhaps, to see
an isolated peak rearing its snowy head to the sky for a distance of four
miles or more above the level on which he stands. The traveller forgets
that he himself is above the sea level almost half that distance, before
he gains a good clear view of the higher peak. It is well established
that Aconcagua is the loftiest peak of the Andes, but it is a little
uncertain whether Tupungato or the Mercedario is the second in height.

Ten thousand miles of majestic mountains stretch from Alaska to Cape
Horn—the grandest range of mountains that can be found on the earth’s
surface. Throughout this series of connected mountains, from the wilds
of Alaska to those of Patagonia, and including the tropical plateaus
of Ecuador, there are many peaks that pierce the ethereal blue of the
skies. These are generally termed the Sierras, which is the Spanish word
for “saw,” and the name is applied to mountains because of the fancied
resemblance of their outlines to that of the carpenter’s tool. A dim
knowledge of the majesty of mountains is obtained from the smaller ranges
of North America, such as the Appalachian Mountains, but Mt. McKinley,
highest of North American mountains, must yield in majesty to a number of
peaks in the lofty Andean range of mountains.

The lure of altitude seems to have caught at the spirit of man from early
times, and led him struggling up almost unscalable peaks. In recent years
the fascination of mountain climbing has become the romance of geography.
During the last half century daring explorers have conquered more
mountains, and gathered more geological data, than in all the previous
centuries. Many lives have been lost by devotees of this science, while
pitting skill and strength against nature and her secrets. It has not
been long since the elevations of the southern half of this continent
were an unknown land; some lofty peaks were unexplored and unnamed, and
only dim suggestions of their majesty and splendour had reached the
scientific world, but they now hold an interest second to none. The
loftiest peaks in the world, excepting only the Himalayas, are found
along the western coast of South America. They are in truth and reality
the mountain monarchs of the western world. In travelling along the west
coast of South America by steamer the serrated backbone of the continent
is ever in sight, but its hazy outlines are at such a distance that they
give but a dim idea of their real height from the steamer.

It remained for European mountain climbers, men who received their
schooling in the Alps, to first conquer these lofty giants of nature.
Chimborazo (20,498 ft.), the “white watcher of the western seas,” was
the first to yield its topmost secrets to Edward Whymper, who fought his
way up the rugged snow-clad slopes to the very top. Next he conquered
Cotopaxi (19,615 ft.), and has given this volcano the following
recommendation: “Cotopaxi is an ideal volcano. It comports itself,
volcanically speaking, in a regular and well-behaved manner. It is not
one of the provoking sort—exploding in paroxysms and going to sleep
directly afterwards. It is in a state of perpetual activity, and has been
so ever since it had a place in history.” Could any volcano in the world
show a stronger recommendation? It is certainly an exemplary exponent of
the volcanic art. The explorer spent a night on the very edge of the
crater, peering into the cavernous recesses that belched forth fire and
smoke, and must have been under its hypnotic influence when inditing the
above.

Going farther down the coast one reaches the mighty peaks of Peru and
Bolivia. An American woman, Miss Annie S. Peck, has scaled Mt. Huascaran
(22,051 ft.), and holds the unique record of having climbed higher than
any other woman. It was an achievement that deservedly brought her great
honour. Mt. Illimani (21,490 ft.) is the loftiest peak in Bolivia. It
means “bright condor,” according to the generally accepted derivation.
Its frozen crest was conquered by an Englishman, Sir Martin Conway, and
the Union Jack was planted on the very summit. This mountain, and its
neighbour, Mt. Sorata (21,490 ft.), were worshipped as gods by the Incas.
A band of superstitious natives, on learning his intention to invade the
sanctuary of their god, who dwelt on Illimani, made an attempt to murder
him, but did not succeed in finding the party. Their tradition asserts
that a great cross of gold was planted by the god on the summit, and they
were afraid these strangers would carry it away. At the foot of these
mountains lies Lake Titicaca, the sacred lake of the Incas.

The hardships endured on these climbs are almost indescribable. The
intense cold and the rarefied air almost overcome the reserve vitality.
The weakening effect of diminished atmospheric pressure is so enervating
that exertion can only be made a few steps at a time. Headache, nausea
and blood running from the nose and ears are the more violent effects.
It is almost impossible to keep the feet from being frost-bitten, and
they have to be rubbed occasionally to restore circulation. Says Mr.
Conway: “I asked myself more than once whether the game was worth the
candle, for there was something so cold and unsympathetic about the
gloom and the ice and the bare rocks, that for a time it weighed like a
nightmare upon my spirits.” The exhaustion is so great that it is almost
impossible to enjoy the triumph of success. Speaking of this the same
explorer says: “The moment was one of satisfaction, in that our toil
ceased; but we had no sense of triumph, nor was there breath enough left
in any of us for an exclamation of joy in the hour of victory. Nothing
was said or done for several minutes; we just sat down and rested.” As
compensations, however, there are frequently magnificent cloud effects.
Out of the white sea of snow there mount, under the uplift of hot air
currents, great towers of cloud, which rise high into the air like the
smoke-discharge from a volcano. Huge caves and cloud avenues are formed,
wherein dark-blue shadows gather, with occasionally a high mountain top
peeping forth like the foundation stone of a gigantic cloud castle. Then
one’s vision is so broadened that he seems to stand on the very top of
the world itself.

In “Argentina and Her People of To-day,” the writer has given an account
of an ascent of Aconcagua by Mr. E. A. Fitzgerald’s party, and in this
work some mention will be made of the conquest of Tupungato by the same
party. This mountain can be seen clearly outlined against the sky from
the Pass of the Cumbre, although it is distant fully thirty miles. The
route lies down through great masses of fallen rock, the stones being on
an average twice the size of a man’s head. The stones are hard and unworn
by the forces of nature, presenting a surface of sharp, jagged edges. It
is an extremely difficult pass to traverse because of these rocks and
danger of slipping, which in many cases would hurl the traveller many
hundreds of feet below. Sudden and violent storms also rage around this
mountain, which renders the work of climbing still more difficult and
dangerous.

The distances, as in almost all mountain climbing, are very deceiving,
and what oftentimes seems to be but the work of an hour may require many
hours to accomplish. Terrific wind storms at times spring up, against
which it is almost impossible for a man to stand, and this also adds to
the dangers because of rocks which are sometimes hurled down the mountain
sides. As the altitude increases the rarity of the atmosphere and the
consequently intense cold render progress almost painful. It is necessary
for the mountain climber to stop every few minutes to rest, as the cold
and the wind and rare atmosphere all combine to exhaust the vitality.
Three times Mr. Fitzgerald’s party attempted the ascent of Tupungato,
and as many times were they compelled to abandon it. Bleeding at the
nose, frozen extremities and weakness of the heart attacked the various
members of the party, and compelled them to descend to lower altitudes.
A fourth attempt, however, was more successful. Each failure had taught
something, so that each effort was made under slightly better conditions
and with better equipment.

Here is the description by Mr. Vines, as it appears in “The Highest
Andes:” “I was on the summit of Tupungato at last, and all my efforts and
disappointments were more than repaid. I stood on a great mound in shape
like a pyramid, with a blunted top some two yards wide rising several
hundred feet above the general surface of the dome. In the whole expanse
of sky around over ocean and land I could not discern a single cloud.
Only in the direction of the Pacific a haze hung over the mountains. In
the brilliant air the spectacle that lay before us was one of vast extent
and grandeur. Range upon range of mountains stretched away towards the
great plain of Santiago, forty miles to the west. Far away, beyond the
hills that almost seemed to lie at our feet, stretched the great waters
of the Pacific, a tract of blue ocean sparkling to the horizon, and
clearly visible, although the distance from Tupungato to the seacoast is
not less than one hundred and thirty miles.

“The view from the top of Tupungato is in many ways even finer than that
obtained from Aconcagua. The expanse of ocean visible toward the west is
less vast, but there is ample compensation in the outlook over the great
unknown plain on the eastern side. The Pampas of Argentina stretch almost
without a break from our very feet to the South Atlantic Ocean. The Andes
seem to rise up from Santiago in ever ascending gradations, until at
last they culminate in the immense mass of Tupungato; behind, they fall
brokenly away; the mountains disappear; and a country almost fen-like in
its monotonous flatness succeeds. The only break on the Argentine side is
that of the Sierra de la Plata, not many more than twenty miles to the
northeast. On the Chilean side a score of dark peaks rear their heads,
a sinister array of precipitous impossibilities from which any climber
would turn away in despair. To the north and to the south the same great
barriers arise. Looking along this distinct and sharp edged chain to
the north and south it was hard to understand how any frontier question
between the republics could come about.

“That Aconcagua was a high mountain we well knew. We had all suffered
from its height, but, when near at hand, it was quite impossible to
realize the vastness of its proportions. Not so from where we now stood
on a pinnacle sixty miles away. I had long known it was over four
thousand feet higher than any mountain within thirty miles of it, but
it looked ten thousand feet higher as it reared its immense head and
shoulders from amongst its brothers, like some huge rock projecting out
of the waves of the sea. It stood before me without rival, even the great
ridges of Juncal did not challenge it, although they were almost thirty
miles nearer. Behind Aconcagua, but almost forty miles farther, and too
far off for comparison, I could see the white slopes of Mercaderio.”

The guanaco and llama are animals which are peculiar to the Andean
regions. The former is especially plentiful in Patagonia and the southern
Andean ranges, and many of them are found in Southern Chile. To the
natives it means food, garments and tents, so that it is hunted both for
its meat and skin. Without the guanaco the question of existence would be
a difficult one for those people to solve. The vicuña, which is found in
Northern Chile and Bolivia, is of the same family but smaller and more
beautiful. Its fur is very valuable and this animal is becoming scarce.
The alpaca is still smaller but flocks of this animal are maintained as
we herd sheep. The wool is almost as fine and soft as silk, and, after a
year’s growth, becomes almost a foot long.

Of this animal family, which is closely allied to the camel, the most
important is the llama. To one who has never seen the llama, except in
a menagerie or “zoo,” its real usefulness is not apparent. Before the
arrival of the Spaniards on the west coast this gentle animal was the
only beast of burden known to the Inca races. Thousands upon thousands
of these American camels were used by the natives in transportation on
the plateaus and across the lofty mountains. Like the camel it can go
for days without food or drink. Even to-day, with the introduction of
the horse and mule, there are probably as many or more llamas in use
than when Pizarro first landed on the shores of South America. It is to
the Andean native what the reindeer is to the Lapp—milk and flesh for
food, skin for garments, hair for cloth, sinews for thread, etc. Some are
black, with pretty little white kids, while others are almost white and
have black little llamas following them.

The llama is one of the proudest animals in the world. No matter where
you see this aristocrat of quadrupeds he holds his head high up in the
air, and looks out upon the earth as though he owned it. Unlike the
camel the llama never sulks, although sometimes stubborn. I have seen
camels grunt and groan as the loads were placed on their backs. They will
sometimes snap viciously at whoever passes near, and at other times tears
will flow down a camel’s cheeks like a baby’s, so it is said. The llama
always carries his burden with a proud air, scanning the landscape as
he goes, and pricking up his ears with interest at every new or strange
thing. He will carry a load of just so much, about one hundred pounds. If
a greater load is strapped on his back than he is accustomed to carry,
the llama will neither grunt nor groan, but he calmly kneels down and
will not move until the burden is lightened.

The llamas are the most common burden-bearing animals in Bolivia and
on the high plateaus of Peru to-day. They will also be found in the
extreme northern part of Chile on the Andean slopes. They form the great
freight-carriers in that portion of the Andes, but cannot be worked
successfully at a lower altitude than two thousand feet. They are never
seen as near the coast as Lima, the Peruvian capital. One will see llama
trains every day in La Paz, or the other towns of Bolivia, and herds of
these animals feeding on the plains around Lake Titicaca are a common
sight. They are principally used in the carrying of ore from the mines to
the smelters or nearest railway station. These little animals, which are
said to have the head of a camel, the body of a sheep and the legs of a
deer, are only about four and one-half feet high and are really beautiful
creatures. They are gentle when well treated, and become very fond of
their masters. The Indians pet them and talk to them much as though they
were human beings. They sometimes dye the wool on the backs in different
colours, and tie bright-coloured ribbons through holes which they make
in the llamas’ ears. The wool of the llama is much coarser than that of
sheep, but one can see the Indian women spinning this wool into threads,
and then weaving it into cloth in many places. It can easily be used in
the coarse garments worn by these people. If offended the llama has a
curious habit of spitting on the offender, which is rather disagreeable,
as I know from experience. As the llama is a cud-chewing animal it seems
to have this material always ready for such occasions.




CHAPTER VIII

A LABORATORY OF NATURE


The great desert of Tarapacá, which stretches along the coast of Chile
for hundreds of miles, has proven to be the most valuable of its entire
possessions. And yet it is as barren a desert as one could find on
the surface of the globe. Darwin thus describes a part of it that he
travelled over: “A complete and utter desert. The road was strewn with
the bones and dried skins of the many beasts of burden which had perished
on it from fatigue. Excepting the vulture which preys on the carcasses, I
saw neither bird, quadruped, reptile, nor insect. On the coast mountains
at the height of about two thousand feet, where during the season the
clouds generally hang, a very few cacti were growing in the clefts of the
rock, and the loose sand was strewn over with a lichen which grows quite
unattached. In some parts it was of sufficient quantity to tinge the
sand, as seen from a distance, of a pale yellowish colour.” It is this
dry climate that has made possible the existence of the great nitrate
deposits along this coast. Rainfall, even in moderate quantities, would
dissolve the nitrate. These deposits lie as a rule just within the coast
range of mountains.

Many theories have been advanced as to the cause of this chemical
composition. The most ingenious one, perhaps, is that nitric acid is
formed by a flash of lightning passing through a moist atmosphere, and
electrical storms are very common in the Cordilleras. The other is that
this coast was originally submerged in the ocean, and was gradually
upheaved. This would leave a line of lagoons and marshes, in which
seaweed and other plants flourished. As the lagoons successively dried
up, the plants would be decomposed and nitric acid and iodine formed.
This, united in combination with the gypsum-yielding soda found there,
formed nitrate of soda. At any rate, Nature, by some mysterious process,
has formed a chemical combination which has been of inestimable value to
the world in general.

This desert coast is not all productive of nitrate. Some sections are
valueless, and some produce other chemical products. One can take
a narrow-gauge train at Antofagasta and travel inland for hundreds
of miles across the Andes and into the plateaus of Bolivia, and the
entire distance is almost as void of green as the great Sahara Desert.
Occasionally there is a scrubby tree which looks forlorn in its
loneliness. There are salt plains which reach to the hills on either
side. In one place there is a great salt field that is estimated to cover
more than eighty thousand acres. This produces almost pure chloride of
sodium in crystallized form. The thickness of the salt layer is not
known, but some wells are as much as eighty feet deep and the bottom of
the deposit has not been reached. It is a good quality of salt. There are
borax lakes along the route, where enough borax can be secured to supply
the entire world. But it is from the beds of nitrate of soda that the
greatest wealth of this region is secured. To it is due the prosperity of
all the ports from Pisagua to Taltal.

This chemical product, which we call Chilean saltpetre, and which is
locally known as _salitre_, is found over hundreds of square miles of
territory. The only visible boundaries between the different owners are
marked by white posts at the corners of the different properties. With
this exception there are no marks whatever on the landscape, and no signs
of life except the factories, known as _oficinas_, the numerous homes of
the employees made of corrugated iron, and the workmen who are engaged
in blasting and hauling away this mineral. The nitrate beds follow the
coast line at a distance of from fifteen to a hundred miles from the
sea, generally at an elevation of from four thousand to five thousand
feet, and in deposits which vary from one to four miles in width. They
reach from near Antofagasta to a point some distance north of Iquique.
In some places the deposits play out, but they reappear again a little
farther on. The fields that have been exploited look as though they had
been ploughed over by gigantic ploughs, for immense clods are scattered
here and there wherever the work has been carried on. On either side of
this strip there is simply a mass of sand and rock, which extends from
the sea to the topmost peaks of the Andes. There is, however, a wonderful
colouring on the slopes of the mountains, and one will see many tints of
violet, green, lemon and gray within the horizon.

Nitrate of soda is seldom found pure, and the nitrate rock, called
_caliche_, will vary from ten to sixty per cent. of the pure mineral. In
some fields it is found on the top of the soil, and in others it is as
much as forty feet beneath the surface, with the strata of salt rock on
the top of it. It varies considerably in composition. Holes are dug or
drilled down through the _caliche_ until a bed of gravelly material is
reached, into which charges of dynamite or blasting powder are placed,
and the nitrate rock is thus loosened up. When first exposed the nitrate
is sometimes as soft as cheese, but it hardens on contact with the air.
The lumps thus broken are then dug out with picks or crowbars and hauled
in mule-carts to the _oficinas_.

There are many of these mills throughout the nitrate fields, and they
are busy places. The lumps are first crushed, and are then lifted by
elevators and placed in huge tanks filled with sea water. These tanks are
encircled by coils of steam pipes, which heat the water that is poured in
with the rock to any desired temperature. Nitrate is soluble in water,
and this purifying process rests upon the fact of its greater solubility
in water heated to the boiling point, than the other salts with which it
is associated. When the water has become supersaturated in the boiling
tanks, the nitrate of soda in solution is drawn into shallow vats which
are exposed to the air. At this state it looks like pale maple molasses.
As it cools, the nitrate of soda crystallizes in the vats, together with
a little common salt and a small amount of other impurities, and the
sides become covered with white sparkling crystals like alabaster. These
crystals are then shovelled upon drying boards and exposed to the sun for
a time, after which they are graded and put into bags weighing a little
over a hundred pounds each. This product, which is ninety-six per cent.
chemically pure nitrate of soda, is then transported to the seacoast,
from whence it is shipped to Europe or the United States, the latter
country receiving about one-fifth of the whole.

Another product of these nitrate beds is iodine, which remains in the
liquid after the removal of the nitrate. This liquid is poured into
smaller pans, and is chemically treated until the iodine is precipitated
in the form of a black powder. This is then heated in a retort which
changes it to a vapour, and it is again condensed into beautiful violet
crystals. The iodine is packed in small casks which are shipped with
bullion and other valuables, for each cask is worth several hundred
dollars. As the consumption of iodine is not very large the _oficinas_
refine only a part of the iodine in order to keep up the price.

More than two million tons of nitrate of soda were shipped from Chile
last year, which is the greatest amount that has ever been produced.
It has been found especially valuable for increasing the growth of the
sugar beets in Europe, as it seems to provide the soil with the essential
elements for their growth. The consumption in the United States is
increasing rapidly, and it is looked upon as the best fertilizer provided
by nature. According to horticultural authorities it has been found
especially efficacious in stimulating the growth of vegetables, such
as cabbages, onions, carrots, beets, etc., and for field crops of many
kinds. It is said that even the Incas of Peru were acquainted with its
value as a fertilizer. It is also extensively used in the manufacture
of gunpowders and other high explosives, which in itself makes a
considerable demand.

The discovery of the value of nitrate as a fertilizer was by accident.
A poor Scotchman, who lived near where Iquique now stands, had a small
garden which he cultivated with great care. One day he noticed that a
part of his garden, which had been banked up with soil containing this
mysterious white substance, flourished much more than the rest. This
led to experiments and some of this soil was sent back to Scotland. The
success of the experiments that followed gradually led to the development
of the present industry, but the discoverer died as poor as he was born.
The first nitrate works were established at Noria in 1826. It was not
until after the war between Chile and Peru that the industry reached
great proportions. Then an Englishman by the name of North began its
development and soon afterwards became known as the “nitrate king.”
Other nitrate princes rose, and thrived like the bonanza mining kings
of Mexico and Peru in their best days. Englishmen became peers of that
country through the influence of colossal fortunes paved with saltpetre.
In its raw state the nitrate contains some properties injurious to plant
life, but these are removed. As this process requires the latest modern
machinery to do the work economically, the business has drifted into the
hands of big combinations of capital.

As the government of Chile exacts an export tax on every sack of nitrate
of soda exported, the revenue from this source is enormous and pays more
than two-thirds of the expenses of that extravagant government. Chile
owns practically all the nitrate of soda in the world. Small quantities
have been found elsewhere, but in this region are the only deposits
that can be operated at a profit. Most of the nitrate fields at one
time belonged to Peru, but Chile appropriated them as indemnity, after
a disastrous war was waged between the two countries in 1880, in which
Chile was victorious. You can not meet a Peruvian anywhere to-day who
does not swear vengeance against Chile, for thus robbing his country of
her greatest source of wealth.

[Illustration: LOADING NITRATE.]

English capital has developed this great industry in Chile, and no less
than one hundred million dollars in British sovereigns have been invested
in these dreary wastes. Almost one hundred million dollars’ worth of this
_salitre_ has been exported in a single year. The ports are at all times
filled with vessels which have brought coal and merchandise, and are
awaiting a load of nitrate. It is seldom that the Stars and Stripes are
seen floating from a masthead, but it is a welcome sight to an American.
The profits for a few years were so great that an overdevelopment
followed, and the price greatly dropped. Then a trust agreement was,
arrived at limiting the output, but even that was not a success and the
production is again unlimited. The population of the nitrate district is
a cosmopolitan one, and represents almost every nation on the face of the
earth. It gives employment to many thousands of persons. A homesick and
stranded American is not an uncommon sight.

It is estimated that at the present rate of mining the known fields of
nitrate of soda in Chile will be exhausted in fifty years, or less.
The official board of engineers has recently reported to the Chilean
government that there are in sight four and a half million quintals
(220.4 lbs.) of nitrate in the deposits of the country. A previous
estimate had fixed the visible quantity at less than half that amount. It
is doubtful whether either of those estimates is very reliable. At any
rate the government and owners of the _oficinas_ are pushing the sales
in every way, and exploiting the use and value of nitrate as though it
was inexhaustible. It is possible that similar deposits may be found on
the Sahara Desert, or some of our own desert lands where similar climatic
and atmospheric conditions exist. The value of nitrate lands in Chile has
risen rapidly in recent years, and nearly all the undeveloped fields are
now owned by the Chilean government, which auctions them off as the need
for money arises.

The nitrate industry has very naturally overshadowed all other mining
enterprises in Chile, and especially in the northern section. And yet
there are many more mining industries even in that part of the republic.
The Spaniards cared for nothing but gold and silver and set thousands
of Indians at work in the mines at Tucapel, Valdivia, and Quillota.
The Malga Malga mines, near the latter town, and the Madre de Dios
(mother of God) mines, near Mariguina, were the best producers of the
yellow metal. The district around Taltal also produced gold and silver.
By the primitive processes of the Spaniards only a portion of the ore
was extracted. The refuse has since been refined, and even houses have
been torn down that had been constructed of the by-products of the old
amalgamation process. Some of this refuse contained as much as sixty
ounces of pure silver to the ton. The total production of silver and gold
to-day is not great when compared with the other gold-producing nations.
Among the best mines now being worked are the Caracoles silver mines,
which are inland from Antofagasta a little over one hundred miles, and
the Inca Caracoles mines, which are fifty miles further inland. The total
output of these mines during the years they have been worked reaches
big figures, but the balmiest days have passed. Some of the workings
have reached a depth of twenty-five hundred feet. The ores are generally
chlorides or iodides, with mixtures of sulphides, but pockets of almost
pure silver are occasionally found.

Copper production is next in value after nitrate. There are smelting
plants at Caldera, Cerro Blanco, Jarilla, Antofagasta, and other places.
Central Chile is the copper country, although Lota is one of the greatest
producers. The surface oftentimes shows the green outcroppings of the
copper deposits. The superior attraction of the nitrate fields has at
times caused a scarcity of labour there so that the development has been
greatly hampered. Nevertheless the copper industry has been a fairly
profitable and steady one. The annual output ranges from thirty-five
thousand to forty thousand tons, but it is doubtless capable of
considerable further development, with the aid of more modern methods and
the installation of the latest machinery.

Iron ore has been found in only small quantities. Chile has the best
coal mines in South America, which, in 1909, produced a little less
than a million tons, not quite half of the consumption. Coal was first
discovered at Lota more than a century ago, but the deposits were not
worked until a half-century later. The only mines now being worked are in
the provinces of Concepción and Arauco. As small veins have been found at
Punta Arenas, it may be that the seams of coal run all the way between
those points. It is rather an inferior quality of bituminous coal. More
than a million tons are imported yearly, of which a little more than
one-half comes from England and the balance from Australia. The shipping
rate is very low as the boats come after cargoes of nitrate and will
carry coal at a very cheap rate rather than be obliged to make the long
outward journey in ballast.




CHAPTER IX

THE PEOPLE


The people of Chile are descendants of Spaniards and native races. About
one-third of the entire population are pure white. The Spaniards who
came here were Basques and Aragonese—a hardy and industrious people who
made thrifty farmers and merchants. They are among the best class of
Spaniards, for they are much more energetic and have less of the Moorish
admixture than those from Southern Spain. These people were not a mere
army of occupation, but they set about developing the real resources of
the country. The native element too were probably the hardiest of any
of the native races of South America. Notwithstanding the difference
in numbers, the Creoles, the name given to the descendants of Spanish
immigrants, rule the country absolutely and own the most of the property.
In few countries have the landed aristocracy exercised such absolute
power as in this narrow and elongated republic. The half-breeds form the
labouring class of Chile, and one will find those two classes all over
the republic, with the lines between the two strongly marked. There is no
clearly defined, well-developed middle class.

The Chileans delight to call themselves the “English of the Pacific,”
or the “Yankees of South America.” In neither case is the comparison a
perfect one, although they are probably the hardest working race on that
continent. The Chileno is very proud of the progress that his country has
made, and this pride sometimes carries him to peculiar extremes. It at
least causes the average Chileno to become more or less of a braggart.
He is inclined to take all the credit for this advancement to himself,
when, in fact, much of it has been due to the English and German elements
in the country. His ideals of life, however, are not German or English,
but rather French, with its love of polished surface and general dislike
for disagreeable truths. Peru has retained more of the old culture and
grace of the Spanish cavalier than Chile, but the latter is far more
robust. The climate of Chile is remarkably healthful, and it has produced
a vigorous race. This is a general truth, whether applied to the race
amalgamated with the virile Araucanian of the south, or to the mixture
with the more delicate and refined descendant of the Inca at the north.
The ordinary _roto_ is tough and wiry, and capable of prolonged fatigue
on the poorest and simplest of food.

The creoles have inherited all the traditions of the original
_conquistadores_—love, sentiment and passion, and the habit of intrigue.
It is not uncommon to see in a family the natural children of one or
the other parent, generally of the father, living side by side with the
legitimate children. The percentage of illegitimacy is very large, as
shown by the government statistics, for they do not attempt to cover up
this flagrant fault. The café and club life of the cities appeals to the
Chileans, and they have acquired a love of alcoholic stimulants. The
light wines, with which most of the people of Spanish blood are content,
do not satisfy, but they must have the stronger alcoholic beverages. As a
result there is much drunkenness in Chile, more than in the neighbouring
republics. It is an unfortunate fact, but true, as all who have made a
study of the subject agree. The first establishment in a new community
is generally a factory for the production of _aguardiente_, brandy made
from sugar cane, wheat or some vegetable. Some of it is as bad and
ruinous to the health as it is cheap.

Chile has perhaps suffered in recent years from too great prosperity.
Like the child born with a silver spoon in its mouth, this country
found itself with seemingly inexhaustible treasure within its borders.
Its training under the autocracy of Spain was not a good education in
representative and democratic government. Then came the wealth of the
nitrate fields, after a successful war with Peru. The government coffers
were filled to overflowing with practically no effort on the part of
the government, and little tax contributed by the average citizens. As
a result, the habit of office holding and the desire for sinecures have
been a bad thing for the country. The enormous revenue has been used
up, and there is little to show for much of it. In public offices the
officials are oftentimes almost tumbling over each other, and everything
is checked and counter checked over and over again. Positions are created
and no equipment for carrying out the work provided. So long as the
government does not complain the appointee does not, and many salaries
of that kind are paid year after year for services unrendered. I verily
believe that the official work of the government could be carried on with
less than one-half the force employed. But the members of Congress have
friends, or sons of friends, who must be provided for, and the government
revenues are thus subject to a constant drain.

Politics is the most genteel occupation in Chile to-day, for the army,
navy and church, formerly so popular with the Spaniards, no longer
appeal to the Chileno of good and influential family. A government
appointment means easy or no work, fair pay, and less danger than martial
occupations, where the call to arms might come at any time. It is not
because of lack of courage, for no braver or more courageous people can
be found in South America than these same Chileans, who sit in the cafés
and drink their spirits or puff tobacco wrapped in thin paper. With the
Chilean a valiant spirit covers a multitude of sins. His greatest boast
is the courage of his race. He is willing to make almost any kind of a
personal sacrifice for his country, if the occasion demands, but to pay
taxes is a hardship.

The Chileans resemble very much the Irish in some of their
characteristics. One of these is their love of fighting, and the Chileans
have made about the best soldiers of any of the South American people.
They have an intense spirit and patriotism, which has shown itself in
their wars and revolutions. In addition to the Spanish blood a large
percentage have more or less of the blood of the Araucanian Indians,
who were the most stubborn race to conquer of any that the Spaniards
encountered in South America. As soldiers the Chileans have no sense of
mercy, and this characteristic has shown itself in all of their wars.
They are impetuous, impulsive, passionate and generous, but have very
little self-control. Many of them fight simply for the love of fighting,
just as do many of the Irish, who seem to scrap simply for the sake of
scrapping.

The Chileno as a rule has a fiery temper. He loves a fight. It is not
a fist fight that he will indulge in, but it must be a fight with
revolvers, or, better yet, with knives. The knife is an indispensable
equipment with the _roto_. It used to be said that as many lives were
lost in a Chilean fair as in a decent battle. It is a sad fact that
murders are extremely frequent, and scarcely a day passes in Santiago or
Valparaiso without some fatal affray. _Aguardiente_ may be placed at the
bottom of most of these, just as rum is the primary cause of most of the
murders in the United States. It inflames the naturally hot temper of
the race and brings out all the passions of envy, hatred and jealousy.
The death penalty is seldom inflicted, although sentence is frequently
imposed. The prisoners are kept in confinement, and their sentence
commuted from time to time. If the convicted one belongs to a family of
prominence, he will eventually be released; if of poorer origin, he may
be sent to some remote section of the country and set to work. Among the
_rotos_ there is a general contempt for death, which also adds to the
prevalence of murders, and sometimes of brigandage in the mountains. A
little judicious weeding out of some of these criminals would not be a
bad thing for the country.

The _rotos_ constitute the masses in Chile. In the country the _roto_
is a peon or inquilino,—an agriculturalist; in the city he is a
longshoreman—a roustabout. In all of them there is a race admixture with
the white race. Of the native races this mixture is not all Araucanian,
for there are at least ten distinct aboriginal tribes. This _roto_ is
not always an agreeable companion, for he is not generally so cleanly as
he might be. But he is not a hopeless element in society. His vices are
generally the result of a lack of restraining power of the passions. His
virtues are independence and industry. He is a prejudiced individual, and
persists in his prejudices. He is intensely patriotic, and has fought the
battles of his country—and always in the ranks. Neither in the army nor
in the navy has he been permitted to rise above this position.

Peonage is the common form of labour on the large landed estates,
although it is somewhat more favourable to the labourer than in Mexico or
Peru. The labourer, or peon, is rented a small tract of land, including
a little hut, and is allowed to grow his own vegetables. He may also be
allowed to pasture a few animals. In return, he must work, or provide
labour, for the _hacendado_ as required. For this he is paid a certain
small wage. The landlord allows him credit for supplies at the store,
which is invariably a part of the establishment, at prices which mean a
good profit. As long as he is indebted to the owner, the peon must stay
on the place. If he is even in his account, he is at liberty to depart
wherever the notion takes him.

The proprietor is a magistrate, and has power to put a man in irons if he
deems it necessary. As a rule the peons do not change employers often,
and it is seldom that one is compelled to leave. They are not ambitious,
and a living, permission to celebrate holidays, and, perhaps, get drunk
occasionally, constitutes their idea of happiness. So long as these
conditions exist the peon does not seek anything better, for, to his
mind, such a condition is ideal in itself. He has,

          “The sun, and moon and air,
    And never a bit of the burthen of care;
    And with all our caring, what more have we?”

The landlord, on his part, is satisfied, for he has labour at hand at a
small cost, just as his fathers had before him. It is true that it takes
more labourers of this kind to accomplish a given amount of work, but the
total cost is still comparatively small.

The _rotos_ in the city are not attractive individuals. Their appearance
is often hard and repellent, and the stranger is almost inclined to fear
them. They are restless, too, and serious labour disturbances have
occurred in the cities, for trade unionism has entered the social fabric
there. A few years ago a wild mob resulted from a strike against the
steamship companies, and it took to destroying property after the most
approved fashion. The offices of the Chilean companies were burned, but
foreign property was not disturbed, although the grievance was the same.
Santiago has also had a grievous experience with strikes. This was due to
a tax upon cattle imported from Argentina, which resulted in an advance
in meat prices. Rioting and the destruction of property were again the
forms it took.

These instances show that a social question has been developed in Chile
as well as other countries. How much is due to socialistic propaganda,
it is difficult to estimate. It is probably only a protest against the
condition in which this class finds itself. The _roto_ holds a grievance
against the Church, also, because that organization possesses immense
wealth and pays no taxes. He feels that he does the real work, but is
always kept in an inferior station, a ball to be kicked and rolled around
at the will of the governing and military classes. It is no doubt true
that the _roto_ has many legitimate grievances, and the government will
eventually be compelled to recognize them. Thousands of _rotos_ have
emigrated across the Andes to Argentina, being drawn there by the higher
wages that can be secured. Whether the movement will become greater or
not, the future alone will reveal.

The _rotos_ of Chile work hard when they work, but they are generally
improvident and do not think of saving money. The only occasion which
leads the average _roto_ to save any money is the prospect of a holiday
ahead, for which he will sometimes save a little surplus, in order that
he may have sufficient funds to celebrate the occasion in the way he
thinks it should be celebrated,—and that is by carousing. His idea is
that he must imbibe plenty of liquor in order to get the proper effect.
This is not universally true, for the savings banks of the country show
that thousands of those in the unskilled occupations have at least
small bank accounts. As wages are comparatively small, this indicates
considerable thrift.

Drinking in Chile has become a curse. Monday is said by employers
of labour to be a very unsatisfactory day, because so many of their
employees have not yet recovered from the dissipation of the previous
day. This is likewise true after some national holiday, such as the
18th of September, for which occasion five days are set aside, as this
is the Chilean 4th of July. The better element of the Chileans have
long realized that the drunkenness incident to these celebrations is a
serious menace to the country, for, on the day following, the hospitals
are oftentimes filled with wounded. There are always several deaths by
violence, because every Chilean peon does not consider himself properly
dressed until he has a knife placed in his belt where it can be easily
reached.

To correct the errors resulting from this excessive drinking, a society
has been formed in Chile, which has become quite prominent, and is called
La Liga Contra el Alcoholismo, which, literally translated, means an
organization against excessive alcoholism. It is not, as one might think,
a prohibition or total abstinence society, for such an organization
would be very unpopular among all classes of Chileans. Its object is
to restrain as much as possible, both by legislation and persuasion,
the appetite for liquor, and cultivate habits of moderation in its
indulgence. The courts have been asked to impose certain restriction upon
the sale of liquors, and employers of labour have been asked to change
the method of paying their help.

“The women of Chile are as pious as the men are proud,” says a writer.
Nowhere will one find women more conscientious in the performance of
their religious duties. The morning mass is always crowded with women
and children in attendance upon these ceremonies. One is impressed by
the piety of the Chilenas when he sees the _penitentas_—as women who are
doing penance for some sin are called. Skirts of white flannel are worn
with the _manta_ by these women. They will be seen hovering around the
churches, where they will sometimes rest on their knees for hours before
the altar of some saint. They may be clustered around the confessional
awaiting absolution from the confessor. Some of these women have
committed sin, while others are simply carrying out a vow, in order to
perfect themselves and thus get nearer to heaven. They will go about the
street with downcast eyes and recognize no one—not even a friend. Among
these _penitentas_ one will find women of high social rank, as well as
young girls of wonderful beauty. Those who feel that this more simple
method will not atone for their sin, or raise them to a state of absolute
perfection, retire to a convent in the suburbs of the city, called the
Convent of the Penitentes. There they dress in sackcloth, feed on mouldy
bread, and scourge themselves with whips. These scenes are more common
during Lent, or at the end of the social season. It is said, however,
that the number of women doing penance is becoming less each year. It is
also a fact that one never sees a man humiliating himself and proclaiming
his wrong-doing in this public way.

The women of Chile, the Chilenas, are of medium height and well formed.
The real slender type is the exception, and the average maiden is
well-rounded and plump. As the women grow older they run to adipose
tissue, and many of the matrons are decidedly fat. They look healthy,
and a vigorous body carries with it a corresponding appetite, and this,
together with little exercise, is responsible for the later development.
The type is quite uniform. Black hair, and dark, lustrous eyes are almost
universal. Dress is as much sought after by the Chileans as in any part
of the world. Paris creations are in demand by those who can afford
them, and the others purchase the best gowns that their means will permit.

Etiquette is very carefully observed by the Chileans. There is an
etiquette for a man toward a woman, and one for a person of a lower rank
toward one better born. And all are scrupulously observed. A man must
always speak to a woman first. A girl of the better families could not
appear on the street alone without her mother, aunt or servant with her.
A little nurse girl, though of no earthly use, is a sufficient compliance
with the requirement of etiquette. Her best young man, instead of being a
protection, would be an occasion for the severest tongue-wagging. These
things are the inherited restraints upon the liberty of women which have
come down from a thousand years of custom.

A young man and young woman have little opportunity to become acquainted
before marriage. In many instances the young people have very little to
say about the matter, supposed to be one of hearts, and are scarcely
consulted. About the only way he can learn anything about the disposition
of his intended is for a young man to bribe the servants and thus get
first-hand information. He can never see her except in the parlour,
surrounded by all the family, or at dances, where she is always under the
eye of her chaperon. In fact, during the whole of her maidenhood a girl
is closely watched, and is seldom permitted to be out of sight of her
mother’s vigilant eye. The girl naturally thinks that these restrictions
are unnecessary, but mamma thinks that they are essential, father
approves, and so the custom remains. The lover bears the name of _novio_,
and his sweetheart is _novia_. Neither dare pay any attention to another,
and for a _novio_ to dance with any other girl than his _novia_ would be
a direct offence, and probably cause a breaking of the engagement.

Every girl looks forward to marriage as her sole career. The independence
of the American girl has not influenced her, and the suffragette
agitation has not reached Chile. Marriage is the beginning of freedom for
a woman, for up to that time she is practically kept in a cage, or is
tied by a string to some guardian. When the priest performs the wedding
ceremony, however, the shackles are broken. Nevertheless they make good
wives, for their tastes are domestic; and they make good mothers, to
whom children are welcome, and the more of them the better they are
satisfied. Musical clubs, literary clubs and missionary societies do
not exist to interfere with domestic duties. A houseful of servants are
usually kept to do the work, for each servant will only do the particular
duties for which he or she was hired. The groom often takes his bride to
his father’s house, and one will frequently find several families living
under the same roof in seeming peace and harmony.

[Illustration: A GROUP OF CHILEAN GIRLS.]

The colonies of Chile, such as Valdivia, Osorno and others around Lake
Llanquihue, are principally made up of Germans and Dutch. Most of these
were poor and ignorant when they came to their new homes, and some have
remained so. They have built up several prosperous communities, however,
and there they will be found, a quiet, peaceable and an intelligent
population. This frontier had quite a boom at one time, and thousands
were attracted here by the seductive literature sent out by the wily
agents stationed in Europe. Town after town sprang up. Men who had never
done a day’s work on a farm and ne’er-do-wells came over. Few of them had
any money. For several years there was much hardship. The government was
not always prompt in carrying out its pledges, for the officials could
not see why “to-morrow” would not do just as well. Some finally returned,
and others drifted into the larger cities. But many were very successful
and now have good farms to show as a reward for their industry. After the
war with Peru many of the disbanded soldiers were granted tracts of land
here. Considerable lawlessness followed, as they robbed the unresisting
Germans of their cattle and other animals. The outlaws being in league
with the officials, no redress could be secured, and the colonists
complained with good reason. These conditions have ended. The Teutons
have generally remained apart from the Chileans, and the percentage of
intermarriage has been small. Some have not even mastered the Spanish
tongue, and few take any part in the government. These two races may
become amalgamated eventually, and it would be a good thing for Chile to
receive into its fold this sturdy Teutonic blood.

Of all the nationalities, other than Spanish, that have entered Chile,
the British is the most prominent and has been the most prosperous. It is
likewise the most numerous. Britons, such as the O’Higgins, Lord Cochrane
and Captain Prat, have helped to fight Chile’s battles, and their
financiers have advanced the money that has developed her resources.
Hence it is not surprising that one will find the characteristics of that
tight little island impressed upon the country, and, in many instances,
upon the people. English names are quite common among prominent Chilean
families, for they have become nationalized. Men who came there a
generation or two ago married the daughters of Chile, and the families
are essentially Chilean, although bearing English names. Many of these
English-Chilenos are very prominent. One man, who had been a member
of the Chilean Congress, told me that one-fourth of the members of
that body, at the time of his membership, had had English fathers or
grandfathers. The progress of Chile in many lines can be traced to this
influence.

Valparaiso bears many British characteristics. A walk along the
principal business streets will show almost as many English signs as
those in Spanish. The English language will be heard on every corner.
The Anglo-Saxon face is a familiar sight. In the banking and shipping
quarters nearly everything is British, with a sprinkling of the Teuton.
At Iquique and Antofagasta it is still more marked, for the nitrate and
copper interests are almost entirely in the hands of English capital.
Each year scores of young men come out from the home land and accept
positions with the banks, railroads and manufacturing interests. Some of
them remain permanently, and others claim only a temporary domicile. Most
of them do not assimilate very readily with the Spaniard. There is both a
racial and religious antagonism. This wears away after a while with many,
for they are shut off from home ties and the restraints of society.

Homes in the proper sense are not open to these aliens, and their
quarters are devoid of home comforts. Hence the young Englishmen seek
companionship where they are sure to be welcome. Always criticising
the loose morals of the Chileans, they generally do nothing to better
conditions, and oftentimes end by taking a part in the dissipation.
They frequent the bars and clubs and indulge in great quantities of
strong liquors. Shut off by social customs from the better homes, they
oftentimes unite themselves with the freer and easier strata of society.
As an English writer expresses himself of his own countrymen: “We have
done much to aid in developing the country along certain defined
lines; but we have done little or nothing to ingratiate ourselves with
the people, or to aid in raising the moral tone of those we affect to
despise. The English in Chile commonly remain like a bed of cabbages in
a Chilean flower-garden—self-satisfied and self-aggrandizing, usurping
all the nourishment they can obtain, and neither specially ornamental
nor specially interesting.” Chile has provided homes and, in many
instances, fortunes for the English, and they should return more to such
a hospitable mother than has been done heretofore.




CHAPTER X

AN UNCONQUERABLE RACE


The most indomitable of the native races in the New World, with the
exception of the red men of North America, have been the Araucanians
of Chile. They are the proudest, richest and bravest of the Indians of
South America. At the time of the conquest this race occupied the greater
part of Chile, and had spread across the Andes into a part of Patagonia,
which country they shared with the Tehuelches, the so-called giants. For
three hundred years they waged a successful warfare against the Spanish
invaders, and the republic of Chile which later succeeded the Spanish
province. It was not until 1884 that they were finally conquered, and
submitted to the Chilean government after certain rights and privileges
were guaranteed to them. So long as the Chileans attempted to conquer
the Indians by brute force they failed, just as had the Spaniards before
them. It was not until some tact and judgment were used that any real
progress was made in the subjugation of these people.

According to the early account the Araucanians were given to agriculture,
and the valleys south of the present city of Santiago teemed with an
industrious and energetic race. The Incas had spread their sovereignty
south of Santiago as far as the Maule River, and this probably accounted
in part for the agricultural development there. Some writers claim that
the Incas had enslaved the Araucanians and compelled them to do their
work. At any rate the Spaniards encountered little opposition in their
conquest before that river was reached. The fact is that these people
were really divided into three different tribes. The tribes that lived
along the coast were fishermen, those that lived on the higher lands
were hunters, while those who occupied the more fertile valleys were
agriculturists. It was estimated by some of the early writers that there
were at that time no less than a half million of these Indians. This
estimate is no doubt excessive, and half that number would be nearer the
truth. They knew not the use of any metals, excepting silver, which they
worked into various forms. Silver breastplates were worn by the wives of
the _caciques_, or chiefs, which told of the number of their children, as
large families were their boast. They also wore large crescent earrings
and great silver suns as breastpins, with hieroglyphics upon them which
told of a nature worship. Bracelets formed of a multiplicity of minute
silver beads were also fashioned very attractively, and in later years
silver stirrups were manufactured for the head men. Even to-day this race
is noted for its silver work.

Down upon this stronghold of the Araucanians came Pedro de Valdivia,
in 1550, with two hundred horsemen and some other troops. This force
no doubt made an imposing appearance, as it marched along with their
coats of mail, helmets, swords and spears flashing in the sunlight. The
only firearms were clumsy arquebuses borne by the infantry, and fired
from a wooden support by the aid of a fuse only kept alight with great
difficulty. And yet the Spanish soldiers at that time were considered to
be the best in the world. They continually marched in order of battle,
preceded by an advanced guard and carrying their baggage in the centre.
From the time he reached the river Itata his march was a continuous
conflict, although he managed to get as far as the River Bio-Bio.

How two hundred men were able to make this trip through a thickly
populated country can be explained by reason of the superior weapons
and armour of the Spaniards, as well as the fact that they used horses.
These animals at that time were unknown among the native races, and
inspired them with terror just as they did the Aztecs in Mexico. The
Indians had only wooden lances, arrows of the simplest manufacture, and
clubs; and yet they managed to stand against the Spaniards at times until
hundreds of them were slain. On one occasion the Spanish records say that
Valdivia was beset with twenty thousand Indians. As fast as one body
of the Indians was routed another took their place. Compact masses of
the Indians at times surrounded the Spaniards. The horses were clubbed,
and this together with the war-cries of the attacking force created a
terrible confusion. When the Indians were finally beaten off the ground
was literally covered with the dead bodies of their comrades. Every
Spaniard was wounded. This battle is known as that of Andalien.

The cruelty of the Spaniards in this invasion was something terrible at
times. After the battle of Penco, where, according to the chroniclers,
forty thousand Indians attacked the invaders, Valdivia cut off the nose
and right hand of two hundred prisoners, and sent them back to terrorize
their comrades in this mutilated condition. They treated the natives with
absolute contempt, and endeavoured to reduce them to abject slavery.
Valdivia practically had no choice in the matter. Each soldier had to be
paid a grant of land, with a certain number of slaves. The soldiers were
of a fierce and intractable character, and it was almost impossible to
maintain any sort of discipline among them. Valdivia founded the city of
Imperial, fortified it and employed the natives in washing the gold found
in this district. He also established the city of Villa Rica, which means
the rich village, and was so named because of the wealth and fertility of
that valley, and another town that was named after himself. In fact he
endeavoured to establish a string of fortified outposts throughout that
entire section of the country. The Indians were parcelled out among the
conquerors, Valdivia retaining for himself about forty thousand. Although
at this time the Spanish population of the valley did not exceed one
thousand, yet they were able after a while to force the Indians to do
their work. The men were attended by a numerous retinue of servants
wherever they went, and even the women wanted to be followed by a large
concourse of slaves when they attended church. Rank and importance seemed
to be indicated by the number of menials.

The end, however, was not long in coming. It was due to an Indian boy,
named Lautaro, who had been raised in the household of Valdivia himself,
that their freedom was finally obtained. He had learned to manage
horses, and to use the Spaniards’ weapons. Taking some of these animals,
he joined his people and stirred up a general insurrection. A public
assembly of the tribes was called, and Lautaro presented a definite plan
for a campaign against the enemy. When Valdivia arrived on the scene
to put this revolt down he found some of the towns already in ashes.
Lautaro, although only twenty-one years of age, had shown a genius for
war and was in command, and had already established some discipline
among his troops. Not a single Spaniard escaped in a battle, or series
of skirmishes, that was fought, although thousands of the Indians fell.
Contrary to the example set by the Spaniards Lautaro simply killed his
prisoners by beheading them without any preliminary torture.[1] Valdivia
himself was captured by the Indians. That general at once offered him two
hundred sheep for his release, and promised to withdraw all of his troops
from their territory. The Indian caciques, however, would not consent to
this, and, at a prearranged signal, one of the Indian soldiers struck
him on the head with a club and killed him. It is said that his body was
afterwards eaten by the assembled caciques, in order to give them heart
in the struggle against the Spaniards. This seems to have been a custom
among many primitive races.

Thus was a struggle begun which lasted for three centuries. During this
time the Spaniards frequently penetrated the country of the Indians, and
were as many times driven back again. The number of horses owned by the
Indians soon increased, and they also secured many arms from the slain
Spaniards, so that by the latter part of the sixteenth century they were
in a better position to fight. In 1599 they were able to muster no less
than two thousand mounted troops. They had also developed herds of cattle
and sheep from original stock secured from the Spaniards. Plagues broke
out at different times, and these, together with the numbers lost in
battle, greatly decimated the natives.

The death of Valdivia was the beginning of a heroic age for the Indians.
The whole country was soon in arms, and the Spaniards were ousted from
most of their settlements. Villagran, successor of Valdivia, was driven
out of the valley, but soon afterwards returned with reinforcements and
commenced a war of extermination. He employed bloodhounds as auxiliaries,
and these animals destroyed many Indians, especially women and children.
He destroyed the crops wherever possible, and this brought on starvation
and plague. He rebuilt some of the forts and established others, for he
was at the head of a splendidly appointed army of several thousand men
who had come there from Peru.

At one time Villagran hung thirty caciques. One of the chiefs requested
that he be hanged on the highest tree, in order that his countrymen
might see him dying for his country. Another chief, who died a natural
death, asked that his body be burned, in order that he might arise to
the clouds and continue fighting the dead Spaniards who dwelt there. At
the same time he asked that a successor be chosen, in order that the war
might be continued against those below. In a later battle the Indians dug
pitfalls for the cavalry, and, when the horses stumbled into these, they
fell upon the riders and almost annihilated them. The Spanish leader cut
off the feet of many prisoners in order to terrify their compatriots.
Nevertheless, in spite of these cruelties and some successes on the part
of the invaders, the Indians were victorious, so that the Spaniards
were again obliged to withdraw. A severe earthquake, which occurred at
this time, also destroyed some of the town, as the shocks continued for
several months.

In 1599 seven Spanish cities were destroyed by the Indians. The city
of Imperial was besieged for sixteen months, during which time the
greatest heroism was shown by both besieged and besiegers. The Indians
ingeniously diverted the river that supplied the town with water. It
finally succumbed and was destroyed. Another Spanish city held out
against the Indians for three years, until practically all those within
the fortifications were slain, starved to death or captured when seeking
food. In one year there were no less than twenty-four murderous Indian
raids. Thus after a conquest of half a century no permanent results
could be seen. The Indians had learned much from their oppressors and
were better fighters. They, as well as the Spaniards, had captured many
prisoners, and the Spanish women had been taken over as wives by the
caciques. As a result of this prolonged conflict the Spanish government
established the river Bio-Bio as the frontier line, which in itself was
quite a victory for the Indians.

In 1641 the independence of Araucania was acknowledged. A few years
later, however, the treaty was broken by the Spaniards in their
slave-hunting expeditions. Another war of conquest was also begun. The
events of the preceding century were repeated in a number of instances,
until 1703, when the King of Spain ordered the raids into the Indian
country to cease. For a half century or more there was comparative
peace, although the Spaniards conducted some desultory raids against the
natives.

During the war of independence some of these natives fought on the side
of Spain, and others were found on the side of the revolutionists. As
soon as independence was secured, however, the authorities began to use
the same methods towards these people that the Spaniards had, and thus
alienated whatever good will might have been felt by them. Several more
or less severe combats followed which really made it a local civil war.
It was not until Colonel Saavedra adapted a more conciliatory policy
that bloodshed ceased. The heroic age of the Araucanians had probably
passed away, and the later wars were not so fierce as those of former
years, for the vices of the Spaniards, especially a liking for brandy,
had fastened themselves upon many of them. Since 1884, the date of the
final agreement with the Araucanians, they have become more widely
scattered, but those who live in the southern provinces still follow the
old habits and customs of the early centuries. The people north of the
Bio-Bio River also had much Indian blood in their veins by this time, and
it is unquestionably true that the Chilean soldiers of to-day, who are
considered brave, owe very much of this valour to the Araucanians with
whom they have become intermixed.

[Illustration: OX CARTS.]

Many Araucanians may be seen in Temuco, Osorno, Puerto Montt and other
southern towns. They come there to trade. Some are on horseback, both
men and women riding astride, others come in clumsy ox-carts with their
wheat, corn or other produce. The women wear bright-coloured blankets,
which are so fastened at the shoulders that the arms are left bare. The
skirts are belted at the waist and fall about half way between the knee
and ankle, and they are generally barefooted as well as bareheaded. Those
who can afford it wear immense silver earrings and breast plates, and
fasten their garments with silver buckles. The men also wear blankets
and a _poncho_, which is a blanket with a hole in the centre through
which the head is thrust. Few wear hats, but a red handkerchief or a
band around the head answers for a head covering. Both sexes are fond of
bright colours.

This race bears a very strong resemblance to the North American Indians.
They are somewhat lighter in colour, but they have the same high
cheek-bones and straight black hair, with little or no beard. Polygamy
is common among them, and it is no rare thing to find two or even three
women in the home of an Araucanian. They seem to get along fairly well
together, and each woman looks after her own brood of children. Between
them they look after the master of the house and assist him with his
crops. The houses are generally very simple structures, with low thatched
roofs, and one big door which can be closed up with skins. The floor is
usually the earth beaten down hard and covered with sheep skins. The
cooking and other household utensils are of the very crudest and simplest
design. Some of the Araucanians are very good farmers, and have even
progressed to the point where they have adopted American ploughs and
reapers. Many work on the _haciendas_ of the rich Chileans, and they are
said to make very good hands. The government allotted lands to these
people with a condition that it can not be sold, which was a very wise
provision. When an Araucanian acquires a liking for alcohol he would
trade his land, silver jewelry, his wife or anything else of value in
order to indulge his appetite for drink. When sober they are very clever
traders, and usually manage to secure full value for their goods.

The Araucanians have never adopted the religion of the Spaniards as did
the Aztecs and Incas. It is true that there are some churches among them,
but the impress has not been very great. They still believe in their
old superstitions. The men purchase their wives and then go through the
farce of stealing them. The “medicine man,” who is oftentimes a woman, is
supposed to be able to ward off evil spirits and troubles of all kinds.
With these people the evil spirits are believed to be at the bottom of
sickness, bad crops and all other woes. They believe in a great father
who watches over them, and in a happy hunting ground somewhere in the
beyond to which all those departed go.

One of the interesting characters met with along the Pacific coast of
South America is the calaguayas, or the Indian doctor. One will find him
everywhere, from Panama to the Araucanian country, carrying with him a
pack filled with dried herbs, cheap jewelry, handkerchiefs, ribbons,
mirrors and other notions, which he sells to the people. He may be met
with on the trains, the coast steamers or any other place, and generally
carries with him nothing but the suit he wears and a bright-coloured
_poncho_, which is thrown over his shoulders for additional warmth. He
may be seen sunning himself in the plaza of a town or tramping over
mountain trails. This man is both a trader and tinker, and his sources of
livelihood are many indeed. He can mend a clock, a tin pan, or a broken
piece of crockery. He can tell fortunes, interpret signs and omens,
or prepare love philters. He is a magician, and can do all sorts of
sleight-of-hand tricks. He is a conjurer; he helps people who have been
bewitched, and altogether has a reputation for superior wisdom, which he
applies on all possible occasions.

The chief business, however, of this unique character is that of healing
the sick, whether man or beast, for he is equally successful as a
veterinary surgeon, or as a physician for the human race; and it is
really remarkable, as many white people testify, the knowledge he has
of certain climatic ills to which the people there are subject, and of
herbs which will relieve them. They claim to have herbs that will cure
everything to which humanity is subject. It is a fact that there is no
section of the globe to-day where so many modern drugs come from as the
northern half of South America, and it is quite probable that these
primitive doctors first discovered the medicinal value of many plants
that are now common pharmaceutical terms. Many stories are told among
miners and others, who have been obliged to live in the interior, where
regular physicians were not obtainable, of climatic fevers and other
illnesses which have been cured by these doctors.

“I have herbs that will cure everything,” said the calaguayas to a doctor
who doubted his skill. As a proof he handed a leaf to the doubter and
asked him to smell it. As the man did so his nose began to bleed, and he
was unable to stop it. After a time the calaguayas handed him another
leaf, and told him to smell that. The hemorrhage immediately stopped.

The botanical knowledge which they possess, for their medicines are all
herbs, has been handed down from generation to generation, from the time
of the ancient Incas. In fact their origin is supposed to date from that
ancient race, when the medical men had an official position at court and
in the cities. As it was a fixed law of the Incas that the son should
follow his father’s occupation, the knowledge of the father in the use of
herbs was passed by him to his son. The natives have much faith in the
skill of these doctors, so much so that if one of them pronounces a man
incurable, further effort to relieve the afflicted person is generally
abandoned. In fact with some of the tribes the sick are then exposed, in
order to hasten their death, so it is said.

There is also said to be a sort of free-masonry among these doctors for
mutual protection, and they have built huts on some of the lonesome
trails, where the wandering medical man can seek shelter and make himself
as comfortable as possible. In these rude shelters the calaguayas is able
to take shelter for himself, if overtaken by storm, for he always carries
in his pack a little jerked beef, parched corn, beans, and some cocoa
leaves, the chewing of which relieves hunger to some extent and gives
strength for prolonged exertion. In these wild haunts they also collect
in secret their healing herbs, for they will never allow any one to
accompany them on such expeditions. It is impossible to get one of them
to tell of what his herbs consist, as they preserve the greatest secrecy
concerning all of them.

The coming of the calaguayas is usually very welcome to the communities
that he visits, because he knows everybody; and travelling from one
village to another he carries news and personal messages, frequently,
between friends. He thus makes himself a travelling post-office as well
as a peripatetic newsmonger.




CHAPTER XI

EDUCATION AND THE ARTS


Modern Chile owes little to the mother country for its educational
system. With the exception of the establishment of a university at
Santiago, and one or two minor institutions, Spain almost entirely
neglected education in this province. The wealthy classes sent their
children to Europe for their education, and the poorer classes were given
a little instruction by the church. The Indians and peons were taught the
catechism and church doctrines in a desultory way. With that all attempt
at general intellectual development was ended. It is little wonder that
only a small proportion of the population were able to either read or
write, when the Spanish yoke was thrown off, or that even to-day, when
Chile has celebrated the centennial of her declaration of independence,
her educational system will not compare favourably with those found in
the Anglo-Saxon and Teutonic nations of the world.

Education in Chile is absolutely free, though not compulsory. Within the
last few years the Chilean government has given considerable attention
to public instruction, and has been greatly extending the school system
all over the country. According to government reports there were, in
1907, twenty-two hundred and fifteen elementary schools, with forty-seven
hundred and twenty-nine teachers, and an attendance of one hundred and
seventy thousand eight hundred and twenty-seven pupils. This is only a
small percentage of those of school age, according to standards in the
United States. Besides these public schools there were more than one
hundred private schools for elementary instruction, which were subsidized
by the government.

The school system is divided into primary, elementary, secondary and
the higher education. The secondary education, which corresponds to our
high school, is provided in the National Institute at Santiago, and at
lyceums located in various parts of the republic. One of these lyceums is
maintained in every province in the republic, no matter how small, and
in every city or town of any importance. In the same year, above cited,
thirty-nine of these institutions were for men and thirty for women,
having a total attendance of almost twelve thousand. For the higher
education there is a national university at Santiago, which is an old and
well-equipped institution, and fifteen normal schools located in various
parts of the republic. For technical instruction there are a number
of institutions located in different parts of the republic, which are
conducted by various societies.

[Illustration: THE ESCUELA NAVAL, VALPARAISO.]

For instruction in agriculture schools are maintained by the government
at Concepción, Santiago, Talca, San Fernando, Elqui and Salamanca.
These schools are all under the supervision of the National Society
of Agriculture, and the government contributes liberally toward their
maintenance. There is also a school conducted at Chillan for practical
agricultural instruction. A number of model farms are maintained by
the government, of which the principal one is the Quinta Normal in the
capital, and a number of experimental institutions for the cultivation
of vines, trees, etc., are also supported by the national government.
The agricultural schools, as well as those for the furtherance of
industries and mining, hold expositions from time to time, in which, the
products of the soil and factories are exhibited, as well as the latest
processes and appliances. To these exhibitions the government contributes
liberally, in order to acquaint the public with the latest scientific
development. The societies themselves are formed by a large number of
prominent Chileans, who devote considerable time and energy to the
development and improvement of these industries.

Commercial schools have been established at Iquique, Antofagasta,
Valparaiso, Santiago, Concepción, Vallenar, Coquimbo, Talca and San
Carlos. A number of industrial schools are conducted under the direction
of the society for the improvement of industries, where technical
instruction is given to those preparing them for such occupations as
engineers, electricians, architects, plumbers, masons, etc. At Copiapó,
Santiago and La Serena, the government has established schools for the
practical instruction of mining engineers and mining in general.

Military and naval education is given in ten different academies,
located in different parts of the republic. One of the best of these
is the Escuela Naval at Valparaiso, which is situated on a commanding
location overlooking the lower town and bay. As the navy of Chile
commands great consideration this branch of the educational system
receives considerable attention, and the cadets are put through a very
thorough course of instruction by able instructors. The University of
Santiago, as well as a university under the supervision of the Catholic
Church, gives instruction in law, political science, music, dentistry,
civil engineering, physics and mathematics. Then, in addition, there
is a National Conservatory of Music, a School of Fine Arts, a National
Observatory, an Institute for the Deaf and Dumb, and a School for the
Blind.

A number of public libraries have been established in various cities, at
the head of which is the National Library at Santiago, which contains a
valuable collection of books and manuscripts. Next to this in importance
is the public library at Valparaiso. Several other cities have followed
the lead of these two and established free public libraries. Museums of
natural history and also of arts are maintained in Santiago.

The newspaper in Chile is as much of an institution as it is in the
United States. In the cities of Valparaiso and Santiago one will find
the newspapers equipped with an energetic staff of reporters, who have,
what Americans would call, a good nose for news. Each one, like his
American counterpart, is trying to beat his competitor, and acquire at
least temporary notoriety and fame.

_El Mercurio_ is the most noted newspaper of the country, and publishes
editions in Valparaiso, Santiago and Concepción. It ranks with _La
Prensa_, in Buenos Aires, and the _Jornal do Comercio_, in Rio de
Janeiro. In the two former cities _El Mercurio_ owns fine buildings,
which are superior in their equipments to the average newspaper office
in the United States. It has not only provided good quarters for its
editors, reporters, printers and other employees, but has dining-rooms,
private parlours, baths, bedrooms, assembly-rooms, and other features
which American newspaper plants are not equipped with. In these rooms
entertainments are given for the public, noted visitors to that country
are entertained, and many other features of more or less public interest
are provided for the people. The owner of _El Mercurio_ is Mr. Augustin
Edwards, who is a member of a famous banking family of Santiago, and has
occupied various official positions in the country. _El Mercurio_ was
founded in Valparaiso in 1827 and in Santiago in 1900. It has long been
one of the show things in Chile. The editorials in the editions are the
same, but the news columns differ considerably because of local interest.

One will find the editors of these papers as well informed as the editors
of the leading newspapers in the United States, and their information
covers the whole world, perhaps better than the average American editor.
If there is any distinguished foreigner visiting the country the
reporters eagerly interview him, and the matter is displayed in headlines
which are quite similar to the land of yellow journalism. In fact, in
general make-up the Chilean newspapers more nearly resemble those of the
United States than the journals of any other country of South America. In
foreign news one will find two or three pages of cable dispatches in _El
Mercurio_, much more than is printed in papers published by newspapers
in cities of similar size in the United States. The _vida social_
(society column) has much news concerning _las distinguidas señoras y
señoritas_. Interspersed with accounts of balls, parties, weddings,
visitors, etc., will be obituaries and notices of funerals. Echoes
of the get-rich-quick commercialism will be seen in the advertising
space, where columns of advertisements of banks, nitrate companies and
promotion companies appear. Rates of exchange, the movement of the stock
market and other items of commercial interest occupy a prominent place.
Sport is prominent, of which football is an integral part, having been
made popular by the British residents. The entries in the horse races,
together with the various riders and their weights, form a part of the
racing gossip, much as in English newspapers. In fact these cosmopolitan
publications provide much interesting reading for all who can read them.

_Zig-Zag_ of Santiago, and _Sucesos_, of Valparaiso, are two illustrated
weeklies, which are really admirable and enterprising publications.
Each edition is practically a pictorial record of the week both at
home and abroad. There will be photographs of those prominent in the
social and political life, pictured scenes of the leading events of
the week, cartoons and news of the world depicted from the illustrated
publications of other countries. There is one English newspaper published
in Valparaiso. One feature, which is always displayed in the Chilean
newspaper, is an editorial on the foremost topic of the day. It is given
the leading position, every one reads it, and it is generally the topic
of conversation for the following day. These editorials are generally
well worth the reading, for they not only display knowledge but a
catholicity of treatment that speaks well for the Chilean.

_La Union_ also publishes editions in Santiago and Valparaiso, and it
is a well edited and well conducted paper. Other newspapers of more or
less importance are _El Dia_, _La Lei_, _La Patria_, _El Chileno_, _La
Reforma_, _El Diario Popular_ and _Las Ultimas Noticias_, and others.
In all there are more than two hundred publications of all kinds. Every
one who can read at all generally reads about all the newspapers, so
that even though the reading class is not as large as with us, yet the
circulation of these newspapers is very creditable. Nevertheless one
wonders how they are all supported and manage to survive.

Like all Spanish people the writers, though not numerous, are usually
voluminous. The number is not great because of the lack of readers and
library privileges. One Spanish writer says that the circle of readers
in each Spanish-American nation is in smaller numbers than in a single
street in London, a square in Paris, or a district in Italy. Such a
statement is not true of Chile, for Santiago, Valparaiso and Concepción
have large numbers of educated Chileans. But it is true that the writer
has a small circle as compared with the clientele of an American, English
or German author. Chilean writers have been the most prolific of any of
the countries on the Pacific coast of South America. The comparatively
stable rule for four decades was conducive to literary development.
The French influence in literature is more noted than any other, and
especially so in literature of the lighter vein.

Before independence the chief subjects were history, religion and poetry,
and many of the writers were ecclesiastics. Since the establishment
of the republic fiction, philosophy and political economy have been
prominent, and lay writers have taken precedence over ecclesiastics.
Ramon Briceño and Venturo Marin are two well known writers of modern
philosophy and ethics. Other Chilean writers along similar lines were
Errázuriz, Casanova, Aracena Lopez, Arrasco, Albano and José Lara.
Andres Bello is a name that towers above all. Says Professor Currier:
“I regard him as one of the most extraordinary men that the Western
Hemisphere has produced. Entirely a self-made man, he explored almost
every field of human knowledge, and his numerous works testify to
his labours. Poet, philosopher, linguist, philologist, litterateur,
historian, educator and jurist, such was Bello. His civil code of Chile
places him among the world’s legislators. It is, perhaps, to be regretted
that in his earlier years his attention was so much divided among various
subjects that many of his labours remain unfinished. Few countries can
boast of a man so versatile and of such intellectual activity as Bello.”

Journalism in Chile, like the other Spanish-American republics, is an
important profession. One of the greatest journalists Chile has produced
was Zorobabel Rodriguez, who exercised immense influence on public
thought for many years. His editorials were the ordinary topics at the
breakfast table, and were looked for by all parties from day to day.
Rodriguez was also a poet, novelist and all-round literary man.

Chile has produced a number of historical writers. Among these might
be mentioned the brothers Miguel Luis and Gregorio Victor Amunategui,
Manuel Bilbao, Vicuña Mackenna and Diego Barrios Araña. Many have dropped
into poetry, for such a form of writing is popular and natural with the
Spanish race. The drama is also an important branch of Spanish literature
and Chile has produced her fair share of dramatists. The best known is
probably Carlos Walker Martinez, who succeeded in touching a sympathetic
and patriotic chord. A number of novels have also been written by Chilean
writers, but they are unknown among English readers.

The artistic is a strong element in the Latin character. Foremost with
the Italians, perhaps, it also bears a vital relation to the Spaniard.
Any one who has visited any of the Latin-American countries has not
failed to observe this trait, for art has been well preserved in the
New World, wherever either Spaniards or Portuguese have held sway. In
Chile this art has not been tinged so much with Indian influences as
in Mexico. Here is found the transplanted art of the Spaniard with
very little modification. There are many fine churches, of which the
cathedral of Santiago is the most noted example. It is a fine specimen
of ecclesiastical architecture. Hospitals and other public buildings
are built with an eye to the artistic. Plazas are arranged with skill,
and fine statues abound all over the cities. Municipal theatres have
been built in several cities. The Municipal Theatre of Santiago is a
commodious building and of artistic design. Although it will not compare
with the Colon Theatre of Buenos Aires, or those in Rio de Janeiro or Sao
Paulo, Brazil, it is an artistic building. Through the aid of a subsidy
from the national treasury operatic talent is brought from Europe for at
least a few weeks each season.




CHAPTER XII

THE DEVELOPMENT OF TRANSPORTATION


Peace as well as war has its heroes. In the industrial development of
Chile there are two names of North Americans that deserve to stand side
by side with those of O’Higgins and Cochrane, heroes of the war of
independence. In Valparaiso will be found a monument to the memory of
William Wheelwright, who had the vision of a Franklin. Chance determined
the destiny of this remarkable man. Wrecked on the shores of the Rio
de la Plata, in 1823, the youthful Wheelwright saw the needs of this
great continent, and he determined to devote his energies towards the
development of harbours and transportation. He became a supercargo on a
vessel bound around Cape Horn, and in this way reached Valparaiso. At
first he was looked upon as a dreamer. American capitalists turned down
his scheme, and even the British did not welcome him at first.

“If that insane Wheelwright calls here again,” said an English consul to
his servant, “do not admit him.” Nothing daunted, however, Wheelwright
went to London and succeeded in interesting some moneyed men in a scheme
for direct transportation between England and the west coast. The first
steamship traversed the Straits of Magellan under this concession and
reached a Chilean port in 1840. This was the beginning of the Pacific
Steam Navigation Company, which proved of inestimable benefit in the
upbuilding of Chile and Peru. It was not many years until this company
was operating vessels as far as Panama.

The next vision of this master of industry was the problem of conquering
the Andes. Could they be penetrated? Could the seemingly insurmountable
difficulties be overcome? He planned a railroad from the port of Caldera
across the Andes. This port was opened and the railroad constructed as
far as Copiapó. This scheme got no farther, but it was only the beginning
of colossal schemes. He planned and built the railroad from Valparaiso
toward the capital as far as Llai Llai, but there it stopped because of
lack of funds. His struggles with the opposition to this line read like
some of the contests in the English Parliament over the first railroad
projects. Wheelwright then turned his attention to Argentina and built
the first railroad in that republic, a line from Rosario to Cordoba, a
distance of two hundred and forty-six miles. His last public work was a
short railroad running from Buenos Aires to Ensenada, in 1873. Although
he had further plans for public improvements his health failed, and he
sailed for London to seek medical advice, where he died that same year.
His remains are buried at Newburyport, Mass., the place of his birth,
where they lie amidst a long line of sturdy Puritan ancestors.

In Catskill, New York, a boy was born on the 7th of July, 1811. His name
was Henry Meiggs. His history reads like romance, for he made and lost
several fortunes both on the Atlantic and the Pacific coasts. Elected as
treasurer of San Francisco County, California, he loaned public money to
friends who did not pay it back. He then fled as a defaulter to South
America. He first landed in Chile. The uncompleted railroad to the
capital, that had been begun by Wheelwright, first engaged the mental
activities of this remarkable man. For a decade the government had been
planning to extend this railroad “to-morrow.” Meiggs negotiated with the
government and finally secured the contract. With characteristic Yankee
ingenuity he succeeded in getting a clause inserted giving a premium for
each section completed within a specified time. He succeeded in building
each section in the shortest period and collected the maximum premium.
The result was that Meiggs realized a profit of more than a million
dollars, and made a great reputation for himself. Since that time the
Chilean government is very chary about such bonuses.

Meiggs married a Chilean woman and built a magnificent residence in
Santiago. But his later enterprises were in Peru. He built the railroad
from Mollendo to Arequipa. His greatest undertaking, however, was the
famous Oroya Railroad over the Andes, the highest railroad in the world
and one of its wonders. Great gorges were surmounted, rushing streams
spanned with bridges where such work seemed impossible, tunnels bored
where men had to hang over precipices by means of ropes to secure a start
and other obstacles of nature were overcome. Before the completion of
the road Meiggs was compelled to use his own private fortune. But he
accomplished the task. One hears many tales of this eccentric man in
Chile and Peru. It stands to his credit that, although he lived in luxury
and spent money lavishly, he paid all his debts back in the land of his
birth in order to stand before the world as an honest man.

The problem of connecting the widely separated sections of Chile with
easy and convenient means of transportation has been and is a serious
one. It was but natural, owing to the long extent of coast line, that the
first attention of the Chilean government was given to ocean navigation.
Furthermore, the Chileans have proven to be good navigators, and the
record of their steamships has been very good. There has been the further
advantage in developing this means of transportation in the fact that
no part of Chile is very far distant from the Pacific coast. This has
developed a large number of short railways, which run from the ports to
the mineral or agricultural districts of the interior. There are in all
sixteen ports open to international commerce, and forty-four inferior
ports which are used in the coast trade. The different character of the
northern, central and southern sections has created a demand for exchange
of products between those sections, which has made the coast trade of
great importance.

The ports of Chile were opened to the commerce of all the world as soon
as the independent government was fully organized. It is a historic fact
that among the first vessels that arrived in Chile, after independence
had been achieved, was a frigate from New York, which brought one of the
first printing presses to South America and also some American printers,
who established the first Chilean periodical. At first Valparaiso claimed
nearly all of the tonnage, because of its nearness to the capital. At
that time, also, the Chilean seacoast was not more than half as long
as it is at the present time. Vessels soon began to operate under the
Chilean flag, although most of the first vessels were owned by foreign
capital. As early as 1834 there were no less than one hundred and
thirty-four national vessels, principally engaged in the coast trade.
When William Wheelwright organized the Pacific Steam Navigation Company
a new era in Chilean prosperity was begun. Two vessels, the _Chile_ and
_Peru_, both of them small boats, constituted the beginning of the fleet
which finally developed into the great company, which for many years
plied between the west coast and Europe. It has recently been absorbed by
another English company, the Royal Mail Steam Packet Company.

[Illustration: THE HARBOUR, VALPARAISO.]

This English company, as well as other companies, were subsidized by
the Chilean government, in order to get better coast service between
the various ports. This service was eventually extended to the city of
Panama. In 1870 the most powerful Chilean company was organized under the
name of the Compañia Sul Americana de Vapores, which soon became a very
active competitor of the English company. The number of its vessels was
continually added to, most of them being built by English shipbuilders,
until to-day this company has more than twenty boats. Many of these are
very comfortable steamers, of considerable capacity, and operate all the
way between Puerto Montt and Panama. In addition to this company, there
are a number of small companies, owned by Chilean capital, and other
steamers belonging to private individuals, or business houses which carry
on a coast trade more or less extensive. The Chilean company and the
English company, which for a long time were active rivals, have at last
entered into an operating agreement. By the terms of this agreement
the government subsidy is shared, and the two companies operate an
alternating service between Valparaiso and Panama. The laws of Chile
governing maritime transportation are very liberal, and the fees levied
at the various ports are exceedingly reasonable. It has been recognized
by Chile that the development of commercial relations with the various
countries of America depends, to a great extent, upon the existence of
regular and rapid lines of navigation which will transport products at
reasonable rates.

The government has spent a great deal of money in recent years in
dredging the channels, placing buoys at the dangerous points and erecting
lighthouses along the coast, until to-day there are more than fifty
lighthouses which are regularly maintained by Chile.

What will eventually prove to be the backbone of the Chilean railway
system is termed the Longitudinal Railway, work upon which is being
prosecuted actively by the government at various places. When completed
it is planned to have a continuous railway from Tacna, in the north, to
Puerto Montt, at the south, a distance of almost two thousand miles. It
has been found that wherever the railroad has been extended, development
has followed. This has been especially true of the great central valley
through which rails have been laid as far as Osorno, only seventy-eight
miles from Puerto Montt. This line has been constructed entirely by the
government. It is built of standard gauge width, and also upon the same
gauge for some distance north of Santiago. Through the north central
part of Chile the government roads have all been built upon the narrow
gauge plan, one metre in width, because the occasional transverse spurs
of the Andes, which run toward the coast, have made construction more
difficult, and it has been easier to make the necessary curves by using
that gauge, so that the line could be built as inexpensive as possible.
At the present time nearly all of the energies of the government are
being applied to the completion of this great project, which has already
cost it many millions of dollars.

A little more than one-half of the railway mileage in Chile has been
built and is owned by the government itself. It has not been a profitable
enterprise, for it costs about ninety-five per cent. of the gross income
for operating expenses and maintenance. One reason for this, of course,
is that the government lines, many of them, have been built through
thinly-settled territory, and where traffic up to the present time has
been very light. Then, again, the charges upon these state railways are
entirely too small, for nowhere can one travel so cheaply as upon the
government railways of Chile. Then there is also the problem which a
government must always face, in operating a public utility enterprise,
that the officials, whose duty it is to look after the work, do not apply
to it the same careful attention to detail, do not get as much work out
of their employees as a private corporation, and are likely to take a
chance at some form of graft when the opportunity affords. The question
has been seriously considered by the government of placing the operation
of the principal lines in the hands of a private company; in fact, one
company has made a proposition to operate the road between Santiago and
Valparaiso, and take for its profit simply what it can save in the cost
of operation over the present cost.

In the northern provinces there are a number of railways operating from
the coast up a greater or lesser distance inland. The oldest railway in
the republic, as well as in South America, runs from Caldera to Copiapó.
As heretofore mentioned, this great undertaking was due to William
Wheelwright. It was his plan to continue this railway over the Andes,
and it is said by engineers to present fewer difficulties than the one
finally chosen, which was partly on sentimental grounds. It is quite
possible that the dream of the American captain of industry may some day
come true as development continues. It was never extended further than
the first terminus, over which the first locomotive was run in 1851.
The first locomotive exported from the United States was used on this
railroad. A number of short branches have now been built connecting with
this main line, but rail connection with the Federal capital is still a
thing of “to-morrow.”

The most northern railway runs from the port of Arica to Tacna, and is
only about forty miles in length. From Arica an international railroad
is being built across the Andes into Bolivia, in accordance with a
treaty entered into between the two countries. It will not pass through
Tacna, as an independent route has been selected which promised fewer
difficulties. It is only about one hundred and forty miles to the
Bolivian frontier by this route, and only a little greater distance from
there to La Paz. This will make the shortest and most direct route to the
Bolivian capital. The contract has been let for the entire work, but it
is proceeding very slowly.

Proceeding along the coast the next railway centre is in the nitrate
district, where a number of short railways connect Iquique, Pisagua,
Tocapilla, Caleta Buena and other towns in that district, making up a
total of nearly four hundred miles. Antofagasta also has some short spurs
which run back into the mineral regions, and carry the ore down to that
port. The principal line at this place, however, is the international
railway which runs from Antofagasta to the Bolivian city of Oruro, and
there connects with a Bolivian railway which runs to the capital, La Paz.
This railway is constructed upon an extremely narrow gauge of thirty
inches. The Chilean section of the railway ends at Ollague, a distance
of two hundred and seventy-five miles. This railway was originally
built to aid in developing some of the rich mines in Potosi, Bolivia.
By the aid of a government subsidy, it was finally completed in 1892.
This is the largest private railway enterprise in Chile. It would be
difficult to imagine a more dreary route over which a railway could be
planned than the Chilean section of this railway. At first the question
of a water supply for the engines was a serious problem, as the water
which they were able to secure easily was so permeated with minerals
that it destroyed the boilers. The concession of supplying the city of
Antofagasta with water was finally conceded to the railway company, and,
with that monopoly as an aid, pipes were laid for a distance of more than
two hundred miles to supply the water tanks of the railway and the city
of Antofagasta. The freight hauled over this road is quite considerable,
since it is one of the two lines which at present reach from the coast to
the republic of Bolivia. Half or more of the freight, to and from that
inland republic, is shipped by this route, in addition to the product of
the mines of the famous Huanchaca Company.

In the province of Coquimbo there are several short sections of railroad,
all of which were constructed by the government. In all these lines total
about two hundred miles. It will not be long until Coquimbo will be
connected with the main line by a longitudinal railway. In the northern
section of the country there are no less than fourteen different lines,
and at least three different gauges of track.

The railways of the central valley from Santiago south form the most
extensive system in the republic. All of these railways, with the
exception of a very few branches, belong to the state, and they form
a single system which unites the principal sections of population
throughout that section. The main track follows the longitudinal valley
from north to south in a line which keeps to the same general direction
until it ends at Osorno. In its course this system crosses no less than a
dozen of the provinces of Chile. Construction has been fairly difficult,
and the expense of bridges has been unusually high. There are many long
and high bridges, such as those across the Maule, Maipo, Mallico, Laja
and Bio-Bio rivers. Most of them have been of French construction. From
Santiago to Llanquihue, there are a number of cross railways which run
from this main line to the ports, and also some that run inland toward
the Andes for a short distance. These were built by the government in its
efforts to open up the unpopulated sections. In the carboniferous zone
around the Bay of Arauco there are a number of branches which connect
the mines, the mining towns and the ports. It will not be long until the
railway will be extended to Puerto Montt, which will complete the present
plans of the government for southern extension.

There are no less than half a dozen transandine railways which have been
planned, and for which concessions have been granted by the government of
Chile. Two have been completed, two more have had actual work done in the
way of construction and the other two are still visionary. One project,
which bodes very fair to reach completion, is a railroad that will have
for its terminal points the Chilean port of Talcahuano and Bahia Blanca,
Argentina. It will run through Monte Aguila and Cholguan, and cross
the Andes at Lake Laja. There it will connect with the Great Southern
Railway of Argentina, which has already been built from Bahia Blanca to
Neuquen, and which is now being extended from there to Chos Malal. The
Andes at this point are not nearly so high as farther north, so that
fewer difficulties will be encountered in the construction than on those
transandine railways which have already been built. It will necessitate
a tunnel about one mile in length only to pass the summit. Engineers
who have surveyed this route report it as very feasible and strongly
recommend it. It is several hundred miles south of both Valparaiso and
Buenos Aires, passes through an extremely rich agricultural country
and ought to be constructed before many years. It will be of distinct
advantage to both republics.

Interest in railroad construction in Chile in recent years has centred in
the transandine railway via Juncal and Uspallata pass, the historic route
by which General San Martin led his conquering legions into that country.
Its completion in the spring of 1910 was a significant event, which was
duly celebrated by both Chile and Argentina. Just a half century had
passed since Wheelwright first suggested to English capitalists the
feasibility of a railroad across the Andes to connect the Atlantic with
the Pacific, when the first train passed through the two mile tunnel
that pierced the international barrier of rock at this point. Trains are
now running regularly, and the interruption caused by the winter snows
is at an end. This is the first line to connect the two oceans, and,
to the South Americans, it was as great an event as the opening of the
first transcontinental railroad in the United States. The distance from
Valparaiso to Buenos Aires is eight hundred and eighty-eight miles, and
the trip is made in thirty-eight hours. It is hoped by the officials,
however, to reduce the running time to twenty-nine hours in the course of
time.

[Illustration: JUNCAL STATION.]

The first practical steps in this undertaking were made by two
English-Chilean engineers, John and Matthew Clark. They obtained the
necessary concession from Argentina in 1872, and from Chile two years
later. The Chilean government guaranteed seven per cent. on a capital of
three millions of dollars. But this concession was unsatisfactory. In
1889 the actual work of construction was begun, but it was stopped after
less than twenty miles had been completed. The old concession having
lapsed a new one was granted in 1903 to the Transandine Construction
company on a five per cent. guarantee for twenty years. In 1906 the
road was opened to Juncal, and in 1909 to Caracoles, the mouth of the
Chilean end of the tunnel. The entire distance from Los Andes to the
tunnel is forty-eight miles. In that distance the altitude rises almost
eight thousand feet. The grade in places reaches eight per cent. There
are several miles of the Abt system of cogs. Tunnels and bridges are
numerous, and a number of avalanche sheds have been built. The Chilean
slopes of the Andes are much more abrupt than those on the Argentina
side, and the work of construction has been correspondingly more
difficult. It provides a grand scenic route for the jaded continental
traveller that furnishes scenery as grandly picturesque as anywhere else
in the world.

One unfortunate feature is the differing width of track. It will be
necessary to reload freight three times in the journey across the
continent. From Valparaiso to Los Andes the gauge is standard. Between
Los Andes and Mendoza it is one metre, and from Mendoza to Buenos Aires
it is five feet eight inches. This may possibly be changed in the future,
but it will be many years. In the meantime much trouble and extra work
will be necessitated in freight traffic. To the passenger it means only a
little annoyance, but not much delay.

[Illustration: TRANSANDINO CHILENO RAILWAY, SHOWING ABT SYSTEM OF COGS.]




CHAPTER XIII

RELIGIOUS INFLUENCES


In order to fully understand the anomalous position occupied by Church
and State in the Spanish-American republics, it will be well to go back
several centuries and study for a moment the development of the clerical
policy of Spain, and its relations with the Church of Rome. With the
discovery of the New World, the Church was placed in a position where
it felt called upon to do something which it was next to impossible to
undertake independently. It felt the responsibility of evangelizing
the heathen in the newly-discovered countries, and yet it appreciated
its inability to assume this burden, because it had not the means to
propagate religion amongst a hostile people, which could only be advanced
efficiently by means of a costly expedition. Hence it was necessary for
the Holy See to proceed to convert the inhabitants of the New World
through ecclesiastics, or other persons who followed the invading forces.

In compliance with this view the Pope issued the famous bull of
Alexander VI, in 1493, which is in part as follows: “We give, concede
and assign them (lands in the New World) in perpetuity to you and the
Kings of Castile and of Leon, your heirs and successors: and we make,
constitute and depute you and your heirs and successors, the aforesaid,
lords of these lands, with free, full and absolute power, authority and
jurisdiction.”[2] This absolute power granted to Spain was not used
against the Church, as subsequent events showed, for the priests and
monks everywhere accompanied the soldiers, and conquests of the civil
power were invariably attended with at least the nominal conversion
of the natives to Christianity. This alliance placed in the absolute
power of the king of Spain the privilege to name the priests, or other
ecclesiastics, who might accompany the expeditions, and gave him
absolute power over their work. All causes of friction between bishops,
priests and other dignitaries were decided alone by the sovereign or
his representatives in the New World, although it might be regarded
entirely as a spiritual matter. Under the interpretation given to this
papal authority, the King of Spain had it within his power to define the
boundaries of the archbishoprics and bishoprics, and the Church was even
compelled to secure his consent for the erection of vicarages, churches,
monasteries, convents and other places for religious worship.

One decree of the King of Spain, which is similar to many others, reads
as follows: “We wish and command that there shall not be created,
instituted, founded or conceded any cathedral or parochial church,
monastery, hospital, votive church, or any other pious or religious place
without our express command, or that of the person who shall have our
authority of commission for this purpose.” And again, “That there shall
not be instituted or established any archbishopric, dignitary, canonry,
prebend, benefice, curacy, or any other benefice or ecclesiastical or
religious office without our consent or presentation.” At another time it
was decreed: “If in effect, or by dissimulation, any person shall make
or begin to make any of these edifices without this prerequisite the
viceroys, audiencas or governors shall cause them to be demolished, and
everything reduced to its previous state without cause or delay.” For
the erection of the cathedral churches the royal treasury contributed
one-third.

These privileges were at first jealously guarded by the royal
authorities. In maintaining the right of patronage the civil courts were
given jurisdiction instead of the ecclesiastical courts, which likewise
gave the civil authorities an advantage. There was in each bishopric,
however, an ecclesiastical court over whose decision appeal might be made
to the archbishop. The cases which might be brought before this court
were those which concerned tithes, patronages, marriages, legitimation,
funerals, donations to churches and such other pious matters. If a
case arose in which a layman brought action against a priest, this was
tried before an ecclesiastical church, but, if a priest brought action
against a layman, the cause was tried before a secular tribunal. The
Church likewise had a general council, which was composed of a number
of archbishops, cardinals and other high church officials. It was the
general aim of the Church to have the ecclesiastical division correspond
with the civil divisions of the territory, thus making the political
capitals also the seats of religious authorities, although there were
exceptions to this rule. One of these was in Chile, where, although the
captaincy-general of Chile was independent of the vice-royalty of Peru,
yet the Bishop of Santiago was subservient to the Archbishop of Lima.
Thus at every step in the administration of ecclesiastical affairs in
America, the authority and domination of the civil power was recognized.
In the first century of the colonial period the Archbishop of Lima was
the metropolitan for all of South America under Spanish rule, but this
was later divided.

Wherever the Spaniards established themselves in America, they made
the natives serfs, and forced them to approximately unrequited labour.
Looking upon these natives as an inferior race, it soon became
unpopular among the Spaniards to perform any labour which might be
considered menial. This made the opportunities for profitable employment
comparatively scarce. The doors of the monasteries were always open,
however, and the life within the cloisters, although seemingly one
of self abnegation and denial, in reality offered opportunities for
intellectual development, for vague contemplation and day dreaming, and
also a chance to enjoy more of the things of the world than fell to the
lot of the average man outside of the cloistered walls. Furthermore,
the fact that the ecclesiastical offices were at the disposal of the
representatives of the Crown gave opportunities to those persons to
favour friends who wore the cloak of the Church, which they could not
do if the same persons were following secular pursuits, because of the
limited number of positions at their disposal in civil life. Hence it
was that the ranks of the ecclesiastics came to be recruited not so much
from those who were religiously inclined, as from those who sought ease,
indulgence in the appetites and passions, and were ambitious for power
and authority.

A century after the beginning of Spanish rule, the missionaries on the
frontier had lost their enthusiasm to make converts, and thereafter
assisted in advancing the civilization of the natives very little. The
cupidity of those priests, who were not noted for their piety, was
excited by the opportunities which their position gave them. There were
numerous opportunities to charge fees and perquisites for the services
required of them, and they took full advantage of it. Furthermore, they
sold to the Indians various articles, such as rosaries and images, at
an enormous profit, and persuaded them to labour upon their buildings
and in their little settlements without compensation other than a bare
living. Likewise many persons who had acquired great wealth in the New
World, but had probably lived reckless and immoral lives, when nearing
the end of life were anxious to secure absolution for their sins, and as
short an experience as possible in the purgatory of the next world. The
representatives of the Church urged upon them the necessity of giving
all of their worldly goods into its keeping, in return for the desired
absolution. The mysticism with which the Church surrounded itself was
favourable to the securing of such a boon, and the monastic and convent
orders accordingly accumulated great wealth.

Thus it was that the power of the Church in the later period of colonial
rule was greatly increased through the accumulation of wealth, and
through the access to its ranks of men who were influenced by political
and covetous, rather than pious principles. After a century or more from
the beginning of Spanish rule the church dignitaries were able to a
great extent to defy the civil authorities. As a natural consequence, the
civil authorities then sought the aid and influence of the ecclesiastics.
The evil effects of these various influences upon the Church can be
traced down even to the present time in Chile, as well as the other
countries in South America. Most of the political troubles have been
the result of friction between the conservatives, who were aided by the
Church, and the liberals, who were intent upon restricting the power of
that body.

[Illustration: A CHILEAN PRIEST.]

The wealth of the Catholic Church in Chile is still enormous, even after
a considerable portion of it has been taken by the government for public
uses. Many of the public school and college buildings were formerly the
property of the Jesuit or other monastic order. It is said that the
church property in Santiago alone is worth not less than one hundred
million dollars in gold. It owns some of the best business blocks, as
well as hundreds of houses, and great _haciendas_ upon which wine is
manufactured and other products raised. A great part of this wealth is
owned by the various orders established in the country. The Carmelite
nuns of Santiago are a very wealthy organization and possess an enormous
income. These nuns never allow their faces to be seen by men. The
monastic order, known as the Dominican Friars, is also a very wealthy
body. They dress in black hats and gowns, with white flannel undergowns
which reach clear to the feet. This gives them quite a strange appearance
to one not familiar with the sight of such costumes worn by religious
orders.

The Catholic Church of the west coast of South America is less liberal
than on the east coast. The reason for this condition, probably, is that
it has been less influenced by outside causes, because of the comparative
isolation of the countries and remoteness from Europe. One will find
still less liberality as you proceed along the west coast from Chile
northward. In Chile, there is an element of tolerance towards other forms
of worship, at least on the part of the officials. Protestant churches
exist in nearly all of the towns of any size, and quite a number of
mission workers are busily engaged in spreading their doctrines. In
Peru, a few Protestant congregations exist. They are not allowed to
own churches, and their congregations are gathered together by printed
invitations, which is simply a means of evading the letter of the law
that is permitted by the authorities. In Ecuador, although the government
attempts to observe religious tolerance, yet the power of the priesthood
is so strong that Protestant workers outside of Quito and Guayaquil are
oftentimes exposed to danger of violence.

“The religion of the republic of Chile is the Roman Apostolic Catholic
to the exclusion of any other.” These are the words of the Constitution
of Chile, which thus gives to the Roman Catholic Church the protection
and support of the government. Nevertheless religious freedom prevails
for, by an act of July 27, 1865, it was established that those who do
not profess the Roman Catholic religion are allowed to worship within
the enclosure of private buildings, and are permitted to establish and
maintain schools in the doctrine of their respective faiths. From a
religious standpoint the republic is divided into one archbishopric,
three bishoprics and two vicarages. The cathedral at Santiago is the
church of the archbishop, and a magnificent residence for his use stands
alongside of the church. The bishoprics are known as Serena, Concepción
and Ancud. Two ecclesiastical vicarages have been established at
Antofagasta and Tarapacá.

The Catholic Church in Chile, however, is as different from the same
church in the United States as it is possible for two branches of the
same general head to be. There is no spirit of liberality, and no general
purpose to recognize religious freedom except as it is compelled by
law. The influx of foreigners has naturally modified things to some
extent, because many of those coming in have been members of Protestant
denominations, but the old condition of affairs has not yet been entirely
eradicated.

It is the women who support the Church, and they are intense devotees of
its worship. The men are generally absolutely indifferent to religion in
any form. As a prominent Chilean gentleman told me, “we leave the women
attend to the religious duties.” This statement seemed to be borne out
by the facts, as a number of visits to different churches at the hour of
mass showed that not one out of perhaps fifteen or twenty present were
men. The others were entirely women, girls and small children. The power
of the priesthood over the women is very strong, and it is in this way
that they exert whatever influence they have, as the women will blindly
do anything that the priests advise them to do.

This condition of affairs would be less reprehensible, if every member of
the priesthood was an intelligent and proper person. It is an unfortunate
fact, however, that many members of the priesthood come from the lower
strata of society, rather than from the higher. They are persons of
low intelligence, rather than men of high attainments. To this class
of priests is due many of the strange practices which one will find
in the churches, or see done in the name of the Church in the remote
districts. Some of the processions are so grotesque that they seem
almost ridiculous, and certainly would not have the direct approval of
the Pontiff. As one of the priests said: “The ignorant people of these
regions are fond of demonstrations in which they can participate, and
it does them more good to carry a banner and walk in a procession than
you can imagine. If the Church does not provide such amusements, the
politicians will do so, and it is very important that we keep our people
under our own control.” It is upon this theory, that the ignorant natives
demand these public processions, that they are permitted to exist. But
the fact that they also provide a considerable source of revenue probably
has something to do with their continuation as well.

In the city of Santiago a festival is held each year, which is a fair
illustration of the origin of many of these local celebrations. On
the fifth of May, 1848, there occurred in that city a most disastrous
earthquake. It was learned that a woman in that city, who had been
disgusted with the refusal of her particular saint to answer her prayers,
tore the image from the altar, and, stripping it of its decorations,
threw it into the street. At that very moment the earthquake began.
As it happened, however, a priest who was hurrying away from danger
saw the image, picked it up and carried it into a neighbouring church,
where it was reverently placed upon an altar. At that very moment the
earthquake ceased, and so from that time to this the fifth of May is
a holiday, which is second in importance only to Independence Day. It
used to be that this image was taken from the altar on these occasions,
carried through the streets under a scarlet canopy, and was followed by
a procession which included the president of the republic, his cabinet,
members of congress, justices, archbishop, bishop and all of the other
prelates of the Church and thousands of people with bands of music and
regiments of soldiers. This saint became known as Saint Cinco de Mayo
(Saint Fifth of May), because the woman who threw it into the street
and her family were killed in the earthquake, and it was impossible to
ascertain what particular saint it was originally intended to represent.
In recent years, however, this celebration has lost much of its
importance, although the Church still recognizes it as a regular holiday
in its calendar.

The high fees charged for the services of the Church have been much
criticized, and deservedly so. In most places not a single service will
be performed without the payment of the fee in advance. This is specially
to be condemned in the case of the fees that are charged for marriages.
Although a marriage to be legal in Chile must have a civil ceremony,
for which only a small charge is made, yet those who are devoted to the
Church consider the religious ceremony the essential one. As the priests
will not perform this ceremony without the regular fee being paid, which
amounts to several dollars, and the contracting parties do not consider
the civil ceremony as of any value, because they are so instructed
by the priesthood, the result is that neither ceremony is performed,
and an injustice is done to all parties concerned. Even in the higher
circles great confusion sometimes arises where the man, for instance,
considers the civil ceremony necessary, and the woman, under the advice
of her counsellor, is not willing to have it performed. The result has
been considerable confusion, and also has made the Church and civil
authorities unnecessarily opposed to each other in many instances.

Many claim that South America is not a legitimate field for Protestant
missionary work. Their theory is that the country was at one time
evangelized by missionaries, and therefore should not be touched by other
missionary effort. The fact is that religious conditions in South America
savour much of the darkness of the Middle Ages. There is to-day an
unbelief and utter indifference to spiritual things among the men, which
is hard to realize until one has had actual contact with it. Whatever
effort can better these conditions, and thereby improve the morals of
the people, should be encouraged. The Roman Catholics pursue their
efforts among the strongest Protestant countries, and they should not be
criticized for so doing. If they can reach a class or element that has
not been touched by Protestant effort, they are thereby doing good for
that nation and the world in general. True religion and true Christianity
should be recognized and encouraged under whatever name it may be found.
It would be far better if the Catholic Church in Chile, and other South
American countries, would welcome the Protestant ministers, and join
hands with them in their efforts to raise the standards of living among
the people.

One will find signs of the Protestant invasion of Chile from Arica,
in the extreme north, to Tierra del Fuego. The movement has generally
been accompanied by educational enterprise, of which there are several
splendid examples in Chile. One of these is the American College for
Girls, and the Instituto Ingles, an institution for boys, both of which
are in Santiago. The former, which is under the control and direction
of the Methodist Episcopal Church, has achieved more than a national
reputation in Chile, and many of the very best families send their girls
to that college for their education. It is recognized as giving the very
best education that can be obtained in the Republic, and the enrollment
has included the names of the children of presidents of the republic,
and many others in high authority. The same may be said of the latter
institution, which is under the control of the American Presbyterian
Church, and which is always crowded to its utmost capacity, with many
names upon the waiting list who cannot be accommodated. The patrons of
the two institutions understand that the schools are Protestant schools,
that the Bible is read and studied, that morning prayers are compulsory,
but beyond that the students are at liberty to attend any religious
services that may be desired by the parents. Outside of the regular
religious services, no effort is made to alienate the students from the
church in which they have been baptized. The Methodists also conduct
grammar schools at Concepción and Iquique, and schools of the primary
and lower grammar grades at other places. In all more than fifty day
schools are conducted by these two denominations. The work that has been
begun is a beneficial one in a moral way, and the results have been very
satisfactory to those engaged in the work.

At the present time the American Presbyterian and the Methodist Episcopal
Churches are the only American denominations that are aggressively
doing missionary work in Chile. The former began their work in 1873,
and the latter in 1878. The Methodists have thirty missionaries and a
large number of native workers assisting them, and have established
fifty-eight stations. The Presbyterians have twenty-six missionaries, and
these workers, together with native helpers, are at work in sixty-five
different communities. Both in Valparaiso and Santiago there is a Union
Church, to which members of various Protestant bodies come for the
religious services, and both of these churches are doing a very effective
work.

The Protestant Anglican Church was the first to begin any evangelistic
work in Chile. Its first mission was established more than sixty years
ago. They began work in the extreme south, and still have stations
on Tierra del Fuego for the Indians. They also have churches at
Santiago, Valparaiso, Iquique, Concepción and Punta Arenas for the
English-speaking people who live in those cities.

The American and British Bible Societies have aggressively spread over
the country. The colporteurs of these societies have gone up and down
over the country, by train and coach, on foot and mule-back, with copies
of the Scriptures in various languages. These books are sold for a very
small sum, and, if the person is too poor to buy, they are freely given.
The work has not always been easy or pleasant, for such deep prejudice is
oftentimes encountered that insults and little indignities have followed.




CHAPTER XIV

THE STRUGGLE FOR INDEPENDENCE


The subjugation and colonization of Chile was due to two causes. Pedro
de Valdivia, who had distinguished himself in Peru, wanted an empire for
himself, and Francisco Pizarro was desirous of ridding himself of so
formidable a rival. Valdivia was therefore graciously permitted to march
into and conquer at his own expense the country south of Peru. After many
months of preparation Valdivia set out on his expedition with one hundred
and fifty Spaniards, provided with horses and arms, one thousand Indians,
mostly carriers, and a supply of cattle, pigs, poultry and seeds of many
European plants. Thus equipped this cavalier set out from Lima, and
marched across the deserts of Arequipa, Tacna, Tarapacá and Atacama. He
reached the central valley of Chile without the loss of a single Spaniard
through sickness or desertion—a remarkable record.

The first few years were hard ones for these colonists. Santiago was
founded and made the capitol. The Indians were hostile, and dissensions
soon arose among Valdivia’s followers. Several small parties of
reinforcements arrived, but the Spaniards’ position was always precarious
because of the fierce Araucanians. After Valdivia’s death in 1551,
misfortune followed misfortune in the new colony. Garcia Hurlado de
Mendoza, one of the viceroys of Peru, succeeded him as governor. This
man was a mere youth with no experience, and his rule was fraught
with disaster. He established churches and monastic orders, provided
magnificent shows and spectacles, but did not materially improve the
condition of the colony. Then came Francisco and Pedro de Villagran and
a number of other governors,—some good and more of them bad. The colony
slowly increased in numbers, but constant war with the Indians prevented
it from growing rapidly. The coast was swept several times by Dutch and
English pirates. Earthquakes and plagues reaped their harvests from
the inhabitants. But wealth was increasing. Thus passed the sixteenth,
seventeenth and part of the eighteenth centuries. It would be impossible
within the limits of this volume to detail all events, but some of the
Indian wars are mentioned in another chapter.[3] The usual narrow-sighted
policy of Spain toward all her dependencies was followed, and the local
disaffection grew more acute each year.

It was Voltaire who said that “cruelty leads to independence.” The
colonial system of Spain in South and Central America, of which the
writer has had occasion to treat before, was one of selfishness, cruelty
and tyranny. Only the merchants of Cadiz were allowed to sell goods to
the colonists, and the colonists were permitted to sell their products
only to the same traders, who managed to reap a profit, owing to the
monopoly granted them, of as much as three hundred per cent. Local human
rights were not recognized by the government of Spain. It was treason
for a man to assert his freedom, or to seek a free field for his labour.
The natives were compelled to labour for the conquerors without profit.
Imposing buildings were constructed, cities were encircled with massive
walls, great monasteries, churches, and convents rose on the hills,
all by the unrequited toil of generations of these impressed natives.
Education was denied, and the local government, including the church
officials, united in this system of repression and disregard of human
rights.

There was, however, another element which entered into final
independence. For this we must hark back to Spain for a moment. Charles
IV had resigned his throne in favour of his son, Ferdinand VII. The
colonists accepted this change because of their loyalty to the heredity
in line of succession, which had to them a religious as well as political
significance. Charles IV afterwards regretted his abdication and appealed
to Napoleon, who was then in the height of his power, alleging that the
abdication had not been voluntary. Napoleon poured troops into Spain,
and it was not long until Ferdinand VII was compelled to yield. Napoleon
then placed his favourite brother, Joseph, upon the throne of Spain.
Joseph was a well-meaning monarch, a man of far more principle than
his brother, who, perhaps, would have done well by the colonists, had
he been permitted to work out their destinies. The colonists, however,
felt no loyalty toward him, and would not recognize his authority. When
Ferdinand VII was finally restored to the throne after the downfall of
Napoleon, he became a tyrant, and violently opposed all liberal ideas.
The despotism that Napoleon had overthrown was reestablished. These
mistaken moves on the part of Ferdinand, a period of a few years during
which the Crown had been opposed, and the free air of America all had
tended to induce a spirit of liberalism and opposition to monarchy in the
New World. It was not long before Chile was caught in the same whirl as
the rest of the Spanish-American provinces.

The approach of the end of almost three centuries of the colonial system
in Chile does not speak well for Spain. Trade was still restricted. The
post-office was a monopoly that had been farmed out to a private person.
A mail vessel arrived at Montevideo from Spain once in two months, and
from there the mails were transported across the Andes. There was a post
once a month between Concepción and Santiago, and twice a week between
Santiago and Valparaiso. Most people used private couriers or travellers
for their despatches. The only manufactures were the making of brandy and
wine, drying beef and tanning hides.

No city, except Santiago, had more than six thousand people, and
that city had perhaps thirty thousand. Horse racing, cock-fighting,
bull-fighting and cards were the only amusements. The buildings were
creditable, but the streets were dirty, unlighted, and unsanitary. People
who went abroad at night had their servants carry lanterns before them.
Vice and disorder was everywhere. Robbery, brawls and assassination were
frequent. Begging was an intolerable curse. Titles of nobility were
common, and had been purchased by many unworthy persons. Decorations of
membership in orders of nobility had been scattered broadcast. There
was not even a school for girls in Santiago. The majority of the people
still lived in the country in homes that were without conveniences. They
had little furniture, but all were provided with an oratorio in which
each wandering missionary was expected to celebrate mass. The Indians
were held in practical slavery, and the landlords administered justice
over their tenants. A sentimental attachment, and also fear that a bad
condition might be made worse, kept these poor humans from leaving.
Diseases often became epidemic through the unsanitary conditions, so that
thousands were at times swept away. Concepción lost a fourth of its
population one year through the ravages of smallpox. It is probable that
at the beginning of the nineteenth century the total population of Chile,
exclusive of the Araucanian Indians, did not exceed a half million.

There are two men by the name of O’Higgins prominent in Chilean history.
The first, Ambrosio O’Higgins, was born in Ireland in 1730, of humble
parentage. His uncle, a Spanish priest, sent the youth to South America,
and he finally landed in Chile. He first became a trader and peddler,
and then an engineer. During this latter employment he built the
_casuchas_, as the rest houses in the Uspallata pass are called. He also
distinguished himself in fights with the Indians, so that he received
government recognition. Plain Ambrose became Don Ambrosio. Then the Irish
youth, once a ragged, barefooted urchin, became successively Marquis of
Osorno, governor of Chile, and, finally, Viceroy of Peru. He died at
the age of eighty, in Peru, while he was filling the latter office. His
administration was marked by indefatigable activity. It was not until he
was sixty-eight years of age that he became captain-general of Chile,
which position he held for eight years. He introduced a number of
agricultural reforms and set aside many of the abuses on the plantations.
He constructed a passable road between Valparaiso and the capitol, where
none had hitherto been built, as the Spaniards were content to ride on
mules and carry their goods the same way. He improved the road over
the Andes via the Uspallata pass, as trade by this route had greatly
increased. Altogether the things accomplished by this energetic Irishman
were remarkable; his efforts and talents worked a great deal of good for
Chile and Peru. Had all the governors and viceroys been men of similar
character history would probably read differently.

The year 1810 was fraught with direful consequences for Spain. In that
year Hidalgo sounded the _grito_ of independence in Mexico, and the
memorable assembly met in Buenos Aires, which was the forerunner of a
successful revolution. The news of the latter event, which happened
on the 25th of May, soon reached Santiago and fanned the fires of
revolution. On the 18th of September three hundred and fifty electors met
in that city and elected a _junta_ to take charge of the government. A
quiet submission to the new order of things followed for a few months.
A Congress was elected and opened with solemn religious ceremonies and
many eloquent speeches. But jealousies soon arose over the personnel of
the government _junta_, and several years of conflict with Spain and
internal dissension followed. The leaders of the patriot forces were
Bernardo O’Higgins, of Irish descent, Lord Cochrane, an Englishman, and
San Martin, an Argentinian. The disturbing element was contributed in the
main by three brothers, named Carrera. Though leaders for a while these
brothers, of whom José Miguel Carrera was the ablest one, all met violent
deaths at the hands of their indignant countrymen.

[Illustration: JOSÉ DE SAN MARTIN.]

Bernardo O’Higgins was born in Chillan, Chile, in 1776, an illegitimate
son of Ambrosio O’Higgins. He was educated in England, where he
imbibed republican sentiments. He returned to Chile a few years before
his father’s death, and immediately identified himself with the
revolutionists. By the year 1813 he was at the head of their forces.
He proved to be a man of wonderful activity, although not of military
training. Troubles between the Carreras and O’Higgins were unfortunate
for the patriot cause, but the latter was in the right and the
jealousies of the former thwarted him at every turn. After several years
of possession of the capitol by the revolutionists the loyalist forces
under General Osorio recaptured Santiago, and O’Higgins was compelled
to flee. The general fled to Mendoza and there joined General San
Martin, who was greatly impressed by the Irishman. For several years the
destinies of these two men were linked and intertwined.

José de San Martin was a noble character, and his life was actuated by
unselfish principles. There was, according to the best accounts, a moral
grandeur in his character, which places him in the rank of the world’s
great leaders and patriots. No doubt he had his faults, which may have
been serious enough, but his life was far above his contemporaries,
and he has given us a sample of self abnegation which is well worth
remembering. He gave his sword to the best interests of the human race,
and when he found that his presence might not serve the cause of humanity
in the nations he had liberated, he went into exile and poverty.[4]

Here is a pen picture of San Martin written by one who interviewed him
at Lima: “On the 25th of June I had an interview with General San Martin
on board a little schooner anchored in Callao Roads. There was little
at first sight in his appearance to engage attention, but when he arose
and began to speak his great superiority over every other person I have
seen in South America was sufficiently apparent. He received us in a very
simple style on the deck of his vessel, dressed in a surtout coat and a
large fur cap, seated at a table made of a few loose planks laid along
the top of two empty casks. Upon this occasion his views and feelings
were decidedly stated. ‘The contest in Peru,’ said he ‘is not a war of
conquest and culture, but entirely of opinion. It is a war of new and
liberal principles against prejudices, bigotry and tyranny. I do not want
military recognition; I have no ambition to become conqueror of Peru; I
want solely to liberate the country from oppression.’”

In 1822 San Martin decided that he wanted to meet Bolivar. A meeting
was arranged between the two to take place at Guayaquil, on the coast
of Ecuador. Bolivar had driven the Spaniards from Venezuela, Colombia
and Ecuador, but had not proceeded farther south. San Martin wished
to cooperate with him in the subjugation of Peru. Bolivar came to the
city with some fifteen hundred men, and entered the city under arches
of triumph. San Martin arrived by sea on a little vessel called the
Macedonia. He landed and passed through files of soldiers who had been
drawn up to do him honour. When the two heroes met they embraced, entered
the house arm in arm and were left alone. What actually occurred no one
knows, as neither of the principals ever revealed the conversation. It is
known, however, from subsequent events, that San Martin decided upon self
abnegation, which, he believed, would be best for the cause of liberty. A
great ball was given to the two heroes, which was preceded by a banquet.
Bolivar loved these festive occasions, but San Martin avoided them
whenever possible.

After his return to Peru San Martin wrote to Bolivar as follows: “My
decision is irrevocable. I have convened the Congress of Peru; the day
after its meeting I shall leave for Chile, believing that my presence is
the only obstacle that keeps you from going to Peru with your army.”

Upon his resigning his office San Martin delivered a speech, of which the
following is a part. “I have witnessed the declaration of independence
of the states of Chile and Peru. I hold in my possession the standard
which Pizarro brought to enslave the empire of the Incas. I have ceased
to be a public man. Thus I am more than rewarded for ten years spent
in revolution and warfare. My promises to the countries in which I
warred are fulfilled—to make them independent and leave to their will
the elections of the governments. The presence of a fortunate soldier,
however disinterested he may be, is dangerous to newly constituted
states. I am also disgusted with hearing that I wish to make myself
a sovereign. Nevertheless, I shall always be ready to make the last
sacrifice for the liberty of the country, but in the class of the
private individual, and no other. With respect to my public conduct, my
compatriots (as is generally the case) will be divided in their opinions.
Their children will pronounce the true verdict. Peruvians! I leave your
national representation established. If you impose implicit confidence in
it, you will triumph. If not, anarchy will swallow you up. May success
preside over your destinies, and may they be crowned with felicity and
peace!”

There were at least five great battles that decided the liberty of South
America. One of the greatest of these was that of Maipo, or Maipu, which
was fought on Chilean soil. Although this battle lasted only a few
hours, it was the result of years of careful preparation by San Martin.
In 1814 San Martin, who was then in Buenos Aires, decided that the best
way to free Argentina was to drive the Spaniards from the West Coast,
as that was the principal seat of their power. He accordingly sought
the governorship of the province of Cuyo, which bordered on Chile, and
repaired there to begin his real preparation. The _junta_, that governed
Buenos Aires, gave him a small body of troops, which San Martin had
already drilled and made effective soldiers. To these were added Chilean
exiles, slaves who had been freed, and others whom he could gather at
Mendoza, in the foothills of the Andes, which was his capitol. For two
years he trained these men, gathered his artillery and ammunition and
made his preparation to cross the passes of the Andes. No detail had
been omitted by this careful organizer. To no one did he reveal his
plans until he was ready for the start, then his army, which numbered
about four thousand, was divided into two bodies, which proceeded through
different passes across the border into Chile. More than seven thousand
mules had been collected for the soldiers to ride, and every mule was
shod. Specially designed sledges had been constructed on which to carry
the guns. Jerked beef, parched corn and other supplies had been prepared
for food in large quantities.

The lonely and desolate passes of the mountains suddenly disgorged a
well-equipped and disciplined army on Chilean soil. The royalist forces
were taken by surprise, although reports had from time to time reached
the commander. General Maroto concentrated his forces on the ridge of
Chacabuco, whose yellowish-brown hills are almost devoid of vegetation.
There was no definite road over this ridge, which consisted of an
intricate complexity of steep-sided little valleys, or barrancas. General
San Martin divided his forces, the command of one section being given to
O’Higgins. Both sections attacked the Spanish forces vigorously, and the
latter soon gave way through the very force of the onslaught.

O’Higgins formed his infantry in a solid column, and with drums beating,
advanced against the enemy’s front. The men were greatly fatigued by
their march, and the sun was beating down fiercely. After a slight
repulse O’Higgins and his infantry made a bayonet charge. The shock was
terrible, and the Spanish lines first wavered and then broke and ran.
The defeat was decisive for the royalist forces. The Spaniards left
two-thirds of their number on the field of battle or in the hands of the
victors. The loss of San Martin was insignificant, for his casualties did
not exceed one hundred and fifty. The Spanish governor abandoned Santiago
that same night, and General San Martin and his army entered it two days
later, on the 14th of February, 1817, in triumph.

When the army reached Santiago a popular assembly was convened. The
dictatorship was offered to San Martin, but he declined. O’Higgins was
then selected and accepted. The country, however, was in a deplorable
condition. The new dictator exiled a bishop and many priests, shut up
traitorous women in convents and began vigorous measures to preserve
order. But the war was not yet over. Several sanguinary engagements
followed.

General Osorio landed with an army at Talcahuano and slowly proceeded
northward. San Martin and O’Higgins endeavoured to entice him as far
as the river Maule, after the country had been thoroughly devastated.
General Osorio made an unexpected night attack at Cancha-Rayada and
inflicted a terrible defeat on the patriotic forces. San Martin retreated
in good order, and took up his position along a ridge of low hills about
two miles from Santiago. Osorio established himself on a similar ridge.
Between the two forces was a plain about half a mile in width. On this
plain was fought the battle of Maipo on the 5th of April, 1818.

The day was exquisitely beautiful, and the sky was clear and serene. San
Martin opened with a strong artillery fire from both his right and left
flank. He then ordered a general advance. The horse grenadiers, who had
accompanied him from Argentina, charged the Spanish lines furiously.
Other battalions charged the royalist right, which was made up of
veterans of the Peninsular wars. The Spanish cavalry were driven from the
field. San Martin brought his reserves into action and the Spaniards
began an orderly retreat. They withdrew to the buildings and walled
enclosures of a _hacienda_. These were soon broken down by the patriot
guns. The closing scenes were horrible. The infuriated patriots showed no
mercy, and the _patios_ and gardens were soon littered with the dead. The
result, after several hours of fierce fighting, was of a most decisive
character. The Spaniards’ loss was nearly three thousand. The remainder
were flying in every direction, with the enemy in close pursuit. Osorio
finally reached Talcahuano with only ten men, the remnant of the
original force of five thousand that entered the battle of Maipo. The
revolutionists’ loss was eight hundred killed and one thousand wounded.
Spain at last realized the strength of her opposition.

The war for liberty now turns toward Peru. Soon after the decisive battle
of Maipo San Martin reverted to his original plan to invade Peru. The
_junta_ at Buenos Aires commanded him to return to Argentina and aid them
in that city. But he refused to be drawn into the local struggle between
the different factions that were seeking to obtain control of the
government. He began work on his new expedition with the same careful
and methodical plans to gather about him an effective army as he had at
Mendoza. The survivors of that army were loyal to their commander, and
they willingly volunteered for this new enterprise. Others were added,
and all were carefully drilled. Supplies and ammunition were gathered. It
was not until 1820, however, that San Martin was ready to embark for Peru
with an army of four thousand one hundred men. This force was conveyed to
the Peruvian coast by the Chilean navy under command of Lord Cochrane,
who played an important part in driving the Spaniards from this coast and
liberating Chile and Peru from their domination.

The name of Lord Cochrane is an honoured one in Chile, and the visitor
will find numerous monuments and memorials to that British soldier of
fortune. Thomas Cochrane was the tenth Earl of Dundonald, and was born in
Armsfield, Scotland, on the 14th of December, 1775. He became a member of
the House of Commons, and was an officer in the royal navy. One writer
says of him: “He was, after the death of Nelson, the most notable naval
commander in that age of glory.” He had made a reputation for himself as
a daring officer during the Peninsular War. In 1814 he was accused of
spreading a report of the death of Napoleon, and was fined, and expelled
from the navy and Commons. He was also sentenced to a year in prison,
which he served.

Angered and embittered by what he considered the unjust treatment of his
country, Lord Cochrane accepted a commission from the revolutionary party
of Chile to take charge of their little navy. He arrived in that country
on the 28th of November, 1818. For the construction and equipment of
this little fleet ladies had given their jewels, and even church plate
had been contributed. He arrived in time to cooperate with San Martin in
the movement that was then being formulated for the advance against the
Spaniards in Peru. Maipo had already been won. With four little vessels
conveying the transports Cochrane started for Callao and arrived there
safely. The Spanish gunboats were anchored under the protection of the
batteries on shore. A terrific fire was opened on the _O’Higgins_, which
was the flagship, as the other boats were not able to get within range
because of a calm. Cochrane’s enthusiasm was caught by the crew, and
they successfully withstood the onslaught of several hundred guns. The
_Esmeralda_, the best ship of the Spaniards, was captured by strategy.
Cochrane always led his men in person, and was ever in the midst of the
greatest danger. His courage and recklessness soon won for the doughty
admiral the name of “El Diablo.” He declared and maintained a blockade
of the entire Peruvian coast. He used fire-ships which scattered terror
amongst the enemy. His vigorous tactics made his name feared by the
Spaniards and Peruvians, so that the battle was half won before it was
begun. And yet his crews and officers would be generally considered
unsatisfactory, for they were composed for the most part of adventurers.
He captured Valdivia by a clever ruse, which was the strongest fortified
place on the Pacific coast.

Cochrane had the misfortune of a bad temper, and quarrelled with nearly
every one in authority. He could not understand San Martin’s deliberation
in attacking Peru, so that these two men, both able and honest, could
not work together. He quarrelled with O’Higgins and others. He drove the
Spanish fleet off the Pacific waters from Guayaquil south. He cleared
the waters of pirates, and to him in great part was due the emancipation
of Chile and Peru—all of this in two and one-half years. Cochrane finally
left Chile and commanded the Brazilian navy from 1823-5, which position
he resigned because of charges of insubordination. He then went to Greece
and commanded their army for two years. Finally his good name was cleared
in England and he returned to his native country, and had achieved the
high rank of rear-admiral in the British navy when he died at the ripe
old age of eighty-five.

The victory of Maipo, although won at great loss, forever settled the
Spanish power in Chile. Absolute independence from Spain was at once
proclaimed. O’Higgins managed to introduce a few reforms, but the country
was still lawless, disturbed and unsettled. Armed bands of robbers,
calling themselves royalists, attacked haciendas and villages, and
murdered travellers. The dictator did the best he could and introduced
many reforms in procedure. Even these improvements seemed to bring
discontent. He was always optimistic, which was not for the best. Some
men in whom he placed confidence betrayed it. The priests were insidious
in their preaching, as they favoured the royalty. The Indians were
incited to rebellion whenever possible.

Traitors arose among the malcontents. Others were jealous of O’Higgins.
San Martin and Lord Cochrane were both appointed to head the opposition,
but each declined. One General Freire consented. An assembly was
convened, which the dictator attended. After a stormy scene O’Higgins
resigned his office rather than plunge the country into civil war. The
withdrawal of his firm but kindly hand was a great loss to Chile. He went
to Peru, where he died an exile at Lima in 1842.

The long struggle with Spain had accustomed the Chileans to military
service, and the control of the country naturally fell into the hands of
the military element. Once the common danger disappeared, intrigue and
personal ambition ran riot and led to a condition of affairs bordering on
anarchy. Chile, however, never acquired the revolutionary habit to such
an extent as its neighbours, for there was a powerful landed aristocracy
whose interests lay in the cultivation of the soil, for which peace was
necessary. Anarchy lasted only for a few years, and then followed four
decades during which time four successive presidents ruled the country
for two terms of five years each.

After the resignation of O’Higgins, in January, 1823, Congress offered
the dictatorship to General Freire, who was then marching against the
capital with a considerable force. A constitution was promulgated, but it
proved to be only so much waste paper, for Freire soon suspended it. He
quarrelled with the Church authorities, banished the Bishop of Santiago
and issued decrees confiscating ecclesiastical property. Congress was
dissolved. A new election was ordered, but only a few members were
chosen. Political confusion followed, but another Congress was elected
that limited the dictator’s powers. He maintained his position only by
the use of sheer force.

In 1826 Freire succeeded in driving the Spaniards from the island of
Chiloé, which was their last stronghold. This victory temporarily
strengthened his prestige somewhat, although the liberals were daily
becoming stronger. A financial crisis was impending as the expenses
exceeded the revenues. Freire was temporarily replaced by Manuel
Blanco Encalada. But things became worse and Freire was recalled.
This restoration lasted only a few months when he resigned in favour
of General Pinto. Pinto succeeded for a while in suppressing the
disturbances, and endeavoured to introduce some reforms in the army
and finances. A new Congress wrestled with the constitutional problem.
Rivalries among the leaders were too much for him. It was too easy for
the aristocratic landlords to get up an army from among their peons,
or inquilinos. A whole series of presidents and dictators followed in
the next couple of years. Social as well as political anarchy reigned
supreme. Disorders were prevalent, robberies occurred daily and life was
unsafe.

Order was gradually coming out of chaos, however, for peace began to
appear above the political horizon. With the battle of Lircay the
conservatives, under General Prieto and Bulnes, won a decisive victory
over the other elements. Freire fled and a horrible slaughter followed,
for the victors were merciless. Freire himself and his partisans were
banished to Peru, and his sympathizers removed from the army.

[Illustration: CONGRESS PALACE, SANTIAGO.]

At the election in 1831, General Don Joaquin Prieto was chosen chief
magistrate. Although he owed his elevation to the military power, the
new President did not attempt the role of dictator at first. He was
ably seconded by his chief cabinet officer, Señor Portales, one of the
ablest statesmen that Chile has produced. After two years of careful
preparation a new constitution was promulgated in 1833. Although it has
been amended from time to time to meet new conditions, just as has our
own constitution, this instrument has remained the fundamental law of the
land. It gave to Chile a strong and stable government. The foundation of
the government, under the franchise conditions, was the property-holding
class. Political power originated in an oligarchy which obtained control
of Congress. Although such a possibility was not designed in the
constitution, it gradually developed a government by dictators. This was
due to the turbulent character of the people. Extraordinary powers were
granted from time to time in order to suppress revolutionary outbreaks.
These powers included the right to suspend the constitutional guarantees,
to imprison and exile political suspects without trial, and to adopt
such other arbitrary measures as the executive might deem advisable. All
of these powers were invoked by President Prieto before the end of his
first term.

As there was no constitutional inhibition against a second term Prieto
was reelected in 1836, and Portales retained his portfolio. All branches
of the government had been reformed over the former chaotic conditions,
and industrial progress had been rapid. The credit of the country was
good, and interest was paid promptly. Life in the new republic, however,
was not dull. It was sometimes necessary to put down disorders with a
firm hand. Opponents were banished without mercy. Peru seemed to have
favoured those who sought refuge on her soil, and war was declared
against that republic. Several battles were fought, and Chile captured
the entire Peruvian navy, consisting of three vessels. Portales was
killed, and a serious repulse finally compelled Prieto to make peace.
This caused trouble at home, and it gave Prieto’s enemies a chance to
denounce the war and its outcome. A new expedition was sent against
Peru under General Bulnes, and this expedition was successful. The
Bolivian-Peruvian dictator was overwhelmingly defeated, and this success
made Chile the dominant power on the Pacific Coast, a position which it
has retained ever since.

At the election in 1841 General Manuel Bulnes was chosen president. He
was a very distinguished soldier. Owing to his training as a soldier,
President Bulnes had little idea of any method of administration other
than by force. His course toward political opponents was severe, and
all attempts to dispute his authority were crushed with an iron hand.
Nevertheless, during the ten years administration of Bulnes, prosperity
made great strides and Chile became a nation of influence and importance.
The growth of the customs revenues placed the government finances on a
sound footing. The President fostered education and other reforms. A more
liberal religious atmosphere began to grow up. Mines were discovered and
opened. The Liberals began to be more numerous, but Bulnes was outspoken
in his opposition to them. In spite of their opposition he succeeded in
selecting Manuel Montt as his own successor in 1851.

The new President was a civilian and had been a member of the Supreme
Court, and many reforms were expected from him. More would probably have
been granted by him, for his standing was of the highest, had not a
serious disturbance broken out just a few days after his inauguration.
The headquarters of the revolutionists were at Concepción. Proceeding
toward the capital they won several small victories. The decisive
battle of Loncomilla followed, however, in which the government was
victorious, but not until five thousand Chileans had lost their lives
in this internecine warfare. Peace and general amnesty followed this
victory, and equilibrium was quickly established. Montt welcomed liberals
among his followers. A number of administrative reforms were adopted,
although the liberal program was strenuously opposed. New treaties with
the leading commercial nations were negotiated. Nevertheless the policy
of centralizing the entire government with the bureaucracy of Santiago
was followed up. Many leading liberals were exiled. During his second
term Montt attempted to grant a greater degree of political liberties,
but insurrections broke out in the north and south, and there was bloody
rioting in Valparaiso. This led to a renewal of drastic measures. Montt
finally came into open rupture with Congress, because it favoured the
return of his political enemies, among whom were some of the ablest
men in the republic. The clergy were angry because they were compelled
to submit their decisions to the civil tribunals. He became more and
more dictatorial in his methods. Newspapers were suppressed, meetings
dispersed, and agitators imprisoned. President Montt succeeded in putting
down the various insurrections. In spite of defeat on the field of battle
the liberals in fact won a victory, for their cause was forced on the
government. It was obliged to make some concessions in order to prevent
a renewal of the conflict. The government was in this condition when
Montt’s second term reached an end in 1861.

José Joaquin Perez, a man of high personal prestige, was unanimously
chosen as Montt’s successor. From the very commencement of his
administration Chile began to enjoy a freedom unknown in the preceding
thirty years. Criticism of the government was encouraged, instead of
being treated as a crime to be punished by imprisonment or banishment.
The policy of President Perez was one of conciliation, in order to unite
the discordant elements. A law was at once passed granting amnesty to
political offenders. The extraordinary powers heretofore granted to
dictatorial presidents was not even asked for by Perez, nor did he
need it. Railroads were opened up, and colonists began to come in.
Fierce parliamentary struggles over certain reform measures followed in
Congress, and there were many changes of ministry.

The only serious disturbance of the Perez administration was a brief
war with Spain, which occurred in 1864-5. The dispute was primarily
between Spain and Peru, but Chile took the part of the latter, for fear
that Spain might seek to reestablish her authority in South America.
As a result Valparaiso was blockaded by the Spaniards and bombarded.
Millions of dollars worth of property were destroyed in a few hours,
but the Chileans would not yield and grant the apology demanded. Public
feeling ran very high for a few months. Chile had only one war-ship, but
this boat captured a Spanish gunboat. This so humiliated the Spanish
commander, Admiral Pareja, that he suicided. Although the war did not
officially end for many years, nothing hostile was done by Spain after
the bombardment of Valparaiso. Perez was reelected as a matter of course
in 1866, and finished his second term. Pressure for amendments to the
constitution had become very strong, for the foreign influences were
becoming noticeable. A measure was passed forbidding a president to be
reelected to succeed himself, and this marks an important step in the
evolution of political ideals. A desperate effort was made to enfranchise
all who could read and write. This measure, although favoured by Perez,
was defeated, but the property qualification was greatly reduced. In
every way the two administrations of President Perez marked the beginning
of a new era in Chilean affairs. The rights of the people began to
receive greater consideration from politicians.

The election of 1871 was hotly contested. The liberals were very
aggressive. The conservatives united with the moderates, and Federico
Errázuriz, an astute politician, was chosen. This election practically
marks the elimination of the conservatives as an important element for
several presidential terms. It was not long after this election until
more radical elements controlled Congress, and Errázuriz sided with the
liberals in their program of reforms. The great issue was the amenability
of the clergy to the civil law. The anti-clerical party forced through
this law, and made concessions to Protestant worship. The requirement of
obligatory teaching of the Catholic religion in the public schools was
greatly modified. The Archbishop promptly excommunicated all who voted
for these laws, and the breach between the liberals and clericals was
further widened. The administration of President Errázuriz was marked
by considerable internal improvement and the beginning of a greater
navy, which was soon to be very useful. Political reforms went forward
with increasing momentum, but not without the usual results. As soon as
the liberals had things in their power, the various factions into which
they were divided began to intrigue among themselves for congressional
majorities. Material prosperity had continued until the great world panic
of 1873. The government customs fell and financial troubles followed, but
the debt was successfully refunded. One of the most remarkable features
of this administration was that the same Prime Minister held his office
during the entire term of four years without interruption.

The election of 1876 brought out several candidates. In former years the
retiring President had practically selected his successor. More liberal
ideas now prevailed, and the Chileans were called upon to decide for
themselves who should be their chief magistrate. There were three active
candidates, among whom was Señor Anibal Pinto, who was nominated by the
moderates and elected. President Pinto was a man of studious habits and
a strong advocate of peaceful measures. And yet this man of peace was
called upon to preside over the nation during one of its most severe
trials. Never did he falter, even when war became necessary, and never
did he waver in his determination to protect Chilean interests.

The dispute with Argentina over the southern boundary had by this time
become acute. Public feeling in both republics had reached such a stage
that peace was threatened. A previous treaty had declared that the
boundary should be the same as in colonial times. This was hazy and
uncertain, because that section had been and still was uninhabited. No
one had ever been concerned about it. Chile had always claimed the Andes
to the east and Cape Horn to the south. Punta Arenas had been founded
thirty-five years previously without serious opposition from Argentina.
For years this controversy continued between the two countries, but
impending war with Peru hastened a treaty. The territorial limitations
were finally decided upon and Chile practically got all that she had
contended for. Chile obtained practical control of both ends of the
Straits, although the channel was declared neutral and neither nation can
erect any fortifications along it.

A severe economic crisis, due to the depression in the mining industry,
also disturbed this administration, but this situation was met as well
as it could be. But all the troubles of President Pinto pale before the
sanguinary war conducted against the combined forces of Peru and Bolivia,
in which the lives of twenty thousand of his subjects were sacrificed.




CHAPTER XV

THE NITRATE WAR


The early Spaniards were very little interested in geography, and the
boundaries between the provinces were often very vaguely described. Since
the independence of the various provinces these boundary lines have been
the cause of many disputes, and, in many instances, have nearly plunged
neighbouring republics into bloody war. The most serious dispute still
unsettled is between Peru and Ecuador, which involves a large part of the
territory of the latter republic.

The older readers will remember that, when they studied geography,
Bolivia had a stretch of sea coast along the desert of Atacama. For a
considerable time after independence was secured little attention was
paid to Atacama, since it was regarded as worthless for colonization.
Chile claimed sovereignty, and its jurisdiction was generally recognized.
The year 1840 brought a change. In that year the wealth of fertilizer
along that coast began to be exploited. Disputes soon arose between Chile
and Bolivia as to the boundary line. The various claims made by Bolivia
were inconsistent. War threatened, and diplomatic relations between the
two countries were broken off. The outbreak of hostilities between Spain
and Peru united the two countries against what they considered a common
enemy. A treaty was drawn up in 1866 by which the 24th degree of south
latitude was agreed upon as the actual boundary, although the Chileans
were allowed to continue their operations in the nitrate regions beyond
that line. Furthermore, Chile was to pay over to Bolivia half the customs
received between the 24th and 25th degrees, and Bolivia was to hand over
to Chile half the customs received between the 23rd and 24th degrees,
south latitude. It was also provided that neither party to the treaty
could alienate its rights to a foreign government.

[Illustration: DIGGING NITRATE.]

This treaty gave rise to continual disputes. Chile regarded this
settlement as a final solution of the dispute, but Bolivia refused or
neglected to live up to her part of the agreement. By a later treaty
Chile renounced her claims between these two degrees, with the agreement
on the part of Bolivia that the export duties on mineral products from
that zone should not be increased, and that Chilean industries and
citizens should not be subjected to higher taxes than then prevailed.
This treaty was to remain in force for twenty-five years. The capital
invested in that zone was almost exclusively Chilean, and the labourers
employed were also of that nationality. Peru had large interests in the
nitrate industry and began to intrigue with Bolivia, in order to prevent
a ruinous competition in the market. So long as Chilean enterprise was
left free this monopoly was impossible. As the interests of Peru and
Bolivia were opposed to those of Chile, these two republics, in 1872,
entered into a secret treaty of alliance. Like many state secrets this
one became public, and Chile began to prepare for a conflict, which
seemed impending, by purchasing ironclads and in other ways strengthening
her navy.

In 1870 a revolution occurred in Bolivia, and a new government came
into power which refused to carry out the provisions of the last treaty
entered into with Chile. It, furthermore, at the alleged suggestion
of Peru, attempted to increase the taxes upon all nitrate exports,
in absolute violation of its treaty obligations. The manager of a
Chilean company was imprisoned, and the property was confiscated on his
refusal to pay the enhanced tax. Chile issued an ultimatum through her
diplomatic representative. Upon the refusal of the Bolivian government
to recede, Chile landed troops at Antofagasta and took possession of
that city. Bolivia declared war against Chile on the 1st of March, 1879,
and, because Peru refused to abrogate the secret treaty between it and
Bolivia, Chile declared war against Peru the following month. Most
writers lay the blame for the war entirely upon the aggressiveness and
covetousness of Chile, but a careful study of the situation shows great
moderation on the part of Chile for a long period of time.

It was generally believed that the Peruvian navy was far superior to that
of Chile, but, as a matter of fact, they were pretty evenly matched. For
several years Chile had steadily strengthened her naval forces. Peru
had suffered from internal dissensions and corrupt administrations, and
was ill prepared for war. Bolivia was in still worse condition. At the
time of the outbreak of hostilities the only available arms were fifteen
hundred Remington rifles, and the stock of ammunition was small; the rest
of the army was equipped with old flint-lock muskets. The bulk of both
the Peruvian and Bolivian armies were Indians. The Chilean army was not
large at the time of the declaration of war, but its personnel, man for
man, was far superior to either of its adversaries. The Chileans were
likewise prompt and energetic in their preparations for war. The land
forces were increased, and both naval and army supplies were accumulated
at strategic points. Because of the long stretch of sea coast it was
inevitable that the navies of the two countries would bear the brunt of
the fighting, as subsequent events proved.

The naval war was opened with the blockade of Iquique by the Chileans.
With Iquique as a rendezvous the Chilean navy visited various ports, and
inflicted serious damage to commercial interests. The aim was to deprive
Peru of her main source of revenue. Peru had an intrepid and doughty
admiral by the name of Grau, who commanded the Peruvian fleet, of which
the _Huascar_ was the flagship. While the main part of the Chilean navy
was away from Iquique, two Peruvian boats appeared in that harbour. The
_Huascar_ rammed and sank the _Esmeralda_, one of the best of the Chilean
ships, after four hours of heavy firing. It was at this fight that Arturo
Prat, who was in command of the _Esmeralda_, made a hero of himself by
leaping upon the deck of the _Huascar_. “Follow me,” said this brave
officer, as he boarded the _Huascar_, sword in hand. The ships, however,
separated so quickly that only one man was able to follow him. Prat
rushed along the deck of the ship as though he himself had captured it.
“Surrender, Captain,” said Admiral Grau, “we wish to save the life of a
hero.” Prat refused, and was soon cut down while still fighting with his
sword. The _Esmeralda_ sank with colours flying, and only fifty out of a
crew of two hundred were saved. Before the conflict ended, however, Peru
also lost one vessel, the _Independencia_, which ran upon the rocks while
pursuing the Chilean _Covadonga_.

For four months Admiral Grau traversed the Pacific coast from Arica to
Valparaiso. He prevented the transport of the Chilean army northward.
Discontent grew rapidly. The Chileans decided that they could do nothing
until they rid themselves of this doughty seaman. Their navy was divided
into two squadrons, both of which began patrolling the coast. The
_Huascar_ was accompanied by the Bolivian _Union_. These two vessels
were cruising together near Antofagasta on October 8th, 1879. When the
mist, which had been thick, lifted, they made out three distinct clouds
of smoke toward the northeast. These were soon recognized as one of
the Chilean squadrons. Admiral Grau fled, but soon ran into the other
squadron approaching him from the direction in which he was fleeing. The
Admiral at once decided that the only thing to do was to close with the
_Cochrane_ before the other boats could come up, and steamed straight
for that boat. None of the shots of either boat were effective until
they were in close quarters, when a chance shot disabled the _Huascar’s_
turret. Grau tried to ram the _Cochrane_, but the latter was too quick
for her. By this time the Chilean _Blanco_ had come up and added her
shots to those of her sister boat. A shot struck the conning-tower, in
which the Admiral was stationed, and blew that commander into atoms. A
little later the second officer, and then the next one in seniority, were
killed, which demoralized the Peruvian crew. One-third of the officers
and men had been either killed or wounded when the vessel was finally
surrendered. This fight is interesting not only because it was one of the
deciding events of the war, but it was the first fight between modern
ironclads. The entire engagement lasted but little over an hour. After
repairs the _Huascar_ was incorporated into the Chilean navy.

The capture of the _Huascar_ gave the Chileans the absolute command of
the sea, and enabled them to land an army wherever they pleased along
the coast. Nor did the Chileans delay their onward march. A Chilean army
of ten thousand men, well-equipped, had been landed at Antofagasta, and
other regiments were in Valparaiso ready to embark as occasion arose. On
the 28th of October this army was embarked on fifteen transports convoyed
by four men-of-war. The destination was kept a profound secret, but a
few days later they steamed into the harbour of Pisagua. A small force
of Bolivians defended this port, but they were unable to prevent the
landing of the Chilean troops. A brief skirmish ensued but the Bolivians
were soon in retreat. The allied forces of Peruvians and Bolivians had an
army of some nineteen thousand men at Iquique. These men were marched
out to meet the invaders. The march of these forces across the desert
regions was difficult because of the lack of provisions, and especially
the scant supply of water, from which the troops greatly suffered in many
instances. The Chileans had established themselves at Dolores and San
Francisco, where there was an abundant supply of fresh water.

The majority of the allied armies were Inca and Aymara Indians. They had
generally been recruited by force. Villages would be surrounded, and
all the men that could be caught were impressed into the ranks. They
were generally obedient and brave, and were capable of enduring hunger,
thirst and fatigue such as would have overwhelmed white troops. They were
unequalled in their capacity to make long marches with scant supplies of
food and water. In no other way could the Chileans have been withstood.
The wives of many accompanied them. These women are called _rabonas_,
and were regularly recognized. As soon as a halt was made these women
immediately busied themselves in preparing the food. After the battles
they ministered to the wounded. Callous to all danger hundreds of these
faithful helpmates met death on the field of carnage.

The first battle occurred at San Francisco and Porvenir. The vanguard
of the allies was made up of Indians from the Lake Titicaca district.
They were led by the brave Colonel Espinar. As these forces led a charge
against the Chilean guns a bullet pierced his forehead, and he fell
mortally wounded. A cry of grief and horror fell from his countrymen and
their courage failed. Disputing every inch of ground they fell back to
the main body of troops. The battle so gallantly fought resulted in a
decisive victory for the Chileans.

General Buendia, commander of the allied forces, retreated to the village
of Tarapacá, which was a collection of mud huts. It is situated in a
narrow but fertile valley not to exceed six hundred yards in width,
and he there awaited the attack which he knew was soon to follow. With
practically no cavalry and a dozen antiquated field-guns the prospect
was not alluring. The odds seemed hopeless. He was not kept long in
suspense. A force under Colonel Arteaga consisting of picked men, cavalry
and artillery soon appeared. The aim was the complete destruction of
the allied army. For this purpose the force had been divided into three
divisions.

A mist hung over the little valley while the Peruvian army rested with
stacked arms. Suddenly a muleteer galloped up to the commander and
reported the enemy approaching. Then two others reported the other
divisions. It looked as though they were being surrounded and caught in a
trap. Then came the call to arms. The men responded and advanced up the
bluffs against a withering fire. The stoical Indians saw their leaders
fall, but they set their teeth and continued the advance. The Chileans at
last found their equals. The allied forces were embarrassed by a lack of
artillery, but fought desperately. Many were the deeds of heroism of that
day. After a few hours of fighting they captured some guns from the enemy
and used them to good advantage. The result of the battle was a decided
victory for the allies, their only real victory of the war on land. San
Francisco was atoned for, and the loss of the _Huascar_ avenged. The
total loss was twelve hundred men, about equally divided. The allies
nevertheless retreated across the desert to Tacna, as it was impossible
to maintain an army in the interior and they were not strong enough to
recapture Iquique. In this way General Buendia saved the flower of his
army. In several battles of this campaign several thousand troops were
lost on each side, but, as a result, the Chileans came into control of
all of the nitrate country. Several months later Tacna was captured, and,
with the battle of Arica, which has heretofore been described, all of
present-day Chile was in control of the victors.

The disasters to the armies of the allies caused revolutions in both
Peru and Bolivia, and the President of each of those countries fled to
Europe. Armed revolts arose and fighting took place in the streets of
Lima. The position of Peru was desperate. With her navy destroyed Peru
could no longer defend herself against the aggressions of the enemy on
the sea. The Chileans blockaded Callao, and a marauding expedition under
Captain Lynch bombarded a number of coast towns. Captain Lynch had been
ordered to ravage the whole coast north of Callao, and he executed his
instructions to the letter, destroying government and private property
in every direction. Several Chilean boats were sunk in the harbour of
Callao through ingenious schemes of the Peruvians. On one occasion the
Chileans saw a boat loaded with fresh provisions. They began to transfer
these supplies to the _Loa_. As the last of the cargo was being hoisted
aboard, a terrific explosion occurred that sank the _Loa_. It was no
doubt due to an infernal machine that had been placed in the bottom. The
_Covadonga_ was destroyed by a similar explosion on a small boat captured
in the harbour by the Chileans.

The United States offered its mediation in October, 1880, and
commissioners of the three countries met on board the corvette
_Lackawanna_ of the United States navy, in the harbour of Arica. The
first meeting took place on the 22nd of October, when the American
minister took the chair and announced the purpose of the convention.
He added that the American representatives would take no part in the
discussion, but would be glad to help with friendly suggestions. The
Chilean commissioners presented a memorandum of their demands, which
was in substance what was eventually granted, but the Peruvians refused
such hard terms, thinking that foreign intervention would save them.
Chile absolutely refused arbitration or a full war indemnity, and the
convention broke up without any progress having been made towards peace.

The delay of a few months in the progress of the war had enraged the
volatile Chileans, and those in charge of the war finally decided that
it would be necessary to capture Lima. An expeditionary force of thirty
thousand men of all arms was organized, transports were purchased and
the resources of the country were taxed to the utmost to carry on this
expedition. The army was formed into three divisions, one of which, under
Captain Patrick Lynch, was ordered to land at Pisco. A second division
was instructed to disembark at Curayaco Bay, which was one hundred miles
nearer the capital than Pisco. The first division was ordered to march by
land northward to join the second division in the final attack upon the
capital.

At Lima all was confusion as the news of the actual advance of the
Chileans towards the capital reached that city. “The City of the Kings,”
as Pizarro had named it, the wealthy and prosperous capital of modern
Peru, was now threatened with all the horrors of war. The population
of the city at that time has been estimated at one hundred thousand
souls, of whom at least fifteen thousand were foreigners. The inhabitants
were pleasure-loving, and there was a very large irresponsible element,
composed in part of negroes and Indians, that meant trouble in those
dark days. The flower of the Peruvian army had been destroyed. Thousands
rested on the deserts of Tarapacá, and the sand hills of Tacna and Arica.
Those seasoned troops that were in the city had become more or less
disorganized. A decree was issued ordering every male resident in Lima
between the ages of sixteen and sixty, of whatever trade, profession and
calling, to join the army. Gay and thoughtless youths, students, idlers
and the vicious were all brought together in the ranks under this order.
It is easy to make such decrees, but a decree does not make an army. It
takes months to create an efficient fighting force. However brave these
Peruvians might be, they were not trained in military service, and they
lacked the qualities of the seasoned soldiers of the Chilean army. From
three to six in the afternoon all business was suspended by Presidential
decree, and these drafted troops were drilled. The call to arms was made
by the tolling of the bell in the great cathedral. The artillery was
inferior, and it could not compete with the Krupp and Armstrong guns with
which the invaders were provided.

Nicolas de Pierola, who was at the head of the army, with the title of
Supreme Chief, realized the danger, and strove in the best way possible
to prepare for it. At a meeting of all the generals and naval officers,
plans were evolved to protect the city. As soon as it became known that
the invading army had landed to the south of Lima the preparations were
devoted to protecting the city from that direction. As the time was short
it was not possible to prepare extensive fortifications. A chain of
sandhills, which ran through Chorrillos, about ten miles from the city to
the south, was chosen as the first line of defense. These hills formed
a sort of natural barrier, and breastworks were thrown up at various
places along them, and these newly-recruited and hastily-drilled troops
were stationed along this first line of defense, which was at least six
miles long. A second line of defense just outside Miraflores, and four
miles nearer the capital, was established, and thousands of these troops
were stationed there. The time was too short to create very formidable
fortifications.

The first division of the Chilean army landed at Pisco on the 13th
of December, and immediately began its march overland. Villages and
plantations were destroyed along the route, and the record of Captain
Lynch is a rather cruel one. On the 25th a junction of the two divisions
was made at Curayaco. These two bodies proceeded to Lurin, a small
village lying in a beautiful little valley, and remained there about
three weeks, while making their final preparations for the capture of the
capital. This time was spent in reconnoitering and collecting provisions
for the final campaign. The Chilean army at this time consisted of an
effective force of twenty-six thousand men, with seventy long range field
guns, and a considerable body of cavalry. Most of these troops were
thoroughly disciplined men, who had had experience in previous campaigns.
They were under the command of General Baquedano, who had made a record
for himself in this war.

The battle of Chorrillos began at dawn on the morning of the 13th of
January, 1881. The Peruvians were taken by surprise, but resisted
bravely. It was not long, however, until their right flank was driven
back, and then various other points of defense were carried at the point
of the bayonet. The Chilean cavalry completed the victory by pursuing and
cutting down fugitives in every direction, until the plains for several
miles were covered with the dead bodies of the Peruvians. The Peruvians
fell back in more or less disorder to the second line of defense,
which was only six miles distant from the city itself. An armistice
was arranged by the diplomatic corps at Lima on the 15th, in the hope
of preventing any more bloodshed and averting the horrors of a battle
just outside the capital. This was done at the request of the Peruvian
commander-in-chief, and the Chilean general agreed that it should last
until midnight of the 15th. Through some misunderstanding some shots
were exchanged, and each party believed that the other had violated its
agreement, so that the battle of Miraflores was fought on that date.
The defense of the Peruvians was brave, as they were fighting for their
homes and the city which all of them loved. The battle extended over the
entire line of the second defense, which was not less than four miles.
The battle began early in the afternoon, and a number of warships in the
harbour near there assisted in the assault by firing their long range
guns. The ammunition of the defenders ran low and the defense began to
weaken. The Chileans made a bayonet charge, and one breastwork after
another was captured. For almost four hours the defense was maintained,
but at the end of that time the Chileans were victors. The village of
Miraflores was burned; the pleasant country homes surrounding it were
sacked, the crops destroyed and the work of devastation was terrible. On
the 16th, Lima was surrendered to the Chilean general by the Municipal
Alcalde, and possession was to be given on the following day. The
intervening night was a night of terror, and, had it not been for the
voluntary service of the foreign colony, the whole city might have been
sacked by the disorderly elements in it.

The Chilean commander entered Lima on the 16th and established himself in
the palace. He immediately took possession of the revenues, policed the
city, and endeavoured to restore peaceful conditions to such an extent
as they could be under a military government by a hated foe. A million
pesos a month was levied upon the citizens, and they were required to
meet it. The conduct of the Chileans was reprehensible in that they
became vandals. A great part of the valuable library, filled with almost
priceless volumes, was looted and some of it sold as junk on the streets.
Pictures and statues were removed and taken to Chile, where they may
still be seen. The Chileans, coming from the same stock and claiming
allegiance to the same church, did not seem to have any consideration for
a fallen foe.

Before a treaty could be entered into it was necessary to have a
government established with which to treat. Several attempts were made,
but no one could be found who dared sign a treaty that would permanently
alienate a portion of the country. The Chileans refused to treat with
Pierola, so that he resigned. Calderon assumed the presidency, but
the congress refused him authority to alienate any territory. Admiral
Montero next attempted the seemingly impossible and failed. At length
General Iglesias called a convention of his compatriots in the northern
districts, and it was decided to adopt measures that would secure
the speedy retirement of the Chileans, no matter at what sacrifice.
He declared himself President, and his pretensions were supported
by the Chileans. A treaty was arranged with Chile, which was signed
provisionally on the 23rd of October, 1883, and is known as the Treaty of
Ancon. Five days later the Peruvian flag was again hoisted in Lima, and
the Chileans left the country. It was a number of years later before a
treaty of peace was arranged with Bolivia, although no further fighting
took place.

It is quite possible that the last word has not yet been spoken in the
nitrate controversy between Chile and Peru. The feeling of Peruvians
toward their late foe is intensely bitter. They all look forward to
another day of war, and predict that Peru will retake from Chile all that
she has lost. If some ambitious leader should arise in Peru and secure
the presidency, another war might easily follow. At the present time
Peru’s finances would not warrant such a step. It is to be hoped that
both nations will seriously consider the ultimate consequences of war,
and make unnecessary the reference of mooted questions to the arbitrament
of the field of battle.




CHAPTER XVI

CIVIL WAR AND ITS RESULTS


The successful conclusion of the war with Peru and Bolivia began a new
era in Chile. The control of the nitrate fields meant an immense revenue
for the government, and everyone wanted a chance to reap some profit.
Politics absorbed the public attention, and the holding of office became
the most popular occupation. Material prosperity followed. The Chileans
believed themselves invincible on land and sea. With outside troubles
settled for the time being internal dissensions arose, and the fight
between the clergy and the anti-clericals broke out with renewed energy.
The time seemed ripe for the settlement of disturbing questions arising
out of the union of church and state.

A new presidential election became necessary soon after the capture of
Lima, and while the victorious troops were still in possession of that
city. Through the influence of President Pinto, Don Domingo Santa Maria
(which, in English, means Sunday Saint Mary) was chosen as his successor.
The opposition tried to centre on General Baquedano, the popular hero of
the recent war, but the prestige of the government was too powerful. He
was a liberal and had been banished for his opinions by President Montt.
The conservatives by this time were in a great minority. Santa Maria was
bitterly opposed to clerical influence in political affairs, and this led
to bitter opposition from that quarter. The President proclaimed that
the time had come for absolute liberty of conscience, civil marriage
and the secularization of the cemeteries. Heretofore the priests alone
had charge of the registers of births, deaths and marriages, were alone
able to perform marriages, and in the cemeteries only those baptized
into the Roman Catholic church were permitted interment in consecrated
ground. All other political questions were held in abeyance during this
controversy, and feeling became intense. The President was obliged to
use all his official prestige in order to secure a majority in Congress,
but he succeeded in passing a law requiring civil marriage, freeing the
cemeteries and establishing a special official for the registration of
births, deaths and marriages. These were, indeed, valuable reforms, and
reflect credit on the administration of Santa Maria. Serious disorders
resulted as the 1886 election approached, in which several persons lost
their lives. Several men had the presidential bee in their bonnets
and were backed by an active following. Nevertheless, in spite of all
opposition, Santa Maria’s chief cabinet officer, and the man who had been
most active in carrying out his program, Balmaceda, was chosen to succeed
his chief, through the active aid of the administration and its official
influence.

Since the close of the war with Peru, the most noted name in Chilean
history is that of José Manuel Balmaceda. He was inaugurated President on
the 18th of September, 1886, and his term was destined to be marked by
stirring events. This man was, as a contemporary describes him, “about
fifty years of age, six feet in height, of spare build and broad sloping
forehead, with a good, humourous eye and wears generally on his face a
half-playful, half-cynical smile.” His opponents call him a tyrant, a
usurper and a dictator, but historians generally credit him with being a
man far ahead of his time.

The first position of prominence held by Balmaceda, except as a member
of Congress, was in the cabinet of President Santa Maria. Educated for
the priesthood, he had been saved from that career by the opposition
of his father, and later he became one of the most radical opponents
of the Church, and one of the leaders in the fight for the separation
of Church and State, which had been carried on during the term of his
predecessor. He had been one of the most active and influential advocates
of the radical programs of the _reformistas_. At the time of Balmaceda’s
election the country was divided into no less than six different parties,
ranging from the fiercest radicals to the most conservative churchmen.
The civil marriage law, which had been inaugurated during the term of
Santa Maria, as well as some other anti-church legislation, had aroused
the opposition of all the clergy. The priests went so far as to refuse to
perform a religious ceremony for any one who had been married by civil
officers, and had even excommunicated the President and his cabinet
who supported that measure. The women, who were especially under the
domination of the priests, used all of their influence in opposition to
the new marriage law. Nevertheless, with all of this opposition, ladies’
entreaties and priests’ absolution could not prevent the election of
Balmaceda, who was chosen by a coalition of the radical elements, even
though they were somewhat loosely cohered.

Balmaceda took the reins of government at an exceedingly unfortunate
period. I have already had occasion to state the predominating influence
of Congress in the government, and the possibilities it gave for an
obstinate Congress to embarrass the President. It had become one of
the unwritten laws that the resignation of a ministry should follow an
adverse vote on any measure. In other words a ministry could only hold
office when it represented a majority in Congress. As no power was given
the President to dissolve that body when an adverse majority existed, so
that an appeal might be made to the country, the President was greatly
hampered. The last year of Santa Maria’s administration had brought about
a serious condition of affairs. Violent scenes were enacted in Congress
in the fight between the supporters of the President and his opponents.
The revenue and appropriation bills had expired, and a filibuster on the
part of the opposition had prevented new ones from being enacted.

It was at this crisis that Balmaceda was inaugurated. He faced the
situation courageously, and proceeded to collect the taxes and pay the
expenses in accordance with the provisions of the expired law. This
situation was accepted by the country, for a prosperity had fallen
upon Chile such as the country had never known. In spite of reckless
expenditures the revenues from the nitrate fields, which had been taken
from Peru, mounted up so rapidly that the surplus soon reached immense
sums. Mining industries of all kinds were exceedingly flourishing.
Balmaceda, who was both clever and capable, as well as sincere, entered
upon a campaign to educate the people, and no less than fifteen hundred
public schools were established by him. Hospitals, health offices, fire
brigades and other progressive institutions were aided liberally. Many
public works, including railways and colonization schemes, were fostered,
salaries were raised, and the Araucanian Indians were admitted as
citizens of the republic. New election laws were passed, which had for
their purpose the development of real democratic government.

Nevertheless beneath the outward prosperity a smouldering fire was
burning. The slogan of Balmaceda “Chile for the Chileans” aroused the
opposition of foreign interests. The reduction of ecclesiastical fees
and stipends, and the enforcement of the civil marriage law, kept the
opposition of the clergy alive. The jealousy of the old families, who
had heretofore been supreme in the government, to the new democratic
measures advocated by Balmaceda were aroused. Furthermore the election
of Balmaceda was really not by a party, but the result of a temporary
coalition of three discordant elements. By 1889 Balmaceda had succeeded
in arousing the enmity of practically all the parties. The progressive
elements had split into nationals, liberals, dissentient-liberals and
radicals. Continual changes in his cabinet followed, and one group was
substituted for another every few months. It had been the ambition of
Balmaceda to unite all the liberal elements into one party, but in this
he had signally failed.

Balmaceda soon found himself without a majority in Congress, and with
no prospect of securing one. Heretofore a majority had sometimes been
acquired by the trading of votes among the different factions in exchange
for a share of patronage. Even this method no longer availed. The idea
gradually became prevalent that the President was plotting to build up
a strong personal following, in order to establish a dictatorship and
replace with it the power of Congress. Circumstances, as much as anything
else, practically forced Balmaceda into this position. He believed in
himself and his own motives, and the selfishness of the different liberal
groups irritated him. All of this turmoil was galling to a man of the
character of Balmaceda. Reformation of various evils was his aim, but he
found himself thwarted at every turn. He soon grasped the fact that if he
could control Congress, he could settle the vexed questions which, in his
opinion, retarded the development of his country. Furthermore, he gave a
wider interpretation to the constitution in relation to the powers of the
executive than did the legislative body.

Congress finally refused to pass appropriation bills or vote supplies for
the army, and, in retaliation, Balmaceda dissolved Congress, which he
claimed he had a right to do under the constitution of 1833. In January,
1890, he appointed a cabinet composed exclusively of personal followers,
and these new ministers announced that they would hold office so long
as they were satisfactory to the President, regardless of Congress.
A definite rupture was inevitable, for the breach had become so wide
that temporizing was impossible. Balmaceda must either resign or assume
dictatorial powers. He chose the latter.

The _Comision Conservada_, which safeguards the interests of Congress
when that body is not in session, demanded that that body be convoked.
Balmaceda ignored the request. A mass meeting in Santiago denounced the
President. The opposition finally became so bold that a _junta_ was
formed, of which Captain Jorge Montt, a naval officer, was the head. The
particular charges made by the revolutionists were that the President had
no right to maintain any military forces after the appropriations for its
support were exhausted. Balmaceda retaliated with a proclamation that he
would follow the precedent established when he came into office, would
collect taxes and maintain the public service by executive authority
until the assembling of the next Congress. He expressly disclaimed any
intention of establishing a dictatorship, but refused to allow Congress
to interfere with the executive functions of the government. As neither
party would recede actual war soon followed.

Through the influence of Captain Montt the entire navy, with the
exception of a couple of torpedo boats, adhered to the revolutionists.
On the night of January 6th, 1891, the Vice-President of the Senate
and the President of the Chamber of Deputies embarked on the _Blanco
Encalada_ with Captain Montt, and the revolution was begun. A cargo of
war material designed for the government was captured and the naval
stores at Talcahuana seized. On the 10th a skirmish occurred between the
shore batteries at Valparaiso and some boats of the navy, and in this
engagement the first blood in this civil war was shed. From this time
events moved forward with great rapidity. The majority of the aristocracy
espoused the cause of the revolutionists, and this move had great
influence. Although several attempts were made to produce mutiny among
the troops they remained loyal to Balmaceda.

The disaffection of the entire navy was both a surprise and
disappointment to Balmaceda, but he immediately placed the army on a war
footing and increased their pay. A reward of two years pay was offered
to the crew of any man-of-war if the vessel deserted the revolutionary
cause, but this inducement had no effect. Balmaceda placed the troops
in several parts of the country, where he thought they would be most
useful in defense. The natural conditions of Chile, however, hindered
him. As the revolutionists had control of the sea, it was impossible
for Balmaceda to relieve the small garrisons at Iquique, Antofagasta
and Pisagua, the nitrate ports. The revolutionists, after a few short
skirmishes, obtained possession of these places. Pisagua fell first,
and a couple of bloody battles were fought for its possession and then
recovery. The troops at Iquique were withdrawn to resist the land forces,
and marines were landed who captured it.

[Illustration: THE MILITARY BARRACKS, SANTIAGO.]

The congressionalists then established their headquarters at Iquique,
and took possession of the immense revenues derived from the export
of nitrate. With this cash they purchased the most modern arms and
equipments. Balmaceda, although having means, was unable to get
modern rifles, so that his troops were not so well armed as those of
the revolutionists. The two torpedo boats, which remained loyal to
the government succeeded in sinking the _Blanco Encalada_, and also
in doing other damage to the navy, but not enough to cripple its
effectiveness. Blockades of the ports cut off all of Balmaceda’s outside
supplies. Balmaceda attempted to purchase ironclads in Europe, but the
revolutionists outbid him and he was unable to build up a navy. The long
seacoast was also a disadvantage to him, since it was impossible for him
to transport his troops by water as the revolutionists could. It was not
many months until all the northern provinces were under the control of
the revolutionists, but no engagements had taken place in the central
or southern provinces. The revolutionists were encouraged by these
successes, and public opinion was undoubtedly changing because of the
high-handed and arbitrary methods of Balmaceda. Suspected persons were
arrested, and many of them executed without trial. The value of human
life seemed to sink into insignificance, and a reign almost of terror
followed. In one instance a guerilla band composed of young men, some of
whom were not more than sixteen years of age, and all belonging to the
best families in Santiago, were captured by the government force at a
farmhouse. Eight were shot at once and the others, after a court martial,
were sent back to the place where they were captured to be executed.
This led to a storm of execration against Balmaceda. Furthermore, he had
chosen Señor Claudio Vicuña as his successor, and the latter was declared
elected after a farcical contest in which no opposing candidate appeared.
The congressionalists decided to carry the war into the heart of the
enemy’s country, and a large army was embarked at the various northern
ports under their control.

On the 18th of August, 1891, the revolutionary fleet of seventeen vessels
suddenly appeared at Valparaiso with the entire revolutionary army,
consisting of a little less than ten thousand men, aboard. This force
was to oppose an army of forty thousand government forces. The former,
however, were volunteers, while the latter was known to contain large
numbers of disaffected ones. Two days later these troops were landed at
Quinteros, not far from Valparaiso, and near the mouth of the Aconcagua
River.

At this place the river flows through a flat valley, which is from six
hundred to eight hundred yards in width, and is bordered by lines of
hills from four hundred and fifty to six hundred feet in height. The
government forces numbering six thousand, three hundred and twenty-two
men, were located on the southern bank of the river at Concon, where
their line was about three miles in length. They were armed with old
rifles, while the troops of the revolutionists were provided with
Mannlicher rifles of the newest pattern. General Korner, who was in
charge of the congressists, did not hesitate before this formidable
position. He divided his forces into three parts. One forded the icy-cold
waters of the Aconcagua at Concon _bajo_ and attacked the flank of the
enemy. The second and third brigades engaged them from the opposite side
of the river, and then crossed the river higher up. The ships of the navy
also directed their fire against the Balmacedists. The battle was begun
on the morning of the 21st. The government troops ran short of ammunition
and began to give way. After four and one-half hours of fighting the
battle was won. Retreat soon turned into a rout, and the defeated forces
fled in every direction. The government loss was seventeen hundred killed
and wounded, and fifteen hundred men and all their artillery captured.
The revolutionists had only eight hundred and sixty-nine casualties. The
result was a decided victory for Balmaceda’s enemies.

Of the Balmacedist troops only two thousand could be mustered after
this disaster. But thousands of other troops were hurried to Valparaiso
before railroad communication was severed. A slight repulse was given
the congressists near Viña del Mar. The army then took a wide detour in
order to attack Valparaiso from the southeast. The government forces
took possession of the heights at Placilla and awaited the expected
battle. Each army at this time exceeded nine thousand men and were evenly
balanced. But the government forces were disheartened, even though they
occupied an exceptionally strong position. Their cavalry seems also to
have been untrustworthy, for they gave no intelligence of this expected
move of the enemy. No less than four hundred cavalrymen actually deserted
and joined the other army. The country through which the congressists
marched was broken, full of small streams and marshes. Hundreds of weary
stragglers slept out under the trees. They reached Las Cadenas on the
27th and rested during that night. Early on the morning of the following
day they started for the Balmacedist position on the heights, and this
seems to have been the first knowledge that army had of the presence of
the foe. The revolutionists began the engagement with artillery fire.
The advance was stubbornly resisted, but a bayonet charge carried an
outpost. A hand-to-hand conflict ensued until the defenders finally threw
down their arms. Generals Alcerrica and Barbosa fought valiantly until
killed. A horrible slaughter followed and the troops of Balmaceda fled
in all directions. The casualties on both sides were heavy. Although the
fighting only lasted four hours the government loss in killed and wounded
was three thousand, three hundred and sixty-three, and the victors lost
eighteen hundred. That same night Valparaiso was occupied, and a night
of carousal and lawlessness and bloodshed ensued. Houses were set on
fire, and ruffians shot at the firemen as they attempted to put out the
flames. The soldiers and mob seem to have been entirely beyond control.
The next morning four or five hundred dead bodies were found on the
streets.

[Illustration: CHILEAN SOLDIERS.]

This battle was the deciding point of the civil war. When the news
reached Valparaiso, Balmaceda realized it was useless to continue the
struggle. He decided to resign and turn his office over to General
Baquedano, a friend of the revolutionists. He issued a proclamation
beseeching the citizens to preserve order during the crisis, in order to
prevent bloodshed and plunder. On the 29th he turned the office over to
General Baquedano in a short and dignified speech. That day being his
wife’s saint day, the President had invited in several of his friends to
dine. Notwithstanding the changed conditions Balmaceda did not recall the
invitations, but acted during the whole evening as a generous host. As
soon as his visitors had left, he walked over to the Argentine legation
and took shelter. For several days the revolutionists believed that he
had escaped the country and fled in disguise. No one suspected that
the defeated President was at the house of the Argentine Minister, Mr.
Uriburu, afterwards president of Argentina. On the 18th of September,
the day upon which his legal term as president expired, the country was
shocked to hear that Balmaceda had shot himself that morning at the home
of his friend.

Balmaceda feared that his friends might be embarrassed by his presence,
and he furthermore believed that his own death would make easier the
position of those who had supported him during the trying times of the
civil war. It is quite probable, also, that his pride could not brook
the idea of a public trial and the humiliation necessarily attending it.
To die, also, was to pose in a sense as a martyr. “I could escape,” he
said in a letter to his brother, “but I would never run the risk of the
ridicule any disaster to such an attempt would entail, and which would
be the beginning of vexatious humiliation that I could not endure for
myself or my family.” It was, indeed, a tragic end, and was done in a
more or less tragical way, as he believed that he thus offered himself as
an expiatory sacrifice. He left a message for his friends, which might
be called his political testament, in which were these words: “Whenever
you and the friends remember me, believe me that my spirit, full of the
tenderest love, will be amongst you.” General Baquedano ruled the country
for three days until the revolutionary _junta_ reached Santiago, when
he relinquished his authority to them. A short time later at a special
election Jorge Montt was chosen as Balmaceda’s successor, although Vicuña
had previously been selected by the following of the deceased executive.
As was to be expected, after such a desperate struggle, Congress was
composed of members having a common political platform. It had been
decided that the executive should be advised by and rule in harmony with
the legislative majority. President Montt accepted the situation and
appointed a cabinet acceptable to the majority.

Confidence was soon restored and business quickly adjusted itself. The
new President proved to be conservative and non-aggressive. The country
was in a bad financial condition, but the nitrate revenues were large.
The Balmacedists were gradually brought under amnesty laws, until
all were finally permitted to return to Chile. Having been a sailor
President Montt took steps to build up a stronger navy, in order to
be ready for impending trouble with Argentina. For two years the new
administration kept a majority, but a new election gave the Balmacedists
the balance of power amidst the warring factions. Montt soon began
to experience the same trouble as his predecessors. No party had a
majority, and by new combinations of factions the dominating groups
were changed. A new cabinet became necessary every few weeks, and no
definite policy or program was possible. On the whole this administration
was very satisfactory in view of the difficulties under which it
laboured. Agricultural and mining depression further embarrassed his
administration, but for these no government could be held responsible.
President Montt retired from office with the respect of all.

At the election in 1896 Señor Federico Errázuriz, son of a former
president of the same name, was elected over his opponent by a majority
of one. The new congressional elections still further complicated
matters. The liberal groups became more divided than ever. Cabinet
crises grew even more frequent, and it was only when Congress was not
in session that a ministry could remain in power any length of time.
The result was an absolute confusion in legislation. The most serious
foreign question was the dispute with Argentina. Excitement in both
countries ran high. Warlike speeches were made, and the public mind was
unduly excited. Preparations were made for the mobilization of an army of
fifty thousand men, and a declaration of war was expected almost daily.
President Errázuriz finally took the matter upon himself and asked that
the matter be submitted to arbitration. Argentina at last consented.
The northern part was to be decided by the representative of the United
States in Argentina, Mr. W. I. Buchanan, and the southern section by
Queen Victoria, of England. If Errázuriz had done nothing else during his
term of office this one act places the whole country greatly in his debt.
President Errázuriz died just before his term of office ended, and the
duties of the office were filled by the Minister of the Interior, Señor
Zañartú, until the inauguration of his successor.

Señor Jerman Riesco was chosen president for the term beginning November
18th, 1901. The same confusion continued during the greater part of his
term, so that much useful legislation was rendered impossible. It was not
possible for the executive to select a cabinet that would be responsive
to his will, but he was obliged to take one selected for him by the
legislative body. As President Balmaceda said: “Only in the organization
of a popular representative government with independent and responsible
powers, and easy means to make that responsibility effective, will there
be parties of a national character, derived from the will of the people
and ensuing harmony between the different powers of the state.” The
several presidents since Balmaceda have realized this condition, but the
serious lesson of the civil war has prevented any radical step being
taken by the occupant of that office.

At the election in 1906, Pedro Montt, son of Manuel Montt, was elected
to the office of President of Chile. President Montt had served his
country in many ways, having been a member of Congress for a long time,
had held positions in several cabinets, and had also represented Chile
as minister to the United States. Owing to his dark complexion Montt was
once taken for a negro in Washington and refused admission to a hotel.
He proved to be a conservative and able president, who had at heart the
best interests of his country. On few occasions, however, did he have the
legislative body with him, and many of his good projects failed. He had
ability, tact and honesty of purpose, but met the same obstacles as his
predecessors. In July, 1910, President Montt visited the United States.
He spent a few days in this country while on his way to Europe to secure
medical attention, and was shown numerous official courtesies. He was
a spectator of the shooting of Mayor Gaynor on board a steamer in New
York harbour. Soon after reaching Europe President Montt was attacked by
heart failure, and died in Bremen, Germany, on the 16th day of August,
1910. Señor Elias Fernandez Albano, Minister of the Interior, assumed the
office of executive on the death of President Montt. In poor health at
the time Acting-President Albano survived less than one month after his
inauguration, and died on the 7th of September.

On the 15th of November, 1910, Dr. Ramon Barros Luco was elected
President of Chile, and assumed office on the 23rd of December, 1910.
Dr. Luco was born in 1835, and has had a long and honourable career in
politics. He held the office of Minister of Finance and Minister of
the Interior under several different administrations. He has also been
President of the Senate, and has filled numerous other responsible
positions. He now has the opportunity to round out a long life, which has
already passed the scriptural limit, with the highest office in the gift
of his countrymen.




CHAPTER XVII

PRESENT CONDITIONS AND FUTURE POSSIBILITIES


Nitrates have heretofore formed the chief wealth of Chile, and will
continue to do so for some time in the future. But agricultural and
industrial development will eventually overshadow all else—even the
saltpetre deposits. The great central valley will be the chief centre of
a permanent and growing population. In this region all kinds of farming,
fruit-growing and stock-raising, flourish. Temperate and semi-tropical
products grow, for the orange and the grape, the pear and the apple
are found side by side. It not only grows enough for home consumption,
but large quantities of grain are exported. The raising of live stock,
especially cattle and hogs, is continually on the increase. Agriculture
in this valley is susceptible of very great expansion. The proprietors
of the large _haciendas_ are satisfied with comparatively small returns
from their lands, and this fact retards the development through its lack
of encouragement to the small farmer. There is no doubt that small farms
would add greatly to the production of this fertile valley, because the
effectiveness of each acre would be increased. More than sixty thousand
acres are set out in grapes alone. The beet root has been introduced and
is said to grow very well.

Then come the forest lands of the southern provinces, which must
certainly prove a source of great natural riches in the not distant
future. Tierra del Fuego promises great things in the way of
sheep-raising. Sheep grow an especially fine quality of silky wool there,
which brings a good price in the market. There are already several
million head of sheep in that district.

Chile still has a wealth of undiscovered mineral treasures within her
boundaries. The labour, transportation and fuel problem have heretofore
been the drawbacks, as well as isolation from the world’s consumption.
In the northern part of the republic, at the coast ports, coal costs
almost ten dollars per ton, a price that does not stimulate its use. In
the interior it is still higher because of the cost of transportation.
The government has enacted very favourable mining laws. A discoverer
of a new claim is entitled to fifteen hectares, or about thirty-six
acres. An ordinary mining claim is only one-third as large. No person can
file more than one claim at a time in a district, but other names are
oftentimes substituted in order to group claims together. Development of
a claim is not compulsory, and the tax upon undeveloped claims is very
low, so that it is not a burdensome proposition to hold a claim as long
as the law allows. Many wildcat companies have been organized in Chile,
as elsewhere, and there has been much speculation in these stocks. It is
not difficult to interest the Latin people in any form of gambling or
speculation.

Chile promises great development in manufacturing. In fact, Chile is more
likely to become a commercial nation than any republic of South America.
There are already more than eight thousand industrial establishments of
all kinds. Tanning of leather, making of shoes, refining of chemical
products, woollen and cotton mills, etc., are included in these. The
government policy has been one of protection and, in some instances, of
actual bounties. Sugar refineries have thus been built up which refine
the raw product imported from Peru. They now grind much of their own
wheat. Some of the railway equipment used on the national railroads is
made in the country. The roto seems to make a competent workman in the
factories. The coal mines and prevalence of water power almost everywhere
gives Chile a great advantage over her neighbour, Argentina, in the way
of manufacturing advantages.

Although the operation of the national railways has been unprofitable,
and permeated with gross mismanagement and graft, yet the dogged
persistence with which the parallel iron rails have been spread over
the country has been most commendable. The longitudinal railway has
been pushed little by little each year, and sometimes at the expense of
national sacrifice. The first transandine railway is now an accomplished
fact, and another route now occupies national attention. After the
settlement of the boundary question with Argentina, the vast sums that
had been expended annually in preparing for war were diverted to internal
development. The beneficial results can easily be traced in both cities
and country. The fearful earthquake of 1906 caused a severe back-set, as
the government was obliged to step in and aid in the rebuilding of its
principal port, Valparaiso.

[Illustration: A MARKET SCENE, VALPARAISO.]

The government in Chile is rather different from that of most of the
Latin-American countries. In form it is like unto that of the United
States; in fact, it is a government of a few of the leading families. In
theory the President is the executive head; in practice, that official is
very much of a cipher. Absolute powers for the executive, that prevailed
for the first half century of the republic, have been abolished, and
Congress is now the real ruling power. Whether the country is ruled or
misruled the blame must be placed on that body, for its authority is
very broad. In it a small group of families, generally said to be one
hundred, always predominate. Among these will be some who have become
rich through banking or commercial development, but most of them are
landowners in families that have been prominent for generations. All
the honours and emoluments are kept within this small circle. To it may
be added the power of the Church, for that organization has been most
powerful in political matters. It has been in times past simply a part
of the political system. In recent years the government has insisted on
the right to name the Archbishop, and Rome has been practically forced to
concede this privilege. As a rule the influence of the Church has been in
favour of what might be termed the reactionary element.

As has been stated elsewhere the President is assisted by a body of
advisors, the majority of whom are chosen by the parliamentary body.
This has led to frequent and oftentimes ridiculous ministerial crises.
These numerous cabinet changes embarrass an executive in whatever
policy he may be trying to develop. But he is helpless under the theory
of parliamentary government that has grown up. Whenever the President
proposes a certain cabinet, he is met by a counter proposition from
some group or other in the legislative bodies. Sometimes he may gain
a little temporary majority by a coalition or fusion of some of the
groups represented in Congress. Selfish interests or jealousies,
however, soon break the union. It is at times embarrassing to diplomatic
representatives, for no sooner have they completed negotiations with one
cabinet official than he is succeeded by another. No vice-president
is elected, the executive office, if vacated by death or resignation,
is filled temporarily by the Minister of the Interior, who is usually
a member either of the Senate or House of Deputies. The Congress will
then select a new executive. A change in this system, which would make
the executive more independent, and provision for a different succession
might work marvels. This was the trouble with that able and progressive
President, Balmaceda. To carry out his beneficial policies he defied
Congress, and a bloody civil war followed.

Politics in Chile seem very much complicated and confused to an
American. Instead of two or three parties, the small voting population
of the country are divided into no less than seven or eight, with
other combinations under new names appearing every year or two. At
the present time one can distinguish the following: Conservadores,
Liberales, Radicales, Democratas, Balmacedistas, Montinos and
Liberales-Democraticos. Of these the most extreme are probably the
Radicales, who occupy about the same position in Chile that the
Socialists do in our own country. At least they contest for that position
with the Liberales, who claim to be the most radical of any of the
political parties in Chile.

The Conservadores are the old church party, and are made up of the
wealthy land owners, and those who have grown rich in mines, railroads,
etc. This party was formerly the strongest political organization, and
ruled the country for a long period; but, within the last two decades,
it has greatly lost its grip, and the only way in which it cuts much
of a figure in the government is when it enters into combinations
occasionally with some of the stronger elements. The Democratas are made
up principally of the labouring classes, who loudly proclaim what they
will do for the downtrodden labouring man, and they are blamed for the
strikes and riots in recent years. The Liberales-Democratas are, as the
name indicates, in a midway position between the two parties after whom
they are named.

The Balmacedistas are those who stand for the things that Balmaceda stood
for; that is, for an enlarged power in the executive. This party, it
seems to me, is bound to grow because every president is confronted with
the domination of the legislative body. The Montistos are made up of the
followers of the Montt family, who have been prominent in the country
since the downfall of Balmaceda. They include those who favour the rule
of the country by Congress.

Politics are no doubt more or less corrupt in Chile, as in many other
countries. In this respect the country is neither unique nor original. If
one was to believe the statements made in opposition press, just as if
one was to believe all such statements made in the sensational “yellow”
press of our own country, you would think the entire government was
rotten from President down to the lower officials. Free speech and a free
press run riot in Chile. There is an inclination to make wild charges,
and editorial writers certainly say more than they actually mean.

Elections are oftentimes almost farcical. Nominations for Congress are
made very much as with us. Candidates are named, and a campaign is
carried on by means of meetings, placards and newspapers. Manifestos
and appeals to voters are issued by the various candidates and their
supporters. The side that gets control of the election machinery,
however, is in a much better position than the one that merely has the
votes. They are then counted as the ones in charge desire, and this
method is considered proper and legitimate by all parties. Bi-partisan
boards and an Australian ballot system are unheard of and unthought—and,
furthermore, an undesired innovation. What is the use of having the
election machinery in your control and not using it for your candidate?
This is the average Chilean view of the subject, and the losers usually
acquiesce more or less good naturedly. In this respect the situation is
very similar in all the republics south of the Rio Grande River.

In business deals the Chilean is about as honest and reliable as in other
countries. Many think the Chilenos are robbers and cut-throats. But it is
not so. Those engaged in business in the country give the Chileans a good
reputation for honesty. They are procrastinating and slow sometimes in
meeting obligations, but they do not attempt to avoid payment; and they
are always willing to pay current rates of interest on overdue accounts.
My personal experience in Latin countries in that respect has been good,
as I have never lost anything whatever from thieves or purloiners in
hotels, stations or elsewhere. Many instances of the honesty of hotel
servants, cab drivers and other workers are told by foreigners, who
have been in Chile. The lottery and bull-fight have both been abolished
in Chile, and this speaks well for another form of honour among the
Chilenos. The bull-fight has disappeared from a number of the republics,
but Chile stands alone in prohibiting the lottery which is one of the
curses of all her neighbours. The lottery-ticket vendor is usually one of
the first persons seen in a Latin-American country.

Military service in Chile is compulsory. It is not a crushing burden,
however, for the regular army does not exceed fifteen thousand men.
This proves that military service is not enforced very strongly, as
that number would include only a small proportion of those subject to
duty each year. One year is supposed to be spent with the colours,
after which the conscript passes to the first reserve for nine years,
and is then included in the second reserve until he attains the age of
forty-five years. Any child born in Chile is subject to this service, so
that foreigners sometimes grumble. The instructors in the army are often
German officers, and the tactics are strictly Teutonic as well as the
costumes. In every way the German influence is noticeable. The personnel
of the army is good. The men are hardy, active and vigorous. Their
courage has been proved on the field of battle many times. The country is
divided into five military zones with headquarters at Santiago.

[Illustration: THE BATTLESHIP “O’HIGGINS.”]

Chile has always possessed a good navy. The naval fleet at the present
time is composed of forty vessels, among which are nine ironclads and
protected cruisers, five gunboats and torpedo cruisers, thirteen torpedo
boats, four destroyers, etc. The finest ship is the _Esmeralda_, which
is a boat of seven thousand and thirty tons and capable of a speed of
twenty-one knots. She carries two 8-inch and sixteen 6-inch guns. Then
come the _O’Higgins_, _Ministro Zentano_, _Chacabuco_, and _President
Errázuriz_—all of them protected cruisers. The _Capitan Prat_ is a
battleship of six thousand nine hundred and sixty-six tons and twelve
thousand horse-power and a nominal speed of eighteen and three-tenths
knots. This boat was built in 1890. The cruisers were mostly constructed
from 1896 to 1898 in British and Italian shipyards. Chile has recently
placed an order for a Dreadnaught of the latest design, which will still
further add to the efficiency of the Chilean navy. In this respect she is
following the lead of Brazil and Argentina.

The United States could and should have a much greater proportion of
Chile’s trade. Too many manufacturers depend wholly on business houses
conducted by English or German merchants—men who naturally prefer the
goods made by their own countrymen. Others send representatives who
are illy adapted to deal with Chileans and other Latin Americans. An
American bank would work wonders in developing trade. It seems strange
that American capitalists hesitate about investing their money in such
an institution. Foreign banks established in South America have paid
good dividends. Among those in Chile are the Anglo-South American Bank,
Bank of London and the River Plate, German Transatlantique and the
Banco Italiano. The figures of exports and imports given below are in
themselves eloquent testimonials of the value of Chilean trade. Branch
houses in charge of hustling Americans, or agencies placed with American
importers should be the aim of every manufacturer who intends to push
the trade into Chile or any of the other republics of Latin America.
At the present time there are very few citizens of the United States
resident in Chile—probably less than five hundred in the entire republic.

“Why do you not buy your steel work in the United States?” I asked of
a wealthy Chilean gentleman who was building a large modern block in
Santiago.

“I wanted to do so,” he answered, “but your manufacturers would not grant
the terms that were gladly and voluntarily offered me in Europe. As a
result, I bought all my steel for this building, which will cost more
than a half million dollars gold, in Belgium. The only equipment for the
building made in the United States will be a half dozen elevators.”

This simply illustrates one phase of the shortsightedness of our
manufacturers in dealing with South America. The field is a large one,
and a discriminating one as well. It is humiliating at times to an
American to travel throughout the length and breadth of South America,
and see the trade that legitimately belongs to us slipping away to
Europe, even when some of our own factories in that particular line are
idle because of lack of orders. There has been an awakening in the past
few years, but there must still be much progress before the American
business man catches up with the British and German in the pursuit of the
world’s trade.

Chilean trade has reached very respectable figures in recent years.
The total exports for the year 1910 amounted to $115,792,811, of which
$98,234,035 were mineral exports. Of this nitrate comprised the greatest
item. Great Britain took nearly one-half the exports; the United States
purchased $24,680,278, slightly more than Germany, which was a decided
increase over the preceding year. The imports amounted to $108,627,188.
Great Britain sent almost one-third of this, Germany was second with
less than one-fourth, and the United States was third with goods valued
at $13,369,774, or about one-eighth of the whole. Next in order came
France, Argentina, Peru and India. Spain, the mother country, furnished
less than one per cent. of the whole. This shows a large per capita
importation, amounting to more than $30.00, which is exceeded only by
Argentina and Uruguay, and shows a trade well worth looking after. Of
the goods imported textiles were one-fourth of the whole. Mineral
products, including coal, oil products, etc., are a third, and machinery
constituted about eleven per cent. of the whole. Machinery and petroleum
products are the principal importations from the United States.

The American firm of W. R. Grace & Co. occupy a prominent position in
the commercial world along the west coast of South America, where it is
the largest firm engaged in business. Its founder, Wm. R. Grace, was
born in Ireland, but came to Peru in his youth. After making a success
in business there he went to New York and established the head offices
of his company. He became a citizen of the United States, and assisted
the government on several occasions. Mr. Grace became very prominent in
that metropolis. He was twice elected mayor, and gave a very creditable
administration. Mr. Grace died in 1904. W. R. Grace & Co. took over the
Oroya Railroad in Peru and completed it. They recently constructed the
Chilean end of the Transandine Railway, and have been engaged in many
other important public works in Chile, Peru and Bolivia. The foundation
of the fortune of Grace & Co. was guano and nitrate, and a line of boats
are run between the west coast and New York, although flying the English
flag. Branch houses are established in the principal cities of Chile, and
an immense business is done in importation and exportation. The principal
offices are still maintained in New York, although one of the members of
the firm lives in London.

Chile’s dependence upon the sea renders foreign trade an essential
element in her prosperity. She has a hardy seafaring population, and
thousands are employed in that occupation. She is probably destined to
have a much larger part in the coast carrying trade in the future. Next
to the national steamers, the British have the biggest share in the
carrying trade of Chile.

[Illustration: A TYPICAL COAST SCENE.]

The foreign debt of Chile is in the neighbourhood of $100,000,000, most
of which is held by the Rothschild interests. Much of this debt was
contracted during the period of military expansion. Great quantities
of paper money were issued by various administrations, and, as a
result, the peso dropped in value. The gold peso has a fixed value of
thirty-two cents in United States currency, and the paper peso is worth
about twenty-one cents. The gradual drop in value of the currency has
made railroad travel on the government lines and postage the cheapest
in South America. It has also prevented much internal development. At
the present time a number of cities are installing hydraulic electric
plants, which are very practical for this country. Several schemes
are under consideration for port developments, of which the work at
Valparaiso will be the most important. Concepción, Talcahuano and Corral,
Iquique and Antofagasta, will also come in for their share. Several
irrigation projects are now being constructed which will add almost two
hundred thousand acres of irrigated land suitable for agriculture. The
electrification of the state railroad between Valparaiso and Santiago
will also doubtless be one of the developments of the near future.

The postal and telegraph systems of the republic are good. There are more
than one thousand post offices, and the amount of mail transported is
very large. Newspapers circulate absolutely free, and domestic postage is
lower than in the United States. Foreign letters only cost three cents
for postage. There are more than eighteen thousand miles of telegraph
wires stretched across the country. A wireless telegraph station has
been opened at Valparaiso with a radius of eight hundred miles, and
others will be opened very soon at other places, including the Straits
district, where the wild and undeveloped nature of the country makes the
stretching and maintenance of overhead wires difficult.

Like all the South American republics Chile is greatly in need of
immigration. With such a variety of climate it could afford congenial
homes for people from almost any country. A few thousand of immigrants
come in each year, from three to five, but that number is paltry. Tens of
thousands could be assimilated if they were agriculturalists. Argentina,
with her broad level acres, is too near, and draws twice as many as all
the other republics of South America together. Wages are higher there,
too, and the Italians and Spaniards, who comprise the greater proportion
of those seeking new homes in South America, are drawn there. A few Boer
colonies were established in Chile after the war in the Transvaal, but
the total number was not large.

One unfortunate condition in Chile is the unusually high death rate. This
has been placed as high as seventy per thousand, but this rate would
only be in exceptional instances. It is a fact, however, that the cities
of Santiago, Valparaiso and Concepción will frequently show a mortality
rate of fifty to the thousand of population. The average for the whole
republic is about thirty-five per thousand, which is nearly double the
death rate for countries in the temperate zone. As Chile is not in the
torrid zone, it is not subject to epidemics of yellow fever or other
tropical scourges. Foreigners who live there find the climate, especially
in the central part, not only delightful, but healthful, and very old
people are quite common. The reason for this condition of affairs is
the indifference to personal comforts and sanitation of the roto. This
leads to a frightful mortality among the children. Occasionally there are
severe epidemics of smallpox, and the measles has caused great ravages
among children.

Statistics show that in some years, even with the large birth rate among
the lower classes, the births exceed the deaths by only a few thousands.
It is a condition that demands action by the state, for the government
is paternal in its character, and is depended on by the people to look
after these things. The sturdiness of the roto may be due to the law
of the survival of the fittest, for only those who possess a sound
constitution reach manhood. One who can survive the lack of comforts and
harsh conditions of life to which he is subjected, and reach manhood, is
at least robust if not cultured or refined. There is, indeed, much room
for improvement in the sanitary conditions of the cities in the sections
occupied by the poor, and some measures have been taken in recent years.
For the nation it would be a good economic policy, as the decrease in
the death rate would aid in giving the population so much needed for the
development of the country.

Chile dates her independence from Spain from the 18th of September, 1810,
and last year was celebrated as her first centennial. On this day, in the
year 1910, was laid the corner stone of a great monument in commemoration
of that event. This was participated in by the President of Argentina
and other officials of that neighbouring republic. This was but natural,
for the soldiers of both countries fought and bled side by side at
Maipu, Chacabuco and other places. A notable historic parade, with the
costumes and military characteristics of that period, was a feature of
the celebration. It represented the march of the victorious patriot army
into Santiago after its evacuation by the Spaniards. The _granaderos_, a
military organization in Buenos Aires which wears the same uniform as in
the time of San Martin, came over from that city to take part. The parade
halted in front of the statue of San Martin and saluted that noble hero.
Solemn religious services and social events made up a day that will long
be notable in the Chilean capitol. Elaborate decorations had been erected
all over the city, and especially on the Alameda where the parades took
place.

Almost the entire month of September was given up to the festivities
incident to this national centennial throughout the entire republic.
There was scarcely a town or village that did not have its local
_fiesta_. Horse races, theatrical performances, fireworks, torchlight
processions, etc., were all included in the list of events. A naval
review was held in Valparaiso, in which four ships of the United States
took part with those of Chile and other nations. An industrial Exposition
was held in Valparaiso, and an Exposition of Fine Arts in Santiago. The
death of President Montt and his successor, both within a month preceding
the beginning of the festivities, cast somewhat of a gloom upon the
occasion, but it could not mar the festal spirit in a very marked degree.

The relations between Chile and the United States have, in a number of
instances, been considerably strained. As a result there was for many
years an existant prejudice against the _Yanqui_. The first occasion
arose during the war between Peru and Chile, when the United States
offered its mediation, which was resented by Chile because that country
desired to reap the spoils of war. Another instance happened during
the Balmaceda administration. During his term, and the struggles which
resulted between himself and Congress, the sympathies of the United
States were with the President. A minister sent to the United States by
the revolutionists, after they had established a _junta_ at Iquique, and
were in possession of the customs throughout northern Chile, was refused
recognition by President Harrison. The steamship _Itata_, belonging to
the Chilean line, which at that time ran as far as San Francisco, was
seized and held for some time because she was loaded with arms and
ammunition intended for the revolutionists. Although the vessel escaped
it was followed by a United States cruiser and overtaken at Iquique,
where the revolutionist _junta_ turned it over to the cruiser and it was
taken back to San Francisco. This kept the opponents of the government
out of much-needed supplies.

Later arose what is known as the “Baltimore incident.” Admiral Schley,
in charge of that gun boat, had been sent to Chile to protect American
interests. He sailed freely in and out from one port to another, and
was charged by the revolutionists with giving information to the
government party of their movements. As the navy was all on the side of
the revolutionists, they claimed that only in this way could the other
party on land have secured certain information. Admiral Schley denied
the accusations, and all of these charges were afterwards proven to be
false. Near the close of that internecine struggle a number of sailors
and others from the _Baltimore_ had gone ashore at Valparaiso. While in
a rather disreputable saloon in that city an altercation arose between
some Chilean soldiers and the party of American marines. One of the
Chileans was knocked down, and a general fight resulted in which the
Yankees were assaulted with clubs, knives and revolvers. One American was
killed instantly, another died from his injuries a short time later, and
a score of others were more or less seriously injured. In the diplomatic
correspondence which followed, an indemnity was courteously demanded by
the United States, to which an almost insulting reply was made by Chile.
International trouble threatened for a while, but Chile made apologies
and paid the sum of $75,000 as compensation. The matter was then dropped,
but the anti-American feeling did not evaporate as quickly as the
war-cloud.

Only a little over a year ago another controversy arose through the
demand made by the State Department of the United States for the
settlement of a claim which had been in dispute for many years. As a
result much anti-American comment appeared in the newspapers of Chile, as
though the United States was trying to enforce a rejected claim against a
weaker nation. The visit of President Montt to the United States, while
on his way to Europe to seek medical advice, only a few months afterward,
however, seems to presage that the government of Chile has buried all
difficulties and good will is again restored. It was not necessary for
President Montt to come this way, and he undoubtedly did it in a spirit
of amity and good will.

A great many erroneously place strong reliance upon the favourable
effect of the Monroe Doctrine in South America. As a matter of fact the
Monroe Doctrine at no period has caused the sale of a dollar’s worth
of merchandise in those markets. It has, on the other hand, through
misinterpretation of its intended beneficence, caused ill feeling, and,
perhaps, prevented the sale of American goods in many instances. If the
United States adheres to this doctrine, the completion of the Panama
Canal will increase the responsibilities of the United States instead of
lessening them. We, of the great North American republic, know that the
action of the United States under this doctrine has always been intended
for the welfare of the other Americans. Those who should feel kindly
toward us, because of it, as a matter of fact rather resent its effect.
They feel able to fight their own battles without the aid of the powerful
republic on the North American continent. The visit of the United States
fleet a few years ago at the various ports of South America, and the
trip made by Elihu Root, then Secretary of State, did more to encourage
a kindly feeling toward the United States and to develop a Pan-American
spirit than anything the United States has ever done. It now needs only
a wise and diplomatic policy to strengthen and extend the good feeling
engendered by those events.

Chile, like all the west coast republics, is becoming very much
interested in the Panama Canal, and the effect that its completion will
have upon the country. Unlike the North American, the South American
does not become impatient over the probable date of the completion of
the canal, for it does not make much difference to him whether it is
ten years or twenty-five years hence. The only question in his mind is
what may be the ultimate effect of the canal. It is, perhaps, of more
interest to a North American, because the North American is interested in
the possibilities of trade development with that coast. At the present
time there are perhaps 11,500,000 of people living in the republics
of Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia and Chile, which have a foreign commerce,
including both exports and imports, in excess of $300,000,000. In
addition to this there is the trade with the Pacific coast of Colombia.
Then there is added to this the question of the probability of future
development of those countries, which are in themselves larger than any
European kingdoms, except Russia. The enthusiastic Chilean, for instance,
will tell you how many times larger is his country than Holland, and
estimates the immense population that his country could support at the
same density per mile as that little European kingdom. This, of course,
is absolutely impossible, because such large sections of the country are
untillable. Furthermore, there never has been as yet such rapid increases
in population in any of the west coast countries as the United States,
Canada, Argentina and Australia can show. Hence it is not well to think
of this section as being likely to have sudden growths of population,
but there will doubtless be a slow and steady increase in each of the
countries mentioned.

One advantage that will accrue from the completion of the canal will
be better transportation between all the ports of the west coast and
New York. A direct line of steamers between Valparaiso, and possibly
ports farther south, to New York is sure to be established, for business
conditions will not only demand, but warrant such a line. By this route
the distance from New York to Valparaiso will be only fifty-one hundred
miles, including the stops at several intervening ports. When this
distance is compared with that from Valparaiso to Liverpool, by the way
of the Straits of Magellan, which is ninety-five hundred miles, it shows
that New York will be several thousand miles nearer to Valparaiso than
European ports by the same route, and the difference becomes greater as
you journey along the coast toward Panama. If British steamers should use
the Panama Canal it would still make New York nearer to all the ports
on the west coast by almost three thousand miles. As it is there are no
boats flying the American flag which visit Chilean or other west coast
ports, except an occasional tramp lumber schooner which comes down from
Seattle, or a boat which comes through the Straits of Magellan now and
then from New York for a load of nitrate. Much of the traffic is obliged
to go to Callao, Peru, and there be transferred to another steamer to be
taken to Panama; then it is shipped by rail across the Isthmus, and again
loaded on another steamer destined either for New York or New Orleans.

[Illustration: THE CUSTOM HOUSE, VALPARAISO.]

It does not require an especially sharp insight to see the advantage
from a commercial standpoint of a direct line between these ports and
New York. Furthermore, since the completion of the Transandine Railway,
and still more so when the other route farther south may be finished,
large sections of fertile Argentina will be nearer to the west coast
than to Buenos Aires or Bahia Blanca, on the Atlantic coast. This would
mean that shipments which are destined for the United States from those
sections would probably be made by the steamers using the west coast
route, and through the Panama Canal. Of course that would not be true of
grain products, for those shipments go to Europe, as the United States
has not yet become an importer of grain, with the exception of flax seed.
We do, however, take the greatest portion of wool, hides and certain
other products. It will tend, in the opinion of the writer, to not only
bring about closer commercial relations, but to develop a spirit of
Pan-Americanism, which will mean a great deal for the United States.
Peru, Bolivia, and Ecuador have been much under the influence of American
business interests, and Chile has a natural inclination as well toward
the North Americans, but the diplomatic incidents heretofore mentioned
have made the Chileans a little bit suspicious of the policies of the
United States. This will, however, I believe, be entirely overcome within
a very short time. The people of Chile will then realize that the North
Americans are their best friends.


THE END.




FOOTNOTES


[1] This statement is disputed by some authorities.

[2] South America on the Eve of Emancipation, by Bernard Moses.

[3] An unconquerable race.

[4] See Argentina and Her People of To-day.




APPENDICES


I

AREA AND POPULATION

The population of Chile is not large when its possibilities are
considered. It is very unevenly distributed. The number of persons to the
square mile is less than one-half the proportion in the United States.
The pure white population are undoubtedly in the minority. The following
table shows the names of provinces, with their area and population
according to government census of 1907:

  ---------------------+---------+----------+-------------
   Province            |   Area  |Population|  Capital
  ---------------------+---------+----------+-------------
  Aconcagua            |   5,410 |  128,486 | San Felipe
  Antofagasta          |  46,830 |  123,323 | Antofagasta
  Arauco               |   2,055 |   61,538 | Lebu
  Atacama              |  30,430 |   63,968 | Copiapó
  Bio-Bio              |   4,720 |   97,968 | Los Angeles
  Cautin               |   6,150 |  139,553 | Temuco
  Chiloé               |   8,600 |   88,619 | Ancud
  Colchagua            |   3,870 |  158,160 | San Fernando
  Concepción           |   3,545 |  216,994 | Concepción
  Coquimbo             |  13,465 |  175,021 | Le Serena
  Curico               |   2,900 |  107,090 | Curico
  Linares              |   3,875 |  109,363 | Linares
  Llanquihue           |  38,575 |  105,043 | Puerto Montt
  Malleco              |   3,100 |  113,775 | Angol
  Maule                |   2,425 |  110,462 | Cauquenes
  Nuble                |   3,460 |  166,239 | Chillan
  O’Higgins            |   2,050 |   92,278 | Rancagua
  Santiago             |   5,720 |  516,870 | Santiago
  Tacna                |   9,615 |   28,748 | Tacna
  Talca                |   3,750 |  131,958 | Talca
  Tarapacá             |  18,400 |  110,036 | Iquique
  Valdivia             |   8,400 |  119,277 | Valdivia
  Valparaiso           |   1,935 |  281,385 | Valparaiso
  Magellanes Territory |  64,040 |   17,143 | Punta Arenas
  ---------------------+---------+----------+-------------

The following table shows the population according to the several
censuses taken:—

  ---------------+----------
  Census of 1835 | 1,010,332
    ”    ”  1843 | 1,083,801
    ”    ”  1854 | 1,439,120
    ”    ”  1865 | 1,819,223
    ”    ”  1875 | 2,075,971
    ”    ”  1885 | 2,527,320
    ”    ”  1895 | 2,712,145
    ”    ”  1907 | 3,248,224
  ---------------+----------


II

MOUNTAINS AND VOLCANOES

The Coast, or Maritime range of mountains in Chile does not present,
like the Andean range, a continuous chain, but is broken by valleys and
small plains, as well as by rivers in their course to the ocean. The
slopes of this range are generally formed by a succession of hills,
frequently covered with vegetation, but which rarely exceed six thousand
feet in height. In places cross ridges connect this range with its
loftier neighbouring range, where the two systems seem to merge into one.
The three highest peaks in the Maritime range are Cerro de Limon Verde
(11,380 ft.), Cerro de Agua Amarga (10,550 ft.) and Cerro de la Campana
de Quillota (9,325 ft.)

The Andean range of mountains is a succession of high mountains with
lofty peaks covered with the everlasting snows. At intervals passes are
formed in this cordillera, which permit access from one side to the
other. The lowest of these is that of Perez Rosales (3,230 ft.) in
Southern Chile, and the highest is Agua Negra (15,715 ft.). The highest
point of the Andes is Mount Aconcagua, and from there to the south the
altitude gradually decreases until it reaches sea level at the Straits of
Magellan.

The following table gives the names and height of the principal peaks of
this range of lofty mountains according to the best estimates.

  ------------------------------------+---------+---------
        Names                         |Latitude |  Altitude
                                      |         |    Feet
  ------------------------------------+---------+---------
  Pico del Aconcagua                  | 32° 41´ |   23,080
  Cerro del Mercedario                | 31° 59´ |   22,300
  Cerro Tupungato                     | 33° 25´ |   22,015
  Volcán de San José                  | 33° 41´ |   20,000
  Cerro Juncal                        | 33° 10´ |   19,500
  Cerro El Cobre                      | 28° 28´ |   18,320
  Cerro Peña Negra                    | 28° 11´ |   18,300
  Volcán de Maipo                     | 33° 59´ |   17,665
  Altura sin nombre                   | 27° 50´ |   17,100
  Llullaillaco                        | 24° 15´ |   17,060
  Cerro del Plomo                     | 33° 14´ |   16,750
  Cerro Doña Ana                      | 29° 37´ |   15,315
  Volcán de Tinguiririca              | 34° 50´ |   14,700
  Cerro del Viento                    | 30° 45´ |   14,050
  Cerro del Campanario                | 35° 57´ |   13,120
  Cerro Colorado                      | 35° 18´ |   12,975
  Descabezado del Maule               | 35° 36´ |   12,755
  Cerro del Azufre o Copiapó          | 31° 16´ |   12,000
  Volcán de Peteroa o Planchón        | 35° 13´ |   11,925
  Volcán de Villarica or Quetripillan | 39° 14´ |   11,810
  Volcán de La Yegua                  | 36° 00´ |   11,342
  Nevado de Longavi                   | 36° 14´ |   10,522
  Volcán de Nevado de Chillan         | 36° 47´ |    9,725
  Volcán de Antuco                    | 37° 23´ |    9,060
  Corcovado                           | 43° 10´ |    7,380
  Monte Sarmiento (Tierra del Fuego)  | 54° 10´ |    6,890
  Yanteles                            | 43° 30´ |    6,625
  ------------------------------------+---------+---------


III

SUGGESTIONS FOR TRAVELLERS

The completion of the Panama Canal, which is promised by 1914, will make
the access to the west coast of South America much more convenient.
Without doubt there will be established at that time a direct line of
steamers from New York to Valparaiso, which will touch at a number of
intermediate ports between Panama and that city. At the present time it
is necessary to take a steamer from New York, or New Orleans, to Colon, a
journey of six or seven days, cross the isthmus by train, and then embark
on another steamer from Panama to Valparaiso. Two lines of steamers, the
Pacific Steam Navigation Company (recently absorbed by the Royal Mail
Steam Packet Company) and the Compañia Sud Americana de Vapores, render
this service, but sometimes it is necessary to transship at Callao, Peru.
There is also a Peruvian line of fast steamers to Callao. The quickest
service between Panama and Valparaiso is twelve days, and, if one takes
the slower coast steamers, the time is longer by several days. The trip
is, however, a very interesting one and full of scenic beauty, as well
as novelty. It gives the traveller an opportunity to get a glimpse of
Jamaica, and to see the great work of Uncle Sam on the isthmus, which
is undoubtedly the most stupendous undertaking ever attempted by man.
Furthermore, it would be difficult to find smoother seas over which to
sail.

From Guayaquil, Ecuador, the traveller is enabled to visit Quito, the
capital of this equatorial republic, which is situated at an elevation of
about 10,000 feet, and almost on the equatorial line. One can visit Lima,
capital of Peru, and one of the most interesting cities in South America,
and can also visit La Paz, capital of Bolivia, and the highest capital
in the world. By taking the transcontinental line across South America
to Buenos Aires, and returning to New York by the east coast route, one
is enabled to visit the leading republics of South America, and thus
gain an adequate idea of the entire continent. There is a very good
line of steamers from Buenos Aires to New York, stopping at Montevideo,
Uruguay, Santos, Rio de Janeiro and Bahia, Brazil, and Barbados Island;
or, if time is not urgent, the traveller can return via Europe at only a
slightly increased cost. The cost of such a trip from New York back to
New York, including all necessary expenses at sea, except gratuities,
is about five hundred dollars. This does not cover any of the expenses
on land. The trip around the southern end of the continent through the
Straits of Magellan is most interesting, and the scenery is magnificent.
The cost, however, is more, and the time involved is ten days greater.

The language of Chile is Spanish, but, in the cities and towns, there
is very little difficulty for one not familiar with that language to
get along without much embarrassment. Comfortable hotels will be found
in Valparaiso, Santiago and many other cities. The prices are rather
higher than for similar accommodations in the United States. The rates
are generally inclusive, and provide coffee and rolls in the morning,
which are generally served in the bedroom, and two substantial meals
which are very similar in their menu. The railroad equipment of the
Chilean railroads is generally quite good, and one will find the only
real Pullman cars in South America. Chair cars will be found on some of
the State Railway trains, and sleepers also in the long journeys. The
railroad fare is exceedingly cheap, and one wonders how the service can
be provided at such a low cost.

The money of Chile is arranged on the same system as our own, the
standard being the peso, which is divided into one hundred centavos and
has a value of about twenty-one cents, but the rate of exchange varies
somewhat from day to day. Exchange is always based on the value of the
English sovereign. The money is nearly all paper and very little gold
will be found in circulation. The price of most articles of wear is
rather high, because of the import duties. One will notice in travelling
on the English steamers that the barber carries a very large stock of
goods, and at each of the ports many people call on him and purchase
various articles, because his prices are so much lower than those on
shore. English book stores will be found in the cities, where books and
magazines can be purchased. The tariff for cab charges in all the cities
is very low and the equipment poor, but the traveller should be sure
to inform himself of the legitimate charges, or he will pay for his
experience. The cab driver of Chile is very much like his counterpart the
world over. Street car fares are very cheap also.

The traveller must always remember that the seasons south of the equator
are reversed, and that summer time in that part of the world is the
winter season in the northern climates. As one goes south the temperature
becomes cooler, being just the reverse of conditions in northern
latitudes. The temperature also changes with the altitude, and this fact
must be borne in mind when arrangements are being made for the clothing
to be taken on the trip. Each thousand feet of elevation makes a very
perceptible change in the temperature.


IV

BIBLIOGRAPHY

    ALCOCK, FREDERICK: Trade and travel in South America. London,
    1903.

    AKERS, CHARLES E.: History of South America. London, 1904.

    BOYD, R. NELSON: Sketches of Chile and the Chileans. London,
    1881.

    BUTTERWORTH, HEZEKIAH: South America, a popular illustrated
    history. New York, 1898.

    CARPENTER, FRANK G.: South America, social, industrial, and
    political. Akron, Ohio, 1900.

    CHILD, THEODORE: The Spanish American Republics. New York, 1891.

    CHILE: a handbook. Washington, 1909.

    CLARK, FRANCIS E.: The continent of opportunity. New York, 1907.

    CONWAY, Sir MARTIN: Aconcagua and Tierra del Fuego. London,
    1902.

    CROMMELIN, MARY: Over the Andes from the Argentine to Chile and
    Peru. New York, 1896.

    CURTIS, WILLIAM ELEROY: Between the Andes and the ocean.
    Chicago, 1900.

    DARWIN, CHARLES: Voyage of the “Beagle.” London, 1845.

    DAWSON, THOMAS C.: The South American Republics. New York, 1904.

    Economical and social progress of the republic of Chile.
    Valparaiso, 1906.

    ELLIOTT, G. F. SCOTT: Chile, its history and development.
    London, 1909.

    FITZGERALD, E. A.: The Highest Andes. London, 1899.

    HANCOCK, ANSON URIEL: A history of Chile. Chicago, 1893.

    HERVEY, MAURICE N.: Dark days in Chile; an account of the
    revolution of 1891. London, 1892.

    JONES, A. D.: History of South America. London, 1899.

    KEANE, A. H.: Central and South America. London, 1901.

    MARTIN, PERCY F.: Through five republics of South America.
    London, 1905.

    MARKHAM, CLEMENTS R.: The war between Peru and Chile. London,
    1883.

    MITRE, BARTOLOMÉ: History of San Martin. London, 1893.

    MOSES, BERNARD: South America on the eve of emancipation. New
    York, 1908.

    OSBORN, CHASE S.: Andean Land. 2 Vols. Chicago, 1909.

    PEPPER, CHARLES M.: Panama to Patagonia. Chicago, 1907.

    RUHL, ARTHUR: The other Americans. New York, 1908.

    RUSSELL, WILLIAM HOWARD: A visit to Chile and the nitrate
    fields. London, 1890.

    SMITH, WILLIAM ANDERSON: Temperate Chile. London, 1889.

    SPEARS, JOHN R.: The gold diggings of Cape Horn. New York, 1895.

    United States, Hydrographic office: The West Coast of South
    America. Washington, 1890.

    VINCENT, FRANK R.: Round and about South America. New York,
    1890.

    WIBORG, FRANK: A commercial traveller in South America. New
    York, 1905.

    WRIGHT, MARIE ROBINSON: The Republic of Chile. Philadelphia,
    1905.




INDEX


  Aconcagua, Mt., 7, 48, 149, 164, 169.

  Aconcagua, province of, 15.

  Aconcagua River, 153.

  Agriculture, 10, 93, 98, 213, 360;
    school of, 232.

  Aguardiente, 112, 194.

  Alacaloofs, 142-4.

  Albano, Elias Fernandez, 358.

  Almagro, Diego de, 15.

  Alpaca, the, 174.

  Altitude, the lure of, 165.

  Americans, 187.

  Ancients, 65.

  Ancon, Treaty of, 335.

  Ancud, 111.

  Andes, the, 6, 21, 121, 156-173.

  Anglican Church, 278.

  Antarctic Circle, 120.

  Antarctic Sea, 3, 122.

  Antofagasta, 42, 180, 254, 255;
    capture of by Chile, 318;
    by revolutionists, 346.

  Araucanians, the, 15, 96, 196, 212 _et seq._, 278, 281, 341.

  Arauco, 190.

  Architecture, 241.

  Area, 1, 393.

  Arequipa, 29.

  Argentina, 17, 138, 156, 159-161, 201;
    dispute with, 313, 356.

  Arica, 33-38, 253, 326, 327.

  Aristocracy, 85.

  Army, 370.

  Arrieros, 158.

  Arteaga, Colonel, 324.

  Artistic element, 241.

  Ascensors, 47.

  Atacama, desert of, 315.

  Australia, 190.

  Aymara Indians, 323.


  Bahia Blanca, 106, 257.

  Balboa, 20.

  Balmaceda, José Manuel, 338 _et seq._, 357;
    death of, 353.

  Balmacedists, 40.

  Baltimore incident, 383.

  Banking, 209, 372.

  Baquedano, General, 331, 337, 352.

  Bargaining, 33, 82.

  Bautista, San Juan, 62.

  Beagle Channel, 140.

  Bible societies, 279.

  Bibliography, 402.

  Bio-Bio River, 8, 95, 105, 215.

  Birds, 30, 113.

  Boer colonies, 378.

  Bolivar, 290-2.

  Bolivia, 6, 17, 30, 35, 253, 315;
    war with, 314 _et seq._

  Bomberos, 51, 134.

  Borax, 180.

  Brandy, 112.

  Bravery, 17.

  Brunswick, peninsula of, 6.

  Buendia, General, 324.

  Buenos Aires, 139, 161, 242, 259, 297.

  Buenos Aires and Pacific Railway, 160.

  Bulnes, General, 204, 307.


  Cabinet, the, 12.

  Cacti, 148.

  Cadiz, 282.

  Calaguayas, 225-9.

  Caldera, 43, 189.

  Caleta Buena, 254.

  California, 245.

  Callao, 27, 290, 326, 397.

  Calle-Calle River, 8.

  Capricorn, Tropic of, 42.

  Caracoles, 156, 189, 259.

  Castro, 111.

  Casuchas, 157, 286.

  Cattle, 360.

  Cautin River, 100.

  Centennial, first, 380.

  Chacabuco, battle of, 294.

  Chacao, 111.

  Charities, 78, 234.

  Characteristics, 194.

  Charles IV., 283.

  Chiloé, 3, 108-111, 303.

  Chimborazo, Mt., 166.

  Christ of the Andes, 161.

  Chimneys, absence of, 73.

  Chincha Islands, 28.

  Chillan, 232.

  Chorrillos, battle of, 330-332.

  Church, the, 84, 261 _et seq._, 311, 337, 364;
    wealth of, 268.

  Clark, John and Matthew, 259.

  Climate, 2, 122, 149, 192.

  Clubs, 86.

  Coal, 190, 257.

  Cochrane, Lord, 106, 112, 208, 298-301.

  Colleges, 276.

  Colombia, 290.

  Comision Conservada, 344.

  Commerce, 50, 372-5, 387.

  Concepción, 4, 92, 105-6, 190, 286, 308.

  Condors, 155.

  Conductors, women, 58.

  Congress, 11, 209, 365-7;
    power of, 305, 340, 343, 356.

  Congress, Palace of, 76.

  Constitucion, city of, 103.

  Constitution, 270.

  Convents, 268.

  Conway, Sir Martin, 167, 168.

  Copiapó, 15, 43, 244, 253.

  Copper, 189.

  Coquimbo, 4;
    province of, 255.

  Cordilleras, the, 91.

  Cordoba, 245.

  Corral, 107.

  Corruption, 368.

  Corso, the, 85.

  Cotopaxi, Mt., 166.

  Council of State, the, 13.

  Courts, 13.

  Courting, 205.

  Cousiño family, 74, 104.

  Cousiño Park, 73, 75.

  Creoles, 193.

  Crimes, 197, 285.

  Cross, Southern, 20.

  Cruelty, 348.

  Cruelties of Spaniards, 216.

  Crusoe, Robinson, 61.

  Cueca, La, 75.

  Cumbre, El, 162.

  Customs, 87, 144, 205.

  Cuyo, province of, 293.

  Cuzco, 29.


  Darwin, Charles, 108, 178.

  Debt, foreign, 376.

  Deputies, chamber of, 345.

  Desert, 32-40;
    the nitrate, 178 _et seq._

  Desolation Island, 128.

  Development, 377.

  Disasters, ocean, 36.

  Doctor, Indian, 225-229.

  Dogs, 100.

  Dominican Friars, 269.

  Drake, Sir Francis, 34, 125.

  Drunkenness, 193, 199, 201.


  Earthquake, 52, 273, 363.

  Easter Island, 4, 65.

  Ecuador, 22, 164, 270, 290.

  Education, 230 _et seq._, 341.

  Elections, 13, 368.

  Encalada Manuel Blanco, 303.

  England, Church of, 278.

  English, 50, 186, 192, 208-9.

  Equator, 20.

  Errázuriz, Federico, Sr., 311-2.

  Errázuriz, Federico, 355-6.

  Espinar, Colonel, 324.

  Espiritu, Cafe, 123.

  Exchange, 400.

  Exports, 374, 387.


  Falkland Islands, 134.

  Famine, Port, 135.

  Farms, 101.

  Ferdinand VII, 283.

  Fertilizers, 184.

  Fiestas, 83, 273.

  Fire department, 51.

  Fire, Land of the, 120 _et seq._

  Firemen, 134.

  Firelanders, 143-8.

  Fish, 30, 112.

  Fitzgerald, E. A., 169-171.

  Forests, 114, 361.

  Freire, General, 302-3.

  French, 50.

  Frowards, Cape, 132.

  Fruits, 95, 110.

  Fuegian Archipelago, 108, 120 _et seq._, 126.

  Fuego, Tierra del, 2, 3.


  Gambling, 362.

  Germans, 50, 102, 192, 207, 370.

  Glaciers, 128.

  Gold, 129, 188.

  Governors, 14.

  Government, 11, 364.

  Grace, W. R., & Co., 375.

  Graft, 252.

  Grapes, 361.

  Grau, Admiral, 320-2.

  Great Southern Railway, 257.

  Grube, 113.

  Guanaco, 132, 145, 173.

  Guano, 28.

  Guayaquil, 21, 25, 290, 398.

  Guayacan, 44.

  Guaytecas Islands, 111.


  Haciendas, 69, 97, 149, 224.

  Health, 378.

  Hidalgo, 287.

  Himalayas, the, 165.

  History, 14-18, 124-5, 212 _et seq._, 280 _et seq._

  Historians, 240.

  Honesty, 369.

  Horn, Cape, 120-8.

  Huascaran, Mt., 167.


  Iglesias, General, 334.

  Illimani, Mt., 167.

  Immigrants, 102, 378.

  Imperial, 216.

  Imports, 374, 387.

  Incas, 35, 168, 213, 227.

  Incas, Bridge of the, 159.

  Incas, Lake of the, 155.

  Independence, 16, 287, 380.

  Indians, 15, 94, 109, 137, 141-6, 176, 212 _et seq._;
    endurance of, 323.

  Inquilinos, 97, 197.

  Insects, 113.

  Intemperance, 83.

  Intendentes, 14.

  Iodine, 183.

  Iquique, 39-42, 254, 277;
    capture of by Chile, 319;
    by revolutionists, 346.

  Irrigation, 95, 97, 151, 377.

  Iron, 190.

  Islands, 4.

  Italians, 50.

  Itata River, 95, 214.


  Jamaica, 398.

  Jesuits, 17.

  Journalism, 240.

  Juan Fernandez Islands, 4, 61.

  Juncal, 155, 258.

  Jungles, 117.


  King William, peninsula of, 6.

  Korner, General, 349.


  La Paz, 29, 38, 43, 76, 254, 398.

  La Serena, 44.

  Lago del Inca, 155.

  Laja, Lake, 257.

  Language, 399.

  Las Cadenas, 351.

  Las Cuevas, 156.

  Las Peñas, Gulf of, 5.

  Lautaro, the Indian hero, 217.

  Libraries, 77, 234.

  Lima, Archbishop of, 265.

  Lima, 27, 398;
    capture of by Chile, 328-334.

  Limache, 150.

  Literature, 234-240.

  Llai Llai, 150, 244.

  Llama, the, 173-7.

  Llanquihue, 256.

  Llanquihue, Lake, 207.

  Lobsters, 62.

  Longitudinal Railway, 250.

  Los Angeles, 150-1, 260.

  Lota, 104, 189.

  Luco, Ramon Barros, 358.

  Lynch, Captain, 326, 328.


  Mackenna, Benjamine V., 72.

  Magellan, Ferdinand de, 120, 124.

  Magellan, Straits of, 6, 11, 120 _et seq._, 244.

  Mail service, 158, 284.

  Maipo, battle of, 293, 296.

  Maipo River, 93.

  Malga Malga, 188.

  Mellinca, 112.

  Manta, the, 90.

  Manufacturing, 362.

  Mapocho River, 69.

  Maritime laws, 250.

  Markets, 56, 81, 107.

  Mariguina, 188.

  Marriage, 144, 206, 274.

  Mas-a-Tierra, island of, 62.

  Maule River, 213.

  McKinley, Mt., 165.

  Meiggs, Henry, 245-6.

  Mendoza, 160, 260, 293.

  Mendoza, Garcia, 281.

  Mendoza River, 159.

  Merchants, peripatetic, 56.

  Mercedario, Mt., 164, 173.

  Methodist Episcopal Church, 276-8.

  Military, 370.

  Milk selling, 57.

  Minerals, 188, 361.

  Mines, 254.

  Mining Claim, 362.

  Miramar, 60.

  Miraflores, battle of, 330-3.

  Missions, 138.

  Mollendo, 29.

  Monasteries, 265.

  Money, 90, 376, 400.

  Monroe Doctrine, 385.

  Montt, Jorge, 344, 345, 354-5.

  Montt, Manuel, 307-9.

  Montt, Pedro, 357, 384.

  Montevideo, 284.

  Mortality, 378.

  Mountains, 21, 395-6.

  Music, 234.

  Museums, 234.


  Napoleon, 283.

  Napoleon, Joseph, 283.

  Navigation, 116, 247-9.

  Navy, 371;
    revolt of, 345.

  Newsboys, 81.

  Newspapers, 234-7.

  Nitrate of soda, 38-42, 178 _et seq._, 360.

  Novelists, 239.


  Officials, 194.

  Oficinas, 184.

  O’Higgins, Bernardo, 288.

  O’Higgins, General Don Ambrosio, 16, 286, 294 _et seq._

  Ollague, 254.

  Onas, the, 142-7.

  Opera, 79.

  Oroya Railroad, 246.

  Orphanage, 78.

  Oruro, 254.

  Osorno, 107, 223, 251.

  Osorio, General, 296.

  Oysters, 113.


  Pacific Steam Navigation Company, 136, 244, 248, 397.

  Paita, 23.

  Palena River, 113.

  Panama, 225.

  Panama Canal, 386-390, 397.

  Parasites, 115.

  Pareja, Admiral, 310.

  Parties, political, 339, 347, 366.

  Paseo, the, 87.

  Pascua Island, 4, 65.

  Patagonia, 4, 116, 141, 173.

  Peck, Annie S., 167.

  Pelicans, 31, 113.

  Peonage, 198, 282.

  Peons, 97, 197.

  People, 83, 191 _et seq._

  Penco, battle of, 216.

  Penguins, 144.

  Penitents, Ridge of the, 159.

  Penitentas, 203.

  Perez, José Joaquin, 309-311.

  Peru, 17, 185, 186, 269, 290, 297;
    war with, 36, 314 _et seq._

  Pierola, Nicolas de, 330.

  Pillar, Cape, 6, 124.

  Pinto, Anibal, 304, 313, 336.

  Pisagua, 39, 180.

  Pisco, 28, 328, 331.

  Pizarro, 15, 26, 280.

  Placilla, battle of, 350-2.

  Politeness, 86.

  Politics, 195, 364.

  Polygamy, 223.

  Poncho, 223.

  Poopo, Lake, 35.

  Pope, the, 262.

  Population, 393-4.

  Ports, 8, 247.

  Portales, 305-6.

  Porvenir, battle of, 324.

  Postal service, 377.

  Post-office, 284.

  Poverty, 83.

  Prat, Arturo, 40, 209, 320.

  Presbyterian Church, 277-8.

  Press, the, 234-8, 368.

  Priests, 266.

  Prieto, General, 304-6.

  Prisons, 135, 138.

  Protestantism, 271, 275-9.

  Provinces, 103, 393-4.

  Puente del Inca, 159.

  Puerto Montt, 3, 96, 103, 107, 223, 250, 257.

  Punta Arenas, 96, 123, 131-8, 190, 278, 313.


  Quillota, 150, 188.

  Quinta Normal, 73, 76, 232.

  Quinteros, battle of, 349.

  Quito, 26, 398.


  Races, 60, 75.

  Railways, 11, 101, 148 _et seq._, 243 _et seq._, 363.

  Rain, lack of, 23.

  Religion, 203, 225, 261 _et seq._

  Revolution, 16, 287, 344 _et seq._

  Riesco, Jerman, 356-7.

  Rio de Janeiro, 42, 242.

  Rivers, 8.

  Robinson Crusoe, island of, 4.

  Rodriguez, Zorobabel, 240.

  Rosario, 245.

  Rotos, 49, 83, 110, 196-201, 363.


  Saavedra, Juan de, 46, 222.

  Salitre, 180 _et seq._

  Saltpetre, 180 _et seq._

  Salto del Soldado, 154.

  San Felipe, 152.

  San Francisco, California, 49.

  San Francisco, battle of, 323.

  San Martin, José de, 258, 289 _et seq._, 381.

  Santa Lucia, rock of, 70, 91.

  Santa Maria, Domingo, 337-8.

  Santiago, 16, 43, 69 _et seq._, 200, 270, 273, 281, 284, 295.

  Sarmiento, Mt., 121, 123, 137.

  Schley, Admiral, 383.

  School, Naval, 233.

  Schools, 51, 231, 233.

  Sea lions, 31.

  Selkirk, Alexander, 63.

  Serfdom, 265.

  Sheep, 3, 127, 136, 361.

  Shopping, 89, 376.

  Sierras, the, 21, 164.

  Silver, 188.

  Soldier’s Leap, 154.

  Sorata, Mt., 167.

  Spain, King of, 262.

  Spain, 17;
    war with, 310.

  Spaniards, 14, 191, 214.

  Sports, 237.

  Statues, curious, 66.

  Strikes, 200.


  Tacna, 37, 250, 253, 365.

  Talca, 94.

  Talcahuano, 105, 257, 296, 345.

  Taltal, 180, 188.

  Tarapacá, desert of, 38, 178, 329.

  Tchili, 15.

  Tehuelches, 141, 212.

  Telegraph, 377.

  Temperature, 117.

  Temuco, 96, 100, 223.

  Theatres, 79, 87, 242.

  Tierra del Fuego, 120 _et seq._, 276.

  Timber, 114.

  Titicaca, Lake, 29, 35, 168, 176.

  Todos Santos, Lake, 9.

  Trade, possibilities, 389.

  Transandino Chileno Railway, 258-260.

  Transandino Argentino Railway, 159.

  Travel, 307-400.

  Travellers, fellow, 24.

  Travelling, 152.

  Trinidad, Gulf of, 116.

  Tucapel, 188.

  Tupungato, Mt., 164, 170.


  United States, 36, 50, 327, 373, 381-5.

  Universities, 232.

  Ushuaia, 138-140.

  Uspallata pass, 159, 258, 286.


  Valley, great central, 9, 92 _et seq._, 256, 360.

  Valdivia, city of, 96, 107, 188, 300.

  Valdivia, Pedro de, 16, 69, 214, 216-8, 280.

  Valparaiso, 7, 21, 46-59, 148, 209, 233, 310, 348;
    capture of, 351.

  Vandalism, 334.

  Vicuña, 35.

  Vicuña, Señor, 35, 348, 354.

  Villagran, 219.

  Villagran, the, 281.

  Viña del Mar, 59, 148, 350.

  Vineyards, 99.

  Virgenes, Cape, 6, 123, 124.

  Virgins, Feast of the, 77.

  Volcanoes, 7, 67, 94, 395-6.


  War, the nitrate, 315 _et seq._

  Waterfalls, 10, 118.

  Water power, 363.

  Wheelwright, William, 243-5, 253, 258.

  Whymper, Edward, 166.

  Wine, 99.

  Women, 58, 90, 203-7, 271-339.

  Wool, 134, 361.

  Wrecks, 5.


  Yahgans, the, 142-4.

  Yanqui, the, 382.


  Zañartú, Señor, 356.





End of Project Gutenberg's Chile and Her People of To-day, by Nevin O. Winter