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BY THE SAME AUTHOR.

The Foraminifera

An Introduction to the Study of the Protozoa

by

FREDERICK CHAPMAN, A.L.S., F.R.M.S.


This book has been written with a view of meeting a demand which
has arisen for a concise account of the Foraminifera, suited to the
requirements of the student of Natural History and Palaeontology.

With 14 plates and 42 illustrations in the Text.


DEMY 8vo. CLOTH, 10s. 6d.

[Illustration: The Keystone Printing Co., 552-4 Lonsdale St., Melb.]

[Illustration: =A FOSSIL CRINOID=

(Helicocrinus plumosus), about 5/6 nat. size, in Silurian Mudstone,
Brunswick, Victoria.

                                        (_Spec. in Nat. Mus., Melbourne_).
]




Australasian Fossils

A Students' Manual of Palaeontology

By FREDERICK CHAPMAN,

Palaeontologist to the National Museum, Melbourne.

Formerly Assistant in the Geological Department of the Royal College of
Science, London.

Assoc. Linnean Soc. [Lond.], F.R.M.S., etc.

Author of "The Foraminifera," "A Monograph of the Silurian Bivalved
Mollusca of Victoria," "New or Little-known Victorian Fossils in the
National Museum," etc.

With an Introduction by

PROFESSOR E. W. SKEATS, D.Sc., F.G.S.

GEORGE ROBERTSON & COMPANY PROPY. LTD.,

Melbourne, Sydney, Adelaide, Brisbane and London.

1914.


To

PROFESSOR JOHN WESLEY JUDD


  this work is dedicated as a slight tribute of esteem, and in grateful
  acknowledgement of kindly help and encouragement through many years.




CONTENTS.


                                                                       Page

  Preface                                                                10

  Introduction by Professor E. W. Skeats, D.Sc., F.G.S.                  13


                  PART I.--GENERAL PRINCIPLES.

  Chap.  I.--Nature and uses of Fossils                                  21

    "   II.--Classification of Fossil Animals and Plants                 34

    "  III.--The Geological Epochs and Time-range of Fossils             41

    "   IV.--How Fossils are Found, and the Rocks They Form              51


                    PART II.--SYSTEMATIC PALAEONTOLOGY.

  Chap.  V.--Fossil Plants                                               82

    "   VI.--Fossil Foraminifera and Radiolaria                          95

    "  VII.--Fossil Sponges, Corals and Graptolites                     107

    " VIII.--Fossil Starfishes, Sea-lilies and Sea-urchins              133

    "   IX.--Fossil Worms, Sea-mats and Lamp-shells                     152

    "    X.--Fossil Shell-fish                                          174

    "   XI.--Fossil Trilobites, Crustacea and Insects                   220

    "  XII.--Fossil Fishes, Amphibians, Reptiles, Birds and Mammals     257


  Appendix.--Notes on Collecting and Preserving Fossils                 315

  Index                                                                 321




LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.


  Fig.                                                                 Page

    1. Fossil Shells in clay                                             22

    2. Tracks, probably of Crustaceans                                   22

    3. Structure of Silicified Wood in tangential section:
         _Araucarioxylon Daintreei_, Chapm.                              24

    4. Portrait of William Smith                                         26

    5. Raised Beach: Brighton, England                                   28

    6. Raised Beach: Torquay, Victoria                                   28

    7. Marine Fossils in Volcanic Tuff: Summit of Snowdon                29

    8. Kitchen Middens: Torquay, Victoria                                30

    9. Submerged Forest on the Cheshire Coast                            30

   10. _Pecten murrayanus_, Tate. A fossil shell allied to
         a living species                                                32

   11. Cliff section: Torquay, Victoria                                  42

   12. Diagram of superposition of Strata                                42

   13. Diagram of the Range-in-time of Australasian Fossils              50

   14. _Diprotodon_ skeletons in situ: Lake Callabonna, S. Australia     51

   15. Bird remains on sand dunes: King Island, Bass Strait              52

   16. Impression of Bird's feather in Ironstone: Western Victoria       52

   17. A Fossil Turtle: _Notochelone costata_, Owen sp.                  52

   18. A Ganoid Fish: _Pristisomus crassus_, A. S. Woodward              54

   19. A fossil Insect in amber (_Tipula sp._)                           54

   20. A fossil Crustacean: _Thalassina emerii_, Bell                    55

   21. An Ammonite: _Desmoceras flindersi_, McCoy sp.                    55

   22. Belemnites: _Belemnites diptycha_, McCoy                          56

   23. A Group of Lamp-shells: _Magellania flavescens_, Lam. sp.         56

   24. Zoarium of a living Polyzoan: _Retepora_ sp.                      58

   25. A fossil Polyzoan: _Macropora clarkei_, T. Woods sp.              58

   26. Fossil Worm-tubes: (?) _Serpula_                                  60

   27. A living Sea-urchin: _Strongylocentrotus erythrogrammus_, Val.    60

   28. A fossil Sea-urchin: _Linthia antiaustrails_, Tate                60

   29. A fossil Brittle-Star: _Ophioderma egertoni_, Brod. sp.           60

   30. A fossil Crinoid: _Taxocrinus simplex_, Phillips sp.              62

   31. Graptolites on Slate: _Tetragraptus fruticosus_, J. Hall sp.      62

   32. A Stromatoporoid: _Actinostroma_                                  63

   33. Corals in Devonian Marble: _Favosites_                            64

   34. Siliceous Skeleton of a living Sponge: (?) _Chonelasma_           64

   35. Spicules of a fossil Sponge: _Ecionema newberyi_, McCoy sp.       65

   36. Nummulites: _N. gizehensis_, Ehr. var. _champollioni_, De
         la Harpe                                                        65

   37. Cainozoic Radiolaria                                              66

   38. Radiolaria in Siliceous Limestone                                 67

   39. Travertin Limestone, with leaves of Beech (_Fagus_)               67

   40. Freshwater Limestone with shells (_Bulinus_)                      68

   41. Hardened mudstone with Brachiopods (_Orthis_, etc.)               69

   42. Diatomaceous Earth                                                72

   43. _Lepidocyclina_ Limestone                                         73

   44. Coral in Limestone: _Favosites grandipora_, Eth. fil.             74

   45. Crinoidal Limestone                                               74

   46. Turritella Limestone                                              75

   47. Ostracodal Limestone                                              75

   48. _Halimeda_ Limestone                                              77

   49. Tasmanite: a Spore Coal                                           77

   50. Kerosene Shale                                                    77

   51. Bone Bed                                                          77

   52. Bone Breccia                                                      79

   53. Cainozoic Ironstone with Leaves (_Banksia_)                       80

   54. _Girvanella conferta_, Chapm., in Silurian Limestone              83

   55. Palaeozoic Plants                                                 83

   56. Restoration of _Lepidodendron_                                    84

   57. Stem of _Lepidodendron (Lepidophloios)_, showing leaf-scars       84

   58. Upper Palaeozoic Plants                                           85

   59. Map of Gondwana-Land                                              87

   60. Mesozoic Plants                                                   88

   61. Cainozoic Plants                                                  90

   62. Eucalyptus leaves from the Deep Leads                             92

   63. Palaeozoic and Mesozoic Foraminifera                              97

   64. _Lepidocyclina marginata_, Mich. sp. Sections of shell
         showing structure                                               99

   65. Cainozoic Foraminifera                                           100

   66. Fossil Radiolaria                                                103

   67. Palaeozoic Sponges and Archaeocyathinae                          108

   68. Cainozoic Sponges                                                111

   69. Silurian Corals                                                  111

   70. Upper Palaeozoic Corals                                          116

   71. Cainozoic Corals                                                 118

   72. Stromatoporoidea and Cladophora                                  121

   73. Lower Ordovician Graptolites                                     125

   74. Lower Ordovician Graptolites                                     125

   75. Upper Ordovician and Silurian Graptolites                        127

   76. Fossil Crinoids                                                  135

   77. Fossil Starfishes                                                140

   78. _Protaster brisingoides_, Gregory, in Silurian Sandstone         142

   79. _Gregoriura spryi_, Chapm., in Silurian Mudstone                 143

   80. Cainozoic Sea-urchins                                            145

   81. Cainozoic Sea-urchins                                            147

   82. Fossil Worms                                                     153

   83. Palaeozoic Polyzoa                                               156

   84. Cainozoic Polyzoa                                                157

   85. Lower Palaeozoic Brachiopods                                     159

   86. Silurian and Devonian Brachiopods                                161

   87. Carbopermian Brachiopods                                         163

   88. Mesozoic Brachiopods                                             165

   89. Cainozoic Brachiopods                                            167

   90. Lower Palaeozoic Bivalves                                        176

   91. Palaeozoic Bivalves                                              179

   92. Carbopermian Bivalves                                            180

   93. Lower Mesozoic Bivalves                                          181

   94. Cretaceous Bivalves                                              183

   95. Cainozoic Bivalves                                               185

   96. Cainozoic Bivalves                                               186

   97. Fossil Scaphopods and Chitons                                    188

   98. Lower Palaeozoic Gasteropoda                                     192

   99. Silurian Gasteropoda                                             194

  100. Upper Palaeozoic Gasteropoda                                     195

  101. Mesozoic Gasteropoda                                             197

  102. Cainozoic Gasteropoda                                            199

  103. Cainozoic Gasteropoda                                            200

  104. Late Cainozoic and Pleistocene Gasteropoda                       201

  105. Palaeozoic Cephalopoda                                           206

  106. Mesozoic and Cainozoic Cephalopoda                               208

  107. Diagram restoration of an Australian Trilobite (_Dalmanites_)    224

  108. Cambrian Trilobites                                              226

  109. Older Silurian Trilobites                                        228

  110. Newer Silurian Trilobites                                        230

  111. Carboniferous Trilobites and a Phyllopod                         232

  112. Silurian Ostracoda                                               236

  113. Upper Palaeozoic and Mesozoic Ostracoda                          238

  114. Cainozoic Ostracoda                                              239

  115. Fossil Cirripedes                                                242

  116. Cirripedes. _Lepas anatifera_, Linn.: living goose
         barnacle, and _L. pritchardi_, Hall: Cainozoic                 242

  117. _Ceratiocaris papilio_, Salter                                   244

  118. Ordovician Phyllocarids                                          245

  119. Silurian Phyllocarids                                            245

  120. Fossil Crabs and Insects                                         247

  121. Silurian Eurypterids                                             249

  122. _Thyestes magnificus_, Chapm.                                    259

  123. _Gyracanthides murrayi_, A. S. Woodw. Restoration                260

  124. Teeth and Scales of Palaeozoic and Mesozoic Fishes               260

  125. _Cleithrolepis granulatus_, Egerton                              263

  126. Tooth of _Ceratodus avus_, A. S. W., and phalangeal
         of a carnivorous Deinosaur                                     264

  127. Scale of _Ceratodus ? avus_                                      265

  128. The Queensland Lung-fish: _Neoceratodus forsteri_, Krefft        266

  129. _Leptolepis gregarius_, A. S. W.                                 266

  130. Cretaceous and Cainozoic Fish-teeth                              268

  131. Cainozoic Fish remains                                           270

  132. _Bothriceps major_, A. S. W.                                     273

  133. _Ichthyosaurus australis_, McCoy                                 277

  134. Fossil Reptiles                                                  278

  135. Impression of Bird's feather, magnified, Cainozoic: Victoria     281

  136. _Cnemiornis calcitrans_, Owen                                    284

  137.  _Dinornis maximus_, Owen. Great Moa                             284

  138. _Pachyornis elephantopus_, Owen                                  285

  139. Skeleton of _Sarcophilus ursinus_, Harris sp.                    288

  140. Skull of fossil specimen of _Sarcophilus ursinus_                288

  141. _Thylacinus major_, Owen. Hind part of mandible                  289

  142. _Phascolomys pliocenus_, McCoy. Mandible                         290

  143. Cainozoic Teeth and Otolith                                      291

  144. Skeleton of _Diprotodon australis_, Owen                         291

  145. Right hind foot of _Diprotodon australis_                        292

  146. Restoration of _Diprotodon australis_                            292

  147. Skull and mandible of _Thylacoleo carnifex_, Owen                293

  148. _Wynyardia bassiana_, Spencer                                    294

  149. Tooth of _Scaldicetus macgeei_, Chapm.                           297

  150. Impressions of footprints in dune sand-rock, Warrnambool         301

  Map of Australia, showing chief fossiliferous localities.




PREFACE.


The more important discoveries of fossils in the southern hemisphere
have received, as a rule, very meagre notice in many of the text-books
of Geology and Palaeontology published in England, Germany and America,
and used by Australasian students. It is thought, therefore, that the
time has arrived when an attempt should be made to collect the main facts
bearing upon this subject, in order to present them from an _Australasian_
standpoint. With this in view, references to fossils occurring in the
northern hemisphere are subordinated, seeing that these may be easily
obtained on reference to the accepted text-books in general use.

The present work does not presume to furnish a complete record of
Australasian palaeontology, since that would mean the production of a much
more extensive and costly volume. Sufficient information is here given,
however, to form a groundwork for the student of this section of natural
science, and a guide to the collector of these "medals of creation."

The systematic portion of this book has been arranged primarily from the
biological side, since Palaeontology is the "study of ancient life."
Taking each life-group, therefore, from the lowest to the highest types,
all the divisions represented by fossils are dealt with in turn, beginning
with their occurrence in the oldest rocks and ending with those in the
newest strata.

If a commendation of the study of fossils, apart from its scientific
utility, were needed, it could be pointed out that palaeontology as a
branch of geology is, _par excellence_, an open-air study: and since
it requires as handmaids all the sister sciences, is a subject of
far-reaching interest. Microscopy and photography are of immense value
in certain branches of fossil research, the former in the examination of
the minute forms of mollusca, foraminifera and ostracoda, the latter in
the exact portraiture of specimens too intricate to copy with the brush,
or too evanescent to long retain, when out of their matrix, their clean
fresh surfaces. With geology or palaeontology as an objective, a country
walk may be a source of much enjoyment to its students, for "in their hand
is Nature like an open book"; and the specimens collected on a summer
excursion may be closely and profitably studied in the spare time of the
winter recess.

The author sincerely trusts that students may share the same pleasure
which he has derived from the study of these relics of past life; and that
the present attempt to show their relationship both in geological time and
biological organisation, may be the means of inducing many to make further
advances in this fascinating subject.

In the production of this work several friends and collaborators have
materially assisted, their aid considerably increasing its value. It is
therefore with grateful thanks that the author acknowledges the help and
encouragement given by Professor E. W. Skeats, D.Sc., who has not only
been good enough to write the Introductory passages, but who has carefully
gone over the MS. and made many helpful suggestions. Mr. W. S. Dun,
F.G.S., Palaeontologist to the Geological Survey Branch of the Department
of Mines, Sydney, has also rendered generous help in giving the benefit
of his full acquaintance of the palaeontology of his own State. To the
Trustees of the National Museum the author is under special obligations
for permission to photograph many unique fossil specimens in the Museum
collection, comprising Figs. 3, 16-18, 20-22, 28-31, 35, 39, 40, 45, 46,
51-54, 57, 62, 78, 79, 127, 133, 136, 147 and 148. The author's thanks
are also due to Dr. E. C. Stirling, M.D., M.A., F.R.S., for permission to
use Figs. 143, 144 and 145, whilst similar privileges have been accorded
by Prof. A. G. Seward, F.R.S., Dr. F. A. Bather, F.R.S., and Mr. C. L.
Barrett. Prof. T. W. Edgeworth David, F.R.S., has kindly cleared up
some doubtful points of stratigraphy and further increased the author's
indebtedness by the loan of a unique slide of Radiolaria figured on p. 69.
Mr. Eastwood Moore, to whom special thanks are due, has greatly added to
the pictorial side of this work by his skillful help in preparing many of
the illustrations for the press, as well as in the drawing of the several
maps. The grouped sets of fossils have been especially drawn for this work
by the author. They are either copied from authentic specimens or from
previously published drawings; references to the authorities being given
in the accompanying legends. Dr. T. S. Hall has kindly read the section
on Graptolites and Mammalia. For many helpful suggestions and the careful
reading of proofs, thanks are especially owing to Mr. W. E. G. Simons, Mr.
R. A. Keble, and to my wife.




INTRODUCTION.


                                            Geological Department,
                                                The University, Melbourne.

William Smith, the Father of English Geology, used to apologize for the
study of palaeontology by claiming that "the search for a fossil is at
least as rational a proceeding as the pursuit of a hare." Those of us who
are accustomed to take the field, armed with a hammer, in the search for
"medals of creation" and from time to time have experienced the sporting
enjoyment of bringing to light a rare or perfect specimen are quite
prepared to support his claim. But the student of fossils needs the help
of a text book to guide him to the literature on the subject, to help
him with his identifications or to indicate that some of his finds are
new and hitherto undescribed. European and American workers have long
been provided with excellent books treating generally of fossils, but the
illustrations have been quite naturally taken mainly from forms occurring
in the Northern Hemisphere. Our own fossil forms both plants and animals
are numerous, interesting and in many cases peculiar, but the literature
concerning them is so widely scattered in various scientific publications
that a warm welcome should be given to this book of Mr. Chapman's, in
which the Australian evidence is brought together and summarised by one,
whose training, long experience, and personal research qualify him to
undertake the task. Especially will teachers and students of Geology and
Palaeontology value such an undertaking. Workers in other countries who
have only partial access to the Australian literature on the subject
should also find this a valuable book of reference.

In the study of fossils we are concerned with the nature, evolution
and distribution of the former inhabitants of the earth. The study of
Palaeontology may be justified as a means of scientific discipline, for
the contributions the subject makes to the increase of natural knowledge
and the unfolding of panoramas of ancient life. It also provides perhaps
the most positive evidence in the story of evolution. So, too, the student
of the present day distribution of animals and plants finds the key to
many a problem in zoo-geography in the records of past migrations yielded
by the study of fossils in different lands. The stratigraphical geologist
is of course principally concerned with two important aspects of the study
of fossils.

The masterly generalisation of William Smith that strata can be identified
by their fossil contents established by close study of the rocks and
fossils of the British Oolites has been confirmed generally by subsequent
work. The comparative study of the fossil contents of rocks in widely
separated areas has proved to be the most valuable means by which the
correlation of the rocks can be effected and their identity of age
established. In some cases the recognition of a single fossil species
in two areas separated, perhaps, by thousands of miles may suffice to
demonstrate that the rocks are of the same age. For example, a graptolite
such as _Phyllograptus typus_ is found in many parts of the world, but has
only a very restricted range in time. It has been found only in rocks of
Lower Ordovician age. Its occurrence in Wales and in the rocks of Bendigo
practically suffices to establish the identity in age of the rocks in
these widely separated areas.

Generally, however, much closer study and a more detailed examination of a
large number of the fossils of a rock series are required before the age
of the rocks can be surely established and a safe correlation made with
distant localities.

The stratigraphical generalisations to be made from the study of fossils
however must be qualified by certain considerations. Among these are the
fact that our knowledge of the life forms of a given geological period is
necessarily incomplete, that the differences in the fossil contents of
rocks may depend not only on differences of age but also in the conditions
under which the organisms lived and the rocks were accumulated, and that
forms of life originating in one area do not spread themselves immediately
over the earth but migrate at velocities depending on their mode of life
and the presence or absence of barriers to their progress.

Our incomplete knowledge of the forms living in remote geological periods
arises partly from the fact that some forms had no permanent skeleton
and were therefore incapable of preservation, partly to the obliteration
of the skeletons of organisms through subsequent earth movements in the
rocks or through the solvent action of water. Many land forms, too,
probably disintegrated on the surface before deposits were formed over
the area. Apart from these causes which determine that a full knowledge
of the fossils from ancient rocks in particular, will never be acquired,
our knowledge is incomplete by reason either of difficulty of access to
certain areas or incomplete search. As a result of later discoveries
earlier conclusions based on incomplete evidence as to the age of a rock
series, have not infrequently been modified.

The study of the present distribution of animals and plants over the
earth is a help in the attempt to decide how far the fossil differences
in the sets of rocks are due to differences in the ages of the rocks or
to differences in the conditions under which the organisms lived. The
present, in this, as in many other geological problems, is the key to the
past.

We know, for instance, that differences of climate largely control the
geographical distribution of land animals and especially of land plants,
and for that reason among others, fossil plants are generally less
trustworthy guides to geological age than fossil animals.

In the distribution of marine animals at the present day we find that
organisms of simple structure are generally more wide-spread and less
susceptible to changes in their environment than are the more complex
organisms with specialised structures. Hence we find, for instance, a
fossil species of the Foraminifera may persist unchanged through several
geological periods, while a species of fossil fish has in general not only
a short range in time but often a restricted geographical extent. If we
consider the marine organisms found at the present day we find a number
of free-swimming forms very widely distributed, while a large number are
restricted either by reason of climate or of depth. Certain organisms
are only to be found between high and low tide levels, others between
low tide level and a depth of thirty fathoms, while many quite different
forms live in deeper waters. If we confine our attention to shallow-water
marine forms we note that certain forms are at the present day restricted
to waters of a certain temperature. We find, therefore, a contrast between
arctic and tropical faunas, while other types characterize temperate
latitudes. Climatic and bathymetrical differences at the present day
therefore lead to distinct differences in the distribution of certain
organisms, while other forms, less sensitive to these factors, range
widely and may be almost universally distributed. Similar conditions
obtained in past geological times, and therefore in attempting to
correlate the rocks of one area with those of another those fossils which
are most wide-spread are often found to be the most valuable.

Attention should also be paid to the conditions under which the deposits
accumulated, since it is clear that rocks may be formed at the same time
in different areas and yet contain many distinct fossils by reason of
climatic or bathymetrical differences. Among living marine organisms we
find certain forms restricted to sandy or muddy sea-bottoms and others
to clear water, and these changes in the conditions of deposition
of sediment have played their part in past geological periods in
determining differences in the fossil faunas of rocks which were laid
down simultaneously. We not infrequently find mudstones passing laterally
into limestones, and this lithological change is always accompanied by
a more or less notable change in the fossil contents of the two rock
types. Such facts emphasize the close connection between stratigraphy
and palaeontology, and indicate that the successful tracing out of the
geological history of any area is only possible when the evidence of the
stratigrapher is reinforced by that provided by the palaeontologist. The
fact that species of animals and plants which have been developed in a
particular area do not spread all over the world at once but migrate
very slowly led Huxley many years ago to put forward his hypothesis of
"homotaxis." He agreed that when the order of succession of rocks and
fossils has been made out in one area, this order and succession will be
found to be generally similar in other areas. The deposits in two such
contrasted areas are homotaxial, that is, show a similarity of order,
but, he claimed, are not necessarily synchronous in their formation. In
whatever parts of the world Carboniferous, Devonian and Silurian fossils
may be found, the rocks with Carboniferous fossils will be found to
overlie those with Devonian, and these in their turn rest upon those
containing Silurian fossils. And yet Huxley maintained that if, say,
Africa was the area in which faunas and floras originated, the migration
of a Silurian fauna and flora might take place so slowly that by the time
it reached Britain the succeeding Devonian forms had developed in Africa,
and when it reached North America, Devonian forms had reached Britain and
Carboniferous forms had developed in Africa. If this were so a Devonian
fauna and flora in Britain may have been contemporaneous with Silurian
life in North America and with a Carboniferous fauna and flora in Africa.

This could only be true if the time taken for the migration of faunas
and floras was so great as to transcend the boundaries between great
geological periods. This does not appear to be the case, and Huxley's idea
in its extreme form has been generally abandoned. At the same time certain
anomalies in the range in time of individual genera have been noted, and
may possibly be explained on such lines. For instance, among the group of
the graptolites, in Britain the genus _Bryograptus_ occurs only in the
Upper Cambrian and the genus _Leptograptus_ only in the Upper Ordovician
rocks. In Victoria these two genera, together with typical Lower
Ordovician forms, may be found near Lancefield preserved on a single slab
of shale. In the same way, in a single quarry in Triassic rocks in New
South Wales, a number of fossil fish have been found and described, some
of which have been compared to Jurassic, others to Permian, and others to
Carboniferous forms in the Northern Hemisphere.

Another point which the palaeontologist may occasionally find evidence for
is the existence of "biological asylums," areas which by means of land or
other barriers may be for a long period separated from the main stream
of evolution. We know that the present fauna and flora of Australia
is largely of archaic aspect, as it includes a number of types which
elsewhere have long ago become extinct or were never developed. This
appears to be due to the long isolation of Australia and, as Professor
Gregory happily puts it--its "development in a biological backwater." We
have some evidence that similar asylums have existed in past geological
periods, with the result that in certain areas where uniform conditions
prevailed for a long time or where isolation from competition prevented
rapid evolution, some organisms which became extinct in other areas,
persisted unchanged in the "asylum" into a younger geological period.

The broad generalizations that rocks may be identified by their fossil
contents and that the testimony of the rocks demonstrates the general
order of evolution from simple to complex forms, have only been placed
on a surer footing by long continued investigations. The modifications
produced by conditions of deposit, of climate and of natural barriers
to migration, while introducing complexities into the problems of
Palaeontology, are every year becoming better known; and when considered
in connection with the variations in the characters of the rocks, provide
valuable and interesting evidence towards the solution of the ultimate
problems of geology and palaeontology, which include the tracing out of
the evolution of the history of the earth from the most remote geological
period to that point at which the geologist hands over his story to the
archaeologist, the historian, and the geographer.

                                                         ERNEST W. SKEATS.




PART I.

GENERAL PRINCIPLES.




CHAPTER I.

NATURE AND USES OF FOSSILS.


=Scope of Geology.--=

The science of GEOLOGY, of which PALAEONTOLOGY or the study of fossils,
forms a part, is concerned with the nature and structure of the earth, the
physical forces that have shaped it, and the organic agencies that have
helped to build it.


=Nature of Fossils.--=

The remains of animals and plants that formerly existed in the different
periods of the history of the earth are spoken of as fossils. They are
found, more or less plentifully, in such common rocks as clays, shales,
sandstones, and limestones, all of which are comprised in the great series
of Sedimentary Rocks (Fig. 1).

According to the surroundings of the organisms, whether they existed on
land, in rivers, lakes, estuaries, or the sea, they are spoken of as
belonging to terrestrial, fluviatile, lacustrine, estuarine, or marine
deposits.

[Illustration: =Fig. 1.--Fossil Shells Embedded in Sandy Clay.=

About 3/4 nat. size. Of Cainozoic or Tertiary Age (Kalimnan Series).
Grange Burn, near Hamilton, Victoria.

                                                            (_F.C. Coll._)

(G = Glycimeris. L = Limopsis. N = Natica).]

[Illustration: =Fig. 2.--Tracks probably of Crustaceans (Phyllocarids).=

About 3/4 nat. size. Impression of a Slab of Upper Ordovician Shale.
Diggers' Rest, Victoria.

                                                            (_F.C. Coll._)
]

The name fossil, from the Latin 'fodere' to dig,--'fossilis,' dug out,--is
applied to the remains of any animals or plants which have been buried
either in sediments laid down in water, in materials gathered together
by the wind on land as sand-dunes, in beds of volcanic ash, or in cave
earths. But not only remains of organisms are thus called fossils, for the
name is also applied to structures only indirectly connected with once
living objects, such as rain-prints, ripple-marks, sun-cracks, and tracks
or impressions of worms and insects (Fig. 2).


=Preservation of Fossils.--=

In ordinary terms, fossils are the durable parts of animals and plants
which have resisted complete decay by being covered over with the deposits
above-named. It is due, then, to the fact that they have been kept from
the action of the air, with its destructive bacteria, that we are able to
still find these relics of life in the past.


=Petrifaction of Fossils.--=

When organisms are covered by a tenacious mud, they sometimes undergo no
further change. Very often, however, moisture containing mineral matter
such as carbonate of lime or silica, percolates through the stratum which
contains the fossils, and then they not only have their pores filled with
the mineral, but their actual substance may also undergo a molecular
change, whereby the original composition of the shell or the hard part is
entirely altered. This tends almost invariably to harden the fossils still
further, which change of condition is called petrifaction, or the making
into stone.

[Illustration: =Fig. 3. Thin Slice of Petrified or Silicified Wood in
Tangential Section.=

Araucarioxylon Daintreei, Chapm. = Dadoxylon australe, Arber; × 28.
Carbopermian: Newcastle, New South Wales.

                                                       (_Nat. Mus. Coll._)
]


=Structure Preserved.--=

Petrifaction does not necessarily destroy the structure of a fossil. For
example, a piece of wood, which originally consisted of carbon, hydrogen,
and nitrogen, may be entirely replaced by flint or silica: and yet the
original structure of the wood may be so perfectly preserved that when
a thin slice of the petrifaction is examined under a high power of the
microscope, the tissues with their component cells are seen and easily
recognised (Fig. 3).


=Early Observers.--=

Remains of animals buried in the rocks were known from the earliest times,
and frequent references to these were made by the ancient Greek and Roman
philosophers.


Xenophanes.--

Xenophanes, who lived B.C. 535, wrote of shells, fishes and seals which
had become dried in mud, and were found inland and on the tops of the
highest mountains. The presence of these buried shells and bones was
ascribed by the ancients to a plastic force latent in the earth itself,
while in some cases they were regarded as freaks of nature.


Leonardo da Vinci.--

In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries Italian observers came to
the fore in clearly demonstrating the true nature of fossils. This was
no doubt due in part to the fact that the Italian coast affords a rich
field of observation in this particular branch of science. The celebrated
painter Leonardo da Vinci (early part of the sixteenth century), who
carried out some engineering works in connection with canals in the north
of Italy, showed that the mud brought down by rivers had penetrated into
the interior of shells at a time when they were still at the bottom of the
sea near the coast.


Steno.--

In 1669, Steno, a Danish physician residing in Italy, wrote a work on
organic petrifactions which are found enclosed in solid rocks, and showed
by his dissection of a shark which had been recently captured and by a
comparison of its teeth with those found fossil in the cliffs, that they
were identical. The same author also pointed out the resemblance between
the shells discovered in the Italian strata and those living on the
adjacent shores. It was not until the close of the eighteenth century,
however, that the study of fossil remains received a decided impetus.
It is curious to note that many of these later authors maintained the
occurrence of a universal flood to account for the presence of fossil
shells and bones on the dry land.

[Illustration: =Fig. 4.--William Smith (1769-1839.)=

"The Father of English Geology," at the age of 69.

                                                  (_From Brit. Mus. Cat._)
]


=Fossils an Index to Age.--=

A large part of the credit of showing how fossils are restricted to
certain strata, and help to fix the succession and age of the beds, is due
to the English geologist and surveyor, William Smith (Fig. 4). "The Father
of English Geology," as he has been called, published two works[1] in the
early part of last century, in which he expressed his view of the value of
fossils to the geologist and surveyor, and showed that there was a regular
law of superposition of one bed upon another, and that strata could be
identified at distant localities by their included fossils. Upon this
foundation the work of later geologists has been firmly established; and
students of strata and of fossils work hand in hand.

[Footnote 1: "Strata identified by Organised Fossils," 1816-1819; and
"Stratigraphical System of Organised Fossils," 1817.]


=Stratigraphy.--=

That branch of geology which discusses the nature and relations of the
various sediments of the earth's crust, and the form in which they were
laid down, is called Stratigraphy. From it we learn that in bygone times
many of those places that are now occupied by dry land have been, often
more than once, covered by the sea; and thus Tennyson's lines are forcibly
brought to mind--

  "There where the long street roars hath been
  The stillness of the central sea."


=Elevated Sea-beds.--=

A striking illustration in proof of this emergence of the land from
the sea is the occurrence of marine shells similar to those now found
living in the sea, in sea-cliffs sometimes many hundreds of feet above
sea-level. When these upraised beds consist of shingle or sand with
shore-loving shells, as limpets and mussels, they are spoken of as Raised
Beaches. Elevated beaches are often found maintaining the same level along
coast-lines for many miles, like those recorded by Darwin at Chili and
Peru, or in the south of England (Fig. 5). They also occur intermittently
along the Victorian coast, especially around the indents, where they have
survived the wear and tear of tides along the coast line (Fig. 6). They
are also a common feature, as a capping, on many coral islands which have
undergone elevation.

[Illustration: =Fig. 5.--A Raised Beach at Black Rock, Brighton, England.=

                                                             (_Original_).
]

[Illustration: =Fig. 6.--Raised Beach (a) and Native Middens (b)=

Torquay, Victoria.

                                                               (Original).
]

[Illustration: =Fig. 7.--Marine Fossils (Orthis flabellulum, Sowerby.)=

About nat. size. In Volcanic Tuff of Ordovician Age. From the Summit of
Snowdon, North Wales, at an elevation of 3571 feet above sea level.

                                                            (_F.C. Coll._)
]


=Sea-beds far from the Present Coast.--=

Marine beds of deeper water origin may be found not only close to the
coast-line, but frequently on the tops of inland hills some miles from
the sea-coast. Their included sea-shells and other organic remains are
often found covered by fine sediment forming extensive beds; and they
may frequently occur in the position in which they lived and died (Fig.
7). Although it is well known that sea-birds carry shell-fish for some
distance inland, yet this would not account for more than a few isolated
examples.


=Raised Beaches as Distinct from Middens.--=

Again, it may be argued that the primitive inhabitants of countries
bordering the coast were in the habit of piling up the empty shells of
the edible molluscs used by them for food: but these "kitchen middens"
are easily distinguished from fossil deposits like shelly beaches, by the
absence of stratified layers; and, further, by the shells being confined
to edible species, as the Cockle (_Cardium_), the Blood-cockle (_Arca_),
the Mussel (_Mytilus_), and the Oyster (_Ostrea_) (Fig. 8).

[Illustration: =Fig. 8.--Remains of Edible Shell Fish=
(Kitchen-midden--native, mirrn-yong)

in Sand Dunes near Spring Creek, Torquay, Victoria.

                                                             (_Original_).
]

[Illustration: =Fig. 9.--Part of a Submerged Forest=

seen at low water on the Cheshire coast at Leasowe, England.

                                         (_From Seward's "Fossil Plants"_)
]


=Submerged Forests.--=

Evidence of change in the coast-line is shown by the occurrence of
submerged forest-land, known as "fossil forests," which consist of the
stumps of trees still embedded in the black, loamy soil. Such forests,
when of comparatively recent age, are found near the existing coast-line,
and may sometimes extend for a considerable distance out to sea (Fig. 9).

From the foregoing we learn that:--

  _1.--Fossils afford data of the various Changes that have taken place
  in past times in the Relative Positions of Land and Water._

=Changes of Climate in the Past.--=

At the present day we find special groups of animals (fauna), and plants
(flora), restricted to tropical climates; and others, conversely, to the
arctic regions. Cycads and tree-ferns, for example, seem to flourish best
in warm or sub-tropical countries: yet in past times they were abundant
in northern Europe in what are now temperate and arctic regions, as in
Yorkshire, Spitzbergen, and Northern Siberia, where indeed at one time
they formed the principal flora.

The rein-deer and musk-sheep, now to be found only in the arctic regions,
once lived in the South of England, France and Germany. The dwarf willow
(_Salix polaris_) and an arctic moss (_Hypnum turgescens_), now restricted
to the same cold region, occur fossil in the South of England.

In Southern Australia and in New Zealand, the marine shells which lived
during the earlier and middle Tertiary times belong to genera and species
which are indicative of a warmer climate than that now prevailing; this
ancient fauna being like that met with in dredging around the northern
coasts of Australia (Fig. 10.)

[Illustration: =Fig. 10.--A Fossil Shell (Pecten murrayanus, Tate).=

Of Oligocene to Lower Pliocene Age in Southern Australia; closely allied
to, if not identical with, a species living off the coast of Queensland.
About nat. size.

                                                            (_F.C. Coll._)
]

From the above evidence we may say that:--

  _2.--Fossils teach us that in Former Times the Climate of certain
  parts of the earth's surface was Different from that now existing._

=Fossils as Guides to Age of Strata.--=

In passing from fossil deposits of fairly recent origin to those of older
date, we find the proportion of living species gradually diminish, being
replaced by forms now extinct. After this the genera themselves are
replaced by more ancient types, and if we penetrate still deeper into
the series of geological strata, even families and orders of animals and
plants give place to others entirely unknown at the present day.

From this we conclude that:--

  _3.--Fossil Types, or Guide Fossils, are of great value in indicating
  the Relative Age of Geological Formations._

=Gradual Evolution of Life-forms from Lower to Higher Types.--=

As a general rule the various types of animals and plants become simpler
in organisation as we descend the geological scale. For example, in the
oldest rocks the animals are confined to the groups of Foraminifera,
Sponges, Corals, Graptolites, Shell-fish and Trilobites, all back-boneless
animals: whilst it was not until the Devonian period that the primitive
fishes appeared as a well-defined group; and in the next formation, the
Carboniferous Series, the first traces of the Batrachians (Frog-like
animals) and Reptiles are found. Birds do not appear, so far as their
remains are known, until near the close of the Jurassic; whilst Mammals
are sparsely represented by Monotremes and Marsupials in the Triassic and
Jurassic, becoming more abundant in Cainozoic times, and by the Eutheria
(Higher Mammals) from the commencement of the Eocene period.

It is clear from the above and other facts in the geological distribution
of animal types that:--

  _4.--The Geological Record supports in the main the Doctrine of
  Evolution from Simpler to more Complex types; and fossils throw much
  light upon the Ancestry of Animals and Plants now found Living._




CHAPTER II.

THE CLASSIFICATION OF FOSSIL ANIMALS AND PLANTS.


An elementary knowledge of the principles underlying the classification of
animals and plants is essential to the beginner in the study of fossils.


=The Naming of Animals.--=

In order to make a clearly understood reference to an animal, or the
remains of one, it is as necessary to give it a name as it is in the case
of a person or a place. Before the time of Linnaeus (1707-1778), it was
the custom to refer, for example, to a shell, in Latin[2] as "the little
spiral shell, with cross markings and tubercles, like a ram's horn;" or to
a worm as "the rounded worm with an elevated back." Improvements in this
cumbersome method of naming were made by several of the earlier authors
by shortening the description; but no strict rule was established until
the tenth edition of Linnaeus' "Systema Naturae" (1758), when that author
instituted his binomial nomenclature by giving each form enumerated both
a generic and specific name. In plain words, this method takes certain
life-forms closely related, but differing in minute particulars, and
places them together in a genus or kindred group. Thus the true dogs
belong to the genus _Canis_, but since this group also includes wolves,
jackals, and foxes, the various canine animals are respectively designated
by a specific name; thus the dog (_Canis familiaris_), the dingo (_C.
dingo_), the wolf (_C. lupus_), the jackal (_C. aureus_), and the fox (_C.
vulpes_). The generic name is placed first. Allied genera are grouped
in families, (for example, Canidae), these into orders (ex. Carnivora),
the orders into classes (ex. Mammalia), and the classes into phyla or
subkingdoms (ex. Vertebrata).

[Footnote 2: The Latin description was used more commonly than it is at
present, as a universal scientific language.]

Plants are classified in much the same way, with the exception that
families and orders are, by some authors, regarded as of equal value, or
even reversed in value; and instead of the term phylum the name series is
used.


Classification of the Animal Kingdom.

    NAME OF PHYLUM.     | FORMS FOUND FOSSIL
  ----------------------+-------------------------------------------------
     I.--PROTOZOA       | Foraminifera, Radiolaria.
                        |
    II.--COELENTERATA   | Sponges, Corals, Stromatoporoids, Graptolites.
                        |
   III.--ECHINODERMATA  | Crinoids, Starfishes, Brittle-stars, Sea-urchins.
                        |
    IV.--VERMES         | Worms (tube-making and burrowing kinds).
                        |
     V.--MOLLUSCOIDEA   | Polyzoa or Sea-mats, Brachiopods or Lamp-shells.
                        |
    VI.--MOLLUSCA       | Shell-fish: as Bivalves, Tusk-shells,
                        |   Chitons or Mail-shells, Gasteropods or
                        |   Snails, Pteropods or Sea-butterflies;
                        |   Cuttle-fishes.
                        |
   VII.--ARTHROPODA     | Joint-footed animals: as Trilobites, Cyprids,
                        |   Crabs and Lobsters, Centipedes, Spiders
                        |   and Insects.
                        |
  VIII.--VERTEBRATA     | Fishes, Amphibians, Reptiles, Birds and Mammals.


Classification of Animal Kingdom.

The first seven groups of the above classification are back-boneless
animals or Invertebrata; the eighth division alone comprising the animals
with a vertebra or backbone.


=Characters of the Several Phyla.--=

In the first group are placed those animals which, when living, consist
of only one cell, or a series of similar cells, but where the cells were
never combined to form tissues having special functions, as in the higher
groups.

PROTOZOA.--

The _Amoeba_ of freshwater ponds is an example of such, but owing to its
skin or cortex being soft, and its consequent inability to be preserved,
it does not concern us here. There are, however, certain marine animals
of this simple type of the Protozoa which secrete carbonate of lime to
form a chambered shell (Foraminifera); or silica to form a netted and
concentrically coated shell held together with radial rods (Radiolaria);
and both of these types are found abundantly as fossils. They are mainly
microscopic, except in the case of the nummulites and a few other kinds of
foraminifera, which are occasionally as large as a crown piece.

COELENTERATA.--

The second group, the Coelenterata, shows a decided advance in
organisation, for the body is multicellular, and provided with a
body-cavity which serves for circulation and digestion. The important
divisions of this group, in which the organisms have hard parts capable of
being fossilised, are the limy and flinty Sponges, the Corals, and allied
groups, as well as the delicate Graptolites which often cover the surface
of the older slates with their serrated, linear forms, resembling pieces
of fret-saws.

ECHINODERMATA.--

The third group, Echinodermata, comprises the Sea-lilies (Crinoids),
Starfishes and Sea-urchins, besides a few other less important types; and
all these mentioned are found living at the present day. Their bodies are
arranged in a radial manner, the skin being strengthened by spicules and
hardened by limy deposits ultimately forming plates. They have a digestive
canal and a circulatory system, and are thus one remove higher than the
preceding group.

VERMES.--

The fourth group, Vermes (Worms), are animals with a bilateral or
two-sided body, which is sometimes divided into segments, but without
jointed appendages. Those which concern the student of fossils are the
tube-making worms, the errant or wandering worms which form casts like the
lob-worm, and the burrowing kinds whose crypts or dwellings become filled
with solid material derived from the surrounding mud.

MOLLUSCOIDEA.--

Group five, the Molluscoidea, contains two types; the Flustras or Sea-mats
(Polyzoa) and the Lamp-shells (Brachiopoda). They are at first sight
totally unlike; for the first-named are colonies of compound animals,
and the second are simple, and enclosed between two valves. They show in
common, however, a bilateral symmetry. The mouth is furnished with fine
tentacles, or with spirally rolled hair-like or ciliated processes.

MOLLUSCA.--

The sixth group, the Mollusca, includes all shell-fish. They are
soft-bodied, bilaterally symmetrical animals, without definite segments.
The shells, on account of being formed of carbonate of lime on an organic
basis, are often found preserved in fossiliferous strata.

ARTHROPODA.--

The seventh group, the Arthropoda, or joint-footed animals, are
distinguished by their segmented, lateral limbs, and by having a body
composed of a series of segments or somites. The body and appendages are
usually protected by a horny covering, the 'exoskeleton.' The group of the
Trilobites played an important part in the first era of the formation of
the earth's crust; whilst the other groups were more sparsely represented
in earlier geological times, but became more and more predominant until
the present day.

VERTEBRATA.--

The great group of the Vertebrata comes last, with its chief
characteristic of the backbone structure, which advances in complexity
from the Fishes to the Higher Mammals.

=A Simplified Classification of the Vegetable Kingdom.=

         SERIES.       |        FORMS FOUND FOSSIL.
  ---------------------+----------------------------------
    I.--THALLOPHYTA    |Sea-weeds: as Corallines and
                       |  Calcareous Algae.
                       |
   II.--BRYOPHYTA      |Mosses, Liverworts.
                       |
  III.--PTERIDOPHYTA   |Fern-like plants, as Horse-tails,
                       |  Club-mosses and true Ferns.
                       |
   IV.--PTERIDOSPERMEAE|Oldest Seed-bearing plants,
                       |  with fern-like foliage.
                       |
    V.--GYMNOSPERMEAE  |Plants with naked seeds, as Cycads
                       |  (Fern-palms), Ginkgo
                       |  (Maiden-hair Tree), and
                       |  Conifers (Pine trees).
                       |
   VI.--ANGIOSPERMEAE  |Flowering plants, as Grasses,
                       |  Lilies and all ordinary trees
                       |  and plants.


=Characters of the Plant Series.=

THALLOPHYTA.--

The first series, the Thallophytes, are simple unicellular plants, and
occupy the same position in the vegetable kingdom as the Protozoa do in
the animal kingdom. Fossil remains of these organisms seem to be fairly
well distributed throughout the entire geological series, but, owing to
the soft structure of the fronds in most of the types, it is often a
matter of doubt whether we are dealing with a true thallophyte or not.
Many of the so-called sea-weeds (fucoids) may be only trails or markings
left by other organisms, as shell-fish and crustaceans.

BRYOPHYTA.--

The second series, the Bryophytes or moss plants, are represented in the
fossil state by a few unimportant examples.

PTERIDOPHYTA.--

The third series, the Pteridophytes, includes the Ferns found from
the Devonian up to the present day, Horse-tails and allied forms,
like _Equisetites_, and the Club-mosses and _Lepidodendron_ of the
Carboniferous period in various parts of the world.

PTERIDOSPERMEAE.--

The fourth series, the Pteridospermeae, comprises some of the earliest
seed-bearing plants, as _Alethopteris_ and _Neuropteris_. They occur in
rocks of Upper Palaeozoic age as far as known.

GYMNOSPERMEAE.

The fifth series, the Gymnospermeae, contains the most important types of
plants found fossil, especially those of the primary and secondary rocks:
they were more abundant, with the exception of the Coniferae, in the
earlier than in the more recent geological periods.

ANGIOSPERMEAE.--

The sixth series, the Angiospermeae, comprises all the Flowering Trees
and Plants forming the bulk of the flora now living, and is divided
into the kinds having single or double seed-leaves (Monocotyledones the
Dicotyledones respectively). This important group came into existence
towards the close of the Cretaceous period simultaneously with the higher
mammals, and increased in abundance until modern times.




CHAPTER III.

THE GEOLOGICAL EPOCHS: AND THE TIME RANGE OF FOSSILS.


=Superposition of Strata.--=

Fossils are chiefly found in rocks which have been formed of sediments
laid down in water, such as sandstone, shale and most limestones. These
rocks, broadly speaking, have been deposited in a horizontal position,
though really slightly inclined from shore to deep-water. One layer has
been formed above another, so that the oldest layer is at the bottom, and
the newest at the top, of the series (Fig. 11). Let us, for instance,
examine a cliff showing three layers: the lower, a sandstone, we will
Call A; the intermediate, a shale or clay bed, B; and the uppermost, a
limestone or marl, C (Fig. 12). In forming a conclusion about the relative
ages of the beds, we shall find that A is always older than B, and B than
C, provided no disturbance of the strata has taken place. For instance,
the beds once horizontally deposited may have been curved and folded
over, or even broken and thrust out of place, within limited areas; but
occurrences like these are extremely rare. Moreover, an examination of the
surrounding country, or of deep cuttings in the neighbourhood, will tell
us if there is any probability of this inversion of strata having taken
place.

[Illustration: =Fig. 11.--Horizontal Layers of Fossiliferous Clays and
Sands.=

In Sea Cliff, Torquay Coast, Victoria, looking towards Bird Rock.

                                                             (_Original_).
]

[Illustration: =Fig. 12.--Cliff-Section to Show Superposition of Strata.=

A = Sandstone. B = Shale. C = Limestone.]

This law of superposition holds good throughout the mass of sedimentary
rocks forming the crust of the earth.

(1). Thus, the position of the strata shows the relative ages of the beds.


=Differences in Fossil Faunas.--=

Turning once again to our ideal cliff section, if we examine the fossils
obtained from bed A, we shall find them differing in the number of kinds
or species common to the other beds above and below. Thus, there will
be more species alike in beds A and B or in B and C. In other words the
faunas of A and B are more nearly related than those of A and C. This is
explained by the fact that there is a gradual change in specific forms as
we pass through the time series of strata from below upwards; so that the
nearer one collecting platform is to another, as a rule, the stronger is
the community of species.


=Guide Fossils.--=

Certain kinds of fossils are typical of particular formations. They are
known as guide fossils, and by their occurrence help us to gain some idea
of the approximate age of rocks widely separated by ocean and continent.
Thus we find fossils typical of the Middle Devonian rocks in Europe, which
also occur in parts of Australia, and we therefore conclude that the
Australian rocks containing those particular fossils belong to the same
formation, and are nearly of the same age.

(2). The included fossils, therefore, give evidence of the age of the
beds.


=Value of Lithological Evidence.--=

The test of age by rock-structure has a more restricted use, but is of
value when taken in conjunction with the sequence of the strata and the
character of their included fossils.

To explain both the valuable and the uncertain elements of this last
method as a determinant of age, we may cite, for instance, the Upper
Ordovician slates of Victoria and New South Wales as an example of uniform
rock formation; whilst the yellow mudstones and the grey limestones of
the Upper Silurian (Yeringian series) of the same states, are instances
of diverse lithological structures in strata of similar age. A reference
in the latter case to the assemblages of fossils found therein, speedily
settles the question.

(3). Hence, the structure and composition of the rocks (lithology), gives
only partial evidence in regard to age.


=Strata Vertically Arranged.--=

The Stratigraphical Series of fossiliferous sediments comprises bedded
rocks from all parts of the world, which geologists arrange in a vertical
column according to age.

A general computation of such a column for the fossiliferous rocks of
Europe gives a thickness of about 14 miles. This is equivalent to a mass
of strata lying edgewise from Melbourne to Ringwood. The Australian
sediments form a much thicker pile of rocks, for they can hardly fall
short of 37 miles, or nearly the distance from Melbourne to Healesville.

This vertical column of strata was formed during three great eras of time.
The oldest is called the Primary or Palaeozoic ("ancient life"), in which
the animals and plants are of primitive types. This is followed by the
Secondary or Mesozoic ("middle life"), in which the animals and plants are
intermediate in character between the Palaeozoic and the later, Cainozoic.
The third era is the Tertiary or Cainozoic ("recent life"), in which the
animals and plants are most nearly allied to living forms. These great
periods are further subdivided into epochs, as the Silurian epoch; and
these again into stages, as the Yeringian stage.


Vertical Column of Fossiliferous Strata, Australia.

    ERA.       | EPOCHS IN     |       EQUIVALENT STRATA
               |  EUROPE.      |         IN AUSTRALIA.
  -------------+---------------+-------------------------------
               | HOLOCENE      | Dunes, Beaches, and Shell-beds
               |               |   now forming.
               |               |
               | PLEISTOCENE   | Raised Beaches, River Terraces,
               |               |   Swamp Deposits
               |               |   with Diprotodon, Cave
               |               |   Breccias, Helix Sandstone.
               |               |
  CAINOZOIC    | PLIOCENE      | Upper.--Estuarine beds of
     or        |               |   bores in the Murray basin,
  TERTIARY     |               |   Marine beds of
  (Note 1).    |               |   Limestone Creek, Glenelg
               |               |   River, Vic. (Werrikooian).
               |               |
               |               | Lower.--Kalimnan red
               |               |   sands (terrestrial) and
               |               |   shell marls (marine) of
               |               |   Victoria, Deep Leads
               |               |   (fluviatile) in part, Upper
               |               |   Aldingan of South
               |               |   Australia.
  -------------+---------------+-------------------------------
  CAINOZOIC    | MIOCENE       | Deep Leads in part: Leaf-beds
      or       |               |   of Bacchus Marsh,
  TERTIARY     |               |   Dalton and Gunning.
  (Continued). |               |   Janjukian Series of C.
               |               |   Otway, Spring Creek, and
               |               |   Table Cape. Batesford
               |               |   Limestone. Polyzoal
               |               |   Rock of Mt. Gambier and
               |               |   the Nullarbor Plains.
               |               |   Older Cainozoic of Murray
               |               |   basin, Lower Aldingan
               |               |   Series of S. Australia,
               |               |   Corio Bay and
               |               |   Bairnsdale Series.
               |               |
               | OLIGOCENE     | Shelly clays and leaf-beds
               |               |   of the Balcombian Series
               |               |   at Mornington; also
               |               |   Shell-marls and clays
               |               |   with Brown Coal, Altona
               |               |   Bay, and lower beds at
               |               |   Muddy Creek, W. Vict.
               |               |
               | EOCENE        |  Probably no representatives.
  -------------+---------------+-------------------------------
               |               |
  MESOZOIC     | CRETACEOUS    | Upper.--Leaf-beds of Croydon,
     or        |               |   Q. Desert Sandstone,
  SECONDARY    |               |   Q. Radiolarian Rock, N.
               |               |   Territory. Gin-gin Chalk,
               |               |   W.A.
               |               |
               |               | Lower.--Rolling Downs
               |               |   Formn., Q. Lake Eyre
               |               |   beds, S.A.
               |               |
               | JURASSIC      | Marine.--Geraldton, W.A.
               |               |
               |               | Freshwater.--Carbonaceous
               |               |   sandstone of S.
               |               |   Gippsland, the Wannon,
               |               |   C. Otway and Barrabool
               |               |   Hills. Ipswich Series, Q.
               |               |   Mesozoic of Tasmania,
               |               |   Talbragar beds, N.S.W.
               |               |
               | TRIASSIC      | Upper leaf-beds at Bald
               |               |   Hill, Bacchus Marsh, Vict.
               |               |   Hawkesbury Series (Parramatta
               |               |   Shales, Hawkesbury
               |               |   Sandstone, Narrabeen
               |               |   beds), N.S.W. Burrum
               |               |   Beds, Q.
  -------------+---------------+------------------------------
   PALAEOZOIC  | PERMIAN and   | Carbopermian (Note 2),
       or      | CARBONIFEROUS,|   Coal Measures of New
     PRIMARY   | UPPER         |   South Wales, W. Australia,
               |               |   Queensland (Gympie
               |               |   Series) and Tasmania.
               |               |   Gangamopteris beds of
               |               |   Bacchus Marsh, Vict.
               |               |   Upper Carboniferous of
               |               |   Clarence Town, N.S.W.
               | CARBONIFEROUS,| Fish and Plant beds,
               | LOWER         |   Mansfield, Vict. Grampian
               |               |   sandstone; Avon
               |               |   River sandstone, Vict.
               |               |   (?) Star beds, Queensland.
               |               |   Lepidodendron
               |               |   beds of Kimberley, W.A.
               |               |   (Note 3).
               | DEVONIAN      | Upper.--Sandstones of Iguana
               |               |   Creek, with plant remains.
               |               |   Lepidodendron
               |               |   beds with Lingula, Nyrang
               |               |   Creek, N.S. Wales.
               |               | Middle.--Fossiliferous marbles
               |               |   and mudstones of
               |               |   Buchan, Bindi and Tabberabbera,
               |               |   Vict. Rocks
               |               |   of the Murrumbidgee,
               |               |   N.S. Wales, and of Burdekin,
               |               |   Queensland.
               | SILURIAN      | Upper.--(Yeringian stage).--Lilydale,
               |               |   Loyola, Thomson
               |               |   River, and Waratah
               |               |   Bay, Vict.; Bowning and
               |               |   Yass (in part), N.S.
               |               |   Wales; Queensland.
               |               | Lower (Melbournian
               |               |   stage).--Melbourne,
               |               |   Heathcote, Vict.; Bowning
               |               |   and Yass (in part),
               |               |   N.S. Wales. Gordon R.
               |               |   Limestone.
               | ORDOVICIAN,   | Slates (graptolitic).--Victoria
               | UPPER and     |   and New South
               | LOWER         |   Wales. (?) Gordon River
               |               |   Limestone, Tas., in part
               |               |   (Note 4). Larapintine
               |               |   series of Central Australia.
               | CAMBRIAN      | Mudstones and limestones
               |               |   of Tasmania,
               |               |   South Australia, Victoria
               |               |   and W. Australia.
               | PRE-CAMBRIAN  | Fossiliferous rocks doubtful;
               |               |   chiefly represented
               |               |   by schistose and other
               |               |   metamorphic rocks.

1.--The classification of the Cainozoics as employed here is virtually
the same as given by McCoy in connection with his work for the Victorian
Geological Survey. The writer has obtained further evidence to support
these conclusions from special studies in the groups of the cetacea,
mollusca and the protozoa. The alternative classification of the
cainozoics as given by one or two later authors, introducing the useful
local terminology of Hall and Pritchard for the various stages or assises
is as follows:--

      TATE AND DENNANT.       | HALL AND PRITCHARD.
           Stages.            |       Stages.
                              |
  Werrikooian   Pleistocene   | Werrikooian  Pliocene.
                Pliocene      |
                              |
  Kalimnan      Miocene       | Kalimnan     Miocene.
                              |
  Janjukian     (?) Oligocene | Balcombian   Eocene.
                              |
  Balcombian    Eocene        | Janjukian
                              | and
  Aldingan      Eocene        | Aldingan     Eocene.
    (lower beds               | in part
    at that loc.)             |

2.--Or Permo-carboniferous. As the series is held by some authorities to
partake of the faunas of both epochs, it is preferable to use the shorter
word, which moreover gives the natural sequence. There is, however, strong
evidence in favour of using the term Permian for this important series.

3.--Mr. W. S. Dun regards the _Lepidodendron_ beds of W. Australia, New
South Wales and Queensland as of Upper Devonian age. There is no doubt,
from a broad view of the whole question as to the respective age of
these beds in Australia, that the one series is continuous, and probably
represents the Upper Devonian and the Lower Carboniferous of the northern
hemisphere.

4.--These limestones contain a fauna of brachiopods and corals which, at
present, seems to point to the series as intermediate between the older
Silurian and the Upper Ordovician.

Vertical Column of Fossiliferous Strata, New Zealand.

              |     EPOCHS IN    |  EQUIVALENT STRATA
      ERA.    |      EUROPE.     |   IN NEW ZEALAND.
  ------------+------------------+----------------------
              | HOLOCENE         | River Alluvium. Beach
              |                  |  Sands and Gravel.
              |                  |
   CAINOZOIC  | PLEISTOCENE      | Raised Beaches. Older Gravel
      or      |                  |  Drifts.
   TERTIARY   |                  | Moraines. Boulder Clays.
              |                  |
              | PLIOCENE         | Upper.--Petane series. }
              |                  | Lower.--Waitotara      } Wanganui
              |                  |  and Awatere series.   }   system.
              |                  |
              | MIOCENE          | Oamaru series.
              |                  |
              | OLIGOCENE        | Waimangaroa series.
  ------------+------------------+---------------------------
              | CRETACEOUS       | Waipara series (of Hutton).
              |                  |
   MESOZOIC   | JURASSIC         | Mataura and Putataka
      or      |                  |  series.
   SECONDARY  |                  |
              | TRIASSIC         | Wairoa, Otapiri and Kaihiku
              |                  |  series.
  ------------+------------------+-----------------------------
              | PERMIAN          | Aorangi (unfossiliferous)
              |                  |  series.
              |                  |
              | (?)CARBONIFEROUS | Maitai series (with Spirifer
              |                  |  and Productus.)
              |                  |
              |                  | (?)Te Anau series (unfossiliferous).
   PALAEOZOIC |                  |
       or     | SILURIAN         | Wangapeka series.
   PRIMARY    |                  |
              | ORDOVICIAN       | Kakanui series (with Lower
              |                  |  Ordovician graptolite
              |                  |  facies).
              |                  |
              | CAMBRIAN         | Unfossiliferous. Metamorphic
              |                  |  schists of the Maniototo
              |                  |  series.

1.--Based for the most part, but with some slight modifications, on Prof.
J. Park's classification in "Geology of New Zealand," 1910.

[Illustration: =Fig. 13.=

Range-in-Time of Fossils in Australasian Sedimentary Rocks.

_E.M., del._]
]

[Illustration: =Fig. 14.--Skeleton of Diprotodon australis, Owen.=

Uncovered in Morass at Lake Callabonna, South Australia.

                                  (_By permission of Dr. E. C. Stirling_).
]




CHAPTER IV.

HOW FOSSILS ARE FOUND: AND THE ROCKS THEY FORM.


As already noticed, it is the hard parts of buried animals and plants that
are generally preserved. We will now consider the groups of organisms,
one by one, and note the particular parts of each which we may reasonably
expect to find in the fossil state.

MAMMALS.--The bones and teeth: as the _Diprotodon_ remains of Lake
Callabonna in South Australia (Fig. 14), of West Melbourne Swamp,
Victoria, and the Darling Downs, Queensland. Rarely the skin, as in the
carcases of the frozen Mammoth of the tundras of Northern Siberia; or the
dried remains of the _Grypotherium_ of South American caves.

[Illustration: =Fig. 15.--Bird Bones.=

Exposed on Sand-blow at Seal Bay, King Island.

                                               (_Photo by C. L. Barrett_).
]

[Illustration: =Fig. 16.--Impression of a Bird's Feather in Ironstone.=

About 2/3 nat. size. Of Cainozoic (? Janjukian) Age. Redruth, Victoria.

                                                       (_Nat. Mus. Coll._)
]

[Illustration: =Fig. 17.--Notochelone costata, Owen sp. (Anterior portion
of carapace.)=

About 1/4 nat. size. A Marine Turtle from the Lower Cretaceous of Flinders
River, Queensland.

                                                       (_Nat. Mus. Coll._)
]

BIRDS:--Bones: as the Moa bones of New Zealand and the Emu bones of the
King Island sand-dunes (Fig. 15). Very rarely the impressions of the
feathers of birds are found, as in the ironstone occurring in the Wannon
district of Victoria (Fig. 16), and others in fine clays and marls on
the continent of Europe and in England. Fossil eggs of sea-birds are
occasionally found in coastal sand-dunes of Holocene age.

REPTILES.--Skeletons of fossil turtles (_Notochelone_) are found in
Queensland (Fig. 17). Whole skeletons and the dermal armour (spines and
bony plates) of the gigantic, specialised reptiles are found in Europe,
North America, and in other parts of the world.

FISHES.--Whole skeletons are sometimes found in sand and clay rocks, as
in the Trias of Gosford, New South Wales (Fig. 18), and in the Jurassic
of South Gippsland. The ganoid or enamel-scaled fishes are common fossils
in the Devonian and Jurassic, notably in Germany, Scotland and Canada:
and they also occur in the sandy mudstone of the Lower Carboniferous of
Mansfield, Victoria.

INSECTS.--Notwithstanding their fragility, insects are often well
preserved as fossils, for the reason that their skin and wings consist
of the horny substance called chitin. The Tertiary marls of Europe are
very prolific in insect remains (Fig. 19). From the Miocene beds of
Florissant, Colorado, U.S.A., several hundred species of insects have been
described.

[Illustration: =Fig. 18.=

=A Fossil Fish with Ganoid Scales (Pristisomus crassus, A.S. Woodw.).=

About 1/2 nat. size. Trias (Hawkesbury Series), of Gosford, New South
Wales.

                                                       (_Nat. Mus. Coll._)
]

[Illustration: =Fig 19.--A Fossil Insect (Tipula sp.) in Amber.=

Nat. size. Oligocene beds; Baltic Prussia.

                                                            (_F.C. Coll._)
]

[Illustration: =Fig. 20.--A Fossil Lobster (Thalassina emerii, Bell).=

Slightly reduced. From the Pleistocene of Port Darwin, Northern Territory.

                                                       (_Nat. Mus. Coll._)
]

[Illustration: =Fig. 21.--An Ammonite (Desmoceras flindersi, McCoy sp.)=

Half nat. size. Showing complex sutures. L. Cretaceous: Marathon, Flinders
River, Queensland.

                                                       (_Nat. Mus. Coll._)
]

CRUSTACEA.--The outer crust, or exoskeleton, of these animals is often
hard, being formed of a compound of carbonate and phosphate of lime on
an organic, chitinous base. The earliest forms of this group were the
trilobites, commencing in Cambrian times, and of which there is a good
representative series in Australian rocks. Remains of crabs and lobsters
are found in the various Cainozoic deposits in Australia (Fig. 20), and
also in the Jurassic in other parts of the world.

MOLLUSCA.--The Cuttle-fish group (Cephalopoda, "head-footed"), is well
represented by the Nautilus-like, but straight _Orthoceras_ shells
commencing in Ordovician times, and, in later periods, by the beautiful,
coiled Ammonites (Fig. 21). The true cuttle-fishes possess an internal
bone, the sepiostaire, which one may see at the present day drifted on to
the sand at high-water mark on the sea-shore. The rod-like Belemnites are
of this nature, and occur abundantly in the Australian Cretaceous rocks of
South Australia and Queensland (Fig. 22).

[Illustration: =Fig. 22. Belemnites (Belemnites diptycha, McCoy).=

1/3 nat. size. Lower Cretaceous. Central South Australia.

                                                       (_Nat. Mus. Coll._)
]

[Illustration: =Fig. 23.--A Group of Lamp Shells (Magellania flavescens,
Lam. sp.)=

Attached to a Polyzoan.

About 1/3 nat. size. Dredged from Westernport, Victoria.

                                                    (_C.J. Gabriel Coll._)
]

Elephant-tusk shells (Scaphopoda) are frequent in our Tertiary beds: they
are also sparingly found in the Cretaceous, and some doubtful remains
occur in the Palaeozoic strata of Australia.

The shells of the ordinary mollusca, such as the snails, whelks, mussels,
and scallops, are abundant in almost all geological strata from the
earliest periods. Their calcareous shells form a covering which, after the
decay of the animal within, are from their nature among the most easily
preserved of fossil remains. There is hardly an estuary bed, lake-deposit,
or sea-bottom, but contains a more or less abundant assemblage of these
shell-fish remains, or testacea as they were formerly called ("testa," a
shell or potsherd). We see, therefore, the importance of this group of
fossils for purposes of comparison of one fauna with another (_antea_,
Fig. 1).

The chitons or mail-shells, by their jointed nature, consisting of a
series of pent-roof-shaped valves united by ligamental tissue, are nearly
always represented in the fossil state by separate valves. Fossil examples
of this group occur in Australia both in Palaeozoic rocks and, more
numerously, in the Cainozoic series.

[Illustration: =Fig. 24.--Zoarium of a Living Polyzoan. (Retepora)=

2/3 nat. size.

Flinders, Victoria.

                                                            (_F.C. Coll._)
]

[Illustration: =Fig. 25.--A Fossil Polyzoan (Macropora clarkei, T. Woods,
  sp.)=

About 1/2 nat. size. Cainozoic (Balcombian). Muddy Creek, Victoria.

                                                            (_F.C. Coll._)
]


MOLLUSCOIDEA.--The Brachiopods or Lamp-shells consist generally of two
calcareous valves as in the true mollusca (Fig. 23), but are sometimes of
horny texture. Like the previous class, they are also easily preserved
as fossils. They possess bent, loop-like or spiral arms, called brachia,
and by the movement of fine ciliated (hair-like) processes on their
outer edges conduct small food particles to the mouth. The brachia are
supported by shelly processes, to which are attached, in the Spirifers,
delicate spirally coiled ribbons. These internal structures are often
beautifully preserved, even though they are so delicate, from the fact
that on the death of the animal the commissure or opening round the valves
is so tightly closed as to prevent the coarse mud from penetrating while
permitting the finer silt, and more rarely mineral matter in solution, to
pass, and subsequently to be deposited within the cavity. At the Murray
River cliffs in South Australia, a bed of Cainozoic limestone contains
many of these brachiopod shells in a unique condition, for the hollow
valves have been filled in with a clear crystal of selenite or gypsum,
through which may be seen the loop or brachial support preserved in its
entirety.

The Sea-mats or Polyzoa, represented by _Retepora_ (the Lace-coral)
(Fig. 24) and _Flustra_ (the Sea-mat) of the present sea-shore, have a
calcareous skeleton, or zoarium, which is easily preserved as a fossil.
Polyzoa are very abundant in the Cainozoic beds of Australia, New Zealand,
and elsewhere (Fig. 25). In the Mesozoic series, on the other hand, they
are not so well represented; but in Europe and North America they play an
important part in forming the Cretaceous and some Jurassic strata by the
abundance of their remains.

WORMS (VERMES).--The hard, calcareous tubes of Sea-worms, the Polychaeta
("many bristles") are often found in fossiliferous deposits, and sometimes
form large masses, due to their gregarious habits of life; they also occur
attached to shells such as oysters (Fig. 26). The burrows of the wandering
worms are found in Silurian strata in Australia; and the sedentary forms
likewise occur from the Devonian upwards.

ECHINODERMATA.--Sea-urchins (Echinoidea) possess a hard, calcareous,
many-plated test or covering and, when living are covered with spines
(Fig. 27). Both the tests and spines are found fossil, the former
sometimes whole when the sediment has been quietly thrown down upon them;
but more frequently, as in the Shepherd's crown type (_Cidaris_), are
found in disjointed plates, owing to the fact that current action, going
on during entombment has caused the plates to separate. The spines are
very rarely found attached to the test, more frequently being scattered
through the marl or sandy clay in which the sea-urchins are buried. The
best conditions for the preservation of this group is a marly limestone
deposit, in which case the process of fossilisation would be tranquil
(Fig. 28).

[Illustration: =Fig. 26.--Fossil Worm Tubes (? Serpula.)=

Attached to a Pecten.

Slightly Enlarged. Cainozoic (Balcombian). Muddy Creek, Hamilton, Victoria.

                                                           (_F. C. Coll._)
]

[Illustration: =Fig. 27.=

=A Regular Sea-Urchin (Strongylocentrotus erythrogrammus, Val.)=

About 2/3 nat. size. Showing Spines attached. Living. Victoria.

                                                           (_F. C. Coll._)
]

[Illustration: =Fig. 28.--A Fossil Sea-Urchin (Linthia antiaustralis,
Tate).=

Test denuded of Spines.

About 2/3 nat. size. Cainozoic (Janjukian): Curlewis, Victoria.

                                                       (_Nat. Mus. Coll._)
]

[Illustration: =Fig. 29.--Ophioderma egertoni, Broderip, sp.=

About 1/2 nat. size. A Brittle Star from the Lias of Seaton, Devon,
England.

                                                       (_Nat. Mus. Coll._)
]

The true Starfishes (Asteroidea), are either covered with calcareous
plates, or the skin is hardened by rough tubercles; and these more lasting
portions are preserved in rocks of all ages. The shape of the animal is
also often preserved in an exquisite manner in beds of fine mud or clay.

The Brittle-stars (Ophiuroidea) have their body covered with hard,
calcareous plates. Their remains are found in rocks as old as the
Ordovician in Bohemia but their history in Australia begins with the
Silurian period (Fig. 29). From thence onward they are occasionally found
in successive strata in various parts of the world.

The bag-like echinoderms (Cystidea) form a rare group, restricted to
Palaeozoic strata. The plates of the sack, or theca, and those of the
slender arms are calcareous, and are capable of being preserved in the
fossil state. A few doubtful remains of this group occur in Australia.

The bud-shaped echinoderms (Blastoidea) also occur chiefly in Devonian and
Carboniferous strata. This is also a rare group, and is represented by
several forms found only in New South Wales and Queensland.

The well known and beautiful fossil forms, the Stone-lilies (Crinoidea)
have a very extended geological history, beginning in the Cambrian; whilst
a few species are living in the ocean at the present day. The many-jointed
skeleton lends itself well to fossilisation, and remains of the crinoids
are common in Australia mainly in Palaeozoic strata (Fig. 30). In Europe
they are found abundantly also in Jurassic strata, especially in the Lias.

[Illustration: =Fig. 30.=

=A Fossil Crinoid (Taxocrinus simplex, Phillips sp.)=

About 1/2 nat. size.

Wenlock Limestone (Silurian), Dudley, England.

                                                       (_Nat. Mus. Coll._)
]

[Illustration: =Fig. 31.--Graptolites on Slate (Tetragraptus fruticosus,
J. Hall, sp.)=

Nat. Size. Lower Ordovician. Bendigo, Victoria.

                                                       (_Nat. Mus. Coll._)
]

[Illustration: =Fig. 32.=

=Polished Vertical Section of a Stromatoporoid. (Actinostroma).=

Nat. size. Middle Devonian. South Devon, England.

                                                            (_F.C. Coll._)
]

HYDROZOA.--The Graptolites ("stone-writing") have a chitinous skin
(periderm) to the body or hydrosome, which is capable of preservation to
a remarkable degree; for their most delicate structures are preserved on
the surfaces of the fine black mud deposits which subsequently became
hardened into slates. In Australia graptolites occur from the base of the
Ordovician to the top of the Silurian (Fig. 31).

Another section of the Hydrozoa is the Stromatoporoidea. These are
essentially calcareous, and their structure reminds one of a dense coral.
The polyps build their tiers of cells (coenosteum) in a regular manner,
and seem to have played the same part in the building of ancient reefs in
Silurian, Devonian and Carboniferous times as the Millepora at the present
day (Fig. 32).

[Illustration: =Fig. 33.--Fossil Corals (Favosites).=

Photograph of a Polished Slab, 2/3 nat. size. In Devonian Limestone,
Buchan, Victoria.]

[Illustration: =Fig. 34.--Siliceous Skeleton of a Living Hexactinellid
Sponge.=

Probably Chonelasma.

× 4. Mauritius. (Viewed in Two Directions.)

                                                            (_F.C. Coll._)
]

ANTHOZOA.--The true Corals have a stony skeleton, and this is capable of
easy preservation as a fossil. There is hardly any fossiliferous stratum
of importance which has not its representative corals. In Australia their
remains are especially abundant in the Silurian, Devonian (Fig. 33), and
Carboniferous formations, and again in the Oligocene and Miocene.

SPONGES.--The framework of the sponge may consist either of flinty,
calcareous, or horny material (Fig. 34). The two former kinds are well
represented in our Australian rocks, the first appearing in the Lower
Ordovician associated with graptolites, and again in the Cretaceous and
Tertiary rocks (Fig. 35); whilst the calcareous sponges are found in
Silurian strata, near Yass, and again in the Cainozoic beds of Flinders,
Curlewis and Mornington in Victoria.

[Illustration: =Fig. 35.=

=Spicules of a Siliceous Sponge (Ecionema newberyi, McCoy sp.)=

Highly magnified. Cainozoic Shell-Marl.

Altona Bay Coal-Shaft.]

[Illustration: =Fig. 36.=

=Nummulites (N. gizehensis Ehr. var. champollioni, de la Harpe).=

About nat. size. Middle Eocene Limestone. Cyrene, Northern Africa.

                                           (_Coll. by Dr. J. W. Gregory_).
]

PROTOZOA.--The important and widely-distributed group of the Foraminifera
("hole-bearers") belonging to the lowest phylum, the Protozoa, generally
possess a calcareous shell. The tests range in size from tiny specks of
the fiftieth of an inch in diameter, to the giant Nummulite, equalling a
five shilling piece in size (Fig. 36). Their varied and beautiful forms
are very attractive, but their great interest lies in their multifarious
distribution in all kinds of sediments: they are also of importance
because certain of the more complex forms indicate distinct life zones,
being restricted to particular strata occurring in widely-separated areas.

[Illustration: =Fig. 37.--Siliceous Skeletons of Radiolaria.=

× 58. Late Cainozoic Age. Bissex Hill, Barbados, West Indies.

                                                            (_F.C. Coll._)
]

Members of the allied order of the Radiolaria have a flinty shell (Fig.
37); and these organisms are often found building up siliceous rocks such
as cherts (Fig. 38).

PLANTS.--The harder portions of plants which are found in the fossil
state are,--the wood, the coarser vascular (vessel-bearing) tissue of the
leaves, and the harder parts of fruits and seeds.

Fossil wood is of frequent occurrence in Palaeozoic, Mesozoic and
Cainozoic strata in Australia, as, for instance, the wood of the trees
called _Araucarioxylon_ and _Dadoxylon_ in the Coal measures of New South
Wales (see _antea_, Fig. 3).

[Illustration: =Fig. 38.--Radiolaria in Siliceous Limestone.=

× 40. Middle Devonian: Tamworth, New South Wales.

                                        (_From Prof. David's Collection_).
]

[Illustration: =Fig. 39.--Travertin Limestone with Leaves of Beech
(Fagus).=

Nat. size. Pleistocene: near Hobart, Tasmania.

                                                       (_Nat. Mus. Coll._)
]

Fossil leaves frequently occur in pipe-clay beds, as at Berwick, Victoria,
and in travertine from near Hobart, Tasmania (Fig. 39). Fossil fruits are
found in abundance in the ancient river gravels at several hundreds of
feet below the surface, in the "deep leads" of Haddon, Victoria, and other
localities in New South Wales, Queensland and Tasmania.

[Illustration: =Fig. 40--Freshwater Limestone with Shells (Bulinus).=

About 4/5 nat. size. Mount Arapiles, Western Victoria.

                                                       (_Nat. Mus. Coll._)
]

[Illustration: =Fig. 41.--Fossiliferous Mudstone of Silurian (Yeringian)
Age.=

With Brachiopods. About 2/3 nat. size. Near Lilydale, Victoria.

                                                            (_F.C. Coll._)
]


FOSSILIFEROUS ROCKS.


Section I.--ARGILLACEOUS ROCKS.

Under this head are placed the muds, clays, mudstones, shales and slates.
MUDS are usually of a silty nature, that is, containing a variable
proportion of sand (quartz) grains. Such are the estuarine muds of
Pleistocene and Recent age, containing brackish water foraminifera and
ostracoda, and those shells of the mollusca usually found associated with
brackish conditions. Lacustrine mud can be distinguished by the included
freshwater shells, as _Limnaea_, _Coxiella_ (brackish), _Cyclas_ and
_Bulinus_, as well as the freshwater ostracoda or cyprids (Fig. 40).

CLAYS are tenacious mud deposits, having the general composition of a
hydrous silicate of alumina with some iron. When a clay deposit tends to
split into leaves or laminae, either through moderate pressure or by the
included fossil remains occupying distinct planes in the rock, they are
called SHALES.

Clays and Shales of marine origin are often crowded with the remains
of mollusca. The shells are sometimes associated with leaves and other
vegetable remains, if forming part of an alternating series of freshwater
and marine conditions. An example of this type of sediments is seen in the
Mornington beds of the Balcombian series in Victoria.

MUDSTONE is a term applied to a hardened clay deposit derived from the
alteration of an impure limestone, and is more often found in the older
series of rocks. Mudstones are frequently crowded with fossils, but
owing to chemical changes within the rock, the calcareous organisms are
as a rule represented by casts and moulds. At times these so faithfully
represent the surface and cavities of the organism that they are almost
equivalent to a well preserved fossil (Fig. 41).

SLATE.--When shale is subjected to great pressure, a plane of regular
splitting called cleavage is induced, which is rarely parallel to the
bedding plane or surface spread out on the original sea-floor: the
cleavage more often taking place at an appreciable angle to the bedding
plane. The graptolitic rocks of Victoria are either shales or slates,
according to the absence or development of this cleavage structure in the
rock.


Section II.--SILICEOUS ROCKS.

In this group are comprised all granular quartzose sediments, and organic
rocks of flinty composition.

SANDSTONES.--Although the base of this type of rock is formed of quartz
sand, it often contains fossils. Owing to its porous nature, percolation
of water containing dissolved CO_{2} tends to bring about the solution
of the calcareous shells, with the result that only casts of the shells
remain.

FLINTS and CHERTS.--These are found in the form of nodules and bands in
other strata, principally in limestone. In Europe, flint is usually found
in the Chalk formation, whilst chert is found in the Lower Greensands,
the Jurassics, the Carboniferous Limestone and in Cambrian rocks. In
Australia, flint occurs in the Miocene or Polyzoal-rock formation of Mount
Gambier, Cape Liptrap and the Mallee borings. Flint is distinguished
from chert by its being black in the mass, often with a white crust,
and translucent in thin flakes; chert being more or less granular in
texture and sub-opaque in the mass. Both kinds appear to be formed as
a pseudomorph or replacement of a portion of the limestone stratum by
silica, probably introduced in solution as a soluble alkaline silicate.
Both flint and chert often contain fossil shells and other organic
remains, such as radiolaria and sponge-spicules, which can be easily seen
with a lens in thin flakes struck off by the hammer.

DIATOMITE is essentially composed of the tiny frustules or flinty cases
of diatoms (unicellular algae), usually admixed with some spicules of the
freshwater sponge, _Spongilla_. It generally forms a layer at the bottom
of a lake bed (Fig. 42).

[Illustration: =Fig. 42.--Diatomaceous Earth. (Post-Tertiary).=

Containing freshwater forms, as Pinnularia, Cocconeis and Synedra. × 150.
Talbot, Victoria.]


Section III.--CALCAREOUS ROCKS.

LIMESTONES FORMED BY ORGANISMS.--Organic limestones constitute by far
the most important group of fossiliferous rocks. Rocks of this class are
composed either wholly of carbonate of lime, or contain other mineral
matter also, in varying proportion. Many kinds of limestones owe their
origin directly to the agency of animals or plants, which extracted the
calcareous matter from the water in which they lived in order to build
their hard external cases, as for example the sea-urchins; or their
internal skeletons, as the stony corals. The accumulated remains of these
organisms are generally compacted by a crystalline cement to form a
coherent rock.

The chief groups of animals and plants forming such limestone rocks are:--

(a) _FORAMINIFERA._--Example. Foraminiferal limestone as the Nummulitic
limestone of the Pyramids of Egypt, or the _Lepidocyclina_ limestone of
Batesford, near Geelong, Victoria (Fig. 43).

[Illustration: =Fig. 43.=

=Limestone composed of Polyzoa and Foraminifera (Lepidocyclina).=

× 6. Cainozoic (Janjukian). Batesford, near Geelong, Victoria.

                                                            (_F.C. Coll._)
]

(b) _CORALS._--Ex. "Madrepore limestone," or Devonian marble, with
_Pachypora_. Also the Lilydale limestone, with _Favosites_, of Silurian
age, Victoria (Fig. 44).

[Illustration: =Fig. 44.--A Fossil Coral (Favosites grandipora).=

2/3 nat. size. From the Silurian of Lilydale, Victoria.

                                                           (_F.C. Coll._).
]

[Illustration: =Fig. 45.--Polished Slab of Marble formed of Joints of
Crinoids.=

About 2/3 nat. size. Silurian.

Toongabbie, Gippsland, Victoria.

                                                       (_Nat. Mus. Coll._)
]

(c) _STONE-LILIES._--Ex. Crinoidal or Entrochial limestone, Silurian,
Toongabbie, Victoria (Fig. 45). Also the Carboniferous or Mountain
limestone, Derbyshire, England.

(d) _WORM-TUBES.-_-Ex. Serpulite limestone of Hanover, Germany. _Ditrupa_
limestone of Torquay and Wormbete Creek, Victoria.

(e) _POLYZOA._---Ex. Polyzoal limestone, as the so-called Coralline Crag
of Suffolk, England; and the Polyzoal Rock of Mount Gambier, S. Australia.

(f) _BRACHIOPODA._--Ex. Brachiopod limestone of Silurian age, Dudley,
England. _Orthis_ limestone of Cambrian age, Dolodrook River, N. E.
Gippsland.

(g) _MOLLUSCA._--Ex. Shell limestone, as the _Turritella_ bed of Table
Cape, Tasmania, and of Camperdown, Victoria (Fig. 46), or the Purbeck
Marble of Swanage, Dorset, England.

[Illustration: =Fig. 46.--Turritella Limestone.=

(T. acricula, Tate); 3/4 nat. size. Cainozoic.

Lake Bullen Merri, near Camperdown, Victoria.]

[Illustration: =Fig. 47.--Limestone composed of the Valves of an Ostracod
(Cypridea).=

Upper Jurassic. × 9.

Swanage, Dorset, England.]

(h) _OSTRACODA._--Ex. Cypridiferous limestone, formed of the minute valves
of the bivalved ostracoda, as that of Durlston, Dorset, England (Fig. 47).

(i) _CADDIS FLY LARVAE._--Ex. Indusial limestone, formed of tubular cases
constructed by the larvae of the Caddis fly (_Phryganea_). Occurs at
Durckheim, Rhine District, Germany.

(j) _RED SEAWEEDS._--Ex. Nullipore limestone, formed by the stony thallus
(frond) of the calcareous sea-weed _Lithothamnion_, as in the Leithakalk,
a common building stone of Vienna.

(k) _GREEN SEAWEEDS._--Ex. _Halimeda_ limestone, forming large masses of
rock in the late Cainozoic reefs of the New Hebrides (Fig. 48).

(l) (?) _BLUE-GREEN SEAWEEDS._--Ex. _Girvanella_ limestone, forming the
Peagrit of Jurassic age, of Gloucester, England.


Section IV.--CARBONACEOUS and MISCELLANEOUS ROCKS.

COALS and KEROSENE SHALES (Cannel Coal).--These carbonaceous rocks are
formed in much the same way as the deposits in estuaries and lagoon
swamps. They result from the sometimes vast aggregation of vegetable
material (leaves, wood and fruits), brought down by flooded rivers from
the surrounding country, which form a deposit in a swampy or brackish
area near the coast, or in an estuary. Layer upon layer is thus formed,
alternating with fine mud. The latter effectually seals up the organic
layers and renders their change into a carbonaceous deposit more certain.

When shale occurs between the coal-layers it is spoken of as the
under-clay, which in most cases is the ancient sub-soil related to the
coal-layer immediately above. It is in the shales that the best examples
of fossil ferns and other plant-remains are often found. The coal itself
is composed of a partially decomposed mass of vegetation which has become
hardened and bedded by pressure and gradual drying.

Spore coals are found in thick deposits in some English mines, as at
Burnley in Yorkshire. They result from the accumulation of the spores of
giant club-mosses which flourished in the coal-period. They are generally
referred to under the head of Cannel Coals. The "white coal" or Tasmanite
of the Mersey Basin in Tasmania is an example of an impure spore coal with
a sandy matrix (Fig. 49).

[Illustration: =Fig. 48.=

=Rock composed of the calcareous joints of Halimeda (a green sea-weed).=

About 2/3 nat. size. Late Cainozoic. Reef-Rock. Malekula, New Hebrides.

                                               (_Coll. by Dr. D. Mawson._)
]

[Illustration: =Fig. 49.--Thin Slices of "White Coal" or "Tasmanite,"
showing crushed Megaspores.=

× 28. Carbopermian. Latrobe, Tasmania.

                                                           (_F. C. Coll._)
]

[Illustration: =Fig. 50.--Thin Slice of "Kerosene Shale."=

× 28. Carbopermian. Hartley, New South Wales.

                                                           (_F. C. Coll._)
]

[Illustration: =Fig. 51.--Bone Bed, with Fish and Reptilian Remains.=

About 1/2 nat. size. (Rhaetic). Aust Cliff, Gloucestershire, England.

                                                       (_Nat. Mus. Coll._)
]

The Kerosene Shale of New South Wales is related to the Torbanite of
Scotland and Central France. It occurs in lenticular beds between the
bituminous coal. It is a very important deposit, commercially speaking,
for it yields kerosene oil, and is also used for the manufacture of gas.
The rock is composed of myriads of little cell-bodies, referred to as
_Reinschia_, and first supposed to be allied to the freshwater alga,
_Volvox_; but this has lately been questioned, and an alternative view is
that they may be the megaspores of club-mosses (Fig. 50).

The coals of Jurassic age in Australia are derived from the remains of
coniferous trees and ferns; and some beautiful examples of these plants
may often be found in the hardened clay or shale associated with the coal
seams.

The Brown Coals of Cainozoic or Tertiary age in Australia are still but
little advanced from the early stage, lignite. The leaves found in them
are more or less like the present types of the flora. The wood is found
to be of the Cypress type (_Cupressinoxylon_). In New Zealand, however,
important deposits of coal of a more bituminous nature occur in the
Oligocene of Westport and the Grey River Valley, in the Nelson District.

BONE BEDS.--The bones and excreta of fish and reptiles form considerable
deposits in some of the sedimentary formations; especially those partly
under the influence of land or swamp conditions. They constitute a kind of
conglomerate in which are found bone-fragments and teeth (Fig. 51). These
bone-beds are usually rich in phosphates, and are consequently valuable
as a source of manure. The Miocene bone-bed with fish teeth at Florida,
U.S.A., is a notable example. The nodule bed of the Victorian Cainozoics
contains an assemblage of bones of cetaceans (whales, etc.).

[Illustration: =Fig. 52.--Bone Breccia, with remains of Marsupials.=

About 3/4 nat. size. Pleistocene.

Limeburners Point, Geelong, Victoria.

                                                       (_Nat. Mus. Coll._)
]

BONE BRECCIAS.--These are usually formed of the remains of the larger
mammals, and consist of a consolidated mass of fragments of bones and
teeth embedded in a calcareous matrix. Bone-breccias are of frequent
occurrence on the floors of caves which had formerly been the resort of
carnivorous animals, and into which they dragged their prey. The surface
water percolating through the overlying calcareous strata dissolved a
certain amount of lime, and this was re-deposited on the animal remains
lying scattered over the cave floor. A deposit so formed constitutes a
stalagmite or floor encrustation. As examples of bone-breccias we may
refer to the limestone at Limeburners Point, Geelong (Fig. 52); and the
stalagmitic deposits of the Buchan Caves.

IRONSTONE.--Rocks formed almost entirely of limonite (hydrated peroxide of
iron) are often due to the agency of unicellular plants known as diatoms,
which separate the iron from water, and deposit it as hydrous peroxide
of iron within their siliceous skeletons. In Norway and Sweden there are
large and important deposits of bog iron-ore, which have presumably been
formed in the beds of lakes.

[Illustration: =Fig. 53.=

=Cainozoic Ironstone with Leaves (Banksia ? marginata, Cavanilles).=

Slightly enlarged. Below Wannon Falls, Redruth, Victoria.]

Clay ironstone nodules (sphaerosiderite) have generally been formed
as accretions around some decaying organic body. Many clay ironstone
nodules, when broken open, reveal a fossil within, such as a coprolitic
body, fern frond, fir-cone, shell or fish.

Oolitic ironstones are composed of minute granules which may have
originally been calcareous grains, formed by a primitive plant or alga,
but since replaced by iron oxide or carbonate.

The Tertiary ironstone of western Victoria is found to contain leaves,
which were washed into lakes and swamps (Fig. 53); and the ferruginous
groundmass may have been originally due to the presence of diatoms, though
this yet remains to be proved.




PART II.--SYSTEMATIC PALAEONTOLOGY.




CHAPTER V.

FOSSIL PLANTS.


=Cambrian Plants.--=

The oldest Australian plant-remains belong to the genus _Girvanella_.
This curious little tubular unicellular organism, once thought to be a
foraminifer, shows most affinity with the blue-green algae (Cyanophyceae),
an important type of plant even now forming calcareous deposits such
as the calcareous grains on the shores of the Salt Lake, Utah, and the
pea-grit of the Carlsbad hot springs. _Girvanella problematica_ occurs
in the Lower Cambrian limestones of South Australia, at Ardrossan and
elsewhere.


=Silurian Plants.--=

Amongst Silurian plants may be mentioned the doubtful sea-weeds known as
_Bythotrephis_. Their branch-like impressions are fairly common in the
mudstones of Silurian age found in and around Melbourne. They generally
occur in association with shallow-water marine shells and crustacea of
that period.

The genus _Girvanella_ before mentioned is also found in the Silurian
(Yeringian) of Lilydale and the Tyers River limestone, Victoria (Fig. 54).

[Illustration: =Fig. 54.--Section through pellet of Girvanella conferta=,
Chapm.

× 35. From the Silurian (Yeringian) Limestone of Tyers River, Gippsland,
Victoria.

                                                       (_Nat. Mus. Coll._)
]

_Haliserites_ is a primitive plant of the type of the club-mosses so
common in the rocks of the Carboniferous period. This genus is found in
some abundance in the Yeringian stage of the Silurian in Gippsland (Fig.
55).

[Illustration: =Fig. 55.--PALAEOZOIC PLANTS.=

(Approximate dimensions in fractions).

  A--Bythotrephis tenuis, J. Hall. Silurian. Victoria.

  B--Haliserites Dechenianus, Göppert. Silurian. Victoria.

  C--Cordaites australis, McCoy. Upper Devonian. Victoria.

  D--Sphenopteris iguanensis, McCoy. Upper Devonian. Victoria.

  E--Glossopteris Browniana, Brongniart. Carbopermian. N.S.W.

]

[Illustration: =Fig. 56.=

=Restoration of Lepidodendron elegans.=

                                                     (_After Grand'Eury._)
]

[Illustration: =Fig. 57.=

=Lepidodendron australe, McCoy.=

Portion of Stem showing Leaf-cushions.

Slightly reduced.

Carboniferous.

Manilla River, Co. Darling, N.S.W.

                                                       (_Nat. Mus. Coll._)
]


=Devonian and Carboniferous Plants.--=

[Illustration: =Fig. 58.--UPPER PALAEOZOIC PLANTS.=

A--Rhacopteris inaequilatera, Göppert sp. Up. Carboniferous. Stroud, New
South Wales.

                                                    (_After Feistmantel_).

B--Gangamopteris spatulata, McCoy. Carbopermian. Bacchus Marsh, Victoria.]

Plant-life was not abundant, however, until Upper Devonian and
Carboniferous times. In the rocks of these periods we meet with the large
strap-shaped leaves of _Cordaites_ and a fern, _Sphenopteris_, in the
first-named series; and the widely distributed _Lepidodendron_ with its
handsome lozenge-scarred stems in the later series (Fig. 56). _Cordaites_
has been found in Victoria in the Iguana Creek beds (Upper Devonian),
and it also probably occurs at the same horizon at Nungatta, New South
Wales. _Lepidodendron_ occurs in the Lower Carboniferous sandstone of
Victoria and Queensland (Fig. 57): in New South Wales it is found at Mt.
Lambie, Goonoo, Tamworth and Copeland in beds generally regarded as Upper
Devonian. Both of these plants are typical of Carboniferous (Coal Measure)
beds in Europe and North America. The fern _Rhacopteris_ is characteristic
of Upper Carboniferous shales and sandstones near Stroud, and other
localities in New South Wales as well as in Queensland (Fig. 58). These
beds yield a few inferior seams of coal. _Girvanella_ is again seen in the
oolitic limestones of Carboniferous age in Queensland and New South Wales.


=Carbopermian Plants.--=

The higher division of the Australian Carboniferous usually spoken of
as the Permo-carboniferous, and here designated the Carbopermian (see
Footnote 2, page 48), is typified by a sudden accession of plant forms,
chiefly belonging to ferns of the _Glossopteris_ type. The lingulate
or tongue-shaped fronds of this genus, with their characteristic
reticulate venation, are often found entirely covering the slabs of
shale intercalated with the coal seams of New South Wales; and it is
also a common fossil in Tasmania and Western Australia. The allied form,
_Gangamopteris_, which is distinguished from _Glossopteris_ by having no
definite midrib, is found in beds of the same age in Victoria, New South
Wales, and Tasmania. These plant remains are also found in India, South
Africa, South America and the Falkland Islands. This wide distribution
of such ancient ferns indicates that those now isolated land-surfaces
were once connected, forming an extensive continent named by Prof. Suess
"Gondwana-Land," from the Gondwana district in India (Fig. 59).

[Illustration:

  _E. M. del._                        (_After J. W. Gregory_).

  =Fig. 59.--Map of the World in the Upper Carboniferous Era.=
]


=Triassic Plants.--=

The widely distributed pinnate fern known as _Thinnfeldia_ is first found
in the Trias; in the Narrabeen shales near Manly, and the Hawksbury
sandstone at Mount Victoria, New South Wales. It is also a common
fossil of the Jurassic of South Gippsland, and other parts of Victoria.
The grass-like leaves of _Phoenicopsis_ are frequently met with in
Triassic strata, as in the upper series at Bald Hill, Bacchus Marsh, and
also in Tasmania. The large Banana-palm-like leaves of _Taeniopteris_
(_Macrotaeniopteris_) are common to the Triassic and Lower Jurassic beds
of India: they are also met with in New Zealand, and in the upper beds at
Bald Hill, Bacchus Marsh.

[Illustration: =Fig. 60.--MESOZOIC PLANTS.=

  A--Thinnfeldia odontopteroides. Morris sp. Trias. N.S. Wales.

  B--Cladophlebis denticulata, Brongn. sp. var. australis, Morr.
       Jurassic, Victoria.

  C--Taeniopteris spatulata, McClell. var. Daintreei, McCoy. Jurassic,
       Victoria.

  D--Brachyphyllum gippslandicum, McCoy. Jurassic, Victoria.

  E--Ginkgo robusta, McCoy. Jurassic, Victoria.

]


=Jurassic Plants.--=

The Jurassic flora of Australasia is very prolific in plant forms.
These range from liverworts and horse-tails to ferns and conifers. The
commonest ferns were _Cladophlebis_, _Sphenopteris_, _Thinnfeldia_
and _Taeniopteris_. The conifers are represented by _Araucarites_
(cone-scales, leaves and fruits), _Palissya_ and _Brachyphyllum_ (Fig.
60). The _Ginkgo_ or Maiden-hair tree, which is still living in China
and Japan, and also as a cultivated plant, was extremely abundant in
Jurassic times, accompanied by the related genus, _Baiera_, having more
deeply incised leaves; both genera occur in the Jurassic of S. Gippsland,
Victoria, and in Queensland. The Jurassic flora of Australasia is in many
respects like that of the Yorkshire coast near Scarborough. In New Zealand
this flora is represented in the Mataura series, in which there are many
forms identical with those of the Australian Jurassic, and even of India.


=Cretaceous Plants.--=

An upper Cretaceous fern, (?) _Didymosorus gleichenioides_, is found in
the sandstones of the Croydon Gold-field, North Queensland.


=Plants of the Cainozoic.--Balcombian Stage.--=

The older part of the Cainozoic series in Australasia may be referred
to the Oligocene. These are marine beds with occasional, thick seams of
lignite, and sometimes of pipe-clay with leaves, the evidence of river
influence in the immediate neighbourhood. The fossil wood in the lignite
beds appears to be a _Cupressinoxylon_ or Cypress wood. Leaves referable
to plants living at the present day are also found in certain clays,
as at Mornington, containing _Eucalyptus precoriacea_ and a species of
_Podocarpus_.

[Illustration: =Fig. 61.--CAINOZOIC PLANTS.=

  A--Cinnamomum polymorphoides, McCoy. Cainozoic. Victoria.

  B--Laurus werribeensis, McCoy. Cainozoic. Victoria.

  C--Banksia Campbelli, Ettingsh. Cainozoic. Vegetable Creek, N.S.W.

  D--Fagus Risdoniana, Ettingsh. Cainozoic. Tasmania.

  E--Spondylostrobus Smythi, Mueller. Cainozoic. (Deep Leads), Victoria.

]


=Miocene Leaf-beds.--Janjukian Stage.--=

Later Cainozoic deposits, evidently accumulated in lakes, and sometimes
ferruginous, may be referred to the Miocene. They are comparable in
age with the Janjukian marine beds of Spring Creek and Waurn Ponds in
Victoria. These occur far inland and occupy distinct basins, as at the
Wannon, Bacchus Marsh (Maddingley), and Pitfield Plains. Leaf-beds of
this age occur also on the Otway coast, Victoria, containing the genera
_Coprosmaephyllum_, _Persoonia_ and _Phyllocladus_. In all probability the
Dalton and Gunning leaf-beds of New South Wales belong here. Examples of
the genera found in beds of this age are _Eucalyptus_ (a species near _E.
amygdalina_), _Banksia_ or Native Honeysuckle, _Cinnamomum_ or Cinnamon,
_Laurus_ or Laurel, and _Fagus_ (_Notofagus_) or Beech (Fig. 61). In the
leaf-beds covered by the older basalt on the Dargo High Plains, Gippsland,
leaves of the _Ginkgo Murrayana_ occur.

In South Australia several occurrences of leaf beds have been recorded,
containing similar species to those found in the Cainozoic of Dalton and
Vegetable Creek, New South Wales. For example, _Magnolia Brownii_ occurs
at Lake Frome, _Bombax Sturtii_ and _Eucalyptus Mitchelli_ at Elizabeth
River, and _Apocynophyllum Mackinlayi_ at Arcoona.


=Fruits of the "Deep Leads."--=

The Deep Leads of Victoria, New South Wales and Tasmania probably begin
to date from the period just named, for they seem to be contemporaneous
with the "Older Gold Drift" of Victoria; a deposit sometimes containing
a marine fauna of Janjukian age. This upland river system persisted
into Lower Pliocene times, and their buried silts yield many fruits, of
types not now found in Australia, such as _Platycoila_, _Penteune_ and
_Pleioclinis_, along with _Cupressus_ (_Spondylostrobus_) and _Eucalyptus_
of the existing flora (Fig. 62).


=Pleistocene Plants.--=

The Pleistocene volcanic tuffs of Mount Gambier have been shown to contain
fronds of the living _Pteris_ (_Pteridium_) _aquilina_ or Bracken fern,
and a _Banksia_ in every way comparable with _B. marginata_, a species of
the Native Honeysuckle still living in the same district.

[Illustration: =Fig. 62.--Leaves of a Fossil Eucalyptus. (E. pluti,
McCoy).=

About 3/4 nat. size. From the Cainozoic Deep Leads, Daylesford, Victoria.

                                                       (_Nat. Mus. Coll._)
]

The siliceous valves of freshwater diatoms constitute the infusorial
earths of Victoria, Queensland, New South Wales and New Zealand. The
commonest genera met with are _Melosira_, _Navicula_, _Cymbella_ (or
_Cocconema_), _Synedra_, _Tabellaria_, _Stauroneis_ and _Gomphonema_.
They are, generally speaking, of Pleistocene age, as they are often found
filling hollows in the newer basalt flows. In Victoria diatomaceous
earths are found at Talbot (See Fig. 42), Sebastopol and Lancefield; in
Queensland, at Pine Creek; in New South Wales, at Cooma, Barraba, and the
Richmond River; and in New Zealand at Pakaraka, Bay of Islands. In the
latter country there is also a marine diatomaceous rock in the Oamaru
Series, of Miocene age.


COMMON OR CHARACTERISTIC FOSSILS OF THE FOREGOING CHAPTER.

  _Girvanella problematica_, Nicholson and Etheridge. Cambrian: S.
       Australia.

  _Bythotrephis tenuis_, J. Hall. Silurian: Victoria.

  _Haliserites Dechenianus_, Göppert sp. Silurian and Devonian: Victoria.

  _Cordaites australis_, McCoy. Upper Devonian: Victoria.

  _Lepidodendron australe_, McCoy. Lower Carboniferous: Victoria and
       Queensland. Up. Devonian: New South Wales.

  _Rhacopteris inaequilatera_, Göppert sp. Carboniferous: New South
       Wales.

  _Glossopteris Browniana_, Brongniart. Carbopermian: New South Wales,
       Queensland, Tasmania and W. Australia.

  _Gangamopteris spatulata_, McCoy. Carbopermian: Victoria, New South
       Wales and Tasmania.

  _Thinnfeldia odontopteroides_, Morris sp. Triassic: New South Wales.
       Jurassic: Victoria, Queensland and Tasmania.

  _Cladophlebis denticulata._, Brongn. sp., var. australis, Morris.
       Jurassic: Queensland, New South Wales, Victoria, Tasmania and New
       Zealand.

  _Taeniopteris spatulata_, McClelland. Jurassic: Queensland, New South
       Wales, Victoria, and Tasmania.

  (?) _Didymosorus gleichenioides_, Etheridge fil. Upper Cretaceous:
       Queensland.

  _Eucalyptus precoriacea_, Deane. Oligocene: Victoria.

  _Eucalyptus_, _Banksia_, _Cinnamomum_, _Laurus_ and _Fagus_. Miocene:
       Victoria, New South Wales and Tasmania.

  _Spondylostrobus Smythi_, von Mueller. (Fruits and wood). Lower
       Pliocene: Victoria and Tasmania.

  _Pteris_ (_Pteridium_) _aquilina_, Linné, and _Banksia_ cf.
       _marginata_, Cavanilles. Pleistocene: Victoria and South
       Australia.


       *       *       *       *       *


LITERATURE.


  Girvanella.--Etheridge, R. jnr. Trans. R. Soc. S. Australia, vol.
       XIII. 1890, pp. 19, 20. Etheridge, R. and Card, G. Geol. Surv.
       Queensland, Bull. No. 12, 1900, pp. 26, 27, 32. Chapman, F. Rep.
       Austr. Assoc. Adv. Sci., Adelaide Meeting (1907), 1908, p. 337.

  Devonian Ferns and Cordaites.--McCoy, F. Prod. Pal. Vict. Dec. V.,
       1876, p. 21. Dun, W. S. Rec. Geol. Surv. New South Wales, vol. V.
       pt. 3, 1897, p. 117.

  Lepidodendron.--McCoy, F. Prod. Pal. Vict., Dec. I. 1874, p. 37.
       Etheridge, R. jnr. Rec. Geol. Surv, New South Wales, vol. II.,
       pt. 3, 1891, p. 119. Idem, Geol. and Pal. Queensland, 1892, p.
       196.

  Carboniferous Fungi.--Etheridge, R. jnr. Geol. Surv. W.A., Bull, No.
       10, 1903, pp. 25-31.

  Carboniferous Ferns.--Dun, W. S. Rec. Geol. Surv. New South Wales,
       vol. VIII. pt. 2, 1905, pp. 157-161, pls. XXII. and XXIII.

  Glossopteris.--Feistmantel, O. Mem. Geol. Surv. New South Wales, Pal.
       No. 3, 1890. Arber, N. Cat. Foss. Plants, Glossopteris Flora,
       Brit. Mus., 1905.

  Gangamopteris.--McCoy, F. Prod. Pal. Vict., Dec. II. 1875, p. 11.

  Jurassic Plants.--McCoy, F. Prod. Pal. Vic., Dec. II. 1875, p. 15.
       Woods, T. Proc. Linn. Soc. New South Wales, vol. VIII. pt. I.
       1883, p. 37. Etheridge, R. jnr. Geol. Pal. Queensland, 1892, p.
       314. Dun, W. S. (Taeniopteris), Rep. Austr. Asso. Adv. Sci.,
       Sydney, 1898, pp. 384-400. Seward, A. C. Rec. Geol. Surv. Vic.,
       vol. I. pt. 3, 1904; Chapman, F. Ibid., vol II. pt. 4, 1908; vol.
       III., pt. 1, 1909. Dun, W. S. Rec. Geol. Surv. New South Wales,
       vol. VIII. pt. 4, 1909, p. 311.

  Older Cainozoic Plants.--McCoy, F. Prod. Pal. Vic., Dec. IV. 1876, p.
       31. Ettingshausen, C. von. Mem. Geol. Surv. New South Wales, Pal.
       No. 2, 1888. Idem, Trans. New Zealand Inst., vol. XXIII. (1890),
       1891, p. 237. Deane, H. Rec. Geol. Surv. Vict., vol. I. pt. 1,
       1902, pp. 15, 20.

  Lower Pliocene Deep Leads.--McCoy, F. Prod. Pal. Vict., Dec. IV. 1876,
       p. 29. Mueller, F. von. Geol. Surv. Vic., New Veg. Foss., 1874
       and 1883.

  Pleistocene and other Diatom Earths.--Card, G. W. and Dun, W. S., Rec.
       Geol. Surv. New South Wales, vol. V. pt. 3, 1897, p. 128.




CHAPTER VI.

FOSSIL FORAMINIFERA AND RADIOLARIA.


=Protozoans, Their Structure.--=

The animals forming the sub-kingdom PROTOZOA ("lowliest animals"), are
unicellular (one-celled), as distinguished from all the succeeding higher
groups, which are known as the METAZOA ("animals beyond"). The former
group, Protozoa, have all their functions performed by means of a simple
cell, any additions to the cell-unit merely forming a repetitional
or aggregated cell-structure. A familiar example of such occurs in
pond-life, in the Amoeba, a form which is not found fossilised on account
of the absence of any hard parts or covering capable of preservation.
Foraminifera and Radiolaria, however, have such hard parts, and are
frequently found fossilised.


=Foraminifera: Their Habitats.--=

The _FORAMINIFERA_ are a group which, although essentially one-celled,
have the protoplasmic body often numerously segmented. The shell or test
formed upon, and enclosing the jelly-like sarcode, may consist either
of carbonate of lime, cemented sand-grains, or a sub-calcareous or
chitinous (horny) covering. The Foraminifera, with very few exceptions,
as _Mikrogromia_, _Lieberkuehnia_, and some forms of _Gromia_, are all
marine in habit. Some genera, however, as _Miliolina_, _Rotalia_ and
_Nonionina_, affect brackish water conditions.

Since Foraminifera are of so lowly a grade in the animal kingdom, we may
naturally expect to find their remains in the oldest known rocks that show
any evidence of life. They are, indeed, first seen in rocks of Cambrian
age, although they have not yet been detected there in Australian strata.


=Cambrian Foraminifera.--=

In parts of Siberia and in the Baltic Provinces, both Cambrian and
Ordovician rocks contain numerous glauconite casts of Foraminifera,
generally of the _Globigerina_ type of shell. In England some Middle
Cambrian rocks of Shropshire are filled with tiny exquisitely preserved
spiral shells belonging to the genus _Spirillina_, in which all the
characters of the test are seen as clearly as in the specimens picked out
of shore-sand at the present day.


=Silurian Foraminifera.--=

The Silurian rocks in all countries are very poor in foraminiferal shells,
only occasional examples being found. In rocks of this age at Lilydale,
Victoria, the genus _Ammodiscus_, with fine sandy, coiled tests, is found
in the Cave Hill Limestone.

So far as known, hardly any forms of this group occur in Devonian strata,
although some ill-defined shells have been found in the Eifel, Germany.


=Carboniferous Foraminifera.--=

The Carboniferous rocks in many parts of the world yield an abundant
foraminiferal fauna. Such, for instance, are the _Saccammina_ and
_Endothyra_ Limestones of the North of England and the North of Ireland.
The Australian rocks of this age have not afforded any examples of the
group, since they are mainly of estuarine or freshwater origin.

[Illustration: =Fig. 63.--PALAEOZOIC and MESOZOIC FORAMINIFERA.=

  A--Nubecularia stephensi, Howchin. Carbopermian. N.S.W.

  B--Frondicularia woodwardi, Howchin. Carbopermian. N.S.W.

  C--Geinitzina triangularis, Chapman and Howchin. Carbopermian. N.S.W.

  D--Valvulina plicata, Brady. Carbopermian. West Australia.

  E--Vaginulina intumescens, Reuss. Jurassic. West Australia.

  F--Flabellina dilatata, Wisniowski. Jurassic. West Australia.

  G--Marginulina solida, Terquem. Jurassic. West Australia.

  H--Frondicularia gaultina, Reuss. Cretaceous. West Australia.

]


=Carbopermian Foraminifera.--=

In Australia, as at Pokolbin, New South Wales, in the Mersey River
district, Tasmania, and in the Irwin River district, Western Australia,
the Permian rocks, or "Permo-carboniferous" as they are generally called,
often contain beds of impure limestone crowded with the chalky white
tests of _Nubecularia_: other interesting genera occur at the first named
locality as _Pelosina_, _Hyperammina_, _Haplophragmium_, _Placopsilina_,
_Lituola_, _Thurammina_, _Ammodiscus_, _Stacheia_, _Monogenerina_,
_Valvulina_, _Bulimina_, (?)_Pleurostomella_, _Lagena_, _Nodosaria_,
_Frondicularia_, _Geinitzina_, _Lunucammina_, _Marginulina_, _Vaginulina_,
_Anomalina_ and _Truncatulina_. The sandy matrix of certain _Glossopteris_
leaf-beds in the Collie Coal measures in W. Australia have yielded
some dwarfed examples belonging to the genera _Bulimina_, _Endothyra_,
_Valvulina_, _Truncatulina_ and _Pulvinulina_; whilst in the Irwin River
district similar beds contain _Nodosaria_ and _Frondicularia_ (Fig. 63).


=Triassic Foraminifera.--=

The Triassic and Rhaetic clays of Europe occasionally show traces of
foraminiferal shells, probably of estuarine habitat, as do the Wianamatta
beds of New South Wales, which also belong to the Triassic epoch. The
Australian representatives are placed in the genera _Nubecularia_,
_Haplophragmium_, _Endothyra_, _Discorbina_, _Truncatulina_, and
_Pulvinulina_. These shells are diminutive even for foraminifera, and
their starved condition indicates uncongenial environment.


=Jurassic Foraminifera.--=

The Jurassic limestones of Western Australia, at Geraldton, contain many
species of Foraminifera, principally belonging to the spirally coiled and
slipper-shaped _Cristellariae_. Other genera present are _Haplophragmium_,
_Textularia_, _Bulimina_, _Flabellina_, _Marginulina_, _Vaginulina_,
_Polymorphina_, _Discorbina_, and _Truncatulina_.


=Cretaceous Foraminifera.--=

In the Lower Cretaceous rocks known as the Rolling Downs Formation in
Queensland, shells of the Foraminifera are found in some abundance
at Wollumbilla. They are represented chiefly by _Cristellaria_ and
_Polymorphina_.

[Illustration: =Fig. 64.--Structure in Lepidocyclina.=

  A--Vertical section through test of Lepidocyclina marginata,
       Michelotti sp.: showing the equatorial chambers (eq. c) and the
       lateral chambers (l.c.)

  B--Section through the median disc, showing the hexagonal and ogive
       chambers. × 18.

  Cainozoic (Janjukian). Batesford, near Geelong, Victoria.

                                                            (_F.C. Coll._)
]


=Cainozoic Foraminifera.--=

The Cainozoic strata in all parts of the world are very rich in
Foraminifera, and the genera, and even many species are similar to those
now found living. Certain types, however, had a restricted range, and are
therefore useful as indicators of age. Such are the Nummulites and the
_Orbitoides_ of the Eocene and the Oligocene of Europe, India and the West
Indies; and the _Lepidocyclinae_ of the Miocene of Europe, India, Japan
and Australia (Fig. 64).

The genus _Lepidocyclina_ is typically represented in the Batesford beds
near Geelong, Victoria by _L. tournoueri_, a fossil of the Burdigalian
stage (Middle Miocene) in Europe, as well as by _L. marginata_. A
limestone with large, well-preserved tests of the same genus, and
belonging to a slightly lower horizon in the Miocene has lately been
discovered in Papua.

[Illustration: =Fig. 65.--CAINOZOIC FORAMINIFERA.=

  A--Miliolina vulgaris, d'Orb. sp. Oligocene-Recent. Vict. and S.A.

  B--Textularia gibbosa, d'Orb. Oligocene and Miocene. Vict. & S.A.

  C--Nodosaria affinis, d'Orb. Oligocene. Victoria.

  D--Polymorphina elegantissima. P. and J. Oligocene-Recent. Vict. and
       S.A.

  E--Truncatulina ungeriana, d'Orb. sp. Oligocene-Recent. Vict. & S.A.

  F--Amphistegina vulgaris, d'Orb. Oligocene-L. Pliocene. Vict. & S.A.

]

Some of the commoner Foraminifera found in the Cainozoic beds of Southern
Australia are--_Miliolina vulgaris_, _Textularia gibbosa_, _Nodosaria
affinis_, _Polymorphina elegantissima_, _Truncatulina ungeriana_ and
_Amphistegina lessonii_ (Fig. 65). The first-named has a chalky or
porcellanous shell; the second a sandy test; the third and fourth glassy
or hyaline shells with excessively fine tubules; the fifth a glassy shell
with numerous surface punctations due to coarser tubules than usual in
the shell-walls; whilst the last-named has a smooth, lenticular shell,
also hyaline, and occurring in such abundance as often to constitute a
foraminiferal rock in itself.


=Pleistocene Foraminifera.--=

The estuarine deposits of Pleistocene age in southern Australia often
contain innumerable shells of _Miliolina_, _Rotalia_ and _Polystomella_.
One thin seam of sandy clay struck by the bores in the Victorian Mallee
consists almost entirely of the shells of the shallow-water and estuarine
species, _Rotalia beccarii_.

       *       *       *       *       *


=Radiolaria: Their Structure.--=

The organisms belonging to the order _RADIOLARIA_ are microscopic, and
they are all of marine habitat. The body of a radiolarian consists of a
central mass of protoplasm enclosed in a membranous capsule, and contains
the nuclei, vacuoles, granules and fat globules; whilst outside is a
jelly-like portion which throws off pseudopodia or thin radiating threads.
The skeleton of Radiolaria is either chitinous or composed of clear,
glassy silica, and is often of exquisitely ornamental and regular form.


=Habitat.--=

These tiny organisms generally live in the open ocean at various depths,
and sinking to the bottom, sometimes as deep as 2,000 to 4,000 fathoms,
they form an ooze or mud.


=Subdivisions.--=

Radiolaria are divided into the four legions or orders,--Acantharia,
Spumellaria, Nasselaria and Phaeodaria: only the second and third groups
are found fossil. The Spumellarians are spherical, ellipsoidal, or
disc-shaped, and the Nasselarians conical or helmet-shaped.


=Cambrian Radiolaria.--=

Certain cherts or hard, siliceous rocks of the palaeozoic era are often
crowded with the remains of Radiolaria, giving the rock a spotted
appearance. (See _antea_, Fig. 38). Some of the genera thus found are
identical with those living at the present day, whilst others are peculiar
to those old sediments. In Australia, remains of their siliceous shells
have been found in cherts of Lower Cambrian age near Adelaide. These have
been provisionally referred to the genera _Carposphaera_ and _Cenellipsis_
(Fig. 66).


=Ordovician Radiolaria.--=

Radiolaria have been detected in the Lower Ordovician rocks of Victoria,
in beds associated with the Graptolite slates of this series. In New South
Wales Radiolarian remains are found in the cherts and slates of Upper
Ordovician age at Cooma and Mandurama.


=Silurian Radiolaria.--=

The Silurian black cherts of the Jenolan Caves in New South Wales contain
casts of Radiolaria.


=Devonian Radiolaria.--=

The Lower Devonian red jaspers of Bingera and Barraba in New South Wales
have afforded some casts of Radiolaria, resembling _Carposphaera_ and
_Cenosphaera_.

[Illustration: =Fig. 66.--FOSSIL RADIOLARIA.=

  A--Aff. Carposphaera (after David and Howchin). Cambrian. Brighton,
       S.A.

  B--Cenosphaera affinis, Hinde. Mid. Devonian. Tamworth, N.S.W.

  C--Amphibrachium truncatum, Hinde. Up. Cretaceous. Pt. Darwin.

  D--Dictyomitra triangularis, Hinde. Up. Cretaceous. Pt. Darwin.

]

The large number of fifty-three species have been found in the radiolarian
rocks of Middle Devonian age at Tamworth in New South Wales (Fig. 66).
These have been referred to twenty-nine genera comprising amongst
others, _Cenosphaera_, _Xiphosphaera_, _Staurolonche_, _Heliosphaera_,
_Acanthosphaera_ and _Spongodiscus_.


=Cretaceous Radiolaria.--=

Although certain silicified rocks in the Jurassic in Europe have furnished
a large series of Radiolaria, the Australian marine limestones of this age
have not yielded any of their remains up to the present. They have been
found, however, in the Lower Cretaceous of Queensland, and in the (?)Upper
Cretaceous of Port Darwin, N. Australia. The Radiolaria from the latter
locality belong to the sub-orders Prunoidea, Discoidea and Cyrtoidea
(Fig. 66). The rock which contains these minute fossils is stated to be
eaten by the natives for medicinal purposes. As its composition is almost
pure silica, its efficacy in such cases must be more imaginary than real.


=Cainozoic Radiolaria.--=

Cainozoic rocks of Pliocene age, composed entirely of Radiolaria, occur at
Barbados in the West Indies. No Cainozoic Radiolaria, however, have been
found either in Australia or New Zealand up to the present time.

       *       *       *       *       *


COMMON OR CHARACTERISTIC FOSSILS OF THE FOREGOING CHAPTER.


FORAMINIFERA.

  _Nubecularia stephensi_, Howchin. Carbopermian: Tasmania and New South
       Wales.

  _Frondicularia woodwardi_, Howchin. Carbopermian: W. Australia and New
       South Wales.

  _Geinitzina triangularis_, Chapm. & Howchin. Carbopermian: New South
       Wales.

  _Pulvinulina insignis_, Chapman. Trias (Wianamatta Series): New South
       Wales.

  _Marginulina solida_, Terquem. Jurassic: W. Australia.

  _Flabellina dilatata_, Wisniowski. Jurassic: W. Australia.

  _Vaginulina striata_, d'Orbigny. Lower Cretaceous: Queensland.

  _Truncatulina lobatula_, W. and J. sp. Lower Cretaceous: Queensland.

  _Miliolina vulgaris_, d'Orb. sp. Cainozoic: Victoria and S. Australia.

  _Textularia gibbosa_, d'Orb. Cainozoic: Victoria and S. Australia.

  _Nodosaria affinis_, d'Orb. Cainozoic: Victoria and S. Australia.

  _Polymorphina elegantissima_, Parker and Jones. Cainozoic: Victoria,
       Tasmania, and S. Australia.

  _Truncatulina ungeriana_, d'Orb. sp. Cainozoic: Victoria, King Island,
       and S. Australia.

  _Amphistegina lessonii_, d'Orb. Cainozoic: Victoria and S. Australia.

  _Lepidocyclina martini_, Schlumberger. Cainozoic (Balcombian and
       Janjukian): Victoria.

  _L. tournoueri_, Lemoine and Douvillé. Cainozoic (Junjukian):
       Victoria.

  _Cycloclypeus pustulosus_, Chapman. Cainozoic (Janjukian): Victoria.

  _Fabularia howchini_, Schlumberger. Cainozoic (Kalimnan): Victoria.

  _Hauerina intermedia_, Howchin. Cainozoic (Kalimnan): Victoria.

  _Rotalia beccarii_, Linné sp. Pleistocene: Victoria and S. Australia.

  _Polystomella striatopunctata_, Fichtel and Moll sp. Pleistocene:
       Victoria and S. Australia.


RADIOLARIA.

  (?) _Carposphaera_ sp. Lower Cambrian: South Australia.

  (?) _Cenellipsis_ sp. Lower Cambrian: South Australia.

  _Cenosphaera affinis_, Hinde. Devonian: New South Wales.

  _Staurolonche davidi_, Hinde. Devonian: New South Wales.

  _Amphibrachium truncatum_, Hinde. Upper Cretaceous: Northern Territory.

  _Dictyomitra triangularis_, Hinde. Upper Cretaceous: Northern
       Territory.


       *       *       *       *       *


LITERATURE.


FORAMINIFERA.

  Carbopermian.--Howchin, W. Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Austr., vol. XIX. 1895;
       pp. 194-198. Chapman, F. and Howchin, W. Mem. Geol. Surv. New
       South Wales, Pal. No. 14, 1905. Chapman, F. Bull. Geol. Surv. W.
       Austr., No. 27, 1907, pp. 15-18.

  Trias.--Chapman, F. Rec. Geol. Surv. New South Wales, vol. VIII. pt.
       4, 1909, pp. 336-339.

  Jurassic.--Chapman, F. Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict., vol. XVI. (N.S.), pt.
       II., 1904, pp. 186-199.

  Cretaceous.--Moore, C. Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. XXVI. 1870, pp.
       239 and 242. Howchin, W. Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Austr., vol. VIII.
       1886, pp. 79-93. Idem, ibid., vol. XIX., 1895, pp. 198-200. Idem,
       Bull. Geol. Surv. W. Austr., No. 27, 1907, pp. 38-43.

  Cainozoic.--Howchin, W. Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Austr., vol. XII. 1889,
       pp. 1-20. Idem, ibid., vol. XIV. 1891, pp. 350-356. Jensen, H.
       I. Proc. Linn. Soc. New South Wales, vol. XXIX. pt. 4, 1905, pp.
       829-831. Goddard, E. J. and Jensen, H. I. ibid., vol. XXXII. pt.
       2, 1907, pp. 308-318. Chapman, F. Journ. Linn. Soc. Lond. Zool.,
       vol. XXX. 1907, pp. 10-35.

  General.--Howchin, W. Rep. Austr. Assoc. Adv. Sci., Adelaide Meeting,
       1893, pp. 348-373.


RADIOLARIA.

  Lower Cambrian.--David, T. W. E. and Howchin, W. Proc. Linn. Soc. New
       South Wales, vol. XXI. 1897, p. 571.

  Devonian.--David, T. W. E. Proc. Linn. Soc. New South Wales, vol. XXI.
       1897, pp. 553-570. Hinde, G. J. Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol.
       LV. 1890, pp. 38-64.

  Upper Cretaceous.--Hinde, G. J. Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. XLIX.
       1893, pp. 221-226.




CHAPTER VII.

FOSSIL SPONGES, CORALS AND GRAPTOLITES.


_SPONGES._


=Characteristics of Sponges.--=

The Sponges are sometimes placed by themselves as a separate phylum, the
Porifera. With the exception of a few freshwater genera, they are of
marine habit and to be found at all depths between low tide (littoral)
and deep water (abyssal). Sponges are either fixed or lie loosely on the
sea-floor. They possess no organs of locomotion, and have no distinct axis
or lateral appendages. They exist by setting up currents in the water
whereby the latter is circulated through the system, carrying with it
numerous food particles, their tissues being at the same time oxygenated.
Their framework, in the siliceous and calcareous sponges, is strengthened
by a mineral skeleton, wholly or partially capable of preservation as a
fossil.


=Cambrian and Ordovician Sponges.--=

The oldest rocks in Australia containing the remains of Sponges are the
Cambrian limestones of South Australia, at Ardrossan and elsewhere.
Some of these sponge-remains are referred to the genus _Protospongia_,
a member of the Hexactinellid group having 6-rayed skeletal elements.
When complete, the _Protospongia_ has a cup- or funnel-shaped body,
composed of large and small modified spicules, which form quadrate areas,
often seen in isolated or aggregated patches on the weathered surface of
the rock. _Protospongia_ also occurs in the Lower Ordovician slates and
shales of Lancefield (_P. oblonga_), and Bendigo (_P. reticulata_ and _P.
cruciformis_), in Victoria (Fig. 67 A). At St. David's, in South Wales,
the genus is found in rocks of Middle Cambrian age. The South Australian
limestones in which _Protospongia_ occurs are usually placed in the Lower
Cambrian.

[Illustration: =Fig. 67.--PALAEOZOIC SPONGES, &c.=

  A--Protospongia reticulata, T. S. Hall. Low. Ordovician. Bendigo.

  B--Receptaculites fergusoni, Chapm. Silurian. Wombat Creek, Vict.

  C--R. australis, Salter. (Section of wall, etched, after Eth. & Dun)
       Mid. Devonian. Co. Murray, N.S.W.

  D--Protopharetra scoulari, Eth. fil. Cambrian. S.A.

]

Another genus of Sponges, _Hyalostelia_, whose affinities are not very
clear, occurs in the South Australian Cambrian at Curramulka. This type
is represented by the long, slightly bent, rod-like spicules of the
root-tuft, and the skeletal spicules with six rays, one of which is much
elongated.

_Stephanella maccoyi_ is a Monactinellid sponge, found in the Lower
Ordovician (Bendigo Series) of Bendigo, Victoria.


=Silurian Sponges.--=

Numerous Sponges of Silurian age are found in the neighbourhood of Yass,
New South Wales, which belong to the Lithistid group, having irregular,
knotty and branching spicules. These sponges resemble certain fossil
fruits, generally like diminutive melons; their peculiar spicular
structure, however, is usually visible on the outside of the fossil,
especially in weathered specimens. The commonest genus is _Carpospongia_.


=Receptaculites: Silurian to Carboniferous.--=

In Upper Silurian, Devonian, and Carboniferous times the curious saucer-
or funnel-shaped bodies known as _Receptaculites_ must have been fairly
abundant in Australia, judging by their frequent occurrence as fossils.
They are found as impressions or moulds and casts in some of the mudstones
and limestones of Silurian age in Victoria, as at Loyola and Wombat
Creek, in west and north-east Gippsland respectively. In the Devonian
limestones of New South Wales they occur at Fernbrook, near Mudgee, at the
Goodradigbee River, and at Cavan, near Yass; also in beds of the same age
in Victoria, at Bindi, and Buchan (Fig. 67, B.C.). _Receptaculites_ also
occur in the Star Beds of Upper Devonian or Lower Carboniferous age in
Queensland, at Mount Wyatt. It will thus be seen that this genus has an
extensive geological range.


=Carbopermian Sponges.--=

A Monactinellid Sponge, provisionally referred to _Lasiocladia_, has been
described from the Gympie beds of the Rockhampton District, Queensland.
_Lasiocladia_, as well as the Hexactinellid Sponge _Hyalostelia_, occurs
in the Carbopermian of New South Wales.


=Cretaceous Sponges.--=

No sponge-remains seem to occur above the Carbopermian in Australia
until we reach the Cretaceous rocks. In the Lower Cretaceous series in
Queensland a doubtful member of the Hexactinellid group is found, namely,
_Purisiphonia clarkei_. In the Upper Cretaceous of the Darling Downs
District pyritized Sponges occur which have been referred to the genus
_Siphonia_, a member of the Lithistid group, well known in the Cretaceous
of Europe.


=Cainozoic Sponges.--=

A white siliceous clay, supposed to be from a "Deep Lead," in the
Norseman district in Western Australia, has proved to consist almost
entirely of siliceous sponge-spicules, belonging to the Monactinellid,
the Tetractinellid, the Lithistid, and the Hexactinellid groups (Fig. 69
A, B). The reference of the deposit to a "deep lead" or alluvial deposit
presents a difficulty, since these sponge-spicules represent moderately
deep water marine forms. This deposit resembles in some respects the
spicule-bearing rock of Oamaru, New Zealand, which is of Miocene age.

[Illustration: =Fig. 68.--CAINOZOIC SPONGES.=

  A--Latrunculia sp. (after Hinde). Cainozoic. Deep Lead, Norseman, W.A.

  B--Geodia sp. (after Hinde). Cainozoic. Deep Lead, Norseman, W.A.

  C--Ecionema newberyi. McCoy sp. Cainozoic. Boggy Creek, Gippsland,
       Vict.

  D--Plectroninia halli, Hinde. Cainozoic (Janjukian). Moorabool, Vict.

  E--Tretocalia pezica, Hinde. Cainozoic. Flinders, Vict.

]

[Illustration: =Fig. 69.--SILURIAN CORALS.=

  A--Cyathophyllum approximans, Chapm. Silurian (Yer.). Gippsland, Vict.

  B--Favosites grandipora, Eth. fil. Silurian (Yer.). Lilydale, Vict.

  C--Favosites grandipora, vertical section. Ditto.

  D--F. grandipora, transverse section. Ditto.

  E--Pleurodictyum megastomum, Dun. Lilydale, Vict.

  F--Halysites peristephesicus, Eth. fil. Silurian. N.S. Wales.

  G--Heliolites interstincta, Wahl sp Vict. (transv. sect). Silurian..

]

In the Cainozoic beds of southern Australia Sponges with calcareous
skeletons are not at all uncommon. The majority of these belong to the
Lithonine section of the Calcispongiae, in which the spicules are regular,
and not fixed together. Living examples of these sponges, closely related
to the fossils, have been dredged from the Japanese Sea. The fossils
are found mainly in the Janjukian, at Curlewis, in the Moorabool River
limestones, and in the polyzoal rock of Flinders, all in Victoria. They
belong to the genera _Bactronella_, _Plectroninia_ and _Tretocalia_ (Fig.
68, D and E). Some diminutive forms also occur in the older series, the
Balcombian, at Mornington, namely, _Bactronella parvula_. At Boggy Creek,
near Sale, in Victoria, a Tetractinellid Sponge, _Ecionema newberyi_, is
found in the Janjukian marls; spicules of this form have also been noted
from the clays of the Altona Bay coal-shaft (Fig. 68 C).

       *       *       *       *       *

The _ARCHAEOCYATHINAE_: an ancient class of organisms related both to the
Sponges and the Corals.


=Archaeocyathinae in Cambrian Strata.--=

These curious remains have been lately made the subject of detailed
research, and it is now concluded that they form a group probably
ancestral both to the sponges and the corals. They are calcareous, and
generally cup-shaped or conical, often furnished at the pointed base
with roots or strands for attachment to the surrounding reef. They have
two walls, both the inner and the outer being perforated like sponges.
As in the corals, they are divided by transverse septa and these are
also perforated. Certain of the genera as _Protopharetra_ (Fig. 67 D),
_Coscinocyathus_, and _Archaeocyathina_, are common to the Cambrian
of Sardinia and South Australia, whilst other genera of the class are
also found in Siberia, China, Canada and the United States. A species
of _Protopharetra_ was recently detected in a pebble derived from
the Cambrian limestone in the Antarctic, as far south as 85 deg. An
_Archaeocyathina_ limestone has also been found in situ from Shackleton's
farthest south.


_CORALS_ (Class Anthozoa).


=Rugose Corals.--=

Many of the older types of Corals from the Palaeozoic rocks belong to the
Tetracoralla (septa in multiples of four), or Rugosa (i.e., with wrinkled
exterior).


=Ordovician Corals.--=

In Great Britain and North America Rugose Corals are found as early as
Ordovician times, represented by _Streptelasma_, _Petraia_, etc. In
Australia they seem to first make their appearance in the Silurian period.


=Silurian Corals.--=

In rocks of Silurian age in Australia we find genera like _Cyathophyllum_
(with single cups or compound coralla), _Diphyphyllum_, _Tryplasma_
and _Rhizophyllum_, the first-named often being very abundant. The
compound corallum of _Cyathophyllum approximans_ presents a very handsome
appearance when cut transversely and polished. This coral is found in
the Newer Silurian limestone in Victoria; it shows an alliance with _C.
mitchelli_ of the Middle Devonian of the Murrumbidgee River, New South
Wales (Fig. 69 A).


=Silurian Hexacoralla.--=

It is, however, to the next group, the Hexacoralla, with septa in
multiples of six, twelve, and twenty-four, that we turn for the most
varied and abundant types of Corals in Silurian times. The genus
_Favosites_ (Honey-comb Coral) is extremely abundant in Australian
limestones (Fig. 69 B, C), such as those of Lilydale, Walhalla, and
Waratah Bay in Victoria, and of Hatton's Corner and other localities near
Yass, in New South Wales. _Pleurodictyum_ is also a familiar type in the
Australian Silurian, being one of the commonest corals in the Yeringian
stage; although, strange to say, in Germany and N. America, it is typical
of Devonian strata (Fig. 69 E). _Pleurodictyum_ had a curious habit of
growing, barnacle fashion, on the side of the column of the crinoids
or sea-lilies which flourished in those times. _Syringopora_, with its
funnel-shaped tabulae or floor partitions, is typical of many Australian
limestones, as those from Lilydale, Victoria, and the Delegate River, New
South Wales. _Halysites_ (Chain Coral), with its neat strings of tubular
and tabulated corallites joined together by their edges, is another
striking Coral of the Silurian period (Fig. 69 F). This and the earlier
mentioned _Syringopora_, is by some authors regarded as belonging to the
Alcyonarian Corals (typically with eight tentacles). _Halysites_ is known
from the limestones of the Mitta Mitta River, N.E. Gippsland, Victoria;
from the Molong and Canobolas districts in New South Wales; from the
Gordon River limestone in Tasmania; and from Chillagoe in Queensland.
Abroad it is a well known type of Coral in the Wenlockian of Gotland
in Scandinavia, and Shropshire in England, as well as in the Niagara
Limestone of the United States.


=Silurian Octocoralla.--=

Perhaps the most important of the Octocoralla is _Heliolites_
("Sunstone"), which is closely allied to the Blue Coral, _Heliopora_, a
frequent constituent of our modern coral reefs. The genus _Heliolites_
has a massive, calcareous corallum, bearing two kinds of pores or tubes,
large (autopores) containing complete polyps, and small (siphonopores)
containing the coenosarc or flesh of the colony. Both kinds of tubes are
closely divided by tabulae, whilst the former are septate. _Heliolites_ is
of frequent occurrence in the Silurian limestones of New South Wales and
Victoria (Fig. 69 G).


=Devonian Corals.--=

The Middle Devonian beds of Australia are chiefly limestones, such as
the Buchan limestone, Victoria; the Burdekin Series, Queensland; and
the Tamworth limestone of New South Wales. These rocks, as a rule, are
very fossiliferous, and the chief constituent fossils are the Rugose and
Perforate Corals. _Campophyllum gregorii_ is a common form in the Buchan
limestone (Fig. 70 A), as well as some large mushroom-shaped _Favosites_,
as _F. gothlandica_ and _F. multitabulata_. Other genera which may
be mentioned as common to the Australian Middle Devonian rocks are,
_Cyathophyllum_, _Sanidophyllum_ and _Spongophyllum_, _Heliolites_ is
also found in limestones of this age in New South Wales and Queensland.

[Illustration: =Fig. 70.--UPPER PALAEOZIC CORALS.=

  A--Campophyllum gregorii, Eth. fil. Mid. Devonian. Buchan, Vict.

  B--Pachypora meridionalis, Nich. & Eth. fil. Mid Devonian. Queens.

  C--Aulopora repens, Kn. & W. (after Hinde). Devonian. Kimberley
       district, W.A.

  D--Zaphrentis culleni, Eth. fil. Carboniferous. New South Wales.

  E--Trachypora wilkinsoni, Eth. fil. Carbopermian (Up. Marine Ser.) New
       South Wales.

  F--Stenopora crinita, Lonsdale. Carbopermian (Up. Mar. Ser.) N.S.W.

]

In the Burdekin Series (Middle Devonian) in Queensland we also find
_Cystiphyllum_, _Favosites gothlandica_, and _Pachypora meridionalis_
(Fig. 70 B), whilst in beds of the same age at Rough Range in Western
Australia are found _Aulopora repens_ (Fig. 70 C), and another species of
_Pachypora_, namely, _P. tumida_.


=Carbopermian Corals.--=

The only true Carboniferous marine fauna occurring in Australia, appears
to be that of the Star Beds in Queensland, but so far no corals have been
found. The so-called Carboniferous of Western Australia may be regarded
as Carbopermian or even of Permian age. The marine Carbopermian beds of
New South Wales contain several genera of Corals belonging to the group
Rugosa, as _Zaphrentis_ (Fig. 70 D), _Lophophyllum_, and _Campophyllum_.
Of the Tabulate corals may be mentioned _Trachypora wilkinsoni_, very
typical of the Upper Marine Series (Fig. 70 E) and _Cladochonus_.

In the Gympie beds of the same system in Queensland occur the following
rugose corals, _Zaphrentis profunda_ and a species of _Cyathophyllum_.

In the Carbopermian of Western Australia the rugose corals are represented
by _Amplexus_, _Cyathophyllum_, and _Plerophyllum_, which occur in rocks
on the Gascoyne River.

The imperfectly understood group of the Monticuliporoids, by some authors
placed with the Polyzoa (Order Trepostomata), are well represented in
Australia by the genus _Stenopora_ (Fig. 70 F). The corallum is a massive
colony of long tubes set side by side and turned outwards, the polyp
moving upwards in growth and cutting off the lower part of the tube by
platforms like those in the tabulate corals. Some of the species of
_Stenopora_, like _S. tasmaniensis_, of New South Wales and Tasmania,
are found alike in the Lower and Upper Marine Series. _S. australis_ is
confined to the Bowen River Coal-field of Queensland. _Stenopora_ often
attains a large size, the corallum reaching over a foot in length.

Neither Jurassic or Cretaceous Corals have been found in Australasia,
although elsewhere as in Europe and India, the representatives of modern
corals are found in some abundance.


=Cainozoic Corals.--=

In Tertiary times the marine areas of southern Australia were the home
of many typical solitary Corals of the group of the Hexacoralla. In the
Balcombian beds of Mornington, Victoria, for instance, we have genera
such as _Flabellum_, _Placotrochus_, _Sphenotrochus_, _Ceratotrochus_,
_Conosmilia_, _Trematotrochus_, _Notophyllia_ and _Balanophyllia_ (Fig.
71).

[Illustration: =Fig. 71.--CAINOZOIC CORALS.=

  A--Flabellum victoriae, Duncan. Balcombian. Mornington, Vict.

  B--Placotrochus deltoideus, Dunc. Balcombian. Muddy Creek, Hamilton,
       Vic.

  C--Balanophyllia seminuda, Dunc. Balcombian. Muddy Creek, Hamilton,
       Vic.

  D--Stephanotrochus tatei, Dennant. Janjukian. Torquay, near Geelong,
       Vict.

  E--Thamnastraea sera, Duncan. Janjukian. Table Cape, Tas.

  F--Graphularia senescens. Tate sp. Janjukian. Waurn Ponds, near
       Geelong, Vic.

  G--Trematotrochus clarkii, Dennant. Kalimnan. Gippsland Lakes, Vic.

]

Corals especially characteristic of the Janjukian Series are _Paracyathus
tasmanicus_, _Stephanotrochus tatei_, _Montlivaltia variformis_,
_Thamnastraea sera_ and _Dendrophyllia epithecata_. The stony axis of the
Sea-pen, _Graphularia senescens_, a member of the Octocoralla, is also
typical of this stage, and are called "square-bones" by the quarrymen at
Waurn Ponds, near Geelong, where these fossils occur.

The Kalimnan Corals are not so abundantly represented as in the foregoing
stages, but certain species of _Flabellum_ and _Trematotrochus_, as _F.
curtum_ and _T. clarkii_, are peculiar to those beds. Several of the
Janjukian Corals persist into Kalimnan times, some dating as far back as
the Balcombian, as _Sphenotrochus emarciatus_. The Sea-pen, _Graphularia
senescens_ is again found at this higher horizon, at Beaumaris; it
probably represents a varietal form, the axis being smaller and more
slender.

Other examples of the Octocoralla are seen in _Mopsea_, two species of
which are found in the Janjukian at Cape Otway; the deeper beds of the
Mallee; and the Mount Gambier Series.

A species of the Astraeidae (Star-corals) of the reef-forming section,
_Plesiastraea st.vincenti_, is found in the Kalimnan of Hallett's Cove,
South Australia.


_HYDROZOA._

The few animals of this group met with in fossil faunas are represented by
the living _Millepora_ (abundant as a coral reef organism), _Hydractinia_
(parasitic on shells, etc.), and _Sertularia_ (Sea-firs).


=Milleporids and Stylasterids.--=

Although so abundant at the present time, the genus _Millepora_ does
not date back beyond the Pleistocene. The Eocene genus _Axopora_ is
supposed to belong here, but is not Australian. Of the Stylasterids one
example is seen in _Deontopora_, represented by the branchlets of _D.
mooraboolensis_, from the Janjukian limestone of the Moorabool Valley,
near Geelong.


=Hydractinia.--=

_Hydractinia_ dates from the Upper Cretaceous rocks in England, and in
Australia its encrusting polypidom is found attached to shells in the
polyzoal limestone of Mount Gambier (Miocene).


Stromatoporoids.

An important group of reef-builders in Palaeozoic times was the organism
known as _Stromatopora_, and its allies. The structures of these hydroid
polyps resemble successional and repetitional stages of a form like
_Hydractinia_. As in that genus it always commenced to grow upon a base
of attachment such as a shell, increasing by successive layers, until the
organic colony often reached an enormous size, and formed great mounds
and reefs (see _antea_, Fig. 32). The stromatoporoid structure was formed
by a layer of polyp cells separated by vertical partitions, upon which
layer after layer was added until a great vertical thickness was attained.
This limestone-making group first appeared in the Silurian, and probably
reached its maximum development in Middle Devonian times, when it almost
disappeared, except to be represented in Carbopermian strata by a few
diminutive forms.

[Illustration: =Fig. 72.--STROMATOPOROIDEA and CLADOPHORA.=

  A--Actinostroma clathratum, Nich. Devonian. Rough Range, W.A.

  B--Actinostroma clathratum, Nich. Devonian. Rough Range, W.A. Vertical
       section.

                                                    (_After G. J. Hinde_).

  C--Callograptus sp. Up. Ordovician. San Remo, Vict.

                                                     (_After T. S. Hall_).

  D--Ptilograptus sp. Up. Ordovician. San Remo, Vict.

                                                     (_After T. S. Hall_).

  E--Dictyonema pulchellum, T. S. Hall. L. Ordov. Lancefield, Vict.

  F--Dictyonema macgillivrayi, T. S. Hall. L. Ordov. Lancefield, Vict.

]


=Silurian Stromatoporoids.--=

In the Silurian limestones of Victoria (Lilydale, Waratah Bay, Walhalla
and Loyola), and New South Wales (near Yass), Stromatoporoids belonging to
the genera _Clathrodictyon_ (probably _C. regulare_), _Stromatopora_ and
_Idiostroma_ occur. _Stromatoporella_ has been recorded from the Silurian
rocks of the Jenolan Caves, New South Wales.


=Devonian Stromatoporids.--=

The Middle Devonian strata of Bindi, Victoria, yield large, massive
examples of _Actinostroma_. This genus is distinguished from the closely
allied _Clathrodictyon_ by its vertical pillars passing through several
laminae in succession. Rocks of the same age in Queensland contain
_Stromatopora_, whilst in Western Australia the Rough Range Limestone
has been shown to contain _Actinostroma clathratum_ (Fig. 72 A, B) and
_Stromatoporella eifeliensis_.


Cladophora.


=Palaeozoic Cladophora.--=

Some branching and dendroid forms of Hydrozoa probably related to
the modern Calyptoblastea ("covered buds"), such as _Sertularia_ and
_Campanularia_, are included in the Cladophora ("Branch bearers"). They
existed from Cambrian to Devonian times, and consist of slender, forking
branches sometimes connected by transverse processes or dissepiments, the
branches bearing on one or both sides little cups or hydrothecae which
evidently contained the polyps, and others of modified form, perhaps for
the purpose of reproduction. The outer layer, called the periderm was of
chitinous material. They were probably attached to the sea-floor like the
Sertularians (Sea-firs).


=Dictyonema and Allies.--=

Remains of the above group are represented in the Australian rocks by
several species of _Dictyonema_ (Fig. 72 E, F) occurring in the Lower
Ordovician of Lancefield, and in similar or older shales near Mansfield.
Some of these species are of large size, _D. grande_ measuring nearly a
foot in width. The genera _Callograptus_, _Ptilograptus_ (Fig. 72 C, D)
and _Dendrograptus_ are also sparsely represented in the Upper Ordovician
of Victoria, the two former from San Remo, the latter from Bulla.


Graptolites (Graptolitoidea).--


=Value of Graptolites to Stratigraphist.--=

The Graptolites were so named by Linnaeus from their resemblances to
writing on the slates in which their compressed remains are found. They
form a very important group of Palaeozoic fossils in all parts of the
world where these rocks occur, and are well represented in Australasia.
The species of the various Graptolite genera are often restricted to
particular beds, and hence they are of great value as indicators of
certain horizons or layers in the black, grey or variously coloured slates
and shales of Lower Ordovician to Silurian times. By their aid a stratum
or set of strata can be traced across country for long distances, and the
typical species can be correlated even with those in the older slates and
shales of Great Britain and North America.


=Nature of Graptolites.--=

The Graptolites were compound animals, consisting of a number of polyps
inserted in cups or thecae which budded out in a line from the primary
sicula or conical chamber, which chamber was probably attached to floating
sea-weed, either by a fine thread (nema), or a disc-like expansion. This
budding of the polyp-bearing thecae gives to the polypary or colony the
appearance of a fret-saw, with the teeth directed away from the sicula.

The habit of the earlier graptolites was to branch repeatedly, as
in _Clonograptus_, or to show a compound leaf-like structure as in
_Phyllograptus_. Later on the many-branched forms had their branches
reduced until, as in _Didymograptus_, there were only two branches.
Sometimes the branches opened out to direct the thecae upwards, the better
to procure their food supply. In _Diplograptus_ the thecae turned upwards
and acquired a support by the formation of a medium rod (virgula), often
ending in a disc or float. In Silurian times _Monograptus_ prevailed, a
genus having only a single row of thecae supported by a straight or curved
virgula. In _Retiolites_ the polypary opened out by means of a net-work
of fine strands, rendering it better able to float, at the same time
retaining its original strength.


=Lower Ordovician Graptolites, Victoria.--=

The Lower Ordovician slates and shales of Victoria have been successfully
divided into several distinct series by means of the Graptolites. These,
commencing at the oldest, are:--

(1) Lancefield Series. Characterised by _Bryograptus clarki_, _B.
victoriae_, _Didymograptus pritchardi_, _D. taylori_ and _Tetragraptus
decipiens_. Other forms less restricted are, _Clonograptus magnificus_
(measuring over a yard in breadth), _C. flexilis_, _C. rigidus_,
_Leptograptus antiquus_ and _Tetragraptus approximatus_ (Fig. 73).

(2) Bendigo Series. Characterised by _Tetragraptus fruticosus_, _T.
pendens_, _Trichograptus fergusoni_ and _Goniograptus thureaui_. This
series also contains _Tetragraptus serra_ (ranging into Darriwill
Series), _T. bryonoides_, _T. quadribrachiatus_, _T. approximatus_ (base
of the series), _Phyllograptus typus_, _Dichograptus octobrachiatus_,
_Goniograptus macer_ and many _Didymograpti_, including _D. bifidus_ (Fig.
74).

[Illustration: =Fig. 73.--LOWER ORDOVICIAN GRAPTOLITES.=

  A--Bryograptus clarki, T. S. Hall. L. Ordovician. Lancefield, Vict.

  B--Tetragraptus fruticosus, J. Hall sp. L. Ordovician. Lancefield.

  C--Phyllograptus typus, J. Hall. L. Ordovician. Lancefield.

  D--Goniograptus macer, T. S. Hall. L. Ordovician. Lancefield.

  E--Didymograptus caduceus, Salter. L. Ordovician. Lancefield.

  F--Trigonograptus wilkinsoni, T. S. Hall. L. Ordov. Darriwill, Vict.

]

[Illustration: =Fig. 74.--LOWER ORDOVICIAN GRAPTOLITES.=

  A--Loganograptus logani, J. Hall sp. L. Ordov. Newham, Vict.

  B--Tetragraptus approximatus, Nich. L. Ordovician. Canada and Victoria.

                                                       (_After Nicholson_)

  C--Tetragraptus serra, Brongn. sp. L. Ordovician. Lancefield, Vict.

  D--Didymograptus bifidus, J. Hall. L. Ordovician. Guildford, Vict.

]

(3) Castlemaine Series. Characterised by _Didymograptus bifidus_, _D.
caduceus_ and _Loganograptus logani_. _Phyllograptus_ persists from the
Bendigo Series. It also contains _Tetragraptus serra_, _T. bryonoides_,
_T. quadribrachiatus_, _Goniograptus macer_ and several _Didymograpti_.

(4) Darriwill Series. Characterised by _Trigonograptus wilkinsoni_.
Also contain _Diplograptus_, _Glossograptus_ and _Lasiograptus_, whilst
_Didymograptus_ is rare.


=Lower Ordovician Graptolites, New Zealand.--=

In New Zealand Lower Ordovician Graptolites are found in the Kakanui
Series, at Nelson, north-west of South Island. Some of the commoner forms
are _Didymograptus extensus_, _D. caduceus_, _Loganograptus logani_,
_Phyllograptus typus_, _Tetragraptus similis_ and _T. quadribrachiatus_.

Graptolites agreeing closely with those of the Lancefield Series of
Victoria occur near Preservation Inlet in the extreme South-west, and have
been identified as _Clonograptus rigidus_, _Bryograptus victoriae_ and
_Tetragraptus decipiens_.


=Upper Ordovician Graptolites, Victoria.--=

The Upper Ordovician rocks of Victoria, as at Wombat Creek and Mount
Wellington in Gippsland, and at Diggers' Rest near Sunbury, contain the
double branched forms like _Dicranograptus ramosus_, _Dicellograptus
elegans_ and _D. sextans_; the sigmoidal form _Stephanograptus gracilis_;
and the diprionidian (biserial) forms as _Diplograptus tardus_,
_Climacograptus bicornis_, _Cryptograptus tricornis_, _Glossograptus
hermani_ and _Lasiograptus margaritatus_ (Fig. 75).

[Illustration: =Fig. 75.--UPPER ORDOVICIAN and SILURIAN GRAPTOLITES.=

  A--Dicranograptus ramosus, J. Hall sp. Up. Ordovician. Victoria.

  B--Dicellograptus elegans, Carruthers sp. Up. Ordovician. Victoria.

  C--Diplograptus carnei, T. S. Hall. Up. Ordovician. N. S. Wales.

  D--Climacograptus bicornis, J. Hall. Up. Ordovician. Victoria.

  E--Glossograptus hermani, T. S. Hall. Up. Ordovician. Victoria.

  F--Retiolites australis, McCoy. Silurian. Keilor, Victoria.

  G--Monograptus dubius, Suess. Silurian. Wood's Point, Victoria.

]


=Upper Ordovician Graptolites, New South Wales.--=

In New South Wales, at Tallong, the Upper Ordovician Graptolites are well
represented by such forms as _Dicellograptus elegans_, _Dicranograptus
nicholsoni_, _Diplograptus carnei_, _D. foliaceus_, _Cryptograptus
tricornis_ and _Glossograptus quadrimucronatus_, etc. Other localities in
New South Wales for this Graptolite fauna are Stockyard Creek, Currowang,
Tingaringi, Lawson, and Mandurama.


=Tasmania.--=

From Tasmania a _Diplograptus_ has been recorded, but the particular
horizon and locality are uncertain.


=Silurian Graptolites, Victoria.--=

In the Silurian shales at Keilor, in Victoria, _Monograptus_ is a common
genus, and _Cyrtograptus_ and _Retiolites australis_ (Fig. 75 F) also
occur. Several species of _Monograptus_ have also been found at South
Yarra and Studley Park. At the latter place and Walhalla _Monograptus
dubius_, which is a Wenlock and Ludlow fossil in Britain, has been found
in some abundance (Fig. 75 G).

       *       *       *       *       *


COMMON OR CHARACTERISTIC FOSSILS OF THE FOREGOING CHAPTER.


SPONGES.

  _Protospongia_ sp. Cambrian: S. Australia.

  _Hyalostelia_ sp. Cambrian: S. Australia.

  _Protospongia oblonga_, Hall. L. Ordovician: Victoria.

  _Stephanella maccoyi_, Hall. L. Ordovician: Victoria.

  _Carpospongia_ sp. Silurian: Yass, New South Wales.

  _Receptaculites fergusoni_, Chapman. Silurian: Victoria.

  _Receptaculites australis_, Salter sp. Devonian: Victoria and New
       South Wales. Carboniferous: Queensland.

  (?) _Lasiocladia hindei_, Eth. fil. Carbopermian: Queensland.

  _Purisiphonia clarkei_, Bowerbank. Lower Cretaceous: Queensland.

  _Geodia_ sp. Cainozoic: W. Australia.

  _Tethya_ sp. Cainozoic: W. Australia.

  _Ecionema newberyi_, McCoy sp. Cainozoic: Victoria.

  _Plectroninia halli_, Hinde. Cainozoic (Janjukian): Victoria.

  _Tretocalia pezica_, Hinde. Cainozoic (Janjukian): Victoria.


ARCHAEOCYATHINAE.

  _Protopharetra scoulari_, Etheridge, fil. Cambrian: S. Australia.

  _Coscinocyathus australis_, Taylor. Cambrian: S. Australia.

  _Archaeocyathina ajax_, Taylor. Cambrian: S. Australia.


CORALS.

  _Cyathophyllum approximans_, Chapman. Silurian: Victoria.

  _Tryplasma liliiformis_, Etheridge, fil. Silurian: New South Wales.

  _Favosites grandipora_, Etheridge fil. Silurian: Victoria.

  _Pleurodictyum megastomum_, Dun. Silurian: Victoria.

  _Halysites peristephicus_, Etheridge, fil. Silurian: New South Wales.

  _Heliolites interstincta_, Linné sp. Silurian: Victoria.

  _Campophyllum gregorii_, Eth. fil. Middle Devonian: Victoria and
       Queensland.

  _Cystiphyllum australasicum_, Eth. fil. Middle Devonian: New South
       Wales and Queensland.

  _Favosites multitabulata_, Eth. fil. Middle Devonian: Victoria and New
       South Wales.

  _Pachypora meridionalis_, Eth. fil. Middle Devonian: Queensland.

  _Zaphrentis culleni_, Eth. fil. Carboniferous: New South Wales.

  _Lophophyllum corniculum_, de Koninck. Carboniferous: New South Wales.

  _Zaphrentis profunda_, Eth. fil. Carbopermian: Queensland.

  _Campophyllum columnare_, Eth. fil. Carbopermian: New South Wales.

  _Trachypora wilkinsoni_, Eth. fil. Carbopermian: New South Wales.

  _Stenopora tasmaniensis_, Lonsdale. Carbopermian: Tasmania and New
       South Wales.

  _Flabellum gambierense_, Duncan. Cainozoic: Victoria, S. Australia and
       Tasmania.

  _Placotrochus deltoideus_, Duncan. Cainozoic: Victoria, S. Australia
       and Tasmania.

  _Sphenotrochus emarciatus_, Duncan. Cainozoic: Victoria, S. Australia,
       and Tasmania.

  _Ceratotrochus exilis_, Dennant. Cainozoic: Victoria.

  _Conosmilia elegans_, Duncan. Cainozoic: Victoria.

  _Balanophyllia armata_, Duncan. Cainozoic: Victoria.

  _Thamnastraea sera_, Duncan. Cainozoic: Victoria and Tasmania.

  _Graphularia senescens_, Tate sp. Cainozoic: Victoria and S. Australia.


HYDROZOA.

  _Clathrodictyon_ (?) _regulare_, Rosen sp. Silurian: Victoria.

  _Actinostroma clathratum_, Nicholson. Devonian: W. Australia.

  _Stromatoporella eifeliensis_, Nich. Devonian: W. Australia.

  _Dictyonema pulchella_, T. S. Hall. Lower Ordovician: Victoria.

  _Ptilograptus_ sp. L. Ordovician: Victoria.

  _Callograptus_ sp. Lower Ordovician: Victoria.


GRAPTOLITES.

  _Bryograptus victoriae_, T. S. Hall. Lower Ordovician (Lancefield
       Series): Victoria.

  _Tetragraptus fruticosus_, J. Hall. L. Ordovician (Bendigo Series):
       Victoria.

  _Didymograptus caduceus_, Salter. L. Ordovician (Castlemaine Series):
       Victoria. Also New Zealand.

  _Didymograptus bifidus_, J. Hall. L. Ordovician (Castlemaine Series):
       Victoria. Also New Zealand.

  _Trigonograptus wilkinsoni_, T. S. Hall. L. Ordovician (Darriwill
       Series): Victoria.

  _Dicranograptus ramosus_, J. Hall sp. Upper Ordovician: Victoria.

  _Monograptus dubius_, Suess. Silurian: Victoria.

  _Retiolites australis_, McCoy. Silurian: Victoria.


       *       *       *       *       *


LITERATURE.


SPONGES.

  Cambrian.--Tate, R. Trans. R. Soc. S. Austr., vol. XV. (N.S.), 1892,
       p. 188.

  Ordovician.--Hall, T. S. Proc. R. Soc. Vict., vol. I. pt. I. 1889, pp.
       60, 61 (_Protospongia_). Idem, ibid., vol. XI. (N.S.), pt. II.
       1899, pp. 152-155 (_Protospongia and Stephanella_).

  Silurian to Carboniferous.--Salter, J. W. Canad. Org. Rem. Dec. I.
       1859, p. 47. Etheridge, R. jnr. and Dun, W. S. Rec. Geol. Surv.
       New South Wales, vol. VI. 1898, pp. 62-75. Chapman, F. Proc. R.
       Soc. Vict. vol. XVIII. (N.S.), pt. 1, 1905, pp. 5-15.

  Carbopermian.--Etheridge, R. jnr., in Geol. and Pal. Q., 1892, p. 199.

  Cretaceous.--Bowerbank, J. S. Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond., 1869, p. 342.
       Etheridge, R. jnr. in Geol. and Pal. Queensland, 1892, pp. 438,
       439 (_Purisiphonia_).

  Cainozoic.--McCoy, F. Prod. Pal. Vict., Dec. V. 1877. Chapman, F.
       Proc. R. Soc. Vict., vol. XX. (N.S.), pt. 2, 1908, pp. 210-212
       (_Ecionema_). Hinde, G. J. Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. LVI.,
       1900, pp. 50-56 (calcisponges). Idem, Bull. Geol. Surv. W.
       Austr., No. 36, 1910, pp. 7-21 (sponge-spicules).


ARCHAEOCYATHINAE.

  Etheridge, R. jnr., Trans. R. Soc. S. Austr., vol. XIII. 1890, pp.
       10-22. Taylor, T. G. Mem. Roy. Soc. S. Austr., vol. II., pt. 2,
       1910 (a monograph).


CORALS.

  Silurian.--Etheridge, R. jnr. Rec. Geol. Surv. New South Wales, vol.
       II. pt. 1, 1890, pp. 15-21 (Silurian and Devonian). Idem, ibid.,
       vol. II. pt. 4, 1892, pp. 165-174 (Silurian and Devonian). Idem,
       in Pal. and Geol. Queensland, 1892. Idem, Rec. Austr. Mus., vol.
       I., No. 10, 1891, pp. 201-205 (_Rhizophyllum_). Id., ibid., vol.
       III. No. 2, 1897, pp. 30-33 (_Columnaria_). Id., Prog. Rep. Geol.
       Surv. Vict., No. 11, 1899, pp. 30-36. Idem, Mem. Geol. Surv. New
       South Wales, No. 13, pt. I., 1904 (_Halysites_). Id., ibid., No.
       13, pt. 2, 1907 (_Tryplasma_). De Koninck, L. G. ibid., Pal. No.
       6, 1898. Shearsby, A. J. Geol. Mag., Dec. V., vol. III. 1906,
       pp. 547-552. Chapman, F. Rec. Geol. Surv. Vict., vol. II. pt. 1,
       1907, pp. 67-80.

  Devonian.--Etheridge, R. jnr. and Foord, A. H. Ann. Mag. Nat.
       Hist., ser. V., vol. XIV., 1884, pp. 175-179 (_Alveolites_ and
       _Amplexopora_ = _Litophyllum_). Etheridge, R. jnr., in Geol. and
       Pal. Queensland, 1892. Idem, Proc. Linn. Soc. New South Wales,
       vol. IX. 1895, pp. 518-539. Id., Rec. Geol. Surv. New South
       Wales, vol. VI. pt. 3, 1899, pp. 152-182 (Tamworth District).
       Id., Rec. Austr. Mus., vol. IV. No. 7, 1902, pp. 253-260. De
       Koninck, L. G. Mem. Geol. Surv. New South Wales, Pal. No. 6,
       1898. Chapman, F. Rec. Geol. Surv. Vict., vol. III, pt. 2, 1912,
       pp. 215-222.

  Carbopermian.--Etheridge, R. jnr. Mem. Geol. Surv. New South Wales,
       Pal. No. 5, 1891. Idem, in Geol. and Pal. Queensland, 1892. Id.,
       Bull. Geol. Surv., W. Austr., No. 10, 1903, pp. 8-10.

  Cainozoic.--Duncan, P. M. Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. XXVI. 1870,
       pp. 284-318; vol. XXXI. 1875, pp. 673-678; vol. XXXII. 1876, pp.
       341-351. Woods, T. Proc. Linn. Soc. New South Wales, vol. XI.,
       1878, pp. 183-195; ibid., vol. XXX. 1879, pp. 57-61. Idem, Trans.
       Roy. Soc. S. Austr., vol. I., 1878, pp. 104-119. Dennant, J.
       Trans. R. Soc. S. Austr., vols. XXIII. (1899) to XXVIII. (1904).


STROMATOPOROIDS.

  Hinde, G. J. Geol. Mag., Dec. III. vol. VII, 1890, p. 193.


GRAPTOLITES.

  McCoy, F. Prod. Pal. Vict., Decades I. (1874): II. (1875): V. (1877).
       Hall, T. S. Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict., vol. IV. p. I. 1892, pp. 7,
       8 (_Dictyonema_). Idem, Geol. Mag. Dec. IV. vol. VI. 1899, pp.
       438-451; Id., Rep. Austr. Assoc. Adv. Sci., Brisbane, 1909, pp.
       318-320. Id., Rec. Geol. Surv. Vict., vol. I. pt. 4, 1906, pp.
       266-278. Id., ibid., vol. III. pt. 2, 1912, pp. 188-211. Idem,
       Rec. Geol. Surv. New South Wales, vol. VII. part 1, 1910, pp. 16,
       17. Ibid., pp. 49-59.




CHAPTER VIII.

FOSSIL SEA-LILIES, STARFISHES, BRITTLE-STARS AND SEA-URCHINS.


=Divisions of Echinodermata.--=

The sub-kingdom of ECHINODERMATA includes the above groups comprised in
the Classes Crinoidea, Asteroidea, Ophiuroidea and Echinoidea. Besides
these are the less important classes of the Cystidea or sac-shaped
echinoderms (of which no definite remains are recorded from Australian
rocks); the Blastoidea or bud-shaped echinoderms (of which four genera are
known from Australia); the Edrioasteroidea or sessile starfishes (unknown
in Australia); and the Holothuroidea or sea-cucumbers (represented as
fossils by the skin spicules and plates, an example of which has been
recorded from Australia).


_CRINOIDEA, or Sea-lilies._


=Crinoidea, their General Structure.--=

These often beautiful and graceful animals resemble a starfish mounted
on a stalk. They are composed of calcareous joints and plates, and are
therefore important as rock-formers. The stalk or column may be either
short or long, and is generally rooted, in the adult stage, in the mud of
the sea-floor. Fossil Crinoids were sometimes furnished with a coiled
termination, which could be entwined around such objects as the stems of
sea-weeds. The crinoid column is composed of numerous plates, and is round
or pentagonal. Upon this is fixed the calyx or cup, with its attached
arms, which serve to bring food to the mouth, situated on the upper part
of the cup. The arms are grooved, and the water, being charged with food
particles (animalcula), pours down these channels into the mouth. The
stem elevates the animal above the mud or silt of the sea-floor, thus
making it more easy for it to obtain its food supply. The stalks of
fossil Crinoids sometimes reached the enormous length of 50 feet. Their
calcareous skeleton is built upon a plan having five planes of symmetry;
this pentamerism is found throughout the crinoids, the blastoids and
the free-moving echinoderma. Crinoids range from moderately shallow-
to deep-water, and at the present day are almost restricted to abyssal
conditions. The more ancient types usually found their habitats amongst
reefs or in comparatively clear water, where there was a marked freedom
from sediment, although that was not an essential, as seen by their
numerous remains in the Australian mudstones and sandstones.


=Cambrian Crinoids.--=

The group of the Crinoidea first appears in the Upper Cambrian, and
persists to the present time. In North America the genus _Dendrocrinus_
occurs in the Cambrian and Ordovician; and some stem-joints from the Upper
Cambrian limestone of the Mount Wellington district, Victoria, may be
provisionally referred to this genus.

[Illustration: =Fig. 76.--FOSSIL CRINOIDS.=

  A--(?) Pisocrinus yassensis, Eth. fil. Side of calyx. Silurian. Yass,
       New South Wales.

  B--(?) Pisocrinus yassensis, Eth. fil. Dorsal Surface. Silurian. N. S.
       W.

  C--Botryocrinus longibrachiatus, Chapm. Silurian. Flemington, Vict.

  D--Helicocrinus plumosus, Chapm. Stem, distal end. Brunswick, Victoria.

  E--Phialocrinus konincki, Eth. fil. Carbopermian (Up. Mar. Ser.)
       Nowra, New South Wales.

  F--Isocrinus australis, Moore sp. L. Cretaceous. Wollumbilla, Q'ld.

]


=Ordovician Crinoids.--=

No undoubted Crinoid remains have been found in the Australian Ordovician;
although many genera are found elsewhere in that system, chiefly
in N. America, as _Reteocrinus_, _Hybocrinus_, _Heterocrinus_ and
_Dendrocrinus_, and in Europe and North America, as _Rhodocrinus_ and
_Taxocrinus_.


=Silurian Crinoids.--=

The Silurian Crinoidea of Australia are largely represented by the
remains of the columns or stalks, which are often found in such abundance
as to constitute large masses of sub-crystalline limestone, as that of
Toongabbie, Victoria. The columns of the Crinoids do not usually possess
sufficient characters to enable the forms to be identified. There are,
however, more perfect and identifiable remains of several very interesting
generic types in the Silurian faunas as follows:--

In New South Wales _Pisocrinus_ is represented with some reservation by
(?) _P. yassensis_, found at Limestone Creek, near Yass (Fig. 76 A, B).

In Victoria, _Helicocrinus plumosus_ and _Botryocrinus longibrachiatus_
occur at Brunswick and Flemington, respectively (Fig. 76). The former is
a delicate and handsome species, having a small cup with finely pinnate
arms, which are forked once, and with a pentagonal stem coiled at the
distal end (see Frontispiece). The genus _Botryocrinus_ is found in rocks
of a similar age in North America and England. _Hapalocrinus victoriae_, a
member of the Platycrinidae, has been described from the mudstone of South
Yarra, near Melbourne. The species above mentioned are of Melbournian age,
belonging to the lower stage of the Silurian system.


=Devonian Crinoids.--=

In the Middle Devonian of Queensland, fragmentary crinoid stems are found
interbedded with the limestone of the Broken River.

Thin slices of the limestone of the same age from Buchan, Victoria, show
numerous ossicles and stem-joints of Crinoids.

Similar remains have also been recorded from the Devonian of the Kimberley
district and the Gascoyne River in Western Australia.


=Carboniferous Crinoids.--=

The Carboniferous (Star Beds) of Queensland has yielded remains of
_Actinocrinus_.

The Matai Series of New Zealand, which may be regarded as almost certainly
of Carboniferous age, contains remains of a _Cyathocrinus_, found in the
limestone of the Wairoa Gorge.


=Carbopermian Crinoids.--=

The Carbopermian (Upper Marine Series) of New South Wales yields the
interesting Crinoid having a large, globular cup, known as _Phialocrinus_;
the best known species of this genus are _P. konincki_ (Fig. 76 E) and
_P. princeps_. Beds of the same age in New South Wales, also in the Upper
Marine Series, contain the aberrant Crinoid with strongly sculptured
plates of the calyx in the decorticated condition, _Tribrachiocrinus
clarkei_.

_Poteriocrinus_ and _Platycrinus_ are, with some reservation, recorded
from the Gympie Series at Stanwell and the marine beds of the Bowen River
Coal-field respectively, both in Queensland.

In Western Australia the Carbopermian rocks of the Gascoyne River
are known to contain crinoid stems, tentatively referred to either
the Rhodocrinidae or the Actinocrinidae. There is also a species of
_Platycrinus_ known from the Gascoyne and Irwin Rivers, and from the
Kimberley District.


=Triassic Crinoids.--=

The Kaihiku Series of Nelson, New Zealand, has yielded some crinoid stems,
but the genus has not yet been determined.


=Cretaceous Crinoids.--=

In the Lower Cretaceous Limestone of Queensland, at Mitchell Downs and
Wollumbilla, a typical Crinoid, closely allied to the living _Pentacrinus_
is found, namely, _Isocrinus australis_ (Fig. 76 F).

The Upper Cretaceous opal deposits of White Cliffs in Wilcannia, New South
Wales, contain many opalised fossil remains, amongst them being _Isocrinus
australis_, already noticed as occurring in the Lower Cretaceous of
Queensland.


=Cainozoic Crinoids.--=

_Pentacrinus stellatus_ is a species founded on some deeply indented
pentagonal stem-joints found in the Oamaru Series (Miocene) at Curiosity
Shop, South Canterbury, New Zealand, and also occurring in the Chatham
Islands. This species has been identified in the Aire Coastal beds in
Victoria, of the same age. Another generic type, _Antedon_, the beautiful
"Feather Star," is frequently met with in Janjukian strata in Victoria
and South Australia, as at Batesford and Mount Gambier, represented by
the denuded crown and the ossicles of the arms of a comparatively large
species; whilst another and smaller form has been described from beds of
the same age from borings in the Victorian Mallee, under the name of _A.
protomacronema_.


_BLASTOIDEA--Bud-shaped Echinoderms._


=Distribution and Characters of Blastoidea.--=

This forms a small class which has a few representatives in the rocks
of Australia. Elsewhere they are chiefly of Devonian and Carboniferous
ages. In Australia they are confined, so far as known, to sediments of
the Carboniferous System. The animal was rooted to the sea-floor and a
jointed stem was usually present. The cup or theca, as before noted, is
bud-shaped, and consists of basal, radial and deltoid plates, the edges of
which are folded inwards into the thecal cavity, and thus the internal
organs came into contact with the incurrent water. The cup bears five
food grooves, bordered by numerous arms or brachioles, which directed the
incurrent particles into the thecal cavity.


=Carbopermian Blastoids.--=

Three genera of blastoids have been recorded from the Gympie Beds, or
Carbopermian, of the Rockhampton District of Queensland. They are,
_Mesoblastus_, _Granatocrinus_ and _Tricoelocrinus_. A similar fossil in
beds of like age, and provisionally referred to the genus _Metablastus_,
has been lately recorded from Glenwilliam, Clarence Town, New South Wales.


_ASTEROIDEA, or Starfishes._


=Characters of True Starfishes.--=

These free-moving echinoderms are usually five-sided, though sometimes
star-shaped, with numerous arms surrounding a central disc. The mouth is
central on the under side of the disc, and the anus above and near the
centre (excentric), the latter being covered by a porous plate called
the madreporite. The hydraulic system of starfishes consists of tubes
extending along the grooved arms and giving off side branches which end
in processes called podia and terminating in suckers. The podia pass
through pores in the floor plates of the grooves, and communicate within
the body with distensions called ampulla. By this means the podia serve as
feet, and can be withdrawn by the expulsion of the water in them into the
ampulla. The stout flexible covering of the starfish is strengthened by
calcareous plates and bars, owing to the presence of which they are often
preserved as fossils.

[Illustration: =Fig. 77.--FOSSIL STARFISH.=

  A--Palaeaster smythi. McCoy sp. Silurian. Flemington, Victoria.

  B--Urasterella selwyni, McCoy. Silurian. Kilmore, Victoria.

  C--Palaeaster giganteus, Eth. fil. Carbopermian. Near Farley, New
       South Wales.

  D--Pentagonaster sp. Tertiary (Janjukian). Bore in Mallee, Victoria.

]


=Silurian Starfishes.--=

The oldest Australian fossil Starfishes are found in the Silurian. In
Victoria they occur in some abundance in the lower, Melbournian, series,
but appear to be absent or at all events very scarce in the upper, or
Yeringian series. The commonest genus is _Palaeaster_, of which there are
two species, _P. smythi_ (Fig. 77 A) and _P. meridionalis_, found alike in
the sandy and argillaceous strata near Melbourne. _Urasterella_ is another
genus found in the Silurian rocks near Melbourne, in which the marginal
series of plates seen in _Palaeaster_ are wanting, giving to the starfish
a slender, long-armed aspect (Fig. 77 B).


=Carbopermian Starfishes.--=

In the Lower Marine Series of the Carbopermian of New South Wales a very
large species of _Palaeaster_ occurs (_P. giganteus_), measuring 7 inches
from point to point across the disc (Fig. 77 C). Two other species of the
same genus occur in this series (_P. stutchburii_ and _P. clarkei_) the
latter also ranging into the Upper Marine Series.


=Cainozoic Starfishes.--=

No remains of true Starfishes have been recorded from Australia between
the Carbopermian and the Tertiary systems. In the Janjukian Series of
Victoria the marginal plates of a species of _Pentagonaster_ are typical
fossils. They have been recorded from Waurn Ponds, Spring Creek near
Torquay, and Batesford (Fig. 77 D). In the Mallee Bores, both marginal and
abactinal plates of this genus are found in polyzoal limestone (Miocene).
_Pentagonaster_ also occurs in the Lower Muddy Creek beds (Oligocene),
and the Upper beds of the same locality (Lower Pliocene). A species of
_Astropecten_ has been described from the Waikari River, New Zealand
(Oamaru Series).


_OPHIUROIDEA, or Brittle-stars._


=Characters of Brittle-Stars.--=

The Brittle-stars are frequently found at the present day cast up on
the fine sandy beaches of the coast. They are easily distinguished from
true starfishes by having a definite central disc, to which the arms are
attached. The arms are used for locomotion and prehension, and have their
grooves covered over with plates. The ossicles of the arms are moveable
and controlled by muscles which enable them to be used as feet. The lower
surface of the disc has a central arrangement of five rhomboidal sets of
jaws, formed of modified ossicles, called the mouth frame, whilst the
upper surface bears, between one set of arms, the madreporite or covering
plate to the water vascular system, as in starfishes.

[Illustration: =Fig. 78.--Protaster brisingoides=, Gregory.

Negative cast of the calcareous skeleton. Nat. size. Silurian Sandstone,
Flemington, Victoria.

                                                       (_Nat. Mus. Coll._)
]


=Silurian Brittle-Stars.--=

The Brittle-stars in Australia first appear in the Silurian, but
in England and Bohemia date back to the Ordovician. _Protaster_ is
the commonest genus, and is represented by _P. brisingoides_ of the
Melbournian stage of Silurian strata at Flemington (Fig. 78). It also
occurs rarely in the Yeringian beds at Yering, both Victorian localities.
A very ornamental form, _Gregoriura spryi_, occurs in the same division
of the Silurian at South Yarra. In this fossil the delicate spines
attached to the adambulacral ossicles are well preserved and form a
marginal fringe to the arm (Fig. 79). _Sturtzura_ is another Silurian
genus, found in the Wenlock of England and in the Melbournian of
Flemington, Victoria.

[Illustration: =Fig. 79.--A Brittle-Star.= (Gregoriura spryi, Chapm.)

Nat. size. From the Silurian Mudstone of South Yarra, Victoria.

                                                       (_Nat. Mus. Coll._)
]


=Cainozoic Brittle-Stars.--=

From the Victorian Cainozoic beds, in the Lower Pliocene of Grange Burn,
Hamilton, a vertebral ossicle of an ophiurian has been obtained, which has
been provisionally referred to the genus _Sigsbeia_.


_ECHINOIDEA, or Sea-urchins._

This group is an important one amongst Australian fossils, especially
those of Cainozoic age.


=Characters of Sea-urchins.--=

Echinoids are animals enclosed in a spheroidal box or test composed of
numerous calcareous plates, disposed geometrically as in the Starfishes,
along five principal lines. The test in the living condition is more or
less densely covered with spines. The mouth is on the under surface. The
anus is either on the top of the test (dorso-central), or somewhere in
the median line between the two lower ambulacra. The ambulacra ("a garden
path") are the rows of perforated plates on the upper (abactinal) surface
sometimes extending to the lower surface, through which protrude the
podia, which in Starfishes are situated in grooves on the lower surface.


=Silurian Palaeechinoids.--=

The Palaeechinoids are represented in the Silurian of Australia by
occasional plates, as at Bowning, New South Wales, and near Kilmore,
Victoria, whilst spines are not uncommon in certain Silurian limestones at
Tyer's River, Gippsland.


=Carbopermian Palaeechinoids.--=

In the Carbopermian of New South Wales, tests of _Archaeocidaris_ have
been recorded, and also a plate of the same genus in the Gympie Beds of
Rockhampton, Queensland.


=Regular Echinoids.--=

The regular Echinoids date from Permian times. They have two vertical rows
of plates for each ambulacrum and inter-ambulacrum. The mouth is on the
underside, and the anus abactinal (on the upper side) and near the centre.

[Illustration: =Fig. 80.--CAINOZOIC SEA-URCHINS.=

  A--Cidaris (Leiocidaris) australiae, Duncan sp. Cainozoic (Janjukian).
       Cape Otway, Victoria

  B--Psammechinus woodsi, Laube. Cainozoic (Janjukian). Murray River
       Cliffs, S. Australia

  C--Fibularia gregata, Tate. Cainozoic (Janjukian). Aldinga, S.A.

  D--Echinocyamus (Scutellina) patella, Tate sp. Cainozoic (Janjukian).
       Torquay, Victoria

  E--Clypeaster gippslandicus, McCoy. Cainozoic (Janjukian). Bairnsdale,
       Victoria

  F--Studeria elegans, Laube. sp. Cainozoic (Janjukian). Murray River
       Cliffs, S. Australia.

]


=Cainozoic Regular Echinoids.--=

In Australasia they make their first appearance in strata of Tertiary age,
and some species, as _Paradoxechinus novus_, range through Balcombian
strata to Kalimnan in Victoria, or Oligocene to Lower Pliocene, but are
more typically Janjukian. _Echinus_ (_Psammechinus_) _woodsi_ (Fig. 80 B)
is common in Janjukian strata in Victoria and South Australia and occurs
sparingly in the Kalimnan. Another common form of the regular Echinoids
in Southern Australia is _Cidaris australiae_ (Fig. 80 A), ranging from
Janjukian to Kalimnan, occurring more frequently in the older series. In
New Zealand a species of _Cidaris_ (_C. striata_), is known from the
Oamaru Series at Brighton. An _Echinus_ occurs in the Oamaru Series of
Broken River, and two species of that genus in the Wanganui formation of
Shakespeare Cliff. _Temnechinus macleayana_ has been recorded from the
Cainozoic (Miocene or Pliocene) of Yule Island, Papua.


=Irregular Echinoids.--=

The irregular Echinoids are not known before the Upper Cretaceous in
Australia, and are very common in the Tertiaries. They are distinguished
by the anus (periproct) passing backward from the apex, as compared with
the regular forms, and by the elongation of the test and the loss of the
strong solid spines, which are replaced by thin, slender hair-like spines.
The animal is thus better fitted to burrow through the ooze on which it
feeds.


=Cretaceous Irregular Echinoids.--=

An interesting form, _Micraster sweeti_, is found in the Upper Cretaceous
or Desert Sandstone of Maryborough in Queensland, which reminds one of
typical European species of this genus.


=Cainozoic Irregular Echinoids.--=

Amongst the Australian Cainozoic Echinoids of the irregular type the
following may be mentioned. The little subglobular test of _Fibularia
gregata_, and _Echinocyamus_ (_Scutellina_) _patella_ (Fig. 80 C, D) are
Janjukian in age. The large _Clypeaster, C. gippslandicus_ (Fig. 80 E),
ranges from the Oligocene to Lower Pliocene in Victoria (Balcombian to
Kalimnan), and vies in size, especially in the Janjukian, with some large
species like those from Malta and Egypt. This genus includes some of the
largest known sea-urchins. The biscuit urchin, _Arachnoides (Monostychia)
australis_, is commonest in the Janjukian, but ranges from Balcombian
to Kalimnan. A common urchin from the polyzoal rock of Mt. Gambier is
_Echinolampas gambierensis_, which is also found in the Lower beds of
Muddy Creek. A typical Janjukian fossil is _Duncaniaster australiae_,
formerly thought to belong to the Cretaceous genus _Holaster_. Although
found living, the genus _Linthia_ attained its maximum development both in
size and abundance, in Janjukian or Miocene times, as seen in _L. gigas_
(having a length of 7-1/2 inches) and _L. mooraboolensis_. _Echinoneus
dennanti_ is restricted to the Janjukian. Several species of _Eupatagus_
occur in the Cainozoic or Tertiary beds of South Australia, Victoria and
New Zealand; _Lovenia forbesi_ (Fig. 81 C) is common in the Janjukian to
Kalimnan, both in Victoria and South Australia. In the latter State also
occur the following genera:--_Studeria_, _Cassidulus_, _Echinolampas_,
_Plesiolampas_, _Linthia_, _Schizaster_ and _Brissopsis_. In New
Zealand the following Cainozoic genera, amongst others of the irregular
sea-urchins, may be cited:--_Hemipatagus_, _Brissopsis_, _Hemiaster_, and
_Schizaster_ (Fig. 81).

[Illustration: =Fig. 81--CAINOZOIC SEA-URCHINS.=

  A--Hemiaster planedeclivis, Gregory. Cainozoic (Janjukian). Morgan, S.
       Australia

  B--Schizaster sphenoides, T. S. Hall. Cainozoic (Barwonian).
       Sherbrooke River, Victoria

  C--Lovenia forbesi, T. Woods sp. Cainozoic (Janjukian). Murray River
       Cliffs, S. Australia

]

A clypeastroid, _Peronella decagonalis_ has been described from the (?)
Lower Pliocene of Papua.


=Cainozoic Holothuroidea.--=

The _HOLOTHUROIDEA_ (Sea-Cucumbers) are represented in Australian deposits
by a unique example of a dermal spicule of wheel-like form, referred to
_Chiridota_, obtained from the Cainozoic (Janjukian) beds of Torquay. This
genus is also known from the "calcaire grossier" or Middle Eocene of the
Paris Basin, and is found living in all parts of the world.

       *       *       *       *       *


COMMON OR CHARACTERISTIC FOSSILS OF THE FOREGOING CHAPTER.


CRINOIDS.

  (?) _Pisocrinus yassensis_, Eth. fil. Silurian: New South Wales.

  _Helicocrinus plumosus_, Chapman. Silurian: Victoria.

  _Botryocrinus longibrachiatus_, Chapm. Silurian: Victoria.

  _Hapalocrinus victoriae_, Bather. Silurian: Victoria.

  _Actinocrinus_ sp. Carboniferous: Queensland.

  _Cyathocrinus_ sp. Carboniferous: New Zealand.

  _Phialocrinus konincki_, Clarke sp. Carbopermian: New South Wales.

  _Phialocrinus princeps_, Eth. fil. Carbopermian: New South Wales.

  _Tribrachiocrinus clarkei_, McCoy. Carbopermian: New South Wales.

  (?) _Platycrinus_ sp. Carbopermian: Queensland.

  _Platycrinus_ sp. Carbopermian: W. Australia.

  _Isocrinus australis_, Moore sp. Cretaceous: Queensland.

  _Pentacrinus stellatus_, Hutton. Miocene: New Zealand, Chatham Ids.
       and Victoria.

  _Antedon protomacronema_, Chapman. Miocene: Victoria (deep borings).


BLASTOIDS.

  (?) _Mesoblastus australis_, Eth. fil. Carbopermian: Queensland.


STARFISHES.

  _Palaeaster smythi_, McCoy. Silurian: Victoria.

  _Palaeaster meridionalis_, Eth. fil. Silurian: Victoria.

  _Urasterella selwyni_, McCoy. Silurian: Victoria.

  _Palaeaster giganteus_, Eth. fil. Carbopermian (L. Mar. Ser.): New
       South Wales.

  _Palaeaster clarkei_, de Koninck. Carbopermian (L. and Up. Mar. Ser.):
       New South Wales.

  _Pentagonaster_ sp. Miocene: Victoria.

  _Astropecten_ sp. Miocene: New Zealand.


BRITTLE-STARS.

  _Protaster brisingoides_, Gregory. Silurian: Victoria.

  _Gregoriura spryi_, Chapman. Silurian: Victoria.

  _Sturtzura leptosomoides_, Chapman. Silurian: Victoria.

  (?) _Sigsbeia_ sp. Lower Pliocene: Victoria.


ECHINOIDS.

  _Palaeechinus_ sp. Silurian: Victoria.

  (?) _Archaeocidaris selwyni_, Eth. fil. Carbopermian: New South Wales.

  _Micraster sweeti_, Eth. fil. Cretaceous: Queensland.

  _Cidaris (Leiocidaris) australiae_, Duncan. Miocene and Lower
       Pliocene: Victoria and S. Australia.

  _Cidaris striata_, Hutton. Miocene: New Zealand.

  _Echinus (Psammechinus) woodsi_, Laube sp. Miocene and L. Pliocene:
       Victoria and S. Australia.

  _Temnechinus macleayana_, T. Woods. Cainozoic (? Lower Pliocene):
       Papua.

  _Fibularia gregata_, Tate. Miocene: Victoria and S. Australia.

  _Echinocyamus (Scutellina) patella_, Tate sp. Oligocene to Miocene:
       Victoria and S. Australia.

  _Clypeaster gippslandicus_, McCoy. Oligocene to L. Pliocene: Victoria.


  _Arachnoides (Monostychia) australis_, Laube sp. Oligocene to L.
       Pliocene: Victoria and S. Australia.

  _Echinoneus dennanti_, Hall. Miocene: Victoria.

  _Duncaniaster australiae_, Duncan sp. Miocene: Victoria.

  _Lovenia forbesi_, T. Woods sp. Miocene and L. Pliocene: Victoria and
       S. Australia.

  _Hemiaster planedeclivis_, Gregory. Miocene: Victoria.


HOLOTHURIAN.

  _Chiridota_ sp. Miocene: Victoria.


       *       *       *       *       *


LITERATURE.


CRINOIDS.

  Silurian.--Etheridge, R. jnr. Rec. Austr. Mus., vol. V. No. 5, 1904,
       pp. 287-292 (_Pisocrinus_). Bather, F. A. Geol. Mag., Dec.
       XV. vol. IV. 1897, pp. 337-345 (_Hapalocrinus_). Chapman, F.
       Proc. R. Soc. Vict., vol. XV. (N.S.), pt. II. 1903, pp. 107-109
       (_Helicocrinus_ and _Botryocrinus_). Bather, F. A. Ottawa Nat.,
       vol. XX. No. 5, 1906, pp. 97, 98.

  Carboniferous and Carbopermian.--De Koninck, L. G. Mem. Geol. Surv.
       New South Wales, Pal. No. 6, 1898, pp. 121-126. Etheridge, R.
       jnr., in Geol. and Pal. Queensland, 1892, pp. 207-219. Idem, Mem.
       Geol. Surv. New South Wales, Pal. No. 5, 1892, pp. 75-119.

  Cretaceous.--Moore, C. Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. XXVI. 1870, p.
       243. Etheridge, R. jnr., in Geol. and Pal. Queensland, 1892, p.
       439 (_Isocrinus_).

  Cainozoic.--Hutton, F. W. Cat. Tert. Moll. and Ech. of New Zealand,
       1873, p. 38.


BLASTOIDS.

  Carbopermian.--Etheridge, R. jnr., in Geol. and Pal. Queensland, 1892,
       pp. 210-213. Taylor, T. G. Proc. Linn. Soc. New South Wales,
       1908, pp. 54-59 (_? Metablastus_).


STARFISHES.

  Silurian.--McCoy, F. Prod. Pal. Vict., Dec. I., 1874, pp. 41-43.
       Etheridge, R. jnr. Rec. Austr. Mus., vol. I., No. 10, 1891, pp.
       199, 200.

  Carboniferous and Carbopermian.--Etheridge, R. jnr. Mem. Geol. Surv.
       New South Wales, Pal. No. 5, pt. 2, 1892, pp. 70-75. De Koninck,
       L. G. Ibid., Pal. No. 6, 1898, p. 127.

  Cainozoic.--Hall, T. S. Proc. R. Soc., Vict., vol. XV. (N.S.), pt.
       I. 1902, pp. 81, 82 (_Pentagonaster_). Hutton, F. W. Cat. Tert.
       Moll, and Ech. New Zealand, 1873, p. 38.


BRITTLE-STARS.

  Silurian.--Gregory, J. W. Geol. Mag., Dec. III. vol. VI. 1889, pp.
       24-27. Chapman, F. Proc. R. Soc. Vict., vol. XIX. (N.S.), pt. II.
       1907, pp. 21-27.

  Cainozoic.--Hall, T. S. Proc. R. Soc. Vict., vol. XV. (N.S.), pt. I.
       1902, p. 82 (cf. _Sigsbeia_).


ECHINOIDS.

  Silurian.--Chapman, F. Rec. Geol. Surv. Vict., vol. II. pt. 1, 1907,
       pp. 77, 78.

  Carbopermian.--Etheridge, R. jnr. Mem. Geol. Surv. New South Wales,
       Pal. No. 5, pt. 2, 1892, pp. 67-69.

  Cretaceous.--Etheridge, R. jnr., in Geol. and Pal. Queensland, 1892,
       pp. 559, 560.

  Cainozoic.--T. Woods. Trans. Adelaide Phil. Soc., 1867. Laube, G. C.
       Sitz, k. k. Ak. Wiss. Wien, vol. LIX. 1869, pp. 183-198. Hutton,
       F. W. Cat. Tert. Moll, and Ech. New Zealand, 1873, pp. 38-43.
       Duncan, P. M. Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. XXXIII. 1877, pp.
       42-73. Tate, R. Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. XXXIII. 1877, pp.
       256-258. Idem, Southern Science Record, 1885, p. 4. Idem, Trans.
       R. Soc. S. Austr., vol. XIV. pt. 2, 1891, pp. 270-282. McCoy, F.
       Prod. Pal. Vict., Dec. VI. VII. 1879, 1883. Gregory, J. W. Geol.
       Mag., Dec. III. vol. VII. 1890, pp. 481-492. Ibid., Dec. III.
       vol. IX. 1892, pp. 433-437. Cotteau, G. H. Mem. Zool. France,
       vol. II. No. 4, 1889, p. 228; vol. III. No. 5, 1890, pp. 537-550;
       vol. IV. No. 5, 1891, pp. 620-633. Bittner, A. Sitz. k.k. Ak.
       Wiss. Wien, 1892, vol. 101, pp. 331-371. Hall, T. S. Proc. Roy.
       Soc. Vic., vol. XIX. (N.S.), pt. II. 1906, pp. 48, 53. Chapman,
       F. Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict., vol. XX. (N.S.), pt. II. 1908, pp.
       214-218. Pritchard, G. B. ibid., vol. XXI. (N.S.), pt. I. 1908,
       pp. 392-400.


HOLOTHURIAN.

  Cainozoic.--Hall, T. S. Proc, R. Soc. Vict., vol. X. (N.S.), pt. I.
       1902, pp. 82, 83.




CHAPTER IX.

FOSSIL WORMS, SEA-MATS and LAMP-SHELLS.


The first-named group, the ringed worms, belong to the phylum Annelida,
so-called because of the ring-like structure of their bodies. The
two remaining groups, the Polyzoa or Sea-mats and the Brachiopods or
Lamp-shells, are comprised in the phylum Molluscoidea, or mollusc-like
animals.


_WORMS (Annelida)._


=Annelida and their Fossil Representatives.--=

These animals, owing to the scarcity of hard parts within their bodies,
play a rather insignificant role as a fossil group. Worms are laterally
symmetrical animals, with a dorsal and a ventral surface. They are
segmented, the body being formed of numerous rings. Only those of the
Class Chaetopoda ("bristle-feet") are represented by identifiable fossil
remains. Fossil worms, moreover, chiefly belong to the Order Polychaeta
("many bristles"). The horny jaws of these worms are sometimes found in
the older rocks and are known as conodonts.


=Silurian Conodonts.--=

Conodonts belonging to three genera are known from Australia. They are all
from the Silurian of the Bowning District, near Yass, New South Wales, and
are referred to the genera _Eunicites_, _Oenonites_ and _Arabellites_.

[Illustration: =Fig. 82--FOSSIL WORMS.=

  A--Trachyderma crassituba, Chapm, Silurian. South Yarra, Vict.

  B--Cornulites tasmanicus, Eth. fil. Silurian. Heazlewood, Tas.

  C--Spirorbis ammonius, M. Edwards, var. truncata, Mid. Devonian.
       Buchan, Victoria

  D--Torlessia mackayi, Bather. ? Trias. Mt. Torlesse, N. Zealand.

]


=Palaeozoic Errant Worms.--=

The wandering Worms (Polychaeta errantia) are also recognised by their
impressions, trails, borings and castings. Burrows formed by these worms
are seen in _Arenicolites_, found in the Silurian sandstone of New
South Wales, near Yass, and in the Carbopermian (Gympie Series) near
Rockhampton, Queensland. The membranous-lined burrows of _Trachyderma_
(_T. crassituba_), occur in some abundance in the Silurian mudstones
in the neighbourhood of Melbourne, Victoria (Fig. 82 A). The genus
_Trachyderma_ is common also to Great Britain and Burmah, in beds of the
same age.


=Worm Tracks.--=

Some of the curious markings on the Carboniferous sandstone of Mansfield,
Victoria, may be due to worm trails and castings, especially since they
are associated with sun-cracks and ripple-marks.


=Sedentary Worms.--=

The sedentary or tube-making Worms (Polychaeta tubicola) are represented
by numerous forms. The long conical tube of _Cornulites tasmanicus_ is
recorded from the Silurian of Zeehan, Tasmania (Fig. 82 B). _Spirorbis_
occurs in the Middle Devonian of Victoria (Fig. 82 C), and W. Australia,
and also in the Carbopermian of W. Australia. _Torlessia_ is found in
the Trias or Lower Jurassic of the province of Canterbury, New Zealand
(Fig. 82 D). The genus _Serpula_ is widely distributed, occurring in the
Carbopermian (Upper Jurassic Series), near East Maitland, New South Wales
(_S. testatrix_), in the Jurassic of W. Australia (_S. conformis_), in the
Lower Cretaceous of Wollumbilla, Queensland (_S. intestinalis_), and the
Darling River, north west of New South Wales, (_S. subtrachinus_), as well
as in Cainozoic deposits in Victoria (_S. ouyenensis_). _Ditrupa_ is very
abundant in some shelly deposits of Janjukian age in Victoria.


MOLLUSCOIDEA.

The Sea-mats (Polyzoa) and the Lamp-shells (Brachiopoda) constitute a
natural group, the MOLLUSCOIDEA, which, although unlike in outward form,
have several physiological structures in common. The respiratory organs
lie in front of the mouth, and are in the form of fleshy tentacles or
spiral appendages. These animals are more nearly allied to the worms than
to the molluscs.


_POLYZOA._


=Characters of Polyzoa.--=

These are almost exclusively marine forms, and are important as fossils.
They form colonies (polypary or zoarium), and by their branching,
foliaceous or tufty growth resemble sea-weeds. The cells in which the
separate zoöids lived have peculiar characters of their own, which serve
to distinguish the different genera.


=Subdivisions of Polyzoa.--=

Polyzoa are divided into the Sub-classes Phylactolaemata, in which the
mouth of the zoöid has a lip, and the series of tentacles is horse-shoe
shaped; and the Gymnolaemata, in which there is no lip to the mouth, and
the tentacles form a complete circle. The first group forms its polypary
of soft or horny material, which is not preserved fossil. The latter
has a calcareous polypary, and is of much importance as a fossil group.
This latter sub-class is further subdivided into the following Orders,
viz.:--Trepostomata ("turned mouths"), Cryptostomata ("hidden mouths"),
Cyclostomata ("round mouths"), and Cheilostomata ("lip mouths" furnished
with a moveable operculum).


=Trepostomata (Palaeozoic).--=

The Order Trepostomata may include some genera as _Monticulipora_ and
_Fistulipora_, previously referred to under the corals. They become
extinct after Permian times. _Fistulipora_ occurs in certain Gippsland
limestones.

[Illustration: =Fig. 83--PALAEOZOIC POLYZOA.=

  A--Fenestella margaritifera, Chapm. Silurian. Near Yering, Vict.

  B--Polypora australis, Hinde. Carbopermian. Gascoyne River, Western
       Australia

  C--Rhombopora tenuis, Hinde. Carbopermian. Gascoyne River, Western
       Australia

  D--Protoretepora ampla, Lonsdale sp. Carbopermian. N.S.W.

]


=Cryptostomata (Palaeozoic).--=

In the order Cryptostomata we have the genus _Rhombopora_ with its long,
slender branches, which occurs in the Silurian of Victoria and the
Carbopermian of Queensland and W. Australia (Fig. 83 C). Of this order a
very important Australian genus is _Fenestella_, the funnel-shaped zoaria
of which are found in the Silurian of Victoria and New South Wales, and
also in the Carboniferous of the latter State. _Fenestella_ also occurs in
the Carbopermian of W. Australia and Tasmania (Fig. 83 A). Accompanying
the remains of _Fenestella_ in the Carbopermian rocks, and closely related
to it, are found the genera _Protoretepora_ and _Polypora_ (Fig. 83 B, D).

Polyzoa have been noticed in Jurassic rocks in W. Australia, but no
species have been described.

[Illustration: =Fig. 84--CAINOZOIC POLYZOA.=

  A--Lichenopora australis, MacGillivray. Balcombian. Hamilton, Victoria

  B--Heteropora pisiformis, MacGillivray. Janjukian. Moorabool, Victoria

  C--Cellaria australis, MacGillivray. Balcombian. Hamilton, Vict.

  D--Selenaria cupola, T. Woods sp. Balcombian. Hamilton, Vict.

  E--Lepralia elongata, MacGill. Balcombian. Hamilton, Victoria

]


=Cheilostomata (Cretaceous).--=

Species of the genera (?) _Membranipora_ and (?) _Lepralia_, belonging to
the Cheilostomata, have been described from the Lower Cretaceous of the
Darling River, New South Wales, and Wollumbilla, Queensland, respectively.


=Cainozoic Polyzoa.--=

A very large number of genera of the Polyzoa have been described from
the Tertiary strata of South Australia and Victoria. Some of the
principal of these are _Crisia_, _Idmonea_, _Stomatopora_, _Lichenopora_,
_Hornera_, _Entalophora_ and _Heteropora_ of the order Cyclostomata; and
_Catenicella_, _Cellaria_, _Membranipora_, _Lunulites_, _Selenaria_,
_Macropora_, _Tessarodoma_, _Adeona_, _Lepralia_, _Bipora_, _Smittia_,
_Porina_, _Cellepora_ and _Retepora_ of the order Cheilostomata. Many of
these genera, and not a few Australian species, are found also in the
Cainozoic or Tertiary beds of Orakei Bay, New Zealand (Fig. 84).


_BRACHIOPODA (Lamp-shells)._


=Brachiopods: Their Structure.--=

These are marine animals, and are enclosed in a bivalved shell. They
differ, however, from true bivalves (Pelecypoda) in having the shell
on the back and front of the body, instead of on each side as in the
bivalved mollusca. Each valve is equilateral, but the valves differ from
one another in that one is larger and generally serves to attach the
animal to rocks and other objects of support by a stalk or pedicle. Thus
the larger valve is called the pedicle valve and the smaller, on account
of its bearing the calcareous supports for the brachia or arms, the
brachial valve. Generally speaking, the shell of the valve is penetrated
by numerous canals, which give the shell a punctate appearance. Some
brachiopod shells, as _Atrypa_ and _Rhynchonella_, are, however, devoid of
these.

[Illustration: =Fig. 85--LOWER PALAEOZOIC BRACHIOPODS.=

  A--Orthis (?) lenticularis, Wahlenberg. Up. Cambrian. Florentine
       Valley, Tasmania

  B--Siphonotreta maccoyi, Chapm. Up. Ordovician. Bulla, Vict.

  C--Lingula yarraensis, Chapm. Silurian. South Yarra, Victoria

  D--Orbiculoidea selwyni, Chapm. Silurian. Merri Creek, Victoria

  E--Chonetes melbournensis, Chapm. Silurian. South Yarra, Vict.

  F--Stropheodonta alata, Chapm. Silurian. Near Lilydale, Vict.

]


=Cambrian Brachiopods.--=

Brachiopods are very important fossils in Australasian rocks. They first
appear in Cambrian strata, as for example, in the Florentine Valley, in
Tasmania, where we find _Orthis lenticularis_ (Fig. 85 A). In Victoria,
near Mount Wellington, in the mountainous region of N.E. Gippsland,
_Orthis platystrophioides_ is found in a grey limestone. In South
Australia the grey Cambrian limestone of Wirrialpa contains the genus
_Huenella_ (_H. etheridgei_). This genus is also found in the Middle and
Upper Cambrian of N. America.


=Ordovician Brachiopods.--=

Coming to Ordovician rocks, the limestones of the Upper Finke Basin in
South Australia contain _Orthis leviensis_ and _O. dichotomalis_. The
Victorian mudstone at Heathcote may be of Ordovician age or even older; it
has afforded a limited fauna of brachiopods and trilobites, amongst the
former being various species of _Orthis_, _Chonetes_, and _Siphonotreta_.
The latter genus is represented in both the Lower and Upper Ordovician
rocks of slaty character in Victoria (Fig. 85 B).


=Silurian Brachiopods.--=

The Silurian system in Australasia as in Europe, N. America and elsewhere,
is very rich in brachiopod life. It is impossible to enumerate even all
the genera in a limited work like the present, the most typical only being
mentioned.

In New Zealand the palaeozoic fauna is at present imperfectly worked
out, but the following genera from the Wangapekian (Silurian) have been
identified, viz., _Chonetes_, _Stricklandinia_, _Orthis_, _Wilsonia_,
_Atrypa_, and _Spirifer_. The specific identification of these forms with
European types is still open to question, but the species are undoubtedly
closely allied to some of those from Great Britain and Scandinavia.

The Victorian Silurian Brachiopods are represented by the horny-shelled
_Lingula_, the conical _Orbiculoidea_, a large species of _Siphonotreta_,
_Stropheodonta_ (with toothed hinge-line), _Strophonella_, _Chonetes_
(with hollow spines projecting from the ventral valve, one of the species
_C. melbournensis_ being characteristic of the Melbournian division of
Silurian rocks), _Orthis_, _Pentamerus_, _Camarotoechia_, _Rhynchotrema_,
_Wilsonia_, _Atrypa_ (represented by the world-wide _A. reticularis_),
_Spirifer_ and _Nucleospira_ (Figs. 85, 86).

New South Wales has a very similar assemblage of genera; whilst Tasmania
possesses _Camarotoechia_, _Stropheodonta_ and _Orthis_.


=Devonian Brachiopods.--=

The Devonian limestones and associated strata are fairly rich in
Brachiopods. The Victorian rocks of this age at Bindi and Buchan contain
genera such as _Chonetes_ (_C. australis_), _Spirifer_ (_S. yassensis_ and
_S. howitti_) and _Athyris_.

In New South Wales we again meet with _Spirifer yassensis_, veritable
shell-banks of this species occurring in the neighbourhood of Yass,
associated with a species of _Chonetes_ (_C. culleni_) (Fig. 86 D, E).

[Illustration: =Fig. 86--SILURIAN and DEVONIAN BRACHIOPODS.=

  A--Camarotoechia decemplicata, Sow. Silurian. Victoria

  B--Nucleospira australis, McCoy. Silurian. Victoria

  C--Atrypa reticularis, L. sp. Silurian. Victoria

  D--Chonetes culleni, Dun. Mid. Devonian. New South Wales

  E--Spirifer yassensis, de Koninck. Devonian. New South Wales and
       Victoria

]

In the Upper Devonian of New South Wales abundant remains occur of both
_Spirifer disjunctus_ and _Camarotoechia pleurodon_ (var.).

The Upper Devonian Series at Nyrang Creek near Canowindra, New South
Wales, contains a _Lingula_ (_L. gregaria_) associated with the
_Lepidodendron_ plant beds of that locality.

Queensland Devonian rocks contain _Pentamerus_, _Atrypa_ and _Spirifer_.
In Western Australia the Devonian species are _Atrypa reticularis_,
_Spirifer_ cf _verneuili_, _S. musakheylensis_ and _Uncinulus_ cf.
_timorensis_.


=Carboniferous Brachiopods.--=

The Carboniferous Brachiopod fauna is represented in New South Wales at
Clarence Town and other localities by a species which has an extensive
time-range, _Leptaena rhomboidalis_ var. _analoga_, and the following,
a few of which extend upwards into the Carbopermian:--_Chonetes
papilionacea_, _Productus semireticulatus_, _P. punctatus_, _P. cora_,
_Orthothetes crenistria_, _Orthis (Rhipidomella) australis_, _O.
(Schizophoria) resupinata_, _Spirifer striatus_, _S. bisulcatus_, _Cyrtina
carbonaria_ and _Athyris planosulcatus_.

In New Zealand the Matai series, referred to the Jurassic by Hutton, as
formerly regarded by Hector, and latterly by Park, as of Carboniferous
age, on the ground of a supposed discovery of _Spirifer subradiatus_ (_S.
glaber_) and _Productus brachythaerus_ in the Wairoa Gorge. Although these
species may not occur, the genera _Spirifer_ and _Productus_ are present,
which, according to Dr. Thomson, are distinctly of pre-Triassic types.

[Illustration: =Fig. 87--CARBOPERMIAN BRACHIOPODS.=

  A--Productus brachythaerus, Sow. Carbopermian. New South Wales, &c.

  B--Strophalosia clarkei, Eth. sp. Carbopermian. N.S.W., &c.

  C--Spirifer convolutus, Phillips. Carbopermian. N.S.W., &c.

  D--Spirifer (Martiniopsis) subradiatus, Sow. Carbopermian. New South
       Wales, &c.

]


=Carbopermian Brachiopods.--=

The Brachiopod fauna of Carbopermian age in New South Wales is rich
in species of _Productus_ and _Spirifer_. Amongst the former are _P.
cora_ (also found in Western Australia, Queensland and Tasmania), _P.
brachythaerus_ (also found in Western Australia and Queensland), (Fig. 87
A), _P. semireticulatus_ (also found in Western Australia, Queensland and
the Island of Timor, and a common species in Europe), and _P. undatus_
(also found in Western Australia and Queensland, as well as in Great
Britain and Russia). _Strophalosia_ is an allied genus to _Productus_.
It is a common form in beds of the same age in W. Australia, Tasmania,
and New South Wales. The best known species is _S. clarkei_ (Fig. 87 B).
This type of shell is distinguished from _Productus_ in being cemented by
the umbo of the ventral valve, which valve is also generally less spinose
than the dorsal. When weathered the shells present a peculiar silky or
fibrous appearance. The genus _Spirifer_ is represented in W. Australia
by such forms as _S. vespertilio_, _S. convolutus_, _S. hardmani_, _S.
musakheylensis_, and _S. striatus_; whilst _S. vespertilio_ and _S.
convolutus_ are common also to New South Wales (Fig. 87 C), and the latter
only to Tasmania. _S. vespertilio_ is found in the Gympie beds near
Rockhampton, Queensland; and _S. tasmaniensis_ in Queensland (Bowen River
Coal-field, Marine Series), New South Wales and Tasmania. Of the smoother,
stout forms, referred to the sub-genus _Martiniopsis_, we may mention _S.
(M.) subradiatus_, which occurs in W. Australia, New South Wales, and
Tasmania (Fig. 87 D).

In the Queensland fauna, the Gympie series contains, amongst other
Brachiopods _Productus cora_, _Leptaena rhomboidalis_ var., _analoga_,
_Spirifer vespertilio_ and _S. strzeleckii_.

Other Carbopermian Brachiopod genera found in Australian faunas are
_Cleiothyris_, _Dielasma_, _Hypothyris_, _Reticularia_, _Seminula_,
_Cyrtina_, and _Syringothyris_.


=Triassic Brachiopods.--=

The Kaihiku Series of New Zealand (Hokonui Hills and Nelson) are probably
referable to the Trias. The supposed basal beds contain plants such as
_Taeniopteris_, _Cladophlebis_, _Palissya_ and _Baiera_. Above these
are marine beds containing Brachiopods belonging to _Spiriferina_,
_Rhynchonella_, _Dielasma_ and _Athyris_. The succession of these beds
presents some palaeontological anomalies still to be explained, for the
flora has a decided leaning towards a Jurassic facies.

Next in order of succession the Wairoa Series, in the Hokonui Hills and
Nelson, New Zealand, contains _Dielasma_ and _Athyris wreyi_.

The succeeding series in New Zealand, the Otapiri, or Upper Triassic
contains the Brachiopod genera _Athyris_[3] and _Spiriferina_, found at
Well's Creek, Nelson.

[Footnote 3: Referred by Hector to a new sub-genus _Clavigera_, which
name, however, is preoccupied.]


=Jurassic Brachiopods.--=

[Illustration: =Fig. 88--MESOZOIC BRACHIOPODS.=

  A--Rhynchonella variabilis Schloth. sp. Jurassic. W. Australia

  B--Terebratella davidsoni, Moore. L. Cretaceous. Queensland

  C--Lingula subovalis, Davidson. L. Cretaceous. S. Australia

  D--Rhynchonella croydonensis, Eth. fil. Up. Cretaceous. Queensland

]

The marine Jurassic beds of W. Australia, as at Shark Bay and Greenough
River, contain certain _Rhynchonellae_ allied to European species, as _R.
variabilis_ (Fig. 88 A), and _R._ cf. _solitaria_.

=Lower Cretaceous Brachiopods.--=

The Lower Cretaceous or Rolling Downs Formation of Queensland has
yielded a fair number of Brachiopods, principally from Wollumbilla,--as
_Terebratella davidsoni_ (Fig. 88 B), (?) _Argiope wollumbillensis_, (?)
_A. punctata_, _Rhynchonella rustica_, _R. solitaria_, _Discina apicalis_
and _Lingula subovalis_. From beds of similar age in Central South
Australia and the Lake Eyre Basin _Lingula subovalis_ (Fig. 88 C), and
_Rhynchonella eyrei_ have been recorded; the latter has been compared with
a species (_R. walkeri_) from the Middle Neocomian of Tealby in Yorkshire.


=Upper Cretaceous Brachiopod.--=

A solitary species of the Brachiopoda occurs in the Upper Cretaceous of
Australia, namely, _Rhynchonella croydonensis_ (Fig. 88 D) of the Desert
Sandstone of the Croydon Gold-fields and Mount Angas, Queensland.


=Cainozoic Brachiopods.--=

The Brachiopoda of the Cainozoic or Tertiary strata of Australia
and New Zealand are well represented by the genera _Terebratula_,
_Magellania_, _Terebratulina_, _Terebratella_, _Magasella_ and
_Acanthothyris_. In the Balcombian or Oligocene of southern Australia
occur the following:--_Terebratula tateana_, _Magellania corioensis_,
_M. garibaldiana_ and _Magasella compta_ (Figs. 89 A, D); and most of
these range into the next stage, the Janjukian, whilst some extend even
to the Kalimnan. _Terebratulina suessi_, Hutton sp. (= _T. scoulari_,
Tate) ranges through the Balcombian and Janjukian, but is most typical
of the Janjukian beds in Victoria: it also occurs in the Oamaru Series
of New Zealand (= Janjukian). _Acanthothyris squamosa_ (Fig. 89 F) is
typical of the Janjukian of southern Australia, and it occurs also in
the Pareora beds of the Broken River, New Zealand. The latter are green,
sandy, fossiliferous strata immediately succeeding the Oamaru stone of the
Hutchinson Quarry beds. _A. squamosa_ is said to be still living south of
Kerguelen Island. _Magellania insolita_ is a Victorian species which is
also found in the Oamaru Series of New Zealand.

[Illustration: =Fig. 89--CAINOZOIC BRACHIOPODS.=

  A--Terebratula tateana, T. Woods. Cainozoic. Victoria

  B--Magellania corioensis, McCoy, sp. Cainozoic. Victoria

  C--Magellania garibaldiana, Dav. sp. Cainozoic. Victoria

  D--Magasella compta, Sow. sp. Cainozoic. Victoria

  E--Terebratulina catinuliformis, Tate. Cainozoic. S. Australia

  F--Acanthothyris squamosa, Hutton sp. Cainozoic. Tasmania

]

Whilst many of the older Tertiary brachiopods range into the next
succeeding stage of the Kalimnan in Victoria, such as _Magellania
insolita_, _Terebratulina_ catinuliformis_ (Fig. 89 E) and _Magasella
compta_, one species, _Terebratella pumila_, is restricted to the
Kalimnan, occurring at the Gippsland Lakes.

The next stage, the Werrikooian, typical in upraised marine beds on the
banks of the Glenelg River in western Victoria, contains _Magellania
flavescens_, a species still living (see _antea_, Fig. 23), and _M.
insolita_, having the extraordinarily wide range of the whole of the
Cainozoic stages in southern Australia.

       *       *       *       *       *


COMMON OR CHARACTERISTIC FOSSILS OF THE FOREGOING CHAPTER.


WORMS.

  _Eunicites mitchelli_, Eth. fil. Silurian: New South Wales.

  _Oenonites hebes_, Eth. fil. Silurian: New South Wales.

  _Arabellites bowningensis_, Eth. fil. Silurian: New South Wales.

  _Arenicolites_ sp. Silurian: New South Wales.

  _Trachyderma crassituba_, Chapm. Silurian: Victoria.

  _Cornulites tasmanicus_, Eth. fil. Silurian: Tasmania.

  _Spirorbis ammonius_, M. Edw. var. _truncata_, Chapm. Mid. Devonian:
       Victoria.

  _Spirorbis omphalodes_, Goldfuss. Devonian: W. Australia.

  _Serpula testatrix_, Eth. fil. Carbopermian: New South Wales.

  _Torlessia mackayi_, Bather. Lower Mesozoic: New Zealand.

  _Serpula conformis_, Goldfuss. Jurassic: W. Australia.

  _Serpula intestinalis_, Phillips. Lower Cretaceous: Queensland.

  _Serpula subtrachinus_, Eth. fil. Lower Cretaceous: New South Wales.

  _Serpula ouyenensis_, Chapm. Cainozoic: Victoria.

  _Ditrupa cornea_, L. sp. var. _wormbetiensis_, McCoy. Cainozoic:
       Victoria.


POLYZOA.

  _Rhombopora gippslandica_, Chapm. Silurian: Victoria.

  _Fenestella australis_, Chapm. Silurian: Victoria.

  _Protoretepora ampla_, Lonsdale. Carbopermian: W. Australia, New South
       Wales, Queensland, and Tasmania.

  _Polypora australis_, Hinde. Carbopermian: W. Australia.

  _Rhombopora tenuis_, Hinde. Carbopermian: W. Australia.

  _Rhombopora laxa_, Etheridge sp. Carbopermian: Queensland.

  _Membranipora wilsonensis_, Eth. fil. Lower Cretaceous: New South
       Wales.

  (?) _Lepralia oolitica_, Moore. Lower Cretaceous: Queensland.

  _Lichenopora australis_, MacGillivray. Cainozoic: Victoria.

  _Heteropora pisiformis_, MacGillivray. Cainozoic: Victoria.

  _Cellaria australis_, MacGillivray. Cainozoic: Victoria.

  _Membranipora macrostoma_, Reuss. Cainozoic: Victoria (also living).

  _Selenaria marginata_, T. Woods. Cainozoic: Victoria (also living).

  _Macropora clarkei_, T. Woods sp. Cainozoic: Victoria.

  _Adeona obliqua_, MacGill. Cainozoic: Victoria.

  _Lepralia burlingtoniensis_, Waters. Cainozoic: Victoria.

  _Bipora philippinensis_, Busk sp. Cainozoic: Victoria (also living).

  _Porina gracilis_, M. Edwards sp. Cainozoic: Victoria (also living).

  _Cellepora fossa_, Haswell, sp. Cainozoic: Victoria (also living).

  _Retepora fissa_, MacGill. sp. Cainozoic: Victoria (also living).


BRACHIOPODA.

  _Orthis lenticularis_, Wahlenberg sp. Cambrian: Tasmania.

  _Orthis platystrophioides_, Chapm. Cambrian: Victoria.

  _Huenella etheridgei_, Walcott. Cambrian: S. Australia.

  _Orthis leviensis_, Eth. fil. Ordovician: S. Australia, (?) Victoria.

  _Siphonotreta discoidalis_, Chapm. Ordovician: Victoria.

  _Siphonotreta maccoyi_, Chapm. Ordovician: Victoria.

  _Lingula yarraensis_, Chapm. Silurian: Victoria.

  _Orbiculoidea selwyni_, Chapm. Silurian: Victoria.

  _Chonetes melbournensis_, Chapm. Silurian: Victoria.

  _Stropheodonta alata_, Chapm. Silurian: Victoria.

  _Orthis elegantula_, Dalman. Silurian: Victoria.

  _Pentamerus australis_, McCoy. Silurian: Victoria and New South Wales.

  _Conchidium knightii_, Sow. sp. Silurian: Victoria and New South Wales.

  _Camarotoechia decemplicata_, Sow. sp. Silurian: Victoria.

  _Rhynchotrema liopleura_, McCoy sp. Silurian: Victoria.

  _Atrypa reticularis_, L. sp. Silurian: New South Wales and Victoria.
       Devonian: New South Wales, W. Australia and Queensland.

  _Spirifer sulcatus_, Hisinger sp. Silurian: Victoria.

  _Nucleospira australis_, McCoy. Silurian: Victoria.

  _Chonetes australis_, McCoy. Mid. Devonian: Victoria.

  _Chonetes culleni_, Dun. Mid. Devonian: New South Wales.

  _Spirifer yassensis_, de Koninck. Mid. Devonian: New South Wales and
       Victoria.

  _Spirifer_ cf. _verneuili_, de Kon. Mid. Devonian: New South Wales and
       W. Australia.

  _Lingula gregaria_, Eth. fil. Upper Devonian: New South Wales.

  _Spirifer disjunctus_, Sow. Up. Devonian: New South Wales.

  _Productus cora_, d'Orb. Carboniferous: New South Wales and Queensland.

  _Orthothetes crenistria_, Sow. sp. Carboniferous: New South Wales.

  _Spirifer striatus_, Sow. Carboniferous: New South Wales.

  _Productus brachythaerus_, Sow. Carbopermian: New South Wales,
       Queensland, W. Australia.

  _Strophalosia clarkei_, Eth. sp. Carbopermian: New South Wales,
       Tasmania and W. Australia.

  _Spirifer (Martiniopsis) subradiatus_, Sow. Carbopermian: New South
       Wales, Tasmania and W. Australia.

  _Spirifer convolutus_, Phillips. Carbopermian: New South Wales,
       Tasmania and W. Australia.

  _Cleiothyris macleayana_, Eth. fil. sp. Carbopermian: W. Australia.

  _Dielasma elongata_, Schlotheim sp. Trias (Kaihiku Series): New
       Zealand.

  _Athyris wreyi_, Suess sp. Trias (Wairoa Series): New Zealand.

  _Athyris_ sp. Trias (Otapiri Series): New Zealand.

  _Rhynchonella variabilis_, Schlotheim sp. Jurassic: W. Australia.

  _Terebratella davidsoni_, Moore. Lower Cretaceous: Queensland.

  _Rhynchonella solitaria_, Moore. Lower Cretaceous: Queensland.

  _Lingula subovalis_, Davidson. Lower Cretaceous: Queensland and S.
       Australia.

  _Rhynchonella croydonensis_, Eth. fil. Upper Cretaceous: Queensland.

  _Terebratula tateana_, T. Woods. Cainozoic (Balcombian and Janjukian):
       Victoria and S. Australia.

  _Magellania corioensis_, McCoy, sp. Cainozoic (Balcombian and
       Janjukian): Victoria and S. Australia.

  _Magellania garibaldiana_, Davidson sp. Cainozoic (Balcombian and
       Janjukian): Victoria and S. Australia.

  _Magasella compta_, Sow. sp. Cainozoic (Balcombian to Kalimnan):
       Victoria and S. Australia.

  _Terebratula suessi_, Hutton sp. Cainozoic (Balcombian and Janjukian):
       Victoria, S. Australia, and New Zealand (Oamaru Series.)

  _Acanthothyris squamosa_, Hutton sp. Cainozoic (Janjukian): Victoria
       and S. Australia, New Zealand (Oamaru Series) (also living).

  _Terebratella pumila_, Tate. Cainozoic (Kalimnan): Victoria.

  _Magellania flavescens_, Lam. sp. Pleistocene: Victoria (also living).


       *       *       *       *       *


LITERATURE.


WORMS.

  Silurian.--Etheridge, R. jnr. Geol. Mag., Dec. III. vol. VII. 1890,
       pp. 339, 340. Idem, Proc. Roy. Soc. Tas. (for 1896), 1897, p. 37.
       Chapman, F. Proc. R. Soc. Vict., vol. XXII. (N.S.), pt. II. 1910,
       pp. 102-105.

  Devonian.--Hinde, G. J. Geol. Mag., Dec. II. vol. VII. 1890, p. 199.
       Chapman, F. Rec. Geol. Surv. Vict., vol. III. pt. 2, 1912, p. 220.

  Carboniferous.--Etheridge, R. jnr. Bull. Geol. Surv. W. Australia, No.
       10, 1903, p. 10.

  Carbopermian.--Etheridge, R. jnr. Mem. Geol. Surv. New South Wales.
       Pal. No. 5, 1892, pp. 119-121.

  Lower Mesozoic.--Bather, F. A. Geol. Mag., Dec. V. vol. II. 1905, pp.
       532-541.

  Lower Cretaceous.--Etheridge, R. jnr. Mem. Soc. Geol. Surv. New South
       Wales, Pal. No. 11. 1902, pp. 12, 13.

  Cainozoic.--Chapman, F. Proc. R. Soc. Vict., vol. XXVI. (N.S.) pt. I.
       1913, pp. 182-184.


POLYZOA.

  Silurian.--Chapman, F. Proc. R. Soc. Vict., vol. XVI. (N.S.), pt. I.
       1903, pp. 61-63. Idem, Rec. Geol. Surv. Vic., vol. II., pt. 1,
       1907, p. 78.

  Carboniferous.--Hinde, G. J. Geol. Mag. Dec. III. vol. VII. 1890, pp.
       199-203.

  Carbopermian.--De Koninck Mem. Geol. Surv. New South Wales, Pal. No.
       6, 1898, pp. 128-140.

  Cainozoic.--Stolicka, F. Novara Exped., Geol. Theil., vol. I. pt. 2,
       pp. 87-158. Waters, A. W. Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. XXXVII.
       1881, pp. 309-347; ibid., vol. XXXVIII. 1882, pp. 257-276 and pp.
       502-513; ibid., vol. XXXIX. 1883, pp. 423-443; ibid., vol. XL.
       1884, pp. 674-697; ibid., vol. XLI. 1885, pp. 279-310; ibid.,
       vol. XLIII. 1887, pp. 40-72 and 337-350. MacGillivray, P. H.
       Mon. Tert. Polyzoa Vict., Trans. Roy. Soc. Vict., Vol. IV. 1895.
       Maplestone, C. M. "Further Descr. Polyzoa Vict.," Proc. Roy. Soc.
       Vict., vol. XI. (N.S.), pt. I. 1898, pp. 14-21, et seqq.


BRACHIOPODA.

  Cambrian.--Tate, R. Trans. R. Soc. S. Austr., vol. XV. 1892, pp. 185,
       186. Etheridge, R. jnr. Rec. Austr. Mus., vol. V. pt. 2, 1904, p.
       101. Walcott, C. D. Smiths. Misc. Coll., vol. LIII. 1908, p. 109.
       Chapman, F. Proc. R. Soc. Vic., vol. XXIII. (N.S.), pt. I. 1911,
       pp. 310-313.

  Ordovician.--Etheridge, R. jnr. Parl. Papers, S. Aust., No. 158, 1891,
       pp. 13, 14. Tate, R. Rep. Horn Exped., pt. 3, 1896, pp. 110, 111.
       Chapman, F. Rec. Geol. Surv. Vict., vol. I. pt. 3, 1904, pp.
       222-224.

  Silurian.--McCoy, F. Prod. Pal. Vic. Dec. V. 1877, pp. 19-29. Eth., R.
       jnr. Rec. Geol. Surv. New South Wales, vol. 3, pt. 2, 1892, pp.
       49-60 (Silurian and Devonian _Pentameridae_). Idem, Proc. Roy.
       Soc., Tas., (for 1896), 1897, pp. 38-41. De Koninck, L. G. Mem.
       Geol. Surv. New South Wales, Pal. No. 6, 1898, pp. 20-29. Dun,
       W. S. Rec. Geol. Surv. New South Wales, vol. VII. pt. 4, 1904,
       pp. 318-325 (Silurian to Carboniferous). Ibid., vol. VIII. pt.
       3, 1907, pp. 265-269. Chapman, F. Proc. R. Soc. Vict., vol. XVI.
       (N.S.), pt. 1, 1903, pp. 64-79. Ibid., vol. XXI. (N.S.), pt. 1,
       1908, pp. 222, 223. Ibid., vol. XXVI. (N.S.) pt. 1. 1913, pp.
       99-113.

  Devonian.--McCoy, F. Prod. Pal. Vict., Dec. IV., 1876, pp. 16-18.
       Foord, A. H. Geol. Mag., Dec. III. vol. VII. 1890, pp. 100-102.
       Etheridge, R. jnr. Geol. and Pal. Queensland, 1892, pp. 64-68.
       De Koninck, L. G. Mem. Geol. Surv. New South Wales, Pal., No. 6,
       1898, pp. 64-85. Chapman, F. Proc. R. Soc. Vict., vol. XVIII.
       (N.S.), pt. 1, 1905, pp. 16-19.

  Carboniferous.--Etheridge, R. jnr. Rec. Austr. Mus., vol. IV. No. 3,
       1901, pp. 119, 120. Idem, Geol. Surv. W. Austr., Bull. No. 10,
       1903, pp. 12-23. Dun, W. S. Rec. Geol. Surv. New South Wales,
       vol. VII., pt. 2, 1902, pp. 72-88 and 91-93.

  Carbopermian.--Sowerby, G. B., in Strzelecki's Phys. Descr. of New
       South Wales, etc., 1845, pp. 275-285. McCoy, F. Ann. Mag. Nat.
       Hist., vol. XX. 1847, pp. 231-236. Foord, A. H. Geol. Mag. Dec.
       III. vol. VII. 1890, pp. 105 and 145-154. Etheridge, R. jnr.
       Geol. and Pal. Queensland, 1892, pp. 225-264. De Koninck, L. G.
       Mem. Geol. Surv. New South Wales, Pal., No. 6, 1898, pp. 140-203.
       Dun, W. S. Rec. Geol. Surv. New South Wales, vol. VIII. pt. 4,
       1909, pp. 293-304.

  Lower Cretaceous.--Moore, C. Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. XXVI.
       1870, pp. 243-245. Etheridge, R. jnr. Mem. R. Soc. S. Austr.,
       vol. II. pt. 1, 1902, pp. 8, 9.

  Upper Cretaceous.--Etheridge, R. jnr. Geol. and Pal. Queensland, 1892,
       p. 560.

  Cainozoic.--McCoy, F. Prod. Pal. Vict., Dec. V. 1877, pp. 11-13. Tate,
       R. Trans. R. Soc. S. Austr., vol. III. 1880, pp. 140-170. Idem,
       ibid., vol. XXIII. 1899, pp. 250-259. Hutton, F. W. Trans. N.Z.
       Inst., vol. XXXVII. 1905, pp. 474-481 (Revn. Tert. Brach.).




CHAPTER X.

FOSSIL SHELL-FISH (MOLLUSCA).


=Molluscan Characters.--=

The phylum or sub-kingdom Mollusca is a group of soft-bodied animals
(mollis, soft), which, although having no external skeleton, usually
possess the protective covering of a shell. This shell is secreted
from the outer skin or mantle, and is composed of carbonate of lime
(calcareous) with a varying proportion of organic material.


=Hard Parts.--=

Fossil molluscan remains consist practically of the shells, but the
calcareous apertural lid (operculum) of some kinds is often preserved, as
in _Turbo_ and _Hyolithes_; or the horny lids of others, as _Bithynia_
of the European Pleistocene "brick earths." The cuttle-fishes have hard,
horny beaks and internal bones, and the latter are frequently found fossil
in Australia.


=Characters of Pelecypoda.--=

The class for first consideration is the important one of the Bivalved
Mollusca, the _LAMELLIBRANCHIATA_ ("plate-gills") or _PELECYPODA_
("hatchet foot"). The shells are double, hinged dorsally and placed on
either side of the animal, that is, they are left and right. The height is
measured on a vertical line drawn from the beaks or umbones to the ventral
margin. The length is the greatest distance between the margins parallel
with a line drawn through the mouth and posterior adductor impression. The
thickness is measured by a line at right angles to the line of height. The
shell being placed mouth forward, the valves are thus left and right. The
anterior is usually shorter, excepting in some cases, as in _Donax_ and
_Nucula_.


=Hinge Structure.--=

In the absence of the animal, the character of the hinge-structure is very
important. Some are without teeth (edentulous). The oldest forms have been
grouped as the "Palaeoconcha," and it has been shown that here, although
well-developed teeth were absent, the radial ribs of the surface and
ventral areas were carried over to the dorsal margin and became a fixed
character in the form of crenulations or primitive teeth.

The taxodont type of hinge teeth shows alternating teeth and sockets, as
in _Nucula_.

The schizodont type is seen in the heavy, variable teeth of _Trigonia_ and
_Schizodus_.

The isodont type of hingement is a modification of the taxodont,
represented by two ridges originally divergent below the beak, and
forming an interlocking series of two pairs of teeth and sockets as in
_Spondylus_; or where the primitive hinge disappears as in _Pecten_, the
divergent ridge-teeth (crura) may only partially develop.

The dysodonts have a feeble hinge-structure derived from the external
sculpture impinging on the hinge-line, as in _Crenella_.

The pantodonta are an ancient palaeozoic group which seems allied to the
modern teleodont or long toothed shells, but the laterals may exceed a
pair in a single group, as in _Allodesma_.

The diogenodonta have lateral and cardinal teeth upon a hinge-plate, but
never more than two laterals and three cardinals in any one group, as in
_Crassatellites_.

The cyclodonta have extremely arched teeth, which curve out from under the
beaks, as in _Cardium_.

[Illustration: =Fig. 90--LOWER PALAEOZOIC BIVALVES.=

  A--Ambonychia macroptera, Tate. Cambrian. S. Australia

  B--Grammysia cuneiformis, Eth. fil. Silurian. Victoria

  C--Panenka gippslandica, McCoy sp. Silurian. Victoria

  D--Nucula melbournensis, Chapm. Silurian. Victoria

  E--Nuculites maccoyianus. Chapm. Silurian. Victoria

  F--Palaeoneilo victoriae, Chapm. Silurian. Victoria

]

The teleodonts include the more highly developed types of hinge, with
attenuated teeth and sockets. Common shells of our coast, and from
Cainozoic beds, belonging to this group are _Venus_, _Mactra_ and
_Meretrix_.

The asthenodonta are boring and burrowing molluscs that have lost the
hinge dentition from disuse as _Corbula_ and _Pholas_.


=Cambrian Bivalve.--=

The earliest example of a bivalved shell in Australian rocks is
_Ambonychia macroptera_ (Fig. 90 A), which occurs in the Cambrian
Limestone of Curramulka, S. Australia. It is quite a small form, being
less than a quarter of an inch in length.


=Ordovician Bivalve.--=

In the basal Ordovician mudstone of Heathcote, Victoria, there is
a bivalve which in some respects resembles a _Modiolopsis_ (?_M.
knowsleyensis_), but the exact relationship is still doubtful.


=Silurian Bivalves.--=

The Silurian sandstones, mudstones, slates and limestones of Australia
and New Zealand, unlike the older rocks just mentioned, contain a
rich assemblage of bivalve fossils. In Victoria the lower division or
Melbournian stage contains the following principal genera:--_Orthonota_,
_Grammysia_, _Leptodomus_, _Edmondia_, _Cardiola_, _Ctenodonta_,
_Nuculites_, _Nucula_, _Palaeoneilo_, _Conocardium_, _Modiolopsis_ and
_Paracyclas_. The upper division or Yeringian stage contains other
species of similar genera to those in the Melbournian, as _Grammysia_,
_Palaeoneilo_ and _Conocardium_; whilst _Panenka_, _Mytilarca_,
_Sphenotus_, _Actinodesma_, _Lunulicardium_, _Actinopteria_ and
Cypricardinia are, so far as known, peculiar to this and a still higher
stage. _Cardiola_ is a widely distributed genus, occurring as well in
Tasmania; whilst in Europe it is found both in Bohemia and Great Britain.
Its time-range in the northern hemisphere is very extensive, being found
in beds ranging from Upper Ordovician to Devonian. _Actinopteria_ is found
also in New South Wales and New Zealand, and _Pterinea_ and _Actinodesma_
in New South Wales.

The molluscs with a taxodont hinge-line (beset with numerous little
teeth and sockets) are quite plentiful in the Australian Silurian; such
as _Nucula_, a form common around Melbourne (_N. melbournensis_ (Fig.
90 D)); _Nuculites_, which has an internal radial buttress or clavicle
separating the anterior muscle-scar from the shell-cavity, and which is
found likewise in the Melbourne shales (_N. maccoyianus_ (Fig. 90 E));
_Ctenodonta_, represented in both the Melbournian and Yeringian stages
(_C. portlocki_); and _Palaeoneilo_, a handsome, subrostrate generic
type with concentric lamellae or striae, commonest in the Melbournian,
but occasionally found in the younger stage (_P. victoriae_ Fig. 90 F,
Melbournian;--_P. raricostae_, Yeringian). _Conocardium_ is represented
by two species in Victoria (_C. bellulum_ and _C. costatum_); whilst in
New South Wales _C. davidis_ is found at Oakey Creek. In New Zealand
_Actinopteria_ and _Pterinea_ occur in the Wangapeka series (Silurian).


=Devonian Bivalves.--=

The compact limestone and some shales of Middle Devonian age in the N.E.
Gippsland area in Victoria, contain several as yet undescribed species
belonging to the genera _Sphenotus_, _Actinodesma_ and _Paracyclas_.

[Illustration: =Fig. 91--PALAEOZOIC BIVALVES.=

  A--Mytilarca acutirostris, Chapm. Silurian. Victoria

  B--Modiolopsis melbournensis, Chapm. Silurian. Victoria

  C--Goniophora australis, Chapm. Silurian. Victoria

  D--Paracyclas siluricus, Chapm. Silurian. Victoria

  E--Actinopteria australis, Dun. Devonian. New South Wales

  F--Lyriopecten gracilis, Dun. Devonian. New South Wales

]

The genera _Paracyclas_, _Aviculopecten_ and _Pterinea_ have been recorded
from New South Wales, chiefly from the Yass district. The derived
boulders found in the Upper Cretaceous beds forming the opal-fields at
White Cliffs, New South Wales, have been determined as of Devonian age.
They contain, amongst other genera, examples of _Actinopteria_ (_A.
australis_), _Lyriopecten_ (_L. gracilis_) (Fig. 91 F), and _Leptodesma_
(_L. inflatum_ and _L. obesum_).

[Illustration: =Fig. 92--CARBOPERMIAN BIVALVES.=

  A--Stutchburia farleyensis, Eth. fil. Carbopermian. N.S. Wales

  B--Deltopecten limaeformis, Morris sp. Carbopermian. N.S. Wales

  C--Aviculopecten sprenti, Johnston. Carbopermian. N.S. Wales

  D--Chaenomya etheridgei, de Kon. Carbopermian. N.S. Wales

  E--Pachydomus globosus J. de C. Sow. Carbopermian. N.S. Wales

]


=Carbopermian Bivalves.--=

One of the most prolific palaeozoic series for bivalved mollusca is the
Carbopermian. To select from the numerous genera and species we may
mention _Stutchburia farleyensis_ (Fig. 92 A) and _Edmondia nobilissima_
from Farley, New South Wales; and _Deltopecten limaeformis_ (Fig. 92
B), found in the Lower Marine Series at Ravensfield, New South Wales,
and in the Upper Marine Series at Burragorang and Pokolbin in the same
State, in Queensland at the Mount Britton Gold-field, and in Maria Id.,
Tasmania. _Deltopecten fittoni_ occurs in both series in New South Wales,
and in the Upper Marine Series associated with "Tasmanite shale" in
Tasmania. _Aviculopecten squamuliferus_ is a handsome species found alike
in Tasmania and New South Wales; whilst _A. tenuicollis_ is common to
W. Australia and New South Wales. Other characteristic bivalves of the
Carbopermian of New South Wales are _Chaenomya etheridgei_ (Fig. 92 D)
and _Pachydomus globosus_ (Fig. 92 E). The gigantic _Eurydesma cordatum_
is especially characteristic of the New South Wales Lower Marine Series,
and is also found in Tasmania. All three species are found in Queensland.


=Triassic Bivalves.--=

The Triassic rocks of New South Wales were accumulated under either
terrestrial, lacustrine, or brackish (estuarine) conditions. Hence the
only bivalved mollusca found are referred to the freshwater genera _Unio_
(_U. dunstani_) and _Unionella_ (_U. bowralensis_ and _U. carnei_ (Fig. 93
A)). The latter genus differs from Unio in the structure of the adductor
muscle-impressions.

[Illustration: =Fig. 93--LOWER MESOZOIC BIVALVES.=

  A--Unionella carnei, Eth. fil. Triassic. New South Wales

  B--Mytilus problematicus, Zittel. Triassic. New Zealand

  C--Monotis salinaria, Zittel. Triassic. New Zealand

  D--Trigonia moorei, Lycett. Jurassic. W. Australia

  E--Astarte cliftoni, Moore. Jurassic. W. Australia

]

The Queensland Trias (Burrum Formation) contains a solitary species of
bivalved mollusca, _Corbicula burrumensis_. This genus is generally found
associated with freshwater or brackish conditions.

In New Zealand marine Triassic beds occur, containing, amongst other
genera, a species of _Leda_. In the succeeding Wairoa Series the
interesting fossil, _Daonella lommeli_ occurs. This shell is typical of
the Norian (Upper Trias) of the Southern Tyrol. Above the _Daonella_ bed
occurs the _Trigonia_ bed, with that genus and _Edmondia_. In the next
younger stage, the Otapiri Series, near Nelson, there are fine-grained
sandstones packed full of the remains of _Mytilus problematicus_ (Fig. 93
B) and _Monotis salinaria_ (Fig. 93 C), the latter also a Norian fossil.


=Jurassic Bivalves.--=

Jurassic bivalved molluscs are plentiful in the W. Australian limestones,
as at Greenough River. Amongst others may be mentioned _Cucullaea
semistriata_, _Ostrea_, _Gryphaea_, _Trigonia moorei_ (Fig. 93 D), _Pecten
cinctus_, _Ctenostreon pectiniforme_ and _Astarte cliftoni_ (Fig. 93 E).
Several of the species found are identical with European Jurassic fossils.

Jurassic strata in Victoria, being of a freshwater and lacustrine nature,
yield only species of _Unio_, as _U. dacombei_, and _U. stirlingi_.

The Jurassic beds of S. Australia contain a species of _Unio_ named _U.
eyrensis_. In the same strata which contains this shell, plant remains
are found, as _Cladophlebis_ and _Thinnfeldia_, two well-known types of
Jurassic ferns.


=Lower Cretaceous Bivalves.--=

In Queensland the Lower Cretaceous limestones and marls contain a large
assemblage of bivalves, the more important of which are _Nucula truncata_
(Fig. 94 A), _Maccoyella reflecta_ (Fig. 94 B), _M. barkleyi_, _Pecten
socialis_ and _Fissilunula clarkei_ (Fig. 94 C), from Wollumbilla; and
_Inoceramus pernoides_, _I. carsoni_ and _Aucella hughendenensis_ from the
Flinders River (the latter also from New South Wales).

In the Lake Eyre District of S. Australia we find _Maccoyella barkleyi_,
which also occurs in Queensland and New South Wales (at White Cliffs),
_Trigonia cinctuta_, _Mytilus rugocostatus_ and _Modiola eyrensis_. The
handsome bivalve, _Pleuromya plana_ occurs near Broome in W. Australia.

[Illustration: =Fig. 94--CRETACEOUS BIVALVES.=

  A--Nucula truncata, Moore. L. Cretaceous. South Australia

  B--Maccoyella reflecta, Moore sp. Up. and L. Cretaceous. Q'land.

  C--Fissilunula clarkei, Moore sp. Up. and L. Cretaceous. Q'land.

  D--Inoceramus carsoni, McCoy. L. Cretaceous. Queensland

  E--Cyrenopsis opallites, Eth. fil. Up. Cretaceous. New South Wales

  F--Conchothyra parasitica, Hutton. Cretaceous. New Zealand

]


=Upper Cretaceous Bivalves.--=

The Upper Cretaceous or Desert Sandstone at Maryborough, Queensland,
has yielded amongst others, the following shells:--(_Nucula gigantea_,
_Maccoyella reflecta_ also found in the Lower Cretaceous of Queensland,
New South Wales and S. Australia), and _Fissilunula clarkei_ (also found
in the L. Cretaceous of New South Wales, Queensland and S. Australia).
Some of these beds, however, which were hitherto believed to belong
to the Upper and Lower Series respectively may yet prove to be on one
horizon--the Lower Cretaceous. _Cyrenopsis opallites_ (Fig. 94 E) of White
Cliffs, New South Wales, appears to be a truly restricted Upper Cretaceous
species.

The Cretaceous of New Zealand (Amuri System) contains _Trigonia sulcata_,
_Inoceramus_ sp. and the curious, contorted shell, _Conchothyra
parasitica_ (Fig. 94 F) which is related to _Pugnellus_, a form usually
considered as a sub-genus of _Strombus_.

From Papua an _Inoceramus_ has been recorded from probable Cretaceous beds.


=Cainozoic Bivalves.--=

In Victoria, South Australia, and the N.W. of Tasmania, as well as in
New Zealand, Cainozoic marine beds are well developed, and contain an
extensive bivalved molluscan fauna. Of these fossils only a few common and
striking examples can here be noticed, on account of the limits of the
present work.

The commonest genera are:--_Ostrea_, _Placunanomia_, _Dimya_, _Spondylus_,
_Lima_, _Pecten_, _Arca_, _Barbatia_, _Plagiarca_, _Cucullaea_,
_Glycimeris_, _Limopsis_, _Nucula_, _Leda_, _Trigonia_, _Cardita_, _Cuna_,
_Crassatellites_, _Cardium_, _Protocardium_, _Chama_, _Meretrix_, _Venus_
(_Chione_), _Dosinea_, _Gari_, _Mactra_, _Corbula_, _Lucina_, _Tellina_,
_Semele_ and _Myodora_.

[Illustration: =Fig. 95--CAINOZOIC BIVALVES.=

  A--Dimya dissimilis, Tate. Balcombian. Victoria

  B--Spondylus pseudoradula, McCoy. Balcombian. Victoria

  C--Pecten polymorphoides, Zittel. Janjukian. South Australia

  D--Leda vagans, Tate. Janjukian. South Australia

  E--Modiola praerupta, Pritchard. Balcombian. Victoria

]


=Persistent Species.--=

To mention a few species of persistent range, from Balcombian to
Kalimnan, we may cite the following from the Cainozoic of southern
Australia:--_Dimya dissimilis_ (Fig. 95 A), _Spondylus pseudoradula_ (Fig.
95 B), _Lima (Limatula) jeffreysiana_, _Pecten polymorphoides_ (found also
in the Oamaru Series, New Zealand) (Fig. 95 C), _Amusium zitteli_ (found
also in both the Waimangaroa and Oamaru Series of New Zealand), _Barbatia
celleporacea_, _Cucullaea corioensis_, _Limopsis maccoyi_, _Nucula
tenisoni_, _Leda vagans_ (Fig. 95 D), _Corbula ephamilla_ and _Myodora
tenuilirata_.


=Balcombian Bivalves.--=

On the other hand, many species have a restricted range, and these are
invaluable for purposes of stratigraphical correlation. For example,
in the Balcombian we have _Modiola praerupta_ (Fig. 95 E), _Modiolaria
balcombei_, _Cuna regularis_, _Cardium cuculloides_, _Cryptodon
mactraeformis_, _Verticordia pectinata_ and _V. excavata_.

[Illustration: =Fig. 96--CAINOZOIC BIVALVES.=

  A--Modiola pueblensis, Pritchard. Janjukian. Victoria

  B--Cardita tasmanica, Tate. Janjukian. Tasmania

  C--Lucina planatella, Tate. Janjukian. Tasmania

  D--Ostrea manubriata, Tate. Kalimnan. Victoria

  E--Limopsis beaumariensis, Chap. Kalimnan. Victoria

  F--Venus (Chione) subroborata, Tate sp. Kalimnan. Victoria

]


=Janjukian Bivalves.--=

In the Janjukian Series restricted forms of bivalves are exceptionally
numerous, amongst them being:--_Dimya sigillata_, _Plicatula ramulosa_,
_Lima polynema_, _Pecten praecursor_, _P. eyrei_, _P. gambierensis_,
_Pinna cordata_, _Modiola pueblensis_ (Fig. 96 A), _Arca dissimilis_,
_Limopsis multiradiata_, _L. insolita_, _Leda leptorhyncha_, _L.
crebrecostata_, _Cardita maudensis_, _C. tasmanica_ (Fig. 96 B), _Cuna
radiata_, _Lepton crassum_, _Cardium pseudomagnum_, _Venus (Chione)
multitaeniata_, _Solenocurtus legrandi_, _Lucina planatella_ (Fig. 96 C),
_Tellina porrecta_ and _Myodora lamellata_.

In Papua a _Pecten_ (_P. novaeguineae_) has been recorded from the ? Lower
Pliocene of Yule Island.


=Kalimnan Bivalves.--=

The Kalimnan beds contain the following restricted or upward ranging
species:--_Ostrea arenicola_, _O. manubriata_ (Fig. 96 D), _Pecten
antiaustralis_ (also in the Werrikooian Series), _Perna percrassa_,
_Mytilus hamiltonensis_, _Glycimeris halli_, _Limopsis beaumariensis_
(also Werrikooian) (Fig. 96 E), _Leda crassa_ (also living), _Trigonia
howitti_, _Cardita solida_, _C. calva_ (also living), _Erycina micans_,
_Meretrix paucirugata_, _Sunetta gibberula_, _Venus (Chione) subroborata_
(Fig. 96 F), _Donax depressa_, _Corbula scaphoides_ (also living), _Barnea
tiara_, _Lucina affinis_, _Tellina albinelloides_ and _Myodora corrugata_.


=Werrikooian Bivalves.--=

The next stage, the Werrikooian (Upper Pliocene), contains a large
percentage of living species, as _Ostrea angasi_, _Placunanomia ione_
(ranging down into Janjukian), _Glycimeris radians_, _Leda crassa_ (also
a common Kalimnan fossil), various species of _Venus (Chione)_, as _V.
strigosa_ and _V. placida_, and _Barnea australasiae_.


=Pleistocene Bivalves.--=

The bivalved shells of the Pleistocene are similar to those now found
living round the Australian coast, as _Pecten asperrimus_, _Mytilus
latus_, _Leda crassa_, _Soletellina biradiata_ and _Spisula parva_.

Pleistocene shells of bivalved genera occur in the coastal hills of Papua,
including the following:--_Cultellus_, _Corbula_, _Mactra_, _Tellina_,
_Venus (Chione)_, _Dione_, _Dosinea_, _Leda_ and _Arca_.

The _SCAPHOPODS_ ("digger foot") or the "Elephant-tusk shells" are
adapted, by their well-developed foot, to burrow into the mud and sand.

[Illustration: =Fig. 97--FOSSIL SCAPHOPODS and CHITONS.=

  A--Dentalium huttoni, Bather. Jurassic. New Zealand

  B--Dentalium mantelli, Zittel. Cainozoic. Victoria

  C--Chelodes calceoloides, Eth. fil. Silurian. New South Wales

  D--Ischnochiton granulosus, Ashby and Torr sp. Cainozoic (Balc).
       Victoria

  E--Cryptoplax pritchardi, Hall. Cainozoic (Kalimnan). Victoria

]


=Devonian Scaphopods.--=

This group of mollusca makes its first appearance in Australasian
sediments in the Middle Devonian (Murrumbidgee beds) of New South Wales,
represented by _Dentalium tenuissimum_.


=Jurassic Scaphopods.--=

In the Jurassic strata of the Mataura Series of New Zealand, _Dentalium
huttoni_ (Fig. 97 A) occurs at the Kowhai River and Wilberforce.


=Cretaceous Scaphopods.--=

_Dentalium wollumbillensis_ occurs in the drab and dark-coloured
limestones of the Lower Cretaceous of the Lake Eyre Basin in S. Australia,
and the same species is also found in the Lower Cretaceous (Rolling Downs
Formation) of Wollumbilla, Queensland.


=Cainozoic Scaphopods.--=

The Cainozoic beds both of New Zealand and southern Australia yield
many species of _Dentalium_, the commonest and most widely distributed
being the longitudinally ribbed _D. mantelli_ (Fig. 97 B), which ranges
from the Balcombian to the Werrikooian stages in Australia, and is also
typical of the Oamaru Series in New Zealand, where it is accompanied by
the ponderous species, _D. giganteum_, which attained a length of over six
inches. Another form common in our Cainozoics is the smooth-shelled _D.
subfissura_; this also has a wide range, namely Balcombian to Kalimnan.


=Palaeozoic Chitons.--=

The _POLYPLACOPHORA_ or Chitons ("Mail-shells"), first appeared in the
Ordovician. In Australia _Chelodes calceoloides_ (Fig. 97 C) is found in
the Silurian of Derrengullen Creek, Yass, New South Wales; and another
species of the genus is found in beds of the same age at Lilydale,
Victoria. Between that period and the Cainozoic or Tertiary there is a gap
in their history in Australia.


=Cainozoic Chitons.--=

_Ischnochiton granulosus_ (Fig. 97 D) is a Balcombian species of the
modern type of "mail-shell," occurring not infrequently in the clays of
Balcombe's Bay, Port Phillip, Victoria. _Cryptoplax pritchardi_ (Fig. 97
E) is a curious form belonging to the attenuated, worm-like group of the
Cryptoplacidae, until lately unknown in the fossil state; it is found in
the Kalimnan Series near Hamilton, Victoria. Several other genera of the
chitons are found fossil in the Australian Cainozoics which still live
on our coasts, as _Lorica_, _Plaxiphora_ and _Chiton_. The first-named
genus is represented fossil by _Lorica duniana_ from the _Turritella_ bed
(Janjukian) of Table Cape, Tasmania.


=Characters of Gasteropoda.--=

The _GASTEROPODA_ ("belly-foot") or univalve shells possess a muscular
foot placed beneath the stomach and viscera. In the Heteropoda this foot
is modified as a vertical fin, and in the Pteropoda as two wing-like
swimming membranes close to the head. The mantle lobe is elevated along
the back like a hood, and its surfaces and edges secrete the shell
which contains the animal. The shell is typically a cone (example,
_Patella_ or Limpet) which is often spirally coiled either in a plane
(ex. _Planorbis_), conically turbinoid (ex. _Trochus_), or turreted (ex.
_Turritella_). The body and shell are attached by muscles, the spiral
forms being attached to the columella or axial pillar, and the bowl-shaped
forms to the inner surface of the shell.

Gasteropod shells are normally right-handed (dextral), but a few genera
as _Clausilia_, _Bulinus_ and _Physa_, are left-handed (sinistral). The
height or length of the shell is measured from the apex to the lower
margin of the mouth. In coiled shells we may regard them as a more or less
elongated cone wound round a central pillar, the columella, or around a
central tube. A turn or coil of the shell is a whorl, and together, with
the exception of the last, form the spire. The line between two adjacent
whorls is the suture. When the columella is solid the shell is said to
be imperforate, and when a central tube is left by the imperfect fusion
of the whorls, it is perforate. The opening of the tubular columella is
termed the umbilicus, and this is sometimes contracted by the encroachment
of shell matter termed the callus. The aperture is entire when the rim
is uninterrupted; and channelled when there is a basal notch, where the
siphon which conducts water to the gills is lodged.

As a rule the large heavy gasteropods inhabit shallow water. The following
living genera are characteristic of rocky shore-lines; _Risella_,
_Buccinum_, _Purpura_ and _Patella_. Genera typical of sandy shores are
_Nassa_, _Natica_, _Cypraea_, _Turritella_ and _Scala_.


=Cambrian Gasteropods.--=

From the Cambrian of South Australia Prof. Tate described some minute
Gasteropods which he referred to the genera _Stenotheca_ (_S. rugosa_,
var. _paupera_), _Ophileta (O. subangulata)_ (Fig. 98 A), and _Platyceras
(P. etheridgei)_. In these beds at Curramulka the following Pteropods were
found by the same authority, viz., _Salterella planoconvexa_, _Hyolithes
communis_ (Fig. 98 C) and _H. conularioides_.

The Cambrian Limestone of the Kimberley District, W. Australia, contains
the characteristic Pteropod _Salterella hardmani_ (Fig. 98 B). The shell
is a conical tube, straight or slightly curved, and measuring scarcely an
inch in length.

[Illustration: =Fig. 98--LOWER PALAEOZOIC GASTEROPODA.=

  A--Ophileta subangulata, Tate. Cambrian. South Australia

  B--Salterella hardmani, Foord. Cambrian. West Australia

  C--Hyolithes communis, Billings. Cambrian. South Australia

  D--Scenella tenuistriata, Chapm. Cambrian. Victoria

  E--Raphistoma browni, Eth. fil. Ordovician. South Australia

  F--Helicotoma johnstoni, Eth. fil. Silurian. Tasmania

]

The Upper Cambrian of the Mersey River District in Tasmania has afforded
some doubtful examples of the genus _Ophileta_.

In the Upper Cambrian Limestones of the Dolodrook Valley, near Mt.
Wellington, Victoria, a minute limpet shaped Gasteropod occurs, named
_Scenella tenuistriata_ (Fig. 98 D).


=Ordovician Gasteropods.--=

Ordovician limestones with fossil shells occur in the Leigh's Creek
District in South Australia, and also at Tempe Downs and Petermann and
Laurie's Creeks, W. of Alice Springs. The euomphaloid shell _Ophileta
gilesi_ was described from Laurie's Creek, and _Eunema larapinta_ from
the Tempe Downs. A pleurotomarid, _Raphistoma browni_ (Fig. 98) occurs
near Leigh's Creek, and at Laurie's and Petermann Creeks. A Pteropod,
_Hyolithes leptus_, has been described from the Lower Ordovician of Coole
Barghurk Creek, near Meredith, Victoria.


=Silurian Gasteropods.--=

The Silurian Gasteropods are fairly well represented, especially in
the upper stage, and are widely distributed throughout the Australian
fossiliferous localities. Moreover, some of the species are identical
with those found as far off as North America and Europe. In Victoria
the shales and sandstones of the lower stage (Melbournian) contain the
genera _Bellerophon_, _Cyrtolites_ and _Loxonema_. The Pteropoda include
_Tentaculites_, _Coleolus_, _Hyolithes_ and _Conularia_ (_C. sowerbii_
(Fig. 99 F), a species also found in Great Britain). The Victorian
limestones and mudstones of the upper stage (Yeringian) are somewhat rich
in Gasteropods, such genera occurring as _Pleurotomaria_, _Phanerotrema_
(with cancellated shell and large slit-band), _Murchisonia_, _Gyrodoma_,
_Bellerophon_, _Trematonotus_ (a spiral shell with a large trumpet-shaped
mouth and a dorsal row of perforations in place of a slit-band),
_Euomphalus_, _Cyclonema_, _Trochus (Scalaetrochus)_, _Niso (Vetotuba)_,
_Loxonema_, _Platyceras_ and _Capulus_. The section Pteropoda contains
_Tentaculites_, _Hyolithes_ and _Conularia_.

[Illustration: =Fig. 99--SILURIAN GASTEROPODA.=

  A--Hyolithes spryi, Chapm. Silurian (Melb.) Victoria

  B--Gyrodoma etheridgei, Cressw. sp. Silurian (Yeringian). Vict.

  C--Bellerophon cresswelli. Eth. fil. Silurian (Yeringian). Victoria

  D--Euomphalus northi, Eth. fil. sp. Silurian (Yeringian). Victoria

  E--Trochonema montgomerii. Eth. fil. sp. Silurian. Tasmania

  F--Conularia sowerbii, Defr. Silurian (Yeringian). Victoria

]

In the Silurian of New South Wales the chief Gasteropod genera are
_Bellerophon (B. jukesi)_, _Euomphalus_, _Omphalotrochus_, and _Conularia
(C. sowerbii.)_.

In Tasmania are found _Raphistoma_, _Murchisonia_, _Bellerophon_,
_Helicotoma_, _Trochonema_ and _Tentaculites_.


=Devonian Gasteropods.--=

The derived boulders of the White Cliffs opal field have been referred to
the Devonian system, but of this there is some doubt, as the Gasteropods
noted from these boulders closely resemble those of the Silurian fauna:
they are _Murchisonia Euomphalus_ (_E. culleni_), and _Loxonema_. The
genus _Murchisonia_ has also been recorded from the Baton River, New
Zealand (Wangepeka Series) by MacKay.

The Middle Devonian Gasteropod fauna in Victoria, as found in the Buchan
and Bindi Limestones, comprises _Murchisonia_, _Trochus_, and _Platyceras_.

[Illustration: =Fig. 100--UPPER PALAEOZOIC GASTEROPODA.=

  A--Gosseletina australis, Eth. fil. sp. Carboniferous. N.S. Wales

  B--Yvania konincki, Eth. fil. Carboniferous. N.S. Wales

  C--Loxonema babbindoonensis, Eth. fil. Carboniferous. N.S. Wales

  D--Pleurotomaria (Ptychomphalina) morrisiana, McCoy. Carbopermian.
       N.S. Wales

  E--Platyschisma oculum, Sow. sp. Carbopermian. N.S. Wales

  F--Murchisonia carinata, Eth. Carbopermian. Queensland

]

In New South Wales the best known genera are _Pleurotomaria_,
_Murchisonia_, _Bellerophon_, _Euomphalus_ and _Loxonema_. The two latter
genera have also been obtained at Barker Gorge, Western Australia.


=Carboniferous Gasteropods.--=

Carboniferous Gasteropoda have been found in New South Wales, belonging
to the genera _Gosseletina_ (_G. australis_) (Fig. 100 A) and _Yvania_
(_Y. konincki_) (Fig. 100 B), both of which have their countertypes in the
Carboniferous of Belgium. _Y. konincki_ is also found in the Carbopermian
(Gympie beds) of Rockhampton, Queensland, while _Y. levellii_ is found in
the Carbopermian of Western Australia.


=Carbopermian Gasteropods.--=

The Carbopermian gasteropods of New South Wales are _Pleurotomaria_
(_Mourlonia_), _Keeneia platyschismoides_, _Murchisonia_, _Euomphalus_,
_Platyschisma_ (_P. oculum_) (Fig. 100 E), _Loxonema_ and _Macrocheilus_.
Examples of the genus _Conularia_ are sometimes found, probably attaining
a length, when complete, of 40 centimetres.

In Tasmania we find _Conularia tasmanica_, a handsome Pteropod, also
of large dimensions. _Platyschisma_, _Pleurotomaria_ (_Mourlonia_),
_Bellerophon_ and _Porcellia_ are amongst the Carbopermian Gasteropods of
Queensland.

In Western Australia _Pleurotomaria_ (_Mourlonia_), _Bellerophon_,
_Euomphalus_, _Euphemus_, _Platyceras_, and _Loxonema_ occur in the
Carbopermian.


=Jurassic Gasteropods.--=

Jurassic gasteropods are found sparingly in the limestone of the
Geraldton District and other localities in Western Australia. The more
important of these are _Pleurotomaria_ (_P. greenoughiensis_), _Turbo_
(_T. australis_) (Fig. 101 A) and _Rissoina_ (_R. australis_) (Fig. 101 B).

[Illustration: =Fig. 101--MESOZOIC GASTEROPODA.=

  A--Turbo australis, Moore. Jurassic. West Australia

  B--Rissoina australis, Moore. Jurassic. West Australia

  C--Natica ornatissima, Moore. Cretaceous. Queensland

  D--Pseudamaura variabilis, Moore sp. Cretaceous. Queensland

  E--Rostellaria waiparensis, Hector.--Cretaceous. New Zealand

]


=Cretaceous Gasteropods.--=

The Queensland gasteropod fauna comprises _Cinulia_ a typical Cretaceous
genus, _Actaeon_ and _Natica_. These occur in the Lower Cretaceous or
Rolling Downs Formation. _Cinulia_ is also found in South Australia at
Lake Eyre with _Natica_ (_N. ornatissima_) (Fig. 101 C). _Pseudamaura
variabilis_ (Fig. 101 D) is found in New South Wales, Queensland and South
Australia; whilst _Anchura wilkinsoni_ occurs in Queensland and South
Australia.

In New Zealand the Waipara Greensands (Cretaceous) contain a species of
_Rostellaria_ (_R. waiparensis_) (Fig. 101 E).


=Cainozoic Gasteropods.--=

Cainozoic Gasteropods are exceedingly abundant in beds of that system
in Australasia. The Cainozoic marine fauna in Australia is practically
restricted to the States of Victoria, South Australia, and Tasmania;
whilst New Zealand has many species in common with Australia.


=Genera.--=

The commonest genera of the marine Cainozoic or Tertiary deposits
are:--_Haliotis_, _Fissurellidea_, _Emarginula_, _Subemarginula_,
_Astralium_, _Liotia_, _Gibbula_, _Eulima_, _Niso_, _Odostomia_,
_Scala_, _Solarium_, _Crepidula_, _Calyptraea_, _Natica_, _Rissoa_,
_Turritella_, _Siliquaria_, _Cerithium_, _Newtoniella_, _Tylospira_,
_Cypraea_, _Trivia_, _Morio_, _Semicassis_, _Lotorium_, _Murex_, _Typhis_,
_Columbella_, _Phos_, _Nassa_, _Siphonalia_, _Euthria_ (_Dennantia_),
_Fusus_, _Columbarium_, _Fasciolaria_, _Latirus_, _Marginella_, _Mitra_,
_Volutilithes_, _Voluta_, _Harpa_, _Ancilla_, _Cancellaria_, _Terebra_,
_Pleurotoma_, _Drillia_, _Conus_, _Bullinella_ and _Vaginella_.


=Persistent Species.--=

Amongst the Cainozoic Gasteropoda of southern Australia which have a
persistent range through Balcombian to Kalimnan times, we find:--_Niso
psila_, _Crepidula unguiformis_ (also Werrikooian and Recent), _Natica
perspectiva_, _N. hamiltonensis_, _Turritella murrayana_, _Cerithium
apheles_, _Cypraea leptorhyncha_, _Lotorium gibbum_, _Volutilithes
antiscalaris_ (also in Werrikooian), _Marginella propinqua_, _Ancilla
pseudaustralis_, _Conus ligatus_ and _Bullinella exigua_.


=Balcombian Gasteropods.--=

Species restricted to the Balcombian stage include _Scala dolicho_,
_Seguenzia radialis_, _Dissocheilus eburneus_, _Trivia erugata_, _Cypraea
ampullacea_ (Fig. 102 A), _C. gastroplax_, _Colubraria leptoskeles_,
_Murex didymus_ (Fig. 102 B), _Eburnopsis aulacoessa_ (Fig. 102 C),
_Fasciolaria concinna_, _Mitra uniplica_, _Harpa abbreviata_, _Ancilla
lanceolata_, _Cancellaria calvulata_ (Fig. 102 D), _Buchozia oblongula_,
_Pleurotoma optata_, _Terebra leptospira_ and _Vaginella eligmostoma_
(Fig. 102 E), (also found at Gellibrand River).

[Illustration: =Fig. 102--CAINOZOIC GASTEROPODA.=

  A--Cypraea ampullacea, Tate. Cainozoic (Balc.) Victoria

  B--Murex didymus, Tate. Cainozoic (Balc.) Victoria

  C--Eburnopsis aulacoessa, Tate. Cainozoic (Balc.) Victoria

  D--Cancellaria calvulata, Tate. Cainozoic (Balc.) Victoria

  E--Vaginella eligmostoma, Tate. Cainozoic (Balc.) Victoria

]

[Illustration: =Fig. 103--CAINOZOIC GASTEROPODA.=

  A--Eutrochus fontinalis, Pritchard. Cainozoic (Janjukian). Vict.

  B--Morio wilsoni, Tate. Cainozoic (Janjukian). Victoria

  C--Scala lampra, Tate sp. Cainozoic (Janjukian). South Australia

  D--Natica gibbosa, Hutton. Cainozoic (Janjukian). South Australia

  E--Volutilithes anticingulatus, McCoy sp. Cainozoic (Janjukian).
       Victoria

  F--Struthiolaria sulcata, Hutton. Cainozoic (Awatere series). New
       Zealand

]


=Janjukian Gasteropods.--=

Species of Gasteropods restricted to the Janjukian stage
include:--_Pleurotomaria tertiaria_, _Haliotis mooraboolensis_, _Liotia
lamellosa_, _Thalotia alternata_, _Eutrochus fontinalis_ (Fig. 103 A),
_Astralium hudsonianum_, _Turbo atkinsoni_, _Odostomia polita_, _Scala
lampra_ (Fig. 103 C), _Natica gibbosa_ (Fig. 103 D) (also found in the
Pareora Series of the Oamaru system and in the Wanganui beds of New
Zealand), _Calyptraea subtabulata_, _Turritella aldingae_, _Cerithiopsis
mulderi_, _Cerithium flemingtonense_, _Cypraea platyrhyncha_, _C.
consobrina_, _Morio wilsoni_ (Fig. 103 B), _Lotorium abbotti_, _Murex
otwayensis_, _Eburnopsis tesselatus_, _Tudicla costata_, _Latirus
semiundulatus_, _Fusus meredithae_, _Columbarium spiniferum_, _Voluta
pueblensis_, _V. heptagonalis_, _V. macroptera_ (also recorded from
Hall's Sound, Papua) (Fig. 103 E), _Volutilithes anticingulatus_ (also
from Papua), _Harpa clathrata_, _Bela woodsi_, _Bathytoma paracantha_ and
_Volvulella inflatior_.

_Dolium costatum_, allied to the "Fig-Shell" has been noted from the
Cainozoic clays (? Lower Pliocene), Yule Island, Papua.

[Illustration: =Fig. 104--LATE CAINOZOIC and PLEISTOCENE GASTEROPODA=

  A--Bankivia howitti, Pritchard. Cainozoic (Kal.) Victoria

  B--Eglisia triplicata, Tate sp. Cainozoic (Kal.) Victoria

  C--Voluta masoni, Tate. Cainozoic (Kal.) Victoria

  D--Ancilla papillata. Tate sp. Cainozoic (Kal.) Victoria

  E--Terebra geniculata, Tate. Cainozoic (Kal.) Victoria

  F--Helix simsoniana, Johnston. Pleistocene. Tasmania

]


=Kalimnan Gasteropods.--=

Species of Gasteropods restricted to the Kalimnan Stage, or only
passing upwards include:--_Bankivia howitti_ (Fig. 104 A), _Liopyrga
quadricingulata_, _Calyptraea corrugata_, _Natica subvarians_,
_Turritella pagodula_, _Eglisia triplicata_ (Fig. 104 B), _Tylospira
clathrata_, _Cypraea jonesiana_, _Lotorium ovoideum_, _Sistrum
subreticulatum_, _Voluta masoni_ (Fig. 104 C), _Ancilla papillata_ (Fig.
104 D), _Cancellaria wannonensis_, _Drillia wanganuiensis_ (also in the
Petane Series of New Zealand), _Terebra catenifera_, _T. geniculata_ (Fig.
104 E) and _Ringicula tatei_.


=New Zealand Cainozoic Gasteropods.--=

Characteristic Gasteropoda of the Oamaru Series in New Zealand are
_Pleurotomaria tertiaria_ (also in the Australian Janjukian), _Scala
lyrata_, _Natica darwinii_, _Turritella cavershamensis_, _Ancilla hebera_
(also in the Australian Balcombian and Janjukian) and _Pleurotoma
hamiltoni_. Gasteropods of the Awatere Series in New Zealand are _Natica
ovata_, _Struthiolaria sulcata_ (Fig. 103 F), and _Scaphella corrugata_
(found also in the Oamaru Series). The Putiki beds of the Petane Series in
New Zealand contain _Trophon expansus_, _Pisania drewi_ and _Pleurotoma
wanganuiensis_.


=Werrikooian Gasteropods.--=

The marine gasteropods of the Werrikooian of southern Australia, as found
at Limestone Creek, Glenelg River, Western Victoria, and the Moorabool
Viaduct near Geelong, are nearly all living at the present time, with
the exception of a few older Cainozoic species. Amongst these latter are
_Conus ralphi_, _Pleurotoma murndaliana_, _Volutilithes antiscalaris_ and
_Columbarium craspedotum_.


=Pleistocene Gasteropoda.--=

The Pleistocene land mollusca, and especially the gasteropods of
Australia, present some striking points of interest, for whilst most of
the species are still living, some appear to be extinct. The travertine
deposits of Geilston, near Hobart, Tasmania contain _Helix geilstonensis_
and _H. stanleyana_, the latter still living. The calcareous _Helix_
sandstone of the islands in Bass Strait are largely composed of shells
of that genus and generally represent consolidated sand-dunes which have
undergone a certain amount of elevation. One of the prevalent species is
_Helix simsoniana_ (Fig. 104 F), a handsome keeled form, somewhat related
to the living _H. launcestonensis_. It is found in some abundance in the
Kent's Group and in the adjacent islands.

The large ovoid land-shells, _Panda atomata_, although still existing,
are found associated with extinct marsupials, as _Thylacoleo_, in the
stalagmitic floor of the Buchan Caves, Gippsland.

The _Diprotodon_-breccias of Queensland have afforded several species
of _Helix_ and other land-shells, as well as the brackish-water genus
_Melania_. The Raised Beaches of Queensland, New South Wales, Victoria,
and Tasmania all contain species of land and freshwater shells identical
with those now found living in the same localities.

The Raised Beaches of New Zealand contain numerous marine shells all
having living representatives. Some of these elevated beaches occur as
high as 150 feet above sea-level at Taranaki, and at 200 feet near Cape
Palliser in Cook Strait.

Many species of Pleistocene Mollusca identical with those now living
in Torres Strait, the China Sea and the Philippine Islands are
found in Papua. They occur in the greenish sandy clay of the hills
near the present coast line and comprise the following genera of
Gasteropods:--_Ranella_, _Nassa_, _Mitra_, _Oliva_, _Terebra_, _Conus_,
_Strombus_, _Bulla_ and _Atys_.


=Characters of Cephalopoda.--=

The highest class of the mollusca is the _CEPHALOPODA_ ("head-feet").
In these shell-fish the extremity of the body or foot is modified, and
furnished with eyes, a funnel and tentacles. It has also strong horny
beaks or jaws which make it a formidable enemy to the surrounding life in
the sea. In the chambered forms of this group the animal partitions off
its shell at regular intervals, like the Pearly Nautilus and the Ammonite,
inhabiting only the last chamber cavity, but still communicating with the
earlier series by a continuous spiral tube (siphuncle). In some forms like
the living squid and the extinct Belemnite, the shell is internal and
either spoon-shaped, or dart-shaped, that is, subcylindrical and pointed.


=Characters of Cephalopod Shells.--Nautiloidea.--=

In geological times the nautiloid forms were the first to appear (in the
Ordovician), and they were either straight shells, as _Orthoceras_, or
only slightly curved, as _Cyrtoceras_. Later on they became more closely
coiled, and as they were thus less likely to be damaged, they gradually
replaced the straight forms.

The Ammonites have the siphuncle close to the outside of the shell, whilst
in the Nautilus it is more or less median. The sutures or edges of the
septa in _Nautilus_ and its allies are curved or wavy, but not so sharply
flexed or foliaceous as in _Ammonites_. The Nautiloidea range from the
Ordovician and are still found living.


=Ammonoidea.--=

The Ammonoidea appear in Devonian times and die out in the Cretaceous.
They were very abundant in Jurassic times, especially in Europe.


=Belemnoidea.--=

The Belemnoidea, ranging from the Trias to Eocene, comprise the extinct
_Belemnites_, the interesting genus _Spirulirostra_ of Miocene times, and
the living _Spirula_.


=Sepioidea.--=

The Sepioidea or true Cuttle-fishes ("pen-and-ink fish") range from the
Trias to the present day.


=Octopoda.--=

The Octopoda, with _Octopus_ and _Argonauta_ (the paper "Nautilus") are
present-day modifications. The male of the latter is without a shell, the
female only being provided with a delicate boat-shaped shell secreted by
the mantle and the two fin-like expansions of the dorsal arms.


=Ordovician Cephalopods.--=

The Ordovician cephalopods of Australasia are not numerous, and are,
so far as known, practically restricted to the limestones of the
Larapintine series at Laurie's Creek and Tempe Downs, in Central South
Australia. Amongst them may be mentioned _Endoceras warburtoni_ (Fig.
105 A), (a straight form in which the siphuncle is partially filled with
organic deposits); _Orthoceras gossei_; _O. ibiciforme_; _Trochoceras
reticostatum_ (a coiled form); and _Actinoceras tatei_ (a genus
characterised by swollen siphuncular beads between the septa).

[Illustration: =Fig. 105--PALAEOZOIC CEPHALOPODA.=

  A--Endoceras warburtoni, Eth. fil. Ordovician. South Australia

  B--Orthoceras lineare, Münster sp. Silurian (Yer.) Victoria

  C--Cycloceras ibex, Sow. sp. Silurian (Melb.) Victoria

  D--Phragmoceras subtrigorium, McCoy. Mid Devonian. Victoria

  E--Gastrioceras jacksoni, Eth. fil. Carbopermian. W. Australia

  F--Agathiceras micromphalum, Morris sp. Carbopermian. N.S.W.

]


=Silurian Cephalopods.--=

Silurian cephalopods are more generally distributed, and in Victoria
constitute an important factor in the molluscan fauna of that system.
_Orthoceras_ and _Cycloceras_ are the best known genera, represented by
_Orthoceras capillosum_, found near Kilmore, Victoria; _O. lineare_ (Fig.
105 B), from the Upper Yarra; _Cycloceras bullatum_, from the Melbournian
of Collingwood and Whittlesea; and _C. ibex_ (Fig. 105 C) from South
Yarra and Flemington, in both Melbournian shale and sandstone. The latter
species occurs also at Rock Flat Greek, New South Wales. Other Victorian
species are _Kionoceras striatopunctatum_, a well-known European fossil
with a reticulated and beaded ornament, found near Warburton and at
McMahon's Creek, Upper Yarra.

_Orthoceras_ is also recorded from Tasmania and from the Wangapeka beds of
Baton River, New Zealand. _Cyclolituites_, a partially coiled nautilian
is recorded from Bowning, near Yass, New South Wales; whilst the closely
related _Lituites_ is noted from the Silurian of Tasmania.


=Devonian Cephalopods.--=

The only genus of cephalopoda at present recorded from the Devonian of
Victoria is _Phragmoceras_ (_P. subtrigonum_) (Fig. 105 D), which occurs
in the Middle Devonian Limestone of Buchan, E. Gippsland. From beds of
similar age in New South Wales _Orthoceras_, _Cyrtoceras_ and _Goniatites_
have been noted; whilst the latter genus also occurs near Kimberley,
Western Australia. In Queensland _Gyroceras philpi_ is a characteristic
shell, found in the Fanning and Reid Gap Limestones of the Burdekin
Formation (Middle Devonian).


=Carbopermian Cephalopods.--=

The Carbopermian rocks of New South Wales have yielded _Orthoceras
striatum_, _Cameroceras_, _Nautilus_ and _Agathiceras micromphalum_
(Fig. 105 F). In Queensland the Gympie Formation contains _Orthoceras_,
_Gyroceras_, _Nautilus_, _Agathiceras micromphalum_ and _A.
planorbiforme_. In Western Australia the Kimberley rocks contain
_Orthoceras_, _Glyphioceras sphaericum_ and _Agathiceras micromphalum_;
whilst the largest known Australian goniatite, _Gastrioceras jacksoni_
(Fig. 105 E) is found in the Irwin River District. _Actinoceras hardmani_
is an interesting fossil from the Carbopermian of Lennard River, N.W.
Australia. In Tasmania the genera _Orthoceras_ and _Goniatites_ have been
recorded from beds of similar age.


=Triassic Cephalopods.--=

For Triassic cephalopoda we look to New Zealand, where, in the Mount Potts
_Spiriferina_ Beds of the Kaihiku Series a species of _Orthoceras_ has
been recorded. The Wairoa Series next in succession contains _Orthoceras_
and an Ammonite.


=Jurassic Cephalopods.--=

[Illustration: =Fig. 106--MESOZOIC and CAINOZOIC CEPHALOPODA.=

  A--Perisphinctes championensis, Crick. Jurassic. West Australia

  B--Nautilus hendersoni, Eth. fil. L. Cretaceous. Queensland

  C--Haploceras daintreei, Eth. sp. L. Cretaceous. Queensland

  D--Crioceras australe, Moore. L. Cretaceous. Queensland

  E--Aturia australis, McCoy. Cainozoic. Victoria

  F--Spirulirostra curta, Tate. Cainozoic (Janjukian). Victoria

]

The Jurassic of Western Australia yields a rich cephalopod fauna, from
which may be selected as typical examples the _Nautilus_, _N. perornatus_
and the following Ammonites: _Dorsetensia clarkei_; _Normanites
australis_; and _Perisphinctes championensis_ (Fig. 106 A). These all
occur in the Greenough River District, and at several other Jurassic
localities in Western Australia.

The Jurassic system of New Zealand (Putataka Series) contains _Ammonites
aucklandicus_ and _Belemnites aucklandicus_, both from the upper marine
horizon of that series.

Upper Jurassic Ammonites belonging to the genera _Macrocephalites_ (_M._
cf. _calloviensis_) and _Erymnoceras_ (_E._ cf. _coronatum_) have been
recorded from Papua.


=Lower Cretaceous Cephalopods.--=

Remains of Cephalopoda are fairly abundant in the Lower Cretaceous of
Australasia. From amongst them may be selected the following--_Nautilus
hendersoni_ (Fig. 106 B) (Q.); _Haploceras daintreei_ (Fig. 106 C) (Q. and
N.S.W.); _Desmoceras flindersi_ (Q. and N.S.W.); _Schloenbachia inflatus_
(Q.); _Scaphites cruciformis_ (N. Terr.); _Ancyloceras flindersi_ (Q.
and N.S.W.); _Crioceras australe_ (Fig. 106 D) (Q. and S.A.); _Belemites
australis_ (Q.); _B. oxys_ (Q., N.S.W., and S.A.); _B. sellheimi_ (Q. and
S.A.); _B. diptycha_, = _canhami_, Tate, (Q., N.S.W., and S.A.); and _B.
eremos_ (Centr. S.A.).


=Upper Cretaceous Cephalopods.--=

In the Upper Cretaceous (Desert Sandstone) of Queensland there occurs
a Belemnite somewhat resembling _Belemnites diptycha_, but with a very
pointed apex.


=Cretaceous Cephalopods, New Zealand.--=

In New Zealand the Amuri System (Cretaceous) contains fossils which
have been referred to the genera _Ammonites_, _Baculites_, _Hamites_,
_Ancyloceras_ and _Belemnites_, but probably these determinations require
some further revision. A species of Belemnite has also been noted from
probable Cretaceous beds in Papua.

The Cainozoic System in Victoria contains a true _Nautilus, N.
geelongensis_; and _Aturia australis_ (Fig. 106 E), a nautiloid shell
having zig-zag suture lines and septal necks enclosing the siphuncle.
_A. australis_ is also found in the Oamaru Series of New Zealand; in
Victoria it has an extensive vertical range, from Balcombian to Kalimnan
(Oligocene to Lower Pliocene). Species of _Nautilus_ are also found in the
Janjukian of the Murray River Cliffs; where, in some cases the shell has
been infilled with clear gypsum or selenite, through which can be seen the
tubular siphuncle in its original position. _Spirulirostra curta_ (Fig.
106 F) is an interesting cuttle-bone of rare occurrence. The genus is
represented by two other species only, occurring in the Miocene of Italy
and Germany. In Victoria it is occasionally found in the Janjukian marly
limestone at Bird Rock near Torquay.


COMMON OR CHARACTERISTIC FOSSILS OF THE FOREGOING CHAPTER.


PELECYPODA.

  _Ambonychia, macroptera_, Tate. Cambrian: S. Australia. (?)
       _Modiolopsis knowsleyensis_, Chapm. L. Ordovician: Victoria.

  _Orthonota australis_, Chapm. Silurian (Melbournian): Victoria.

  _Grammysia cuneiformis_, Eth. fil. Silurian (Melbournian): Victoria.

  _Leptodomus maccoyianus_, Chapm. Silurian (Melbournian): Victoria.

  _Edmondia perobliqua_, Chapm. Silurian (Melbournian): Victoria.

  _Cardiola cornucopiae_, Goldfuss sp. Silurian (Melbournian): Victoria.

  _Panenka gippslandica_, McCoy sp. Silurian (Tanjilian): Victoria.

  _Ctenodonta portlocki_, Chapm. Silurian: Victoria.

  _Nuculites maccoyianus_, Chapm. Silurian: Victoria.

  _Nucula melbournensis_, Chapm. Silurian (Melb.): Victoria.

  _Palaeoneilo victoriae_, Chapm. Silurian (Melb.): Victoria.

  _Pterinea lineata_, Goldfuss. Silurian (Yeringian): Victoria.

  _Lunulicardium antistriatum_, Chapm. Silurian (Tanj.): Victoria.

  _Conocardium costatum_, Cressw. sp. Silurian: Victoria.

  _Conocardium davidis_, Dun. Silurian: New South Wales.

  _Actinopteria boydi_, Conrad sp. Silurian (Yer.): Victoria.

  _Aviculopecten spryi_, Chapm. Silurian (Melb.): Victoria.

  _Modiolopsis complanata_, Sowerby sp. Silurian (Melb.): Victoria.

  _Goniophora australis_, Chapm. Silurian (Yer.): Victoria.

  _Cypricardinia contexta_, Barrande. Silurian (Yer.): Victoria.

  _Paracyclas siluricus_, Chapm. Silurian (Melb.): Victoria.

  _Actinopteria australis_, Dun. Devonian: New South Wales.

  _Lyriopecten gracilis_, Dun. Devonian: New South Wales.

  _Leptodesma inflatum_, Dun. Devonian: New South Wales.

  _Stutchburia farleyensis_, Eth. fil. Carbopermian: New South Wales.

  _Edmondia nobilissima_, de Koninck. Carbopermian: New South Wales.

  _Deltopecten limaeformis_, Morris sp. Carbopermian: New South Wales,
       Queensland and Tasmania.

  _Aviculopecten squamuliferus_, Morris sp. Carbopermian: New South
       Wales and Tasmania.

  _Aviculopecten tenuicollis_, Dana sp. Carbopermian: New South Wales
       and W. Australia.

  _Chaenomya etheridgei_, de Koninck sp. Carbopermian: New South Wales
       and Queensland.

  _Maeonia elongata_, Dana. Carbopermian: New South Wales.

  _Pachydomus globosus_, J. de C. Sow. sp. Carbopermian: New South
       Wales, Tasmania and Queensland.

  _Eurydesma cordatum_, Morris. Carbopermian: New South Wales and
       Queensland.

  _Unio dunstani_, Eth. fil. Trias: New South Wales.

  _Unionella carnei_, Eth. fil. Trias: New South Wales.

  _Corbicula burrumensis_, Eth. fil. Trias: Queensland.

  _Daonella lommeli_, Wissm. sp. Trias: New Zealand.

  _Mytilus problematicus_, Zittel. Trias: New Zealand.

  _Monotis salinaria_, Zittel. Trias: New Zealand.

  _Cucullaea semistriata_, Moore. Jurassic: W. Australia.

  _Trigonia moorei_, Lycett. Jurassic: W. Australia.

  _Ctenostreon pectiniforme_, Schlotheim sp. Jurassic: W. Australia.

  _Astarte cliftoni_, Moore. Jurassic: W. Australia.

  _Unio dacombei_, McCoy. Jurassic: Victoria.

  _Unio eyrensis_, Tate. Jurassic: S. Australia.

  _Nucula truncata_, Moore. Lower Cretaceous: Queensland and S.
       Australia.

  _Maccoyella reflecta_, Moore sp. L. Cretaceous: New South Wales,
       Queensland (also U. Cretaceous), and S. Australia.

  _Maccoyella barkleyi_, Moore sp. L. Cretaceous: New South Wales,
       Queensland and S. Australia.

  _Fissilunula clarkei_, Moore sp. L. Cretaceous: New South Wales,
       Queensland, and S. Australia; also Up. Cret. in Queensland and
       South Australia.

  _Inoceramus carsoni_, McCoy. Lower Cretaceous: Queensland.

  _Trigonia cinctuta_, Eth. fil. Lower Cretaceous: S. Australia.

  _Mytilus rugocostatus_, Moore. Lower Cretaceous: Queensland and S.
       Australia.

  _Cyrenopsis opallites_, Eth. fil. Upper Cretaceous: New South Wales.

  _Conchothyra parasitica_, Hutton. Cretaceous: New Zealand.

  _Dimya dissimilis_, Tate. Cainozoic (Balc.-Kal.): Victoria and South
       Australia.

  _Spondylus pseudoradula_, McCoy. Cainozoic (Balc.-Kal.): Victoria and
       South Australia.

  _Pecten polymorphoides_, Zittel. Cainozoic (Balc.-Kal.): Victoria and
       South Australia; also New Zealand.

  _Cucullaea corioensis_, McCoy. Cainozoic (Balc.-Kal.): Victoria and
       South Australia.

  _Leda vagans_, Tate. Cainozoic (Balc.-Kal.): Victoria and South
       Australia.

  _Corbula ephamilla_, Tate. Cainozoic (Balc.-Kal.): Victoria and South
       Australia.

  _Modiola praerupta_, Pritchard. Cainozoic (Balc.): Victoria.

  _Pecten praecursor_, Chapm. Cainozoic (Janjukian): Victoria.

  _Modiola pueblensis_, Pritchard. Cainozoic (Janjukian): Victoria.

  _Limopsis insolita_, Sow. sp. Cainozoic (Janjukian): Victoria and S.
       Australia. Also Oamaru Ser., N.Z.

  _Cardita tasmanica_, Tate. Cainozoic (Janj.): Tasmania.

  _Lucina planatella_, Tate. Cainozoic (Janj.): Victoria and Tasmania.

  _Pecten novaeguineae_, T. Woods. Cainozoic (?Lower Pliocene), Yule
       Island, Papua.

  _Ostrea manubriata_, Tate. Cainozoic (Kal.): Victoria.

  _Glycimeris halli_, Pritch. Cainozoic (Kal.): Victoria.

  _Limopsis beaumariensis_, Chapm. Cainozoic (Kalimnan and Werrikooian):
       Victoria.

  _Trigonia howitti_, McCoy. Cainozoic (Kal.): Victoria.

  _Meretrix paucirugata_, Tate sp. Cainozoic (Kal.): Victoria.

  _Venus (Chione) subroborata_, Tate, sp. Cainozoic (Kal.): Victoria and
       South Australia.


SCAPHOPODA.

  _Dentalium tenuissimum_, de Koninck. Mid. Devonian: New South Wales.

  _Dentalium huttoni_, Bather. Jurassic: New Zealand.

  _Dentalium wollumbillensis_, Eth. fil. L. Cretaceous: Queensland.

  _Dentalium, mantelli_, Zittel. Cainozoic: Victoria, S. Australia and
       New Zealand.


POLYPLACOPHORA.

  _Chelodes calceoloides_, Eth. fil. Silurian: New South Wales.

  _Ischnochiton granulosus_, Ashby and Torr sp. Cainozoic (Balc.):
       Victoria.

  _Lorica duniana_, Hull. Cainozoic (Janjukian): Tasmania.

  _Cryptoplax pritchardi_, Hall. Cainozoic (Kal.): Victoria.


GASTEROPODA.

  _Ophileta subangulata_, Tate. Cambrian: S. Australia.

  _Platyceras etheridgei_, Tate. Cambrian: S. Australia.

  _Salterella planoconvexa_, Tate. Cambrian: S. Australia.

  _Salterella hardmani_, Foord. Cambrian: W. Australia.

  _Hyolithes communis_, Billings. Cambrian: S. Australia.

  _Scenella tenuistriata_, Chapm. Cambrian (Upper): Victoria.

  _Ophileta gilesi_, Tate. Ordovician: S. Australia.

  _Raphistoma browni_, Tate. Ordovician: S. Australia.

  _Hyolithes leptus_, Chapm. Lower Ordovician: Victoria.

  _Helicotoma johnstoni_, Eth. fil. Ordovician: Tasmania.

  _Coleolus (?) aciculum_, J. Hall. Silurian (Melb.): Victoria.

  _Hyolithes spryi_, Chapm. Silurian (Melb.): Victoria.

  _Conularia ornatissima_, Chapm. Silurian (Melb.): Victoria.

  _Phanerotrema australis_, Eth. fil. Silurian (Yer.): Victoria.

  _Gyrodoma etheridgei_, Cressw. sp. Silurian (Yer.): Victoria.

  _Trematonotus pritchardi_, Cressw. Silurian (Yer.): Victoria.

  _Bellerophon cresswelli_, Eth. fil. sp. Silurian (Yer.) Victoria.

  _Euomphalus northi_, Eth. fil. sp. Silurian (Yer.): Victoria.

  _Cyclonema australis_, Eth. fil. Silurian (Yer.): Victoria.

  _Trochonema montgomerii_, Eth. fil. sp. Silurian: Tasmania.

  _Bellerophon jukesii_, de Koninck. Silurian: New South Wales.

  _Conularia sowerbii_, Defrance. Silurian: Victoria and New South Wales.

  _Euomphalus culleni_, Dun. Devonian: New South Wales.

  _Gosseletina australis_, Eth. fil. Carboniferous: New South Wales.

  _Yvania konincki_, Eth. fil. Carboniferous: New South Wales; and
       Carbopermian: Queensland.

  _Bellerophon costatus_, Sow. Carbopermian: W. Australia.

  _Mourlonia humilis_, de Koninck. Carbopermian: West Australia and New
       South Wales.

  _Pleurotomaria (Ptychomphalina) morrisiana_, McCoy. Carbopermian: New
       South Wales.

  _Keeneia platyschismoides_, Eth. fil. Carbopermian (Lower Marine): New
       South Wales.

  _Platyschisma oculum_, Sow. sp. Carbopermian: New South Wales and
       Queensland.

  _Macrocheilus filosus_, Sow. Carbopermian: New South Wales.

  _Loxonema babbindonensis_, Eth. fil. Carbopermian: New South Wales.

  _Conularia tenuistriata_, McCoy. Carbopermian: New South Wales and
       Queensland.

  _Conularia tasmanica_, Carbopermian: Tasmania.

  _Murchisonia carinata_, Etheridge. Carbopermian: Queensland.

  _Pleurotomaria greenoughiensis_, Eth. fil. Jurassic: W. Australia.

  _Turbo australis_, Moore. Jurassic: W. Australia.

  _Rissoina australis_, Moore. Jurassic: W. Australia.

  _Cinulia hochstetteri_, Moore. Cretaceous: Queensland and S. Australia.

  _Natica ornatissima_, Moore. Cretaceous: S. Australia.

  _Pseudamaura variabilis_, Moore sp. Cretaceous: New South Wales,
       Queensland and S. Australia.

  _Anchura wilkinsoni_, Eth. fil. Cretaceous: Queensland and S.
       Australia.

  _Rostellaria waiparensis_, Hector. Cretaceous: New Zealand.

  _Niso psila_, T. Woods. Cainozoic (Balc.-Kal.): Victoria and S.
       Australia.

  _Crepidula unguiformis_, Lam. Cainozoic (Balc.-Recent): Victoria and
       Tasmania.

  _Natica hamiltonensis_, Tate. Cainozoic (Balc.-Recent): Victoria and
       South Australia.

  _Turritella murrayana_, Tate. Cainozoic (Balc.-Kal.): Victoria, S.
       Australia and Tasmania.

  _Cerithium apheles_, T. Woods. Cainozoic (Balc.-Kal.): Victoria.

  _Volutilithes antiscalaris_, McCoy sp. Cainozoic (Balc.-Werrikooian):
       Victoria.

  _Ancilla pseudaustralis_, Tate sp. Cainozoic (Balc.-Kal.): Victoria,
       S. Australia and Tasmania.

  _Cypraea ampullacea_, Tate. Cainozoic (Balc.): Victoria.

  _Murex didyma_, Tate. Cainozoic (Balc.): Victoria.

  _Eburnopsis aulacoessa_, Tate. Cainozoic (Balc.): Victoria.

  _Cancellaria calvulata_, Tate. Cainozoic (Balc.): Victoria.

  _Vaginella eligmostoma_, Tate. Cainozoic (Balc.): Victoria.

  _Eutrochus fontinalis_, Pritchard. Cainozoic (Janjukian): Victoria.

  _Turbo atkinsoni_, Pritchard. Cainozoic (Janjukian): Tasmania and
       Victoria.

  _Scala lampra_, Tate sp. Cainozoic (Janjukian): S. Australia.

  _Natica gibbosa_, Hutton. Cainozoic (Janjukian): Victoria. Also Oamaru
       and Wanganui Series: New Zealand.

  _Morio wilsoni_, Tate. Cainozoic (Janjukian): Victoria.

  _Voluta heptagonalis_, Tate. Cainozoic (Janjukian): S. Australia.

  _Volutilithes anticingulatus_, McCoy sp. Cainozoic (Janjukian):
       Victoria and Tasmania. Also Papua.

  _Bathytoma paracantha_, T. Woods sp. Cainozoic (Janj.): Victoria and
       Tasmania. Also Papua.

  _Dolium costatum_, Deshayes. Cainozoic. (? Lower Pliocene): Yule
       Island, Papua.

  _Bankivia howitti_, Pritch. Cainozoic (Kal.): Victoria.

  _Eglisia triplicata_, Tate sp. Cainozoic (Kal.): Victoria.

  _Voluta masoni_, Tate. Cainozoic (Kal.): Victoria.

  _Ancilla papillata_, Tate sp. Cainozoic (Kal.): Victoria.

  _Drillia wanganuiensis_, Hutton. Cainozoic (Kal.): Victoria. Also
       Petane Series: New Zealand.

  _Terebra geniculata_, Tate. Cainozoic (Kal.): Victoria.

  _Pleurotomaria tertiaria_, McCoy. Cainozoic (Kal.): Victoria. Also
       Oamaru Series: New Zealand.

  _Scala lyrata_, Zittel sp. Cainozoic (Oamaru): New Zealand.

  _Natica darwinii_, Hutton. Cainozoic (Oamaru): New Zealand.

  _Turritella cavershamensis_, Harris. Cainozoic (Oamaru): New Zealand.

  _Ancilla hebera_, Hutton sp. Cainozoic (Oamaru): New Zealand. Also
       (Balc. and Janj.): Victoria, South Australia and Tasmania.

  _Pleurotoma hamiltoni_, Hutton. Cainozoic (Oamaru): New Zealand.

  _Natica ovata_, Hutton. Cainozoic (Awatere Series): New Zealand.

  _Struthiolaria sulcata_, Hutton. Cainozoic (Awatere Series): New
       Zealand.

  _Trophon expansus_, Hutton. Cainozoic (Petane Series): New Zealand.

  _Pisania drewi_, Hutton. Cainozoic (Petane Series): New Zealand.

  _Bankivia fasciata_, Menke. Cainozoic (Werrikooian-Recent): Victoria.

  _Astralium aureum_, Jonas sp. Cainozoic (Werrikooian-Recent): Victoria.

  _Natica subinfundibulum_, Tate. Cainozoic (Balc.-Werr.): Victoria and
       S. Australia.

  _Nassa pauperata_, Lam. Cainozoic (Werr.-Rec.): Victoria.

  _Helix tasmaniensis_, Sow. Cainozoic (Pleistocene): Tasmania.

  _Helix geilstonensis_, Johnston. Cainozoic (Pleistocene): Tasmania.

  _Panda atomata_, Gray sp. Cainozoic (Pleist.-Rec.): Victoria and New
       South Wales.


CEPHALOPODA.

  _Endoceras warburtoni_, Eth. fil. Ordovician: S. Australia.

  _Orthoceras gossei_, Eth. fil. Ordovician: S. Australia.

  _Orthoceras ibiciforme_, Tate. Ordovician: S. Australia.

  _Trochoceras reticostatum_, Tate. Ordovician: S. Australia.

  _Actinoceras tatei_, Eth. fil. sp. Ordovician: S. Australia.

  _Orthoceras capillosum_, Barrande. Silurian: Victoria.

  _Orthoceras lineare_, Münster sp. Silurian (Yer.): Victoria.

  _Cycloceras bullatum_, Sow. sp. Silurian (Melbournian): Victoria.

  _Cycloceras ibex_, Sow. sp. Silurian (Melbournian): Victoria.

  _Kionoceras striatopunctatum_, Münster sp. Silurian (Tanjilian):
       Victoria.

  _Phragmoceras subtrigonum_, McCoy. Mid. Devonian: Victoria.

  _Gyroceras philpi_, Eth. fil. Mid. Devonian: Queensland.

  _Orthoceras striatum_, Sow. Carbopermian: New South Wales.

  _Agathiceras micromphalum_, Morris sp. Carbopermian: New South Wales
       and W. Australia.

  _Gastrioceras jacksoni_, Eth. fil. Carbopermian: W. Australia.

  _Actinoceras hardmani_, Eth. fil. Carbopermian: N.W. Australia.

  _Nautilus perornatus_, Crick. Jurassic: W. Australia.

  _Dorsetensia clarkei_, Crick. Jurassic: W. Australia.

  _Normanites australis_, Crick sp. Jurassic: W. Australia.

  _Perisphinctes championensis_, Crick. Jurassic: W. Australia.

  _Ammonites aucklandicus_, Hector. Jurassic: New Zealand.

  _Belemnites aucklandicus_, Hector. Jurassic: New Zealand.

  _Nautilus hendersoni_, Eth. fil. Lower Cretaceous: Queensland.

  _Haploceras daintreei_, Etheridge sp. Lower Cretaceous: Queensland and
       New South Wales.

  _Ancyloceras flindersi_, McCoy. Lower Cretaceous: Queensland and New
       South Wales.

  _Crioceras australe_, Moore. Lower Cretaceous: Queensland and S.
       Australia.

  _Scaphites eruciformis_, Eth. fil. Lower Cretaceous: Northern
       Territory.

  _Belemnites diptycha_, McCoy. Lower Cretaceous: Queensland, New South
       Wales, and S. Australia.

  _Belemnites eremos_, Tate. Lower Cretaceous: S. Australia.

  _Nautilus geelongensis_, Foord. Cainozoic (Janjukian): Victoria.

  _Aturia australis_, McCoy. Cainozoic (Balc.-Kal.): Victoria. Oamaru
       Series: New Zealand.

  _Spirulirostra curta_, Tate. Cainozoic (Janjukian): Victoria.


       *       *       *       *       *


LITERATURE.


MOLLUSCA.

  Cambrian.--Foord, A. H. Geol. Mag., Dec. III. vol. VII. 1890, pp.
       98, 99 (Pteropoda). Tate, R. Trans. R. Soc. S. Austr., vol. XV.
       1892, pp. 183-185 (Pelec. and Gastr.), pp. 186, 187 (Pteropoda).
       Etheridge, R. jnr. Trans. R. Soc. S. Austr., vol. XXIX. 1905, p.
       251 (Pteropoda). Chapman, F. Proc. R. Soc. Vict., vol. XXIII. pt.
       II. 1910, pp. 313, 314 (Gastr.).

  Ordovician.--Etheridge, R. jnr. Parl. Papers, Leg. Assemb., S. Austr.,
       No. 158, 1891, pp. 9, 10 (Gastr. and Ceph.). Tate, R. Rep. Horn.
       Sci. Exped., pt. 3, 1896, pp. 98-110. Chapman, F. Proc. R. Soc.
       Vic., vol. XV. pt. II. 1903, pp. 119, 120 (_Hyolithes_).

  Silurian.--McCoy, F. Prod. Pal. Vic., Dec. VI. 1879, pp. 23-29.
       Etheridge, R. jnr. Rec. Austr. Mus., vol. I. No. 3, 1890, pp.
       62-67 (Gastr.). Idem, ibid., vol. I. No. 7, 1891, pp. 126-130
       (Pelec. and Gastr.). Cresswell, A. W. Proc. R. Soc. Vict., vol.
       V. 1893, pp. 41-44. Etheridge, R. jun. Rec. Austr. Mus., vol.
       III. No. 4, 1898, pp. 71-77 (Gastr.). Idem, Rec. Geol. Surv. New
       South Wales, vol. V. pt. 2, 1898, pp. 67-70 (_Chelodes_). De
       Koninck, L. G. Mem. Geo. Surv. New South Wales, Pal. No. 6, 1898,
       pp. 29-35. Etheridge, R. jnr. Prog. Rep. Geol. Surv. Vict., No.
       XI. 1899, pp. 34, 35 (Pelec.). Idem, Rec. Austr. Mus., vol. V.
       No. 2, 1904, pp. 75-77 (Ceph.). Chapman, F. Proc. R. Soc., Vict.,
       vol. XVI. pt. 11. 1904, pp. 336-341 (Pteropoda). Idem, Mem. Nat.
       Mus. Melbourne, No. 2, 1908 (Pelecypoda).

  Devonian.--McCoy, F. Prod. Pal., Vict., Dec. IV. 1876, pp. 18, 19
       (Ceph.). Etheridge, R. jnr. Geol. and Pal. Queensland, 1892, p.
       69 (_Gyroceras_). De Koninck, L. G. Mem. Geol. Surv. New South
       Wales, Pal. No. 6, 1898, pp. 85-105.

  Carboniferous.--Etheridge, R. jnr. Rec. Austr. Mus., vol. III. No. 1,
       1897, pp. 7-9 (_Actinoceras_). Idem, Geol. Surv. W.A., Bull. No.
       27, 1907, pp. 32-37.

  Carbopermian.--Morris, J., in Strzelecki's Phys. Descr. of New South
       Wales, etc., 1845, pp. 270-278 and 285-291. Foord, A. H. Geol.
       Mag., Dec. III. vol. VII. 1890, pp. 103, 104. Etheridge, R.
       jnr. Geol. and Pal. Queensland, 1892, pp. 264-296. Idem., Proc.
       Linn. Soc. New South Wales, vol. IX. 1895, pp. 530-537 (Pelec.
       and Gastr.). De Koninck, L. G. Mem. Geol. Surv. New South Wales,
       Pal. No. 6, 1898, pp. 203-274. Etheridge, R. jnr. and Dun, W.
       S. Mem. Geol. Surv. New South Wales, Pal. No. 5, vol. II. pt.
       I. 1906 (_Palaeopecten_). Idem, ibid., vol. II., pt. 2, 1910
       (_Eurydesma_).

  Trias.--Zittel, K. Novara Exped., vol. I. Abth. II. Geol. Theil.,
       1864, pp. 26-29. Etheridge, R. jnr. Mem. Geol. Surv. New South
       Wales, Pal. No. 1, 1888, pp. 8-14.

  Jurassic.--Zittel, K. Novara Exped., vol. I., Abth. II. Geol. Theil.,
       1864, pp. 20-34. Moore, C. Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. XXVI.
       pp. 245-260 (Jurassic and Cretaceous Moll.). Etheridge, R. jnr.
       ibid., vol. XXVIII. 1872, pp. 317-359 (Palaeozoic, Jur. and Cret.
       Moll.). Crick, G. C. Geol. Mag., Dec. IV. vol. I. 1894, pp.
       385 393 and 433-441 (Ceph.). Chapman, F. Proc. R. Soc. Vict.,
       vol. XVI. pt. II. 1904, pp. 327-332. Marshall, P. Trans. New
       Zealand Inst., vol. XLI. 1909, pp. 143-145 (New Zealand Ceph.).
       Etheridge, R. jnr. Geol. Surv. W.A. Bull. No. 36, 1910, pp. 30-40.

  Cretaceous.--Etheridge, R. jnr. Geol. and Pal. Queensland, 1892, pp.
       445-503 and 561-574. Idem, Geol. Surv. Queensland, Bull. No. 13,
       1901, pp. 13-35. Idem, Mem. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., vol. II. pt. 1,
       1902 (S.A. Moll.). Idem, Mem. Geol. Surv. New South Wales, Pal.
       No. 11, 1902, pp. 16-49 (New South Wales Moll.).

  Cainozoic.--Zittel, K. Novara Exped. Geol. Theil., vol. I. Abth. II.
       1864, pp. 34-55 (Pelec. and Gastr. New Zealand). McCoy, F. Prod.,
       Pal. Vict., Dec. I. 1874; Dec. II. 1875; Dec. III. 1876; Dec. V.
       1877; Dec. VI. 1879. Woods, J. E. T. Proc. R. Soc. Tas. (1875),
       1876, pp. 13-26 (Table Cape Moll.). Idem, Proc. Linn. Soc. New
       South Wales, vol. III. 1879, pp. 222-240 (Muddy Creek Moll.).
       Idem, ibid., vol. IV. 1880, pp. 1-24. Hutton, F. W. Trans. New
       Zealand Inst. vol. IX. 1877, pp. 593-598. Ibid., vol. XVII.
       1885, pp. 313-332 (New Zealand Pelec. and Gastr.). Idem, Proc.
       Linn. Soc. New South Wales, vol. I. 2nd ser. (1886), 1887, pp.
       205-237, (distr. lists, Pareora and Oamaru). Idem, Macleay, Mem.
       Vol. Linn. Soc. New South Wales, 1893, pp. 35-92 (Pliocene Moll.
       New Zealand). Tate, R. Trans. R. Soc. S. Austr., vol. VII. 1886,
       pp. 96-158, and vol. IX., 1887, pp. 142-189 (Pelec.); ibid., pp.
       190-194 (Scaphopoda); ibid., 194-196 (Pteropoda). Idem, ibid.,
       vol. X. 1888, pp. 91-176; vol. XI. 1889, pp. 116-174; vol. XIII.
       1890, pp. 185-235; and vol. XVII. 1893, pp. 316-345 (Gastr.).
       Idem, Journ. R. Soc., New South Wales, vol. XXVII. 1893, pp.
       169-191. Idem, ibid., vol. XXXI. 1897, pp. 392-410 (Gastr. and
       Pelec.). Idem, Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Austr., vol. XXIII. 1899, pp.
       260-277 (Revision of Moll.). Pritchard, G. B. Proc. Roy. Soc.
       Vic., vol. VII. 1895, pp. 225-231 (Pelec.). Idem, ibid., vol.
       VIII. 1896, pp. 79-141 (Moll. of T. Cape). Idem, ibid., vol. XI.
       pt. I. 1898, pp. 96-111 (Gastr.). Idem, ibid., vol. XIV. pt. I.
       1901, pp. 22-31 (Pelec.). Idem, ibid., vol. XVI. pt. II. 1903,
       pp. 87-103 (Pelec.). Idem, ibid., vol. XVI. pt. I. 1903, pp.
       83-91 (_Pleurotomaria_). Idem, ibid., vol. XVII. pt. I. 1904, pp.
       320-337 (Gastr.) Idem, ibid., vol. XXVI. (N.S.) pt. I. 1913, pp.
       192-201 (Volutes). Hall, T. S. Proc. R. Soc. Vict., vol. XVII.
       pt. II. 1905, pp. 391-393 (Chitons). Ashby, E. and Torr. W. G.
       Trans. R. Soc. S. Austr., vol. XXV. 1901, pp. 136-144 (Chitons).
       Thomson, J. A. Trans. New Zealand Inst., Vol. XL. 1908, pp. 102,
       103 (N.Z. Moll.). Chapman, F. Proc. R. Soc. Vict. vol. XX. pt.
       II. 1908, pp. 218-220 (Chiton). Idem, ibid., vol. XXV. pt. I.
       1912, pp. 186-192 (Gastr.).




CHAPTER XI.

FOSSIL TRILOBITES, CRUSTACEA AND INSECTS.


=Arthropods and their Structure.--=

The above-named fossil groups are included by zoologists in the
sub-kingdom Arthropoda ("joint-footed animals"). The Arthropods possess a
body and limbs composed of a number of jointed segments covered externally
with a hard, shelly material and separated by a softer, flexible skin.
They have no internal skeleton, and therefore the only portion which can
be preserved in the fossil state is the harder part of the outer covering.
Under exceptional conditions of fossilisation, however, even frail insects
such as ants, wasps and dragon-flies are sometimes found more or less
wholly preserved and showing their original minute structure.


=Subdivisions of Arthropoda.--=

The principal representatives of the group of the Arthropods which are
found as fossils include the Trilobites; various Crustacea proper, as
Crabs, Lobsters, Shrimps, Pod-shrimps and Water-fleas; the Insects;
and occasionally Spiders and Scorpions (Arachnida). The King-crabs and
Eurypterids (as the extinct _Pterygotus_) form a separate sub-class, the
Merostomata, which are placed by some authors in the group of Spiders and
Scorpions: their remains date back to the time when the older Palaeozoic
strata were deposited.


=Crustacea, an Archaic Group.--=

A typical division of the Arthropod group, and one which was well
represented from the earliest period up to the present day, is the
_CRUSTACEA_. As the name denotes, these animals are generally invested
with a strong shelly covering or "crust," usually of horny or chitinous
material, which in some forms is strengthened by deposits of phosphate
of lime. Of the horny condition of the shell the groups of the bivalved
Crustacea (Ostracoda) and the "water-fleas" (Entomostraca) supply notable
instances; whilst the limy-structured shell is seen in the common crab.
Some authorities separate the great extinct group of the Trilobites
from the rest of the Crustacea; but it will here be convenient, in a
preliminary study, to consider them together.


=Development of Crustacea.--=

The development of the lower forms of the Crustacea is interesting,
from the fact that the young usually escapes from the egg in a larval
state known as a "nauplius." In this stage there are no segments to
the body, and but a solitary median eye, such as may be seen in the
common water-flea known to microscopists as _Cyclops_. The three pairs
of appendages seen in this larval crustacean represent the two pairs of
antennae and the jaws or mandibles of the full-grown form.

Among the higher Crustacea, however, there is no larval form; the young
escaping from the egg in a more or less highly developed condition
resembling the adult. The group of the Crabs, Lobsters and Shrimps (or
Decapoda, _i.e._, having ten ambulatory feet) exhibit a larval stage in
which the young form ("zoea") has a segmented abdomen and seven pairs of
appendages.


=Trilobites.--=

The first group of arthropods here described is that of the _TRILOBITES_.
These were so named on account of the three-lobed form of the body.
This particular feature distinguishes them from the Crustacea proper;
which includes the Phyllopods (with leaf-like limbs), as the freshwater
_Estheria_, the Ostracoda or Bivalved Water-fleas, the Barnacles or
Cirripedia and the Higher Crustacea (Malacostraca), including Shrimps,
Crabs, and Lobsters, of which the oldest representatives are the
Pod-shrimps (Phyllocarida).


=Habits of Trilobites.--=

The remains of these primitive but often strikingly ornamented
crustacean-like animals, the trilobites, are found in comparative
abundance in the limestones, mudstones, and even the sandstones of the
older sedimentary rocks of Australasia. They were amongst the most
prolific types of animal life existing in the seas of Palaeozoic times,
and are especially characteristic of Cambrian, Ordovician and Silurian
rocks. Trilobites, as a group, seem to have adapted themselves to almost
all conditions of marine life: some are found in the hardened black mud
of shallow waters, whilst others are to be looked for in the limestones
and excessively fine sediments of deeper waters. In all probability
certain of these forms crawled over the soft, oozy sea-bed in order to
obtain their food, and consequently their remains in the stratified rocks
would be restricted to the fine black shales; whilst the freely swimming
forms could change their habitat at will, and would be found alike in
sandy or clayey deposits. As some indication of their varied habits, the
eyes of trilobites differ greatly in size. They are always compound like
the eye of the house-fly, though of a semi-lunar shape. In some forms the
eyes are very small or even absent, whilst in others they are exceedingly
large and prominent. This latter feature probably indicates their
frequenting moderately deep water.

[Illustration: =Fig. 107--Diagram-restoration of an Australian Trilobite.=

(Dalmanites meridianus, Eth. fil. and Mitch, sp.)

To show the sutures or joints, and the structure of the back of the
carapace.

                                                   About 2/3 natural size.
]


=Structure of Trilobites.--=

The complete structure and zoological relationship of the trilobites has
always been open to some doubt. As regards the former, within recent
years exceptionally well-preserved specimens from the Utica Slates and
the Cincinnati Limestone of Ohio, rocks of Ordovician age, have been
discovered and dissected, whereby our knowledge of the organisation of
this group is greatly advanced. These remarkable fossil remains show that
the Trilobites bore on their under surface a number of appendages, one
pair to each segment, except that of the anal. The front pair is whip-like
and served as antennae; the others are branched, the forward portion being
a crawling limb, and the hinder, which was fringed with bristles or thin
plates, may have served either for swimming or breathing. At the base of
the four pairs of appendages attached to the head there was an arrangement
for biting the food, from whence it was passed to the mouth. Taking one
of the commonest Australasian trilobites, _Dalmanites meridianus_, for
an example of general structure, and looking at the back of the shell or
upper surface, we see the trilobate (three-lobed) form well defined (Fig.
107). The central ridge is termed the axis, and on either side of this are
arranged the pleural lobes, each well marked transverse division of which,
in the central or thoracic region, being a pleuron or rib. The whole body
is divided into three more or less distinct portions,--the head-shield or
cephalon, the thorax, and the tail-shield or pygidium. The central area
of the head-shield is called the glabella or cranidium, against which, on
either side, are placed the free cheeks carrying the compound sessile eyes
when present. The appendages of the head are pediform or leglike, arranged
in five pairs, and biramous or forked, excepting the antennae, which are
simple and used as sensory organs. In front of the mouth is the hypostoma
or forelip, and behind it is the metastoma or hind-lip. The segments of
the head-shield are most closely united, and in all the trilobites are of
the same number. Those of the thorax have flexible joints and are variable
in number. The segments of the abdomen are fused together and form a
caudal shield or pygidium.

The larval stage of the trilobite was a protonauplian form (that is more
primitive than the nauplius), the protoaspis; the adult stage, being
attained by the addition of segments at the successive moults.

The earliest known trilobites in Australia are some Cambrian species from
South Australia, Western Australia, Victoria, and Tasmania.


=Lower Cambrian Trilobites.--=

[Illustration: =Fig. 108--CAMBRIAN TRILOBITES.=

  A--Ptychoparia howchini, Eth. fil. L. Cambrian. South Australia

  B--Dolichometopus tatei, H. Woodw. L. Cambrian. South Australia

  C--Agnostus australiensis, Chapm. Up. Cambrian. Victoria

  D--Ptychoparia thielei, Chapm. Up. Cambrian. Victoria

  E--Dikellocephalus florentinensis, Eth. fil. L. Cambrian. Tasmania

]

In the Lower Cambrian Limestone of Yorke Peninsula, South Australia, the
following trilobites occur:--a species doubtfully referred to _Olenellus_
(? _O. pritchardi_); _Ptychoparia howchini_ (Fig. 108 A); _P. australis_;
_Dolichometopus tatei_ (Fig. 108 B); and _Microdiscus subsagittatus_.
The Cambrian of the Northern Territory contains _Olenellus brownii_. In
Western Australia _Olenellus forresti_ is found in similar beds.


=Upper Cambrian Trilobites.--=

The Dolodrook Limestone (Upper Cambrian) of Gippsland, Victoria,
contains the remains of the primitive little trilobite _Agnostus_ (_A.
australiensis_, Fig. 108 C); _Crepicephalus_ (_C. etheridgei_); and
_Ptychoparia_ (_P. thielei_ (Fig. 108 D) and _P. minima_). The Upper
Cambrian sandstones of Caroline Creek, Tasmania, contain _Dikellocephalus_
(_D. tasmanicus_); a species of _Asaphus_ and _Ptychoparia_ (_P.
stephensi_). Beds of the same age in the Florentine Valley, Tasmania, have
yielded _Dikellocephalus_ (_D. florentinensis_, Fig. 108 E).


=Ordovician Trilobites.--=

Trilobites of Lower Ordovician age or even older, are found in the
Knowsley beds near Heathcote in Victoria. They are referred to two genera,
_Dinesus_ and _Notasaphus_. Both forms belong to the ancient family
of the Asaphidae. Associated with these trilobites are some doubtful
species of sea-weed, spicules of siliceous sponges, traces of threadlike
hydrozoa, some fragments of graptolites allied to _Bryograptus_, and
several brachiopods. At the Lyndhurst Gold-fields, near Mandurama, New
South Wales, trilobites related to the genus _Shumardia_ have been found
associated with brachiopods (lamp-shells), pteropods (sea-butterflies),
and graptolites (hydrozoa) of an Upper Ordovician facies.

The limestone beds at Laurie's Creek and other localities in Central
Australia contain remains of _Asaphus illarensis_, _A. howchini_ and _A.
lissopelta_; whilst in the limestone and quartzite of Middle Valley, Tempe
Downs, _A. thorntoni_ also occurs.


=Silurian Trilobites.--=

[Illustration: =Fig. 109--OLDER SILURIAN TRILOBITES.=

  A--Ampyx parvulus, Forbes, var. jikaensis, Chapm. Silurian (Melb.)
       Victoria

  B--Cypaspis spryi, Gregory. Silurian (Melb.) Victoria

  C--Homalonotus harrisoni, McCoy. Silurian (Melb.) Victoria

  D--Phacops latigenalis, Eth. fil. and Mitch. Silurian. N.S. Wales

]

Trilobites are well-known fossils in the Australasian Silurian strata. As
they occur rather abundantly along with other fossils in rocks of this age
they are extremely useful aids in separating the system into the different
beds or zones. In Victoria the Silurian is divisible into two sets of
beds: an older, or Melbournian stage (the bed-rock of Melbourne) and a
younger, Yeringian (Lilydale series). Trilobites of Melbournian age are
found to belong to the genera _Ampyx_, _Illaenus_, _Proetus_, _Cyphaspis_,
_Encrinurus (Cromus)_ and _Homalonotus_. The commonest species are
_Cyphaspis spryi_ (Fig. 109 B), and _Encrinurus (Cromus) spryi_ from the
South Yarra mudstones; and _Ampyx parvulus_, var. _jikaensis_ (Fig. 109
A), and _Homalonotus harrisoni_ (Fig. 109 C), from the sandstone of Moonee
Ponds Creek.

The handsome _Dalmanites meridianus_ and _Homalonotus vomer_ occur at
Wandong in what appear to be passage beds between the Melbournian and
Yeringian.

The Yeringian of Victoria is far richer in trilobites than the preceding
series, and includes the genera _Proetus_, _Cyphaspis_, _Bronteus_,
_Lichas_, _Odontopleura_, _Encrinurus_, _Calymene_, _Homalonotus_,
_Cheirurus_, and _Phacops_. The rocks in this division occur as mudstones,
limestones, and occasionally sandstones and conglomerates. The mudstones,
however, prevail, and these pass insensibly into impure limestones of
a blue-black colour, weathering to brown, as at Seville; the change of
structure indicating less turbid water. At Lilydale, and on the Thomson
River, as well as at Loyola and Waratah Bay, almost pure limestone
occurs, which represents clear water conditions, not necessarily deep;
there, however, trilobites are scarce, and the prevailing fauna is that
of an ancient coral reef. Some described Yeringian species are _Lichas
australis_ (Fig. 110 A), _Odontopleura jenkinsi_ (Fig. 110 B) (found
also in New South Wales), _Encrinurus punctatus_ (Fig. 110 C), _Calymene
tuberculosa_, _Bronteus enormis_, _Phacops sweeti_, and _P. serratus_
(Fig. 110 E). In _Calymene_ ("covered up") the joints of the thorax
are facetted at the angles, so that each pleuron could work over that
immediately behind; in consequence of this it could roll itself up like
a woodlouse or slater, hence the name of the genus. This trilobite also
occurs in England, and is there known amongst the quarry men and fossil
collectors as the "Dudley Locust." Perhaps the most characteristic and
common trilobite of the Yeringian series in Victoria is _Phacops sweeti_
(Fig. 110 D), formerly identified with Barrande's _P. fecundus_, from
which it differs in the longer and larger eye with more numerous lenses.
It is found in Victoria in the Upper Yarra district near the junction
of the Woori Yallock and the Yarra Rivers; north-west of Lilydale; near
Seville; at Loyola near Mansfield; and at Fraser's Creek near Springfield,
Kilmore.

[Illustration: =Fig. 110--NEWER SILURIAN TRILOBITES.=

  A--Lichas australis, McCoy. Silurian (Yeringian). Victoria

  B--Odontopleura jenkinsi. Eth. fil. and Mitch. Silurian. N.S. Wales

  C--Encrinurus punctatus, Brunnich sp. Silurian. N.S. Wales.

  D--Phacops sweeti, Eth. fil. and Mitch. Silurian. N.S. Wales

  E--Phacops serratus, Foerste. Silurian. N.S. Wales

]

In New South Wales trilobites are abundant in the Yass district, amongst
other localities, where the upper beds, corresponding to the Yeringian
of Victoria, are well developed. _Dalmanites meridianus_ is common to
the Silurian of New South Wales, Victoria, and Tasmania. In Victoria
this handsome species is found in the hard, brown, sandy mudstone of
Broadhurst's and Kilmore Creeks, and, as previously noted, in the hard,
blue mudstone of Wandong. At the latter locality specimens may be found in
the railway ballast quarry, where they are known to the workmen as "fossil
butterflies." The species also occurs at the famous fossil locality of
Hatton's Corner, Yass; at Bowning; and at Limestone Creek, all in New
South Wales. Other trilobites occurring in the Silurian of New South Wales
are _Odontopleura jenkinsi_, _O. bowningensis_, _Cheirurus insignis_ and
_Phacops latigenalis_ (Fig. 109 D).

In the Wangapeka series of New Zealand the calcareous shales and
limestones of the upper division contain _Calymene blumenbachii_,
_Homalonotus knightii_ and _H. expansus_.


=Devonian Trilobites.--=

Trilobites suddenly became rare in the Australian Devonian. The only
known examples of trilobite remains belong to a species of _Cheirurus_
occasionally found in the Middle Devonian limestone of Buchan, Victoria;
and a species of _Proetus_ in the Devonian of Barker Gorge, Napier Range,
West Australia.


=Carbopermian Trilobites.--=

Trilobites of Carbopermian age are found in New South Wales, Queensland,
and Western Australia. All the genera belong to the family Proetidae.
The genera _Phillipsia_ (_P. seminifera_, Fig. 111 A), _Griffithides_
(_G. eichwaldi_, Fig. 111 B), and _Brachymetopus_ (_B. strzelecki_, Fig.
111 C) occur in New South Wales. _Griffithides eichwaldi_ is also found
in Queensland. Other Queensland species are _Phillipsia woodwardi_, _P.
seminifera_ var. _australasica_ and _P. dubia_. _Phillipsia grandis_ is
found in the Carbopermian of the Gascoyne River, Western Australia.

[Illustration: =Fig. 111--CARBONIFEROUS TRILOBITES and a PHYLLOPOD.=

  A--Phillipsia seminifera, Phillips. Carboniferous. N.S. Wales

  B--Griffithides eichwaldi, Waldheim. Carboniferous. N.S. Wales

  C--Brachymetopus strzelecki, McCoy. Carboniferous. N.S. Wales

  D--Estheria coghlani, Cox. Triassic. N.S. Wales

]


=Phyllopoda in Carboniferous, Triassic and Jurassic.=

The _PHYLLOPODA_, which belong to the Crustacea in the strict sense of
the term, comprise the Estheriidae and Cladocera (water-fleas). The
former group is represented by _Leaia mitchelli_, which is found in the
Upper Carboniferous or Carbopermian of the Newcastle District, New South
Wales. In the still later Hawkesbury series (Triassic) of New South Wales,
_Estheria coghlani_ (Fig. 111 D) occurs. This species is a minute form,
the carapace measuring from 1.25mm. to 2mm. in the longer diameter of
the shell. In the upper part of the Wairoa Series (Triassic) of Nelson,
New Zealand, there is found another species of _Estheria_, identified
with a European form _E. minuta_. _Estheria mangaliensis_ is another form
occurring in the Jurassic (Ipswich series) of Queensland. At the present
day these little _Estheriae_ sometimes swarm in countless numbers in
freshwater lakes or salt marshes.


=Ostracoda: Their Structure.--=

Passing on to the next group, the bivalved _OSTRACODA_, we note that these
have existed from the earliest geological periods to the present day. They
are usually of minute size, commonly about the sixteenth of an inch in
length, although some attained a length of nearly one inch (_Leperditia_).
Their bodies are indistinctly segmented, and are enclosed within a
horny or calcareous shell. This shell consists of two valves which are
joined along the back by a ligament or hinge, the ends and ventral edge
remaining quite free. The pairs of appendages present are the antennae
(2), mandibles (1), maxillae (2), and thoracic feet (2). The only portion
found in the fossil state is the bivalved carapace, the two valves being
frequently met with still united, especially when these tiny animals have
settled down quietly on the sea-bed and have been quickly covered with
sediment.


=Features of the Ostracod Carapace.--=

Since the body parts of the ostracod are wanting in the fossil examples,
the generic determination is attended with some difficulty, especially
in regard to the smooth or bean-shaped forms. The chief distinctive
characters to note are, the contour of the carapace seen in three
directions (top, side and end views), the structure of the hinge, and
the position and figure of the muscle-spots or points of adhesion of the
muscular bands which hold or relax the two valves. The valves in certain
genera fit closely upon one another. In others, one overlaps the other,
the larger being sometimes the right (as in _Leperditia_), sometimes
the left (as in _Leperditella_). The hinge-line is often simple or
flange-like, or it may consist of a groove and corresponding bar, or there
may be a series of teeth and sockets. Lateral eye-tubercles are sometimes
seen on the surface of the valve, whilst in the animal there was also a
small eye.


=Habits of Ostracoda.--=

Ostracoda swarmed in many of the streams, lakes and seas of past
geological times, and they still exist in vast numbers under similar
conditions. Like some other minute forms of life, they played a most
important part in building up the rock formations of the sedimentary
series of the earth's crust; and by the decomposition of the organism
itself they are of real economic value, seeing that in some cases their
decay resulted in the subsequent production of oil or kerosene shales
and bituminous limestones. The Carboniferous oil shales in the Lothians
of Scotland, for example, are crowded with the carapaces of Ostracoda
associated with the remains of fishes.


=Cambrian Ostracoda.--=

Some undescribed forms of the genus _Leperditia_ occur in the hard,
sub-crystalline Cambrian Limestone of Curramulka, South Australia.


=Silurian Ostracoda.--=

In Victoria and New South Wales the oldest rocks from which we have
obtained the remains of Ostracoda up to the present, are the uppermost
Silurians, in which series they occur both in the limestone and the
mudstone. In Victoria their bivalved carapaces are more often found in the
limestone; but one genus, _Beyrichia_, is also met with in abundance in
the mudstone. These mudstones, by the way, must have originally contained
a large percentage of carbonate of lime, since the casts of the shells of
mollusca are often excessively abundant in the rock, and the mudstone is
cavernous, resembling an impure, decalcified limestone. These Yeringian
mudstones of Victoria seem, therefore, to be the equivalent of the
calcareous shales met with in the Wenlock and Gotland Series in Europe;
a view entirely in accordance with the character of the remainder of
the fauna. One of the commonest of the Silurian ostracods is _Beyrichia
kloedeni_, a form having an extensive distribution in Europe. It occurs
in the Silurian mudstone of the Upper Yarra District. Other species of the
same genus are _B. wooriyallockensis_ (Fig. 112 A), distinguished from the
former by differences in the shape of the lobes and its longer valves;
also a form with narrow lobes, _B. kilmoriensis_; and the ornate _B.
maccoyiana_, var. _australis_. Of the smooth-valved forms, mention may be
made of _Bythocypris hollii_, _B. caudalis_ (Fig. 112 D), and the striking
form, _Macrocypris flexuosa_. Regarding the group of the _Primitiae_, of
which as many as thirteen species and varieties have been described from
the Lilydale Limestone, we may mention as common forms _P. reticristata_
(Fig. 112 E) and _P. punctata_. This genus is distinguished by the
bean-shaped or purse-shaped carapace, with its well developed marginal
flange and mid-dorsal pit. Other genera which occur in our Silurians and
are of great interest on account of their distribution elsewhere. are
_Isochilina_, _Aparchites_, _Xestoleberis_, _Aechmina_, and _Argilloecia_.

[Illustration: =Fig. 112--SILURIAN OSTRACODA.=

  A--Beyrichia wooriyallockensis, Chapm. Silurian (Yer.) Victoria

  B--Xestoleberis lilydalensis, Chapm. Silurian (Yer.) Victoria

  C--Argilloecia acuta, Jones and Kirkby. Silurian (Yer.) Victoria

  D--Bythocypris caudalis, Jones. Silurian (Yer.) Victoria

  E--Primitia reticristata, Jones. Silurian (Yer.) Victoria

]

The largest ostracod yet described from Australia, measuring more than a
quarter of an inch in length, occurs in the Upper Silurian of Cliftonwood,
near Yass, New South Wales. It belongs to the genus _Leperditia_ (_L.
shearsbii_), and is closely related to _L. marginata_, Keyserling sp.;
which occurs in strata of similar age in the Swedish and Russian Baltic
area. A limestone at Fifield, New South Wales, probably of Silurian age,
contains _Primitia_, _Kloedenia_, and _Beyrichia_.


=Devonian Ostracoda.--=

The little _Primitia cuneus_ (Fig. 113 A) with a bean-shaped carapace and
median pit or depression occurs somewhat frequently in the Middle Devonian
Limestone of Buchan, Victoria. Another species, _Primitia yassensis_, is
found in the shaly rock of Narrengullen Greek, New South Wales. It is
probable that many other species of the group of the ostracoda remain to
be described from Australian Devonian rocks.


=Carboniferous Ostracoda.--=

In Queensland a conspicuous little ostracod is _Beyrichia varicosa_ from
the Star Beds of Corner Creek.


=Carbopermian Ostracoda.--=

In the Carbopermian of Cessnock, New South Wales, _Primitia dunii_ occurs;
and in that of Farley is found _Jonesina etheridgei_. From both these
localities _Leperditia prominens_ was also obtained. Another species from
New South Wales is _Entomis jonesi_ (Fig. 113 B), described from the Muree
Sandstone by de Koninck.

[Illustration: =Fig. 113--UPPER PALAEOZOIC and MESOZOIC OSTRACODA.=

  A--Primitia cuneus, Chapm. Mid. Devonian. Victoria

  B--Entomis jonesi, de Kon. Carboniferous. New South Wales

  C--Synaphe mesozoica, Chapm. sp. Triassic. New South Wales

  D--Cythere lobulata, Chapm. Jurassic. West Australia

  E--Paradoxorhyncha foveolata, Chapm. Jurassic. West Australia

  F--Loxoconcha jurassica, Chapm. Jurassic. West Australia

  G--Cytheropteron australiense, Chapm. Jurassic. West Australia

]


=Triassic Ostracoda.--=

The Triassic (Wiannamatta Shales) of Grose Vale, New South Wales has
afforded a few specimens of ostracoda belonging to _Synaphe_ (_S.
mesozoica_, Fig. 113 C), _? Darwinula_, and _? Cytheridea_.


=Jurassic Ostracoda.--=

The marine Jurassic strata of Western Australia at Geraldton, have yielded
a small but interesting series of ostracoda, largely of modern generic
types. The genera, which were found in a rubbly _Trigonia_-Limestone, are
_Cythere_, _Paradoxorhyncha_, _Loxoconcha_, and _Cytheropteron_.

[Illustration: =Fig. 114--CAINOZOIC OSTRACODA.=

  A--Bairdia amygdaloides, G. S. Brady. Balcombian. Victoria

  B--Cythere clavigera, G. S. Brady. Balcombian. Victoria

  C--Cythere scabrocuneata, G. S. Brady. Balcombian. Victoria

  D--Cytherella punctata, G. S. Brady. Balcombian. Victoria

]


=Cainozoic Ostracoda.--=

The fossiliferous clays and calcareous sands of the southern Australian
Cainozoic beds often contain abundant remains of ostracoda. The moderately
shallow seas in which the fossiliferous clays, such as those of Balcombe's
Bay, were laid down, teemed with these minute bivalved Crustacea. All the
forms found in these beds are microscopic. They either belong to living
species, or to species closely allied to existing forms. Some of the more
prominent of the Balcombian species are _Cythere senticosa_, a form which
is now found living at Tenedos, and _C. clavigera_ (Fig. 114 B), with
the young form sometimes referred to as _C. militaris_, a species which
may still be dredged alive in Hobson's Bay. Other genera common in these
clays are _Bairdia_, with its broad, pear-shaped carapace, represented by
the still living _B. amygdaloides_ (Fig. 114 A). _Cytherella_, with its
compressed, subquadrate carapace, as seen in _C. punctata_ (Fig. 114 D),
a species having an elaborate series of muscle-spots, and which, like the
previous species, is found living in Australian seas; and _Macrocypris_,
with its slender, pointed, pear-shaped outline.


=Cirripedia: Their Habits and Structure.--=

_CIRRIPEDIA OR BARNACLES._--These curious modifications of the higher
group of Crustacea (Eucrustacea) date back to Ordovician times. They
appear to have tried every possible condition of existence; and although
they are mostly of shallow water habits, some are found at the great
depth of 2,000 fathoms (over two miles). Those which secrete lime or
have calcareous shells, attach themselves to stones, pieces of wood,
shell-fish, crabs, corals and sea-weeds. Others are found embedded in the
thick skin of whales and dolphins, or in cavities which they have bored
in corals or shells of molluscs. Some are found parasitic in the stomachs
of crabs and lobsters, or within other cirripedes. They begin life, after
escaping from the egg, as a free-swimming, unsegmented larva ("nauplius"
stage), and before settling down, pass through the free-swimming,
segmented "cypris" stage, which represents the pupa condition, and in
which state they explore their surroundings in search of a suitable
resting place for their final change and fixed condition. Just before
this occurs, glands are developed in the pupa barnacle, which open into
the suckers of the first pair of appendages or antennae. When a suitable
place for fixation has been found, these glands pour out a secretion which
is not dissolved by water, and thus the barnacle is fixed head downwards
to its permanent position. The compound eyes of the "cypris" stage
disappear, and henceforth the barnacle is blind. The characteristic plates
covering the barnacle are now developed, and the six pairs of swimming
feet become the cirri or plumes, with which the barnacle, by incessant
waving, procures its food. In short, as remarked by one authority, it is
a crustacean "fixed by its head, and kicking the food into its mouth with
its legs."

Cirripedes may be roughly divided into two groups, the Acorn Barnacles
and the Goose Barnacles. Although dissimilar in general appearance, they
pass through identical stages, and are closely related in most of their
essential characters. The latter forms are affixed by a chitinous stalk or
peduncle, whilst the acorn barnacles are more or less conical and affixed
by the base.


=Silurian Cirripedes.--=

The stalked barnacles are probably the oldest group, being found as far
back as the Ordovician period. In Australia the genus _Turrilepas_ occurs
in Silurian rocks, _T. mitchelli_ (Fig. 115 A) being found at Bowning in
the Yass District of New South Wales. The isolated plume-like plates of
_T. yeringiae_ (Fig. 115 B) are not uncommon in the olive mudstone of the
Lilydale District in Victoria.

[Illustration: =Fig. 115--FOSSIL CIRRIPEDIA.=

  A--Turrilepas mitchelli, Eth. fil. Silurian. New South Wales

  B--Turrilepas yeringiae, Chapm. Silurian. Victoria

  C--(?) Pollicipes aucklandicus, Hector sp. Cainozoic (Oamaru series).
       New Zealand

]

[Illustration: =Fig. 116--LIVING AND FOSSIL CIRRIPEDES.=

  A--Lepas anatifera, L. Common Goose Barnacle. Living

  B--Lepas pritchardi, Hall. Cainozoic. Victoria

]


=Cainozoic Lepadidae.--=

The genus _Lepas_ (the modern goose barnacles) is represented by isolated
plates in the Cainozoic (Janjukian) limestones and marls of Waurn
Ponds, and Torquay near Geelong: it also occurs in a stratum of about
the same age, the nodule bed, at Muddy Creek, near Hamilton, Victoria
(_L. pritchardi_, Fig. 116). In New Zealand the gigantic cirripede,
_?Pollicipes aucklandicus_ (Fig. 115 C), occurs in the Motutapu beds.


=Cainozoic Balanidae.--=

The Acorn Barnacles are represented in our Cainozoic shell marls and
clays by a species of _Balanus_ from the Janjukian of Torquay; whilst
two species of the genus occur in the Kalimnan beds at Beaumaris, Port
Phillip, in similar beds in the Hamilton District, and at the Gippsland
Lakes.


=Phyllocarida: Their Structure.--=

A large and important group of the higher Crustacea, but confined to the
older rocks of Victoria, is the order _PHYLLOCARIDA_. This seems to form
a link between the Entomostraca, including the bivalved Ostracoda and the
well-known group of the lobsters, shrimps and crabs. The body of these
phyllocarids consists of five segments to the head, eight to the thorax,
and from two to eight to the abdomen. The portion usually preserved in
this group is the carapace, which covers the head and thorax, and although
often in one piece, is sometimes hinged, or otherwise articulated along
the back. In front of the carapace there is a moveable plate, the rostrum
or beak (Fig. 117). There are two pairs of antennae to the head, and the
animal is provided with a pair of stalked compound eyes. The thoracic
segments are furnished with soft leaf-like legs as in the Phyllopods.
The abdomen is formed of ring-like segments, and generally terminates
in a sharp tail-piece or telson, often furnished with lateral spines.
In many respects the ancient phyllocarids correspond with the living
genus _Nebalia_, which is found inhabiting the shallow waters of the
Mediterranean and elsewhere.

[Illustration: =Fig. 117--Ceratiocaris papilio, Salter.=

Silurian. Lanarkshire.

                                                     (_After H. Woodward_)
]

[Illustration: =Fig. 118--ORDOVICIAN PHYLLOCARIDS.=

  A--Rhinopterocaris maccoyi, Eth. fil. sp. L. Ordovician. Victoria

  B--Caryocaris angusta, Chapm. L. Ordovician. Victoria

  C--Saccocaris tetragona, Chapm. L. Ordovician. Victoria

]

[Illustration: =Fig. 119--SILURIAN PHYLLOCARIDS.=

  A--Ceratiocaris pritchardi, Chapm. Silurian. Victoria

  B--Ceratiocaris cf. murchisoni, Agassiz sp. Silurian. Victoria

  C--Ceratiocaris pinguis, Chapm. Silurian. Victoria

]


=Ordovician Phyllocarids.--=

Phyllocarids of the Lower Ordovician slates are referred to the genera
_Rhinopterocaris_, _Caryocaris_, _Saccocaris_ and _Hymenocaris_. The
first-named is the commonest type; and is found in slates of the
Lancefield, Bendigo and Castlemaine Series at the localities named,
as well as at Dromana. _Rhinopterocaris_ (Fig. 118 A) is readily
distinguished by its long--ovate outline, and this, together with its
wrinkled chitinous appearance makes it resemble the wing of a dipterous
insect. _Caryocaris_ (Fig. 118 B) is a smaller and narrower form which
occurs in the Victorian Lower Ordovician slates, as well as in ice-borne
blocks derived from the Ordovician, at Wynyard, in N.W. Tasmania.


=Silurian Phyllocarids.--=

The chief type of Phyllocarid in the Silurian is _Ceratiocaris_ (Fig.
119). The carapace is typically ovate, straight on one edge, the dorsal,
and convexly curved on the other, the ventral. They resemble bean-pods in
outline, hence the name "pod-shrimps." Several species are known from the
Victorian shales, mudstones, and sandstones; the forms found in Australia
if complete would seldom attain five inches in length, whilst some British
species are known to reach the exceptional length of two feet. The long,
grooved and jointed telson is not uncommon in the sandstones of Melbourne
and Kilmore. Other genera described from Victoria are _Aptychopsis_ and
_Dithyrocaris_.


=Lower Cretaceous Crab.--=

The earliest example of the _DECAPODA_ in the Australian rocks, so far
recorded, is the Lower Cretaceous _Prosopon etheridgei_ (Fig. 120 A) from
Queensland, which has affinities with some Jurassic and Neocomian crabs
found in Europe. Other crustacean remains of less decipherable nature
occur in this same deposit.

[Illustration: =Fig. 120--FOSSIL CRABS and INSECTS.=

  A--Prosopon etheridgei, H. Woodw. L. Cretaceous. Queensland

  B--Ommatocarcinus corioensis, Cressw. sp. Cainozoic (Jan.) Vic.

  C--Harpactocarcinus tumidus, H. Woodw. Cainozoic (Oamaru). New Zealand

  D--Aeschna flindersensis, H. Woodw. L. Cretaceous. Queensland

  E--Ephemera culleni, Eth. fil. and Olliff. Cainozoic (Deep Leads). New
       South Wales

]


=Cainozoic Crabs.--=

Of the Cainozoic decapod Crustacea there is a Victorian species of a
stalk-eyed crab, _Ommatocarcinus corioensis_ (Fig. 120 B), found in the
marls of Curlewis and Port Campbell, and probably of Janjukian age.
Various portions of similar Crustacea, consisting of claws and fragmentary
carapaces, are found from time to time in the Victorian clays and
limestones of Balcombian and Janjukian ages, but they are insufficient
for identification. A carapace of one of the Oxystomata (with rounded
cephalo-thorax and non-salient frontal region) has occurred in the
Kalimnan marl of the Beaumaris Cliffs, Port Phillip. It is closely allied
to a crab now found in Hobson's Bay and generally along the Victorian
coast.

Remains of a shore-crab (Fam. Cancridae) are found at three localities,
in the Oamaru Series, in New Zealand; near Brighton, in Nelson and at
Wharekuri in the Waitaki Valley. It has been described under the name of
_Harpactocarcinus tumidus_ (Fig. 120 C), a genus of the Cyclometopa or
"bow crabs."


=Pleistocene Lobster.--=

Numerous remains of a lobster, _Thalassina emerii_ (see _antea_, Fig. 20),
supposed to be of Pleistocene age, occur in nodules found on Queensland
and North Australian (Port Darwin) beaches.


=Eurypterids in the Silurian.--=

The order _EURYPTERIDA_ comprises an extinct group of Crustacea closely
allied to the modern King-crab (_Limulus_). The body was covered with a
thin chitinous skeleton, ornamented with regular scale-like markings. This
group is represented in Victorian rocks by the remains of _Pterygotus_
("Sea-scorpions"), animals which often attained a length of six feet.
_Pterygotus_ (see Fig. 121 A) had the fore part of the body fused, forming
the cephalo-thorax, which was furnished with anterior, marginal facetted
eyes and central ocelli or smaller simple ones. To the ventral surface
of the body were attached six pairs of appendages. The first pair are
modified antennae with pincer-like terminations, used for prehensile
purposes. Then come four pairs of slender walking feet. The sixth pair of
appendages is in the form of powerful swimming feet or paddles, at the
bases of which are the comb-like jaws. The abdomen consists of thirteen
joints, the last of which, the telson, is spatulate and posteriorly
pointed. Fragments of a tolerably large species of _Pterygotus_ occur in
the Silurian shales of South Yarra, Melbourne, Victoria. It was probably
about 18 inches in length when complete. Of this form, known as _P.
australis_ (Fig. 121 B), portions of the chelate (clawed) appendages, and
parts of the abdominal segments have been found from time to time, but no
complete fossil has yet been discovered.

[Illustration: =Fig. 121--SILURIAN EURYPTERIDS.=

  A--Pterygotus osiliensis, Schmidt. I. of Oesel. (_After Schmidt_)

  B--Pterygotus australis, McCoy. Part of a body-segment. Silurian
       (Melb.) Victoria

]


=Jurassic Insects.--=

Of the group of the _INSECTA_, the Ipswich Coal measures (Jurassic)
of Queensland have yielded an interesting buprestid beetle
(_Mesostigmodera_), whilst beds of the same age in New South Wales contain
the remains of a probable _Cicada_, associated with leaves of the fern
_Taeniopteris_.


=Lower Cretaceous Dragon-fly.--=

From the Lower Cretaceous of the Flinders River district, Queensland,
there has been obtained a fossil dragon-fly, _Aeschna flindersensis_ (Fig.
120 D).


=Cainozoic Insects.--=

Certain Cainozoic beds of New South Wales, of the age of the Deep-leads
of Victoria, and probably equivalent to the Kalimnan terrestrial series,
contain a species of _Cydnus_, a bug-like insect belonging to the order
Rhynchota; and there are in the same series a Midge (_Chironomus_),
a Day-fly (_Ephemera_, Fig. 120 E) and several beetles (? _Lagria_,
_Palaeolycus_, _Cyphon_ and _Oxytelus_). The occurrence of these insects
of the Deep-leads helps to complete the landscape picture of those
far-off Lower Pliocene times, when the old river systems brought down
large contributions of vegetable waste from higher lands, in the form of
twigs with leaves and fruits; with occasional evidences of the rich and
varied fauna of insect life which was especially promoted in the damp and
vegetative areas of the lower lands.


COMMON OR CHARACTERISTIC SPECIES OF THE FOREGOING CHAPTER.


TRILOBITES.

  _Ptychoparia howchini_, Eth. fil. Lower Cambrian: South Australia.

  _Dolichometopus tatei_, H. Woodward. Lower Cambrian: South Australia.

  _Olenellus browni_, Eth. fil. Lower Cambrian: Northern Territory.

  _Agnostus australiensis_, Chapm. Upper Cambrian: Victoria.

  _Ptychoparia thielei_, Chapm. Upper Cambrian: Victoria.

  _Dikellocephalus florentinensis_, Eth. fil. Upper Cambrian: Tasmania.

  _Dinesus ida_, Eth. fil. Lower Ordovician: Victoria.

  _Asaphus illarensis_, Eth. fil. Ordovician: Central S. Australia.

  _Ampyx parvulus_, Forbes, var. _jikaensis_, Chapm. Silurian
       (Melbournian): Victoria.

  _Illaenus jutsoni_, Chapm. Silurian (Melbournian): Victoria.

  _Proetus euryceps_, McCoy. Silurian: Victoria.

  _Cyphaspis spryi_, Gregory. Silurian (Melbournian): Victoria.

  _Bronteus enormis_, Eth. fil. Silurian (Yeringian): Victoria.

  _Lichas australis_, McCoy. Silurian (Yeringian): Victoria.

  _Odontopleura jenkinsi_, Eth. fil. Silurian: New South Wales. Silurian
       (Yeringian): Victoria.

  _Encrinurus punctatus_, Brunnich sp. Silurian: New South Wales.
       Silurian (Yeringian): Victoria.

  _Encrinurus (Cromus) murchisoni_, de Koninck. Silurian: New South
       Wales.

  _Encrinurus (Cromus) spryi_, Chapm. Silurian (Melbournian): Victoria.

  _Calymene blumenbachii_, Brongn. Silurian (Wangapeka Series): New
       Zealand.

  _Homalonotus expansus_, Hector. Silurian (Wangapeka Series): New
       Zealand.

  _Homalonotus knightii_, König. Silurian (Wangapeka Series): New
       Zealand.

  _Homalonotus harrisoni_, McCoy. Silurian (Melbournian): Victoria.

  _Homalonotus vomer_, Chapm. Silurian: Victoria.

  _Cheirurus insignis_, Beyrich. Silurian: New South Wales.

  _Phacops sweeti_, Eth. fil. and Mitch. Silurian: New South Wales.
       Silurian (Yeringian): Victoria.

  _Phacops serratus_, Foerste. Silurian (Yeringian): Victoria. Silurian:
       New South Wales.

  _Dalmanites meridianus_, Eth. fil. and Mitch, sp. Silurian: New South
       Wales, Victoria and Tasmania.

  _Cheirurus_ sp. Middle Devonian: Victoria.

  _Proetus_ sp. Devonian: Western Australia.

  _Phillipsia seminifera_, Phillips. Carbopermian: New South Wales.

  _Phillipsia grandis_, Eth. fil. Carbopermian: W. Australia and
       Queensland.

  _Griffithides eichwaldi_, Waldheim. Carbopermian: New South Wales and
       Queensland.

  _Brachymetopus strzelecki_, McCoy. Carbopermian: New South Wales.


PHYLLOPODA.

  _Leaia mitchelli_, Eth. fil. Upper Carboniferous: New South Wales.

  _Estheria coghlani_, Cox. Trias: New South Wales.

  _Estheria minuta_, Alberti sp. Trias: New Zealand.

  _Estheria mangaliensis_, Jones. Jurassic: Queensland.


OSTRACODA.

  _Leperditia_ sp. Lower Cambrian: S. Australia.

  _Beyrichia kloedeni_, McCoy. Silurian (Yeringian): Victoria.

  _Beyrichia wooriyallockensis_, Chapm. Silurian (Yeringian): Victoria.

  _Beyrichia maccoyiana_, Jones, var. _australis_, Chapm. Silurian:
       (Yeringian): Victoria.

  _Bythocypris hollii_, Jones. Silurian (Yeringian): Victoria.

  _Macrocypris flexuosa_, Chapm. Silurian (Yeringian) Victoria.

  _Primitia reticristata_, Jones. Silurian (Yeringian): Victoria.

  _Leperditia shearsbii_, Chapm. Silurian: New South Wales.

  _Primitia cuneus_, Chapm. Middle Devonian: Victoria.

  _Beyrichia varicosa_, T. R. Jones. Carboniferous: Queensland.

  _Primitia dunii_, Chapm. Carbopermian: New South Wales.

  _Jonesina etheridgei_, Chapm. Carbopermian: New South Wales.

  _Entomis jonesi_, de Koninck. Carbopermian: New South Wales.

  _Synaphe mesozoica_, Chapm. sp. Trias: New South Wales.

  _Cythere lobulata_, Chapm. Jurassic: W. Australia.

  _Paradoxorhyncha foveolata_, Chapm. Jurassic: W. Australia.

  _Loxoconcha jurassica_, Chapm. Jurassic: W. Australia.

  _Cytheropteron australiense_, Chapm. Jurassic: W. Australia.

  _Bairdia amygdaloides_, Brady. Cainozoic and living: Victoria.

  _Cythere senticosa_, Baird. Cainozoic. Also living: Victoria.

  _Cythere clavigera_, G. S. Brady. Cainozoic and living: Victoria.

  _Cytherella punctata_, G. S. Brady. Cainozoic and living: Victoria.

  _Cytherella pulchra_, G. S. Brady. Cainozoic and living: Victoria.


CIRRIPEDIA.

  _Turrilepas mitchelli_, Eth. fil. Silurian: New South Wales.

  _Turrilepas yeringiae_, Chapm. Silurian (Yeringian): Victoria.

  _Lepas pritchardi_, Hall. Cainozoic (Janjukian): Victoria.

  _(?) Pollicipes aucklandicus_, Hector sp. Cainozoic (Oamaru Series):
       New Zealand.

  _Balanus_ sp. Cainozoic (Janjukian and Kalimnan): Victoria.


PHYLLOCARIDA.

  _Rhinopterocaris maccoyi_, Eth. fil. sp. Lower Ordovician: Victoria.

  _Hymenocaris hepburnensis_, Chapm. L. Ordovician: Victoria.

  _Caryocaris marri_, Jones and Woodw. L. Ordovician: Victoria and
       Tasmania.

  _Caryocaris angusta_, Chapm. L. Ordovician: Victoria.

  _Saccocaris tetragona_, Chapm. L. Ordovician: Victoria.

  _Ceratiocaris_ cf. _murchisoni_, Agassiz sp. Silurian: Victoria.

  _Ceratiocaris pinguis_, Chapm. Silurian (Melbournian): Victoria.

  _Ceratiocaris pritchardi_, Chapm. Silurian: Victoria.

  _Aptychopsis victoriae_, Chapm. Silurian (Melbournian): Victoria.

  _Dithyrocaris praecox_, Chapm. Silurian (Melbournian): Victoria.


DECAPODA.

  _Prosopon etheridgei_, H. Woodw. Lower Cretaceous: Queensland.

  _Ommatocarcinus corioensis_, Cresswell sp. Cainozoic (Janjukian):
       Victoria.

  _Ebalia_ sp. Cainozoic (Kalimnan): Victoria.

  _Harpactocarcinus tumidus_, H. Woodw. Cainozoic (Oamaru Series): New
       Zealand.

  _Thalassina emerii_, Bell. (?) Pleistocene: Queensland and Northern
       Territory.


EURYPTERIDA.

  _Pterygotus australis_, McCoy. Silurian (Melbournian): Victoria.


INSECTA.

  _Mesostigmodera typica_, Etheridge fil. and Olliff. Jurassic:
       Queensland.

  _(?) Cicada lowei_, Etheridge fil. and Olliff. Jurassic: New South
       Wales.

  _Aeschna flindersensis_, H. Woodward. Lower Cretaceous: Queensland.

  _Chironomus venerabilis_, Eth. fil. and Oll. Cainozoic: New South
       Wales.

  _Ephemera culleni_, Eth. fil. and Oll. Cainozoic: New South Wales.

  _Palaeolycus problematicum_, Eth. fil. and Oll. Cainozoic: New South
       Wales.

       *       *       *       *       *


LITERATURE.


TRILOBITES.

  McCoy, F. Prod. Pal. Vict., Dec. III. 1876, pp. 13-20, pls. XXII.
       and XXIII. (Silurian). Hector, J. Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. IX.
       1877, p. 602, pl. XXVII. (_Homalonotus_). Woodward, H. Geol.
       Mag., Dec. III. vol. I. 1884, pp. 342-344, pl. XI. (Cambrian).
       Mitchell, J. Proc. Linn. Soc. New South Wales, vol. II. 1888,
       pp. 435-440, pl. XI. (Silurian). Foerste, A. F. Bull. Sci. Lab.
       Denison Univ., vol. III. pt. V. 1888, pp. 122-128, pl. XIII.
       Etheridge, R. jnr. Proc. Linn. Soc. New South Wales, vol. V.
       pp. 501-504, pl. XVIII. (_Bronteus_). Idem, Parl. Papers, Leg.
       Assemb. S.A., vol. I. No. 23, 1892; ibid., vol. 2, No. 52, 1893
       (_Asaphus_). Id., Geol. Queensland, 1892, pp. 214-216, pls.
       VII. VIII. and XLIV. (Carboniferous). Id., Proc. R. Soc. Vict.,
       vol. VI. (N.S.), 1894, pp. 189-194, pl. XI. (_Bronteus_). Id.,
       ibid, vol. VIII. (N.S.), 1896, pp. 56, 57, pl. I. (_Dinesus_).
       Id., Rec. Austr. Mus., vol. V. No. 2, 1904, pp. 98-101, pl. X.
       (Cambrian). Id., Trans. R. Soc. S. Austr., vol. XXII. 1898, pp.
       1-3, pl. IV. (Cambrian). Etheridge, R. jnr. and Mitchell, J.
       Proc. Linn. Soc. New South Wales, vol. VI. 1892, pp. 311-320, pl.
       XXV.; ibid., vol. VIII. 1894, pp. 169-178, pls. VI. VII.; ibid.,
       vol. X. 1896, pp. 486-511, pls. XXXVIII.-XL.; ibid., vol. XXI.
       1897, pp. 694-721, pls. L.-LV. Tate, R. Rep. Horn Exped., 1896,
       Part 3, Palaeontology, pp. 111, 112, pl. III. De Koninck, L. G.
       Mem. Geol. Surv. New South Wales, Pal. No. 6, 1898, pp. 36-47 pl.
       I. (Silurian); pp. 276-281, pl. XXIV. (Carboniferous). Gregory,
       J. W. Proc. R. Soc. Vict., vol. XIII. (N.S.) pt. II, 1901, pp.
       179-182, pl. XXII. (_Cyphaspis_). Ibid., vol. XV. (N.S.) pt.
       II. 1903, pp. 154-156, pl. XXVI. (_Dinesus_ and _Notasaphus_.)
       Chapman, F. Proc. R. Soc. Vict., vol. XXIII. (N.S.), pt. II.
       1910, pp. 314-322, pls. LVIII. and LIX. (Cambrian). Ibid.,
       vol. XXIV. (N.S.) pt. II. 1912, pp. 293-300, pls. LXI.-LXIII.
       (Silurian).


PHYLLOPODA.

  Cox, J. C. Proc. Linn. Soc. New South Wales, vol. V., pt. 3, 1881, p.
       276 (_Estheria_). Etheridge, R. jnr. ibid., vol. VII. 1893, pp.
       307-310, text fig. (_Leaia_). Idem, Mem. Geol. Surv. New South
       Wales, Pal. No. 1, 1888, pp. 6-8, pl. I. (_Estheria_).


OSTRACODA.

  Brady, G. S. in Etheridge, jnr. Geol. Mag., 1876, p. 334 (Cainozoic).
       De Koninck, L. G. Mem. Geol. Surv. New South Wales, Pal. No.
       6, 1898, pp. 33, 36 (Silurian); ibid., pp. 275, 276, pl. XXIV.
       (Carboniferous). Chapman, F. Proc. R. Soc. Vict., vol. XVI.
       (N.S.), pt. II. 1904, pp. 199-204, pl. XXIII. (Jurassic).
       Idem, ibid., vol. XXII. (N.S.), pt. I. 1909, pp. 1-5, pl. I.
       (_Leperditia_). Idem, Rec. Geol. Surv. New South Wales, vol.
       VIII. pt. 4, 1909, pp. 1-3, pl. LIV. (Triassic). Idem, Rec.
       Geol. Surv. Vict., vol. III. pt. 2, 1912, p. 221, pl. XXXVI.
       (_Primitia_). Idem, Proc. R. Soc. Vict., vol. XV. (N.S.), pt.
       II. 1903, pp. 109-113, pl. XVI. (_Beyrichia_). Ibid., vol. XVII.
       (N.S.) pt. I. 1904, pp. 299-312, pls. XIII.-XVII. (Silurian).


CIRRIPEDIA.

  Etheridge, R. jnr. Geol. Mag., Dec. III. vol. VII. 1890, pp. 337, 338,
       pl. XI. (_Turrilepas_). Hall, T.S. Proc. R. Soc. Vict., vol.
       XV. (N.S.) pt. I. 1902, pp. 83, 84, pl. XI. (_Lepas_). Benham,
       W. B. Geol. Mag., Dec. IV. vol. X. pp. 110-119, pls. IX. X. (_?
       Pollicipes_). Chapman, F. Proc. R. Soc. Vict. vol. XXII. (N.S.)
       pt. II. 1910, pp. 105-197, pls. XXVIII. XXIX. (_Turrilepas_).


PHYLLOCARIDA.

  Etheridge, R. jnr. Rec. Geol. Surv. New South Wales, vol. III. pt. I.
       1894, pp. 5-8, pl. IV. (Ordovician). Chapman, F. Proc. R. Soc.
       Vict. vol. XV. (N.S.), pt. II. 1903, pp. 113-117, pl. XVIII.
       (Ordovician); ibid., vol. XVII. (N.S.) pt. I. 1904, pp. 312-315,
       pl. XVII.; ibid., vol. XXII. (N.S.), pt. II. 1910, pp. 107-110,
       pl. XXVIII. (Silurian). Idem, Rec. Geol. Surv. Vict., vol. III.
       pt. 2, 1912, pp. 212, 213, pls. XVII. XVIII. (Ordovician).


DECAPODA.

  Bell, T. Proc. Geol. Soc. Lond., vol. I. 1845, pp. 93, 94. Text-fig.
       (_Thalassina_). Woodward, H. Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol.
       XXXII. 1876, pp. 51-53, pl. VII. (_Harpactocarcinus_). Idem.,
       Proc. Linn. Soc. New South Wales, vol. VII. (2), pt. 2, 1892, pp.
       301-304 pl. IV. (_Prosopon_).

  Hall, T. S. Proc. R. Soc. Vict., vol. XVII. (N.S.) pt. II. 1905, pp.
       356-360, pl. XXIII. (_Ommatocarcinus_).


EURYPTERIDA.

  McCoy, F. Geol. Mag. Dec. IV. vol. VI. 1899, pp. 193, 194, text fig.
       (_Pterygotus_).


INSECTA.

  Woodward, H. Geol. Mag. Dec. III. vol. I. 1884, pp. 337-339, pl. XI.
       (_Aeschna_). Etheridge, R. jnr. and Olliff, A. S. Mem. Geol.
       Surv. New South Wales, Pal. No. 7, 1890 (Mesozoic and Cainozoic).




CHAPTER XII.

FOSSIL FISHES, AMPHIBIANS, REPTILES, BIRDS, AND MAMMALS.


=Vertebrates.--=

The above-named classes of animals are distinguished from those previously
dealt with, by the presence of a vertebral column. The vertebral axis
may be either cartilaginous as in some fishes, or bony as in the greater
number of animals belonging to this sub-kingdom.


=Chordata.--=

_LINKS BETWEEN THE INVERTEBRATES AND FISHES._--The curious little
ascidians or "sea-squirts," belonging to the group Tunicata, are held
by some authorities to be the degenerate descendants of a free-swimming
animal having a complete notochord and nerve-tube, structures which
are now only seen in the tails of their tadpole-like larvae. The fully
developed tunicate is generally sessile and provided with a thick outer
coat (tunic) and muscular inner lining. This outer coat in some forms, as
_Leptoclinum_, is strengthened with tiny calcareous spicules, and these
are sometimes found in the fossil state in Cainozoic clays, as well as
in some of the calcareous deep-sea oozes. The little stellate spicules of
_Leptoclinum_ are abundant in the Balcombian clays of Mornington, Victoria.

Another primitive form with a notochord is the Lancelet, but this, having
no hard parts, is not found in the fossil state.


=Primitive Types of Fishes.--=

_FISHES._--The remains of fishes are naturally more abundant in the
fossil condition, owing to their aquatic habits, than those of other
vertebrates. The earliest fishes were probably entirely cartilaginous,
and some have left only a mere trace or impression on the rocks in which
they were embedded. These primitive fishes have no lower jaw, and are
without paired limbs. They are sometimes placed in a class by themselves
(_AGNATHA_). The orders of this primitive fish series as represented in
Australasia are the Osteostraci ("bony shells"), of which the remains of
the _Cephalaspis_-like head-shield of _Thyestes_ has been found in the
Silurian of N.E. Gippsland, Victoria (Fig. 122); and the Antiarchi, with
its many-plated cuirass, armoured body-appendages, internal bony tissue,
and coarsely tuberculated exterior, as seen in _Asterolepis australis_,
a fossil occasionally found in the Middle Devonian Limestone of Buchan,
Gippsland.


=True Fishes.--Devonian.--=

Of the true fishes (Pisces), the Elasmobranchii ("slit-gills"), a
sub-class to which the modern sharks belong, are represented in the
Devonian series by the paired spines of a form resembling _Climatius_,
found both in Victoria and New South Wales. Remains of Dipnoi
("double-breather" or lung-fishes) occur in the Devonian of Barker Gorge,
Western Australia, represented by a new species allied to _Coccosteus_
("berry-bone" fish); and in a bed of the same age at the Murrumbidgee
River, New South Wales by the cranial buckler of _Ganorhynchus süssmilchi_.

[Illustration: =Fig. 122--Incomplete Head-Shield= of Thyestes magnificus,
Chapm. From the Silurian (Yeringian) of Wombat Creek, N.E. Gippsland. 4/5
nat. size]

[Illustration: =Fig. 123=

=Gyracanthides murrayi=,

A. S. Woodw.

L. Carboniferous. Mansfield, Victoria.

(Restoration).

About 1/12 nat. size]

[Illustration: =Fig. 124--TEETH and SCALES of PALAEOZOIC and MESOZOIC
FISHES.=

  A--Strepsodus decipiens, A. S. Woodw. L. Carboniferous. Victoria

  B--Elonichthys sweeti, A. S. Woodw. L. Carboniferous. Victoria

  C--Corax australis, Chapm. L. Cretaceous. Queensland

  D--Belouostomus sweeti, Eth. fil. and Woodw. L. Cretaceous. Q.

]


=Carboniferous Fishes.--=

The Lower Carboniferous sandstone of Burnt Creek and other localities near
Mansfield, Victoria, contains an abundant fish fauna, associated with
stems of _Lepidodendron_. The slabs of sandstone are often ripple-marked
and show signs of tracks and castings of shore-living animals. These
deposits were probably laid down in shallow water at the shore margin
or in salt lagoons or brackish areas skirting the coast, into which
at intervals the remains of the giant lycopods were drifted. The more
important of these fish remains are Elasmobranchs, as _Gyracanthides
murrayi_ (Fig. 123) and _Acanthodes australis_; the Dipnoan, _Ctenodus
breviceps_; a Rhizodont or fringe-finned ganoid, _Strepsodus decipiens_
(Fig. 124 A); and a genus related to _Palaeoniscus_, _Elonichthys_
(_E. sweeti_, Fig. 124 B, and _E. gibbus_). The defence spines of
_Gyracanthides_ are fairly abundant in the sandstones; whilst on some
slabs the large enamelled scales of _Strepsodus_ are equally conspicuous.

From the sandstones of the same age, Lower Carboniferous, in the Grampians
of Western Victoria, some small but well-preserved spines belonging to the
genus _Physonemus_ have been found associated with a new variety of the
well-known European Carboniferous brachiopod, _Lingula squamiformis_ (var.
_borungensis_).


=Carbopermian Fishes.--=

In the Carbopermian (Gympie Beds) of the Rockhampton District, Queensland,
a tooth of a Cochliodont ("snail tooth") occurs, which has been doubtfully
referred to the genus _Deltodus_ (? _D. australis_). The Cochliodontidae
show dentition remarkably like that of the _Cestracion_ or Port Jackson
Shark. Another tooth having the same family relationship has been
referred to _Tomodus ? convexus_, Agassiz; this is from the Carbopermian
of the Port Stephen district of New South Wales. From the Newcastle Coal
Measures in New South Wales a _Palaeoniscus_-like fish, _Urosthenes
australis_ has been described.

Carbopermian fish remains are rare in Western Australia. They comprise
a wrinkled tooth of _Edestus_ (_E. davisii_) from the Gascoyne River,
belonging to a fish closely related to the Port Jackson shark; and a
cochliodont, _Poecilodus_ (_P. jonesi_, Ag.) from the Kimberley district.


=Triassic Fishes.--=

Fossil fishes are important and numerous in Australian Triassic beds,
especially in New South Wales. At the base of the Hawkesbury or close
of the Narrabeen series, the railway ballast quarry near Gosford has
yielded an extensive and extremely interesting collection. Near the floor
of the quarry there is a band of sandy shale and laminated sandstone 5
feet 9 inches in thickness, and this contains the following genera:--A
dipnoan, _Gosfordia_; and the following ganoids or enamelled scale
fishes--_Myriolepis_, _Apateolepis_, _Dictyopyge_, _Belonorhynchus_,
_Semionotus_, _Pristisomus_ (see _antea_, Fig. 18), _Cleithrolepis_ (Fig.
125), _Pholidophorus_ and ? _Peltopleurus_.


=Upper Triassic Fishes.--=

In the middle of the Wianamatta or Upper Trias Series at St. Peter's,
near Sydney, which contains a fauna described as slightly older in aspect
than that of Gosford, having Carbopermian affinities, there occur in
the hard shale or clay stone the genera _Pleuracanthus_ (a Palaeozoic
shark); _Sagenodus_ (a dipnoan related to _Ctenodus_ of the Victorian
Carboniferous); and the following ganoids,--_Palaeoniscus_, _Elonichthys_,
_Myriolepis_, _Elpisopholis_, _Platysomus_ and _Acentrophorus_. From the
soft shales were obtained _Palaeoniscus_, _Semionotus_, _Cleithrolepis_
and _Pholidophorus_; an assemblage of genera somewhat comparable with the
Gosford fauna.

[Illustration: =Fig. 125--Cleithrolepis granulatus, Egerton.=

Triassic (Hawkesbury Series). Gosford, New South Wales. 3/4 nat. size.

                                                 (_After Smith Woodward_.)
]


=Lower Mesozoic Fishes.--=

From the Lower Mesozoic sandstone (?Triassic) of Tasmania, two species of
_Acrolepis_ have been described, viz., _A. hamiltoni_ and _A. tasmanicus_.
The former occurs in the thick bed of sandstone, of nearly 1,000 feet,
at Knocklofty; the latter species in the sandstone with _Vertebraria_
conformably overlying the Carbopermian at Tinderbox Bay.

[Illustration: =Fig. 126--REMAINS of JURASSIC and OTHER VERTEBRATES.=

  1--Ceratodus avus, A. S. Woodw. Left splenial with lower tooth. Cape
       Paterson, Victoria. About 1/3 nat. size

  2--Ceratodus forsteri, Krefft. Left lower tooth. Living. Queensland.
       About 1/3 nat. size

  3--Phalangeal of Carnivorous Dinosaur. Cape Paterson. About 1/3 nat.
       size

  4--Phalangeal of Megalosaurian. Wealden, Sussex, England. 1/4 nat. size

]

=Jurassic Fishes.--=

The Jurassic beds of Victoria contain three genera. _Psilichthys selwyni_,
a doubtful palaeoniscid was described from Carapook, Co. Dundas; whilst
_Leptolepis_, a genus found in the Trias of New South Wales and the Lias
and Oolite of Europe, is represented by _L. crassicauda_ from Casterton,
associated with the typical Jurassic fern, _Taeniopteris_. In the Jurassic
beds of South Gippsland, at Cape Paterson, an interesting splenial tooth
of the mudfish, _Ceratodus_, was found, named _C. avus_ (Fig. 126). Since
then, in a bore-core from Kirrak near the same place a fish scale was
discovered (Fig. 127) which, by its shape, size and structure seems to
differ in no way from the living lung-fish of Queensland (Fig. 128). It
is reasonable to infer that tooth and scale belong to the same species;
and in view of the close relationship of the tooth with that of the living
mudfish, rather than with that of the _Ceratodus_ found fossil in the
Mesozoic of Europe, it may be referred to _Neoceratodus_, in which genus
the living species is now placed.

[Illustration: =Fig. 127--Scale of Ceratodus (Neoceratodus)= (?)avus, A.
S. Woodw. Jurassic. Kirrak, S. Gippsland, Victoria. About nat. size]

[Illustration: =Fig. 128--The Queensland Lung-Fish=

or Barramunda (Neoceratodus forsteri). About 1/12th. nat. size

                            (_After Lydekker, in Warne's Natural History_)
]

[Illustration: =Fig. 129--Leptolepis gregarius=, A. S. Woodw.

Talbragar Series, Jurassic. Talbragar River, New South Wales 1/2 nat.
size]

From the Jurassic beds (Talbragar Series) of New South Wales, an
interesting collection of ganoid fishes has been described, comprising
_Coccolepis australis_, _Aphnelepis australis_, _Aetheolepis mirabilis_,
_Archaeomaene tenuis_, _A. robustus_, _Leptolepis talbragarensis_, _L.
lowei_ and _L. gregarina_ (Fig. 129).


=Lower Cretaceous Fishes.--=

Fish remains are fairly abundant in the Lower Cretaceous of Queensland.
They comprise both the sharks and the ganoids. Of the sharks, a specimen,
showing seven conjoined vertebrae has been named _Lamna daviesii_, from
the Richmond Downs, Flinders River district; and a tooth referred to
_Lamna appendiculatus_, Agassiz, from Kamileroy, Leichhardt River, N.W.
Queensland. The typical Cretaceous genus _Corax_ is represented by a
small tooth named _C. australis_ (Fig. 124 C), from the Hamilton River,
Queensland, and which closely approaches the tooth of _Corax affinis_,
Agassiz, from the Upper Cretaceous of Europe. Of the ganoid fishes two
genera, both members of the family _Aspidorhynchidae_, have been found
in Queensland. _Aspidorhynchus_ sp. and _Belonostomus sweeti_ (Fig. 124
D) have both occurred at Hughenden, Flinders River district. The former
genus has a slender body and produced rostrum; in Europe it is more
characteristic of Jurassic strata. _Belonostomus_ ranges from the Upper
Oolite, Bavaria, to the Upper Cretaceous in other parts of the world.
Remains of a species of _Portheus_, one of the predaceous fishes which
lived in the Cretaceous period, consisting of a portion of the cranium
with the anterior part of the jaws, has been obtained from the Rolling
Downs Formation (Lower Cretaceous) near Hughenden, Queensland.


=Cretaceous Fishes, New Zealand.--=

[Illustration: =Fig. 130--CRETACEOUS and CAINOZOIC FISH-TEETH.=

  A--Notidanus marginalis, Davis. Cainozoic. New Zealand

  B--Callorhynchus hectori, Newton. Cainozoic. New Zealand

  C--Oxyrhina hastalis, Ag. Cainozoic. Victoria

  D--Lamna apiculata, Ag. Cainozoic. Victoria

  E--Carcharodon auriculatus, Blainv. sp. Cainozoic. Victoria

  F--Sargus laticonus, Davis. Cainozoic. New Zealand

]

The Cretaceous beds of New Zealand are grouped in ascending order as the
Waipara Greensands, the Amuri Limestone and the Weka Pass Stone. In the
Waipara beds occur the teeth of _Notidanus marginalis_ (Fig. 130 A), and
_N. dentatus_. In the Amuri Limestone _N. dentatus_ is again found, as
well as the genus _Lamna_, represented by _L. compressa_, Ag. (originally
described as _L. marginalis_, Davis), _L. carinata_ and _L. hectori_. Two
forms of "Elephant fish" are represented by their dental plates, namely
_Callorhynchus hectori_ (Fig. 130 B) and _Ischyodus thurmanni_, Pictet and
Campiche (recorded as _I. brevirostris_, Ag.).


=Cainozoic Fishes.--=

Fish remains principally consisting of teeth, are common fossils in the
Cainozoic beds of southern Australia, particularly in Victoria, and also
in New Zealand.


=Balcombian Series, Southern Australia.--=

The Balcombian beds as seen at Mornington and in the Lower Beds at Muddy
Creek, Hamilton, contain the teeth of sharks as _Odontaspis contortidens_,
_Lamna crassidens_, _L. apiculata_, _Oxyrhina hastalis_ (rarely), _O.
minuta_, _Carcharodon megalodon_, and _C. robustus_.


=Janjukian.--=

The Janjukian Series (Miocene), represented at Torquay, Waurn Ponds and
Table Cape, contains an abundant fish fauna, including amongst sharks,
_Cestracion cainozoicus_, _Asteracanthus eocaenicus_, _Galeocerdo davisi_,
_Carcharoides totuserratus_, _Odontaspis contortidens_, _O. incurva_,
_O. cuspidata_, _Lamna crassidens_, _L. apiculata_ (Fig. 130 D), _L.
compressa_, _L. bronni_, _Oxyrhina hastalis_ (occasional) (Fig. 130 C),
_O. desori_, _O. retroflexa_, _O. minuta_, _Carcharodon auriculatus_ (Fig.
130 E), _C. megalodon_ and _C. robustus_. A species of chimaeroid or
Elephant fish is represented by a left mandibular tooth named _Ischyodus
mortoni_, from the Table Cape Beds, Tasmania.

The Corio Bay series contains teeth of _Acanthias geelongensis_, _Sphyrna
prisca_, _Odontaspis contortidens_, _O. attenuata_, _Oxyrhina minuta_,
_Carcharodon megalodon_, amongst sharks; whilst the spine of a Porcupine
Fish, _Diodon connewarrensis_ has been obtained from the clays of Lake
Connewarre, Victoria.


=Kalimnan.--=

[Illustration: =Fig. 131--CAINOZOIC FISH REMAINS.=

  A--Carcharoides tenuidens, Chapm. Cainozoic (Janj.) Victoria

  B--Odontaspis contortidens. Agassiz. Cainozoic (Kal.) Victoria

  C--Galeocerdo latidens, Agassiz. Cainozoic (Kal.) Victoria

  D--Myliobatis morrabbinensis, Chapm. and Pritch. Cainozoic (Kal.)
       Victoria

  E--Labrodon confertidens. Chapm. and Pritch. Cainozoic (Kal.) Vict.

  F--Diodon formosus, Chapm. and Pritch. Cainozoic (Kal.) Vict.

]

The Kalimnan Series is also prolific in the remains of fishes, the
principal localities being Beaumaris and Grange Burn, Hamilton. Amongst
the sharks there found are, _Notidanus jenningsi_ (related to the Indian
Grey Shark), _Cestracion cainozoicus_ (related to the Port Jackson
Shark), _Asteracanthus eocaenicus_, _Galeocerdo davisi_, _G. latidens_
(Fig. 131 C), _G. aduncus_, _Odontaspis contortidens_ (Fig. 131 B),
_O. incurva_, _O. cuspidata_, _O. attenuata_, _Lamna apiculata_, _L.
compressa_, _Oxyrhina hastalis_ (abundant), _O. desori_, _O. retroflexa_,
_O. eocaena_, _O. minuta_, _Carcharodon auriculatus_ and _C. megalodon_.
An extinct species of Sting Ray, _Myliobatis moorabbinensis_ (Fig. 131 D),
is found at Beaumaris, represented by occasional palatal teeth. Mandibular
and palatine teeth of an extinct genus of Elephant Fish, _Edaphodon_
(_E. sweeti_) are occasionally found at Beaumaris, and at Grange Burn
near Hamilton. Two extinct forms of the Wrasse family, the Labridae, are
found in Victoria; the pharyngeals of _Labrodon confertidens_ (Fig. 131
E), occurring at Grange Burn, Hamilton, and those of _L. depressus_, at
Beaumaris. The palatal jaws of a Porcupine Fish, _Diodon formosus_ (Fig.
131 F), are frequently met with at the base of the Kalimnan Series, both
at Grange Burn and Beaumaris.


=Oamaru Series, New Zealand.--=

In New Zealand the Oamaru Series, which is comparable in age with the
Victorian Janjukian, contains numerous fish remains, chiefly teeth
of sharks. These are: _Notidanus primigenius_, _N. marginalis_ (also
occurring in the Waipara Series), _Galeocerdo davisi_, _Odontaspis
incurva_, _O. cuspidata_, _O. attenuata_, _Lamna apiculata_, _L.
compressa_, _Oxyrhina retroflexa_, _Carcharodon auriculatus_, _C.
megalodon_ and _C. robustus_. The teeth of a Sting Ray, _Myliobatis
plicatilis_ and of a species of Sea-bream, _Sargus laticonus_, also occur
in this series (Fig. 130 F).


=Pleistocene.--=

A species of fish belonging to the family of the Perches, _Ctenolates
avus_, has been described from freshwater carbonaceous shale of
Pleistocene age from Nimbin on the Richmond River, New South Wales.


=Amphibians: Their Structure.--=

_AMPHIBIANS._--This group includes amongst living forms the Frogs,
Toads, Newts, and Salamanders. The remains of amphibia are rare in
Australasian rocks, and practically limited to the group of the Triassic
Labyrinthodonts. The Amphibia are distinguished from Reptiles by certain
changes which their young undergo after leaving the egg. In this
intermediate stage they breathe by external gills, these being sometimes
retained together with the internal lungs in the adult stage. In the
older forms of this group the vertebra is of the nature of a notochord,
the joints consisting of a thin bony ring with a gelatinous interior.
The Labyrinthodontia have a long, lizard-like body, short pectoral limbs
as compared with the pelvic, and five-toed feet. The skull is completely
roofed over. The teeth are pointed, with a large pulp cavity and wall of
infolded or plicated dentine (hence the name labyrinthodont--maze-tooth).
The vertebrae are hollow on both sides, sometimes imperfectly ossified,
and with a notochordal canal. Ventral aspect with bony thoracic plates.
Cranial bones deeply sculptured, and carrying mucus canals.


=Carbopermian Labyrinthodonts.--=

The genus _Bothriceps_, probably an Archegosaurian, is represented by two
species, _B. australis_ and _B. major_ from New South Wales (Fig. 132).
The latter species occurs in the Oil Shale (Carbopermian) of Airly.

[Illustration: =Fig. 132--Bothriceps major, A. S. Woodward.=

Carbopermian. New South Wales. About 1/11th. nat. size

                                                 (_After A. S. Woodward_).
]


=Triassic Labyrinthodonts.--=

From the Hawkesbury Series near Gosford, New South Wales, the
labyrinthodont, _Platyceps wilkinsoni_ has been described. The skeleton
is nearly complete and exposed on the ventral face; the head is 27mm.
long and 32mm. broad. This specimen is associated with the remains of
ganoid fishes, as _Palaeoniscus_ and _Cleithrolepis_, together with the
equisetum-like plant _Phyllotheca_.

Other, somewhat doubtful remains having similar affinities to the
labyrinthodonts are also recorded from the Wianamatta beds (Upper Trias)
at Bowral, New South Wales, consisting of a maxilla with teeth and 11
vertebrae with ribs of the left side. Remains of a labyrinthodont,
_Biloela_, supposed to be related to _Mastodonsaurus_, have been
recorded from the Hawkesbury Series of Cockatoo Island, Port Jackson,
New South Wales, by W. J. Stephens, and consisting of a pectoral plate
compared by that author with _M. robustus_ (now transferred to the genus
_Capitosaurus_).

The only other recorded remains of this group in Australasia are those
noted by W. J. Stephens from the Kaihiku Series (Trias) at Nugget Point,
Otago; and in the Otapiri Series (Upper Trias) of the Wairoa district, New
Zealand.


=Reptilia: Their Structure.--=

_REPTILIA._--The Reptiles are cold-blooded, vertebrated animals, with
a scaly skin or armour. Their respiration is essentially by means of
lungs, and they are terrestrial or aquatic in habit. The skeleton is
completely ossified (bony). Reptiles, although resembling amphibians
externally, are more differentiated in structure and of generally
larger proportions. They exhibit great diversity of form, especially as
regards their extremities. They were even adapted for flying, as in
the Pterosaurs ("Flying Dragons") with their membranous wing attached
to the anterior limb. The Deinosaurs ("Terrible Reptiles") were often
of great size, exceeding the dimensions of any land mammals, and their
limbs were adapted for walking. The marine reptiles, as the Ichthyosauria
("Fish-lizards") and Sauropterygia ("lizard-finned") had the limbs
transformed into paddles. The neural spines in the vertebra of the Turtles
are laterally expanded into a carapace and united with dermal plates.
The vertebrae of Reptilia show great variation of form, being biplanate
(amphiplatyan), biconcave (amphicoelus), hollow in front (procoelus),
or hollow at the back (opisthocoelus). In the case of Reptiles having
both pairs of limbs developed, the cervical, dorsal, sacral and caudal
regions may be separately distinguished. Amongst the Ophidia (Snakes),
Pythonomorpha ("Sea-lizards") and Ichthyosaurs ("Fish-lizards") there is
no differentiated sacral region. The skull of the Reptiles is nearer that
of Birds than Amphibians. The basiocciput (basal bone of the skull at the
back) articulates with the atlas (top joint of the backbone) by means of
a single condyle (protuberance). All reptiles, with the exception of the
Chelonians (Turtles), and a few others, are furnished with teeth: these
are formed chiefly of dentine with a layer of enamel.


=Dentition.--=

Some teeth have solid crowns (pleodont); some grow from persistent pulps
(coelodont); socketed teeth (thecodont) are inserted in alveoli; some are
fused with the supporting bone along the outer rim or top (acrodont);
whilst others are developed laterally along the flange-like inner rim of
the jaw (pleurodont).


=Permian and Triassic Reptiles.--=

The history of Reptilia commences in Permian and Triassic times, when
they were notably represented by the Theromorphs, _Pareiasaurus_
and _Tritylodon_ in South Africa; the Proterosauria of the European
and American Permian and Trias, represented by the lizard-like
_Palaeohatteria_ and the dorsally frilled _Dimetrodon_, with its
formidable array of neural spines; also the Rhynchosauria, with their
beak-like jaws of the same formations. These two groups constitute the
order Rhynchocephalia, which is represented at the present day by the
Tuatera of New Zealand.


=Triassic Reptile, New Zealand.--=

The earliest Australian reptilian record is that of a vertebra of
_Ichthyosaurus_ from the Kaihiku Series of Mount Potts, New Zealand
(Triassic). This specimen was named _I. australis_ by Hector, but since
that species name was preoccupied by McCoy in 1867 it is suggested here
that the New Zealand species should be distinguished as _I. hectori_. The
New Zealand occurrence of _Ichthyosaurus_ makes the geological history of
the genus very ancient in this part of the world.


=Jurassic Reptiles.--=

At Cape Paterson, Victoria, in the Jurassic coal-bearing sandstone
an extremely interesting discovery was made a few years ago, of the
ungual bone (claw) of a carnivorous Deinosaur, probably related to
_Megalosaurus_ of the European Jurassic and Cretaceous beds (See Fig. 126,
3, 3 A). The presence of an animal like this in Australia points to the
former existence of a concomitant terrestrial animal fauna, upon which the
deinosaur must have preyed.

[Illustration: =Fig. 133--Ichthyosaurus australis, McCoy.=

  A--Part of head, showing eye protected by sclerotic plates

  B--Left pectoral paddle. L. Cretaceous. Flinders River, Queensland.
       1/8 nat. size

                                                       (_Nat. Mus. Coll._)
]


=Lower Cretaceous Reptiles.--=

The Rolling Downs formation (Lower Cretaceous) of the Thompson and
Flinders Rivers in Queensland has yielded remains of a Tortoise,
_Notochelone costata_ (see _antea_, Fig. 17); and the interesting
Fish-lizard _Ichthyosaurus_. Numerous and well preserved remains of _I.
australis_ McCoy come from the Flinders River (Fig. 133); whilst _I.
marathonensis_ is recorded from Marathon Station, Queensland. The former
species is typically represented by a nearly complete skeleton, and was
considered by McCoy to be one of the largest examples of the genus,
since a perfect specimen would probably reach the length of 25 feet. Its
teeth resemble those of _I. campylodon_, Carter, from the English Chalk.
Of the Sauropterygia two species of _Pliosaurus_ (_P. macrospondylus_
and _P. sutherlandi_) have been described from the Lower Cretaceous
of the Flinders River; whilst the latter species has also occurred at
Pitchery Creek, Central Queensland and at Marathon. _P. macrospondylus_
is distinguished from _P. sutherlandi_ by the roughened edges of
the vertebral centra. Another genus of the "lizard-finned" reptiles
(Sauropterygia), viz., _Cimoliosaurus_, occurs in the Upper Cretaceous of
White Cliffs, New South Wales (Fig. 134 B, C.)

[Illustration: =Fig. 134--FOSSIL REPTILES.=

  A--Taniwhasaurus oweni. Hector. (Lower jaw). Cretaceous. New Zealand

  B--Cimoliosaurus leucoscopelus, Eth. fil. (Teeth). Up. Cretaceous. New
       South Wales

  C--Cimoliosaurus leucoscopelus, Eth. fil. (Phalangeal). Up.
       Cretaceous. New South Wales

  D--Miolania oweni, A. S. Woodw. Pleistocene. Queensland

]


=Cretaceous Reptiles, New Zealand.--=

The Waipara Series (Cretaceous) of New Zealand contains a fairly large
number of reptilian species belonging to several genera among which may
be mentioned _Plesiosaurus_, _Polycotylus_, and _Cimoliosaurus_ among the
Sauropterygia; and _Tylosaurus_ and _Taniwhasaurus_ (Fig. 134 A), marine
lizard-like reptiles, belonging to the sub-order Pythonomopha.


=Cainozoic and Pleistocene Reptiles.--=

The later Cainozoic deposits of Queensland contain remains of Crocodiles
referred to _Pallymnarchus pollens_ (from Maryvale Creek) and _Crocodilus
porosus_ (from Chinchilla and Arcola, near Brisbane, Queensland). The
former species has also occurred at Clunes, whilst _Crocodilus porosus_ is
recorded from the Loddon Valley, both in Victoria. Another late Tertiary
reptile is the remarkable Horned Turtle, _Miolania oweni_, which is found
in Queensland in Pleistocene deposits (Fig. 134 D), and in the Pliocene
(Deep Leads) of Gulgong, New South Wales; whilst a second species of the
same genus, _M. platyceps_, is found in coral sand at Lord Howe Island,
400 miles distant from Australia. This genus has a skull with large bony
protuberances, giving it a horned appearance, and the tail is encased in
a bony sheath. A species of _Miolania_ is also described from Patagonia.
The Cave deposits of Wellington Valley, New South Wales, as well as the
fluviatile deposits of Queensland, have, yielded the bones of several
genera of lizards, including the Giant Lizard (_Megalania_), which, in its
length of 20 feet exceeded that of most living crocodiles.


=Birds.--=

_BIRDS (AVES)._--These warm-blooded animals are closely related to
Reptiles in many essential particulars; and are generally considered
to more nearly approach the Deinosaurs than any other group. The
Ratitae ("Raft-breasted" or keel-less birds) and Carinatae (with keeled
breast-bones), a sub-class including most modern birds, were probably
differentiated before the Cainozoic period.


=Jurassic Bird.--=

The oldest recorded bird, the remarkable _Archaeopteryx_, of the
Upper Jurassic of Bavaria in Europe, belonging to the Saururae
(Reptilian-tailed) is, so far, restricted to the beds of that age.


=Miocene Bird, New Zealand.--=

The earliest known birds in Australasia occur in the Miocene rocks (Oamaru
Series), of New Zealand. In this series, in the Marawhenua Greensands,
a Giant Penguin, _Palaeeudyptes antarcticus_ is found at Kakanui near
Oamaru, at Curiosity Shop near Christchurch and at Brighton near Nelson,
New Zealand: this interesting occurrence shows that these restricted
antarctic birds had already become an established type as early as the
Miocene.


=Victorian Cainozoic Bird.--=

The impression of a bird's feather, probably of a Wader, has lately been
described from Western Victoria (see _antea_ Fig. 16 and Fig. 135). This
occurs in ironstone, on the surface of which are also impressions of Gum
(_Eucalyptus_) and Native Honeysuckle (_Banksia_) leaves, of species
closely related to those now growing in the same locality. This ironstone
is probably of Janjukian age, and may therefore be coincident with the New
Zealand occurrence of the _Palaeeudyptes_ in the Oamaru Series.


=Pliocene Moa, New Zealand.--=

In the Wanganui System (Pliocene) the Putiki Beds have yielded bones of a
small Moa (_Dinornis_), probably the oldest example of the group of great
flightless birds which later predominated in New Zealand.

[Illustration: =Fig. 135--Impression of Bird's Feather in Ironstone.=

Wannon River, Victoria. (Enlarged).]


=Pleistocene Struthious Birds, Australia.--=

Bones of a struthious or Ostrich-like bird, described by Owen under
the name of _Dromornis australis_, a bird as large as the Moa, have
been recorded from the Pleistocene of Peak Downs and the Paroo River,
Queensland. Indeterminate species of the same genera occur in Phillip Co.,
New South Wales, and the Mount Gambier Caves, South Australia; whilst
_Dromaeus patricius_ is known from King's Creek, Darling Downs, Queensland.

_Genyornis newtoni_ is an extinct bird allied to the Emeus; it has been
found in Pleistocene deposits at Lake Callabonna, South Australia, and
other fragmentary remains have been identified by Dr. Stirling and Mr.
Zietz from Mount Gambier and Queensland. Regarding the build and habits
of _Genyornis_, those authors remark that "Its legs combine a huge femur
nearly as massive, in all but length, as that of _Dinornis maximus_, and
a tibia equalling that of _Pachyornis elephantopus_ with the relatively
slender metatarse of _Dinornis novae-zealandiae_ (_ingens_) and toes which
are insignificant beside those of any of the larger moas."... "In height
it may be confidently stated to have been from 6 feet to 6 feet 6 inches,
that is if the neck should have been of proportions similar to those of
_Pachyornis elephantopus_." Those authors also attribute a slow, sluggish
habit to the bird, and suggest that herbage rather than roots formed its
food. It is very probable that the footprints of birds found in the older
dune rock of Warrnambool, Victoria, associated with the doubtful "human
footprints" may have been made by _Genyornis_ or a related form.

An extinct Emu, _Dromaeus minor_, has lately been described from the
sub-recent deposits in King Island, Bass Strait.


=Pleistocene Carinate Birds, Australia.--=

Many genera of carinate birds belonging to living Australian types have
been identified by De Vis from the fluviatile deposits on the Darling
Downs, Queensland. These include Falcons (_Taphaetus_ and _Necrastur)_;
a Pelican (_Pelicanus_); an Ibis (_Palaeopelargus_); a Spoonbill
(_Platalea_); Ducks (_Anas_, _Dendrocygna_, _Biziura_ and _Nyroca_); a
Darter (_Plotus_); a Pigeon (_Lithophaps_); a Ground-pigeon (_Progura_); a
Mound-builder (_Chosornis_); a Rail (_Porphyrio_); Moor-hens (_Gallinula_,
_Tribonyx_ and _Fulica_); and a Stork (_Xenorhynchus_).


=Pleistocene and Holocene Birds, New Zealand.--=

In New Zealand numerous remains of birds are found, chiefly in the
Pleistocene strata, associated with Moa bones: such are _Cnemiornis_, the
Flightless Pigeon Goose (Fig. 135); _Harpagornis_, a predatory hawk-like
bird larger than any existing eagle; and _Aptornis_, an extinct Rail. The
sand-dunes, peat bogs, swamps, river alluvium, caves and rock shelters
of New Zealand often contain numerous remains of the gigantic Moa birds
included in the genera _Dinornis_, _Pachyornis_ and _Anomalopteryx_, of
which perhaps the best known are _D. giganteus_, _D. maximus_ (Fig. 136),
_D. robustus_, _P. elephantopus_ (Fig. 137), and _A. antiqua_. Some of the
species have become so recently extinct that remains of their skin and
feathers have been preserved in fissures in the rocks where they were
shielded from the influence of air and moisture. The remains of Moa birds
are very abundant in some of the localities as at Hamilton in Southland,
where, as Hutton estimated, the remains of at least 400 birds were
contained within a radius of 25 feet.

[Illustration: =Fig. 136--Cnemiornis calcitrans, Owen.=

Pleistocene. New Zealand. 1/15th. nat. size

                                                           (_After Owen_).
]

[Illustration:=Fig. 137--Dinornis maximus, Owen. (Great Moa).=

Pleistocene and Holocene. New Zealand.

Vertical height, 8 ft. Measured along spine, 10 ft. 8 in.

                                                       (_Nat. Mus. Coll._)
]

[Illustration: =Fig. 138--Pachyornis elephantopus, Owen sp.=

Pleistocene. New Zealand. About 1/26th. nat. size.

                                                           (_After Owen_).
]


=Mammalia: Early Types.--=

_MAMMALIA._--The history of those warm-blooded animals, the mammals,
commences in the early part of the Mesozoic period. It was then that the
skull began to assume the characters seen in the modern quadrupeds, and
their well-formed limb-bones, and fusion of the three bones on each side
of the pelvic arch to form the innominate bone, also show relationship to
the later types. The earliest ancestral mammalian forms seem to be related
to the theromorphic reptiles, predominant in the Permian and Trias. The
mammals first to make their appearance were probably related to those of
the Monotreme and Marsupial orders. More nearly related to the former is
the group of mammals of the Mesozoic period, the Multituberculata.


=Multituberculata.--=

This group comprises the Triassic _Tritylodon_ (South Africa and Germany);
the Upper Jurassic _Bolodon_ (England and United States); the Upper
Jurassic to Lower Cainozoic _Plagiaulax_ (England, United States and
France); and the Lower Eocene _Polymastodon_ (New Mexico). The molar teeth
are ridged longitudinally, and carry numerous tubercles, hence the name of
the group, and resemble the deciduous teeth of the Duck-billed Platypus
(_Ornithorhynchus_).


=Monotremata.--=

The Monotremata are represented at the present day in Australia and New
Guinea by the _Echidna_ or Spiny Anteater, and by the _Ornithorhynchus_ or
Duck-billed Platypus of Eastern Australia and Tasmania. These egg-laying
mammals show relationship towards the reptiles both in structure and in
methods of reproduction.

A Pliocene species of _Ornithorhynchus_ (_O. maximus_) has been recorded
from the Deep-leads of Gulgong, New South Wales, and the same beds have
yielded the remains of _Echidna (Proechidna) robusta_. Remains of another
species, _Echidna, (P.) oweni_, have been described from the Pleistocene
Cave-breccias of the Wellington Valley Caves, New South Wales; and
_Ornithorhynchus agilis_ is found in deposits of similar age in Queensland.


=Marsupials.--=

The Marsupials or pouched mammals belong to the sub-class Metatheria. They
are divided into Diprotodontia and Polyprotodontia, accordingly as they
possess a single pair of incisor teeth in the lower jaw, or many front
teeth, hence the names of the two sub-orders. A later classification of
the Marsupials is that of their division into syndactyla and diadactyla.

The diadactyla have the second and third toes separate, and are
represented by the family Dasyuridae or Native Cats. These are
polyprotodont. They are the most archaic of the marsupial group. Remains
of _Dasyurus_, both of extinct and still living species are found in
Pleistocene Cave-breccias in Victoria and New South Wales. The Tasmanian
Devil (_Sarcophilus ursinus_) (Fig. 138, 139) and the Tasmanian Wolf
(_Thylacinus cynocephalus_), still living in Tasmania, have left numerous
remains on the mainland, in Victoria and New South Wales. Of the latter
genus an extinct species is _T. major_ from the Pleistocene of Queensland
(Fig. 140).

[Illustration: =Fig. 139=

=Skeleton of Sarcophilus ursinus, Harris sp. (Tasmanian devil).=

                                                    (_F. J. Moore, prep._)
]

[Illustration: =Fig. 140=

=Skull of Sarcophilus ursinus, Harris sp. (Tasmanian devil).=

Pleistocene. Queenscliff, Victoria. About 1/2 nat. size

                                                          (_After McCoy_).
]

The syndactyla have the second and third toes enclosed in a common skin.
The Peramelidae and the Notoryctidae are polyprotodont. The remainder are
all diprotodont. The Peramelidae or Bandicoot family are represented in
Pleistocene Cave-breccias in New South Wales by the genera _Peragale_ and
_Perameles_.

[Illustration: =Fig. 141--Thylacinus major, Owen.=

Hind part of mandible, outer side. Pleistocene. Queensland.

1/2 nat. size]


=Pleistocene Diprotodonts.--=

Pleistocene remains of the diprotodont forms of this syndactylous group
are _Phascolomys_ (the Wombat), perhaps ranging as low as Upper Pliocene
(_P. pliocenus_) (Fig. 141); _Phascolonus (P. gigas)_ (Fig. 142 A)[4],
a large Wombat from Queensland and New South Wales and South Australia;
the Giant Kangaroos, as _Macropus titan_ (Queensland, New South Wales,
Victoria and South Australia), _Procoptodon goliah_ (Queensland, New South
Wales and Victoria), _Sthenurus atlas_ (New South Wales, Queensland,
Victoria and South Australia), _Palorchestes azael_ (Victoria, New
South Wales and Queensland); also the great _Diprotodon_, the largest
known marsupial, as large as, and rather taller than, a rhinoceros,
found in almost every part of Australia, with an allied form referred
to _Nototherium_ occurring also in Tasmania (Figs. 143, 144, 145).
_Nototherium_ (Queensland, South Australia and Victoria), was a smaller
animal than _Diprotodon_, with a shorter and broader skull and similar
dentition. Remains of the extinct "Marsupial Lion," _Thylacoleo carnifex_,
an animal allied to the phalangers, have been found in Cave-deposits in
New South Wales, Queensland, Victoria and Western Australia. Incised bones
of other animals, which are believed to have been gnawed by _Thylacoleo_,
have been found associated with its remains. _Thylacoleo_ possessed a
peculiar dentition, the first pair of incisors in the upper jaw being
very large and trenchant, whilst the canine and two anterior premolars
are small and functionless: the lower jaw has also a pair of large
first incisors, behind which are two small premolars, and an enormous
chisel-edged last premolar biting against a similar tooth in the upper jaw
(Fig. 146).

[Footnote 4: This genus was described by Owen in 1872 as a sub-genus of
_Phascolomys_ founded on some cheek-teeth; and subsequently, in 1884,
the same author described some incisors under the name of _Sceparnodon
ramsayi_, which are now known to belong to the same animal that bore the
cheek-teeth.]

[Illustration: =Fig. 142--Mandible of Phascolomys pliocenus, McCoy.=

(?) Upper Pliocene ("Gold Cement.") Dunolly, Vict.

About 1/2 nat. size.

                                                          (_After McCoy_).
]

[Illustration: =Fig. 143--CAINOZOIC TEETH and OTOLITH.=

  A--Phascolonus gigas, Owen. (Molar). Pleistocene. Queensland

  B--Parasqualodon wilkinsoni, McCoy. (Molar). Cainozoic (Janj.) Vict.

  C--Parasqualodon wilkinsoni, McCoy. (Incisor). Cainozoic (Janj.) Vict.

  D--Metasqualodon harwoodi, Sanger sp. (Molar). Cainozoic (Janj.) South
       Australia

  E--Kekenodon onamata, Hector. (Molar). Cainozoic (Oamaruian). New
       Zealand

  F--Cetotolithes nelsoni, McCoy. (Tympanic bone). Cainozoic (Janj.)
       Victoria

]

[Illustration: =Fig. 144--Diprotodon australis, Owen.=

Pleistocene. South Australia.

                                             (_After Stirling and Zeitz_).
]

[Illustration: =Fig. 145--Upper Surface of the Right Hind Foot of
Diprotodon australis=.

  A--With the Astragalus (ankle-bone) in position.

  B--  "   "      "            "      removed.

Cir. 1/8 nat. size.]

[Illustration: =Fig. 146--Diprotodon australis, Owen. (Restored).=

From a sketch by C. H. Angas.]

[Illustration: =Fig. 147--Thylacoleo carnifex, Owen.=

Right lateral aspect of skull and mandible.

  Pleistocene. Australia.       1/5th nat. size.

  c, canine.      i, incisors.      m, molars.      pm, premolars.
]

[Illustration: =Fig. 148--Wynyardia bassiana, Spencer.=

Upper Cainozoic (Turritella bed). Table Cape. Tasmania.

2/7th nat. size.

                                              (_Casts in Nat. Mus. Coll._)
]


=Oldest Known Marsupial.=

The oldest marsupial found in Australia is probably _Wynyardia bassiana_
(Fig. 147), whose remains occurred in the _Turritella_-bed at Table
Cape, which is either of Miocene or Lower Pliocene age. This stratum
occurs above the well-known _Crassatellites_-bed (Miocene) of that
locality. So far as can be gathered from its incomplete dentition,
_Wynyardia_ represents an annectant form between the Diprotodonts and the
Polyprotodonts.


=Pleistocene Genera, also Living.--=

Besides the genera above enumerated, many other marsupials of well-known
living species are represented by fossil remains in Cave-deposits and on
"sand-blows" in most of the Australian States. The genera thus represented
in the Pleistocene deposits of Australia are _Bettongia_ (Prehensile
Rat-Kangaroo); _Dasyurus_ (Native Cat); _Hypsiprymnus_ (Rat-Kangaroo);
_Macropus_ (Kangaroo); _Perameles_ (Bandicoot); _Petaurus_ (Flying
Phalanger); _Phalanger_ (Cuscus); _Phascolomys_ (Wombat); _Sarcophilus_
(Tasmanian Devil); _Thylacinus_ (Tasmanian Wolf).


=Cetacea.--=

The order Cetacea includes Whales, Dolphins and Porpoises. The earliest
known forms belong to the sub-order Archaeoceti, and whilst absent from
Australian deposits, are found in the Eocene of Europe, Northern Africa
and North America.


=Odontoceti: Toothed Whales.--=

Remains of Cetacea are first met with in Australian rocks in the Oligocene
(Balcombian) of Victoria. At Muddy Creek near Hamilton fragments of ribs
and other bones of cetacea, not yet determined, occur in the tenacious
blue clays of the lower part of the Clifton Bank section. In Australia
and New Zealand the oldest determinable remains of this order belong to
the Odontoceti, members of which range from Miocene to Pliocene. Teeth
of the toothed whales like _Squalodon_ of the Miocene of France and
Bavaria have been found in New Zealand (_Kekenodon_); in South Australia
(_Metasqualodon_); and in Victoria (_Parasqualodon_). In Victoria the
teeth of Squalodontidae occur in the Janjukian beds of Cape Otway,
Waurn Ponds and Torquay, represented by molars and anterior teeth of
_Parasqualodon wilkinsoni_ (Fig. 142 B, C). The same species also occurs
at Table Cape, Tasmania, in beds of similar age. Teeth of _Metasqualodon
harwoodi_ (Fig. 142 D) occasionally occur in the white polyzoal rock of
the Mount Gambier district, South Australia. The gigantic toothed whale,
_Kekenodon onamata_ (Fig. 142 E) occurs in the Marawhenua Greensands
(Oamaru Series) at Waitaki Valley, Waihao, Ngapara, Waikouaiti and Milburn
in New Zealand. The molar teeth of this striking species, with their
serrated crowns, measure nearly five inches in length.


=Ear-bones of Whales.--=

The tympanic bones of whales are not uncommon in the Janjukian beds of
Waurn Ponds, near Geelong, Victoria; and they are occasionally found
in the basement bed of the Kalimnan at Beaumaris, Port Phillip. In the
absence of any distinctive generic characters they have been referred
to the quasi-genus _Cetotolithes_ (Fig. 142 F). McCoy has expressed the
opinion that they may perhaps be referable to the ziphioid or beaked
whales, for undoubted remains of that group, as teeth of _Ziphius
geelongensis_, occur in these same beds; as well as portions of their
rostrate crania, in the Kalimnan basement beds at Grange Burn, near
Hamilton. The large curved and flattened teeth of _Ziphius (Dolichodon)
geelongensis_ are occasionally found, more or less fragmentary, in the
polyzoal rock of Waurn Ponds.

[Illustration: =Fig. 149.--Tooth of Scaldicetus macgeei, Chapm.=

An Extinct Sperm Whale.

From the Kalimnan beds of Beaumaris, Port Phillip, Victoria.

About 3/4 nat. size.]


=Kalimnan-Scaldicetus.--=

From the Kalimnan Series (Lower Pliocene) of Beaumaris, Port Phillip,
there was described a short time since, a remarkably well preserved
specimen of _Scaldicetus_ tooth belonging to a new form, _S. macgeei_
(Fig. 148). Another species of the genus, with teeth of a slender form,
has been found in the same geological series, at Grange Burn, near
Hamilton. In only one other locality besides Australia does the genus
occur, viz., at Antwerp, Belgium, in Crag deposits of Lower Pliocene age.


=Sirenia.--=

The order Sirenia (Manatees and Dugongs) is represented in the Australian
Pleistocene by _Chronozoön australe_. The remains consist of the parietal
and upper part of the occipital bones of the skull, and were discovered
in the fluviatile deposits on the Darling Downs, Queensland. This fossil
skull, according to De Vis, had a shallower temporal fossa and feebler
masticating muscles, as well as a less highly developed brain than the
existing Dugong.


=Carnivora.--=

The order Carnivora is represented in Australia by the Native Dog or Dingo
(_Canis dingo_). It is by no means a settled question whether the Dingo
can boast of very great antiquity. The evidence of its remains having
been found under volcanic tuff beds in Victoria is not very convincing,
for the original record does not indicate the precise position where
the bones were found. The fact of the remains of the Dingo having been
found in Cave deposits often associated with extinct marsupials, goes a
good way to prove its antiquity. McCoy was strongly inclined to the view
of its Pleistocene age, and points out that it shows cranial characters
intermediate between the Dogs of South America and the Old World. Fossil
remains of the Dingo, associated with Pleistocene mammalian forms have
been recorded from the Wellington, Valley Caves, New South Wales; from
the Mount Macedon Cave, near Gisborne; and in the neighbourhood of
Warrnambool, Western Victoria.


=Pinnipedia.--=

Of the fin-footed Carnivores or Seals and Walruses, the earliest
Australasian record is that of the remains of a small seal in the Okehu
shell-beds near Wanganui, found in association with the bones of a small
Moa-bird (_Dinornis_).


=Newer Pliocene Seal.--=

This seal was referred by Hector to _Arctocephalus cinereus_, a species
synonymous, however, with the widely distributed living Seal, _Otaria
forsteri_, Lesson, of the Southern Ocean. Another and larger species of
eared seal allied to the living Fur Seal, _Otaria forsteri_, occurs in
Victoria.


=Pleistocene Seal.--=

This fossil was named _Arctocephalus williamsi_ by McCoy, and was found
in Pleistocene deposits at Queenscliff, Port Phillip, at 5 feet below the
surface, in marl and sand stone overlain with limestone. Although referred
at the time of description to the Pliocene, it has since been proved
that at this locality there is a considerable thickness of practically
sub-recent material which is more accurately classed with the Pleistocene.
Similar remains of eared seals are not uncommon in the Pleistocene
deposits of the Otway Coast.


=Subrecent Human Remains.=

On turning to the occurrence of "human fossils" in Australia we find the
geological evidence for any great antiquity of man on this continent to
be very scanty and inconclusive. This does not, however, imply that
man's existence in Australia will not eventually be proved to date back
far beyond the period of the "kitchen middens" of modern aspect, such as
are now exposed on the slopes behind the sea-beaches, and on the inland
camping grounds. Almost all the records of Australian human remains that
have been found in other than ordinary burial places, have proved to be
of comparatively recent date. For example, the partially lime-encrusted
body found in the cave in the Mosquito Plains, north of Penola, South
Australia, recorded by Tenison Woods, is that of an aborigine who, in the
early days of settlement, crawled into the cave in a wounded condition.
Other occurrences of human remains in caves, but of fairly recent date
are, a child's skull found in a small cave at Bungonia, Co. Argyle, New
South Wales, recorded by Etheridge; and the non-petrified limb-bones
found in a cave at Wellington, New South Wales, recorded by Krefft, which
were probably washed in from the surface in recent times. As regards the
former, in Western Australia, as observed by Froggatt, the natives at the
present time seek shelter in caves, where these occur, instead of building
mia-mias.

A more interesting, because probably much older, occurrence of human
remains has been described by Etheridge and Trickett from one of the
Jenolan Caves (Skeleton Cave); and those authors conclude from "The
great lapse of time that must have accrued to enable the changes already
outlined to have taken place since the introduction of the remains into
the Skeleton Cave," that these remains are ancient.

[Illustration: =Fig. 150--Impressions of Footprints in dune sand-rock.=

Warrnambool, Victoria. 1/9 nat. size.

  (_F. C. Photo_).                              (_Warrnambool Museum_).
]

Curious footprints supposed to resemble impressions of human feet with
accompanying impress as if made by natives seated, have been long known
from the older sand-dune rock of Warrnambool. They were found at Kellas'
Quarry, on the Port Fairy Road in 1890 and at a depth of 54 feet. In
November, 1912, a further discovery of similar footprints were found at
Messrs. Steere Bros.' Quarry, Warrnambool, at a depth of 10 feet, as a
block of stone was being removed for building purposes. These footprints
are even more obscure than those previously found, and it would be unsafe
to affirm their human origin, although they are suggestive of such. Their
antiquity is certainly great, since the lavas and tuffs of the Tower
Hill district are found overlying this old dune-rock. Other footprints
associated with these resemble those of the Dingo and a gigantic bird,
possibly like _Genyornis_.


=Probable Origin of Aborigines.--=

Ethnology appears to throw more light upon the subject than does geology.
Australia has in the past been peopled by two distinct types of man.
(1), the ancestors of the Tasmanians, now alas, extinct, who according
to some authorities came by way of Australia from Papua through the
Malay Peninsula, passing over to Tasmania from the mainland before the
separation caused by the subsidence of the Bass Strait area; and who
were represented by a negroid or woolly-haired type: (2), the present
aboriginals of Australia, showing affinities with the Dravidians of
Southern India, a primitive race from whose original stock the white
Caucasian races of Europe were derived. By intermarriage with a negroid
race like the Melanesian, it is supposed that the black Caucasian gave
rise to the present Australian mixed aboriginal type, with negroid
features, but possessing the long black hair and keener intellect of the
"melanochroi," as the dark Eurasian stock was termed by Huxley.


=Aboriginal Implements.--=

The stone implements fashioned by the Tasmanian aboriginals were roughly
chipped and of primitive type, of such forms as used at the present day by
the Bushmen of South Africa, and representing the eoliths and palaeoliths
of early man in the south of England. The implements of the Australian
aboriginals on the other hand include besides these both flakes and
worked and polished tools, such as were produced by the Neolithic men of
Europe, as contrasted with the typically rough palaeolithic tools of the
Tasmanian, who never grooved his axes for hafting as did the Australian
aboriginal. According to some authorities the Tasmanians represent
palaeolithic or even eolithic man in the character of their implements;
whilst the Australian resembles the Middle or Mousterian stage of early
man in certain of their ethnological characters and in the forms of their
implements, although a marked exception is seen in their manufacture of
polished adzes, of the neolithic period and in the use of bone implements
such as were used in Europe in Upper Palaeolithic times. So far no human
remains or handiwork in the form of chipped implements have been found
in other than superficial deposits, either in Tasmania or Australia. The
incised bone-fragment found near Ballarat, in a bed of silt beneath a
sheet of basalt which flowed from Mount Buninyong, is believed by some
to be evidence of man's handiwork in the early Pleistocene, though by
others thought to have been cut by the teeth of the "marsupial lion"
(_Thylacoleo_). A stone axe of basalt, grooved for the purpose of
mounting in a handle, was found in gravel at Ballarat at a depth of 22
inches from the surface. This, however, is no proof of man's antiquity,
for superficial deposits of much greater depth are easily accumulated
within a short period. Another implement was found at Maryborough in
Queensland in gravels at a depth of 4 feet from the surface, but not
below the basalt of the main lead. In this case it is believed that the
implement may have fallen into a natural hollow or wombat-burrow. A bone
pointer, such as used by native medicine men, was some years ago found
buried in the Miocene marls of Waurn Ponds near Geelong. Its presence in
so old a rock is easily explained from the fact that in the aboriginal
ceremonies the pointer was buried after the incantations. Seeing the
difficulties in the way of discovering reliable occurrences of man's
handiwork in isolated examples amongst the older superficial deposits of
silt and gravels, the ancient sand-dunes of Victoria, which date back
at least to Upper Pliocene, should afford favourable conditions for the
preservation of any really ancient kitchen middens, did such exist.
Moreover, these deposits would have been less liable to disturbance when
once they were covered, than the inland deposits, for the former are now
consolidated into a tolerably hard stone.


=Antiquity of Man in Australia.--=

A strong argument in favour of a considerable antiquity for man in
Australia is the fact that the dialects are many, and marriage and tribal
customs more complex and intricate than would be found in a comparatively
recent primitive race. In any case, it is quite possible, if not probable,
that man was in southern Australia before the termination of the last
phase of volcanic activity, since the tuff beds of Koroit, for example,
are quite modern and were laid down on a modern sea-beach strewn with
shells identical in species and condition with those now found thrown
up in the vicinity at high tide. This view is quite compatible with the
occurrence of dingo remains (assuming this animal was introduced by man)
in cave deposits in Australia, associated with extinct forms of marsupials.

       *       *       *       *       *


COMMON OR CHARACTERISTIC FOSSILS OF THE FOREGOING CHAPTER.


FISHES.

  _Thyestes magnificus_, Chapman. Silurian: Victoria.

  _Asterolepis australis_, McCoy. Middle Devonian: Victoria.

  _Ganorhynchus süssmilchi_, Etheridge fil. Devonian: New South Wales.

  _Gyracanthides murrayi_, A. S. Woodward. Lower Carboniferous: Victoria.

  _Acanthodes australis_, A. S. Woodward. Lower Carboniferous: Victoria.

  _Ctenodus breviceps_, A. S. Woodward. Lower Carboniferous: Victoria.

  _Strepsodus decipiens_, A. S. Woodward. Lower Carboniferous: Victoria.

  _Elonichthys sweeti_, A. S. Woodward. Lower Carboniferous: Victoria.

  _Physonemus micracanthus_, Chapman. Lower Carboniferous: Victoria.

  _(?) Deltodus australis_, Eth. fil. Carbopermian: Queensland.

  _Tomodus (?) convexus_, Agassiz. Carbopermian: New South Wales.

  _Edestus davisii_, H. Woodward. Carbopermian: W. Australia.

  _Peocilodus jonesi_, Agassiz. Carbopermian: W. Australia.

  _Gosfordia truncata_, A. S. Woodw. Triassic: New South Wales.

  _Myriolepis clarkei_, Egerton. Triassic: New South Wales.

  _Apateolepis australis_, A. S. Woodw. Triassic: New South Wales.

  _Dictyopyge robusta_, A. S. Woodw. Triassic: New South Wales.

  _Belonorhynchus gigas_, A. S. Woodw. Triassic: New South Wales.

  _Semionotus australis_, A. S. Woodw. Triassic: New South Wales.

  _Pristisomus latus_, A. S. Woodw. Triassic: New South Wales.

  _Cleithrolepis granulatus_, Egerton. Triassic: New South Wales.

  _Pholidophorus gregarius_, A. S. Woodw. Triassic: New South Wales.

  _Pleuracanthus parvidens_, A. S. Woodw. Upper Trias: New South Wales.

  _Sagenodus laticeps_, A. S. Woodw. Upper Trias: New South Wales.

  _Palaeoniscus crassus_, A. S. Woodw. Upper Trias: New South Wales.

  _Elonichthys armatus_, A. S. Woodw. Upper Trias: New South Wales.

  _Elpisopholis dunstani_, A. S. Woodw. Upper Trias: New South Wales.

  _Pholidophorus australis_, A. S. Woodw. Upper Trias: New South Wales.

  _Psilichthys selwyni_, Hall. Jurassic: Victoria.

  _Leptolepis crassicauda_, Hall. Jurassic: Victoria.

  _Ceratodus avus_, A. S. Woodw. Jurassic: Victoria.

  _Coccolepis australis_, A. S. Woodw. Jurassic: New South Wales.

  _Aphnelepis australis_, A. S. Woodw. Jurassic: New South Wales.

  _Aetheolepis mirabilis_, A. S. Woodw. Jurassic: New South Wales.

  _Archaeomaene tenuis_, A. S. Woodw. Jurassic: New South Wales.

  _Leptolepis talbragarensis_, A. S. Woodw. Jurassic: New South Wales.

  _Lamna daviesii_, Eth. fil. Lower Cretaceous: Queensland.

  _Lamna appendiculatus_, Agassiz. Lower Cretaceous: Queensland.

  _Corax australis_, Chapm. Lower Cretaceous: Queensland.

  _Aspidorhynchus_ sp. Lower Cretaceous: Queensland.

  _Belonostomus sweeti_, Eth. fil. and A. S. Woodw. Lower Cretaceous:
       Queensland.

  _Portheus australis_, A. S. Woodw. Lower Cretaceous: Queensland.

  _Cladocyclus sweeti_, A. S. Woodw. Lower Cretaceous: Queensland.

  _Notidanus marginalis_, Davis. Cretaceous: New Zealand.

  _Lamna compressa_, Agassiz. Cretaceous: New Zealand.

  _Callorhynchus hectori_, Newton. Cretaceous: New Zealand.

  _Ischyodus thurmanni_, Pictet and Campiche. Cretaceous: New Zealand.

  _Odontaspis contortidens_, Agassiz. Cainozoic (Bal. and Janj.):
       Victoria.

  _Lamna apiculata_, Ag. sp. Cainozoic (Bal. and Janj.): Victoria. Also
       Cainozoic (Oamaru Series): New Zealand.

  _Carcharodon megalodon_, Agassiz. Cainozoic (Bal. Janj. and Kal.):
       Victoria. Also Cainozoic (Oamaru Series): New Zealand.

  _Cestracion cainozoicus_, Chapm. and Pritch. Cainozoic (Janj. and
       Kal.): Victoria.

  _Asteracanthus eocaenicus_, Tate sp. Cainozoic (Janj. and Kal.):
       Victoria.

  _Galeocerdo davisi_, Chapm. and Pritch. Cainozoic (Janj.): Victoria.
       Also Cretaceous (Waipara Series) and Cainozoic (Oamaru Series):
       New Zealand.

  _Carcharoides totuserratus_, Ameghino. Cainozoic (Janj.): Victoria.

  _Odontaspis incurva_, Davis sp. Cainozoic (Janj. and Kal.): Victoria.
       Also Cainozoic (Oamaru Series): New Zealand.

  _Oxyrhina retroflexa_, Agassiz. Cainozoic (Janj.): Victoria. Also
       Cainozoic (Oamaru Series): New Zealand.

  _Carcharodon auriculatus_, Blainville sp. Cainozoic (Janj. and Kal.):
       Victoria.

  _Acanthias geelongensis_, Chapm. and Pritch. Cainozoic (Janj.):
       Victoria.

  _Ischyodus mortoni_, Chapm. and Pritch. Cainozoic (Janj.): Tasmania.

  _Notidanus jenningsi_, Chapm. and Pritch. Cainozoic (Kal.): Victoria.

  _Galeocerdo aduncus_, Agassiz. Cainozoic (Kal.): Victoria.

  _Oxyrhina hastalis_, Agassiz. Cainozoic (rare in Balc. and Janj.,
       abundant in Kal.): Victoria.

  _Myliobatis moorabbinensis_, Chapm. and Pritch. Cainozoic (Kal.):
       Victoria.

  _Edaphodon sweeti_, Chapm. and Pritch. Cainozoic (Kal.): Victoria.

  _Labrodon confertidens_, Chap. and Pritch. Cainozoic (Kal.): Victoria.

  _Diodon formosus_, Chapm. and Pritch. Cainozoic (Kal.): Victoria.

  _Notidanus marginalis_, Davis. Cretaceous (Waipara Series); and
       Cainozoic (Oamaru Series): New Zealand.

  _Myliobatis plicatilis_, Davis. Cainozoic (Oamaru Series): New Zealand.

  _Sargus laticonus_, Davis. Cainozoic (Oamaru Series): New Zealand.

  _Ctenolates avus_, A. S. Woodw. Pleistocene: New South Wales.

  _Neoceratodus forsteri_, Krefft, sp. Pleistocene: New South Wales.


AMPHIBIA.

  _Bothriceps australis_, Huxley. Carbopermian: New South Wales.

  _Bothriceps major_, A. S. Woodw. Carbopermian: New South Wales.

  _Platyceps wilkinsoni_, Stephens. Triassic: New South Wales.


REPTILIA.

  _Ichthyosaurus hectori_, Ch. (nom. mut.). Triassic: New Zealand.

  _(?) Megalosaurus_ sp. Jurassic: Victoria.

  _Notochelone costata_, Owen sp. Lower Cretaceous: Queensland.

  _Ichthyosaurus australis_, McCoy. Lower Cretaceous: Queensland.

  _Ichthyosaurus marathonensis_, Eth. fil. Lower Cretaceous: Queensland.

  _Cimoliosaurus leucoscopelus_, Eth. fil. Upper Cretaceous: New South
       Wales.

  _Plesiosaurus australis_, Owen. Cretaceous: New Zealand.

  _Polycotylus tenuis_, Hector. Cretaceous: New Zealand.

  _Cimoliosaurus haastii_, Hector sp. Cretaceous: New Zealand.

  _Tylosaurus haumuriensis_, Hector sp. Cretaceous: New Zealand.

  _Taniwhasaurus oweni_, Hector. Cretaceous: New Zealand.

  _Pallymnarchus pollens_, De Vis. Pleistocene: Queensland and Victoria.


  _Crocodilus porosus_, Schneider. Pleistocene: Queensland and Victoria.

  _Miolania oweni_, A. S. Woodw. Pliocene (Deep-leads): New South Wales.
       Pleistocene: Queensland.

  _Miolania platyceps_, Owen. Pleistocene: Lord Howe Island.

  _Megalania prisca_, Owen. Pleistocene: Queensland.


BIRDS.

  _Palaeeudyptes antarcticus_, Huxley. Cainozoic (Oamaru Series): New
       Zealand.

  _Dinornis_ sp. Cainozoic (Petane Series): New Zealand.

  _Pelecanus proavis_, De Vis. Pleistocene: Queensland.

  _Platalea subtenuis_, De Vis. Pleistocene: Queensland.

  _Anas elapsa_, De Vis. Pleistocene: Queensland.

  _Gallinula strenuipes_, De Vis. Pleistocene: Queensland.

  _Fulica prior_, De Vis. Pleistocene: Queensland.

  _Dromornis australis_, Owen. Pleistocene: Queensland and New South
       Wales.

  _Dromaeus patricius_, De Vis. Pleistocene. Queensland.

  _Dromaeus minor_, Spencer. Pleistocene: King Island.

  _Genyornis newtoni_, Stirling and Zietz. Pleistocene: S. Australia.

  _Cnemiornis calcitrans_, Owen. Pleistocene: New Zealand.

  _Harpagornis moorei_, von Haast. Pleistocene: New Zealand.

  _Aptornis otidiformis_, Owen sp. Pleistocene: New Zealand.

  _Dinornis giganteus_, Owen. Pleistocene and Holocene: N. Id., New
       Zealand.

  _Pachyornis elephantopus_, Owen sp. Pleistocene and Holocene: S. Id.,
       New Zealand.

  _Anomalopteryx antiqua_, Hutton. Pleistocene: S. Id., New Zealand.


MAMMALIA.

  _Ornithorhynchus maximus_, Dun. Cainozoic (Kalimnan or L. Pliocene):
       New South Wales.

  _Echidna (Proechidna) robusta_, Dun. Cainozoic (Kalimnan): New South
       Wales.

  _Ornithorhynchus agilis_, De Vis. Pleistocene: New South Wales.

  _Echidna (Proechidna) oweni_, Krefft. Pleistocene: New South Wales.

  _Wynyardia bassiana_, Spencer. Cainozoic (Kalimnan): Tasmania.

  _Dasyurus maculatus_, Kerr sp. Pleistocene: Victoria and New South
       Wales. Living: Queensland, New South Wales, Victoria and Tasmania.

  _Phascolomys pliocenus_, McCoy. Cainozoic (Werrikooian): Victoria.

  _Sarcophilus ursinus_, Harris sp. Pleistocene: Victoria and New South
       Wales. Living: Tasmania.

  _Thylacinus cynocephalus_, Harris sp. Pleistocene: Victoria and New
       South Wales. Living: Tasmania.

  _Thylacinus spelaeus_, Owen. Pleistocene: Queensland and New South
       Wales.

  _Thylacinus major_, Owen. Pleistocene: Queensland.

  _Peragale lagotis_, Reid sp. Pleistocene: New South Wales. Living: S.
       Australia and W. Australia.

  _Perameles gunni_, Gray. Pleistocene: Victoria. Living: Queensland and
       Victoria.

  _Phascolomys parvus_, Owen. Pleistocene: Queensland.

  _Phascolonus gigas_, Owen. Pleistocene: Queensland, New South Wales
       and S. Australia.

  _Macropus titan_, Owen. Pleistocene: Queensland, Victoria, New South
       Wales and S. Australia.

  _Macropus anak_, Owen. Pleistocene: Queensland, S. Australia and New
       South Wales.

  _Procoptodon goliah_, Owen sp. Pleistocene: Queensland, New South
       Wales and Victoria.

  _Sthenurus atlas_, Owen sp. Pleistocene: Queensland, New South Wales,
       Victoria, and South Australia.

  _Sthenurus occidentalis_, Glauert. Pleistocene: W. Australia.

  _Palorchestes azael_, Owen. Pleistocene: Queensland, New South Wales
       and Victoria.

  _Diprotodon australis_, Owen. Pleistocene: Queensland, New South
       Wales, Victoria and S. Australia.

  _Nototherium mitchelli_, Owen. Pleistocene: Queensland, S. Australia
       and Victoria.

  _Thylacoleo carnifex_, Owen. Pleistocene: Queensland, New South Wales,
       Victoria and W. Australia.

  _Parasqualodon wilkinsoni_, McCoy sp. Cainozoic (Janjukian): Victoria
       and Tasmania.

  _Metasqualodon harwoodi_, Sanger sp. Cainozoic (Janjukian): S.
       Australia.

  _Kekenodon onamata_, Hector. Cainozoic (Oamaru Series): New Zealand.

  _Cetotolithes nelsoni_, McCoy. Cainozoic (Janjukian): Victoria.

  _Ziphius (Dolichodon) geelongensis_, McCoy. Cainozoic (Janjukian):
       Victoria.

  _Scaldicetus macgeei_, Chapm. Cainozoic (Kalimnan): Victoria.

  _Chronozoön australis_, De Vis. Pleistocene: Queensland.

  _Canis dingo_, Blumenbach. Late Pleistocene or Holocene: Victoria.

  _Otaria forsteri_, Lesson. Pliocene (Petane Series): N. Id., New
       Zealand.

  _Arctocephalus williamsi_, McCoy. Pleistocene: Victoria.


       *       *       *       *       *


LITERATURE.


FISHES.

  Silurian.--Chapman, F. Proc. R. Soc. Vict., vol. XVIII. (N.S.), pt.
       II. 1906, pp. 93-100, pls. VII. and VIII. (_Thyestes_).

  Devonian.--McCoy, F. Prod. Pal. Vict., Dec. IV. 1876, pp. 19, 20,
       pl. XXXV. figs. 7, 7_a_, 7_b_ (_Asterolepis_). Etheridge,
       R. jnr. Rec. Austr. Mus., vol. VI. pp. 129-132, pl. XXVIII.
       (_Ganorhynchus_).

  Carboniferous and Carbopermian.--Woodward, H. Geol. Mag., Dec. III.
       vol. III. 1886, pp. 1-7, pl. I. (_Edestus_). Etheridge, R.
       jnr. Geol. and Pal. Queensland, 1892, p. 296, pl. XXXIX. fig.
       1 (_Deltodus_). De Koninck, L. G. Mem. Geol. Surv. New South
       Wales, Pal. No. 6, 1898, p. 281, pl. XXIV., fig. 11 (_Tomodus_).
       Woodward, A. S. Mem. Nat. Mus. Melbourne, No. 1. 1906 (Mansfield
       Series).

  Triassic.--Johnston, R. M. and Morton, A. Proc. R. Soc. Tasmania
       (1889), 1890, pp. 102-104; ibid. (1890), 1891, pp. 152-154
       (_Acrolepis_). Woodward, A. S. Mem. Geol. Surv. New South Wales,
       Pal. No. 4, 1890 (Gosford). Ibid. No. 10, 1908 (St. Peters).

  Jurassic.--Woodward, A. S. Mem. Geol. Surv. New South Wales, Pal. No.
       9, 1895. Id., Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., Ser. VII. Vol. XVIII. 1906,
       pp. 1-3, pl. I. (_Ceratodus_). Hall, T. S. Proc. R. Soc. Vict.
       vol. XII. (N.S.) pt. II. 1900, pp. 147-151, pl. XIV. Chapman, F.
       Rec. Geol. Surv. Vict. vol. III. pt. 2, 1912, pp. 234-235, pl.
       XXXIX. (_Ceratodus_).

  Cretaceous.--Etheridge, R. jnr. Proc. Linn. Soc. New South Wales,
       vol. III. ser. 2, 1889, pp. 156-161, pl. IV. Idem, Geol. and
       Pal. Queensland, 1892, pp. 503-504. Davis, J. W. Trans. R. Dubl.
       Soc. vol. IV. ser. 2. 1888, pp. 1-48, pls. I.-VII. (Cretaceous
       and Cainozoic of New Zealand). Etheridge, R. jnr. and Woodward,
       A. S. Trans. R. Soc. Vict., vol. II. pt. II. 1892, pp. 1-7,
       pl. I. (_Belonostomus_). Woodward, A. S. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist.,
       ser. 6, vol. XIX. 1894, pp. 444-447, pl. X. (_Portheus_ and
       _Cladocyclus_). Chapman, F. Proc. R. Soc. Vict., vol. XXI.
       (N.S.), pt. II. 1909, pp. 452, 453 (_Corax_).

  Cainozoic.--McCoy, F. Prod. Pal. Vict., Dec. II. 1875, pp. 8-10, pl.
       XI. (_Carcharodon_). Chapman, F. and Pritchard, G. B. Proc. R.
       Soc. Vict., vol. XVII. (N.S.), pt. I. 1904, pp. 267-297, pls.
       V.-VIII. Idem, ibid, vol. XX. (N.S.), pt. I. 1907, pp. 59-75,
       pls. V.-VIII. See also Davis, J. W. (_Cretaceous_).

  Pleistocene.--Etheridge, R. jnr. Geol. and Pal. Queensland, 1892, p.
       646 (_Neoceratodus_). Woodward, A. S. Rec. Geol. Surv. New South
       Wales, vol. VII. pt. 2, 1902, pp. 88-91, pl. XXIV. (_Ctenolates_).


AMPHIBIA.

  Huxley, T. H. Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. XV. 1859, pp. 647-649,
       pl. XXII. figs. 1, 2 (_Bothriceps_). Stephens, W. J. Proc. Linn.
       Soc. New South Wales, ser. 2. vol. I. 1886, pp. 931-940. Ibid.,
       1887, pp. 1175-1182, pl. XXII. Ibid., vol. II. 1887, pp. 156-158.
       Woodward, A. S. Rec. Geol. Surv. New South Wales, vol. VIII. pt.
       4, 1909, pp. 317-319, pl. LI. (_Bothriceps_).


REPTILIA.

  Jurassic and Cretaceous.--Hector, J. Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. VI. 1874,
       pp. 333-358.

  Cretaceous.--McCoy, F. Proc. R. Soc. Vic., vol. VIII. pt. I. 1868,
       p. 42 (_Plesiosaurus_). Ibid., vol. IX. pt. II. 1869, p. 77
       (_Ichthyosaurus_). Owen, R. Geol. Mag., Dec. I. vol. VII.
       1870, pp. 49-53, pl. III. (_Plesiosaurus_). Id., Quart. Journ.
       Geol. Soc. vol. XXXVIII. 1882, pp. 178-183 (_"Notochelys" =
       Notochelone_). Etheridge, R. jnr. Proc. Linn. Soc. New South
       Wales, ser. 2, vol. III. 1889, pp. 405-413, pls. VII. and VIII.
       (_Ichthyosaurus_). Id., Geol. and Pal. Queensland, 1892, pp.
       505-510. Hutton, F. W. Trans. N.Z. Inst. vol. XXVI. 1894, pp.
       354-358, 1 pl. (_Cimoliosaurus_).

  Pleistocene.--Etheridge, R. jnr. Rec. Geol. Surv. New South Wales,
       vol. I. pt. 3, 1889, pp. 149-152 (_Miolania_). Id., Geol. and
       Pal. Queensland, 1892, pp. 647-653.


AVES.

  Miocene.--Huxley, T. H. Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. XV. 1859, pp.
       670-677. Also Hector, J. Trans. N.Z. Inst. vol. IV. 1872, pp.
       341-346, 1 pl. (_Palaeeudyptes_). Chapman, F. Proc. R. Soc. Vict.
       (N.S.) pt. I. 1910, pp. 21-26, pls. IV. and V.

  Pleistocene and Holocene.--Von Haast, J. Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. IV.,
       1872, pp. 192-196; and vol. VI. 1874, pp. 62-75 (_Harpagornis_).
       Owen, R. Memoirs on the Extinct Wingless Birds of New Zealand,
       London, 1879, 2 vols. De Vis, C. W. Proc. R. Soc. Queensland,
       vol. VI. pt. I. 1889, pp. 6-8. Id., Proc. Linn. Soc. New South
       Wales, vol. III. ser. 2, 1888, pp. 1277-1292, pls. XXXIII.-XXXVI.
       (Carinatae). Etheridge, R. jnr. Rec. Geol. Surv. New South Wales,
       vol. I. pt. 2, 1889, pp. 126-136, pls. XI.-XIII. (_Dromornis_).
       Id., Geol. and Pal. Queensland, 1892, pp. 653-663. Hutton, F.
       W. Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. XXIV. 1892, pp. 93-172 (Moas). Id.,
       ibid., vol. XXV. 1893, pp. 14-16, 1 pl. (_Anomalopteryx_). Id.,
       ibid., vol. XXIX. 1897, pp. 441-557, figs. (Moas). Id., ibid.,
       vol. XXXVIII. 1906, pp. 66 and 67 (_Emeus crassus_). Hamilton, A.
       Ibid, vol. XXVI. 1894, pp. 227-257 (Bibliography of Moas). Ibid,
       vol. XXX. 1898, pp. 445 and 446 (_Euryapteryx_). Stirling, E. C.
       and Zietz, A. H. C. Mem. R. Soc. S. Austr., vol. I. pt. II. 1900,
       pp. 41-80, pls. XIX.-XXIV. (_Genyornis_). Spencer, W. B. Vict.
       Nat. vol. XXIII. 1906, pp. 139 and 140; also Spencer, W. B. and
       Kershaw, J. A. Mem. Nat. Mus. Melbourne No. 3, 1910, pp. 5-35,
       pls. I.-VII. (_Dromaeus minor_).


MAMMALS.

  Huxley, T. H. Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. XV. 1859, pp. 676-677
       (_Phocaenopsis_). McCoy, F. Prod. Pal. Vict., Dec. I. 1874,
       pp. 21, 22, pls. III.-V. (_Phascolomys_). Ibid, Dec. II.
       1875, pp. 7-8, pl. XI. and Dec. VI. 1879, pp. 20 and 21, pl.
       LV. (_Squalodon_). Ibid, Dec. III. 1876, pp. 7-12, pl. XXI.
       (_Thylacoleo_). Ibid, Dec. IV. 1876, pp. 7-11, pl. XXXI.-XXXIII.
       (_Diprotodon_). Ibid, Dec. V. 1877, pp. 7-9, pl. XLI. and
       XLII. (_Arctocephalus_). Ibid, Dec. VI. 1879, pp. 5-7, pl. LI.
       (_Macropus_): pp. 9-11, pl. LI.-LIII. (_Procoptodon_): pp. 13-17,
       pl. LIV. (_Cetotolithes_); pp. 19 and 20, pl. LV. (_Physetodon_).
       Ibid, Dec. VII. 1882, pp. 7-10, pl. LX. (_Canis dingo_): pp.
       11-13, pl. LXXII. and LXII. (_Sarcophilus_): pp. 23-26, pl.
       LIX. (_Ziphius_). Owen, R. Extinct Mammals of Australia, London
       1877, 2 vols. Hector, J. Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. XIII. 1881, pp.
       434-436, 1 pl. (_Kekenodon_). Lydekker, R. Cat. Foss. Mammalia,
       Brit. Mus. part V. 1887. Id., Handbook to the Marsupialia, and
       Monotremata. Allen's Nat. Library, 1894, pt. III. pp. 249-286.
       De Vis, C. W. Proc. Linn. Soc. New South Wales, vol. VIII. pt.
       3, 1883, p. 395 (Sirenian). Id., ibid, vol. X. 1895, pp. 75-133,
       pls. XIV.-XVIII. (Macropodidae). Id., Proc. R. Soc. Vict., vol.
       XII. (N.S.), pt. I, 1899, pp. 107-11 (Marsupials). Etheridge, R.
       jnr. Geol. and Pal. Queensland, 1892, pp. 663-683 (Pleistocene
       Mammals). Dun, W. S. Rec. Geol. Surv. New South Wales, vol. III.
       pt. 4, 1893, pp. 120-124, pl. XVI. (_Palorchestes_). Ibid., vol.
       IV. pt. 3, 1895, pp. 118-126, pls. XI. and XII. (Monotremes).
       Stirling, E. C. and Zietz, A. H. C. Mem. Roy. Soc. S. Australia,
       vol. I. pt. I. 1899 (Descr. of _Diprotodon_, Manus and Pes.).
       Spencer, W. B. Proc. Zool. Soc. 1900, pp. 776-794, pls. XLIX.
       and L. (_Wynyardia_). Hall, T. S. Proc. R. Soc. Vict. vol.
       XXIII. (N.S.), pt. II. 1911, pp. 257-265, pl. XXXVI. (Rev. of
       Squalodontidae). Spencer, W. B. and Walcott, R. H. Proc. R.
       Soc. Vict., vol. XXIV. (N.S.), pt. I. 1912, pp. 92-123, pls.
       XXXVI.-XXIX. (_Thylacoleo_). Chapman, F. Rec. Geol. Surv. Vict.,
       vol. III. pt. 2, 1912, pp. 236-238, pl. XL. (_Scaldicetus_).
       Woods, J. E. T. Geol. Observations in S. Australia, 1862, pp. 329
       and 330 (Human Remains): also Krefft, G. Australian Vertebrata,
       Recent and Fossil, 1867, p. 91; Etheridge, R. jnr. Rec. Geol.
       Surv. New South Wales, vol. III. pt. 4, 1893, pp. 128-132;
       Etheridge, R. jnr. and Trickett, O. Ibid., vol. VII. pt. 4, 1904,
       pp. 325-328.




APPENDIX.--ON THE COLLECTION AND PRESERVATION OF FOSSILS.


The tools and other paraphernalia necessary for fossil collecting
are fortunately within the reach of all. The principal of these is a
geological hammer, preferably with a pick at one end of the head and the
opposite end square-faced. The pick end is useful for digging out fossils
from soft clays, or for extracting a block of fossils entire. The square
end is employed for breaking up the slabs or masses containing fossils. To
get good results, much will of course depend upon one's skill in striking
the right face of a block. If bedding planes are present on the lump from
which we wish to extract our fossils, it will be well to strike at right
angles to these layers in order to split them asunder, thus exposing a
shell-layer corresponding to the original surface of the ancient sea-bed
upon which the organisms accumulated. In some cases the splitting of
fossiliferous rocks may be best carried out with the pick end, provided it
be not too sharply curved. The hammer should be faced with steel, for many
fossiliferous rocks, especially compact limestones, are apt to severely
try the temper of an ill-made tool.

A chisel, of chilled steel, should accompany the hammer, since this is
often of the greatest use in working out large fossils, more particularly
those that are buried in a cliff or quarry face. The process of extracting
difficult specimens should never be hurried, for one often gets
surprisingly good results with a little extra care.

A strong pocket knife may be used in trimming specimens and partially
cleaning shells that can be safely manipulated on the spot, but the final
cleaning should be left until the return home. The knife is also useful
for cleaning slates and shales, since the chisel-edge is frequently a
trifle too thick for this kind of work.

For the more delicate fossils, means for careful packing should be
provided; chip-boxes and cotton-wool being indispensable for the smaller
specimens. A ready method of packing the fossils obtained from the
friable, sandy tertiary deposits is to store them in tins, the contents of
which can be firmly secured from rattling by filling up with sand. This
sand, however, should be taken from the same bed in which the fossils
occur, so as to get no admixture of the smaller shells from another
formation or deposit; for although we may not wish to examine the finer
material ourselves, it will yield in many cases a rich harvest to our
microscopical friends, such residues containing microzoa, as shells
of foraminifera, polyzoa and carapaces of the ostracoda. The residues
referred to may be obtained from many of our marls and rubbly limestones
by the simple process of washing in water, and repeatedly pouring off the
finest clayey mud, until only a sandy deposit remains, which can then be
dried and sorted over by the aid of a lens or low power microscope.


=Hints on Fossil Collecting.--=

As regards the places most suitable for collecting fossils, the Cainozoic
beds are perhaps, the most accessible to a beginner, especially in
Victoria. For instance, the cliff exposures at Beaumaris, Port Phillip,
will afford a plentiful supply of the little heart-shaped sea-urchin,
_Lovenia_, and an occasional _Trigonia_ and _Limopsis_, as well as
many other fossils of the great group of the shell-fish or mollusca.
The richest bed containing the sharks' teeth at the above locality is
almost perpetually covered with a bed of shingle, but can be reached by
digging at the cliff-base. Isolated specimens, however, although rather
the worse for wear, may often be picked up amongst the shingle, having
been washed up from the foreshore by the tide. An enticing band of large
bivalve shells (_Dosinea_), can be seen halfway up the cliffs, near the
baths at this locality, but are somewhat disappointing, for when obtained
they crumble to pieces in the hand, since their shells are composed of
the changeable form of carbonate of lime called aragonite, which has
decomposed in place in the bed, after the shells were covered up by the
deposit.

Good collections of shells of the Balcombian series may be easily made at
Balcombe's Bay and Grice's Creek, Port Phillip. They can there be dug out
of the grey-blue clay with a knife, and afterwards cleaned at leisure by
means of a soft tooth brush dipped in water. In the cement stone at the
same place there are numerous shells of pteropods or "sea-butterflies"
(_Vaginella_), and specimens of the stone may be obtained, showing myriads
of the porcelain-like shells, and also their internal casts in the hard
greenish coloured matrix.

The ferruginous or ironstone beds seen in the Flemington Railway cutting,
Melbourne, is an old marine shell-bank, resting on basalt. The shells have
all been dissolved away, and only their casts and moulds remain. These
impressions are, however, so faithfully moulded that the ornamentation
of each shell can often be reproduced on a squeeze taken with a piece of
modelling wax or plasticine. Such fossil remains are easily collected by
carefully breaking up the blocks of ironstone with a hammer.

Quarries in the older limestones and mudstones in Victoria, New South
Wales and other States, are often good hunting grounds for fossils. The
quarry at Cave Hill, Lilydale, for example, will be found very profitable,
for the limestone is full of corals and molluscan shells; whilst the
friable or rubbly portion is worth breaking down for the smaller fossils.
The bed-rock (Silurian) of Melbourne is in places very fossiliferous;
the sandstones of Moonee Ponds Creek generally affording a fair number
of brachiopods, and occasionally corals. The mudstones of South Yarra,
Studley Park, Yan Yean, and other places on the same geological horizon,
contain a rich fauna, to be obtained only by the assiduous collector
who will search over and break up a large number of blocks. Practice
in this work makes a good collector; although of course one must know
something about the objects looked for, since many apparently obscure
fossil remains of great interest might easily be passed over for lack
of knowledge as to what should be expected to occur at each particular
locality.

Many other good collecting grounds might here be alluded to, but we have
purposely cited only a few near Melbourne, since a selection from other
parts of Australasia may easily be made from the localities mentioned in
connection with the various groups of fossils dealt with in the systematic
portion of this work.


=Preservation of Fossils.--=

Many of the Cainozoic fossils from the shelly sands and clays are
extremely delicate, owing in some cases to their being imperfectly
preserved, seeing that they frequently contain in their shell-structure
layers of the unstable form of carbonate of lime called aragonite. Fossils
containing aragonite are:--Calcareous Sponges; Corals; Bivalved shells,
except Oysters, Pectens, and the outer layer of _Spondylus_, _Pinna_, and
_Mytilus_; Gasteropods (with a few exceptions); and Cephalopods. In some
of these, however, a transformation of the aragonite into calcite enables
the fossil to be permanently preserved. The delicate fossils referred to
should be dipped in weak glue or gelatine and left to dry; after which
their final cleaning can be done with the aid of a little warm water and a
soft brush.

Certain of the clays and mudstones, both of Cainozoic and Jurassic ages
which show remains of plants, such as leaves and fern fronds, are often
best treated with a thin surface layer of paper varnish, before they
lose the natural moisture of the rock; for when they become perfectly dry
the thin carbonaceous film representing the original leaf-substance peels
off, and the fossil is consequently destroyed. A method of treatment for
Cainozoic leaves, by dipping them in warm vaseline and brushing off the
superfluous material, has been described by Mr. H. Deane.


=Storing Fossils for Reference.--=

Fossils specimens are generally best displayed in cardboard trays; or if
thin wooden paper-covered tablets are used, say of about 3-16in. thickness
and cut to proportionate sizes, the fossils should be held in place by
pins for easy removal, unless more than one example can be shown together,
exhibiting all aspects, when they can be secured to the tablet by a touch
of seccotine. The smaller shells may be displayed in glass topped boxes,
which in turn may be stuck down to tablets or placed in trays.




INDEX.


  Aboriginal implements, 303
  Aborigines, probable origin of, 302
  _Acanthias_, 270
  _Acanthodes_, 261
  _Acanthosphaera_, 103
  _Acanthothyris_, 166, 167
  _Acentrophorus_, 263
  _Acrolepis_, 263
  _Actaeon_, 197
  _Actinoceras_, 205, 207
  _Actinocrinus_, 136
  _Actinodesma_, 178, 179
  _Actinopteria_, 178, 179
  _Actinostroma_, 121, 122
  _Adeona_, 158
  _Aechmina_, 237
  _Aeschna_, 250
  _Aetheolepis_, 267
  _Agathiceras_, 207
  AGNATHA, 258
  _Agnostus_, 227
  _Allodesma_, 176
  _Ambonychia_, 177
  _Ammodiscus_, 96, 97
  _Ammonites_, 204, 209, 210
  AMMONOIDEA, 205
  _Amoeba_, 36, 95
  AMPHIBIA, structure of, 272
  _Amphistegina_, 100
  _Amplexus_, 117
  _Ampyx_, 229
  _Amusium_, 185
  _Anas_, 283
  _Anchura_, 197
  _Ancilla_, 198, 199, 202
  _Ancyloceras_, 209, 210
  ANGIOSPERMEAE, characters of, 40
  ANNELIDA, 152
  _Anomalina_, 98
  _Anomalopteryx_, 283
  _Antedon_, 138
  ANTHOZOA, 64, 113
  Antiquity of man in Australia, 304
  _Aparchites_, 237
  _Apateolepis_, 262
  _Aphnelepis_, 267
  _Apocynophyllum_, 91
  _Aptornis_, 283
  _Aptychopsis_, 246
  _Arabellites_, 153
  _Arachnoides_, 146
  _Araucarioxylon_, 68
  _Araucarites_, 89
  _Arca_, 184, 186, 188
  _Archaeocidaris_, 144
  _Archaeocyathina_, 113
  ARCHAEOCYATHINAE, 112
  _Archaeomaene_, 267
  _Archaeopteryx_, 280
  _Arctocephalus_, 299
  _Arenicolites_, 153
  Argillaceous rocks, 69
  _Argilloecia_, 237
  _?Argiope_, 166
  _Argonauta_, 205
  ARTHROPODA, structure and subdivisions of, 38, 220
  _Asaphus_, 227, 228
  _Aspidorhynchus_, 267
  _Astarte_, 182
  _Asteracanthus_, 269, 271
  ASTEROIDEA, 139
  _Asterolepis_, 258
  _Astralium_, 198, 200
  _Astropecten_, 141
  _Athyris_, 161, 162, 165
  _Atrypa_, 158, 160, 162
  _Aturia_, 210
  _Atys_, 204
  _Aucella_, 183
  _Aulopora_, 116
  Australian fossiliferous strata, 45-48.
  AVES, 280
  Aviculopecten, 179, 180
  _Axopora_, 119


  Bactronella, 112
  _Baculites_, 210
  _Baiera_, 89, 164
  _Bairdia_, 240
  _Balanophyllia_, 118
  _Balanus_, 243
  Balcombian bivalves, 186
       "     gasteropods, 199
  Bandicoot, 289, 295
  _Bankivia_, 201
  _Banksia_, 91, 281
  _Barbatia_, 184, 185
  Barnacles, 240
  _Barnea_, 187
  _Bathytoma_, 201
  _Bela_, 201
  _Belemnites_, 205, 209, 210
  BELEMNOIDEA, 205
  _Bellerophon_, 193, 194, 195, 196
  _Belonorhynchus_, 262
  _Belonostomus_, 267
  _Bettongia_, 295
  _Beyrichia_, 235, 236, 237
  _Biloela_, 274
  _Bipora_, 158
  Birds, fossil, 53, 280
  _Biziura_, 283
  BLASTOIDEA, distribution and characters of, 61, 138
  Blue-green Algae, 76, 82
  Bog iron-ore, 80
  _Bolodon_, 286
  _Bombax_, 91
  Bone-beds, 78
  Bone-breccias, 79
  _Bothriceps_, 273
  _Botryocrinus_, 136
  BRACHIOPODA, structure of, 57, 158
  Brachiopod limestone, 74
  _Brachymetopus_, 232
  _Brachyphyllum_, 89
  Bracken fern, 91
  _Brissopsis_, 148
  Brittle-stars, characters of, 61, 141
  _Bronteus_, 229, 230
  _Bryograptus_, 124, 126, 227
  BRYOPHYTA, characters of, 39
  _Buccinum_, 191
  _Buchozia_, 199
  _Bulimina_, 97, 98
  _Bulinus_, 69, 191
  _Bulla_, 204
  _Bullinella_, 198, 199
  _Bythocypris_, 236
  _Bythotrephis_, 82


  Cainozoic Balanidae, 243
      "     bird, Victoria, 281
      "     bivalves, 184
      "     brachiopods, 166
      "     brittle-stars, 143
      "     chitons, 190
      "     corals, 118
      "     crabs, 247
      "     echinoids, irregular, 146
      "     echinoids, regular, 145
      "     fishes, 269
      "     Foraminifera, 99
      "     gasteropods, 198
      "     gasteropods, New Zealand, 202
      "     Holothuroidea, 148
      "     insects, 250
      "     Lepadidae, 243
      "     Ostracoda, 239
      "     and Pleistocene reptiles, 279
      "     plants, 89
      "     Polyzoa, 158
  Cainozoic Radiolaria, 104
      "      scaphopods, 189
      "      sponges, 110
      "      starfishes, 141
      "      strata, 45, 46
  Calcareous rocks, 72
      "      sponges, 112
  _Callograptus_, 122
  _Callorhynchus_, 269
  _Calymene_, 229, 230, 231
  CALYPTOBLASTEA, 122
  _Calyptraea_, 198, 200, 201
  _Camarotoechia_, 160, 161, 162
  Cambrian bivalves, 177
     "     brachiopods, 159
     "     crinoids, 134
     "     Foraminifera, 96
     "     gasteropods, 192
     "     Ostracoda, 235
     "     plants, 82
     "     Radiolaria, 102
     "     sponges, 107
  _Cameroceras_, 207
  _Campanularia_, 122
  _Campophyllum_, 115, 117
  _Cancellaria_, 198, 199, 202
  _Canis_, 298
  Cannel coal, 76
  _Capitosaurus_, 274
  _Capulus_, 194
  Carbonaceous rocks, 76
  Carboniferous brachiopods, 162
      "     crinoids, 136
      "     fishes, 259
      "     Foraminifera, 96
      "     gasteropods, 196
      "     Ostracoda, 237
      "     plants, 85
  Carbopermian bivalves, 179
     "     blastoids, 139
     "     brachiopods, 163
     "     cephalopods, 207
     "     corals, 116
     "     crinoids, 137
     "     fishes, 261
     "     Foraminifera, 97
     "    gasteropods, 196
     "    labyrinthodonts, 273
     "    Ostracoda, 237
     "    palaeechinoids, 144
     "    Phyllopoda, 233
     "    plants, 86
     "    sponges, 110
     "    starfishes, 141
     "    trilobites, 232
  _Carcharodon_, 269, 270, 271
  _Carcharoides_, 269
  _Cardiola_, 177, 178
  _Cardita_, 184, 187
  _Cardium_, 176, 184, 186, 187
  CARNIVORA, 298
  _Carposphaera_, 102
  _Carpospongia_, 109
  _Caryocaris_, 244, 246
  _Cassidulus_, 148
  _Catenicella_, 158
  _Cellaria_, 158
  _Cellepora_, 158
  _Cenellipsis_, 102
  _Cenosphaera_, 102, 103
  CEPHALOPODA, characters of, 204
  _Ceratiocaris_, 246
  _Ceratodus_, 265, 267
  _Ceratotrochus_, 118
  _Cerithiopsis_, 200
  _Cerithium_, 198, 200
  _Cestracion_, 261, 269, 271
  CETACEA, 295
  _Cetotolithes_, 296
  _Chaenomya_, 181
  CHAETOPODA, 152
  _Chama_, 185
  Changes of climate in the past, 31
  CHEILOSTOMATA, 155, 157
  _Cheirurus_, 229, 231
  _Chelodes_, 190
  Cherts, 71
  _Chione_, 185, 187, 188
  _Chiridota_, 148
  _Chironomus_, 250
  _Chiton_, 190
  _Chonetes_, 160, 161, 162
  CHORDATA, 257
  _Chosornis_, 283
  _Chronozoön_, 298
  _Cicada_, 250
  _Cidaris_, 145
  _Cimoliosaurus_, 279
  _Cinnamomum_, 91
  _Cinulia_, 197
  CIRRIPEDIA, habits and structure of, 240
  _Cladochonus_, 117
  _Cladophlebis_, 89, 164, 182
  CLADOPHORA, 122
  Classification of animals, 35
  _Clathrodictyon_, 121
  _Clausilia_, 191
  _Clavigera_, 165
  Clays, 69
  _Cleiothyris_, 164
  _Cleithrolepis_, 262, 263, 274
  _Climacograptus_, 127
  _Climatius_, 258
  _Clonograptus_, 123, 124, 126
  _Clypeaster_, 146
  _Cnemiornis_, 283
  Coals, 76
  _Coccolepis_, 267
  _Cocconema_, 92
  _Coccosteus_, 259
  COELENTERATA, characters of, 37
  _Coleolus_, 193
  Collecting fossils, 317
  _Colubraria_, 199
  _Columbarium_, 198, 201, 202
  _Columbella_, 198
  _Conchothyra_, 184
  _Conocardium_, 177, 178
  Conodonts, 153
  _Conosmilia_, 118
  _Conularia_, 193, 194, 196
  _Conus_, 198, 199, 202, 204
  _Coprosmaephyllum_, 90
  Coral limestone, 73
  Corals, 64, 113
  _Corax_, 267
  _Corbicula_, 182
  _Corbula_, 177, 185, 187, 188
  _Cordaites_, 85
  _Cornulites_, 154
  _Coscinocyathus_, 113
  _Coxiella_, 69
  _Crassatellites_, 176, 184
  _Crenella_, 176
  _Crepicephalus_, 227
  _Crepidula_, 198
  Cretaceous (Lower and Upper) cephalopods, 209
      "    cephalopods, New Zealand, 210
      "    Cheilostomata, 157
      "    crinoids, 137
      "    echinoids (irregular), 146
      "    (Lower) fishes, 267
      "    fishes, New Zealand, 268
      "    Foraminifera, 98
      "    gasteropods, 197
      "    plants, 89
      "    Radiolaria, 103
      "    (Lower) reptiles, 277
      "    reptiles, New Zealand, 279
      "    scaphopods, 189
      "    sponges, 110
  Crinoidal limestone, 74
  CRINOIDEA, occurrence and structure of, 61, 133
  _Crioceras_, 209
  _Crisia_, 158
  _Cristellaria_, 98
  _Crocodilus_, 279
  _Cromus_, 229
  Crustacea, an archaic group, 221
      "     development of, 221
      "     fossil, 54
  _Cryptodon_, 186
  _Cryptograptus_, 127
  _Cryptoplax_, 190
  _Cryptostomata_, 155, 156
  _Ctenodonta_, 177, 178
  _Ctenodus_, 261, 263
  _Ctenolates_, 272
  _Ctenostreon_, 182
  _Cucullaea_, 182, 184, 185
  _Cultellus_, 188
  _Cuna_, 184, 186, 187
  _Cupressinoxylon_, 78, 89
  _Cupressus_, 91
  _Cuscus_, 295
  Cuttle-fishes, 205
  CYANOPHYCEAE, 82
  _Cyathocrinus_, 137
  _Cyathophyllum_, 113, 115, 117
  _Cyclas_, 69
  _Cycloceras_, 206
  _Cyclolituites_, 207
  _Cyclometopa_, 248
  _Cyclonema_, 194
  CYCLOSTOMATA, 155
  _Cydnus_, 250
  _Cymbella_, 92
  _Cyphaspis_, 229
  _Cyphon_, 250
  _Cypraea_, 191, 198, 199, 200, 202
  _Cypricardinia_, 178
  Cyprid limestone, 75
  _Cyrenopsis_, 184
  _Cyrtoceras_, 204, 207
  _Cyrtograptus_, 128
  _Cyrtina_, 162, 164
  _Cyrtolites_, 193
  Cystideans, 61
  _Cystiphyllum_, 116
  _Cythere_, 239, 240
  _Cytherella_, 240
  _?Cytheridea_, 238
  _Cytheropteron_, 239


  _Dadoxylon_, 68
  _Dalmanites_, 224, 225, 229, 231
  _Daonella_, 182
  Darter, 283
  _?Darwinula_, 238
  _Dasyurus_, 287, 295
  DECAPODA, 246
  Deep Leads, fruits of, 91
      "   insects from, 250
  _Deltodus_, 261
  _Deltopecten_, 180
  _Dendrocrinus_, 134, 135
  _Dendrocygna_, 283
  _Dendrograptus_, 122
  _Dendrophyllia_, 119
  _Dennantia_, 198
  _Dentalium_, 189
  Dentition of Reptiles, 275
  _Deontopora_, 120
  _Desmoceras_, 209
  Devonian bivalves, 178
      "   brachiopods, 161
      "   cephalopods, 207
      "   corals, 115
      "   crinoids, 136
      "   fishes, 258
      "   gasteropods, 195
      "   Ostracoda, 237
      "   plants, 85
      "   Radiolaria, 102
      "   scaphopods, 189
      "   stromatoporoids, 121
      "   trilobites, 231
  DIADACTYLA, 287
  Diatomite, 72
  Diatoms, 92
  _Dicellograptus_, 126, 127
  _Dichograptus_, 126
  _Dicranograptus_, 126, 127
  _Dictyonema_, and allies, 122
  _Dictyopyge_, 262
  _Didymograptus_, 124, 126
  _?Didymosorus_, 89
  _Dielasma_, 164, 165
  _Dikellocephalus_, 227
  _Dimetrodon_, 276
  _Dimya_, 184, 185, 186
  _Dinesus_, 227
  Dingo, 298, 305
  _Dinornis_, 281, 282, 283, 299
  _Diodon_, 270, 271
  _Dione_, 188
  _Diphyphyllum_, 113
  _Diplograptus_, 124, 126, 127, 128
  _Diprotodon_, 51, 290, 293
  _Diprotodon_-breccias, 203
  DIPROTODONTIA, 287
  _Discina_, 166
  _Discorbina_, 98
  _Dissocheilus_, 199
  _Dithyrocaris_, 246
  _Ditrupa_, 154
  _Ditrupa_ limestone, 74
  _Dolichodon_, 296
  _Dolichometopus_, 226
  _Dolium_, 201
  _Donax_, 175, 187
  _Dorsetensia_, 209
  _Dosinea_, 185, 188
  _Drillia_, 198, 202
  _Dromaeus_, 282, 283
  _Dromornis_, 282
  Duck, 283
  _Duncaniaster_, 147


  Ear-bones of whales, 296
  Early observers, 24
  _Eburnopsis_, 199, 200
  _Echidna_, 286, 287
  _Echinocyamus_, 146
  ECHINODERMATA, characters of, 37, 59
      "   divisions of, 133
  ECHINOIDEA, 143
  _Echinolampas_, 147, 148
  _Echinoneus_, 147
  _Echinus_, 145
  _Ecionema_, 112
  _Edaphodon_, 271
  _Edestus_, 262
  _Edmondia_, 177, 180, 182
  _Eglisia_, 202
  Elephant-fish, 269, 271
  Elephant-tusk shells, 188
  Elevated sea-beds, 27
  _Elonichthys_, 261, 263
  _Elpisopholis_, 263
  _Emarginula_, 198
  Emu, 283
  _Encrinurus_, 229
  _Endoceras_, 205
  _Endothyra_, 96, 98
  _Entalophora_, 158
  _Entomis_, 238
  _Ephemera_, 250
  _Equisetites_, 40
  Errant worms, 153
  _Erycina_, 187
  _Erymnoceras_, 209
  _Estheria_, 233
  _Eucalyptus_, 90, 91, 281
  _Eulima_, 198
  _Eunema_, 193
  _Eunicites_, 153
  _Euomphalus_, 194, 195, 196
  _Eupatagus_, 147
  _Euphemus_, 196
  _Eurydesma_, 181
  EURYPTERIDA, 248
  _Euthria_, 198
  _Eutrochus_, 200
  Evolution of life-forms, 33


  _Fagus (Notofagus)_, 91
  Falcon, 283
  _Fasciolaria_, 198, 199
  _Favosites_, 73, 114, 115, 116
  Feather-star, 138
  _Fenestella_, 156, 157
  _Fibularia_, 146
  Fishes, fossil, 53
     "    primitive types, 258
     "    true, 258
  Fish-lizards, 275, 276, 277, 278
  _Fissilunula_, 183, 184
  _Fissurellidea_, 198
  _Fistulipora_, 155, 156
  _Flabellina_, 98
  _Flabellum_, 118, 119
  Flightless pigeon goose, 283
  Flints, 71
  Flying phalanger, 295
  Foraminifera, characters of, 36, 95
      "      fossil, 65
  Foraminiferal limestone, 73
  Fossil faunas, differences in, 43
  Fossiliferous strata, Australia, 45-48
       "    strata, New Zealand 49
  Fossil, origin of name, 23
  Fossils an index to age of strata, 26, 32
      "    nature of, 21
      "    petrifaction of, 23
      "    preservation of, 23
      "    structure preserved in, 24
  Fossil wood, 24, 66, 68
  _Frondicularia_, 97, 98
  Fruits of the deep leads, 91
  _Fulica_, 283
  _Fusus_, 198, 201


  _Galeocerdo_, 269, 271
  _Gallinula_, 283
  _Gangamopteris_, 86
  _Ganorhynchus_, 259
  _Gari_, 185
  GASTEROPODA, characters of, 190
  _Gastrioceras_, 207
  _Geinitzina_, 98
  _Genyornis_, 282, 302
  Geological epochs, 45-49
  Geology, scope of, 21
  Giant kangaroo, 289
     "   lizard, 280
     "   penguin, 280
  _Gibbula_, 198
  _Ginkgo_, 89, 91
  _Girvanella_, 76, 82, 86
  Glauconite casts of foraminifera, 96
  _Glossograptus_, 126, 127
  _Glossopteris_, 86
  _Glycimeris_, 184, 187
  _Glyphioceras_, 207
  _Gomphonema_, 93
  Gondwana-Land, 87
  _Goniatites_, 207, 208
  _Goniograptus_, 124, 126
  _Gosfordia_, 262
  _Gosseletina_, 196
  _Grammysia_, 177
  _Granatocrinus_, 139
  _Graphularia_, 118, 119
  Graptolites, Bendigo series, 124
       "       Lancefield series, 124
       "       nature of, 63, 123
       "       Tasmania, 128
  GRAPTOLITOIDEA, 123
  _Gregoriura_, 142
  _Griffithides_, 232
  _Gromia_, 95
  Ground pigeon, 283
  _Gryphaea_, 182
  _Grypotherium_, 53
  Guide fossils, 43
  GYMNOSPERMEAE, characters of, 40
  _Gyracanthides_, 261
  _Gyroceras_, 207
  _Gyrodoma_, 194


  _Halimeda_ limestone, 75
  _Haliotis_, 198, 200
  _Haliserites_, 83
  _Halysites_, 114
  _Hamites_, 210
  _Hapalocrinus_, 136
  _Haploceras_, 209
  _Haplophragmium_, 97, 98
  _Harpa_, 198, 199, 201
  _Harpactocarcinus_, 248
  _Harpagornis_, 283
  _Hawk_, 283
  _Helicocrinus_, 136
  _Helicotoma_, 195
  _Heliolites_, 115, 116
  _Heliopora_, 115
  _Heliosphaera_, 103
  _Helix_, 203
  _Hemiaster_, 148
  _Hemipatagus_, 148
  _Heterocrinus_, 135
  HETEROPODA, 190
  _Heteropora_, 158
  Hexactinellid sponge, 107, 110
  Hinge-structure, in bivalves, 175
  _Holaster_, 147
  HOLOTHUROIDEA, 148
  _Homalonotus_, 229, 231
  _Hornera_, 158
  _Huenella_, 159
  Human remains, sub-recent, 299
  _Hyalostelia_, 108, 110
  _Hybocrinus_, 135
  _Hydractinia_, 119, 120
  HYDROZOA, 63, 119
  _Hymenocaris_, 244
  _Hyperammina_, 97
  _Hyolithes_, 192, 193, 194
  _Hypothyris_, 164
  _Hypsiprymnus_, 295


  Ibis, 283
  _Ichthyosaurus_, 276, 277, 278
  _Idiostroma_, 121
  _Idmonea_, 158
  _Illaenus_, 229
  Indusial limestone, 75
  _Inoceramus_, 183, 184
  Insects, 53, 250
  Ironstone, 80
  Irregular echinoids, 146
  _Ischnochiton_, 190
  _Ischyodus_, 269, 270
  _Isochilina_, 237
  _Isocrinus_, 137, 138


  Janjukian bivalves, 186
     "     gasteropods, 200
  _Jonesina_, 237
  Jurassic bird, 280
     "    bivalves, 182
     "    brachiopods, 165
     "    cephalopods, 208
     "    fishes, 264
     "    Foraminifera, 98
     "     gasteropods, 196
     "     insects, 250
     "     Ostracoda, 238
     "     Phyllopoda, 233
     "     plants, 89
     "     reptiles, 276
     "     scaphopods, 189


  Kalimnan bivalves, 187
      "    gasteropods, 201
  Kangaroo, 295
  _Keeneia_, 196
  _Kekenodon_, 295, 296
  Kerosene shale, 77
  _Kionoceras_, 206
  _Kloedenia_, 237


  _Labrodon_, 271
  LABYRINTHODONTIA, 272
  _Lagena_, 98
  _?Lagria_, 250
  _Lamna_, 267, 269, 271
  Lamp-shells, 57, 158
  _Lasiocladia_, 110
  _Lasiograptus_, 126, 127
  _Latirus_, 198, 201
  _Laurus_, 91
  _Leaia_, 233
  Leda, 182, 184, 185, 187, 188
  Leonardo da Vinci, 25
  _Lepas_, 243
  _Leperditella_, 234
  _Leperditia_, 233, 234, 235, 237, 238
  _Lepidocyclina_, 99, 100
         "         limestone, 73
  _Lepidodendron_, 40, 85, 261
         "         beds, 162
  _Lepralia_, 157, 158
  _Leptaena_, 162, 164
  _Leptoclinum_, 257, 258
  _Leptodesma_, 179
  _Leptodomus_, 177
  _Leptograptus_, 124
  _Leptolepis_, 264, 265, 267
  _Lepton_, 187
  _Lichas_, 229
  _Lichenopora_, 158
  _Lieberkuehnia_, 95
  _Lima_, 184, 185, 186
  _Limatula_, 185
  Limestones formed by organisms, 72
  _Limnaea_, 69
  _Limopsis_, 184, 185, 187
  _Limulus_, 248
  _Lingula_, 160, 162, 166, 261
  _Linthia_, 147, 148
  _Liopyrga_, 201
  _Liotia_, 198, 200
  Lithistid sponges, 109, 110
  Lithological evidence, value of, 44
  _Lithophaps_, 283
  _Lithothamnion_, 75
  _Lituites_, 207
  _Lituola_, 97
  _Loganograptus_, 126
  _Lophophyllum_, 117
  _Lorica_, 190
  _Lotorium_, 198, 200, 202
  _Lovenia_, 147
  Lower Cambrian trilobites, 226
    "  Cretaceous bivalves, 183
    "    "   brachiopods, 166
    "    "   cephalopods, 209
    "    "   crab, 246
    "    "   dragon-fly, 250
    "    "   fishes, 267
    "    "   reptiles, 277
    "  Mesozoic fishes, 263
    "  Ordovician graptolites, New Zealand, 126
    "  Ordovician graptolites, Victoria, 124
  _Loxoconcha_, 239
  _Loxonema_, 193, 194, 195, 196
  _Lucina_, 185, 187
  Lung-fish, 265
  _Lunucammina_, 98
  _Lunulicardium_, 178
  _Lunulites_, 158
  _Lyriopecten_, 179


  _Maccoyella_, 183, 184
  _Macrocephalites_, 209
  _Macrocheilus_, 196
  _Macrocypris_, 236, 240
  _Macropora_, 158
  _Macropus_, 289, 295
  _Macrotaeniopteris_, 88
  _Mactra_, 177, 185, 188
  Madrepore limestone, 73
  _Magasella_, 166, 168
  _Magellania_, 166, 167, 168
  _Magnolia_, 91
  Maiden-hair tree, 89
  Mail-shells, 189
  MAMMALIA, early types, 285
  Mammals, fossil, 51
  Manatees and dugongs, 298
  _Marginella_, 198, 199
  _Marginulina_, 98
  Marsupial lion, 293
  Marsupial, oldest known Australian, 294
  Marsupials, 287
    "  Pleistocene and living, 295
  _Martiniopsis_, 164
  _Mastodonsaurus_, 274
  Material for fossil collecting, 315
  _Megalania_, 280
  _Megalosaurus_, 277
  _Melania_, 203
  _Melosira_, 92
  _Membranipora_, 157, 158
  _Meretrix_, 177, 185, 187
  _Mesoblastus_, 139
  _Mesostigmodera_, 250
  Mesozoic strata, 46
  _Metablastus_, 139
  _Metasqualodon_, 295, 296
  METAZOA, 95
  _Micraster_, 146
  _Microdiscus_, 227
  _Mikrogromia_, 95
  _Millepora_, 119
  _Milleporids_, 119
  _Miliolina_, 96, 100, 101
  Miocene bird, New Zealand, 280
     "     leaf-beds, 90
  Miolania, 279
  Mitra, 198, 199, 204
  Moa-birds, 281-285, 299
  _Modiola_, 183, 186
  _Modiolaria_, 186
  _Modiolopsis_, 177
  MOLLUSCA, characters of, 38, 56, 174
  MOLLUSCOIDEA, characters of, 38, 57, 154
  Monactinellid sponges, 109, 110
  _Monogenerina_, 97
  _Monograptus_, 124, 128
  _Monostychia_, 146
  _Monotis_, 182
  MONOTREMATA, 286
  _Monticulipora_, 155
  Monticuliporoids, 117
  _Montlivaltia_, 118
  Moor-hen, 283
  _Mopsea_, 119
  _Morio_, 198, 200
  Mound-builders, 283
  _Mourlonia_, 196
  Mud-fish, 265, 267
  Muds, 69
  Mudstone, 70
  MULTITUBERCULATA, 286
  _Murchisonia_, 104, 195, 196
  _Murex_, 198, 199, 200
  _Myodora_, 185, 187
  _Myriolepis_, 262, 263
  _Mytilarca_, 177
  _Mytilus_, 182, 183, 187, 188


  Naming of animals, 34
  _Nassa_, 191, 198, 204
  _Natica_, 191, 197, 198, 200, 201
  Native cat, 287, 295
     "    dog, 298
     "    honeysuckle, 91, 92
  NAUTILOIDEA, 204
  _Nautilus_, 204, 207, 209, 210
  _Navicula_, 92
  _Nebalia_, 244
  _Necrastur_, 283
  _Neoceratodus_, 267
  Newer Pliocene seal, 299
  _Newtoniella_, 198
  New Zealand fossiliferous strata, 49
  _Niso_, 194, 198
  _Nodosaria_, 98, 100
  _Nonionina_, 96
  _Normanites_, 209
  _Notasaphus_, 227
  _Notidanus_, 268, 269, 270, 271
  _Notochelone_, 53, 277
  _Notophyllia_, 118
  _Nototherium_, 293
  _Nubecularia_, 97, 98
  _Nucleospira_, 160
  _Nucula_, 175, 177, 178, 183, 184, 185
  _Nuculites_, 177, 178
  Nullipore limestone, 75
  _Nummulites_, 65, 99
  Nummulitic limestone, 73
  _Nyroca_, 283


  OCTOPODA, 205
  _Octopus_, 205
  _Odontaspis_, 269, 270, 271
  ODONTOCETI, 295
  _Odontopleura_, 229, 231
  _Odostomia_, 198, 200
  _Oenonites_, 153
  _Olenellus_, 226, 227
  _Oliva_, 204
  _Ommatocarcinus_, 247
  _Omphalotrochus_, 194
  Oolitic ironstone, 81
  _Ophileta_, 192, 193
  OPHIUROIDEA, 141
  _Orbiculoidea_, 160
  _Orbitoides_, 99
  Ordovician bivalve, 177
      "    brachiopods, 159
      "    cephalopods, 205
      "    corals, 113
      "    crinoids, 135
      "    gasteropods, 193
      "    Phyllocarida, 244
      "    Radiolaria, 102
      "    sponges, 108
      "    trilobites, 227
  _Ornithorhynchus_, 286, 287
  _Orthis_, 159, 160, 161, 162
    "      limestone, 74
  _Orthoceras_, 204, 205, 206, 207, 208
  _Orthonota_, 177
  _Orthothetes_, 162
  OSTRACODA, features of carapace, 234
     "    habits of, 234
     "    structure of, 233
  _Ostrea_, 182, 184, 187
  _Otaria_, 299
  _Oxyrhina_, 269, 270, 271
  OXYSTOMATA, 247
  _Oxytelus_, 250


  _Pachydomus_, 181
  _Pachyornis_, 282, 283
  _Pachypora_, 73, 116
  _Palaeaster_, 140, 141
  _Palaeeudyptes_, 280, 281
  _Palaeohatteria_, 276
  _Palaeolycus_, 250
  _Palaeoneilo_, 177, 178
  _Palaeoniscus_, 261, 263, 274
  _Palaeopelargus_, 283
  Palaeozoic chitons, 189
      "     Cladophora, 122
      "     Cryptostomata, 156
      "     errant worms, 153
      "     strata, 47
      "     Trepostomata, 155
  _Palissya_, 89, 164
  _Pallymnarchus_, 279
  _Palorchestes_, 290
  _Panda_, 203
  _Panenka_, 177
  _Paracyainus_, 118
  _Paracyclas_, 177, 179
  _Paradoxechinus_, 145
  _Paradoxorhyncha_, 239
  _Parasqualodon_, 295, 296
  _Pareiasaurus_, 276
  _Patella_, 190, 191
  _Pecten_, 175, 182, 183, 184, 185, 186, 187, 188
  PELECYPODA, characters of, 174
     "   hinge structure of, 175
  Pelican, 283
  _Pelicanus_, 283
  _Pelosina_, 97
  _?Peltopleurus_, 262
  _Pentacrinus_, 137, 138
  _Pentagonaster_, 141
  _Pentamerus_, 160, 162
  _Penteune_, 91
  _Peragale_, 289
  _Perameles_, 289, 295
  _Perisphinctes_, 209
  Permian and Triassic reptiles, 276
  _Perna_, 187
  _Peronella_, 148
  _Persoonia_, 90
  _Petaurus_, 295
  _Petraia_, 113
  _Phacops_, 229, 230, 231
  Phalanger, 295
  _Phanerotrema_, 194
  _Phascolomys_, 289, 295
  _Phascolonus_, 289
  _Phialocrinus_, 137
  _Phillipsia_, 232
  _Phoenicopsis_, 88
  _Pholas_, 177
  _Pholidophorus_, 262, 263
  _Phos_, 198
  _Phragmoceras_, 207
  _Phryganea_, 75
  PHYLACTOLAEMATA, 155
  PHYLLOCARIDA, structure of, 243
  _Phyllocladus_, 90
  _Phyllograptus_, 123, 126
  PHYLLOPODA, 233
  _Phyllotheca_, 274
  _Physa_, 191
  _Physonemus_, 261
  Pigeon, 283
  _Pinna_, 186
  PINNIPEDIA, 299
  _Pisania_, 202
  _?Pisocrinus_, 136
  _Placopsilina_, 97
  _Placotrochus_, 118
  _Placunanomia_, 184, 187
  _Plagiarca_, 184
  _Plagiaulax_, 286
  _Planorbis_, 191
  Plants, fossil, 66
  Plant series, characters of, 39
  _Platalea_, 283
  _Platyceps_, 273
  _Platyceras_, 192, 194, 195, 196
  _Platycoila_, 91
  _Platycrinus_, 137
  _Platyschisma_, 196
  _Platysomus_, 263
  _Plaxiphora_, 190
  _Plectroninia_, 112
  _Pleioclinis_, 91
  Pleistocene birds, New Zealand, 283
       "    bivalves, 188
       "    carinate birds, 283
       "    diprotodonts, 289
       "    fish, 272
       "    Foraminifera, 101
       "    gasteropods, 202
       "    lobster, 248
       "    plants, 91
       "    seal, 299
  _Plerophyllum_, 117
  _Plesiastraea_, 119
  _Plesiolampas_, 148
  _Plesiosaurus_, 279
  _Pleuracanthus_, 263
  _Pleurodictyum_, 114
  _Pleuromya_, 183
  _?Pleurostomella_, 98
  _Pleurotoma_, 198, 199, 202
  _Pleurotomaria_, 194, 196, 197, 200, 202
  _Plicatula_, 186
  Pliocene moa, New Zealand, 281
  _Pliosaurus_, 278
  _Plotus_, 283
  _Podocarpus_, 90
  _Poecilodus_, 262
  _?Pollicipes_, 243
  POLYCHAETA, 152, 154
  _Polycotylus_, 279
  _Polymastodon_, 286
  _Polymorphina_, 98, 100
  POLYPLACOPHORA, 189
  _Polypora_, 157
  POLYPROTODONTIA, 287
  _Polystomella_, 101
  POLYZOA, characters of, 59, 155
     "    subdivisons of, 155
  Polyzoal limestone, 74
  _Porcellia_, 196
  Porcupine fish, 270, 271
  _Porina_, 158
  _Porphyrio_, 283
  _Portheus_, 268
  _Poteriocrinus_, 137
  Prehensile Rat-kangaroo, 295
  Preservation of fossils, 319
  _Primitia_, 236, 237
  _Pristisomus_, 262
  _Procoptodon_, 290
  _Productus_, 162, 163, 164
  _Proechidna_, 287
  _Proetus_, 229, 232
  _Progura_, 283
  _Prosopon_, 246
  _Protaster_, 142
  _Protocardium_, 185
  _Protopharetra_, 113
  _Protoretepora_, 157
  _Protospongia_, 107,108
  PROTOZOA, characters of, 36, 65, 95
  _Psammechinus_, 145
  _Pseudamaura_, 197
  _Psilichthys_, 264
  PTERIDOPHYTA, characters of, 40
  PTERIDOSPERMEAE, characters of, 40
  _Pterinea_, 178, 179
  _Pteris_ (_Pteridium_), 91
  PTEROPODA, 190, 192, 193, 194
  _Pterygotus_, 248, 249
  _Ptilograptus_, 122
  _Ptychoparia_, 226, 227
  _Pugnellus_, 184
  _Pulvinulina_, 98
  Purbeck marble, 74
  _Purisiphonia_, 110
  _Purpura_, 191


  RADIOLARIA, characters of, 36, 66
     "   habitat of, 101
     "   structure of, 101
     "   subdivisions, 102
  Rail, 283
  Raised beaches as distinct from middens, 29
  _Ranella_, 204
  Range-in-time of fossils, 50
  _Raphistoma_, 193, 195
  Rat-kangaroo, 295
  _Receptaculites_, 109
  Regular echinoids, 144
  _Reinschia_, 78
  Reptiles, fossil, 53
      "     dentition of, 275
      "     structure of, 274
  _Reteocrinus_, 135
  _Retepora_, 158
  _Reticularia_, 164
  _Retiolites_, 124, 128
  _Rhacopteris_, 86
  _Rhinopterocaris_, 244, 246
  _Rhipidomella_, 162
  _Rhizophyllum_, 113
  _Rhodocrinus_, 135
  _Rhombopora_, 156
  _Rhynchonella_, 158, 165, 166
  RHYNCHOTA, 250
  _Rhynchotrema_, 160
  _Ringicula_, 202
  _Risella_, 191
  _Rissoa_, 198
  _Rissoina_, 197
  _Rostellaria_, 198
  _Rotalia_, 96, 101
  Rugose corals, 113


  _Saccammina_, 96
  _Saccocaris_, 244
  _Sagenodus_, 263
  _Salterella_, 192
  Sandstones, 71
  _Sanidophyllum_, 115
  _Sarcophilus_, 287, 295
  _Sargus_, 272
  _Scala_, 191, 198, 199, 200, 202
  _Scalaetrochus_, 194
  _Scaldicetus_, 297
  _Scaphella_, 202
  _Scaphites_, 209
  SCAPHOPODA, 188
  _Scenella_, 193
  _Sceparnodon_, 289
  _Schizaster_, 148
  _Schizodus_, 175
  _Schizophoria_, 162
  _Schloenbachia_, 209
  _Scutellina_, 146
  Sea-beds far from the present coast, 29
  Sea-bream, 272
   " -cucumbers, 148
   " -firs, 119, 122
   " -mats, 154, 155
   " -pen, 119
   " -urchins, 59, 143
   " characters of, 144
  Sedentary worms, 154
  _Seguenzia_, 199
  _Selenaria_, 158
  _Semele_, 185
  _Semicassis_, 198
  _Seminula_, 164
  _Semionotus_, 262, 263
  SEPIOIDEA, 205
  _Serpula_, 154
  Serpulite limestone, 74
  _Sertularia_, 119, 122
  Shales, 69
  Sharks, 267, 269, 270, 271
  Shell-limestone, 74
  _Shumardia_, 227
  _Sigsbeia_, 143
  Siliceous rocks, 71
  Silicified wood, 24
  _Siliquaria_, 198
  Silurian bivalves, 177
       "    brachiopods, 160
       "    brittle-stars, 142
       "    cephalopods, 206
       "    cirripedes, 241
       "    conodonts, 153
       "    corals, 113
       "    crinoids, 135
       "    Foraminifera, 96
       "    gasteropods, 193
       "    graptolites, Victoria, 128
       "    Hexacoralla, 114
       "    Octocoralla, 115
       "    Ostracoda, 235
       "    palaeechinoids, 144
       "    Phyllocarida, 246
       "    plants, 82
       "    Radiolaria, 102
       "    sponges, 109
       "    starfishes, 140
       "    stromatoporoids, 121
       "    trilobites, 228
  _Siphonalia_, 198
  _Siphonia_, 110
  _Siphonotreta_, 160
  SIRENIA, 298
  _Sistrum_, 202
  Slate, 70
  Smith, William, 26
  Smittia, 158
  _Solarium_, 198
  _Solenocurtus_, 187
  _Soletellina_, 188
  Sphaerosiderite, 80
  _Sphenopteris_, 85, 89
  _Sphenotrochus_, 118, 119
  _Sphenotus_, 177, 179
  _Sphyrna_, 270
  _Spirifer_, 160, 161, 162, 163, 164
  _Spiriferina_, 165
       "     -beds, 208
  _Spirillina_, 96
  _Spirorbis_, 154
  _Spirula_, 205
  _Spirulirostra_, 205, 210
  _Spisula_, 188
  _Spondylostrobus_, 91
  _Spondylus_, 175, 184, 185
  SPONGES, characteristics of, 64, 107
  _Spongilla_, 72
  _Spongodiscus_, 103
  _Spongophyllum_, 116
  Spoonbill, 283
  Spore coal, 76
  _Squalodon_, 295
  _Stacheia_, 97
  Star-corals, 119
  Starfishes, characters of, 61, 139
  _Staurolonche_, 103
  _Stauroneis_, 92
  Steno, 25
  _Stenopora_, 117
  _Stenotheca_, 192
  _Stephanella_, 109
  _Stephanograptus_, 126
  _Stephanotrochus_, 118
  _Sthenurus_, 290
  Sting-ray, 271
  _Stomatopora_, 158
  Storing fossils, 320
  Stork, 283
  Strata, superposition of, 41
      "    vertically arranged, 44
  Stratigraphical series, general thickness, 44
  Stratigraphy, 27
  _Strepsodus_, 261
  _Streptelasma_, 113
  _Stricklandinia_, 160
  _Stromatopora_, 120, 121
  _Stromatoporella_, 121, 122
  STROMATOPOROIDS, 63, 120
  _Strombus_, 184, 204
  _Strophalosia_, 163
  _Stropheodonta_, 160, 161
  _Strophonella_, 160
  _Struthiolaria_, 202
  _Studeria_, 148
  _Sturtzura_, 143
  _Stutchburia_, 180
  STYLASTERIDS, 119
  _Subemarginula_, 198
  Submerged forests, 30
  _Sunetta_, 187
  Superposition of strata, 41
  _Synaphe_, 238
  SYNDACTYLA, 288
  _Synedra_, 92
  _Syringopora_, 114
  _Syringothyris_, 164


  _Tabellaria_, 92
  _Taeniopteris_, 88, 89, 164, 250, 265
  _Taniwhasaurus_, 279
  _Taphaetus_, 283
  Tasmanian devil, 287, 295
    "   wolf, 287, 295
  Tasmanite, 77
  _Taxocrinus_, 135
  _Tellina_, 185, 187, 188
  _Temnechinus_, 146
  _Tentaculites_, 193, 194, 195
  _Terebra_, 198, 199, 202, 204
  _Terebratella_, 166, 168
  _Terebratula_, 166
  _Terebratulina_, 166, 167
  Tertiary ironstone, 81
  _Tessarodoma_, 158
  TETRACORALLA, 113
  Tetractinellid sponge, 110, 112
  _Tetragraptus_, 124, 126
  _Textularia_, 98, 100
  _Thalassina_, 248
  THALLOPHYTA, characters of, 39
  _Thalotia_, 200
  _Thamnastraea_, 118
  _Thinnfeldia_, 88, 89, 182
  _Thurammina_, 97
  _Thyestes_, 258
  _Thylacinus_, 287, 295
  _Thylacoleo_, 293, 303
  Time-range of fossils, 50
  _Tomodus_, 262
  Toothed whales, 295
  Torbanite, 77
  _Torlessia_, 154
  _Trachyderma_, 153, 154
  _Trachypora_, 117
  _Trematonotus_, 194
  _Trematotrochus_, 118, 119
  TREPOSTOMATA, 155
  _Tretocalia_, 112
  Triassic bivalves, 181
    "  brachiopods, 164
    "  cephalopods, 208
    "  crinoids, 137
    "  fishes, 262
    "  Foraminifera, 98
    "  labyrinthodonts, 273
    "  Ostracoda, 238
    "  Phyllopoda, 233
    "  plants, 88
    "  reptiles, New Zealand, 276
  _Tribonyx_, 283
  _Tribrachiocrinus_, 137
  _Trichograptus_, 124
  _Tricoelocrinus_, 139
  _Trigonia_, 175, 182, 183, 184, 187
  _Trigonograptus_, 126
  TRILOBITES, habits of, 222
    "  structure of, 223
  _Tritylodon_, 276, 286
  _Trivia_, 198, 199
  _Trochoceras_, 205
  _Trochonema_, 195
  _Trochus_, 191, 194, 195
  _Trophon_, 202
  _Truncatulina_, 98, 100
  _Tryplasma_, 113
  Tuatera, 276
  _Tudicla_, 201
  TUNICATA, 257
  _Turbo_, 197, 200
  _Turrilepas_, 241, 243
  _Turritella_, 191, 198, 200, 201, 202
  _Turritella_ -limestone, 74
  _Tylosaurus_, 279
  _Tylospira_, 198, 202
  _Typhis_, 198


  _Uncinulus_, 162
  _Unio_, 181, 182
  _Unionella_, 181
  Upper Cambrian trilobites, 227
    "   Cretaceous bivalves, 184
    "   Cretaceous brachiopod, 166
    "   Cretaceous cephalopod, 166
    "   Triassic fishes, 262
    "   Ordovician graptolites, New South Wales, 127
    "   Ordovician graptolites, Victoria, 126
  _Urasterella_, 140
  _Urosthenes_, 262


  _Vaginella_, 198, 199
  _Vaginulina_, 98
  _Valvulina_, 97, 98
  _Venus_, 177, 185, 187, 188
  VERMES, characters of, 37
  _Vertebraria_, 264
  VERTEBRATA, characters of, 38, 257
  _Verticordia_, 186
  _Vetotuba_, 194
  _Voluta_, 198, 201, 202
  _Volutilithes_, 198, 201, 202
  _Volvox_, 78
  _Volvulella_, 201


  Warrnambool footprints, 301
  Werrikooian bivalves, 187
      "    gasteropods, 202
  Whales, 295
  White coal, 77
  _Wilsonia_, 160
  Wombat, 289, 295
  Worms, fossil, 59, 152
  Worm-tracks, 154
  Wrasse family, 271
  _Wynyardia_, 294


  Xenophanes, 24
  _Xenorhynchus_, 283
  _Xestoleberis_, 237
  _Xiphosphaera_, 103


  _Yvania_, 196


  _Zaphrentis_, 117
  _Ziphius_, 296




INDEX TO AUSTRALASIAN LOCALITIES.


Appended letters indicate the State or Country:--

N.S.W., New South Wales; N.T., Northern Territory; N.Z., New Zealand;
Q., Queensland; S.A., South Australia; T., Tasmania; V., Victoria; W.A.,
Western Australia.

  Adelaide, S.A., 102
  Aire Coast, V., 138
  Airly, N.S.W., 273
  Alice Springs, S.A., 193
  Altona Bay, V., 112
  Arcola, Q., 279
  Arcoona, S.A., 91
  Ardrossan, S.A., 82, 107


  Bacchus Marsh, V., 88, 90
  Balcombe's Bay, V., 190, 239, 317
  Bald Hill, V., 88
  Barker Gorge, W.A., 196, 232, 259
  Barraba, N.S.W., 93, 102
  Batesford, V., 73, 100, 138, 141
  Baton River, N.Z., 195, 207
  Bay of Islands, N.Z., 93
  Beaumaris, V., 119, 243, 248, 270, 271, 296, 297, 317
  Bendigo, V., 108, 109, 124, 246
  Berwick, V., 68
  Bindi, V., 109, 121, 161, 195
  Bingera, N.S.W., 102
  Boggy Creek, V., 112
  Bowen River, Q., 117, 137, 164
  Bowning, N.S.W., 144, 153, 207, 231, 241
  Bowral, N.S.W., 274
  Brighton, N.Z., 146, 248, 280
  Broadhurst's Creek, V., 231
  Broken River, N.Z., 146, 167
  Broken River, Q., 136
  Broome, W.A., 183
  Brunswick, V., 136
  Buchan, V., 79, 109, 115, 136, 161, 195, 203, 207, 231, 237, 258
  Bulla, V., 122
  Bungonia, N.S.W., 300
  Burdekin, Q., 115, 116
  Burnt Creek, V., 259
  Burragorang, N.S.W., 180


  Camperdown, V., 74
  Canobolas district, N.S.W., 114
  Canowindra, N.S.W., 162
  Canterbury, N.Z., 154
  Cape Liptrap, V., 71
  Cape Otway, V., 119, 296
  Cape Palliser, N.Z., 203
  Cape Paterson, V., 265, 276
  Carapook, V., 264
  Caroline Creek, T., 227
  Casterton, V., 265
  Castlemaine, V., 126, 246
  Cavan, N.S.W., 109
  Cessnock, N.S.W., 237
  Chatham Ids., 138
  Chillagoe, Q., 115
  Chinchilla, Q., 279
  Clarence Town, N.S.W., 139, 162
  Cliftonwood, N.S.W., 237
  Clunes, V., 279
  Cockatoo Id., N.S.W., 274
  Collie, W.A., 98
  Collingwood, V., 206
  Coole Barghurk Creek, V., 193
  Cooma, N.S.W., 93, 102
  Copeland, N.S.W., 85
  Corio Bay, V., 270
  Corner Creek, Q., 237
  Croydon, Q., 89, 166
  Curiosity Shop, N.Z., 138, 280
  Curlewis, V., 112, 247
  Curramulka, S.A., 108, 177, 192, 235
  Currowang, N.S.W., 127


  Dalton, N.S.W., 90, 91
  Dargo High Plains, V., 91
  Darling Downs, Q., 53, 110, 282, 283, 298
  Darling River, N.S.W., 154, 157
  Darriwill, V., 126
  Delegate River, N.S.W., 114
  Derrengullen Creek, N.S.W., 190
  Diggers' Rest, V., 126
  Dolodrook River, V., 193, 227
  Dromana, V., 246
  Dundas Co., V., 264


  East Maitland, N.S.W., 154
  Elizabeth River, S.A., 91


  Fanning River, Q., 207
  Farley, N.S.W., 180, 237
  Fernbrook, N.S.W., 109
  Fifield, N.S.W., 237
  Flemington, V., 136, 142, 143, 206, 318
  Flinders, V., 65, 112
  Flinders River, Q., 183, 250, 267, 277, 278
  Florentine Valley, T., 159, 227
  Fraser's Creek, V., 231


  Gascoyne River, W.A., 117, 136, 137, 232, 262
  Geelong, V., 100, 119, 120, 243
  Geilston, T., 203
  Gellibrand River, V., 199
  Geraldton, W.A., 98, 197, 238
  Gippsland Lakes, V., 168, 243
  Gisborne, V., 299
  Glenelg River, V., 168
  Glenwilliam, N.S.W., 139
  Goodradigbee River, N.S.W., 109
  Goonoo, N.S.W., 85
  Gordon River, T., 115
  Gosford, N.S.W., 53, 262, 263, 273
  Grampians, V., 261
  Grange Burn, Hamilton, V., 143, 270, 271, 296, 297
  Greenough River, W.A., 165, 182, 209
  Grey River, N.Z., 78
  Grice's Creek, V., 317
  Grose Vale, N.S.W., 238
  Gulgong, N.S.W., 279, 286
  Gunning, N.S.W., 91


  Haddon, V., 68
  Hallett's Cove, S.A., 119
  Hall's Sound, Papua, 201
  Hamilton, N.Z., 285
  Hamilton, V., 190, 243, 270, 271, 295, 296, 297
  Hamilton River, Q., 267
  Hatton's Corner, N.S.W., 114, 231
  Heathcote, V., 160, 177, 227
  Hobart, T., 68, 203
  Hokonui Hills, N.Z., 164, 165
  Hughenden, Q., 267, 268


  Iguana Creek, V., 85
  Irwin River, W.A., 97, 98, 137, 207
  Island of Timor, 163


  Jenolan Caves, N.S.W., 102, 121, 300


  Kakanui, N.Z., 280
  Kamileroy, Q., 267
  Keilor, V., 128
  Kent's Group, T., 203
  Kilmore, V., 144, 206, 231, 246
  Kilmore Creek, V., 231
  Kimberley, W.A., 136, 137, 192, 207, 262
  King Island, T., 53, 104, 283
  King's Creek, Q., 282
  Kirrak, V., 265
  Knocklofty, T., 264
  Knowsley, V., 227
  Koroit, V., 305
  Kowhai River, N.Z., 189


  Lake Callabonna, S.A., 51, 282
  Lake Connewarre, V., 270
  Lake Eyre, S.A., 166, 183, 189, 197
  Lake Frome, S.A., 91
  Lancefield, V., 93, 108, 122, 124, 246
  Laurie's Creek, S.A., 193, 205, 228
  Lawson, N.S.W., 127
  Leichhardt River, Q., 267
  Leigh's Creek, S.A., 193
  Lennard River, W.A., 208
  Lilydale, V., 73, 82, 96, 114, 121, 190, 229, 231, 236, 243, 318
  Limeburners Point, V., 79
  Limestone Creek, Glenelg River, V., 202
  Limestone Creek, Yass, N.S.W.; 136, 231
  Loddon Valley, V., 279
  Lord Howe Id., 279
  Loyola, V., 109, 121, 229, 231
  Lyndhurst, N.S.W., 227


  Maddingley, V., 90
  Mallee, V., 71, 101, 119, 138, 141
  Mandurama, N.S.W., 102, 127, 227
  Manly, N.S.W., 88
  Mansfield, V., 53, 122, 154, 231, 259
  Marathon Station, Q., 277
  Maria Id., T., 180
  Maryborough, Q., 146, 184, 304
  Maryvale Creek, Q., 279
  McMahon's Creek, V., 207
  Melbourne, V., 82, 136, 140, 153, 178, 246
  Mersey River, T., 77, 97, 193
  Milburn, N.Z., 296
  Mitchell Downs, Q., 137
  Mitta Mitta River, V., 114
  Molong, N.S.W., 114
  Moonee Ponds Creek, V., 229, 318
  Moorabool River, V., 112, 120, 202
  Mornington, V., 65, 70, 90, 112, 118, 258, 269
  Mosquito Plains, S.A., 300
  Mount Angas, Q., 166
    "   Buninyong, V., 303
    "   Gambier, S.A., 71, 91, 119, 120, 138, 147, 282, 296
    "   Lambie, N.S.W., 85
    "   Macedon Cave, 298
    "   Potts, N.Z., 276
    "   Victoria, N.S.W., 88
    "   Wellington, V., 126, 134, 159, 193
    "   Wyatt, Q., 109
  Muddy Creek, Hamilton, V., 141, 147, 243, 269, 295
  Mudgee, N.S.W., 109
  Muree, Raymond Terrace, N.S.W., 238
  Murray River Cliffs, S.A., 58, 210
  Murrumbidgee River, N.S.W., 114, 189, 259


  Napier Range, W.A., 232
  Narrengullen Creek, N.S.W., 237
  Nelson, N.Z., 78, 126, 164, 165, 182, 233, 248
  Newcastle, N.S.W., 233
  Ngapara, N.Z., 296
  Nimbin, Richmond River, N.S.W., 272
  Norseman district, W.A., 110
  Nugget Point, Otago, N.Z., 274
  Nungatta, N.S.W., 85
  Nyrang Creek, N.S.W., 162


  Oakey Creek, N.S.W., 178
  Oamaru, N.Z., 110, 280
  Orakei Bay, N.Z., 158
  Otway Coast, V., 90


  Pakaraka, N.Z., 93
  Papua, 100, 146, 148, 184, 187, 188, 201, 203, 209, 210
  Paroo River, Q., 282
  Peak Downs, Q., 282
  Penola, S.A., 300
  Petermann Creek, S.A., 193
  Phillip Co., N.S.W., 282
  Pine Creek, Q., 93
  Pitfield Plains, V., 90
  Pitchery Creek, Q., 278
  Pokolbin, N.S.W., 97, 180
  Port Campbell, V., 247
  Port Darwin, N.T., 103, 248
  Port Stephen, N.S.W., 262
  Preservation Inlet, N.Z., 126


  Ravensfield, N.S.W., 180
  Reid Gap, Q., 207
  Richmond Downs, Q., 267
  Richmond River, N.S.W., 93
  Rock Flat Creek, N.S.W., 206
  Rockhampton, Q., 110, 139, 144, 153, 164, 196, 261
  Rough Range, W.A., 116, 122


  Sale, V., 112
  San Remo, V., 122
  Sebastopol, V., 93
  Seville, V., 229, 231
  Shakespeare Cliff, N.Z., 146
  Southland, N.Z., 285
  South Yarra, V., 128, 136, 143, 206, 229, 249, 318
  Spring Creek, Torquay, V., 141
  St. Peter's, Sydney, N.S.W., 262
  Stanwell, Q., 137
  Stockyard Creek, N.S.W., 127
  Stroud, N.S.W., 86
  Studley Park, V., 128, 318
  Sunbury, V., 126


  Table Cape, T., 74, 190, 269, 270, 294, 296
  Talbot, V., 93
  Talbragar, 267
  Tallong, N.S.W., 127
  Tamworth, N.S.W., 85, 103, 115
  Taranaki, N.Z., 203
  Tempe Downs, S.A., 193, 205, 228
  Thompson River, Q., 277
  Thomson River, V., 229
  Tinderbox Bay, T., 264
  Tingaringi, N.S.W., 127
  Toongabbie, V., 74, 135
  Torquay, V., 74, 141, 148, 243, 269, 296
  Tyer's River, V., 82, 144


  Upper Finke Basin, S.A., 159
  Upper Yarra, V., 206, 207, 231, 236


  Vegetable Creek, N.S.W., 91


  Waihao, N.Z., 296
  Waikari River, N.Z., 141
  Waikouaiti, N.Z., 296
  Wairoa, N.Z., 274
  Wairoa Gorge, N.Z., 137, 162
  Waitaki Valley, N.Z., 296
  Walhalla, V., 114, 121, 128
  Wandong, V., 229, 231
  Wanganui, N.Z., 299
  Wannon River district, V., 53, 90
  Waratah Bay, V., 114, 121, 229
  Warburton, V., 207
  Warrnambool, V., 282, 299, 301, 302
  Waurn Ponds, V., 90, 119, 141, 243, 269, 296
  Wellington Valley, N.S.W., 287, 298, 300
  Well's Creek, N.Z., 165
  West Melbourne Swamp, V., 51
  Westport, N.Z., 78
  Wharekuri, N.Z., 248
  White Cliffs, N.S.W., 138, 179, 183, 184, 195, 279
  Whittlesea, V., 206
  Wilberforce, N.Z., 189
  Wilcannia, N.S.W., 138
  Wirrialpa, S.A., 159
  Wollumbilla, Q., 98, 137, 154, 157, 166, 183, 189
  Wombat Creek, V., 109, 126
  Woori Yallock Creek, V., 231
  Wormbete Creek, V., 74
  Wynyard, T., 246


  Yan Yean, V., 318
  Yass, N.S.W., 65, 109, 114, 121, 153, 161, 179, 190, 207, 231, 237, 241
  Yering, V., 142
  Yorke Peninsula, S.A., 226
  Yule Id., Papua, 146, 187, 201


  Zeehan, T., 154


       *       *       *       *       *


[Illustration: AUSTRALIA _Shewing chief fossiliferous localities._]


       *       *       *       *       *

CORRIGENDA.

  Page 65, for head-line "_Protozoa_" read "_How Fossils are Found_."

  Page 147, for head-line "_Characteristic Fossils_" read
       "_Sea-urchins_."

  Page 273, for head-line "_Reptiles_" read "_Amphibians_."

  [Transcriber Note: These changes were not utilized here as they only
    apply to the titles at the top of the printed pages.]

       *       *       *       *       *

ERRATUM--Page 47.

  _In 1st column_--_for_ "Mesozoic or Secondary (continued)."

  _Read_ "Palaeozoic or Primary" and omit divisional line.

  [Transcriber Note: These changes were applied to the text.]


       *       *       *       *       *


Transcriber Note


Images were moved so paragraphs were not split. Minor typographical
errors were corrected. Hyphenation was standardized to the most
prevalent form utilized. As the æ ligature was only used five times and
"ae" was used more than 50 times, the ligature was converted to "ae".









End of Project Gutenberg's Australasian Fossils, by Frederick Chapman