The Project Gutenberg eBook of Index of the Project Gutenberg Works of John Fiske This ebook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this ebook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this eBook. Title: Index of the Project Gutenberg Works of John Fiske Author: John Fiske Editor: David Widger Release date: February 20, 2019 [eBook #58925] Language: English Credits: Produced by David Widger *** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK INDEX OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG WORKS OF JOHN FISKE *** Produced by David Widger INDEX OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG WORKS OF JOHN FISKE Compiled by David Widger CONTENTS ## MYTHS AND MYTH-MAKERS ## THE UNSEEN WORLD AND OTHER ESSAYS POLITICAL IDEAS THE MEANING OF INFANCY ## THE BEGINNINGS OF NEW ENGLAND ## THE DESTINY OF MAN ## THE WAR OF INDEPENDENCE ## THE DISCOVERY OF AMERICA, Vol. 1 (of 2) ## CRITICAL PERIOD AMERICAN HISTORY LIFE EVERLASTING ## THROUGH NATURE TO GOD ## A CENTURY OF SCIENCE AND OTHER ESSAYS ## THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION TOBACCO AND ALCOHOL, It Does Pay to Smoke ## OLD VIRGINIA AND HER NEIGHBOURS, Vol. 1 (of 2) ## OLD VIRGINIA AND HER NEIGHBOURS, Vol. 2 (of 2) ## IDEA OF GOD--MODERN KNOWLEDGE TABLES OF CONTENTS OF VOLUMES MYTHS AND MYTH-MAKERS Old Tales and Superstitions Interpreted by Comparative Mythology By John Fiske CONTENTS PREFACE. MYTHS AND MYTH-MAKERS. I. THE ORIGINS OF FOLK-LORE. II. THE DESCENT OF FIRE. III. WEREWOLVES AND SWAN-MAIDENS. IV. LIGHT AND DARKNESS. V. MYTHS OF THE BARBARIC WORLD. VI. JUVENTUS MUNDI. [150] VII. THE PRIMEVAL GHOST-WORLD. NOTE. FOOTNOTES: THE UNSEEN WORLD AND OTHER ESSAYS By John Fiske CONTENTS ESSAYS. I. THE UNSEEN WORLD. PART FIRST. PART SECOND. II. "THE TO-MORROW OF DEATH." III. THE JESUS OF HISTORY. IV. THE CHRIST OF DOGMA. V. A WORD ABOUT MIRACLES. VI. DRAPER ON SCIENCE AND RELIGION. VII. NATHAN THE WISE. VIII. HISTORICAL DIFFICULTIES. IX. THE FAMINE OF 1770 IN BENGAL. X. SPAIN AND THE NETHERLANDS. XI. LONGFELLOW'S DANTE. XII. PAINE'S "ST. PETER." XIII. A PHILOSOPHY OF ART. XIV. ATHENIAN AND AMERICAN LIFE. FOOTNOTES THE BEGINNINGS OF NEW ENGLAND Or The Puritan Theocracy In Its Relations To Civil And Religious Liberty By John Fiske 1892 CONTENTS PREFACE. DETAILED CONTENTS. THE BEGINNINGS OF NEW ENGLAND. CHAPTER I. THE ROMAN IDEA AND THE ENGLISH IDEA. CHAPTER II. THE PURITAN EXODUS. CHAPTER III. THE PLANTING OF NEW ENGLAND. CHAPTER IV. THE NEW ENGLAND CONFEDERACY. CHAPTER V. KING PHILIP'S WAR. CHAPTER VI. THE TYRANNY OF ANDROS. BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTE. NOTES: THE DESTINY OF MAN VIEWED IN THE LIGHT OF HIS ORIGIN By John Fiske 1884 CONTENTS Man’s Place in Nature as affected by the Copernican Theory. As affected by Darwinism. On the Earth there will never be a Higher Creature than Man. The Origin of Infancy. The Dawning of Consciousness. Lengthening of Infancy and Concomitant Increase of Brain-Surface. Change in the Direction of the Working of Natural Selection. Growing Predominance of the Psychical Life. The Origins of Society and of Morality. Improvableness of Man. Universal Warfare of Primeval Men. First checked by the Beginnings of Industrial Civilisation. Methods of Political Development, and Elimination of Warfare. End of the Working of Natural Selection upon Man. Throwing off the Brute-Inheritance. The Message of Christianity. The Question as to a Future Life. THE WAR OF INDEPENDENCE By John Fiske With Maps, Index, And A Biographical Sketch CONTENTS chap page Biographical Sketch. vii I. Introduction. 1 II. The Colonies In 1750. 4 III The French Wars, and the First Plan of Union. 26 IV. The Stamp Act, and the Revenue Laws. 39 V. The Crisis. 78 VI. The Struggle for the Centre. 104 VII. The French Alliance. 144 VIII. Birth of the Nation. 182 Collateral Reading. 195 Index. 197 LIST OF MAPS Facing Page Invasion of Canada 92 Washington's Campaigns in New Jersey and Pennsylvania. 119 Burgoyne's Campaign 130 The Southern Campaign 172 THE DISCOVERY OF AMERICA By John Fiske VOL. I (of II) CONTENTS CHAPTER I. ANCIENT AMERICA. page The American aborigines 1 Question as to their origin 2, 3 Antiquity of man in America 4 Shell-mounds, or middens 4, 5 The Glacial Period 6, 7 Discoveries in the Trenton gravel 8 Discoveries in Ohio, Indiana, and Minnesota 9 Mr. Cresson's discovery at Claymont, Delaware 10 The Calaveras skull 11 Pleistocene men and mammals 12, 13 Elevation and subsidence 13, 14 Waves of migration 15 The Cave men of Europe in the Glacial Period 16 The Eskimos are probably a remnant of the Cave men 17-19 There was probably no connection or intercourse by water between ancient America and the Old World 20 There is one great American red race 21 Different senses in which the word "race" is used 21-23 No necessary connection between differences in culture and differences in race 23 Mr. Lewis Morgan's classification of grades of culture 24-32 Distinction between Savagery and Barbarism 25 Origin of pottery 25 Lower, middle, and upper status of savagery 26 Lower status of barbarism; it ended differently in the two hemispheres; in ancient America there was no pastoral stage of development 27 (p. xx) Importance of Indian corn 28 Tillage with irrigation 29 Use of adobe-brick and stone in building 29 Middle status of barbarism 29, 30 Stone and copper tools 30 Working of metals; smelting of iron 30 Upper status of barbarism 31 The alphabet and the beginnings of civilization 32 So-called "civilizations" of Mexico and Peru 33, 34 Loose use of the words "savagery" and "civilization" 35 Value and importance of the term "barbarism" 35, 36 The status of barbarism is most completely exemplified in ancient America 36, 37 Survival of bygone epochs of culture; work of the Bureau of Ethnology 37, 38 Tribal society and multiplicity of languages in aboriginal America 38, 39 Tribes in the upper status of savagery; Athabaskans, Apaches, Shoshones, etc. 39 Tribes in the lower status of barbarism; the Dakota group or family 40 The Minnitarees and Mandans 41 The Pawnee and Arickaree group 42 The Maskoki group 42 The Algonquin group 43 The Huron-Iroquois group 44 The Five Nations 45-47 Distinction between horticulture and field agriculture 48 Perpetual intertribal warfare, with torture and cannibalism 49-51 Myths and folk-lore 51 Ancient law 52, 53 The patriarchal family not primitive 53 "Mother-right" 54 Primitive marriage 55 The system of reckoning kinship through females only 56 Original reason for the system 57 The primeval human horde 58, 59 Earliest family-group; the clan 60 "Exogamy" 60 (p. xxi) Phratry and tribe 61 Effect of pastoral life upon property and upon the family 61-63 The exogamous clan in ancient America 64 Intimate connection of aboriginal architecture with social life 65 The long houses of the Iroquois 66, 67 Summary divorce 68 Hospitality 68 Structure of the clan 69, 70 Origin and structure of the phratry 70, 71 Structure of the tribe 72 Cross-relationships between clans and tribes; the Iroquois Confederacy 72-74 Structure of the confederacy 75, 76 The "Long House" 76 Symmetrical development of institutions in ancient America 77, 78 Circular houses of the Mandans 79-81 The Indians of the pueblos, in the middle status of barbarism 82, 83 Horticulture with irrigation, and architecture with adobe 83, 84 Possible origin of adobe architecture 84, 85 Mr. Cushing's sojourn at Zuñi 86 Typical structure of the pueblo 86-88 Pueblo society 89 Wonderful ancient pueblos in the Chaco valley 90-92 The Moqui pueblos 93 The cliff-dwellings 93 Pueblo of Zuñi 93, 94 Pueblo of Tlascala 94-96 The ancient city of Mexico was a great composite pueblo 97 The Spanish discoverers could not be expected to understand the state of society which they found there 97, 98 Contrast between feudalism and gentilism 98 Change from gentile society to political society in Greece and Rome 99, 100 (p. xxii) First suspicions as to the erroneousness of the Spanish accounts 101 Detection and explanation of the errors, by Lewis Morgan 102 Adolf Bandelier's researches 103 The Aztec Confederacy 104, 105 Aztec clans 106 Clan officers 107 Rights and duties of the clan 108 Aztec phratries 108 The tlatocan, or tribal council 109 The cihuacoatl, or "snake-woman" 110 The tlacatecuhtli, or "chief-of-men" 111 Evolution of kingship in Greece and Rome 112 Mediæval kingship 113 Montezuma was a "priest-commander" 114 Mode of succession to the office 114, 115 Manner of collecting tribute 116 Mexican roads 117 Aztec and Iroquois confederacies contrasted 118 Aztec priesthood; human sacrifices 119, 120 Aztec slaves 121, 122 The Aztec family 122, 123 Aztec property 124 Mr. Morgan's rules of criticism 125 He sometimes disregarded his own rules 126 Amusing illustrations from his remarks on "Montezuma's Dinner" 126-128 The reaction against uncritical and exaggerated statements was often carried too far by Mr. Morgan 128, 129 Great importance of the middle period of barbarism 130 The Mexicans compared with the Mayas 131-133 Maya hieroglyphic writing 132 Ruined cities of Central America 134-138 They are probably not older than the twelfth century 136 Recent discovery of the Chronicle of Chicxulub 138 Maya culture very closely related to Mexican 139 The "Mound-Builders" 140-146 The notion that they were like the Aztecs 142 Or, perhaps, like the Zuñis 143 (p. xxiii) These notions are not well sustained 144 The mounds were probably built by different peoples in the lower status of barbarism, by Cherokees, Shawnees, and other tribes 144, 145 It is not likely that there was a "race of Mound Builders" 146 Society in America at the time of the Discovery had reached stages similar to stages reached by eastern Mediterranean peoples fifty or sixty centuries earlier 146, 147 CHAPTER II. PRE-COLUMBIAN VOYAGES. Stories of voyages to America before Columbus; the Chinese 148 The Irish. 149 Blowing and drifting; Cousin, of Dieppe 150 These stories are of small value 150 But the case of the Northmen is quite different 151 The Viking exodus from Norway 151, 152 Founding of a colony in Iceland, A. D. 874 153 Icelandic literature 154 Discovery of Greenland, A. D. 876 155, 156 Eric the Red, and his colony in Greenland, A. D. 986 157-161 Voyage of Bjarni Herjulfsson 162 Conversion of the Northmen to Christianity 163 Leif Ericsson's voyage, A. D. 1000; Helluland and Markland 164 Leif's winter in Vinland 165, 166 Voyages of Thorvald and Thorstein 167 Thorfinn Karlsefni, and his unsuccessful attempt to found a colony in Vinland, A. D. 1007-10 167-169 Freydis, and her evil deeds in Vinland, 1011-12 170, 171 Voyage into Baffin's Bay, 1135 172 Description of a Viking ship discovered at Sandefiord, in Norway 173-175 (p. xxiv) To what extent the climate of Greenland may have changed within the last thousand years 176, 177 With the Northmen once in Greenland, the discovery of the American continent was inevitable 178 Ear-marks of truth in the Icelandic narratives 179, 180 Northern limit of the vine 181 Length of the winter day 182 Indian corn 182, 183 Winter weather in Vinland 184 Vinland was probably situated somewhere between Cape Breton and Point Judith 185 Further ear-marks of truth; savages and barbarians of the lower status were unknown to mediæval Europeans 185, 186 The natives of Vinland as described in the Icelandic narratives 187-193 Meaning of the epithet "Skrælings" 188, 189 Personal appearance of the Skrælings 189 The Skrælings of Vinland were Indians,—very likely Algonquins 190 The "balista" or "demon's head" 191, 192 The story of the "uniped" 193 Character of the Icelandic records; misleading associations with the word "saga" 194 The comparison between Leif Ericsson and Agamemnon, made by a committee of the Massachusetts Historical Society, was peculiarly unfortunate and inappropriate 194, 197 The story of the Trojan War, in the shape in which we find it in Greek poetry, is pure folk-lore 195 The Saga of Eric the Red is not folk-lore 196 Mythical and historical sagas 197 The western or Hauks-bók version of Eric the Red's Saga 198 The northern or Flateyar-bók version 199 Presumption against sources not contemporary 200 Hauk Erlendsson and his manuscripts 201 The story is not likely to have been preserved to Hauk's time by oral tradition only 202 Allusions to Vinland in other Icelandic documents 202-207 (p. xxv) Eyrbyggja Saga 203 The abbot Nikulas, etc. 204 Ari Fródhi and his works 204 His significant allusion to Vinland 205 Other references 206 Differences between Hauks-bók and Flateyar-bók versions 207 Adam of Bremen 208 Importance of his testimony 209 His misconception of the situation of Vinland 210 Summary of the argument 211-213 Absurd speculations of zealous antiquarians 213-215 The Dighton inscription was made by Algonquins, and has nothing to do with the Northmen 213, 214 Governor Arnold's stone windmill 215 There is no reason for supposing that the Northmen founded a colony in Vinland 216 No archæological remains of them have been found south of Davis strait 217 If the Northmen had founded a successful colony, they would have introduced domestic cattle into the North American fauna 218 And such animals could not have vanished and left no trace of their existence 219, 220 Further fortunes of the Greenland colony 221 Bishop Eric's voyage in search of Vinland, 1121 222 The ship from Markland, 1347 223 The Greenland colony attacked by Eskimos, 1349 224 Queen Margaret's monopoly, and its baneful effects 225 Story of the Venetian brothers, Nicolò and Antonio Zeno 226 Nicolò Zeno wrecked upon one of the Færoe islands 227 He enters the service of Henry Sinclair, Earl of the Orkneys and Caithness 228 Nicolò's voyage to Greenland, cir. 1394 229 Voyage of Earl Sinclair and Antonio Zeno 229, 230 Publication of the remains of the documents by the younger Nicolò Zeno, 1558 231 The Zeno map 232, 233 Queer transformations of names 234-236 (p. xxvi) The name Færoislander became Frislanda 236 The narrative nowhere makes a claim to the "discovery of America" 237 The "Zichmni" of the narrative means Henry Sinclair 238 Bardsen's "Description of Greenland" 239 The monastery of St. Olaus and its hot spring 240 Volcanoes of the north Atlantic ridge 241 Fate of Gunnbjörn's Skerries, 1456 242 Volcanic phenomena in Greenland 242, 243 Estotiland 244 Drogio 245 Inhabitants of Drogio and the countries beyond 246 The Fisherman's return to Frislanda 247 Was the account of Drogio woven into the narrative by the younger Nicolò? 248 Or does it represent actual experiences in North America? 249 The case of David Ingram, 1568 250 The case of Cabeza de Vaca, 1528-36 251 There may have been unrecorded instances of visits to North America 252 The pre-Columbian voyages made no real contributions to geographical knowledge 253 And were in no true sense a discovery of America 254 Real contact between the eastern and western hemisphere was first established by Columbus 255 CHAPTER III. EUROPE AND CATHAY. Why the voyages of the Northmen were not followed up 256 Ignorance of their geographical significance 257 Lack of instruments for ocean navigation 257 Condition of Europe in the year 1000 258, 259 It was not such as to favour colonial enterprise 260 The outlook of Europe was toward Asia 261 Routes of trade between Europe and Asia 262 (p. xxvii) Claudius Ptolemy and his knowledge of the earth 263 Early mention of China 264 The monk Cosmas Indicopleustes 265 Shape of the earth, according to Cosmas 266, 267 His knowledge of Asia 268 The Nestorians 268 Effects of the Saracen conquests 269 Constantinople in the twelfth century 270 The Crusades 270-274 Barbarizing character of Turkish conquest 271 General effects of the Crusades 272 The Fourth Crusade 273 Rivalry between Venice and Genoa 274 Centres and routes of mediæval trade 275, 276 Effects of the Mongol conquests 277 Cathay, origin of the name 277 Carpini and Rubruquis 278 First knowledge of an eastern ocean beyond Cathay 278 The data were thus prepared for Columbus; but as yet nobody reasoned from these data to a practical conclusion 279 The Polo brothers 280 Kublai Khan's message to the Pope 281 Marco Polo and his travels in Asia 281, 282 First recorded voyage of Europeans around the Indo-Chinese peninsula 282 Return of the Polos to Venice 283 Marco Polo's book, written in prison at Genoa, 1299; its great contributions to geographical knowledge 284, 285 Prester John 285 Griffins and Arimaspians 286 The Catalan map, 1375 288, 289 Other visits to China 287-291 Overthrow of the Mongol dynasty, and shutting up of China 291 First rumours of the Molucca islands and Japan 292 The accustomed routes of Oriental trade were cut off in the fifteenth century by the Ottoman Turks 293 Necessity for finding an "outside route to the Indies" 294 (p. xxviii) CHAPTER IV. THE SEARCH FOR THE INDIES. EASTWARD OR PORTUGUESE ROUTE. Question as to whether Asia could be reached by sailing around Africa 295 Views of Eratosthenes 296 Opposing theory of Ptolemy 297 Story of the Phœnician voyage in the time of Necho 298-300 Voyage of Hanno 300, 301 Voyages of Sataspes and Eudoxus 302 Wild exaggerations 303 Views of Pomponius Mela 304, 305 Ancient theory of the five zones 306, 307 The Inhabited World, or Œcumene, and the Antipodes 308 Curious notions about Taprobane (Ceylon) 309 Question as to the possibility of crossing the torrid zone 309 Notions about sailing "up and down hill" 310, 311 Superstitious fancies 311, 312 Clumsiness of ships in the fifteenth century 312 Dangers from famine and scurvy 313 The mariner's compass; an interesting letter from Brunetto Latini to Guido Cavalcanti 313-315 Calculating latitudes and longitudes 315 Prince Henry the Navigator 316-326 His idea of an ocean route to the Indies, and what it might bring 318 The Sacred Promontory 319 The Madeira and Canary islands 320-322 Gil Eannes passes Cape Bojador 323 Beginning of the modern slave-trade, 1442 323 Papal grant of heathen countries to the Portuguese crown 324, 325 Advance to Sierra Leone 326 Advance to the Hottentot coast 326, 327 Note upon the extent of European acquaintance with (p. xxix) savagery and the lower forms of barbarism previous to the fifteenth century 327-329 Effect of the Portuguese discoveries upon the theories of Ptolemy and Mela 329, 330 News of Prester John; Covilham's journey 331 Bartholomew Dias passes the Cape of Good Hope and enters the Indian ocean 332 Some effects of this discovery 333 Bartholomew Columbus took part in it 333 Connection between these voyages and the work of Christopher Columbus 334 CHAPTER V. THE SEARCH FOR THE INDIES. WESTWARD OR SPANISH ROUTE. Sources of information concerning the life of Columbus; Las Casas and Ferdinand Columbus 335 The Biblioteca Colombina at Seville 336, 337 Bernaldez and Peter Martyr 338 Letters of Columbus 338 Defects in Ferdinand's information 339, 340 Researches of Henry Harrisse 341 Date of the birth of Columbus; archives of Savona 342 Statement of Bernaldez 343 Columbus's letter of September, 1501 344 The balance of probability is in favour of 1436 345 The family of Domenico Colombo, and its changes of residence 346, 347 Columbus tells us that he was born in the city of Genoa 348 His early years 349-351 Christopher and his brother Bartholomew at Lisbon 351, 352 Philippa Moñiz de Perestrelo 352 Personal appearance of Columbus 353 His marriage, and life upon the island of Porto Santo 353, 354 The king of Portugal asks advice of the great astronomer Toscanelli 355 (p. xxx) Toscanelli's first letter to Columbus 356-361 His second letter to Columbus 361, 362 Who first suggested the feasibleness of a westward route to the Indies? Was it Columbus? 363 Perhaps it was Toscanelli 363, 364 Note on the date of Toscanelli's first letter to Columbus 365-367 The idea, being naturally suggested by the globular form of the earth, was as old as Aristotle 368, 369 Opinions of ancient writers 370 Opinions of Christian writers 371 The "Imago Mundi" of Petrus Alliacus 372, 373 Ancient estimates of the size of the globe and the length of the Œcumene 374 Toscanelli's calculation of the size of the earth, and of the position of Japan (Cipango) 375, 376 Columbus's opinions of the size of the globe, the length of the Œcumene, and the width of the Atlantic ocean from Portugal to Japan 377-380 There was a fortunate mixture of truth and error in these opinions of Columbus 381 The whole point and purport of Columbus's scheme lay in its promise of a route to the Indies shorter than that which the Portuguese were seeking by way of Guinea 381 Columbus's speculations on climate; his voyages to Guinea and into the Arctic ocean 382 He may have reached Jan Mayen island, and stopped at Iceland 383, 384 The Scandinavian hypothesis that Columbus "must have" heard and understood the story of the Vinland voyages 384, 385 It has not a particle of evidence in its favour 385 It is not probable that Columbus knew of Adam of Bremen's allusion to Vinland, or that he would have understood it if he had read it 386 It is doubtful if he would have stumbled upon the story in Iceland 387 If he had heard it, he would probably have classed it with such tales as that of St. Brandan's isle 388 (p. xxxi) He could not possibly have obtained from such a source his opinion of the width of the ocean 388, 389 If he had known and understood the Vinland story, he had the strongest motives for proclaiming it and no motive whatever for concealing it 390-392 No trace of a thought of Vinland appears in any of his voyages 393 Why did not Norway or Iceland utter a protest in 1493? 393 The idea of Vinland was not associated with the idea of America until the seventeenth century 394 Recapitulation of the genesis of Columbus's scheme 395 Martin Behaim's improved astrolabe 395, 396 Negotiations of Columbus with John II. of Portugal 396, 397 The king is persuaded into a shabby trick 398 Columbus leaves Portugal and enters into the service of Ferdinand and Isabella, 1486 398-400 The junto at Salamanca, 1486 401 Birth of Ferdinand Columbus, August 15, 1488 401 Bartholomew Columbus returns from the Cape of Good Hope, December, 1487 402, 403 Christopher visits Bartholomew at Lisbon, cir. September, 1488, and sends him to England 404 Bartholomew, after mishaps, reaches England cir. February, 1490, and goes thence to France before 1492 405-407 The duke of Medina-Celi proposes to furnish the ships for Columbus, but the queen withholds her consent 408, 409 Columbus makes up his mind to get his family together and go to France, October, 1491 409, 410 A change of fortune; he stops at La Rábida, and meets the prior Juan Perez, who writes to the queen 411 Columbus is summoned back to court 411 The junto before Granada, December, 1491 412, 413 Surrender of Granada, January 2, 1492 414 Columbus negotiates with the queen, who considers his terms exorbitant 414-416 Interposition of Luis de Santangel 416 (p. xxxii) Agreement between Columbus and the sovereigns 417 Cost of the voyage 418 Dismay at Palos 419 The three famous caravels 420 Delay at the Canary islands 421 Martin Behaim and his globe 422, 423 Columbus starts for Japan, September 6, 1492 424 Terrors of the voyage:—1. Deflection of the needle 425 2. The Sargasso sea 426, 427 3. The trade wind 428 Impatience of the crews 428 Change of course from W. to W. S. W 429, 430 Discovery of land, October 12, 1492 431 Guanahani: which of the Bahama islands was it? 432 Groping for Cipango and the route to Quinsay 433, 434 Columbus reaches Cuba, and sends envoys to find a certain Asiatic prince 434, 435 He turns eastward and Pinzon deserts him 435 Columbus arrives at Hayti and thinks it must be Japan 436 His flag-ship is wrecked, and he decides to go back to Spain 437 Building of the blockhouse, La Navidad 438 Terrible storm in mid-ocean on the return voyage 439 Cold reception at the Azores 440 Columbus is driven ashore in Portugal, where the king is advised to have him assassinated 440 But to offend Spain so grossly would be imprudent 441 Arrival of Columbus and Pinzon at Palos; death of Pinzon 442 Columbus is received by the sovereigns at Barcelona 443, 444 General excitement at the news that a way to the Indies had been found 445 This voyage was an event without any parallel in history 446 (p. xxxiii) CHAPTER VI. THE FINDING OF STRANGE COASTS. The Discovery of America was a gradual process 447, 448 The letters of Columbus to Santangel and to Sanchez 449 Versification of the story by Giuliano Dati 450 Earliest references to the discovery 451 The earliest reference in English 452 The Portuguese claim to the Indies 453 Bulls of Pope Alexander VI. 454-458 The treaty of Tordesillas 459 Juan Rodriguez Fonseca, and his relations with Columbus 460-462 Friar Boyle 462 Notable persons who embarked on the second voyage 463 Departure from Cadiz 464 Cruise among the Cannibal (Caribbee) islands 465 Fate of the colony at La Navidad 466 Building the town of Isabella 467 Exploration of Cibao 467, 468 Westward cruise; Cape Alpha and Omega 468-470 Discovery of Jamaica 471 Coasting the south side of Cuba 472 The "people of Mangon" 473 Speculations concerning the Golden Chersonese 474-476 A solemn expression of opinion 477 Vicissitudes of theory 477, 478 Arrival of Bartholomew Columbus in Hispaniola 478, 479 Mutiny in Hispaniola; desertion of Boyle and Margarite 479, 480 The government of Columbus was not tyrannical 481 Troubles with the Indians 481, 482 Mission of Juan Aguado 482 Discovery of gold mines, and speculations about Ophir 483 Founding of San Domingo, 1496 484 The return voyage to Spain 485 Edicts of 1495 and 1497 486, 487 Vexatious conduct of Fonseca; Columbus loses his temper 487 (p. xxxiv) Departure from San Lucar on the third voyage 488 The belt of calms 489-491 Trinidad and the Orinoco 491, 492 Speculations as to the earth's shape; the mountain of Paradise 494 Relation of the "Eden continent" to "Cochin China" 495 Discovery of the Pearl Coast 495 Columbus arrives at San Domingo 496 Roldan's rebellion and Fonseca's machinations 496, 497 Gama's voyage to Hindustan, 1497 498 Fonseca's creature, Bobadilla, sent to investigate the troubles in Hispaniola 499 He imprisons Columbus 500 And sends him in chains to Spain 501 Release of Columbus; his interview with the sovereigns 502 How far were the sovereigns responsible for Bobadilla? 503 Ovando, another creature of Fonseca, appointed governor of Hispaniola 503, 504 Purpose of Columbus's fourth voyage, to find a passage from the Caribbee waters into the Indian ocean 504, 506 The voyage across the Atlantic 506 Columbus not allowed to stop at San Domingo 507 His arrival at Cape Honduras 508 Cape Gracias a Dios, and the coast of Veragua 509 Fruitless search for the strait of Malacca 510 Futile attempt to make a settlement in Veragua 511 Columbus is shipwrecked on the coast of Jamaica; shameful conduct of Ovando 512 Columbus's last return to Spain 513 His death at Valladolid, May 20, 1506 513 "Nuevo Mundo;" arms of Ferdinand Columbus 514, 515 When Columbus died, the fact that a New World had been discovered by him had not yet begun to dawn upon his mind, or upon the mind of any voyager or any writer 515, 516 ILLUSTRATIONS page Portrait of the author Frontispiece View and ground-plan of Seneca-Iroquois long house reduced from Morgan's Houses and House-Life of the American Aborigines 66 View, cross-section, and ground-plan of Mandan round house, ditto 80 Ground-plan of Pueblo Hungo Pavie, ditto 86 Restoration of Pueblo Hungo Pavie, ditto 88 Restoration of Pueblo Bonito, ditto 90 Ground-plan of Pueblo Peñasca Blanca, ditto 92 Ground-plan of so-called "House of the Nuns" at Uxmal, ditto 133 Map of the East Bygd, or eastern settlement of the Northmen in Greenland, reduced from Rafn's Antiquitates Americanæ 160, 161 Ruins of the church at Kakortok, from Major's Voyages of the Zeni, published by the Hakluyt Society 222 Zeno Map, cir. 1400, ditto 232, 233 Map of the World according to Claudius Ptolemy, cir. A. D. 150, an abridged sketch after a map in Bunbury's History of Ancient Geography Facing 265 Two sheets of the Catalan Map, 1375, from Yule's Cathay, published by the Hakluyt Society 288, 289 Map of the World according to Pomponius Mela, cir. A. D. 50, from Winsor's Narrative and Critical History of America 304 Map illustrating Portuguese voyages on the coast of Africa, from a sketch by the author 324 Toscanelli's Map, 1474, redrawn and improved from a sketch in Winsor's America Facing 357 (p. xxxvi) Annotations by Columbus, reduced from a photograph in Harrisse's Notes on Columbus 373 Sketch of Martin Behaim's Globe, 1492, preserved in the city hall at Nuremberg, reduced to Mercator's projection and sketched by the author 422, 423 Sketch of Martin Behaim's Atlantic Ocean, with outline of the American continent superimposed, from Winsor's America 429 Map of the discoveries made by Columbus in his first and second voyages, sketched by the author 469 Map of the discoveries made by Columbus in his third and fourth voyages, ditto 493 Arms of Ferdinand Columbus, from the title-page of Harrisse's Fernand Colomb 515 THE CRITICAL PERIOD AMERICAN HISTORY 1783–1789 By John Fiske "I am uneasy and apprehensive, more so than during the war." Jay to Washington, June 27, 1786. CONTENTS CHAPTER I. RESULTS OF YORKTOWN. PAGE Fall of Lord North's ministry 1 Sympathy between British Whigs and the revolutionary party in America 2 It weakened the Whig party in England 3 Character of Lord Shelburne 4 Political instability of the Rockingham ministry 5, 6 Obstacles in the way of a treaty of peace 7, 8 Oswald talks with Franklin 9–11 Grenville has an interview with Vergennes 12 Effects of Rodney's victory 13 Misunderstanding between Fox and Shelburne 14 Fall of the Rockingham ministry 15 Shelburne becomes prime minister 16 Defeat of the Spaniards and French at Gibraltar 17 French policy opposed to American interests 18 The valley of the Mississippi; Aranda's prophecy 19 The Newfoundland fisheries 20 Jay detects the schemes of Vergennes 21 And sends Dr Vaughan to visit Shelburne 22 John Adams arrives in Paris and joins with Jay in insisting upon a separate negotiation with England 23, 24 The separate American treaty, as agreed upon: 1. Boundaries 25 2. Fisheries; commercial intercourse 26 3. Private debts 27 4. Compensation of loyalists 28–32 Secret article relating to the Yazoo boundary 33 Vergennes does not like the way in which it has been done 33 On the part of the Americans it was a great diplomatic victory 34 Which the commissioners won by disregarding the instructions of Congress and acting on their own responsibility 35 The Spanish treaty 36 The French treaty 37 Coalition of Fox with North 38–42 They attack the American treaty in Parliament 43 And compel Shelburne to resign 44 Which leaves England without a government, while for several weeks the king is too angry to appoint ministers 44 Until at length he succumbs to the coalition, which presently adopts and ratifies the American treaty 45 The coalition ministry is wrecked upon Fox's India Bill 46 Constitutional crisis ends in the overwhelming victory of Pitt in the elections of May, 1784 47 And this, although apparently a triumph for the king, was really a death-blow to his system of personal government 48, 49 CHAPTER II. THE THIRTEEN COMMONWEALTHS. Cessation of hostilities in America 50 Departure of the British troops 51 Washington resigns his command 52 And goes home to Mount Vernon 53 His "legacy" to the American people 54 The next five years were the most critical years in American history 55 Absence of a sentiment of union, and consequent danger of anarchy 56, 57 European statesmen, whether hostile or friendly, had little faith in the stability of the Union 58 False historic analogies 59 Influence of railroad and telegraph upon the perpetuity of the Union 60 Difficulty of travelling a hundred years ago 61 Local jealousies and antipathies, an inheritance from primeval savagery 62, 63 Conservative character of the American Revolution 64 State governments remodelled; assemblies continued from colonial times 65 Origin of the senates in the governor's council of assistants 66 Governors viewed with suspicion 67 Analogies with British institutions 68 The judiciary 69 Restrictions upon suffrage 70 Abolition of primogeniture, entails, and manorial privileges 71 Steps toward the abolition of slavery and the slave-trade 72–75 Progress toward religious freedom 76, 77 Church and state in Virginia 78, 79 Persecution of dissenters 80 Madison and the Religions Freedom Act 81 Temporary overthrow of the church 82 Difficulties in regard to ordination; the case of Mason Weems 83 Ordination of Samuel Seabury by non-jurors at Aberdeen 84 Francis Asbury and the Methodists 85 Presbyterians and Congregationalists 86 Roman Catholics 87 Except in the instance of slavery, all the changes described in this chapter were favourable to the union of the states 88 But while the state governments, in all these changes, are seen working smoothly, we have next to observe, by contrast, the clumsiness and inefficiency of the federal government 89 CHAPTER III. THE LEAGUE OF FRIENDSHIP. The several states have never enjoyed complete sovereignty 90 But in the very act of severing their connection with Great Britain, they entered into some sort of union 91 Anomalous character of the Continental Congress 92 The articles of confederation; they sought to establish a "league of friendship" between the states 93–97 But failed to create a federal government endowed with real sovereignty 98–100 Military weakness of the government 101–103 Extreme difficulty of obtaining a revenue 104, 105 Congress, being unable to pay the army, was afraid of it 106 Supposed scheme for making Washington king 107 Greene's experience in South Carolina 108 Gates's staff officers and the Newburgh address 109 The danger averted by Washington 110, 111 Congress driven from Philadelphia by mutinous soldiers 112 The Commutation Act denounced in New England 113 Order of the Cincinnati 114–117 Reasons for the dread which it inspired 118 Congress finds itself unable to carry out the provisions of the treaty with Great Britain 119 Persecution of the loyalists 120, 121 It was especially severe in New York 122 Trespass Act of 1784 directed against the loyalists 123 Character and early career of Alexander Hamilton 124–126 The case of Rutgers v. Waddington 127, 128 Wholesale emigration of Tories 129, 130 Congress unable to enforce payment of debts to British creditors 131 England retaliates by refusing to surrender the fortresses on the northwestern frontier 132, 133 CHAPTER IV. DRIFTING TOWARD ANARCHY. The barbarous superstitions of the Middle Ages concerning trade were still rife in the eighteenth century 134 The old theory of the uses of a colony 135 Pitt's unsuccessful attempt to secure free trade between Great Britain and the United States 136 Ship-building in New England 137 British navigation acts and orders in council directed against American commerce 138 John Adams tried in vain to negotiate a commercial treaty with Great Britain 139, 140 And could see no escape from the difficulties except in systematic reprisal 141 But any such reprisal was impracticable, for the several states imposed conflicting duties 142 Attempts to give Congress the power of regulating commerce were unsuccessful 143, 144 And the several states began to make commercial war upon one another 145 Attempts of New York to oppress New Jersey and Connecticut 146 Retaliatory measures of the two latter states 147 The quarrel between Connecticut and Pennsylvania over the possession of the valley of Wyoming 148–150 The quarrel between New York and New Hampshire over the possession of the Green Mountains 151–153 Failure of American diplomacy because European states could not tell whether they were dealing with one nation or with thirteen 154, 155 Failure of American credit; John Adams begging in Holland 156, 157 The Barbary pirates 158 American citizens kidnapped and sold into slavery 159 Lord Sheffield's outrageous pamphlet 160 Tripoli's demand for blackmail 161 Congress unable to protect American citizens 162 Financial distress after the Revolutionary War 163, 164 State of the coinage 165 Cost of the war in money 166 Robert Morris and his immense services 167 The craze for paper money 168 Agitation in the southern and middle states 169–171 Distress in New England 172 Imprisonment for debt 173 Rag-money victorious in Rhode Island; the "Know Ye" measures 174–176 Rag-money defeated in Massachusetts; the Shays insurrection 177–181 The insurrection suppressed by state troops 182 Conduct of the neighbouring states 183 The rebels pardoned 184 Timidity of Congress 185, 186 CHAPTER V. GERMS OF NATIONAL SOVEREIGNTY. Creation of a national domain beyond the Alleghanies 187, 188 Conflicting claims to the western territory 189 Claims of Massachusetts and Connecticut 189, 190 Claims of New York 190 Virginia's claims 191 Maryland's novel and beneficent suggestion 192 The several states yield their claims in favour of the United States 193, 194 Magnanimity of Virginia 195 Jefferson proposes a scheme of government for the northwestern territory 196 Names of the proposed ten states 197 Jefferson wishes to prohibit slavery in the national domain 198 North Carolina's cession of western lands 199 John Sevier and the state of Franklin 200, 201 The northwestern territory 202 Origin of the Ohio company 203 The Ordinance of 1787 204–206 Theory of folkland upon which the ordinance was based 207 Spain, hearing of the secret article in the treaty of 1783, loses her temper and threatens to shut up the Mississippi River 208, 209 Gardoqui and Jay 210 Threats of secession in Kentucky and New England 211 Washington's views on the political importance of canals between east and west 212 His far-sighted genius and self-devotion 213 Maryland confers with Virginia regarding the navigation of the Potomac 214 The Madison-Tyler motion in the Virginia legislature 215 Convention at Annapolis, Sept 11, 1786 216 Hamilton's address calling for a convention at Philadelphia 217 The impost amendment defeated by the action of New York; last ounce upon the camel's back 218–220 Sudden changes in popular sentiment 221 The Federal Convention meets at Philadelphia, May, 1787 222 Mr. Gladstone's opinion of the work of the convention 223 The men who were assembled there 224, 225 Character of James Madison 226, 227 The other leading members 228 Washington chosen president of the convention 229 CHAPTER VI. THE FEDERAL CONVENTION. Why the proceedings of the convention were kept secret for so many years 230 Difficulty of the problem to be solved 231 Symptoms of cowardice repressed by Washington's impassioned speech 232 The root of all the difficulties; the edicts of the federal government had operated only upon states, not upon individuals, and therefore could not be enforced without danger of war 233–233 The Virginia plan, of which Madison was the chief author, offered a radical cure 236 And was felt to be revolutionary in its character 237–239 Fundamental features of the Virginia plan 240, 241 How it was at first received 242 The House of Representatives must be directly elected by the people 243 Question as to the representation of states brings out the antagonism between large and small states 244 William Paterson presents the New Jersey plan; not a radical cure, but a feeble palliative 245 Straggle between the Virginia and New Jersey plans 246–249 The Connecticut compromise, according to which the national principle is to prevail in the House of Representatives, and the federal principle in the Senate, meets at first with fierce opposition 250, 251 But is at length adopted 252 And proves a decisive victory for Madison and his methods 253 A few irreconcilable members go home in dudgeon 254 But the small states, having been propitiated, are suddenly converted to Federalism, and make the victory complete 255 Vague dread of the future west 255 The struggle between pro-slavery and anti-slavery parties began in the convention, and was quieted by two compromises 256 Should representation be proportioned to wealth or to population? 257 Were slaves to be reckoned as persons or as chattels? 258 Attitude of the Virginia statesmen 259 It was absolutely necessary to satisfy South Carolina 260 The three fifths compromise, suggested by Madison, was a genuine English solution, if ever there was one 261 There was neither rhyme nor reason in it, but for all that, it was the best solution attainable at the time 262 The next compromise was between New England and South Carolina as to the foreign slave-trade and the power of the federal government over commerce 263 George Mason calls the slave-trade an "infernal traffic" 264 And the compromise offends and alarms Virginia 265 Belief in the moribund condition of slavery 266 The foundations of the Constitution were laid in compromise 267 Powers granted to the federal government 268 Use of federal troops in suppressing insurrections 269 Various federal powers 270 Provision for a federal city under federal jurisdiction 271 The Federal Congress might compel the attendance of members 272 Powers denied to the several states 272 Should the federal government he allowed to make its promissory notes a legal tender in payment of debts? powerful speech of Gouverneur Morris 273 Emphatic and unmistakable condemnation of paper money by all the leading delegates 274 The convention refused to grant to the federal government the power of issuing inconvertible paper, but did not think an express prohibition necessary 275 If they could have foreseen some recent judgments of the supreme court, they would doubtless have made the prohibition explicit and absolute 276 Debates as to the federal executive 277 Sherman's suggestion as to the true relation of the executive to the legislature 278 There was to be a single chief magistrate, but how should he be chosen? 279 Objections to an election by Congress 280 Ellsworth and King suggest the device of an electoral college, which is at first rejected 281 But afterwards adopted 282 Provisions for an election by Congress in the case of a failure of choice by the electoral college 283 Provisions for counting the electoral votes 284 It was not intended to leave anything to be decided by the president of the Senate 285 The convention foresaw imaginary dangers, but not the real ones 286 Hamilton's opinion of the electoral scheme 287 How it has actually worked 288 In this part of its work the convention tried to copy from the British Constitution 289 In which they supposed the legislative and executive departments to be distinct and separate 290 Here they were misled by Montesquieu and Blackstone 291 What our government would be if it were really like that of Great Britain 292–294 In the British government the executive department is not separated from the legislative 295 Circumstances which obscured the true aspect of the case a century ago 296–298 The American cabinet is analogous, not to the British cabinet, but to the privy council 299 The federal judiciary, and its remarkable character 300–301 Provisions for amending the Constitution 302 The document is signed by all but three of the delegates 303 And the convention breaks up 304 With a pleasant remark from Franklin 305 CHAPTER VII. CROWNING THE WORK. Franklin lays the Constitution before the legislature of Pennsylvania 306 It is submitted to Congress, which refers it to the legislatures of the thirteen states, to be ratified or rejected by the people in conventions 307 First American parties, Federalists and Antifederalists 308, 309 The contest in Pennsylvania 310 How to make a quorum 311 A war of pamphlets and newspaper squibs 312, 313 Ending in the ratification of the Constitution by Delaware, Pennsylvania, and New Jersey 314 Rejoicings and mutterings 315 Georgia and Connecticut ratify 316 The outlook in Massachusetts 317, 318 The Massachusetts convention meets 319 And overhauls the Constitution clause by clause 320 On the subject of an army Mr. Nason waxes eloquent 321 The clergymen oppose a religious test 322 And Rev. Samuel West argues on the assumption that all men are not totally depraved 323 Feeling of distrust in the mountain districts 324 Timely speech of a Berkshire farmer 325, 326 Attitude of Samuel Adams 326, 327 Meeting of mechanics at the Green Dragon 327 Charges of bribery 328 Washington's fruitful suggestion 329 Massachusetts ratifies, but proposes amendments 330 The Long Lane has a turning and becomes Federal Street 331 New Hampshire hesitates, but Maryland ratifies, and all eyes are turned upon South Carolina 332 Objections of Rawlins Lowndes answered by Cotesworth Pinckney 333 South Carolina ratifies the Constitution 334 Important effect upon Virginia, where thoughts of a southern confederacy had been entertained 335, 336 Madison and Marshall prevail in the Virginia convention, and it ratifies the Constitution 337 New Hampshire had ratified four days before 338 Rejoicings at Philadelphia; riots at Providence and Albany 339 The struggle in New York 340 Origin of the "Federalist" 341–343 Hamilton wins the victory, and New York ratifies 344 All serious anxiety is now at an end; the laggard states, North Carolina and Rhode Island 345 First presidential election, January 7, 1789; Washington is unanimously chosen 346 Why Samuel Adams was not selected for vice-president 347 Selection of John Adams 348 Washington's journey to New York, April 16–23 349 His inauguration 350 THROUGH NATURE TO GOD By John Fiske CONTENTS The Mystery of Evil I. The Serpent's Promise to the Woman 3 II. The Pilgrim's Burden 8 III. Manichæism and Calvinism 14 IV. The Dramatic Unity of Nature 22 V. What Conscious Life is made of 27 VI. Without the Element of Antagonism there could be no Consciousness, and therefore no World 34 VII. A Word of Caution 40 VIII. The Hermit and the Angel 43 IX. Man's Rise from the Innocence of Brutehood 48 X. The Relativity of Evil 54 The Cosmic Roots of Love and Self-Sacrifice I. The Summer Field, and what it tells us 59 II. Seeming Wastefulness of the Cosmic Process 65 III.[Pg xiv] Caliban's Philosophy 72 IV. Can it be that the Cosmic Process has no Relation to Moral Ends? 74 V. First Stages in the Genesis of Man 80 VI. The Central Fact in the Genesis of Man 86 VII. The Chief Cause of Man's lengthened Infancy 88 VIII. Some of its Effects 96 IX. Origin of Moral Ideas and Sentiments 102 X. The Cosmic Process exists purely for the Sake of Moral Ends 109 XI. Maternity and the Evolution of Altruism 117 XII. The Omnipresent Ethical Trend 127 The Everlasting Reality of Religion I. Deo erexit Voltaire 133 II. The Reign of Law, and the Greek Idea of God 147 III. Weakness of Materialism 152 IV. Religion's First Postulate: the Quasi-Human God 163 V. Religion's Second Postulate: the undying Human Soul 168 VI. Religion's Third Postulate: the Ethical Significance of the Unseen World 171 VII. Is the Substance of Religion a Phantom, or an Eternal Reality? 174 VIII.[Pg xv] The Fundamental Aspect of Life 177 IX. How the Evolution of Senses expands the World 182 X. Nature's Eternal Lesson is the Everlasting Reality of Religion 186 A CENTURY OF SCIENCE And Other Essays By John Fiske CONTENTS PAGE I. A Century of Science 1 II. The Doctrine of Evolution: its Scope and Purport 39 III. Edward Livingston Youmans 64 IV. The Part played by Infancy in the Evolution of Man 100 V. The Origins of Liberal Thought in America 122 VI. Sir Harry Vane 154 VII. The Arbitration Treaty 166 VIII. Francis Parkman 194 IX. Edward Augustus Freeman 265 X. Cambridge as Village and City 286 XI. A Harvest of Irish Folk-Lore 319 XII. Guessing at Half and Multiplying by Two 333 XIII. Forty Years of Bacon-Shakespeare Folly 350 XIV. Some Cranks and their Crotchets 405 Note 461 Index 467 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION By John Fiske With Many Illustrations TWO VOLUMES IN ONE CONTENTS CHAPTER I THE BEGINNINGS PAGE Relations between the American colonies and the British government in the first half of the eighteenth century 1 The Lords of Trade 2 The governors’ salaries 3 Sir Robert Walpole 4 Views of the Lords of Trade as to the need for a union of the colonies 5 Weakness of the sentiment of union 6 The Albany Congress 6 Franklin’s plan for a federal union (1754) 7, 8 Rejection of Franklin’s plan 9 Shirley recommends a stamp act 10 The writs of assistance 11 The chief justice of New York 12 Otis’s “Vindication” 13 Expenses of the French War 14 Grenville’s resolves 15 Reply of the colonies 16 Passage of the Stamp Act 17 Patrick Henry and the Parsons’ Cause 18 Resolutions of Virginia concerning the Stamp Act 19, 20 The Stamp Act Congress 20-22 Declaration of the Massachusetts assembly 22 Resistance to the Stamp Act in Boston 23 And in New York 24 Debate in the House of Commons 25, 26 Repeal of the Stamp Act 26, 27 The Duke of Grafton’s ministry 28 Charles Townshend and his revenue acts 29-31 Attack upon the New York assembly 32 Parliament did not properly represent the British people 32, 33 Difficulty of the problem 34 Representation of Americans in Parliament 35 Mr. Gladstone and the Boers 36 Death of Townshend 37 His political legacy to George III. 37 Character of George III. 38, 39 English parties between 1760 and 1784 40, 41 George III. as a politician 42 His chief reason for quarrelling with the Americans 42, 43 CHAPTER II THE CRISIS Character of Lord North 44 John Dickinson and the “Farmer’s Letters” 45 The Massachusetts circular letter 46, 47 Lord Hillsborough’s instructions to Bernard 48 The “Illustrious Ninety-Two” 48 Impressment of citizens 49 Affair of the sloop Liberty 49-51 Statute of Henry VIII. concerning “treason committed abroad” 52 Samuel Adams makes up his mind (1768) 53-56 Arrival of troops in Boston 56, 57 Letters of “Vindex” 58 Debate in Parliament 59, 60 All the Townshend acts, except the one imposing a duty upon tea, to be repealed 61 Recall of Governor Bernard 61 Character of Thomas Hutchinson 62 Resolutions of Virginia concerning the Townshend acts 63 Conduct of the troops in Boston 64 Assault on James Otis 64 The “Boston Massacre” 65-68 Some of its lessons 69-72 Lord North becomes prime minister 72 Action of the New York merchants 73 Assemblies convened in strange places 74 Taxes in Maryland 74 The “Regulators” in North Carolina 74 Affair of the schooner Gaspee 75, 76 The salaries of the Massachusetts judges 76 Jonathan Mayhew’s suggestion (1766) 77 The committees of correspondence in Massachusetts 78 Intercolonial committees of correspondence 79 Revival of the question of taxation 80 The king’s ingenious scheme for tricking the Americans into buying the East India Company’s tea 81 How Boston became the battle-ground 82 Advice solemnly sought and given by the Massachusetts towns 82-84 Arrival of the tea; meeting at the Old South 84, 85 The tea-ships placed under guard 85 Rotch’s dilatory manœuvres 86 Great town meeting at the Old South 87, 88 The tea thrown into the harbour 88, 89 Moral grandeur of the scene 90, 91 How Parliament received the news 91-93 The Boston Port Bill 93 The Regulating Act 93-95 Act relating to the shooting of citizens 96 The quartering of troops in towns 96 The Quebec Act 96 General Gage sent to Boston 97, 98 CHAPTER III THE CONTINENTAL CONGRESS Protest of the Whig Lords 99 Belief that the Americans would not fight 100 Belief that Massachusetts would not be supported by the other colonies 101 News of the Port Bill 101, 102 Samuel Adams at Salem 103, 104 Massachusetts nullifies the Regulating Act 105 John Hancock and Joseph Warren 106, 107 The Suffolk County Resolves 108 Provincial Congress in Massachusetts 109 First meeting of the Continental Congress (September 5, 1774) 110, 111 Debates in Parliament 112, 113 William Howe appointed commander-in-chief of the forces in America 113 Richard, Lord Howe, appointed admiral of the fleet 114 Franklin returns to America 115 State of feeling in the middle colonies 116 Lord North’s mistaken hopes of securing New York 117 Affairs in Massachusetts 101 Dr. Warren’s oration at the Old South 119 Attempt to corrupt Samuel Adams 120 Orders to arrest Adams and Hancock 121 Paul Revere’s ride 122, 123 Pitcairn fires upon the yeomanry at Lexington 124, 125 The troops repulsed at Concord; their dangerous situation 126, 127 The retreating troops rescued by Lord Percy 128 Retreat continued from Lexington to Charlestown 129 Rising of the country; the British besieged in Boston 130 Effects of the news in England and in America 130-133 Mecklenburg County Resolves 133 Legend of the Mecklenburg “Declaration of Independence” 133-135 Benedict Arnold and Ethan Allen 135 Capture of Ticonderoga and Crown Point 136-140 Second meeting of the Continental Congress 141 Appointment of George Washington to command the Continental army 142-144 The siege of Boston 145 Gage’s proclamation 145 The Americans occupy Bunker’s and Breed’s hills 146 Arrival of Putnam, Stark, and Warren 147 Gage decides to try an assault 148, 149 First assault repulsed 149 Second assault repulsed 150 Prescott’s powder gives out 150 Third assault succeeds; the British take the hill 151 British and American losses 151, 152 Excessive slaughter; significance of the battle 153 Its moral effects 154 CHAPTER IV INDEPENDENCE Washington’s arrival in Cambridge 155 Continental officers: Daniel Morgan 156 Benedict Arnold, John Stark, John Sullivan 157 Nathanael Greene, Henry Knox 158 Israel Putnam 159 Horatio Gates and Charles Lee 160 Lee’s personal peculiarities 161, 162 Dr. Benjamin Church 163 Difficult work for Washington 164 Absence of governmental organization 165 New government of Massachusetts (July, 1775) 166 Congress sends a last petition to the king 167 The king issues a proclamation, and tries to hire troops from Russia 168-170 Catherine refuses; the king hires German troops 170 Indignation in Germany 171 Burning of Falmouth (Portland) 171 Effects of all this upon Congress 172, 173 Montgomery’s invasion of Canada and capture of Montreal 174, 175 Arnold’s march through the wilderness of Maine 176 Assault upon Quebec (December 31, 1775) 177 Total failure of the attempt upon Canada 178 The siege of Boston 179 Washington seizes Dorchester Heights (March 4, 1776) 180, 181 The British troops evacuate Boston (March 17) 182, 183 Movement toward independence; a provisional flag (January 1, 1776) 184 Effect of the hiring of “myrmidons” 185 Thomas Paine 185 His pamphlet entitled “Common Sense” 186, 187 Fulminations and counter-fulminations 188 The Scots in North Carolina 188 Sir Henry Clinton sails for the Carolinas 189 The fight at Moore’s Creek; North Carolina declares for independence 189 Action of South Carolina and Georgia 190 Affairs in Virginia; Lord Dunmore’s proclamation 190 Skirmish at the Great Bridge, and burning of Norfolk 191 Virginia declares for independence 192 Action of Rhode Island and Massachusetts 192 Resolution adopted in Congress May 15 193 Instructions from the Boston town meeting 194 Richard Henry Lee’s motion in Congress 194 Debate on Lee’s 195, 196 Action of the other colonies; Connecticut and New Hampshire 196 New Jersey 197 Pennsylvania and Delaware 197-199 Maryland 199 The situation in New York 200 The Tryon plot 201 Final debate on Lee’s motion 202 Vote on Lee’s motion 203 Form of the Declaration of Independence 204 Thomas Jefferson 204, 205 The declaration was a deliberate expression of the sober thought of the American people 206, 207 CHAPTER V FIRST BLOW AT THE CENTRE Lord Cornwallis arrives upon the scene 208 Battle of Fort Moultrie (June 28, 1776) 209-211 British plan for conquering the valley of the Hudson, and cutting the United Colonies in twain 212 Lord Howe’s futile attempt to negotiate with Washington unofficially 213, 214 The military problem at New York 214-216 Importance of Brooklyn Heights 217 Battle of Long Island (August 27, 1776) 218-220 Howe prepares to besiege the Heights 220 But Washington slips away with his army 221 And robs the British of the most golden opportunity ever offered them 221-223 The conference at Staten Island 223, 224 General Howe takes the city of New York September 15 224 But Mrs. Lindley Murray saves the garrison 225 Attack upon Harlem Heights 225 The new problem before Howe 225, 226 He moves upon Throg’s Neck, but Washington changes base 227 Baffled at White Plans, Howe tries a new plan 228 Washington’s orders in view of the emergency 228 Congress meddles with the situation and muddles it 229 Howe takes Fort Washington by storm (November 16) 230 Washington and Greene 231 Outrageous conduct of Charles Le 231, 232 Greene barely escapes from Fort Lee (November 20) 233 Lee intrigues against Washington 233, 234 Washington retreats into Pennsylvania 234 Reinforcements come from Schuyler 235 Fortunately for the Americans, the British capture Charles Lee (December 13) 235-238 The times that tried men’s souls 238, 239 Washington prepares to strike back 239 He crosses the Delaware, and pierces the British centre at Trenton (December 26) 240, 241 Cornwallis comes up to retrieve the disaster 242 And thinks he has run down the “old fox" at the Assunpink (January 2, 1777) 242 But Washington prepares a checkmate 243 And again severs the British line at Princeton (January 3) 244 General retreat of the British upon New York 245 The tables completely turned 246 Washington’s superb generalship 247 Effects in England 248 And in France 249 Franklin’s arrival in France 250 Secret aid from France 251 Lafayette goes to America 252 Efforts toward remodelling the Continental army 252-255 Services of Robert Morris 255 Ill feeling between the states 256 Extraordinary powers conferred upon Washington 257-258 CHAPTER VI SECOND BLOW AT THE CENTRE Invasion of New York by Sir Guy Carleton 259 Arnold’s preparations 260 Battle of Valcour Island (October 11, 1776) 260-262 Congress promotes five junior brigadiers over Arnold (February 19, 1777) 262 Character of Philip Schuyler 263 Horatio Gates 264 Gates intrigues against Schuyler 265 His unseemly behaviour before Congress 266 Charges against Arnold 267, 268 Arnold defeats Tryon at Ridgefield (April 27, 1777) 269 Preparations for the summer campaign 269 The military centre of the United States was the state of New York 270 A second blow was to be struck at the centre; the plan of campaign 271 The plan was unsound; it separated the British forces too widely, and gave the Americans the advantage of interior lines 272-274 Germain’s fatal error; he overestimated the strength of the Tories 274 Too many unknown quantities 275 Danger from New England ignored 276 Germain’s negligence; the dispatch that was never sent 277 Burgoyne advances upon Ticonderoga 277, 278 Phillips seizes Mount Defiance 279 Evacuation of Ticonderoga 279 Battle of Hubbardton (July 7) 280 One swallow does not make a summer 280-282 The king’s glee; wrath of John Adams 282 Gates was chiefly to blame 282 Burgoyne’s difficulties beginning 283 Schuyler wisely evacuates Fort Edward 284 Enemies gathering in Burgoyne’s rear 285 Use of Indian auxiliaries 285 Burgoyne’s address to the chiefs 286 Burke ridicules the address 286 The story of Jane McCrea 287, 288 The Indians desert Burgoyne 289 Importance of Bennington; Burgoyne sends a German force against it 290 Stark prepares to receive the Germans 291 Battle of Bennington (August 16); nearly the whole German army captured on the field 292, 293 Effect of the news; Burgoyne’s enemies multiply 294 Advance of St. Leger upon Fort Stanwix 295 Herkimer marches against him; Herkimer’s plan 296 Failure of the plan 297 Thayendanegea prepares an ambuscade 298 Battle of Oriskany (August 6) 298-300 Colonel Willett’s sortie; first hoisting of the stars and stripes 300-301 Death of Herkimer 301 Arnold arrives at Schuyler’s camp 302 And volunteers to retrieve Fort Stanwix 303 Yan Yost Cuyler and his stratagem 304 Flight of St. Leger (August 22) 305 Burgoyne’s dangerous situation 306 Schuyler superseded by Gates 306 Position of the two armies (August 19-September 12) 307 CHAPTER VII SARATOGA Why Sir William Howe went to Chesapeake Bay 308 Charles Lee in captivity 308-310 Treason of Charles Lee 311-314 Folly of moving upon Philadelphia as the “rebel capital” 314, 315 Effect of Lee’s advice 315 Washington’s masterly campaign in New Jersey (June, 1777) 316, 317 Uncertainty as to Howe’s next movements 317, 318 Howe’s letter to Burgoyne 318 Comments of Washington and Greene 319, 320 Howe’s alleged reason trumped up and worthless 320 Burgoyne’s fate was practically decided when Howe arrived at Elkton 321 Washington’s reasons for offering battle 321 He chooses a very strong position 322 Battle of the Brandywine (September 11) 322-326 Washington’s skill in detaining the enemy 326 The British enter Philadelphia (September 26) 326 Significance of Forts Mercer and Mifflin 327 The situation at Germantown 327, 328 Washington’s audacious plan 328 Battle of Germantown (October 4) 329-332 Howe captures Forts Mercer and Mifflin 333 Burgoyne recognizes the fatal error of Germain 333 Nevertheless he crosses the Hudson River 334 First battle at Freeman’s Farm (September 19) 335 Quarrel between Gates and Arnold 336-337 Burgoyne’s supplies cut off 338 Second battle at Freeman’s Farm (October 7); the British totally defeated by Arnold 338-340 The British army is surrounded 341 Sir Henry Clinton comes up the river, but it is too late 342 The silver bullet 343 Burgoyne surrenders (October 17) 343, 344 Schuyler’s magnanimity 345 Bad faith of Congress 346-349 The behaviour of Congress was simply inexcusable 350 What became of the captured army 350, 351 OLD VIRGINIA AND HER NEIGHBOURS By John Fiske VOLUME I (of II) CONTENTS VOLUME I. CHAPTER I. THE SEA KINGS. PAGE Tercentenary of the Discovery of America, 1792 1 The Abbé Raynal and his book 2 Was the Discovery of America a blessing or a curse to mankind? 3 The Abbé Genty's opinion 4 A cheering item of therapeutics 4 Spanish methods of colonization contrasted with English 5 Spanish conquerors value America for its supply of precious metals 6 Aim of Columbus was to acquire the means for driving the Turks from Europe 7 But Spain used American treasure not so much against Turks as against Protestants 8 Vast quantities of treasure taken from America by Spain 9 Nations are made wealthy not by inflation but by production 9 Deepest significance of the discovery of America; it opened up a fresh soil in which to plant the strongest type of European civilization 10 America first excited interest in England as the storehouse of Spanish treasure 11 After the Cabot voyages England paid little attention to America 12 Save for an occasional visit to the Newfoundland fisheries 13 Earliest English reference to America 13 Founding of the Muscovy Company 14 Richard Eden and his books 15 [Pg x] John Hawkins and the African slave trade 15, 16 Hawkins visits the French colony in Florida 17 Facts which seem to show that thirst is the mother of invention 18 Massacre of Huguenots in Florida; escape of the painter Le Moyne 18 Hawkins goes on another voyage and takes with him young Francis Drake 19 The affair of San Juan de Ulua and the journey of David Ingram 20 Growing hostility to Spain in England 21 Size and strength of Elizabeth's England 21, 22 How the sea became England's field of war 22 Loose ideas of international law 23 Some bold advice to Queen Elizabeth 23 The sea kings were not buccaneers 24 Why Drake carried the war into the Pacific Ocean 25 How Drake stood upon a peak in Darien 26 Glorious voyage of the Golden Hind 26, 27 Drake is knighted by the Queen 27 The Golden Hind's cabin is made a banquet-room 28 Voyage of the half-brothers, Gilbert and Raleigh 28 Gilbert is shipwrecked, and his patent is granted to Raleigh 29 Raleigh's plan for founding a Protestant state in America may have been suggested to him by Coligny 30 Elizabeth promises self-government to colonists in America 31 Amidas and Barlow visit Pamlico Sound 31 An Ollendorfian conversation between white men and red men 32 The Queen's suggestion that the new country be called in honour of herself Virginia 32 Raleigh is knighted, and sends a second expedition under Ralph Lane 32 Who concludes that Chesapeake Bay would be better than Pamlico Sound 33 Lane and his party on the brink of starvation are rescued by Sir Francis Drake 33 Thomas Cavendish follows Drake's example and circumnavigates the earth 34 How Drake singed the beard of Philip II. 34 Raleigh sends another party under John White 35 The accident which turned White from Chesapeake Bay to Roanoke Island 35 Defeat of the Invincible Armada 36, 37 [Pg xi] The deathblow at Cadiz 38 The mystery about White's colony 38, 39 Significance of the defeat of the Armada 39, 40 CHAPTER II A DISCOURSE OF WESTERN PLANTING Some peculiarities of sixteenth century maps 41 How Richard Hakluyt's career was determined 42 Strange adventures of a manuscript 43 Hakluyt's reasons for wishing to see English colonies planted in America 44 English trade with the Netherlands 45 Hakluyt thinks that America will presently afford as good a market as the Netherlands 46 Notion that England was getting to be over-peopled 46 The change from tillage to pasturage 46, 47 What Sir Thomas More thought about it 47 Growth of pauperism during the Tudor period 48 Development of English commercial and naval marine 49 Opposition to Hakluyt's schemes 49 The Queen's penuriousness 50 Beginnings of joint-stock companies 51 Raleigh's difficulties 52, 53 Christopher Newport captures the great Spanish carrack 53 Raleigh visits Guiana and explores the Orinoco River 54 Ambrosial nights at the Mermaid Tavern 54 Accession of James I 55 Henry, Earl of Southampton, Shakespeare's friend, sends Bartholomew Gosnold on an expedition 55 Gosnold reaches Buzzard's Bay in what he calls North Virginia, and is followed by Martin Pring and George Weymouth 55, 56 Performance of "Eastward Ho," a comedy by Chapman and Marston 56 Extracts from this comedy 57-59 Report of the Spanish ambassador Zuñiga to Philip III 59 First charter to the Virginia Company, 1606 60 "Supposed Sea of Verrazano" covering the larger part of the area now known as the United States 61 Northern and southern limits of Virginia 62 The twin joint-stock companies and the three zones 62, 63 [Pg xii] The three zones in American history 63 The kind of government designed for the two colonies 64 Some of the persons chiefly interested in the first colony known as the London Company 65-67 Some of the persons chiefly interested in the second colony known as the Plymouth Company 67, 68 Some other eminent persons who were interested in western planting 68-70 Expedition of the Plymouth Company and disastrous failure of the Popham Colony 70, 71 The London Company gets its expedition ready a little before Christmas and supplies it with a list of instructions 71, 72 Where to choose a site for a town 72 Precautions against a surprise by the Spaniards 73 Colonists must try to find the Pacific Ocean 73 And must not offend the natives or put much trust in them 74 The death and sickness of white men must be concealed from the Indians 75 It will be well to beware of woodland coverts, avoid malaria, and guard against desertion 75 The town should be carefully built with regular streets 75, 76 Colonists must not send home any discouraging news 76 What Spain thought about all this 76, 77 Christopher Newport starts with a little fleet for Virginia 77 A poet laureate's farewell blessing 77-79 CHAPTER III THE LAND OF THE POWHATANS One of Newport's passengers was Captain John Smith, a young man whose career had been full of adventure 80 Many persons have expressed doubts as to Smith's veracity, but without good reason 81 Early life of John Smith 82 His adventures on the Mediterranean 83 And in Transylvania 84 How he slew and beheaded three Turks 85 For which Prince Sigismund granted him a coat-of-arms which was duly entered in the Heralds' College 86 The incident was first told not by Smith but by Sigismund's secretary Farnese 87 [Pg xiii] Smith tells us much about himself, but is not a braggart 88 How he was sold into slavery beyond the Sea of Azov and cruelly treated 88, 89 How he slew his master and escaped through Russia and Poland 89, 90 The smoke of controversy 90 In the course of Newport's tedious voyage Smith is accused of plotting mutiny and kept in irons 91 Arrival of the colonists in Chesapeake Bay, May 13, 1607 92 Founding of Jamestown; Wingfield chosen president 93 Smith is set free and goes with Newport to explore the James River 93, 94 The Powhatan tribe, confederacy, and head war-chief 94 How danger may lurk in long grass 95 Smith is acquitted of all charges and takes his seat with the council 96 Newport sails for England, June 22, 1607 96 George Percy's account of the sufferings of the colonists from fever and famine 97 Quarrels break out in which President Wingfield is deposed and John Ratcliffe chosen in his place 99 Execution of a member of the council for mutiny 100 Smith goes up the Chickahominy River and is captured by Opekankano 101 Who takes him about the country and finally brings him to Werowocomoco, January, 1608 102 The Indians are about to kill him, but he is rescued by the chief's daughter, Pocahontas 103 Recent attempts to discredit the story 103-108 Flimsiness of these attempts 104 George Percy's pamphlet 105 The printed text of the "True Relation" is incomplete 105, 106 Reason why the Pocahontas incident was omitted in the "True Relation" 106, 107 There is no incongruity between the "True Relation" and the "General History" except this omission 107 But this omission creates a gap in the "True Relation," and the account in the "General History" is the more intrinsically probable 108 The rescue was in strict accordance with Indian usage 109 The ensuing ceremonies indicate that the rescue was an ordinary case of adoption 110 The Powhatan afterward proclaimed Smith a tribal chief 111 [Pg xiv] The rescue of Smith by Pocahontas was an event of real historical importance 111 Captain Newport returns with the First Supply, Jan. 8, 1608 112 Ratcliffe is deposed and Smith chosen president 113 Arrival of the Second Supply, September, 1608 113 Queer instructions brought by Captain Newport from the London Company 113 How Smith and Captain Newport went up to Werowocomoco, and crowned The Powhatan 114 How the Indian girls danced at Werowocomoco 114, 115 Accuracy of Smith's descriptions 116 How Newport tried in vain to search for a salt sea behind the Blue Ridge 116 Anas Todkill's complaint 117 Smith's map of Virginia 118 CHAPTER IV. THE STARVING TIME. How puns were made on Captain Newport's name 119 Great importance of the Indian alliance 120 Gentlemen as pioneers 121 All is not gold that glitters 122 Smith's attempts to make glass and soap 123 The Company is disappointed at not making more money 124 Tale-bearers and their complaints against Smith 124 Smith's "Rude Answer" to the Company 125 Says he cannot prevent quarrels 125 And the Company's instructions have not been wise 126 From infant industries too much must not be expected while the colonists are suffering for want of food 127 And while peculation and intrigue are rife and we are in sore need of useful workmen 128 Smith anticipates trouble from the Indians, whose character is well described by Hakluyt 129 What Smith dreaded 130 How the red men's views of the situation were changed 131 Smith's voyage to Werowocomoco 132 His parley with The Powhatan 133 A game of bluff 134 The corn is brought 135 Suspicions of treachery 136 [Pg xv] A wily orator 137 Pocahontas reveals the plot 138 Smith's message to The Powhatan 138, 139 How Smith visited the Pamunkey village and brought Opekankano to terms 139, 140 How Smith appeared to the Indians in the light of a worker of miracles 141 What our chronicler calls "a pretty accident" 141 How the first years of Old Virginia were an experiment in communism 142 Smith declares "He that will not work shall not eat," but the summer's work is interrupted by unbidden messmates in the shape of rats 143 Arrival of young Samuel Argall with news from London 143, 144 Second Charter of the London Company, 1609 144 The council in London 145 The local government in Virginia is entirely changed and Thomas, Lord Delaware, is appointed governor for life 146 A new expedition is organized for Virginia, but still with a communistic programme 147, 148 How the good ship Sea Venture was wrecked upon the Bermudas 149 How this incident was used by Shakespeare in The Tempest 150 Gates and Somers build pinnaces and sail for Jamestown, May, 1610 151 The Third Supply had arrived in August, 1609 151 And Smith had returned to England in October 152 Lord Delaware became alarmed and sailed for Virginia 152 Meanwhile the sufferings of the colony had been horrible 153 Of the 500 persons Gates and Somers found only 60 survivors, and it was decided that Virginia must be abandoned 154 Dismantling of Jamestown and departure of the colony 154, 155 But the timely arrival of Lord Delaware in Hampton Roads prevented the dire disaster 155 CHAPTER V. BEGINNINGS OF A COMMONWEALTH. To the first English settlers in America a supply of Indian corn was of vital consequence, as illustrated at Jamestown and Plymouth 156 Alliance with the Powhatan confederacy was of the first importance to the infant colony 157 [Pg xvi] Smith was a natural leader of men 157 With much nobility of nature 158 And but for him the colony would probably have perished 159 Characteristic features of Lord Delaware's administration 160 Death of Somers and cruise of Argall in 1610 161 Kind of craftsmen desired for Virginia 162 Sir Thomas Dale comes to govern Virginia in the capacity of High Marshal 163 A Draconian code of laws 164 Cruel punishments 165 How communism worked in practice 166 How Dale abolished communism 167 And founded the "City of Henricus" 167, 168 How Captain Argall seized Pocahontas 168 Her marriage with John Rolfe 169 How Captain Argall extinguished the Jesuit settlement at Mount Desert and burned Port Royal 170 But left the Dutch at New Amsterdam with a warning 171 How Pocahontas, "La Belle Sauvage," visited London and was entertained there like a princess 171, 172 Her last interview with Captain Smith 172 Her sudden death at Gravesend 173 How Tomocomo tried to take a census of the English 173 How the English in Virginia began to cultivate tobacco in spite of King James and his Counterblast 174 Dialogue between Silenus and Kawasha 175 Effects of tobacco culture upon the young colony 176, 177 The London Company's Third Charter, 1612 177, 178 How money was raised by lotteries 178 How this new remodelling of the Company made it an important force in politics 179 Middleton's speech in opposition to the charter 180 Richard Martin in the course of a brilliant speech forgets himself and has to apologize 181 How factions began to be developed within the London Company 182 Sudden death of Lord Delaware 183 Quarrel between Lord Rich and Sir Thomas Smith, resulting in the election of Sir Edwin Sandys as treasurer of the Company 184 Sir George Yeardley is appointed governor of Virginia while Argall is knighted 185 How Sir Edwin Sandys introduced into Virginia the first American legislature, 1619 186 [Pg xvii] How this legislative assembly, like those afterwards constituted in America, were formed after the type of the old English county court 187 How negro slaves were first introduced into Virginia, 1619. 188 How cargoes of spinsters were sent out by the Company in quest of husbands 189 The great Indian massacre of 1622 189, 190 CHAPTER VI. A SEMINARY OF SEDITION. Summary review of the founding of Virginia 191-194 Bitter hostility of Spain to the enterprise 194 Gondomar and the Spanish match 195 Gondomar's advice to the king 196 How Sir Walter Raleigh was kept twelve years in prison 197 But was then released and sent on an expedition to Guiana 198 The king's base treachery 199 Judicial murder of Raleigh 200 How the king attempted to interfere with the Company's election of treasurer in 1620 201 How the king's emissaries listened to the reading of the charter 202 Withdrawal of Sandys and election of Southampton 203 Life and character of Nicholas Ferrar 203-205 His monastic home at Little Gidding 205 How disputes rose high in the Company's quarter sessions 206, 207 How the House of Commons rebuked the king 207, 208 How Nathaniel Butler was accused of robbery and screened himself by writing a pamphlet abusing the Company 208 Some of his charges and how they were answered by Virginia settlers 209 As to malaria 209 As to wetting one's feet 210 As to dying under hedges 211 As to the houses and their situations 211, 212 Object of the charges 212 Virginia assembly denies the allegations 213 The Lord Treasurer demands that Ferrar shall answer the charges 214 A cogent answer is returned 214, 215 [Pg xviii] Vain attempts to corrupt Ferrar 215, 216 How the wolf was set to investigate the dogs 216 The Virginia assembly makes "A Tragical Declaration" 217 On the attorney-general's advice a quo warranto is served 217, 218 How the Company appealed to Parliament, and the king refused to allow the appeal 217, 218 The attorney-general's irresistible logic 219 Lord Strafford's glee 220 How Nicholas Ferrar had the records copied 221, 222 The history of a manuscript 221, 222 CHAPTER VII. THE KINGDOM OF VIRGINIA. A retrospect 223 Tidewater Virginia 224 A receding frontier 224, 225 The plantations 225 Boroughs and burgesses 226 Boroughs and hundreds 227, 228 Houses, slaves, indentured servants, and Indians 229 Virginia agriculture in the time of Charles I 230 Increasing cultivation of tobacco 231 Literature; how George Sandys entreated the Muses with success 232 Provisions for higher education 233 Project for a university in the city of Henricus cut short by the Indian massacre 234 Puritans and liberal churchmen 235 How the Company of Massachusetts Bay learned a lesson from the fate of its predecessor, the London Company for Virginia 236,237 Death of James I 238 Effect upon Virginia of the downfall of the Company 238-240 The virus of liberty 240 How Charles I. came to recognize the assembly of Virginia 241-243 Some account of the first American legislature 243, 244 How Edward Sharpless had part of one ear cut off 245 The case of Captain John Martin 245 How the assembly provided for the education of Indians 246 And for the punishment of drunkards 246 [Pg xix] And against extravagance in dress 246 How flirting was threatened with the whipping-post 247 And scandalous gossip with the pillory 247 How the minister's salary was assured him 247 How he was warned against too much drinking and card-playing 248 Penalties for Sabbath-breaking 248 Inn-keepers forbidden to adulterate liquors or to charge too much per gallon or glass 249 A statute against forestalling 249, 250 How Charles I. called the new colony "Our kingdom of Virginia" 251 How the convivial governor Dr. Pott was tried for stealing cattle, but pardoned for the sake of his medical services 253 Growth of Virginia from 1624 to 1642 253, 254 CHAPTER VIII. THE MARYLAND PALATINATE. The Irish village of Baltimore 255 Early career of George Calvert, first Lord Baltimore 255, 256 How James I. granted him a palatinate in Newfoundland 256 Origin of palatinates 256, 257 Changes in English palatinates 258, 259 The bishopric of Durham 259, 260 Durham and Avalon 260 How Lord Baltimore fared in his colony of Avalon in Newfoundland 261 His letter to the king 262 How he visited Virginia but was not cordially received 263, 264 How a part of Virginia was granted to him and received the name of Maryland 265 Fate of the Avalon charter 266 Character of the first Lord Baltimore 267 Early career of Cecilius Calvert, second Lord Baltimore 268 How the founding of Maryland introduced into America a new type of colonial government 269, 270 Ecclesiastical powers of the Lord Proprietor 271 Religious toleration in Maryland 272 The first settlement at St. Mary's 273 Relations with the Indians 274 [Pg xx] Prosperity of the settlement 275 Comparison of the palatinate government of Maryland with that of the bishopric of Durham 275-285 The constitution of Durham; the receiver-general 276 Lord lieutenant and high sheriff 276 Chancellor of temporalities 277 The ancient halmote and the seneschal 277 The bishop's council 278 Durham not represented in the House of Commons until after 1660 278 Limitations upon Durham autonomy 279 The palatinate type in America 280 Similarities between Durham and Maryland; the governor 281 Secretary; surveyor-general; muster master-general; sheriffs 282 The courts 282, 283 The primary assembly 283 Question as to the initiative in legislation 284 The representative assembly 284, 285 Lord Baltimore's power more absolute than that of any king of England save perhaps Henry VIII 285 CHAPTER IX. LEAH AND RACHEL. William Claiborne and his projects 286 Kent Island occupied by Claiborne 287 Conflicting grants 288 Star Chamber decision and Claiborne's resistance 289 Lord Baltimore's instructions 290 The Virginia council supports Claiborne 290, 291 Complications with the Indians 291, 292 Reprisals and skirmishes 293 Affairs in Virginia; complaints against Governor Harvey 293, 294 Rage of Virginia against Maryland 294, 295 How Rev. Anthony Panton called Mr. Secretary Kemp a jackanapes 295 Indignation meeting at the house of William Warren 296 Arrest of the principal speakers 296 Scene in the council room 296, 297 How Sir John Harvey was thrust out of the government 297 [Pg xxi] How King Charles sent him back to Virginia 298 Downfall of Harvey 299 George Evelin sent to Kent Island 299 Kent Island seized by Leonard Calvert 300 The Lords of Trade decide against Claiborne 301 Puritans in Virginia 301, 302 The Act of Uniformity of 1631 303 Puritan ministers sent from New England to Virginia 303 The new Act of Uniformity, 1643 304 Expulsion of the New England ministers 304 Indian massacre of 1644 305 Conflicting views of theodicy 306 Invasion of Maryland by Claiborne and Ingle 306-308 Expulsion of Claiborne and Ingle from Maryland 308 Lord Baltimore appoints William Stone as governor 308 Toleration Act of 1649 309-311 Migration of Puritans from Virginia to Maryland 312 Designs of the Puritans 313 Reluctant submission of Virginia to Cromwell 314 Claiborne and Bennett undertake to settle the affairs of Maryland 315 Renewal of the troubles 316 The Puritan Assembly and its notion of a toleration act 316 Civil war in Maryland; battle of the Severn, 1655 317 Lord Baltimore is sustained by Cromwell and peace reigns once more 318 MAPS. Tidewater Virginia, from a sketch by the author Frontispiece Michael Lok's Map, 1582, from Hakluyt's Voyages to America 60 The Palatinate of Maryland, from a sketch by the author 274 OLD VIRGINIA AND HER NEIGHBOURS By John Fiske VOLUME II (of II) CONTENTS VOLUME II. CHAPTER X. THE COMING OF THE CAVALIERS. PAGE Virginia depicted by an admirer 1 Her domestic animals, game, and song-birds 2 Her agriculture 2, 3 Her nearness to the Northwest Passage 3 Her commercial rivals 3, 4 Not so barren a country as New England 4 Life of body and soul were preserved in Virginia; Mr. Benjamin Symes and his school 5 Worthy Captain Mathews and his household 5 Rapid growth in population 6 Historical lessons in names of Virginia counties 7 Scarcity of royalist names on the map of New England 8, 9 As to the Cavaliers in Virginia; some popular misconceptions 9, 10 Some democratic protests 10, 11 Sweeping statements are inadmissible 11 Difference between Cavaliers and Roundheads was political, not social 12 Popular misconceptions regarding the English nobility; England has never had a noblesse, or upper caste 13 Contrast with France in this respect 13, 14 Importance of the middle class 14 Respect for industry in England 15 The Cavalier exodus 16 Political complexion of Virginia before 1649 16, 17 The great exchange of 1649 17, 18 Political moderation shown in Virginia during the Commonwealth period 18iv Richard Lee and his family 19 How Berkeley was elected governor by the assembly 20 Lee's visit to Brussels 20 How Charles II. was proclaimed king in Virginia, but not before he had been proclaimed in England 21 The seal of Virginia 22, 23 Significant increase in the size of land grants 23, 24 Arrival of well-known Cavalier families 25 Ancestry of George Washington 25 If the pedigrees of horses, dogs, and fancy pigeons are important, still more so are the pedigrees of men 26 Value of genealogical study to the historian 26 The Washington family tree 27 How Sir William Jones paraphrased the epigram of Alc?us 28 Historical importance of the Cavalier element in Virginia 28 Differences between New England and Virginia were due not to differences in social quality of the settlers, but partly to ecclesiastical and still more to economical circumstances 29, 30 Settlement of New England by the migration of organized congregations 30 Land grants in Massachusetts 31 Township and village 31, 32 Social position of settlers in New England 32 Some merits of the town meeting 33 Its educational value 34 Primogeniture and entail in Virginia 35 Virginia parishes 35 The vestry a close corporation; its extensive powers 36 The county was the unit of representation 37 The county court was virtually a close corporation 38 Powers of the county court 39 The sheriff and his extensive powers 40 The county lieutenant 41 Jefferson's opinion of government by town meeting 42 Court day 42, 43 Summary 43 Virginia prolific in great leaders 44v CHAPTER XI. BACON'S REBELLION. How the crude medi?val methods of robbery began to give place to more ingenious modern methods 45 The Navigation Act of 1651 45, 46 Second Navigation Act 46 John Bland's remonstrance 47 Some direct consequences of the Navigation Act 47 Some indirect consequences of the Navigation Act 48 Bland's exposure of the protectionist humbug 49, 50 His own proposition 50, 51 Effect of the Navigation Act upon Virginia and Maryland; disasters caused by low price of tobacco 51, 52 The Surry protest of 1673 52 The Arlington-Culpeper grant 53 Some of its effects 54 Character of Sir William Berkeley 55 Corruption and extortion under his government 56 The Long Assembly, 1661-1676 57 Berkeley's violent temper 57 Beginning of the Indian war 58 Colonel John Washington 59 Affair of the five Susquehannock envoys 60 The killing of the envoys 61 Berkeley's perverseness in not calling out a military force 62 Indian atrocities 62, 63 Nathaniel Bacon and his family 64 His friends William Drummond and Richard Lawrence 65 Bacon's plantation is attacked by the Indians, May, 1676 65 Bacon marches against the Indians and defeats them 66 Election of a new House of Burgesses 66 Arrest of Bacon 67 He is released and goes to lodge at the house of "thoughtful Mr. Lawrence" 67 Bacon is persuaded to make his submission and apologizes to the governor 68, 69 In spite of the governor's unwillingness, the new assembly reforms many abuses 70, 71 How the "Queen of Pamunkey" appeared before the House of Burgesses 72-74 The chairman's rudeness 74vi Bacon's flight 74 His speedy return 75 How the governor was intimidated 76 Bacon crushes the Susquehannocks while Berkeley flies to Accomac and proclaims him a rebel 76 Bacon's march to Middle Plantation 77 His manifesto 78 His arraignment of Berkeley; he specifies nineteen persons as "wicked counsellors" 80 Oath at Middle Plantation 81 Bacon defeats the Appomattox Indians 82 Startling conversation between Bacon and Goode 82-86 Perilous situation of Bacon 86 The "White Aprons" at Jamestown 87 Bacon's speech at Green Spring 88 Burning of Jamestown 89 Persons who suffered at Bacon's hands 89, 90 Bacon and his cousin 90 Death of Bacon, Oct. 1, 1676 91 Collapse of the rebellion 92 Arrival of royal commissioners, January, 1677 92 Berkeley's outrageous conduct 93 Execution of Drummond 94 Death of Berkeley 95 Significance of the rebellion 96 How far Bacon represented popular sentiment in Virginia 97 Political changes since 1660; close vestries 98, 99 Restriction of the suffrage 100, 101 How the aristocrats regarded Bacon's followers 102, 103 The real state of the case 104 Effect of hard times 104, 105 Populist aspect of the rebellion 106 Its sound aspects 106 Bacon must ever remain a bright and attractive figure 107 CHAPTER XII. WILLIAM AND MARY. A century of political education 108 Robert Beverley, clerk of the House of Burgesses 109 His refusal to give up the journals 110 Arrival of Lord Culpeper as governor 110, 111vii The plant-cutters' riot of 1682 111, 112 Contracting the currency with a vengeance 112 Culpeper is removed and Lord Howard of Effingham comes to govern in his stead 113 More trouble for Beverley 114 For stupid audacity James II., after all, was outdone by George III. 114, 115 Francis Nicholson comes to govern Virginia and exhibits eccentric manners 115 How James Blair founded William and Mary College 116, 117 How Sir Edmund Andros came as Nicholson's successor and quarrelled with Dr. Blair 118 How young Daniel Parke one Sunday pulled Mrs. Blair out of her pew in church 119 Removal of Andros 119 The Earl of Orkney draws a salary for governing Virginia for the next forty years without crossing the ocean, while the work is done by lieutenant-governors 120 The first of these was Nicholson once more 120 Who removed the capital from Jamestown to Middle Plantation, and called it Williamsburg 121 How the blustering Nicholson, disappointed in love, behaved so badly that he was removed from office 122, 123 Fortunes of the college 123 Indian students 124 Instructions to the housekeeper 125 Horse-racing prohibited 126 Other prohibitions 126 The courtship of Parson Camm; a Virginia Priscilla 127, 128 Some interesting facts about the college 128, 129 Nicholson's schemes for a union of the colonies 129, 130 CHAPTER XIII. MARYLAND'S VICISSITUDES. Maryland after the death of Oliver Cromwell 131 Fuller and Fendall 132 The duty on tobacco 133 Fendall's plot 134 Temporary overthrow of Baltimore's authority 135 Superficial resemblance to the action of Virginia 136 Profound difference in the situations 137viii Collapse of Fendall's rebellion 138 Arrival of the Quakers 138, 139 The Swedes and Dutch on the Delaware River 139 Augustine Herman 140 He makes a map of Maryland and is rewarded by the grant of Bohemia Manor 141 How the Labadists took refuge in Bohemia Manor 142, 143 How the Duke of York took possession of all the Delaware settlements 143 And granted New Jersey to Lord Berkeley and Sir George Carteret 144 Which resulted in the bringing of William Penn upon the scene 144 Charter of Pennsylvania 145 Boundaries between Penn and Baltimore 145, 146 Old manors in Maryland 146 Life on the manors 147 The court leet and court baron 148 Changes wrought by slavery 148, 149 A fierce spirit of liberty combined with ingrained respect for law 149 Cecilius Calvert and his son Charles 150 Sources of discontent in Maryland 150 A pleasant little family party 151 Conflict between the Council and the Burgesses 151, 152 Burgesses claim to be a House of Commons, but the Council will not admit it 152 How Rev. Charles Nichollet was fined for preaching politics 153 The Cessation Act of 1666 153 Acts concerning the relief of Quakers and the appointment of sheriffs 153, 154 Restriction of suffrage in 1670 154, 155 Death of Cecilius, Lord Baltimore 155 Rebellion of Davis and Pate, 1676; their execution 156 How George Talbot, lord of Susquehanna Manor, slew a revenue collector and was carried to Virginia for trial 157 How his wife took him from jail, and how he was kept hidden until a pardon was secured 158 "A Complaint from Heaven with a Hue and Cry" 159 The anti-Catholic panic of 1689 159 Causes of the panic 160 How John Coode overthrew the palatinate government 161 But did not thereby bring the millennium 162ix How Nicholson removed the capital from St. Mary's to Annapolis 162, 163 Unpopularity of the establishment of the Church of England 163 Episcopal parsons 164 Exemption of Protestant dissenters from civil disabilities 165 Seymour reprimands the Catholic priests 166 Cruel laws against Catholics 167 Crown requisitions 168 Benedict Calvert, fourth Lord Baltimore, becomes a Protestant and the palatinate is revived 168, 169 Change in the political situation 170 Charles Carroll entertains a plan for a migration to the Mississippi Valley 171 How the seeds of revolution were planted in Maryland 171 End of the palatinate 172, 173 CHAPTER XIV. SOCIETY IN THE OLD DOMINION. How the history of tobacco has been connected with the history of liberty 174 Rapid growth of tobacco culture in Virginia 175 Legislative attempts to check it 176 Need for cheap labour 176 Indentured white servants 177 How the notion grew up in England that Virginians were descended from convicts; Defoe's novels, a comedy by Mrs. Behn, Postlethwayt's Dictionary, and Gentleman's Magazine 178-180 Who were the indentured white servants 181 Redemptioners 182 Distribution of convicts 183 Prisoners of war 184 Summary 185 Careers of white freedmen 186 Representative Virginia families were not descended from white freedmen 187 Some of the freedmen became small proprietors 187 Some became "mean whites" 188, 189 Development of negro slavery; effect of the treaty of Utrecht 190 Anti-slavery sentiment in Virginia 191x Theory that negroes were non-human 192 Baptizing a slave did not work his emancipation 193 Negroes as real estate 194 Tax on slaves 194 Treatment of slaves 195, 196 Fears of insurrection 196 Cruel laws 197, 198 Free blacks a source of danger 199 Taking slaves to England; did it work their emancipation? 200 Lord Mansfield's famous decision 201 Jefferson's opinion of slavery 201 Immoralities incident to the system 202, 203 Classes in Virginia society 204 Huguenots in Virginia 204, 205 Influence of the rivers upon society 206 Some exports and imports 207 Some domestic industries 208 Beverley complains of his countrymen as lazy, but perhaps his reproachful tone is a little overdone 210 Absence of town life 210, 211 Futile attempts to make towns by legislation 212 The country store and its treasures 213, 214 Rivers and roads 215 Tobacco as currency 216 Effect upon crafts and trades 217 Effect upon planters' accounts 218 Universal hospitality 219 Visit to a plantation; the negro quarter 220 Other appurtenances 221 The Great House or Home House 222 Brick and wooden houses 222, 223 House architecture 223, 224 The rooms 224 Bedrooms and their furniture 225 The dinner table; napkins and forks 226 Silver plate; wainscots and tapestry 227 The kitchen 228 The abundance of wholesome and delicious food 228, 229 The beverages, native and imported 229, 230 Smyth's picture of the daily life on a plantation 230, 231 Very different picture given by John Mason; the mode of life at Gunston Hall 232-234xi A glimpse of Mount Vernon 235 Dress of planters and their wives 236 Weddings and funerals 237 Horses and horse-racing 237-239 Fox-hunting 239 Gambling 239, 240 A rural entertainment of the olden time 240, 241 Music and musical instruments 242 The theatre and other recreations 243 Some interesting libraries 243-245 Schools and printing 245, 246 Private free schools 246 Academies and tutors 247 Convicts as tutors 248 Virginians at Oxford 249 James Madison and his tutors 250 Contrast with New England in respect of educational advantages 251 Causes of the difference 252, 253 Illustrations from the history of American intellect 254 Virginia's historians; Robert Beverley 255 William Stith 255, 256 William Byrd 256-258 Jefferson's notes on Virginia; McClurg's Belles of Williamsburg; Clayton the botanist 259 Physicians, their prescriptions and charges 260 Washington's last illness 260 Some Virginia parsons, their tricks and manners 261, 263 Free thinking; superstition and crime 264 Cruel punishments 265 Lawyers 266 A government of laws 267 Some characteristics of Maryland 267-269 CHAPTER XV. THE CAROLINA FRONTIER. How South Carolina was a frontier against the Spaniards 270 How North Carolina was a wilderness frontier 271 The grant of Carolina to eight lords proprietors 272 John Locke and Lord Shaftesbury 272, 273 "Fundamental Constitutions" of Carolina 274xii The Carolina palatinate different from that of Maryland 275 Titles of nobility 276 Albemarle colony 276 New Englanders at Cape Fear 277 Sir John Yeamans and Clarendon colony 277 The Ashley River colony and the founding of Charleston 278 First legislation in Albemarle 279 Troubles caused by the Navigation Act 280 The trade between Massachusetts and North Carolina 281 Eastchurch and Miller 282 Culpeper's usurpation 283 How Culpeper fared in London 284 How Charleston was moved from Albemarle Point to Oyster Point 285 Seth Sothel's tyranny in Albemarle and his banishment 286, 287 Troubles in Ashley River colony 287 The Scotch at Port Royal 288 A state without laws 289 Reappearance of Sothel, this time as the people's friend 289 His downfall and death 290 Clarendon colony abandoned 290 Philip Ludwell's administration 290, 291 Joseph Archdale and his beneficent rule 291 Sir Nathaniel Johnson and the dissenters 292 Unsuccessful attempt of a French and Spanish fleet upon Charleston 293 Thomas Carey 294 Porter's mission to England 295 Edward Hyde comes to govern North Carolina 296 Carey's rebellion 296, 297 Expansion of the northern colony; arrival of Baron Graffenried with Germans and Swiss; founding of New Berne 297 Accusations against Carey and Porter of inciting the Indians against the colony 297 These accusations are highly improbable and not well supported 298 Survey of Carolina Indians 298-300 Algonquin tribes 298 Sioux tribes; Iroquois tribes 299 Muscogi tribes 300 Algonquin-Iroquois conspiracy against the North Carolina settlements 300xiii Capture of Lawson and Graffenried by the Tuscaroras; Lawson's horrible death 301 The massacre of September, 1711 302 Aid from Virginia and South Carolina 302, 303 Barnwell defeats the Tuscaroras 303 Crushing defeat of the Tuscaroras by James Moore; their migration to New York 304 Administration of Charles Eden 304, 305 Spanish intrigues with the Yamassees 305 Alliance of Indian tribes against the South Carolinians and nine months' warfare 306 Administration of Robert Johnson 306 The revolution of 1719 in South Carolina; end of the proprietary government in both colonies 308 Contrast between the two colonies 308, 309 Interior of North Carolina contrasted with the coast 310, 311 Unkempt life 311 A genre picture by Colonel Byrd 312, 313 Industries of North Carolina 313 Absence of towns 314, 315 A frontier democracy 315 Segregation and dispersal of Virginia poor whites 316 Spotswood's account of the matter 317 New peopling of North Carolina after 1720; the German immigration 318 Scotch Highlanders and Scotch-Irish 318, 319 Further dispersal of poor whites 319, 320 Barbarizing effects of isolation 321 The settlers of South Carolina, churchmen and dissenters 323 The open vestries 323 South Carolina parish, purely English in its origin, not French like the parishes of Louisiana 324 Free schools 325 Rice and indigo 326 Some characteristics of South Carolina slavery 327, 329 Negro insurrection of 1740 329 Cruelties connected with slavery 330 Social life in Charleston 331 Contrast between the two Carolinas 332, 333 The Spanish frontier and the founding of Georgia 333 James Oglethorpe and his philanthropic schemes 334 Beginnings of Georgia 335, 336 Summary; Cavaliers and Puritans once more 337xiv CHAPTER XVI. THE GOLDEN AGE OF PIRATES. The business of piracy has never thriven so greatly as in the seventeenth century 338 Pompey and the pirates 338 Chinese and Malay pirates on the Indian Ocean and Mussulman pirates on the Mediterranean Sea 339 The Scandinavian Vikings cannot properly be termed pirates 339, 340 Sir William Blackstone's remarks about piracy 340 Character of piracy 341 To call the Elizabethan sea-kings pirates is silly and outrageous 341, 342 Features of maritime warfare out of which piracy could grow 342, 343 Privateering 343 Fighting without declaring war 344 Lack of protection for neutral ships 344 Origin of buccaneering; "Brethren of the Coast" 345 Illicit traffic in the West Indies 346 Buccaneers and filibusters 347 The kind of people who became buccaneers 348 The honest man who took to buccaneering to satisfy his creditors 349 The deeds of Olonnois and other wretches 349, 350 Henry Morgan and his evil deeds 350, 351 Alexander Exquemeling and his entertaining book 352 How Morgan captured Maracaibo and Gibraltar in Venezuela 353 The treaty of America of 1670 for the suppression of buccaneering and piracy 353 Sack of Panama by Morgan and his buccaneers 354 How Morgan absconded with most of the booty 355 How English and Spanish governors industriously scotched the snake 355 How the chief of pirates became Sir Henry Morgan, deputy-governor of Jamaica, and hanged his old comrades or sold them to the Spaniards 356 How the treaty of America caused his downfall 357 Decline of buccaneering 357 Pirates of the South Sea 358, 359xv Plunder of Peruvian towns 360 Effects of the alliance between France and Spain in 1701 360 Pirates in the Bahama Islands and on the Carolina coast 361 Effect of the navigation laws in stimulating piracy 362, 363 Effect of rice culture upon the relations between South Carolina settlers and the pirates 363 Wholesale hanging of pirates at Charleston 364 How pirates swarmed on the North Carolina coast 365 Until Captain Woodes Rogers captured the Island of New Providence in 1718 365 The North Carolina waters furnished the last lair for the pirates 365 How Blackbeard, the last of the pirates, levied blackmail upon Charleston 366, 367 Epidemic character of piracy; cases of Kidd and Bonnet 368 Fate of Bonnet and Blackbeard, and final suppression of piracy 369 CHAPTER XVII. FROM TIDEWATER TO THE MOUNTAINS. Family and early career of Alexander Spotswood 370 He brings the privilege of habeas corpus to Virginia, but wrangles much with his burgesses 371 His energy and public spirit 372 How the Post-Office Act was resisted by the people 373, 375 Disputes as to power of appointing parsons 376 Beginnings of continental politics in America 376 Beginning of the seventy years' struggle with France 377 How the continental situation in America was affected by the war of the Spanish succession 378, 379 Different views of Spotswood and the assembly with regard to sending aid to Carolina 379, 380 How the royal governors became convinced that the thing most needed in English America was a continental government that could impose taxes 381 Franklin's plan for a federal union 381, 383 It was the failure of the colonies to adopt Franklin's plan that led soon afterwards to the Stamp Act 382, 383 How Spotswood regarded the unknown West 383 Attempts to cross the Blue Ridge 384 How the Blue Ridge was crossed by Spotswood 385xvi Knights of the Golden Horseshoe 386 Spotswood's plan for communicating between Virginia and Lake Erie 387, 388 Condition of the postal service in the English colonies under Spotswood's administration 389 Brief mention of Governors Gooch and Dinwiddie 390 Importance of the Scotch-Irish migration to America 390, 391 In 1611 James I. began colonizing Ulster with settlers from Scotland and England 391 In Ulster they established flourishing manufactures of woollens and linens 392 Which excited the jealousy of rival manufacturers in England 393 Legislation against the Ulster manufacturers 393 Civil disabilities inflicted upon Presbyterians in Ulster 393 These circumstances caused such a migration to America that by 1770 it amounted to more than half a million souls 394 Many Scotch-Irish settled in the Shenandoah Valley, and were closely followed by Germans 395 This Shenandoah population exerted a most powerful democratizing influence upon the colony 396 Jefferson found in them his most powerful supporters 396 Lord Fairfax's home at Greenway Court; Fairfax's affection for Washington 397 How the surveying of Fairfax's frontier estates led Washington on to his public career 398 The advance of Virginians from tidewater to the mountains brought on the final struggle with France 398, 399 Advance of the French from Lake Erie 399 Washington goes to warn them from encroaching upon English territory 399 MAPS. Westward Growth of Old Virginia, from a sketch by the author Frontispiece North Carolina Precincts in 1729, after a map in Hawks's History of North Carolina 276 A Map of ye most Improved Part of Carolina, from Winsor's America, vol. v. p. 351 306 THE IDEA OF GOD AS AFFECTED BY MODERN KNOWLEDGE By John Fiske CONTENTS I. Difficulty of expressing the Idea of God so that it can be readily understood 35 II. The Rapid Growth of Modern Knowledge 46 III. Sources of the Theistic Idea 62 IV. Development of Monotheism 72 V. The Idea of God as immanent in the World 81 VI. The Idea of God as remote from the World 87 VII. Conflict between the Two Ideas, commonly misunderstood as a Conflict between Religion and Science 97 VIII. Anthropomorphic Conceptions of God 111 IX. The Argument from Design 118 X. Simile of the Watch replaced by Simile of the Flower 128 XI. The Craving for a Final Cause 134 XII. Symbolic Conceptions 140 XIII. The Eternal Source of Phenomena 144 XIV. 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