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  AVIATION IN CANADA




  AVIATION
  IN CANADA
  1917-1918

  Being a brief account of the work
  of the ROYAL AIR FORCE CANADA
  the Aviation Department of the
  Imperial Munitions Board and
  the Canadian Aeroplanes Limited

  [Illustration: (R.A.F. Badge; “PER ARDUA AD ASTRA”)]

  COMPILED BY
  ALAN SULLIVAN, LT., R.A.F.

  PRINTED BY
  ROUS & MANN LIMITED
  TORONTO      CANADA




  _While the contents of this volume
  present an accurate history of
  the R.A.F. Canada, it is to be
  understood that the Air Ministry
  is not responsible for any statements
  made herein._


  _Copyright, Canada, 1919,
  by Alan Sullivan, Toronto_




CONTENTS


                                                       PAGE

  THE WESTERN FRONT IN 1916                               7

  OFFICIAL PRELIMINARIES                                 16

  AVIATION DEPARTMENT, IMPERIAL MUNITIONS BOARD          25

  CANADIAN AEROPLANES LIMITED                            44

  COST OF TRAINING                                       57

  HEADQUARTERS STAFF                                     61

  TRAINING IN GENERAL                                    76

  NORTH TORONTO                                          85

  BEAMSVILLE CAMP                                        89

  INSPECTION                                             93

  THE INSTRUCTOR                                        100

  THE MEDICAL SERVICE                                   108

  WINTER FLYING                                         125

  RECRUITS’ DEPOT                                       135

  RECORDS AND RECRUITING                                139

  THE CADET WING                                        155

  SCHOOL OF AERONAUTICS                                 162

  ARMAMENT SCHOOL                                       170

  AERIAL GUNNERY                                        180

  CAMERA GUNNERY                                        193

  WIRELESS                                              197

  PHOTOGRAPHY                                           205

  ARMOUR HEIGHTS SYSTEM                                 211

  SCHOOL OF SPECIAL FLYING                              220

  FLYING ACCIDENTS                                      224

  ROYAL FLYING CORPS IN TEXAS                           233

  ENGINE REPAIR PARK                                    251

  AEROPLANE REPAIR PARK                                 256

  STORES DEPOT                                          261

  PAY OFFICE                                            266

  MECHANICAL TRANSPORT SECTION                          275

  ASSISTANT PROVOST MARSHAL                             279

  ROYAL ENGINEER SECTION                                280

  CAMP BORDEN                                           284

  LONG BRANCH                                           288

  DESERONTO                                             289

  SPORTS                                                294

  ACKNOWLEDGMENTS                                       302




AERIAL CONDITIONS ON THE WESTERN FRONT, 1916.


The battle of the Somme in the latter half of 1916 was the principal
factor leading to the formation of the Royal Flying Corps, Canada.
Aerial conditions on the Western Front were at this period of so
tense a nature that they may well be noted before proceeding to the
actual history of the Canadian brigade.

The following sketch makes no pretence of absolute accuracy. The data
available at the moment are not official, but are compiled from the
memories of several flying officers serving on the Western front at
the time. They may, however, be taken as fairly presenting not only
the development of the Royal Flying Corps, but also that of opposing
enemy aircraft at the period under consideration.

The British Expeditionary Force commenced operations in 1914 with
a flying arm of four squadrons or some fifty machines, of which no
less than thirty were destroyed during a severe storm at Christmas
time by the collapse of a large hangar at St. Omer, leaving on the
following day approximately 14 serviceable machines. At this time all
aeroplanes in both forces were unarmed.

It is difficult to say whether British or German made the first
aerial attack on an opposing machine, but it is undoubted that this
type of combat, coming how it may, found both sides unequipped with
the exception of such offensive power as might be secured with
rifle or revolver. British machines had been thus armed for months,
probably in anticipation of forced landings behind the German lines
and, without question, enemy aircraft were similarly provided.
There ensued a series of sporting encounters out of which grew the
necessity of arming aeroplanes with rapid-fire guns mounted mostly
on the top of the centre section so that bullets might clear the
propeller blade. This gun was operated by the pilot, who supplied the
sole method of forward shooting, while the observer, who was at that
time placed in the front seat, fired to the rear. A year and a half
afterwards, the method of shooting practically through the propeller
was evolved, which, gradually developing, has long since reached
mechanical perfection.

In the early summer of 1916, the British strength had grown to
some 28 or 30 squadrons in France. These numbered approximately
450 machines, distributed fairly equally along the entire front.
A view of our aerial equipment as contrasted with enemy aircraft
in the battle of the Somme gives the following data, but it must
be understood that this was a period during which every effort was
strained on either side and type followed type in rapid succession.

          BRITISH.                              GERMAN.
  BE2C 2-seater tractor biplane.     Fokker Scout tractor monoplane.
  1 or 2 Lewis guns.                 1 gun shooting through propeller,
  Observer in front.                   with deflectors.
  Speed 70 miles.                    Speed 85 m.p.h.
  Climb to 10,000 ft. in 50 mins.    Climb 10,000 feet in 17 mins.
  Service ceiling 11,000 feet.

  FE2B 2-seater pusher biplane.      Albatross Scout tractor biplane.
  2 Lewis guns.                      2 gun synchronized in line of
  Observer in front.                   flight. (First machine thus
  Speed 75 miles.                      equipped.)
  Climb to 10,000 feet in 40 mins.   Speed 100 m.p.h.
  Service ceiling 12,000 feet.       Also 2 seater Albatross machine.

  Morane 2-seater tractor            Roland Scout tractor biplane,
    (French) both mono and             armed as Albatross but not
    biplane.                           quite as fast.
  Same guns as BE2C, but with        Also Roland 2-seater fighter,
    deflectors.                        speed 90 m.p.h.
  Speed 80 m.p.h.                    Climb 10,000 feet in 20 mins.
  Climb 10,000 feet in 30 mins.      Halberstadt Scout tractor biplane,
  Service ceiling 15,000 feet.         similar to Albatross.

  DH2 Scout pusher biplane.          LVG 2-seater tractor.
  1 Lewis Gun on line of flight      Albatross and Aviatik, reconn.
    or swivelled.                       bombing, and photo.
  Speed 90 m.p.h.                    1 gun synchronized and 1
  Climb 10,000 feet in 18 mins.        swivelled.
  Service ceiling 16,000 feet.       Speed 85 m.p.h.
                                     Climb 10,000 in 25 mins.
                                     Service ceiling 18,000 feet.

  FE8 Scout pusher biplane.
  1 Lewis Gun swivelled in line
    of flight.
  Speed 100 m.p.h.
  Climb 15,000 feet in 19 mins.
  Service ceiling 18,000 feet.

  Nieuport Scout tractor (French).
  1 Lewis Gun over top of
    prop. or swivelled.
  Speed 100 m.p.h.
  Climb 10,000 feet in 12 mins.
  Service ceiling 19,000 feet.

  _This was the first allied machine
    to have a synchronized Vickers
    or Lewis gun in 1916._

  Spad Scout tractor biplane.
  1 synchronized Vickers gun
    firing in line of flight
    through propeller.
  Speed 120 m.p.h.
  Climb 10,000 feet in 9 mins.
  Service ceiling 20,000 feet.

In addition the British had a squadron or so of Sopwith 1½ Strutters,
very fast and handy 2-seater tractors with observer in rear. Also
some Bristol Scouts, Vickers pushers and Martynsydes.

[Illustration: ONE LESS HUN!

RICHTHOFEN’S CIRCUS.]

[Illustration: GERMAN “ALBATROSS.”

GERMAN “HALBERSTADT.”]

The German was in 1916 provided with a gun which did fire through the
propeller. This was on the Fokker. The advantage thus held by the
enemy was also increased by the fact that their two-seaters carried
pilots in front, thus affording the observer a better opportunity
of firing to the rear. Our BE2C, for instance, found itself under a
handicap in this respect. The downfall of the Fokker rests with the
DH2, a pusher machine, which gave the forward-seated pilot a clear
field of fire to the front. The DH2, in turn, yielded supremacy to
the German Albatross Scout, a fast and efficient fighting machine.
Thus went the battle, till in December, 1916, the Nieuport, Spad and
Sopwith Scouts were our kings of the air.

In April of this year began a concentration of British aerial force
on the Somme, where artillery observation was for the next three
months carried to the utmost in preparation for the great offensive
staged to commence in July. At first it seemed as though our machines
had the air to themselves, for up till the first week in June our
registration proceeded with practically no counter-battery work. So
quiet was this front, that one pilot reports that he cannot remember
seeing more than two German aeroplanes for six weeks.

In June came greater activity on the part of the enemy, but it is
without question that we held superiority until September, if at
considerable cost. From September, however, to the middle of October,
the Royal Flying Corps had its work cut out to cope with the increase
in numbers and efficiency of German pilots, and the introduction of
two fast and improved fighting scouts, the Halberstadt and Albatross
D3 and D5.

On the Somme front, approximating twenty-five miles, we had about
twenty squadrons, equalling about 300 machines; these constituting
the majority of our aerial force in France. Twelve were disposed for
artillery work, the remainder for photography, reconnaissance and
fighting.

[Illustration: GERMAN PARABELLUM MOUNTING.

FIRST “FOKKER” MONOPLANE WITH SYNCHRONIZED GUN BROUGHT DOWN ON
WESTERN FRONT.]

[Illustration: LOADING POSITION.

LEWIS GUN ON NIEUPORT SCOUT.]

The battle proceeded with unprecedented intensity, and with it a
never-ending aerial warfare. Pilots were rushed from England with
a few hours’ solo work and absolutely no gunnery practice, to find
themselves instantly in the thick of the combat. It is, therefore,
not astonishing that the wastage of our fighting men ran up to
twenty-five per cent. per month.

The filling up of the Royal Flying Corps combatant strength was
made additionally difficult, as the Corps could no longer draw from
regimental officers now needed for the coming offensive by which it
was proposed to relieve the tremendous pressure on the French at
Verdun.

It is true that the strength of the Force was, in anticipation, more
than doubled during the three weeks which preceded the Somme, but
this largely exhausted the available supplies of fighting personnel.

How reasonable, therefore, that the established success of Canadian
pilots, and the fact that in Canada lay an almost untapped reservoir
of future strength, should turn the eyes of the War Office to that
Dominion. Double operations were planned for the Spring of 1917. The
need was instant and imperative.




OFFICIAL PRELIMINARIES.


Authority for the Royal Flying Corps, Canada, was given at the War
Office in December of 1916, and shortly after, on December 21st, an
important meeting took place at Adastral House, the headquarters of
the Air Board. Representatives from various branches of the service
were present, and the situation in Canada was fully discussed with
the following results.

Formation of squadrons was to be pushed at once, and personnel sent
out as opportunity offered. Recruiting offices were authorized,
also one large aircraft park, its location to be fixed later. As to
equipment, Curtiss machines had already been ordered and delivery
would commence almost at once from Buffalo. An establishment of 400
engines with a monthly wastage of 100 was considered reasonable.

The use of other machines was discussed but left in abeyance for
the meantime, and the meeting closed with the opinion that training
could be carried on in Canada the year round except in February, the
weather in that month being doubtful.

It was decided at the outset that everything of a business nature,
such as the erection of buildings, preparation of aerodromes,
purchase of supplies, etc., was to be handled by the Imperial
Munitions Board, through a Department of Aviation. This conclusion
was largely influenced by the fact that in correspondence with the
Ministry of Munitions, the Imperial Munitions Board had placed
itself at the disposal of the War Office to aid in the formation of
a Canadian training wing. Two engineer officers would be detailed to
act as advisers on buildings and aerodromes.

Such was the formal birth of the Royal Flying Corps, Canada. It may
be asked why it was purposed to recruit and train in Canada by the
agency of an Imperial wing, but it suffices to say that the work of
this unit has been only one of the countless instances of coöperation
between the mother country and the Dominion, that furthermore all
arrangements entered into carried not only the consent and approval
of the Canadian Government, but also the promise of every assistance,
and that the utter fullness of the discharge of this promise is known
best to those who are personally conversant with the various phases
of the history of this unit of the Royal Flying Corps.

At the further meeting of the Air Board, held at Adastral House,
January 1st, 1917, the personnel of the advance party was selected.
The administration section consisted of the Officer Commanding, at
that time lieutenant-colonel; two squadron commanders--a major and
a captain; one flight commander--a captain; one flying officer--a
lieutenant. The supply section consisted of one park commander,
one first-class equipment officer and two second-class equipment
officers; these a major, captain and two lieutenants. Two engineer
officers, both majors--one of whom was of the Canadian Engineers and
the other from the Royal Engineers services--followed a little later.
The recruiting section, composed of a captain and three lieutenants,
completed the party. Mechanical transport of 21 vehicles was also
sent.

At this meeting the general premises governing the future operations
of the wing were outlined, such as the intention to give only lower
training in Canada, and liaison between the unit and the Imperial
Munitions Board. It was further determined to organize twenty
training squadrons. Owing to conditions in England at the moment,
the question of personnel for the formation of the Canadian wing was
difficult of solution, and it was stated quite frankly that the Royal
Flying Corps, Canada, would be obliged to do its utmost to train both
officers, non-commissioned officers and airmen for the various duties
to be performed.

General and personnel equipment was arranged to be sent from England,
but all machines and additional transport were to be obtained
locally. The general purport of the meeting was, in brief, to provide
the skeleton of a training unit, put this scanty personnel under the
direction of the O.C. and trust to their united efforts to provide
for that expanding output of partially trained pilots for which at
the time there was such insistent demand.

Coincident with all this, matters in Canada had already begun to take
shape. There was in Toronto a small aeroplane factory, which for the
past year or two had been turning out machines used at a private
flying school some nine miles from the city. Authority was received
by the Imperial Munitions Board from the Air Board to acquire this
organization, which, although its output was necessarily limited,
afforded an opportunity for future expansion, once suitable premises
were secured. The machinery and equipment of this undertaking were
forthwith moved into much larger buildings leased from a local
engineering works, and took shape as the Canadian Aeroplanes Limited,
an organization owned by the Imperial Government, whose product was
intended primarily to meet the requirements of the new Canadian wing.

Simultaneously there was formed the Aviation Section of the Imperial
Munitions Board, to which section detailed reference is made
elsewhere. Such, in short, were the arrangements which had been
completed when on January 22nd the advance party of the Royal Flying
Corps, Canada, arrived in Toronto.

[Illustration: OBSERVERS’ GUN MOUNTING.

GERMAN GUN MOUNTINGS.]

[Illustration: R.A.F. CAN.--FLYING DUTY OF MACHINES.]

A word about local conditions will not be amiss. The country was,
of course, deep in snow, and the winter period in its most trying
phase. Recruiting, for which methods had still to be formulated, was
complicated by the fact that no Military Service Act was in force in
Canada, and the country had been apparently combed bare of those who
desired to enlist voluntarily. It is true that the Royal Naval Air
Service had for months been drawing excellent material from Canada,
but this unit offered the inducement of a commission on enlistment,
while the R.F.C. held no commissions in its outstretched hands, but
merely the promise of months of arduous work before qualifying for
the distinction. That the Corps was authorized to recruit in Canada
was due to an Order in Council passed by the Canadian Government.
Application was also made to the Department of Militia and Defence
that the unit might be rationed, clothed and medically attended to by
that Department.

An excerpt taken from an early report on Canadian conditions to the
Air Board notes that the Royal Flying Corps, Canada, was an Imperial
unit, paid for by the Imperial Treasury and wholly independent of
local military command. Also that instructions in the first instance
were very indefinite regarding a host of important details, but that
this fact was in the long run a blessing in disguise.

A credit of four millions sterling had been established with the
Imperial Munitions Board for the purposes of the wing, and it now
remained to take action as quickly as possible.

That no time was lost may be gathered from the fact that the large
C.E.F. Camp at Borden, some seventy miles north of Toronto, was
inspected on January 26th, and on the following day a contract was
let under supervision of the Aviation Department of the Board for the
construction of the first Canadian aerodrome on an outlying portion
of this area. It was to comprise fifteen flight sheds, with all
necessary buildings and equipment. Simultaneously, recruiting got
under way. Ground was also provided by the Department of Militia and
Defence at Long Branch, some nine miles west of Toronto, where was
formed the first flying unit of the Royal Flying Corps, Canada.

During the last week of the month, a contract was let for the
construction of a large factory for the Canadian Aeroplanes Limited,
supplies of engines and machines were secured from the Curtiss
Manufacturing Company at Buffalo, and sites for additional groups of
squadrons were selected at Leaside, three miles north of Toronto;
Armour Heights, four miles still farther north; Rathbun and Mohawk,
130 miles east of Toronto.

Such was the record for nine days’ work. Thus the first of February
found the unit with all major features of its programme settled,
and on the threshold of a development which, as it progressed, was
destined to realize every anticipation.

[Illustration: TRENCH SYSTEM ON WESTERN FRONT.]

[Illustration: G. A. MORROW, ESQ., O.B.E.,

DIRECTOR OF AVIATION, IMPERIAL MUNITIONS BOARD.

SIR JOSEPH FLAVELLE, BART.,

CHAIRMAN, IMPERIAL MUNITIONS BOARD.

SIR FRANK BAILLIE, K.B.E.,

PRESIDENT, CANADIAN AEROPLANES LIMITED.]




AVIATION DEPARTMENT--IMPERIAL MUNITIONS BOARD


This Department formed a many-sided organization, by means of which
the physical and financial wants of the Royal Air Force, Can., were
provided. It secured funds from the War Office, spent and accounted
for them; designed, built, and equipped innumerable structures;
purchased all supplies from the sailmaker’s needle to the aeroplane
and bought materials from countless sources for a vast variety of
needs.

It delved into electrical and mechanical problems, sowed grass,
bored wells, built railways, leased land, secured labour of all
descriptions, engaged lawyers and advanced money. If the Royal Air
Force was an Imperial brigade, this section of the “I.M.B.” was no
less a Canadian civilian battalion, composed of members representing
an officer commanding, paymasters, quartermasters, engineers and
sappers, etc., and maintaining a constant and helpful liaison,
without which a certain history of mutual accomplishments would be
the acme of brevity.

The Department, for purposes of efficiency, was subdivided into the
following sections: Executive, Purchasing, Construction, Transport,
and Aeronautical Supply--all responsible to the Director of Aviation,
and through him to the Imperial Munitions Board proper. The officers
were:

  Director of Aviation    G. A. MORROW, ESQ., O.B.E.
  Secretary               MR. GEO. E. WISHART.
  Chief Engineer          MR. J. B. CARSWELL.
  Asst. Chief Engineer    MR. J. R. HAGELIN.
  Purchasing Agent        MR. A. H. MULCAHEY.
  Asst. Purchasing Agent  MR. A. S. MCNINCH.
  Supt. Aero. Supplies    MR. W. B. CLELAND.

The first section, composed of the Secretary and accountants, was
responsible for all expenditures, and made weekly detailed returns
to the Auditor of the Board in Ottawa. They dealt in millions, and
submitted vouchers for all disbursements, as well as reporting all
executive transactions. The advantage of this coöperation with the
parent organization which dealt in hundreds of millions, is obvious.

The Purchasing Section was manned by expert buyers in various
branches, and furnished the entire needs of the brigade with the
exception of rations, pay and medical service. Machinery, tools,
boots, oil--there were some ten thousand articles in Stores
Depot--all of which were secured by this section of the Department.

The Construction Section, since the autumn of 1917, erected all
buildings used by the brigade, and overhauled and remodelled other
premises secured for their use. At the outset of operations, various
contractors were employed--but, this practice terminated, the
Construction Section was organized under careful supervision of
competent engineers of the Aviation Department to perform these and
added duties. It purchased its own supplies and was responsible for
prices and quantities, as well as for a Commissary Department which
supplied employees with meals and accommodation.

Transportation--always a problem and especially so in wartime--was
entrusted to an expert railwayman, skilled in harassing railway
companies into good delivery. The moving of thousands of men to and
from Texas, with hundreds of carloads of supplies, came under this
section with most creditable results.

Aeronautical supplies were in charge of an expert in aeroplanes and
their parts, who stood between the aeroplane factory and the aircraft
equipment section of the brigade. Through him were followed up all
machines, engines and spares ordered by the Purchasing Section.
Contact was maintained hereby with American factories, to which
periodical visits were made when the brigade was dependent on these
extraneous sources of supply.

[Illustration: OFFICERS, AVIATION DEPARTMENT, IMPERIAL MUNITIONS BOARD

J. B. CARSWELL, B.Sc., CHIEF ENGINEER.

GEO. E. WISHART, SECRETARY.

J. R. HAGELIN, ASST. CHIEF ENGINEER

G. A. MORROW, O.B.E., DIRECTOR OF AVIATION

W. B. CLELAND, SUPT. AERONAUTICAL SUPPLIES.

A. S. McNINCH, ASST. PURCHASING AGENT

A. H. MULCAHEY, PURCHASING AGENT]

[Illustration: FLYING BOAT HULL CONSTRUCTION--CANADIAN AEROPLANES
LIMITED.]

Such in brief are the fundamentals, but without further detail the
service given by the Aviation Department could not be realized. The
following notes therefore, should prove of interest.

Accounts were under the immediate direction of the Secretary. So
speedily was the Department organized that time did not afford to
investigate either the system to be adopted or the number of accounts
to be opened. Flexibility was in consequence desirable, and when in
October, 1918, a new set of ledger headings were called for by the
Air Ministry, there was neither difficulty nor delay in remodelling
the existing accounts to the new form.

The Department was authorized to make disbursements from an imprest
fund when immediate payment was necessary, but this method was only
used when unavoidable, as for instance, outlay in staff payrolls,
initial payments for leases, and in cases where a discount period
had nearly lapsed. For such outlay repayment cheque to the fund was
always subsequently issued.

The standard method of meeting obligations was by sending certified
bills to the Finance Department, Imperial Munitions Board, at Ottawa,
where cheques were issued therefor. These bills were listed in
alphabetical order, and also chronologically under each creditor’s
name. Confusion of any kind was entirely avoided.

During those months when contractors were employed in the erection
of buildings and other work, the Aviation Department was continually
represented at the contractor’s office by an auditing staff. These
officials checked all time worked, and all disbursements of every
nature on the part of the contractor. Such obligations were paid
by the latter, who then forwarded the receipted bills to the
Department. There they were recorded and sent on to Ottawa for
payment.

Extraneous accounting was done in the United States. When a large
part of the brigade went to Texas in November, 1917, the omnipresent
“I.M.B.” accompanied in the person of the Chief Purchasing Agent,
fortified with an imprest fund. This, deposited in the National City
Bank, permitted local payments, which in turn were submitted to
the Toronto Office with the necessary vouchers. In addition to all
the foregoing, the Board at Ottawa was represented by a travelling
auditor who checked all expenditure before it was submitted to
Ottawa. Thus the Chief Auditor was kept constantly informed, and
enabled to make regular reports to the Ministry of Munitions in
England of all disbursements by the Aviation Department.

On page 58 will be found a monthly total of these amounts, as
apart from expenditure by the brigade. It is impossible to make
comparisons, but it is nevertheless believed that in no section of
any military organization has better value been secured for the
amount involved.

The Purchasing Section, up to January 1st, 1919, issued 15,700 orders
and handled 37,300 invoices. Business of this magnitude demands
system, and in this case got it. On page 35 is a diagram showing not
only the procedure of purchase, but also the history of invoices when
received, reflecting the coöperation between consumer and purchaser
to secure assurance of the delivery of what has been ordered, before
payment.

Mention has been made of the variety of the purchases arranged by
this section, and to this might be added the fact that extremely
large quantities were involved.

[Illustration: BARRACK BLOCKS--CAMP MOHAWK.]

[Illustration: TAPPING A SPRUCE FOR AEROPLANE TIMBER.

(Note axe swinging from belt).]

[Illustration: IN FLIGHT.

FLYING BOAT HULL UNDER CONSTRUCTION.]

[Illustration: GETTING IT OUT.]


                          (Procedure of Purchase)

                             INDENTS FROM UNITS
                                      |
                                 STORES DEPOT
                        INDENTS COLLECTED INTO REQUISITIONS
                                      |
                                 HEADQUARTERS
                           (APPROVED BY O. I/C A.E.)
                                      |
                         PURCHASING DEPARTMENT I.M.B.
                                      |
                 RECORDED IN FILE ROOM AS TO DATE OF RECEIPT
                                      |
                       DISTRIBUTED TO PURCHASING STAFF
                                      |
                 TENDERS ASKED BY MAIL, WIRE OR TELEPHONE
                           ACCORDING TO URGENCY
                                      |
       +----------------------------------------------------------+
       |                                                          |
   ORDERS GIVEN                                       REQUISITIONS FILED
  (6 COPIES MADE)                                        CONSECUTIVELY
       +-------------+-------------------+------------------------+
       |             |                   |                        |
  CONTRACTOR   PERMANENT FILE   FOR CHECKING OF INVOICES   3 COPIES TO
                                                           STORES DEPOT

  Orders show quantities, prices, delivery dates, etc.


                         (History of Invoices)

                               INVOICES
                                  |
                         FILE ROOM, INVOICE DEPT.
                    (DATED AND ARRANGED ALPHABETICALLY)
                                  |
                        RECORDED IN INVOICE LEDGER
                                  |
                           CHECKED AGAINST ORDERS
                                  |
   +---------------+--------------------+--------------------+
   |               |                    |                    |
  FILE        STORES DEPOT         STORES DEPOT         STORES DEPOT
                   |                    |
                RETURNED             RETURNED
             (INSPECTION NOTE    (INSPECTION NOTE
                 ATTACHED)           ATTACHED)
                   |                    |
                  FILE            ACCOUNTING DEPT.
                                        |
                                     PAYMENT


Fuel requirements for the current year, for instance, were estimated
at nearly 30,000 tons, and, in spite of certain official privileges
extended to the Department, shipments of this magnitude called for
very special attention, particularly at a time when great public
anxiety was felt in securing fuel supply.

Gasoline requirements comprised about 16,000 gallons per month, and
this, owing to the limited storage capacity at the various wings, was
very carefully watched and traced in transit. It speaks well for the
Department that during a period when the railway system was congested
with freight, flying was not at any time interfered with owing to
shortage of this supply.

The Transportation Section was indebted to the wonderful coöperation
of contractors and railway companies for assistance in overcoming
delays due to this congestion, as well as to the great shortage of
raw material.

Business between the Curtiss Aeroplane and Motor Corporation and the
British Ministry of Munitions was carried in the Section’s purchasing
ledgers, as well as records of all shipments from the Canadian
Aeroplanes Limited to the Signal Service of the U.S. Government. The
amount of material shipped to Texas in 1917 from the factory amounted
to not less than four and a half million dollars. This was a mutually
acceptable arrangement by which training in the U.S. was carried
out most successfully and the output of the factory maintained at a
satisfactory point.

Conjointly with the Purchasing Section, there must be considered its
kindred bureau, the Traffic Branch. This body traced and delivered
all materials to their proper destination, checked all freight and
express bills, and applied them against their proper invoices and
orders. Investigation of conditions governing freight rates was a
special study, and in one instance the Traffic Branch was able to
prove to the Canadian Freight Association that the minimum carload
weight previously required on shipments of aeroplanes and spares was
in point of fact unjustified considering the light nature of the
material. This was subsequently increased, resulting in a marked
saving in the transportation of such material to and from the
various camps. The Texas movement involved 375 cars and 5,000 men.
This was an admirably managed undertaking, so successful that within
five days from the date of leaving Canada our machines were climbing
into the air above Texas aerodromes.

[Illustration: CONSTRUCTION OF SWIMMING POOL, CAMP BORDEN.

(Under Direction of Aviation Department.)]

[Illustration: RANGES CONSTRUCTED BY AVIATION DEPARTMENT AT
BEAMSVILLE.]

The Section of Aeronautical Supply, as has been stated, maintained
liaison between the Aircraft Equipment Branch of the brigade and the
factory; also it acted as a buffer state between the brigade and
the manufacturer of such technical equipment as cameras, wireless
instruments, machine guns, etc., and the tremendous number of spare
parts involved.

The progress in the training of pilots has from time to time demanded
new equipment of multitudinous variety. The advanced nature of the
work of both aeroplane and engine repair park called for a steady
stream of those individual members which when assembled constitute
the completed machine. The selection, purchase, and delivery of the
technical equipment of the brigade, fell in short to this section,
which executed the business transactions involved as required by the
Aircraft Equipment Branch at headquarters.

Liaison between the two has been admirable, and the result,
therefore, eminently satisfactory.

The Construction Section has, in the course of its strenuous
existence, carried out the following work:

    6½  miles of railways.
   22½  miles of roadways.
   18   miles of water mains.
   10   miles of sewers.
   27   miles of aerodrome drainage.
  300   miles of telephone and power lines.
   26   individual steam heating plants.
    6   central steam heating plants.
  400   buildings using 18 million feet of lumber.

It had, furthermore, put in five thousand plumbing fixtures; cleaned,
rolled and seeded nearly four thousand acres of land for flying
purposes, and done a commissary business which touched forty thousand
meals a week.

In these activities it spent five and a half million dollars.

From all of which it may be seen that what was accomplished equals
the building of a modern town with streets, sanitation of every
description and every physical equipment.

Had it been a town the work had been easier, but as it was there were
many areas, with two hundred miles between extreme points.

In dispensing with contractors and assuming itself all obligations
the Department was swayed by but one fact. The requirements of the
brigade were so varying and so subject to training considerations,
that it seemed impossible to adequately provide for all contingencies
by contract. The change took place in the autumn of 1917, and in
the months that followed the Munitions Board profited by unity of
control, by the opportunity of large bulk purchases of material, and
by every consequent advantage accruing to a single organization which
directs many scattered operations.

[Illustration: R.A.F. CAN.--EMPLOYES ON CONSTRUCTION WORK
SUPERINTENDED BY I.M.B.]

[Illustration: CANADIAN AEROPLANES LIMITED--MONTHLY VALUE OF OUTPUT

GRAND TOTAL $13,577.000.00]

The Chief Engineer of this section directed executive work, his
assistant supervised construction. With them were the heads of
the draughting room, the estimating section and the construction
purchasing department, together with the chief electrician,
the plumbing superintendent, the heating superintendent, road
superintendent and the head of the commissary and transport section.
In the section office a staff of fifty was employed, when in the
middle of October, 1918, there were 2,200 men on the payroll. The
following diagram illustrates the organization:--

                           CHIEF ENGINEER
                                   |
        +-----------------------+--+-----------------+-------------+
        |                          |                 |             |
  Resident Engineers       Assistant Chief         Chief      Secretary
   (Maintenance)              Engineer          Draughtsmen
                                   |                 |
                                   |             Estimating
                                   |
      +---------+--------+---------+-------+------+--------+--------+
      |         |        |         |       |      |        |        |
  Production  Chief   Plumbing  Heating  Roads  Buyer  Commissary  Acc-
    Clerk  Electrician  Sup’t.   Sup’t.  Sup’t.         Manager  ountant
                                                           |
                                                  +--------+-------+
                                                  |        |       |
                                             Commissary Stores Transport

The Construction Section was, in fact, pivoted so that it might at
any moment turn its attention to new work without departing from its
main and central programme, and to this flexibility is attributable
the unquestionable success it achieved.




CANADIAN AEROPLANES LIMITED.


This organization saw the light officially in December, 1916, and in
twenty-one months had turned out some 2,900 aeroplanes, valued at
nearly fourteen million dollars. Incidentally, the factory covered
about six acres, and employed something over two thousand hands.

It was some time before Canadians realized that the undertaking was
that of the Imperial Government acting through the Imperial Munitions
Board, more familiarly known as the “I.M.B.” The primary purpose was
that of supplying aeroplanes for the Royal Flying Corps, but actually
some four and a half millions’ worth of output went to aid training
in the United States.

The officials of the Company were:--

  President          SIR FRANK BAILLIE, K.B.E.
  Vice-president     MR. FRANK P. WOOD.
  Director           MR. W. PARKYN MURRAY.
  Manager            MR. E. T. MUSSON.
  Secretary          MR. P. H. BROOKS.
  Chief Engineer     MR. M. R. RIDDELL.

Work commenced in leased premises, where the plant of a small factory
which had a year or so before turned out a few experimental machines
was for three months utilized. This, admittedly a makeshift, expanded
in April into permanent premises on Dufferin Street, covering
ultimately some six acres of floor space, with innumerable mechanical
appliances specially designed for the work. The building of this
factory proved something of an achievement, being completed in about
two and one-half months, a notable record even in a country where
quick construction was the rule of the day. The site, carefully
chosen, lay surrounded by the homes of large numbers of technical
tradesmen, and this helped in no small degree to ensure at all times
a full force of highly skilled employees.

[Illustration: OFFICIALS AND EXECUTIVE STAFF OF CANADIAN AEROPLANES
LIMITED.

  G. A. COOPER     H. R. BRISTOW       C. E. PEARSON   W. E. TREGENZA
  CHIEF            ASST. SUPT. FINAL   SUPT.           MASTER MECHANIC.
  INSPECTOR.       ASSEMBLY AND        WOOD MILL.
                   PANEL DEPTS.

  L. W. COLLIER    E. ASHWORTH         G. N. DUFFY     P. H. BROOKS
  SUPT. METAL      SUPT. FINAL         GENERAL SUPT.   SECRETARY.
  DEPARTMENT.      ASSEMBLY AND
                   PANEL DEPTS.

  E. T. MUSSON     SIR F. W. BAILLIE,  W. P. MURRAY    M. R. RIDDELL
  MANAGER.          K.B.E. PRESIDENT.  DIRECTOR.       CHIEF ENGINEER.

  G. A. AULT       D. J. NEWSON        H. R. CHOATE    G. R. C. MERRIAM
  DESPATCH         CHIEF DRAUGHTSMAN.  ASST. SUPT.     CHIEF ACCOUNTANT.
  DEPARTMENT.                          METAL DEPT.

  W. B. MACDONALD  J. M. WATERMAN      A. H. SALTER    F. L. SHILLINGTON
  PLANT ENGINEER.  ASST. CHIEF         ASST. SUPT.     ASSISTANT
                   ENGINEER.           WOOD MILL.      SECRETARY.
]

[Illustration: FUSELAGE ASSEMBLY.

SAILMAKING ON WINGS.]

The machine adopted for use by the Royal Flying Corps was the
Canadian JN4, of simple design and presenting no unusual difficulty
in manufacture. As work progressed, however, it became apparent
that the type could be largely improved by change of design and
fabrication, and there was evolved a machine which, while presenting
the same appearance as its predecessor, contained nevertheless
certain fundamental and radical alterations. Among other points
remodelled were the landing gear--the substitution of the “joy stick”
for the former control wheel, the adoption of split trailing edge
instead of flattened tubing, and, most important, tail units made
principally of metal instead of wood, resulting in an increased
factor of safety, especially in the rudder and vertical stabilizer.
Progress without change is impossible, and thus it proved in this
undertaking.

It will be understood that given soundness of design there remains
to be provided good workmanship and the best and most suitable
materials. The former was procured without much difficulty, but the
supply of the latter involved much thought and experiment, it being
always remembered that the ideal machine combines a maximum strength
with a minimum weight.

Linen for the covering of wings, etc., was imported first from
Ireland, but submarine activity made it imperative that a substitute
be secured. It was found at the Wabasso Cotton Company’s mills in
Three Rivers, Quebec. Here was secured, for the special purpose
required, a cotton fabric of remarkable strength. One inch in width
is able to support some eighty pounds, and this with a weight which
does not exceed four and a half ounces a square yard. Its adoption
was at once successful, and it proved capable, when treated with
“dope”--a waterproof and windproof solution with celluloid-like
finish--of performing the same service as that of the most expensive
Irish linen.

After fabric came wood, the quality of which was required to be
above anything hitherto known in the lumber trade. Free from knots,
of extreme length, with no “wind shakes,” swirly grain or “pitch
pockets,” it seemed at first unprocurable. Ash for the longerons or
longitudinals of the fuselage, and spruce for wing beams, wing edges,
etc., was of imperative necessity. The market was searched, but what
material was available proved to yield but a fraction of its total
in satisfactory timber. Then, driven by urgent need, the “I.M.B.”
organized a department in Vancouver and began to buy for itself on
the shores of the Pacific. That its first purchase was rushed by
express in carloads from the Western Coast will indicate how extreme
was the pressure for sound material. The illustrations on pages 32
and 34 give some idea of the magnitude of the operations required
to produce that exact quality of lumber which the modern aeroplane
demands.

It is interesting to note that even with this admirable supply
secured, it was found that certain members were so long that it
proved necessary to build them up, and, in the building, the Canadian
Aeroplanes Limited evolved a scarfed, saw-toothed splice, since
adopted as standard by Britain and the United States. Repeated tests
proved that greater strength was thus secured than that of solid
lumber of the same dimensions.

The Canadian Aeroplanes Limited propeller is five-ply white oak,
glued, compressed and formed up by machinery that is almost
human--and took its origin from a lathe designed by Peter the Great
to make gun stocks. It is a far cry from Russia to Toronto, but the
principle is identical. No “C.A.L.” propeller has shown manufacturing
or engineering defect. The successor of Peter’s lathe carves them,
four at a time, to one thirty-second of their finished form, and the
final touches and balancing are hand work. To anyone who has seen
a nine-foot propeller running at 1,500 revolutions per minute, its
blade points cutting the air at the rate of eight miles a minute,
it will be apparent how fine a workmanship and accurate a design is
embodied here.

From wood pass to metal. Fuselage and internal wing bracing is with
piano-wire which will stand a pull of a ton, though the members to
which it is anchored weigh but a few pounds. Inter-plane bracing
will live up to a ton and a half, and the control wires will stand
the same test. So accurate are these latter that in process of their
manufacture the heated metal is drawn through a forming die made of
an aperture in a diamond.

In the autumn of 1918 it was decided to undertake the manufacture
of a faster and more modern type of machine--the Avro--and to
this object the factory diverted its energies. At the date of the
armistice two had been turned out. These machines, equipped with
130 horse-power Clerget engines, promised excellent service, and
underwent all tests to the complete satisfaction of all concerned. No
less than one hundred additional had been fabricated and were ready
for assembly when hostilities ceased.

Design--material--workmanship--inspection! These are the four
cardinal features of the modern machine. That all have been amply
provided in the output of the Canadian Aeroplanes Limited is best
evidenced by the fact that not a single one of nearly three thousand
aeroplanes turned out has been charged with any accident attributable
to any fault in design or manufacture.

From aeroplane to flying boat was a natural transition in an
organization so finely balanced and completely equipped, and in
April, 1918, the Canadian Aeroplanes Limited undertook to build for
the United States navy a fleet of 30 F-5 flying boats, the largest
produced to date on this side of the Atlantic. The contract involved
competition with two other companies. The latter had been in the
business from two to four years, and had on hand not only ample
material but also a large staff of assembling mechanics. In the race
that followed, the Canadian Aeroplanes Limited finished three weeks
ahead--an illustration of the fact that the best type of organization
is that which is not so wedded to one class of output as to be
unable to adapt its methods and its plant to kindred, if varying,
undertakings. So satisfactory was the work to the U.S. authorities,
that it called forth the following letter from the American admiral
in charge:--

  “On account of the excellent workmanship of Canadian Aeroplanes
  shown in the construction of navy flying boats, the bureau is
  glad to recommend the facilities of your plant, and it is hoped
  that additional work in aircraft construction may be secured
  elsewhere.”

The feat was not without effort. The thirty boats contracted for
have been delivered, the first being turned out within three months
from receipt of order. The shipments included spares to the extent
of one additional boat in every three, exclusive of hull. It was not
necessary to engage any additional staff, but it was necessary to
give the training required to convert the aeroplane builder into the
boat builder. This construction filled in a period between orders
for machines for the Royal Air Force, but it involved the purchasing
of special material from the United States, in which market the U.S.
competitors of the company were already firmly established.

[Illustration: TEST OF FIRST C.A.L. MACHINE.

FIRST AVRO MACHINE OF C.A.L.]

[Illustration: FINISHING PROPELLERS.]

Boat building was, however, but a side issue of the primary purpose
of the organization. It was formed to supply an Imperial brigade
with ample and satisfactory aeroplanes. That this was done is
unquestionable; but it is questionable whether those responsible
for its organization and those under whose guiding hands it grew so
amazingly foresaw the proportion the business was to assume or the
peculiarly intimate relationship it established with the work of
the brigade. The various reports of the General Officer Commanding on
this subject pay unstinted tribute to the excellence of the service
rendered. More than this, it is due to the qualities of the Canadian
JN4 machine as manufactured in Toronto by the Canadian Aeroplanes
Limited that training in flying by the Royal Air Force was so
advanced that it covered the practice of all aerial manoeuvres and
“stunts” possible on any machine.

In the graphs on pages 54 and 55 will be found certain data of
interest giving the progress of manufacture, etc., but the essential
figures are those not written. They are to be found, if computable,
in the service rendered to the Empire by some three thousand pilots
who first took to the air in machines made by this great national
plant.

[Illustration: CANADIAN AEROPLANES LIMITED--MONTHLY OUTPUT OF MACHINES

IN ADDITION 30 FLYING BOATS FOR U.S. NAVY]

[Illustration: CANADIAN AEROPLANES LIMITED--MONTHLY STRENGTH OF
EMPLOYES]

[Illustration: A WOODLAND SCENE.

A COMFORTABLE CRASH.]




THE COST OF TRAINING


Herewith is given a diagram presenting the net cost of the work of
the brigade in Canada. The disbursements indicated include the total
of all sums paid out both by the Corps and the Aviation Department of
the I.M.B.

This cost, being $9,835 per pilot trained, will, it is estimated,
be reduced to $9,660 when the various assets of the brigade have
been liquidated. It will be seen that no amount has been apportioned
against the complete training of 137 observers, and the partial
training of 3,500 cadets who were on the strength and in various
stages of ground tuition in November, 1918.

From December, 1917 to April, 1918, both brigade and Imperial
Munitions Board expenditures show a decrease. This is due to the fact
that for these months the cost of aeroplanes, engines, spares, etc.,
were met by the U.S. Signal. Service, for whom the Corps trained
a large number of pilots. The amount thus saved by the Corps may
be considered as approximately equal to that spent on the partial
training of 3,500 cadets and included in the gross sum mentioned.

The increase in outlay by the Imperial Munitions Board in the autumn
of 1918 was occasioned by a large building programme, designed to
accommodate the entire brigade in winter quarters, no further move to
Texas being contemplated. When hostilities ceased this accommodation
was practically finished.

It will be noted that the winter of 1918 found the brigade with its
capital expenditure complete, and subject only to such maintenance
charges as rations, pay, repairs, etc. Had training, therefore, been
continued, it is without doubt that pilots would have been turned out
at a cost very much less than that above indicated.

[Illustration: R.A.F. CAN.--MONTHLY DISBURSEMENTS AND TRAINING COSTS]

[Illustration: OFFICERS, 81ST SQUADRON, CAMP RATHBUN.]

[Illustration: HEADQUARTERS OFFICERS AND STAFF.]




HEADQUARTERS STAFF.


The duties undertaken by the headquarters staff of the Corps were, in
many respects, much more onerous than those which fall to the lot of
a similar establishment in Great Britain, and comprised not only the
routine work of the brigade, but also very many functions which under
home conditions would have been assumed by either the War Office or
the Air Ministry.

Looking back at the past two years, it appears that although the
headquarters burden was thus increased, the arrangement proved
distinctly to the advantage of the Corps, resulting as it did in
the centralization of authority and a constant unity of purpose and
procedure which otherwise would have been difficult of achievement.

To make the matter perfectly clear, the Royal Air Force, Canada, must
be considered as a unit operating outside the boundaries of the usual
activities of the Air Ministry, and endowed with special authority
and freedom of action, but handicapped, nevertheless, by certain
limitations, which, although greatly alleviated by the helpful
attitude of the Canadian authorities, made it imperative that extreme
care should be used both in policy and action.

It is obvious from the chapter which deals with the matter of
recruiting, that particular judgment had to be used in the means
adopted to bring the Corps up to the necessary strength, and it was
doubly important that every precaution be taken to avoid enlisting
men who were subject to the provisions of the Canadian Military
Service Act.

Only in very special cases where the applicant’s qualifications made
the enlistment desirable, was any recruit signed on who came under
the provision of this Act.

The organization and formation of units was, of course, constantly
subject to fluctuations in recruiting, and that these units were so
soon brought up to workable strength, speaks well for the care given
in this respect.

The arrangements made between Brigade Headquarters and the
Department of Militia and Defence in Ottawa were all important; and
negotiations for medical service, rations, etc., etc., having been
completed with satisfaction to the Canadian government, it fell to
headquarters staff to maintain a constant and careful liaison with
the various departments involved. In addition there were also many
important conferences at Washington, these resulting in a complete
understanding between the U.S. Signal Service and the brigade,
which understanding took admirable shape in the reciprocal training
agreement so successfully carried out by the Corps in Canada and
Texas.

Responsibility for training in Canada lay with the officer of
headquarters staff on this duty, and constant touch was maintained
with Great Britain in order that the methods of the Canadian unit
might always reflect every recent advance in the system adopted.

Reference has been made elsewhere to the excellent service given by
the Curtiss engine and Canadian JN4 aeroplane. This machine became
out of date a little later, but such were its qualifications of
strength and manoeuvring capacity, that, during the more recent
period of the work of the brigade all pilots were sent overseas with
flying instruction practically complete, needing only an introduction
to machines, which although faster and more modern, were able to
perform few manoeuvres which had not already been done on the JN4.

[Illustration:

  LT.-COL. J. RUBIE       LT.-COL. F. R. G. HOARE   LT.-COL. A. K. TYLEE

  MAJ. O. C. MACPHERSON   BRIG.-GEN. C. G. HOARE,   MAJOR O’REILLY
                            C.M.G.


  MAJ. J. M. MITCHELL                               MAJ. H. B. DENTON


  CAPT. C. J. BLACKMORE   MAJ. M. A. SEYMOUR        MAJ. J. INWOOD]

[Illustration: 80TH SQUADRON, CAMP BORDEN--OFFICERS AND MECHANICS.]

[Illustration: READY FOR THE AIR.

THE TAKE-OFF--WINTER FLYING.]

[Illustration: SCHOOL OF AERONAUTICS--CANTEEN.

DINING HALL.]

Owing to the fact that one-half of the personnel of the brigade was
in a constant state of flux, and moving forward from unit to unit,
additional work was thrown upon both the Records and Quartermaster’s
department, and the prompt manner in which these organizations
adapted themselves to the changing needs is worthy of mention.
The move to Texas created an involved situation which was made
workable only by a very special effort and complete coöperation
with the Imperial Munitions Board, and, in spite of the strain thus
occasioned, the success of this move must always be recalled with
particular satisfaction by those responsible for its arrangement.

The Quartermaster branch discharged, as well, the duty of a
Quartermaster-General’s department, this being but one instance
out of many in which the obligations of individual sections of
the brigade were enlarged till they paralleled the work elsewhere
performed by the Air Board or the War Office.

The composition of the Canadian units decided upon by the War Office,
varied considerably from that of units already established in
England, and, in consequence, the mobilization and equipment tables
heretofore in use proved in most respects inapplicable to Canadian
requirements. Thus there was thrown upon the Aircraft Equipment
branch the almost unprecedented duty of compiling all the data
determining every item of equipment to be supplied for carrying on
the work of the Corps.

It was provided from the first that responsibility for price and
point of purchase would be borne by the Aviation Department, and the
burden of the A.E. branch ceased when requisitions were handed to the
former. This, however it eased the situation, still left upon the
A.E. branch the constant onus of working out in detail the entire
list of engines and aeroplanes, with their multitudinous spares, and
the complicated list of stores, technical and otherwise, requisite
for the training of a continuous stream of pilots.

The records of the branch show that while the supply of machines
from the Canadian Aeroplanes factory was invariably dependable,
considerable difficulty was experienced in securing deliveries of
engines, and, on occasions, machines were sent to the wings without
engines, the latter to be installed when received.

Motor transport being carefully considered, the original orders
proved practically sufficient for all needs, and there was purchased
only about one half of the equipment officially authorized. Had
not the units at Beamsville and Hamilton been organized, the
provision made early in 1917 would have proved sufficient. In the
supply of aeroplane spares, the excellent service rendered by the
repair sections of the various flying units in making broken parts
serviceable, steadily reduced the monthly proportional outlay.

It is not possible in the scope of a page to go into the innumerable
details, the solution of which rested with the A.E. branch.
Sufficient funds were of course available, and an admirable
coöperation with the Aviation Department of the I.M.B. always
saved the situation--even sometimes at the last moment--but the
difficulties overcome were very serious, and there were times when
the imperative demands of the flying wings seemed almost impossible
to satisfy. Added to this, there was increased difficulty in securing
supplies after the United States entered the war and placed embargoes
on many classes of goods. In spite of all, however, flying was never
practically affected by any lack of material.

Since it is desired only to give an outline of headquarters duties,
it is asked that the diagram on page 71 be referred to. The various
subdivisions were found to be satisfactory and workable, and to
reflect with accuracy those administrative needs on the fulfillment
of which depended both the progress of the unit with its co-related
branches, and the quality of the pilots it was privileged to turn
out.

[Illustration: GERMAN AERODROME, WESTERN FRONT.]

[Illustration: BARRIE, ONTARIO.]

              +--_A.O. 1_                    +--
              | LT.-COL. J. RUBIE            |_Records_--MAJOR H. B.
              |  General Staff duties.       | DENTON
              |  Organization and formation  |  Recruiting all cadets
              |  of units.                   |  and airmen  and records
              |  Discipline.                 |  of all non-commissioned
              |  Establishments.             |  members of the Force.
              |  Arrangement for movement    |
              |  of troops.                  |_Works Section_--
              |          |                   | MAJOR O. C. MACPHERSON
              |          |                   |  Supervision of all
              |          |                   |  structural and aerodrome
              |          |                   |  work.
              |          +-------------------+
              |                              |_Discipline_--
              |                              | MAJOR C. R. HUGGINS
              |                              |  Courts martial.
              |                              |  Courts of enquiry re
              |                              |  absentees.
              |                              |
              |                              | CAPT. J. L. LANGMUIR
              |                              |  Assistant Provost
              |                              |  Marshal.
              |                              +--
              |
              +--_A.O. 2_                    +--
              | MAJ. J. M. MITCHELL          |_Medical Boards_ } MAJ.
              |  General routine.            |_Dental Services_} O’REILLY
              |  General administration.     |  Organization and control
              |  Headquarters orders.        |  of all medical services.
              |  Officers’ records.          |
              |  Posting and employment      |_A.O. 2A._--CAPT. F. D.
              |  of officers.                | WILLIAMS
              |  Promotions.                 |  Pay and allowances.
  BRIGADIER-  |          |                   |  Examination of unit
  GENERAL     |          +-------------------+  orders.
  C. G. HOARE,|                              |  Civilian claims.
  C.M.G.      |                              |
  _General_   |                              |_Transportation_
  _Officer_   |                              | _Warrants_--
  _Commanding_|                              | CAPT. G. J. BLACKMORE
              |                              +--
              |
              |--_A.O. 1A._                  +--
              | LT.-COL. A. K. TYLEE         |_A.O. 1B._--MAJ. M. A.
              |  General supervision of      | SEYMOUR
              |  training.                   |  All Flying training;
              |         |                    |  syllabus of instruction;
              |         |                    |  courts of enquiry re
              |         |                    |  flying accidents;
              |         |                    |  reports and graphs re
              |         +--------------------+  training progress;
              |                              |  technical matters
              |                              |  regarding flying (no
              |                              |  material); technical
              |                              |  training of officers,
              |                              |  non-commissioned
              |                              |  officers, cadets and men.
              |                              |
              |                              |_A.O. 1C._--CAPT. W. H.
              |                              | FARNELL
              |                              |  Photography; supervision
              |                              |  of this instruction at
              |                              |  all units.
              |                              +--
              |
              +--_A.E._                      +--
                COL. F. R. G. HOARE          |_A.E. 1._--MAJOR J. INWOOD
                 Analysis and provision      |  Assisting A.E.
                 of all technical supplies.  |
                        |                    |_Quartermaster Services_--
                        +--------------------+   CAPT. G. J. BLACKMORE
                                             +--

[Illustration: RAF. CAN.--TOTAL MACHINES--MACHINES SERVICEABLE UNDER
REPAIR AND BEING ERECTED

MARCH 1917 TO NOV. 1918]

[Illustration: 87TH SQUADRON, CAMP BORDEN.]

[Illustration: Y.W.C.A.--CAMP BORDEN.

Y.M.C.A.--CAMP BORDEN.]

[Illustration: RAF. CAN.--OUTPUT OF PILOTS AND OBSERVERS]




TRAINING IN GENERAL.


To achieve a brief review of the progressive instruction received
by pilots and observers, it is unfortunately necessary to omit
reference to many developments which from time to time built up the
system finally secured. This is the more regrettable, since the
foundations were laid under strenuous circumstances. Insufficient
staffs provided with meagre equipment, much of which they themselves
had to evolve, did notable service at a time when the demands upon
them were constantly increasing. It is hoped, therefore, that those
to whom the brigade is indebted for a vast amount of admirable and
constructive effort will realize the impossibility of any descriptive
detail concerning it, and will find in the ultimate methods adopted
the essential fruit of their early labours.

To the photographic record of training on these pages it is now
desired to add certain data concerning the routine of instruction.

The cadet enlisting in the Spring of 1918 proceeded to the Cadet
Wing at Long Branch after passing through the Recruits Depot,
where he received an initiation into infantry training and buzzing
(telegraphic receiving and sending) up to his ability in the period.
Here he was clothed, equipped and given lectures on personal hygiene,
discipline, and the primary features of the R.A.F. This course did
not exceed two weeks.

During the eight weeks at the Cadet Wing the pupil’s horizon
broadened. He found also that every inducement was offered to
proficiency and hard work, for instruction continued even in
hospital, provided he was fit to receive it. Sports and physical
exercise kept him in condition, and leave was frequent.

[Illustration: PHOTOGRAPHY.

ARTILLERY OBSERVATION SENDING STATIONS.]

[Illustration: TESTING RIGGING.

FILLING UP.]

His wireless was carried on to receiving and sending eight words
a minute, and instruction was given in such a way that he was
untroubled by the presence of the cadet beside him, because that
cadet received and sent with a different wave length of transmission
current. Panneau (see illustration on page 199) was read at four
words a minute and practice alternated with the use of Aldis signal
lamps. Ground strips, reproduced electrically in miniature, required
correct reading. The method of locating flashes (symbolic of shell
bursts) on clock coding target (page 158) demanded special attention
to the point of locating ten successive flashes.

Came then aerial navigation, the knowledge of which is essential to
all who travel by air. An extremely interesting study this, covering
sketching, compass work--both magnetic and prismatic, definitions and
conventional signs used--in fact all such information as is necessary
not only to read intelligently and quickly any civil or military
map and absorb the information often so vitally necessary, but also
to construct one which shall be legible for general military and
artillery purposes.

It follows, then, that the cadet when he arrived at the School of
Aeronautics had already moulted much of the civilian. The plumage of
the pilot was beginning to sprout.

At this point his education was carried still further. He applied
his map-reading knowledge to an immense reproduction of part of
the actual theatre of war, showing whole battlefields in faithful
outline. He studied the plotting of an aerial course from point to
point, with a given wind velocity and speed of aeroplane. He delved
into air and weather conditions in northern France and learned what
targets looked like when seen from the air. He began photography,
the study of artillery work, zone call systems and those simple yet
enormously important and pre-arranged signals between battery and
aeroplane. Here, too, he was introduced to the science of bombing.

Moving on to engines of various types, he absorbed their principles
of design and operation--with practical work on the engines
themselves which were set up on running stands at Camp Leaside and
subjected to every temporary indisposition imaginable in order that
the pupil might diagnose and remedy the trouble (page 83). With
the engines he studied the design of the aeroplane, assembling and
dismantling till its structure became simple and familiar (page
172). Coincident with all this was his education as a soldier, with
lectures in military law, procedure, the organization of various arms
of the service, the internal economy of R.A.F. squadrons, wings,
parks and depots and the various phases of active service duty.

Congested as it may appear, there was in actuality no congestion.
This was due not only to the fact that instruction was invariably
progressive, but also such mechanical inventiveness had been
displayed by the staff that whenever practical instruction involving
mechanics of any nature was given, there was always produced the
relative mechanical device which showed the practical application of
the theory and demonstrated quite unmistakably its physical character.

From the School of Aeronautics to which further reference is made
(page 162) the cadet proceeded to the Armament School. In the chapter
under this heading his course is sufficiently outlined, and by the
time he arrived at a flying wing he had mastered the theoretical and
mechanical essentials of the principles and appliances which were to
control his further development.

It was recognized that if instruction in wireless ceased on arrival
at the wings, the pupil at once became rusty in these requirements,
and, from the commencement of the Corps, work classes were invariably
held in this and kindred subjects at all flying units.

Now came the time to which the cadet had been looking forward since
his enlistment. Entrusted to a competent instructor, he embarked
on flying tuition. Here also was practice in aerial photography,
vertical and oblique, and bomb dropping by wireless, in which the
pilot signalled the release of an imaginary bomb, the message being
received by an observer in a camera obscura hut, who noted also the
position of the machine at the instant of release. Formation and
fifty-mile cross-country flights were practised, the former as in
active service, the latter giving opportunity for map reading in the
air, and the actual collection of a variety of information which
paralleled the duty to be performed at the front.

Here, too, the cadet climbed to 6,000 feet and remained at this
height for fifteen minutes. He flew through clouds guided by compass,
read ground strips and Aldis lamp signals, and in general comported
himself exactly as though in the air over enemy country, and when
he ultimately reported at Camp Leaside it was as a skilled pilot
thoroughly at home in his machine and ready for the two final periods
of his instruction.

At Leaside, the 43rd Wing, came final tuition in artillery
coöperation. Here the cadet absorbed to his capacity all that science
and a particularly brilliant system of instruction could give him.
The picture target of former days was reproduced on a huge scale,
and from work on this the pupil took to the air. From an altitude of
2,000 feet he noted bursts presumed to be those of batteries, located
them on his map and wirelessed their position to the receiving
battery station, correcting and directing its fire. Information was
sent down describing the effect of barrage fire, the movement of
troops, the location of wire and similar details. Contact patrol work
was studied, as was indeed every feature of artillery coöperation
duty, even to the wearing of gauntlets when sending wireless.

All through the period of training his physical condition was
regarded as of prime importance; and continual exercises, so arranged
as to develop every bodily power, and, in consequence, every
mental activity, were faithfully practised. The result was a human
mechanism, fit and alert, sound and responsive, and capable of being
brought to the highest possible pitch of efficiency.

At the School of Aerial Fighting came the last step in the
development of the pilot. Armed with Vickers and Lewis guns he went
through a final course of ground gunnery which demonstrated the
problems and mechanics of the art of shooting to the last degree.
Taking to the air, first with another pilot, he shot at full-sized
silhouettes anchored in Lake Ontario a mile from shore. Later, armed
with a camera gun loaded with film, he undertook aerial practice
on a brother cadet, the developed film showing the accuracy of his
aim. Aerial tactics were carried out, and every imaginable manoeuvre
of attack and escape has been observable for months at this most
interesting of camps. Finally, equipped mentally and physically, with
all that the British Empire could do for him, he left for either
overseas as the highest product of the R.A.F., Can., or to the School
of Special Flying to be tested as an instructor, an equally arduous
but more thankless undertaking.

[Illustration: ENGINE TEST SHED--LEASIDE.]

[Illustration: OFFICERS’ MESS--LEASIDE.]




NORTH TORONTO.


The North Toronto wing was the third flying station of the brigade to
go into action. It was subdivided into two units, Leaside and Armour
Heights, the ground for the former being most generously offered free
of charge by the York Land Company and the town of Leaside; while for
the use of the latter area the Corps is indebted to F. B. Robins, Esq.

Actual construction commenced on May 21st. Leaside, comprising 222
acres, presented an admirable surface which was carefully drained.
The structural programme called for nine flight sheds, together with
instructional and repair buildings, etc. At the close of hostilities
there was accommodation for 89 officers, 230 cadets, 83 warrant
officers and sergeants, and about 600 rank and file, the latter being
housed in a large factory building, the use of which was secured
from the Leaside Munitions Company. In the autumn of 1918, work
was commenced on a central heating plant serving the officers’ and
cadets’ quarters.

The territory north, east and west of Leaside presented a country
with fairly large fields and but little wooded land, and there
was in consequence every opportunity for forced landings. As this
station was the main point at which training was given in artillery
coöperation, a most complete system of observation huts connected
by telephones, was constructed and dotted the countryside for miles
around.

Leaside has always been a point of interest to visitors on account
of its proximity to Toronto, and has had the honor of inspection by
H.R.H. Prince Arthur of Connaught and the Duke of Devonshire, at
that time Governor-General of Canada. From Leaside also started the
aerial mail which, under the auspices of the Aero Club of Canada,
made several trips to Montreal and Ottawa, and demonstrated the great
advantage that will no doubt accrue from the use of aerial transport
for this purpose.

At Armour Heights were the squadrons detailed to give instruction in
what is known as the Armour Heights course. The aerodrome lies some
five miles north of Toronto. Here accommodation was provided for 58
officers, 56 cadets, 32 warrant officers and sergeants and 188 rank
and file. The type of building and general arrangement of the station
did not present any features varying noticeably from other camps,
but this unit was always the object of much interest to visitors on
account of the advanced flying at all times observable. The output
of instructors here graduated has been vital to the success of the
Corps, and the keenness and enthusiasm displayed was undoubtedly
fostered by the brilliant example set by the flight commander who for
many months was in charge. His record has been worthily maintained.

[Illustration: PART OF AERODROME, LEASIDE.]

[Illustration: PART OF BEAMSVILLE AERODROME.]




BEAMSVILLE CAMP.


The site of the School of Aerial Fighting was selected in the
autumn of 1917. Actual preparation of some 300 acres comprising
the aerodrome began, and the work of building was in full swing by
December. Climatic conditions approximated those at Camp Borden
some twelve months previously, it being a winter of severe cold and
high winds, but so earnestly was construction pushed that the camp
stood ready for occupation when the School of Aerial Gunnery, as it
then was, returned from Texas at the beginning of April, 1917. This
provision did not at the time include barracks for cadets and rank
and file.

As will be understood, complete equipment was provided for gunnery
practice, the several ranges running from 25 to 200 yards. These
were furnished with a diversity of targets for surprise deflection,
miniature aeroplane and disappearing target work, the type of butt
here constructed proving extremely satisfactory.

Full sized silhouettes of machines, riding on anchored rafts, were
also set out in Lake Ontario a mile or so from shore, it having
already been established in practice over Lake Worth, Texas, that
firing over the water was of great value, owing to the accuracy with
which registration could be made and also the excellent opportunity
given of arriving at a proper diving angle. Beamsville provided all
such advantages, and practice was further stimulated by the use of a
fast armour-clad launch, which, travelling at top speed, offered an
unusually good target.

As work developed, it became clear that the School was in point of
fact one of tuition in aerial fighting, the practice of tactics
forming a large part of the instruction given. Its nomenclature was
in consequence altered in July, 1918.

In the summer of this year, a fourth squadron was organized and
housed, and steps taken to provide permanent accommodation for all
ranks. This programme included additional officers’ quarters, and
the construction of about a dozen large buildings on the hillside
which previously held the tents of the unit. The work had just been
completed at the date of the armistice, when the accommodation at
this station was sufficient for 122 officers, 400 cadets, 96 warrant
officers and sergeants and 768 rank and file.

Other services covered an excellent supply of pure water from the
lake, a complete drainage system, and ample electrical facilities
from the circuits of the Dominion Power and Transmission Company
of Hamilton, from which city Beamsville is some twenty-three miles
distant to the eastward.

The trip from Toronto by air was always of interest, paralleling
the south shore of Lake Ontario to the long sandspit that cuts off
Hamilton Bay from the main lake, along this curving bar and thence
over orchard and vineyard along the edge of the great escarpment over
which, a little further eastward, plunges the Niagara River. This
area is appropriately called the garden of Canada, and the unit found
itself fortunate in its surroundings.

[Illustration: OFFICERS AND STRENGTH, SCHOOL OF AERIAL FIGHTING,
BEAMSVILLE.]

[Illustration: GROUND INSTRUCTIONAL SECTION--CAMP MOHAWK.]




INSPECTION.


The Aeroplane Inspection Department took the responsibility of
determining whether every aeroplane and every engine bought by
the Royal Air Force, Canada, complied with the rigid requirements
laid down as necessary before acceptance. That the duties of this
organization were, in point of fact, admirably carried out, is
evident in the splendid results secured by the brigade in flying duty.

The A.I.D. was, under another name, in actual existence in Canada
before the arrival of the Corps in January, 1917, being then engaged
in supervising the manufacture of machines made in Canada for the
Admiralty by a branch of the Curtiss Aeroplane Company situated in
Toronto. The work at that time was under the Director of Inspection
for the Imperial Ministry of Munitions.

The coming of the Royal Flying Corps to Canada, and the consequent
demand for the supply of large numbers of engines and machines, made
it advisable that the unit should reap the fullest possible advantage
by the expansion of inspection work into an organization, the first
duty of which would be vouching for the quality of aeronautical
supplies purchased. In order that the work of this Department might
be kept absolutely up to date, constant touch was maintained with the
Ministry of Munitions in Great Britain, and information regarding
every new development was invariably transmitted to Canada without
delay. Thus it has been possible that the factories in Canada
producing aeroplane material were kept modernized by the best known
methods of inspection.

It will be evident that the term inspection was something more than a
name. All raw material of every description entering any factory for
the manufacture of aeronautical supplies subject to the Aeroplane
Inspection Department, is held until a release note is given by the
latter, the release note only being issued, in the case of sheet
metal, for instance, when a sample has been taken from every sixth
sheet and analysed with satisfactory results. In the case of steel
tubing, of which a great deal is used, every tenth tube is dealt with
likewise, the same minute method being impartially applied to all
material received.

As manufacture progresses with the material which has been passed,
the manufactured parts themselves are subject to a second inspection,
and are not allowed to be sent on to the assembling department
unless up to requirements. A common sight in such factories is the
supervisor’s metal cage, and it is on record that through one cage
passed no less than 150,000 metal parts in one week.

Lastly comes inspection of final assembly; this formerly applied
to every machine, but rigging and adjusting before leaving the
factory was ultimately reduced to every sixth, results being
found acceptable. Here the same rigid method was carried out,
and examination release sheets were filled in. If results were
satisfactory, these were signed by the Aeroplane Inspection
Department, and a copy passed on to the Aircraft Equipment Branch
of the R.F.C., the latter refusing each and all deliveries not thus
vouched for. So satisfactorily had the system worked out, that at
the request of the brigade the Aeroplane Inspection Department
installed their representatives to pass upon the work of the Engine
and Aeroplane Repair Parks of the brigade.

[Illustration: “A PANCAKE.”

WHAT A MACHINE DID TO A DERRICK--PILOT UNHURT.

COLLISION.]

[Illustration: 92ND SQUADRON, CAMP BORDEN--OFFICERS AND MECHANICS.]

[Illustration: FORMATION. GLIDING HOME.

MACHINE SEEN THROUGH A VERTICAL “BANK.”]

[Illustration: AEROPLANE REPAIR--CAMP MOHAWK.]

In British Columbia, the A.I.D. gave valuable services by the passing
of all aeroplane lumber purchased by the Imperial Ministry of
Munitions for aeroplane purposes, and from this source was drawn raw
material required by Canadian factories. The quantities handled were
very large, as much as four and a half million feet being inspected
in the course of a month. Other services were the supervision of the
manufacture of the many engines purchased by the brigade from the
Curtiss Aeroplane and Engine Company in the United States.

In order that there might be a thorough consensus upon all technical
questions, there was formed shortly after arrival of the R.A.F. an
Aircraft Advisory Board. This consisted of representatives from
the factory, from the R.A.F. and from the A.I.D., and dealt with
the question of any changes required or contemplated in machines.
It is hardly necessary to add that no alterations were actually
made without conference between the Board and the A.I.D. The chief
inspector states that always and under all circumstances the greatest
possible harmony has existed between his organization and that of the
R.A.F.




THE INSTRUCTOR.


Flying instructors are, for the most part, too good to be sent
overseas. This is a bald and possibly astonishing statement. The rest
are usually those who, being incapacitated at the front from further
active duty, spend the rest of their service imparting valuable
knowledge to others. From which it may be seen that the appointment
is highly honourable as well as arduous.

In the early days of the R.F.C., Canada, the job was not as exacting
as in the later months of the R.A.F., Canada. The instructor was
then a man who could fly. To-day he is still a man who can fly,
but has, to boot, a peculiar and well developed art of infusing
his own skill and courage into the pupil by following a certain
recognized procedure which has been demonstrated to be the last
word in training. There is nothing in this derogatory to the early
instructors. Their work was admirable. In a sense they took even
greater risks, owing to the slight preliminary training then afforded
to pupils before going up. But the instructor of to-day is one who
himself has been instructed not only in the mechanics and dynamics of
flight, but also in that inductive process by which he acquires the
complete confidence of his pupil. It will be understood therefore,
that on the introduction of the more modern system of training, to
which reference is made on page 211, it was necessary to re-examine
all instructors and make sure that their abilities equalled the new
requirements. In addition it was constantly necessary to be sure that
instructors were not growing stale in their work.

[Illustration: 85TH SQUADRON--CAMP MOHAWK.]

[Illustration: ON THE WESTERN FRONT.]

While there is undoubted fascination in flying, the sensation begins
to pall after hundreds of hours in the air in a slow machine which
circles somewhat monotonously over areas of which every detail has
long since been memorized. The Canadian JN4 is considered reliable,
with vagaries too slight to demand much attention, and a most
excellent machine for instructional purposes. It is not as inherently
stable as some others, but instruction on a stable machine would not
have been as desirable as on one which required constant if simple
control, and effected its higher manoeuvres by acquired momentum and
not by engine power.

In Canadian flying therefore, per se, there is nothing particularly
attractive for the instructor. The most unstable element is provided
by the cadet, and it has been remarked that at the outset “he has
many opportunities for error and usually discovers them all.”
To anyone who has observed a machine reeling unsteadily around
an aerodrome under the guidance of a fledgling pilot, while his
instructor sits impassively in the seat of danger, it will be
apparent that the latter has attained an abnormal degree of pluck and
composure. It is a point of honour with him not to assume control
until it is obviously imperative, and even then there is danger lest
the pupil, in an excess of fear, cling desperately to the stick and
bring about disaster.

With the instructor must be placed the second in command of
squadrons. To this officer falls the responsibility of conducting
the “pool,” through which all pupils pass before being posted out.
Here take place those final tests which determine the cadet’s
proficiency. Failing in any one, the pupil is returned for further
tuition. To this officer, therefore, the squadron commander looks for
the ultimate approval of the work of every cadet, as well for the
satisfactory condition of instructors and aerodrome discipline.

There are compensations, however, if no guarantee of personal
security. To the instructor, for instance, there is always interest
in the never-ending tide of cadets, their personalities, their
characteristics as developed in the air and their progress. A
cadet’s first solo flight brings, if successful, a peculiar pride to
the man who taught him to fly, but if not successful a self-searching
to determine what link in the armour of tuition has been weak--for
the instructor is held responsible for the crash.

The wing examining officer was called into existence by the
introduction of the Gosport system, which in itself has been
developed and modified to suit Canadian conditions. The first
result of this introduction was that it became necessary to comb
out instructors, some of whom had been too long on the job and were
“stale,” others too old, others too young to be entirely steady, and
others who, though excellent pilots, could not adopt the principles
and psychology evolved. Still others needed instruction themselves.
To this end the School of Special Flying was established at Armour
Heights under a brilliant pilot. A steady supply of well-trained men
was assured by the operations of this unit.

Early in the year 1918, the instructors at every wing were put under
the wing examining officer, whose duty it was to weed out those who
got stale, to test the abilities of all new instructors from time to
time, and form his own opinion of their instructional capacity. In
addition, it was the obligation of this officer, to investigate the
log book of every machine which crashed, and demand an explanation of
any apparent discrepancies, and also to keep knowledge of all crashes
so as to determine whether any one instructor was responsible for an
unreasonable number. In the case of the latter being evident, it was
palpable that the instructor was either stale or too young for his
work, and he was forthwith sent overseas, where usually under the new
and much-longed-for stimulant he did admirably.

[Illustration: OFF TO WORK--CAMP BORDEN.]

[Illustration: “STUNTING” AT ARMOUR HEIGHTS.]

A mind of peculiar judgment is required to find its chief
satisfaction in the achievements of others. This is demanded of all
instructors. Deprived of the tremendous incentive of contact with
the enemy, isolated, as it were, in a daily repetition of duties
that afford little variety, constantly speeding off others to that
thrilling destination where they fain would be--others who owe to
them their fitness to go--such is the every-day grind.

And yet how tremendously it has all counted! A large part of the
work of the brigade was in preparing cadets to a point at which they
were deemed worthy of flying instruction. Toward that honourable
object was directed a vast amount of effort. Decorations were often
subsequently won by pupils whose instructors plugged doggedly along
the same old road. There was no publicity, and only junior--very
junior rank. Here, therefore, is given earnestly and officially, the
grateful thanks of the General Officer Commanding to those men who
by their unfailing readiness and pluck have had so splendid a part
in turning out the pilots the brigade has been privileged to send
overseas.




THE MEDICAL SERVICE.


The R.A.F., Canada, is indebted to many Canadian authorities and
organizations for assistance rendered, but to none is the debt
greater than to the Canadian Army Medical Corps for supplying the
personnel from which the medical service of the Royal Air Force has
from time to time been built up. The request was made in January by
the Imperial Government that the Canadian Militia Department should
supply this service. Prompt action was taken, and from a small
beginning there has been formed a complete corps of medical officers,
medical orderlies and nurses, skilled not only in everyday practice
but also in the special work called for at flying camps.

The original intention was to supply only a small camp hospital,
with one medical officer and the necessary orderlies at the various
aerodromes, but it was soon determined that the work of the Medical
Corps covered a much wider range than was anticipated. Almost the
first need was that of skilled orderlies who were specially trained
in first aid. Owing to calls from overseas, the available number
of men was very small, and it was found imperative that the senior
medical officer of the R.A.F. provide the necessary training.
Coincident with this came a further need of isolation hospitals,
which, although the general health of the brigade was maintained at
an unusually high standard, were found to be essential in order that
the work of training might not suffer in the least degree.

[Illustration: MEDICAL OFFICER AND STAFF, DESERONTO.]

[Illustration: HOSPITAL--CAMP BORDEN.

“HUNGRY LIZZIE.”]

The responsibilities undertaken by the medical department were made
the more onerous, not only because an extremely low percentage of
class “A” men were enlisted--and these only owing to their possession
of invaluable technical ability, but also because the community at
large suffered from severe civilian epidemics of scarlet fever and
influenza. Surgical work, with dental surgery--which latter covered
many major operations owing to crashes resulting in broken jaws and
teeth--comprised a considerable part of the duties performed.

A modern operating room was completely furnished at each aerodrome,
together with X-ray equipment at the “out-stations.” In the autumn of
1917, the medical orderlies were further aided by the introduction
of nursing sisters. For these also we are indebted to the Canadian
Army Medical Corps, and without question their work has been of the
highest possible advantage. Thus, by degrees, the medical staff of
the Royal Air Force increased its personnel, the burden of its duties
and the value of its services.

Ambulance equipment was of prime importance. A Packard machine,
provided with a special type of shock absorbers and every possible
requisite, not only for first aid but also for fire extinguishing,
was stationed at each field, and remained on constant and watchful
duty from the time the first aeroplane took the air till the skies
were empty for the night. So close was the lookout, that “first
aid” was often tearing full-powered to the rescue before the crash
completed its descent. The ground traversed being often rough and
devoid of roads, it was imperative that the ambulances be perfectly
cushioned, lest the condition of “shock” as frequently found in
“crash” be aggravated by the journey home. It is hardly conceivable
that there could have been found vehicles better designed for the
purpose than those selected, and unquestionably lives were saved
in consequence of their use. Chemical extinguishers and asbestos
blankets, the latter introduced for protection of the pilot in case
the crash was in flames, were also carried as part of the equipment.

For winter purposes at outlying stations, the aerial ambulances shown
herewith were evolved. With a wide radius, landings could have been
made in any suitable, snow-covered place, however inaccessible by
motor transport. They were never to be used by the R.A.F., Canada.

In this connection it is interesting to note the degree to which
the duties of the medical officers in flying camps varied from the
more or less regulated routine met with in other services. The
senior medical officer has, from time to time, instilled into his
staff certain axioms for their constant guidance. It has been, for
instance, necessary that the medical officer in flying camps become,
as far as possible, the confidant and adviser of all ranks. It is
advisable that he himself get into the air as soon as feasible, and
that the machine which carries him be put through all evolutions,
in order to acquaint him with the physical phenomena of flying. No
machine must leave the ground unless the medical officer on duty is
within reach, nor must the latter leave the aerodrome while there
is a machine in the air. A further responsibility is that he must
pronounce upon the fitness of all cadets and flying officers to take
the air, and, further, without hesitation, prevent any man from
going up who is, in his opinion, unfit. As routine work he must also
conduct a monthly physical inspection of all cadets, and be present
at all “test flights.”

The psychological side of medical service takes on new proportions
in a flying camp. The personality and characteristics of the patient
in question must be always kept in mind so that when investigating
air sickness the medical officer may determine whether it is real or
assumed. The question of fear, i.e., “aerophobia,” in its actuality,
and any loss of nervous control, must be established if existing--and
obversely. Any excitement or tension must be carefully distinguished
from natural recklessness or other characteristics of what is termed
a “thrusting disposition.”

An exhaustive study of the ideal pilot established the fact that he
should have an acute and correct sense of equilibrium. This does not
appear so essential for an observer, who if he is fairly safe in the
air and does not become giddy in stunting, may prove acceptable.

The “rotation tests,” described in detail below, have proved that as
regards a great number of successful pilots--referring to those who
have flown 100 hours and more,--in no case has a man been discovered
who has not conformed to the above standards laid down for admission
to the brigade. Above all there is demanded a sound physical
condition, by which alone all bodily functions will respond normally.

The following data are taken verbatim from memoranda issued by
the senior medical officer and authorized by the G.O.C. for the
information of medical and flying officers:--

“For the information of the flying officer, a short explanation of
the phenomena of equilibrium may not be out of place. Deep in the
bones of the skull, in close connection with the hearing apparatus,
lie, one set on each side, a series of three minute canals, filled
with a clear fluid and lined with a membrane intimately connected by
delicate nervous elements with the brain.

“These canals, each corresponding to half of the arc of a circle, are
about half an inch in length, have a diameter of about one-twentieth
of an inch and inter-communicate. They lie in the three dimensions
or planes of space, and it is primarily due to movements in the
contained fluid acting on the delicate nerve terminals, which are
directly connected with the brain through fibres of the Vill nerve,
that man is enabled to maintain the equilibrium of the body. It may
be of interest to note at this point that the corresponding system
in birds shows the extremely high degree of development one would
expect. Knowing that to be a successful pilot a man must have an
accurate and delicate perception of his position in relation to
the earth, it is readily seen how intimately the internal ear, its
adjuncts, and the problems involved in aeronautics are related. It
should be understood that the canals mentioned above have nothing to
do with the sense of hearing.

“Close to these, and in the same portion of the bone, lie two others
closely resembling the spiral canals found in conch shells, and it
is on these canals, also filled with fluid and lined with cells
connected to the brain by fine nervous filaments, that we rely for
our auditory impressions. It has been proved that not only dizziness,
but also nausea and vomiting, all untoward symptoms frequently
encountered in airmen, are closely connected with lesions or
functional disturbances of the labyrinth of the auditory apparatus.

“In order to test the action of these canals, the contained fluid
may be set in motion by rotating the body. This is most readily done
by seating the patient in a revolving chair, and so, with the head
in different planes, testing the different canals in turn. It has
been found that pilots experiencing difficulty in flying, especially
in maintaining equilibrium, and those who are troubled with vertigo
or nausea, often show abnormal reactions, and it is for this reason
that these tests are employed. These ‘rotation’ or ‘turning tests’
have been used for a considerable time in connection with diseases of
the internal ear and in the diagnosis of lesions of the brain, but
it is only recently, as a result of experimental work, that their
application to aeronautics has been demonstrated and proved to be of
practical value.

[Illustration: OPERATING ROOM. CAMP BORDEN HOSPITAL.]

[Illustration: WINTER CRASHES.]

“In the ‘nystagmus test’ the applicant is first spun in the chair
exactly ten times in twenty seconds, accurately checked with a stop
watch. The examiner now carefully observes certain lateral, jerking
movements of the eyes which normally appear, but should cease on an
average in twenty-six seconds. A certain variation is allowed from
the normal time, and cadets for pilots not conforming to this test
should not be allowed to fly. In it the head is tilted forward to an
angle of thirty degrees in order to stimulate only those canals which
lie in the horizontal plane.

“In order to stimulate those canals lying in the vertical plane,
‘falling tests’ are employed. The subject is instructed to lean
forward, resting his forehead on his hands which are placed on his
knees, and is then turned alternately to right and left five times in
ten seconds.

“Should he be rotated to the right and be ordered to sit up, he
should immediately fall to the right, which is the normal reaction,
but should he sit directly upright or fall to the opposite direction,
a faulty functioning of these canals or of the pathways in the brain
is thus demonstrated.

“‘Pointing tests’ are applied somewhat similarly. The candidate is
turned ten times in ten seconds alternately to right and left, with
eyes closed. He is then instructed to raise his arm and point to
a fixed object, usually the examiner’s finger, of the position of
which he is already aware. As a result of the dizziness produced,
if he has been turned to the right, he should point to the right
of the object. This ‘past-pointing’ is a normal reaction, and any
considerable deviation will immediately reject the applicant. Even
after the chair has stopped, the man still feels that he is turning
and is endeavouring to locate the fixed point. The ‘past-pointing’
shows that he is attempting to allow or the rotary motion which he is
still experiencing, though actually the chair is stationary.

“Since the more sensitive, theoretically, a man is, as shown by
‘turning tests,’ the more likely he is to be a good pilot, as he
should be able to detect more accurately and early the movements of
his plane without the use of his eyes. This is, however, true only
to a limited degree, for we have found that as a rule the higher the
nystagmus time, the more likely is the man to suffer from vertigo,
nausea or vomiting in the air. On the other hand, theoretically, a
man with a short period of nystagmus should be less sensitive to
unpleasant, subjective sensations, and those with ‘dead labyrinths’
ought to be immune.

“The practical deduction is that in good pilots the ocular
oscillations must not vary to any considerable extent, say not more
than ten to twelve seconds; on the other hand the lower or shorter
the time the better a man should be able to stand the violent swaying
of a captive balloon, since it is this motion above all others that
produces the most intense nausea and emesis. Following the above to
its logical conclusion, we in practice reject men who show too high
a nystagmus time, and recommend for observers, and especially for
balloonists, those showing sluggish reactions.”

Failure to conform to either the pointing or falling reactions
required are good and sufficient reasons to reject applicants for
cadet pilots.

It is probable that to the layman much of the foregoing will be found
technical and scientific, but to the investigator into the physical
and psychical phenomena induced by flying, it should be of direct
interest. In the medical service of the R.A.F., Canada, the value
of these tests in their standardized form was first proved by their
application to men who were actually unfit to fly, and the case
sheets of many such are on file in that department.

Their adoption only followed after the analysis and continual
checking of results obtained by tests not only upon those who desired
to take to the air, but also those who, having flown, were reported
by their instructors to be unfit to continue, and which showed that
they were demonstrably correct, and not merely deduced from _a
priori_ assumption.

[Illustration: REACTION AFTER TURNING TO THE LEFT.

REVOLVING CHAIR TESTS.]

[Illustration: REACTION AFTER TURNING.

REVOLVING CHAIR TESTS.]

Investigations into “oxygen want,” as evidenced by drowsiness,
shortness of breath, fainting, etc., at considerable altitudes,
have led the authorities to supply pilots with oxygen tanks for
use in high altitudes, since it is not the density of atmosphere
but the dearth of oxygen which causes these distressing symptoms.
An apparatus has recently been perfected by means of which, by
diluting the respired air with nitrogen, it is now possible to
determine accurately the altitude beyond which a pilot may fly in
safety, and so it is hoped to prevent many casualties, and assist
in the “classification” of airmen with reference to their flying
capabilities.

Vision, which when abnormal causes headaches, dizziness, etc., should
be normally stereoscopic, and the accommodation perfect in at least
one eye; but while accurate color vision is considered desirable,
it is not essential providing the primary colors are correctly
recognized.

Amongst other tests adopted by the brigade are those giving the
vital lung capacity, the expiratory force, also complemental and
supplemental air, the former being the measurement of the excess
capacity of the lungs over a normal intake of air, the latter that
quantity of air remaining in the lungs after a normal expiration.

Excess of any nature is frowned on. Excessive tea or coffee drinking,
or any semblance of nicotine poisoning at once asserts itself. The
strain of instruction also produces definite phenomena, and pilots
retained for this duty are limited to three and a half hours’ flying
daily. These phenomena are watched for, and treated sanely and
sympathetically, till the individual with all his personal variations
becomes as it were a human barometer, which infallibly records the
actions and reactions of the flying man’s life.

Owing to the fact that the pioneer attempt at systematic winter
training, without regard to temperature, was undertaken during
1917-18 in Canada and successfully concluded during the severest
weather of many years, certain new problems required solution. When
it is realized that machines flew at ground temperatures as low as
-35 degrees Fah., the occurrence of frostbite and any effect of the
intense cold on the mental faculties, to the extent of producing
drowsiness and even stupor, was extremely infrequent. The flying
clothing provided, the Hawker boots, the gauntlets and chamois face
masks, which were adopted after all ointments, oils, etc., generally
in use in altitude flying, froze _in situ_, most effectually
prevented the expected difficulties, so completely indeed that during
the whole winter season no serious casualties could be traced to the
effect of the low temperatures encountered.

Such in brief outline are some of the major investigations peculiar
to the duties of the medical staff of the brigade. To these are of
course added others better known, such as blood pressure, etc. Couple
them with psycho-mental problems, and they give some suggestion
of the history compiled for every would-be pilot and observer, an
intimate history unapproached in detail and interest by any other
tabulation of personal phenomena.

In conclusion, it is desired that special acknowledgment be made
of the exceptional service rendered by medical officers on the
aerodromes, and by the staff of medical orderlies distributed through
the brigade.

The hours of the former were long and arduous, the duties of the
latter, for which they were trained by the senior medical officer
and his staff, were manifold and pressing. That they were admirably
performed is of common knowledge, but that their swiftness in succour
and skill in first aid saved many a life, is known only to those who
have been privileged to see them at work.

[Illustration: AERIAL AMBULANCE.]

[Illustration: R.A.F. CAN.--MONTHLY STRENGTH IN CANADA AND PERCENTAGE
INCAPACITATED BY ILLNESS]




WINTER FLYING.


Prior to the operations of the Corps, it was generally assumed that
the obstacles to intensive training in a snow-covered country were
almost insuperable, but in the light of last winter’s experience
it is difficult to imagine the limit to which the aeroplane may
not safely be used in the latitudes of the far north. Its apparent
fragility, the exposure of the pilot, the fact that a large
percentage of accidents occurred in making landings, and the mental
picture of a machine floundering through snowdrifts in an attempt to
rise, all seemed to reduce the matter to an impossibility. To-day
it has been demonstrated by the work of the 44th Wing of this unit
that, with such provision as has already been proved suitable, the
aeroplane will rise from a snow surface more easily than from bare
ground at temperatures far below zero, land in spots inaccessible in
summer time, and that the pilot may be maintained in physical comfort
and security and practically immune to the weather.

The process was one of return to aboriginal principles, in that
there was adopted a method used by the North American Indian, since
first he traversed the frozen waste. Experiments soon evidenced that
undercarriage wheels were out of the question in snow more than
six inches deep, and by the elimination of things that rotated and
the adoption of things that slid, the aeroplane fell, so to speak,
into line with the winter customs of the country. The progressive
experiments out of which were evolved the skids finally adopted,
called for the united suggestions of the unit, the Repair Park and
the Canadian Aeroplanes Limited, but passing over the investigations
into proper length, width, anchorage, bow curve, and kindred points,
the result was an effective and curiously attractive combination of
ancient and modern. As seen in the illustration on page 130, this
gives the machine a semi-naval appearance--prophetic perhaps of the
early union between the air forces of land and sea in the R.A.F.

Once in regular use, the efficiency of these shoes became very
noticeable. The slight bump observable in the best of landings
smoothed itself out into a gently cushioned settling in which the
actual first contact with the snow was imperceptible. Similarly,
in taking off, the sensation was as in a toboggan darting
without friction down a steep slope. Breakage in propellers and
undercarriages became reduced to a minimum, and frequent landings
soon ironed out the white expanse of the aerodrome to an unusually
good surface.

The protection of the pilot was of prime importance to continuous
training, and since flying was carried on at temperatures much below
zero, particular attention was given to guarding against frostbite.
Whale oil, vaseline, etc., smeared on the skin gave only partial
results, and it was not till long flying boots coming to the thigh
were provided, and chamois masks covering the face, with holes for
eyes and mouth were also issued, that comfort was finally attained.
Thus the pilot could remain in the air for a much longer period,
and perform instructional work with ease. The unit lacked the
electrically-heated clothing issued on the Western Front, but it did
not suffer in consequence. There were variations, of course, in the
powers of resistance to cold, it being found that some pilots could
endure low temperatures much better than others--and this called for
the particular attention of the medical officer on the aerodrome.

[Illustration: LEASIDE IN WINTER.]

[Illustration: AERODROME, CAMP MOHAWK.]

[Illustration: A WINTER CRASH.]

[Illustration: FIG. 1 FIG. 2

EXPERIMENTAL ADOPTED

R.A.F. CAN.--WINTER FLYING SKIDS]

As to the engines themselves, but little trouble was experienced.
What did materialize was met by precautions somewhat similar to those
taken in motor car work under parallel conditions. All petrol, oil
and water were carefully drawn off every evening, the two latter
being heated when replaced. Radiators were three-quarter covered by
beaver board lined with felt, this plan working quite satisfactorily.
Inspection of rigging was particularly close, lest the extreme cold
should have set up undue stress in tension members, but the JN4
seemed born for the duty, and so far as records go, no accident took
place which is in any way attributable to mechanical failure brought
about by low temperature.

It was decided also to make certain slight changes in tail
construction should flying be carried on for another winter. This
consisted only of enclosing the tail skid in a flexible cover at the
point where it left the fuselage--to prevent snow from accumulating
inside the latter.

Further protective measures were very simple, such as wrapping water
connections with felt and fabric, and removing the oil gauge from
rear to front seat to shorten the piping, and leading it between the
cylinders to secure maximum warmth. For the rest, the hangars were
banked with earth some two feet high, and maintained at a temperature
not below fifteen degrees of frost.

That the programme was successful may be seen from the fact that
though the winter was of unusual severity, both as to cold and
snowfall, flying was carried out for twenty-six days in January,
twenty-one in February, and twenty-five in March. For these months,
the records give an average day temperature of twenty-six degrees,
twenty-two degrees, and seventeen degrees above zero, respectively,
with a minimum of thirty-five degrees below. During this period, some
instructors kept up an average flying time per day of two hours and
twenty-five minutes for the whole three months.

On this record it was decided that the training of all squadrons
should be carried out in Canada for the following winter. This has
proved unnecessary. The campaign is over. But who will now scout the
prediction that the far North has no barriers which the explorer may
not surmount with ease and swiftness, and no secrets which shall not
soon be revealed to his enfranchized gaze.

[Illustration: RECORDS AND RECRUITING OFFICERS AND STAFF.]

[Illustration: RECRUITS’ DEPOT--JESSE KETCHUM BARRACKS, TORONTO.]




RECRUITS’ DEPOT.


This unit, formed on February 5th, 1917, was first stationed in
the Givens Street School, Toronto, which building was also partly
occupied by the 228th Canadian Regiment. Recruiting, however, was
active, and the R.F.C. began to show such strong signs of the marked
popularity it was to attain later, that extra accommodation was soon
required, and Crawford Street School taken over.

During the summer, it was seen that even this accommodation was
insufficient. The Depot, therefore, moved out to Leaside, and under
canvas.

The strength, at this time about 400, was largely increased by the
arrival of four American squadrons to be trained by the R.F.C. These
were attached to Recruits’ Depot for rations and accommodation. It
is satisfactory to remember that this first contact between the two
corps was productive of an admirable comradeship which has existed
ever since. It is noted also that canteen profits greatly increased,
and a large percentage of these was handed to each American squadron
on its departure.

The quartermaster’s branch of the Recruits’ Depot being still at
Givens Street, it was realized that much extra clerical and other
work would be saved could the whole depot be centralized. Steps were
therefore taken by headquarters to acquire convenient barracks in
town.

Early in September, the Recruits’ Depot band was formed--largely
helped by surplus canteen funds. It has been a source of much pride
and also of a certain amount of amusement to the men of the depot.
All parties for Texas or the United States were “played” down to the
railway station, and the band and “Bruno” (the camp dog--a handsome
St. Bernard) invariably accompanied the bi-weekly route marches.

In October the need of permanent accommodation in town became urgent.
It was eventually found (owing to the great generosity of the Board
of Education, Toronto), at the Jesse Ketchum School--a large and
commodious building, which was completed as fast as possible, and
loaned absolutely free of cost, including the larger part of the park
attached to the building, which it was permitted to use as a parade
and sports’ ground. This consideration was only typical of the way in
which Toronto public authorities have invariably dealt with the Royal
Flying Corps.

The Depot moved into town on the 17th November, 1917, and was in good
workable shape by the middle of December.

To these barracks, cadets, for the first time, were sent for
preliminary training, and three or four hundred were thus added to
normal strength, which stood at about 700. The ordinary accommodation
proving insufficient for this number, double bunks were placed in all
the sleeping rooms, where high ceilings and good lighting made the
provision entirely feasible.

The band at this time was a first class organization, and in great
demand for dances and hockey matches--half the profits made being
allotted to the Longwood Convalescent Home. Concerts were held in the
canteen three times a week. As to exercise, an ice hockey rink was
made, a football ground rolled out, and three billiard tables put in
the canteen, the electric lighting of the rink being given free of
cost by the City Parks Commissioner. There was, therefore, no lack of
amusement or exercise throughout an unusually severe winter.

The routine of procedure has been briefly as follows: Upon arrival
at the Depot, all recruits reported to the non-commissioned officer
in charge of the receiving room, and were allotted sleeping
accommodation. Medical parade for final approval was held each
morning at nine o’clock, and an hour later recruits received
their regimental numbers as “finally approved.” Came a parade at
quartermaster stores for issue of kit. Transfer clothing statements
and clothing ledger being signed, all reported back immediately to
the receiving room for the numbering of all articles of kit now
in their possession. Civilian clothes were packed and sent to any
address the owner might wish, and recruits were turned over to the
barrack orderly sergeant who “carried on.”

On discharge, the procedure is practically reversed, and all men
report to the postings department, for the checking of documents.
These being correct, sleeping quarters are allotted in space
set aside for this purpose. The same day, kits are laid out for
inspection, and inventories taken under the supervision of an
officer. These, being signed also by each man concerned, are sent
to the Quartermaster’s office, and checked against the original
clothing statements. Deficiency slips--should such result--(showing
articles deficient, if any, and their value) go then to the postings
department, to be checked against pay and mess book. This information
is sent to the officer in charge Records, on receipt of whose signal
that discharge may be proceeded with, an order is issued to the
contractor for civilian clothing to provide authorized civilian
outfit. The man’s kit is turned into the Quartermaster’s store No.
4, where another inventory of articles is made and forwarded to the
Quartermaster’s office, to be again checked against the original
clothing statement. Forms showing actual shortages of kit are
submitted to the Paymaster and a copy of Can. 638 (Particulars on
Discharge) to the Pay Department.

Since the inception of the brigade approximately 16,000 men have
passed through this unit. The process of demobilization will require
the above procedure of discharge to be applied to a strength of not
less than 12,000.

[Illustration: R.A.F. CAN.--PAY ALLOWANCE AND CADET SUSTENANCE

TOTAL FEB. 1917 TO OCT. 1918--$10,666,196.00]




RECORDS AND RECRUITING.

MECHANICS


The first duty of the R.F.C. comprised the securing of a continuous
inflow of recruits, both mechanics and cadets, and while it was
anticipated that difficulties would be encountered, local conditions
as set forth below were such as to make the task unexpectedly
arduous. The state of affairs in Canada, so far as concerns
mechanics, was briefly as follows:--

  (1) Recruiting for the C.E.F. was practically at a standstill.
  The country had been “worked out.”

  (2) The R.F.C. was practically unknown in Canada.

  (3) High wages were being paid to skilled workers.

  (4) There was no organized recruiting system in use, each
  Canadian unit doing its own.

  (5) A very large percentage of skilled mechanics were essential
  for the maintenance of aeroplanes and engines, and these were in
  great demand at very high wages on munitions.

  (6) The fact that, in a large number of cases, men had to be
  transported for over 1,000 miles in order to be even interviewed,
  or medically examined, made recruiting both expensive and
  difficult.

The brightest point was the lively interest and very hearty
coöperation of every officer of the Department of Militia and
Defence, and of every officer of the Canadian Forces throughout
the Dominion. This coöperation has been maintained throughout our
work. Without it no success could have been attained. The spirit of
good fellowship and help has been of inestimable value to all our
recruiting officers, and later the same spirit, was encountered among
the officials administering the Military Service Act, to whose work
the operations of another force--engaged in recruiting men otherwise
than through the Military Service Act organization, must have been
a considerable trial. Instead of objections, the Corps encountered
nothing but assistance.

[Illustration: R.A.F. CAN.--ESTIMATED VALUE OF RATIONS DRAWN FROM
C.A.S.C.

GRAND TOTAL $1,406,809.00]

At the end of January, 1917, recruiting offices were opened in
Toronto and Hamilton, with a trade test party in each place. The
latter was shortly withdrawn as being unproductive, and merged into
a central test station at Toronto. Simultaneously, and owing to
great distances to be travelled and to difficulties encountered in
obtaining suitable accommodation and facilities for trade testing at
other centres, it was decided to establish merely recruiting offices
at outside stations; and offices were opened at Montreal, Winnipeg
and Vancouver, each in charge of an experienced officer trained by
ourselves, assisted by a staff of non-commissioned officers and
men from England. Oral tests were conducted here, the practical
examination being given after arrival in Toronto.

The question of publicity presented a problem, to solve which the
following methods were employed:

  (1) Display advertisements in newspapers (large dailies).

  (2) Written items of news and interesting articles.

  (3) Classified advertisements for trades in the various want
  advertising columns.

  (4) Large posters of striking design used on bill-boards. These
  posters were designed by an advertising company.

This work was supplemented by addresses and recruiting meetings.

The cost of (4) was too high to be maintained, and the results of (1)
and (2) were so discouraging in the first month that another scheme
was evolved. As a result of a conference with the National Board,
some 10,000 skilled workers who had volunteered for national service
were circularized with attractive literature. From this form of
publicity only 860 enlistments were obtained, extending over a period
of nearly six months.

On investigation, it was found that the first method of publicity
had been so long used by local Canadian Forces that the effect
lacked novelty, whereas information conveyed in articles dealing
with aviation always brought results. Since display advertisements,
however, were a sure means of reaching the public, they were
continued, inasmuch as they served to stimulate the interest of the
newspaper, and thereby helped in the placing of news items.

The entry of the United States into the war made it possible to
endeavour to recruit British subjects across the line. Quarters were
secured in New York, and officers visited many of the larger towns,
such as Chicago, Boston, Kansas City, St. Louis, Minneapolis, etc.,
where the British Recruiting Mission had offices, and gave every
possible assistance. Occasional visits were paid to these points,
except in the case of New York, where an officer was permanently
stationed, and from New York came the bulk of the men enlisted in
the United States. Altogether about 627 British subjects were thus
enrolled.

Owing to the distances between centres and the scattered population,
practically all applications for enlistment were dealt with
by correspondence, whether from headquarters or out-stations.
Transportation had then to be given to bring the applicant probably
at least 300 miles for a Medical Board, after which, if successful
in passing the oral tests, etc., he was transported to Toronto. This
journey, in the case of a man enlisting in Vancouver, occupied four
days and covered 2,500 miles. Sleeping accommodation was provided,
also meals en route. None of these difficulties were encountered in
England.

The Medical Boards placed at our disposal by the Department of
Militia and Defence were accustomed to pass for military service,
that is category “A.” For the purposes of the R.F.C., as it then was,
men of lower category than “A” were quite suitable, as no pack had to
be carried and there was little or no route marching. The composition
of the brigade is, therefore, very largely of men not fit for active
service, and who have been rejected time and time again by the C.E.F.
At the outset, Boards absolutely refused to pass for us applicants
of a lower medical category than “A,” this because the Board was
held responsible for any man returned as unfit on arrival in England
and _charged_ with the cost of his transportation, etc. Further, the
British practice of classifying men into “A,” “B,” “C,” “D,” and “E”
categories was not known. Each assistant director of medical service
required to be acquainted with our methods and standards, causing, in
consequence, considerable delay.

A further problem was that of pay. Whilst the Corps rate was 15c.
higher for skilled labour than the Canadian forces for unskilled,
a very high standard could not be set for trade test. The first
question of each recruit was: “What is the pay?” “How much will my
wife get?” and such answers as the recruiting officer could give were
not very reassuring. In contrast with the Canadian overseas man, the
prospect was, in truth, hardly attractive. The wife of the latter,
owing to the benefactions of the Canadian Patriotic Fund (subscribed
unofficially by Canadians) received $20.00 per month and $5.00 for
each child, in addition to a percentage of her husband’s pay. As
against this the brigade allowance looked meagre. The relief can be
realized, therefore, when, a little later, the authorities of the
Patriotic Fund, cognizant of the importance of R.F.C. work, and
that R.F.C. recruits were principally married men, extended their
generosity to the brigade as regarding men of category “A,” who were
eligible for overseas service. Here, too, a tribute must be paid to
R.F.C. men outside this category and unable to enjoy this special
benefit. It speaks highly for the patriotism of Canadians that these
mechanics carried cheerfully on, though under great personal and
financial disadvantages.

In the early part of 1918, a number of category “A” men were
liberated for the purpose of joining the C.E.F. and proceeded
overseas, thus causing considerable shortage of labour in the Corps.
Further recruiting appearing impossible, female labour was employed
in the capacity of civilian subordinates. It was at first thought
that these subordinates would be used only in unskilled trades and
office routine, but it was soon evident that they could be trained
for simpler and lighter mechanical work. A separate section being
formed to handle recruiting and administration, a large number of
patriotic women volunteered for duty with the Air Force, of whom
1,200 were selected. Through their work the brigade was tided over
a serious shortage of labour. Unaccustomed to aeroplane work, and
unacquainted with military routine, they have universally performed
sterling service.

From the very first, civilian female subordinates were employed at
headquarters and other units in a clerical capacity. In the autumn of
1918 they might have been seen in any of the shops or camps, dressed
in dusters, caps and overalls, taking down engines, grinding valves,
stripping aeroplanes and doing all forms of manual labour heretofore
always performed by men. At the Repair Parks alone, 135 women were
employed at technical trades, while at the various camps nearly 600
were carrying on as mechanics. In the capacity of motor drivers they
rendered excellent service. A large proportion of the cars throughout
the brigade at the present time are driven by them.

Too much praise cannot be given to the women who have been employed
in many varying capacities by the R.A.F. throughout Canada. They
have given the greatest satisfaction, and done their work in the
most conscientious manner possible. Furthermore, in spite of many
predictions, they have caused no trouble whatsoever, and submitted
themselves apparently without effort to the necessary discipline of
the Force.

The following notes, re female subordinates, may be of interest,
showing their distribution:--

  In Headquarters Offices and in various cities    115
  Paymaster Department, Victoria St., Toronto       36
  Recruits Depot, Jesse Ketchum, Toronto            18
  No. 4 S. of A. University                         90
  Cadet Wing, Long Branch                            9
  Armament School, Hamilton                         14
  Aeroplane Repair Park, Toronto                   134
  Engine Repair Park, Toronto                       65
  Stores Depot, Toronto                            180
  Motor Transport Section, Toronto                  50
  Engineer Section, Toronto                          3
  School of Aerial Fighting, Beamsville             91
  Forty-second Wing, Deseronto                     230
  Forty-third Wing, Leaside                        161
                                                 -----
                                                 1,196

At the time of the signing of the armistice, over 7,000 men had been
recruited for the mechanical section of the Royal Air Force, Canada.
Nearly fifty per cent. of these were recruited by correspondence,
and as many as 15,000 applications were handled through recruiting
headquarters and the various out-stations.

[Illustration: R.A.F. CAN.--RECRUITING RECORD OF CADETS AND MECHANICS

GRAND TOTAL 16,663]


CADETS.

When on May 1st, 1917, the campaign was commenced, the assistance
of the Aero Club of Canada was enlisted, and this society used its
organization as a recruiting agency.

At the same time, endeavours were made to approach the students of
public schools and universities by extensive circularization. It was
estimated that about 600 cadet recruits could be handled for training
for the balance of 1917, and about 1,500 in 1918, but although
thirty-odd schools and colleges were thus approached, the scheme was
unproductive of results. It was decided, therefore, to try out more
thoroughly the idea of civilian recruiting committees, and bodies
composed of about three influential, public men were organized in the
following cities:--

  Toronto, Ontario.
  Montreal, Quebec.
  Charlottetown, P. E. I.
  Winnipeg, Manitoba.
  Regina, Saskatchewan.
  Calgary, Alberta.
  Vancouver, British Columbia.

These committees, being furnished with our medical standards, were
empowered to interview applicants, have them examined by the local
Medical Board and apply for transportation to Toronto for final
test and approval. It will be understood that the committees were
not active recruiting agents. They simply passed opinion on the
men sent to them by the wing, all applications being made through
headquarters. The Royal Flying Corps was by this time becoming known
and talked about throughout Canada. Publicity was better managed, and
there were received on an average twenty applications per day from
the whole of Canada. Uneasiness was felt about this time as to an
adequate supply of cadets being available. The demand was continually
increasing. Towards the summer of 1917 it reached 300 per month. A
little later in the fall it rose to 400 and 500 a month, requiring in
two months what in April, 1917, had been estimated as the need for
two-thirds of the whole year.

A new plan was therefore necessary. Statistical research indicated
that past efforts had not reached the public except in large centres.
It was, in consequence, determined to enlarge the civilian committee
plan, and establish committees in every town of 10,000 inhabitants
and over, throughout the whole of Canada. In places of less than
10,000, the assistance of at least one important man was sought
to accomplish this, and the Dominion was completely divided into
five recruiting districts with headquarters offices at Vancouver,
Winnipeg, Toronto, Montreal and Halifax. Each district was supplied
with an officer in charge, and a second officer, whose duty it was
to travel continually from place to place establishing committees
and advise and assist those committees already established. The
scheme proved very successful. About 350 civilian committees, with a
total of over 1,000 members, were established throughout Canada, and
the travelling officers, by the mere fact of their presence in the
different towns, stimulated interest, and through interviews with
local papers obtained publicity. Coincident with this, the matter of
publicity was tackled in a serious way by a campaign whereby it was
hoped to bring to the notice of every man in Canada the work being
done by, or at least the name of, the Royal Air Force.

About this time the Military Service Act commenced to operate and
there seemed a danger of all the available material being absorbed
into C.E.F. units. A reserve class “B” was therefore started, and the
surplus cadets were placed on this reserve.

From this time on, committees coöperating more fully, the number of
applicants steadily increased and there has been no difficulty since
then in supplying the demand for cadets.

The difficulties encountered in cadet recruiting were:--

  (1) The task of informing the public that cadets would be taken
  for training as pilots. Not only had the fact to be known that
  men were wanted, but it was also necessary to say exactly what a
  pilot had to do. There still seems to be an impression that it is
  very difficult to gain admittance as a pilot.

  (2) Before the Royal Flying Corps, Canada, was formed, pilots
  were trained at a civilian school. They paid about $400 for
  the course, and then had to take a chance of being accepted in
  England. The general public required to be acquainted with the
  fact that training was _free_ at an Army School.

  (3) It was absolutely impossible to interview all the applicants
  at headquarters or at brigade centres, or to deal with them by
  correspondence. The committees formed were, therefore, given this
  work, and as soon as they thoroughly realized the requirements,
  they rendered the very greatest service, and have been, as
  pointed out, the backbone of cadet recruiting.

  (4) The medical examination of cadets presented almost similar
  difficulties to that of mechanics. Brigade standards were
  entirely different from those usually adopted by the local
  boards. It was very difficult to secure an examination which was
  anything more than superficial.

  The Barany revolving chair is now employed, and in doubtful cases
  trial flights involving specified tests are given. In this way
  it has been possible to accept some borderline cases, where under
  the old system rejections would have been inevitable.

  (5) It should not be forgotten that in this, as well as in the
  campaign for recruits, the same staff was employed.

The brigade was handicapped from the commencement by the absolutely
inadequate staff provided. It has only been by most strenuous efforts
in training officers and men in the work that it was carried on at
all.

At the time of the signing of the armistice, 9,200 cadets had been
enlisted for service, while 35,000 applications had been handled by
headquarters and the various outstations.


RECORDS AND PERSONNEL SUPPLY

Unusually complete records of cadets and airmen enlisted were kept
from the very commencement of work in Canada. Where documents were
sent to officer in charge Records and the War Office, duplicates
were always kept. For this reason no change in organization or
administration was necessary when in September, 1917, the General
Officer Commanding was appointed officer in charge Records for Canada.

The continuous growth of the Air Force in Canada has meant a
corresponding growth in records. From time to time demands outgrew
systems, and it became necessary to remodel, so as to conform to
Imperial administration and yet dovetail with existing regulations
and conditions in Canada.

[Illustration: R.A.F. CAN.--MONTHLY STRENGTH OF OFFICERS, W.O.^{’S}
N.C.O.^{’S} & MEN, CADET PILOTS, CADET OBSERVERS]

All posting of mechanics and of cadets throughout their training
has been carried out by this unit. The records of the training of
mechanics, and their progressive history from station to station,
have been maintained by the individual card system. A complete
history of each cadet from the time he first made application until
the time he proceeded overseas, through every stage of training and
every movement, has been kept in minute detail.

New departments required organization to deal with pensions and
other subjects on which there was very little information available;
while the work of handling other sections, such as, discharges, was
continually on the increase.

In many cases the forms called for by K. R. were not available, new
forms being printed locally, also those used by the Medical Services,
which, although provided by the Canadian Militia, were often not
applicable to Imperial requirements.

It is found, however, on demobilization, that the records are in
excellent shape, and that the information at the disposal of this
office is complete.

Space does not permit of the printing of the hundreds of individual
names making up the personnel of those committees in various towns
to which the Corps is so greatly indebted, but to each and all, the
General Officer Commanding tenders in the name of the Royal Air
Force, his most sincere and hearty thanks for work, without which
such progress as may be credited to the brigade could not have been
achieved.

[Illustration: 89TH SQUADRON--CAMP MOHAWK.]

[Illustration: RIGHTING A MACHINE.]




THE CADET WING.


The Cadet Wing, like its younger and larger brother the School of
Aeronautics, found shelter at its birth in buildings most kindly
loaned by the University of Toronto. This was at the beginning of
March, 1917.

Prior to this, all R.F.C. cadets recruited had been equipped,
accommodated and generally looked after at Victoria College by the
Canadian Officers Training Corps, of the University of Toronto. This
unit, together with the School of Infantry of the District, continued
for some weeks to ration the cadets, but during hours of parade they
came under the Cadet Wing for instruction.

Already there were in existence the Recruits Depot, Stores Depot and
“X” Squadron at Long Branch. Up to now there had been no tuition
prior to flying, except such as could be given by the much overworked
but extremely efficient 2nd Lt. in command at Long Branch.

The strength of the Cadet Wing was, to commence with, some 50 cadets,
taken care of in ground instruction by 2 officers, 3 non-commissioned
officer instructors and some two or three clerks. Lectures covered
artillery observation, organization of troops, military law and such
technicalities as rigging, engines, etc. It will, therefore, be seen
that the two officers in charge were required to call upon the sum
total of their knowledge and experience to discharge their official
duties. The wing was fed direct by the recruiting office, since
cadets did not at first pass through Recruits Depot.

Gunnery instruction was added shortly, though the wing was woefully
deficient in suitable material. Simultaneously courses were
organized, and a regular programme set on foot. Through the courtesy
of the O.C. School of Musketry Military District No. 2, arrangements
were made by which all cadets took a course in machine gunnery at
Hart House, including range practice. A Curtiss machine was secured
(a peculiarly massive aeroplane, discarded as impractical by the
Curtiss Company), and though no mechanical power would have lifted
it into the air, its bones served to illustrate the anatomy of the
structure of which it was a prototype. There was also one Curtiss
and one motor car engine. It will be noted that by now the wing had
assumed the threefold function of a Cadet Wing proper, a School of
Aeronautics and an Armament School.

As can be understood, the course was not of any set length. The
passage of a cadet through the organization depended upon his
capacity to learn, and the requirements of the flying units. The
first graduates proceeded to Long Branch where, equipped with such
tuition as time had afforded, they began flying at once. By the
end of April, drafts were sent to Borden, where further ground
instruction was now being given.

Further expansion came in May, and with it additional help from the
University authorities. The splendid buildings of Burwash Hall were
secured from Victoria College, and the commodious East Residence
rented from the University of Toronto. It is difficult to say what
would have been the progress of this work of the Corps, were it not
for the constant consideration received from the President, Governors
and Superintendent of the University.

[Illustration: OFFICERS AND STRENGTH, 43RD WING, LEASIDE.]

[Illustration: RECEIVING WIRELESS.

ARTILLERY OBSERVATION.]

With expansion, arrived also the need for some subdivision of duties.
The Cadet Wing was too polyglot. It provided as much as humanly
possible of everything, but not enough of anything. Came therefore
the first demarcation between the Cadet Wing and the School of
Military Aeronautics,--i.e. the junior and senior sections, though
for official purposes of administration they were still unified.
New instructional equipment arrived, and during May the strength of
cadets rose to nearly 150.

Before passing on to later history, it is desired to give sincere
and official recognition to the splendid work done at this early
stage in spite of meagre facilities and an absurdly small staff. The
difficulties encountered were many and serious. The wing was still in
the throes of active service organization, but all eyes were turned
to the output of cadets as the crux of the situation, and the means
by which officers and men alike were to justify the programme then
being worked out. The output has never failed, but at no period did
it involve greater personal strain and effort than in these first two
or three months of this unit’s existence.

On June the 11th, a staff of nine officers and thirty-eight men
arrived from England to form officially the School of Aeronautics,
and took over general instruction at the Cadet Wing prior to the
final subdivision of the latter. This occurred on July 14th when the
wing moved out to summer quarters at Long Branch which was then given
up by “Y” Squadron as an aerodrome. Work continued with constantly
increasing numbers, till the winter of 1917, when, on the departure
of the 42nd and 43rd Wings for Texas, the unit divided itself between
Borden and Mohawk for some six months. Here instruction continued
without interruption till April 4th, 1918, on which date the two
sections re-amalgamated at Long Branch, with a strength that now
reached a staff of 200 officers and men and 900 cadets.

The formation of the Armament School in the early summer permitted
the wing to cease elementary gunnery instruction and devote more time
to drill, discipline and wireless, but it should be remembered that
the Armament School was the logical expansion of work previously
carried out at the Cadet Wing and School of Aeronautics.

In the summer of 1918, the wing was on the lines of an infantry
battalion, with four squadrons and a headquarters company. Drill,
physical training, wireless, topography and air force law were in the
curriculum, but the essential and psychological duty of this unit was
to impress on the new recruit those fundamental precepts of military
discipline, honour and self respect on which his future career alone
could be successfully based.

As to relaxation there was begun on July 18th an excellent monthly
magazine, “The Cadet Wing Review,” which is second to none of similar
publications. Local talent also conducted a theatre which was a
veritable centre of attraction.

Through this summer, the average strength was 200 staff, and 1,100
cadets. To house them for the winter, large barracks had just been
completed at the close of hostilities. The output of cadets of the
unit will be noted by the graph on page 161.

[Illustration: R.A.F. CAN.--OUTPUT OF CADET WING AND ARMAMENT SCHOOL

GRAND TOTALS. CADET WING 6695

ARMAMENT SCHOOL 1225]




SCHOOL OF AERONAUTICS.


By May 1917, it had become quite apparent that ground training of
cadets demanded an expansion of treatment which could not be afforded
by the then existing Cadet Wing, however, valiantly the latter unit
might strive, and on the 15th a chief instructor, for the purpose of
starting a School of Military Aeronautics, was ordered to proceed to
Canada, taking with him eight other officers and thirty-eight men of
various ranks as a nucleus of an instructional staff.

This advance party worked in conjunction with the Cadet Wing until
July 1st, on which date No. 4 School of Military Aeronautics was
recorded as a separate and official organization.

The anticipated expansion immediately took place, aided very greatly
by the assistance, not only of the President of the University of
Toronto, but also of the professors of that institution who gave
up room after room, often at great inconvenience to themselves.
About this time, also, a large shipment of aeroplanes and engines
for instructional purposes was forwarded from England. It was
unfortunately lost on the way out, the immediate effect being that
for the first few months all practical instruction was confined to
the Curtiss engine and JN4 aeroplane.

The length of the course given during this period was three weeks,
but at the end of the month it was increased to four, and comprised
six flights, covering engines, rigging, wireless, artillery
observation, machine guns, and instruments and bombs.

[Illustration: STAFF OF SCHOOL OF AERONAUTICS.]

[Illustration: “AERIAL” OF VICINITY OF UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO.

(Note the Cadet Camp lying north of main University Building.)]

The importance of the work done at this unit was now most firmly
established. The length of the course was increased in September
to six weeks, and it was arranged that three courses went through
the school at a time, each composed of 150 cadets with two weeks
intervening. By now the strength of the unit had increased to 19
officers, 119 non-commissioned officers and men, 149 United States
army and naval cadets and 261 Imperial cadets. Occupation of the
buildings so kindly furnished by the University authorities covered
Burwash Hall, East and South residences, School of Practical Science,
Medical Building, portion of Convocation Hall, Thermodynamics
Building and dining halls in University and Victoria College.

In September, instruction was further expanded by the formation of
a school at the factory of the Canadian Aeroplanes Limited, where
members of flying units received introduction to the theory and
principle of aeroplane construction. There were three courses, each
lasting eighteen days, and each being divided into ten squads,
members of which remained together throughout their entire period
of instruction. Examinations were set and corrected by an examining
party at the School under direct supervision of the Commandant, when
sixty-five per cent. of marks was necessary before a cadet passed
through and was posted to a flying unit.

In the month of December, 1917, the strength of cadets greatly
increased and it became necessary to draw again on the goodwill
of the University authorities and occupy Wycliffe College.
Simultaneously a pool was formed in a remodeled hotel, Haydon House,
some four miles from the School, where were housed such cadets as
the flying units were unable to take owing to the reduced amount of
flying during the winter months. By the end of the year cadets on the
strength amounted to 721.

Training material now began to arrive more regularly from England,
and, as a result, the instruction given was considerably diversified.

In March, 1918, a seventh flight was formed for the study of aerial
navigation, in which much more complete instruction was given in map
reading and course plotting. Machine gun instruction was transferred
to the Armament School at Hamilton, and the time thus secured given
to further study of aerial navigation.

The practical education of the mechanics taught at the School was
ensured by the construction at Leaside of engine running sheds, in
which engines of various types were set up and their operations
drilled into all pupils under conditions which simulated those on
active service as nearly as possible. Considerable improvement in the
engine knowledge of cadets was immediately noticeable.

On April 1st, cadets in training at the School, now called No.
4 School of Aeronautics, had reached 1,277, while the staff was
composed of 26 officers and 230 non-commissioned officers and men,
with the inevitable result that another residence was taken over from
the University, with housing capacity for 185.

Again a flight was added to the course, this time for observers, and
by July all cadets thus passing through the unit received instruction
in aerial navigation, instruments, reconnaissance, organization of
the Army and R.A.F., and general military knowledge, photography,
engines, rigging and wireless.

In September, the process of engine instruction was still further
advanced by discarding the fixed stands to which Curtiss engines
had been rigidly attached, and substituting in their stead sections
of aeroplane fuselages so balanced as to be capable of vertical
adjustment, thus simulating the action of machines when in the air.
To these were attached Clerget engines, which it was now proposed to
use in conjunction with the Avro machines contemplated for flying
instruction. This departure from the reciprocating to the rotary
type made it necessary to organize special classes of tuition for
non-commissioned officers and men from various flying units. In this
course, the assistance given by the School Board of Toronto by the
use of a portion of the Lippincott Technical School proved greatly to
the advantage of the brigade.

[Illustration: R.A.F. CAN.--SCHOOL OF AERONAUTICS OUTPUT OF PUPILS

GRAND TOTAL 6171]

[Illustration: PARADE ON UNIVERSITY CAMPUS.

CADET CAMP, UNIVERSITY LAWN.

(Note “Aerial” of this Camp on page 164.)]

The only further change made in the system of instruction at the
School of Aeronautics, was the introduction of the block system in
October, 1918, under which forty hours were allotted to engines,
twenty-seven to aerial navigation, twenty to wireless, twenty-six to
rigging and thirty to artillery observation. The observers’ flight
was carried on independently of the above, and the ninety hours’
instruction given to the latter on technical subjects covered all
requirements.

In concluding this very brief sketch of an extremely important
section of the brigade, it is desired to specially acknowledge
the services of not only the instructing officers but also of the
non-commissioned officers and men on the staff. It fell to the duty
of many sergeants and corporals to demonstrate the principles and
theories of highly technical appliances, and to demonstrate them
moreover in many cases to men who were much their seniors and who
had had the advantage of a modern and expensive education. It was,
however, uniformly observed that the non-commissioned officers who
occupied this highly responsible and difficult position, discharged
their duty not only with a dignity beyond all praise, but also with
an exemplary clearness based on an intimate knowledge of the subject.
They were confronted very often with questions which would have
confused many who laid definite claim to higher attainments, but it
has not yet been found that any one of them was lacking either in
the technical qualification or the power of self expression which
was necessary for the satisfactory discharge of their duties. The
marked improvement in the all-round ability of cadets arriving at the
various flying wings after the School of Aeronautics had had time to
finally find itself, is due to the excellent work done by officers
and non-commissioned officers alike at this unit.




ARMAMENT SCHOOL.


It is a far cry from the one-time pilot who, between the vagaries
of his machine, took pot shots at his opponent with a revolver or
sporting rifle, to his successor of to-day armed with a machine gun
that discharges bullets at the rate of 600 per minute through a
four-bladed propeller revolving at the rate of 1,200 times a minute.
It was, therefore, the object of instruction at the Armament School
to so train the would-be pilot that he might have a thoroughly
grounded knowledge of the weapons he was destined to use. The need of
special tuition there given was further accentuated by the increasing
pressure on the instructors at the School of Aeronautics.

In March, 1918, the O.C. proposed to the War Office that this
School be set on foot immediately, and matters had been so far
advanced by May that necessary construction was well under way. Here
again the R.A.F., Canada, was fortunate in being the recipient of
much consideration from Canadian organizations. On learning that
accommodation was required for the purposes of the School, the
Canadian Westinghouse Company Limited, one of the most important
industrial concerns in Canada, most generously offered the use of
a large factory in Hamilton free of charge, together with adjacent
grounds, and shortly afterwards the brigade was further helped by
permission to use the area of a 9-hole golf course immediately
adjoining. This very considerate proposal was made by the Hamilton
Golf Club, and was gratefully accepted.

These preliminaries successfully arranged, the matter began to move
rapidly.

[Illustration: OFFICERS AND STAFF, ARMAMENT SCHOOL, HAMILTON.]

[Illustration: RIGGING FLIGHT, SCHOOL OF AERONAUTICS.

AEROPLANE DESIGN, SCHOOL OF AERONAUTICS.]

In May three officers and two non-commissioned officers left England
to form the nucleus of the instructional staff, bringing with them
such material as could be provided at the moment. The Aviation
Department of the Imperial Munitions Board assumed responsibility for
the physical portion of the work in hand, under the supervision of
the Royal Engineers section of the brigade. This provision included
ranges, armouries, workshops, instructional and lecture buildings, a
hospital, and the general adaptation of the interior of the factory
buildings to the purposes required.

All this advanced so swiftly that by June 19th, the factory building
was equipped, and the Armament School, which up to this time had
formed a portion of the Cadet Wing at Long Branch, moved to its new
quarters on June 20th.

The course of instruction called for a much further excursion into
applied mechanics than any portion of the tuition formerly given.
As it progressed, it soon became evident that the embryonic pilot
was keen for intimate knowledge of the guns on the efficiency of
which his future victories depended, and his general course was so
modulated as to give him the opportunity to master the last detail.
The question of a method of sighting which would allow a deflected
aim to be laid on a moving machine received mathematical attention,
as was also the synchronizing of a gun with the revolving blades of
the propeller. On this and other points, information was continually
being received and communicated through the School to other units of
the brigade.

Drafts of cadets, arriving on Wednesday afternoons, were immediately
handed over to the quartermaster’s department, where arrangements
for their domestic comfort were made for the four or five weeks they
were to remain. The following morning instruction began, first with
one gun, its description, action, care and possible troubles in the
air, accompanied by range work and constant handling. The question of
aiming was gradually introduced and ran progressively throughout the
course, until the pupil felt that he could, without effort, fire the
gun in the air, making allowances for his own speed and direction,
his enemy’s speed, direction and range, and instantaneously adapt his
fire to meet the ever-varying and never-ending manoeuvres of his own
and his enemy’s machine.

Both guns and sights having been mastered, the cadet was introduced
to the subject of gearing his gun to fire through his propeller
at varying rates of revolutions. The principle upon which this
gearing depended, though one of great difficulty in instruction, was
nevertheless the subject which, of all others, provoked the greatest
interest amongst the pupils.

Arrangements were completed to enable the pilot actually to carry out
the process of synchronizing his gears and propeller under conditions
which perfectly simulated his position in a machine. He was thus
enabled to watch the principle at work.

Instruction being completed in two guns, ammunition, aerial bomb
sights and synchronizing gears, another section of the School
undertook the pupils’ training in bombs, bomb dropping and bomb
sights.

The increasing importance of this subject was appropriately balanced
by the very wide range of sights and bomb-dropping apparatus
demonstrated by specially experienced instructors, whereby the
pupil was made cognizant of all the operations of loading bombs on
machines, fusing them, attaching the necessary releasing gear, and
so loading his machine that he could at will drop any type of bomb
suited to any target which might suddenly present itself, from a
group of infantry which needed scattering, to the ammunition dump to
be exploded.

[Illustration: LIBRARY, ARMAMENT SCHOOL, HAMILTON.

CADET BARRACKS, ARMAMENT SCHOOL, HAMILTON.]

[Illustration: ENGINE FLIGHT.

CLERGET ENGINE ON ROCKING NACELLE.]

[Illustration: TILTING.

CADET SPORTS.]

[Illustration: ENGINE TEST, CAMP BORDEN.

ENGINE REPAIR, CAMP BORDEN.]

The peculiar path taken by a bomb in falling from a machine with a
forward momentum imparted by the speed of the machine, needed very
special mathematical calculation to enable the pilot to release it at
a considerable distance from his objective, and to this end a variety
of bomb sights were explained and practised with from dummy machines
with unfused bombs over mechanically moving scenery.

The flying camps, to which cadets were posted on the completion of
their course in elementary gunnery, carried on further practices in
coöperation with this school, and instructors were sent to these
wings from time to time to coöperate, and to insure that no gaps or
overlaps occurred in the cadet’s training. By this means the pilot
who left this country for overseas was assured that he had covered
every section of the field of armament, and that no situation was
likely to occur during his flying career with which he could not deal.

In addition to the training of embryo pilots, courses of instruction
were conducted for observers, during which, for a period of three
weeks, they were made competent to handle the gun which they would be
required to use overseas. By the use of guns with camera attachment,
recording a photograph on a graduated screen instead of firing a
shot, the resultant photograph revealed to the observer the effect of
his shoot, and his graduation was not considered complete until he
was able to produce a collection of photographs which evidenced an
automatic and deadly aim.

During the period in which this School operated, an average of more
than 400 cadets per month was instructed, and the record which each
carried overseas showed a complete and thorough course of ground
training performed entirely under Canadian tuition.




AERIAL GUNNERY.


For the first few months, the Corps had an all sufficiency of work in
organizing depots, selecting aerodromes, arranging for recruiting,
and numberless other activities on all of which largely depended
whatever future success might be achieved. There was no aerial
gunnery for the reason that there were no instructors. What had been
done on the ground was elementary, and reasonably so, due to the lack
of material. Matters moved forward when the first instructors arrived
in Canada on April 25th, 1917, and, having formed a class of picked
mechanics (the instructors of the future), enabled the School of
Aerial Gunnery to be organized at Camp Borden on May 1st.

The School had just two guns and 18 pupils--the historic “eighteen”
who formed the first shipment of real pilots. The latter had no
aerial work--the overseas call was too imperative--but each fired 40
rounds at a ground target.

Meantime the School of Aeronautics was busy, and the effect became
noticeable. Camp Borden, relieved of much elementary training, did
higher and aerial work, and got for itself ranges, fixed targets and
silhouettes. The course lengthened to three weeks with 100 rounds
fired in the air from a Lewis gun--no aerial Vickers being available.
In July came more guns and equipment from England, the second course
began with 62 cadets and the state of affairs definitely improved.
Camera guns turned up, and became instantly popular. Work commenced
on fitting a timing gear so that the gun might shoot through the
propeller. The chief disadvantage was the shortage of serviceable
machines available.

[Illustration: ARMOURED LAUNCH FOR GUNNERY PRACTICE.]

[Illustration: SYNCHRONIZED VICKERS’ GUN.

SYNCHRONIZING GEAR.]

In August began the third course with sixty-six cadets and an
organization fairly complete, being forty officers and ten N.C.O.
instructors. Now, too a JN4 machine was converted to a JN4A with the
pilot in front and a Scarff mounting behind for the observer, as in
the Bristol fighter. A decided acquisition this, and a quantity were
ordered. Surprise deflection shooting was introduced. It was a busy
and interesting period.

The fourth course in September had 124 cadets. The tuition given
was of proved value. Lectures came in by the fighting instructor,
and naturally increased the pupils’ confidence. The latter were now
firing 750 rounds from the ground and 150 from the air, and the
squadron worked at high pressure to give each pupil three hours’
aerial gunnery flying--a matter of difficulty owing to the scarcity
of machines with synchronized guns. It was probably due to this that
cadets were getting too much Lewis gun observers’ work. The fault was
rectified, though the mountings were not entirely satisfactory.

The fifth course began in October with a total of 238 pupils, who
proceeded with the unit to Texas and enjoyed excellent facilities
which had been foreseen and provided. The number of available
machines increased, and were divided into C.C. gear (synchronized
gear) camera gun and turret machine flights. Actual aerial
instruction was given twenty-four hours after arrival at this far
Southern field.

The history of Royal Flying Corps gunnery in Texas is a progressive
document, too lengthy to give in detail. Here the unit had its first
target practice over water--Lake Worth proving ideal for the purpose,
and instruction was greatly aided owing to a better observation of
fire and a clearer angle of approach. In December the pupils turned
out numbered 264, an average flying time of practically five hours--a
marked improvement.

In January the aerial work of the School was further increased. Range
work (25 yards) was taken over by the wings. All synchronized guns
were moved from the side of the cowling to the top, thus creating
active service conditions. No. 2 squadron came into being with
twelve machines, giving 30 in toto, the work being done by flights.
Two machines were converted to Canadian Gothas, with the gun firing
through the bottom of the fuselage. The output of pupils increased to
310, with average flying time of 5½ hours.

February saw the use of a good armour-plated disappearing and running
target, and cadets also fired from a cage that travelled along a
cableway between two towers, but the speed was too low to be of
value. The February output was 313 pupils. The instructing personnel
had now increased to 60 officers (50 flying), 1 warrant officer, 60
N.C.O.’s and 250 men.

March, a busy month, with 336 pupils and flying time average of 6½
hours, was a record in output and time flown.

April saw the School on its own aerodrome at Beamsville, Ontario,
where facilities were ahead of anything heretofore existing. Came as
well a third squadron. The output was 243 pupils, all R.F.C. with 7
hours and 40 minutes flying, the record time to date.

In the following month the syllabus was amended, this being the
result of a visit to England by the officer in charge of Canadian
training. All straight target shooting was abolished, and deflection
sights were introduced so as to allow for a speed of 100 m.p.h. of an
enemy machine. Small model aeroplanes were built and set up beside
the targets. At these the pupil aimed, the deflection of the gun
sights bringing his shots on to the target where their accuracy was
of course registered. No less than 17 various practices were laid
down. The improvement in ground work soon became noticeable.

[Illustration: RANGE CONSTRUCTED BY AVIATION DEPARTMENT AT
BEAMSVILLE.]

[Illustration: SHOOTING THROUGH PROPELLER.

BESIDE THE FUSELAGE.

VARIOUS GUN MOUNTINGS.

GROUND PRACTICE.]

In May, also, the Armament School opened at Hamilton, and relieved
the School of Aerial Gunnery of giving elementary instruction after
pupils had already learned to fly.

During June a fourth squadron was added to train observers
exclusively, enabling the School to adopt the ideal principle of
giving all pilot cadets synchronized gear and camera gun training,
and all observer cadets instruction in Lewis and turret camera guns,
the sequence being as follows:--

  1. 1 hour dual camera gun--12 pictures of silhouette taken by
  diving on it from behind.

  2. 1 hour dual, with pictures of a target machine in the air,
  allowing for speed of 100 m.p.h. and necessary deflection.

  3. Dual, on C.C. gear (instructor in back seat) diving at angle
  of 60° to 45° at silhouettes in Lake Ontario, 200 rounds or one
  hour.

  4. Dual, 1 hour or at least 60 rounds with gun stoppages. This
  determines the pupil’s proficiency in clearing jambs.

  5. Dual, enfiling with C.C. gear, 200 rounds diving from 1,000 to
  100 feet at dummy trench in Lake Ontario.

During all firing over the water, observations are taken from a watch
tower, and a complete report of all results is compiled.

There follows then another 4 hours’ dual, after which the pupil goes
solo and repeats all he has previously done under the watchful eye of
his instructor.

Arriving at the final instructional squadron, there ensues an
ultimate 4 hours’ dual work before the nearly graduated pilot is
asked to do one spiral, two vertical banks, three loops, four
Immelmann turns, five half-rolls and six complete rolls. During
all this time he is equipped with a camera gun, and expected to
manoeuvre into a position favorable for attacking another machine,
simultaneously avoiding being photographed himself by an opponent.

This brought about marked proficiency, and it was proved quite
clearly that pilots had been going overseas with too much straight
shooting and not enough practice during stunting. The new system,
however, brought tuition up to conditions actually existing at the
front at the time. Several experienced pilots became available, and
their lectures were most valuable. The output of cadets was (June)
182, but the average flying had gone up to 11 hours.

In July the School became that of Aerial Fighting--a more descriptive
title, since tactics were so prominent in its course. The contrast
with June of 1917 was somewhat remarkable, there being now 92
officers and 700 other ranks. During this month rocking nacelles and
Scarff mountings were introduced for all ground work, and all pilot
instructors were arranged to be examined monthly. This led to the
discovery that refresher courses were necessary in cases, these being
forthwith commenced. The month’s output was 262, with flying time
with guns of 11 hours.

In August, the observers’ course was well under way, being a
modification of that arranged for pilots. There was naturally no C.C.
shooting, but instruction covered every practical method of firing
at possible targets from the observer’s seat. This month there were
graduated 246 pupils with a slightly reduced flying time of 9½
hours.

[Illustration: WING OFFICE, ETC.--BEAMSVILLE.

RANGES--BEAMSVILLE.]

[Illustration: CABLE WAY FOR GUNNERY PRACTICE, TEXAS.

(SINCE OUT OF DATE.)]

[Illustration: R.A.F. CAN.--OUTPUT OF PILOTS--SCHOOL OF AERIAL
GUNNERY]

By September pupils were passing all tests under the same instructor
in any one squadron. This, coupled with the use of speaking tubes,
was of considerable help. Further guns, gears and equipment had come
in from England, and the situation was now vastly different from
that which pertained to earlier months when the School was forced to
manufacture much of its own equipment. Instruction was going well,
and the output reached 270, with a flying time of more than 9 hours.

The officer personnel expanded in October to 110, this being of
great assistance. Pilots were limited to three hours per day in the
air, and, in consequence, machines had not been reaching a maximum
flying time. The effect of good instruction at the Armament School
was now most noticeable, as pupils were coming through with increased
technical knowledge of gunnery and guns. The first Canadian-built
Avro machine was flown during this month, with a most satisfactory
performance. The output touched 281 and flying time 10 hours.

Such in brief is the record. The value may best be judged by the
service rendered by those who passed from the harmless silhouettes
floating on the smooth surface of Lake Ontario to engage the deadlier
machines that haunted the high altitudes over the Western front.




CAMERA GUNNERY.


Before carrying out aerial practice with machine guns, embryo pilots
and observers are required to attain a certain standard in camera gun
work, both on the ground and in the air. The camera used is designed
to resemble, both in operation and in appearance, the Lewis machine
gun, the difference being that upon the trigger being released the
camera gun registers a photograph upon a film. Reloading is by
pulling back the cocking handle, which brings another film into place.

Practices being concluded, the cadet takes his own film to the
nearest photographic sub-station, where it is developed in about ten
minutes, and, still wet, is then submitted to the instructor, who
forthwith criticizes the work of his pupil in the presence of the
latter.

The camera gun is best suited for enabling the pupil (pilot or
observer) to ascertain his proficiency in the use of deflection
sights, and his ability to place the enemy machine in correct
position in the ring, according to his line of flight. Errors in
aiming are checked by the photograph being taken through a glass
screen, this being marked with circles, each valued at seven and
a half feet taken from 200 yards’ distance, which is the distance
advised for commencing a combat. On examining the film, after
development, the instructor can explain the error in deflection or
elevation by the position of the machine in relation to the rings.

In the illustrations, these being from camera gun films, will be
noted the enemy machine as seen by the gunner through the ring sight
at the moment of firing. In the first case the aim is low and to the
right. In the second print the pupil has fired low and in front. The
encircled dot shows the point at which the gunner should have aimed
when the pilot of the target machine was flying directly toward the
inner ring at 100 miles per hour.

On taking to the air with the camera gun, the observer is piloted
by an instructor, and is initiated not only in the photographing of
other machines, but also in manoeuvres which have for their object
the avoidance of being photographed by the opposing camera gun.
Finally, the pupil engages in aerial combat with another machine
piloted by a “hostile” instructor, and each machine attempts to
“shoot down” the other. In this contest the pilot or observer who
obtains the most accurate pictures is counted the victor. Every
principle of aerial fighting as taught both in lectures and in the
air, is practised, and upon its completion the results, as inflexibly
registered by the camera gun, are subject to the keenest criticism.

[Illustration: CAMERA GUNNERY.]

[Illustration: 82ND SQUADRON.]




WIRELESS.


It was, of course, recognized from the very first that thorough
acquaintance not only with every means of communication from the air
to the ground, but also ability to read every signal necessarily
transmitted from the ground to the air, was one of the most important
requirements in the training of a pilot.

The ranging of guns (particularly heavies), the finding of targets
and their destruction have all been successfully accomplished
by coöperation between the pilot and the communicating battery.
Numberless devices have been experimentally tried such as coloured
lights, signalling by lamps, etc., etc.; but none proved a means of
communication which was not only reliable but which also afforded
no invitation to attack by the enemy. As the outcome, the wireless
system from the aeroplane to the ground, and ground strips, or
panneau, from the ground to the aeroplane were adopted and uniformly
used. As far as concerns the training work of the Canadian wing of
the Royal Flying Corps, the methods used were naturally those already
established in England.

On arrival at the Recruits’ Depot, the cadet received his first
initiation, together with a small amount of instruction in the
code used. Moving hence to the Cadet Wing at Long Branch, wireless
formed a definite part of the routine of the day’s work. The cadet
was required to successfully send and receive six words per minute,
and for purposes of instruction telephones were connected to the
buzzer circuits. In the tuition of sending, Morse recorders operated
by means of a silenced key were installed, and picture targets,
constructed with miniature lamps shining haphazardly through small
holes, were operated from a switchboard. These represented shell
bursts which the cadet was required instantly to locate and report.

With six weeks’ of wireless at the Cadet Wing, the pupil proceeded to
the School of Aeronautics for further instruction, and heard lectures
on picture target work and artillery coöperation from experienced
observers. Requirements now demanded eight words per minute. After
examination, his next step was to the elementary training wing at
either Deseronto or Borden, where he not only carried on ground work,
but also put into actual practice in the air the instruction already
received.

Moving on to North Toronto he reached the stage of final tuition in
this section of his course. At varying distances from this station,
puff targets were provided to simulate shell bursts, and the embryo
pilot conducted himself as though on active service by locating the
shoot and reporting it with necessary adjustments to the battery
receiving station. Such was the value attached to this phase of
training, that eighty per cent. of the observations sent down were
required to be correct before the pupil was considered passed. The
tests included reading ground messages, bomb dropping, etc., the
latter being checked by a camera obscura hut which was used as the
target. In this process it was necessary that the cadet adjust his
bomb sights both for the speed and altitude of his machine. This
being done, his wireless key was depressed and the actual position
of his machine recorded in the camera obscura hut at the moment of
signalling, which moment, it was understood, was the instant at which
the bomb would have been dropped were the machine in actual service.
The result recorded infallibly the amount of judgment which had
been used. Some idea of the extent of this School may be gathered
from the fact that a tour around the batteries involved a 60 mile
trip. Bomb-dropping, though having no connection with artillery
observation, was here practised as a matter of convenience.

[Illustration: POPHAM PANNEAU.

POPHAM PANNEAU.]

[Illustration: “A PUFF.”

GROUND STRIPS.]

If it be asked why the pilot does not receive as well as send
wireless messages while in the air, it may be stated that up to the
present the difficulties of receiving on a trailing aerial have been
such that what might be termed a graphic ground method has proved
preferable. Large ground strips are, on active service, an invitation
for bombardment by the enemy and are being aided by the Popham
Panneau, a method of signalling consisting of the rapid forming up
of small, symmetrical, rectangular figures, by arrangements of white
bands capable of rapid variation. In general they are the combination
of the letter “T” with short, symmetrical additions.

The Aldis lamp, also used, is an improvement on the heliograph, and
reflects the rays of an electric globe instead of sunlight, but it
will be understood that recent advances in wireless telephoning have
revolutionized the above methods.

A word is in place with regard to the Artillery Coöperation School
at Leaside through which all pilots of necessity must pass. The
equipment is the result of very brilliant work by an R.A.F. officer.
The maps themselves represent two sections of the Western front, and
are reproduced with vivid accuracy from aerial photographs. Each is
40 feet × 20 feet, and contains some eighty targets so arranged as
to allow switching from one gun pit to another, thus following the
actual work of destruction by imaginary batteries. Zone calls are
arranged for all targets, these representing every possible point
for bombardment, such as hostile battery positions, trench points,
railroads, cross roads and fortified positions in enemy towns.
British and German trenches are shown on a scale of approximately
five inches to one hundred yards.

The total number of electric globes used to simulate bursts is 1,360,
and the two balconies where the observing pilots sit are so equipped
that every operation which must be carried out in doing wireless
tests must be completed before signals can be received by the
operator seated below at the imaginary battery. Space does not permit
of a detailed description of the intricate, electrical work required
to complete this admirable installation. It suffices to say that
those best qualified to judge deem it a very considerable achievement.

Rotary targets are also used, as by turning them practically the same
condition is created as that which confronts the pilot when turning
his machine in the air. These, too, represent a reproduction of
well-known sections of the Western front.

A special map was devised for contact patrol work, presenting three
distinct lines of trenches together with an equal number of groups
of headquarters, as well as machine gun pits, tanks, etc., while
wireless sending was coupled up with Aldis lamp work--the latter
requiring to be read at four words per minute.

At the conclusion of instruction of every course it was demanded
that every cadet both receive and send at a speed of eight words per
minute before being allowed to proceed with aerial tests.

[Illustration: WIRELESS IN THE FIELD.]

[Illustration: MOSAIC OF CAMP BORDEN R.A.F. AND PART OF C.E.F. AREA.

  1. CANVAS MATS AND MACHINES.

  2. HANGARS.

  3. LANDING SQUARES.

  4. MACHINE GUN SHELTER.

  5. CADET CAMP.

  6. SAND PATCH.

  7. WOODED GROUND.

  8. OFFICERS’ QUARTERS.

  9. RAILWAY.

  10. EARTH ROAD.

  11. BARRACK BLOCKS.

  12. BORDEN STATION.

  13. PATH.

  14. GOLF COURSE.

  15. QUARTERMASTER STORES.

  [_Examine this photo with a glass._]
]




PHOTOGRAPHY.


The Air Force is the eye of the army, and the camera the recording
eye of the airman. It is therefore, of prime importance that aerial
photography in all its phases be mastered by the would-be pilot.
Failure cannot be risked. Too much is involved in sending machines
on long photographic reconnaissance. Their results should indicate
everything from a narrow path through enemy wire to a camouflaged
German aerodrome.

In order to secure the best type of instruction, the R.A.F. has
availed itself of the services of officers of experience on all
points. Training begins at the School of Aeronautics. Here ground
tuition is given, including everything from camera mechanism to
colour filters and panchromatic plates, from map making to mosaics,
the relative size of objects and the value of shadows in estimating
heights.

Leaving the School, the cadet takes to the air to be tested by
photographing given points, his ground instruction still proceeding.
In the case of the observer, the course is the same, and all such
work forms part of a general mapping scheme which aimed at the
compiling of a complete reproduction of the areas around the several
aerodromes.

Bad weather, usually considered a bugbear, is not allowed to
interfere. By the use of a wide shutter slit and the very best
lenses, tests are made in all weathers, and active service conditions
thus paralleled. That photographic instruction has been faithfully
given and intelligently received, may be seen from the excellent
reproductions of aerial work presented in this volume.

From the foregoing it might be assumed that the art is simply
acquired, but such is not in any way the case. To use his lens with
complete facility, the pupil must correctly establish his height,
his relative position with the objects to be photographed, and,
generally speaking, be sufficiently at home in the air to do his
flying instinctively and devote his chief attention to the camera.

[Illustration: ATTACHING CAMERA TO FUSELAGE.

BUILDING UP A MOSAIC.]

[Illustration: RECEIVING.

ARTILLERY OBSERVATION HUT.]

[Illustration: PHOTOGRAPHY.

AERIAL NAVIGATION.]

[Illustration: AERIAL AMBULANCE.]




ARMOUR HEIGHTS SYSTEM.


Training development in England had now reached a point at which
elements already recognized but not hitherto fully appreciated
were proved to be invaluable. Their use was aimed primarily at the
attaining of instinctive flying by the pupil. The means by which
this was achieved, the consequent effect on the instructor, and the
reduced fatalities during instruction are sufficiently notable to
call for mention.

The product has been the active-service pilot as distinguished from
the peace pilot--two vastly different individuals.

The actions and reactions of this system are in general
psychological. They begin with the assumption that since fear is
almost invariably of the unknown, once the latter is eliminated
fear should be non-existent. The approach is, therefore, by way of
wiping out ignorance concerning the air and the machine in which the
pupil and instructor ascend, and illustrating, while in flight, the
simplicity of those laws which are fundamental to all good pilots and
machines.

This, while seemingly simple enough, involves an ultimate strain
on the instructor. His pupils are, it is true, limited to six, but
into each of these he is expected to pour the sum of his knowledge
and skill. He is personally responsible for their crashes. At first
blush apparently unjust, this resolves itself into an absolutely
fair deduction from the principles of the system. A crash by a
pupil--engine failure and aeroplane failure being too infrequent
to alter the premise--is considered as due to an imperfection of
training. At some stage in the course some indispensable point must
have been slighted or overlooked. Hence the pupil’s inability to meet
the emergency.

Character--that subtle union of temperament and disposition, the
increasing air sense, the delicacy of control, the spontaneous
response, the nameless faculty by which the pupil becomes, as it
were, welded to the machine which in turn replies to the subconscious
movement of hand and foot--the study of all these are found in the
Armour Heights system, which itself is based on an admirable method
originated at Gosport, in England. The pupil is expected to do the
flying, and even in an emergency the instructor does not assume
control until it is demonstrated that the pupil is literally out of
his depth.

And always by telephone or tube sounds back from the front seat the
guiding voice, encouraging, reproving, suggesting and probing the
mental process of the pupil at the moment. Take, for instance, the
spin, that plunge easy to commence and equally easy to terminate.
The machine slows, stalls, dips and dives earthward. At the second
spin comes steadily in the word of experience--“stick a little
forward--not too much--right rudder--hold her there--that’s
right--easy isn’t it?--feel all right?--let’s do it again--put her
in yourself this time.” With such an “entente cordiale” as this, it
is clear why the words “danger” and “nerves” are barred from the
instructor’s vocabulary, and the terms “safe” and “dangerous” give
place to “right” and “wrong.” The pupil has obtained the sense of
relationship between himself and his machine.

It is admitted that the art, of instruction is difficult from the
lecture platform, but how much more arduous when weaving circles at
5,000 feet, with an invisible tyro in control. Confidence is born
quickly in these high altitudes, but since the system looks to the
instructor, rather than to the pupil, the strain on the former is
commensurate with the added advantages extended to the latter.

[Illustration: “A CENTAUR OF THE AIR.”]

[Illustration: 88TH SQUADRON--CAMP BORDEN.]

Herewith a few excerpts from an admirable syllabus issued by the Air
Ministry in this connection. They are curt, valuable and saturated
with experience:--

“Put the pupil in the pilot’s seat from the very beginning.

“Control your pupils in the air entirely by word of mouth through the
speaking tube.

“When a pupil makes a mistake in the air let him first exhaust his
own ideas of how to put things right if height permits.

“Make it a point of honour to allow pupils full control, except, of
course, in cases of emergency.

“Your greatest duty is to inspire your pupils with confidence in
themselves, in their machines and in you.

“If the weather is too bad for instruction, you should fly yourself
for the sake of the spirit it produces.

“Every time a pupil does something in the air he has never done
before he increases his confidence.

“Instructors are responsible for the crashes of their own pupils, and
the saving of a crash compensates for any amount of additional dual
control.

“Have all your machines rigged properly, and fly them frequently
yourself to see that none get into a bad condition.

“The time available during training is ample for a pupil to be made a
real pilot, provided he makes up his mind never to waste time in the
air and is taught, not left, to teach himself.”

The progress of instruction is roughly indicated below, this
sequence of manoeuvres having been developed in Canada to suit local
conditions and the general type of pupil available:--

  Demonstrate effect of the controls.
  Flying straight, level and climbing.
  Turns.
  Misuse of controls in turns.
  Difference in control with the engine off.
  Glide.
  Stalling.
  Slow flying.
  Gliding turns.
  Taking-off into wind.
  Landing into wind.
  Approach.
  Spinning, etc.

The pupil now goes solo.

  Steeper turns, with and without engine.
  Climbing turns.
  Flatter glide.
  Side-slipping.
  Taking-off and landing across wind.
  Landing on a mark.
  Forced landings.
  Higher manoeuvring.

From the moment of introduction of the Armour Heights system, a
modification of the training of instructors became necessary. The
psychological phase of the new method demanded recognition, and steps
were taken forthwith to analyze and increase the personnel of aerial
tuition at all units. The School of Special Flying resolved itself
into a station of five products, as indicated by the graph given
herewith. The value of each class to the Royal Air Force, Can., has
been inestimable.

The crashes resulting in fatalities showed, under the new Armour
Heights system, a notable decrease as evidenced by the chart on page
218. To realize the full significance of this chart, it is necessary
to remember that the pilot who is an “Armour Heights graduate” has
performed in the air every manoeuvre of which his machine is capable.
He has solved all aerial problems. Whatever protective agencies human
skill and experience could formulate were put into operation, and the
record in respect of fatalities is so low as to be a tribute to the
ceaseless care exercised.

[Illustration: “PEGASUS.”

ACROBATICS.]

[Illustration: R.A.F. CAN.--CRASH COMPARISON SHOWING EFFECT OF
INTRODUCTION OF THE ARMOUR HEIGHTS SYSTEM]

And if it should be asked why those phases of the system which may
be termed its humanities are of so recent development, the answer
lies in the fact that what is termed “air sense” called for an
investigation of personal phenomena in respect of which science had
not a single landmark. Men watched the bird curving its wings to
invisible gales, and hazarded numberless theories. Early machines
were tricky compared to their successors. They lacked present
efficiency, reliability and simplicity. The sum total of the powers
of the pilot were busy meeting mechanical difficulties, and there
was little opportunity for excursions into the psychology of the new
art. The honour of service is equal, but the pilots sent overseas by
the R.A.F., Can., in 1918, have in comparison with the pilots of 1914
a vastly superior technical and mental training. They have advanced
step by step with the world’s knowledge of the air.

To reduce it to a sentence, the system of to-day turns out a pilot
who is subdivided, so to speak, into two sections. One is subjective
and does the flying. The other is objective, free for retreat or
pursuit, defence or attack or any of the countless situations of
aerial warfare which call for swift and fearless action.




SCHOOL OF SPECIAL FLYING.


The Armour Heights special course for instructors commenced on or
about April 1st, 1918, with one squadron detailed for duty. As will
be inferred, this was the direct outcome of the adoption and further
development by the R.A.F., Canada, of the method of tuition known as
the Gosport system, then in use in Great Britain.

It might be well to explain that the Armour Heights course differs
in important respects from the instruction given in England. Up till
the present, it was not considered that the JN4 machine, as used,
was capable of performing all higher manoeuvres, such as rolling,
looping, etc. It had therefore been, so to speak, set aside by the
British authorities for what might be called lower training. The
higher and more difficult evolutions had been reserved until the
pilot went overseas and was trained in the use of fast, service
machines. With the Canadian JN4, however, all the higher manoeuvres
were now performed by speed and not by engine power. This naturally
necessitated considerable dexterity of manipulation.

By the first of July, ninety-five instructors were passed out of the
School. On this date a second squadron was absorbed for the purpose
of tuition and the School of Special Flying came into existence, with
thirty-six machines and an average of twelve instructors.

At the beginning of October an output of sixty for the month was
counted on. This was lowered to forty-two, owing to the severe
epidemic of influenza then prevalent, which considerably reduced the
number of serviceable instructors.

[Illustration: OFFICERS AND STAFF--SCHOOL OF SPECIAL FLYING.]

[Illustration: R.A.F. CAN.--SCHOOL OF SPECIAL FLYING--OUTPUT OF PUPILS

GRAND TOTAL 257]

The primary aim of the tuition has been to obtain smooth and correct
work and a light-handed method of flying, as it was found that when
pilots used perforce only JN4 machines they were apt to develop a
somewhat heavy touch, unless extreme care was exercised. Stunting
and contour chasing were particularly encouraged amongst instructors
and others with sufficient air experience, and since the duty of the
School was to instruct instructors, the personality of the latter was
always considered a determining factor entirely apart from ability as
a pilot.

An important duty performed by the School, was the calling in of
most of the instructors then in the brigade, in order to thoroughly
acquaint them with the new methods involved in tuition as given in
the Armour Heights course. This proved entirely justified.

It was found, also, that even in the case of most experienced pilots,
who had been flying fast machines overseas, great advantage was
secured by taking the course, since it was required that they depend
to a much greater extent upon correct flying, far more skill being
required to do higher manoeuvres on a low-powered machine.

The dual time put in by instructors who passed out for wing duty was
reduced from fourteen hours to eight hours in the course of four or
five months, as a result of better instruction at the wings, this
being indirectly due to the fact that the instructors under whom they
had flown in each squadron had themselves been through the Armour
Heights course. It was found that three hours’ solo to one hour of
dual instruction was most advantageous.

The above notes give very baldly an outline of the purpose of the
School, and it will be found necessary to take them in conjunction
with the chapter on the Armour Heights system in order that the
essential elements of this tuition may be fully realized.




FLYING ACCIDENTS.


The “crash” diagram is, after all, the most definite and conclusive
record of the success or failure of any system of flying instruction.
Its facts are incontrovertible.

During the earlier period of the history of the Corps in Canada,
there was, of course, in use a constantly broadening system whereby
the details of all aerial accidents were instantly forwarded to
headquarters. It was not, however, until the Armour Heights method
had been in definite operation for some months that it became
possible to re-analyse the then existing procedure in the light
of new knowledge, and evolve a form of records which completely
reflected all the various instrumentalities which required diagnosis.

This statement carries no reflection on either the instructors or
the methods of instruction pertaining to the first year’s operation
of the unit. As in all its other activities, out of experience
came knowledge, the application of which was instantly undertaken.
We find, then, that during the summer of 1918 not only were the
salient features of the crash carefully investigated, but also all
those possibly contributory causes in some one of which will almost
certainly be found some vitally important feature.

The first procedure was to classify the crash. The method adopted
will be seen in the index of the graph on page 229. Prior, however,
to this classification, which of course is only established by means
of close technical examination of the damaged machine, the unit to
which the machine belonged sent to headquarters by telegraph or
telephone, whichever was the faster, the following information:--

  (1) Regimental number, rank and name of personnel concerned,
      stating which is pilot and which is passenger.

  (2) Injuries sustained and by whom.

  (3) Précis of accident.

  (4) Time and date.

  (5) Type and number of machine.

  (6) Number of hours solo and dual flown by casualty.

  (7) Whether next-of-kin has been notified.

  (8) Whether Canadian press (if necessary) has been notified.

  (9) Whether court of enquiry is being held.

The next procedure was to further analyze the accident by
establishing as quickly as possible all facts which might tend to
elucidate information. Under the nine succeeding headings come also
certain crashes from one or more contributory causes--the latter to
be further classified in relative proportion, whether primary or
secondary.

  i. Aeroplane defect--
      (a) Breakage.
      (b) Engine failure.
      (c) Faulty rigging.

  ii. Error of judgment--
      (a) Not due to poor instruction.
      (b) Probably due to poor instruction.

  iii. Loss of head.

  iv. Brain fatigue.

  v. Fear.

  vi. Physical illness.

  vii. Unavoidable.

  viii. Disobeying--
      (a) Rules of the air.
      (b) Instructions for that flight.
      (c) Standing orders.

  ix. Weather (wing visibility, temperature effects).

As some accidents will have one or more contributory causes, they
will be shown under two headings:--

  Primary cause.
  Secondary or contributory cause.

It will be seen at a glance that the bringing forth of this
information involved reference to records already in existence, and
which had been maintained with particular care in order they might
be fully available when thus crucially needed. There was sent,
furthermore, specified information with regard to certain possible
contributory causes, such as “loss of head,” “brain fatigue” or
“fear.” Under “loss of head,” for instance, it is pointed out that
the pupil in his new occupation of flying, especially for the first
time, has every mental faculty on the alert at extremely high
tension, and that the sense of danger, although not asserting itself,
is also subconsciously present. It follows, therefore, that under the
strain of an emergency the power of synchronized decision and act may
lapse--this lapse resulting in what is known as “loss of head.” When
there is added to this the fact that in flying, not only seconds, but
parts of a second count enormously, it will be clear that after an
actual loss of head there is seldom time to correct an error.

“Brain fatigue” and “fear” are allied to “loss of head;” when the
pupil reaches the stage in which he has neither the power to reason,
decide or act. Then supervenes a state of mental inertia due to the
swiftly repeated stream of impulses received in rapid succession by
his brain. He begins to feel alone, and unable to assume control.
Errors occur, and he becomes overwhelmed with the enormousness
of the whole thing. Follows a state of brain fatigue and stupor,
during which he awaits events and takes little part in the control
of his machine. After such an accident, the pupil has generally no
recollection of what has happened. His memory seems to be partially
stunned. Under these circumstances, it seldom occurs that he resumes
flying--his temperament as a general thing proving to be unsuitable.

[Illustration: TYPES OF CRASHES.]

[Illustration: A TEXAS CRASH.

AT DESERONTO.

AT DESERONTO.]

[Illustration: R.A.F. CAN.--CRASHES ACCORDING TO CAUSES

TOTAL CRASHES 174]

It is important that “brain fatigue” should be sharply separated from
“fear.” The latter is rarely experienced in the air on the first few
solo flights, the pilot’s mind being far too much concerned with the
details of flying, watching the various instruments, and in checking
his position and direction in the air relative to the ground. Many
confess to a lurking sense of danger, but all say that it rarely if
ever asserts itself.

Turning again to the graph on page 218, and now keeping in mind the
classification of crashes, it is interesting to note that, owing to
the introduction of the Armour Heights system, crashes in which the
machine is totally wrecked were reduced from 53 in the month of June
to 21 in part of the month of November. “B” and “C” crashes in which
longerons are broken, were reduced from 43 in June to 12 in November.
“D” crashes, which are those affecting only the undercarriage or
planes, and are usually due to rough ground being insufficiently
allowed for, or too late a pull back on the control ere the machine
comes into contact with the earth, fell from 107 to 16. While
the general reduction is most gratifying, the improvement in the
acquirement of a delicate control necessary to make workmanlike
landings is remarkable.

It will be observed that although training was continually being
intensified, fatalities decreased from 1 in 1,760 hours’ flying in
July 1918, to 1 in 5,300 hours’ flying in October, 1918, and this
in spite of the fact that pilots were doing all aerial manoeuvres.
Official data from other training centres, where work was done on
varying types of machines, show 1 fatality for 1,170 hours’ flying.

[Illustration: R.A.F. CAN.--FLYING FATALITIES]

[Illustration: LAKE WORTH.

PART OF BENBROOK.]




THE R.F.C. IN TEXAS.


The entry of the United States into the war affected almost
immediately the programme of the R.F.C. in Canada. There was now next
door, instead of a neutral if friendly nation, a vast organization
associated with us in the greatest of all undertakings, and when
in April the O.C. was authorized to visit the War Department in
Washington and discuss a reciprocal scheme for training pilots, he
found the U.S. authorities animated by the keenest possible spirit.
The idea of coöperation was attractive to both services. It would
not only stimulate a most desirable comradeship between the two, but
would be of direct assistance to the U.S. Signal Corps in training
their tremendous reserves of admirable recruits, as well as possibly
obviate the necessity of the R.F.C. forming a fourth wing in British
Columbia, where the preparation of aerodromes was already under way.

The move was preceded by formal communications between the two
governments, but the details of organization, equipment and training,
on behalf of the British, rested with the O.C., R.F.C., Canada.
Briefly they were as follows:--

(1) The R.F.C. was to train ten squadrons for the U.S. Signal
Corps, comprising 300 pilots, 144 other flying officers, some 20
administrative and equipment officers and approximately 2,000
mechanics. This training was to be commenced immediately in Canada,
and completed at Fort Worth, Texas. All training equipment,
aerodromes, etc., in Canada to be provided by the R.F.C.

(2) The Aviation Section, United States Signal Corps was to provide
in Texas, and equip with all the necessary buildings, water supply,
etc., two aerodromes capable of accommodating 10 squadrons, and part
of a third for the Aerial Gunnery School; these areas to be occupied
and under the control of the R.F.C.

(3) The Aviation Section, United States Signal Corps was to provide
in Texas all aeroplanes, spares, running supplies (oil, gasoline,
etc.), office and barrack fixtures and other camp equipment. The
R.F.C. to supply gunnery, wireless and all other ground instructional
equipment.

(4) Each service would provide its own pay, clothing and
transportation, and draw rations on repayment during their stay in
each other’s country.

(5) The R.F.C. to supply all medical services in Canada, and vice
versa.

This general arrangement was found to be mutually acceptable, and it
was agreed, in addition, that the invaluable assistance of the I.M.B.
in Canada, should be continued in Texas by the establishment there of
a section of their purchasing staff.

Such was the proposal noted on the back of an envelope by the chiefs
of each service, and it was carried out by both to the letter.

The brigade was already acquainted with the splendid pilot material
available in the U.S., as many had enlisted in Canada, hoping to
reach France at the earliest possible moment. Their record lives, and
some of the success of the Corps is due to the admirable progress
they made in training. They came--studied hard, and got into the air
at every opportunity, breathless to join those forerunners whose
names were already written large.

[Illustration: CANADIAN WEATHER IN TEXAS.

TOWED TARGET FOR AERIAL GUNNERY.]

[Illustration: EVERMAN, TEXAS.

PORTION OF HICKS, TEXAS.]

Commencing early in July, 1917, the brigade received for training
from the U.S.S.C., about 1,400 enlisted men and cadets. A colonel
of the Signal Corps describes them as under-officered, unorganized,
unpaid, without records, and though one hesitates--practically
without uniforms. The immediate result for the R.F.C. was
administrative chaos, but, in due course, matters were smoothed out,
and when they returned south in the fall, they were already assuming
a semblance of entity as United States Aero Squadrons.

On September 24th, 1917, the advance party left for Texas, composed
of 4 U.S. officers and 50 men and 4 R.F.C. officers and 34 men,
constituting a wing headquarters and a fatigue party, who, arriving
in Fort Worth on September 26th, immediately proceeded to their
headquarters in that city. They found there were three fields located
north, south and west of Fort Worth, named, locally, Hicks, Benbrook
and Everman, but grouped under the Signal Corps title of Camp
Taliaferro, Fields Nos. 1, 2, and 3. Construction had been delayed
through various causes. Barracks and aerodromes were incomplete. At
one field building had been barely started. Water and light supply
and sewage disposal had not been finished. Thus, although every
effort was made to complete construction, it was nearly three months
before this was accomplished, entailing much delay, inconvenience and
some hardship on the squadrons occupying camps and quarters not ready
for them.

The first to arrive from Canada was the 17th Aero Squadron, U.S.S.C.,
which marched in to Hicks Field on October 17th. From that time
on one squadron arrived weekly until November 17th when the 42nd
and 43rd Wings R.F.C. and the balance of the Americans detrained,
preceded only by a few days by advanced headquarters staff.

There were now in Texas two R.F.C. Wings, the 42nd at Everman and
43rd at Benbrook, the 17th, 22nd, 27th, 28th Aero Squadrons and the
School of Aerial Gunnery at Hicks, advanced headquarters, R.F.C.,
headquarters U.S.S.C., Camp Taliaferro and the purchasing section of
the I.M.B. in Fort Worth.

Transportation arrangements for these units from Canada to Texas were
exceptionally good. The 42nd and 43rd Wings ceased flying on 14th
November and recommenced in Texas on 17th November, a loss of only
three days occasioned by a journey of approximately 1,600 miles.

It would not be amiss to mention the enormous amount of work thrown
on A.O., A.E., and Q.M. branches through the novel situation that
now existed. The U.S. owned the buildings, but the R.F.C. used and
were responsible for those they occupied. There were R.F.C. squadrons
and, beside them, American squadrons being trained by the R.F.C. but
administered by their own authorities. Aeroplanes, engines, oil,
gasoline, etc., were supplied by the U.S., but the R.F.C. directed
flying, and repaired and rebuilt machines and engines, drawing the
necessary spares from U.S. stores. The Aviation Department of the
I.M.B. transacted R.F.C. affairs as though in Canada, and with
equal facility. Cadets and men were being received continually for
training, and as continually trained and returned to their own
organizations. American railroads honoured transportation warrants
redeemable in Ottawa. The R.F.C. medical officers quarantined the
R.F.C., in which there were hundreds of Americans, against U.S. camps
a few miles away. Weekly train-loads of Canadian-made engines and
aeroplanes arrived, came under U.S. control and were immediately used
by the R.F.C.

The situation was, in short, as though an area in Texas had been
temporarily acquired by the British Empire, and in it members of
an Imperial force conducted their affairs with the utmost freedom.
There was friction of course--for no two great military systems can
work together with all their national traditions, usages, procedures
and regulations, without many minor and some major adjustments
being necessary. It was, however, the friction of two keen and
rival organizations pressing toward the same object. Difficulties
arose only to be met and overcome by the spontaneous goodwill and
friendship of both services.

[Illustration: BENBROOK, TEXAS.]

[Illustration: A DIVE AT “HUNGRY LIZZIE.”

SALVAGE.

TEXAS CRASHES.]

[Illustration: THE LOOP.

THE LOOP.]

[Illustration: CLASS INSTRUCTION.

GUNNERY IN TEXAS.]

Before moving to Texas many American cadets had nearly finished
their training. Their first flights in their own country were
over aerodromes situated amid open territory with no timber and
comparatively flat. Excellent material these men, the best the U.S.
could supply, most of them fresh from great American universities,
young, keen and quick to learn. There were very few who did not
turn out excellent pilots. The supply of machines was satisfactory,
the standard of flying was good, and daily acrobatics took place.
Formation flying was popular. On one occasion a formation of six
machines, all piloted by newly graduated cadets, were seen to loop
several times consecutively, retaining their formation, a most
unusual performance at that time at any aerodrome in the United
States.

A summing up of the work in Texas shows a total of 67,000 flying
hours between November 17th and April 12th, spent in turning out
1,960 pilots trained and partly trained, both U.S. and R.F.C.
Besides these, 69 non-flying officers and 4,150 men were trained in
their respective duties. The flying fatalities were 1.88% of pilots
trained--an excellent record. The medical percentage is equally good,
showing 3% incapacitated from all causes.

Flying conditions were found to differ somewhat from those in Canada.
The atmosphere was much dryer and less buoyant. Calm air was the
exception, despite the comparatively flat country. The temperature
range was much wider, and on the arrival of a “norther,” the air
became chilled with extraordinary rapidity, the thermometer dropping
from 70 to 20 degrees Fah. in a couple of hours. This sudden drop
was more trying to many than the colder but steadier temperature
of higher latitudes. Texas, though presumed a dry state, departed
this winter from its custom, and suffered heavy rainfalls and
even snow, which reduced the aerodromes at times to a drab plain
surfaced with a sticky blanket of mud, from which undercarriages and
propellers suffered grievously at times. No less than 40 propellers
were broken in one morning, and the average for one month was 10 per
day. So troublesome was the mud that finally the brigade was forced
to adopt the use of wire mesh mud guards. No provision had been
made for sub-draining any of the fields. These periods, however,
were but occasional. For the rest, the winter was one of favorable
weather with high, clear skies, dotted from daylight till dark with
innumerable machines.

Much admirable work was done by the personnel of both services, of
which perforce no record can be given. In one instance an American
squadron allotted to Hicks Field marched into new and unfinished
barracks. There was no camp equipment, no water or sewerage. The
hangars were congested with machines in packing cases, and there were
no tools, yet within eight days the packing cases had disappeared
and all machines were serviceable and ready to fly. A remarkable
performance for a unit of partially-trained men.

No account of the Texas experience would be complete without some
record of the spontaneous hospitality and goodwill shown by the
citizens of Fort Worth and the community in general. During Christmas
time, pneumonia was rampant at Camp Bowie, some six miles from
Fort Worth, where there were no less than 35,000 Texans, composing
the Panther Division. As a result the Canadians were quarantined.
This made no difference, however, to the all-hospitable Texan,
who extended to officers, cadets and mechanics so many and lavish
invitations that at the year’s end there was not a man who had not
personally experienced the goodwill of the South. The interest
created by the first arrival of the brigade in strange uniforms
and caps seemed to continue throughout the winter. No Flying Corps
man was allowed to walk, when every privately owned motor car was
at his service. Liaison duties were most admirably discharged by
the American officer who made it not only his particular duty but
pleasure to see that all newcomers were welcomed under his kindly
roof, and had every opportunity of meeting brother officers under the
most delightful circumstances.

[Illustration: “THE ROLL”--HALF-OVER.

THE “ROLL.”]

[Illustration: CALM SKIES.]

Fort Worth citizens subscribed the sum of $75,000 to provide funds
for the local branch of the American War Service Board, and rented
a large club room and dancing hall in the centre of the city, where
comfortable accommodation was found for men of both the American
and British services. This organization was under the management of
a “Big Brother,” who seemed born to the work. Canteen and dancing
halls were supervised by an organization, the Federated Ladies’ Clubs
of Fort Worth, in which each of the latter endeavoured to excel in
hospitality, and it fell on one memorable night that the Canadians
were entertained by the daughter of the President of the United
States.

The Country Club was at the disposal of visiting officers, who
will long remember the evenings spent in the best of fellowship.
The ever-present Y.M.C.A. saw to it that commodious huts and
writing rooms were furnished in all Canadian flying camps. It is
impossible, in short, to imagine any source of pleasure, interest or
entertainment which was not provided during these notable months in
the history of the brigade.

On the evening before the departure of the R.F.C. a smoking concert
was given by U.S. officers to their comrades, an entertainment which
was eloquent of the comradeship born of strenuous times of mutual
work, and prophetic of that still closer brotherhood which would
follow in the days of active service.

The appended copy of a letter from Major-General Kenly reveals his
generous appreciation of the effort of the R.F.C. personnel:--

  “WAR DEPARTMENT.
  “OFFICE OF THE CHIEF SIGNAL OFFICER,
  “WASHINGTON.
                                       “May 17, 1918.
  “Air Service Division
  Training Section.

  “FROM: Chief of Air Service.

  “TO: General Officer Commanding, Royal Air Force,
  Toronto, Canada.

  “SUBJECT: Reciprocal Agreement.

  “1. The reciprocal agreement made last autumn by yourself and the
  Chief Signal Officer of the Army having successfully accomplished
  its purpose, I desire to express to you my appreciation of the
  manner in which the Royal Air Force, under your directions, has
  fulfilled its part of the arrangement.

  “2. By its faithful and efficient work in the training of our
  cadets and enlisted personnel, the Royal Air Forces has conferred
  a great and practical benefit on the United States Air Service.

  “3. Equally important is the imponderable but undoubted benefit
  which has accrued to our men from instruction by and association
  with officers and men who have had practical experience, at
  the front, with the conditions which we are preparing to meet.
  This contact, so desired by all our forces and so particularly
  influential in the training of a wholly new arm of the service,
  would, but for your assistance, have been denied to all the men
  training for the Air Service in this country.

  “4. The following is quoted from the report of our Commanding
  Officer, Taliaferro Fields. ‘I am of the opinion that the
  reciprocal agreement between the Chief Signal Officer of the
  Army and the General Officer Commanding, Royal Flying Corps,
  has proven an entire success, and that outside of the training
  actually given at the fields here, the influence of the Royal
  Flying Corps in Texas and our association with that Corps in
  Canada has had a far-reaching and decidedly beneficial effect
  on our flying fields, throughout the United States.’ With the
  sentiment herein expressed I am in complete accord, and can wish
  no better for the United States Air Service than that it may
  duplicate the high endeavor and equally high accomplishment which
  has distinguished the Royal Flying Corps, and now distinguishes,
  in no less abundant measure, the Royal Air Force.

  “W. L. KENLY,
  “Major-General N.A.,
  “Chief of the Air Service.”

[Illustration: PART OF FORT WORTH, TEXAS.]

[Illustration: OFFICERS AND STAFF--ENGINE REPAIR PARK.]




ENGINE REPAIR PARK.


To the Engine Repair Park the brigade has looked for the main portion
of that mechanical work on which so much has depended, and it has not
looked in vain. The necessity for the establishment of this unit was
apparent from the first, it being put into action about the time when
flying might be said to have reached a permanent status. Some three
months later, in August, 1917, the unit was enlarged by provision for
aeroplane repair, and work of both types was done under one command.
With the rapidly increasing flying hours put in by the Corps, there
again appeared the necessity for still further enlargement, and the
unit was finally subdivided into Engine and Aeroplane Repair. This
system remained till the close of hostilities.

It is quite obvious that the mechanical condition of the power plant
of an aeroplane is of paramount importance, and, in consequence, no
expense or trouble was spared to put the Engine Repair Park on the
best possible basis. The equipment, which in the winter of 1917,
promised to be ample, soon proved insufficient, and in September,
1918, the Park moved into large and most completely fitted shops
in rented premises on King Street. In this building four floors
presented a scene of extreme activity, the work being so arranged as
to be progressive, finishing with the final tests before shipment.
During its life of some nineteen months, this Park completely
overhauled no less than 1,325 engines, of which all but thirty-five
were of the Curtiss 8-cylinder type. Records show that for a complete
overhaul, such as was given, an average of 300 hours’ work was
required. The total strength of the unit in November, 1918, was 125.

It is of interest to note that obligations covered the complete
dissembling and assembling of engines, the repair sections, situated
at the various wings, doing only a top overhaul, for which they were
suitably equipped.

During 1918, it became apparent that considerable saving could be
effected by carrying the work of the unit into the manufacture of
engines as well as their repair, and, in consequence, much time
and thought was given to the turning out of those integral parts
which, assembled, made up the complete engine. To such a pitch was
this carried that the point was reached at which only about twenty
individual parts out of several hundred were purchased, the balance
being the product of the Repair Park itself. It is estimated that
in this way some $30,000 was saved on the manufacture of Curtiss
engines, and some $20,000 additional when this economical system was
applied to the manufacture of machine gun parts. These estimates of
saving are probably low, owing to the fact that 50c. an hour was
allowed for bench work and $1.00 an hour for machine work.

The rarity of any serious engine trouble reported by the flying
wings, is a tribute not only to the admirably simple design of the
Curtiss engine, but also to the excellent work done by the Engine
Repair Park.

[Illustration: ENGINES MOUNTED FOR TEST.

THE STARTING END.

(NOTE PROTECTIVE SCREEN.)]

[Illustration: R.A.F. CAN.--MONTHLY STRENGTH OF ENGINE REPAIR PARK]

[Illustration: R.A.F. CAN.--ENGINE REPAIR PARK--ENGINES OVERHAULED
AND SHIPPED PER MONTH]




AEROPLANE REPAIR PARK.


This unit commenced operations as a separate organization on the 23rd
February, 1918, prior to which time both engine and aeroplane repairs
were made under the same administration. The work consisted of not
only rebuilding every machine which crashed, but also dismantling and
reassembling every aeroplane which had completed its flying time at
the various wings. The fact that 400 hours in the air was considered
to necessitate complete rebuilding, will indicate the extreme care
taken to ensure that no instructor or cadet took to the air in an
aeroplane which was not in perfect mechanical condition.

Entire dismantling was accomplished in every case, and after every
individual fitting and part had undergone various stages of repair
and inspection, it was sent forthwith to the technical stores, whence
it was reissued as required for construction of new machines. By this
means it was found feasible to salve and re-use not less than sixty
per cent. of the members and fittings of every machine received by
the unit.

In the early summer of 1918, the output of the Aeroplane Repair Park
(the quality of this output being always entirely satisfactory)
reached such a point that the brigade found it unnecessary to
continue the practice of buying complete machines from the Canadian
Aeroplanes Limited, and the latter undertook to supply only such
individual parts as the Repair Park was not equipped to make for
itself. Thus this organization proved its constantly increasing
importance.

A glance at the exterior of a machine gives no idea whatever of the
number of integral parts which go to make up a structure seemingly so
simple, and the fact that the parts are so numerous threw additional
work on the stores section, which was required at all times to keep
in stock an ample supply of members and fittings.

In addition to the work of salvaging machines, the unit had other
duties to perform, such as the repair of instruments, tires,
inner-tubes, radiators, metal fittings, wings, etc. The aeroplane
when dismantled presents a vastly different appearance to that of the
complete machine ready to take the air.

In all construction the progressive system was worked out, by which
machines, commencing at the first stage, moved on from section to
section, receiving at each point the necessary additional touches,
till at the end they emerged mechanically complete. The work was, in
fact exactly like that at the Canadian Aeroplanes Limited, with the
exception that in addition to new construction this unit shouldered
as well the system of salvaging, by which great economies were
without question effected. Over and above this, there went out from
the Repair Park a constantly increasing flow of wooden members, which
were absorbed by various flying units in repairs made on wings and
ailerons at these stations.

Two graphs, given herewith, show the fluctuation in the quantity of
work done, this fluctuation corresponding with demands made. These
will be found to synchronize closely with other data giving the
record of crashes, etc.

In a retrospection of the general operations of the brigade it has
been impossible to find a scene of operations better organized than
this Repair Park, or one of which the output was more uniformly
dependable and mechanically satisfactory.

[Illustration: MAN HOUR PRODUCTION]

[Illustration: MACHINES PASSED THROUGH

R.A.F. CAN.--AEROPLANE REPAIR PARK]

[Illustration: OFFICERS AND STAFF--AEROPLANE REPAIR PARK.]

[Illustration: OFFICERS AND STAFF--STORES DEPOT.]




STORES DEPOT.


Stores Depot has been the general receiving, distributing and
clearing house for all supplies and equipment used by the brigade,
and it is estimated that between 20,000 and 30,000 different types of
articles and appliances have been carried in its spacious premises.

Provision of this organization was recognized as an imperative
necessity at the very inception of the Corps. Its procedure has
been from the start greatly assisted by the fact that the Aviation
Department of the Imperial Munitions Board has acted as purchasing
agent, and has always placed its unique facilities at the service of
the R.A.F. and secured for the latter the very best possible terms
and deliveries procurable. In order to reduce as far as possible the
labor imposed upon the Imperial Munitions Board, the requirements
of each unit for a definite length of time were estimated, grouped
and submitted as one request. It will be understood that these
requirements covered all needs from socks to propellers. This
procedure is termed “provisioning.”

Purchased material, being received at Stores Depot, is subject to a
minute inspection, and no payments are made by the Munitions Board
until notification has been received from the inspection department
that the articles received are in classification and quantity exactly
what has been ordered. If this centralizing of receiving work should
be considered in any way unnecessary, it has only be to pointed
out that the receipt of purchased material is thereby enormously
simplified, and the duty of inspection is unified in one specially
qualified organization.

It is easily seen that without extreme care Stores Depot might have
accumulated an enormous quantity of innumerable articles, quantities
far beyond actual requirements of the various units for whom they
were purchased. In consequence, the practice has invariably been to
compile a schedule covering the needs for six months of each branch
of the service, and confine the stocks carried to these amounts.

The amount of work discharged by Stores Depot has been probably not
thoroughly appreciated, even by the various branches of the brigade.
Records show an average receipt per week for the last year of some
250 shipments, or between thirty or forty a day. These shipments
range from one case to seventy or eighty cases each, while from the
commencement of Stores to November, 1918, there have been placed with
the Aviation Department of the Imperial Munitions Board some 9,000
requisitions, each of which represents an average of ten different
types of articles, each requisition in turn has been covered by from
one to ten orders placed by the Munitions Board, while every order
has been covered by from one up to as high as one hundred invoices.

The responsibility of Stores Depot has involved not only receipt and
distribution of all supplies required by the brigade, but also the
maintenance of a form of record which will enable the government
auditors to trace the entire history of any article which has passed
through this organization, from the date of the order given for its
purchase up to the point at which it has reached the end of its
serviceable life and been written off.

It will, of course, be understood that supplies have been sent to the
various wings only upon a request being made by the latter, and it
is furthermore necessary that the type and amount of the equipment
which is being asked for coincide with the provision Stores Depot are
authorized to make, and the rate of consumption which is laid down as
being proper for the particular service involved. If, on the other
hand, any purchase is necessary of articles not carried as standard,
special authority is required to be granted before action is taken.

[Illustration: WINGS AND RUDDERS.

SPARES.]

[Illustration: PART OF STORES DEPOT.]

The move to Texas of a section of the Corps in October, 1917, and the
return of that section to Canada in April, 1918, threw additional
responsibility on Stores Depot organization, and shipments which
involved as many as twenty carloads per day were frequently sent out,
the total value of articles thus forwarded being over $2,000,000.
It was also of extreme importance that on the return of the Aerial
Gunnery School to its permanent quarters at Beamsville, this unit
should find itself equipped with the involved and often highly
technical scheduled supplies required for its special duty, and it
is to be recorded that this provision was admirably foreseen and
supplied.

In the Stores Depot, as well as in all other units, excellent service
has been rendered by lady civilian subordinates, and in October no
less than 184 were on the strength of this unit. There was required,
of course, the special training of those hitherto unskilled in these
particular duties, but the result has amply justified the trouble
taken. Over and above the civilian subordinates, there were on the
strength 17 officers and 217 other ranks. All have contributed to
a notable degree to the success of the work of other units, which
without a constant dependable supply of necessary equipment would
have been soon rendered ineffective.




THE PAY OFFICE.


The Pay Officer arrived in Canada on the 11th February, 1917, with
four non-commissioned officers of the Imperial Army Pay Corps and
eight boxes of army books and forms, the latter, however, being
practically useless. Canadian conditions were vastly different from
those in England.

A suitable office was located at 20 Victoria Street. The Pay Officer
then immediately notified the press of his arrival and address, and
work began on February 17th, necessary funds being drawn from the War
Office through the British Remount Commission in Montreal.

Owing to values in Canada varying widely from those prevailing in
England, it was essential to tread very warily regarding the fixing
of rates of pay and allowances and innumerable other points known
only to those who have experience in an Army Pay Office.

Once in the swing, and after numerous conferences and interviews with
Imperial and Canadian authorities, the department became a hive of
industry. Its extraordinary growth may be seen from the following
table:

                   Total Cash    Total Cash        No. of       No. of
  Month            expended on   issued to         Sub-         cheques
                   all services  Sub-accountants   accountants  issued
  February, 1917   $ 2,000.00      $ 1,500.00          2            26
  July, 1917       236,572.90      152,812.14         19          1354
  January, 1918    588,610.97      375,164.47         19          2926
  July, 1918       782,383.76      469,291.57         18          4036

The number of claims for separation allowance to wives of cadets,
warrant officers and other ranks paid in February, 1917, was fifteen.
At present 1,579 claims are issued every month. Similarly the
payments to dependents have increased during the same period from 2
to 1,684. The expenditure incurred for the above services to the end
of November, 1918, is approximately $1,200,000.

[Illustration: PAY OFFICE STAFF.]

[Illustration: 90TH SQUADRON, CAMP RATHBUN.]

The total number of cadets, warrant officers, non-commissioned
officers and airmen who have been dealt with through the Department
has reached the total of 18,232.

The total expenditure by the Pay Officer on all services from
February, 1917, to December 31, 1918, has been $12,555,000.

For the reader’s further information, all units hold sub-accounts
with the Pay Officer for the payment of their personnel, each
sub-accountant rendering a monthly statement, properly vouched, to
show how the money advanced has been disposed of.

The Pay Officer’s further duties involve also the keeping of each
man’s account on a ledger sheet, showing clearly by monthly periods
the credits due and the debits made against each account. In
addition, a ledger account is kept of the amounts due and paid to
the wives and dependents of airmen. The Pay Office also assumes the
payment and examination of all railway warrants, and all rations
in kind issued to all ranks. This includes the adjustment between
the Imperial and U.S. Governments for rations and supplies issued
in Canada and Texas under the reciprocal training agreement. The
examination and payment of all accounts from civilian authorities for
damage to private property on account of crashes and breakdowns of
aircraft and mechanical transport falls to this department.

The Victory Loan of 1917, was by arrangement with the Pay Officer,
inasfar as the R.A.F. was concerned, paid for by instalments through
allotment from the men’s accounts. The total of $350,000 was
subscribed in this manner.

As to the staff, one officer and four non-commissioned officers were
responsible for the training of an ever-increasing personnel, and
the effort was made to utilize each man’s civilian experience to the
utmost. Bank clerks and accountants who enlisted into the R.A.F.
were, upon request, usually allotted for duty with this department,
thus ensuring efficient ground work. Each was thoroughly schooled,
promotion by merit being the incentive. This practice has always
been adhered to, and has been found most satisfactory. The total of
men clerks is now 38, in charge of a flight clerk. There are but two
officers.

The female subordinates were mostly obtained from the public schools
and colleges, and, after training, their work has been as duly
recognized as that of the men. Most have been with the department
for more than twelve months. This speaks well for their work and
efficiency. The female staff numbers 41, with one lady superintendent
in charge.

It is desired in conclusion to point out that the demobilization
of the Force in Canada has seriously taxed the efforts of this
office, but, taking past experience as a guide, no trouble is being
experienced in disposing of the tremendous detail involved in
returning the corps to civil life.

[Illustration: TOP OVERHAUL.

TOP OVERHAUL.]

[Illustration: MEN’S KITCHEN--CAMP BORDEN.]

[Illustration: CADET BARRACK BLOCKS--LONG BRANCH.]

[Illustration: MECHANICAL TRANSPORT SECTION.]




MECHANICAL TRANSPORT SECTION.


This organization came into official existence on March, 17th, 1917,
with a strength of one officer, fifteen non-commissioned officers and
airmen, and some fifteen vehicles which had been brought out from
England by the advance party of the wing.

By October, 1918, the number of vehicles had grown to about 400
(exclusive of side cars) these being looked after by a staff of some
two hundred and thirty non-commissioned officers and airmen, thirty
lady drivers, and a clerical staff of thirty-six. The vehicles were
distributed throughout the various sections of the brigade, all major
sections being so organized as to make their own repairs without
reference to the central establishment in Toronto.

Housed at first in rented premises in the Wolseley Garage, Toronto,
the headquarters establishment was moved early in August, 1917, to
its new building in Dupont Street. This structure was approximately
180 ft. × 150 ft., being laid out in bays, and so arranged as
to afford both the maximum storage space and the best possible
accommodation for repair work. The latter in turn was subdivided into
branches, each taking over its special duty as applied to various
features of repair work, thus ensuring that a car which came in for
overhaul moved constantly forward until, on completion, it had passed
through the hands of every section concerned. Arrangements were so
perfected that a complete overhaul could be completed by noon on
the third day from commencement, and three days later the vehicle,
completely painted and varnished, stood ready for either storage or
reissue.

The salvage of spare or worn parts proved, of course, to be a point
demanding special attention, inasmuch as a great portion of the
expense connected with overhaul is invariably to be found in such
replacements. Under the arrangements made, all worn parts were
classified and, wherever possible, repaired and stored so as to be
ready for re-issue when needed. It is reported by the officer in
charge of this section that the average repair output per week was
some nineteen vehicles of all descriptions, heavy and light, this
work being accomplished in addition to maintenance, washing, etc., of
all the other vehicles in the headquarters section.

The transport purchased locally proved most efficient, and in the
Toronto section 1,200-miles-run was averaged per day. Every vehicle
carried a log book, in which its duty was carefully detailed, and all
vehicles were completely rebuilt twice a year.

In October, 1918, the section, again expanding, occupied large
premises on Avenue Road, reserving the former building for repair
work only. The duties of various units of the brigade called for
transportation work of a widely varying nature, so it came that the
fleet of official vehicles presented an extreme variety, ranging
from Packard ambulances--admirable vehicles specially constructed
for hospital work at high speed over rough ground--to repair lorries
and motorcycles. Gasoline tanks for service on aerodromes proved
invaluable, and fire protection was distinctly aided by the purchase
of chemical trucks which were stationed at various units.

The work of the section was extended to the carrying of local
mails between the various units in Toronto. This proved to be most
advantageous. No record of the section would, furthermore, be
complete without some reference to the duties performed by the lady
drivers who patriotically volunteered for this service. Their history
is one of entire success, both as to the duty performed collectively
and individually, and also having in view the all-important fact that
by the acceptance of service so finely offered the brigade was able
to release many men for other and imperative work in all sections of
its operations.

[Illustration: IN FORMATION.

A SNAPSHOT.]

[Illustration: ASSISTANT PROVOST-MARSHAL, OFFICERS AND STAFF.]




THE ASSISTANT PROVOST MARSHAL


An Assistant Provost Marshal was appointed on February 1st, 1918.
This was deemed advisable owing to the large number of men enlisted
in the Royal Air Force, Canada. It further relieved the Canadian
Military Police Corps of the extra work of supervising airmen in the
streets of Toronto.

On the formation of this office there were approximately thirty
enlisted men to carry out the duties of Royal Air Force policemen.
The number has since been increased to fifty, whose duties consist
of patrolling the streets of Toronto, and generally supervising
the discipline and movements of airmen when on leave in the city.
They have also carried out all necessary escort duties in bringing
absentees back to their units.

A city guard room was opened in April, 1918, situated at the corner
of Church and Wellington Streets, and later moved to the basement of
the Records building, at the corner of Duke and George Streets.

In July, 1918, the Royal Air Force detention rooms and police
barracks were opened at 1322 Dufferin Street, for the dual purpose of
receiving airmen sentenced to undergo detention and to accommodate
the personnel of the Assistant Provost Marshal’s staff. These
barracks are under the supervision of an officer specially detailed
for the duty.

Since July of 1918, three men have been continually on duty in New
York City, under the direction of an officer of the Royal Air Force,
to supervise the discipline of airmen when on leave in that city.

In the above connection it will be seen that considering the many
thousands of men on the strength of the brigade, the staff of the
A.P.M. was extremely small. No better evidence could be given of the
excellent discipline and behavior of the Force.




ROYAL ENGINEERS’ SECTION.


Early in 1917 two engineer officers were appointed to the staff of
the Officer Commanding, R.F.C., Canada, for technical duty in the
selection of aerodrome sites and construction work generally. The
former occupied the initial period of their service, but with the
enlargement of the Corps came the necessity of a Royal Engineers
section to deal with affairs of maintenance and repair. It was
considered that the best results would be secured by posting
detachments of this unit to various stations, etc., to which, under
an R.E. non-commissioned officer, they were attached for discipline,
pay, rations, etc.

Under these arrangements, the R.E. section carried out its
obligations until the end of August, 1918, when on account of the
shortage of men who were both of military age and of required trades,
it was decided that the maintenance work performed up to this time by
the various subdivisions of the R.E. section, should be taken over by
the construction section of the Aviation Department of the Imperial
Munitions Board.

The method of carrying out maintenance work was thus changed, but the
responsibility for inspection and general supervision still devolved
upon the headquarters branch of the R.E. section. The strength of the
latter was reduced from an authorized establishment of 135 to a staff
of four officers, four or five draughtsmen and a sufficient number of
clerks. The duty performed by the unit still covered, as before, the
general design of all buildings whether technical, instructional or
barracks, coöperation with the construction section of the Munitions
Board in the securing of service of water, power, light, etc., and,
in general, such responsibilities as fall upon a firm of consulting
engineers. To these must be added the fact that this section was
responsible to the General Officer Commanding, and acted as
technical go-between and adviser between him and the Munitions Board
in all constructional and in many technical matters.

[Illustration: OFFICERS AND STAFF, ROYAL ENGINEERS’ SECTION.]

[Illustration: “CHURCH UNION” AT CAMP BORDEN.]

In retrospect it appears that the arrangement worked exceedingly
well. The coöperation of the Munitions Board relieved the unit
of all except very minor construction. During the period of this
coöperation, some 400 buildings were specially erected by the former,
some 40 other existing buildings altered and fitted, together with
the provision of innumerable services of varied nature. Records show
the completion of six aerodromes with accommodation for 22 squadrons,
and the establishment of an Armament School at Hamilton and a Cadet
Wing at Long Branch. The average cost for barrack accommodation was
approximately $235 per man. In this connection it is interesting to
note that at a time when men were becoming extremely scarce owing to
the annulment of transfer from R.F.C. to the R.A.F., the employment
and accommodation of women on a fairly large scale was discussed.
Analysis of building costs showed that barrack accommodation would in
this case cost some $430 per head, owing to the necessity of special
provision. The scheme was not unnaturally abandoned.




CAMP BORDEN.


This camp, the summer home of the 44th Wing for the year 1918,
represented the first structural activities of the unit in Canada.
By most energetic methods it was transformed from a sandy desert,
and became probably the finest flying camp in North America, the
Department of Militia and Defence having put at the disposition of
the unit approximately 1,000 acres adjoining the C.E.F. camp of a
similar name. The work of construction, which began at the end of
January, 1917, progressed so fast that flying began early in April.

Never probably in the history of Canadian construction has a scene
of greater activity been presented than was observed at Borden
during this period under the direction of the late Colonel Low,
backed up by an R.E. officer lent by the Department of Militia and
Defence. Work progressed unceasingly in a temperature often 20° to
30° below zero. Buildings sprang up at night under the glare of arc
lamps, and physical difficulties one after the other were met only
to be conquered. Within two weeks 1,700 men and 200 teams had been
transported and were at work.

Hundreds of acres of sandy soil were sown with grass seed, thousands
of stumps were uprooted and numberless hillocks levelled. An
excellent road system, a first rate water supply and electrical
system were all provided, together with special telephone
communication to Toronto and neighboring towns.

The type of building adopted was retained for all subsequent
construction, and has proved to give a maximum of comfort with a
minimum of expense.

[Illustration: OFFICERS AND STRENGTH, 44TH WING, CAMP BORDEN.]

[Illustration: OFFICERS, 44TH WING, CAMP BORDEN.]

At the close of hostilities, Camp Borden had accommodation for 122
officers, 500 cadets, 120 warrant officers and sergeants, and 900
rank and file. A few illustrations of typical buildings are
given, together with photographs of the strength at the cessation of
hostilities.

The surrounding country is level, and affords many opportunities for
landing. To the north stretches the great expanse of Lake Huron, to
the east lies Lake Simcoe, and 50 miles to the south is the shore of
Lake Ontario. To those who visited Borden when the air was full of
machines, there has always been something peculiarily fascinating
in the wide, clear skies and unquestionable atmosphere of space and
height which is noticeable.

During its occupancy, the 44th Wing did much to improve the camp,
and the energetic measures taken by the officer commanding for the
comfort and enjoyment of his unit will long be remembered. A large
concrete swimming pool, 100 feet by 40 feet was built, a cement
tennis court of exceptional excellence was constructed, and a golf
course of 9 holes laid down by first rate professionals, arrangements
being made whereby, for the expenditure of a few cents, all could
enjoy this most inviting of sports. Games, football and all types of
physical exercise were indulged in, and it was impossible to find
within the boundaries of the corps a more complete programme of
physical relaxation.

The chart on page 291 shows the number of cadets passed through this
wing. It should be remembered, however, that until the formation of
the School of Aerial Gunnery in April, 1918, at Beamsville, the 44th
Wing assumed this instruction. The unit occupied Camps Leaside and
Armour Heights during the summer and winter of 1917, but for the rest
of its active history its home has been at Camp Borden.




LONG BRANCH.


At first the scene of the initial flying activity of the brigade,
i.e., that of “X” and “Y” Squadrons, Long Branch subsequently became
the home of the Cadet Wing. The area covers approximately 100 acres,
its use being kindly granted by the Department of Militia and Defence.

During the summer of 1917, cadets were housed under canvas. When
autumn came, the unit was split between camps Mohawk and Borden,
then vacated by units proceeding to Texas, and returned in April to
a larger tented city on the former ground. During the summer of 1918
it was decided that permanent accommodation be provided, this being
due to the fact that it was not contemplated that the brigade should
again visit Texas. By the autumn most excellent provision had been
made for 30 officers, 1,200 cadets, 68 warrant officers and sergeants
and 1,200 rank and file.

The camp is excellently laid out, supplied with power and light from
the transmission lines of the Hydro-Electric Power Commission, and
was complete with every provision for the instruction, comfort and
amusement of the large number of cadets on the strength.

Hospital accommodation at this unit was especially centralized, and
arrangements provided that technical instruction be given to patients
so far as their condition permitted. The Cadet Wing was always
prominent in sports, and during the summer of 1918 several racing
shells were purchased and afforded much enjoyment along the shores
of Lake Ontario, which lies immediately on the south boundary of the
camp. Here also constant interest was occasioned by the passage of
machines en route to the School of Aerial Fighting at Beamsville.




DESERONTO.


The Town of Deseronto is on the north shore of Lake Ontario, some 130
miles east of Toronto. Between it and the main body of the lake, lies
the island county of Prince Edward. Here, at points three miles west
and one and a half miles north, were selected the two aerodromes of
camps Mohawk and Rathbun, the former being part of an Indian reserve,
the use of which was secured through the agency of the Department
of Indian Affairs at Ottawa, the latter being a level farm owned by
a prominent family in the town of Deseronto. Work commenced during
April, 1917, and was sufficiently far advanced to enable machines to
take the air in the following month.

The technical equipment at Mohawk ultimately consisted of twelve
flight sheds (four squadrons), with complete provision for aeroplane
repair and ground instruction, the engine repair work being done
in rented sheds in the town of Deseronto. The aerodrome itself was
unusually level and the surrounding country fairly open. A large
amount of flying took place, of course, over water. Within easy reach
to the eastward lies that exquisite expanse of the St. Lawrence River
which encircles the Thousand Islands.

The camp buildings, centrally heated, crowned an eminence lying
between the aerodrome and the water’s edge, a beautiful site which
commanded an excellent view of the adjacent country. Mohawk, with the
neighboring camp of Rathbun, was occupied during the early summer of
1917 by the 43rd Wing, headquarters administration being housed in
the Town of Deseronto, from which both camps could easily be reached.

The development of training, confined at first to aerial work, was
carried to the point of giving ground and gunnery instruction, and an
excellent range was constructed near the barrack buildings. Water
was drawn from the lake nearby and chlorinated for use, while ample
electrical facilities were secured from the transmission circuits of
the Provincial Hydro-Electric system.

By November, 1918, the accommodation of this unit was sufficient for
71 officers, 320 cadets, 69 warrant officers and sergeants, and 450
rank and file.

Camp Rathbun, one and a half miles north of Deseronto, was
topographically very similar to Mohawk, but comprised a lesser
acreage. During the autumn of 1918, the accommodation there was also
increased, and a central heating plant erected in order to keep all
buildings thoroughly comfortable during the winter months. There was
provision for 53 officers, 246 cadets, and 330 other ranks. Water was
chlorinated and drawn through the municipal system of the town of
Deseronto, and electrical energy secured as at Mohawk.

Both the above camps were occupied by the 43rd Wing during the summer
of 1917, and by the 42nd Wing during the summer of 1918. In the
intervening winter, Camp Mohawk afforded accommodation for one half
of the Cadet Wing held in Canada in training during that particular
period.

Wing headquarters have always been in Deseronto, and there also,
during the summer of 1918, permanent housing was erected for that
section of the occupying wing engaged in repair, motor transport and
similar work. Here too was housed the headquarters staff.

Women civilian subordinates were largely employed at Deseronto,
making their temporary homes in the town, and radiating out to the
two flying camps. In spite of apparent scanty accommodation the
arrangement worked here, as elsewhere, to the definite advantage of
the Corps.

[Illustration: R.A.F. CAN.--OUTPUT OF CADETS--42^{ND}, 43^{RD}, &
44^{TH} WINGS]

[Illustration: REPAIR SECTION--CAMP MOHAWK.]

Telephone communication connected all units, and a private wire was
secured between wing headquarters and headquarters in Toronto. The
Canadian Northern Railway immediately serves the town, and the Grand
Trunk Railway Company’s lines pass within the short distance of
seven miles, and were very frequently used. The roads in the camps’
vicinity have been considerably improved by the Corps. A noticeable
increase in the commercial life of the community has taken place
since this section of the brigade took up its residence.




SPORTS.


The instructions of the Air Ministry that sports should be encouraged
in all possible forms, met with the keenest approval from all members
of the Force, and as a result great advantage was secured in keeping
the physical condition of all ranks at the highest possible point.
During its first year’s history the Corps was in the throes of
organization, and with the exception of individual sports meetings
held at various stations, there was no possibility of organizing
any general system. A representative football team was, however,
formed in March of 1917, which, playing in the Ontario Provincial
League, had by the end of the season won a silver trophy known as the
Shamrock Cup, together with a gold medal for each player, and, as a
finale, journeyed to Montreal and defeated the well known Grand Trunk
Railway Team by 3 goals to 0, after a hard fought game.

Hockey presented too much of a problem to be faced during the first
winter, owing to the fact that there were not at the disposal of
the various units sufficient rinks of the required dimensions. On
the removal of part of the unit to Texas, however, the question of
sports was definitely taken up, and the general sports committee,
then appointed, arranged at once for inter-wing matches which proved
a constant source of interest and rivalry. At the end of the season,
the 42nd Wing led in soccer football, with a record of 26 goals as
against 11 secured by opponents in 5 matches. This wing won every
game it played.

It was quite natural that with such an excellent reputation, the
R.A.F. should be invited to send its representatives to play in the
North Texas Soccer Football League. Here, too, a very successful
programme was carried out. No game was lost out of five played, and,
as a result, the Spalding Trophy, presented each year to the
champion team of the League, became the property of the R.F.C. As a
token of appreciation of the services rendered by Mr. Frank Morris,
a prominent sportsman of Fort Worth, the R.F.C. sports committee
presented a shield for competition among the school teams of the Fort
Worth League.

[Illustration: TILTING.

“THE LONG AND SHORT OF IT!”]

[Illustration: CAMP BORDEN REPRESENTATIVE TEAM.]

Sports led, in natural sequence, to entertainment, and while it
is impossible in this history to give the details of the various
concerts and entertainments provided by talent of the R.F.C., it must
in fairness be stated that these occasions brought out an astonishing
and varied amount of talent, which was keenly appreciated by
innumerable Texan friends and the unit at large. On one such occasion
nearly $1,200 remained as net profit, and on another some $800, these
two sums being divided between various funds.

On the return of this section of the Force to Canada in April, no
time was lost in opening a new and wider field of operation. A
representative R.F.C. team was enrolled in the Ontario Provincial
Football League, and inter-unit teams were also selected. A very
successful eleven was entered in the local Church and Mercantile
Cricket League, and the year 1918 saw great activity in all sports,
in spite of the difficulty in securing the necessary time and place
for training. The record of the football team showed that out of 12
games played, 7 were won, 3 lost and 2 drawn, with 33 goals scored as
against 18 by opponents.

In the final match for the championship, the R.A.F. players lost,
owing largely to sickness then prevalent.

The inter-unit football league was led at the end of the season by
the 43rd Wing.

Baseball was, for a time, followed closely, and some excellent talent
discovered, especially in the junior units, but it was found to
interfere somewhat with other games, and was therefore temporarily
suspended.

Boxing took always a prominent part in the athletics of the Corps,
and representatives included the feather-weight champion of Canada,
the middle-weight champion of America, the 115 lbs. champion of
Canada and the welter-weight champion of the West.

At Borden, aquatic sports were prominent, owing to the fact that an
admirable swimming tank had been constructed at this unit. In an
aquatic contest the plunge for distance was won, not unnaturally, by
a pearl diver from Jamaica, who plunged fifty feet.

Cricket, although a continual source of pleasure and interest was,
so far as concerns the brigade, under a handicap, owing to lack of
practice and the impossibility of analyzing the merits of individual
players. There was discovered, however, a valuable acquisition in
an ex-Kent County colt, who was a first-rate class bowler, and was
backed up by an extremely steady sergeant-major. Both achieved many
successes during the year.

Outstanding in the history of R.A.F. sports are three events. The
first was the first annual Sports Day held on August 17th, 1918, at
the Island Stadium, Toronto. The second the joint C.E.F. and R.A.F.
Sports at Exhibition Camp on September 7th, and third the National
Championship Meet at the Great Lakes Training Centre, Chicago, from
20th to 23rd of September, 1918. The first meet, at the Island
Stadium was a great success, and will be long remembered by those who
participated. The day was perfect, the entries numerous (these of
course having been subject to prior elimination tests at the various
units) and an excellent track was available. The 456 entries received
for various events were reduced to a suitable number, and some 12,000
people filled the great tiers of benches which surround the ground.
Both in point of records made, and in the keen sportsmanlike spirit
in which the whole affair was carried out, this meet will long remain
as representative of a contest exhibiting the very best desirable
quality. A Beamsville cadet carried off the championship cup for
the greatest number of points, a remarkable athlete from Dartmouth
College. This contestant won no less than five firsts.

[Illustration: R.A.F. REPRESENTATIVE SOCCER TEAM, 1916.]

[Illustration: “WELL OVER!”

THE CHAMPION.]

The joint C.E.F. and R.A.F. meet took place on September 7th. The
latter maintained its reputation for sportsmanship, and succeeded in
winning the majority of the contests.

The last large Meet in which the brigade participated was at the
Great Lakes Training Station near Chicago. The Corps was somewhat
handicapped by having limited time for preliminary training, but,
in spite of this, captured four firsts, these being won by the same
cadet who had previously covered himself with laurels at the Island
Stadium. Such was the success of the R.A.F. on this occasion, that
special congratulations were received from the Secretary of State
through the Director of Training at the Air Ministry, London. With
the coming of winter in 1918 came also orders for demobilization
and, in consequence, the large programme of the sports committee was
perforce abandoned.

In retrospect it appears that the athletics practised have been
of the greatest possible value, not only in the maintenance of
first-rate physical condition, but also in the fostering of all those
principles of sportsmanship and good fellowship without which a
military unit can never realize its highest character and efficiency.




ACKNOWLEDGMENTS.


It is desired to give official and universal thanks of the brigade
for the great services rendered by many organizations and individuals
during its two years’ work in Canada. From the first it was
recognized that while military training was the object of the Corps,
there were other phases of the life of the personnel that were of
primary importance. That the work of training has been successful
is due in no small degree to the fact that all ranks have benefited
both temperamentally and socially by the generous thoughtfulness so
continually extended.

No sooner had the wing been formed than the late Colonel Hamilton
Merritt and Mrs. Merritt, of Toronto, presented two training machines
as an indication of their keen interest in the progress of the flying
arm of the Imperial services. Later the City of Toronto followed this
example with three machines, Mr. James Carruthers with a similar
gift, and the Province of Ontario provided two more.

Colonel Merritt’s donation commemorated the battles of Queenston and
Lundy’s Lane, in October, 1812, and July, 1814, respectively; while
Mr. Carruthers’ machines were named after three cities in which the
donor’s interests were principally centred.

[Illustration: FIRST CANADIAN JN4 MACHINE AT LONG BRANCH.]

[Illustration: SECOND PRESENTATION MACHINE GIVEN BY THE LATE COLONEL
MERRITT.]

[Illustration: 85TH SQUADRON, CAMP MOHAWK.]

[Illustration: LONGWOOD.]

The Department of Education of the Ontario Government was most
generous in providing splendid libraries, made up of thousands of
specially selected books. These were sent, free of cost, to the
various units, and proved of the greatest possible interest and value.

To the Young Men’s Christian Association, the Young Women’s
Christian Association, the Aero Club, originators of the Aviation
Fund, to those warm-hearted ladies under whose energy Longwood
Convalescent Home did such splendid work for the brigade, to those
who were responsible for the King Street Hostess House, and to many
others, most grateful acknowledgments are made.

To the omnipresent Y.M.C.A., the members of the brigade owe many and
sincere thanks. Animated by the admirable spirit which has always
characterized its activities, it seems to have made a special effort
to be of service particularly to the cadets and rank and file on
the strength of the Canadian Corps. At Camp Borden, the “Y” erected
a very large building, splendidly equipped for various purposes, a
building of such size as to flout the name of hut, by which it is
officially termed. At Long Branch, another was approaching completion
just as this unit demobilized. In Toronto, the “Y” doors have
invariably been thrown open to all men in uniform, and membership
accorded without any fee whatever. At the Central building on College
Street, special provision was made to meet the desires of the
soldiers in their leisure hours, and the splendid swimming pool, one
of the finest on the continent, was at the disposal of all soldiers
of the King. To such an extent was this kindness appreciated, that
members of the Royal Air Force were in the majority among those who
took advantage of these privileges.

The inner man was especially remembered, and the “Y” cafeteria proved
immensely popular. On Victoria Street was a much frequented building
for the exclusive use of men in uniform, and the Red Triangle Club
soon became the recognized meeting place for rank and file in the
city. In consequence, accommodation was constantly on the increase.
Here the dining hall service was doubly attractive, being made
possible by the voluntary labor of a number of Toronto ladies. It was
a club in every sense except one, in that membership is extended only
to those who had signified their readiness to serve their country.

The Y.M.C.A. furnished and managed Hostess Houses at Beamsville,
Long Branch, Deseronto, Leaside and Camp Borden. This proved a
delightful variation from camp routine, and excellent light lunches
were provided at most reasonable prices, the latter being especially
enjoyed by the girls employed by the R.A.F. This organization also
secured for the summer months of 1918, a large residence on St.
George Street adjoining the School of Military Aeronautics, which
will long be remembered by countless cadets who availed themselves of
its hospitality.

The Longwood Convalescent Home, the use of which was kindly donated
by Mrs. Charles Beatty through the Canadian Aviation Aid Club, has
proved absolutely invaluable in nursing convalescents back to health
and strength. It is charmingly situated in some ten acres of grounds
about five miles north of Toronto, and being on the main road is
accessible both by motor and electric tram.

The upkeep of Longwood has always been a matter of pride and
pleasure to the Force. It was formally opened on July 30th, 1917, by
Major-General W. A. Logie, C.B., C.F.A.--since Justice Logie--who was
at that time General Officer Commanding, Military District No. 2. The
furniture, which was of a most comfortable and complete description,
including everything imaginable for the amusement of the patients,
together with all linen and men’s wear, were provided by the Aviation
Club, which body has been since its inception a continual source of
comfort and help to the brigade.

[Illustration: 84TH SQUADRON, CAMP MOHAWK.]

[Illustration: INSTRUCTIONAL STAFF, “X” SQUADRON, LONG BRANCH.

FIRST BATCH OF CADETS, “X” SQUADRON, LONG BRANCH.]

In the spring of 1918, Longwood Annex was opened, a commodious
house standing in the same grounds, and which had a capacity for an
additional 24 patients, making 48 in all; but so popular was Longwood
that, during this last summer, tents and marquees were pitched on
part of the large lawn, accommodating not less than 50 additional
patients. It will be thus seen that about 100 men at a time have
been the recipients of most thoughtful care and attention at this
Home. Its actual administration was carried out by the Canadian Army
Medical Corps through the Base Hospital, and by two excellent nursing
sisters who were continually in charge. Nothing was more satisfactory
than a visit to this delightful spot, in which, surrounded by garden
and orchard, so many healing days were passed by the men of the
Force, while above them continually soared the machines of Armour
Heights, only a short mile away.

The cost of alterations, repairs and various additions which
completed the attractive charm of Longwood was borne by the strength
of the R.A.F.,--$9,800 being raised in voluntary subscriptions from
all ranks, and by the sale of waste paper from the various units.
Altogether over 850 men have been privileged to convalesce in this
admirable institution, and not once has there been any slackening of
effort in the valuable service rendered by Mrs. Beatty and the ladies
of the Canadian Aviation Aid Club.

Other work of the Club covered an extension of branch organization
in most towns and cities in Canada, where appeals for donations were
sent out and met with a generous response in comforts and money.
Since the Club was affiliated with the R.A.F. Air Committee in
London, England, a special effort was made to aid its endeavors, and
a sum of nearly $7,000 had been forwarded to parent headquarters in
England by the middle of August, 1918. This was subdivided between
the R.A.F. Hospital, the Prisoner’s Fund and the Comfort Fund.

The King Street Hostess House, organized by private individuals, was
a down-town rallying point for men in both American and Imperial
services, and the cadets and airmen of the brigade comprised a great
majority of the visitors.

Mrs. Chester Martin and Mrs. Martin Jones, the wife and daughter of
the American Consul at Toronto, and Mrs. Ransom, associated with
themselves a number of ladies whose voluntary duty it was to make the
place exceptionally attractive, and to minister to practically all
the needs of uniformed visitors.

The Aero Club of Canada, originated with the visit to the Dominion
of the late Colonel C. J. Burke, D.S.O., R.F.C., in 1915, and a
recommendation made by him that an organization be formed to control
the granting of aeronautical certificates.

In July, 1915, the late Colonel William Hamilton Merritt had an
audience with the Dominion Government at Ottawa and was then assured
that every official facility would be given to any organization which
might aid the Naval and Military authorities in Canada in securing
trained pilots. From this interview developed the formation of the
Aviation Fund, and later arose the Aero Club of Canada. It was
incorporated in December, 1916, and the by-laws adopted at its first
meeting provided that all flying officers of the Allies in Canada be
made honorary members if they so desired. The first annual meeting
took place on March 14th, 1918.

Recruiting for the R.F.C. was given special attention by the Club
from its inception, a committee being formed to assist in the
obtaining of cadets. The official report of this committee states
that thirty local organizations had been formed to obtain candidates
throughout Ontario, and that some 3,000 lawyers and clergymen were
circularized, as also all college and university students in the
Province. The press was used very largely to forward this work.
Six thousand application enlistment forms for R.F.C. cadets were
distributed in Ontario, and this work carried on till October 12th,
1917, when the Royal Flying Corps took over the local offices and
shouldered all its own recruiting.

All cadets of the R.F.C. are honorary members of the Aero Club
of Canada. The flying personnel of the Corps found the club and
reading rooms (established by the courtesy of the Canadian Military
Institute) most valuable in their leisure hours.

As at present constituted, the Club is affiliated with the Royal Aero
Club of London, England. Its membership is comprised, amongst others,
of some 3,000 members of the R.F.C. personnel, and it has of late
been authorized to issue international aeronautical certificates to
pilots who have qualified in training.

An irreparable loss was suffered by the death of Colonel Hamilton
Merritt, in November, 1918, whose energy, generosity and unfailing
enthusiasm had from the first been the chief factor in a most
successful history of progress.

To the Aero Club falls the credit for the inauguration of the first
Canadian aerial mail. A request was made that the Royal Air Force
undertake transportation, all other arrangements being carried out
by the Aero Club. The first mail, via the air route, left Toronto
for Montreal on June 30th, 1918. This machine, the C-203, piloted by
Capt. B. A. Peck with Corporal E. W. Mathers as passenger, arrived
at Deseronto, the first stage, in 120 minutes. The following day
Montreal was reached in 150 minutes. Leaving on the 24th on the
return journey, the pilot made Camp Leaside in six hours’ actual
flying.

The second mail was carried from Toronto to Ottawa. It left Leaside
in C-280, piloted by Lieut. T. Longman on August 15th, returning on
August 17th. The easterly flight took 280 minutes and the return trip
220 minutes.

On August 26th, Lieut. A. Dunstan in machine C-282 again carried the
mail to the Capital, taking 220 minutes in each direction. Lieut. H.
Burton in the same machine repeated this flight in similar time on
September 4th, the latter officer making the round trip in a single
day.

The Aero Club, for the purpose, arranged with the Dominion Government
for the use of a special stamp, of the design illustrated. Thus
was inaugurated a service which should in the near future develop
enormously in this country of great distances.

The above acknowledgments are perforce fragmentary, as it is
impossible to extend to each and all in any other form the thanks
which the brigade desires to offer. It is hoped, therefore, that
those to whom individual reference is not here made will accept this
assurance of the great value the unit has placed upon services so
generously offered and so gratefully received.

[Illustration]

[Illustration: OFFICERS’ QUARTERS, LEASIDE.

TYPICAL HANGAR.

CORNER IN OFFICERS’ MESS, LEASIDE.]

[Illustration: 79TH SQUADRON, CAMP RATHBUN.]

[Illustration: OFFICERS AND NURSES, SCHOOL OF AERIAL FIGHTING,
BEAMSVILLE.]




INDEX TO PORTRAITS AND GROUPS


The following list indicates the Squadrons and Groups of which it
has been possible to reproduce photographs. Every effort was made to
secure a complete record, but this has not been entirely achieved.

        PAGE

  SIR JOSEPH FLAVELLE, CHAIRMAN IMPERIAL MUNITIONS BOARD            24
  G. A. MORROW, ESQ., O.B.E., DIRECTOR OF AVIATION                  24
  SIR FRANK BAILLIE, K.B.E, PRESIDENT CANADIAN AEROPLANES LIMITED   24
  OFFICERS, AVIATION DEPARTMENT, IMPERIAL MUNITIONS BOARD           27
  OFFICIALS AND EXECUTIVE STAFF, CANADIAN AEROPLANES LIMITED        45
  OFFICERS, 81ST SQUADRON, CAMP RATHBUN                             59
  HEADQUARTERS, OFFICERS AND STAFF                                  60
  HEADQUARTERS STAFF                                                63
  80TH SQUADRON, CAMP BORDEN OFFICERS AND MECHANICS                 64
  87TH SQUADRON, CAMP BORDEN                                        73
  OFFICERS AND STRENGTH, SCHOOL OF AERIAL FIGHTING, BEAMSVILLE      91
  GROUND INSTRUCTIONAL SECTION, CAMP MOHAWK                         92
  92ND SQUADRON, CAMP BORDEN, OFFICERS AND MECHANICS                96
  85TH SQUADRON, CAMP MOHAWK                                       101
  MEDICAL OFFICER AND STAFF, DESERONTO                             109
  RECORDS AND RECRUITING OFFICERS AND STAFF                        133
  RECRUITS DEPOT, JESSE KETCHUM BARRACKS, TORONTO                  134
  89TH SQUADRON, CAMP MOHAWK                                       153
  OFFICERS AND STRENGTH, 43RD WING, LEASIDE                        157
  STAFF OF SCHOOL OF AERONAUTICS                                   163
  OFFICERS AND STAFF, ARMAMENT SCHOOL, HAMILTON                    171
  82ND SQUADRON                                                    196
  88TH SQUADRON, CAMP BORDEN                                       214
  OFFICERS AND STAFF, SCHOOL OF SPECIAL FLYING                     221
  OFFICERS AND STAFF, ENGINE REPAIR PARK                           250
  OFFICERS AND STAFF, AEROPLANE REPAIR PARK                        259
  OFFICERS AND STAFF, STORES DEPOT                                 260
  PAY OFFICE STAFF                                                 267
  90TH SQUADRON, CAMP RATHBUN                                      268
  MECHANICAL TRANSPORT SECTION                                     274
  ASSISTANT PROVOST MARSHAL, OFFICERS AND STAFF                    278
  OFFICERS AND STAFF, ROYAL ENGINEERS’ SECTION                     281
  OFFICERS AND STRENGTH, 44TH WING, CAMP BORDEN                    285
  OFFICERS, 44TH WING, CAMP BORDEN                                 286
  REPAIR SECTION, CAMP MOHAWK                                      292
  CAMP BORDEN REPRESENTATIVE TEAM                                  296
  R.A.F. REPRESENTATIVE SOCCER TEAM, 1916                          299
  85TH SQUADRON, CAMP MOHAWK                                       305
  84TH SQUADRON, CAMP MOHAWK                                       309
  INSTRUCTIONAL STAFF, X SQUADRON, LONG BRANCH                     310
  FIRST BATCH OF CADETS, X SQUADRON, LONG BRANCH                   310
  79TH SQUADRON, CAMP RATHBUN                                      316
  OFFICERS AND NURSES, SCHOOL OF AERIAL FIGHTING, BEAMSVILLE       317




  TRANSCRIBER’S NOTE

  Obvious typographical errors and punctuation errors have been
  corrected after careful comparison with other occurrences within
  the text and consultation of external sources.

  Except for those changes noted below, all misspellings in the text,
  and inconsistent or archaic usage, have been retained: for example,
  re-issue, reissue; every-day, everyday; employes; unfused; enfiling.

  Pg 27: ‘A. N. MULCAHEY’ replaced by ‘A. H. MULCAHEY’.
  Pg 35: Added heading ‘(Procedure of Purchase)’.
  Pg 35: Added heading ‘(History of Invoices)’.
  Pg 35: five occurrences of ‘FYLE’ in the diagrams replaced by ‘FILE’.
  Pg 183: ‘enojyed excellent’ replaced by ‘enjoyed excellent’.
  Pg 224: ‘proceedure in the’ replaced by ‘procedure in the’.
  Pg 230: ‘make workmenlike’ replaced by ‘make workmanlike’.
  Pg 237: ‘though one hestitates’ replaced by ‘though one hesitates’.
  Pg 318: Index page number ‘292’ replaced by ‘299’.