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Transcriber’s notes:

Italic text is denoted _thus_.

The spelling, hyphenation, punctuation and accentuation are as the
original, except for apparent typographical errors which have been
corrected.

  In footnote 3897:—
  See B. ii. c. 116.
  corrected to read:—
  See B. ii. c. 110.

  In footnote 4348:—
  A king of ... see B. xvi. c. 89 of the present Book.
  is incorrect, as B. xvi is to be found in Vol. III.




  BOHN’S CLASSICAL LIBRARY.


  PLINY’S

  NATURAL HISTORY.




  THE

  NATURAL HISTORY

  OF

  PLINY.




  TRANSLATED,

  WITH COPIOUS NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS


  BY THE LATE

  JOHN BOSTOCK, M.D., F.R.S.


  AND


  H. T. RILEY, ESQ., B.A.,

  LATE SCHOLAR OF CLARE HALL, CAMBRIDGE.




  VOL. I.




  LONDON:

  HENRY G. BOHN, YORK STREET, COVENT GARDEN.

  MDCCCLV.




  PRINTED BY TAYLOR AND FRANCIS,
  RED LION COURT, FLEET STREET.




PREFACE


The only translation of PLINY’S NATURAL HISTORY which has hitherto
appeared in the English language is that by Philemon Holland, published
in the latter part of the reign of Elizabeth. It is no disparagement
to Holland’s merits, as a diligent and generally faithful translator,
to say that his work is unsuited to the requirements of the nineteenth
century.

In the present translation, the principal editions of Pliny have been
carefully consulted, and no pains have been spared, as a reference to
the Notes will show, to present to the reader the labours of recent
Commentators, among whom stands pre-eminent the celebrated Cuvier.
It has been a primary object to bring to the illustration of the
work whatever was afforded by the progress of knowledge and modern
discoveries in science and art. Without ample illustration, Pliny’s
valuable work would want much of the interest which belongs to it, and
present difficulties scarcely surmountable by any one who has not made
the Author his especial study.

In the first two Books, the text of Hardouin, as given in Lemaire’s
edition (Paris, 1827), has been followed; in the remainder that of
Sillig (Gotha, 1851-3), excepting in some few instances, where, for
reasons given in the Notes, it has been deemed advisable to depart from
it. The first two Books, and portions of others, are the performance
of the late Dr. Bostock, who contemplated a translation of the entire
work; but, unfortunately for the interests of science, he was not
permitted to carry his design into execution.

Upwards of a hundred pages had been printed off before the present
Translator entered on his duties; and as they had not the advantage
of Dr. Bostock’s superintendence through the press, some trifling
oversights have occurred. These are, for the most part, corrected in a
short Appendix.




THE LIFE AND WRITINGS OF PLINY.


Caius Plinius Secundus was born either at Verona or Novum Comum[1],
now Como, in Cisalpine Gaul, in the year A.U.C. 776, and A.D. 23. It
is supposed that his earlier years were spent in his native province;
and that he was still a youth when he removed to Rome, and attended
the lectures of the grammarian Apion. It was in about his sixteenth
year that he there saw Lollia Paulina[2], as in the following she was
divorced by Caligula, and it was probably in his twentieth that he
witnessed the capture of a large fish at Ostia, by Claudius and his
attendants[3], and in his twenty-second that he visited Africa[4],
Egypt, and Greece.

In his twenty-third year Pliny served in Germany under the legatus
Pomponius Secundus, whose friendship he soon acquired, and was in
consequence promoted to the command of an _ala_, or troop of cavalry.
During his military career he wrote a treatise (now lost) “On the Use
of the Javelin by Cavalry,” and travelled over that country[5] as far
as the shores of the German Ocean, besides visiting Belgic Gaul. In his
twenty-ninth year he returned to Rome, and applied himself for a time
to forensic pursuits, which however he appears soon to have abandoned.
About this time he wrote the life of his friend Pomponius, and an
account of the “Wars in Germany,” in twenty books, neither of which
are extant. Though employed in writing a continuation of the “Roman
History” of Aufidius Bassus, from the time of Tiberius, he judiciously
suspended its publication during the reign of Nero, who appointed him
his procurator in Nearer Spain, and not improbably honoured him with
equestrian rank. It was during his sojourn in Spain that the death of
his brother-in-law, C. Cæcilius, left his nephew C. Plinius Cæcilius
Secundus (the author of the Letters) an orphan; whom immediately upon
his return to Rome, A.D. 70, he adopted, receiving him and his widowed
mother under his roof.

Having been previously known to Vespasian in the German wars, he was
admitted into the number of his most intimate friends, and obtained an
appointment at court, the nature of which is not known, but Rezzonico
conjectures that it was in connexion with the imperial treasury. Though
Pliny was on intimate terms also with Titus, to whom he dedicated his
Natural History, there is little ground for the assertion, sometimes
made, that he served under him in the Jewish wars. His account of
Palestine clearly shows that he had never visited that country. It was
at this period that he published his Continuation of the History of
Aufidius Bassus.

From the titles which he gives to Titus in the dedicatory preface, it
is pretty clear that his Natural History was published A.D. 77, two
years before his death.

In A.D. 73 or 74, he had been appointed by Vespasian præfect of the
Roman fleet at Misenum, on the western coast of Italy. It was to this
elevation that he owed his romantic death, somewhat similar, it has
been remarked, to that of Empedocles, who perished in the crater of
Mount Ætna. The closing scene of his active life, simultaneously with
the destruction of Herculaneum and Pompeii, cannot be better described
than in the language employed by his nephew in an Epistle to his friend
Tacitus the historian[6]:—“My uncle was at Misenum, where he was in
personal command of the fleet. On the ninth[7] day before the calends
of September, at about the seventh hour, 1 P.M., my mother, observing
the appearance of a cloud of unusual size and shape, mentioned it to
him. After reclining in the sun he had taken his cold bath; he had then
again lain down and, after a slight repast, applied himself to his
studies. Immediately upon hearing this, he called for his shoes, and
ascended a spot from which he could more easily observe this remarkable
phænomenon. The cloud was to be seen gradually rising upwards; though,
from the great distance, it was uncertain from which of the mountains
it arose; it was afterwards, however, ascertained to be Vesuvius. In
appearance and shape it strongly resembled a tree; perhaps it was more
like a pine than anything else, with a stem of enormous length reaching
upwards to the heavens, and then spreading out in a number of branches
in every direction. I have little doubt that either it had been carried
upwards by a violent gust of wind, and that the wind dying away, it had
lost its compactness, or else, that being overcome by its own weight,
it had decreased in density and become extended over a large surface:
at one moment it was white, at another dingy and spotted, just as it
was more or less charged with earth or with ashes.

“To a man so eager as he was in the pursuit of knowledge, this appeared
to be a most singular phænomenon, and one that deserved to be viewed
more closely; accordingly he gave orders for a light Liburnian vessel
to be got ready, and left it at my option to accompany him. To this
however I made answer, that I should prefer continuing my studies; and
as it so happened, he himself had just given me something to write.
Taking his tablets with him, he left the house. The sailors stationed
at Retina, alarmed at the imminence of the danger—for the village lay
at the foot of the mountain, and the sole escape was by sea—sent to
entreat his assistance in rescuing them from this frightful peril. Upon
this he instantly changed his plans, and what he had already begun
from a desire for knowledge, he determined to carry out as a matter of
duty. He had the gallies put to sea at once, and went on board himself,
with the intention of rendering assistance, not only to Retina, but
to many other places as well; for the whole of this charming coast
was thickly populated. Accordingly he made all possible haste towards
the spot, from which others were flying, and steered straight onwards
into the very midst of the danger: so far indeed was he from every
sensation of fear, that he remarked and had noted down every movement
and every change that was to be observed in the appearance of this
ominous eruption. The ashes were now falling fast upon the vessels,
hotter and more and more thickly the nearer they approached the shore;
showers of pumice too, intermingled with black stones, calcined and
broken by the action of the flames: the sea suddenly retreated from
the shore, where the debris of the mountain rendered landing quite
impossible. After hesitating for a moment whether or not to turn back,
upon the pilot strongly advising him to do so:—“Fortune favours the
bold[8],” said he, “conduct me to Pomponianus.” Pomponianus was then
at Stabiæ, a place that lay on the other side of the bay, for in those
parts the shores are winding, and as they gradually trend away, the sea
forms a number of little creeks. At this spot the danger at present
was not imminent, but still it could be seen, and as it appeared to
be approaching nearer and nearer, Pomponianus had ordered his baggage
on board the ships, determined to take to flight, if the wind, which
happened to be blowing the other way, should chance to lull. The wind,
being in this quarter, was extremely favourable to his passage, and my
uncle soon arriving at Stabiæ, embraced his anxious friend, and did
his best to restore his courage; and the better to re-assure him by
evidence of his own sense of their safety, he requested the servants
to conduct him to the bath. After bathing he took his place at table,
and dined, and that too in high spirits, or at all events, what equally
shows his strength of mind, with every outward appearance of being so.
In the mean time vast sheets of flame and large bodies of fire were to
be seen arising from Mount Vesuvius; the glare and brilliancy of which
were beheld in bolder relief as the shades of night came on apace.
My uncle however, in order to calm their fears, persisted in saying
that this was only the light given by some villages which had been
abandoned by the rustics in their alarm to the flames: after which he
retired to rest, and soon fell fast asleep: for his respiration, which
with him was heavy and loud, in consequence of his corpulence, was
distinctly heard by the servants who were keeping watch at the door of
the apartment. The courtyard which led to his apartment had now become
filled with cinders and pumice-stones, to such a degree, that if he had
remained any longer in the room, it would have been quite impossible
for him to leave it. On being awoke he immediately arose, and rejoined
Pomponianus and the others who had in the meanwhile been sitting up.
They then consulted together whether it would be better to remain in
the house or take their chance in the open air; as the building was
now rocking to and fro from the violent and repeated shocks, while the
walls, as though rooted up from their very foundations, seemed to be
at one moment carried in this direction, at another in that. Having
adopted the latter alternative, they were now alarmed at the showers
of light calcined pumice-stones that were falling thick about them,
a risk however to which as a choice of evils they had to submit. In
taking this step I must remark that, while with my uncle it was reason
triumphing over reason, with the rest it was only one fear getting the
better of the other. Taking the precaution of placing pillows on their
heads, they tied them on with towels, by way of protection against
the falling stones and ashes. It was now day in other places, though
there it was still night, more dark and more profound than any ordinary
night; torches however and various lights in some measure served to
dispel the gloom. It was then determined to make for the shore, and to
ascertain whether the sea would now admit of their embarking; it was
found however to be still too stormy and too boisterous to allow of
their making the attempt. Upon this my uncle lay down on a sail which
had been spread for him, and more than once asked for some cold water,
which he drank; very soon however, they were alarmed by the flames and
the sulphurous smell which announced their approach, upon which the
others at once took to flight, while my uncle arose leaning upon two
of the servants for support. Upon making this effort, he instantly
fell to the ground; the dense vapour having, I imagine, stopped the
respiration and suffocated him; for his chest was naturally weak and
contracted, and often troubled with violent palpitations. When day was
at last restored, the third after the closing one of his existence,
his body was found untouched and without a wound; there was no change
to be perceived in the clothes, and its appearance was rather that of
a person asleep than of a corpse. In the meantime my mother and myself
were at Misenum—that however has nothing to do with the story, as it
was only your wish to know the details connected with his death. I
shall therefore draw to a conclusion. The only thing that I shall add
is the assurance that I have truthfully related all these facts, of
which I was either an eye-witness myself, or heard them at the time of
their occurrence, a period when they were most likely to be correctly
related. You of course will select such points as you may think the
most important. For it is one thing to write a letter, another to write
history;—one thing to write for a friend, another to write for the
public. Farewell.”

Of the mode of life pursued by Pliny, and of the rest of his works, an
equally interesting account has been preserved by his nephew, in an
Epistle addressed to Macer[9]. We cannot more appropriately conclude
than by presenting this Epistle to the reader:—“I am highly gratified
to find that you read the works of my uncle with such a degree of
attention as to feel a desire to possess them all, and that with this
view you inquire, What are their names? I will perform the duties of
an index then: and not content with that, will state in what order
they were written: for even that is a kind of information which is by
no means undesirable to those who are devoted to literary pursuits.
His first composition was a treatise ‘on the use of the Javelin by
Cavalry,’ in one Book. This he composed, with equal diligence and
ingenuity, while he was in command of a troop of horse. His second
work was the ‘Life of Q. Pomponius Secundus,’ in two Books, a person
by whom he had been particularly beloved.—These books he composed as
a tribute which was justly due to the memory of his deceased friend.
His next work was twenty Books on ‘the Wars in Germany,’ in which he
has compiled an account of all the wars in which we have been engaged
with the people of that country. This he had begun while serving in
Germany, having been recommended to do so in a dream. For in his sleep
he thought that the figure of Drusus Nero[10] stood by him—the same
Drusus, who after the most extensive conquests in that country, there
met his death. Commending his memory to Pliny’s attentive care, Drusus
conjured him to rescue it from the decaying effect of oblivion. Next
to these came his three books entitled ‘The Student’[11], divided,
on account of their great size, into six volumes. In these he has
given instructions for the training of the orator, from the cradle to
his entrance on public life. In the latter years of Nero’s reign, he
wrote eight books, ‘On Difficulties in the Latin Language[12];’ that
being a period at which every kind of study, in any way free-spoken
or even of elevated style, would have been rendered dangerous by the
tyranny that was exercised. His next work was his ‘Continuation of the
History of Aufidius Bassus,’ in thirty-one books; after which came
his ‘Natural History,’ in thirty-seven books, a work remarkable for
its comprehensiveness and erudition, and not less varied than Nature
herself. You will wonder how a man so occupied with business could
possibly find time to write such a number of volumes, many of them
on subjects of a nature so difficult to be treated of. You will be
even more astonished when you learn, that for some time he pleaded
at the bar as an advocate, that he was only in his fifty-sixth year
at the time of his death, and that the time that intervened was
equally trenched upon and frittered away by the most weighty duties of
business, and the marks of favour shewn him by princes. His genius,
however, was truly quite incredible, his zeal indefatigable, and his
power of application wonderful in the extreme. At the festival of the
Vulcanalia[13], he began to sit up to a late hour by candle-light, not
for the purpose of consulting[14] the stars, but with the object of
pursuing his studies; while, in the winter, he would set to work at
the seventh hour of the night, or the eighth at the very latest, often
indeed at the sixth[15]. By nature he had the faculty of being able to
fall asleep in a moment; indeed, slumber would sometimes overtake him
in his studies, and then leave him just as suddenly. Before daybreak,
he was in the habit of attending the Emperor Vespasian,—for he, too,
was one who made an excellent use of his nights,—and then betook
himself to the duties with which he was charged. On his return home,
he devoted all the time which was still remaining to study. Taking an
early repast, after the old fashion, light, and easy of digestion, in
the summer time, if he had any leisure to spare, he would lie down
in the sun-shine, while some book was read to him, he himself making
notes and extracts in the meanwhile; for it was his habit never to
read anything without making extracts, it being a maxim of his, that
there is no book so bad but that some good may be got out of it. After
thus enjoying the sunshine, he generally took a cold bath; after which
he would sit down to a slight repast, and then take a short nap. On
awaking, as though another day had now commenced, he would study till
the hour for the evening meal, during which some book was generally
read to him, he making comments on it in a cursory manner. I remember,
on one occasion, a friend of his interrupting the reader, who had given
the wrong pronunciation to some words, and making him go over them
again. “You understood him, didn’t you?” said my uncle. “Yes,” said
the other. “Why, then, did you make him go over it again? Through this
interruption of yours, we have lost more than ten lines.” So thrifty
a manager was he of time! In summer he rose from the evening meal by
daylight; and, in winter, during the first hour of the night[16], just
as though there had been some law which made it compulsory on him to
do so. This is how he lived in the midst of his employments, and the
bustle of the city. When in retirement in the country, the time spent
in the bath was the only portion that was not allotted by him to study.
When I say in the bath, I mean while he was in the water; for while his
body was being scraped with the strigil and rubbed, he either had some
book read to him, or else would dictate himself. While upon a journey,
as though relieved from every other care, he devoted himself to study,
and nothing else. By his side was his secretary, with a book and
tablets; and, in the winter time, the secretary’s hands were protected
by gloves, that the severity of the weather might not deprive his
master for a single moment of his services. It was for this reason also
that, when at Rome, he would never move about except in a litter. I
remember that on one occasion he found fault with me for walking—“You
might have avoided losing all those hours,” said he; for he looked
upon every moment as lost which was not devoted to study. It was by
means of such unremitting industry as this that he completed so many
works, and left me 160 volumes of notes[17], written extremely small
on both sides, which in fact renders the collection doubly voluminous.
He himself used to relate, that when he was procurator in Spain, he
might have parted with his common-place book to Largius Licinius for
400,000 sesterces; and at that time the collection was not so extensive
as afterwards. When you come to think of how much he must have read, of
how much he has written, would you not really suppose that he had never
been engaged in business, and had never enjoyed the favour of princes?
And yet, on the other hand, when you hear what labour he expended
upon his studies, does it not almost seem that he has neither written
nor read enough? For, in fact, what pursuits are those that would not
have been interrupted by occupations such as his? While, again, what
is there that such unremitting perseverance as his could not have
effected? I am in the habit, therefore, of laughing at it when people
call me a studious man,—me who, in comparison with him, am a downright
idler; and yet I devote to study as much time as my public engagements
on the one hand, and my duties to my friends on the other, will admit
of. Who is there, then, out of all those who have devoted their whole
life to literature, that ought not, when put in comparison with him,
to quite blush at a life that would almost appear to have been devoted
to slothfulness and inactivity? But my letter has already exceeded its
proper limits, for I had originally intended to write only upon the
subject as to which you made inquiry, the books of his composition
that he left. I trust, however, that these particulars will prove no
less pleasing to you than the writings themselves; and that they will
not only induce you to peruse them, but excite you, by a feeling of
generous emulation, to produce some work of a similar nature.—Farewell.”

Of all the works written by Pliny, one only, the ‘Historia Naturalis’
has survived to our times. This work, however, is not a ‘Natural
History’ in the modern acceptation of the term, but rather a vast
Encyclopædia of ancient knowledge and belief upon almost every known
subject—“not less varied than Nature herself,” as his nephew says. It
comprises, within the compass of thirty-seven books, 20,000 matters of
importance, collected from about 2000 volumes (nearly all of which have
now perished), the works, as Pliny himself states, of 100 writers of
authority; together with a vast number of additional matters unknown to
those authorities, and many of them the results of his own experience
and observation. Hardouin has drawn up a catalogue of the authors
quoted by Pliny; they amount in number to between 400 and 500.

The following is a brief sketch of the plan of this wonderful monument
of human industry. After a dedicatory Epistle to Titus, followed by a
table of contents of the other Books, which together form the First
Book, the author proceeds to give an account of the prevailing notions
as to the universe, the earth, the sun, the moon, the stars, and the
more remarkable properties of the elements (_partes naturæ_). He then
passes on to a geographical description of the face of the earth as
known to the ancients. After the Geography comes what may in strict
propriety be termed “Natural History,” including a history of man,
replete indeed with marvels, but interesting in the highest degree.
Having mentioned at considerable length the land, animals, fishes,
birds, and insects, he passes on to Botany, which in its various
aspects occupies the larger portion of the work. At the same time,
in accordance with his comprehensive plan, this part includes a vast
amount of information on numerous subjects, the culture of the cereals
and the manufacture of oil, wine, paper (_papyrus_), and numerous
other articles of daily use. After treating at considerable length
of Medical Botany, he proceeds to speak of medicaments derived from
the human body, from which he branches off into discussions on the
history of medicine, and magic, which last he looks upon as an offshoot
from the medical art; and he takes this opportunity of touching upon
many of the then current superstitions and notions on astrology. He
concludes this portion of his work with an account of the medicinal
properties of various waters, and of those of fishes and other aquatic
animals. He then presents us with a treatise on Mineralogy, in which
he has accumulated every possible kind of information relative to the
use of gold, silver, bronze, and other metals; a subject which not
unnaturally leads him into repeated digressions relative to money,
jewels, plate, statues, and statuaries. Mineral pigments next occupy
his attention, with many interesting notices of the great painters
of Greece; from which he passes on to the various kinds of stone and
materials employed in building, and the use of marble for the purposes
of sculpture, including a notice of that art and of the most eminent
sculptors. The last Book is devoted to an account of gems and precious
stones, and concludes with an eulogium on his native country, as alike
distinguished for its fertility, its picturesque beauties, and the
natural endowments and high destinies of its people.

From the writings of Pliny we gather of course a large amount of
information as to his opinions and the constitution of his mind.
His credulity, it must be admitted, is great in the extreme;
though, singularly enough, he severely taxes the Greeks with the
same failing[18]. Were we not assured from other sources that he
was eminently successful in life, was in the enjoyment of opulence,
and honoured with the favour and confidence of princes[19], the
remarks which he frequently makes on human life, in the Seventh Book
more especially, would have led us to the conclusion that he was
a disappointed man, embittered against his fellow-creatures, and
dissatisfied with the terms on which the tenure of life is granted
to us. He opens that Book with a preface replete with querulous
dissatisfaction and repinings at the lot of man—the only ‘tearful’
animal—he says[20]. He repines at the helpless and wretched condition
of the infant at the moment it is ushered into life, and the numerous
pains and vices to which it is doomed to be subject.—Man’s liability
to disease is with him a blemish in the economy of nature:—“life,”
he says, “this gift of nature, however long it may be, is but too
uncertain and too frail; to those even to whom it is most largely
granted, it is dealt out with a sparing and niggardly hand, if we
only think of eternity[21].” As we cannot have life on our own terms,
he does not think it worthy of our acceptance, and more than once
expresses his opinion that the sooner we are rid of it the better.
Sudden death he looks upon as a remarkable phænomenon, but, at the
same time, as the greatest blessing that can be granted to us[22]:
and when he mentions cases of resuscitation, it is only to indulge in
the querulous complaint, that, “exposed as he is by his birth to the
caprices of fortune, man can be certain of nothing; no, not even his
own death[23].” Though anything but[24] an Epicurean, in the modern
acceptation of the word, he seems to have held some, at least, of
the tenets of Epicurus, in reference to the immortality of the soul.
Whether he supposed that the soul, at the moment of death, is resolved
into its previous atoms or constituent elements, he does not inform us;
but he states it as his belief, that after death the soul has no more
existence than it had before birth; that all notions of immortality are
a mere delusion[25]; and that the very idea of a future existence is
ridiculous, and spoils that greatest[26] blessing of nature—death. He
certainly speaks of ghosts or apparitions, seen after death; but these
he probably looked upon as exceptional cases, if indeed he believed[27]
in the stories which he quotes, of which we have no proofs, or rather,
indeed, presumptive proofs to the contrary; for some of them he calls
“magna[28] fabulosetas,” “most fabulous tales.”

In relation to human inventions, it is worthy of remark, that he
states that the first[29] thing in which mankind agreed, was the use of
the Ionian alphabet; the second, the practice of shaving[30] the beard,
and the employment of barbers; and the third, the division of time into
hours.

We cannot more appropriately conclude this review of the Life and Works
of Pliny, than by quoting the opinions of two of the most eminent
philosophers of modern times, Buffon and Cuvier; though the former,
it must be admitted, has spoken of him in somewhat too high terms of
commendation, and in instituting a comparison between Pliny’s work and
those of Aristotle, has placed in juxtaposition the names of two men
who, beyond an ardent thirst for knowledge, had no characteristics in
common.

“Pliny,” says Buffon[31], “has worked upon a plan which is much more
extensive than that of Aristotle, and not improbably too extensive.
He has made it his object to embrace every subject; indeed he would
appear to have taken the measure of Nature, and to have found her
too contracted for his expansive genius. His ‘Natural History,’
independently of that of animals, plants, and minerals, includes
an account of the heavens and the earth, of medicine, commerce,
navigation, the liberal and mechanical arts, the origin of usages and
customs, in a word, the history of all the natural sciences and all the
arts of human invention. What, too, is still more astonishing, in each
of these departments Pliny shows himself equally great. The grandeur of
his ideas and the dignity of his style confer an additional lustre on
the profoundness of his erudition; not only did he know all that was
known in his time, but he was also gifted with that comprehensiveness
of view which in some measure multiplies knowledge. He had all that
delicacy of perception upon which depend so materially both elegance
and taste, and he communicates to his readers that freedom of thought
and that boldness of sentiment, which constitute the true germ of
philosophy. His work, as varied as Nature herself, always paints her
in her most attractive colours. It is, so to say, a compilation from
all that had been written before his time: a record of all that was
excellent or useful; but this record has in it features so grand, this
compilation contains matter grouped in a manner so novel, that it
is preferable to most of the original works that treat upon similar
subjects.”

The judgment pronounced by Cuvier on Pliny’s work, though somewhat
less highly coloured, awards to it a high rank among the most valuable
productions of antiquity. “The work of Pliny[32],” says he, “is one
of the most precious monuments that have come down to us from ancient
times, and affords proof of an astonishing amount of erudition in one
who was a warrior and a statesman. To appreciate with justice this vast
and celebrated composition, it is necessary to regard it in several
points of view—with reference to the plan proposed, the facts stated,
and the style employed. The plan proposed by the writer is of immense
extent—it is his object to write not merely a Natural History in our
restricted sense of the term, not an account merely, more or less
detailed, of animals, plants, and minerals, but a work which embraces
astronomy, physics, geography, agriculture, commerce, medicine, and
the fine arts—and all these in addition to natural history properly
so called; while at the same time he continually interweaves with
his narrative information upon the arts which bear relation to man
considered metaphysically, and the history of nations,—so much so
indeed, that in many respects this work was the Encyclopædia of its
age. It was impossible in running over, however cursorily, such a
prodigious number of subjects, that the writer should not have made
us acquainted with a multitude of facts, which, while remarkable in
themselves, are the more precious from the circumstance that at the
present day he is the only author extant who relates them. It is to
be regretted however that the manner in which he has collected and
grouped this mass of matter, has caused it to lose some portion of its
value, from his mixture of fable with truth, and more especially from
the difficulty, and in some cases, the impossibility, of discovering
exactly of what object[33] he is speaking. But if Pliny possesses
little merit as a critic, it is far otherwise with his talent as a
writer, and the immense treasury which he opens to us of Latin terms
and forms of expression: these, from the very abundance of the subjects
upon which he treats, render his work one of the richest repositories
of the Roman language. Wherever he finds it possible to give expression
to general ideas or to philosophical views, his language assumes
considerable energy and vivacity, and his thoughts present to us a
certain novelty and boldness which tend in a very great degree to
relieve the dryness of his enumerations, and, with the majority of his
readers, excuse the insufficiency of his scientific indications. He
is always noble and serious, full of the love of justice and virtue,
detestation of cruelty and baseness, of which he had such frightful
instances before his eyes, and contempt for that unbridled luxury which
in his time had so deeply corrupted the Roman people. For these great
merits Pliny cannot be too highly praised, and despite the faults
which we are obliged to admit in him when viewed as a naturalist, we
are bound to regard him as one of the most meritorious of the Roman
writers, and among those most worthy to be reckoned in the number of
the classics who wrote after the reign of Augustus.”




CONTENTS.

OF THE FIRST VOLUME.


  BOOK I.

  DEDICATION.                                                   Page

  C. Plinius Secundus to his friend Titus Vespasian                1


  BOOK II.

  AN ACCOUNT OF THE WORLD AND THE ELEMENTS.

  CHAP.

  1. Whether the world be finite, and whether there be more than
       one world                                                  13

  2. Of the form of the world                                     16

  3. Of its nature; whence the name is derived                   _ib._

  4. Of the elements and the planets                              18

  5. Of God                                                       20

  6. Of the nature of the stars; of the motion of the planets     25

  7. Of the eclipses of the moon and the sun                      34

  8. Of the magnitude of the stars                                35

  9. An account of the observations that have been made on the
       heavens by different individuals                           36

  10. On the recurrence of the eclipses of the sun and the moon   38

  11. Of the motion of the moon                                   40

  12. Of the motions of the planets and the general laws of their
        aspects                                                  _ib._

  13. Why the same stars appear at some times more lofty and at
        other times more near                                     42

  14. Why the same stars have different motions                   47

  15. General laws of the planets                                 48

  16. The reason why the stars are of different colours           49

  17. Of the motion of the sun and the cause of the irregularity
        of the days                                               50

  18. Why thunder is ascribed to Jupiter                          51

  19. Of the distances of the stars                               52

  20. Of the harmony of the stars                                _ib._

  21. Of the dimensions of the world                              53

  22. Of the stars which appear suddenly, or of comets            55

  23. Their nature, situation, and species                        56

  24. The doctrine of Hipparchus about the stars                  59

  25. Examples from history of celestial prodigies;
        _Faces_, _Lampades_, and _Bolides_                       _ib._

  26. _Trabes Cælestes_; _Chasma Cæli_                            60

  27. Of the colours of the sky and of celestial flame           _ib._

  28. Of celestial coronæ                                         61

  29. Of sudden circles                                           62

  30. Of unusually long eclipses of the sun                      _ib._

  31. Many suns                                                  _ib._

  32. Many moons                                                  63

  33. Daylight in the night                                      _ib._

  34. Burning shields                                            _ib._

  35. An ominous appearance in the heavens, that was seen
        once only                                                _ib._

  36. Of stars which move about in various directions             64

  37. Of the stars which are named Castor and Pollux             _ib._

  38. Of the air, and on the cause of the showers of stones       65

  39. Of the stated seasons                                       66

  40. Of the rising of the dog-star                               67

  41. Of the regular influence of the different seasons          _ib._

  42. Of uncertain states of the weather                          69

  43. Of thunder and lightning                                   _ib._

  44. The origin of winds                                         70

  45. Various observations respecting winds                       71

  46. The different kinds of winds                                73

  47. The periods of the winds                                    75

  48. Nature of the winds                                         77

  49. Ecnephias and Typhon                                        79

  50. Tornadoes; blasting winds; whirlwinds, and other wonderful
        kinds of tempests                                         80

  51. Of thunder; in what countries it does not fall, and for
        what reason                                              _ib._

  52. Of the different kinds of lightning and their wonderful
        effects                                                   81

  53. The Etrurian and the Roman observations on these points     82

  54. Of conjuring up thunder                                     83

  55. General laws of lightning                                   84

  56. Objects which are never struck                              86

  57. Showers of milk, blood, flesh, iron, wool, and baked tiles  87

  58. Rattling of arms and the sound of trumpets heard in
        the sky                                                   88

  59. Of stones that have fallen from the clouds. The opinion of
        Anaxagoras respecting them                               _ib._

  60. The rainbow                                                 89

  61. The nature of hail, snow, hoar, mist, dew; the forms
        of clouds                                                 90

  62. The peculiarities of the weather in different places        91

  63. Nature of the earth                                        _ib._

  64. Of the form of the earth                                    94

  65. Whether there be antipodes?                                _ib._

  66. How the water is connected with the earth. Of the
        navigation of the sea and the rivers                      97

  67. Whether the ocean surrounds the earth                       98

  68. What part of the earth is inhabited                        100

  69. That the earth is in the middle of the world               102

  70. Of the obliquity of the zones                              _ib._

  71. Of the inequality of climates                              _ib._

  72. In what places eclipses are invisible, and why this is
        the case                                                 104

  73. What regulates the daylight on the earth                   105

  74. Remarks on dials, as connected with this subject           106

  75. When and where there are no shadows                        107

  76. Where this takes place twice in the year and where the
        shadows fall in opposite directions                      108

  77. Where the days are the longest and where the shortest      _ib._

  78. Of the first dial                                          109

  79. Of the mode in which the days are computed                 110

  80. Of the difference of nations as depending on the nature
        of the world                                             _ib._

  81. Of earthquakes                                             111

  82. Of clefts of the earth                                     112

  83. Signs of an approaching earthquake                         114

  84. Preservatives against future earthquakes                   _ib._

  85. Prodigies of the earth which have occurred once only       115

  86. Wonderful circumstances attending earthquakes              116

  87. In what places the sea has receded                         _ib._

  88. The mode in which islands rise up                          117

  89. What islands have been formed, and at what periods         118

  90. Lands which have been separated by the sea                 119

  91. Islands which have been united to the main land            _ib._

  92. Lands which have been totally changed into seas            _ib._

  93. Lands which have been swallowed up                         120

  94. Cities which have been absorbed by the sea                 _ib._

  95. Of vents in the earth                                      121

  96. Of certain lands which are always shaking, and of
        floating islands                                         122

  97. Places in which it never rains                             123

  98. The wonders of various countries collected together        _ib._

  99. Concerning the cause of the flowing and ebbing of the sea  124

  100. Where the tides rise and fall in an unusual manner        127

  101. Wonders of the sea                                        128

  102. The power of the moon over the land and the sea           _ib._

  103. The power of the sun                                      129

  104. Why the sea is salt                                       _ib._

  105. Where the sea is the deepest                              130

  106. The wonders of fountains and rivers                       131

  107. The wonders of fire and water united                      138

  108. Of Maltha                                                 138

  109. Of naphtha                                                139

  110. Places which are always burning                           _ib._

  111. Wonders of fire alone                                     141

  112. The dimensions of the earth                               143

  113. The harmonical proportion of the universe                 147


  BOOK III.

  AN ACCOUNT OF COUNTRIES, NATIONS, SEAS, TOWNS, HAVENS, MOUNTAINS,
  RIVERS, DISTANCES, AND PEOPLES WHO NOW EXIST OR FORMERLY EXISTED.

  Introduction                                                   151

  1. The boundaries and gulfs of Europe first set forth in
       a general way                                             153

  2. Of Spain generally                                          _ib._

  3. Of Bætica                                                   154

  4. Of Nearer Spain                                             164

  5. Of the province of Gallia Narbonensis                       174

  6. Of Italy                                                    180

  7. Of the ninth region of Italy                                184

  8. The seventh region of Italy                                 186

  9. The first region of Italy; the Tiber; Rome                  191

  10. The third region of Italy                                  207

  11. Sixty-four islands, among which are the Baleares           210

  12. Corsica                                                    213

  13. Sardinia                                                   215

  14. Sicily                                                     216

  15. Magna Græcia, beginning at Locri                           222

  16. The second region of Italy                                 225

  17. The fourth region of Italy                                 231

  18. The fifth region of Italy                                  235

  19. The sixth region of Italy                                  237

  20. The eighth region of Italy; the Padus                      241

  21. The eleventh region of Italy; Italia Transpadana           246

  22. The tenth region of Italy                                  248

  23. Istria, its people and locality                            251

  24. The Alps, and the Alpine nations                           254

  25. Liburnia and Illyricum                                     257

  26. Dalmatia                                                   259

  27. The Norici                                                 262

  28. Pannonia                                                   263

  29. Mœsia                                                      264

  30. Islands of the Ionian Sea and the Adriatic                 265


  BOOK IV.

  AN ACCOUNT OF COUNTRIES, NATIONS, SEAS, TOWNS, HAVENS, MOUNTAINS,
  RIVERS, DISTANCES, AND PEOPLES WHO NOW EXIST OR FORMERLY EXISTED.

  1. Epirus                                                      271

  2. Acarnania                                                   273

  3. Ætolia                                                      275

  4. Locris and Phocis                                           276

  5. The Peloponnesus                                            278

  6. Achaia                                                      280

  7. Messenia                                                    282

  8. Laconia                                                     283

  9. Argolis                                                     284

  10. Arcadia                                                    285

  11. Attica                                                     288

  12. Bœotia                                                     290

  13. Doris                                                      293

  14. Phthiotis                                                  293

  15. Thessaly Proper                                            294

  16. Magnesia                                                   296

  17. Macedonia                                                  297

  18. Thrace; the Ægean Sea                                      302

  19. The islands which lie before the lands already mentioned   310

  20. Crete                                                      313

  21. Eubœa                                                      316

  22. The Cyclades                                               317

  23. The Sporades                                               320

  24. The Hellespont.—The lake Mæotis                            326

  25. Dacia, Sarmatia                                            329

  26. Scythia                                                    330

  27. The islands of the Euxine. The islands of the northern
        ocean                                                    338

  28. Germany                                                    345

  29. Ninety-six islands of the Gallic ocean                     349

  30. Britannia                                                  350

  31. Gallia Belgica                                             353

  32. Gallia Lugdunensis                                         355

  33. Gallia Aquitanica                                          357

  34. Nearer Spain, its coast along the Gallic ocean             360

  35. Lusitania                                                  363

  36. The islands in the Atlantic ocean                          367

  37. The general measurement of Europe                          369


  BOOK V.

  AN ACCOUNT OF COUNTRIES, NATIONS, SEAS, TOWNS, HAVENS, MOUNTAINS,
  RIVERS, DISTANCES, AND PEOPLES WHO NOW EXIST OR FORMERLY EXISTED.

  1. The two Mauritanias                                         374

  2. Numidia                                                     387

  3. Africa                                                      388

  4. The Syrtes                                                  391

  5. Cyrenaica                                                   395

  6. Libya Mareotis                                              401

  7. The islands in the vicinity of Africa                       402

  8. Countries on the other side of Africa                       403

  9. Egypt and Thebais                                           406

  10. The River Nile                                             410

  11. The cities of Egypt                                        416

  12. The coasts of Arabia, situate on the Egyptian Sea          422

  13. Syria                                                      423

  14. Idumæa, Palæstina, and Samaria                             424

  15. Judæa                                                      427

  16. Decapolis                                                  431

  17. Phœnice                                                    433

  18. Syria Antiochia                                            436

  19. The remaining parts of Syria                               438

  20. The Euphrates                                              441

  21. Syria upon the Euphrates                                   443

  22. Cilicia and the adjoining nations                          446

  23. Isauria and the Homonades                                  450

  24. Pisidia                                                    451

  25. Lycaonia                                                   _ib._

  26. Pamphylia                                                  452

  27. Mount Taurus                                               453

  28. Lycia                                                      455

  29. Caria                                                      458

  30. Lydia                                                      465

  31. Ionia                                                      466

  32. Æolis                                                      472

  33. Troas and the adjoining nations                            476

  34. The islands which lie in front of Asia                     479

  35. Cyprus                                                     480

  36. Rhodes                                                     483

  37. Samos                                                      485

  38. Chios                                                      486

  39. Lesbos                                                     487

  40. The Hellespont and Mysia                                   488

  41. Phrygia                                                    490

  42. Galatia and the adjoining nations                          491

  43. Bithynia                                                   493

  44. The islands of the Propontis                               496




NATURAL HISTORY OF PLINY




BOOK I.[34]

DEDICATION.

C. PLINIUS SECUNDUS TO HIS FRIEND TITUS VESPASIAN.


This treatise on Natural History, a novel work in Roman literature,
which I have just completed, I have taken the liberty to dedicate to
you, most gracious[35] Emperor, an appellation peculiarly suitable to
you, while, on account of his age, that of _great_ is more appropriate
to your Father;—

  “For still thou ne’er wouldst quite despise
    The trifles that I write[36];”

if I may be allowed to shelter myself under the example of Catullus,
my fellow-countryman[37], a military term, which you well understand.
For he, as you know, when his napkins had been changed[38], expressed
himself a little harshly, from his anxiety to show his friendship
for his dear little _Veranius_ and _Fabius_[39]. At the same time
this my importunity may effect, what you complained of my not having
done in another too forward epistle of mine; it will put upon record,
and let all the world know, with what kindness you exercise the
imperial dignity. You, who have had the honour of a triumph, and of
the censorship, have been six times consul, and have shared in the
tribunate; and, what is still more honourable, whilst you held them in
conjunction with your Father, you have presided over the Equestrian
order, and been the Prefect of the Prætorians[40]: all this you have
done for the service of the Republic, and, at the same time, have
regarded me as a fellow-soldier and a messmate. Nor has the extent of
your prosperity produced any change in you, except that it has given
you the power of doing good to the utmost of your wishes. And whilst
all these circumstances increase the veneration which other persons
feel for you, with respect to myself, they have made me so bold, as to
wish to become more familiar. You must, therefore, place this to your
own account, and blame yourself for any fault of this kind that I may
commit.

But, although I have laid aside my blushes[41], I have not gained
my object; for you still awe me, and keep me at a distance, by the
majesty of your understanding. In no one does the force of eloquence
and of tribunitian oratory blaze out more powerfully! With what glowing
language do you thunder forth the praises of your Father! How dearly
do you love your Brother! How admirable is your talent for poetry!
What a fertility of genius do you possess, so as to enable you to
imitate your Brother[42]! But who is there that is bold enough to form
an estimate on these points, if he is to be judged by you, and, more
especially, if you are challenged to do so? For the case of those
who merely publish their works is very different from that of those
who expressly dedicate them to you. In the former case I might say,
Emperor! why do you read these things? They are written only for the
common people, for farmers or mechanics, or for those who have nothing
else to do; why do you trouble yourself with them? Indeed, when I
undertook this work, I did not expect that you would sit in judgement
upon me[43]; I considered your situation much too elevated for you to
descend to such an office. Besides, we possess the right of openly
rejecting the opinion of men of learning. M. Tullius himself, whose
genius is beyond all competition, uses this privilege; and, remarkable
as it may appear, employs an advocate in his own defence:—“I do not
write for very learned people; I do not wish my works to be read by
Manius Persius, but by Junius Congus[44].” And if Lucilius, who first
introduced the satirical style[45], applied such a remark to himself,
and if Cicero thought proper to borrow it, and that more especially
in his treatise “De Republica,” how much reason have I to do so, who
have such a judge to defend myself against! And by this dedication
I have deprived myself of the benefit of challenge[46]; for it is a
very different thing whether a person has a judge given him by lot, or
whether he voluntarily selects one; and we always make more preparation
for an invited guest, than for one that comes in unexpectedly.

When the candidates for office, during the heat of the canvass,
deposited the fine[47] in the hands of Cato, that determined opposer
of bribery, rejoicing as he did in his being rejected from what he
considered to be foolish honours, they professed to do this out of
respect to his integrity; the greatest glory which a man could attain.
It was on this occasion that Cicero uttered the noble ejaculation, “How
happy are you, Marcus Porcius, of whom no one dares to ask what is
dishonourable[48]!” When L. Scipio Asiaticus appealed to the tribunes,
among whom was Gracchus, he expressed full confidence that he should
obtain an acquittal, even from a judge who was his enemy. Hence it
follows, that he who appoints his own judge must absolutely submit to
the decision; this choice is therefore termed an appeal[49].

I am well aware, that, placed as you are in the highest station, and
gifted with the most splendid eloquence and the most accomplished
mind, even those who come to pay their respects to you, do it with a
kind of veneration: on this account I ought to be careful that what
is dedicated to you should be worthy of you. But the country people,
and, indeed, some whole nations offer milk to the Gods[50], and those
who cannot procure frankincense substitute in its place salted cakes;
for the Gods are not dissatisfied when they are worshiped by every one
to the best of his ability. But my temerity will appear the greater
by the consideration, that these volumes, which I dedicate to you,
are of such inferior importance. For they do not admit of the display
of genius, nor, indeed, is mine one of the highest order; they admit
of no excursions, nor orations, nor discussions, nor of any wonderful
adventures, nor any variety of transactions, nor, from the barrenness
of the matter, of anything particularly pleasant in the narration, or
agreeable to the reader. The nature of things, and life as it actually
exists, are described in them; and often the lowest department of it;
so that, in very many cases, I am obliged to use rude and foreign, or
even barbarous terms, and these often require to be introduced by a
kind of preface. And, besides this, my road is not a beaten track, nor
one which the mind is much disposed to travel over. There is no one
among us who has ever attempted it, nor is there any one individual
among the Greeks who has treated of all the topics. Most of us seek
for nothing but amusement in our studies, while others are fond of
subjects that are of excessive subtilty, and completely involved in
obscurity. My object is to treat of all those things which the Greeks
include in the Encyclopædia[51], which, however, are either not
generally known or are rendered dubious from our ingenious conceits.
And there are other matters which many writers have given so much in
detail that we quite loathe them. It is, indeed, no easy task to give
novelty to what is old, and authority to what is new; brightness to
what is become tarnished, and light to what is obscure; to render what
is slighted acceptable, and what is doubtful worthy of our confidence;
to give to all a natural manner, and to each its peculiar nature. It
is sufficiently honourable and glorious to have been willing even to
make the attempt, although it should prove unsuccessful. And, indeed,
I am of opinion, that the studies of those are more especially worthy
of our regard, who, after having overcome all difficulties, prefer the
useful office of assisting others to the mere gratification of giving
pleasure; and this is what I have already done in some of my former
works. I confess it surprises me, that T. Livius, so celebrated an
author as he is, in one of the books of his history of the city from
its origin, should begin with this remark, “I have now obtained a
sufficient reputation, so that I might put an end to my work, did not
my restless mind require to be supported by employment[52].” Certainly
he ought to have composed this work, not for his own glory, but for
that of the Roman name, and of the people who were the conquerors
of all other nations. It would have been more meritorious to have
persevered in his labours from his love of the work, than from the
gratification which it afforded himself, and to have accomplished it,
not for his own sake, but for that of the Roman people.

I have included in thirty-six[53] books 20,000 topics, all worthy
of attention, (for, as Domitius Piso[54] says, we ought to make
not merely books, but valuable collections,) gained by the perusal
of about 2000 volumes, of which a few only are in the hands of the
studious, on account of the obscurity of the subjects, procured by the
careful perusal of 100 select authors[55]; and to these I have made
considerable additions of things, which were either not known to my
predecessors, or which have been lately discovered. Nor can I doubt but
that there still remain many things which I have omitted; for I am a
mere mortal, and one that has many occupations. I have, therefore, been
obliged to compose this work at interrupted intervals, indeed during
the night, so that you will find that I have not been idle even during
this period. The day I devote to you, exactly portioning out my sleep
to the necessity of my health, and contenting myself with this reward,
that while we are musing[56] on these subjects (according to the remark
of Varro), we are adding to the length of our lives; for life properly
consists in being awake.

In consideration of these circumstances and these difficulties, I dare
promise nothing; but you have done me the most essential service in
permitting me to dedicate my work to you. Nor does this merely give
a sanction to it, but it determines its value; for things are often
conceived to be of great value, solely because they are consecrated in
temples.

I have given a full account of all your family—your Father, yourself,
and your Brother, in a history of our own times, beginning where
Aufidius Bassus concludes[57]. You will ask, Where is it? It has been
long completed and its accuracy confirmed[58]; but I have determined to
commit the charge of it to my heirs, lest I should have been suspected,
during my lifetime, of having been unduly influenced by ambition. By
this means I confer an obligation on those who occupy the same ground
with myself; and also on posterity, who, I am aware, will contend with
me, as I have done with my predecessors.

You may judge of my taste from my having inserted, in the beginning of
my book, the names of the authors that I have consulted. For I consider
it to be courteous and to indicate an ingenuous modesty, to acknowledge
the sources whence we have derived assistance, and not to act as most
of those have done whom I have examined. For I must inform you, that
in comparing various authors with each other, I have discovered, that
some of the most grave and of the latest writers have transcribed,
word for word, from former works, without making any acknowledgement;
not avowedly rivalling them, in the manner of Virgil, or with the
candour of Cicero, who, in his treatise “De Republica[59],” professes
to coincide in opinion with Plato, and in his Essay on Consolation for
his Daughter, says that he follows Crantor, and, in his Offices[60],
Panæcius; volumes, which, as you well know, ought not merely to be
always in our hands, but to be learned by heart. For it is indeed the
mark of a perverted mind and a bad disposition, to prefer being caught
in a theft to returning what we have borrowed, especially when we have
acquired capital, by usurious interest[61].

The Greeks were wonderfully happy in their titles. One work they called
Κηρίον, which means that it was as sweet as a honeycomb; another Κέρας
Ἀμαλθείας, or Cornu copiæ, so that you might expect to get even a
draught of pigeon’s milk from it[62]. Then they have their Flowers,
their Muses, Magazines, Manuals, Gardens, Pictures, and Sketches[63],
all of them titles for which a man might be tempted even to forfeit his
bail. But when you enter upon the works, O ye Gods and Goddesses! how
full of emptiness! Our duller countrymen have merely their Antiquities,
or their Examples, or their Arts. I think one of the most humorous of
them has his Nocturnal Studies[64], a term employed by Bibaculus; a
name which he richly deserved[65]. Varro, indeed, is not much behind
him, when he calls one of his satires A Trick and a Half, and another
Turning the Tables[66]. Diodorus was the first among the Greeks who
laid aside this trifling manner and named his history The Library[67].
Apion, the grammarian, indeed—he whom Tiberius Cæsar called the
Trumpeter of the World, but would rather seem to be the Bell of the
Town-crier[68],—supposed that every one to whom he inscribed any work
would thence acquire immortality. I do not regret not having given my
work a more fanciful title.

That I may not, however, appear to inveigh so completely against the
Greeks, I should wish to be considered under the same point of view
with those inventors of the arts of painting and sculpture, of whom
you will find an account in these volumes, whose works, although they
are so perfect that we are never satisfied with admiring them, are
inscribed with a temporary title[69], such as “Apelles, or Polycletus,
was doing this;” implying that the work was only commenced and still
imperfect, and that the artist might benefit by the criticisms that
were made on it and alter any part that required it, if he had not been
prevented by death. It is also a great mark of their modesty, that they
inscribed their works as if they were the last which they had executed,
and as still in hand at the time of their death. I think there are but
three works of art which are inscribed positively with the words “such
a one executed this;” of these I shall give an account in the proper
place. In these cases it appears, that the artist felt the most perfect
satisfaction with his work, and hence these pieces have excited the
envy of every one.

I, indeed, freely admit, that much may be added to my works; not only
to this, but to all which I have published. By this admission I hope to
escape from the carping critics[70], and I have the more reason to say
this, because I hear that there are certain Stoics and Logicians[71],
and also Epicureans (from the Grammarians[72] I expected as much),
who are big with something against the little work I published on
Grammar[73]; and that they have been carrying these abortions for ten
years together—a longer pregnancy this than the elephant’s[74]. But I
well know, that even a woman once wrote against Theophrastus, a man so
eminent for his eloquence that he obtained his name, which signifies
the Divine speaker[75], and that from this circumstance originated the
proverb of choosing a tree to hang oneself[76].

I cannot refrain from quoting the words of Cato the censor, which are
so pertinent to this point. It appears from them, that even Cato, who
wrote commentaries on military discipline[77], and who had learned the
military art under Africanus, or rather under Hannibal (for he could
not endure Africanus[78], who, when he was his general, had borne away
the triumph from him), that Cato, I say, was open to the attacks of
such as caught at reputation for themselves by detracting from the
merits of others. And what does he say in his book? “I know, that when
I shall publish what I have written, there will be many who will do
all they can to depreciate it, and, especially, such as are themselves
void of all merit; but I let their harangues glide by me.” Nor was the
remark of Plancus[79] a bad one, when Asinius Pollio[80] was said to
be preparing an oration against him, which was to be published either
by himself or his children, after the death of Plancus, in order that
he might not be able to answer it: “It is only ghosts that fight with
the dead.” This gave such a blow to the oration, that in the opinion
of the learned generally, nothing was ever thought more scandalous.
Feeling myself, therefore, secure against these vile slanderers[81], a
name elegantly composed by Cato, to express their slanderous and vile
disposition (for what other object have they, but to wrangle and breed
quarrels?), I will proceed with my projected work.

And because the public good requires that you should be spared as much
as possible from all trouble, I have subjoined to this epistle the
contents of each of the following books[82], and have used my best
endeavours to prevent your being obliged to read them all through. And
this, which was done for your benefit, will also serve the same purpose
for others, so that any one may search for what he wishes, and may
know where to find it. This has been already done among us by Valerius
Soranus, in his work which he entitled “On Mysteries[83].”

  The 1st book is the Preface of the Work, dedicated to Titus Vespasian
  Cæsar.

  The 2nd is on the World, the Elements, and the Heavenly Bodies[84].

  The 3rd, 4th, 5th and 6th books are on Geography, in which is
  contained an account of the situation of the different countries,
  the inhabitants, the seas, towns, harbours, mountains, rivers, and
  dimensions, and the various tribes, some of which still exist and
  others have disappeared.

  The 7th is on Man, and the Inventions of Man.

  The 8th on the various kinds of Land Animals.

  The 9th on Aquatic Animals.

  The 10th on the various kinds of Birds.

  The 11th on Insects.

  The 12th on Odoriferous Plants.

  The 13th on Exotic Trees.

  The 14th on Vines.

  The 15th on Fruit Trees.

  The 16th on Forest Trees.

  The 17th on Plants raised in nurseries or gardens.

  The 18th on the nature of Fruits and the Cerealia, and the pursuits
  of the Husbandman.

  The 19th on Flax, Broom[85], and Gardening.

  The 20th on the Cultivated Plants that are proper for food and for
  medicine.

  The 21st on Flowers and Plants that are used for making Garlands.

  The 22nd on Garlands, and Medicines made from Plants.

  The 23rd on Medicines made from Wine and from cultivated Trees.

  The 24th on Medicines made from Forest Trees.

  The 25th on Medicines made from Wild Plants.

  The 26th on New Diseases, and Medicines made, for certain Diseases,
  from Plants.

  The 27th on some other Plants and Medicines.

  The 28th on Medicines procured from Man and from large Animals.

  The 29th on Medical Authors, and on Medicines from other Animals.

  The 30th on Magic, and Medicines for certain parts of the Body.

  The 31st on Medicines from Aquatic Animals.

  The 32nd on the other properties of Aquatic Animals.

  The 33rd on Gold and Silver.

  The 34th on Copper and Lead, and the workers of Copper.

  The 35th on Painting, Colours, and Painters.

  The 36th on Marbles and Stones.

  The 37th on Gems.




BOOK II.

AN ACCOUNT OF THE WORLD AND THE ELEMENTS.

[I have adopted the division of the chapters from Hardouin, as given
in the editions of Valpy, Lemaire, Ajasson, and Sillig; the Roman
figures, enclosed between brackets, are the numbers of the chapters
in Dalechamps, De Laët, Gronovius, Holland, and Poinsinet. The titles
of the chapters are nearly the same with those in Valpy, Lemaire, and
Ajasson.]




CHAP. 1. (1.)—WHETHER THE WORLD BE FINITE, AND WHETHER THERE BE MORE
THAN ONE WORLD.


The world[86], and whatever that be which we otherwise call the
heavens[87], by the vault of which all things are enclosed, we must
conceive to be a Deity[88], to be eternal, without bounds, neither
created, nor subject, at any time, to destruction[89]. To inquire what
is beyond it is no concern of man, nor can the human mind form any
conjecture respecting it. It is sacred, eternal, and without bounds,
all in all; indeed including everything in itself; finite, yet like
what is infinite; the most certain of all things, yet like what is
uncertain, externally and internally embracing all things in itself; it
is the work of nature, and itself constitutes nature[90].

It is madness to harass the mind, as some have done, with attempts to
measure the world, and to publish these attempts; or, like others, to
argue from what they have made out, that there are innumerable other
worlds, and that we must believe there to be so many other natures,
or that, if only one nature produced the whole, there will be so many
suns and so many moons, and that each of them will have immense trains
of other heavenly bodies. As if the same question would not recur at
every step of our inquiry, anxious as we must be to arrive at some
termination; or, as if this infinity, which we ascribe to nature,
the former of all things, cannot be more easily comprehended by one
single formation, especially when that is so extensive. It is madness,
perfect madness, to go out of this world and to search for what is
beyond it, as if one who is ignorant of his own dimensions could
ascertain the measure of any thing else, or as if the human mind could
see what the world itself cannot contain.




CHAP. 2. (2.)—OF THE FORM OF THE WORLD[91].


That it has the form of a perfect globe we learn from the name which
has been uniformly given to it, as well as from numerous natural
arguments. For not only does a figure of this kind return everywhere
into itself[92] and sustain itself, also including itself, requiring
no adjustments, not sensible of either end or beginning in any of its
parts, and is best fitted for that motion, with which, as will appear
hereafter, it is continually turning round; but still more, because we
perceive it, by the evidence of the sight, to be, in every part, convex
and central, which could not be the case were it of any other figure.




CHAP. 3. (3.)—OF ITS NATURE; WHENCE THE NAME IS DERIVED.


The rising and the setting of the sun clearly prove, that this globe
is carried round in the space of twenty-four hours, in an eternal and
never-ceasing circuit, and with incredible swiftness[93]. I am not
able to say, whether the sound caused by the whirling about of so great
a mass be excessive, and, therefore, far beyond what our ears can
perceive, nor, indeed, whether the resounding of so many stars, all
carried along at the same time and revolving in their orbits, may not
produce a kind of delightful harmony of incredible sweetness[94]. To
us, who are in the interior, the world appears to glide silently along,
both by day and by night.

Various circumstances in nature prove to us, that there are impressed
on the heavens innumerable figures of animals and of all kinds of
objects, and that its surface is not perfectly polished like the eggs
of birds, as some celebrated authors assert[95]. For we find that the
seeds of all bodies fall down from it, principally into the ocean,
and, being mixed together, that a variety of monstrous forms are in
this way frequently produced. And, indeed, this is evident to the eye;
for, in one part, we have the figure of a wain, in another of a bear,
of a bull, and of a letter[96]; while, in the middle of them, over our
heads, there is a white circle[97].

(4.) With respect to the name, I am influenced by the unanimous
opinions of all nations. For what the Greeks, from its being
ornamented, have termed κόσμος, we, from its perfect and complete
elegance, have termed _mundus_. The name _cœlum_, no doubt, refers to
its being engraven, as it were, with the stars, as Varro suggests[98].
In confirmation of this idea we may adduce the Zodiac[99], in which
are twelve figures of animals; through them it is that the sun has
continued its course for so many ages.




CHAP. 4. (5.)—OF THE ELEMENTS[100] AND THE PLANETS[101].


I do not find that any one has doubted that there are four elements.
The highest of these is supposed to be fire, and hence proceed the
eyes of so many glittering stars. The next is that spirit, which both
the Greeks and ourselves call by the same name, air[102]. It is by
the force of this vital principle, pervading all things and mingling
with all, that the earth, together with the fourth element, water, is
balanced in the middle of space. These are mutually bound together,
the lighter being restrained by the heavier, so that they cannot fly
off; while, on the contrary, from the lighter tending upwards, the
heavier are so suspended, that they cannot fall down. Thus, by an
equal tendency in an opposite direction, each of them remains in its
appropriate place, bound together by the never-ceasing revolution
of the world, which always turning on itself, the earth falls to
the lowest part and is in the middle of the whole, while it remains
suspended in the centre[103], and, as it were, balancing this centre,
in which it is suspended. So that it alone remains immoveable, whilst
all things revolve round it, being connected with every other part,
whilst they all rest upon it.

(6.) Between this body and the heavens there are suspended, in this
aërial spirit, seven stars[104], separated by determinate spaces,
which, on account of their motion, we call wandering, although,
in reality, none are less so[105]. The sun is carried along in the
midst of these, a body of great size and power, the ruler, not only
of the seasons and of the different climates, but also of the stars
themselves and of the heavens[106]. When we consider his operations, we
must regard him as the life, or rather the mind of the universe, the
chief regulator and the God of nature; he also lends his light to the
other stars[107]. He is most illustrious and excellent, beholding all
things and hearing all things, which, I perceive, is ascribed to him
exclusively by the prince of poets, Homer[108].




CHAP. 5. (7.)—OF GOD[109].


I consider it, therefore, an indication of human weakness to inquire
into the figure and form of God. For whatever God be, if there be any
other God[110], and wherever he exists, he is all sense, all sight,
all hearing, all life, all mind[111], and all within himself. To
believe that there are a number of Gods, derived from the virtues and
vices of man[112], as Chastity, Concord, Understanding, Hope, Honour,
Clemency, and Fidelity; or, according to the opinion of Democritus,
that there are only two, Punishment and Reward[113], indicates still
greater folly. Human nature, weak and frail as it is, mindful of its
own infirmity, has made these divisions, so that every one might have
recourse to that which he supposed himself to stand more particularly
in need of[114]. Hence we find different names employed by different
nations; the inferior deities are arranged in classes, and diseases and
plagues are deified, in consequence of our anxious wish to propitiate
them. It was from this cause that a temple was dedicated to Fever, at
the public expense, on the Palatine Hill[115], and to Orbona[116], near
the Temple of the Lares, and that an altar was elected to Good Fortune
on the Esquiline. Hence we may understand how it comes to pass that
there is a greater population of the Celestials than of human beings,
since each individual makes a separate God for himself, adopting his
own Juno and his own Genius[117]. And there are nations who make Gods
of certain animals, and even certain obscene things[118], which are not
to be spoken of, swearing by stinking meats and such like. To suppose
that marriages are contracted between the Gods, and that, during so
long a period, there should have been no issue from them, that some
of them should be old and always grey-headed and others young and like
children, some of a dark, complexion, winged, lame, produced from
eggs, living and dying on alternate days, is sufficiently puerile and
foolish. But it is the height of impudence to imagine, that adultery
takes place between them, that they have contests and quarrels, and
that there are Gods of theft and of various crimes[119]. To assist man
is to be a God; this is the path to eternal glory. This is the path
which the Roman nobles formerly pursued, and this is the path which is
now pursued by the greatest ruler of our age, Vespasian Augustus, he
who has come to the relief of an exhausted empire, as well as by his
sons. This was the ancient mode of remunerating those who deserved it,
to regard them as Gods[120]. For the names of all the Gods, as well as
of the stars that I have mentioned above[121], have been derived from
their services to mankind. And with respect to Jupiter and Mercury, and
the rest of the celestial nomenclature, who does not admit that they
have reference to certain natural phenomena[122]?

But it is ridiculous to suppose, that the great head of all things,
whatever it be, pays any regard to human affairs[123]. Can we believe,
or rather can there be any doubt, that it is not polluted by such a
disagreeable and complicated office? It is not easy to determine which
opinion would be most for the advantage of mankind, since we observe
some who have no respect for the Gods, and others who carry it to a
scandalous excess. They are slaves to foreign ceremonies; they carry on
their fingers the Gods and the monsters whom they worship[124]; they
condemn and they lay great stress on certain kinds of food; they impose
on themselves dreadful ordinances, not even sleeping quietly. They do
not marry or adopt children, or indeed do anything else, without the
sanction of their sacred rites. There are others, on the contrary, who
will cheat in the very Capitol, and will forswear themselves even by
Jupiter Tonans[125], and while these thrive in their crimes, the others
torment themselves with their superstitions to no purpose.

Among these discordant opinions mankind have discovered for themselves
a kind of intermediate deity, by which our scepticism concerning God
is still increased. For all over the world, in all places, and at
all times, Fortune is the only god whom every one invokes; she alone
is spoken of, she alone is accused and is supposed to be guilty; she
alone is in our thoughts, is praised and blamed, and is loaded with
reproaches; wavering as she is, conceived by the generality of mankind
to be blind, wandering, inconstant, uncertain, variable, and often
favouring the unworthy. To her are referred all our losses and all our
gains, and in casting up the accounts of mortals she alone balances the
two pages of our sheet[126]. We are so much in the power of chance,
that chance itself is considered as a God, and the existence of God
becomes doubtful.

But there are others who reject this principle and assign events to
the influence of the stars[127], and to the laws of our nativity;
they suppose that God, once for all, issues his decrees and never
afterwards interferes. This opinion begins to gain ground, and both the
learned and the unlearned vulgar are falling into it. Hence we have
the admonitions of thunder, the warnings of oracles, the predictions
of soothsayers, and things too trifling to be mentioned, as sneezing
and stumbling with the feet reckoned among omens[128]. The late Emperor
Augustus[129] relates, that he put the left shoe on the wrong foot,
the day when he was near being assaulted by his soldiers[130]. And
such things as these so embarrass improvident mortals, that among all
of them this alone is certain, that there is nothing certain, and
that there is nothing more proud or more wretched than man. For other
animals have no care but to provide for their subsistence, for which
the spontaneous kindness of nature is all-sufficient; and this one
circumstance renders their lot more especially preferable, that they
never think about glory, or money, or ambition, and, above all, that
they never reflect on death.

The belief, however, that on these points the Gods superintend human
affairs is useful to us, as well as that the punishment of crimes,
although sometimes tardy, from the Deity being occupied with such a
mass of business, is never entirely remitted, and that the human race
was not made the next in rank to himself, in order that they might be
degraded like brutes. And indeed this constitutes the great comfort in
this imperfect state of man, that even the Deity cannot do everything.
For he cannot procure death for himself, even if he wished it, which,
so numerous are the evils of life, has been granted to man as our
chief good. Nor can he make mortals immortal, or recall to life those
who are dead; nor can he effect, that he who has once lived shall not
have lived, or that he who has enjoyed honours shall not have enjoyed
them; nor has he any influence over past events but to cause them to be
forgotten. And, if we illustrate the nature of our connexion with God
by a less serious argument, he cannot make twice ten not to be twenty,
and many other things of this kind. By these considerations the power
of Nature is clearly proved, and is shown to be what we call God. It
is not foreign to the subject to have digressed into these matters,
familiar as they are to every one, from the continual discussions that
take place respecting God[131].




CHAP. 6. (8.)—OF THE NATURE OF THE STARS; OF THE MOTION OF THE PLANETS.


Let us return from this digression to the other parts of nature. The
stars which are described as fixed in the heavens[132], are not, as the
vulgar suppose, attached each of them to different individuals[133],
the brighter to the rich, those that are less so to the poor, and
the dim to the aged, shining according to the lot of the individual,
and separately assigned to mortals; for they have neither come into
existence, nor do they perish in connexion with particular persons,
nor does a falling star indicate that any one is dead. We are not so
closely connected with the heavens as that the shining of the stars
is affected by our death[134]. When they are supposed to shoot or
fall[135], they throw out, by the force of their fire, as if from an
excess of nutriment, the superabundance of the humour which they have
absorbed, as we observe to take place from the oil in our lamps, when
they are burning[136]. The nature of the celestial bodies is eternal,
being interwoven, as it were, with the world, and, by this union,
rendering it solid; but they exert their most powerful influence on
the earth. This, notwithstanding its subtilty, may be known by the
clearness and the magnitude of the effect, as we shall point out in the
proper place[137]. The account of the circles of the heavens will be
better understood when we come to speak of the earth, since they have
all a reference to it; except what has been discovered respecting the
Zodiac, which I shall now detail.

Anaximander the Milesian, in the 58th olympiad[138], is said to have
been the first who understood its obliquity, and thus opened the road
to a correct knowledge of the subject[139]. Afterwards Cleostratus
made the signs in it, first marking those of Aries and Sagittarius;
Atlas had formed the sphere long before this time[140]. But now,
leaving the further consideration of this subject, we must treat of the
bodies that are situated between the earth and the heavens[141].

It is certain that the star called Saturn is the highest, and
therefore appears the smallest, that he passes through the largest
circuit, and that he is at least thirty years in completing it[142].
The course of all the planets, and among others of the Sun, and the
Moon, is in the contrary direction to that of the heavens[143], that
is towards the left, while the heavens are rapidly carried about to
the right[144]. And although, by the stars constantly revolving with
immense velocity, they are raised up, and hurried on to the part where
they set, yet they are all forced, by a motion of their own, in an
opposite direction[145]; and this is so ordered, lest the air, being
always moved in the same direction, by the constant whirling of the
heavens, should accumulate into one mass, whereas now it is divided and
separated and beaten into small pieces, by the opposite motion of the
different stars. Saturn is a star of a cold and rigid nature, while
the orbit of Jupiter is much lower, and is carried round in twelve
years[146]. The next star, Mars, which some persons call Hercules[147],
is of a fiery and burning nature, and from its nearness to the sun is
carried round in little less than two years[148]. In consequence of the
excessive heat of this star and the rigidity of Saturn, Jupiter, which
is interposed between the two, is tempered by both of them, and is thus
rendered salutary. The path of the Sun consists of 360 degrees; but, in
order that the shadow may return to the same point of the dial[149],
we are obliged to add, in each year, five days and the fourth part
of a day. On this account an intercalary day is given to every fifth
year[150], that the period of the seasons may agree with that of the
Sun.

Below the Sun[151] revolves the great star called Venus, wandering
with an alternate motion[152], and, even in its surnames, rivalling
the Sun and the Moon. For when it precedes the day and rises in the
morning, it receives the name of Lucifer, as if it were another sun,
hastening on the day. On the contrary, when it shines in the west, it
is named Vesper, as prolonging the light, and performing the office
of the moon. Pythagoras, the Samian, was the first who discovered
its nature[153], about the 62nd olympiad, in the 222nd year of the
City[154]. It excels all the other stars in size, and its brilliancy
is so considerable, that it is the only star which produces a shadow
by its rays. There has, consequently, been great interest made for its
name; some have called it the star of Juno[155], others of Isis, and
others of the Mother of the Gods. By its influence everything in the
earth is generated. For, as it rises in either direction, it sprinkles
everything with its genial dew, and not only matures the productions
of the earth, but stimulates all living things[156]. It completes the
circuit of the zodiac in 348 days, never receding from the sun more
than 46 degrees, according to Timæus[157].

Similarly circumstanced, but by no means equal in size and in power,
next to it, is the star Mercury, by some called Apollo[158]; it is
carried in a lower orbit, and moves in a course which is quicker by
nine days, shining sometimes before the rising of the sun, and at
other times after its setting, but never going farther from it than 23
degrees[159], as we learn from Timæus and Sosigenes[160]. The nature of
these two stars is peculiar, and is not the same with those mentioned
above, for those are seen to recede from the sun through one-third or
one-fourth part of the heavens, and are often seen opposite to it. They
have also other larger circuits, in which they make their complete
revolutions, as will be described in the account of the great year[161].

(9.) But the Moon[162], which is the last of the stars, and the one
the most connected with the earth, the remedy provided by nature for
darkness, excels all the others in its admirable qualities. By the
variety of appearances which it assumes, it puzzles the observers,
mortified that they should be the most ignorant concerning that star
which is the nearest to them. She is always either waxing or waning;
sometimes her disc is curved into horns, sometimes it is divided
into two equal portions, and at other times it is swelled out into
a full orb; sometimes she appears spotted[163] and suddenly becomes
very bright; she appears very large with her full orb and suddenly
becomes invisible; now continuing during all the night, now rising
late, and now aiding the light of the sun during a part of the day;
becoming eclipsed and yet being visible while she is eclipsed;
concealing herself at the end of the month and yet not supposed to
be eclipsed[164]. Sometimes she is low down, sometimes she is high
up, and that not according to one uniform course, being at one time
raised up to the heavens, at other times almost contiguous to the
mountains; now elevated in the north, now depressed in the south; all
which circumstances having been noticed by Endymion, a report was
spread about, that he was in love with the moon[165]. We are not indeed
sufficiently grateful to those, who, with so much labour and care,
have enlightened us with this light[166]; while, so diseased is the
human mind, that we take pleasure in writing the annals of blood and
slaughter, in order that the crimes of men may be made known to those
who are ignorant of the constitution of the world itself.

Being nearest to the axis[167], and therefore having the smallest
orbit, the Moon passes in twenty-seven days and the one-third part of a
day[168], through the same space for which Saturn, the highest of the
planets, as was stated above, requires thirty years. After remaining
for two days in conjunction with the sun, on the thirtieth day she
again very slowly emerges to pursue her accustomed course[169]. I
know not whether she ought not to be considered as our instructress
in everything that can be known respecting the heavens; as that the
year is divided into the twelve divisions of the months, since she
follows the sun for the same number of times, until he returns to the
commencement of his course; and that her brightness, as well as that
of the other stars, is regulated by that of the sun, if indeed they
all of them shine by light borrowed from him, such as we see floating
about, when it is reflected from the surface of water. On this account
it is that she dissolves so much moisture, by a gentle and less
perfect force, and adds to the quantity of that which the rays of the
sun consume[170]. On this account she appears with an unequal light,
because being full only when she is in opposition, on all the remaining
days she shows only so much of herself to the earth as she receives
light from the sun[171]. She is not seen in conjunction, because, at
that time, she sends back the whole stream of light to the source
whence she has derived it. That the stars generally are nourished by
the terrestrial moisture is evident, because, when the moon is only
half visible she is sometimes seen spotted, her power of absorbing
moisture not having been powerful enough; for the spots are nothing
else than the dregs of the earth drawn up along with the moisture[172].
(10.) But her eclipses and those of the sun, the most wonderful of
all the phenomena of nature, and which are like prodigies, serve to
indicate the magnitude of these bodies and the shadow[173] which they
cast.




CHAP. 7.—OF THE ECLIPSES OF THE MOON AND THE SUN.


For it is evident that the sun is hid by the intervention[174] of the
moon, and the moon by the opposition[174] of the earth, and that these
changes are mutual, the moon, by her interposition[174], taking the
rays of the sun from the earth, and the earth from the moon. As she
advances darkness is suddenly produced, and again the sun is obscured
by her shade; for night is nothing more than the shade of the earth.
The figure of this shade is like that of a pyramid or an inverted
top[175]; and the moon enters it only near its point, and it does
not exceed the height of the moon, for there is no other star which
is obscured in the same manner, while a figure of this kind always
terminates in a point. The flight of birds, when very lofty, shows that
shadows do not extend beyond a certain distance; their limit appears to
be the termination of the air and the commencement of the æther. Above
the moon everything is pure and full of an eternal light. The stars are
visible to us in the night, in the same way that other luminous bodies
are seen in the dark. It is from these causes that the moon is eclipsed
during the night[176]. The two kinds of eclipses are not, however, at
the stated monthly periods, on account of the obliquity of the zodiac,
and the irregularly wandering course of the moon, as stated above;
besides that the motions of these stars do not always occur exactly at
the same points[177].




CHAP. 8. (11.)—OF THE MAGNITUDE OF THE STARS.


This kind of reasoning carries the human mind to the heavens, and by
contemplating the world as it were from thence, it discloses to us the
magnitude of the three greatest bodies in nature[178]. For the sun
could not be entirely concealed from the earth, by the intervention of
the moon, if the earth were greater than the moon[179]. And the vast
size of the third body, the sun, is manifest from that of the other
two, so that it is not necessary to scrutinize its size, by arguing
from its visible appearance, or from any conjectures of the mind; it
must be immense, because the shadows of rows of trees, extending for
any number of miles, are disposed in right lines[180], as if the sun
were in the middle of space. Also, because, at the equinox, he is
vertical to all the inhabitants of the southern districts at the same
time[181]; also, because the shadows of all the people who live on this
side of the tropic fall, at noon, towards the north, and, at sunrise,
point to the west. But this could not be the case unless the sun were
much greater than the earth; nor, unless it much exceeded Mount Ida in
breadth, could he be seen when he rises, passing considerably beyond
it to the right and to the left, especially, considering that it is
separated by so great an interval[182].

The eclipse of the moon affords an undoubted argument of the sun’s
magnitude, as it also does of the small size of the earth[183]. For
there are shadows of three figures, and it is evident, that if the body
which produces the shadow be equal to the light, then it will be thrown
off in the form of a pillar, and have no termination. If the body be
greater than the light, the shadow will be in the form of an inverted
cone[184] the bottom being the narrowest part, and being, at the same
time, of an infinite length. If the body be less than the light, then
we shall have the figure of a pyramid[185], terminating in a point. Now
of this last kind is the shadow which produces the eclipse of the moon,
and this is so manifest that there can be no doubt remaining, that the
earth is exceeded in magnitude by the sun, a circumstance which is
indeed indicated by the silent declaration of nature herself. For why
does he recede from us at the winter half of the year[186]? That by
the darkness of the nights the earth may be refreshed, which otherwise
would be burned up, as indeed it is in certain parts; so great is his
size.




CHAP. 9. (12.)—AN ACCOUNT OF THE OBSERVATIONS THAT HAVE BEEN MADE ON
THE HEAVENS BY DIFFERENT INDIVIDUALS.


The first among the Romans, who explained to the people at large the
cause of the two kinds of eclipses, was Sulpicius Gallus, who was
consul along with Marcellus; and when he was only a military tribune
he relieved the army from great anxiety the day before king Perseus
was conquered by Paulus[187]; for he was brought by the general into
a public assembly, in order to predict the eclipse, of which he
afterwards gave an account in a separate treatise. Among the Greeks,
Thales the Milesian first investigated the subject, in the fourth
year of the forty-eighth olympiad, predicting the eclipse of the sun
which took place in the reign of Alyattes, in the 170th year of the
City[188]. After them Hipparchus calculated the course of both these
stars for the term of 600 years[189], including the months, days, and
hours, the situation of the different places and the aspects adapted
to each of them; all this has been confirmed by experience, and could
only be acquired by partaking, as it were, in the councils of nature.
These were indeed great men, superior to ordinary mortals, who having
discovered the laws of these divine bodies, relieved the miserable
mind of man from the fear which he had of eclipses, as foretelling
some dreadful events or the destruction of the stars. This alarm is
freely acknowledged in the sublime strains of Stesichorus and Pindar,
as being produced by an eclipse of the sun[190]. And with respect to
the eclipse of the moon, mortals impute it to witchcraft, and therefore
endeavour to aid her by producing discordant sounds. In consequence of
this kind of terror it was that Nicias, the general of the Athenians,
being ignorant of the cause, was afraid to lead out the fleet, and
brought great distress on his troops[191]. Hail to your genius, ye
interpreters of heaven! ye who comprehend the nature of things, and who
have discovered a mode of reasoning by which ye have conquered both
gods and men[192]! For who is there, in observing these things and
seeing the labours[193] which the stars are compelled to undergo (since
we have chosen to apply this term to them), that would not cheerfully
submit to his fate, as one born to die? I shall now, in a brief and
summary manner, touch on those points in which we are agreed, giving
the reasons where it is necessary to do so; for this is not a work of
profound argument, nor is it less wonderful to be able to suggest a
probable cause for everything, than to give a complete account of a few
of them only.




CHAP. 10. (13.)—ON THE RECURRENCE OF THE ECLIPSES OF THE SUN AND THE
MOON.


It is ascertained that the eclipses complete their whole revolution
in the space of 223 months[194], that the eclipse of the sun takes
place only at the conclusion or the commencement of a lunation, which
is termed conjunction[195], while an eclipse of the moon takes place
only when she is at the full, and is always a little farther advanced
than the preceding eclipse[196]. Now there are eclipses of both these
stars in every year, which take place below the earth, at stated days
and hours; and when they are above it[197] they are not always visible,
sometimes on account of the clouds, but more frequently, from the
globe of the earth being opposed to the vault of the heavens[198]. It
was discovered two hundred years ago, by the sagacity of Hipparchus,
that the moon is sometimes eclipsed after an interval of five months,
and the sun after an interval of seven[199]; also, that he becomes
invisible, while above the horizon, twice in every thirty days, but
that this is seen in different places at different times. But the most
wonderful circumstance is, that while it is admitted that the moon is
darkened by the shadow of the earth, this occurs at one time on its
western, and at another time on its eastern side. And farther, that
although, after the rising of the sun, that darkening shadow ought
to be below the earth, yet it has once happened, that the moon has
been eclipsed in the west, while both the luminaries have been above
the horizon[200]. And as to their both being invisible in the space
of fifteen days, this very thing happened while the Vespasians were
emperors, the father being consul for the third time, and the son for
the second[201].




CHAP. 11. (14.)—OF THE MOTION OF THE MOON.


It is certain that the moon, having her horns always turned from the
sun, when she is waxing, looks towards the east; when she is waning,
towards the west. Also, that, from the second day after the change,
she adds 47-1/2 minutes[202] each day, until she is full, and again
decreases at the same rate, and that she always becomes invisible when
she is within 14 degrees of the sun. This is an argument of the greater
size of the planets than of the moon, since these emerge when they
are at the distance of 7 degrees only[203]. But their altitude causes
them to appear much smaller, as we observe that, during the day, the
brightness of the sun prevents those bodies from being seen which are
fixed in the firmament, although they shine then as well as in the
night: that this is the case is proved by eclipses, and by descending
into very deep wells.




CHAP. 12. (15.)—OF THE MOTIONS OF THE PLANETS AND THE GENERAL LAWS OF
THEIR ASPECTS[204].


The three planets, which, as we have said, are situated above the
sun[205], are visible when they come into conjunction with him.
They rise visibly[206] in the morning, when they are not more than
11 degrees from the sun[207]; they are afterwards directed by the
contact of his rays[208], and when they attain the trine aspect,
at the distance of 120 degrees, they take their morning stationary
positions[209], which are termed primary; afterwards, when they are
in opposition to the sun, they rise at the distance of 180 degrees
from him. And again advancing on the other side to the 120th degree,
they attain their evening stations, which are termed secondary, until
the sun having arrived within 12 degrees of them, what is called their
evening setting becomes no longer visible[210]. Mars, as being nearer
to the sun, feels the influence of his rays in the quadrature, at the
distance of 90 degrees, whence that motion receives its name, being
termed, from the two risings, respectively the first and the second
nonagenarian[211]. This planet passes from one station to another in
six months, or is two months in each sign; the two other planets do not
spend more than four months in passing from station to station.

The two inferior planets are, in like manner, concealed in their
evening conjunction, and, when they have left the sun, they rise in
the morning the same number of degrees distant from him. After having
arrived at their point of greatest elongation[212], they then follow
the sun, and having overtaken him at their morning setting, they
become invisible and pass beyond him. They then rise in the evening,
at the distances which were mentioned above. After this they return
back to the sun and are concealed in their evening setting. The star
Venus becomes stationary when at its two points of greatest elongation,
that of the morning and of the evening, according to their respective
risings. The stationary points of Mercury are so very brief, that they
cannot be correctly observed.




CHAP. 13.—WHY THE SAME STARS APPEAR AT SOME TIMES MORE LOFTY AND AT
OTHER TIMES MORE NEAR.


The above is an account of the aspects and the occultations of the
planets, a subject which is rendered very complicated by their motions,
and is involved in much that is wonderful; especially, when we observe
that they change their size and colour, and that the same stars at
one time approach the north, and then go to the south, and are now
seen near the earth, and then suddenly approach the heavens. If on
this subject I deliver opinions different from my predecessors, I
acknowledge that I am indebted for them to those individuals who first
pointed out to us the proper mode of inquiry; let no one then ever
despair of benefiting future ages.

But these things depend upon many different causes. The first cause is
the nature of the circles described by the stars, which the Greeks term
_apsides_[213], for we are obliged to use Greek terms. Now each of the
planets has its own circle, and this a different one from that of the
world[214]; because the earth is placed in the centre of the heavens,
with respect to the two extremities, which are called the poles, and
also in that of the zodiac, which is situated obliquely between them.
And all these things are made evident by the infallible results which
we obtain by the use of the compasses[215]. Hence the apsides of the
planets have each of them different centres, and consequently they have
different orbits and motions, since it necessarily follows, that the
interior apsides are the shortest.

(16.) The apsides which are the highest from the centre of the earth
are, for Saturn, when he is in Scorpio, for Jupiter in Virgo, for
Mars in Leo, for the Sun in Gemini, for Venus in Sagittarius, and for
Mercury in Capricorn, each of them in the middle of these signs; while
in the opposite signs, they are the lowest and nearest to the centre
of the earth[216]. Hence it is that they appear to move more slowly
when they are carried along the highest circuit; not that their actual
motions are accelerated or retarded, these being fixed and determinate
for each of them; but because it necessarily follows, that lines drawn
from the highest apsis must approach nearer to each other at the
centre, like the spokes of a wheel; and that the same motion seems to
be at one time greater, and at another time less, according to the
distance from the centre.

Another cause of the altitudes of the planets is, that their highest
apsides, with relation to their own centres, are in different signs
from those mentioned above[217]. Saturn is in the 20th degree of Libra,
Jupiter in the 15th of Cancer, Mars in the 28th of Capricorn, the Sun
in the 19th of Aries, Venus in the 27th of Pisces, Mercury in the 15th
of Virgo, and the Moon in the 3rd of Taurus.

The third cause of the altitude depends on the form of the heavens,
not on that of the orbits; the stars appearing to the eye to mount
up and to descend through the depth of the air[218]. With this cause
is connected that which depends on the latitude of the planets and
the obliquity of the zodiac. It is through this belt that the stars
which I have spoken of are carried, nor is there any part of the world
habitable, except what lies under it[219]; the remainder, which is at
the poles, being in a wild desert state. The planet Venus alone exceeds
it by 2 degrees, which we may suppose to be the cause why some animals
are produced even in these desert regions of the earth. The moon also
wanders the whole breadth of the zodiac, but never exceeds it. Next
to these the planet Mercury moves through the greatest space; yet out
of the 12 degrees (for there are so many degrees of latitude in the
zodiac[220]), it does not pass through more than 8, nor does it go
equally through these, 2 of them being in the middle of the zodiac, 4
in the upper part, and 2 in the lower part[221]. Next to these the Sun
is carried through the middle of the zodiac, winding unequally through
the two parts of his tortuous circuit[222]. The star Mars occupies the
four middle degrees; Jupiter the middle degree and the two above it;
Saturn, like the sun, occupies two[223]. The above is an account of
the latitudes as they descend to the south or ascend to the north[224].
Hence it is plain that the generality of persons are mistaken in
supposing the third cause of the apparent altitude to depend on the
stars rising from the earth and climbing up the heavens. But to refute
this opinion it is necessary to consider the subject with very great
minuteness, and to embrace all the causes.

It is generally admitted, that the stars[225], at the time of their
evening setting, are nearest to the earth, both with respect to
latitude and altitude[226], that they are at the commencement of both
at their morning risings, and that they become stationary at the middle
points of their latitudes, what are called the ecliptics[227]. It is,
moreover, acknowledged, that their motion is increased when they are
in the vicinity of the earth, and diminished when they are removed to
a greater altitude[228]; a point which is most clearly proved by the
different altitudes of the moon. There is no doubt that it is also
increased at the morning risings[229], and that the three superior
planets are retarded, as they advance from the first station to the
second. And since this is the case, it is evident, that the latitudes
are increased from the time of their morning risings, since the motions
afterwards appear to receive less addition; but they gain their
altitude in the first station, since the rate of their motion then
begins to diminish[230], and the stars to recede.

And the reason of this must be particularly set forth. When the planets
are struck by the rays of the sun, in the situation which I have
described, _i. e._ in their quadrature, they are prevented from holding
on their straight forward course, and are raised on high by the force
of the fire[231]. This cannot be immediately perceived by the eye, and
therefore they seem to be stationary, and hence the term station is
derived. Afterwards the violence of the rays increases, and the vapour
being beaten back forces them to recede.

This exists in a greater degree in their evening risings, the sun being
then turned entirely from them, when they are drawn into the highest
apsides; and they are then the least visible, since they are at their
greatest altitude and are carried along with the least motion, as much
less indeed as this takes place in the highest signs of the apsides. At
the time of the evening rising the latitude decreases and becomes less
as the motion is diminished, and it does not increase again until they
arrive at the second station, when the altitude is also diminished;
the sun’s rays then coming from the other side, the same force now
therefore propels them towards the earth which before raised them into
the heavens, from their former triangular aspect[232]. So different is
the effect whether the rays strike the planets from below or come to
them from above. And all these circumstances produce much more effect
when they occur in the evening setting. This is the doctrine of the
superior planets; that of the others is more difficult, and has never
been laid down by any one before me[233].




CHAP. 14. (17.)—WHY THE SAME STARS HAVE DIFFERENT MOTIONS.


I must first state the cause, why the star Venus never recedes from the
sun more than 46 degrees, nor Mercury more than 23[234], while they
frequently return to the sun within this distance[235]. As they are
situated below the sun, they have both of them their apsides turned in
the contrary direction; their orbits are as much below the earth as
those of the stars above mentioned are above it, and therefore they
cannot recede any farther, since the curve of their apsides has no
greater longitude[236]. The extreme parts of their apsides therefore
assign the limits to each of them in the same manner, and compensate,
as it were, for the small extent of their longitudes, by the great
divergence of their latitudes[237]. It may be asked, why do they not
always proceed as far as the 46th and the 23rd degrees respectively?
They in reality do so, but the theory fails us here. For it would
appear that the apsides are themselves moved, as they never pass over
the sun[238]. When therefore they have arrived at the extremities
of their orbits on either side, the stars are then supposed to have
proceeded to their greatest distance; when they have been a certain
number of degrees within their orbits, they are then supposed to return
more rapidly, since the extreme point in each is the same. And on this
account it is that the direction of their motion appears to be changed.
For the superior planets are carried along the most quickly in their
evening setting, while these move the most slowly; the former are at
their greatest distance from the earth when they move the most slowly,
the latter when they move the most quickly. The former are accelerated
when nearest to the earth, the latter when at the extremity of the
circle; in the former the rapidity of the motion begins to diminish at
their morning risings, in the latter it begins to increase; the former
are retrograde from their morning to their evening station, while Venus
is retrograde from the evening to the morning station. She begins to
increase her latitude from her morning rising, her altitude follows the
sun from her morning station, her motion being the quickest and her
altitude the greatest in her morning setting. Her latitude decreases
and her altitude diminishes from her evening rising, she becomes
retrograde, and at the same time decreases in her altitude from her
evening station.

Again, the star Mercury, in the same way, mounts up in both
directions[239] from his morning rising, and having followed the
sun through a space of 15 degrees, he becomes almost stationary for
four days. Presently he diminishes his altitude, and recedes from
his evening setting to his morning rising. Mercury and the Moon are
the only planets which descend for the same number of days that they
ascend. Venus ascends for fifteen days and somewhat more; Saturn and
Jupiter descend in twice that number of days, and Mars in four times.
So great is the variety of nature! The reason of it is, however,
evident; for those planets which are forced up by the vapour of the sun
likewise descend with difficulty.




CHAP. 15.—GENERAL LAWS[240] OF THE PLANETS.


There are many other secrets of nature in these points, as well as the
laws to which they are subject, which might be mentioned. For example,
the planet Mars, whose course is the most difficult to observe[241],
never becomes stationary when Jupiter is in the trine aspect, very
rarely when he is 60 degrees from the sun, which number is one-sixth of
the circuit of the heavens[242]; nor does he ever rise in the same sign
with Jupiter, except in Cancer and Leo. The star Mercury seldom has
his evening risings in Pisces, but very frequently in Virgo, and his
morning risings in Libra; he has also his morning rising in Aquarius,
very rarely in Leo. He never becomes retrograde either in Taurus or
in Gemini, nor until the 25th degree of Cancer. The Moon makes her
double conjunction with the sun in no other sign except Gemini, while
Sagittarius is the only sign in which she has sometimes no conjunction
at all. The old and the new moon are visible on the same day or night
in no other sign except Aries, and indeed it has happened very seldom
to any one to have witnessed it. Prom this circumstance it was that the
tale of Lynceus’s quick-sightedness originated[243]. Saturn and Mars
are invisible at most for 170 days; Jupiter for 36, or, at the least,
for 10 days less than this; Venus for 69, or, at the least, for 52;
Mercury for 13, or, at the most, for 18[244].




CHAP. 16. (18.)—THE REASON WHY THE STARS ARE OF DIFFERENT COLOURS.


The difference of their colour depends on the difference in their
altitudes; for they acquire a resemblance to those planets into the
vapour of which they are carried, the orbit of each tinging those
that approach it in each direction. A colder planet renders one that
approaches it paler, one more hot renders it redder, a windy planet
gives it a lowering aspect, while the sun, at the union of their
apsides, or the extremity of their orbits, completely obscures them.
Each of the planets has its peculiar colour[245]; Saturn is white,
Jupiter brilliant, Mars fiery, Lucifer is glowing, Vesper refulgent,
Mercury sparkling, the Moon mild; the Sun, when he rises, is blazing,
afterwards he becomes radiating. The appearance of the stars, which
are fixed in the firmament, is also affected by these causes. At one
time we see a dense cluster of stars around the moon, when she is only
half-enlightened, and when they are viewed in a serene evening; while,
at another time, when the moon is full, there are so few to be seen,
that we wonder whither they are fled; and this is also the case when
the rays of the sun, or of any of the above-mentioned bodies[246], have
dazzled our sight. And, indeed, the moon herself is, without doubt,
differently affected at different times by the rays of the sun; when
she is entering them, the convexity of the heavens[247] rendering them
more feeble than when they fall upon her more directly[248]. Hence,
when she is at a right angle to the sun, she is half-enlightened; when
in the trine aspect, she presents an imperfect orb[249], while, in
opposition, she is full. Again, when she is waning, she goes through
the same gradations, and in the same order, as the three stars that are
superior to the sun[250].




CHAP. 17. (19.)—OF THE MOTION OF THE SUN AND THE CAUSE OF THE
IRREGULARITY OF THE DAYS.


The Sun himself is in four different states; twice the night is equal
to the day, in the Spring and in the Autumn, when he is opposed to the
centre of the earth[251], in the 8th degree of Aries and Libra[252].
The length of the day and the night is then twice changed, when the
day increases in length, from the winter solstice in the 8th degree of
Capricorn, and afterwards, when the night increases in length from the
summer solstice in the 8th degree of Cancer[253]. The cause of this
inequality is the obliquity of the zodiac, since there is, at every
moment of time, an equal portion of the firmament above and below the
horizon. But the signs which mount directly upwards, when they rise,
retain the light for a longer space, while those that are more oblique
pass along more quickly.




CHAP. 18. (20.)—WHY THUNDER IS ASCRIBED TO JUPITER.


It is not generally known, what has been discovered by men who are the
most eminent for their learning, in consequence of their assiduous
observations of the heavens, that the fires which fall upon the earth,
and receive the name of thunder-bolts, proceed from the three superior
stars[254], but principally from the one which is situated in the
middle. It may perhaps depend on the superabundance of moisture from
the superior orbit communicating with the heat from the inferior, which
are expelled in this manner[255]; and hence it is commonly said, the
thunder-bolts are darted by Jupiter. And as, in burning wood, the burnt
part is cast off with a crackling noise, so does the star throw off
this celestial fire, bearing the omens of future events, even the part
which is thrown off not losing its divine operation. And this takes
place more particularly when the air is in an unsettled state, either
because the moisture which is then collected excites the greatest
quantity of fire, or because the air is disturbed, as if by the
parturition of the pregnant star.




CHAP. 19. (21.)—OF THE DISTANCES OF THE STARS.


Many persons have attempted to discover the distance of the stars
from the earth, and they have published as the result, that the
sun is nineteen times as far from the moon, as the moon herself is
from the earth[256]. Pythagoras, who was a man of a very sagacious
mind, computed the distance from the earth to the moon to be 126,000
furlongs, that from her to the sun is double this distance, and that
it is three times this distance to the twelve signs[257]; and this was
also the opinion of our countryman, Gallus Sulpicius[258].




CHAP. 20. (22.)—OF THE HARMONY OF THE STARS.


Pythagoras, employing the terms that are used in music, sometimes names
the distance between the Earth and the Moon a tone; from her to Mercury
he supposes to be half this space, and about the same from him to
Venus. From her to the Sun is a tone and a half; from the Sun to Mars
is a tone, the same as from the Earth to the Moon; from him there is
half a tone to Jupiter, from Jupiter to Saturn also half a tone, and
thence a tone and a half to the zodiac. Hence there are seven tones,
which he terms the diapason harmony[259], meaning the whole compass
of the notes. In this, Saturn is said to move in the Doric time,
Jupiter in the Phrygian[260], and so forth of the rest; but this is a
refinement rather amusing than useful.




CHAP. 21. (23.)—OF THE DIMENSIONS OF THE WORLD.


The stadium is equal to 125 of our Roman paces, or 625 feet[261].
Posidonius[262] supposes that there is a space of not less than 40
stadia around the earth, whence mists[263], winds and clouds[263]
proceed; beyond this he supposes that the air is pure and liquid,
consisting of uninterrupted light; from the clouded region to the
moon there is a space of 2,000,000 of stadia, and thence to the sun
of 500,000,000[264]. It is in consequence of this space that the sun,
notwithstanding his immense magnitude, does not burn the earth. Many
persons have imagined that the clouds rise to the height of 900 stadia.
These points are not completely made out, and are difficult to explain;
but we have given the best account of them that has been published, and
if we may be allowed, in any degree, to pursue these investigations,
there is one infallible geometrical principle, which we cannot reject.
Not that we can ascertain the exact dimensions (for to profess to do
this would be almost the act of a madman), but that the mind may have
some estimate to direct its conjectures. Now it is evident that the
orbit through which the sun passes consists of nearly 366 degrees,
and that the diameter is always the third part and a little less than
the seventh of the circumference[265]. Then taking the half of this
(for the earth is placed in the centre) it will follow, that nearly
one-sixth part of the immense space, which the mind conceives as
constituting the orbit of the sun round the earth, will compose his
altitude. That of the moon will be one-twelfth part, since her course
is so much shorter than that of the sun; she is therefore carried
along midway between the sun and the earth[266]. It is astonishing to
what an extent the weakness of the mind will proceed, urged on by a
little success, as in the above-mentioned instance, to give full scope
to its impudence! Thus, having ventured to guess at the space between
the sun and the earth, we do the same with respect to the heavens,
because he is situated midway between them; so that we may come to know
the measure of the whole world in inches. For if the diameter consist
of seven parts, there will be twenty-two of the same parts in the
circumference; as if we could measure the heavens by a plumb-line!

The Egyptian calculation, which was made out by Petosiris and
Necepsos, supposes that each degree of the lunar orbit (which, as
I have said, is the least) consists of little more than 33 stadia;
in the very large orbit of Saturn the number is double; in that of
the sun, which, as we have said, is in the middle[267], we have
the half of the sum of these numbers. And this is indeed a very
modest calculation[268], since if we add to the orbit of Saturn the
distance from him to the zodiac, we shall have an infinite number of
degrees[269].




CHAP. 22. (24.)—OF THE STARS WHICH APPEAR SUDDENLY, OR OF COMETS[270].


A few things still remain to be said concerning the world; for stars
are suddenly formed in the heavens themselves; of these there are
various kinds.

(25.) The Greeks name these stars _comets_[271]; we name them Crinitæ,
as if shaggy with bloody locks, and surrounded with bristles like hair.
Those stars, which have a mane hanging down from their lower part, like
a long beard, are named Pogoniæ[272]. Those that are named Acontiæ[273]
vibrate like a dart with a very quick motion. It was one of this kind
which the Emperor Titus described in his very excellent poem, as having
been seen in his fifth consulship; and this was the last of these
bodies which has been observed. When they are short and pointed they
are named Xiphiæ[274]; these are the pale kind; they shine like a
sword and are without any rays; while we name those Discei[275], which,
being of an amber colour, in conformity with their name, emit a few
rays from their margin only. A kind named Pitheus[276] exhibits the
figure of a cask, appearing convex and emitting a smoky light. The kind
named Cerastias[277] has the appearance of a horn; it is like the one
which was visible when the Greeks fought at Salamis. Lampadias[278]
is like a burning torch; Hippias[279] is like a horse’s mane; it has
a very rapid motion, like a circle revolving on itself. There is also
a white comet, with silver hair, so brilliant that it can scarcely be
looked at, exhibiting, as it were, the aspect of the Deity in a human
form. There are some also that are shaggy, having the appearance of
a fleece, surrounded by a kind of crown. There was one, where the
appearance of a mane was changed into that of a spear; it happened in
the 109th olympiad, in the 398th year of the City[280]. The shortest
time during which any one of them has been observed to be visible is 7
days, the longest 180 days.




CHAP. 23.—THEIR NATURE, SITUATION, AND SPECIES.


Some of them move about in the manner of planets[281], others remain
stationary. They are almost all of them seen towards the north[282],
not indeed in any particular portion of it, but generally in that
white part of it which has obtained the name of the Milky Way.
Aristotle informs us that several of them are to be seen at the same
time[283], but this, as far as I know, has not been observed by any
one else; also that they prognosticate high winds and great heat[284].
They are also visible in the winter months, and about the south pole,
but they have no rays proceeding from them. There was a dreadful one
observed by the Æthiopians and the Egyptians, to which Typhon, a king
of that period, gave his own name; it had a fiery appearance, and
was twisted like a spiral; its aspect was hideous, nor was it like a
star, but rather like a knot of fire[285]. Sometimes there are hairs
attached to the planets and the other stars. Comets are never seen
in the western part of the heavens. It is generally regarded as a
terrific star, and one not easily expiated; as was the case with the
civil commotions in the consulship of Octavius, and also in the war
of Pompey and Cæsar[286]. And in our own age, about the time when
Claudius Cæsar was poisoned and left the Empire to Domitius Nero, and
afterwards, while the latter was Emperor[287], there was one which was
almost constantly seen and was very frightful. It is thought important
to notice towards what part it darts its beams, or from what star
it receives its influence, what it resembles, and in what places it
shines. If it resembles a flute, it portends something unfavourable
respecting music; if it appears in the parts of the signs referred to
the secret members, something respecting lewdness of manners; something
respecting wit and learning, if they form a triangular or quadrangular
figure with the position of some of the fixed stars; and that some one
will be poisoned, if they appear in the head of either the northern or
the southern serpent.

Rome is the only place in the whole world where there is a temple
dedicated to a comet; it was thought by the late Emperor Augustus to
be auspicious to him, from its appearing during the games which he
was celebrating in honour of Venus Genetrix, not long after the death
of his father Cæsar, in the College which was founded by him[288].
He expressed his joy in these terms: “During the very time of these
games of mine, a hairy star was seen during seven days, in the part of
the heavens which is under the Great Bear. It rose about the eleventh
hour of the day[289], was very bright, and was conspicuous in all
parts of the earth. The common people supposed the star to indicate,
that the soul of Cæsar was admitted among the immortal Gods; under
which designation it was that the star was placed on the bust which
was lately consecrated in the forum[290].” This is what he proclaimed
in public, but, in secret, he rejoiced at this auspicious omen,
interpreting it as produced for himself; and, to confess the truth, it
really proved a salutary omen for the world at large[291].

Some persons suppose that these stars are permanent, and that they
move through their proper orbits, but that they are only visible when
they recede from the sun. Others suppose that they are produced by an
accidental vapour together with the force of fire, and that, from this
circumstance, they are liable to be dissipated[292].




CHAP. 24. (26.)—THE DOCTRINE OF HIPPARCHUS[293] ABOUT THE STARS.


This same Hipparchus, who can never be sufficiently commended, as one
who more especially proved the relation of the stars to man, and that
our souls are a portion of heaven, discovered a new star that was
produced in his own age, and, by observing its motions on the day in
which it shone, he was led to doubt whether it does not often happen,
that those stars have motion which we suppose to be fixed. And the same
individual attempted, what might seem presumptuous even in a deity,
viz. to number the stars for posterity and to express their relations
by appropriate names; having previously devised instruments[294], by
which he might mark the places and the magnitudes of each individual
star. In this way it might be easily discovered, not only whether they
were destroyed or produced, but whether they changed their relative
positions, and likewise, whether they were increased or diminished;
the heavens being thus left as an inheritance to any one, who might be
found competent to complete his plan.




CHAP. 25.—EXAMPLES FROM HISTORY OF CELESTIAL PRODIGIES; _FACES_,
_LAMPADES_, AND _BOLIDES_[295].


The _faces_ shine brilliantly, but they are never seen excepting when
they are falling[296]; one of these darted across the heavens, in
the sight of all the people, at noon-day, when Germanicus Cæsar was
exhibiting a show of gladiators[297]. There are two kinds of them;
those which are called _lampades_ and those which are called _bolides_,
one of which latter was seen during the troubles at Mutina[298]. They
differ from each other in this respect, that the _faces_ produce a long
train of light, the fore-part only being on fire; while the _bolides_,
being entirely in a state of combustion, leave a still longer track
behind them.




CHAP. 26.—_TRABES CELESTES_; _CHASMA CŒLI._


The _trabes_ also, which are named δοκοὶ[299], shine in the same
manner; one of these was seen at the time when the Lacedæmonians, by
being conquered at sea, lost their influence in Greece. An opening
sometimes takes place in the firmament, which is named _chasma_[300].




CHAP. 27. (27.)—OF THE COLOURS OF THE SKY AND OF CELESTIAL FLAME.


There is a flame of a bloody appearance (and nothing is more dreaded
by mortals) which falls down upon the earth[301], such as was seen in
the third year of the 103rd olympiad, when King Philip was disturbing
Greece. But my opinion is, that these, like everything else, occur at
stated, natural periods, and are not produced, as some persons imagine,
from a variety of causes, such as their fine genius may suggest. They
have indeed been the precursors of great evils, but I conceive that
the evils occurred, not because the prodigies took place, but that
these took place because the evils were appointed to occur at that
period[302]. Their cause is obscure in consequence of their rarity, and
therefore we are not as well acquainted with them as we are with the
rising of the stars, which I have mentioned, and with eclipses and many
other things.




CHAP. 28. (28.)—OF CELESTIAL CORONÆ.


Stars are occasionally seen along with the sun, for whole days
together, and generally round its orb, like wreaths made of the ears
of corn, or circles of various colours[303]; such as occurred when
Augustus, while a very young man, was entering the city, after the
death of his father, in order to take upon himself the great name which
he assumed[304]. (29.) The same _coronæ_ occur about the moon and also
about the principal stars, which are stationary in the heavens.




CHAP. 29.—OF SUDDEN CIRCLES.


A bow appeared round the sun in the consulship of L. Opimius and L.
Fabius[305], and a circle in that of C. Porcius and M. Acilius. (30.)
There was a little circle of a red colour in the consulship of L.
Julius and P. Rutilius.




CHAP. 30.—OF UNUSUALLY LONG ECLIPSES OF THE SUN.


Eclipses of the sun also take place which are portentous and unusually
long, such as occurred when Cæsar the Dictator was slain, and in the
war against Antony, the sun remained dim for almost a whole year[306].




CHAP. 31. (31.)—MANY SUNS.


And again, many suns have been seen at the same time[307]; not above
or below the real sun, but in an oblique direction, never near nor
opposite to the earth, nor in the night, but either in the east or
in the west. They are said to have been seen once at noon in the
Bosphorus, and to have continued from morning until sunset. Our
ancestors have frequently seen three suns at the same time[308], as
was the case in the consulship of Sp. Postumius and L. Mucius, of L.
Marcius and M. Portius, that of M. Antony and Dolabella, and that of M.
Lepidus and L. Plancus. And we have ourselves seen one during the reign
of the late Emperor Claudius, when he was consul along with Corn.
Orfitus. We have no account transmitted to us of more than three having
been seen at the same time.




CHAP. 32. (32.)—MANY MOONS.


Three moons have also been seen, as was the case in the consulship of
Cn. Domitius and C. Fannius; they have generally been named nocturnal
suns[309].




CHAP. 33. (33.)—DAYLIGHT IN THE NIGHT.


A bright light has been seen proceeding from the heavens in the
night time, as was the case in the consulship of C. Cæcilius and Cn.
Papirius, and at many other times, so that there has been a kind of
daylight in the night[310].




CHAP. 34. (34.)—BURNING SHIELDS[311].


A burning shield darted across at sunset, from west to east, throwing
out sparks, in the consulship of L. Valerius and C. Marius[312].




CHAP. 35. (35.)—AN OMINOUS APPEARANCE IN THE HEAVENS, THAT WAS SEEN
ONCE ONLY.


We have an account of a spark falling from a star, and increasing as it
approached the earth, until it became of the size of the moon, shining
as through a cloud[313]; it afterwards returned into the heavens and
was converted into a _lampas_; this occurred in the consulship of Cn.
Octavius and C. Scribonius. It was seen by Silanus, the proconsul, and
his attendants[314].




CHAP. 36. (36.)—OF STARS WHICH MOVE ABOUT IN VARIOUS DIRECTIONS.


Stars are seen to move about in various directions, but never without
some cause, nor without violent winds proceeding from the same
quarter[315].




CHAP. 37. (37.)—OF THE STARS WHICH ARE NAMED CASTOR AND POLLUX[316].


These stars occur both at sea and at land. I have seen, during the
night-watches of the soldiers, a luminous appearance, like a star,
attached to the javelins on the ramparts. They also settle on the
yard-arms and other parts of ships while sailing, producing a kind
of vocal sound, like that of birds flitting about. When they occur
singly they are mischievous, so as even to sink the vessels, and if
they strike on the lower part of the keel, setting them on fire[317].
When there are two of them they are considered auspicious, and are
thought to predict a prosperous voyage, as it is said that they drive
away that dreadful and terrific meteor named Helena. On this account
their efficacy is ascribed to Castor and Pollux, and they are invoked
as gods. They also occasionally shine round the heads of men in the
evening[318], which is considered as predicting something very
important. But there is great uncertainty respecting the cause of all
these things, and they are concealed in the majesty of nature.




CHAP. 38. (38.)—OF THE AIR AND ON THE CAUSE OF THE SHOWERS OF STONES.


So far I have spoken of the world itself and of the stars. I must now
give an account of the other remarkable phænomena of the heavens. For
our ancestors have given the name of heavens, or, sometimes, another
name, air, to all the seemingly void space, which diffuses around us
this vital spirit. It is situated beneath the moon, indeed much lower,
as is admitted by every one who has made observations on it, and is
composed of a great quantity of air from the upper regions, mixed with
a great quantity of terrestrial vapour, the two forming a compound.
Hence proceed clouds, thunder and lightning of all kinds; hence also
hail, frost, showers, storms and whirlwinds; hence proceed many of the
evils incident to mortals, and the mutual contests of the various parts
of nature. The force of the stars keeps down all terrestrial things
which tend towards the heavens, and the same force attracts to itself
those things which do not go there spontaneously. The showers fall,
mists rise up, rivers are dried up, hail-storms rush down, the rays of
the sun parch the earth, and impel it from all quarters towards the
centre. The same rays, still unbroken, dart back again, and carry with
them whatever they can take up. Vapour falls from on high and returns
again to the same place. Winds arise which contain nothing, but which
return loaded with spoils. The breathing of so many animals draws down
the spirit from the higher regions; but this tends to go in a contrary
direction, and the earth pours out its spirit into the void space of
the heavens. Thus nature moving to and fro, as if impelled by some
machine[319], discord is kindled by the rapid motion of the world.
Nor is the contest allowed to cease, for she is continually whirled
round and lays open the causes of all things, forming an immense globe
about the earth, while she again, from time to time, covers this
other firmament with clouds[320]. This is the region of the winds.
Here their nature principally originates, as well as the causes of
almost all other things[321]; since most persons ascribe the darting
of thunder and lightning to their violence. And to the same cause are
assigned the showers of stones, these having been previously taken up
by the wind, as well as many other bodies in the same way. On this
account we must enter more at large on this subject.




CHAP. 39. (39.)—OF THE STATED SEASONS.


It is obvious that there are causes of the seasons and of other things
which have been stated, while there are some things which are casual,
or of which the reason has not yet been discovered. For who can doubt
that summer and winter, and the annual revolution of the seasons are
caused by the motion of the stars[322]? As therefore the nature of
the sun is understood to influence the temperature of the year, so
each of the other stars has its specific power, which produces its
appropriate effects. Some abound in a fluid retaining its liquid state,
others, in the same fluid concreted into hoar frost, compressed into
snow, or frozen into hail; some are prolific in winds, some in heat,
some in vapours, some in dew, some in cold. But these bodies must not
be supposed to be actually of the size which they appear, since the
consideration of their immense height clearly proves, that none of them
are less than the moon. Each of them exercises its influence over us
by its own motions; this is particularly observable with respect to
Saturn, which produces a great quantity of rain in its transits. Nor is
this power confined to the stars which change their situations, but is
found to exist in many of the fixed stars, whenever they are impelled
by the force of any of the planets, or excited by the impulse of their
rays; as we find to be the case with respect to the Suculæ[323],
which the Greeks, in reference to their rainy nature, have termed the
Hyades[324]. There are also certain events which occur spontaneously,
and at stated periods, as the rising of the Kids[325]. The star
Arcturus scarcely ever rises without storms of hail occurring.




CHAP. 40. (40.)—OF THE RISING OF THE DOG-STAR.


Who is there that does not know that the vapour of the sun is kindled
by the rising of the Dog-star? The most powerful effects are felt on
the earth from this star. When it rises, the seas are troubled, the
wines in our cellars ferment, and stagnant waters are set in motion.
There is a wild beast, named by the Egyptians Oryx, which, when the
star rises, is said to stand opposite to it, to look steadfastly at it,
and then to sneeze, as if it were worshiping it[326]. There is no doubt
that dogs, during the whole of this period, are peculiarly disposed to
become rabid[327].




CHAP. 41. (41.)—OF THE REGULAR INFLUENCE OF THE DIFFERENT SEASONS.


There is moreover a peculiar influence in the different degrees of
certain signs, as in the autumnal equinox, and also in the winter
solstice, when we find that a particular star is connected with
the state of the weather[328]. It is not so much the recurrence of
showers and storms, as of various circumstances, which act both upon
animals and vegetables. Some are planet-struck[329], and others, at
stated times, are affected in the bowels, the sinews, the head, or
the intellect. The olive, the white poplar, and the willow turn
their leaves round at the summer solstice. The herb pulegium, when
dried and hanging up in a house, blossoms on the very day of the
winter solstice, and bladders burst in consequence of their being
distended with air[330]. One might wonder at this, did we not observe
every day, that the plant named heliotrope always looks towards the
setting sun, and is, at all hours, turned towards him, even when he
is obscured by clouds[331]. It is certain that the bodies of oysters
and of whelks[332], and of shell-fish generally, are increased in size
and again diminished by the influence of the moon. Certain accurate
observers have found out, that the entrails of the field-mouse[333]
correspond in number to the moon’s age, and that the very small animal,
the ant, feels the power of this luminary, always resting from her
labours at the change of the moon. And so much the more disgraceful
is our ignorance, as every one acknowledges that the diseases in the
eyes of certain beasts of burden increase and diminish according to the
age of the moon. But the immensity of the heavens, divided as they are
into seventy-two[334] constellations, may serve as an excuse. These are
the resemblances of certain things, animate and inanimate, into which
the learned have divided the heavens. In these they have announced
1600 stars, as being remarkable either for their effects or their
appearance; for example, in the tail of the Bull there are seven stars,
which are named Vergiliæ[335]; in his forehead are the Suculæ; there
is also Bootes, which follows the seven northern stars[336].




CHAP. 42. (42.)—OF UNCERTAIN STATES OF THE WEATHER.


But I would not deny, that there may exist showers and winds,
independent of these causes, since it is certain that an exhalation
proceeds from the earth, which is sometimes moist, and at other times,
in consequence of the vapours, like dense smoke; and also, that clouds
are formed, either from the fluid rising up on high, or from the air
being compressed into a fluid[337]. Their density and their substance
is very clearly proved from their intercepting the sun’s rays, which
are visible by divers, even in the deepest waters[338].




CHAP. 43. (43.)—OF THUNDER AND LIGHTNING.


It cannot therefore be denied, that fire proceeding from the stars
which are above the clouds, may fall on them, as we frequently observe
on serene evenings, and that the air is agitated by the impulse, as
darts when they are hurled whiz through the air. And when it arrives
at the cloud, a discordant kind of vapour is produced, as when hot
iron is plunged into water, and a wreath of smoke is evolved. Hence
arise squalls. And if wind or vapour be struggling in the cloud,
thunder is discharged; if it bursts out with a flame, there is a
thunderbolt; if it be long in forcing out its way, it is simply a
flash of lightning[339]. By the latter the cloud is simply rent, by
the former it is shattered. Thunder is produced by the stroke given
to the condensed air, and hence it is that the fire darts from the
chinks of the clouds. It is possible also that the vapour, which has
risen from the earth, being repelled by the stars, may produce thunder,
when it is pent up in a cloud; nature restraining the sound whilst
the vapour is struggling to escape, but when it does escape, the
sound bursting forth, as is the case with bladders that are distended
with air. It is possible also that the spirit, whatever it be, may be
kindled by friction, when it is so violently projected. It is possible
that, by the dashing of the two clouds, the lightning may flash out,
as is the case when two stones are struck against each other. But
all these things appear to be casual. Hence there are thunderbolts
which produce no effect, and proceed from no immediate actual cause;
by these mountains and seas are struck, and no injury is done. Those
which prognosticate future events proceed from on high and from stated
causes, and they come from their peculiar stars[340].




CHAP. 44.—THE ORIGIN OF WINDS.


In like manner I would not deny that winds, or rather sudden gusts,
are produced by the arid and dry vapours of the earth; that air may
also be exhaled from water, which can neither be condensed into a mist,
nor compressed into a cloud; that it may be also driven forward by
the impulse of the sun, since by the term ‘wind’ we mean nothing more
than a current of air, by whatever means it may be produced[341]. For
we observe winds to proceed from rivers and bays, and from the sea,
even when it is tranquil; while others, which are named _Altani_, rise
up from the earth; when they come back from the sea they are named
_Tropæi_, but if they go straight on, _Apogæi_[342].

(44.) The windings and the numerous peaks of mountains, their ridges,
bent into angles or broken into defiles, with the hollow valleys, by
their irregular forms, cleaving the air which rebounds from them (which
is also the cause why voices are, in many cases, repeated several times
in succession), give rise to winds.

(45.) There are certain caves, such as that on the coast of Dalmatia,
with a vast perpendicular chasm, into which, if a light weight only be
let down, and although the day be calm, a squall issues from it like a
whirlwind. The name of the place is Senta. And also, in the province
of Cyrenaica, there is a certain rock, said to be sacred to the south
wind, which it is profane for a human hand to touch, as the south wind
immediately rolls forwards clouds of sand[343]. There are also, in many
houses, artificial cavities, formed in the walls[344], which produce
currents of air; none of these are without their appropriate cause.




CHAP. 45.—VARIOUS OBSERVATIONS RESPECTING WINDS.


But there is a great difference between a gale and a wind[345]. The
former are uniform and appear to rush forth[346]; they are felt, not
in certain spots only, but over whole countries, not forming breezes
or squalls, but violent storms[347]. Whether they be produced by the
constant revolution of the world and the opposite motion of the stars,
or whether they both of them depend on the generative spirit of the
nature of things, wandering, as it were, up and down in her womb, or
whether the air be scourged by the irregular strokes of the wandering
stars[348], or the various projections of their rays, or whether they,
each of them, proceed from their own stars, among which are those that
are nearest to us, or whether they descend from those that are fixed
in the heavens, it is manifest that they are all governed by a law of
nature, which is not altogether unknown, although it be not completely
ascertained.

(46.) More than twenty old Greek writers have published their
observations upon this subject. And this is the more remarkable, seeing
that there is so much discord in the world, and that it is divided into
different kingdoms, that is into separate members, that there should
have been so many who have paid attention to these subjects, which are
so difficult to investigate. Especially when we consider the wars and
the treachery which everywhere prevail; while pirates, the enemies of
the human race, have possession of all the modes of communication,
so that, at this time, a person may acquire more correct information
about a country from the writings of those who have never been there,
than from the inhabitants themselves. Whereas, at this day, in the
blessed peace which we enjoy, under a prince who so greatly encourages
the advancement of the arts, no new inquiries are set on foot, nor
do we even make ourselves thoroughly masters of the discoveries of
the ancients. Not that there were greater rewards held out, from the
advantages being distributed to a greater number of persons, but that
there were more individuals who diligently scrutinized these matters,
with no other prospect but that of benefiting posterity. It is that the
manners of men are degenerated, not that the advantages are diminished.
All the seas, as many as there are, being laid open, and a hospitable
reception being given us at every shore, an immense number of people
undertake voyages; but it is for the sake of gain, not of science. Nor
does their understanding, which is blinded and bent only on avarice,
perceive that this very thing might be more safely done by means of
science. Seeing, therefore, that there are so many thousands of persons
on the seas, I will treat of the winds with more minuteness than
perhaps might otherwise appear suitable to my undertaking.




CHAP. 46. (47.)—THE DIFFERENT KINDS OF WINDS[349].


The ancients reckoned only four winds (nor indeed does Homer mention
more[350]) corresponding to the four parts of the world; a very poor
reason, as we now consider it. The next generation added eight others,
but this was too refined and minute a division; the moderns have
taken a middle course, and, out of this great number, have added four
to the original set. There are, therefore, two in each of the four
quarters of the heavens. From the equinoctial rising of the sun[351]
proceeds Subsolanus[352], and, from his brumal rising, Vulturnus[353];
the former is named by the Greeks Apeliotes[354], the latter Eurus.
From the south we have Auster, and from the brumal setting of the
sun, Africus; these were named Notos and Libs. From the equinoctial
setting proceeds Favonius[355], and from the solstitial setting,
Corus[356]; these were named Zephyrus and Argestes. From the seven
stars comes Septemtrio, between which and the solstitial rising we have
Aquilo, named Aparctias and Boreas[357]. By a more minute subdivision
we interpose four others, Thrascias, between Septemtrio and the
solstitial setting; Cæcias, between Aquilo and the equinoctial rising;
and Phœnices, between the brumal rising and the south. And also, at
an equal distance from the south and the winter setting, between Libs
and Notos, and compounded of the two, is Libonotos. Nor is this all.
For some persons have added a wind, which they have named Meses,
between Boreas and Cæcias, and one between Eurus and Notos, named
Euronotus[358].

There are also certain winds peculiar to certain countries, which do
not extend beyond certain districts, as Sciron in Attica, deviating a
little from Argestes, and not known in the other parts of Greece. In
other places it is a little higher on the card and is named Olympias;
but all these have gone by the name of Argestes. In some places Cæcias
is named Hellespontia, and the same is done in other cases. In the
province of Narbonne the most noted wind is Circius; it is not inferior
to any of the winds in violence, frequently driving the waves before
it, to Ostia[359], straight across the Ligurian sea. Yet this same
wind is unknown in other parts, not even reaching Vienne, a city in
the same province; for meeting with a high ridge of hills, just before
it arrives at that district, it is checked, although it be the most
violent of all the winds. Fabius also asserts, that the south winds
never penetrate into Egypt. Hence this law of nature is obvious, that
winds have their stated seasons and limits.




CHAP. 47.—THE PERIODS OF THE WINDS[360].


The spring opens the seas for the navigators. In the beginning of this
season the west winds soften, as it were, the winter sky, the sun
having now gained the 25th degree of Aquarius; this is on the sixth day
before the Ides of February[361]. This agrees, for the most part, with
all the remarks that I shall subsequently make, only anticipating the
period by one day in the intercalary year, and again, preserving the
same order in the succeeding lustrum[362]. After the eighth day before
the Calends of March[363], Favonius is called by some Chelidonias[364],
from the swallows making their appearance. The wind, which blows for
the space of nine days, from the seventy-first day after the winter
solstice[365], is sometimes called Ornithias, from the arrival of
the birds[366]. In the contrary direction to Favonius is the wind
which we name Subsolanus, and this is connected with the rising of
the Vergiliæ, in the 25th degree of Taurus, six days before the Ides
of May[367], which is the time when south winds prevail: these are
opposite to Septemtrio. The dog-star rises in the hottest time of the
summer, when the sun is entering the first degree of Leo[368]; this
is fifteen days before the Calends of August. The north winds, which
are called Prodromi[369], precede its rising by about eight days. But
in two days after its rising, the same north winds, which are named
Etesiæ[370], blow more constantly during this period; the vapour
from the sun, being increased twofold by the heat of this star, is
supposed to render these winds more mild; nor are there any which are
more regular. After these the south winds become more frequent, until
the appearance of Arcturus[371], which rises eleven days before the
autumnal equinox. At this time Corus sets in; Corus is an autumnal
wind, and is in the opposite direction to Vulturnus. After this, and
generally for forty-four days after the equinox, at the setting of the
Vergiliæ, the winter commences, which usually happens on the third
of the Ides of November[372]. This is the period of the winter north
wind, which is very unlike the summer north wind, and which is in
the opposite direction to Africus. For seven days before the winter
solstice, and for the same length of time after it, the sea becomes
calm, in order that the king-fishers may rear their young; from this
circumstance they have obtained the name of the halcyon days[373]; the
rest of the season is winterly[374]. Yet the severity of the storms
does not entirely close up the sea. In former times, pirates were
compelled, by the fear of death, to rush into death, and to brave the
winter ocean; now we are driven to it by avarice[375].




CHAP. 48.—NATURE OF THE WINDS[376].


Those are the coldest winds which are said to blow from the seven
stars, and Corus, which is contiguous to them; these also restrain the
others and dispel the clouds. The moist winds are Africus, and, still
more, the Auster of Italy. It is said that, in Pontus, Cæcias attracts
the clouds. The dry winds are Corus and Vulturnus, especially when
they are about to cease blowing. The winds that bring snow are Aquilo
and Septemtrio; Septemtrio brings hail, and so does Corus; Auster is
sultry, Vulturnus and Zephyrus are warm. These winds are more dry than
Subsolanus, and generally those which blow from the north and west
are more dry than those which blow from the south and east. Aquilo is
the most healthy of them all; Auster is unhealthy, and more so when
dry; it is colder, perhaps because it is moist. Animals are supposed
to have less appetite for food when this wind is blowing. The Etesiæ
generally cease during the night, and spring up at the third hour
of the day[377]. In Spain and in Asia these winds have an easterly
direction, in Pontus a northerly, and in other places a southerly
direction. They blow also after the winter solstice, when they are
called Ornithiæ[378], but they are more gentle and continue only for
a few days. There are two winds which change their nature with their
situation; in Africa Auster is attended with a clear sky, while Aquilo
collects the clouds[379]. Almost all winds blow in their turn, so
that when one ceases its opposite springs up. When winds which are
contiguous succeed each other, they go from left to right, in the
direction of the sun. The fourth day of the moon generally determines
their direction for the whole of the monthly period[380]. We are able
to sail in opposite directions by means of the same wind, if we have
the sails properly set; hence it frequently happens that, in the
night, vessels going in different directions run against each other.
Auster produces higher winds than Aquilo, because the former blows,
as it were, from the bottom of the sea, while the latter blows on the
surface; it is therefore after south winds that the most mischievous
earthquakes have occurred. Auster is more violent during the night,
Aquilo during the day; winds from the east continue longer than from
the west. The north winds generally cease blowing on the odd days, and
we observe the prevalence of the odd numbers in many other parts of
nature; the male winds are therefore regulated by the odd numbers[381].
The sun sometimes increases and sometimes restrains winds; when
rising and setting it increases them; while, when on the meridian, it
restrains them during the summer. They are, therefore, generally lulled
during the middle of the day and of the night, because they are abated
either by excessive cold or heat; winds are also lulled by showers. We
generally expect them to come from that quarter where the clouds open
and allow the clear sky to be seen. Eudoxus[382] supposes that the same
succession of changes occurs in them after a period of four years,
if we observe their minute revolutions; and this applies not only to
winds, but to whatever concerns the state of the weather. He begins his
lustrum at the rising of the dog-star, in the intercalary year. So far
concerning winds in general.




CHAP. 49. (48.)—ECNEPHIAS AND TYPHON.


And now respecting the sudden gusts[383], which arising from the
exhalations of the earth, as has been said above, and falling down
again, being in the mean time covered by a thin film of clouds, exist
in a variety of forms. By their wandering about, and rushing down
like torrents, in the opinion of some persons, they produce thunder
and lightning[384]. But if they be urged on with greater force and
violence, so as to cause the rupture of a dry cloud, they produce a
squall[385], which is named by the Greeks Ecnephias[386]. But, if these
are compressed, and rolled up more closely together, and then break
without any discharge of fire, i. e. without thunder, they produce
a squall, which is named Typhon[387], or an Ecnephias in a state of
agitation. It carries along a portion of the cloud which it has broken
off, rolling it and turning it round, aggravating its own destruction
by the weight of it, and whirling it from place to place. This is very
much dreaded by sailors, as it not only breaks their sail-yards, but
the vessels themselves, bending them about in various ways. This may
be in a slight degree counteracted by sprinkling it with vinegar, when
it comes near us, this substance being of a very cold nature[388].
This wind, when it rebounds after the stroke, absorbs and carries up
whatever it may have seized on.




CHAP. 50.—TORNADOES; BLASTING WINDS; WHIRLWINDS[389], AND OTHER
WONDERFUL KINDS OF TEMPESTS.


But if it burst from the cavity of a cloud which is more depressed,
but less capacious than what produces a squall, and is accompanied
by noise, it is called a whirlwind, and throws down everything which
is near it. The same, when it is more burning and rages with greater
heat, is called a blasting wind[390], scorching and, at the same time,
throwing down everything with which it comes in contact. (49.) Typhon
never comes from the north, nor have we Ecnephias when it snows, or
when there is snow on the ground. If it breaks the clouds, and, at the
same time, catches fire or burns, but not until it has left the cloud,
it forms a thunder-bolt. It differs from Prester as flame does from
fire; the former is diffused in a gust, the latter is condensed with a
violent impulse[391]. The whirlwind, when it rebounds, differs from the
tornado in the same manner as a loud noise does from a dash.

The squall differs from both of them in its extent, the clouds being
more properly rent asunder than broken into pieces. A black cloud
is formed, resembling a great animal, an appearance much dreaded by
sailors. It is also called a pillar, when the moisture is so condensed
and rigid as to be able to support itself. It is a cloud of the same
kind, which, when drawn into a tube, sucks up the water[392].




CHAP. 51. (50.)—OF THUNDER[393]; IN WHAT COUNTRIES IT DOES NOT FALL,
AND FOR WHAT REASON.


Thunder is rare both in winter and in summer[394], but from different
causes; the air, which is condensed in the winter, is made still more
dense by a thicker covering of clouds, while the exhalations from the
earth, being all of them rigid and frozen, extinguish whatever fiery
vapour it may receive. It is this cause which exempts Scythia and the
cold districts round it from thunder. On the other hand, the excessive
heat exempts Egypt; the warm and dry vapours of the earth being very
seldom condensed, and that only into light clouds. But, in the spring
and autumn, thunder is more frequent, the causes which produce summer
and winter being, in each season, less efficient. From this cause
thunder is more frequent in Italy, the air being more easily set in
motion, in consequence of a milder winter and a showery summer, so that
it may be said to be always spring or autumn. Also in those parts of
Italy which recede from the north and lie towards the south, as in the
district round our city, and in Campania, it lightens equally both in
winter and in summer, which is not the case in other situations.




CHAP. 52. (51.)—OF THE DIFFERENT KINDS OF LIGHTNING[395] AND THEIR
WONDERFUL EFFECTS.


We have accounts of many different kinds of thunder-storms. Those which
are dry do not burn objects, but dissipate them; while those which
are moist do not burn, but blacken them. There is a third kind, which
is called bright lightning[396], of a very wonderful nature, by which
casks are emptied, without the vessels themselves being injured, or
there being any other trace left of their operation[397]. Gold, copper,
and silver are melted, while the bags which contain them are not in the
least burned, nor even the wax seal much defaced. Marcia, a lady of
high rank at Rome, was struck while pregnant; the fœtus was destroyed,
while she herself survived without suffering any injury[398]. Among
the prognostics which took place at the time of Catiline’s conspiracy,
M. Herennius, a magistrate of the borough of Pompeii, was struck by
lightning when the sky was without clouds[399].




CHAP. 53. (52.)—THE ETRURIAN[400] AND THE ROMAN OBSERVATIONS ON THESE
POINTS.


The Tuscan books inform us, that there are nine Gods who discharge
thunder-storms, that there are eleven different kinds of them, and that
three of them are darted out by Jupiter. Of these the Romans retained
only two, ascribing the diurnal kind to Jupiter, and the nocturnal
to Summanus[401]; this latter kind being more rare, in consequence
of the heavens being colder, as was mentioned above. The Etrurians
also suppose, that those which are named Infernal burst out of the
ground; they are produced in the winter and are particularly fierce and
direful, as all things are which proceed from the earth, and are not
generated by or proceeding from the stars, but from a cause which is
near at hand, and of a more disorderly nature. As a proof of this it
is said, that all those which proceed from the higher regions strike
obliquely, while those which are termed terrestrial strike in a direct
line. And because these fall from matter which is nearer to us, they
are supposed to proceed from the earth, since they leave no traces of a
rebound; this being the effect of a stroke coming not from below, but
from an opposite quarter. Those who have searched into the subject
more minutely suppose, that these come from the planet Saturn, as
those that are of a burning nature do from Mars. In this way it was
that Volsinium, the most opulent town of the Tuscans, was entirely
consumed by lightning[402]. The first of these strokes that a man
receives, after he has come into possession of any property, is termed
_Familiar_[403], and is supposed to prognosticate the events of the
whole of his life. But it is not generally supposed that they predict
events of a private nature for a longer space than ten years, unless
they happen at the time of a first marriage or a birth-day; nor that
public predictions extend beyond thirty years[404], unless with respect
to the founding of colonies[405].




CHAP. 54. (53.)—OF CONJURING UP THUNDER.


It is related in our Annals, that by certain sacred rites and
imprecations, thunder-storms may be compelled or invoked[406]. There
is an old report in Etruria, that thunder was invoked when the city of
Volsinium had its territory laid waste by a monster named Volta[407].
Thunder was also invoked by King Porsenna. And L. Piso[408], a very
respectable author, states in the first book of his Annals, that this
had been frequently done before his time by Numa, and that Tullus
Hostilius, imitating him, but not having properly performed the
ceremonies, was struck with the lightning[409]. We have also groves,
and altars, and sacred places, and, among the titles of Jupiter, as
Stator, Tonans, and Feretrius, we have a Jupiter Elicius[410]. The
opinions entertained on this point are very various, and depend much
on the dispositions of different individuals. To believe that we can
command nature is the mark of a bold mind, nor is it less the mark of a
feeble one to reject her kindness[411]. Our knowledge has been so far
useful to us in the interpretation of thunder, that it enables us to
predict what is to happen on a certain day, and we learn either that
our fortune is to be entirely changed, or it discloses events which
are concealed from us; as is proved by an infinite number of examples,
public and private. Wherefore let these things remain, according to
the order of nature, to some persons certain, to others doubtful, by
some approved, by others condemned. I must not, however, omit the other
circumstances connected with them which deserve to be related.




CHAP. 55. (54.)—GENERAL LAWS OF LIGHTNING.


It is certain that the lightning is seen before the thunder is heard,
although they both take place at the same time. Nor is this wonderful,
since light has a greater velocity than sound. Nature so regulates it,
that the stroke and the sound coincide[412]; the sound is, however,
produced by the discharge of the thunder, not by its stroke. But the
air is impelled quicker than the lightning[413], on which account it
is that everything is shaken and blown up before it is struck, and that
a person is never injured when he has seen the lightning and heard the
thunder. Thunder on the left hand is supposed to be lucky, because
the east is on the left side of the heavens[414]. We do not regard so
much the mode in which it comes to us, as that in which it leaves us,
whether the fire rebounds after the stroke, or whether the current of
air returns when the operation is concluded and the fire is consumed.
In relation to this object the Etrurians have divided the heavens into
sixteen parts[415]. The first great division is from north to east; the
second to the south; the third to the west, and the fourth occupies
what remains from west to north. Each of these has been subdivided
into four parts, of which the eight on the east have been called the
left, and those on the west the right divisions. Those which extend
from the west to the north have been considered the most unpropitious.
It becomes therefore very important to ascertain from what quarter the
thunder proceeds, and in what direction it falls. It is considered a
very favourable omen when it returns into the eastern divisions. But
it prognosticates the greatest felicity when the thunder proceeds from
the first-mentioned part of the heavens and falls back into it; it was
an omen of this kind which, as we have heard, was given to Sylla, the
Dictator. The remaining quarters of the heavens are less propitious,
and also less to be dreaded. There are some kinds of thunder which it
is not thought right to speak of, or even to listen to, unless when
they have been disclosed to the master of a family or to a parent.
But the futility of this observation was detected when the temple of
Juno was struck at Rome, during the consulship of Scaurus, he who was
afterwards the Prince of the Senate[416].

It lightens without thunder more frequently in the night than in the
day[417]. Man is the only animal that is not always killed by it, all
other animals being killed instantly, nature having granted to him
this mark of distinction, while so many other animals excel him in
strength. All animals fall down on the opposite side to that which
has been struck; man, unless he be thrown down on the parts that are
struck, does not expire. Those who are struck directly from above sink
down immediately. When a man is struck while he is awake, he is found
with his eyes closed; when asleep, with them open. It is not considered
proper that a man killed in this way should be burnt on the funeral
pile; our religion enjoins us to bury the body in the earth[418]. No
animal is consumed by lightning unless after having been previously
killed. The parts of the animal that have been wounded by lightning are
colder than the rest of the body.




CHAP. 56. (55.)—OBJECTS WHICH ARE NEVER STRUCK.


Among the productions of the earth, thunder never strikes the
laurel[419], nor does it descend more than five feet into the earth.
Those, therefore, who are timid consider the deepest caves as the most
safe; or tents made of the skins of the animal called the sea-calf,
since this is the only marine animal which is never struck[420];
as is the case, among birds, with the eagle; on this account it is
represented as the bearer of this weapon[421]. In Italy, between
Terracina and the temple of Feronia, the people have left off building
towers in time of war, every one of them having been destroyed by
thunderbolts.




CHAP. 57. (56.)—SHOWERS OF MILK, BLOOD, FLESH, IRON, WOOL, AND BAKED
TILES[422].


Besides these, we learn from certain monuments, that from the lower
part of the atmosphere[423] it rained milk and blood, in the consulship
of M’ Acilius and C. Porcius, and frequently at other times[424]. This
was the case with respect to flesh, in the consulship of P. Volumnius
and Servius Sulpicius, and it is said, that what was not devoured
by the birds did not become putrid. It also rained iron among the
Lucanians, the year before Crassus was slain by the Parthians, as
well as all the Lucanian soldiers, of whom there was a great number
in this army. The substance which fell had very much the appearance
of sponge[425]; the augurs warned the people against wounds that
might come from above. In the consulship of L. Paulus and C. Marcellus
it rained wool, round the castle of Carissanum, near which place,
a year after, T. Annius Milo was killed. It is recorded, among the
transactions of that year, that when he was pleading his own cause,
there was a shower of baked tiles.




CHAP. 58. (57.)—RATTLING OF ARMS AND THE SOUND OF TRUMPETS HEARD IN THE
SKY.


We have heard, that during the war with the Cimbri, the rattling of
arms and the sound of trumpets were heard through the sky, and that the
same thing has frequently happened before and since[426]. Also, that in
the third consulship of Marius, armies were seen in the heavens by the
Amerini and the Tudertes, encountering each other, as if from the east
and west, and that those from the east were repelled[427]. It is not at
all wonderful for the heavens themselves to be in flames[428], and it
has been more frequently observed when the clouds have taken up a great
deal of fire.




CHAP. 59. (58.)—OF STONES THAT HAVE FALLEN FROM THE CLOUDS[429]. THE
OPINION OF ANAXAGORAS RESPECTING THEM.


The Greeks boast that Anaxagoras[430], the Clazomenian, in the second
year of the 78th Olympiad, from his knowledge of what relates to the
heavens, had predicted, that at a certain time, a stone would fall
from the sun[431]. And the thing accordingly happened, in the daytime,
in a part of Thrace, at the river Ægos. The stone is now to be seen, a
waggon-load in size and of a burnt appearance; there was also a comet
shining in the night at that time[432]. But to believe that this had
been predicted would be to admit that the divining powers of Anaxagoras
were still more wonderful, and that our knowledge of the nature of
things, and indeed every thing else, would be thrown into confusion,
were we to suppose either that the sun is itself composed of stone,
or that there was even a stone in it; yet there can be no doubt that
stones have frequently fallen from the atmosphere. There is a stone,
a small one indeed, at this time, in the Gymnasium of Abydos, which
on this account is held in veneration, and which the same Anaxagoras
predicted would fall in the middle of the earth. There is another at
Cassandria, formerly called Potidæa[433], which from this circumstance
was built in that place. I have myself seen one in the country of the
Vocontii[434], which had been brought from the fields only a short time
before.




CHAP. 60. (59.)—THE RAINBOW.


What we name Rainbows frequently occur,
and are not considered either wonderful or ominous; for they do not
predict, with certainty, either rain or fair weather. It is obvious,
that the rays of the sun, being projected upon a hollow cloud, the
light is thrown back to the sun and is refracted[435], and that the
variety of colours is produced by a mixture of clouds, air, and
fire[436]. The rainbow is certainly never produced except in the
part opposite to the sun, nor even in any other form except that of
a semicircle. Nor are they ever formed at night, although Aristotle
asserts that they are sometimes seen at that time; he acknowledges,
however, that it can only be on the 14th day of the moon[437]. They are
seen in the winter the most frequently, when the days are shortening,
after the autumnal equinox[438]. They are not seen when the days
increase again, after the vernal equinox, nor on the longest days,
about the summer solstice, but frequently at the winter solstice, when
the days are the shortest. When the sun is low they are high, and when
the sun is high they are low; they are smaller when in the east or
west, but are spread out wider; in the south they are small, but of a
greater span. In the summer they are not seen at noon, but after the
autumnal equinox at any hour: there are never more than two seen at
once.




CHAP. 61.—THE NATURE OF HAIL, SNOW, HOAR, MIST, DEW; THE FORMS OF
CLOUDS.


I do not find that there is any doubt entertained respecting the
following points. (60.) Hail is produced by frozen rain, and snow by
the same fluid less firmly concreted, and hoar by frozen dew[439].
During the winter snow falls, but not hail; hail itself falls more
frequently during the day than the night, and is more quickly melted
than snow. There are no mists either in the summer or during the
greatest cold of winter. There is neither dew nor hoar formed during
great heat or winds, nor unless the night be serene. Fluids are
diminished in bulk by being frozen, and, when the ice is melted, we do
not obtain the same quantity of fluid as at first[440].

(61.) The clouds are varied in their colour and figure according as the
fire which they contain is in excess or is absorbed by them.




CHAP. 62. (62.)—THE PECULIARITIES OF THE WEATHER IN DIFFERENT PLACES.


There are, moreover, certain peculiarities in certain places. In Africa
dew falls during the night in summer. In Italy, at Locri, and at the
Lake Velinum, there is never a day in which a rainbow is not seen[441].
At Rhodes and at Syracuse the sky is never so covered with clouds, but
that the sun is visible at one time or another; these things, however,
will be better detailed in their proper place. So far respecting the
air.




CHAP. 63. (63.)—NATURE OF THE EARTH.


Next comes the earth, on which alone of all parts of nature we have
bestowed the name that implies maternal veneration. It is appropriated
to man as the heavens are to God. She receives us at our birth,
nourishes us when born, and ever afterwards supports us; lastly,
embracing us in her bosom when we are rejected by the rest of nature,
she then covers us with especial tenderness; rendered sacred to us,
inasmuch as she renders us sacred, bearing our monuments and titles,
continuing our names, and extending our memory, in opposition to the
shortness of life. In our anger we imprecate her on those who are now
no more[442], as if we were ignorant that she is the only being who can
never be angry with man. The water passes into showers, is concreted
into hail, swells into rivers, is precipitated in torrents; the air is
condensed into clouds, rages in squalls; but the earth, kind, mild, and
indulgent as she is, and always ministering to the wants of mortals,
how many things do we compel her to produce spontaneously! What odours
and flowers, nutritive juices, forms and colours! With what good faith
does she render back all that has been entrusted to her! It is the
vital spirit which must bear the blame of producing noxious animals;
for the earth is constrained to receive the seeds of them, and to
support them when they are produced. The fault lies in the evil nature
which generates them. The earth will no longer harbour a serpent after
it has attacked any one[443], and thus she even demands punishment in
the name of those who are indifferent about it themselves[444]. She
pours forth a profusion of medicinal plants, and is always producing
something for the use of man. We may even suppose, that it is out
of compassion to us that she has ordained certain substances to be
poisonous, in order that when we are weary of life, hunger, a mode of
death the most foreign to the kind disposition of the earth[445], might
not consume us by a slow decay, that precipices might not lacerate
our mangled bodies, that the unseemly punishment of the halter may
not torture us, by stopping the breath of one who seeks his own
destruction, or that we may not seek our death in the ocean, and become
food for our graves, or that our bodies may not be gashed by steel. On
this account it is that nature has produced a substance which is very
easily taken, and by which life is extinguished, the body remaining
undefiled and retaining all its blood, and only causing a degree of
thirst. And when it is destroyed by this means, neither bird nor beast
will touch the body, but he who has perished by his own hands is
reserved for the earth.

But it must be acknowledged, that everything which the earth has
produced, as a remedy for our evils, we have converted into the poison
of our lives. For do we not use iron, which we cannot do without, for
this purpose? But although this cause of mischief has been produced,
we ought not to complain; we ought not to be ungrateful to this one
part of nature[446]. How many luxuries and how many insults does she
not bear for us! She is cast into the sea, and, in order that we may
introduce seas into her bosom, she is washed away by the waves. She
is continually tortured for her iron, her timber, stone, fire, corn,
and is even much more subservient to our luxuries than to our mere
support. What indeed she endures on her surface might be tolerated,
but we penetrate also into her bowels, digging out the veins of gold
and silver, and the ores of copper and lead; we also search for gems
and certain small pebbles, driving our trenches to a great depth. We
tear out her entrails in order to extract the gems with which we may
load our fingers. How many hands are worn down that one little joint
may be ornamented! If the infernal regions really existed, certainly
these burrows of avarice and luxury would have penetrated into them.
And truly we wonder that this same earth should have produced anything
noxious! But, I suppose, the savage beasts protect her and keep off
our sacrilegious hands[447]. For do we not dig among serpents and
handle poisonous plants along with those veins of gold? But the Goddess
shows herself more propitious to us, inasmuch as all this wealth ends
in crimes, slaughter, and war, and that, while we drench her with
our blood, we cover her with unburied bones; and being covered with
these and her anger being thus appeased, she conceals the crimes of
mortals[448]. I consider the ignorance of her nature as one of the evil
effects of an ungrateful mind.




CHAP. 64. (64.)—OF THE FORM OF THE EARTH.


Every one agrees that it has the most perfect figure[449]. We always
speak of the ball of the earth, and we admit it to be a globe bounded
by the poles. It has not indeed the form of an absolute sphere, from
the number of lofty mountains and flat plains; but if the termination
of the lines be bounded by a curve[450], this would compose a perfect
sphere. And this we learn from arguments drawn from the nature of
things, although not from the same considerations which we made use
of with respect to the heavens. For in these the hollow convexity
everywhere bends on itself, and leans upon the earth as its centre.
Whereas the earth rises up solid and dense, like something that
swells up and is protruded outwards. The heavens bend towards the
centre, while the earth goes from the centre, the continual rolling
of the heavens about it forcing its immense globe into the form of a
sphere[451].




CHAP. 65. (65.)—WHETHER THERE BE ANTIPODES?


On this point there is a great contest between the learned and the
vulgar. We maintain, that there are men dispersed over every part of
the earth, that they stand with their feet turned towards each other,
that the vault of the heavens appears alike to all of them, and that
they, all of them, appear to tread equally on the middle of the earth.
If any one should ask, why those situated opposite to us do not fall,
we directly ask in return, whether those on the opposite side do not
wonder that we do not fall. But I may make a remark, that will appear
plausible even to the most unlearned, that if the earth were of the
figure of an unequal globe, like the seed of a pine[452], still it may
be inhabited in every part.

But of how little moment is this, when we have another miracle rising
up to our notice! The earth itself is pendent and does not fall with
us; it is doubtful whether this be from the force of the spirit which
is contained in the universe[453], or whether it would fall, did not
nature resist, by allowing of no place where it might fall. For as the
seat of fire is nowhere but in fire, nor of water except in water, nor
of air except in air, so there is no situation for the earth except in
itself, everything else repelling it. It is indeed wonderful that it
should form a globe, when there is so much flat surface of the sea and
of the plains. And this was the opinion of Dicæarchus, a peculiarly
learned man, who measured the heights of mountains, under the direction
of the kings, and estimated Pelion, which was the highest, at 1250
paces perpendicular, and considered this as not affecting the round
figure of the globe. But this appears to me to be doubtful, as I well
know that the summits of some of the Alps rise up by a long space of
not less than 50,000 paces[454]. But what the vulgar most strenuously
contend against is, to be compelled to believe that the water is
forced into a rounded figure[455]; yet there is nothing more obvious
to the sight among the phænomena of nature. For we see everywhere,
that drops, when they hang down, assume the form of small globes, and
when they are covered with dust, or have the down of leaves spread
over them, they are observed to be completely round; and when a cup
is filled, the liquid swells up in the middle. But on account of the
subtile nature of the fluid and its inherent softness, the fact is more
easily ascertained by our reason than by our sight. And it is even more
wonderful, that if a very little fluid only be added to a cup when
it is full, the superfluous quantity runs over, whereas the contrary
happens if we add a solid body, even as much as would weigh 20 denarii.
The reason of this is, that what is dropt in raises up the fluid at the
top, while what is poured on it slides off from the projecting surface.
It is from the same cause[456] that the land is not visible from the
body of a ship when it may be seen from the mast; and that when a
vessel is receding, if any bright object be fixed to the mast, it seems
gradually to descend and finally to become invisible. And the ocean,
which we admit to be without limits, if it had any other figure, could
it cohere and exist without falling, there being no external margin
to contain it? And the same wonder still recurs, how is it that the
extreme parts of the sea, although it be in the form of a globe, do not
fall down? In opposition to which doctrine, the Greeks, to their great
joy and glory, were the first to teach us, by their subtile geometry,
that this could not happen, even if the seas were flat, and of the
figure which they appear to be. For since water always runs from a
higher to a lower level, and this is admitted to be essential to it,
no one ever doubted that the water would accumulate on any shore, as
much as its slope would allow it. It is also certain, that the lower
anything is, so much the nearer is it to the centre, and that all the
lines which are drawn from this point to the water which is the nearest
to it, are shorter than those which reach from the beginning of the
sea to its extreme parts[457]. Hence it follows, that all the water,
from every part, tends towards the centre, and, because it has this
tendency, does not fall.




CHAP. 66.—HOW THE WATER IS CONNECTED WITH THE EARTH. OF THE NAVIGATION
OF THE SEA AND THE RIVERS.


We must believe, that the great artist, Nature, has so arranged it,
that as the arid and dry earth cannot subsist by itself and without
moisture, nor, on the other hand, can the water subsist unless it be
supported by the earth, they are connected by a mutual union. The
earth opens her harbours, while the water pervades the whole earth,
within, without, and above; its veins running in all directions, like
connecting links, and bursting out on even the highest ridges; where,
forced up by the air, and pressed out by the weight of the earth, it
shoots forth as from a pipe, and is so far from being in danger of
falling, that it bounds up to the highest and most lofty places. Hence
the reason is obvious, why the seas are not increased by the daily
accession of so many rivers[458].

(66.) The earth has, therefore, the whole of its globe girt, on every
side, by the sea flowing round it. And this is not a point to be
investigated by arguments, but what has been ascertained by experience.




CHAP. 67. (67.)—WHETHER THE OCEAN SURROUNDS THE EARTH.


The whole of the western ocean is now navigated, from Gades and the
Pillars of Hercules, round Spain and Gaul. The greater part of the
northern ocean has also been navigated, under the auspices of the
Emperor Augustus, his fleet having been carried round Germany to
the promontory of the Cimbri[459]; from which spot they descried an
immense sea, or became acquainted with it by report, which extends to
the country of the Scythians, and the districts that are chilled by
excessive moisture[460]. On this account it is not at all probable,
that the ocean should be deficient in a region where moisture so much
abounds. In like manner, towards the east, from the Indian sea, all
that part which lies in the same latitude[461], and which bends round
towards the Caspian[462], has been explored by the Macedonian arms,
in the reigns of Seleucus and Antiochus, who wished it to be named
after themselves, the Seleucian or Antiochian Sea. About the Caspian,
too, many parts of the shores of the ocean have been explored, so that
nearly the whole of the north has been sailed over in one direction or
another. Nor can our argument be much affected by the point that has
been so much discussed, respecting the Palus Mæotis, whether it be a
bay of the same ocean[463], as is, I understand, the opinion of some
persons, or whether it be the overflowing of a narrow channel connected
with a different ocean[464]. On the other side of Gades, proceeding
from the same western point, a great part of the southern ocean,
along Mauritania, has now been navigated. Indeed the greater part of
this region, as well as of the east, as far as the Arabian Gulf, was
surveyed in consequence of Alexander’s victories. When Caius Cæsar,
the son of Augustus[465], had the conduct of affairs in that country,
it is said that they found the remains of Spanish vessels which had
been wrecked there. While the power of Carthage was at its height,
Hanno published an account of a voyage which he made from Gades to the
extremity of Arabia[466]; Himilco was also sent, about the same time,
to explore the remote parts of Europe. Besides, we learn from Corn.
Nepos, that one Eudoxus, a contemporary of his[467], when he was flying
from king Lathyrus, set out from the Arabian Gulf, and was carried as
far as Gades[468]. And long before him, Cælius Antipater[469] informs
us, that he had seen a person who had sailed from Spain to Æthiopia
for the purposes of trade. The same Cornelius Nepos, when speaking
of the northern circumnavigation, tells us that Q. Metellus Celer,
the colleague of L. Afranius in the consulship, but then a proconsul
in Gaul[470], had a present made to him by the king of the Suevi, of
certain Indians, who sailing from India for the purpose of commerce,
had been driven by tempests into Germany[471]. Thus it appears, that
the seas which flow completely round the globe, and divide it, as it
were, into two parts[472], exclude us from one part of it, as there is
no way open to it on either side. And as the contemplation of these
things is adapted to detect the vanity of mortals, it seems incumbent
on me to display, and lay open to our eyes, the whole of it, whatever
it be, in which there is nothing which can satisfy the desires of
certain individuals.




CHAP. 68. (68.)—WHAT PART OF THE EARTH IS INHABITED.


In the first place, then, it appears, that this should be estimated at
half the globe[473], as if no portion of this half was encroached upon
by the ocean. But surrounding as it does the whole of the land, pouring
out and receiving all the other waters, furnishing whatever goes to the
clouds, and feeding the stars themselves, so numerous and of such great
size as they are, what a great space must we not suppose it to occupy!
This vast mass must fill up and occupy an infinite extent. To this we
must add that portion of the remainder which the heavens[474] take from
us. For the globe is divided into five parts[475], termed zones, and
all that portion is subject to severe cold and perpetual frost which is
under the two extremities, about each of the poles, the nearer of which
is called the north, and the opposite the south, pole. In all these
regions there is perpetual darkness, and, in consequence of the aspect
of the milder stars being turned from them, the light is malignant, and
only like the whiteness which is produced by hoar frost. The middle of
the earth, over which is the orbit of the sun, is parched and burned
by the flame, and is consumed by being so near the heat. There are
only two of the zones which are temperate, those which lie between
the torrid and the frigid zones, and these are separated from each
other, in consequence of the scorching heat of the heavenly bodies. It
appears, therefore, that the heavens take from us three parts of the
earth; how much the ocean steals is uncertain.

And with respect to the part which is left us, I do not know whether
that is not even in greater danger. This same ocean, insinuating
itself, as I have described it, into a number of bays, approaches with
its roaring[476] so near to the inland seas, that the Arabian Gulf is
no more than 115 miles from the Egyptian Sea[477], and the Caspian
only 375 miles from the Euxine. It also insinuates itself into the
numerous seas by which it separates Africa, Europe, and Asia; hence how
much space must it occupy? We must also take into account the extent
of all the rivers and the marshes, and we must add the lakes and the
pools. There are also the mountains, raised up to the heavens, with
their precipitous fronts; we must also subtract the forests and the
craggy valleys, the wildernesses, and the places, which, from various
causes, are desert. The vast quantity which remains of the earth[478],
or rather, as many persons have considered it, this speck of a
world[479] (for the earth is no more in regard to the universe), this
is the object, the seat of our glory—here we bear our honours, here we
exercise our power, here we covet wealth, here we mortals create our
disturbances, here we continually carry on our wars, aye, civil wars,
even, and unpeople the earth by mutual slaughter. And not to dwell on
public feuds, entered into by nations against each other, here it is
that we drive away our neighbours, and enclose the land thus seized
upon within our own fence[480]; and yet the man who has most extended
his boundary, and has expelled the inhabitants for ever so great a
distance, after all, what mighty portion of the earth is he master of?
And even when his avarice has been the most completely satisfied, what
part of it can he take with him into the grave?




CHAP. 69. (69.)—THAT THE EARTH IS IN THE MIDDLE OF THE WORLD.


It is evident from undoubted arguments, that the earth is in the middle
of the universe[481], but it is the most clearly proved by the equality
of the days and the nights at the equinox[482]. It is demonstrated by
the quadrant[483], which affords the most decisive confirmation of the
fact, that unless the earth was in the middle, the days and nights
could not be equal; for, at the time of the equinox, the rising and
setting of the sun are seen on the same line, and the rising of the
sun, at the summer solstice, is on the same line with its setting at
the winter solstice; but this could not happen if the earth was not
situated in the centre.




CHAP. 70. (70.)—OF THE OBLIQUITY OF THE ZONES[484].


The three circles[485], which are connected with the above-mentioned
zones, distinguish the inequalities of the seasons; these are, the
solstitial circle, which proceeds from the part of the Zodiac the
highest to us and approaching the nearest to the district of the north;
on the other side, the brumal, which is towards the south pole; and the
equinoctial, which traverses the middle of the Zodiac.




CHAP. 71.—OF THE INEQUALITY OF CLIMATES.


The cause of the other things which are worthy of our admiration
depends on the figure of the earth itself, which, together with all its
waters, is proved, by the same arguments, to be a globe. This certainly
is the cause why the stars of the northern portion of the heavens
never set to us, and why, on the other hand, those in the south never
rise, and again, why the latter can never be seen by the former, the
globe of the earth rising up and concealing them. The Northern Wain
is never seen in Troglodytice[486], nor in Egypt, which borders on
it[487]; nor can we, in Italy, see the star Canopus[488], or Berenice’s
Hair[489]; nor what, under the Emperor Augustus, was named Cæsar’s
Throne, although they are, there[490], very brilliant stars. The curved
form of the earth is so obvious, rising up like a ridge, that Canopus
appears to a spectator at Alexandria to rise above the horizon almost
the quarter of a sign; the same star at Rhodes appears, as it were, to
graze along the earth, while in Pontus it is not seen at all; where the
Northern Wain appears considerably elevated. This same constellation
cannot be seen at Rhodes, and still less at Alexandria. In Arabia, in
the month of November, it is concealed during the first watch of the
night, but may be seen during the second[491]; in Meroë it is seen,
for a short time, in the evening, at the solstice, and it is visible
at day-break, for a few days before the rising of Arcturus[492].
These facts have been principally ascertained by the expeditions of
navigators; the sea appearing more elevated or depressed in certain
parts[493]; the stars suddenly coming into view, and, as it were,
emerging from the water, after having been concealed by the bulging out
of the globe[494]. But the heavens do not, as some suppose, rise higher
at one pole, otherwise[495] its stars would be seen from all parts
of the world; they indeed are supposed to be higher by those who are
nearest to them, but the stars are sunk below the horizon to those who
are more remote. As this pole appears to be elevated to those who are
beneath it; so, when we have passed along the convexity of the earth,
those stars rise up, which appear elevated to the inhabitants of those
other districts; all this, however, could not happen unless the earth
had the shape of a globe.




CHAP. 72.—IN WHAT PLACES ECLIPSES ARE INVISIBLE, AND WHY THIS IS THE
CASE.


Hence it is that the inhabitants of the east do not see those eclipses
of the sun or of the moon which occur in the evening, nor the
inhabitants of the west those in the morning, while such as take place
at noon are more frequently visible[496]. We are told, that at the time
of the famous victory of Alexander the Great, at Arbela[497], the moon
was eclipsed at the second hour of the night, while, in Sicily, the
moon was rising at the same hour. The eclipse of the sun which occurred
the day before the calends of May, in the consulship of Vipstanus
and Fonteius[498], not many years ago, was seen in Campania between
the seventh and eighth hour of the day; the general Corbulo informs
us, that it was seen in Armenia, between the eleventh and twelfth
hour[499]; thus the curve of the globe both reveals and conceals
different objects from the inhabitants of its different parts. If the
earth had been flat, everything would have been seen at the same time,
from every part of it, and the nights would not have been unequal;
while the equal intervals of twelve hours, which are now observed only
in the middle of the earth, would in that case have been the same
everywhere.




CHAP. 73. (71.)—WHAT REGULATES THE DAYLIGHT ON THE EARTH.


Hence it is that there is not any one night and day the same, in all
parts of the earth, at the same time; the intervention of the globe
producing night, and its turning round producing day[500]. This is
known by various observations. In Africa and in Spain it is made
evident by the Towers of Hannibal[501], and in Asia by the beacons,
which, in consequence of their dread of pirates, the people erected
for their protection; for it has been frequently observed, that the
signals, which were lighted at the sixth hour of the day, were seen at
the third hour of the night by those who were the most remote[502].
Philonides, a courier of the above-mentioned Alexander, went from
Sicyon to Elis, a distance of 1200 stadia, in nine hours, while he
seldom returned until the third hour of the night, although the road
was down-hill[503]. The reason is, that, in going, he followed the
course of the sun, while on his return, in the opposite direction, he
met the sun and left it behind him. For the same reason it is, that
those who sail to the west, even on the shortest day, compensate for
the difficulty of sailing in the night and go farther[504], because
they sail in the same direction with the sun.




CHAP. 74. (72.)—REMARKS ON DIALS, AS CONNECTED WITH THIS SUBJECT.


The same dial-plates[505] cannot be used in all places, the shadow of
the sun being sensibly different at distances of 300, or at most of
500 stadia[506]. Hence the shadow of the dial-pin, which is termed the
gnomon, at noon and at the summer solstice, in Egypt, is a little more
than half the length of the gnomon itself. At the city of Rome it is
only 1/9 less than the gnomon, at Ancona not more than 1/35 less, while
in the part of Italy which is called Venetia, at the same hour, the
shadow is equal to the length of the gnomon[507].




CHAP. 75. (73.)—WHEN AND WHERE THERE ARE NO SHADOWS.


It is likewise said, that in the town of Syene, which is 5000 stadia
south of Alexandria[508], there is no shadow at noon, on the day of
the solstice; and that a well, which was sunk for the purpose of the
experiment, is illuminated by the sun in every part. Hence it appears
that the sun, in this place, is vertical, and Onesicritus informs us
that this is the case, about the same time, in India, at the river
Hypasis[509]. It is well known, that at Berenice, a city of the
Troglodytæ, and 4820 stadia beyond that city, in the same country,
at the town of Ptolemais, which was built on the Red Sea, when the
elephant was first hunted, this same thing takes place for forty-five
days before the solstice and for an equal length of time after it,
and that during these ninety days the shadows are turned towards the
south[510]. Again, at Meroë, an island in the Nile and the metropolis
of the Æthiopians, which is 5000 stadia[511] from Syene, there are no
shadows at two periods of the year, viz. when the sun is in the 18th
degree of Taurus and in the 14th of Leo[512]. The Oretes, a people of
India, have a mountain named Maleus[513], near which the shadows in
summer fall towards the south and in winter towards the north. The
seven stars of the Great Bear are visible there for fifteen nights
only. In India also, in the celebrated sea-port Patale[514], the
sun rises to the right hand and the shadows fall towards the south.
While Alexander was staying there it was observed, that the seven
northern stars were seen only during the early part of the night[515].
Onesicritus, one of his generals, informs us in his work, that in those
places in India where there are no shadows, the seven stars are not
visible[516]; these places, he says, are called “Ascia[517],” and the
people there do not reckon the time by hours[518].




CHAP. 76. (74.)—-WHERE THIS TAKES PLACE TWICE IN THE YEAR AND WHERE THE
SHADOWS FALL IN OPPOSITE DIRECTIONS.


Eratosthenes informs us, that in the whole of Troglodytice, for
twice forty-five days in the year, the shadows fall in the contrary
direction[519].




CHAP. 77. (75.)—WHERE THE DAYS ARE THE LONGEST AND WHERE THE SHORTEST.


Hence it follows, that in consequence of the daylight increasing
in various degrees, in Meroë the longest day consists of twelve
æquinoctial hours and eight parts of an hour[520], at Alexandria of
fourteen hours, in Italy of fifteen, in Britain of seventeen; where
the degree of light, which exists in the night, very clearly proves,
what the reason of the thing also obliges us to believe, that, during
the solstitial period, as the sun approaches to the pole of the world,
and his orbit is contracted, the parts of the earth that lie below him
have a day of six months long, and a night of equal length when he is
removed to the south pole. Pytheas, of Marseilles[521], informs us,
that this is the case in the island of Thule[522], which is six days’
sail from the north of Britain. Some persons also affirm that this is
the case in Mona, which is about 200 miles from Camelodunum[523], a
town of Britain.




CHAP. 78. (76.)—OF THE FIRST DIAL.


Anaximenes the Milesian, the disciple of Anaximander, of whom I have
spoken above[524], discovered the theory of shadows and what is called
the art of dialling, and he was the first who exhibited at Lacedæmon
the dial which they call sciothericon[525].




CHAP. 79. (77.)—OF THE MODE IN WHICH THE DAYS ARE COMPUTED.


The days have been computed by different people in different ways. The
Babylonians reckoned from one sunrise to the next; the Athenians from
one sunset to the next; the Umbrians from noon to noon; the multitude,
universally, from light to darkness; the Roman priests and those who
presided over the civil day, also the Egyptians and Hipparchus, from
midnight to midnight[526]. It appears that the interval from one
sunrise to the next is less near the solstices than near the equinoxes,
because the position of the zodiac is more oblique about its middle
part, and more straight near the solstice[527].




CHAP. 80. (78.)—OF THE DIFFERENCE OF NATIONS AS DEPENDING ON THE NATURE
OF THE WORLD.


To these circumstances we must add those that are connected with
certain celestial causes. There can be no doubt, that the Æthiopians
are scorched by their vicinity to the sun’s heat, and they are
born, like persons who have been burned, with the beard and hair
frizzled[528]; while, in the opposite and frozen parts of the earth,
there are nations with white skins and long light hair. The latter are
savage from the inclemency of the climate, while the former are dull
from its variableness[529]. We learn, from the form of the legs, that
in the one, the fluids, like vapour, are forced into the upper parts
of the body, while in the other, being a gross humour, it is drawn
downwards into the lower parts[530]. In the cold regions savage beasts
are produced, and in the others, various forms of animals, and many
kinds of birds[531]. In both situations the body grows tall, in the one
case by the force of fire, and in the other by the nutritive moisture.

In the middle of the earth there is a salutary mixture of the two, a
tract fruitful in all things, the habits of the body holding a mean
between the two, with a proper tempering of colours; the manners of
the people are gentle, the intellect clear[532], the genius fertile
and capable of comprehending every part of nature. They have formed
empires, which has never been done by the remote nations; yet these
latter have never been subjected by the former, being severed from
them and remaining solitary, from the effect produced on them by their
savage nature.




CHAP. 81. (79.)—OF EARTHQUAKES.


According to the doctrine of the Babylonians, earthquakes and clefts of
the earth, and occurrences of this kind, are supposed to be produced
by the influence of the stars, especially of the three to which they
ascribe thunder[533]; and to be caused by the stars moving with the
sun, or being in conjunction with it, and, more particularly, when
they are in the quartile aspect[534]. If we are to credit the report,
a most admirable and immortal spirit, as it were of a divine nature,
should be ascribed to Anaximander the Milesian, who, they say, warned
the Lacedæmonians to beware of their city and their houses[535]. For
he predicted that an earthquake was at hand, when both the whole of
their city was destroyed and a large portion of Mount Taygetus, which
projected in the form of a ship, was broken off, and added farther
ruin to the previous destruction. Another prediction is ascribed to
Pherecydes, the master of Pythagoras, and this was divine; by a draught
of water from a well, he foresaw and predicted that there would be an
earthquake in that place[536]. And if these things be true, how nearly
do these individuals approach to the Deity, even during their lifetime!
But I leave every one to judge of these matters as he pleases. I
certainly conceive the winds to be the cause of earthquakes; for the
earth never trembles except when the sea is quite calm, and when the
heavens are so tranquil that the birds cannot maintain their flight,
all the air which should support them being withdrawn[537]; nor does
it ever happen until after great winds, the gust being pent up, as
it were, in the fissures and concealed hollows. For the trembling of
the earth resembles thunder in the clouds; nor does the yawning of
the earth differ from the bursting of the lightning; the enclosed air
struggling and striving to escape[538].




CHAP. 82. (80.)—OF CLEFTS OF THE EARTH.


The earth is shaken in various ways, and wonderful effects are
produced[539]; in one place the walls of cities being thrown down, and
in others swallowed up by a deep cleft[540]; sometimes great masses
of earth are heaped up, and rivers forced out, sometimes even flame
and hot springs[541], and at others the course of rivers is turned.
A terrible noise precedes and accompanies the shock[542]; sometimes
a murmuring, like the lowing of cattle, or like human voices, or the
clashing of arms. This depends on the substance which receives the
sound, and the shape of the caverns or crevices through which it
issues; it being more shrill from a narrow opening, more hoarse from
one that is curved, producing a loud reverberation from hard bodies,
a sound like a boiling fluid[543] from moist substances, fluctuating
in stagnant water, and roaring when forced against solid bodies. There
is, therefore, often the sound without any motion. Nor is it a simple
motion, but one that is tremulous and vibratory. The cleft sometimes
remains, displaying what it has swallowed up; sometimes concealing it,
the mouth being closed and the soil being brought over it, so that no
vestige is left; the city being, as it were, devoured, and the tract
of country engulfed. Maritime districts are more especially subject to
shocks. Nor are mountainous tracts exempt from them; I have found, by
my inquiries, that the Alps and the Apennines are frequently shaken.
The shocks happen more frequently in the autumn and in the spring, as
is the case also with thunder. There are seldom shocks in Gaul and in
Egypt; in the latter it depends on the prevalence of summer, in the
former, of winter. They also happen more frequently in the night than
in the day. The greatest shocks are in the morning and the evening; but
they often take place at day-break, and sometimes at noon. They also
take place during eclipses of the sun and of the moon, because at that
time storms are lulled. They are most frequent when great heat succeeds
to showers, or showers succeed to great heat[544].




CHAP. 83. (81.)—SIGNS OF AN APPROACHING EARTHQUAKE.


There is no doubt that earthquakes are felt by persons on shipboard, as
they are struck by a sudden motion of the waves, without these being
raised by any gust of wind. And things that are in the vessels shake as
they do in houses, and give notice by their creaking; also the birds,
when they settle upon the vessels, are not without their alarms. There
is also a sign in the heavens; for, when a shock is near at hand,
either in the daytime or a little after sunset, a cloud is stretched
out in the clear sky, like a long thin line[545]. The water in wells is
also more turbid than usual, and it emits a disagreeable odour[546].




CHAP. 84. (82.)—PRESERVATIVES AGAINST FUTURE EARTHQUAKES.


These same places[547], however, afford protection, and this is also
the case where there is a number of caverns, for they give vent to the
confined vapour, a circumstance which has been remarked in certain
towns, which have been less shaken where they have been excavated by
many sewers. And, in the same town, those parts that are excavated[548]
are safer than the other parts, as is understood to be the case at
Naples in Italy, the part of it which is solid being more liable to
injury. Arched buildings are also the most safe, also the angles of
walls, the shocks counteracting each other; walls made of brick also
suffer less from the shocks[549]. There is also a great difference in
the nature of the motions[550], where various motions are experienced.
It is the safest when it vibrates and causes a creaking in the
building, and where it swells and rises upwards, and settles with
an alternate motion. It is also harmless when the buildings coming
together butt against each other in opposite directions, for the
motions counteract each other. A movement like the rolling of waves is
dangerous, or when the motion is impelled in one direction. The tremors
cease when the vapour bursts out[551]; but if they do not soon cease,
they continue for forty days; generally, indeed, for a longer time:
some have lasted even for one or two years.




CHAP. 85. (83.)—PRODIGIES OF THE EARTH WHICH HAVE OCCURRED ONCE ONLY.


A great prodigy of the earth, which never happened more than once, I
have found mentioned in the books of the Etruscan ceremonies, as having
taken place in the district of Mutina, during the consulship of Lucius
Martius and Sextus Julius[552]. Two mountains rushed together, falling
upon each other with a very loud crash, and then receding; while in
the daytime flame and smoke issued from them; a great crowd of Roman
knights, and families of people, and travellers on the Æmilian way,
being spectators of it. All the farm-houses were thrown down by the
shock, and a great number of animals that were in them were killed;
it was in the year before the Social war; and I am in doubt whether
this event or the civil commotions were more fatal to the territory of
Italy. The prodigy which happened in our own age was no less wonderful;
in the last year of the emperor Nero[553], as I have related in my
history of his times[554], when certain fields and olive grounds in the
district of Marrucinum, belonging to Vectius Marcellus, a Roman knight,
the steward of Nero, changed places with each other[555], although the
public highway was interposed.




CHAP. 86. (84.)—WONDERFUL CIRCUMSTANCES ATTENDING EARTHQUAKES.


Inundations of the sea take place at the same time with
earthquakes[556]; the water being impregnated with the same
spirit[557], and received into the bosom of the earth which subsides.
The greatest earthquake which has occurred in our memory was in the
reign of Tiberius[558], by which twelve cities of Asia were laid
prostrate in one night. They occurred the most frequently during
the Punic war, when we had accounts brought to Rome of fifty-seven
earthquakes in the space of a single year. It was during this year[559]
that the Carthaginians and the Romans, who were fighting at the lake
Thrasimenus, were neither of them sensible of a very great shock during
the battle[560]. Nor is it an evil merely consisting in the danger
which is produced by the motion; it is an equal or a greater evil when
it is considered as a prodigy[561]. The city of Rome never experienced
a shock, which was not the forerunner of some great calamity.




CHAP. 87. (85.)—IN WHAT PLACES THE SEA HAS RECEDED.


The same cause produces an increase of the land; the vapour, when it
cannot burst out forcibly lifting up the surface[562]. For the land is
not merely produced by what is brought down the rivers, as the islands
called Echinades are formed by the river Achelous, and the greater
part of Egypt by the Nile, where, according to Homer, it was a day and
a night’s journey from the main land to the island of Pharos[563];
but, in some cases, by the receding of the sea, as, according to
the same author, was the case with the Circæan isles[564]. The same
thing also happened in the harbour of Ambracia, for a space of 10,000
paces, and was also said to have taken place for 5000 at the Piræus of
Athens[565], and likewise at Ephesus, where formerly the sea washed the
walls of the temple of Diana. Indeed, if we may believe Herodotus[566],
the sea came beyond Memphis, as far as the mountains of Æthiopia, and
also from the plains of Arabia. The sea also surrounded Ilium and the
whole of Teuthrania, and covered the plain through which the Mæander
flows[567].




CHAP. 88. (86.)—THE MODE IN WHICH ISLANDS RISE UP.


Land is sometimes formed in a different manner, rising suddenly out of
the sea, as if nature was compensating the earth for its losses[568],
restoring in one place what she had swallowed up in another.




CHAP. 89. (87.)—WHAT ISLANDS HAVE BEEN FORMED, AND AT WHAT PERIODS.


Delos and Rhodes[569], islands which have now been long famous, are
recorded to have risen up in this way. More lately there have been some
smaller islands formed; Anapha, which is beyond Melos; Nea, between
Lemnos and the Hellespont; Halone, between Lebedos and Teos; Thera[570]
and Therasia, among the Cyclades, in the fourth year of the 135th
Olympiad[571]. And among the same islands, 130 years afterwards, Hiera,
also called Automate[572], made its appearance; also Thia, at the
distance of two stadia from the former, 110 years afterwards, in our
own times, when M. Junius Silanus and L. Balbus were consuls, on the
8th of the ides of July[573].

(88.) Opposite to us, and near to Italy, among the Æolian isles, an
island emerged from the sea; and likewise one near Crete, 2500 paces
in extent, and with warm springs in it; another made its appearance in
the third year of the 163rd Olympiad[574], in the Tuscan gulf, burning
with a violent explosion. There is a tradition too that a great number
of fishes were floating about the spot, and that those who employed
them for food immediately expired. It is said that the Pithecusan isles
rose up, in the same way, in the bay of Campania, and that, shortly
afterwards, the mountain Epopos, from which flame had suddenly burst
forth, was reduced to the level of the neighbouring plain. In the
same island, it is said, that a town was sunk in the sea; that in
consequence of another shock, a lake burst out, and that, by a third,
Prochytas was formed into an island, the neighbouring mountains being
rolled away from it.




CHAP 90.—LANDS WHICH HAVE BEEN SEPARATED BY THE SEA.


In the ordinary course of things islands are also formed by this means.
The sea has torn Sicily from Italy[575], Cyprus from Syria, Eubœa
from Bœotia[576], Atalante and Macris[577] from Eubœa, Besbycus from
Bithynia, and Leucosia from the promontory of the Sirens.




CHAP. 91. (89.)—ISLANDS WHICH HAVE BEEN UNITED TO THE MAIN LAND.


Again, islands are taken from the sea and added to the main land;
Antissa[578] to Lesbos, Zephyrium to Halicarnassus, Æthusa to Myndus,
Dromiscus and Perne to Miletus, Narthecusa to the promontory of
Parthenium. Hybanda, which was formerly an island of Ionia, is now 200
stadia distant from the sea. Syries is now become a part of Ephesus,
and, in the same neighbourhood, Derasidas and Sophonia form part of
Magnesia; while Epidaurus and Oricum are no longer islands[579].




CHAP. 92. (90.)—LANDS WHICH HAVE BEEN TOTALLY CHANGED INTO SEAS.


The sea has totally carried off certain lands, and first of all, if
we are to believe Plato[580], for an immense space where the Atlantic
ocean is now extended. More lately we see what has been produced by
our inland sea; Acarnania has been overwhelmed by the Ambracian gulf,
Achaia by the Corinthian, Europe and Asia by the Propontis and Pontus.
And besides these, the sea has rent asunder Leucas, Antirrhium, the
Hellespont, and the two Bosphori[581].




CHAP. 93. (91.)—LANDS WHICH HAVE BEEN SWALLOWED UP.


And not to speak of bays and gulfs, the earth feeds on itself; it has
devoured the very high mountain of Cybotus, with the town of Curites;
also Sipylus in Magnesia[582], and formerly, in the same place, a very
celebrated city, which was called Tantalis; also the land belonging to
the cities Galanis and Gamales in Phœnicia, together with the cities
themselves; also Phegium, the most lofty ridge in Æthiopia[583]. Nor
are the shores of the sea more to be depended upon.




CHAP. 94. (92.)—CITIES WHICH HAVE BEEN ABSORBED BY THE SEA.


The sea near the Palus Mæotis has carried away Pyrrha and Antissa,
also Elice and Bura[584] in the gulf of Corinth, traces of which
places are visible in the ocean. From the island Cea it has seized on
30,000 paces, which were suddenly torn off, with many persons on them.
In Sicily also the half of the city of Tyndaris, and all the part of
Italy which is wanting[585]; in like manner it carried off Eleusina in
Bœotia[586].




CHAP. 95. (93.)—OF VENTS[587] IN THE EARTH.


But let us say no more of earthquakes and of whatever may be regarded
as the sepulchres of cities[588]; let us rather speak of the wonders of
the earth than of the crimes of nature. But, by Hercules! the history
of the heavens themselves would not be more difficult to relate:—the
abundance of metals, so various, so rich, so prolific, rising up[589]
during so many ages; when, throughout all the world, so much is,
every day, destroyed by fire, by waste, by shipwreck, by wars, and
by frauds; and while so much is consumed by luxury and by such a
number of people:—the figures on gems, so multiplied in their forms;
the variously-coloured spots on certain stones, and the whiteness of
others, excluding everything except light:—the virtues of medicinal
springs, and the perpetual fires bursting out in so many places, for
so many ages:—the exhalation of deadly vapours, either emitted from
caverns[590], or from certain unhealthy districts; some of them fatal
to birds alone, as at Soracte, a district near the city[591]; others
to all animals, except to man[592], while others are so to man also,
as in the country of Sinuessa and Puteoli. They are generally called
vents, and, by some persons, Charon’s sewers, from their exhaling a
deadly vapour. Also at Amsanctum, in the country of the Hirpini, at the
temple of Mephitis[593], there is a place which kills all those who
enter it. And the same takes place at Hierapolis in Asia[594], where
no one can enter with safety, except the priest of the great Mother of
the Gods. In other places there are prophetic caves, where those who
are intoxicated with the vapour which rises from them predict future
events[595], as at the most noble of all oracles, Delphi. In which
cases, what mortal is there who can assign any other cause, than the
divine power of nature, which is everywhere diffused, and thus bursts
forth in various places?




CHAP. 96. (94.)—OF CERTAIN LANDS WHICH ARE ALWAYS SHAKING, AND OF
FLOATING ISLANDS.


There are certain lands which shake when any one passes over them[596];
as in the territory of the Gabii, not far from the city of Rome, there
are about 200 acres which shake when cavalry passes over it: the same
thing takes place at Reate.

(95.) There are certain islands which are always floating[597], as in
the territory of the Cæcubum[598], and of the above-mentioned Reate,
of Mutina, and of Statonia. In the lake of Vadimonis and the waters of
Cutiliæ there is a dark wood, which is never seen in the same place for
a day and a night together. In Lydia, the islands named Calaminæ are
not only driven about by the wind, but may be even pushed at pleasure
from place to place, by poles: many citizens saved themselves by this
means in the Mithridatic war. There are some small islands in the
Nymphæus, called the Dancers[599], because, when choruses are sung,
they are moved by the motions of those who beat time. In the great
Italian lake of Tarquinii, there are two islands with groves on them,
which are driven about by the wind, so as at one time to exhibit the
figure of a triangle and at another of a circle; but they never form a
square[600].




CHAP. 97. (96.)—PLACES IN WHICH IT NEVER RAINS.


There is at Paphos a celebrated temple of Venus, in a certain court of
which it never rains; also at Nea, a town of Troas, in the spot which
surrounds the statue of Minerva: in this place also the remains of
animals that are sacrificed never putrefy[601].




CHAP. 98.—THE WONDERS OF VARIOUS COUNTRIES COLLECTED TOGETHER.


Near Harpasa, a town of Asia, there stands a terrific rock, which may
be moved by a single finger; but if it be pushed by the force of the
whole body, it resists[602]. In the Tauric peninsula, in the state of
the Parasini, there is a kind of earth which cures all wounds[603].
About Assos, in Troas, a stone is found, by which all bodies are
consumed; it is called Sarcophagus[604]. There are two mountains near
the river Indus; the nature of one is to attract iron, of the other to
repel it: hence, if there be nails in the shoes, the feet cannot be
drawn off the one, or set down on the other[605]. It has been noticed,
that at Locris and Crotona, there has never been a pestilence, nor have
they ever suffered from an earthquake; in Lycia there are always forty
calm days before an earthquake. In the territory of Argyripa the corn
which is sown never springs up. At the altars of Mucius, in the country
of the Veii, and about Tusculum, and in the Cimmerian Forest, there are
places in which things that are pushed into the ground cannot be pulled
out again. The hay which is grown in Crustuminium is noxious on the
spot, but elsewhere it is wholesome[606].




CHAP. 99. (97.)—CONCERNING THE CAUSE OF THE FLOWING AND EBBING OF THE
SEA.


Much has been said about the nature of waters; but the most wonderful
circumstance is the alternate flowing and ebbing of the tides, which
exists, indeed, under various forms, but is caused by the sun and the
moon. The tide flows twice and ebbs twice between each two risings
of the moon, always in the space of twenty-four hours. First, the
moon rising with the stars[607] swells out the tide, and after some
time, having gained the summit of the heavens, she declines from the
meridian and sets, and the tide subsides. Again, after she has set, and
moves in the heavens under the earth, as she approaches the meridian
on the opposite side, the tide flows in; after which it recedes
until she again rises to us. But the tide of the next day is never
at the same time with that of the preceding; as if the planet was in
attendance[608], greedily drinking up the sea, and continually rising
in a different place from what she did the day before. The intervals
are, however, equal, being always of six hours; not indeed in respect
of any particular day or night or place[609], but equinoctial hours,
and therefore they are unequal as estimated by the length of common
hours, since a greater number of them[610] fall on some certain days or
nights, and they are never equal everywhere except at the equinox. This
is a great, most clear, and even divine proof of the dullness of those,
who deny that the stars go below the earth and rise up again, and that
nature presents the same face in the same states of their rising and
setting[611]; for the course of the stars is equally obvious in the one
case as in the other, producing the same effect as when it is manifest
to the sight.

There is a difference in the tides, depending on the moon, of a
complicated nature, and, first, as to the period of seven days. For the
tides are of moderate height from the new moon to the first quarter;
from this time they increase, and are the highest at the full: they
then decrease. On the seventh day they are equal to what they were at
the first quarter, and they again increase from the time that she is
at first quarter on the other side. At her conjunction with the sun
they are equally high as at the full. When the moon is in the northern
hemisphere, and recedes further from the earth, the tides are lower
than when, going towards the south, she exercises her influence at a
less distance[612]. After an interval of eight years, and the hundredth
revolution of the moon, the periods and the heights of the tides return
into the same order as at first, this planet always acting upon them;
and all these effects are likewise increased by the annual changes of
the sun[613], the tides rising up higher at the equinoxes, and more so
at the autumnal than at the vernal; while they are lower[614] about the
winter solstice, and still more so at the summer solstice; not indeed
precisely at the points of time which I have mentioned, but a few days
after[615]; for example, not exactly at the full nor at the new moon,
but after them; and not immediately when the moon becomes visible or
invisible, or has advanced to the middle of her course, but generally
about two hours later than the equinoctial hours[616]; the effect of
what is going on in the heavens being felt after a short interval; as
we observe with respect to lightning, thunder, and thunderbolts.

But the tides of the ocean cover greater spaces and produce greater
inundations than the tides of the other seas; whether it be that the
whole of the universe taken together is more full of life than its
individual parts, or that the large open space feels more sensibly the
power of the planet, as it moves freely about, than when restrained
within narrow bounds. On which account neither lakes nor rivers are
moved in the same manner. Pytheas[617] of Massilia informs us, that in
Britain the tide rises 80 cubits[618]. Inland seas are enclosed as in a
harbour, but, in some parts of them, there is a more free space which
obeys the influence[619]. Among many other examples, the force of the
tide will carry us in three days from Italy to Utica, when the sea is
tranquil and there is no impulse from the sails[620]. But these motions
are more felt about the shores than in the deep parts of the seas, as
in the body the extremities of the veins feel the pulse, which is the
vital spirit, more than the other parts[621]. And in most estuaries,
on account of the unequal rising of the stars in each tract, the tides
differ from each other, but this respects the period, not the nature of
them; as is the case in the Syrtes.




CHAP. 100.—WHERE THE TIDES RISE AND FALL IN AN UNUSUAL MANNER.


There are, however, some tides which are of a peculiar nature, as in
the Tauromenian Euripus[622], where the ebb and flow is more frequent
than in other places, and in Eubœa, where it takes place seven times
during the day and the night. The tides intermit three times during
each month, being the 7th, 8th and 9th day of the moon[623]. At Gades,
which is very near the temple of Hercules, there is a spring enclosed
like a well, which sometimes rises and falls with the ocean, and, at
other times, in both respects contrary to it. In the same place there
is another well, which always agrees with the ocean. On the shores of
the Bætis[624], there is a town where the wells become lower when the
tide rises, and fill again when it ebbs; while at other times they
remain stationary. The same thing occurs in one well in the town of
Hispalis[625], while there is nothing peculiar in the other wells. The
Euxine always flows into the Propontis, the water never flowing back
into the Euxine[626].




CHAP. 101. (98.)—WONDERS OF THE SEA.


All seas are purified at the full moon[627]; some also at stated
periods. At Messina and Mylæ a refuse matter, like dung[628], is cast
up on the shore, whence originated the story of the oxen of the Sun
having had their stable at that place. To what has been said above (not
to omit anything with which I am acquainted) Aristotle adds, that no
animal dies except when the tide is ebbing. The observation has been
often made on the ocean of Gaul; but it has only been found true with
respect to man[629].




CHAP. 102. (99.)—THE POWER OF THE MOON OVER THE LAND AND THE SEA.


Hence we may certainly conjecture, that the moon is not unjustly
regarded as the star of our life[630]. This it is that replenishes the
earth[631]; when she approaches it, she fills all bodies, while, when
she recedes, she empties them. From this cause it is that shell-fish
grow with her increase[632], and that those animals which are without
blood more particularly experience her influence; also, that the blood
of man is increased or diminished in proportion to the quantity of
her light; also that the leaves and vegetables generally, as I shall
describe in the proper place[633], feel her influence, her power
penetrating all things.




CHAP. 103. (100.)—THE POWER OF THE SUN.


Fluids are dried up by the heat of the sun; we have therefore regarded
it as a masculine star, burning up and absorbing everything[634].




CHAP. 104.—WHY THE SEA IS SALT.


Hence it is that the widely-diffused sea is impregnated with the
flavour of salt, in consequence of what is sweet and mild being
evaporated from it, which the force of fire easily accomplishes;
while all the more acrid and thick matter is left behind; on which
account the water of the sea is less salt at some depth than at the
surface. And this is a more true cause of the acrid flavour, than that
the sea is the continued perspiration of the land[635], or that the
greater part of the dry vapour is mixed with it, or that the nature of
the earth is such that it impregnates the waters, and, as it were,
medicates them[636]. Among the prodigies which have occurred, there is
one which happened when Dionysius, the tyrant of Sicily, was expelled
from his kingdom; that, for the space of one day, the water in the
harbour became sweet.

(101.) The moon, on the contrary, is said to be a feminine and delicate
planet, and also nocturnal; also that it resolves humours and draws
them out, but does not carry them off. It is manifest that the carcases
of wild beasts are rendered putrid by its beams, that, during sleep, it
draws up the accumulated torpor into the head, that it melts ice, and
relaxes all things by its moistening spirit[637]. Thus the changes of
nature compensate each other, and are always adequate to their destined
purpose; some of them congealing the elements of the stars and others
dissolving them. The moon is said to be fed by fresh, and the sun by
salt water.




CHAP. 105. (102.)—WHERE THE SEA IS THE DEEPEST.


Fabianus[638] informs us that the greatest depth of the sea is 15
stadia[639]. We learn from others, that in the Euxine, opposite to the
nation of the Coraxi, at what is called the Depths of the Euxine[640],
about 300 stadia[641] from the main land, the sea is immensely deep, no
bottom having been found.




CHAP. 106. (103.)—THE WONDERS OF FOUNTAINS AND RIVERS.


It is very remarkable that fresh water should burst out close to
the sea, as from pipes. But there is no end to the wonders that are
connected with the nature of waters. Fresh water floats on sea water,
no doubt from its being lighter; and therefore sea water, which is of
a heavier nature[642], supports better what floats upon it. And, in
some places, different kinds of fresh water float upon each other; as
that of the river which falls into the Fucinus; that of the Addua into
the Larius; of the Ticinus into the Verbanus; of the Mincius into the
Benacus; of the Ollius into the Sevinus; and of the Rhone into the
Leman lake[643] (this last being beyond the Alps, the others in Italy):
all which rivers passing through the lakes for many miles, generally
carry off no more water than they bring with them. The same thing is
said to occur in the Orontes, a river of Syria, and in many others.

Some rivers, from a real hatred of the sea, pass under it, as does
Arethusa, a fountain of Syracuse, in which the substances are found
that are thrown into the Alpheus; which, after flowing by Olympia, is
discharged into the sea, on the shore of the Peloponnesus[644]. The
Lycus in Asia[645], the Erasinus in Argolis, and the Tigris[646] in
Mesopotamia, sink into the earth and burst out again. Substances which
are thrown into the fountain of Æsculapius at Athens[647] are cast up
at the fountain of Phalerum. The river which sinks into the ground
in the plain of Atinum[648] comes up again at the distance of twenty
miles, and the Timavus does the same in Aquileia[649].

In the lake Asphaltites, in Judæa, which produces bitumen, no substance
will sink, nor in the lake Arethusa[650], in the Greater Armenia: in
this lake, although it contains nitre, fish are found. In the country
of the Salentini, near the town of Manduria, there is a lake[651] full
to the brim, the waters of which are never diminished by what is taken
out of it, nor increased by what is added. Wood, which is thrown into
the river of the Cicones[652], or into the lake Velinus in Picenum,
becomes coated with a stony crust, while in the Surius, a river of
Colchis, the whole substance becomes as hard as stone. In the same
manner, in the Silarus[653], beyond Surrentum, not only twigs which
are immersed in it, but likewise leaves are petrified; the water at the
same time being proper for drinking. In the stream which runs from the
marsh of Reate[654] there is a rock, which continues to increase in
size, and in the Red Sea olive-trees and green shrubs are produced[655].

There are many springs which are remarkable for their warmth. This
is the case even among the ridges of the Alps[656], and in the sea
itself, between Italy and Ænaria, as in the bay of Baiæ, and in the
Liris and many other rivers[657]. There are many places in which fresh
water may be procured from the sea, as at the Chelidonian Isles, and
at Arados, and in the ocean at Gades. Green plants are produced in
the warm springs of Padua, frogs in those of Pisa, and fish in those
of Vetulonia in Etruria, which is not far from the sea. In Casinas
there is a cold river called Scatebra, which in summer is more full
of water[658]. In this, as in the river Stymphalis, in Arcadia, small
water-mice are produced. The fountain of Jupiter in Dodona, although
it is as cold as ice, and extinguishes torches that are plunged into
it, yet, if they be brought near it, it kindles them again[659].
This spring always becomes dry at noon, from which circumstance it
is called Ἀναπαυόμενον[660]: it then increases and becomes full at
midnight, after which it again visibly decreases. In Illyricum there is
a cold spring, over which if garments are spread they take fire. The
pool of Jupiter Ammon, which is cold during the day, is warm during
the night[661]. In the country of the Troglodytæ[662], what they call
the Fountain of the Sun, about noon is fresh and very cold; it then
gradually grows warm, and, at midnight, becomes hot and saline[663].

In the middle of the day, during summer, the source of the Po, as if
reposing itself, is always dry[664]. In the island of Tenedos there
is a spring, which, after the summer solstice, is full of water, from
the third hour of the night to the sixth[665]. The fountain Inopus, in
the island of Delos, decreases and increases in the same manner as the
Nile, and also at the same periods[666]. There is a small island in the
sea, opposite to the river Timavus, containing warm springs, which
increase and decrease at the same time with the tides of the sea[667].
In the territory of Pitinum, on the other side of the Apennines, the
river Novanus, which during the solstice is quite a torrent, is dry in
the winter[668].

In Faliscum, all the water which the oxen drink turns them white; in
Bœotia, the river Melas turns the sheep black; the Cephissus, which
flows out of a lake of the same name, turns them white[669]; again,
the Peneus turns them black, and the Xanthus, near Ilium, makes them
red, whence the river derives its name[670]. In Pontus, the river
Astaces waters certain plains, where the mares give black milk, which
the people use in diet. In Reate there is a spring called Neminia,
which rises up sometimes in one place and sometimes in another, and in
this way indicates a change in the produce of the earth[671]. There
is a spring in the harbour of Brundisium that yields water which
never becomes putrid at sea. The water of the Lyncestis, which is
said to be acidulous, intoxicates like wine[672]; this is the case
also in Paphlagonia[673] and in the territory of Calenum[674]. In the
island of Andros, at the temple of Father Bacchus, we are assured by
Mucianus, who was thrice consul, that there is a spring, which, on the
nones of January, always has the flavour of wine; it is called Διὸς
Θεοδοσία[675]. Near Nonacris, in Arcadia, the Styx[676], which is not
unlike it either in odour or in colour, instantly destroys those who
drink it. Also in Librosus, a hill in the country of the Tauri, there
are three springs which inevitably produce death, but without pain.
In the territory of the Carrinenses in Spain[677], two springs burst
out close together, the one of which absorbs everything, the other
throws them out. In the same country there is another spring, which
gives to all the fish the appearance of gold, although, when out of
the water, they do not differ in any respect from other fish. In the
territory of Como, near the Larian lake, there is a copious spring,
which always swells up and subsides again every hour[678]. In the
island of Cydonea[679], before Lesbos, there is a warm fountain, which
flows only during the spring season. The lake Sinnaus[680], in Asia, is
impregnated with wormwood, which grows about it. At Colophon, in the
cave of the Clarian Apollo, there is a pool, by the drinking of which a
power is acquired of uttering wonderful oracles; but the lives of those
who drink of it are shortened[681]. In our own times, during the last
years of Nero’s life, we have seen rivers flowing backwards, as I have
stated in my history of his times[682].

And indeed who can be mistaken as to the fact, that all springs are
colder in summer than in winter[683], as well as these other wonderful
operations of nature; that copper and lead sink when in a mass, but
float when spread out[684]; and of things that are equally heavy, some
will sink to the bottom, while others will remain on the surface[685];
that heavy bodies are more easily moved in water[686]; that a stone
from Scyros, although very large, will float, while the same, when
broken into small pieces, sinks[687]; that the body of an animal,
newly deprived of life, sinks, but that, when it is swelled out, it
floats[688]; that empty vessels are drawn out of the water with no more
ease than those that are full[689]; that rain-water is more useful for
salt-pits than other kinds of water[690]; that salt cannot be made,
unless it is mixed with fresh water[691]; that salt water freezes
with more difficulty[692], and is more readily heated[693]; that the
sea is warmer in winter[694] and more salt in the autumn[695]; that
everything is soothed by oil, and that this is the reason why divers
send out small quantities of it from their mouths, because it smoothes
any part which is rough[696] and transmits the light to them; that
snow never falls in the deep part of the sea[697]; that although water
generally has a tendency downwards, fountains rise up[698], and that
this is the case even at the foot of Ætna[699], burning as it does, so
as to force out the sand like a ball of flame to the distance of 150
miles?




CHAP. 107.—THE WONDERS OF FIRE AND WATER UNITED.


And now I must give an account of some of the wonders of fire, which
is the fourth element of nature; but first those produced by means of
water.




CHAP. 108. (104.)—OF MALTHA.


In Samosata, a city of Commagene[700], there is a pool which discharges
an inflammable mud, called Maltha[701]. It adheres to every solid
body which it touches, and moreover, when touched, it follows you,
if you attempt to escape from it. By means of it the people defended
their walls against Lucullus, and the soldiers were burned in their
armour[702]. It is even set on fire in water. We learn by experience
that it can be extinguished only by earth.




CHAP. 109. (105.)—OF NAPHTHA.


Naphtha is a substance of a similar nature[703] (it is so called about
Babylon, and in the territory of the Astaceni, in Parthia[704]),
flowing like liquid bitumen. It has a great affinity to fire, which
instantly darts on it wherever it is seen[705]. It is said, that
in this way it was that Medea burned Jason’s mistress; her crown
having taken fire, when she approached the altar for the purpose of
sacrificing[706].




CHAP. 110. (106.)—PLACES WHICH ARE ALWAYS BURNING.


Among the wonders of mountains there is Ætna, which always burns in
the night[707], and for so long a period has always had materials for
combustion, being in the winter buried in snow, and having the ashes
which it has ejected covered with frost. Nor is it in this mountain
alone that nature rages, threatening to consume the earth[708]; in
Phaselis, the mountain Chimæra burns, and indeed with a continual
flame, day and night[709]. Ctesias of Cnidos informs us, that this
fire is kindled by water, while it is extinguished by earth and by
hay[710]. In the same country of Lycia, the mountains of Hephæstius,
when touched with a flaming torch[711], burn so violently, that even
the stones in the river and the sand burn, while actually in the water:
this fire is also increased by rain. If a person makes furrows in the
ground with a stick which has been kindled at this fire, it is said
that a stream of flame will follow it. The summit of Cophantus, in
Bactria[712], burns during the night; and this is the case in Media and
at Sittacene[713], on the borders of Persia; likewise in Susa, at the
White Tower, from fifteen apertures[714], the greatest of which also
burns in the daytime. The plain of Babylon throws up flame from a place
like a fish-pond[715], an acre in extent. Near Hesperium, a mountain
of the Æthiopians[716], the fields shine in the night-time like stars;
the same thing takes place in the territory of the Megalopolitani.
This fire, however, is internal[717], mild, and not burning the foliage
of a dense wood which is over it[718]. There is also the crater of
Nymphæum[719], which is always burning, in the neighbourhood of a
cold fountain, and which, according to Theopompus, presages direful
calamities to the inhabitants of Apollonia[720]. It is increased by
rain[721], and it throws out bitumen, which, becoming mixed with the
fountain, renders it unfit to be tasted; it is, at other times, the
weakest of all the bitumens. But what are these compared to other
wonders? Hiera, one of the Æolian isles, in the middle of the sea, near
Italy, together with the sea itself, during the Social war, burned
for several days[722], until expiation was made, by a deputation from
the senate. There is a hill in Æthiopia called Θεῶν ὄχημα[723], which
burns with the greatest violence, throwing out flame that consumes
everything, like the sun[724]. In so many places, and with so many
fires, does nature burn the earth!




CHAP. 111. (107.)—WONDERS OF FIRE ALONE.


But since this one element is of so prolific a nature as to produce
itself, and to increase from the smallest spark, what must we suppose
will be the effect of all those funeral piles of the earth[725]? What
must be the nature of that thing, which, in all parts of the world,
supplies this most greedy voracity without destroying itself? To these
fires must be added those innumerable stars and the great sun itself.
There are also the fires made by men[726], those which are innate in
certain kinds of stones, those produced by the friction of wood[727],
and those in the clouds, which give rise to lightning. It really
exceeds all other wonders, that one single day should pass in which
everything is not consumed, especially when we reflect, that concave
mirrors placed opposite to the sun’s rays produce flame more readily
than any other kind of fire; and that numerous small but natural fires
abound everywhere. In Nymphæum there issues from a rock a fire which is
kindled by rain; it also issues from the waters of the Scantia[728].
This indeed is a feeble flame, since it passes off, remaining only
a short time on any body to which it is applied: an ash tree, which
overshadows this fiery spring, remains always green[729]. In the
territory of Mutina fire issues from the ground on the days that are
consecrated to Vulcan[730]. It is stated by some authors, that if a
burning body falls on the fields below Aricia[731], the ground is set
on fire; and that the stones in the territory of the Sabines and of
the Sidicini[732], if they be oiled, burn with flame. In Egnatia[733],
a town of Salentinum, there is a sacred stone, upon which, when
wood is placed, flame immediately bursts forth. In the altar of Juno
Lacinia[734], which is in the open air, the ashes remain unmoved,
although the winds may be blowing from all quarters.

It appears also that there are sudden fires both in waters and even in
the human body; that the whole of Lake Thrasymenus was on fire[735];
that when Servius Tullius, while a child, was sleeping, flame darted
out from his head[736]; and Valerius Antias informs us, that the same
flame appeared about L. Marcius, when he was pronouncing the funeral
oration over the Scipios, who were killed in Spain; and exhorting the
soldiers to avenge their death. I shall presently mention more facts of
this nature, and in a more distinct manner; in this place these wonders
are mixed up with other subjects. But my mind, having carried me beyond
the mere interpretation of nature, is anxious to lead, as it were by
the hand, the thoughts of my readers over the whole globe.




CHAP. 112. (108.)—THE DIMENSIONS OF THE EARTH.


Our part of the earth, of which I propose to give an account, floating
as it were in the ocean which surrounds it (as I have mentioned
above[737]), stretches out to the greatest extent from east to west,
viz. from India to the Pillars consecrated to Hercules at Gades,
being a distance of 8568 miles[738], according to the statement of
Artemidorus[739], or according to that of Isidorus[740], 9818 miles.
Artemidorus adds to this 491 miles, from Gades, going round by the
Sacred Promontory, to the promontory of Artabrum[741], which is the
most projecting part of Spain.

This measurement may be taken in two directions. From the Ganges, at
its mouth, where it discharges itself into the Eastern ocean, passing
through India and Parthyene, to Myriandrus[742], a city of Syria, in
the bay of Issus, is a distance of 5215 miles[743]. Thence, going
directly by sea, by the island of Cyprus, Patara in Lycia, Rhodes,
and Astypalæa, islands in the Carpathian sea, by Tænarum in Laconia,
Lilybæum in Sicily and Calaris in Sardinia, is 2103 miles. Thence to
Glades is 1250 miles, making the whole distance from the Eastern ocean
8568 miles[744].

The other way, which is more certain, is chiefly by land. From the
Ganges to the Euphrates is 5169 miles; thence to Mazaca, a town in
Cappadocia, is 319 miles; thence, through Phrygia and Caria, to Ephesus
is 415 miles; from Ephesus, across the Ægean sea to Delos, is 200
miles; to the Isthmus is 212-1/2 miles; thence, first by land and
afterwards by the sea of Lechæum and the gulf of Corinth, to Patræ in
Peloponnesus, 90 miles; to the promontory of Leucate 87-1/2 miles;
as much more to Corcyra; to the Acroceraunian mountains 132-1/2, to
Brundisium 87-1/2, and to Rome 360 miles. To the Alps, at the village
of Scingomagum[745], is 519 miles; through Gaul to Illiberis at the
Pyrenees, 927; to the ocean and the coast of Spain, 331 miles; across
the passage of Gades 7-1/2 miles; which distances, according to the
estimate of Artemidorus, make altogether 8945 miles.

The breadth of the earth, from south to north, is commonly supposed
to be about one-half only of its length, viz. 4490 miles; hence it is
evident how much the heat has stolen from it on one side and the cold
on the other: for I do not suppose that the land is actually wanting,
or that the earth has not the form of a globe; but that, on each side,
the uninhabitable parts have not been discovered. This measure then
extends from the coast of the Æthiopian ocean, the most distant part
which is habitable, to Meroë, 1000 miles[746]; thence to Alexandria
1250; to Rhodes 562; to Cnidos 87-1/2; to Cos 25; to Samos 100; to
Chios 94; to Mitylene 65; to Tenedos 44; to the promontory of Sigæum
12-1/2; to the entrance of the Euxine 312-1/2; to the promontory of
Carambis 350; to the entrance of the Palus Mæotis 312-1/2; and to the
mouth of the Tanais 275 miles, which distance, if we went by sea, might
be shortened 89 miles. Beyond the Tanais the most diligent authors have
not been able to obtain any accurate measurement. Artemidorus supposes
that everything beyond is undiscovered, since he confesses that, about
the Tanais, the tribes of the Sarmatæ dwell, who extend towards the
north pole. Isidorus adds 1250 miles, as the distance to Thule[747];
but this is mere conjecture. For my part, I believe that the boundaries
of Sarmatia really extend to as great a distance as that mentioned
above: for if it were not very extensive, how could it contain the
innumerable tribes that are always changing their residence? And indeed
I consider the uninhabitable portion of the world to be still greater;
for it is well known that there are innumerable islands lying off the
coast of Germany[748], which have been only lately discovered.

The above is all that I consider worth relating about the length and
the breadth of the earth[749]. But Eratosthenes[750], a man who was
peculiarly well skilled in all the more subtle parts of learning,
and in this above everything else, and a person whom I perceive to
be approved by every one, has stated the whole of this circuit to be
252,000 stadia, which, according to the Roman estimate, makes 31,500
miles. The attempt is presumptuous, but it is supported by such
subtle arguments that we cannot refuse our assent. Hipparchus[751],
whom we must admire, both for the ability with which he controverts
Eratosthenes, as well as for his diligence in everything else, has
added to the above number not much less than 25,000 stadia.

(109.) Dionysodorus is certainly less worthy of confidence[752]; but
I cannot omit this most remarkable instance of Grecian vanity. He was
a native of Melos, and was celebrated for his knowledge of geometry;
he died of old age in his native country. His female relations, who
inherited his property, attended his funeral, and when they had for
several successive days performed the usual rites, they are said to
have found in his tomb an epistle written in his own name to those left
above; it stated that he had descended from his tomb to the lowest part
of the earth, and that it was a distance of 42,000 stadia. There were
not wanting certain geometricians, who interpreted this epistle as if
it had been sent from the middle of the globe, the point which is at
the greatest distance from the surface, and which must necessarily be
the centre of the sphere. Hence the estimate has been made that it is
252,000 stadia in circumference.




CHAP. 113.—THE HARMONICAL PROPORTION OF THE UNIVERSE.


That harmonical proportion, which compels nature to be always
consistent with itself, obliges us to add to the above measure, 12,000
stadia; and this makes the earth one ninety-sixth part of the whole
universe.

       *       *       *       *       *

SUMMARY.—The facts, statements, and observations contained in this Book
amount in number to 417.

ROMAN AUTHORS QUOTED.—M. Varro[753], Sulpicius Gallus[754], Titus
Cæsar[755] the Emperor, Q. Tubero[756], Tullius Tiro[757], L.
Piso[758], T. Livius[759], Cornelius Nepos[760], Sebosus[761],
Cælius Antipater[762], Fabianus[763], Antias[764], Mucianus[765],
Cæcina[766], who wrote on the Etruscan discipline, Tarquitius[767],
who did the same, Julius Aquila[768], who also did the same, and
Sergius[769].

FOREIGN AUTHORS QUOTED.—Plato[770], Hipparchus[771], Timæus[772],
Sosigenes[773], Petosiris[774], Necepsos[775], the Pythagorean[776]
Philosophers, Posidonius[777], Anaximander[778], Epigenes[779]
the philosopher who wrote on Gnomonics, Euclid[780], Cœranus[781]
the philosopher, Eudoxus[782], Democritus[783], Critodemus[784],
Thrasyllus[785], Serapion[786], Dicæarchus[787], Archimedes[788],
Onesicritus[789], Eratosthenes[790], Pytheas[791], Herodotus[792],
Aristotle[793], Ctesias[794], Artemidorus[795] of Ephesus,
Isidorus[796] of Charax, and Theopompus[797].




BOOK III.

AN ACCOUNT OF COUNTRIES, NATIONS, SEAS, TOWNS, HAVENS, MOUNTAINS,
RIVERS, DISTANCES, AND PEOPLES WHO NOW EXIST OR FORMERLY EXISTED.




INTRODUCTION.


Thus far have I treated of the position and the wonders of the earth,
of the waters, the stars, and the proportion of the universe and its
dimensions. I shall now proceed to describe its individual parts;
although indeed we may with reason look upon the task as of an infinite
nature, and one not to be rashly commenced upon without incurring
censure. And yet, on the other hand, there is nothing which ought less
to require an apology, if it is only considered how far from surprising
it is that a mere mortal cannot be acquainted with everything. I shall
therefore not follow any single author, but shall employ, in relation
to each subject, such writers as I shall look upon as most worthy of
credit. For, indeed, it is the characteristic of nearly all of them,
that they display the greatest care and accuracy in the description of
the countries in which they respectively flourished; so that by doing
this, I shall neither have to blame nor contradict any one.

The names of the different places will here be simply given, and as
briefly as possible; the account of their celebrity, and the events
which have given rise thereto, being deferred to a more appropriate
occasion; for it must be remembered that I am here speaking of the
earth as a whole, and I wish to be understood as using the names
without any reference whatever to their celebrity, and as though the
places themselves were in their infancy, and had not as yet acquired
any fame through great events. The name is mentioned, it is true, but
only as forming a part of the world and the system of the universe.

The whole globe is divided into three parts, Europe, Asia, and Africa.
Our description commences where the sun sets and at the Straits of
Gades[798], where the Atlantic ocean, bursting in, is poured forth
into the inland seas. As it makes its entrance from that side, Africa
is on the right hand and Europe on the left; Asia lies between
them[799]; the boundaries being the rivers Tanais[800] and Nile. The
Straits of the ocean, of which I have just spoken, extend fifteen
miles in length and five[801] in breadth, measured from the village
of Mellaria[802] in Spain to the Album Promontorium[803] or White
Promontory in Africa, as we learn from Turranius Gracilis, who was born
in that vicinity. Titus Livius and Cornelius Nepos however have stated
the breadth, where it is least, to be seven miles, and where greatest,
ten; from so small a mouth as this does so immense an expanse of water
open upon us! Nor is our astonishment diminished by the fact of its
being of great depth; for, instead of that, there are numerous breakers
and shoals, white with foam, to strike the mariner with alarm. From
this circumstance it is, that many have called this spot the threshold
of The Inland Sea.

At the narrowest part of the Straits, there are mountains placed to
form barriers to the entrance on either side, Abyla[804] in Africa,
and Calpe[805] in Europe, the boundaries formerly of the labours of
Hercules[806]. Hence it is that the inhabitants have called them the
Columns of that god; they also believe that they were dug through by
him; upon which the sea, which was before excluded, gained admission,
and so changed the face of nature.




CHAP. 1. (1.)—THE BOUNDARIES AND GULFS OF EUROPE FIRST SET FORTH IN A
GENERAL WAY.


I shall first then speak of Europe, the foster-mother of that people
which has conquered all other nations, and itself by far the most
beauteous portion of the earth. Indeed, many persons have, not without
reason[807], considered it, not as a third part only of the earth,
but as equal to all the rest, looking upon the whole of our globe as
divided into two parts only, by a line drawn from the river Tanais
to the Straits of Gades. The ocean, after pouring the waters of the
Atlantic through the inlet which I have here described, and, in its
eager progress, overwhelming all the lands which have had to dread its
approach, skirts with its winding course the shores of those parts
which offer a more effectual resistance, hollowing out the coast of
Europe especially into numerous bays, among which there are four Gulfs
that are more particularly remarkable. The first of these begins at
Calpe, which I have previously mentioned, the most distant mountain of
Spain; and bends, describing an immense curve, as far as Locri and the
Promontory of Bruttium[808].




CHAP. 2.—OF SPAIN GENERALLY.


The first land situate upon this Gulf is that which is called the
Farther Spain or Bætica[809]; next to which, beginning at the frontier
town of Urgi[810], is the Nearer, or Tarraconensian[811] Spain,
extending as far as the chain of the Pyrenees. The Farther Spain is
divided lengthwise into two provinces, Lusitania[812] and Bætica, the
former stretching along the northern side of the latter, and being
divided from it by the river Ana[813].

The source of this river is in the district of Laminium[814], in the
Nearer Spain. It first spreads out into a number of small lakes,
and then again contracts itself into a narrow channel, or entirely
disappears under ground[815], and after frequently disappearing and
again coming to light, finally discharges itself into the Atlantic
Ocean. Tarraconensian Spain lies on one side, contiguous to the
Pyrenees, running downwards along the sides of that chain, and,
stretching across from the Iberian Sea to the Gallic ocean[816],
is separated from Bætica and Lusitania by Mount Solorius[817], the
chains of the Oretani[818] and the Carpetani[819], and that of the
Astures[820].




CHAP. 3.—OF BÆTICA.


Bætica, so called from the river which divides it in the middle, excels
all the other provinces in the richness of its cultivation and the
peculiar fertility and beauty of its vegetation.

It consists of four jurisdictions, those of Gades[821], of
Corduba[822], of Astigi[823], and of Hispalis[824]. The total number of
its towns is 175; of these nine are colonies[825], and eight municipal
towns[826]; twenty-nine have been long since presented with the old
Latin rights[827]; six are free towns[828], three federate[829], and
120 tributary.

In this district, the things that more especially deserve notice, or
are more easily explained in the Latin tongue, are the following,
beginning at the river Ana, along the line of the sea-shore; the town
of Onoba, surnamed Æstuaria[830]; the rivers Luxia and Urium[831],
flowing through this territory between the Ana and the Bætis; the
Marian[832] Mountains; the river Bætis; the coast of Corum[833], with
its winding bay; opposite to which is Gades, of which we shall have
occasion to speak among the islands[834]. Next comes the Promontory
of Juno[835], and the port of Bæsippo[836]; the towns of Bœlo[837]
and Mellaria[838], at which latter begin the Straits of the Atlantic;
Carteia[839], called by the Greeks Tartessos[840]; and the mountain of
Calpe.

Along the coast of the inland sea[841] is the town of Barbesula[842]
with its river; also Salduba[843]; the town of Suel[844]; and then
Malaca[845], with its river, one of the federate towns. Next to this
comes Mænoba[846], with its river; then Sexifirmum[847], surnamed
Julium; Selambina[848]; Abdera[849]; and Murci[850], which is at the
boundary of Bætica. M. Agrippa supposed that all this coast was peopled
by colonists of Punic origin. Beyond the Anas, and facing the Atlantic,
is the country of the Bastuli[851] and the Turditani. M. Varro informs
us, that the Iberians, the Persians, the Phœnicians, the Celts, and the
Carthaginians spread themselves over the whole of Spain; that the name
“Lusitania” is derived from the games (_lusus_) of Father Bacchus, or
the fury (_lyssa_[852]) of his frantic attendants, and that Pan[853]
was the governor of the whole of it. But the traditions respecting
Hercules[854] and Pyrene, as well as Saturn, I conceive to be fabulous
in the highest degree.

The Bætis does not rise, as some writers have asserted, near the town
of Mentisa[855], in the province of Tarraco, but in the Tugiensian
Forest[856]; and near it rises the river Tader[857], which waters the
territory of Carthage[858]. At Ilorcum[859] it turns away from the
Funeral Pile[860] of Scipio; then taking a sweep to the left, it falls
into the Atlantic Ocean, giving its name to this province: at its
source it is but small, though during its course it receives many other
streams, which it deprives as well of their waters as their renown. It
first enters Bætica in Ossigitania[861], and glides gently, with a
smooth current, past many towns situate on either side of its banks.

Between this river and the sea-shore the most celebrated places
inland are Segida[862], also surnamed Augurina; Julia[863], called
Fidentia; Urgao[864] or Alba, Ebora[865] or Cerealis, Iliberri[866] or
Liberini, Ilipula[867] or Laus, Artigi[868] or Julienses, Vesci[869]
or Faventia, Singili[870], Attegua[871], Arialdunum, Agla Minor[872],
Bæbro[873], Castra Vinaria[874], Cisimbrium[875], Hippo Nova or New
Hippo[876], Ilurco[877], Osca[878], Escua[879], Sucubo[880], Nuditanum,
Old Tuati[881]; all which towns are in that part of Bastitania which
extends towards the sea, but in the jurisdiction[882] of Corduba. In
the neighbourhood of the river itself is Ossigi[883], also surnamed
Laconicum, Iliturgi[884] or Forum Julium, Ipasturgi[885] or Triumphale,
Setia, and, fourteen miles inland, Obulco[886], which is also called
Pontificense.

Next to these comes Epora[887], a federate town, Sacili[888]
Martialium, and Onoba[889]. On the right bank is Corduba, a Roman
colony, surnamed Patricia[890]; here the Bætis first becomes navigable.
There are also the towns of Carbula and Detunda[891], and the river
Singulis[892], which falls into the Bætis on the same side.

The towns in the jurisdiction of Hispalis are the following: Celti,
Arua[893], Canama[894], Evia, Ilipa[895], surnamed Illa, and
Italica[896]. On the left of the river is the colony of Hispalis[897]
named Romuliensis, and, on the opposite side[898], the town of
Osset[899], surnamed Julia Constantia, Vergentum, or Julî Genius[900],
Orippo, Caura[901], Siarum, and the river Menoba[902], which enters the
Bætis on its right bank. Between the æstuaries of the Bætis lie the
towns of Nebrissa[903], surnamed Veneria, and of Colobona[904]. The
colonies are, Asta[905], which is also called Regia, and, more inland,
that of Asido[906], surnamed Cæsariana.

The river Singulis, discharging itself into the Bætis at the place
already mentioned, washes the colony of Astigi[907], surnamed Augusta
Firma, at which place it becomes navigable. The other colonies in this
jurisdiction which are exempt from tribute are Tucci, surnamed Augusta
Gemella[908], Itucci called Virtus Julia[909], Attubi or Claritas
Julia[910], Urso[911] or Genua Urbanorum; and among them in former
times Munda[912], which was taken with the son of Pompey. The free
towns are Old Astigi[913] and Ostippo[914]; the tributary towns are
Callet, Callecula, Castra Gemina, the Lesser Ilipula, Merucra, Sacrana,
Obulcula[915], and Oningis. As you move away from the sea-coast, near
where the river Menoba is navigable, you find, at no great distance,
the Alontigiceli and the Alostigi[916].

The country which extends from the Bætis to the river Anas, beyond the
districts already described, is called Bæturia, and is divided into two
parts and the same number of nations; the Celtici[917], who border upon
Lusitania, in the jurisdiction of Hispalis, and the Turduli, who dwell
on the verge[918] of Lusitania and Tarraconensis, and are under the
protection of the laws of Corduba. It is evident that the Celtici have
sprung from the Celtiberi, and have come from Lusitania, from their
religious rites, their language, and the names of their towns, which
in Bætica are distinguished by the following epithets[919], which have
been given to them. Seria has received the surname of Fama Julia[920],
Nertobriga that of Concordia Julia[921], Segida that of Restituta
Julia[922], and Contributa[923] that of Julia. What is now Curiga
was formerly Ucultuniacum, Constantia Julia[924] was Laconimurgis,
the present Fortunales were the Tereses[925], and the Emanici were
the Callenses[926]. Besides these, there are in Celtica the towns of
Acinippo[927], Arunda[928], Aruci[929], Turobriga, Lastigi, Salpesa,
Sæpone, and Serippo.

The other Bæturia, which we have mentioned, is inhabited by the
Turduli, and, in the jurisdiction of Corduba, has some towns which are
by no means inconsiderable; Arsa[930], Mellaria[931], Mirobriga[932],
and Sisapo[933], in the district of Osintias.

To the jurisdiction of Gades belongs Regina, with Roman citizens; and
Læpia, Ulia[934], Carisa[935] surnamed Aurelia, Urgia[936] or Castrum
Julium, likewise called Cæsaris Salutariensis, all of which enjoy the
Latian rights. The tributary towns are Besaro, Belippo[937], Barbesula,
Lacippo, Bæsippo, Callet, Cappacum, Oleastro, Ituci, Brana, Lacibi,
Saguntia[938], and Audorisæ.

M. Agrippa has also stated the whole length of this province to be
475 miles[939], and its breadth 257; but this was at a time when its
boundaries extended to Carthage[940], a circumstance which has often
caused great errors in calculations; which are generally the result
either of changes effected in the limits of provinces, or of the fact
that in the reckoning of distances the length of the miles has been
arbitrarily increased or diminished. In some parts too the sea has been
long making encroachments upon the land, and in others again the shores
have advanced; while the course of rivers in this place has become more
serpentine, in that more direct. And then, besides, some writers begin
their measurements at one place, and some at another, and so proceed
in different directions; and hence the result is, that no two accounts
agree.

(2.) At the present day the length of Bætica, from the town of
Castulo[941], on its frontier, to Gades is 250 miles, and from Murci,
which lies on the sea-coast, twenty-five miles more. The breadth,
measured from the coast of Carteia, is 234 miles. Who is there that
can entertain the belief that Agrippa, a man of such extraordinary
diligence, and one who bestowed so much care on his subject, when he
proposed to place before the eyes of the world a survey of that world,
could be guilty of such a mistake as this, and that too when seconded
by the late emperor the divine Augustus? For it was that emperor who
completed the Portico[942] which had been begun by his sister, and
in which the survey was to be kept, in conformity with the plan and
descriptions of M. Agrippa.




CHAP. 4. (3.)—OF NEARER SPAIN.


The ancient form of the Nearer Spain, like that of many other
provinces, is somewhat changed, since the time when Pompey the Great,
upon the trophies which he erected in the Pyrenees, testified that 877
towns, from the Alps to the borders of the Farther Spain, had been
reduced to subjection by him. The whole province is now divided into
seven jurisdictions, those of Carthage[943], of Tarraco, of Cæsar
Augusta[944], of Clunia[945], of Asturica[946], of Lucus[947], and of
the Bracari[948]. To these are to be added the islands, which will be
described on another occasion, as also 293 states which are dependent
on others; besides which the province contains 179 towns. Of these,
twelve are colonies, thirteen, towns with the rights of Roman citizens,
eighteen with the old Latian rights, one confederate, and 135 tributary.

The first people that we come to on the coast are the Bastuli; after
whom, proceeding according to the order which I shall follow, as we
go inland, there are the Mentesani, the Oretani, and the Carpetani
on the Tagus, and next to them the Vaccæi, the Vectones, and the
Celtiberian Arevaci. The towns nearest to the coast are Urci, and
Barea[949] included in Bætica, the district of Mavitania, next to it
Deitania, and then Contestania, and the colony of Carthago Nova; from
the Promontory of which, known as the Promontorium Saturni[950], to
the city of Cæsarea[951] in Mauritania, the passage is a distance of
187 miles. The remaining objects worthy of mention on the coast are
the river Tader[952], and the free colony of Ilici[953], whence the
Ilicitanian Gulf[954] derives its name; to this colony the Icositani
are subordinate.

We next have Lucentum[955], holding Latian rights; Dianium[956], a
tributary town; the river Sucro[957], and in former times a town of the
same name, forming the frontier of Contestania. Next is the district
of Edetania, with the delightful expanse of a lake[958] before it, and
extending backward to Celtiberia. Valentia[959], a colony, is situate
three miles from the sea, after which comes the river Turium[960],
and Saguntum[961] at the same distance, a town of Roman citizens
famous for its fidelity, the river Uduba[962], and the district of the
Ilergaones[963]. The Iberus[964], a river enriched by its commerce,
takes its rise in the country of the Cantabri, not far from the town
of Juliobriga[965], and flows a distance of 450 miles; 260 of which,
from the town of Varia[966] namely, it is available for the purposes of
navigation. From this river the name of Iberia has been given by the
Greeks to the whole of Spain.

Next comes the district of Cossetania, the river Subi[967], and the
colony of Tarraco, which was built by the Scipios as Carthage[968] was
by the Carthaginians. Then the district of the Ilergetes, the town
of Subur[969], and the river Rubricatum[970], beyond which begin the
Laletani and the Indigetes[971]. Behind these, in the order in which
they will be mentioned, going back from the foot of the Pyrenees,
are the Ausetani[972], the Lacetani[973], and along the Pyrenees, the
Cerretani[974], next to whom are the Vascones[975]. On the coast is the
colony of Barcino[976], surnamed Faventia; Bætulo[977] and Iluro[978],
towns with Roman citizens; the river Larnum[979], Blandæ[980], the
river Alba[981]; Emporiæ[982], a city consisting of two parts, one
peopled by the original inhabitants, the other by the Greek descendants
of the Phocæans; and the river Ticher[983]. From this to the Venus
Pyrenæa[984], on the other side of the Promontory, is a distance of
forty miles.

I shall now proceed to give an account of the more remarkable things
in these several jurisdictions, in addition to those which have been
already mentioned. Forty-three different peoples are subject to the
jurisdiction of the courts of Tarraco: of these the most famous
are—holding the rights of Roman citizens, the Dertusani[985] and the
Bisgargitani; enjoying Latian rights, the Ausetani, and the Cerretani,
both Julian and Augustan, the Edetani[986], the Gerundenses[987],
the Gessorienses[988], and the Teari[989], also called Julienses.
Among the tributaries are the Aquicaldenses[990], the Onenses, and the
Bæculonenses[991].

Cæsar Augusta, a free colony, watered by the river Iberus, on the
site of the town formerly called Salduba, is situate in the district
of Edetania, and is the resort of fifty-five nations. Of these there
are, with the rights of Roman citizens, the Bellitani[992], the
Celsenses[993], a former colony, the Calagurritani[994], surnamed the
Nassici, the Ilerdenses[995], of the nation of the Surdaones, near whom
is the river Sicoris, the Oscenses[996] in the district of Vescitania,
and the Turiasonenses[997]. Of those enjoying the rights of the ancient
Latins, there are the Cascantenses[998], the Ergavicenses[999], the
Graccuritani[1000], the Leonicenses[1001], and the Osicerdenses; of
federate states, there are the Tarragenses[1002]; and of tributaries,
the Arcobrigenses[1003], the Andologenses[1004], the Aracelitani[1005],
the Bursaonenses[1006], the Calagurritani[1007], who are also surnamed
the Fibularenses, the Complutenses[1008], the Carenses[1009],
the Cincenses[1010], the Cortonenses, the Damanitani[1011], the
Larnenses[1012], the Lursenses[1013], the Lumberitani[1014], the
Lacetani, the Lubienses, the Pompelonenses[1015], and the Segienses.

Sixty-five different nations resort to Carthage[1016], besides the
inhabitants of the islands. Of the Accitanian[1017] colony, there
are the Gemellenses, and the town of Libisosona[1018], surnamed
Foroaugustana, to both of which have been granted Italian[1019] rights.
Of the colony of Salaria[1020], there are the people of the following
towns, enjoying the rights of ancient Latium: the Castulonenses, also
called the Cæsari Venales, the Sætabitani[1021] or Augustani, and
the Valerienses[1022]. The best known among the tributaries are the
Alabanenses[1023], the Bastitani[1024], the Consaburrenses[1025],
the Dianenses[1026], the Egelestani[1027], the Ilorcitani[1028],
the Laminitani, the Mentesani[1029], both those called Oritani and
those called Bastuli, and the Oretani who are surnamed Germani[1030],
the people of Segobriga[1031] the capital of Celtiberia, those of
Toletum[1032] the capital of Carpetania, situate on the river Tagus,
and after them the Viatienses and the Virgilienses[1033].

To the jurisdiction of Clunia[1034] the Varduli contribute fourteen
nations, of whom we need only particularize the Albanenses[1035],
the Turmodigi[1036], consisting of four tribes, among which are
the Segisamonenses[1037] and the Segisamaiulienses. To the same
jurisdiction belong the Carietes[1038] and the Vennenses with five
states, among which are the Velienses. Thither too resort the
Pelendones of the Celtiberians, in four different nations, among
whom the Numantini[1039] were especially famous. Also, among the
eighteen states of the Vaccæi, there are the Intercatienses[1040],
the Pallantini[1041], the Lacobrigenses, and the Caucenses[1042]. But
among the seven peoples belonging to the Cantabri, Juliobriga[1043]
is the only place worthy of mention; and of the ten states of the
Autrigones, Tritium and Virovesca[1044]. The river Areva[1045] gives
its name to the Arevaci; of whom there are six towns, Segontia[1046]
and Uxama[1047], names which are frequently given to other places, as
also Segovia[1048] and Nova Augusta, Termes[1049], and Clunia itself,
the frontier of Celtiberia. The remaining portion turns off towards
the ocean, being occupied by the Varduli, already mentioned, and the
Cantabri.

Next upon these touch the twenty-two nations of the Astures, who
are divided into the Augustani[1050] and the Transmontani, with the
magnificent city of Asturica. Among these we have the Cigurri[1051],
the Pæsici, the Lancienses[1052], and the Zoëlæ[1053]. The total number
of the free population amounts to 240,000 persons.

The jurisdiction of Lucus[1054] embraces, besides the Celtici and the
Lebuni, sixteen different nations, but little known and with barbarous
names. The number however of the free population amounts to nearly
166,000.

In a similar manner the twenty-four states of the jurisdiction of
the Bracari contain a population of 175,000, among whom, besides the
Bracari[1055] themselves, we may mention, without wearying the reader,
the Bibali, the Cœlerni, the Gallæci, the Hequæsi, the Limici, and the
Querquerni.

The length of the Nearer Spain, from the Pyrenees to the frontier
of Castulo, is 607[1056] miles, and a little more if we follow the
line of the coast; while its breadth, from Tarraco to the shore of
Olarson[1057], is 307[1058] miles. From the foot of the Pyrenees, where
it is wedged in by the near approach of the two seas, it gradually
expands until it touches the Farther Spain, and thereby acquires a
width more than double[1059].

Nearly the whole of Spain abounds in mines[1060] of lead, iron,
copper, silver, and gold; in the Nearer Spain there is also found lapis
specularis[1061]; in Bætica there is cinnabar. There are also quarries
of marble. The Emperor Vespasianus Augustus, while still harassed by
the storms that agitated the Roman state, conferred the Latian rights
on the whole of Spain. The Pyrenean mountains divide Spain from Gaul,
their extremities projecting into the two seas on either side.




CHAP. 5. (4.)—OF THE PROVINCE OF GALLIA NARBONENSIS.


That part of the Gallias which is washed by the inland sea[1062] is
called the province of [Gallia] Narbonensis[1063], having formerly
borne the name of Braccata[1064]. It is divided from Italy by the river
Varus[1065], and by the range of the Alps, the great safeguards of the
Roman Empire. From the remainder of Gaul, on the north, it is separated
by the mountains Cebenna[1066] and Jura[1067]. In the cultivation of
the soil, the manners and civilization of the inhabitants, and the
extent of its wealth, it is surpassed by none of the provinces, and, in
short, might be more truthfully described as a part of Italy than as a
province. On the coast we have the district of the Sordones[1068], and
more inland that of the Consuarani[1069]. The rivers are the Tecum
and the Vernodubrum[1070]. The towns are Illiberis[1071], the scanty
remains of what was formerly a great city, and Ruscino[1072], a town
with Latian rights. We then come to the river Atax[1073], which flows
from the Pyrenees, and passes through the Rubrensian Lake[1074], the
town of Narbo Martius, a colony of the tenth legion, twelve miles
distant from the sea, and the rivers Arauris[1075] and Liria[1076].
The towns are otherwise but few in number, in consequence of the
numerous lakes[1077] which skirt the sea-shore. We have Agatha[1078],
formerly belonging to the Massilians, and the district of the Volcæ
Tectosages[1079]; and there is the spot where Rhoda[1080], a Rhodian
colony, formerly stood, from which the river takes its name of
Rhodanus[1081]; a stream by far the most fertilizing of any in either
of the Gallias. Descending from the Alps and rushing through lake
Lemanus[1082], it carries along with it the sluggish Arar[1083], as
well as the torrents of the Isara and the Druentia[1084], no less rapid
than itself. Its two smaller mouths are called Libica[1085], one being
the Spanish, and the other the Metapinian mouth; the third and largest
is called the Massiliotic[1086]. There are some authors who state that
there was formerly a town called Heraclea[1087] at the mouth of the
Rhodanus or Rhone.

Beyond this are the Canals[1088] leading out of the Rhone, a famous
work of Caius Marius, and still distinguished by his name; the Lake of
Mastramela[1089], the town of Maritima[1090] of the Avatici, and, above
this, the Stony Plains[1091], memorable for the battles of Hercules;
the district of the Anatilii[1092], and more inland, that of the
Desuviates[1093] and the Cavari. Again, close upon the sea, there is
that of the Tricorii[1094], and inland, there are the Tricolli[1095],
the Vocontii[1096], and the Segovellauni, and, after them, the
Allobroges[1097].

On the coast is Massilia, a colony of Phocæan[1098] Greeks, and a
federate[1099] city; we then have the Promontory of Zao[1100], the
port of Citharista[1101], and the district of the Camatullici[1102];
then the Suelteri[1103], and above them the Verrucini[1104]. Again,
on the coast, we find Athenopolis[1105], belonging to the Massilians,
Forum Julii[1106] Octavanorum, a colony, which is also called Pacensis
and Classica, the river Argenteus[1107], which flows through it, the
district of the Oxubii[1108] and that of the Ligauni[1109]; above whom
are the Suetri[1110], the Quariates[1111] and the Adunicates[1112].
On the coast we have Antipolis[1113], a town with Latian rights, the
district of the Deciates, and the river Varus, which proceeds from
Mount Cema, one of the Alps.

The colonies in the interior are Arelate Sextanorum[1114], Beterræ
Septimanorum[1115], and Arausio[1116] Secundanorum; Valentia[1117]
in the territory of the Cavari, and Vienna[1118] in that of the
Allobroges. The towns that enjoy Latian rights are Aquæ Sextiæ[1119] in
the territory of the Saluvii, Avenio[1120] in that of the Cavari, Apta
Julia[1121] in that of the Volgientes, Alebece[1122] in that of the
Reii Apollinares, Alba[1123] in that of the Helvi, and Augusta[1124]
in that of the Tricastini, Anatilia, Aeria[1125], the Bormanni[1126],
the Comaci, Cabellio[1127], Carcasum[1128] in the territory of
the Volcæ Tectosages, Cessero[1129], Carpentoracte[1130] in the
territory of the Memini, the Cenicenses[1131], the Cambolectri[1132],
surnamed the Atlantici, Forum[1133] Voconi, Glanum Livi[1134], the
Lutevani[1135], also called the Foroneronienses[1136], Nemausum[1137]
in the territory of the Arecomici, Piscenæ[1138], the Ruteni[1139],
the Sanagenses[1140], the Tolosani[1141] in the territory of the
Tectosages on the confines of Aquitania, the Tasconi[1142], the
Tarusconienses[1143], the Umbranici[1144], Vasio[1145] and Lucus
Augusti[1146], the two capitals of the federate state of the Vocontii.
There are also nineteen towns of less note, as well as twenty-four
belonging to the people of Nemausum. To this list[1147] the Emperor
Galba added two tribes dwelling among the Alps, the Avantici[1148] and
the Bodiontici, to whom belongs the town of Dinia[1149]. According to
Agrippa the length of the province of Gallia Narbonensis is 370 miles,
and its breadth 248[1150].




CHAP. 6. (5.)—OF ITALY.


Next comes Italy, and we begin with the Ligures[1151], after whom
we have Etruria, Umbria, Latium, where the mouths of the Tiber are
situate, and Rome, the Capital of the world, sixteen miles distant from
the sea. We then come to the coasts of the Volsci and of Campania, and
the districts of Picenum, of Lucania, and of Bruttium, where Italy
extends the farthest in a southerly direction, and projects into the
[two] seas with the chain of the Alps[1152], which there forms pretty
nearly the shape of a crescent. Leaving Bruttium we come to the coast
of [Magna] Græcia, then the Salentini, the Pediculi, the Apuli, the
Peligni, the Frentani, the Marrucini, the Vestini, the Sabini, the
Picentes, the Galli, the Umbri, the Tusci, the Veneti, the Carni, the
Iapydes, the Histri, and the Liburni.

I am by no means unaware that I might be justly accused of ingratitude
and indolence, were I to describe thus briefly and in so cursory a
manner the land which is at once the foster-child[1153] and the parent
of all lands; chosen by the providence of the Gods to render even
heaven itself more glorious[1154], to unite the scattered empires
of the earth, to bestow a polish upon men’s manners, to unite the
discordant and uncouth dialects of so many different nations by the
powerful ties of one common language, to confer the enjoyments of
discourse and of civilization upon mankind, to become, in short, the
mother-country of all nations of the Earth.

But how shall I commence this undertaking? So vast is the number of
celebrated places (what man living could enumerate them all?), and
so great the renown attached to each individual nation and subject,
that I feel myself quite at a loss. The city of Rome alone, which
forms a portion of it, a face well worthy of shoulders so beauteous,
how large a work would it require for an appropriate description! And
then too the coast of Campania, taken singly by itself! so blest with
natural beauties and opulence, that it is evident that when nature
formed it she took a delight in accumulating all her blessings in
a single spot—how am I to do justice to it? And then the climate,
with its eternal freshness and so replete with health and vitality,
the sereneness of the weather so enchanting, the fields so fertile,
the hill sides so sunny, the thickets so free from every danger, the
groves so cool and shady, the forests with a vegetation so varying
and so luxuriant, the breezes descending from so many a mountain, the
fruitfulness of its grain, its vines, and its olives so transcendent;
its flocks with fleeces so noble, its bulls with necks so sinewy,
its lakes recurring in never-ending succession, its numerous rivers
and springs which refresh it with their waters on every side, its
seas so many in number, its havens and the bosom of its lands opening
everywhere to the commerce of all the world, and as it were eagerly
stretching forth into the very midst of the waves, for the purpose of
aiding as it were the endeavours of mortals!

For the present I forbear to speak of its genius, its manners, its men,
and the nations whom it has conquered by eloquence and force of arms.
The very Greeks themselves, a race fond in the extreme of expatiating
on their own praises, have amply given judgment in its favour, when
they named but a small part of it ‘Magna Græcia[1155].’ But we must be
content to do on this occasion as we have done in our description of
the heavens; we must only touch upon some of these points, and take
notice of but a few of its stars. I only beg my readers to bear in
mind that I am thus hastening on for the purpose of giving a general
description of everything that is known to exist throughout the whole
earth.

I may premise by observing that this land very much resembles in shape
an oak leaf, being much longer than it is broad; towards the top it
inclines to the left[1156], while it terminates in the form of an
Amazonian buckler[1157], in which the spot at the central projection
is the place called Cocinthos, while it sends forth two horns at the
end of its crescent-shaped bays, Leucopetra on the right and Lacinium
on the left. It extends in length 1020 miles, if we measure from the
foot of the Alps at Prætoria Augusta, through the city of Rome and
Capua to the town of Rhegium, which is situate on the shoulder of the
Peninsula, just at the bend of the neck as it were. The distance would
be much greater if measured to Lacinium, but in that case the line,
being drawn obliquely, would incline too much to one side. Its breadth
is variable; being 410 miles between the two seas, the Lower and the
Upper[1158], and the rivers Varus and Arsia[1159]: at about the middle,
and in the vicinity of the city of Rome, from the spot where the river
Aternus[1160] flows into the Adriatic sea, to the mouth of the Tiber,
the distance is 136 miles, and a little less from Castrum-novum on the
Adriatic sea to Alsium[1161] on the Tuscan; but in no place does it
exceed 200 miles in breadth. The circuit of the whole, from the Varus
to the Arsia, is 3059 miles[1162].

As to its distance from the countries that surround it—Istria and
Liburnia are, in some places[1163], 100 miles from it, and Epirus
and Illyricum 50; Africa is less than 200, as we are informed by M.
Varro; Sardinia[1164] is 120, Sicily 1-1/2, Corsica less than 80, and
Issa[1165] 50. It extends into the two seas towards the southern parts
of the heavens, or, to speak with more minute exactness, between the
sixth[1166] hour and the first hour of the winter solstice.

We will now describe its extent and its different cities; in doing
which, it is necessary to premise, that we shall follow the arrangement
of the late Emperor Augustus, and adopt the division which he made
of the whole of Italy into eleven districts; taking them, however,
according to their order on the sea-line, as in so hurried a detail it
would not be possible otherwise to describe each city in juxtaposition
with the others in its vicinity. And for the same reason, in describing
the interior, I shall follow the alphabetical order which has been
adopted by that Emperor, pointing out the colonies of which he has
made mention in his enumeration. Nor is it a very easy task to trace
their situation and origin; for, not to speak of others, the Ingaunian
Ligurians have had lands granted to them as many as thirty different
times.




CHAP. 7.—OF THE NINTH[1167] REGION OF ITALY.


To begin then with the river Varus; we have the town of Nicæa[1168],
founded by the Massilians, the river Paulo[1169], the Alps and
the Alpine tribes, distinguished by various names[1170], but more
especially the Capillati[1171], Cemenelio[1172], a town of the state
of the Vediantii, the port of Hercules Monæcus[1173], and the Ligurian
coast. The more celebrated of the Ligurian tribes beyond the Alps are
the Salluvii, the Deciates, and the Oxubii[1174]; on this side of the
Alps, the Veneni[1175], and the Vagienni, who are derived from the
Caturiges[1176], the Statielli[1177], the Bimbelli[1178], the Magelli,
the Euburiates, the Casmonates[1179], the Veleiates[1180], and the
peoples whose towns we shall describe as lying near the adjoining
coast. The river Rutuba[1181], the town of Albium Intemelium[1182],
the river Merula[1183], the town of Albium Ingaunum[1184], the port of
Vadum Sabatiorum[1185], the river Porcifera[1186], the town of Genua,
the river Feritor[1187], the Portus Delphini[1188], Tigullia[1189],
Tegesta[1190] of the Tigullii, and the river Macra[1191], which is the
boundary of Liguria.

Extending behind all the before-mentioned places are the Apennines, the
most considerable of all the mountains of Italy, the chain of which
extends unbroken from the Alps[1192] to the Sicilian sea. On the other
side of the Apennines, towards the Padus[1193], the richest river of
Italy, the whole country is adorned with noble towns; Libarna[1194],
the colony of Dertona[1195], Iria[1196], Barderate[1197],
Industria[1198], Pollentia[1199], Carrea surnamed Potentia[1200],
Foro Fulvî or Valentinum[1201], Augusta[1202] of the Vagienni, Alba
Pompeia[1203], Asta[1204], and Aquæ Statiellorum[1205]. This is the
ninth region, according to the arrangement of Augustus. The coast of
Liguria extends 211 miles[1206], between the rivers Varus and Macra.




CHAP. 8.—THE SEVENTH REGION OF ITALY.


Next to this comes the seventh region, in which is Etruria, a district
which begins at the river Macra, and has often changed its name. At
an early period the Umbri were expelled from it by the Pelasgi; and
these again by the Lydians, who from a king of theirs[1207] were named
Tyrrheni, but afterwards, from the rites observed in their sacrifices,
were called, in the Greek language[1208], Tusci. The first town in
Etruria is Luna[1209], with a noble harbour, then the colony of
Luca[1210], at some distance from the sea, and nearer to it again the
colony of Pisæ[1211], between the rivers Auser[1212] and Arnus[1213],
which owes its origin to Pelops and the Pisans[1214], or else to the
Teutani, a people of Greece. Next is Vada[1215] Volaterrana, then the
river Cecinna[1216], and Populonium[1217] formerly belonging to the
Etrurians, the only town they had on this coast. Next to these is the
river Prile[1218], then the Umbro[1219], which is navigable, and where
the district of Umbria begins, the port of Telamon[1220], Cosa[1221] of
the Volcientes, founded by the Roman people, Graviscæ[1222], Castrum
novum[1223], Pyrgi[1224], the river Cæretanus[1225], and Cære[1226]
itself, four miles inland, called Agylla by the Pelasgi who founded it,
Alsium[1227], Fregenæ[1228], and the river Tiber, 284[1229] miles from
the Macra.

In the interior we have the colonies of Falisci[1230], founded
by the Argives, according to the account of Cato[1231], and
surnamed Falisci Etruscorum, Lucus Feroniæ[1232], Rusellana, the
Senienses[1233], and Sutrina[1234]. The remaining peoples are
the Arretini[1235] Veteres, the Arretini Fidentes, the Arretini
Julienses, the Amitinenses, the Aquenses, surnamed Taurini[1236],
the Blerani[1237], the Cortonenses[1238], the Capenates[1239], the
Clusini Novi, the Clusini Veteres[1240], the Florentini[1241],
situate on the stream of the Arnus, Fæsulæ[1242], Ferentinum[1243],
Fescennia[1244], Hortanum[1245], Herbanum[1246], Nepeta[1247],
Novem Pagi[1248], the Claudian præfecture of Foroclodium[1249],
Pistorium[1250], Perusia[1251], the Suanenses, the Saturnini, formerly
called the Aurinini, the Subertani[1252], the Statones[1253], the
Tarquinienses[1254], the Tuscanienses[1255], the Vetulonienses[1256],
the Veientani[1257], the Vesentini[1258], the Volaterrani[1259], the
Volcentini[1260], surnamed Etrusci, and the Volsinienses[1261]. In the
same district the territories of Crustumerium[1262] and Caletra[1263]
retain the names of the ancient towns.




CHAP. 9.—THE FIRST REGION OF ITALY[1264]; THE TIBER; ROME.


The Tiber or Tiberis, formerly called Thybris, and previously
Albula[1265], flows down from nearly the central part of the chain
of the Apennines, in the territory of the Arretini. It is at first
small, and only navigable by means of sluices, in which the water is
dammed up and then discharged, in the same manner as the Timia[1266]
and the Glanis, which flow into it; for which purpose it is found
necessary to collect the water for nine days, unless there should
happen to be a fall of rain. And even then, the Tiber, by reason of
its rugged and uneven channel, is really more suitable for navigation
by rafts than by vessels, for any great distance. It winds along for
a course of 150 miles, passing not far from Tifernum[1267], Perusia,
and Ocriculum[1268], and dividing Etruria from the Umbri[1269] and the
Sabini[1270], and then, at a distance of less than sixteen miles from
the city, separating the territory of Veii from that of Crustuminum,
and afterwards that of the Fidenates and of Latium from Vaticanum.

Below its union with the Glanis from Arretinum the Tiber is swollen by
two and forty streams, particularly the Nar[1271] and the Anio, which
last is also navigable and shuts in Latium at the back; it is also
increased by the numerous aqueducts and springs which are conveyed to
the City. Here it becomes navigable by vessels of any burden which
may come up from the Italian sea; a most tranquil dispenser of the
produce of all parts of the earth, and peopled and embellished along
its banks with more villas than nearly all the other rivers of the
world taken together. And yet there is no river more circumscribed
than it, so close are its banks shut in on either side; but still, no
resistance does it offer, although its waters frequently rise with
great suddenness, and no part is more liable to be swollen than that
which runs through the City itself. In such case, however, the Tiber is
rather to be looked upon[1272] as pregnant with prophetic warnings to
us, and in its increase to be considered more as a promoter of religion
than a source of devastation.

Latium[1273] has preserved its original limits, from the Tiber to
Circeii[1274], a distance of fifty miles: so slender at the beginning
were the roots from which this our Empire sprang. Its inhabitants have
been often changed, and different nations have peopled it at different
times, the Aborigines, the Pelasgi, the Arcades, the Seculi, the
Aurunci, the Rutuli, and, beyond Circeii, the Volsci, the Osci, and the
Ausones whence the name of Latium came to be extended as far as the
river Liris[1275].

We will begin with Ostia[1276], a colony founded by a king of Rome,
the town of Laurentum[1277], the grove of Jupiter Indiges[1278], the
river Numicius[1279], and Ardea[1280], founded by Danaë, the mother of
Perseus. Next come the former site of Aphrodisium[1281], the colony
of Antium[1282], the river and island called Astura[1283], the river
Nymphæus[1284], the Clostra Romana[1285], and Circeii[1286], formerly
an island, and, if we are to believe Homer, surrounded by the open
sea, though now by an extensive plain. The circumstances which we are
enabled to publish on this subject for the information of the world
are very remarkable. Theophrastus, the first foreigner who treated
of the affairs of Rome with any degree of accuracy (for Theopompus,
before whose time no Greek writer had made mention of us, only stated
the fact that the city had been taken by the Gauls, and Clitarchus,
the next after him, only spoke of the embassy that was sent by the
Romans to Alexander)—Theophrastus, I say, following something more than
mere rumour, has given the circuit of the island of Circeii as being
eighty stadia, in the volume which he wrote during the archonship of
Nicodorus at Athens[1287], being the 440th year of our city. Whatever
land therefore has been annexed to that island beyond the circumference
of about ten miles, has been added to Italy since the year previously
mentioned.

Another wonderful circumstance too.—Near Circeii are the Pomptine
Marshes[1288], formerly the site, according to Mucianus, who was
thrice consul, of four-and-twenty cities. Next to this comes the river
Ufens[1289], upon which is the town of Terracina[1290], called, in the
language of the Volsci, Anxur; the spot too where Amyclæ[1291] stood,
a town destroyed by serpents. Next is the site of the Grotto[1292],
Lake Fundanus[1293], the port of Caieta[1294], and then the town
of Formiæ[1295], formerly called Hormiæ, the ancient seat of the
Læstrygones[1296], it is supposed. Beyond this, formerly stood the
town of Pyræ; and we then come to the colony of Minturnæ[1297], which
still exists, and is divided[1298] by the river Liris, also called the
Glanis. The town of Sinuessa[1299] is the last in the portion which
has been added to Latium; it is said by some that it used to be called
Sinope.

At this spot begins that blessed country Campania[1300], and in this
vale first take their rise those hills clad with vines, the juice of
whose grape is extolled by Fame all over the world; the happy spot
where, as the ancients used to say, father Liber and Ceres are ever
striving for the mastery. Hence the fields of Setia[1301] and of
Cæcubum[1302] extend afar, and, next to them those of Falernum[1303]
and of Calinum[1304]. As soon as we have passed these, the hills of
Massica[1305], of Gaurus[1306], and of Surrentum rise to our view.
Next, the level plains of Laborium[1307] are spread out far and wide,
where every care is bestowed on cultivating crops of spelt, from which
the most delicate fermenty is made. These shores are watered by warm
springs[1308], while the seas are distinguished beyond all others
for the superlative excellence of their shell and other fish. In no
country too has the oil of the olive a more exquisite flavour. This
territory, a battle-ground as it were for the gratification of every
luxurious pleasure of man, has been held successively by the Osci, the
Greeks, the Umbri, the Tusci, and the Campani.

On the coast we first meet with the river Savo[1309], the town
of Volturnum with a river[1310] of the same name, the town of
Liternum[1311], Cumæ[1312], a Chalcidian colony, Misenum[1313],
the port of Baiæ[1314], Bauli[1315], the Lucrine Lake[1316], and
Lake Avernus, near which there stood formerly a town[1317] of the
Cimmerians. We then come to Puteoli[1318], formerly called the colony
of Dicæarchia, then the Phlegræan[1319] Plains, and the Marsh of
Acherusia[1320] in the vicinity of Cumæ.

Again, on the coast we have Neapolis[1321], also a colony of the
Chalcidians, and called Parthenope from the tomb there of one of the
Sirens, Herculaneum[1322], Pompeii[1323], from which Mount Vesuvius
may be seen at no great distance, and which is watered by the river
Sarnus[1324]; the territory of Nuceria, and, at the distance of
nine miles from the sea, the town of that name[1325], and then
Surrentum[1326], with the Promontory of Minerva[1327], formerly
the abode of the Sirens. The distance thence by sea to Circeii is
seventy-eight miles. This region, beginning at the Tiber, is looked
upon as the first of Italy according to the division of Augustus.

Inland there are the following colonies:—Capua[1328], so called from
its champaign country, Aquinum[1329], Suessa[1330], Venafrum[1331],
Sora[1332], Teanum surnamed Sidicinum[1333], Nola[1334]; and the towns
of Abelia[1335], Aricia[1336], Alba Longa[1337], the Acerrani[1338],
the Allifani[1339], the Atinates[1340], the Aletrinates[1341],
the Anagnini[1342], the Atellani[1343], the Affilani[1344], the
Arpinates[1345], the Auximates[1346], the Abellani[1347], the Alfaterni
(both those who take their names from the Latin, the Hernican and the
Labicanian territory), Bovillæ[1348], Calatia[1349], Casinum[1350],
Calenum[1351], Capitulum[1352] of the Hernici, the Cereatini[1353],
surnamed Mariani, the Corani[1354], descended from the Trojan Dardanus,
the Cubulterini, the Castrimœnienses[1355], the Cingulani[1356], the
Fabienses[1357] on the Alban Mount, the Foropopulienses[1358] of the
Falernian district, the Frusinates[1359], the Ferentinates[1360],
the Freginates[1361], the old Frabaterni[1362], the new Frabaterni,
the Ficolenses[1363], the Fregellani[1364], Forum Appî[1365], the
Forentani[1366], the Gabini[1367], the Interamnates Succasini[1368],
also surnamed Lirinates, the Ilionenses Lavinii[1369], the
Norbani[1370], the Nomentani[1371], the Prænestini[1372] (whose city
was formerly called Stephané), the Privernates[1373], the Setini[1374],
the Signini[1375], the Suessulani[1376], the Telesini[1377], the
Trebulani, surnamed Balinienses[1378], the Trebani[1379], the
Tusculani[1380], the Verulani[1381], the Veliterni[1382], the
Ulubrenses[1383], the Urbinates[1384], and, last and greater than
all, Rome herself, whose other name[1385] the hallowed mysteries of
the sacred rites forbid us to mention without being guilty of the
greatest impiety. After it had been long kept buried in secresy with
the strictest fidelity and in respectful and salutary silence, Valerius
Soranus dared to divulge it, but soon did he pay the penalty[1386] of
his rashness.

It will not perhaps be altogether foreign to the purpose, if I here
make mention of one peculiar institution of our forefathers which bears
especial reference to the inculcation of silence on religious matters.
The goddess Angerona[1387], to whom sacrifice is offered on the twelfth
day before the calends of January [21st December], is represented in
her statue as having her mouth bound with a sealed fillet.

Romulus left the city of Rome, if we are to believe those who state
the very greatest number, having three[1388] gates and no more. When
the Vespasians were emperors[1389] and censors, in the year from its
building 826, the circumference of the walls which surrounded it was
thirteen miles and two-fifths. Surrounding as it does the Seven Hills,
the city is divided into fourteen districts, with 265 cross-roads[1390]
under the guardianship of the Lares. If a straight line is drawn from
the mile-column[1391] placed at the entrance of the Forum, to each of
the gates, which are at present thirty-seven in number (taking care
to count only once the twelve double gates, and to omit the seven
old ones, which no longer exist), the result will be [taking them
altogether], a straight line of twenty miles and 765 paces[1392].
But if we draw a straight line from the same mile-column to the very
last of the houses, including therein the Prætorian encampment, and
follow throughout the line of all the streets, the result will then be
something more than seventy miles. Add to these calculations the height
of the houses, and then a person may form a fair idea of this city, and
will certainly be obliged to admit that there is not a place throughout
the whole world that for size can be compared to it. On the eastern
side it is bounded by the _agger_ of Tarquinius Superbus, a work of
surpassing grandeur; for he raised it so high as to be on a level with
the walls on the side on which the city lay most exposed to attack from
the neighbouring plains. On all the other sides it has been fortified
either with lofty walls or steep and precipitous hills[1393], but so
it is, that its buildings, increasing and extending beyond all bounds,
have now united many other cities to it[1394].

Besides those previously mentioned, there were formerly in the
first region the following famous towns of Latium: Satricum[1395],
Pometia[1396], Scaptia, Politorium[1397], Tellene, Tifata,
Cænina[1398], Ficana[1399], Crustumerium, Ameriola[1400],
Medullum[1401], Corniculum[1402], Saturnia[1403], on the site of the
present city of Rome, Antipolis[1404], now Janiculum, forming part of
Rome, Antemnæ[1405], Camerium[1406], Collatia[1407], Amitinum[1408],
Norbe, Sulmo[1409], and, with these, those Alban nations[1410] who used
to take part in the sacrifices[1411] upon the Alban Mount, the Albani,
the Æsulani[1412], the Accienses, the Abolani, the Bubetani[1413], the
Bolani[1414], the Cusuetani, the Coriolani[1415], the Fidenates[1416],
the Foretii, the Hortenses[1417], the Latinienses, the Longulani[1418],
the Manates, the Macrales, the Mutucumenses, the Munienses, the
Numinienses, the Olliculani, the Octulani, the Pedani[1419], the
Polluscini, the Querquetulani, the Sicani, the Sisolenses, the
Tolerienses, the Tutienses, the Vimitellarii, the Velienses, the
Venetulani, and the Vitellenses. Thus we see, fifty-three peoples of
ancient Latium have passed away without leaving any traces of their
existence.

In the Campanian territory there was also the town of Stabiæ[1420],
until the consulship of Cneius Pompeius and L. Cato, when, on the day
before the calends of May [30th of April], it was destroyed in the
Social War by L. Sulla the legatus, and all that now stands on its site
is a single farmhouse. Here also Taurania has ceased to exist, and the
remains of Casilinum[1421] are fast going to ruin. Besides these, we
learn from Antias that king L. Tarquinius took Apiolæ[1422], a town
of the Latins, and with its spoils laid the first foundations of the
Capitol. From Surrentum[1423] to the river Silarus[1424], the former
territory of Picentia[1425] extends for a distance of thirty miles.
This belonged to the Etruscans, and was remarkable for the temple
of the Argive Juno, founded by Jason[1426]. In it was Picentia, a
town[1427] of the territory of Salernum[1428].




CHAP. 10.—THE THIRD REGION OF ITALY.


At the Silarus begins the third region of Italy, consisting of the
territory of Lucania and Bruttium; here too there have been no few
changes of the population. These districts have been possessed by
tbe Pelasgi, the Œnotrii, the Itali, the Morgetes, the Siculi, and
more especially by people who emigrated from Greece[1429], and, last
of all, by the Leucani, a people sprung from the Samnites, who took
possession under the command of Lucius. We find here the town of
Pæstum[1430], which received from the Greeks the name of Posidonia,
the Gulf of Pæstum[1431], the town of Elea, now known as Velia[1432],
and the Promontory of Palinurum[1433], a point at which the land
falls inwards and forms a bay[1434], the distance across which to the
pillar[1435] of Rhegium is 100 miles. Next after Palinurum comes the
river Melpes[1436], then the town of Buxentum[1437], called in [Magna]
Græcia Pyxus, and the river Laus; there was formerly a town[1438] also
of the same name.

At this spot begins the coast of Bruttium, and we come to the town
of Blanda[1439], the river Batum[1440], Parthenius, a port of the
Phocians, the bay of Vibo[1441], the place[1442] where Clampetia
formerly stood, the town of Temsa[1443], called Temese by the Greeks,
and Terina founded by the people of Crotona[1444], with the extensive
Gulf of Terina; more inland, the town of Consentia[1445]. Situate upon
a peninsula[1446] is the river Acheron[1447], from which the people of
Acherontia derive the name of their town; then Hippo, now called Vibo
Valentia, the Port of Hercules[1448], the river Metaurus[1449], the
town of Tauroentum[1450], the Port of Orestes, and Medma[1451]. Next,
the town of Scyllæum[1452], the river Cratæis[1453], the mother of
Scylla it is said; then the Pillar of Rhegium, the Straits of Sicily,
and the two promontories which face each other, Cænys[1454] on the
Italian, and Pelorus[1455] on the Sicilian side, the distance between
them being twelve stadia. At a distance thence of twelve miles and a
half, we come to Rhegium[1456], after which begins Sila[1457], a forest
of the Apennines, and then the promontory of Leucopetra[1458], at a
distance of fifteen miles; after which come the Locri[1459], who take
their surname from the promontory of Zephyrium[1460], being distant
from the river Silarus 303 miles.

At this spot ends the first[1461] great Gulf of Europe; the seas in
which bear the following names:—That from which it takes its rise is
called the Atlantic, by some the Great Atlantic, the entrance of which
is, by the Greeks, called Porthmos, by us the Straits of Gades. After
its entrance, as far as it washes the coasts of Spain, it is called
the Hispanian Sea, though some give it the name of the Iberian or
Balearic[1462] Sea. Where it faces the province of Gallia Narbonensis
it has the name of the Gallic, and after that, of the Ligurian, Sea.
From Liguria to the island of Sicily, it is called the Tuscan Sea,
the same which is called by some of the Greeks the Notian[1463], by
others the Tyrrhenian, while many of our people call it the Lower
Sea. Beyond Sicily, as far as the country of the Salentini, it is
styled by Polybius the Ausonian Sea. Eratosthenes however gives to
the whole expanse that lies between the inlet of the ocean and the
island of Sardinia, the name of the Sardoan Sea; thence to Sicily, the
Tyrrhenian; thence to Crete, the Sicilian; and beyond that island, the
Cretan Sea.




CHAP. 11.—SIXTY-FOUR ISLANDS, AMONG WHICH ARE THE BALEARES.


The first islands that we meet with in all these seas are the two
to which the Greeks have given the name of Pityussæ[1464], from the
pine-tree[1465], which they produce. These islands now bear the name
of Ebusus, and form a federate state. They are separated by a narrow
strait[1466] of the sea, and are forty-six[1467] miles in extent.
They are distant from Dianium[1468] 700 stadia, Dianium being by land
the same distance[1469] from New Carthage. At the same distance[1470]
from the Pityussæ, lie, in the open sea, the two Baleares, and, over
against the river Sucro[1471], Colubraria[1472]. The Baleares[1473],
so formidable in war with their slingers[1474], have received from the
Greeks the name of Gymnasiæ.

The larger island is 100[1475] miles in length, and 475 in
circumference. It has the following towns; Palma[1476] and
Pollentia[1477], enjoying the rights of Roman citizens, Cinium[1478]
and Tucis, with Latin rights: Bocchorum, a federate town, is no longer
in existence. At thirty miles’ distance is the smaller island, 40
miles in length, and 150[1479] in circumference; it contains the states
of Jamnon[1480], Sanisera, and Magon[1481].

In the open sea, at twelve miles’ distance from the larger island,
is Capraria[1482] with its treacherous coast, so notorious for its
numerous shipwrecks; and, opposite to the city of Palma, are the
islands known as the Mænariæ[1483], Tiquadra[1484], and Little
Hannibalis[1485].

The earth of Ebusus has the effect of driving away serpents, while
that of Colubraria produces them; hence the latter spot is dangerous
to all persons who have not brought with them some of the earth of
Ebusus. The Greeks have given it the name of Ophiusa[1486]. Ebusus too
produces no[1487] rabbits to destroy the harvests of the Baleares.
There are also about twenty other small islands in this sea, which is
full of shoals. Off the coast of Gaul, at the mouth of the Rhodanus,
there is Metina[1488], and near it the island which is known as
Blascon[1489], with the three Stœchades, so called by their neighbours
the Massilians[1490], on account of the regular order in which they
are placed; their respective names are Prote[1491], Mese[1492], also
called Pomponiana, and Hypæa[1493]. After these come Sturium[1494],
Phœnice, Phila, Lero, and, opposite to Antipolis[1495], Lerina[1496],
where there is a remembrance of a town called Vergoanum having once
existed.




CHAP. 12. (6.)—CORSICA.


In the Ligurian Sea, but close to the Tuscan, is Corsica, by the Greeks
called Cyrnos, extending, from north to south 150 miles, and for the
most part 50 miles in breadth, its circumference being 325. It is 62
miles distant from the Vada Volaterrana[1497]. It contains thirty-two
states, and two colonies, that of Mariana[1498], founded by C. Marius,
and that of Aleria, founded by the Dictator Sylla. On this side of
it is Oglasa[1499], and, at a distance of less than sixty miles from
Corsica, Planaria[1500], so called from its appearance, being nearly
level with the sea, and consequently treacherous to mariners.

We next have Urgo[1501], a larger island, and Capraria, which the
Greeks have called Ægilion[1502]; then Igilium[1503] and Dianium[1504],
which they have also called Artemisia, both of them opposite the
coast of Cosa; also Barpana[1505], Mænaria, Columbaria, and
Venaria. We then come to Ilva[1506] with its iron mines, an island
100 miles in circumference, 10 miles distant from Populonium, and
called Æthalia by the Greeks: from it the island of Planasia[1507]
is distant 28 miles. After these, beyond the mouths of the Tiber,
and off the coast of Antium, we come to Astura[1508], then Palmaria
and Sinonia, and, opposite to Formiæ, Pontiæ. In the Gulf of Puteoli
are Pandateria[1509], and Prochyta, so called, not from the nurse of
Æneas, but because it has been poured forth[1510] or detached from
Ænaria[1511], an island which received its name from having been the
anchorage of the fleet of Æneas, though called by Homer Inarime[1512];
it is also called Pithecusa, not, as many have fancied, on account
of the multitudes of apes found there, but from its extensive
manufactories of pottery. Between Pausilipum[1513] and Neapolis lies
the island of Megaris[1514], and then, at a distance of eight miles
from Surrentum, Capreæ[1515], famous for the castle of the emperor
Tiberius: it is eleven miles in circumference.




CHAP. 13.—SARDINIA.


Leucothea comes next, and after it, but out of sight, as it lies
upon the verge of the African Sea, Sardinia. It is situate somewhat
less[1516] than eight miles from the nearest point of Corsica, and
the Straits between them are even still more reduced by the small
islands there situate, called the Cuniculariæ[1517], as also those of
Phintonis[1518] and Fossæ, from which last the Straits themselves have
obtained the name of Taphros[1519].

(7.) Sardinia extends, upon the east side, a distance of 188 miles, on
the west 175, on the south 77, and on the north 125, being 565 miles in
circumference. Its promontory of Caralis[1520] is distant from Africa
200, and from Gades 1400 miles. Off the promontory of Gordis[1521] it
has two islands called the Isles of Hercules[1522], off that of Sulcis,
the island of Enosis[1523], and off that of Caralis, Ficaria[1524].
Some writers place Beleris not far from it, as also Callodis, and the
island known as Heras Lutra[1525].

The most celebrated peoples of this island are the Ilienses[1526], the
Balari, and the Corsi; and among its eighteen towns, there are those
of the Sulcitani[1527], the Valentini[1528], the Neapolitani[1529],
the Bosenses[1530], the Caralitani[1531], who enjoy the rights of
Roman citizens, and the Norenses[1532]. There is also one colony which
is called Ad Turrim Libysonis[1533]. Timæus has called this island
Sandaliotis, on account of the similarity of its shape to the sole of a
shoe, while Myrtilus has given it the name of Ichnusa[1534], from its
resemblance to the print of a footstep. Opposite to the Gulf of Pæstum
is Leucasia[1535], so called from a Siren who is buried there; opposite
to Velia are Pontia and Isacia, both known by one name, that of
Œnotrides, a proof that Italy was formerly possessed by the Œnotrians.
Opposite to Vibo are the little islands called Ithacesiæ[1536], from
the watch-tower of Ulysses situate there.




CHAP. 14. (8.)—SICILY.


But more celebrated than all is Sicily, called Sicania by
Thucydides, and by many writers Trinacria or Trinacia, from its
triangular appearance. According to Agrippa it is 618[1537] miles in
circumference. In former times it was a continuation of the territory
of Bruttium, but, in consequence of the overflowing of the sea, became
severed from it; thus forming a strait of 15 miles in length, and a
mile and a half in width in the vicinity of the Pillar of Rhegium.
It was from this circumstance of the land being severed asunder that
the Greeks gave the name of Rhegium[1538] to the town situate on the
Italian shore.

In these Straits is the rock of Scylla, as also Charybdis[1539], a
whirlpool of the sea, both of them noted for their perils. Of this
triangle, the promontory, which, as we have already[1540] mentioned,
is called Pelorus, faces Scylla and juts out towards Italy, while
Pachynum[1541] extends in the direction of Greece, Peloponnesus being
at a distance from it of 440 miles, and Lilybæum[1542], towards Africa,
being distant 180 miles from the promontory of Mercury[1543], and from
that of Caralis in Sardinia 190. These promontories and sides are
situate at the following distances from each other: by land it is 186
miles from Pelorus to Pachynum, from Pachynum to Lilybæum 200, and from
Lilybæum to Pelorus 170[1544].

In this island there are five colonies and sixty-three cities or
states. Leaving Pelorus and facing the Ionian Sea, we have the town
of Messana[1545], whose inhabitants are also called Mamertini and
enjoy the rights of Roman citizens; the promontory of Drepanum[1546],
the colony of Tauromenium[1547], formerly called Naxos, the river
Asines[1548], and Mount Ætna, wondrous for the flames which it emits
by night. Its crater is twenty stadia in circumference, and from
it red-hot cinders are thrown as far as Tauromenium and Catina,
the noise being heard even at Maroneum[1549] and the Gemellian
Hills. We then come to the three rocks of the Cyclopes[1550], the
Port of Ulysses[1551], the colony of Catina[1552], and the rivers
Symæthus[1553] and Terias; while more inland lie the Læstrygonian
Plains.

To these rivers succeed the towns of Leontinum[1554] and Megaris, the
river Pantagies[1555], the colony of Syracuse[1556], with the fountain
of Arethusa[1557], (the people in the Syracusan territory drink too
of the fountains of Temenitis[1558], Archidemia, Magæa, Cyane, and
Milichie,) the port of Naustathmus[1559], the river Elorus, and the
promontory of Pachynum. This side[1560] of Sicily begins with the river
Hirminius[1561], then follow the town of Camarina[1562], the river
Gelas[1563], and the town of Agragas[1564], which our people have named
Agrigentum. We next come to the colony of Thermæ[1565], the rivers
Achates[1566], Mazara, and Hypsa; the town of Selinus[1567], and then
the Promontory of Lilybæum, which is succeeded by Drepana[1568], Mount
Eryx[1569], the towns of Panhormus[1570], Solus[1571] and Himera[1572],
with a river of the same name, Cephalœdis[1573], Aluntium[1574],
Agathyrnum, the colony of Tyndaris[1575], the town of Mylæ[1576], and
then Pelorus, the spot at which we began.

In the interior there are the following towns enjoying Latin
privileges, those of the Centuripini[1577], the Netini[1578], and the
Segestani[1579]; tributary towns are those of the Assorini[1580], the
Ætnenses[1581], the Agyrini[1582], the Acestæi, the Acrenses[1583], the
Bidini[1584], the Cetarini[1585], the Cacyrini[1586], the Drepanitani,
the Ergetini[1587], the Echetlienses[1588], the Erycini[1589],
the Entellini[1590], the Enini[1591], the Enguini[1592], the
Gelani[1593], the Galatini[1594], the Halesini[1595], the Hennenses,
the Hyblenses[1596], the Herbitenses[1597], the Herbessenses[1598],
the Herbulenses, the Halicyenses[1599], the Hadranitani[1600], the
Imacarenses, the Ipanenses, the Ietenses[1601], the Mytistratini[1602],
the Magellini, the Murgentini[1603], the Mutycenses[1604], the
Menanini[1605], the Naxii[1606], the Noæi[1607], the Petrini[1608],
the Paropini[1609], the Phthinthienses[1610], the Semellitani, the
Scherini, the Selinuntii[1611], the Symæthii, the Talarienses, the
Tissinenses[1612], the Triocalini[1613], the Tyracinenses, and the
Zanclæi[1614], a Messenian colony on the Straits of Sicily. Towards
Africa, its islands are Gaulos[1615], Melita, 87 miles from Camerina,
and 113 from Lilybæum, Cosyra[1616], Hieronnesos[1617], Cæne[1618],
Galata[1619], Lopadusa, Æthusa, written by some Ægusa, Bucinna[1620],
Osteodes[1621], distant from Soluntum 75 miles, and, opposite to
Paropus, Ustica.

On this side of Sicily, facing the river Metaurus, at a distance of
nearly 25[1622] miles from Italy, are the seven[1623] islands called
the Æolian, as also the Liparæan islands; by the Greeks they are called
the Hephæstiades, and by our writers the Vulcanian[1624] Isles; they
are called “Æolian” because in the Trojan times Æolus was king there.

(9.) Lipara[1625], with a town whose inhabitants enjoy the rights
of Roman citizens, is so called from Liparus, a former king who
succeeded[1626] Æolus, it having been previously called Melogonis
or Meligunis. It is 25 miles[1627] distant from Italy, and in
circumference a little less. Between this island and Sicily we find
another, the name of which was formerly Therasia, but now called Hiera,
because it is sacred to Vulcan[1628]: it contains a hill which at night
vomits forth flames. The third island is Strongyle[1629], lying one
mile[1630] to the east of Lipara, over which Æolus reigned as well;
it differs only from Lipara in the superior brilliancy of its flames.
From the smoke of this volcano it is said that some of the inhabitants
are able to predict three days beforehand what winds are about to
blow; hence arose the notion that the winds are governed by Æolus.
The fourth of these islands is Didyme[1631], smaller than Lipara, the
fifth Ericusa, the sixth Phœnicusa, left to be a pasture-ground for the
cattle of the neighbouring islands, and the last and smallest Euonymos.
Thus much as to the first great Gulf of Europe.




CHAP. 15. (10.)—MAGNA GRÆCIA, BEGINNING AT LOCRI.


At Locri begins the fore-part of Italy, called Magna Græcia, whose
coast falls back in three bays[1632] formed by the Ausonian sea,
so called from the Ausones, who were the first inhabitants of the
country. According to Varro it is 86 miles in extent; but most writers
have made it only 75. Along this coast there are rivers innumerable,
but we shall mention those only that are worthy of remark. After
leaving Locri we come to the Sagra[1633], and the ruins of the town of
Caulon, Mystiæ[1634], Consilinum Castrum[1635], Cocinthum[1636], in
the opinion of some, the longest headland of Italy, and then the Gulf
of Scylacium[1637], and Scylacium[1638] itself, which was called by
the Athenians, when they founded it, Scylletium. This part of Italy
is nearly a peninsula, in consequence of the Gulf of Terinæum[1639]
running up into it on the other side; in it there is a harbour called
Castra Hannibalis[1640]: in no part is Italy narrower than here, it
being but twenty miles across. For this reason the Elder Dionysius
entertained the idea of severing[1641] this portion from the main-land
of Italy at this spot, and adding it to Sicily. The navigable rivers in
this district are the Carcines[1642], the Crotalus, the Semirus, the
Arocas, and the Targines. In the interior is the town of Petilia[1643],
and there are besides, Mount Clibanus[1644], the promontory of
Lacinium, in front of which lies the island of Dioscoron[1645], ten
miles from the main-land, and another called the Isle of Calypso, which
Homer is supposed to refer to under the name of Ogygia; as also the
islands of Tiris, Eranusa, and Meloessa. According to Agrippa, the
promontory of Lacinium[1646] is seventy miles from Caulon.

(11.) At the promontory of Lacinium begins the second Gulf of Europe,
the bend of which forms an arc of great depth, and terminates at
Acroceraunium, a promontory of Epirus, from which it is distant[1647]
seventy-five miles. We first come to the town of Croton[1648], and then
the river Neæthus[1649], and the town of Thurii[1650], situate between
the two rivers Crathis and Sybaris, upon the latter of which there was
once a city[1651] of the same name. In a similar manner Heraclia[1652],
sometimes called Siris, lies between the river of that name and the
Aciris. We next come to the rivers Acalandrus and Casuentum[1653], and
the town of Metapontum[1654], with which the third region of Italy
terminates. In the interior of Bruttium, the Aprustani[1655] are the
only people; but in Lucania we find the Atinates, the Bantini, the
Eburini[1656], the Grumentini, the Potentini, the Sontini[1657], the
Sirini, the Tergilani, the Ursentini, and the Volcentani[1658], whom
the Numestrani join. Besides these, we learn from Cato[1659] that
Thebes in Lucania has disappeared, and Theopompus informs us that there
was formerly a city of the Lucani called Pandosia[1660], at which
Alexander, the king of Epirus, died.




CHAP. 16.—THE SECOND REGION OF ITALY.


Adjoining to this district is the second region of Italy, which
embraces the Hirpini, Calabria, Apulia, and the Salentini, extending a
distance of 250 miles along the Gulf of Tarentum, which receives its
name from a town of the Laconians so called, situate at the bottom of
the Gulf, to which was annexed the maritime colony which had previously
settled there. Tarentum[1661] is distant from the promontory of
Lacinium 136 miles, and throws out the territory of Calabria opposite
to it in the form of a peninsula. The Greeks called this territory
Messapia, from their leader[1662]; before which it was called Peucetia,
from Peucetius[1663], the brother of Œnotrius, and was comprised
in the territory of Salentinum. Between the two promontories[1664]
there is a distance of 100 miles. The breadth across the peninsula
from Tarentum[1665] to Brundusium by land is 35 miles, considerably
less if measured from the port of Sasina[1666]. The towns inland from
Tarentum are Varia[1667] surnamed Apulia, Messapia, and Aletium[1668];
on the coast, Senum, and Callipolis[1669], now known as Anxa, 75 miles
from Tarentum. Thence, at a distance of 32 miles, is the Promontory
of Acra Iapygia[1670], at which point Italy projects the greatest
distance into the sea. At a distance of 19 miles from this point is the
town of Basta[1671], and then Hydruntum[1672], the spot at which the
Ionian is separated from the Adriatic sea, and from which the distance
across to Greece is the shortest. The town of the Apolloniates[1673]
lies opposite to it, and the breadth of the arm of the sea which
runs between is not more than fifty miles. Pyrrhus, king of Epirus,
was the first who entertained the notion of uniting these two points
and making a passage on foot, by throwing a bridge across, and after
him M. Varro[1674], when commanding the fleet of Pompey in the war
against the Pirates. Other cares however prevented either of them from
accomplishing this design. Passing Hydruntum, we come to the deserted
site of Soletum[1675], then Fratuertium, the Portus Tarentinus, the
haven of Miltopa, Lupia[1676], Balesium[1677], Cælia[1678], and then
Brundusium[1679], fifty miles from Hydruntum. This last place is one
of the most famous ports of Italy, and, although more distant, affords
by far the safest passage across to Greece, the place of disembarkation
being Dyrrachium, a city of Illyria; the distance across is 225 miles.

Adjoining Brundusium is the territory of the Pediculi[1680]; nine
youths and as many maidens, natives of Illyria, became the parents
of sixteen nations. The towns of the Pediculi are Rudiæ[1681],
Egnatia[1682], and Barium[1683]; their rivers are the Iapyx (so called
from the son of Dædalus, who was king there, and who gave it the name
of Iapygia), the Pactius[1684], and the Aufidus, which rises in the
Hirpinian mountains and flows past Canusium[1685].

At this point begins Apulia, surnamed the Daunian, from the Daunii,
who take their name from a former chief, the father-in-law of
Diomedes. In this territory are the towns of Salapia[1686], famous
for Hannibal’s amour with a courtezan, Sipontum[1687], Uria, the
river Cerbalus[1688], forming the boundary of the Daunii, the port
of Agasus[1689], and the Promontory of Mount Garganus[1690], distant
from the Promontory of Salentinum or Iapygia 234 miles. Making the
circuit of Garganus, we come to the port of Garna[1691], the Lake
Pantanus[1692], the river Frento, the mouth of which forms a harbour,
Teanum of the Apuli[1693], and Larinum, Cliternia[1694], and the river
Tifernus, at which the district of the Frentani[1695] begins. Thus
there were three different nations of the Apulians, [the Daunii,] the
Teani, so called from their leader, and who sprang from the Greeks, and
the Lucani, who were subdued by Calchas[1696], and whose country is now
possessed by the Atinates. Besides those already mentioned, there are,
of the Daunii, the colonies of Luceria[1697] and Venusia[1698], the
towns of Canusium[1699] and Arpi, formerly called Argos Hippium[1700]
and founded by Diomedes, afterwards called Argyrippa. Here too Diomedes
destroyed the nations of the Monadi and the Dardi, and the two cities
of Apina and Trica[1701], whose names have passed into a by-word and a
proverb.

Besides the above, there is in the interior of the second region one
colony of the Hirpini, Beneventum[1702], so called by an exchange
of a more auspicious name for its old one of Maleventum; also
the Æculani[1703], the Aquilonii[1704], the Abellinates surnamed
Protropi, the Compsani, the Caudini, the Ligures, both those called
the Corneliani and Bebiani, the Vescellani, the Æclani, the Aletrini,
the Abellinates[1705] surnamed Marsi, the Atrani, the Æcani[1706],
the Alfellani[1707], the Atinates[1708], the Arpani, the Borcani,
the Collatini, the Corinenses, the Cannenses[1709], rendered famous
by the defeat of the Romans, the Dirini, the Forentani[1710], the
Genusini[1711], the Herdonienses, the Hyrini[1712], the Larinates
surnamed Frentani[1713], the Merinates[1714] of Garganus, the
Mateolani, the Netini[1715], the Rubustini[1716], the Silvini[1717],
the Strapellini[1718], the Turmentini, the Vibinates[1719], the
Venusini, and the Ulurtini. In the interior of Calabria there are the
Ægetini, the Apamestini[1720], the Argentini, the Butuntinenses[1721],
the Deciani, the Grumbestini, the Norbanenses, the Palionenses, the
Sturnini[1722], and the Tutini: there are also the following Salentine
nations; the Aletini[1723], the Basterbini[1724], the Neretini, the
Uxentini, and the Veretini[1725].




CHAP. 17. (12.)—THE FOURTH REGION OF ITALY.


We now come to the fourth region, which includes the most valiant
probably of all the nations of Italy. Upon the coast, in the territory
of the Frentani[1726], after the river Tifernus, we find the river
Trinium[1727], with a good harbour at its mouth, the towns of
Histonium[1728], Buca[1729], and Ortona, and the river Aternus[1730].
In the interior are the Anxani surnamed Frentani, the Higher and Lower
Carentini[1731], and the Lanuenses; in the territory of the Marrucini,
the Teatini[1732]; in that of the Peligni, the Corfinienses[1733],
the Superæquani[1734], and the Sulmonenses[1735]; in that of the
Marsi, the Anxantini[1736], the Atinates[1737], the Fucentes[1738],
the Lucenses[1739], and the Marruvini[1740]; in that of the Albenses,
the town of Alba on Lake Fucinus; in that of the Æquiculani, the
Cliternini[1741], and the Carseolani[1742]; in that of the Vestini,
the Angulani[1743], the Pinnenses, and the Peltuinates, adjoining to
whom are the Aufinates[1744] Cismontani; in that of the Samnites,
who have been called Sabelli[1745], and whom the Greeks have called
Saunitæ, the colony of old Bovianum[1746], and that of the Undecumani,
the Aufidenates[1747], the Esernini[1748], the Fagifulani, the
Ficolenses[1749], the Sæpinates[1750], and the Tereventinates; in
that of the Sabini, the Amiternini[1751], the Curenses[1752], Forum
Decî[1753], Forum Novum, the Fidenates, the Interamnates[1754], the
Nursini[1755], the Nomentani[1756], the Reatini[1757], the Trebulani,
both those called Mutusci[1758] and those called Suffenates[1759], the
Tiburtes, and the Tarinates.

In these districts, the Comini[1760], the Tadiates, the Cædici, and
the Alfaterni, tribes of the Æquiculi, have disappeared. From Gellianus
we learn that Archippe[1761], a town of the Marsi, built by Marsyas, a
chieftain of the Lydians, has been swallowed up by Lake Fucinus, and
Valerianus informs us that the town of the Viticini in Picenum was
destroyed by the Romans. The Sabini (called, according to some writers,
from their attention to religious[1762] observances and the worship
of the gods, Sevini) dwell on the dew-clad hills in the vicinity of
the Lakes of the Velinus[1763]. The Nar, with its sulphureous waters,
exhausts these lakes, and, descending from Mount Fiscellus[1764],
unites with them near the groves of Vacuna[1765] and Reate, and
then directs its course towards the Tiber, into which it discharges
itself. Again, in another direction, the Anio[1766], taking its rise
in the mountain of the Trebani, carries into the Tiber the waters of
three lakes remarkable for their picturesque beauty, and to which
Sublaqueum[1767] is indebted for its name. In the territory of Reate
is the Lake of Cutiliæ[1768], in which there is a floating island, and
which, according to M. Varro, is the navel or central point of Italy.
Below the Sabine territory lies that of Latium, on one side Picenum,
and behind it Umbria, while the range of the Apennines flanks it on
either side.




CHAP. 18. (13.)—THE FIFTH REGION OF ITALY.


The fifth region is that of Picenum, once remarkable for the denseness
of its population; 360,000 Picentines took the oaths of fidelity to
the Roman people. They are descended from the Sabines, who had made
a vow to celebrate a holy spring[1769]. Their territory commenced at
the river Aternus[1770], where the present district and colony of
Adria[1771] is, at a distance of six miles from the sea. Here we find
the river Vomanus, the territories of Prætutia and Palma[1772], Castrum
Novum[1773], the river Batinus; Truentum[1774], with its river of
the same name, which place is the only remnant of the Liburni[1775]
in Italy; the river Albula[1776]; Tervium, at which the Prætutian
district ends, and that of Picenum begins; the town of Cupra[1777],
Castellum Firmanorum[1778], and above it the colony of Asculum[1779],
the most illustrious in Picenum; in the interior there is the town of
Novana[1780]. Upon the coast we have Cluana[1781], Potentia, Numana,
founded by the Siculi, and Ancona[1782], a colony founded by the same
people on the Promontory of Cumerus, forming an elbow of the coast,
where it begins to bend inwards, and distant from Garganus 183 miles.
In the interior are the Auximates[1783], the Beregrani[1784], the
Cingulani, the Cuprenses surnamed Montani[1785], the Falarienses[1786],
the Pausulani, the Planinenses, the Ricinenses, the Septempedani[1787],
the Tollentinates, the Treienses, and the Pollentini of Urbs
Salvia[1788].




CHAP. 19. (14.)—THE SIXTH REGION OF ITALY.


Adjoining to this is the sixth region, which includes Umbria and the
Gallic territory in the vicinity of Ariminum. At Ancona begins the
coast of that part of Gaul known as Gallia Togata[1789]. The Siculi
and the Liburni possessed the greater part of this district, and more
particularly the territories of Palma, of Prætutia, and of Adria. These
were expelled by the Umbri, these again by the Etrurians, and these in
their turn by the Gauls. The Umbri are thought to have been the most
ancient race in Italy, it being supposed that they were called “Ombrii”
by the Greeks, from the fact of their having survived the rains[1790]
which had inundated the earth. We read that 300 of their towns were
conquered by the Tusci; at the present day we find on their coast the
river Æsis[1791], Senogallia[1792], the river Metaurus, the colonies of
Fanum Fortunæ[1793] and Pisaurum[1794], with a river of the same name;
and, in the interior, those of Hispellum[1795] and Tuder.

Besides the above, there are the Amerini[1796], the Attidiates[1797],
the Asisinates[1798], the Arnates[1799], the Æsinates[1800], the
Camertes[1801], the Casuentillani, the Carsulani[1802], the Dolates
surnamed Salentini, the Fulginiates[1803], the Foroflaminienses[1804],
the Forojulienses surnamed Concupienses, the Forobrentani, the
Forosempronienses[1805], the Iguvini[1806], the Interamnates surnamed
Nartes, the Mevanates[1807], the Mevanionenses, the Matilicates[1808],
the Narnienses[1809], whose town used formerly to be called Nequinum;
the Nucerini[1810], both those surnamed Favonienses and those called
Camellani; the Ocriculani[1811], the Ostrani[1812], the Pitulani,
both those surnamed Pisuertes and the others called Mergentini;
the Plestini[1813], the Sentinates[1814], the Sarsinates[1815],
the Spoletini[1816], the Suasini[1817], the Sestinates[1818], the
Suillates[1819], the Tadinates[1820], the Trebiates[1821], the
Tuficani[1822], the Tifernates[1823] surnamed Tiberini, and the
others called Metaurenses, the Vesinicates, the Urbinates, both those
surnamed Metaurenses[1824] and the others called Hortenses, the
Vettonenses[1825], the Vindinates, and the Viventani. In this district
there exist no longer the Feliginates who possessed Clusiolum above
Interamna, and the Sarranates, with their towns of Acerræ[1826],
surnamed Vafriæ, and Turocelum, also called Vettiolum; as also the
Solinates, the Curiates, the Fallienates, and the Apiennates. The
Arienates also have disappeared with the town of Crinovolum, as well as
the Usidicani, the Plangenses, the Pæsinates, and the Cælestini. Cato
writes that Ameria above-mentioned was founded 964 years before the war
with Perseus.




CHAP. 20. (15.)—THE EIGHTH REGION OF ITALY; THE PADUS.


The eighth region is bounded by Ariminum, the Padus, and the Apennines.
Upon the coast we have the river Crustumium[1827], and the colony
of Ariminum[1828], with the rivers Ariminus and Aprusa. Next comes
the river Rubico[1829], once the boundary of Italy, and after it the
Sapis[1830], the Vitis, and the Anemo, and then, Ravenna, a town of
the Sabines[1831], with the river Bedesis, 105 miles from Ancona;
and, not far from the sea, Butrium[1832], a town of the Umbri. In
the interior there are the colonies of Bononia[1833], formerly
called Felsina, when it was the chief place of Etruria[1834],
Brixillum[1835], Mutina[1836], Parma[1837], and Placentia[1838]. There
are also the towns of Cæsena[1839], Claterna, Forum Clodî[1840],
Forum Livî, Forum Popilî, Forum Truentinorum[1841], Forum Cornelî,
Forum Licinî, the Faventini[1842], the Fidentini[1843], the Otesini,
the Padinates[1844], the Regienses[1845], who take their name from
Lepidus, the Solonates[1846], the Saltus Galliani[1847], surnamed
Aquinates, the Tannetani[1848], the Veliates[1849], who were anciently
surnamed Regiates, and the Urbanates[1850]. In this district the
Boii[1851] have disappeared, of whom there were 112 tribes according to
Cato; as also the Senones, who captured Rome.

(16.) The Padus[1852] descends from the bosom of Mount Vesulus, one of
the most elevated points of the chain of the Alps, in the territories
of the Ligurian Vagienni[1853], and rises at its source in a manner
that well merits an inspection by the curious; after which it hides
itself in a subterranean channel until it rises again in the country of
the Forovibienses. It is inferior in fame to none whatever among the
rivers, being known to the Greeks as the Eridanus and famous as the
scene of the punishment of Phaëton[1854]. At the rising of the Dog-star
it is swollen by the melted snows; but, though it proves more furious
in its course to the adjoining fields than to the vessels that are
upon it, still it takes care to carry away no portion of its banks,
and when it recedes, renders them additionally fertile. Its length
from its source is 300 miles, to which we must add eighty-eight for
its sinuosities; and it receives from the Apennines and Alps not only
several navigable rivers, but immense lakes as well, which discharge
themselves into its waters, thus conveying altogether as many as thirty
streams into the Adriatic Sea.

Of these the best known are the following—flowing from the range of
the Apennines, the Jactus, the Tanarus[1855], the Trebia which passes
Placentia, the Tarus, the Incia, the Gabellus, the Scultenna, and the
Rhenus: from the chain of the Alps, the Stura[1856], the Orgus, the two
Duriæ, the Sessites, the Ticinus, the Lambrus, the Addua, the Ollius,
and the Mincius. There is no river known to receive a larger increase
than this in so short a space; so much so indeed that it is impelled
onwards by this vast body of water, and, invading the land[1857], forms
deep channels in its course: hence it is that, although a portion
of its stream is drawn off by rivers and canals between Ravenna
and Altinum, for a space of 120 miles, still, at the spot where it
discharges the vast body of its waters, it is said to form seven seas.

By the Augustan Canal the Padus is carried to Ravenna, at which place
it is called the Padusa[1858], having formerly borne the name of
Messanicus. The nearest mouth to this spot forms the extensive port
known as that of Vatrenus, where Claudius Cæsar[1859], on his triumph
over the Britons, entered the Adriatic in a vessel that deserved rather
the name of a vast palace than a ship. This mouth, which was formerly
called by some the Eridanian, has been by others styled the Spinetic
mouth, from the city of Spina, a very powerful place which formerly
stood in the vicinity, if we may form a conclusion from the amount of
its treasure deposited at Delphi; it was founded by Diomedes. At this
spot the river Vatrenus[1860], which flows from the territory of Forum
Cornelî, swells the waters of the Padus.

The next mouth to this is that of Caprasia[1861], then that of Sagis,
and then Volane, formerly called Olane; all of which are situate upon
the Flavian Canal[1862], which the Tuscans formerly made from Sagis,
thus drawing the impetuous stream of the river across into the marshes
of the Atriani, which they call the Seven Seas; and upon which is the
noble port of Atria[1863], a city of the Tuscans, from which place the
sea was formerly called the Atriatic, though now the Adriatic.

We next come to the overflowing mouths of Carbonaria, and the Fosses
of Philistina[1864], by some called Tartarus[1865], all of which
originate in the overflow of the waters in the Philistinian Canal,
swollen by the streams of the Atesis, descending from the Tridentine
Alps, and of the Togisonus[1866], flowing from the territory of
the Patavini. A portion of them also forms the adjoining port of
Brundulum[1867], in the same manner as Edron[1868] is formed by the
two rivers Meduacus and the Clodian Canal. With the waters of these
streams the Padus unites, and with them discharges itself into the
sea, forming, according to most writers, between the Alps and the
sea-shore a triangular figure, 2000 stadia in circumference, not unlike
the Delta formed by the Nile in Egypt. I feel somewhat ashamed to
have to borrow from the Greeks any statement in reference to Italy;
Metrodorus of Scepsos, however, informs us that this river has obtained
its name of Padus from the fact, that about its source there are
great numbers of pine-trees, which in the Gallic language are called
“padi.” In the tongue of the Ligurians this river is called “Bodincus,”
which signifies “the bottomless.” This derivation is in some measure
supported by the fact that near this river there is the town of
Industria[1869], of which the ancient name was Bodincomagum, and where
the river begins to be of greater depth than in other parts.




CHAP. 21. (17.)—THE ELEVENTH REGION OF ITALY; ITALIA TRANSPADANA.


From the river Padus the eleventh region receives its name of
Transpadana; to which, situate as it is wholly in the interior, the
river, by its bounteous channel, conveys the gifts of all the seas.
The towns are Vibî Forum[1870] and Segusio; and, at the foot of the
Alps, the colony of Augusta Taurinorum[1871], at which place the Padus
becomes navigable, and which was founded by the ancient race of the
Ligurians, and of Augusta Prætoria[1872] of the Salassi, near the two
passes of the Alps, the Grecian[1873] and the Penine (by the latter
it is said that the Carthaginians passed into Italy, by the Grecian,
Hercules)—the town of Eporedia[1874], the foundation of which by the
Roman people was enjoined by the Sibylline books; the Gauls call
tamers of horses by the name of “Eporediæ”—Vercellæ[1875], the town of
the Libici, derived its origin from the Salluvii, and Novaria[1876],
founded by the Vertacomacori, is at the present day a district of the
Vocontii, and not, as Cato supposes, of the Ligurians; of whom two
nations, called the Lævi and the Marici, founded Ticinum[1877], not far
from the Padus, as the Boii, descended from the Transalpine nations,
have founded Laus Pompeia[1878] and the Insubres Mediolanum[1879].

From Cato we also learn that Comum, Bergomum[1880], and
Licinîforum[1881], and some other peoples in the vicinity, originated
with the Orobii, but he admits that he is ignorant as to the origin
of that nation. Cornelius Alexander however informs us that they came
from Greece, interpreting their name as meaning “those who live upon
the mountains[1882].” In this district, Parra has disappeared, a town
of the Orobii, from whom, according to Cato, the people of Bergomum are
descended; its site even yet shows that it was situate in a position
more elevated than fruitful[1883]. The Caturiges have also perished, an
exiled race of the Insubres, as also Spina previously mentioned; Melpum
too, a place distinguished for its opulence, which, as we are informed
by Cornelius Nepos, was destroyed by the Insubres, the Boii, and the
Senones, on the very day on which Camillus took Veii.




CHAP. 22. (18.)—THE TENTH REGION OF ITALY.


We now come to the tenth region of Italy, situate on the Adriatic Sea.
In this district are Venetia[1884], the river Silis[1885], rising
in the Tarvisanian[1886] mountains, the town of Altinum[1887], the
river Liquentia rising in the mountains of Opitergium[1888], and a
port with the same name, the colony of Concordia[1889]; the rivers and
harbours of Romatinum[1890], the greater and less Tiliaventum[1891],
the Anaxum[1892], into which the Varamus flows, the Alsa[1893], and the
Natiso with the Turrus, which flow past the colony of Aquileia[1894]
at a distance of fifteen miles from the sea. This is the country of
the Carni[1895], and adjoining to it is that of the Iapydes, the
river Timavus[1896], the fortress of Pucinum[1897], famous for its
wines, the Gulf of Tergeste[1898], and the colony of that name,
thirty-three miles from Aquileia. Six miles beyond this place lies
the river Formio[1899], 189 miles distant from Ravenna, the ancient
boundary[1900] of enlarged Italy, and now the frontier of Istria. That
this region takes its name from the river Ister which flows from the
Danube, also called the Ister, into the Adriatic opposite the mouth of
the Padus, and that the sea which lies between them is rendered fresh
by their waters running from opposite directions, has been erroneously
asserted by many, and among them by Nepos even, who dwelt upon the
banks of the Padus. For it is the fact that no river which runs from
the Danube discharges itself into the Adriatic. They have been misled,
I think, by the circumstance that the ship Argo came down some river
into the Adriatic sea, not far from Tergeste; but what river that was
is now unknown. The most careful writers say that the ship was carried
across the Alps on men’s shoulders, having passed along the Ister,
then along the Savus, and so from Nauportus[1901], which place, lying
between Æmona[1902] and the Alps, from that circumstance derives its
name.




CHAP. 23. (19.)—ISTRIA, ITS PEOPLE AND LOCALITY.


Istria projects in the form of a peninsula. Some writers have stated
its length to be forty miles, and its circumference 125; and the same
as to Liburnia which adjoins it, and the Flanatic Gulf[1903], while
others make it 225[1904]; others again make the circumference of
Liburnia 180 miles. Some persons too extend Iapydia, at the back of
Istria, as far as the Flanatic Gulf, a distance of 130 miles, thus
making Liburnia but 150 miles. Tuditanus[1905], who subdued the Istri,
had this inscription on his statue which was erected there: “From
Aquileia to the river Titus is a distance of 1000 stadia.”

The towns of Istria with the rights of Roman citizens are Ægida[1906],
Parentium, and the colony of Pola[1907], now Pietas Julia, formerly
founded by the Colchians, and distant from Tergeste 100 miles:
after which we come to the town of Nesactium[1908], and the river
Arsia, now[1909] the boundary of Italy. The distance across from
Ancona to Pola is 120 miles. In the interior of the tenth region
are the colonies of Cremona, Brixia in the territory of the
Cenomanni[1910], Ateste[1911] belonging to the Veneti, and the towns
of Acelum[1912], Patavium[1913], Opitergium, Belunum[1914], and
Vicetia; with Mantua[1915], the only city of the Tuscans now left
beyond the Padus. Cato informs us that the Veneti are descendants
of the Trojans[1916], and that the Cenomanni[1917] dwelt among
the Volcæ in the vicinity of Massilia. There are also the towns
of the Fertini[1918], the Tridentini[1919], and the Beruenses,
belonging to the Rhæti, Verona[1920], belonging to the Rhæti and
the Euganei, and Julienses[1921] to the Carni. We then have the
following peoples, whom there is no necessity to particularize
with any degree of exactness, the Alutrenses, the Asseriates, the
Flamonienses[1922] with those surnamed Vanienses, and the others called
Culici, the Forojulienses[1923] surnamed Transpadani, the Foretani,
the Nedinates[1924], the Quarqueni[1925], the Taurisani[1926],
the Togienses, and the Varvari. In this district there have
disappeared—upon the coast—Iramene, Pellaon, and Palsatium, Atina and
Cælina belonging to the Veneti, Segeste and Ocra to the Carni, and
Noreia to the Taurisci. L. Piso also informs us that although the
senate disapproved of his so doing, M. Claudius Marcellus[1927] razed
to the ground a tower situate at the twelfth mile-stone from Aquileia.

In this region also and the eleventh there are some celebrated
lakes[1928], and several rivers that either take their rise in them or
else are fed by their waters, in those cases in which they again emerge
from them. These are the Addua[1929], fed by the Lake Larius, the
Ticinus by Lake Verbannus, the Mincius by Lake Benacus, the Ollius by
Lake Sebinnus, and the Lambrus by Lake Eupilis—all of them flowing into
the Padus.

Cælius states that the length of the Alps from the Upper Sea to the
Lower is 1000 miles, a distance which Timagenes shortens by twenty-two.
Cornelius Nepos assigns to them a breadth of 100 miles, and T. Livius
of 3000 stadia; but then in different places. For in some localities
they exceed 100 miles; where they divide Germany, for instance, from
Italy; while in other parts they do not reach seventy, being thus
narrowed by the providential dispensation of nature as it were. The
breadth of Italy, taken from the river Var at the foot of these
mountains, and passing along by the Vada[1930] Sabatia, the Taurini,
Comum, Brixia, Verona, Vicetia, Opitergium, Aquileia, Tergeste, Pola,
and Arsia, is 745 miles.




CHAP. 24. (20.)—THE ALPS, AND THE ALPINE NATIONS.


Many nations dwell among the Alps; but the more remarkable, between
Pola and the district of Tergeste, are the Secusses, the Subocrini, the
Catali, the Menocaleni, and near the Carni the people formerly called
the Taurisci, but now the Norici. Adjoining to these are the Rhæti and
the Vindelici, who are all divided into a multitude of states. It is
supposed that the Rhæti are the descendants of the Tuscans, who were
expelled by the Gauls and migrated hither under the command of their
chief, whose name was Rhætus. Turning then to the side of the Alps
which fronts Italy, we have the Euganean[1931] nations enjoying Latin
rights, and of whom Cato enumerates thirty-four towns. Among these are
the Triumpilini, a people who were sold[1932] with their territory;
and then the Camuni, and several similar tribes, each of them in the
jurisdiction of its neighbouring municipal town. The same author also
considers the Lepontii[1933] and the Salassi to be of Tauriscan
origin, but most other writers, giving a Greek[1934] interpretation to
their name, consider the Lepontii to have been those of the followers
of Hercules who were left behind in consequence of their limbs being
frozen by the snow of the Alps. They are also of opinion that the
inhabitants of the Grecian Alps are descended from a portion of the
Greeks of his army, and that the Euganeans, being sprung from an origin
so illustrious, thence took their name[1935]. The head of these are the
Stœni[1936]. The Vennonenses[1937] and the Sarunetes[1938], peoples
of the Rhæti, dwell about the sources of the river Rhenus, while the
tribe of the Lepontii, known as the Uberi, dwell in the vicinity of the
sources of the Rhodanus, in the same district of the Alps. There are
also other native tribes here, who have received Latin rights, such
as the Octodurenses[1939], and their neighbours the Centrones[1940],
the Cottian[1941] states, the Ligurian Vagienni, descended from the
Caturiges[1942], as also those called Montani[1943]; besides numerous
nations of the Capillati[1944], on the confines of the Ligurian Sea.

It may not be inappropriate in this place to subjoin the inscription
now to be seen upon the trophy[1945] erected on the Alps, which is
to the following effect:—“TO THE EMPEROR CÆSAR—THE SON[1946] OF
CÆSAR NOW DEIFIED, AUGUSTUS, PONTIFEX MAXIMUS, AND EMPEROR FOURTEEN
YEARS, IN THE SEVENTEENTH[1947] YEAR OF HIS HOLDING THE TRIBUNITIAL
AUTHORITY, THE SENATE AND THE ROMAN PEOPLE, IN REMEMBRANCE THAT UNDER
HIS COMMAND AND AUSPICES ALL THE ALPINE NATIONS WHICH EXTENDED FROM
THE UPPER SEA TO THE LOWER WERE REDUCED TO SUBJECTION BY THE ROMAN
PEOPLE—THE ALPINE NATIONS SO SUBDUED WERE: THE TRIUMPILINI, THE
CAMUNI, THE VENOSTES[1948], THE VENNONENSES, THE ISARCI, THE BREUNI,
THE GENAUNES[1949], THE FOCUNATES, FOUR NATIONS OF THE VINDELICI,
THE CONSUANETES, THE RUCINATES, THE LICATES[1950], THE CATENATES,
THE AMBISONTES, THE RUGUSCI, THE SUANETES[1951], THE CALUCONES, THE
BRIXENTES, THE LEPONTII, THE UBERI, THE NANTUATES, THE SEDUNI, THE
VARAGRI, THE SALASSI, THE ACITAVONES, THE MEDULLI, THE UCENI[1952],
THE CATURIGES, THE BRIGIANI, THE SOGIONTII, THE BRODIONTII, THE
NEMALONI, THE EDENATES[1953], THE ESUBIANI, THE VEAMINI, THE GALLITÆ,
THE TRIULATTI, THE ECDINI, THE VERGUNNI, THE EGUITURI[1954], THE
NEMENTURI, THE ORATELLI, THE NERUSI, THE VELAUNI, AND THE SUETRI.”

The twelve states of the Cottiani[1955] were not included in the list,
as they had shown no hostility, nor yet those which had been placed by
the Pompeian law under the jurisdiction of the municipal towns.

Such then is Italy, sacred to the gods, such are the nations, such the
cities of her peoples; to which we may add, that this is that same
Italy, which, when L. Æmilius Paulus[1956] and C. Attilius Regulus
were Consuls, on hearing of the rising in Gaul, unaided, and without
any foreign assistance whatever, without the help even of that portion
which lies beyond the Padus, armed 80,000 horse and 700,000 foot. In
abundance of metals of every kind Italy yields to no land whatever; but
all search for them has been prohibited by an ancient decree of the
Senate, who gave orders thereby that Italy shall be exempted[1957] from
such treatment.




CHAP. 25. (21.)—LIBURNIA AND ILLYRICUM.


The nation of the Liburni adjoins the river Arsia[1958], and extends
as far as the river Titus. The Mentores, the Hymani[1959], the
Encheleæ, the Buni, and the people whom Callimachus calls the Peucetiæ,
formerly formed part of it; but now the whole in general are comprised
under the one name of Illyricum. But few of the names of these nations
are worthy of mention, or indeed very easy of pronunciation. To the
jurisdiction of Scardona[1960] resort the Iapydes and fourteen cities
of the Liburni, of which it may not prove tedious if I mention the
Lacinienses, the Stlupini, the Burnistæ, and the Olbonenses. Belonging
to the same jurisdiction there are, in the enjoyment of Italian rights,
the Alutæ[1961], the Flanates[1962], from whom the Gulf takes its name,
the Lopsi, and the Varvarini; the Assesiates, who are exempt from
tribute; and upon the islands, the Fertinates and the Curictæ[1963].

Besides these, there are on the coast, after leaving Nesactium,
Alvona[1964], Flanona, Tarsatica, Senia, Lopsica, Ortopula, Vegium,
Argyruntum, Corinium[1965], Ænona, the city of Pasinum, and the river
Tedanius, at which Iapydia terminates. The islands of this Gulf, with
their towns, besides those above mentioned, are Absyrtium[1966],
Arba[1967], Crexa, Gissa, and Portunata. Again, on the mainland there
is the colony of Iadera[1968], distant from Pola 160 miles; then,
at a distance of thirty miles, the island of Colentum[1969], and of
eighteen, the mouth of the river Titus.




CHAP. 26. (22.)—DALMATIA.


Scardona, situate upon the river[1970], at a distance of twelve
miles from the sea, forms the boundary of Liburnia and the beginning
of Dalmatia. Next to this place comes the ancient country of
the Autariatares and the fortress of Tariona, the Promontory of
Diomedes[1971], or, as others call it, the peninsula of Hyllis, 100
miles[1972] in circuit. Then comes Tragurium, a place with the rights
of Roman citizens, and celebrated for its marble, Sicum, a place to
which Claudius, the emperor lately deified, sent a colony of his
veterans, and Salona[1973], a colony, situate 112 miles from Iadera.
To this place resort for legal purposes, having the laws dispensed
according to their divisions into decuries or tithings, the Dalmatæ,
forming 342 decuries, the Deurici 22, the Ditiones 239, the Mazæi 269,
and the Sardiates 52. In this region are Burnum[1974], Andetrium[1975],
and Tribulium, fortresses ennobled by the battles of the Roman people.
To the same jurisdiction also belong the Issæi[1976], the Colentini,
the Separi, and the Epetini, nations inhabiting the islands. After
these come the fortresses of Peguntium[1977] and of Rataneum, with the
colony of Narona[1978], the seat of the third jurisdiction, distant
from Salona eighty-two miles, and situate upon a river of the same
name, at a distance of twenty miles from the sea. M. Varro states that
eighty-nine states used to resort thither, but now nearly the only ones
that are known are the Cerauni[1979] with 24 decuries, the Daorizi with
17, the Dæsitiates with 103, the Docleatæ with 33, the Deretini with
14, the Deremistæ with 30, the Dindari with 33, the Glinditiones with
44, the Melcomani with 24, the Naresii with 102, the Scirtarii with
72, the Siculotæ with 24, and the Vardæi, once the scourges of Italy,
with no more than 20 decuries. In addition to these, this district
was possessed by the Ozuæi, the Partheni, the Hemasini, the Arthitæ,
and the Armistæ. The colony of Epidaurum[1980] is distant from the
river Naron 100 miles. After Epidaurum come the following towns, with
the rights of Roman citizens:—Rhizinium[1981], Acruvium[1982], Butua,
Olcinium, formerly called Colchinium, having been founded by the
Colchians; the river Drilo[1983], and, upon it, Scodra[1984], a town
with the rights of Roman citizens, situate at a distance of eighteen
miles from the sea; besides in former times many Greek towns and once
powerful states, of which all remembrance is fast fading away. For in
this region there were formerly the Labeatæ, the Enderini[1985], the
Sasæi, the Grabæi[1986], properly called Illyrii, the Taulantii[1987],
and the Pyræi. The Promontory of Nymphæum on the sea-coast still
retains its name[1988]; and there is Lissum, a town enjoying the rights
of Roman citizens, at a distance from Epidaurum of 100 miles.

(23.) At Lissum begins the province of Macedonia[1989], the nations
of the Parthini[1990], and behind them the Dassaretæ[1991]. The
mountains of Candavia[1992] are seventy-eight miles from Dyrrhachium.
On the coast lies Denda, a town with the rights of Roman citizens,
the colony of Epidamnum[1993], which, on account of its inauspicious
name, was by the Romans called Dyrrhachium, the river Aöus[1994],
by some called Æas, and Apollonia[1995], formerly a colony of the
Corinthians, at a distance of four miles from the sea, in the
vicinity of which the celebrated Nymphæum[1996] is inhabited by the
barbarous Amantes[1997] and Buliones. Upon the coast too is the town
of Oricum[1998], founded by the Colchians. At this spot begins Epirus,
with the Acroceraunian[1999] mountains, by which we have previously
mentioned[2000] this Gulf of Europe as bounded. Oricum is distant from
the Promontory of Salentinum in Italy eighty[2001] miles.




CHAP. 27. (24.)—THE NORICI.


In the rear of the Carni and the Iapydes, along the course of the great
river Ister[2002], the Rhæti touch upon the Norici[2003]: their towns
are Virunum[2004], Celeia, Teurnia, Aguntum[2005], Vianiomina[2006],
Claudia[2007], and Flavium Solvense[2008]. Adjoining to the Norici is
Lake Peiso[2009], and the deserts of the Boii[2010]; they are however
now inhabited by the people of Sabaria[2011], a colony of the now
deified emperor Claudius, and the town of Scarabantia Julia[2012].




CHAP. 28. (25.)—PANNONIA.


Next to them comes acorn-bearing Pannonia[2013], along which the
chain of the Alps, gradually lessening as it runs through the middle
of Illyricum from north to south, forms a gentle slope on the right
hand and the left. The portion which looks towards the Adriatic Sea
is called Dalmatia and Illyricum, above mentioned, while Pannonia
stretches away towards the north, and has the Danube for its extreme
boundary. In it are the colonies of Æmona[2014] and Siscia. The
following rivers, both known to fame and adapted for commerce, flow
into the Danube; the Draus[2015], which rushes from Noricum with great
impetuosity, and the Savus[2016], which flows with a more gentle
current from the Carnic Alps, there being a space between them of 120
miles. The Draus runs through the Serretes, the Serrapilli[2017],
the Iasi, and the Andizetes; the Savus through the Colapiani[2018]
and the Breuci; these are the principal peoples. Besides them there
are the Arivates, the Azali, the Amantini, the Belgites, the Catari,
the Cornacates, the Eravisci, the Hercuniates[2019], the Latovici,
the Oseriates, the Varciani, and, in front of Mount Claudius, the
Scordisci, behind it the Taurisci. In the Savus there is the island of
Metubarris[2020], the greatest of all the islands formed by rivers.
Besides the above, there are these other rivers worthy of mention:—the
Colapis[2021], which flows into the Savus near Siscia, where, dividing
its channel, it forms the island which is called Segestica[2022]; and
the river Bacuntius[2023], which flows into the Savus at the town of
Sirmium, where we find the state of the Sirmienses and the Amantini.
Forty-five miles thence is Taurunum[2024], where the Savus flows into
the Danube; above which spot the Valdanus[2025] and the Urpanus,
themselves far from ignoble rivers, join that stream.




CHAP. 29. (26.)—MŒSIA.


Joining up to Pannonia is the province called Mœsia[2026], which runs,
with the course of the Danube, as far as the Euxine. It commences at
the confluence[2027] previously mentioned. In it are the Dardani, the
Celegeri, the Triballi, the Timachi, the Mœsi, the Thracians, and the
Scythians who border on the Euxine. The more famous among its rivers
are the Margis[2028], which rises in the territory of the Dardani, the
Pingus, the Timachus, the Œscus which rises in Mount Rhodope, and,
rising in Mount Hæmus, the Utus[2029], the Asamus, and the Ieterus.

The breadth of Illyricum[2030] at its widest part is 325 miles, and its
length from the river Arsia to the river Drinius 530; from the Drinius
to the Promontory of Acroceraunia Agrippa states to be 175 miles, and
he says that the entire circuit of the Italian and Illyrian Gulf is
1700 miles. In this Gulf, according to the limits which we have drawn,
are two seas, the Ionian[2031] in the first part, and the Adriatic,
which runs more inland and is called the Upper Sea.




CHAP. 30.—ISLANDS OF THE IONIAN SEA AND THE ADRIATIC.


In the Ausonian Sea there are no islands worthy of notice beyond those
which we have already mentioned, and only a few in the Ionian; those,
for instance, upon the Calabrian coast, opposite Brundusium, by the
projection of which a harbour is formed; and, over against the Apulian
coast, Diomedia[2032], remarkable for the monument of Diomedes, and
another island called by the same name, but by some Teutria.

The coast of Illyricum is clustered with more than 1000 islands,
the sea being of a shoaly nature, and numerous creeks and æstuaries
running with their narrow channels between portions of the land. The
more famous are those before the mouths of the Timavus, with warm
springs[2033] that rise with the tides of the sea, the island of
Cissa near the territory of the Istri, and the Pullaria[2034] and
Absyrtides[2035], so called by the Greeks from the circumstance of
Absyrtus, the brother of Medea, having been slain there. Some islands
near them have been called the Electrides[2036], upon which amber,
which they call “electrum,” was said to be found; a most assured
instance however of that untruthfulness[2037] which is generally
ascribed to the Greeks, seeing that it has never yet been ascertained
which of the islands were meant by them under that name. Opposite to
the Iader is Lissa, and other islands whose names have been already
mentioned[2038]. Opposite to the Liburni are some islands called the
Crateæ, and no smaller number styled Liburnicæ and Celadussæ[2039].
Opposite to Surium is Bavo, and Brattia[2040], famous for its goats,
Issa with the rights of Roman citizens, and Pharia with a town. At a
distance of twenty-five miles from Issa is Corcyra[2041], surnamed
Melæna, with a town founded by the Cnidians; between which and
Illyricum is Melite[2042], from which, as we learn from Callimachus, a
certain kind of little dogs were called Melitæi; fifteen miles from it
we find the seven Elaphites[2043]. In the Ionian Sea, at a distance of
twelve miles from Oricum, is Sasonis[2044], notorious from having been
a harbour of pirates.

       *       *       *       *       *

SUMMARY.—The towns and nations mentioned are in number * * * *[2045].
The rivers of note are in number * * * *. The mountains of note are in
number * * * *. The islands are in number * * * *. The towns or nations
which have disappeared are in number * * * *. The facts, statements,
and observations are in number 326.

ROMAN AUTHORS QUOTED.—Turannius Gracilis[2046], Cornelius Nepos[2047],
T. Livius[2048], Cato the Censor[2049], M. Agrippa[2050], M.
Varro[2051], the Emperor Augustus[2052] now deified, Varro
Atacinus[2053], Antias[2054], Hyginus[2055], L. Vetus[2056], Pomponius
Mela[2057], Curio[2058] the Elder, Cælius[2059], Arruntius[2060],
Sebosus[2061], Licinius Mucianus[2062], Fabricius Tuscus[2063], L.
Ateius[2064], Capito[2065], Verrius Flaccus[2066], L. Piso[2067],
Gellianus[2068], and Valerianus[2069].

FOREIGN AUTHORS QUOTED.—Artemidorus[2070], Alexander Polyhistor[2071],
Thucydides[2072], Theophrastus[2073], Isidorus[2074], Theopompus[2075],
Metrodorus of Scepsis[2076], Callicrates[2077], Xenophon of
Lampsacus[2078], Diodorus of Syracuse[2079], Nymphodorus[2080],
Calliphanes[2081], and Timagenes[2082].




BOOK IV.

AN ACCOUNT OF COUNTRIES, NATIONS, SEAS, TOWNS, HAVENS, MOUNTAINS,
RIVERS, DISTANCES, AND PEOPLES WHO NOW EXIST OR FORMERLY EXISTED.




CHAP. 1. (1.)—EPIRUS.


The third great Gulf of Europe begins at the mountains of
Acroceraunia[2083], and ends at the Hellespont, embracing an extent of
2500 miles, exclusive of the sea-line of nineteen smaller gulfs. Upon
it are Epirus, Acarnania, Ætolia, Phocis, Locris, Achaia, Messenia,
Laconia, Argolis, Megaris, Attica, Bœotia; and again, upon the other
sea[2084], the same Phocis and Locris, Doris, Phthiotis, Thessalia,
Magnesia, Macedonia and Thracia. All the fabulous lore of Greece, as
well as the effulgence of her literature, first shone forth upon the
banks of this Gulf. We shall therefore dwell a little the longer upon
it.

Epirus[2085], generally so called, begins at the mountains of
Acroceraunia. The first people that we meet are the Chaones, from whom
Chaonia[2086] receives its name, then the Thesproti[2087], and then
the Antigonenses[2088]. We then come to the place where Aornos[2089]
stood, with its exhalations so deadly to the feathered race, the
Cestrini[2090], the Perrhæbi[2091], in whose country Mount Pindus is
situate, the Cassiopæi[2092], the Dryopes[2093], the Sellæ[2094], the
Hellopes[2095], the Molossi, in whose territory is the temple of the
Dodonæan Jupiter, so famous for its oracle; and Mount Tomarus[2096], so
highly praised by Theopompus, with its hundred springs gushing from its
foot.

(2.) Epirus, properly so called, advances towards Magnesia and
Macedonia, having at its back the Dassaretæ, previously[2097]
mentioned, a free nation, and after them the Dardani, a savage race.
On the left hand, before the Dardani are extended the Triballi and the
nations of Mœsia, while in front of them the Medi and the Denselatæ
join, and next to them the Thracians, who stretch away as far as the
Euxine: in such a manner is a rampart raised around the lofty heights
of Rhodope, and then of Hæmus.

On the coast of Epirus is the fortress of Chimæra[2098], situate upon
the Acroceraunian range, and below it the spring known as the Royal
Waters[2099]; then the towns of Mæandria, and Cestria[2100], the
Thyamis[2101], a river of Thesprotia, the colony of Buthrotum[2102],
and the Ambracian Gulf[2103], so famed in history; which, with an inlet
only half a mile in width, receives a vast body of water from the sea,
being thirty-seven miles in length, and fifteen in width. The river
Acheron, which runs through Acherusia, a lake of Thesprotia, flows
into it[2104] after a course of thirty-six miles; it is considered
wonderful for its bridge, 1000 feet in length, by a people who look
upon everything as wonderful that belongs to themselves. Upon this Gulf
is also situate the town of Ambracia. There are also the Aphas and the
Arachthus[2105], rivers of the Molossi; the city of Anactoria[2106],
and the place where Pandosia[2107] stood.




CHAP. 2.—ACARNANIA.


The towns of Acarnania[2108], the ancient name of which was Curetis,
are Heraclia[2109], Echinus[2110], and, on the coast, Actium, a colony
founded by Augustus, with its famous temple of Apollo and the free
city of Nicopolis[2111]. Passing out of the Ambracian Gulf into the
Ionian Sea, we come to the coast of Leucadia, with the Promontory of
Leucate[2112], and then the Gulf and the peninsula of Leucadia[2113],
which last was formerly called Neritis[2114]. By the exertions of
the inhabitants it was once cut off from the mainland, but was again
joined to it by the vast bodies of sand accumulated through the action
of the winds. This spot is called Dioryctos[2115], and is three
stadia in length: on the peninsula is the town of Leucas, formerly
called Neritus[2116]. We next come to Alyzia[2117], Stratos[2118],
and Argos[2119], surnamed Amphilochian, cities of the Acarnanians:
the river Acheloüs[2120] flows from the heights of Pindus, and,
after separating Acarnania from Ætolia, is fast adding the island of
Artemita[2121] to the mainland by the continual deposits of earth which
it brings down its stream.




CHAP. 3. (2.)—ÆTOLIA.


The peoples of Ætolia are the Athamanes[2122], the Tymphæi[2123], the
Ephyri[2124], the Ænienses, the Perrhæbi[2125], the Dolopes[2126], the
Maraces, and the Atraces[2127], in whose territory rises the river
Atrax, which flows into the Ionian Sea. Calydon[2128] is a city of
Ætolia, situate at a distance of seven miles from the sea, and near
the banks of the river Evenus[2129]. We then come to Macynia[2130],
and Molycria, behind which lie Mounts Chalcis[2131] and Taphiassus.
On the coast again, there is the promontory of Antirrhium[2132],
off which is the mouth of the Corinthian Gulf, which flows in and
separates Ætolia from the Peloponnesus, being less[2133] than one mile
in width. The promontory which faces it on the opposite side is called
Rhion[2134]. The towns of Ætolia, however, on the Corinthian Gulf
are Naupactus[2135] and Pylene[2136]; and, more inland, Pleuron and
Halicyrna[2137]. The most famous mountains are Tomarus, in the district
of Dodona, Crania[2138] in Ambracia, Aracynthus[2139] in Acarnania, and
Acanthon[2140], Panætolium[2141], and Macynium[2142], in Ætolia.




CHAP. 4. (3.)—LOCRIS AND PHOCIS.


Next to Ætolia are the Locri[2143], surnamed Ozolæ; a people exempt
from tribute. Here is the town of Œanthe[2144], the port[2145] of
Apollo Phæstius, and the Gulf of Crissa[2146]. In the interior are the
towns of Argyna, Eupalia[2147], Phæstum, and Calamisus. Beyond are the
Cirrhæan plains of Phocis, the town of Cirrha[2148], and the port of
Chalæon[2149], seven miles from which, in the interior, is situate
the free town of Delphi[2150], at the foot of Mount Parnassus[2151],
and having the most celebrated oracle of Apollo throughout the whole
world. There is the Fountain too of Castalia[2152], and the river
Cephisus[2153] which flows past Delphi, rising in the former city of
Lilæa[2154]. Besides these, there is the town of Crissa[2155] and that
of Anticyra[2156], with the Bulenses[2157]; as also Naulochum[2158],
Pyrrha, Amphissa[2159], exempt from all tribute, Tithrone,
Tritea[2160], Ambrysus[2161], and Drymæa[2162], which district has also
the name of Daulis. The extremity of the gulf washes one corner of
Bœotia, with its towns of Siphæ[2163] and Thebes[2164], surnamed the
Corsian, in the vicinity of Helicon[2165]. The third town of Bœotia
on this sea is that of Pagæ[2166], from which point the Isthmus of the
Peloponnesus projects in the form of a neck.




CHAP. 5. (4.)—THE PELOPONNESUS.


The Peloponnesus, which was formerly called Apia[2167] and Pelasgia,
is a peninsula, inferior in fame to no land upon the face of the
earth. Situate between the two seas, the Ægean and the Ionian, it is
in shape like the leaf of a plane-tree, in consequence of the angular
indentations made in its shores. According to Isidorus, it is 563 miles
in circumference; and nearly as much again, allowing for the sea-line
on the margin of its gulfs. The narrow pass at which it commences is
known by the name of the Isthmus. At this spot the two seas, which
we have previously mentioned, running from the north and the east,
invade the land from opposite sides[2168], and swallow up its entire
breadth, the result being that through these inroads in opposite
directions of such vast bodies of water, the sides of the land are
eaten away to such an extent, that Hellas[2169] only holds on to the
Peloponnesus by the narrow neck, five miles in width, which intervenes.
The Gulfs thus formed, the one on this side, the other on that, are
known as the Corinthian[2170] and the Saronic Gulfs. The ports of
Lecheæ[2171], on the one side, and of Cenchreæ on the other, form the
frontiers of this narrow passage, which thus compels to a tedious and
perilous circumnavigation such vessels as from their magnitude cannot
be carried across by land on vehicles. For this reason it is that both
King Demetrius[2172], Cæsar the Dictator, the prince Caius[2173], and
Domitius Nero[2174], have at different times made the attempt to cut
through this neck by forming a navigable canal; a profane design, as
may be clearly seen by the result[2175] in every one of these instances.

Upon the middle of this intervening neck which we have called the
Isthmus, stands the colony of Corinth, formerly known by the name
of Ephyre[2176], situate upon the brow of a hill, at a distance of
sixty stadia from the shore of either sea. From the heights of its
citadel, which is called Acrocorinthos, or the “Heights of Corinth,”
and in which is the Fountain of Pirene, it looks down upon the two
seas which lie in the opposite directions. From Leucas to Patræ upon
the Corinthian gulf is a distance of eighty-eight miles. The colony
of Patræ[2177] is founded upon the most extensive promontory of the
Peloponnesus, facing Ætolia and the river Evenus, the Corinthian Gulf
being, as we have previously[2178] stated, less than a mile in width at
the entrance there, though extending in length as far as the isthmus, a
distance of eighty-five miles.




CHAP. 6. (5.)—ACHAIA.


The province called Achaia[2179] begins at the Isthmus; from the
circumstance of its cities being ranged in regular succession on its
coast, it formerly had the name of Ægialos[2180]. The first place there
is Lecheæ, already mentioned, a port of the Corinthians; next to which
is Olyros[2181], a fortress of the people of Pellene[2182]; then the
former towns of Helice and Bura[2183], and the places in which their
inhabitants took refuge after their towns had been swallowed up by
the sea, Sicyon[2184] namely, Ægira[2185], Ægium, and Erineos[2186].
In the interior are Cleonæ and Hysiæ[2187]; then come the port of
Panormus[2188], and Rhium already mentioned; from which promontory,
Patræ, of which we have previously spoken, is distant five miles;
and then the place where Pheræ[2189] stood. Of the nine mountains of
Achaia, Scioessa is the most famous; there is also the Fountain of
Cymothoë. Beyond Patræ we find the town of Olenum[2190], the colony of
Dyme[2191], the places where Buprasium[2192] and Hyrmine once stood,
the Promontory of Araxus[2193], the Bay of Cyllene, and the Promontory
of Chelonates, at five miles’ distance from Cyllene[2194]. There is
also the fortress of Phlius[2195]; the district around which was called
by Homer Aræthyrea[2196], and, after his time, Asopis.

The territory of the Eleans then begins, who were formerly called Epei,
with the city of Elis[2197] in the interior, and, at a distance of
twelve miles from Phlius, being also in the interior, the temple of
Olympian Jupiter, which by the universal celebrity of its games, gives
to Greece its mode of reckoning[2198]. Here too once stood the town of
Pisa[2199], the river Alpheus flowing past it. On the coast there is
the Promontory of Ichthys[2200]. The river Alpheus is navigable six
miles, nearly as far as the towns of Aulon[2201] and Leprion. We next
come to the Promontory of Platanodes[2202]. All these localities lie to
the west.




CHAP. 7.—MESSENIA.


Further south is the Gulf of Cyparissus, with the city of
Cyparissa[2203] on its shores, the line of which is seventy-two miles
in length. Then, the towns of Pylos[2204] and Methone[2205], the place
where Helos stood, the Promontory of Acritas[2206], the Asinæan Gulf,
which takes its name from the town of Asine[2207], and the Coronean,
so called from Corone; which gulfs terminate at the Promontory of
Tænarum[2208]. These are all in the country of Messenia, which has
eighteen mountains, and the river Pamisus[2209] also. In the interior
are Messene[2210], Ithome, Œchalia, Arene[2211], Pteleon, Thryon,
Dorion[2212], and Zancle[2213], all of them known to fame at different
periods. The margin of this gulf measures eighty miles, the distance
across being thirty.




CHAP. 8.—LACONIA.


At Tænarum begins the territory of Laconia, inhabited by a free nation,
and situate on a gulf 106 miles in circuit, and 38 across. The towns
are, Tænarum[2214], Amyclæ[2215], Pheræ[2216], and Leuctra[2217];
and, in the interior, Sparta[2218], Theramne[2219], and the spots
where Cardamyle[2220], Pitane[2221], and Anthea formerly stood; the
former site of Thyrea[2222], and Gerania[2223]. Here is also Mount
Taygetus[2224], the river Eurotas, the Gulf of Ægilodes[2225], the
town of Psamathus, the Gulf of Gytheum[2226], so called from the town
of that name, from which place the passage is the safest across to the
island of Crete. All these places are bounded by the Promontory of
Malea[2227].




CHAP. 9.—ARGOLIS.


The next gulf, which extends as far as Scyllæum[2228], is called the
Argolic Gulf, being fifty miles across, and 162 in circuit. The towns
upon it are, Bœa[2229], Epidaurus[2230], surnamed Limera, Zarax[2231],
and the port of Cyphanta[2232]. The rivers are the Inachus[2233] and
the Erasinus, between which lies Argos, surnamed Hippium[2234], situate
beyond the place called Lerna[2235], and at a distance of two miles
from the sea. Nine miles farther is Mycenæ[2236], and the place where,
it is said, Tiryns[2237] stood; the site, too, of Mantinea[2238]. The
mountains are, Artemius, Apesantus[2239], Asterion[2240], Parparus, and
some others, eleven in number. The fountains are those of Niobe[2241],
Amymone, and Psamathe.

From Scyllæum to the Isthmus of Corinth is a distance of 177 miles. We
find here the towns of Hermione[2242], Trœzen[2243], Coryphasium[2244],
and Argos, sometimes called “Inachian,” sometimes “Dipsian”[2245]
Argos. Then comes the port of Schœnites[2246], and the Saronic
Gulf, which was formerly encircled with a grove of oaks[2247], from
which it derives its present name, oaks in ancient Greece having
been so called. Upon this gulf is the town of Epidaurus, famous for
its temple of Æsculapius[2248], the Promontory of Spiræum[2249],
the port of Anthedus[2250], Bucephalus[2251], and then Cenchreæ,
previously mentioned, on this side of the Isthmus, with its temple of
Neptune[2252], famous for the games celebrated there every five years.
So many are the gulfs which penetrate the shores of the Peloponnesus,
so many the seas which howl around it. Invaded by the Ionian on the
north, it is beaten by the Sicilian on the west, buffeted by the Cretan
on the south, by the Ægean on the S.E., and by the Myrtoan on the N.E.;
which last sea begins at the Gulf of Megara, and washes all the coast
of Attica.




CHAP. 10. (6.)—ARCADIA.


Its interior is occupied for the greater part by Arcadia, which, remote
from the sea on every side, was originally called Drymodes[2253], and
at a later period Pelasgis. The cities of Arcadia are, Psophis[2254],
Mantinea[2255], Stymphalus[2256], Tegea[2257], Antigonea[2258],
Orchomenus[2259], Pheneum[2260], Palantium[2261] (from which the
Palatium[2262] at Rome derives its name), Megalopolis[2263],
Gortyna[2264], Bucolium, Carnion, Parrhasia[2265], Thelpusa[2266],
Melænæ[2267], Heræa[2268], Pylæ[2269], Pallene, Agræ, Epium,
Cynæthæ[2270], Lepreon of Arcadia[2271], Parthenium[2272], Alea,
Methydrium[2273], Enispe, Macistum, Lampia, Clitorium[2274], and
Cleonæ[2275]; between which two last towns is the district of Nemea,
commonly known as Bembinadia[2276].

The mountains of Arcadia are, Pholoë[2277], with a town of the same
name, Cyllene[2278], Lycæus[2279], upon which is the temple of
Lycæan Jupiter; Mænalus[2280], Artemisius[2281], Parthenius[2282],
Lampeus[2283], and Nonacris[2284], besides eight others of no note.
The rivers are the Ladon[2285], which rises in the marshes of
Pheneus[2286], and the Erymanthus[2287], which springs from a mountain
of the same name, and flows into the Alpheus.

The other cities of Achaia worthy of mention are those of the
Aliphiræi[2288], the Abeatæ[2289], the Pyrgenses[2290], the
Paroreatæ[2291], the Paragenitæ, the Tortuni, the Typanei[2292], the
Thriasii[2293], and the Tritienses[2294]. Domitius Nero [the emperor]
granted liberty to the whole of Achaia[2295]. The Peloponnesus, from
the Promontory of Malea to the town of Ægium[2296] on the Corinthian
Gulf, is 190 miles in length, and 125 miles across from Elis to
Epidaurus; the distance being, from Olympia to Argos, through Arcadia,
sixty-eight miles. The distance from Olympia to Phlius has been already
mentioned[2297]. Throughout the whole of this region, as though nature
had been desirous to compensate for the inroads of the sea, seventy-six
mountains raise their lofty heads.




CHAP. 11. (7.)—ATTICA.


At the narrow neck of the Isthmus, Hellas begins, by our people known
as Græcia. The first state that presents itself is Attica, anciently
called Acte[2298]. It touches the Isthmus in that part of it which is
called Megaris, from the colony of Megara[2299], lying on the opposite
side to Pagæ[2300].

These two towns are situate at the spot where the Peloponnesus
projects to the greatest distance; being placed, one on each side,
upon the very shoulders of Hellas as it were. The Pagæans, as well
as the people of Ægosthena[2301], belong to the jurisdiction of
Megara. On the coast there is the port of Schœnos[2302], the towns
of Sidus[2303] and Cremmyon[2304], the Scironian Rocks[2305], six
miles in length, Geranea, Megara, and Eleusis[2306]. Œnoë[2307] and
Probalinthos also formerly existed here; the ports of Piræus and
Phalerum[2308] are distant from the Isthmus fifty-five miles, being
united to Athens, which lies in the interior, by a wall[2309] five
miles in length. Athens is a free city, and needs[2310] not a word
more from us in its commendation; of fame it enjoys even more than
enough. In Attica there are the Fountains of Cephisia[2311], Larine,
Callirrhoë Enneacrunos[2312], and the mountains of Brilessus[2313],
Ægialeus, Icarius, Hymettus[2314], Lycabettus[2315], and the place
where Ilissus[2316] stood. At the distance of forty-five miles from
the Piræus is the Promontory of Sunium[2317]. There is also the
Promontory of Thoricos[2318]; Potamos[2319], Steria[2320], and
Brauron[2321], once towns, the borough of Rhamnus[2322], the place
where Marathon[2323] stood, the Thriasian[2324] plain, the town of
Melite[2325], and Oropus[2326] upon the confines of Bœotia.




CHAP. 12.—BŒOTIA.


In this country are Anthedon[2327], Onchestus[2328], the free town
of Thespiæ[2329], Lebadea[2330], and then Thebes[2331], surnamed
Bœotian[2332], which does not yield the palm to Athens even in
celebrity; the native land, according to the common notion, of the
two Divinities Liber and Hercules. The birth-place of the Muses too
is pointed out in the grove of Helicon. To this same Thebes also
belong the forest of Cithæron[2333], and the river Ismenus. Besides
these, there are in Bœotia the Fountains of Œdipodia, Psamathe,
Dirce, Epicrane, Arethusa, Hippocrene[2334], Aganippe, and Gargaphie;
and, besides the mountains already mentioned, Mycalesos, Hadylius,
and Acontius. The remaining towns between Megara and Thebes are
Eleutheræ[2335], Haliartus[2336], Platææ[2337], Pheræ, Aspledon[2338],
Hyle[2339], Thisbe[2340], Erythræ[2341], Glissas[2342], and Copæ[2343];
near the river Cephisus, Larymna and Anchoa[2344]; as also Medeon,
Phlygone, Acræphia[2345], Coronea[2346], and Chæronea[2347]. Again,
on the coast and below Thebes, are Ocalea[2348], Heleon, Scolos,
Schœnos[2349], Peteon[2350], Hyriæ[2351], Mycalesos[2352], Iresion,
Pteleon, Olyros, and Tanagra[2353], the people of which are free; and,
situate upon the very mouth of the Euripus[2354], a strait formed by
the opposite island of Eubœa, Aulis[2355], so famous for its capacious
harbour. The Bœotians formerly had the name of Hyantes.

After them come the Locrians, surnamed Epicnemidii[2356], formerly
called Leleges, through whose country the river Cephisus passes, in its
course to the sea. Their towns are Opus[2357]; from which the Opuntian
Gulf[2358] takes its name, and Cynos. Daphnus[2359] is the only town of
Phocis situate on the coast. In the interior of Locris is Elatea[2360],
and on the banks of the Cephisus, as we have previously stated[2361],
Lilæa, and, facing Delphi, Cnemisæ[2362] and Hyampolisæ[2363]. Again,
upon the coast of the Locrians, are Larymna[2364], and Thronium[2365],
near which last the river Boagrius enters the sea. Also, the towns of
Narycion, Alope[2366], and Scarphia[2367]; and then the gulf which
receives the name of the Maliac[2368] from the people who dwell there,
and upon which are the towns of Halcyone, Econia, and Phalara[2369].




CHAP. 13.—DORIS.


Doris comes next, in which are Sperchios[2370], Erineon[2371],
Boion[2372], Pindus, and Cytinum[2373]. Behind Doris lies Mount Œta.




CHAP. 14.—PHTHIOTIS.


Hæmonia follows, a country which has often changed its name, having
been successively called Pelasgic Argos, Hellas, Thessaly, and Dryopis,
always taking its surname from its kings. In this country was born
the king whose name was Græcus; and from whom Græcia was so called;
and here too was born Hellen[2374], from whom the Hellenes derive
their name. The same people Homer has called by three different names,
Myrmidones, Hellenes, and Achæi.

That portion of these people which inhabit the country adjacent to
Doris are called Phthiotæ. Their towns are Echinus[2375], at the mouth
of the river Sperchius, and, at four miles from the narrow pass
of Thermopylæ[2376], Heraclea, which from it takes its surname of
Trachin[2377]. Here too is Mount Callidromus[2378], and the celebrated
towns of Hellas[2379], Halos[2380], Lamia[2381], Phthia[2382], and
Arne[2383].




CHAP. 15. (8.)—THESSALY PROPER.


In Thessaly is Orchomenus, formerly called the Minyan[2384], and the
towns of Almon, by some called Salmon, Atrax[2385], and Pelinna;
the Fountain of Hyperia; the towns also of Pheræ[2386], at the back
of which is Pieria[2387], extending to Macedonia, Larisa[2388],
Gomphi[2389], Thebes[2390] of Thessaly, the grove of Pteleon, the
Gulf of Pagasa, the town of Pagasa[2391], which was afterwards called
Demetrias[2392], the Plains of Pharsalia, with a free city of similar
name[2393], Crannon[2394], and Iletia. The mountains of Phthiotis
are Nymphæus, once so beautiful for its garden scenery, the work of
nature; Busygæus, Donacesa, Bermius[2395], Daphusa, Chimerion, Athamas,
and Stephane. In Thessaly there are thirty-four, of which the most
famous are Cercetii, Olympus[2396], Pierus, and Ossa, opposite to
which last are Pindus and Othrys, the abodes of the Lapithæ. These
mountains look towards the west, Pelion[2397] towards the east, all of
them forming a curve like an amphitheatre, in the interior of which,
lying before them, are no less than seventy-five cities. The rivers of
Thessaly are the Apidanus[2398], the Phœnix[2399], the Enipeus[2400],
the Onochonus[2401], and the Pamisus. There is also the Fountain
of Messeis, and the lake Bœbeis[2402]. The river Peneus[2403] too,
superior to all others in celebrity, takes its rise near Gomphi, and
flows down a well-wooded valley between Ossa and Olympus, a distance
of five hundred stadia, being navigable half that distance. The vale,
for a distance of five miles through which this river runs, is called
by the name of Tempe; being a jugerum[2404] and a half nearly in
breadth, while on the right and left, the mountain chain slopes away
with a gentle elevation, beyond the range of human vision, the foliage
imparting its colour to the light within. Along this vale glides the
Peneus, reflecting the green tints as it rolls along its pebbly bed,
its banks covered with tufts of verdant herbage, and enlivened by the
melodious warblings of the birds. The Peneus receives the river Orcus,
or rather, I should say, does not receive it, but merely carries its
waters, which swim on its surface like oil, as Homer says[2405]; and
then, after a short time, rejects them, refusing to allow the waters of
a river devoted to penal sufferings and engendered for the Furies to
mingle with his silvery streams.




CHAP. 16. (9.)—MAGNESIA.


To Thessaly Magnesia joins, in which is the fountain of Libethra[2406].
Its towns are Iolcos[2407], Hormenium, Pyrrha[2408], Methone[2409],
and Olizon[2410]. The Promontory of Sepias[2411] is here situate. We
then come to the towns of Casthanea[2412] and Spalathra[2413], the
Promontory of Æantium[2414], the towns of Melibœa[2415], Rhizus, and
Erymnæ[2416]; the mouth of the Peneus, the towns of Homolium[2417],
Orthe, Thespiæ, Phalanna[2418], Thaumacie[2419], Gyrton[2420],
Crannon[2421], Acharne[2422], Dotion[2423], Melitæa, Phylace[2424], and
Potniæ[2425]. The length of Epirus, Achaia, Attica, and Thessaly is
said altogether to amount to 490 miles, the breadth to 287.




CHAP. 17. (10.)—MACEDONIA.


Macedonia comes next, including 150 nations, and renowned for its two
kings[2426] and its former empire over the world; it was formerly known
by the name of Emathia[2427]. Stretching away towards the nations
of Epirus on the west it lies at the back of Magnesia and Thessaly,
being itself exposed to the attacks of the Dardani[2428]. Pæonia and
Pelagonia protect its northern parts from the Triballi[2429]. Its
towns are Ægiæ[2430], at which place its kings were usually buried,
Beræa[2431], and, in the country called Pieria from the grove of that
name, Æginium[2432]. Upon the coast are Heraclea[2433], the river
Apilas[2434], the towns of Pydna[2435] and Aloros[2436], and the
river Haliacmon[2437]. In the interior are the Aloritæ[2438], the
Vallæi[2439], the Phylacæi, the Cyrrhestæ[2440], the Tyrissæi, the
colony of Pella[2441], and Stobi[2442], a town with the rights of Roman
citizens. Next comes Antigonea[2443], Europus[2444] upon the river
Axius, and another place of the same name by which the Rhœdias flows,
Scydra, Eordæa, Mieza, and Gordyniæ. Then, upon the coast, Ichnæ[2445],
and the river Axius; along this frontier the Dardani, the Treres[2446],
and the Pieres, border on Macedonia. Leaving this river, there are the
nations of Pæonia[2447], the Paroræi[2448], the Eordenses[2449], the
Almopii[2450], the Pelagones, and the Mygdones[2451].

Next come the mountains of Rhodope, Scopius, and Orbelus; and,
lying along the extent of country in front of these mountains, the
Arethusii[2452], the Antiochienses[2453], the Idomenenses[2454], the
Doberi[2455], the Æstræenses, the Allantenses, the Audaristenses, the
Morylli, the Garesci[2456], the Lyncestæ[2457], the Othryonei[2458],
and the Amantini[2459] and Orestæ[2460], both of them free peoples; the
colonies of Bullis[2461] and Dium[2462], the Xylopolitæ, the Scotussæi,
a free people, Heraclea Sintica[2463], the Tymphæi[2464], and the
Toronæi.

Upon the coast of the Macedonian Gulf there are the town of
Chalastra[2465], and, more inland, Piloros; also Lete, and at the
extreme bend of the Gulf, Thessalonica[2466], a free city; (from this
place to Dyrrhachium it is 245 miles[2467],) and then Thermæ[2468].
Upon the Gulf[2469] of Thermæ are the towns of Dicæa, Pydna[2470],
Derra, Scione[2471], the Promontory of Canastræum[2472], and the towns
of Pallene[2473] and Phlegra. In this region also are the mountains
Hypsizorus, Epitus, Halcyone, and Leoomne; the towns of Nyssos[2474],
Phryxelon, Mendæ, and what was formerly Potidæa[2475] on the isthmus
of Pallene, but now the Colony of Cassandria; Anthemus[2476],
Olophyxus[2477], and the Gulf of Mecyberna[2478]; the towns of
Miscella, Ampelos[2479], Torone[2480], Singos[2481], and the canal,
a mile and a half in length, by means of which Xerxes, king of the
Persians, cut off Mount Athos[2482] from the main land. This mountain
projects from the level plain of the adjacent country into the sea,
a distance of seventy-five[2483] miles; its circumference at its
base being 150 miles in extent. There was formerly upon its summit
the town of Acroathon[2484]: the present towns are Uranopolis[2485],
Palæorium, Thyssus, Cleonæ[2486], and Apollonia, the inhabitants
of which have the surname of Macrobii[2487]. The town also of
Cassera, and then the other side of the Isthmus, after which come
Acanthus[2488], Stagira[2489], Sithone[2490], Heraclea[2491], and the
country of Mygdonia that lies below, in which are situate, at some
distance from the sea, Apollonia[2492] and Arethusa. Again, upon the
coast we have Posidium[2493], and the bay with the town of Cermorus,
Amphipolis[2494], a free town, and the nation of the Bisaltæ. We
then come to the river Strymon[2495] which takes its rise in Mount
Hæmus[2496] and forms the boundary of Macedonia: it is worthy of remark
that it first discharges itself into seven lakes before it proceeds
onward in its course.

Such is Macedonia, which was once the mistress of the world, which
once extended[2497] her career over Asia, Armenia, Iberia, Albania,
Cappadocia, Syria, Egypt, Taurus, and Caucasus, which reduced the
whole of the East under her power, and triumphed over the Bactri, the
Medes, and the Persians. She too it was who proved the conqueror of
India, thus treading in the footsteps of Father Liber[2498] and of
Hercules; and this is that same Macedonia, of which our own general
Paulus Æmilius sold to pillage seventy-two[2499] cities in one day. So
great the difference in her lot resulting from the actions of two[2500]
individuals!




CHAP. 18. (11.)—THRACE; THE ÆGEAN SEA.


Thrace now follows, divided into fifty strategies[2501], and to be
reckoned among the most powerful nations of Europe. Among its peoples
whom we ought not to omit to name are the Denseletæ and the Medi,
dwelling upon the right bank of the Strymon, and joining up to the
Bisaltæ above[2502] mentioned; on the left there are the Digerri and
a number of tribes of the Bessi[2503], with various names, as far
as the river Mestus[2504], which winds around the foot of Mount
Pangæum[2505], passing among the Elethi, the Diobessi[2506], the
Carbilesi; and then the Brysæ, the Sapæi, and the Odomanti. The
territory of the Odrysæ[2507] gives birth to the Hebrus[2508], its
banks being inhabited by the Cabyleti, the Pyrogeri, the Drugeri, the
Cænici, the Hypsalti, the Beni, the Corpili, the Bottiæi, and the
Edoni[2509]. In the same district are also the Selletæ, the Priantæ,
the Doloncæ, the Thyni, and the Greater Cœletæ, below Mount Hæmus,
the Lesser at the foot of Rhodope. Between these tribes runs the
river Hebrus. We then come to a town at the foot of Rhodope, first
called Poneropolis[2510], afterwards Philippopolis[2511] from the
name of its founder, and now, from the peculiarity of its situation,
Trimontium[2512]. To reach the summit of Hæmus you have to travel
six[2513] miles. The sides of it that look in the opposite direction
and slope towards the Ister are inhabited by the Mœsi[2514], the
Getæ, the Aorsi, the Gaudæ, and the Clariæ; below them, are the Arræi
Sarmatæ[2515], also called Arreatæ, the Scythians, and, about the
shores of the Euxine, the Moriseni and the Sithonii, the forefathers of
the poet Orpheus[2516], dwell.

Thus is Thrace bounded by the Ister on the north, by the Euxine, and
the Propontis[2517] on the east, and by the Ægean Sea on the south;
on the coast of which, after leaving the Strymon, we come in turn
to Apollonia[2518], Œsyma[2519], Neapolis[2520] and Datos. In the
interior is the colony of Philippi[2521], distant from Dyrrhachium
325 miles; also Scotussa[2522], the city of Topiris, the mouth of the
river Mestus[2523], Mount Pangæus, Heraclea[2524], Olynthos[2525],
Abdera[2526], a free city, the people of the Bistones[2527] and their
Lake. Here was formerly the city of Tirida, which struck such terror
with its stables of the horses[2528] of Diomedes. At the present day we
find here Dicæa[2529], Ismaron[2530], the place where Parthenion stood,
Phalesina, and Maronea[2531], formerly called Orthagorea. We then
come to Mount Serrium[2532] and Zone[2533], and then the place called
Doriscus[2534], capable of containing ten thousand men, for it was in
bodies of ten thousand that Xerxes here numbered his army. We then come
to the mouth of the Hebrus[2535], the Port of Stentor, and the free
town of Ænos[2536], with the tomb there of Polydorus[2537], the region
formerly of the Cicones.

From Doriscus there is a winding coast as far as Macron Tichos[2538],
or the “Long Wall,” a distance of 122 miles; round Doriscus flows the
river Melas, from which the Gulf of Melas[2539] receives its name. The
towns are, Cypsela[2540], Bisanthe[2541], and Macron Tichos, already
mentioned, so called because a wall extends from that spot between the
two seas,—that is to say, from the Propontis to the Gulf of Melas, thus
excluding the Chersonesus[2542], which projects beyond it.

The other side of Thrace now begins, on the coast[2543] of the Euxine,
where the river Ister discharges itself; and it is in this quarter
perhaps that Thrace possesses the finest cities, Histropolis[2544],
namely, founded by the Milesians, Tomi[2545], and Callatis[2546],
formerly called Acervetis. It also had the cities of Heraclea and
Bizone, which latter was swallowed up by an earthquake; it now has
Dionysopolis[2547], formerly called Cruni, which is washed by the
river Zyras. All this country was formerly possessed by the Scythians,
surnamed Aroteres; their towns were, Aphrodisias, Libistos, Zygere,
Rocobe, Eumenia, Parthenopolis, and Gerania[2548], where a nation
of Pigmies is said to have dwelt; the barbarians used to call them
Cattuzi, and entertain a belief that they were put to flight by cranes.
Upon the coast, proceeding from Dionysopolis, is Odessus[2549], a
city of the Milesians, the river Panysus[2550], and the town of
Tetranaulochus. Mount Hæmus, which, with its vast chain, overhangs the
Euxine, had in former times upon its summit the town of Aristæum[2551].
At the present day there are upon the coast Mesembria[2552], and
Anchialum[2553], where Messa formerly stood. The region of Astice
formerly had a town called Anthium; at the present day Apollonia[2554]
occupies its site. The rivers here are the Panisos, the Riras, the
Tearus, and the Orosines; there are also the towns of Thynias[2555],
Halmydessos[2556], Develton[2557], with its lake, now known as
Deultum, a colony of veterans, and Phinopolis, near which last is the
Bosporus[2558]. From the mouth of the Ister to the entrance of the
Euxine, some writers have made to be a distance of 555 miles; Agrippa,
however, increases the length by sixty miles. The distance thence to
Macron Tichos, or the Long Wall, previously mentioned, is 150 miles;
and, from it to the extremity of the Chersonesus, 126.

On leaving the Bosporus we come to the Gulf of Casthenes[2559], and two
harbours, the one called the Old Men’s Haven, and the other the Women’s
Haven. Next comes the promontory of Chrysoceras[2560], upon which is
the town of Byzantium[2561], a free state, formerly called Lygos,
distant from Dyrrhachium 711 miles,—so great being the space of land
that intervenes between the Adriatic Sea and the Propontis. We next
come to the rivers Bathynias and Pydaras[2562], or Athyras, and the
towns of Selymbria[2563] and Perinthus[2564], which join the mainland
by a neck only 200 feet in width. In the interior are Bizya[2565],
a citadel of the kings of Thrace, and hated by the swallows, in
consequence of the sacrilegious crime of Tereus[2566]; the district
called Cænica[2567], and the colony of Flaviopolis, where formerly
stood a town called Cæla. Then, at a distance of fifty miles from
Bizya, we come to the colony of Apros, distant from Philippi 180 miles.
Upon the coast is the river Erginus[2568]; here formerly stood the town
of Ganos[2569]; and Lysimachia[2570] in the Chersonesus is being now
gradually deserted.

At this spot there is another isthmus[2571], similar in name to the
other[2572], and of about equal width; and, in a manner by no means
dissimilar, two cities formerly stood on the shore, one on either
side, Pactye on the side of the Propontis, and Cardia[2573] on that of
the Gulf of Melas, the latter deriving its name from the shape[2574]
which the land assumes. These, however, were afterwards united with
Lysimachia[2575], which stands at a distance of five miles from Macron
Tichos. The Chersonesus formerly had, on the side of the Propontis,
the towns of Tiristasis, Crithotes, and Cissa[2576], on the banks of
the river Ægos[2577]; it now has, at a distance of twenty-two[2578]
miles from the colony of Apros, Resistos, which stands opposite to
the colony of Parium. The Hellespont also, which separates, as we
have already[2579] stated, Europe from Asia, by a channel seven
stadia in width, has four cities facing each other, Callipolis[2580]
and Sestos[2581] in Europe, and Lampsacus[2582] and Abydos[2583] in
Asia. On the Chersonesus, there is the promontory of Mastusia[2584],
lying opposite to Sigeum[2585]; upon one side of it stands the
Cynossema[2586] (for so the tomb of Hecuba is called), the naval
station[2587] of the Achæans, and a tower; and near it the shrine[2588]
of Protesilaüs. On the extreme front of the Chersonesus, which is
called Æolium, there is the city of Elæus. Advancing thence towards
the Gulf of Melas, we have the port of Cœlos[2589], Panormus, and then
Cardia, previously mentioned.

In this manner is the third great Gulf of Europe bounded. The mountains
of Thrace, besides those already mentioned, are Edonus, Gigemoros,
Meritus, and Melamphyllos; the rivers are the Bargus and the Syrmus,
which fall into the Hebrus. The length of Macedonia, Thrace, and the
Hellespont has been already[2590] mentioned; some writers, however,
make it 720 miles, the breadth being 384.

What may be called a rock rather than an island, lying between Tenos
and Chios, has given its name to the Ægean Sea; it has the name of
Æx[2591] from its strong resemblance to a goat, which is so called in
Greek, and shoots precipitately from out of the middle of the sea.
Those who are sailing towards the isle of Andros from Achaia, see this
rock on the left, boding no good, and warning them of its dangers.
Part of the Ægean Sea bears the name of Myrtoan[2592], being so called
from the small island [of Myrtos] which is seen as you sail towards
Macedonia from Geræstus, not far from Carystus[2593] in Eubœa. The
Romans include all these seas under two names,—the Macedonian, in
those parts where it touches the coasts of Macedonia or Thrace, and
the Grecian where it washes the shores of Greece. The Greeks, however,
divide the Ionian Sea into the Sicilian and the Cretan Seas, after the
name of those islands; and they give the name of Icarian to that part
which lies between Samos and Myconos. The gulfs which we have already
mentioned, have given to these seas the rest of their names. Such,
then, are the seas and the various nations which are comprehended in
the third great Gulf of Europe.




CHAP. 19. (12.)—THE ISLANDS WHICH LIE BEFORE THE LANDS ALREADY
MENTIONED.


Lying opposite to Thesprotia, at a distance of twelve miles from
Buthrotus, and of fifty from Acroceraunia, is the island of
Corcyra[2594], with a city of the same name, the citizens of which
are free; also a town called Cassiope[2595], and a temple dedicated
to Jupiter Cassius. This island is ninety-seven miles in length, and
in Homer has the names of Scheria and Phæacia; while Callimachus
calls it Drepane. There are some other islands around it, such as
Thoronos[2596], lying in the direction of Italy, and the two islands
of Paxos[2597] in that of Leucadia, both of them five miles distant
from Corcyra. Not far[2598] from these, and in front of Corcyra, are
Ericusa, Marathe, Elaphusa, Malthace, Trachie, Pythionia, Ptychia,
Tarachie, and, off Phalacrum[2599], a promontory of Corcyra, the rock
into which (according to the story, which arises no doubt from the
similarity of appearance) the ship of Ulysses was changed.

Before Leucimna[2600] we find the islands of Sybota, and between
Leucadia and Achaia a great number of islands, among which are those
called Teleboïdes[2601], as also Taphiæ; by the natives, those which
lie before Leucadia are called by the names of Taphias, Oxiæ, and
Prinoessa[2602]; while those that are in front of Ætolia are the
Echinades[2603], consisting of Ægialia, Cotonis, Thyatira, Geoaris,
Dionysia, Cyrnus, Chalcis, Pinara, and Mystus.

In front of these, and lying out at sea, are Cephallenia[2604] and
Zacynthus[2605], both of them free, Ithaca[2606], Dulichium[2607],
Same[2608], and Crocyle[2609]. Cephallenia, formerly known as
Melæna[2610], lies at a distance of eleven miles from Paxos, and is
ninety-three miles in circumference: its city of Same has been levelled
to the ground by the Romans; but it still possesses three others[2611].
Between this island and Achaia lies the island of Zacynthus, remarkable
for its city of the same name, and for its singular fertility. It
formerly had the name of Hyrie, and lies to the south of Cephallenia,
at a distance of twenty-five miles; in it there is the famous mountain
of Elatus[2612]. This island is thirty-six miles in circumference.
At a distance of fifteen miles from Zacynthus is Ithaca, in which is
Mount Neritus[2613]; its circumference in all is twenty-five miles.
Twelve miles distant from this island is Araxus[2614], a promontory
of the Peloponnesus. Before Ithaca, lying out in the main sea, are
Asteris[2615] and Prote; and before Zacynthus, at a distance of
thirty-five miles in the direction of the south-east wind, are the two
Strophades[2616], by some known as the Plotæ. Before Cephallenia lies
Letoia[2617], before Pylos the three Sphagiæ[2618], and before Messene
the Œnussæ[2619], as many in number.

In the Asinæan Gulf there are the three Thyrides[2620], and in that of
Laconia Theganusa[2621], Cothon, and Cythera[2622], with the town of
that name, the former name of which island was Porphyris. It is situate
five miles from the promontory of Malea[2623], thus forming a strait
very dangerous to navigation. In the Gulf of Argolis are Pityusa[2624],
Irine, and Ephyre; opposite the territory of Hermione[2625], Tiparenus,
Aperopia[2626], Colonis[2627], and Aristera; and, opposite that of
Trœzen, Calauria[2628], at a distance of half a mile, Plateis[2629],
Belbina, Lasia, and Baucidias. Opposite Epidaurus is Cecryphalos[2630],
and Pityonesos[2631], six miles distant from the mainland; and, at a
distance of fifteen miles from this last, Ægina[2632], a free island,
the length of which, as you sail past it, is eighteen miles. This
island is twenty miles distant from Piræus, the port of Athens: it used
formerly to be called Œnone. Opposite the promontory of Spiræum[2633],
lie Eleusa[2634], Adendros[2635], the two islands called Craugiæ, the
two Cæciæ, Selachusa, Cenchreis, and Aspis; as also, in the Gulf of
Megara, the four Methurides. Ægila[2636] lies at a distance of fifteen
miles from Cythera, and of twenty-five from Phalasarna, a city of
Crete.




CHAP. 20.—CRETE.


Crete itself lies from east to west, the one side facing the south,
the other the north, and is known to fame by the renown of its hundred
cities. Dosiades says, that it took its name from the nymph Crete,
the daughter of Hesperides[2637]; Anaximander, from a king of the
Curetes, Philistides of Mallus * * * * *; while Crates says that it
was at first called Aëria, and after that Curetis; and some have been
of opinion that it had the name of Macaron[2638] from the serenity of
its climate. In breadth it nowhere exceeds fifty miles, being widest
about the middle. In length, however, it is full 270 miles, and 589
in circumference, forming a bend towards the Cretan Sea, which takes
its name from it. At its eastern extremity is the Promontory of
Sammonium[2639], facing Rhodes, while towards the west it throws out
that of Criumetopon[2640], in the direction of Cyrene.

The more remarkable cities of Crete are, Phalasarna, Etæa[2641],
Cisamon[2642], Pergamum, Cydonia[2643], Minoium[2644], Apteron[2645],
Pantomatrium, Amphimalla[2646], Rhithymna, Panormus, Cytæum, Apollonia,
Matium[2647], Heraclea, Miletos, Ampelos, Hierapytna[2648],
Lebena[2649], and Hierapolis; and, in the interior, Gortyna[2650],
Phæstum, Cnossus[2651], Polyrrenium, Myrina, Lycastus, Rhamnus,
Lyctus, Dium[2652], Asus, Pyloros, Rhytion, Elatos, Pharæ, Holopyxos,
Lasos, Eleuthernæ[2653], Therapnæ, Marathusa, and Tylisos; besides
some sixty others, of which the memory only exists. The mountains are
those of Cadistus[2654], Ida, Dictynnæus, and Corycus[2655]. This
island is distant, at its promontory of Criumetopon, according to
Agrippa, from Phycus[2656], the promontory of Cyrene, 125 miles; and at
Cadistus, from Malea in the Peloponnesus, eighty. From the island of
Carpathos[2657], at its promontory of Sammonium it lies in a westerly
direction, at a distance of sixty miles; this last-named island is
situate between it and Rhodes.

The other islands in its vicinity, and lying in front of the
Peloponnesus, are the two isles known as Corycæ, and the two called
Mylæ[2658]. On the north side, having Crete on the right, and opposite
to Cydonia, is Leuce[2659], and the two islands known as Budroæ[2660].
Opposite to Matium lies Dia[2661]; opposite to the promontory of
Itanum[2662], Onisia and Leuce; and over against Hierapytna, Chrysa and
Gaudos[2663]. In the same neighbourhood, also, are Ophiussa, Butoa, and
Aradus; and, after doubling Criumetopon, we come to the three islands
known as Musagorus. Before the promontory of Sammonium lie the islands
of Phocœ, the Platiæ, the Sirnides, Naulochos, Armedon, and Zephyre.

Belonging to Hellas, but still in the Ægean Sea, we have the
Lichades[2664], consisting of Scarphia, Coresa, Phocaria, and many
others which face Attica, but have no towns upon them, and are
consequently of little note. Opposite Eleusis, however, is the
far-famed Salamis[2665]; before it, Psyttalia[2666]; and, at a distance
of five miles from Sunium, the island of Helene[2667]. At the same
distance from this last is Ceos[2668], which some of our countrymen
have called Cea, and the Greeks Hydrussa, an island which has been
torn away from Eubœa. It was formerly 500 stadia in length; but more
recently four-fifths of it, in the direction of Bœotia, have been
swallowed up by the sea. The only towns it now has left are Iulis and
Carthæa[2669]; Coresus[2670] and Pœëessa[2671] have perished. Varro
informs us, that from this place there used to come a cloth of very
fine texture, used for women’s dresses.




CHAP. 21.—EUBŒA.


Eubœa[2672] itself has also been rent away from Bœotia; the channel of
the Euripus, which flows between them, being so narrow as to admit of
the opposite shores being united by a bridge[2673]. At the south, this
island is remarkable for its two promontories, that of Geræstus[2674],
which looks towards Attica, and that of Caphareus[2675], which faces
the Hellespont; on the north it has that of Cenæum[2676]. In no part
does this island extend to a greater breadth than forty miles, while
it never contracts to less than two. In length it runs along the
whole coast of Bœotia, extending from Attica as far as Thessaly, a
distance of 150 miles[2677]. In circumference it measures 365, and is
distant from the Hellespont, on the side of Caphareus, 225 miles. The
cities for which it was formerly famous were, Pyrrha, Porthmos, Nesos,
Cerinthos[2678], Oreum, Dium, Ædepsos[2679], Ocha, and Œchalia; at
present it is ennobled by those of Chalcis[2680] (opposite which, on
the mainland, is Aulis), Geræstus[2681], Eretria[2682], Carystus[2683],
Oritanum, and Artemisium[2684]. Here are also the Fountain of
Arethusa[2685], the river Lelantus, and the warm springs known as
Ellopiæ; it is still better known, however, for the marble of Carystus.
This island used formerly to be called Chalcodontis and Macris[2686],
as we learn from Dionysius and Ephorus; according to Aristides, Macra;
also, as Callidemus says, Chalcis, because copper was first discovered
here. Menæchmus says that it was called Abantias[2687], and the poets
generally give it the name of Asopis.




CHAP. 22.—THE CYCLADES.


Beyond Eubœa, and out in the Myrtoan[2688] Sea, are numerous other
islands; but those more especially famous are, Glauconnesos and the
Ægila[2689]. Off the promontory, too, of Geræstus are the Cyclades,
lying in a circle around Delos, from which circumstance[2690] they
derive their name. The first of them is the one called Andros[2691]
with a city of the same name, distant from Geræstus ten miles, and
from Ceos thirty-nine. Myrsilus tells us that this island was at first
called Cauros, and after that Antandros; Callimachus calls it Lasia,
and others again Nonagria, Hydrussa, and Epagris. It is ninety-three
miles in circumference. At a distance of one mile from Andros and of
fifteen from Delos, is Tenos[2692], with a city of the same name; this
island is fifteen miles in length. Aristotle says that it was formerly
called Hydrussa, from the abundance of water found here, while some
writers call it Ophiussa[2693]. The other islands are, Myconos[2694],
with the mountain of Dimastus[2695], distant from Delos fifteen[2696]
miles; Siphnus[2697], formerly called Meropia and Acis, twenty-eight
miles in circumference; Seriphus[2698], twelve miles in circuit;
Prepesinthus[2699]; Cythnos[2700]; and then, by far the most famous
among the Cyclades, and lying in the very middle of them, Delos[2701]
itself, so famous for its temple of Apollo, and its extensive commerce.
This island long floated on the waves, and, as tradition says, was
the only one that had never experienced an earthquake, down to the
time of M. Varro[2702]; Mucianus however has informed us, that it has
been twice so visited. Aristotle states that this island received its
name from the fact of its having so suddenly made its appearance[2703]
on emerging from the sea; Aglaosthenes, however, gives it the name
of Cynthia, and others of Ortygia[2704], Asteria, Lagia, Chlamydia,
Cynthus, and, from the circumstance of fire having been first
discovered here, Pyrpile. Its circumference is five miles only; Mount
Cynthus[2705] here raises his head.

Next to this island is Rhene[2706], which Anticlides calls by the
name of Celadussa, and Callidemus, Artemite; Scyros[2707], which the
old writers have stated to be twenty miles in circumference, but
Mucianus 160; Oliaros[2708]; and Paros[2709], with a city of the
same name, distant from Delos thirty-eight miles, and famous for its
marble[2710]; it was first called Platea, and after that, Minois. At
a distance of seven miles from this last island is Naxos[2711], with
a town of the same name; it is eighteen miles distant from Delos.
This island was formerly called Strongyle[2712], then Dia, and then
Dionysias[2713], in consequence of the fruitfulness of its vineyards;
others again have called it the Lesser Sicily, or Callipolis[2714]. It
is seventy-five[2715] miles in circumference—half as large again as
Paros.




CHAP. 23.—THE SPORADES.


The islands thus far are considered as belonging to the Cyclades; the
rest that follow are the Sporades[2716]. These are, Helene[2717],
Phacussa, Nicasia, Schinussa, Pholegandros, and, at a distance
of thirty-eight miles from Naxos, Icaros[2718], which has given
its name to the surrounding sea, and is the same number of miles
in length[2719], with two cities, and a third now no longer in
existence: this island used formerly to be called Doliche, Macris,
and Ichthyoëssa[2720]. It is situate fifty miles to the north-east of
Delos, and thirty-five from the island of Samos. Between Eubœa and
Andros, there is an arm of the sea ten miles in width, and from Icaros
to Geræstus is a distance of 112-1/2 miles.

After we pass these, no regular order can be well observed; the rest
must therefore be mentioned indiscriminately. There is the island
of Scyros[2721], and that of Ios[2722], eighteen miles distant from
Naxos, and deserving of all veneration for the tomb there of Homer; it
is twenty-five miles in length, and was formerly known by the name of
Phœnice; also Odia, Oletandros, and Gyara[2723], with a city of the
same name, the island being twelve miles in circumference, and distant
from Andros sixty-two. At a distance of eighty miles from Gyara is
Syrnos, then Cynæthus, Telos[2724], noted for its unguents, and by
Callimachus called Agathussa, Donusa[2725], Patmos[2726], thirty miles
in circumference, the Corassiæ[2727], Lebinthus[2728], Leros[2729],
Cinara[2730]; Sicinus[2731], formerly called Œnoë[2732]; Hieracia,
also called Onus; Casos[2733], likewise called Astrabe; Cimolus[2734],
or Echinussa; and Melos[2735], with a city of that name, which island
Aristides calls Memblis, Aristotle Zephyria, Callimachus Mimallis,
Heraclides Siphis and Acytos. This last is the most circular[2736]
in form of all these islands. After this comes Machia, then Hypere,
formerly Patage, or, as others have it, Platage, but now called
Amorgos[2737], Polyægos[2738], Phyle, and Thera[2739], known as
Calliste when it first sprang from the waves. From this, at a later
period, the island of Therasia[2740] was torn away, and between the
two afterwards arose Automate, also called Hiera, and Thia, which in
our own times came into existence in the vicinity of these islands. Ios
is distant from Thera twenty-five miles.

Next to these follow Lea, Ascania[2741], Anaphe[2742], Hippuris, and
Astypalæa[2743], a free state. This island is eighty-eight miles in
circumference, and 125 miles distant from Cadistus, in Crete. From
Astypalæa, Platea is distant sixty miles, and Caminia thirty-eight from
this last. We then come to the islands of Azibintha, Lanise, Tragæa,
Pharmacussa, Techedia, Chalcia[2744], Calymna[2745], in which is the
town of Coös, Calymna, at a distance of twenty-five miles from which is
Carpathum[2746], which has given its name to the Carpathian Sea. The
distance thence to Rhodes[2747], in the direction of the south-west
wind, is fifty miles. From Carpathum to Casus is seven miles, and from
Casus to Sammonium, the promontory of Crete, thirty[2748]. In the
Euripus of Eubœa, almost at the very mouth of it, are the four islands
called Petaliæ[2749]; and, at its outlet, Atalante[2750]. The Cyclades
and the Sporades are bounded on the east by the Asiatic shores of the
Icarian Sea, on the west by the Attic shores of the Myrtoan Sea, on the
north by the Ægean, and on the south by the Cretan and Carpathian seas,
extending 700 miles in length, and 200 in breadth.

The Gulf of Pagasa[2751] has in front of it Euthia[2752],
Cicynethus[2753], Scyros, previously mentioned[2754], and the very
furthermost of the Cyclades and Sporades, Gerontia and Scandila[2755];
the Gulf of Thermæ[2756], Iræsia, Solimnia, Eudemia, and Nea,
which last is sacred to Minerva. Athos has before it four islands;
Peparethus[2757], formerly called Evœnus, with a city of that name,
at a distance from Athos of nine miles; Sciathus[2758], at a distance
of fifteen, and Imbros[2759], with a city of the same name, at a
distance of eighty-eight miles. This last island is distant from
Mastusia, in the Chersonesus, twenty-five miles; it is sixty-two[2760]
miles in circumference, and is washed by the river Ilisus. At a
distance of twenty-two miles from it is Lemnos[2761], being distant
from Mount Athos eighty-seven; it is 112 miles in circumference, and
has the cities of Hephæstia and Myrina[2762]; into the market-place
of which last city Athos throws its shadow at the summer solstice.
The island of Thasos[2763], constituting a free state, is six miles
distant from Lemnos; it formerly had the name of Aëria, or Æthria.
Abdera[2764], on the mainland, is distant from Thasos twenty-two miles,
Athos sixty-two[2765]. The island of Samothrace[2766], a free state,
facing the river Hebrus, is the same distance from Thasos, being
also thirty-two[2767] miles from Imbros, twenty-two from Lemnos, and
thirty-eight[2768] from the coast of Thrace; it is thirty-two miles in
circumference, and in it rises Mount Saoce[2769], ten miles in height.
This island is the most inaccessible of them all. Callimachus mentions
it by its ancient name of Dardania.

Between the Chersonesus and Samothrace, at a distance of about fifteen
miles from them both, is the island of Halonnesos[2770], and beyond
it Gethone, Lamponia, and Alopeconnesus[2771], not far from Cœlos, a
port[2772] of the Chersonesus, besides some others of no importance.
The following names may be also mentioned, as those of uninhabited
islands in this gulf, of which we have been enabled to discover the
names:—Desticos, Sarnos, Cyssiros, Charbrusa, Calathusa, Scylla,
Draconon, Arconnesus, Diethusa, Scapos, Capheris, Mesate, Æantion,
Pateronnesos, Pateria, Calate, Neriphus, and Polendos[2773].




CHAP. 24.—THE HELLESPONT.—THE LAKE MÆOTIS.


The fourth great Gulf of Europe begins at the Hellespont and ends
at the entrance of the Mæotis[2774]. But in order that the several
portions of the Euxine and its coasts may be the better known, we must
briefly embrace the form of it in one general view. This vast sea,
lying in front of Asia, is shut out from Europe by the projection of
the shores of the Chersonesus, and effects an entrance into those
countries by a narrow channel only, of the width, as already mentioned,
of seven stadia, thus separating Europe from Asia. The entrance of
these Straits is called the Hellespont; over it Xerxes, the king of the
Persians, constructed a bridge of boats, across which he led his army.
A narrow channel extends thence a distance of eighty-six miles, as far
as Priapus[2775], a city of Asia, at which Alexander the Great passed
over. At this point the sea becomes wider, and after some distance
again takes the form of a narrow strait. The wider part is known as the
Propontis[2776], the Straits as the Thracian Bosporus[2777], being only
half-a-mile in width, at the place where Darius, the father of Xerxes,
led his troops across by a bridge. The extremity of this is distant
from the Hellespont 239 miles.

We then come to the vast sea called the Euxine, which invades the land
as it retreats afar, and the name of which was formerly Axenus[2778].
As the shores bend inwards, this sea with a vast sweep stretches far
away, curving on both sides after the manner of a pair of horns, so
much so that in shape it bears a distinct resemblance to a Scythian
bow[2779]. In the middle of the curve it is joined by the mouth of
Lake Mæotis, which is called the Cimmerian[2780] Bosporus, and is two
miles and a half in width. Between the two Bospori, the Thracian and
the Cimmerian, there is a distance in a straight line, of 500 miles,
as Polybius informs us. We learn from Varro and most of the ancient
writers, that the circumference of the Euxine is altogether 2150 miles;
but to this number Cornelius Nepos adds 350 more; while Artemidorus
makes it 2919 miles, Agrippa 2360, and Mucianus 2425. In a similar
manner some writers have fixed the length of the European shores of
this sea at 1478 miles, others again at 1172. M. Varro gives the
measurement as follows:—from the mouth of the Euxine to Apollonia 187
miles, and to Callatis the same distance; thence to the mouth of the
Ister 125 miles; to the Borysthenes 250; to Chersonesus[2781], a town
of the Heracleotæ, 325; to Panticapæum[2782], by some called Bosporus,
at the very extremity of the shores of Europe, 212 miles: the whole
of which added together, makes 1337[2783] miles. Agrippa makes the
distance from Byzantium to the river Ister 560 miles, and from thence
to Panticapæum, 635.

Lake Mæotis, which receives the river Tanais as it flows from the
Riphæan Mountains[2784], and forms the extreme boundary between Europe
and Asia, is said to be 1406 miles in circumference; which however some
writers state at only 1125. From the entrance of this lake to the mouth
of the Tanais in a straight line is, it is generally agreed, a distance
of 375 miles.

The inhabitants of the coasts of this fourth great Gulf of Europe, as
far as Istropolis, have been already[2785] mentioned in our account of
Thrace. Passing beyond that spot we come to the mouths of the Ister.
This river rises in Germany in the heights of Mount Abnoba[2786],
opposite to Rauricum[2787], a town of Gaul, and flows for a course
of many miles beyond the Alps and through nations innumerable, under
the name of the Danube. Adding immensely to the volume of its waters,
at the spot where it first enters Illyricum, it assumes the name of
Ister, and, after receiving sixty rivers, nearly one half of which are
navigable, rolls into the Euxine by six[2788] vast channels. The first
of these is the mouth of Peuce[2789], close to which is the island of
Peuce itself, from which the neighbouring channel takes its name; this
mouth is swallowed up in a great swamp nineteen miles in length. From
the same channel too, above Istropolis, a lake[2790] takes its rise,
sixty-three miles in circuit; its name is Halmyris. The second mouth
is called Naracu-Stoma[2791]; the third, which is near the island
of Sarmatica, is called Calon-Stoma[2792]; the fourth is known as
Pseudo-Stomon[2793], with its island called Conopon-Diabasis[2794];
after which come the Boreon-Stoma[2795] and the Psilon-Stoma[2796].
These mouths are each of them so considerable, that for a distance of
forty miles, it is said, the saltness of the sea is quite overpowered,
and the water found to be fresh.




CHAP. 25.—DACIA, SARMATIA.


On setting out from this spot, all the nations met with are Scythian
in general, though various races have occupied the adjacent shores;
at one spot the Getæ[2797], by the Romans called Daci; at another
the Sarmatæ, by the Greeks called Sauromatæ, and the Hamaxobii[2798]
or Aorsi, a branch of them; then again the base-born Scythians and
descendants of slaves, or else the Troglodytæ[2799]; and then, after
them, the Alani[2800] and the Rhoxalani. The higher[2801] parts again,
between the Danube and the Hercynian Forest[2802], as far as the
winter quarters of Pannonia at Carnuntum[2803], and the borders of the
Germans, are occupied by the Sarmatian Iazyges[2804], who inhabit the
level country and the plains, while the Daci, whom they have driven
as far as the river Pathissus[2805], inhabit the mountain and forest
ranges. On leaving the river Marus[2806], whether it is that or the
Duria[2807], that separates them from the Suevi and the kingdom of
Vannius[2808], the Basternæ, and, after them, other tribes of the
Germans occupy the opposite sides[2809]. Agrippa considers the whole of
this region, from the Ister to the ocean, to be 2100 miles in length,
and 4400 miles in breadth to the river Vistula in the deserts[2810] of
Sarmatia. The name “Scythian” has extended, in every direction, even
to the Sarmatæ and the Germans; but this ancient appellation is now
only given to those who dwell beyond those nations, and live unknown to
nearly all the rest of the world.




CHAP. 26.—SCYTHIA.


Leaving the Ister, we come to the towns of Cremniscos[2811], Æpolium,
the mountains of Macrocremnus, and the famous river Tyra[2812], which
gives name to a town on the spot where Ophiusa is said formerly to
have stood. The Tyragetæ inhabit a large island[2813] situate in this
river, which is distant from Pseudostomos, a mouth of the Ister,
so called, 130 miles. We then come to the Axiacæ, who take their
name from the river Axiaces[2814], and beyond them, the Crobyzi,
the river Rhodes[2815], the Sagarian Gulf[2816], and the port of
Ordesos[2817]. At a distance of 120 miles from the Tyra is the river
Borysthenes[2818], with a lake and a people of similar name, as also
a town[2819] in the interior, at a distance of fifteen miles from
the sea, the ancient names of which were Olbiopolis and Miletopolis.
Again, on the shore is the port of the Achæi, and the island of
Achilles[2820], famous for the tomb there of that hero, and, at a
distance of 125 miles from it, a peninsula which stretches forth in the
shape of a sword, in an oblique direction, and is called, from having
been his place of exercise, Dromos Achilleos[2821]: the length of this,
according to Agrippa, is eighty miles. The Taurian Scythians and the
Siraci[2822] occupy all this tract of country.

At this spot begins a well-wooded district[2823], which has given
to the sea that washes its banks the name of the Hylæan Sea; its
inhabitants are called Enœchadlæ[2824]. Beyond them is the river
Panticapes[2825], which separates the Nomades[2826] and the Georgi, and
after it the Acesinus[2827]. Some authors say that the Panticapes flows
into the Borysthenes below Olbia[2828]. Others, who are more correct,
say that it is the Hypanis[2829]: so great is the mistake made by those
who have placed it[2830] in Asia.

The sea runs in here and forms a large gulf[2831], until there is
only an intervening space[2832] of five miles between it and the Lake
Mæotis, its margin forming the sea-line of extensive tracts of land,
and numerous nations; it is known as the Gulf of Carcinites. Here we
find the river Pacyris[2833], the towns of Navarum and Carcine[2834],
and behind it Lake Buges[2835], which discharges itself by a channel
into the sea. This Buges is separated by a ridge of rocks[2836] from
Coretus, a gulf in the Lake Mæotis; it receives the rivers Buges[2837],
Gerrus[2838], and Hypacaris[2839], which approach it from regions that
lie in various directions. For the Gerrus separates the Basilidæ from
the Nomades, the Hypacaris flows through the Nomades and the Hylæi, by
an artificial channel into Lake Buges, and by its natural one into the
Gulf of Coretus: this region bears the name of Scythia Sindice.

At the river Carcinites, Scythia Taurica[2840] begins, which was once
covered by the sea, where we now see level plains extended on every
side: beyond this the land rises into mountains of great elevation.
The peoples here are thirty in number, of which twenty-three dwell in
the interior, six of the cities being inhabited by the Orgocyni, the
Characeni[2841], the Lagyrani, the Tractari, the Arsilachitæ, and the
Caliordi. The Scythotauri possess the range of mountains: on the west
they are bounded by the Chersonesus, and on the east by the Scythian
Satarchæ[2842]. On the shore, after we leave Carcinites, we find the
following towns; Taphræ[2843], situate on the very isthmus of the
peninsula, and then Heraclea Chersonesus[2844], to which its freedom
has been granted[2845] by the Romans. This place was formerly called
Megarice, being the most polished city throughout all these regions, in
consequence of its strict preservation of Grecian manners and customs.
A wall, five miles in length, surrounds it. Next to this comes the
Promontory of Parthenium[2846], the city of the Tauri, Placia, the port
of the Symboli[2847], and the Promontory of Criumetopon[2848], opposite
to Carambis[2849], a promontory of Asia, which runs out in the middle
of the Euxine, leaving an intervening space between them of 170 miles,
which circumstance it is in especial that gives to this sea the form of
a Scythian bow. After leaving this headland we come to a great number
of harbours and lakes of the Tauri[2850]. The town of Theodosia[2851]
is distant from Criumetopon 125 miles, and from Chersonesus 165. Beyond
it there were, in former times, the towns of Cytæ, Zephyrium, Acræ,
Nymphæum, and Dia. Panticapæum[2852], a city of the Milesians, by
far the strongest of them all, is still in existence; it lies at the
entrance of the Bosporus, and is distant from Theodosia eighty-seven
miles and a half, and from the town of Cimmerium, which lies on the
other side of the Strait, as we have previously[2853] stated, two miles
and a half. Such is the width here of the channel which separates Asia
from Europe, and which too, from being generally quite frozen over,
allows of a passage on foot. The width of the Cimmerian Bosporus[2854]
is twelve miles and a half: it contains the towns of Hermisium[2855],
Myrmecium, and, in the interior[2856] of it, the island of Alopece.
From the spot called Taphræ[2857], at the extremity of the isthmus,
to the mouth of the Bosporus, along the line of the Lake Mæotis, is a
distance of 260 miles.

Leaving Taphræ, and going along the mainland, we find in the interior
the Auchetæ[2858], in whose country the Hypanis has its rise, as
also the Neurœ, in whose district the Borysthenes has its source,
the Geloni[2859], the Thyssagetæ, the Budini, the Basilidæ, and
the Agathyrsi[2860] with their azure-coloured hair. Above them are
the Nomades, and then a nation of Anthropophagi or cannibals. On
leaving Lake Buges, above the Lake Mæotis we come to the Sauromatæ
and the Essedones[2861]. Along the coast, as far as the river
Tanais[2862], are the Mæotæ, from whom the lake derives its name,
and the last of all, in the rear of them, the Arimaspi. We then come
to the Riphæan[2863] mountains, and the region known by the name of
Pterophoros[2864], because of the perpetual fall of snow there, the
flakes of which resemble feathers; a part of the world which has been
condemned by the decree of nature to lie immersed in thick darkness;
suited for nothing but the generation of cold, and to be the asylum of
the chilling blasts of the northern winds.

Behind these mountains, and beyond the region of the northern winds,
there dwells, if we choose to believe it, a happy race, known as the
Hyperborei[2865], a race that lives to an extreme old age, and which
has been the subject of many marvellous stories[2866]. At this spot
are supposed to be the hinges upon which the world revolves, and the
extreme limits of the revolutions of the stars. Here we find light
for six months together, given by the sun in one continuous day, who
does not, however, as some ignorant persons have asserted, conceal
himself from the vernal equinox[2867] to autumn. On the contrary, to
these people there is but one rising of the sun for the year, and that
at the summer solstice, and but one setting, at the winter solstice.
This region, warmed by the rays of the sun, is of a most delightful
temperature, and exempt from every noxious blast. The abodes of the
natives are the woods and groves; the gods receive their worship singly
and in groups, while all discord and every kind of sickness are things
utterly unknown. Death comes upon them only when satiated with life;
after a career of feasting, in an old age sated with every luxury, they
leap from a certain rock there into the sea; and this they deem the
most desirable mode of ending existence. Some writers have placed these
people, not in Europe, but at the very verge of the shores of Asia,
because we find there a people called the Attacori[2868], who greatly
resemble them and occupy a very similar locality. Other writers again
have placed them midway between the two suns, at the spot where it sets
to the Antipodes and rises to us; a thing however that cannot possibly
be, in consequence of the vast tract of sea which there intervenes.
Those writers who place them nowhere[2869] but under a day which lasts
for six months, state that in the morning they sow, at mid-day they
reap, at sunset they gather in the fruits of the trees, and during the
night conceal themselves in caves. Nor are we at liberty to entertain
any doubts as to the existence of this race; so many authors[2870]
are there who assert that they were in the habit of sending their
first-fruits to Delos to present them to Apollo, whom in especial they
worship. Virgins used to carry them, who for many years were held in
high veneration, and received the rites of hospitality from the nations
that lay on the route; until at last, in consequence of repeated
violations of good faith, the Hyperboreans came to the determination
to deposit these offerings upon the frontiers of the people who
adjoined them, and they in their turn were to convey them on to their
neighbours, and so from one to the other, till they should have arrived
at Delos. However, this custom, even, in time fell into disuse.

The length of Sarmatia, Scythia, and Taurica, and of the whole of the
region which extends from the river Borysthenes, is, according to
Agrippa, 980 miles, and its breadth 717. I am of opinion, however, that
in this part of the earth all estimates of measurement are exceedingly
doubtful.




CHAP. 27.—THE ISLANDS OF THE EUXINE. THE ISLANDS OF THE NORTHERN OCEAN.


But now, in conformity with the plan which I originally proposed, the
remaining portions of this gulf must be described. As for its seas, we
have already made mention of them.

(13.) The Hellespont has no islands belonging to Europe that are worthy
of mention. In the Euxine there are, at a distance of a mile and a half
from the European shore, and of fourteen from the mouth of the Strait,
the two Cyanæan[2871] islands, by some called the Symplegades[2872],
and stated in fabulous story to have run the one against the other;
the reason being the circumstance that they are separated by so short
an interval, that while to those who enter the Euxine opposite to them
they appear to be two distinct islands, but if viewed in a somewhat
oblique direction they have the appearance of becoming gradually united
into one. On this side of the Ister there is the single island[2873]
of the Apolloniates, eighty miles from the Thracian Bosporus; it was
from this place that M. Lucullus brought the Capitoline[2874] Apollo.
Those islands which are to be found between the mouths of the Ister we
have already mentioned[2875]. Before the Borysthenes is Achillea[2876]
previously referred to, known also by the names of Leuce and
Macaron[2877]. Researches which have been made at the present day place
this island at a distance of 140 miles from the Borysthenes, of 120
from Tyra, and of fifty from the island of Peuce. It is about ten miles
in circumference. The remaining islands in the Gulf of Carcinites are
Cephalonnesos, Rhosphodusa, and Macra. Before we leave the Euxine, we
must not omit to notice the opinion expressed by many writers that all
the interior[2878] seas take their rise in this one as the principal
source, and not at the Straits of Gades. The reason they give for this
supposition is not an improbable one—the fact that the tide is always
running out of the Euxine and that there is never any ebb.

We must now leave the Euxine to describe the outer portions[2879] of
Europe. After passing the Riphæan mountains we have now to follow
the shores of the Northern Ocean on the left, until we arrive at
Gades. In this direction a great number of islands[2880] are said to
exist that have no name; among which there is one which lies opposite
to Scythia, mentioned under the name of Raunonia[2881], and said
to be at a distance of the day’s sail from the mainland; and upon
which, according to Timæus, amber is thrown up by the waves in the
spring season. As to the remaining parts of these shores, they are
only known from reports of doubtful authority. With reference to the
Septentrional[2882] or Northern Ocean; Hecatæus calls it, after we
have passed the mouth of the river Parapanisus, where it washes the
Scythian shores, the Amalchian sea, the word ‘Amalchian’ signifying
in the language of these races, frozen. Philemon again says that it
is called Morimarusa or the “Dead Sea” by the Cimbri, as far as the
Promontory of Rubeas, beyond which it has the name of the Cronian[2883]
Sea. Xenophon of Lampsacus tells us that at a distance of three days’
sail from the shores of Scythia, there is an island of immense size
called Baltia[2884], which by Pytheas is called Basilia[2885]. Some
islands[2886] called Oönæ are said to be here, the inhabitants of
which live on the eggs of birds and oats; and others again upon which
human beings are produced with the feet of horses, thence called
Hippopodes. Some other islands are also mentioned as those of the
Panotii, the people of which have ears of such extraordinary size as to
cover the rest of the body, which is otherwise left naked.

Leaving these however, we come to the nation of the Ingævones[2887],
the first in Germany; at which we begin to have some information
upon which more implicit reliance can be placed. In their country is
an immense mountain called Sevo[2888], not less than those of the
Riphæan range, and which forms an immense gulf along the shore as
far as the Promontory of the Cimbri. This gulf, which has the name
of the ‘Codanian,’ is filled with islands; the most famous among
which is Scandinavia[2889], of a magnitude as yet unascertained: the
only portion of it at all known is inhabited by the nation of the
Hilleviones, who dwell in 500 villages, and call it a second world: it
is generally supposed that the island of Eningia[2890] is of not less
magnitude. Some writers state that these regions, as far as the river
Vistula, are inhabited by the Sarmati, the Venedi[2891], the Sciri,
and the Hirri[2892], and that there is a gulf there known by the name
of Cylipenus[2893], at the mouth of which is the island of Latris,
after which comes another gulf, that of Lagnus, which borders on the
Cimbri. The Cimbrian Promontory, running out into the sea for a great
distance, forms a peninsula which bears the name of Cartris[2894].
Passing this coast, there are three and twenty islands which have
been made known by the Roman arms[2895]: the most famous of which is
Burcana[2896], called by our people Fabaria, from the resemblance
borne[2897] by a fruit which grows there spontaneously. There are those
also called Glæsaria[2898] by our soldiers, from their amber; but by
the barbarians they are known as Austeravia and Actania.




CHAP. 28.—GERMANY.


The whole of the shores of this sea as far as the Scaldis[2899], a
river of Germany, is inhabited by nations, the dimensions of whose
respective territories it is quite impossible to state, so immensely
do the authors differ who have touched upon this subject. The Greek
writers and some of our own countrymen have stated the coast of
Germany to be 2500 miles in extent, while Agrippa, comprising Rhætia
and Noricum in his estimate, makes the length to be 686[2900] miles,
and the breadth 148[2901]. (14.) The breadth of Rhætia alone however
very nearly exceeds that number of miles, and indeed we ought to state
that it was only subjugated at about the period of the death of that
general; while as for Germany, the whole of it was not thoroughly known
to us for many years after his time. If I may be allowed to form a
conjecture, the margin of the coast will be found to be not far short
of the estimate of the Greek writers, while the distance in a straight
line will nearly correspond with that mentioned by Agrippa.

There are five German races; the Vandili[2902], parts of whom are
the Burgundiones[2903], the Varini[2904], the Carini[2905], and the
Gutones[2906]: the Ingævones, forming a second race, a portion of
whom are the Cimbri[2907], the Teutoni[2908], and the tribes of the
Chauci[2909]. The Istævones[2910], who join up to the Rhine, and to
whom the Cimbri[2911] belong, are the third race; while the Hermiones,
forming a fourth, dwell in the interior, and include the Suevi[2912],
the Hermunduri[2913], the Chatti[2914], and the Cherusci[2915]: the
fifth race is that of the Peucini[2916], who are also the Basternæ,
adjoining the Daci previously mentioned. The more famous rivers
that flow into the ocean are the Guttalus[2917], the Vistillus or
Vistula, the Albis[2918], the Visurgis[2919], the Amisius[2920], the
Rhine, and the Mosa[2921]. In the interior is the long extent of the
Hercynian[2922] range, which in grandeur is inferior to none.




CHAP. 29. (15.)—NINETY-SIX ISLANDS OF THE GALLIC OCEAN.


In the Rhine itself, nearly 100 miles in length, is the most famous
island[2923] of the Batavi and the Canninefates, as also other
islands of the Frisii[2924], the Chauci, the Frisiabones[2925], the
Sturii[2926], and the Marsacii, which lie between Helium[2927] and
Flevum[2928]. These are the names of the mouths into which the Rhine
divides itself, discharging its waters on the north into the lakes
there, and on the west into the river Mosa. At the middle mouth which
lies between these two, the river, having but a very small channel,
preserves its own name.




CHAP. 30. (16.)—BRITANNIA.


Opposite to this coast is the island called Britannia, so celebrated
in the records of Greece[2929] and of our own country. It is situate
to the north-west, and, with a large tract of intervening sea, lies
opposite to Germany, Gaul, and Spain, by far the greater part of
Europe. Its former name was Albion[2930]; but at a later period, all
the islands, of which we shall just now briefly make mention, were
included under the name of “Britanniæ.” This island is distant from
Gesoriacum, on the coast of the nation of the Morini[2931], at the
spot where the passage across is the shortest, fifty miles. Pytheas
and Isidorus say that its circumference is 4875 miles. It is barely
thirty years since any extensive knowledge of it was gained by the
successes of the Roman arms, and even as yet they have not penetrated
beyond the vicinity of the Caledonian[2932] forest. Agrippa believes
its length to be 800 miles, and its breadth 300; he also thinks that
the breadth of Hibernia is the same, but that its length is less by
200 miles. This last island is situate beyond Britannia, the passage
across being the shortest from the territory of the Silures[2933],
a distance of thirty miles. Of the remaining islands none is said
to have a greater circumference than 125 miles. Among these there
are the Orcades[2934], forty in number, and situate within a short
distance of each other, the seven islands called Acmodæ[2935], the
Hæbudes, thirty in number, and, between Hibernia and Britannia, the
islands of Mona[2936], Monapia[2937], Ricina[2938], Vectis[2939],
Limnus[2940], and Andros[2941]. Below it are the islands called Samnis
and Axantos[2942], and opposite, scattered in the German Sea, are those
known as the Glæsariæ[2943], but which the Greeks have more recently
called the Electrides, from the circumstance of their producing
_electrum_ or amber. The most remote of all that we find mentioned is
Thule[2944], in which, as we have previously stated[2945], there is no
night at the summer solstice, when the sun is passing through the sign
of Cancer, while on the other hand at the winter solstice there is no
day. Some writers are of opinion that this state of things lasts for
six whole months together. Timæus the historian says that an island
called Mictis[2946] is within six days’ sail of Britannia, in which
white lead[2947] is found; and that the Britons sail over to it in
boats of osier[2948], covered with sewed hides. There are writers also
who make mention of some other islands, Scandia[2949] namely, Dumna,
Bergos, and, greater than all, Nerigos, from which persons embark for
Thule. At one day’s sail from Thule is the frozen ocean, which by some
is called the Cronian Sea.




CHAP. 31. (17.)—GALLIA BELGICA.


The whole of Gaul that is comprehended under the one general name of
_Comata_[2950], is divided into three races of people, which are more
especially kept distinct from each other by the following rivers. From
the Scaldis to the Sequana[2951] it is Belgic Gaul; from the Sequana
to the Garumna[2952] it is Celtic Gaul or Lugdunensis[2953]; and from
the Garumna to the promontory of the Pyrenæan range it is Aquitanian
Gaul, formerly called Aremorica[2954]. Agrippa makes the entire length
of the coast of Gaul to be 1800 miles, measured from the Rhine to the
Pyrenees: and its length, from the ocean to the mountains of Gebenna
and Jura, excluding therefrom Gallia Narbonensis, he computes at 420
miles, the breadth being 318.

Beginning at the Scaldis, the parts beyond[2955] are inhabited by the
Toxandri, who are divided into various peoples with many names; after
whom come the Menapii[2956], the Morini[2957], the Oromarsaci[2958],
who are adjacent to the burgh which is known as Gesoriacum[2959],
the Britanni[2960], the Ambiani[2961], the Bellovaci[2962], the
Hassi[2963], and, more in the interior, the Catoslugi[2964], the
Atrebates[2965], the Nervii[2966], a free people, the Veromandui[2967],
the Suæuconi[2968], the Suessiones[2969], a free people, the
Ulmanetes[2970], a free people, the Tungri[2971], the Sunuci[2972], the
Frisiabones[2973], the Betasi[2974], the Leuci[2975], a free people,
the Treveri[2976], who were formerly free, and the Lingones[2977],
a federal state, the federal Remi[2978], the Mediomatrici[2979], the
Sequani[2980], the Raurici[2981], and the Helvetii[2982]. The Roman
colonies are Equestris[2983] and Rauriaca[2984]. The nations of
Germany which dwell in this province, near the sources of the Rhine,
are the Nemetes[2985], the Triboci[2986], and the Vangiones[2987];
nearer again[2988], the Ubii[2989], the Colony[2990] of Agrippina, the
Cugerni[2991], the Batavi[2992], and the peoples whom we have already
mentioned as dwelling on the islands of the Rhine.




CHAP. 32. (18.)—GALLIA LUGDUNENSIS.


That part of Gaul which is known as Lugdunensis[2993] contains
the Lexovii[2994], the Vellocasses[2995], the Galeti[2996], the
Veneti[2997], the Abrincatui[2998], the Ossismi[2999], and the
celebrated river Ligeris[3000], as also a most remarkable peninsula,
which extends into the ocean at the extremity[3001] of the territory
of the Ossismi, the circumference of which is 625[3002] miles, and its
breadth at the neck 125[3003]. Beyond this are the Nannetes[3004],
and in the interior are the Ædui[3005], a federal people, the
Carnuti[3006], a federal people, the Boii[3007], the Senones[3008],
the Aulerci, both those surnamed Eburovices[3009] and those called
Cenomanni[3010], the Meldi[3011], a free people, the Parisii[3012],
the Tricasses[3013], the Andecavi[3014], the Viducasses[3015],
the Bodiocasses[3016], the Venelli[3017], the Cariosvelites[3018],
the Diablinti[3019], the Rhedones[3020], the Turones[3021], the
Atesui[3022], and the Secusiani[3023], a free people, in whose
territory is the colony of Lugdunum[3024].




CHAP. 33. (19.)—GALLIA AQUITANICA.


In Aquitanica are the Ambilatri[3025], the Anagnutes[3026], the
Pictones[3027], the Santoni[3028], a free people, the Bituriges[3029],
surnamed Vivisci, the Aquitani[3030], from whom the province derives
its name, the Sediboviates[3031], the Convenæ[3032], who together form
one town, the Begerri[3033], the Tarbelli Quatuorsignani[3034], the
Cocosates Sexsignani[3035], the Venami[3036], the Onobrisates[3037],
the Belendi[3038], and then the Pyrenæan range. Below these
are the Monesi[3039], the Oscidates[3040] a mountain race, the
Sibyllates[3041], the Camponi[3042], the Bercorcates[3043],
the Pindedunni[3044], the Lassunni[3045], the Vellates[3046],
the Tornates[3047], the Consoranni[3048], the Ausci[3049], the
Elusates[3050], the Sottiates[3051], the Oscidates Campestres[3052],
the Succasses[3053], the Tarusates[3054], the Basabocates[3055], the
Vassei[3056], the Sennates, and the Cambolectri Agessinates[3057].
Joining up to the Pictones are the Bituriges[3058], a free people,
who are also known as the Cubi, and then the Lemovices[3059], the
Arverni[3060], a free people, and the Gabales[3061].

Again, adjoining the province of Narbonensis are the Ruteni[3062],
the Cadurci[3063], the Nitiobriges[3064], and the Petrocori[3065],
separated by the river Tarnis from the Tolosani. The seas around the
coast are the Northern Ocean, flowing up to the mouth of the Rhine,
the Britannic Ocean between the Rhine and the Sequana, and, between it
and the Pyrenees, the Gallic Ocean. There are many islands belonging
to the Veneti, which bear the name of “Veneticæ[3066],” as also in the
Aquitanic Gulf, that of Uliarus[3067].




CHAP. 34. (20.)—NEARER SPAIN, ITS COAST ALONG THE GALLIC OCEAN.


At the Promontory of the Pyrenees Spain begins, more narrow, not only
than Gaul, but even than itself[3068] in its other parts, as we have
previously mentioned[3069], seeing to what an immense extent it is
here hemmed in by the ocean on the one side, and by the Iberian Sea
on the other. A chain of the Pyrenees, extending from due east to
south-west[3070], divides Spain into two parts, the smaller one to
the north, the larger to the south. The first coast that presents
itself is that of the Nearer Spain, otherwise called Tarraconensis.
On leaving the Pyrenees and proceeding along the coast, we meet with
the forest ranges of the Vascones[3071], Olarso[3072], the towns of
the Varduli[3073], the Morosgi[3074], Menosca[3075], Vesperies[3076],
and the Port of Amanus[3077], where now stands the colony of
Flaviobriga. We then come to the district of the nine states of the
Cantabri[3078], the river Sauga[3079], and the Port of Victoria of the
Juliobrigenses[3080], from which place the sources of the Iberus[3081]
are distant forty miles. We next come to the Port of Blendium[3082],
the Orgenomesci[3083], a people of the Cantabri, Vereasueca[3084]
their port, the country of the Astures[3085], the town of
Noega[3086], and on a peninsula[3087], the Pæsici. Next to these we
have, belonging to the jurisdiction of Lucus[3088], after passing
the river Navilubio[3089], the Cibarci[3090], the Egovarri, surnamed
Namarini, the Iadoni, the Arrotrebæ[3091], the Celtic Promontory,
the rivers Florius[3092] and Nelo, the Celtici[3093], surnamed Neri,
and above them the Tamarici[3094], in whose peninsula[3095] are the
three altars called Sestianæ, and dedicated[3096] to Augustus; the
Capori[3097], the town of Noela[3098], the Celtici surnamed Præsamarci,
and the Cileni[3099]: of the islands, those worthy of mention are
Corticata[3100] and Aunios. After passing the Cileni, belonging to
the jurisdiction of the Bracari[3101], we have the Heleni[3102], the
Gravii[3103], and the fortress of Tyde, all of them deriving their
origin from the Greeks. Also, the islands called Cicæ[3104], the
famous city of Abobrica[3105], the river Minius[3106], four miles wide
at its mouth, the Leuni, the Seurbi[3107], and Augusta[3108], a town
of the Bracari, above whom lies Gallæcia. We then come to the river
Limia[3109], and the river Durius[3110], one of the largest in Spain,
and which rises in the district of the Pelendones[3111], passes near
Numantia, and through the Arevaci and the Vaccæi, dividing the Vettones
from Asturia, the Gallæci from Lusitania, and separating the Turduli
from the Bracari. The whole of the region here mentioned from the
Pyrenees is full of mines of gold, silver, iron, and lead, both black
and white[3112].




CHAP. 35. (21.)—LUSITANIA.


After passing the Durius, Lusitania[3113] begins. We here have
the ancient Turduli[3114], the Pæsuri, the river Vaga[3115], the
town of Talabrica, the town and river[3116] of Æminium, the towns
of Conimbrica[3117], Collippo[3118], and Eburobritium[3119]. A
promontory[3120] then advances into the sea in shape of a large
horn; by some it has been called Artabrum[3121], by others the Great
Promontory, while many call it the Promontory of Olisipo, from the
city[3122] near it. This spot forms a dividing line in the land, the
sea, and the heavens. Here ends one side[3123] of Spain; and, when we
have doubled the promontory, the front of Spain begins. (22.) On one
side of it lie the North and the Gallic Ocean, on the other the West
and the Atlantic. The length of this promontory has been estimated
by some persons at sixty miles, by others at ninety. A considerable
number of writers estimate the distance from this spot to the Pyrenees
at 1250 miles; and, committing a manifest error, place here the nation
of the Artabri, a nation that never[3124] was here. For, making a
slight change in the name, they have placed at this spot the Arrotrebæ,
whom we have previously spoken of as dwelling in front of the Celtic
Promontory.

Mistakes have also been made as to the more celebrated rivers. From
the Minius, which we have previously mentioned, according to Varro,
the river Æminius[3125] is distant 200 miles, which others[3126]
suppose to be situate elsewhere, and called Limæa. By the ancients it
was called the “River of Oblivion,” and it has been made the subject
of many fabulous stories. At a distance of 200 miles from the Durius
is the Tagus, the Munda[3127] lying between them. The Tagus is famous
for its golden sands[3128]. At a distance of 160 miles from it is the
Sacred Promontory[3129], projecting from nearly the very middle of the
front[3130] of Spain. From this spot to the middle of the Pyrenees,
Varro says, is a distance of 1400 miles; while to the Anas, by which we
have mentioned[3131] Lusitania as being separated from Bætica, is 126
miles, it being 102 more to Gades.

The peoples are the Celtici, the Turduli, and, about the Tagus, the
Vettones[3132]. From the river Anas to the Sacred Promontory[3133] are
the Lusitani. The cities worthy of mention on the coast, beginning
from the Tagus, are that of Olisipo[3134], famous for its mares, which
conceive[3135] from the west wind; Salacia[3136], which is surnamed
the Imperial City; Merobrica[3137]; and then the Sacred Promontory,
with the other known by the name of Cuneus[3138], and the towns of
Ossonoba[3139], Balsa[3140], and Myrtili[3141].

The whole of this province is divided into three jurisdictions, those
of Emerita, Pax, and Scalabis. It contains in all forty-six peoples,
among whom there are five colonies, one municipal town of Roman
citizens, three with the ancient Latin rights, and thirty-six that are
tributaries. The colonies are those of Augusta Emerita[3142], situate
on the river Anas, Metallinum[3143], Pax[3144], and Norba[3145],
surnamed Cæsariana. To this last place of jurisdiction the people
of Castra Servilia[3146] and Castra Cæcilia[3147] resort. The fifth
jurisdiction is that of Scalabis[3148], which also has the name of
Præsidium Julium[3149]. Olisipo, surnamed Felicitas Julia[3150],
is a municipal city, whose inhabitants enjoy the rights of Roman
citizens. The towns in the enjoyment of the ancient Latin rights are
Ebora[3151], which also has the name of Liberalitas Julia[3152],
and Myrtili and Salacia, which we have previously mentioned. Those
among the tributaries whom it may not be amiss to mention, in
addition to those already[3153] alluded to among the names of those
in Bætica, are the Augustobrigenses[3154], the Ammienses[3155], the
Aranditani, the Arabricenses, the Balsenses, the Cæsarobricenses, the
Caperenses[3156], the Caurenses[3157], the Colarni, the Cibilitani,
the Concordienses[3158], the Elbocorii, the Interannienses, the
Lancienses[3159], the Mirobrigenses, surnamed[3160] Celtici, the
Medubrigenses[3161], surnamed Plumbarii, the Ocelenses[3162] or
Lancienses, the Turduli, also called Barduli, and the Tapori. Agrippa
states, that Lusitania, with Asturia and Gallæcia, is 540 miles in
length, and 536 in breadth. The provinces of Spain, measured from the
two extreme[3163] promontories of the Pyrenees, along the sea-line of
the entire coast, are thought to be 3922 miles in circumference; while
some writers make them to be but 2600.




CHAP. 36.—THE ISLANDS IN THE ATLANTIC OCEAN.


Opposite to Celtiberia are a number of islands, by the Greeks called
Cassiterides[3164], in consequence of their abounding in tin: and,
facing the Promontory[3165] of the Arrotrebæ, are the six Islands of
the Gods, which some persons have called the Fortunate Islands[3166].
At the very commencement of Bætica, and twenty-five miles from
the mouth of the Straits of Gades, is the island of Gadis, twelve
miles long and three broad, as Polybius states in his writings. At
its nearest part, it is less than 700 feet[3167] distant from the
mainland, while in the remaining portion it is distant more than
seven miles. Its circuit is fifteen miles, and it has on it a city
which enjoys the rights of Roman citizens[3168], and whose people
are called the Augustani of the city of Julia Gaditana. On the side
which looks towards Spain, at about 100 paces distance, is another
long island, three miles wide, on which the original city of Gades
stood. By Ephorus and Philistides it is called Erythia, by Timæus and
Silenus Aphrodisias[3169], and by the natives the Isle of Juno. Timæus
says, that the larger island used to be called Cotinusa[3170], from
its olives; the Romans call it Tartessos[3171]; the Carthaginians
Gadir[3172], that word in the Punic language signifying a hedge. It
was called Erythia because the Tyrians, the original ancestors of the
Carthaginians, were said to have come from the Erythræan, or Red Sea.
In this island Geryon is by some thought to have dwelt, whose herds
were carried off by Hercules. Other persons again think, that his
island is another one, opposite to Lusitania, and that it was there
formerly called by that name[3173].




CHAP. 37. (23.)—THE GENERAL MEASUREMENT OF EUROPE.


Having thus made the circuit of Europe, we must now give the complete
measurement of it, in order that those who wish to be acquainted
with this subject may not feel themselves at a loss. Artemidorus and
Isidorus have given its length, from the Tanais to Gades, as 8214
miles. Polybius in his writings has stated the breadth of Europe, in
a line from Italy to the ocean, to be 1150 miles. But, even in his
day, its magnitude was but little known. The distance of Italy, as
we have previously[3174] stated, as for as the Alps, is 1120 miles,
from which, through Lugdunum to the British port of the Morini[3175],
the direction which Polybius seems to follow, is 1168 miles. But the
better ascertained, though greater length, is that taken from the Alps
through the Camp of the Legions[3176] in Germany, in a north-westerly
direction, to the mouth of the Rhine, being 1543 miles. We shall now
have to speak of Africa and Asia.

       *       *       *       *       *

SUMMARY.—Towns and nations mentioned * * * *. Noted rivers * * * *.
Famous mountains * * * *. Islands * * * *. People or towns no longer in
existence * * * *. Remarkable events, narratives, and observations * *
* *.

       *       *       *       *       *

ROMAN AUTHORS QUOTED.—Cato the Censor[3177], M. Varro[3178], M.
Agrippa[3179], the late Emperor Augustus[3180], Varro Atacinus[3181],
Cornelius Nepos[3182], Hyginus[3183], L. Vetus[3184], Mela
Pomponius[3185], Licinius Mucianus[3186], Fabricius Tuscus[3187],
Ateius Capito[3188], Ateius the Philologist[3189].

FOREIGN AUTHORS QUOTED.—Polybius[3190], Hecatæus[3191],
Hellanicus[3192], Damastes[3193], Eudoxus[3194], Dicæarchus[3195],
Timosthenes[3196], Eratosthenes[3197], Ephorus[3198], Crates the
Grammarian[3199], Serapion[3200] of Antioch, Callimachus[3201],
Artemidorus[3202], Apollodorus[3203], Agathocles[3204], Eumachus[3205],
Timæus the Sicilian[3206], Myrsilus[3207], Alexander Polyhistor[3208],
Thucydides[3209], Dosiades[3210], Anaximander[3211], Philistides
Mallotes[3212], Dionysius[3213], Aristides[3214], Callidemus[3215],
Menæchmus[3216], Aglaosthenes[3217], Anticlides[3218],
Heraclides[3219], Philemon[3220], Xenophon[3221], Pytheas[3222],
Isidorus[3223], Philonides[3224], Xenagoras[3225], Astynomus[3226],
Staphylus[3227], Aristocritus[3228], Metrodorus[3229], Cleobulus[3230],
Posidonius[3231].




BOOK V.

AN ACCOUNT OF COUNTRIES, NATIONS, SEAS, TOWNS, HAVENS, MOUNTAINS,
RIVERS, DISTANCES, AND PEOPLES WHO NOW EXIST OR FORMERLY EXISTED.




CHAP. 1.—THE TWO MAURITANIAS.


The Greeks have given the name of Libya[3232] to Africa, and have
called the sea that lies in front of it the Libyan Sea. It has Egypt
for its boundary, and no part of the earth is there that has fewer
gulfs or inlets, its shores extending in a lengthened line from the
west in an oblique direction. The names of its peoples, and its cities
in especial, cannot possibly be pronounced with correctness, except by
the aid of their own native tongues. Its population, too, for the most
part dwells only in fortresses[3233].

(1.) On our entrance into Africa, we find the two Mauritanias, which,
until the time of Caius Cæsar[3234], the son of Germanicus, were
kingdoms; but, suffering under his cruelty, they were divided into two
provinces. The extreme promontory of Africa, which projects into the
ocean, is called Ampelusia[3235] by the Greeks. There were formerly
two towns, Lissa and Cotte[3236], beyond the Pillars of Hercules;
but, at the present day, we only find that of Tingi[3237], which was
formerly founded by Antæus, and afterwards received the name of
Traducta Julia[3238], from Claudius Cæsar, when he established a colony
there. It is thirty miles distant from Belon[3239], a town of Bætica,
where the passage across is the shortest. At a distance of twenty-five
miles from Tingi, upon the shores of the ocean[3240], we come to Julia
Constantia Zilis[3241], a colony of Augustus. This place is exempt from
all subjection to the kings of Mauritania, and is included in the legal
jurisdiction of Bætica. Thirty-two miles distant from Julia Constantia
is Lixos[3242], which was made a Roman colony by Claudius Cæsar, and
which has been the subject of such wondrous fables, related by the
writers of antiquity. At this place, according to the story, was the
palace of Antæus; this was the scene of his combat with Hercules, and
here were the gardens of the Hesperides[3243]. An arm of the sea flows
into the land here, with a serpentine channel, and, from the nature
of the locality, this is interpreted at the present day as having been
what was really represented by the story of the dragon keeping guard
there. This tract of water surrounds an island, the only spot which
is never overflowed by the tides of the sea, although not quite so
elevated as the rest of the land in its vicinity. Upon this island,
also, there is still in existence the altar of Hercules; but of the
grove that bore the golden fruit, there are no traces left, beyond some
wild olive-trees. People will certainly be the less surprised at the
marvellous falsehoods of the Greeks, which have been related about this
place and the river Lixos[3244], when they reflect that some of our
own[3245] countrymen as well, and that too very recently, have related
stories in reference to them hardly less monstrous; how that this city
is remarkable for its power and extensive influence, and how that it is
even greater than Great Carthage ever was; how, too, that it is situate
just opposite to Carthage, and at an almost immeasurable distance from
Tingi, together with other details of a similar nature, all of which
Cornelius Nepos has believed with the most insatiate credulity[3246].

In the interior, at a distance of forty miles from Lixos, is
Babba[3247], surnamed Julia Campestris, another colony of Augustus;
and, at a distance of seventy-five, a third, called Banasa[3248],
with the surname of Valentia. At a distance of thirty-five miles from
this last is the town of Volubilis, which is just that distance also
from both[3249] seas. On the coast, at a distance of fifty miles from
Lixos, is the river Subur[3250], which flows past the colony of Banasa,
a fine river, and available for the purposes of navigation. At the
same distance from it is the city of Sala[3251], situate on a river
which bears the same name, a place which stands upon the very verge of
the desert, and though infested by troops of elephants, is much more
exposed to the attacks of the nation of the Autololes, through whose
country lies the road to Mount Atlas, the most fabulous[3252] locality
even in Africa.

It is from the midst of the sands, according to the story, that this
mountain[3253] raises its head to the heavens; rugged and craggy on the
side which looks toward the shores of the ocean to which it has given
its name, while on that which faces the interior of Africa it is shaded
by dense groves of trees, and refreshed by flowing streams; fruits of
all kinds springing up there spontaneously to such an extent, as to
more than satiate every possible desire. Throughout the daytime, no
inhabitant is to be seen; all is silent, like that dreadful stillness
which reigns in the desert. A religious horror steals imperceptibly
over the feelings of those who approach, and they feel themselves
smitten with awe at the stupendous aspect of its summit, which reaches
beyond the clouds, and well nigh approaches the very orb of the moon.
At night, they say, it gleams with fires innumerable lighted up; it is
then the scene of the gambols of the Ægipans[3254] and the Satyr crew,
while it re-echoes with the notes of the flute and the pipe, and the
clash of drums and cymbals. All this is what authors of high character
have stated, in addition to the labours which Hercules and Perseus
there experienced. The space which intervenes before you arrive at this
mountain is immense, and the country quite unknown.

There formerly existed some Commentaries written by Hanno[3255], a
Carthaginian general, who was commanded, in the most flourishing times
of the Punic state, to explore the sea-coast of Africa. The greater
part of the Greek and Roman writers have followed him, and have
related, among other fabulous stories, that many cities there were
founded by him, of which no remembrance, nor yet the slightest vestige,
now exists.

While Scipio Æmilianus held the command in Sicily, Polybius the
historian received a fleet from him for the purpose of proceeding on
a voyage of discovery in this part of the world. He relates, that
beyond[3256] Mount Atlas, proceeding in a westerly direction, there
are forests filled with wild beasts, peculiar to the soil of Africa,
as far as the river Anatis[3257], a distance of 485 miles, Lixos being
distant from it 205 miles. Agrippa says, that Lixos is distant from
the Straits of Gades 112 miles. After it we come to a gulf which is
called the Gulf of Saguti[3258], a town situate on the Promontory
of Mulelacha[3259], the rivers Subur and Salat[3260], and the port
of Rutubis[3261], distant from Lixos 213 miles. We then come to the
Promontory of the Sun[3262], the port of Risardir[3263], the Gætulian
Autololes, the river Cosenus[3264], the nations of the Selatiti and
the Masati, the river Masathat[3265], and the river Darat[3266],
in which crocodiles are found. After this we come to a large gulf,
616[3267] miles in extent, which is enclosed by a promontory of Mount
Barce[3268], which runs out in a westerly direction, and is called
Surrentium[3269]. Next comes the river Salsus[3270], beyond which lie
the Æthiopian Perorsi, at the back of whom are the Pharusii[3271], who
are bordered upon by the Gætulian Daræ[3272], lying in the interior.
Upon the coast again, we find the Æthiopian Daratitæ, and the river
Bambotus[3273], teeming with crocodiles and hippopotami. From this
river there is a continuous range[3274] of mountains till we come to
the one which is known by the name of Theon Ochema[3275], from which
to the Hesperian Promontory[3276] is a voyage of ten days and nights;
and in the middle of this space he[3277] has placed Mount Atlas, which
by all other writers has been stated to be in the extreme parts of
Mauritania.

The Roman arms, for the first time, pursued their conquests into
Mauritania, under the Emperor Claudius, when the freedman Ædemon took
up arms to avenge the death of King Ptolemy[3278], who had been put
to death by Caius Cæsar; and it is a well-known fact, that on the
flight of the barbarians our troops reached Mount Atlas. It became
a boast, not only among men of consular rank, and generals selected
from the senate, who at that time held the command, but among persons
of equestrian rank as well, who after that period held the government
there, that they had penetrated as far as Mount Atlas. There are, as we
have already stated, five Roman colonies in this province; and it may
very possibly appear, if we listen only to what report says, that this
mountain is easily accessible. Upon trial, however, it has been pretty
generally shown, that all such statements are utterly fallacious; and
it is too true, that men in high station, when they are disinclined
to take the trouble of inquiring into the truth, through a feeling of
shame at their ignorance are not averse to be guilty of falsehood; and
never is implicit credence more readily given, than when a falsehood
is supported by the authority of some personage of high consideration.
For my own part, I am far less surprised that there are still some
facts remaining undiscovered by men of the equestrian order, and even
those among them who have attained senatorial rank, than that the love
of luxury has left anything unascertained; the impulse of which must
be great indeed, and most powerfully felt, when the very forests are
ransacked for their ivory and citron-wood[3279], and all the rocks of
Gætulia are searched for the murex and the purple.

From the natives, however, we learn, that on the coast, at a distance
of 150 miles from the Salat, the river Asana[3280] presents itself; its
waters are salt, but it is remarkable for its fine harbour. They also
say that after this we come to a river known by the name of Fut[3281],
and then, after crossing another called Vior which lies on the road, at
a distance of 200 miles we arrive at Dyris[3282], such being the name
which in their language they give to Mount Atlas. According to their
story there are still existing in its vicinity many vestiges which tend
to prove that the locality was once inhabited; such as the remains of
vineyards and plantations of palm-trees.

Suetonius Paulinus[3283], whom we have seen Consul in our own time,
was the first Roman general who advanced a distance of some miles
beyond Mount Atlas. He has given us the same information as we have
received from other sources with reference to the extraordinary height
of this mountain, and at the same time he has stated that all the
lower parts about the foot of it are covered with dense and lofty
forests composed of trees of species hitherto unknown. The height of
these trees, he says, is remarkable; the trunks are without knots,
and of a smooth and glossy surface; the foliage is like that of the
cypress, and besides sending forth a powerful odour, they are covered
with a flossy down, from which, by the aid of art, a fine cloth might
easily be manufactured, similar to the textures made from the produce
of the silk-worm. He informs us that the summit of this mountain is
covered with snow even in summer, and says that having arrived there
after a march of ten days, he proceeded some distance beyond it as far
as a river which bears the name of Ger[3284]; the road being through
deserts covered with a black sand[3285], from which rocks that bore
the appearance of having been exposed to the action of fire, projected
every here and there; localities rendered quite uninhabitable by the
intensity of the heat, as he himself experienced, although it was in
the winter season that he visited them. We also learn from the same
source that the people who inhabit the adjoining forests, which are
full of all kinds of elephants, wild beasts, and serpents, have the
name of Canarii; from the circumstance that they partake of their food
in common with the canine race, and share with it the entrails of wild
beasts.

It is a well-known fact, that adjoining to these localities is a
nation of Æthiopians, which bears the name of Perorsi. Juba, the
father of Ptolemy, who was the first king[3286] who reigned over
both the Mauritanias, and who has been rendered even more famous by
the brilliancy of his learning than by his kingly rank, has given us
similar information relative to Mount Atlas, and states that a certain
herb grows there, which has received the name of ‘euphorbia’[3287]
from that of his physician, who was the first to discover it. Juba
extols with wondrous praises the milky juice of this plant as tending
to improve the sight, and acting as a specific against the bites of
serpents and all kinds of poison; and to this subject alone he has
devoted an entire book. Thus much, if indeed not more than enough,
about Mount Atlas.

(2.) The province of Tingitana is 170 miles in length[3288]. Of the
nations in this province the principal one was formerly that of the
Mauri[3289], who have given to it the name of Mauritania, and have
been by many writers called the Maurusii[3290]. This nation has been
greatly weakened by the disasters of war, and is now dwindled down
to a few families only[3291]. Next to the Mauri was formerly the
nation of the Massæsyli[3292]; they in a similar manner have become
extinct. Their country is now occupied by the Gætulian nations[3293],
the Baniuræ[3294], the Autololes[3295], by far the most powerful
people among them all, and the Vesuni, who formerly were a part of
the Autololes, but have now separated from them, and, turning their
steps towards the Æthiopians[3296], have formed a distinct nation of
their own. This province, in the mountainous district which lies on
its eastern side, produces elephants, as also on the heights of Mount
Abyla[3297] and among those elevations which, from the similarity of
their height, are called the Seven Brothers[3298]. Joining the range of
Abyla these mountains overlook the Straits of Gades. At the extremity
of this chain begin the shores of the inland sea[3299], and we come to
the Tamuda[3300], a navigable stream, with the site of a former town of
the same name, and then the river Laud[3301], which is also navigable
for vessels, the town and port of Rhysaddir[3302], and Malvane[3303], a
navigable stream.

The city of Siga[3304], formerly the residence of King Syphax, lies
opposite to that of Malaca[3305] in Spain: it now belongs to the
second[3306] Mauritania. But these countries, I should remark, for a
long time retained the names of their respective kings, the further
Mauritania being called the “land of Bogud[3307],” while that which
is now called Cæsariensis was called the “country of Bocchus.” After
passing Siga we come to the haven called “Portus Magnus[3308]” from
its great extent, with a town whose people enjoy the rights of Roman
citizens, and then the river Mulucha[3309], which served as the limit
between the territory of Bocchus and that of the Massæsyli. Next
to this is Quiza Xenitana[3310], a town founded by strangers, and
Arsenaria[3311], a place with the ancient Latin rights, three miles
distant from the sea. We then come to Cartenna[3312], a colony founded
under Augustus by the second legion, and Gunugum[3313], another colony
founded by the same emperor, a prætorian cohort being established
there; the Promontory of Apollo[3314], and a most celebrated city,
now called Cæsarea[3315], but formerly known by the name of Iol; this
place was the residence of King Juba, and received the rights of a
colony from the now deified Emperor Claudius. Oppidum Novum[3316] is
the next place; a colony of veterans was established here by command
of the same emperor. Next to it is Tipasa[3317], which has received
Latin rights, as also Icasium[3318], which has been presented by the
Emperor Vespasianus with similar rights; Rusconiæ[3319], a colony
founded by Augustus; Rusucurium[3320], honoured by Claudius with
the rights of Roman citizens; Ruzacus[3321], a colony founded by
Augustus; Salde[3322], another colony founded by the same emperor;
Igilgili[3323], another; and the town of Tucca[3324], situate on the
sea-shore and upon the river Ampsaga. In the interior are the colony
of Augusta, also called Succabar[3325], Tubusuptus[3326], the cities
of Timici and Tigavæ[3327], the rivers Sardabal[3328], Aves[3329], and
Nabar[3330], the nation of the Macurebi, the river Usar[3331], and
the nation of the Nababes. The river Ampsaga is distant from Cæsarea
322[3332] miles. The length of the two Mauritanias is 1038, and their
breadth 467 miles.




CHAP. 2. (3.)—NUMIDIA.


At the river Ampsaga Numidia begins, a country rendered illustrious
by the fame of Masinissa. By the Greeks this region was called
Metagonitis[3333]; and the Numidians received the name of “Nomades”
from their frequent changes of pasturage; upon which occasions they
were accustomed to carry[3334] their _mapalia_, or in other words,
their houses, upon waggons. The towns of this country are Cullu[3335]
and Rusicade[3336]; and at a distance of forty-eight miles from the
latter, in the interior, is the colony of Cirta[3337], surnamed “of the
Sitiani;” still more inland is another colony called Sicca[3338], with
the free town of Bulla Regia[3339]. On the coast are Tacatua[3340],
Hippo Regius[3341], the river Armua[3342], and the town of
Tabraca[3343], with the rights of Roman citizens. The river Tusca[3344]
forms the boundary of Numidia. This country produces nothing remarkable
except its marble[3345] and wild beasts.




CHAP. 3. (4.)—AFRICA.


Beyond the river Tusca begins the region of Zeugitana[3346], and that
part which properly bears the name of Africa[3347]. We here find
three promontories; the White Promontory[3348], the Promontory of
Apollo[3349], facing Sardinia, and that of Mercury[3350], opposite
to Sicily. Projecting into the sea these headlands form two gulfs,
the first of which bears the name of “Hipponensis” from its proximity
to the city called Hippo Dirutus[3351], a corruption of the Greek
name Diarrhytus, which it has received from the channels made for
irrigation. Adjacent to this place, but at a greater distance from
the sea-shore, is Theudalis[3352], a town exempt from tribute. We
then come to the Promontory of Apollo, and upon the second gulf, we
find Utica[3353], a place enjoying the rights of Roman citizens, and
famous for the death of Cato; the river Bagrada[3354], the place called
Castra Cornelia[3355], the colony[3356] of Carthage, founded upon
the remains of Great Carthage[3357], the colony of Maxula[3358], the
towns of Carpi[3359], Misua, and Clypea[3360], the last a free town,
on the Promontory of Mercury; also Curubis, a free town[3361], and
Neapolis[3362].

Here commences the second division[3363] of Africa properly so called.
Those who inhabit Byzacium have the name of Libyphœnices[3364].
Byzacium is the name of a district which is 250 miles in circumference,
and is remarkable for its extreme fertility, as the ground returns the
seed sown by the husbandman with interest a hundred-fold[3365]. Here
are the free towns of Leptis[3366], Adrumetum[3367], Ruspina[3368],
and Thapsus[3369]; and then Thenæ[3370], Macomades[3371], Tacape[3372],
and Sabrata[3373] which touches on the Lesser Syrtis; to which spot,
from the Ampsaga, the length of Numidia and Africa is 580 miles, and
the breadth, so far as it has been ascertained, 200. That portion
which we have called Africa is divided into two provinces, the Old and
the New; these are separated by a dyke which was made by order of the
second Scipio Africanus[3374] and the kings[3375], and extended to
Thenæ, which town is distant from Carthage 216 miles.




CHAP. 4.—THE SYRTES.


A third Gulf is divided into two smaller ones, those of the two
Syrtes[3376], which are rendered perilous by the shallows of their
quicksands and the ebb and flow of the sea. Polybius states the
distance from Carthage to the Lesser Syrtis, the one which is nearest
to it, to be 300 miles. The inlet to it he also states to be 100
miles across, and its circumference 300. There is also a way[3377] to
it by land, to find which we must employ the guidance of the stars
and cross deserts which present nothing but sand and serpents. After
passing these we come to forests filled with vast multitudes of wild
beasts and elephants, then desert wastes[3378], and beyond them the
Garamantes[3379], distant twelve days’ journey from the Augylæ[3380].
Above the Garamantes was formerly the nation of the Psylli[3381], and
above them again the Lake of Lycomedes[3382], surrounded with deserts.
The Augylæ themselves are situate almost midway between Æthiopia which
faces the west[3383], and the region which lies between[3384] the two
Syrtes, at an equal distance from both. The distance along the coast
that lies between the two Syrtes is 250 miles. On it are found the city
of Œa[3385], the river Cinyps[3386], and the country of that name, the
towns of Neapolis[3387], Graphara[3388], and Abrotonum[3389], and the
second, surnamed the Greater, Leptis[3390].

We next come to the Greater Syrtis, 625 miles in circumference, and at
the entrance 312 miles in width; next after which dwells the nation
of the Cisippades. At the bottom of this gulf was the coast of the
Lotophagi, whom some writers have called the Alachroæ[3391], extending
as far as the Altars of the Philæni[3392]; these Altars are formed
of heaps of sand. On passing these, not far from the shore there is
a vast swamp[3393] which receives the river Triton[3394] and from it
takes its name: by Callimachus it is called Pallantias[3395], and is
said by him to be on the nearer side of the Lesser Syrtis; many other
writers however place it between the two Syrtes. The promontory which
bounds the Greater Syrtis has the name of Borion[3396]; beyond it is
the province of Cyrene.

Africa, from the river Ampsaga to this limit, includes 516 peoples, who
are subject to the Roman sway, of which six are colonies; among them
Uthina[3397] and Tuburbi[3398], besides those already mentioned. The
towns enjoying the rights of Roman citizens are fifteen in number, of
which I shall mention, as lying in the interior, those of Assuræ[3399],
Abutucum, Aborium, Canopicum[3400], Cilma[3401], Simithium,
Thunusidium, Tuburnicum, Tynidrumum, Tibiga, the two towns called
Ucita, the Greater and the Lesser, and Vaga. There is also one town
with Latin rights, Uzalita by name, and one town of tributaries, Castra
Cornelia[3402]. The free towns are thirty in number, among which we
may mention, in the interior, those of Acholla[3403], Aggarita, Avina,
Abzirita, Canopita, Melizita, Matera, Salaphita, Tusdrita[3404],
Tiphica, Tunica[3405], Theuda, Tagasta[3406], Tiga[3407], Ulusubrita,
a second Vaga, Visa, and Zama[3408]. Of the remaining number, most of
them should be called, in strictness, not only cities, but nations
even; such for instance as the Natabudes, the Capsitani[3409],
the Musulami, the Sabarbares, the Massyli[3410], the Nisives, the
Vamacures, the Cinithi, the Musuni, the Marchubii[3411], and the whole
of Gætulia[3412], as far as the river Nigris[3413], which separates
Africa proper from Æthiopia.




CHAP. 5. (5.)—CYRENAICA.


The region of Cyrenaica, also called Pentapolis[3414], is rendered
famous by the oracle of Hammon[3415], which is distant 400 miles
from the city of Cyrene; also by the Fountain of the Sun[3416]
there, and five cities in especial, those of Berenice[3417],
Arsinoë[3418], Ptolemais[3419], Apollonia[3420], and Cyrene[3421]
itself. Berenice is situate upon the outer promontory that bounds the
Syrtis; it was formerly called the city of the Hesperides (previously
mentioned[3422]), according to the fables of the Greeks, which very
often change their localities. Not far from the city, and running
before it, is the river Lethon, and with it a sacred grove, where
the gardens of the Hesperides are said to have formerly stood; this
city is distant from Leptis 375 miles. From Berenice to Arsinoë,
commonly called Teuchira, is forty-three miles; after which, at a
distance of twenty-two, we come to Ptolemais, the ancient name of
which was Barce; and at a distance of forty miles from this last the
Promontory of Phycus[3423], which extends far away into the Cretan
Sea, being 350 miles distant from Tænarum[3424], the promontory of
Laconia, and from Crete 225. After passing this promontory we come to
Cyrene, which stands at a distance of eleven miles from the sea. From
Phycus to Apollonia[3425] is twenty-four miles, and from thence to
the Chersonesus[3426] eighty-eight; from which to Catabathmos[3427]
is a distance of 216 miles. The Marmaridæ[3428] inhabit this coast,
extending from almost the region of Parætonium[3429] to the Greater
Syrtis; after them the Ararauceles, and then, upon the coasts of
the Syrtis, the Nasamones[3430], whom the Greeks formerly called
Mesammones, from the circumstance of their being located in the very
midst of sands[3431]. The territory of Cyrene, to a distance of fifteen
miles from the shore, is said to abound in trees, while for the same
distance beyond that district it is only suitable for the cultivation
of corn: after which, a tract of land, thirty miles in breadth and 250
in length, is productive of nothing but laser [or silphium[3432]].

After the Nasamones we come to the dwellings of the Asbystæ and the
Macæ[3433], and beyond them, at eleven days’ journey to the west of the
Greater Syrtis, the Amantes[3434], a people also surrounded by sands
in every direction. They find water however without any difficulty at
a depth mostly of about two cubits, as their district receives the
overflow of the waters of Mauritania. They build houses with blocks of
salt[3435], which they cut out of their mountains just as we do stone.
From this nation to the Troglodytæ[3436] the distance is seven days’
journey in a south-westerly direction, a people with whom our only
intercourse is for the purpose of procuring from them the precious
stone which we call the carbuncle, and which is brought from the
interior of Æthiopia. Upon the road to this last people, but turning
off towards the deserts of Africa, of which we have previously[3437]
made mention as lying beyond the Lesser Syrtis, is the region of
Phazania[3438]; the nation of Phazanii, belonging to which, as well
as the cities of Alele[3439] and Cilliba[3440], we have subdued by
force of arms, as also Cydamus[3441], which lies over against Sabrata.
After passing these places a range of mountains extends in a prolonged
chain from east to west: these have received from our people the name
of the Black Mountains[3442], either from the appearance which they
naturally bear of having been exposed to the action of fire, or else
from the fact that they have been scorched by the reflection of the
sun’s rays. Beyond it[3443] is the desert, and then Talgæ, a city of
the Garamantes, and Debris, at which place there is a spring[3444],
the waters of which, from noon to midnight, are at boiling heat, and
then freeze for as many hours until the following noon; Garama too,
that most famous capital of the Garamantes; all which places have been
subdued by the Roman arms. It was on this occasion that Cornelius
Balbus[3445] was honoured with a triumph, the only foreigner indeed
that was ever honoured with the triumphal chariot, and presented
with the rights of a Roman citizen; for, although by birth a native
of Gades, the Roman citizenship was granted to him as well as to the
elder Balbus[3446], his uncle by the father’s side. There is also this
remarkable circumstance, that our writers have handed down to us the
names of the cities above-mentioned as having been taken by Balbus, and
have informed us that on the occasion of his triumph[3447], besides
Cydamus and Garama[3448], there were carried in the procession the
names and models of all the other nations and cities, in the following
order: the town of Tabudium[3449], the nation of Niteris, the town
of Nigligemella, the nation or town of Bubeium[3450], the nation of
Enipi, the town of Thuben, the mountain known as the Black Mountain,
Nitibrum, the towns called Rapsa, the nation of Discera[3451], the town
of Debris[3452], the river Nathabur[3453], the town of Thapsagum[3454],
the nation of Nannagi, the town of Boin, the town of Pege[3455],
the river Dasibari; and then the towns, in the following order, of
Baracum, Buluba, Alasit, Galia, Balla, Maxalla[3456], Zizama, and Mount
Gyri[3457], which was preceded by an inscription stating that this was
the place where precious stones were produced.

Up to the present time it has been found impracticable to keep open
the road that leads to the country of the Garamantes, as the predatory
bands of that nation have filled up the wells with sand, which do not
require to be dug for to any great depth, if you only have a knowledge
of the locality. In the late war[3458] however, which, at the beginning
of the reign of the Emperor Vespasian, the Romans carried on with the
people of Œa, a short cut of only four days’ journey was discovered;
this road is known as the “Præter Caput Saxi[3459].” The last place in
the territory of Cyrenaica is Catabathmos, consisting of a town, and a
valley with a sudden and steep descent. The length of Cyrenean Africa,
up to this boundary from the Lesser Syrtis, is 1060 miles; and, so far
as has been ascertained, it is 800[3460] in breadth.




CHAP. 6. (6.)—LIBYA MAREOTIS.


The region that follows is called Libya Mareotis[3461], and borders
upon Egypt. It is held by the Marmaridæ, the Adyrmachidæ, and, after
them, the Mareotæ. The distance from Catabathmos to Parætonium is
eighty-six miles. In this district is Apis[3462], a place rendered
famous by the religious belief of Egypt. From this town Parætonium is
distant sixty-two miles, and from thence to Alexandria the distance is
200 miles, the breadth of the district being 169. Eratosthenes says
that it is 525 miles by land from Cyrene to Alexandria; while Agrippa
gives the length of the whole of Africa from the Atlantic Sea, and
including Lower Egypt, as 3040 miles. Polybius and Eratosthenes, who
are generally considered as remarkable for their extreme correctness,
state the length to be, from the ocean to Great Carthage 1100 miles,
and from Carthage to Canopus, the nearest mouth of the Nile, 1628
miles; while Isidorus speaks of the distance from Tingi to Canopus as
being 3599 miles. Artemidorus makes this last distance forty miles less
than Isidorus.




CHAP. 7. (7.)—THE ISLANDS IN THE VICINITY OF AFRICA.


These seas contain not so very many islands. The most famous among
them is Meninx[3463], twenty-five miles in length and twenty-two in
breadth: by Eratosthenes it is called Lotophagitis. This island has
two towns, Meninx on the side which faces Africa, and Troas on the
other; it is situate off the promontory which lies on the right-hand
side of the Lesser Syrtis, at a distance of a mile and a half. One
hundred miles from this island, and opposite the promontory that lies
on the left, is the free island of Cercina[3464], with a city of the
same name. It is twenty-five miles long, and half that breadth at the
place where it is the widest, but not more than five miles across at
the extremity: the diminutive island of Cercinitis[3465], which looks
towards Carthage, is united to it by a bridge. At a distance of nearly
fifty miles from these is the island of Lopadusa[3466], six miles in
length; and beyond it Gaulos and Galata, the soil of which kills the
scorpion, that noxious reptile of Africa. It is also said that the
scorpion will not live at Clypea; opposite to which place lies the
island of Cosyra[3467], with a town of the same name. Opposite to the
Gulf of Carthage are the two islands known as the Ægimuri[3468]; the
Altars[3469], which are rather rocks than islands, lie more between
Sicily and Sardinia. There are some authors who state that these rocks
were once inhabited, but that they have gradually subsided in the sea.




CHAP. 8. (8.)—COUNTRIES ON THE OTHER SIDE OF AFRICA.


If we pass through the interior of Africa in a southerly direction,
beyond the Gætuli, after having traversed the intervening deserts,
we shall find, first of all the Liby-Egyptians[3470], and then
the country where the Leucæthiopians[3471] dwell. Beyond[3472]
these are the Nigritæ[3473], nations of Æthiopia, so called from
the river Nigris[3474], which has been previously mentioned, the
Gymnetes[3475], surnamed Pharusii, and, on the very margin of the
ocean, the Perorsi[3476], whom we have already spoken of as lying on
the boundaries of Mauritania. After passing all these peoples, there
are vast deserts towards the east until we come to the Garamantes, the
Augylæ, and the Troglodytæ; the opinion of those being exceedingly
well founded who place two Æthiopias beyond the deserts of Africa, and
more particularly that expressed by Homer[3477], who tells us that the
Æthiopians are divided into two nations, those of the east and those of
the west. The river Nigris has the same characteristics as the Nile;
it produces the calamus, the papyrus, and just the same animals, and
it rises at the same seasons of the year. Its source is between the
Tarrælian Æthiopians and the Œcalicæ. Magium, the city of the latter
people, has been placed by some writers amid the deserts, and, next
to them the Atlantes; then the Ægipani, half men, half beasts, the
Blemmyæ[3478], the Gamphasantes, the Satyri, and the Himantopodes.

The Atlantes[3479], if we believe what is said, have lost all
characteristics of humanity; for there is no mode of distinguishing
each other among them by names, and as they look upon the rising and
the setting sun, they give utterance to direful imprecations against
it, as being deadly to themselves and their lands; nor are they
visited with dreams[3480], like the rest of mortals. The Troglodytæ
make excavations in the earth, which serve them for dwellings; the
flesh of serpents is their food; they have no articulate voice, but
only utter a kind of squeaking noise[3481]; and thus are they utterly
destitute of all means of communication by language. The Garamantes
have no institution of marriage among them, and live in promiscuous
concubinage with their women. The Augylæ worship no deities[3482] but
the gods of the infernal regions. The Gamphasantes, who go naked, and
are unacquainted with war[3483], hold no intercourse whatever with
strangers. The Blemmyæ are said to have no heads, their mouths and
eyes being seated in their breasts. The Satyri[3484], beyond their
figure, have nothing in common with the manners of the human race,
and the form of the Ægipani[3485] is such as is commonly represented
in paintings. The Himantopodes[3486] are a race of people with feet
resembling thongs, upon which they move along by nature with a
serpentine, crawling kind of gait. The Pharusii, descended from the
ancient Persians, are said to have been the companions of Hercules when
on his expedition to the Hesperides. Beyond the above, I have met with
nothing relative to Africa[3487] worthy of mention.




CHAP. 9. (9.)—EGYPT AND THEBAIS.


Joining on to Africa is Asia, the extent of which, according to
Timosthenes, from the Canopic mouth of the Nile to the mouth of the
Euxine, is 2639 miles. From the mouth of the Euxine to that of Lake
Mæotis is, according to Eratosthenes, 1545 miles. The whole distance to
the Tanais, including Egypt, is, according to Artemidorus and Isidorus,
6375[3488] miles. The seas of Egypt, which are several in number, have
received their names from those who dwell upon their shores, for which
reason they will be mentioned together.

Egypt is the country which lies next to Africa; in the interior it runs
in a southerly direction, as far as the territory of the Æthiopians,
who lie extended at the back of it. The river Nile, dividing itself,
forms on the right and left the boundary of its lower part, which it
embraces on every side[3489]. By the Canopic mouth of that river it is
separated from Africa, and by the Pelusiac from Asia, there being a
distance between the two of 170 miles. For this reason it is that some
persons have reckoned Egypt among the islands, the Nile so dividing
itself as to give a triangular form to the land which it encloses: from
which circumstance also many persons have named Egypt the Delta[3490],
after that of the Greek letter so called. The distance from the spot
where the channel of the river first divides into branches, to the
Canopic mouth, is 146 miles, and to the Pelusiac, 166.

The upper part of Egypt, which borders on Æthiopia, is known as
Thebais. This district is divided into prefectures of towns, which
are generally designated as “Nomes.” These are Ombites[3491],
Apollopolites[3492], Hermonthites[3493], Thinites[3494],
Phaturites[3495], Coptites[3496], Tentyrites[3497], Diopolites[3498],
Antæopolites[3499], Aphroditopolites[3500], and Lycopolites[3501]. The
district which lies in the vicinity of Pelusium contains the following
Nomes, Pharbæthites, Bubastites[3502], Sethroites, and Tanites[3503].
The remaining Nomes are those called the Arabian; the Hammonian,
which lies on the road to the oracle of Jupiter Hammon; and those
known by the names of Oxyrynchites, Leontopolites, Athribites[3504],
Cynopolites[3505], Hermopolites[3506], Xoites, Mendesium,
Sebennytes[3507], Cabasites, Latopolites, Heliopolites, Prosopites,
Panopolites, Busirites[3508], Onuphites[3509], Saïtes[3510], Ptenethu,
Phthemphu[3511], Naucratites[3512], Metelites, Gynæcopolites,
Menelaites,—all in the region of Alexandria, besides Mareotis in Libya.

Heracleopolites[3513] is a Nome on an island[3513] of the Nile,
fifty miles in length, upon which there is a city, called the ‘City
of Hercules.’ There are two places called Arsinoïtes[3514]: these
and Memphites[3515] extend to the apex[3516] of the Delta; adjoining
to which, on the side of Africa, are the two Nomes of Oasites[3517].
Some writers vary in some of these names and substitute for them other
Nomes, such as Heroöpolites[3518] and Crocodilopolites[3519]. Between
Arsinoïtes and Memphites, a lake[3520], 250 miles, or, according to
what Mucianus says, 450 miles in circumference and fifty paces deep,
has been formed by artificial means: after the king by whose orders it
was made, it is called by the name of Mœris. The distance from thence
to Memphis is nearly sixty-two miles, a place which was formerly the
citadel of the kings of Egypt; from thence to the oracle of Hammon
it is twelve days’ journey. Memphis is fifteen miles from the spot
where the river Nile divides into the different channels which we have
mentioned as forming the Delta.




CHAP. 10.—THE RIVER NILE.


The sources of the Nile[3521] are unascertained, and, travelling as
it does for an immense distance through deserts and burning sands, it
is only known to us by common report, having neither experienced the
vicissitudes of warfare, nor been visited by those arms which have
so effectually explored all other regions. It rises, so far indeed
as King Juba was enabled to ascertain, in a mountain[3522] of Lower
Mauritania, not far from the ocean; immediately after which it forms
a lake of standing water, which bears the name of Nilides[3523]. In
this lake are found the several kinds of fish known by the names of
alabeta[3524], coracinus, and silurus; a crocodile also was brought
thence as a proof that this really is the Nile, and was consecrated
by Juba himself in the temple of Isis at Cæsarea[3525], where it may
be seen at the present day. In addition to these facts, it has been
observed that the waters of the Nile rise in the same proportion in
which the snows and rains of Mauritania increase. Pouring forth from
this lake, the river disdains to flow through arid and sandy deserts,
and for a distance of several days’ journey conceals itself; after
which it bursts forth at another lake of greater magnitude in the
country of the Massæsyli[3526], a people of Mauritania Cæsariensis,
and thence casts a glance around, as it were, upon the communities
of men in its vicinity, giving proofs of its identity in the same
peculiarities of the animals which it produces. It then buries itself
once again in the sands of the desert, and remains concealed for a
distance of twenty days’ journey, till it has reached the confines of
Æthiopia. Here, when it has once more become sensible of the presence
of man, it again emerges, at the same source, in all probability, to
which writers have given the name of Niger, or Black. After this,
forming the boundary-line between Africa and Æthiopia, its banks,
though not immediately peopled by man, are the resort of numbers of
wild beasts and animals of various kinds. Giving birth in its course
to dense forests of trees, it travels through the middle of Æthiopia,
under the name of Astapus, a word which signifies, in the language of
the nations who dwell in those regions, “water issuing from the shades
below.” Proceeding onwards, it divides[3527] innumerable islands in
its course, and some of them of such vast magnitude, that although its
tide runs with the greatest rapidity, it is not less than five days
in passing them. When making the circuit of Meroë, the most famous of
these islands, the left branch of the river is called Astobores[3528],
or, in other words, “an arm of the water that issues from the shades,”
while the right arm has the name of Astosapes[3529], which adds to its
original signification the meaning of “side[3530].” It does not obtain
the name of “Nile” until its waters have again met and are united in a
single stream; and even then, for some miles both above and below the
point of confluence, it has the name of Siris. Homer has given to the
whole of this river the name of Ægyptus, while other writers again have
called it Triton[3531]. Every now and then its course is interrupted by
islands which intervene, and which only serve as so many incentives to
add to the impetuosity of its torrent; and though at last it is hemmed
in by mountains on either side, in no part is the tide more rapid and
precipitate. Its waters then hastening onwards, it is borne along to
the spot in the country of the Æthiopians which is known by the name of
“Catadupi[3532];” where, at the last Cataract[3533], the complaint is,
not that it flows, but that it rushes, with an immense noise between
the rocks that lie in its way: after which it becomes more smooth,
the violence of its waters is broken and subdued, and, wearied out as
it were by the length of the distance it has travelled, it discharges
itself, though by many mouths[3534], into the Egyptian sea. During
certain days of the year, however, the volume of its waters is greatly
increased, and as it traverses the whole of Egypt, it inundates the
earth, and, by so doing, greatly promotes its fertility.

There have been various reasons suggested for this increase of the
river. Of these, however, the most probable are, either that its
waters are driven back by the Etesian winds[3535], which are blowing
at this season of the year from an opposite direction, and that the
sea which lies beyond is driven into the mouths of the river; or else
that its waters are swollen by the summer rains of Æthiopia[3536],
which fall from the clouds conveyed thither by the Etesian winds from
other parts of the earth. Timæus the mathematician has alleged a reason
of an occult nature: he says that the source of the river is known
by the name of Phiala, and that the stream buries itself in channels
underground, where it sends forth vapours generated by the heat among
the steaming rocks amid which it conceals itself; but that, during the
days of the inundation, in consequence of the sun approaching nearer
to the earth, the waters are drawn forth by the influence of his heat,
and on being thus exposed to the air, overflow; after which, in order
that it may not be utterly dried up, the stream hides itself once more.
He says that this takes place at the rising of the Dog-Star, when the
sun enters the sign of Leo, and stands in a vertical position over the
source of the river, at which time at that spot there is no shadow
thrown. Most authors, however, are of opinion, on the contrary, that
the river flows in greater volume when the sun takes his departure for
the north, which he does when he enters the signs of Cancer and Leo,
because its waters then are not dried up to so great an extent; while
on the other hand, when he returns towards the south pole and re-enters
Capricorn, its waters are absorbed by the heat, and consequently flow
in less abundance. If there is any one inclined to be of opinion, with
Timæus, that the waters of the river may be drawn out of the earth by
the heat, it will be as well for him to bear in mind the fact, that the
absence of shadow is a phænomenon which lasts continuously[3537] in
these regions.

The Nile begins to increase at the next new moon after the summer
solstice, and rises slowly and gradually as the sun passes through the
sign of Cancer; it is at its greatest height while the sun is passing
through Leo, and it falls as slowly and gradually as it arose while he
is passing through the sign of Virgo. It has totally subsided between
its banks, as we learn from Herodotus, on the hundredth day, when
the sun has entered Libra. While it is rising it has been pronounced
criminal for kings or prefects even to sail upon its waters. The
measure of its increase is ascertained by means of wells[3538]. Its
most desirable height is sixteen cubits[3539]; if the waters do not
attain that height, the overflow is not universal; but if they exceed
that measure, by their slowness in receding they tend to retard the
process of cultivation. In the latter case the time for sowing is lost,
in consequence of the moisture of the soil; in the former, the ground
is so parched that the seed-time comes to no purpose. The country has
reason to make careful note of either extreme. When the water rises
to only twelve cubits, it experiences the horrors of famine; when
it attains thirteen, hunger is still the result; a rise of fourteen
cubits is productive of gladness; a rise of fifteen sets all anxieties
at rest; while an increase of sixteen is productive of unbounded
transports of joy. The greatest increase known, up to the present time,
is that of eighteen cubits, which took place in the time of the Emperor
Claudius; the smallest rise was that of five, in the year of the battle
of Pharsalia[3540], the river by this prodigy testifying its horror, as
it were, at the murder of Pompeius Magnus. When the waters have reached
their greatest height, the people open the embankments and admit them
to the lands. As each district is left by the waters, the business of
sowing commences. This is the only river in existence that emits no
vapours[3541].

The Nile first enters the Egyptian territory at Syene[3542], on
the frontiers of Æthiopia; that is the name of a peninsula a mile
in circumference, upon which Castra[3543] is situate, on the side
of Arabia. Opposite to it are the four islands of Philæ[3544], at a
distance of 600 miles from the place where the Nile divides into two
channels; at which spot, as we have already stated, the Delta, as
it is called, begins. This, at least, is the distance, according to
Artemidorus, who also informs us that there were in it 250 towns; Juba
says, however, that the distance between these places is 400 miles.
Aristocreon says that the distance from Elephantis to the sea is 750
miles; Elephantis[3545] being an inhabited island four miles below the
last Cataract, sixteen[3546] beyond Syene, 585 from Alexandria, and the
extreme limit of the navigation of Egypt. To such an extent as this
have the above-named authors[3547] been mistaken! This island is the
place of rendezvous for the vessels of the Æthiopians; they are made to
fold up[3548], and the people carry them on their shoulders whenever
they come to the Cataracts.




CHAP. 11.—THE CITIES OF EGYPT.


Egypt, besides its boast of extreme antiquity, asserts that it
contained, in the reign of King Amasis[3549], 20,000 inhabited
cities: in our day they are still very numerous, though no longer
of any particular note. Still however we find the following ones
mentioned as of great renown—the city of Apollo[3550]; next, that
of Leucothea[3551]; then Great Diospolis[3552], otherwise Thebes,
known to fame for its hundred gates; Coptos[3553], which from its
proximity to the Nile, forms its nearest emporium for the merchandise
of India and Arabia; then the town of Venus[3554], and then another
town of Jupiter[3555]. After this comes Tentyris[3556], below which
is Abydus[3557], the royal abode of Memnon, and famous for a temple
of Osiris[3558], which is situate in Libya[3559], at a distance from
the river of seven miles and a half. Next to it comes Ptolemais[3560],
then Panopolis[3561], and then another town of Venus[3562], and, on
the Libyan side, Lycon[3563], where the mountains form the boundary
of the province of Thebais. On passing these, we come to the towns of
Mercury[3564], Alabastron[3565], the town of Dogs[3566], and that of
Hercules already mentioned[3567]. We next come to Arsinoë[3568], and
Memphis[3569], which has been previously mentioned; between which last
and the Nome of Arsinoïtes, upon the Libyan side, are the towers known
as the Pyramids, the Labyrinth[3570] on Lake Mœris, in the construction
of which no wood was employed, and the town of Crialon[3571]. Besides
these, there is one place in the interior, on the confines of Arabia,
of great celebrity, the City of the Sun[3572].

(10.) With the greatest justice, however, we may lavish our praises
upon Alexandria, built by Alexander the Great on the shores of the
Egyptian Sea, upon the soil of Africa, at twelve miles’ distance
from the Canopic Mouth and near Lake Mareotis[3573]; the spot having
previously borne the name of Rhacotes. The plan of this city was
designed by the architect Dinochares[3574], who is memorable for the
genius which he displayed in many ways. Building the city upon a wide
space[3575] of ground fifteen miles in circumference, he formed it in
the circular shape of a Macedonian chlamys[3576], uneven at the edge,
giving it an angular projection on the right and left; while at the
same time he devoted one-fifth part of the site to the royal palace.

Lake Mareotis, which lies on the south side of the city, is connected
by a canal which joins it to the Canopic mouth, and serves for the
purposes of communication with the interior. It has also a great number
of islands, and is thirty miles across, and 150 in circumference,
according to Claudius Cæsar. Other writers say that it is forty schœni
in length, making the schœnum to be thirty stadia; hence, according to
them, it is 150 miles[3577] in length and the same in breadth.

There are also, in the latter part of the course of the Nile, many
towns of considerable celebrity, and more especially those which have
given their names to the mouths of the river—I do not mean, all the
mouths, for there are no less than twelve of them, as well as four
others, which the people call the False Mouths[3578]. I allude to the
seven more famous ones, the Canopic[3579] Mouth, next to Alexandria,
those of Bolbitine[3580], Sebennys[3581], Phatnis[3582], Mendes[3583],
Tanis[3584], and, last of all, Pelusium[3585]. Besides the above there
are the towns of Butos[3586], Pharbæthos[3587], Leontopolis[3588],
Athribis[3589], the town of Isis[3590], Busiris[3591], Cynopolis[3592],
Aphrodites[3593], Sais[3594], and Naucratis[3595], from which last some
writers call that the Naucratitic Mouth, which is by others called the
Heracleotic, and mention it instead[3596] of the Canopic Mouth, which
is the next to it.




CHAP. 12. (11.)—THE COASTS OF ARABIA, SITUATE ON THE EGYPTIAN SEA.


Beyond the Pelusiac Mouth is Arabia[3597], which extends to the Red
Sea, and joins the Arabia known by the surname of Happy[3598], so
famous for its perfumes and its wealth. This[3599] is called Arabia of
the Catabanes[3600], the Esbonitæ[3601], and the Scenitæ[3602]; it is
remarkable for its sterility, except in the parts where it joins up to
Syria, and it has nothing remarkable in it except Mount Casius[3603].
The Arabian nations of the Canchlæi[3604] join these on the east, and,
on the south the Cedrei[3605], both of which peoples are adjoining
to the Nabatæi[3606]. The two gulfs of the Red Sea, where it borders
upon Egypt, are called the Heroöpolitic[3607] and the Ælanitic[3608].
Between the two towns of Ælana[3609] and Gaza[3610] upon our sea[3611],
there is a distance of 150 miles. Agrippa says that Arsinoë[3612], a
town on the Red Sea, is, by way of the desert, 125 miles from Pelusium.
How different the characteristics impressed by nature upon two places
separated by so small a distance!




CHAP. 13. (12.)—SYRIA.


Next to these countries Syria occupies the coast, once the greatest of
lands, and distinguished by many names; for the part which joins up to
Arabia was formerly called Palæstina, Judæa, Cœle[3613], and Phœnice.
The country in the interior was called Damascena, and that further
on and more to the south, Babylonia. The part that lies between the
Euphrates and the Tigris was called Mesopotamia, that beyond Taurus
Sophene, and that on this side of the same chain Comagene. Beyond
Armenia was the country of Adiabene, anciently called Assyria, and
at the part where it joins up to Cilicia, it was called Antiochia.
Its length, between Cilicia and Arabia[3614], is 470 miles, and its
breadth, from Seleucia Pieria[3615] to Zeugma[3616], a town on the
Euphrates, 175. Those who make a still more minute division of this
country will have it that Phœnice is surrounded by Syria, and that
first comes the maritime coast of Syria, part of which is Idumæa and
Judæa, after that Phœnice, and then Syria. The whole of the tract of
sea that lies in front of these shores is called the Phœnician Sea.
The Phœnician people enjoy the glory of having been the inventors of
letters[3617], and the first discoverers of the sciences of astronomy,
navigation, and the art of war.




CHAP. 14.—IDUMÆA, PALÆSTINA, AND SAMARIA.


On leaving Pelusium we come to the Camp of Chabrias[3618], Mount
Casius[3619], the temple of Jupiter Casius, and the tomb of Pompeius
Magnus. Ostracine[3620], at a distance of sixty-five miles from
Pelusium, is the frontier town of Arabia.

(13.) After this, at the point where the Sirbonian Lake[3621] becomes
visible, Idumæa and Palæstina begin. This lake, which some writers
have made to be 150 miles in circumference, Herodotus has placed at
the foot of Mount Casius; it is now an inconsiderable fen. The towns
are Rhinocolura[3622], and, in the interior, Rhaphea[3623], Gaza, and,
still more inland, Anthedon[3624]: there is also Mount Argaris[3625].
Proceeding along the coast we come to the region of Samaria;
Ascalo[3626], a free town, Azotus[3627], the two Jamniæ[3628], one
of them in the interior; and Joppe[3629], a city of the Phœnicians,
which existed, it is said, before the deluge of the earth. It is
situate on the slope of a hill, and in front of it lies a rock, upon
which they point out the vestiges of the chains by which Andromeda
was bound[3630]. Here the fabulous goddess Ceto[3631] is worshipped.
Next to this place comes Apollonia[3632], and then the Tower of
Strato[3633], otherwise Cæsarea, built by King Herod, but now the
Colony of Prima Flavia, established by the Emperor Vespasianus: this
place is the frontier town of Palæstina, at a distance of 188 miles
from the confines of Arabia; after which comes Phœnice[3634]. In the
interior of Samaria are the towns of Neapolis[3635], formerly called
Mamortha, Sebaste[3636], situate on a mountain, and, on a still more
lofty one, Gamala[3637].




CHAP. 15. (14.)—JUDÆA.


Beyond Idumæa and Samaria, Judæa extends far and wide. That part of it
which joins up to Syria[3638] is called Galilæa, while that which is
nearest to Arabia and Egypt bears the name of Peræa[3639]. This last is
thickly covered with rugged mountains, and is separated from the rest
of Judæa by the river Jordanes. The remaining part of Judæa is divided
into ten Toparchies, which we will mention in the following order:—That
of Hiericus[3640], covered with groves of palm-trees, and watered
by numerous springs, and those of Emmaüs[3641], Lydda[3642], Joppe,
Acrabatena[3643], Gophna[3644], Thamna[3645], Bethleptephene[3646],
Orina[3647], in which formerly stood Hierosolyma[3648], by far the most
famous city, not of Judæa only, but of the East, and Herodium[3649],
with a celebrated town of the same name.

(15.) The river Jordanes[3650] rises from the spring of Panias[3651],
which has given its surname to Cæsarea, of which we shall have
occasion to speak[3652]. This is a delightful stream, and, so far as
the situation of the localities will allow of, winds along[3653] in its
course and lingers among the dwellers upon its banks. With the greatest
reluctance, as it were, it moves onward towards Asphaltites[3654],
a lake of a gloomy and unpropitious nature, by which it is at last
swallowed up, and its bepraised waters are lost sight of on being
mingled with the pestilential streams of the lake. For this reason it
is that, as soon as ever the valleys through which it runs afford it
the opportunity, it discharges itself into a lake, by many writers
known as Genesara[3655], sixteen miles in length and six wide; which is
skirted by the pleasant towns of Julias[3656] and Hippo[3657] on the
east, of Tarichea[3658] on the south (a name which is by many persons
given to the lake itself), and of Tiberias[3659] on the west, the hot
springs[3660] of which are so conducive to the restoration of health.

(16.) Asphaltites[3661] produces nothing whatever except bitumen,
to which indeed it owes its name. The bodies of animals will not
sink[3662] in its waters, and even those of bulls and camels float
there. In length it exceeds 100 miles being at its greatest breadth
twenty-five, and at its smallest six. Arabia of the Nomades[3663] faces
it on the east, and Machærus on the south[3664], at one time, next to
Hierosolyma, the most strongly fortified place in Judæa. On the same
side lies Callirrhoë[3665], a warm spring, remarkable for its medicinal
qualities, and which, by its name, indicates the celebrity its waters
have gained.

(17.) Lying on the west of Asphaltites, and sufficiently distant to
escape its noxious exhalations, are the Esseni[3666], a people that
live apart from the world, and marvellous beyond all others throughout
the whole earth, for they have no women among them; to sexual desire
they are strangers; money they have none; the palm-trees are their only
companions. Day after day, however, their numbers are fully recruited
by multitudes of strangers that resort to them, driven thither to adopt
their usages by the tempests of fortune, and wearied with the miseries
of life. Thus it is, that through thousands of ages, incredible to
relate, this people eternally prolongs its existence, without a single
birth taking place there; so fruitful a source of population to it is
that weariness of life which is felt by others. Below this people was
formerly the town of Engadda[3667], second only to Hierosolyma in the
fertility of its soil and its groves of palm-trees; now, like it, it is
another heap of ashes. Next to it we come to Masada[3668], a fortress
on a rock, not far from Lake Asphaltites. Thus much concerning Judæa.




CHAP. 16. (18.)—DECAPOLIS.


On the side of Syria, joining up to Judæa, is the region of
Decapolis[3669], so called from the number of its cities; as to
which all writers are not agreed. Most of them, however, agree in
speaking of Damascus[3670] as one, a place fertilized by the river
Chrysorroös[3671], which is drawn off into its meadows and eagerly
imbibed; Philadelphia[3672], and Rhaphana[3673], all which cities
fall back towards Arabia; Scythopolis[3674] (formerly called Nysa by
Father Liber, from his nurse having been buried there), its present
name being derived from a Scythian colony which was established there;
Gadara[3675], before which the river Hieromix[3676] flows; Hippo, which
has been previously mentioned; Dion[3677], Pella[3678], rich with its
waters; Galasa[3679], and Canatha[3680]. The Tetrarchies[3681] lie
between and around these cities, equal, each of them, to a kingdom,
and occupying the same rank as so many kingdoms. Their names are,
Trachonitis[3682], Panias[3683], in which is Cæsarea, with the spring
previously mentioned[3684], Abila[3685], Arca[3686], Ampeloëssa[3687],
and Gabe[3688].




CHAP. 17. (19.)—PHŒNICE.


We must now return to the coast and to Phœnice. There was formerly a
town here known as Crocodilon; there is still a river[3689] of that
name: Dorum[3690] and Sycaminon[3691] are the names of cities of
which the remembrance only exists. We then come to the Promontory of
Carmelus[3692], and, upon the mountain, a town[3693] of that name,
formerly called Acbatana. Next to this are Getta[3694], Jeba, and the
river Pacida, or Belus[3695], which throws up on its narrow banks a
kind of sand from which glass[3696] is made: this river flows from
the marshes of Cendebia, at the foot of Mount Carmelus. Close to this
river is Ptolemais, formerly called Ace[3697], a colony of Claudius
Cæsar; and then the town of Ecdippa[3698], and the promontory known as
the White Promontory[3699]. We next come to the city of Tyre[3700],
formerly an island, separated from the mainland by a channel of the
sea, of great depth, 700 paces in width, but now joined to it by the
works which were thrown up by Alexander when besieging it,—the Tyre so
famous in ancient times for its offspring, the cities to which it gave
birth, Leptis, Utica, and Carthage[3701],—that rival of the Roman sway,
that thirsted so eagerly for the conquest of the whole earth; Gades,
too, which she founded beyond the limits of the world. At the present
day, all her fame is confined to the production of the murex and the
purple[3702]. Its circumference, including therein Palætyrus[3703],
is nineteen miles, the place itself extending twenty-two stadia. The
next towns are Sarepta[3704] and Ornithon[3705], and then Sidon[3706],
famous for its manufacture of glass, and the parent of Thebes[3707] in
Bœotia.

(20.) In the rear of this spot begins the chain of Libanus, which
extends 1500 stadia, as far as Simyra; this district has the name
of Cœle Syria. Opposite to this chain, and separated from it by
an intervening valley, stretches away the range of Antilibanus,
which was formerly connected with Libanus[3708] by a wall. Beyond
it, and lying in the interior, is the region of Decapolis, and,
with it, the Tetrarchies already mentioned, and the whole expanse
of Palæstina. On the coast, again, and lying beneath Libanus, is
the river Magoras[3709], the colony of Berytus[3710], which bears
the name of Felix Julia, the town of Leontos[3711], the river
Lycos[3712], Palæbyblos[3713], the river Adonis[3714], and the
towns of Byblos[3715], Botrys[3716], Gigarta[3717], Trieris[3718],
Calamos[3719], Tripolis[3720], inhabited by the Tyrians, Sidonians,
and Aradians; Orthosia[3721], the river Eleutheros[3722], the towns of
Simyra and Marathos[3723]; and opposite, Arados[3724], a town seven
stadia long, on an island, distant 200 paces from the mainland. After
passing through the country in which the before-named mountains end and
the plains that lie between, Mount Bargylus[3725] is seen to rise.




CHAP. 18.—SYRIA ANTIOCHIA.


Here Phœnicia ends, and Syria recommences. The towns are, Carne[3726],
Balanea[3727], Paltos[3728], and Gabale[3729]; then the promontory
upon which is situate the free town of Laodicea[3730]; and then
Diospolis[3731], Heraclea[3732], Charadrus[3733], and Posidium[3734].

(21.) We then come to the Promontory of Syria Antiochia. In the
interior is the free city of Antiochia[3735] itself, surnamed
Epidaphnes[3736], and divided by the river Orontes[3737]. On the
promontory is Seleucia[3738], called Pieria, a free city.

(22.) Beyond it lies Mount Casius[3739], a different one from the
mountain of the same name[3740] which we have already mentioned. The
height of this mountain is so vast, that, at the fourth watch[3741] of
the night, you can see from it, in the midst of the darkness, the sun
rising on the east; and thus, by merely turning round, we may at one
and the same time behold both day and night. The winding road which
leads to its summit is nineteen miles in length, its perpendicular
height four. Upon this coast there is the river Orontes, which takes
its rise near Heliopolis[3742], between the range of Libanus and
Antilibanus. The towns are, Rhosos[3743], and, behind it, the Gates
of Syria[3744], lying in the space between the chain of the Rhosian
mountains and that of Taurus. On the coast there is the town of
Myriandros[3745], and Mount Amanus[3746], upon which is the town of
Bomitæ[3747]. This mountain separates Cilicia from Syria.




CHAP. 19. (23.)—THE REMAINING PARTS OF SYRIA.


We must now speak of the interior of Syria. Cœle Syria has the
town of Apamea[3748], divided by the river Marsyas from the
Tetrarchy of the Nazerini[3749]; Bambyx, the other name of which is
Hierapolis[3750], but by the Syrians called Mabog[3751], (here the
monster Atargatis[3752], called Derceto by the Greeks, is worshipped);
and the place called Chalcis[3753] on the Belus[3754], from which the
region of Chalcidene, the most fertile part of Syria, takes its name.
We here find also Cyrrhestice, with Cyrrhum[3755], the Gazatæ, the
Gindareni, the Gabeni, the two Tetrarchies called Granucomatæ[3756],
the Emeseni[3757], the Hylatæ[3758], the nation of the Ituræi, and a
branch of them, the people called the Bætarreni; the Mariamitani[3759],
the Tetrarchy known as Mammisea, Paradisus[3760], Pagræ[3761], the
Pinaritæ[3762], two cities called Seleucia, besides the one already
mentioned, the one Seleucia on the Euphrates[3763], and the other
Seleucia[3764] on the Belus, and the Cardytenses. The remaining part of
Syria (except those parts which will be spoken of in conjunction with
the Euphrates) contains the Arethusii[3765], the Berœenses[3766], and
the Epiphanæenses[3767]; and on the east, the Laodiceni[3768], who
are called the Laodiceni on the Libanus, the Leucadii[3769], and the
Larissæi, besides seventeen other Tetrarchies, divided into kingdoms
and bearing barbarous names.




CHAP. 20. (24.)—THE EUPHRATES.


This place, too, will be the most appropriate one for making some
mention of the Euphrates. This river rises in Caranitis[3770], a
præfecture of Greater Armenia, according to the statement of those
who have approached the nearest to its source. Domitius Corbulo
says, that it rises in Mount Aba; Licinius Mucianus, at the foot of
a mountain which he calls Capotes[3771], twelve miles above Zimara,
and that at its source it has the name of Pyxurates. It first flows
past Derxene[3772], and then Anaitica[3773], shutting out[3774] the
regions of Armenia from Cappadocia. Dascusa[3775] is distant from
Zimara seventy-five miles; from this spot it is navigable as far as
Sartona[3776], a distance of fifty miles, thence to Melitene[3777],
in Cappadocia, distant seventy-four[3778] miles, and thence to
Elegia[3779], in Armenia, distant ten miles; receiving in its course
the rivers Lycus[3780], Arsanias[3781], and Arsanus. At Elegia it meets
the range of Mount Taurus, but no effectual resistance is offered
to its course, although the chain is here twelve miles in width. At
its passage[3782] between the mountains, the river bears the name of
Omma[3783]; but afterwards, when it has passed through, it receives
that of Euphrates. Beyond this spot it is full of rocks, and runs
with an impetuous tide. It then divides that part of Arabia which is
called the country of the Orei[3784], on the left, by a channel three
schœni[3785] in width, from the territory of the Commageni[3786] on the
right, and it admits of a bridge being thrown across it, even where it
forces a passage through the range of Taurus. At Claudiopolis[3787],
in Cappadocia, it takes an easterly direction; and here, for the
first time in this contest, Taurus turns it out of its course; though
conquered before, and rent asunder by its channel, the mountain-chain
now gains the victory in another way, and, breaking its career, compels
it to take a southerly direction. Thus is this warfare of nature
equally waged,—the river proceeding onward to the destination which it
intends to reach, and the mountains forbidding it to proceed by the
path which it originally intended. After passing the Cataracts[3788],
the river again becomes navigable; and, at a distance of forty miles
from thence, is Samosata[3789], the capital of Commagene.




CHAP. 21.—SYRIA UPON THE EUPHRATES.


Arabia, above mentioned, has the cities of Edessa[3790], formerly
called Antiochia, and, from the name of its fountain, Callirhoë[3791],
and Carrhæ[3792], memorable for the defeat of Crassus there. Adjoining
to this is the præfecture of Mesopotamia, which derives its origin
from the Assyrians, and in which are the towns of Anthemusia[3793] and
Nicephorium[3794]; after which come the Arabians, known by the name of
Prætavi, with Singara[3795] for their capital. Below Samosata, on the
side of Syria, the river Marsyas[3796] flows into the Euphrates. At
Cingilla ends the territory of Commagene, and the state of the Immei
begins. The cities which are here washed by the river are those of
Epiphania[3797] and Antiochia[3798], generally known as Epiphania and
Antiochia on the Euphrates; also Zeugma, seventy-two miles distant from
Samosata, famous for the passage there across the Euphrates. Opposite
to it is Apamia[3799], which Seleucus, the founder of both cities,
united by a bridge. The people who join up to Mesopotamia are called
the Rhoali. Other towns in Syria are those of Europus[3800], and what
was formerly Thapsacus[3801], now Amphipolis. We then come to the
Arabian Scenitæ[3802]. The Euphrates then proceeds in its course till
it reaches the place called Ura[3803], at which, taking a turn to the
east, it leaves the Syrian Deserts of Palmyra[3804], which extend as
far as the city of Petra[3805] and the regions of Arabia Felix.

(25.) Palmyra is a city famous for the beauty of its site, the riches
of its soil, and the delicious quality and abundance of its water. Its
fields are surrounded by sands on every side, and are thus separated,
as it were, by nature from the rest of the world. Though placed between
the two great empires of Rome and Parthia, it still maintains[3806] its
independence; never failing, at the very first moment that a rupture
between them is threatened, to attract the careful attention of both.
It is distant 337 miles from Seleucia[3807] of the Parthians, generally
known as Seleucia on the Tigris, 203 from the nearest part of the
Syrian coast, and twenty-seven less from Damascus.

(26.) Below the deserts of Palmyra is the region of Stelendene[3808],
and Hierapolis, Berœa, and Chalcis, already mentioned[3809]. Beyond
Palmyra, Emesa[3810] takes to itself a portion of these deserts;
also Elatium, nearer to Petra by one-half than Damascus. At no great
distance from Sura[3811] is Philiscum, a town of the Parthians, on
the Euphrates. From this place it is ten days’ sail to Seleucia, and
nearly as many to Babylon. At a distance of 594 miles beyond Zeugma,
near the village of Massice, the Euphrates divides into two channels,
the left one of which runs through Mesopotamia, past Seleucia, and
falls into the Tigris as it flows around that city. Its channel on the
right runs towards Babylon, the former capital of Chaldæa, and flows
through the middle of it; and then through another city, the name of
which is Otris[3812], after which it becomes lost in the marshes. Like
the Nile, this river increases at stated times, and at much about the
same period. When the sun has reached the twentieth degree of Cancer,
it inundates[3813] Mesopotamia; and, after he has passed through Leo
and entered Virgo, its waters begin to subside. By the time the sun has
entered the twenty-ninth degree of Virgo, the river has fully regained
its usual height.




CHAP. 22. (27.)—CILICIA AND THE ADJOINING NATIONS.


But let us now return to the coast of Syria, joining up to which is
Cilicia. We here find the river Diaphanes[3814], Mount Crocodilus,
the Gates[3815] of Mount Amanus, the rivers Androcus[3816],
Pinarus[3817], and Lycus[3818], the Gulf of Issos[3819], and the
town of that name; then Alexandria[3820], the river Chlorus[3821],
the free town of Ægæ[3822], the river Pyramus[3823], the Gates[3824]
of Cilicia, the towns of Mallos[3825] and Magarsos[3826], and, in
the interior, Tarsus[3827]. We then come to the Aleian Plains[3828],
the town of Cassipolis, Mopsos[3829], a free town on the river
Pyramus, Thynos, Zephyrium, and Anchiale[3830]. Next to these are
the rivers Saros[3831] and Cydnus[3832], the latter of which, at
some distance from the sea, runs through the free city of Tarsus,
the region of Celenderitis with a town[3833] of similar name, the
place where Nymphæum[3834] stood, Soli of Cilicia[3835], now called
Pompeiopolis, Adana[3836], Cibyra[3837], Pinare[3838], Pedalie[3839],
Ale, Selinus[3840], Arsinoë[3841], Iotape[3842], Doron, and, near the
sea, Corycos, there being a town[3843], port, and cave[3844] all of
the same name. Passing these, we come to the river Calycadnus[3845],
the Promontory of Sarpedon[3846], the towns of Holmœ[3847] and Myle,
and the Promontory and town of Venus[3848], at a short distance from
the island of Cyprus. On the mainland there are the towns of Myanda,
Anemurium[3849], and Coracesium[3850], and the river Melas[3851],
the ancient boundary of Cilicia. In the interior the places more
especially worthy of mention are Anazarbus[3852], now called Cæsarea,
Augusta, Castabala[3853], Epiphania[3854], formerly called Œniandos,
Eleusa[3855], Iconium[3856], Seleucia[3857] upon the river Calycadnus,
surnamed Tracheotis, a city removed[3858] from the sea-shore, where it
had the name of Holmia. Besides those already mentioned, there are in
the interior the rivers Liparis[3859], Bombos, Paradisus, and Mount
Imbarus[3860].




CHAP. 23.—ISAURIA AND THE HOMONADES.


All the geographers have mentioned Pamphylia as joining up to Cilicia,
without taking any notice of the people of Isauria[3861]. Its cities
are, in the interior, Isaura[3862], Clibanus, and Lalasis; it runs down
towards the sea by the side of Anemurium[3863] already mentioned. In
a similar manner also, all who have treated of this subject have been
ignorant of the existence of the nation of the Homonades bordering upon
Isauria, and their town of Homona[3864] in the interior. There are
forty-four other fortresses, which lie concealed amid rugged crags and
valleys.




CHAP. 24.—PISIDIA.


The Pisidæ[3865], formerly called the Solymi, occupy the higher parts
of the mountains. In their country there is the colony of Cæsarea, also
called Antiochia[3866], and the towns of Oroanda[3867] and Sagalessos.




CHAP. 25.—LYCAONIA.


These people are bounded by Lycaonia[3868], which belongs to the
jurisdiction of the province of Asia[3869], to which also resort the
people of Philomelium[3870], Tymbrium[3871], Leucolithium[3872], Pelta,
and Tyrium. To this jurisdiction is also added a Tetrarchy of Lycaonia
in that part which joins up to Galatia, containing fourteen states,
with the famous city of Iconium[3873]. In Lycaonia itself the most
noted places are Thebasa[3874] on Taurus, and Hyde, on the confines of
Galatia and Cappadocia. On the [western] side of Lycaonia, and above
Pamphylia, come the Milyæ[3875], a people descended from the Thracians;
their city is Arycanda.




CHAP. 26.—PAMPHYLIA.


The former name of Pamphylia[3876] was Mopsopia[3877]. The Pamphylian
Sea[3878] joins up to that of Cilicia. The towns of Pamphylia are
Side[3879], Aspendum[3880], situate on the side of a mountain,
Pletenissum[3881], and Perga[3882]. There is also the Promontory of
Leucolla, the mountain of Sardemisus, and the rivers Eurymedon[3883],
which flows past Aspendus, and Catarrhactes[3884], near to which is
Lyrnesus: also the towns of Olbia[3885], and Phaselis[3886], the last
on this coast.




CHAP. 27.—MOUNT TAURUS.


Adjoining to Pamphylia is the Sea of Lycia and the country of
Lycia[3887] itself, where the chain of Taurus, coming from the
eastern shores, terminates the vast Gulf[3888] by the Promontory
of Chelidonium[3889]. Of immense extent, and separating nations
innumerable, after taking its first rise at the Indian Sea[3890], it
branches off to the north on the right-hand side, and on the left
towards the south. Then taking a direction towards the west, it would
cut through the middle of Asia, were it not that the seas check it in
its triumphant career along the land. It accordingly strikes off in a
northerly direction, and forming an arc, occupies an immense tract of
country, nature, designedly as it were, every now and then throwing
seas in the way to oppose its career; here the Sea of Phœnicia, there
the Sea of Pontus, in this direction the Caspian and Hyrcanian[3891],
and then, opposite to them, the Lake Mæotis. Although somewhat
curtailed by these obstacles, it still winds along between them, and
makes its way even amidst these barriers; and victorious after all,
it then escapes with its sinuous course to the kindred chain of the
Riphæan mountains. Numerous are the names which it bears, as it is
continuously designated by new ones throughout the whole of its course.
In the first part of its career it has the name of Imaüs[3892], after
which it is known successively by the names of Emodus, Paropanisus,
Circius, Cambades, Paryadres, Choatras, Oreges, Oroandes, Niphates,
Taurus, and, where it even out-tops itself, Caucasus. Where it throws
forth its arms as though every now and then it would attempt to invade
the sea, it bears the names of Sarpedon, Coracesius, Cragus, and then
again Taurus. Where also it opens and makes a passage to admit mankind,
it still claims the credit of an unbroken continuity by giving the
name of “Gates” to these passes, which in one place are called the
“Gates of Armenia[3893],” in another the “Gates of the Caspian,” and
in another the “Gates of Cilicia.” In addition to this, when it has
been cut short in its onward career, it retires to a distance from the
seas, and covers itself on the one side and the other with the names of
numerous nations, being called, on the right-hand side the Hyrcanian
and the Caspian, and on the left the Paryadrian[3894], the Moschian,
the Amazonian, the Coraxican, and the Scythian chain. Among the Greeks
it bears the one general name of Ceraunian[3895].




CHAP. 28.—LYCIA.


In Lycia, after leaving its promontory[3896], we come to the town
of Simena, Mount Chimæra[3897], which sends forth flames by night,
and the city of Hephæstium[3898], the heights above which are also
frequently on fire. Here too formerly stood the city of Olympus[3899];
now we find the mountain places known as Gagæ[3900], Corydalla[3901],
and Rhodiopolis[3902]. Near the sea is Limyra[3903] with a river of
like name, into which the Arycandus flows, Mount Masycites[3904],
the state of Andriaca[3905], Myra[3906], the towns of Aperræ[3907]
and Antiphellos[3908], formerly called Habessus, and in a corner
Phellos[3909], after which comes Pyrra, and then the city of
Xanthus[3910], fifteen miles from the sea, as also a river known by the
same name. We then come to Patara[3911], formerly Pataros, and Sidyma,
situate on a mountain. Next comes the Promontory of Cragus[3912], and
beyond it a gulf[3913], equal to the one that comes before it; upon it
are Pinara[3914], and Telmessus[3915], the frontier town of Lycia.

Lycia formerly contained seventy towns, now it has but thirty-six.
Of these, the most celebrated, besides those already mentioned, are
Canas[3916], Candyba, so celebrated for the Œnian Grove, Podalia,
Choma, past which the river Ædesa flows, Cyaneæ[3917], Ascandalis,
Amelas, Noscopium, Tlos[3918], and Telandrus[3919]. It includes also
in the interior the district of Cabalia, the three cities of which are
Œnianda, Balbura[3920], and Bubon[3921].

On passing Telmessus we come to the Asiatic or Carpathian Sea, and the
district which is properly called Asia. Agrippa has divided this region
into two parts; one of which he has bounded on the east by Phrygia and
Lycaonia, on the west by the Ægean Sea, on the south by the Egyptian
Sea, and on the north by Paphlagonia, making its length to be 473
miles and its breadth 320. The other part he has bounded by the Lesser
Armenia on the east, Phrygia, Lycaonia, and Pamphylia on the west, the
province of Pontus on the north, and the Sea of Pamphylia on the south,
making it 575 miles in length and 325 in breadth.




CHAP. 29.—CARIA.


Upon the adjoining coast is Caria[3922], then Ionia, and beyond it
Æolis. Caria surrounds Doris, which lies in the middle, and runs down
on both sides of it to the sea. In it[3923] is the Promontory of
Pedalium[3924], the river Glaucus[3925], into which the Telmedium[3926]
discharges itself, the towns of Dædala[3927], Crya[3928], peopled by
fugitives, the river Axon[3929], and the town of Calynda[3930].

(28.) The river Indus[3931], which rises in the mountains of the
Cibyratæ[3932], receives sixty-five rivers which are constantly
flowing, besides upwards of 100 mountain torrents. Here is the free
town of Caunos[3933], then the town of Pyrnos[3934], the port of
Cressa[3935], from which the island of Rhodes is distant twenty miles;
the place where Loryma formerly stood, the towns of Tisanusa[3936],
Paridion[3937], and Larymna[3938], the Gulf of Thymnias[3939], the
Promontory of Aphrodisias[3940], the town of Hyda, the Gulf of Schœnus,
and the district of Bubasus[3941]. There was formerly the town of
Acanthus here, another name of which was Dulopolis. We then come to
Cnidos[3942], a free town, situate on a promontory, Triopia[3943], and
after that the towns of Pegusa and Stadia.

At this last town Doris begins; but, first, it may be as well to
describe the districts that lie to the back of Caria and the several
jurisdictions in the interior. The first of these[3944] is called
Cibyratica, Cibyra being a town of Phrygia. Twenty-five states resort
to it for legal purposes, together with the most famous city of
Laodicea[3945].

(29.) This place at first bore the name of Diospolis, and after
that of Rhoas, and is situate on the river Lycus, the Asopus and
the Caprus[3946] washing its sides. The other people belonging to
the same jurisdiction, whom it may be not amiss to mention, are the
Hydrelitæ[3947], the Themisones[3948], and the Hierapolitæ[3949].
The second jurisdiction receives its title from Synnas[3950]; to it
resort the Lycaones[3951], the Appiani[3952], the Eucarpeni[3953],
the Dorylæi[3954], the Midæi, the Julienses[3955], and fifteen
other peoples of no note. The third jurisdiction has its seat at
Apamea[3956], formerly called Celænæ[3957], and after that Cibotos.
This place is situate at the foot of Mount Signia, the Marsyas, the
Obrima, and the Orga, rivers which fall into the Mæander, flowing
past it. Here the Marsyas, rising from the earth, again makes its
appearance, but soon after buries itself once more at Aulocrenæ[3958],
the spot where Marsyas had the musical contest with Apollo as to
superiority of skill in playing on the flute. Aulocrenæ is the name
given to a valley which lies ten miles on the road towards Phrygia from
Apamea. As belonging to this jurisdiction, it may be as well to mention
the Metropolitæ[3959], the Dionysopolitæ[3960], the Euphorbeni[3961],
the Acmonenses[3962], the Pelteni[3963], and the Silbiani[3964],
besides nine other nations of no note.

Upon the Gulf of Doris[3965] we have Leucopolis, Hamaxitos, Eleus,
and Euthene[3966]. We then come to Pitaium, Eutane[3967], and
Halicarnassus[3968], towns of Caria. To the jurisdiction of this last
place six towns were appended by Alexander the Great, Theangela[3969],
Sibde, Medmasa, Euralium, Pedasus, and Telmissus[3970]. Halicarnassus
lies between two gulfs, those of Ceramus[3971] and Iasus[3972]. We
then come to Myndos[3973], and the former site of Palæomyndos;
also Nariandos, Neapolis[3974], Caryanda[3975], the free town of
Termera[3976], Bargyla[3977], and the town of Iasus[3978], from which
the Iasian Gulf takes its name.

Caria is especially distinguished for the fame of its places in
the interior; for here are Mylasa[3979], a free town, and that
of Antiochia[3980], on the site of the former towns of Symmæthos
and Cranaos: it is now surrounded by the rivers Mæander[3981] and
Orsinus[3982]. In this district also was formerly Mæandropolis[3983];
we find also Eumenia[3984], situate on the river Cludros, the river
Glaucus[3985], the town of Lysias and Orthosa[3986], the district
of Berecynthus[3987], Nysa[3988], and Tralles[3989], also called
Euanthia[3990], Seleucia, and Antiochia: it is washed by the river
Eudon, while the Thebais runs through it. Some authors say that a
nation of Pygmies formerly dwelt here. Besides the preceding towns,
there are Thydonos, Pyrrha[3991], Eurome[3992], Heraclea[3993],
Amyzon[3994], the free town of Alabanda[3995], which has given
name to that jurisdiction, the free town of Stratonicea[3996],
Hynidos, Ceramus[3997], Trœzene[3998], and Phorontis. At a greater
distance[3999], but resorting to the same place of jurisdiction,
are the Orthronienses, the Alindienses[4000] or Hippini, the
Xystiani[4001], the Hydissenses, the Apolloniatæ[4002], the
Trapezopolitæ[4003], and the Aphrodisienses[4004], a free people.
Besides the above, there are the towns of Coscinus[4005], and
Harpasa[4006], situate on the river Harpasus[4007], which also passed
the town of Trallicon when it was in existence.




CHAP. 30.—LYDIA.


Lydia, bathed by the sinuous and ever-recurring windings of the
river Mæander, lies extended above Ionia; it is joined by Phrygia on
the east and Mysia on the north, while on the south it runs up to
Caria: it formerly had the name of Mæonia[4008]. Its place of the
greatest celebrity is Sardes[4009], which lies on the side of Mount
Tmolus[4010], formerly called Timolus. From this mountain, which
is covered with vineyards, flows the river Pactolus[4011], also
called the Chrysorroas, and the sources of the Tarnus: this famous
city, which is situate upon the Gygæan Lake[4012], used to be called
Hyde[4013] by the people of Mæonia. This jurisdiction is now called
that of Sardes, and besides the people of the places already mentioned,
the following now resort to it—the Macedonian Cadueni[4014], the
Loreni, the Philadelpheni[4015], the Mæonii, situate on the river
Cogamus at the foot of Mount Tmolus, the Tripolitani, who are also
called the Antoniopolitæ, situate on the banks of the Mæander, the
Apollonihieritæ[4016], the Mesotimolitæ[4017], and some others of no
note.




CHAP. 31.—IONIA.


Ionia begins at the Gulf of Iasos, and has a long winding coast with
numerous bays. First comes the Gulf of Basilicum[4018], then the
Promontory[4019] and town of Posideum, and the oracle once called the
oracle of the Branchidæ[4020], but now of Didymæan Apollo, a distance
of twenty stadia from the sea-shore. One hundred and eighty stadia
thence is Miletus[4021], the capital of Ionia, which formerly had
the names of Lelegëis, Pityusa, and Anactoria, the mother of more
than ninety cities, founded upon all seas; nor must she be deprived
of the honour of having Cadmus[4022] for her citizen, who was the
first to write in prose. The river Mæander, rising from a lake in
Mount Aulocrene, waters many cities and receives numerous tributary
streams. It is so serpentine in its course, that it is often thought
to turn back to the very spot from which it came. It first runs
through the district of Apamea, then that of Eumenia, and then the
plains of Bargyla; after which, with a placid stream it passes through
Caria, watering all that territory with a slime of a most fertilizing
quality, and then at a distance of ten stadia from Miletus with a
gentle current enters the sea. We then come to Mount Latmus[4023],
the towns of Heraclea[4024], also called by the same name as the
mountain, Carice, Myus[4025], said to have been first built by Ionians
who came from Athens, Naulochum[4026], and Priene[4027]. Upon that
part of the coast which bears the name of Trogilia[4028] is the river
Gessus. This district is held sacred by all the Ionians, and thence
receives the name of Panionia. Near to it was formerly the town of
Phygela, built by fugitives, as its name implies[4029], and that of
Marathesium[4030]. Above these places is Magnesia[4031], distinguished
by the surname of the “Mæandrian,” and sprung from Magnesia in
Thessaly: it is distant from Ephesus fifteen miles, and three more from
Tralles. It formerly had the names of Thessaloche and Androlitia, and,
lying on the sea-shore, it has withdrawn from the sea the islands known
as the Derasidæ[4032] and joined them to the mainland. In the interior
also is Thyatira[4033], washed by the Lycus; for some time it was also
called Pelopia and Euhippia[4034].

Upon the coast again is Mantium, and Ephesus[4035], which was founded
by the Amazons[4036], and formerly called by so many names: Alopes at
the time of the Trojan war, after that Ortygia and Morges, and then
Smyrna, with the surname of Trachia, as also Samornion and Ptelea.
This city is built on Mount Pion, and is washed by the Caÿster[4037],
a river which rises in the Cilbian range and brings down the waters of
many streams[4038], as also of Lake Pegasæus[4039], which receives
those discharged by the river Phyrites[4040]. From these streams there
accumulates a large quantity of slime, which vastly increases the
soil, and has added to the mainland the island of Syrie[4041], which
now lies in the midst of its plains. In this city is the fountain of
Calippia[4042] and the temple of Diana, which last is surrounded by two
streams, each known by the name of Selenus, and flowing from opposite
directions.

After leaving Ephesus there is another Mantium, belonging to the
Colophonians, and in the interior Colophon[4043] itself, past which
the river Halesus[4044] flows. After this we come to the temple[4045]
of the Clarian Apollo, and Lebedos[4046]: the city of Notium[4047]
once stood here. Next comes the Promontory of Coryceium[4048], and
then Mount Mimas, which projects 150 miles into the sea, and as it
approaches the mainland sinks down into extensive plains. It was at
this place that Alexander the Great gave orders for the plain to be
cut through, a distance of seven miles and a half, for the purpose of
joining the two gulfs and making an island of Erythræ[4049] and Mimas.
Near Erythræ formerly stood the towns of Pteleon, Helos, and Dorion;
we now find the river Aleon, Corynæum, a Promontory of Mount Mimas,
Clazomenæ[4050], Parthenie[4051], and Hippi[4052], known by the name
of Chytrophoria, when it formed a group of islands; these were united
to the continent by the same Alexander, by means of a causeway[4053]
two stadia in length. In the interior, the cities of Daphnus, Hermesia,
and Sipylum[4054], formerly called Tantalis, and the capital of Mæonia,
where Lake Sale now stands, are now no longer in existence: Archæopolis
too, which succeeded Sipylum, has perished, and in their turns Colpe
and Libade, which succeeded it.

On returning thence[4055] towards the coast, at a distance of twelve
miles we find Smyrna[4056], originally founded by an Amazon [of that
name], and rebuilt by Alexander; it is refreshed by the river Meles,
which rises not far off. Through this district run what may almost
be called the most famous mountains of Asia, Mastusia in the rear of
Smyrna, and Termetis[4057], joining the foot of Olympus. Termetis is
joined by Draco, Draco running into Tmolus, Tmolus into Cadmus[4058],
and Cadmus into Taurus. Leaving Smyrna, the river Hermus forms a tract
of plains, and gives them its own name. It rises near Dorylæum[4059], a
city of Phrygia, and in its course receives several rivers, among them
the one called the Phryx, which divides Caria from the nation to which
it gives name; also the Hyllus[4060] and the Cryos, themselves swollen
by the rivers of Phrygia, Mysia, and Lydia. At the mouth of the Hermus
formerly stood the town of Temnos[4061]: we now see at the extremity of
the gulf[4062] the rocks called Myrmeces[4063], the town of Leuce[4064]
on a promontory which was once an island, and Phocæa[4065], the
frontier town of Ionia.

A great part also of Æolia, of which we shall have presently to speak,
has recourse to the jurisdiction of Smyrna; as well as the Macedones,
surnamed Hyrcani[4066], and the Magnetes[4067] from Sipylus. But to
Ephesus, that other great luminary of Asia, resort the more distant
peoples known as the Cæsarienses[4068], the Metropolitæ[4069], the
Cilbiani[4070], both the Lower and Upper, the Mysomacedones[4071], the
Mastaurenses[4072], the Briulitæ[4073], the Hypæpeni[4074], and the
Dioshïeritæ[4075].




CHAP. 32. (30.)—ÆOLIS.


Æolis[4076] comes next, formerly known as Mysia, and Troas which
is adjacent to the Hellespont. Here, after passing Phocæa, we come
to the Ascanian Port, then the spot where Larissa[4077] stood, and
then Cyme[4078], Myrina, also called Sebastopolis[4079], and in the
interior, Ægæ[4080], Attalia[4081], Posidea, Neontichos[4082], and
Temnos[4083]. Upon the shore we come to the river Titanus, and the
city which from it derives its name. Grynia[4084] also stood here on
an island reclaimed from the sea and joined to the land: now only its
harbours are left[4085]. We then come to the town of Elæa[4086], the
river Caïcus[4087], which flows from Mysia, the town of Pitane[4088],
and the river Canaïus. The following towns no longer exist—Canæ[4089],
Lysimachia[4090], Atarnea[4091], Carene[4092], Cisthene[4093],
Cilla[4094], Cocylium[4095], Theba[4096], Astyre[4097], Chrysa[4098],
Palæscepsis[4099], Gergitha[4100], and Neandros[4101]. We then come
to the city of Perperene[4102], which still survives, the district
of Heracleotes, the town of Coryphas[4103], the rivers Grylios and
Ollius, the region of Aphrodisias[4104], which formerly had the name
of Politice Orgas, the district of Scepsis[4105], and the river
Evenus[4106], on whose banks the towns of Lyrnesos[4107] and Miletos
have fallen to decay. In this district also is Mount Ida[4108], and
on the coast Adramytteos[4109], formerly called Pedasus, which gives
its name to the gulf and the jurisdiction so called. The other rivers
are the Astron, Cormalos, Crianos, Alabastros, and Hieros, flowing
from Mount Ida: in the interior is Mount Gargara[4110], with a town
of the same name. Again, on the coast we meet with Antandros[4111],
formerly called Edonis, and after that Cimmeris and Assos, also
called Apollonia. The town of Palamedium also formerly stood here.
The Promontory of Lecton[4112] separates Æolis from Troas. In Æolis
there was formerly the city of Polymedia, as also Chrysa, and a
second Larissa. The temple of Smintheus[4113] is still standing;
Colone[4114] in the interior has perished. To Adramyttium resort upon
matters of legal business the Apolloniatæ[4115], whose town is on
the river Rhyndacus[4116], the Erizii[4117], the Miletopolitæ[4118],
the Pœmaneni[4119], the Macedonian Asculacæ, the Polichnæi[4120],
the Pionitæ[4121], the Cilician Mandacadeni, and, in Mysia, the
Abrettini[4122], the people known as the Hellespontii[4123], and others
of less note.




CHAP. 33.—TROAS AND THE ADJOINING NATIONS.


The first place in Troas is Hamaxitus[4124], then Cebrenia[4125],
and then Troas[4126] itself, formerly called Antigonia, and now
Alexandria, a Roman colony. We then come to the town of Nee[4127], the
Scamander[4128], a navigable river, and the spot where in former times
the town of Sigeum[4129] stood, upon a promontory. We next come to the
Port of the Achæans[4130], into which the Xanthus[4131] flows after
its union with the Simois[4132], and forms the Palæscamander[4133],
which was formerly a lake. The other rivers, rendered famous by Homer,
namely, the Rhesus, the Heptaporus, the Caresus, and the Rhodius,
have left no vestiges of their existence. The Granicus[4134], taking
a different route, flows into the Propontis[4135]. The small city of
Scamandria, however, still exists, and, at a distance of a mile and a
half from its harbour, Ilium[4136], a place exempt from tribute[4137],
the fountain-head of universal fame. Beyond the gulf are the shores of
Rhœteum[4138], peopled by the towns of Rhœteum[4139], Dardanium[4140],
and Arisbe[4141]. There was also in former times a town of
Achilleon[4142], founded near the tomb of Achilles by the people of
Mitylene, and afterwards rebuilt by the Athenians, close to the spot
where his fleet had been stationed near Sigeum. There was also the town
of Æantion[4143], founded by the Rhodians upon the opposite point,
near the tomb of Ajax, at a distance of thirty stadia from Sigeum,
near the spot where his fleet was stationed. Above Æolis and part of
Troas, in the interior, is the place called Teuthrania[4144], inhabited
in ancient times by the Mysians. Here rises the river Caïcus already
mentioned. Teuthrania was a powerful nation in itself, even when the
whole of Æolis was held by the Mysians. In it are the Pioniæ[4145],
Andera[4146], Cale, Stabulum, Conisium, Teium, Balcea[4147], Tiare,
Teuthranie, Sarnaca, Haliserne, Lycide, Parthenium, Thymbre, Oxyopum,
Lygdamum, Apollonia, and Pergamum[4148], by far the most famous
city in Asia, and through which the river Selinus runs; the Cetius,
which rises in Mount Pindasus, flowing before it. Not far from it is
Elæa, which we have mentioned[4149] as situate on the sea-shore. The
jurisdiction of this district is called that of Pergamus; to it resort
the Thyatireni[4150], the Mosyni, the Mygdones[4151], the Bregmeni, the
Hierocometæ[4152], the Perpereni, the Tiareni, the Hierolophienses,
the Hermocapelitæ, the Attalenses[4153], the Panteenses, the
Apollonidienses, and some other states unknown to fame. The little town
of Dardanum[4154] is distant from Rhœteum seventy stadia. Eighteen
miles thence is the Promontory of Trapeza[4155], from which spot the
Hellespont first commences its course.

Eratosthenes tells us that in Asia there have perished the nations
of the Solymi[4156], the Leleges[4157], the Bebryces[4158], the
Colycantii, and the Tripsedri. Isidorus adds to these the Arimi[4159],
as also the Capretæ, settled on the spot where Apamea[4160] stands,
which was founded by King Seleucus, between Cilicia, Cappadocia,
Cataonia, and Armenia, and was at first called Damea[4161], from the
fact that it had conquered nations most remarkable for their fierceness.




CHAP. 34. (31.)—THE ISLANDS WHICH LIE IN FRONT OF ASIA.


Of the islands which lie before Asia the first is the one situate in
the Canopic Mouth of the Nile, and which received its name, it is
said, from Canopus, the pilot of Menelaüs. A second, called Pharos, is
joined by a bridge to Alexandria, and was made a colony by the Dictator
Cæsar. In former times it was one day’s sail[4162] from the mainland
of Egypt; at the present day it directs ships in their course by means
of the fires which are lighted at night on the tower[4163] there;
for in consequence of the insidious nature of the shoals, there are
only three channels by which Alexandria can be approached, those of
Steganus[4164], Posideum[4165] and Taurus.

In the Phœnician Sea, before Joppe there is the island of Paria[4166],
the whole of it forming a town. Here, they say, Andromeda was exposed
to the monster: the island also of Arados, already mentioned[4167],
between which and the continent, as we learn from Mucianus, at a depth
of fifty cubits in the sea, fresh water is brought up from a spring at
the very bottom by means of leather pipes[4168].




CHAP. 35.—CYPRUS.


The Pamphylian Sea contains some islands of little note. The Cilician,
besides four others of very considerable size, has Cyprus[4169],
which lies opposite to the shores of Cilicia and Syria, running
east and west; in former times it was the seat of nine kingdoms.
Timosthenes states that the circumference of this island is 427
miles, Isidorus[4170] 375; its length, between the two Promontories
of Dinæ[4171] and Acamas[4172] lying on the west, is, according to
Artemidorus, 160-1/2 miles, according to Timosthenes, 200. Philonides
says that it was formerly called Acamantis, Xenagoras that it had
the names of Cerastis[4173], Aspelia, Amathusia, and Macaria[4174],
while Astynomus gives it the names of Cryptos[4175] and Colinia.
Its towns are fifteen in number, Neapaphos[4176], Palæpaphos[4177],
Curias[4178], Citium[4179], Corineum, Salamis[4180], Amathus[4181],
Lapethos[4182], Solœ, Tamasos[4183], Epidarum, Chytri[4184],
Arsinoë[4185], Carpasium[4186], and Golgi[4187]. The towns of Cinyria,
Marium, and Idalium[4188] are no longer in existence. It is distant
from Anemurium[4189] in Cilicia fifty miles; the sea which runs between
the two shores being called the Channel of Cilicia[4190]. In the same
locality[4191] is the island of Eleusa[4192], and the four islands
known as the Clides[4193], lying before the promontory which faces
Syria; and again at the end of the other cape[4194] is Stiria: over
against Neapaphos is Hierocepia[4195], and opposite to Salamis are the
Salaminiæ.

In the Lycian Sea are the islands of Illyris, Telendos, and
Attelebussa[4196], the three barren isles called Cypriæ, and Dionysia,
formerly called Caretha. Opposite to the Promontory of Taurus are
the Chelidoniæ[4197], as many in number, and extremely dangerous to
mariners. Further on we find Leucolla with its town, the Pactyæ[4198],
Lasia, Nymphäis, Macris, and Megista, the city on which last no longer
exists. After these there are many that are not worthy of notice.
Opposite, however, to Cape Chimæra is Dolichiste[4199], Chœrogylion,
Crambussa[4200], Rhoge[4201], Enagora, eight miles in circumference,
the two islands of Dædala[4202], the three of Crya[4203], Strongyle,
and over against Sidyma[4204] the isle of Antiochus. Towards the mouth
of the river Glaucus[4205], there are Lagussa[4206], Macris, Didymæ,
Helbo, Scope, Aspis, Telandria, the town of which no longer exists,
and, in the vicinity of Caunus[4207], Rhodussa.




CHAP. 36.—RHODES.


But the fairest of them all is the free island of Rhodes, 125, or,
if we would rather believe Isidorus, 103 miles in circumference.
It contains the inhabited cities of Lindos, Camirus[4208], and
Ialysus[4209], now called Rhodos. It is distant from Alexandria
in Egypt, according to Isidorus, 583 miles; but, according to
Eratosthenes, 469. Mucianus says, that its distance from Cyprus is
166. This island was formerly called Ophiussa[4210], Asteria[4211],
Æthria[4212], Trinacrie[4213], Corymbia[4214], Pœeëssa[4215],
Atabyria[4216], from the name of one of its kings; and, in later
times, Macaria[4217] and Oloessa[4218]. The islands of the Rhodians
are Carpathus[4219], which has given its name to the surrounding sea;
Casos[4220], formerly known as Achne[4221]; Nisyros[4222], twelve miles
distant from Cnidos, and formerly called Porphyris[4223]; and, in the
same vicinity, midway between Rhodes and Cnidos, Syme[4224]. This
island is thirty-seven miles and a half in circumference, and welcomes
us with eight fine harbours. Besides these islands, there are, in the
vicinity of Rhodes, those of Cyclopis, Teganon, Cordylussa[4225], the
four islands called Diabetæ[4226], Hymos, Chalce[4227], with its city
of that name, Seutlussa[4228], Narthecussa[4229], Dimastos, Progne;
and, off Cnidos, Cisserussa, Therionarce, and Calydne[4230], with the
three towns of Notium, Nisyros, and Mendeterus. In Arconnesus[4231]
there is the town of Ceramus. Off the coast of Caria, there are the
islands known as the Argiæ, twenty in number; also Hyetussa[4232],
Lepsia, and Leros.

The most noted island, however, in this gulf is that of Cos[4233],
fifteen miles distant from Halicarnassus, and 100 in circumference,
according to the opinion of many writers. It was formerly called
Merope; according to Staphylus, Cea; Meropis, as Dionysius tells
us; and, after that, Nymphæa. In this island there is Mount Prion.
Nisyros[4234], formerly called Porphyris, is supposed to have been
severed from the island of Cos. We next come to the island of
Caryanda[4235], with a city of that name, and that of Pidosus[4236],
not far from Halicarnassus. In the Gulf of Ceramicus we also find
Priaponnesos[4237], Hipponnesos, Psyra, Mya, Lampsa, Æmyndus, Passala,
Crusa, Pinnicussa, Sepiussa[4238], and Melano. At a short distance from
the mainland is an island which bears the name of Cinædopolis, from the
circumstance that King Alexander left behind there certain persons of a
most disgraceful character.




CHAP. 37.—SAMOS.


The coast of Ionia has the islands of Trageæ, Corseæ[4239], and Icaros,
which has been previously[4240] mentioned; Lade[4241], formerly
called Late; and, among others of no note, the two Camelidæ[4242], in
the vicinity of Miletus; and the three Trogiliæ[4243], near Mycale,
consisting of Philion, Argennon, and Sandalion. There is Samos also, a
free[4244] island, eighty-seven miles in circumference, or, according
to Isidorus, 100. Aristotle tells us, that it was at first called
Parthenia[4245], after that Dryussa[4246], and then Anthemussa[4247].
To these names Aristocritus has added Melamphyllus[4248] and
Cyparissia[4249]: other writers, again, call it Parthenoarussa[4250]
and Stephane[4251]. The rivers of this island are the Imbrasus, the
Chesius, and the Ibettes. There are also the fountains of Gigartho
and Leucothea; and Mount Cercetius. In the vicinity of Samos are the
islands of Rhypara, Nymphæa, and Achillea.




CHAP. 38.—CHIOS.


At a distance of ninety-four miles from Samos is the free island of
Chios[4252], its equal in fame, with a town of the same name. Ephorus
says, that the ancient name of this island was Æthalia; Metrodorus and
Cleobulus tell us, that it had the name of Chia from the nymph Chione;
others again say, that it was so called from the word signifying
snow[4253]; it was also called Macris and Pityusa[4254]. It has a
mountain called Pelennæus; and the Chian marble is well known. It is
125[4255] miles in circumference, according to the ancient writers;
Isidorus however makes it nine more. It is situate between Samos and
Lesbos, and, for the most part, lies opposite to Erythræ[4256].

The adjacent islands, are Thallusa[4257], by some writers called
Daphnusa[4258], Œnussa, Elaphitis, Euryanassa, and Arginusa, with a
town of that name. All these islands are in the vicinity of Ephesus,
as also those called the Islands of Pisistratus, Anthinæ, Myonnesos,
Diarreusa,—in both of these last there were cities, now no longer
in existence,—Poroselene[4259], with a city of that name, Cerciæ,
Halone[4260], Commone, Illetia, Lepria and Rhesperia, Procusæ, Bolbulæ,
Phanæ, Priapos, Syce, Melane, Ænare, Sidusa, Pele, Drymusa[4261],
Anhydros, Scopelos[4262], Sycussa, Marathussa, Psile, Perirreusa, and
many others of no note. In the main sea lies the celebrated island of
Teos, with a city[4263] of that name, seventy-one miles and a half
distant from Chios, and the same from the Erythræ.

In the vicinity of Smyrna are the Peristerides[4264], Carteria,
Alopece, Elæussa, Bachina, Pystira, Crommyonnesos, and Megale[4265].
Facing Troas there are the Ascaniæ, and the three islands called
Plateæ. We find also the Lamiæ, the two islands called Plitaniæ, Plate,
Scopelos, Getone, Arthedon, Cœlæ, Lagussæ, and Didymæ.




CHAP. 39.—LESBOS.


But Lesbos[4266], distant from Chios sixty-five miles, is the most
celebrated of them all. It was formerly called Himerte, Lasia,
Pelasgia, Ægira, Æthiope, and Macaria, and is famous for its nine
cities. Of these, however, that of Pyrrha has been swallowed up by the
sea, Arisbe[4267] has perished by an earthquake, and Methymna is now
united to Antissa[4268]; these lie in the vicinity of nine cities of
Asia, along a coast of thirty-seven miles. The towns of Agamede and
Hiera have also perished. Eresos[4269], Pyrrha, and the free city of
Mitylene[4270], still survive, the last of which was a powerful city
for a space of 1500 years. The circumference of the whole island is,
according to Isidorus, 168 miles[4271], but the older writers say 195.
Its mountains are, Lepethymnus, Ordymnus, Macistus, Creon, and Olympus.
It is distant seven miles and a half from the nearest point of the
mainland. The islands in its vicinity are, Sandaleon, and the five
called Leucæ[4272]; Cydonea[4273], which is one of them, contains a
warm spring. The Arginussæ[4274] are four miles distant from Æge[4275];
after them come Phellusa[4276] and Pedna. Beyond the Hellespont, and
opposite the shore of Sigeum, lies Tenedos[4277], also known by the
names of Leucophrys[4278], Phœnice, and Lyrnesos. It is distant from
Lesbos fifty-six miles, and twelve and a half from Sigeum.




CHAP. 40. (32.)—THE HELLESPONT AND MYSIA.


The tide of the Hellespont now begins to run with greater violence,
and the sea beats against the shore, undermining with its eddies the
barriers that stand in its way, until it has succeeded in separating
Asia from Europe. At this spot is the promontory which we have already
mentioned as Trapeza[4279]; ten miles distant from which is the city
of Abydos[4280], where the straits are only seven stadia wide; then
the town of Percote[4281]; Lampsacus[4282], at first called Pityusa;
the colony of Parium[4283], which Homer calls by the name of Adrastia;
the town of Priapos[4284]; the river Æsepus[4285]; Zelia[4286]; and
then the Propontis[4287], that being the name given to the tract of
sea where it enlarges. We then come to the river Granicus[4288], and
the harbour of Artace[4289], where a town formerly stood. Beyond
this is an island which Alexander joined to the continent, and upon
which is Cyzicus[4290], a city of the Milesians, which was formerly
called Arctonnesos[4291], Dolionis, and Dindymis; above it are the
heights of Mount Dindymus[4292]. We then come to the towns of Placia,
Ariace[4293], and Scylace; in the rear of which places is Mount
Olympus, known as the “Mysian Olympus,” and the city of Olympena. There
are also the rivers Horisius[4294] and Rhyndacus[4295], formerly called
the Lycus; this last river rises in Lake Artynias, near Miletopolis,
and receives the Macestos, and many other streams, dividing in its
course Asia[4296] from Bithynia[4297].

This country was at first called by the name of Cronia, after that,
Thessalis, and then Malianda and Strymonis. The people of it are by
Homer called Halizones[4298], from the fact that it was a nation
begirt by the sea. There was formerly a vast city here, Attussa
by name; at present there are twelve cities in existence; among
which is Gordiucome[4299], otherwise Juliopolis; and, on the coast,
Dascylos[4300]. We then come to the river Gelbes[4301]; and, in the
interior, the town of Helgas, or Germanicopolis, which has also the
other name of Booscœte[4302]; Apamea[4303], now more generally known
as Myrlea of the Colophonians: the river Etheleus also, the ancient
boundary of Troas, and the commencement of Mysia. Next to this comes
the gulf[4304] into which the river Ascanius flows, the town of
Bryllion[4305], and the rivers Hylas and Cios, with a town of the same
name as the last-mentioned river; it was founded by the Milesians at
a place which was called Ascania of Phrygia, as an entrepôt for the
trade of the Phrygians who dwelt in the vicinity. We may therefore look
upon this as a not ineligible opportunity for making further mention of
Phrygia.




CHAP. 41.—PHRYGIA.


Phrygia lies above Troas, and the peoples already mentioned as
extending from the Promontory of Lectum[4306] to the river Etheleus.
On its northern side it borders upon Galatia, on the south it joins
Lycaonia, Pisidia, and Mygdonia, and, on the east, it touches upon
Cappadocia. The more celebrated towns there, besides those already
mentioned, are Ancyra[4307], Andria, Celænæ[4308], Colossæ[4309],
Carina[4310], Cotyaion[4311], Ceraine, Conium, and Midaium. There are
authors who say that the Mœsi, the Brygi, and the Thyni crossed over
from Europe, and that from them are descended the peoples called the
Mysi, Phryges, and Bithyni.




CHAP. 42.—GALATIA AND THE ADJOINING NATIONS.


On this occasion also it seems that we ought to speak of Galatia[4312],
which lies above Phrygia, and includes the greater part of the
territory taken from that province, as also its former capital,
Gordium[4313]. The Gauls[4314] who have settled in these parts, are
called the Tolistobogi, the Voturi, and the Ambitouti; those who
dwell in Mæonia and Paphlagonia are called the Trocmi. Cappadocia
stretches along to the north-east of Galatia, its most fertile parts
being possessed by the Tectosages and the Teutobodiaci. These are
the nations by which those parts are occupied; and they are divided
into peoples and tetrarchies, 195 in number. Its towns are, among the
Tectosages, Ancyra[4315]; among the Trocmi, Tavium[4316]; and, among
the Tolistobogi, Pessinus[4317]. Besides the above, the best known
among the peoples of this region are the Actalenses, the Arasenses, the
Comenses[4318], the Didienses, the Hierorenses, the Lystreni[4319],
the Neapolitani, the Œandenses, the Seleucenses[4320], the
Sebasteni[4321], the Timoniacenses[4322], and the Thebaseni[4323].
Galatia also touches upon Carbalia in Pamphylia, and the Milyæ[4324],
about Baris; also upon Cyllanticum and Oroandicum[4325], a district
of Pisidia, and Obizene, a part of Lycaonia. Besides those already
mentioned[4326], its rivers are the Sangarius[4327] and the
Gallus[4328], from which last the priests[4329] of the Mother of the
gods have taken their name.




CHAP. 43.—BITHYNIA.


And now as to the remaining places on this coast. On the road from Cios
into the interior is Prusa[4330], in Bithynia, founded by Hannibal at
the foot of Olympus, at a distance of twenty-five miles from Nicæa,
Lake Ascanius[4331] lying between them. We then come to Nicæa[4332],
formerly called Olbia, and situate at the bottom of the Ascanian Gulf;
as also a second place called Prusa[4333], at the foot of Mount Hypius.
Pythopolis, Parthenopolis, and Coryphanta are no longer in existence.
Along the coast we find the rivers Æsius, Bryazon, Plataneus, Areus,
Æsyros, Geodos, also called Chrysorroas[4334], and the promontory[4335]
upon which once stood the town of Megarice. The gulf that here runs
inland received the name of Craspedites from the circumstance of that
town lying, as it were, upon its skirt[4336]. Astacum[4337], also,
formerly stood here, from which the same gulf has received the name
of the ‘Astacenian’: the town of Libyssa[4338] formerly stood at
the spot where we now see nothing but the tomb of Hannibal. At the
bottom of the gulf lies Nicomedia[4339], a famous city of Bithynia;
then comes the Promontory of Leucatas[4340], by which the Astacenian
Gulf is bounded, and thirty-seven miles distant from Nicomedia; and
then, the land again approaching the other side, the straits[4341]
which extend as far as the Thracian Bosporus. Upon these are situate
Chalcedon[4342], a free town, sixty-two miles from Nicomedia, formerly
called Procerastis[4343], then Colpusa, and after that the “City of
the Blind,” from the circumstance that its founders did not know where
to build their city, Byzantium being only seven stadia distant, a site
which is preferable in every respect.

In the interior of Bithynia are the colony of Apamea[4344], the
Agrippenses, the Juliopolitæ, and Bithynion[4345]; the rivers Syrium,
Laphias, Pharnacias, Alces, Serinis, Lilæus, Scopius, and Hieras[4346],
which separates Bithynia from Galatia. Beyond Chalcedon formerly stood
Chrysopolis[4347], and then Nicopolis, of which the gulf, upon which
stands the Port of Amycus[4348], still retains the name; then the
Promontory of Naulochum, and Estiæ[4349], a temple of Neptune[4350].
We then come to the Bosporus, which again separates Asia from Europe,
the distance across being half a mile; it is distant twelve miles
and a half from Chalcedon. The first entrance of this strait is
eight miles and three-quarters wide, at the place where the town of
Spiropolis[4351] formerly stood. The Thyni occupy the whole of the
coast, the Bithyni the interior. This is the termination of Asia,
and of the 282 peoples, that are to be found between the Gulf of
Lycia[4352] and this spot. We have already[4353] mentioned the length
of the Hellespont and Propontis to the Thracian Bosporus as being 239
miles; from Chalcedon to Sigeum, Isidorus makes the distance 322-1/2.




CHAP. 44.—THE ISLANDS OF THE PROPONTIS.


The islands of the Propontis are, before Cyzicus, Elaphonnesus[4354],
from whence comes the Cyzican marble; it is also known by the names
of Neuris and Proconnesus. Next come Ophiussa[4355], Acanthus, Phœbe,
Scopelos, Porphyrione, Halone[4356], with a city of that name,
Delphacia, Polydora, and Artaceon, with its city. There is also,
opposite to Nicomedia, Demonnesos[4357]; and, beyond Heraclea, and
opposite to Bithynia, the island of Thynias, by the barbarians called
Bithynia; the island of Antiochia: and, at the mouth of the Rhyndacus,
Besbicos[4358], eighteen miles in circumference; the islands also of
Elæa, the two called Rhodussæ, and those of Erebinthus[4359], Megale,
Chalcitis[4360], and Pityodes[4361].


SUMMARY.—Towns and nations spoken of ****. Noted rivers ****. Famous
mountains ****. Islands, 118 in number. People or towns no longer in
existence ****. Remarkable events, narratives, and observations ****.


ROMAN AUTHORS QUOTED.—Agrippa[4362], Suetonius Paulinus[4363],
M. Varro[4364], Varro Atacinus[4365], Cornelius Nepos[4366],
Hyginus[4367], L. Vetus[4368], Mela[4369], Domitius Corbulo[4370],
Licinius Mucianus[4371], Claudius Cæsar[4372], Arruntius[4373], Livius
the Son[4374], Sebosus[4375], the Register of the Triumphs[4376].

       *       *       *       *       *

FOREIGN AUTHORS QUOTED.—King Juba[4377], Hecatæus[4378],
Hellanicus[4379], Damastes[4380], Dicæarchus[4381], Bæton[4382],
Timosthenes[4383], Philonides[4384], Zenagoras[4385], Astynomus[4386],
Staphylus[4387], Aristoteles[4388], Aristocritus[4389],
Dionysius[4390], Ephorus[4391], Eratosthenes[4392], Hipparchus[4393],
Panætius[4394], Serapion[4395] of Antioch, Callimachus[4396],
Agathocles[4397], Polybius[4398], Timæus[4399] the mathematician,
Herodotus[4400], Myrsilus[4401], Alexander Polyhistor[4402],
Metrodorus[4403], Posidonius[4404], who wrote the Periplus and the
Periegesis, Sotades[4405], Periander[4406], Aristarchus[4407]
of Sicyon, Eudoxus[4408], Antigenes[4409], Callicrates[4410],
Xenophon[4411] of Lampsacus, Diodorus[4412] of Syracuse, Hanno[4413],
Himilco[4414], Nymphodorus[4415], Calliphanes[4416], Artemidorus[4417],
Megasthenes[4418], Isidorus[4419], Cleobulus[4420], and
Aristocreon[4421].

  END OF VOL. I.




APPENDIX OF CORRECTIONS.


  Page  1, line  9, The allusion, otherwise obscure, is to the fact that
                     some friends of Catullus had filched a set of
                     table-napkins, which had been given to him by
                     Veranius and Fabius, and substituted others
                     in their place.

    „  13, „     2, _for_ Roman figures, _read_ other figures.

    „  20, „     7, _for_ the God of nature; he also tends, _down to_
                     and most excellent, _read_ the God of nature. He
                     supplies light to the universe, and dispels all
                     darkness; He both conceals and reveals the other
                     stars. It is He that regulates the seasons, and,
                     in the course of nature, governs the year as it
                     ever springs anew into birth; it is He that dispels
                     the gloom of the heavens, and sheds his light upon
                     the clouds of the human mind. He, too, lends his
                     brightness to the other stars. He is most brilliant
                     and most excellent.

    „  21, „    13, _for_ elected, _read_ erected.

    „  21, „    13, _for_ good fortune, _read_ evil fortune.

    „  23, „    18, _for_ our scepticism concerning God is still
                     increased, _read_ our conjectures concerning God
                     become more vague still.

    „  23, „    31, _for_ and the existence of God becomes doubtful,
                     _read_ whereby the very existence of a God is shewn
                     to be uncertain.

    „  33, „     4, _for_ as she receives, _read_ as receives.

    „  54, „    15, _for_ the seventh of the circumference, _read_ the
                     seventh of the third of the circumference.

    „  59, „    36, _for_ transeuntia, _read_ transcurrentia.

    „  67, „    26, _for_ circumstances, _read_ influences.

    „  78, „     9, _for_ higher winds, _read_ higher waves.

    „  78, „    17, _for_ the male winds are therefore regulated by
                     the odd numbers, _read_ hence it is that the odd
                     numbers are generally looked upon as males.

    „  79, „    15, _for_ of the cloud, _read_ of the icy cloud.

    „  79, „    21, _for_ sprinkling it with vinegar, _read_ throwing
                     vinegar against it.

    „  79, „    22, _for_ this substance, _read_ that liquid.

    „  80, „    13, _for_ but not until, _read_ and not after.

    „  80, „    14, _for_ the former is diffused, _down to_ impulse,
                     _read_ the latter is diffused in the blast, the
                     former is condensed by the violent impulse.

    „  80, „    17, _for_ dash, _read_ crash.

    „  81, „    21, _for_ thunder-storms, _read_ thunder-bolts.

    „  81, „    27, _for_ their operation, _read_ its operation.

    „  82, „     8, _for_ thunder-storms, _read_ thunder-bolts.

    „  85, „     2, _for_ blown up, _read_ blasted.

    „  88, „    15, _for_ the east, _read_ the west.

    „  89, „    11, _for_ even a stone, _read_ ever a stone.

    „  92, „     9, _for_ how many things do we compel her to produce
                     spontaneously, _read_ how many things do we compel
                     her to produce! How many things does she pour forth
                     spontaneously!

    „  92, „    10, _for_ odours and flowers, _read_ odours and
                     flavours.

    „  93, „    16, _for_ luxuries, _read_ caprices.


FOOTNOTES:

[1] The weight of testimony inclines to the latter. The mere titles of
the works which have been written on the subject would fill a volume.

[2] At a wedding feast, as mentioned by him in B. ix. c. 58. She was
then the wife of Caligula.

[3] Related in B. ix. c. 5.

[4] Here at Tusdrita, he saw L. Coisicius, who it was said had been
changed from a woman into a man. See B. vii. c. 3. Phlegon Trallianus
and Ausonius also refer to the story.

[5] See B. xvi. c. 2, and B. xxxi. c. 19.

[6] Plinii Ep. B. vi. Ep. 16.

[7] Twenty-fourth August.

[8] “Fortes fortuna juvat.”

[9] B. iii. Ep. 5.

[10] Nero Claudius Drusus, the son of Livia, afterwards the wife of
Augustus. He was the father of the Emperor Claudius, and died in
Germany of the effects of an accident.

[11] “Studiosus.” This work has perished.

[12] “De Dubia Sermone.” A few scattered fragments of it still survive.

[13] 23rd of August.

[14] For astrological presages.

[15] At midwinter, this hour would answer at Rome to our midnight.

[16] At midwinter, this would be between six and seven in the evening.

[17] “Electorum Commentarii.”

[18] B. viii. c. 34. His acrimony may however, in this instance, have
outstripped his discretion. Though indebted to them for by far the
largest amount of his information on almost every subject, he seems to
have had a strong aversion to the Greeks, and repeatedly charges them
with lying, viciousness, boasting, and vanity. See B. ii. c. 112; B.
iii. c. 6; B. v. c. 1; B. xv. c. 5; B. xix. c. 26; B. xxviii. c. 29; B.
xxxvii. c. 74.

[19] Of Vespasian and Titus for certain; and probably of Nero, who
appointed him “procurator Cæsaris” in Spain.

[20] Even on that point he contradicts himself in the next Book. See B.
viii. c. 19, and 64, in reference to the lion and the horse.

[21] See B. vii. c. 51.

[22] “Summa vitæ felicitas.” B. vii. c. 54.

[23] B. vii. c. 53.

[24] He loses no opportunity of inveighing against luxury and
sensuality.

[25] The question as to a future existence he calls “Manium ambages,”
“quiddities about the Manes.” B. vii. c. 56.

[26] See B. vii. c. 53.

[27] We have already seen that in his earlier years he was warned in a
vision by Drusus to write the history of the wars in Germany; but there
is a vast difference between paying attention to the suggestions of a
dream, and believing in the immortality of the soul, or the existence
of disembodied spirits.

[28] B. vii. c. 53.

[29] B. vii. c. 58, 59, 60.

[30] Mankind must surely have agreed before this in making the
instruments employed in shaving.

[31] “Discours Premier sur l’Histoire Naturelle.”

[32] Biographie Universelle. Vol. 35. Art. _Pline_.

[33] This, however, is not the fault of Pliny, but the result of
imperfect tradition. To have described _every_ object _minutely_ that
he has named, and of which he has given the peculiar properties, would
have swollen his book to a most enormous size, almost indeed beyond
conception.

[34] Lemaire informs us, in his title-page, that the two first books of
the Natural History are edited by M. Alexandre, in his edition.

[35] “Jucundissime;” it is not easy to find an epithet in our language
which will correctly express the meaning of the original, affectionate
and familiar, at the same time that it is sufficiently dignified and
respectful.

[36] Lamb’s trans.; Carm. i. 4. of the original.

[37] “Conterraneus;” we have no word in English which expresses the
idea intended by the original, and which is, at the same time, a
military term. There is indeed some reason to doubt, whether the word
now inserted in the text was the one employed by the author: see
the remarks of M. Alexandre, in Lem. i. 3; also an observation in
Cigalino’s dissertation on the native country of Pliny; Valpy, 8.

[38] “Permutatis prioribus sætabis;” Carm. xii. 14; xxv. 7; see the
notes in Lamb’s trans. pp. 135 & 149.

[39] These names in the original are Varaniolus and Fabullus, which are
supposed to have been changed from Veranius and Fabius, as terms of
familiarity and endearment; see Poinsinet, i. 24, and Lemaire, i. 4.

[40] The narrative of Suetonius may serve to illustrate the observation
of Pliny: “Triumphavit (Titus) cum patre, censuramque gessit una. Eidem
collega et in tribunicia potestate, et in septem consulatibus fuit.
Receptaque ad se prope omnium officiorum cura, cum patris nomine et
epistolas ipse dictaret, et edicta conscriberet, orationesque in Senatu
recitaret etiam quæstoris vice, præfecturam quoque prætorii suscepit,
nunquam ad id tempus, nisi ab Equite Romano, administratum.” (viii. 5.)

[41] “Perfricui faciem.” This appears to have been a proverbial
expression among the Romans; Cicero, Tusc. Quæs. iii. 41, employs “os
perfricuisti,” and Martial, xi. 27. 7, “perfricuit frontem,” in the
same sense.

[42] Suetonius speaks of Domitian’s taste for poetry, as a part of his
habitual dissimulation, viii. 2; see also the notes of Poinsinet, i.
26, and of Alexandre, in Lemaire, i. 351.

[43] “Non eras in hoc albo;” see the note of Alexandre, in Lemaire,
i. 8. A passage in Quintilian, xii. 4, may serve to illustrate this
use of the term ‘album’; “... quorum alii se ad album ac rubricas
transtulerunt....”

[44] It appears that the passage in which Cicero makes this quotation
from Lucilius, is not in the part of his treatise De Republica which
was lately discovered by Angelus Maius; Alexandre in Lemaire, i. 9.
Cicero refers to this remark of Lucilius in two of his other works,
although with a variation in the expression and in the individuals
specified; De Orat. ii. 6, and De Fin. i. 3.

[45] “Qui primus condidit styli nasum.”

[46] “Sed hæc ego mihi nunc patrocinia ademi nuncupatione.”

[47] “Pecunias deponerent.” Ajasson, i. 11, remarks on these words,
“Qui videri volebant ambitu alienissimi, pecuniam apud sanctum aliquem
virum deponebant, qua scilicet multarentur, si unquam hujus criminis
manifesti fierent.”

[48] This expression is not found in any of the works of Cicero which
are now extant, nor, indeed, is it certain that it was anything more
than a remark made in conversation.

[49] “Provocatio,” calling forth.

[50] Horace, Epist. ii. 1. 143; Ovid, Fast. iv. 746 and v. 121, and
Tibullus, i. 1. 26 and ii. 5. 37, refer to the offerings of milk made
by the country people to their rural deities.

[51] “... id est, artium et doctrinarum omnium circulus;” Alexandre in
Lem. i. 14.

[52] These words are not found in any of the books of Livy now extant;
we may conclude that they were introduced into the latter part of his
work.

[53] “Quem nunc primum historiæ Plinianæ librum vocamus, hic non
numeratur, quod sit operis index.” Hardouin in Lem. i. 16.

[54] Nothing is known of Domitius Piso, either as an author or an
individual.

[55] The names of these authors will be found, arranged by Hardouin
alphabetically, with a brief account of them and their works, in Lem.
i. 157 _et seq._; we have nearly the same list in Valpy, p. 4903.

[56] “Musinamur.” We learn from Hardouin, Lem. i. 17, that there is
some doubt as to the word employed by our author, whether it was
_musinamur_ or _muginamur_; I should be disposed to adopt the former,
as being, according to the remark of Turnebus, “verbum a Musis
deductum.”

[57] “A fine Aufidii Bassi;” as Alexandre remarks, “Finis autem
Aufidii Bassi intelligendus est non mors ejus, sed tempus ad quod
suas ipse perduxerat historias. Quodnam illud ignoramus.” Lem. i. 18.
For an account of Aufidius Bassus we are referred to the catalogue of
Hardouin, but his name does not appear there. Quintilian (x. 1) informs
us, that he wrote an account of the Germanic war.

[58] “Jam pridem peracta sancitur.”

[59] This sentiment is not found in that portion of the treatise which
has been lately published by Angelus Maius. Alexandre in Lemaire, i. 19.

[60] The following is probably the passage in the Offices to which
Pliny refers: “Panæcius igitur, qui sine controversia de officiis
accuratissime disputavit, quemque nos, correctione quadam exhibita,
potissimum secuti sumus....” (iii. 2.)

[61] “Cum præsertim sors fiat ex usura.” The commentators and
translators have differed respecting the interpretation of this
passage; I have given what appears to me the obvious meaning of the
words.

[62] “Lac gallinaceum;” “Proverbium de re singulari et admodum rara,”
according to Hardouin, who quotes a parallel passage from Petronius;
Lemaire, i. 21.

[63] The titles in the original are given in Greek; I have inserted in
the text the words which most nearly resemble them, and which have been
employed by modern authors.

[64] “Lucubratio.”

[65] The pun in the original cannot be preserved in the translation;
the English reader may conceive the name Bibaculus to correspond to our
surname Jolly.

[66] “Sesculysses” and “Flextabula;” literally, Ulysses and a Half, and
Bend-table.

[67] Βιβλιοθήκη.

[68] “Cymbalum mundi” and “publicæ famæ tympanum.”

[69] “Pendenti titulo;” as Hardouin explains it, “qui nondum absolutum
opus significaret, verum adhuc pendere, velut imperfectum.” Lemaire, i.
26.

[70] “Homeromastigæ.”

[71] “Dialectici.” By this term our author probably meant to
designate those critics who were disposed to dwell upon minute verbal
distinctions; “dialecticarum captionum amantes,” according to Hardouin;
Lem. i. 28.

[72] “Quod argutiarum amantissimi, et quod æmulatio inter illos
acerbissima.” Alexandre in Lemaire, i. 28.

[73] Pliny the younger, in one of his letters (iii. 5), where he
enumerates all his uncle’s publications, informs us, that he wrote “a
piece of criticism in eight books, concerning ambiguity of expression.”
Melmoth’s Pliny, i. 136.

[74] The ancients had very exaggerated notions respecting the period of
the elephant’s pregnancy; our author, in a subsequent part of his work
(viii. 10), says, “Decem annis gestare vulgus existimat; Aristoteles
biennio.”

[75] His real name was Tyrtamus, but in consequence of the beauty of
his style, he acquired the appellation by which he is generally known
from the word θεῖος φράσις. Cicero on various occasions refers to him;
Brutus, 121; Orator, 17, _et alibi_.

[76] “Suspendio jam quærere mortem oportere homines vitæque renunciare,
cum tantum licentiæ, vel feminæ, vel imperiti homines sumant, ut in
doctissimos scribant;” Hardouin in Lemaire, i. 29. We learn from
Cicero, De Nat. Deor. i. 33, that the name of this female was Leontium;
“... sed meretricula etiam Leontium contra Theophrastum scribere ausa
sit.”

[77] A. Gellius (vii. 4) refers to this work and gives an extract from
it.

[78] The hostility which Cato bore to Scipio Africanus is mentioned by
Livy, xxxviii. 54, and by Corn. Nepos, Cato, i.

[79] Lucius Munatius Plancus took a conspicuous part in the political
intrigues of the times and was especially noted for his follies and
extravagance.

[80] Asinius Pollio is a name which stands high in Roman literature;
according to the remark of Alexandre, “Vir magnus fuit, prono tamen
ad obtrectandum ingenio, quod arguunt ejus cum Cicerone simultates,”
Lemaire, i. 30. This hostile feeling towards Cicero is supposed to have
proceeded from envy and mortification, because he was unable to attain
the same eminence in the art of oratory with his illustrious rival. See
Hardouin’s Index Auctorum, in Lemaire, i. 168.

[81] “Vitiligatores.”

[82] The table of contents, which occupies no less than 124 pages in
Lemaire’s edition, I have omitted, in consequence of its length; the
object which the author proposed to effect by the table of contents
will be gained more completely by an alphabetical index.

[83] “Ἐποπτίδων.” For an account of Valerius Soranus see Hardouin’s
Index Auctorum, in Lemaire, i. 217.

[84] To the end of each book of the Natural History is appended, in the
original, a copious list of references to the sources from which the
author derived his information. These are very numerous; in the second
book they amount to 45, in the third to 35, in the 4th to 53, in the
fifth to 60, in the sixth to 54, and they are in the same proportion in
the remaining books.

[85] “Spartum;” this plant was used to make bands for the vines and
cables for ships.

[86] “Mundus.” In translating from one language into another, it is
proper, as a general principle, always to render the same word in the
original by the same word in the translation. But to this rule there
are two exceptions; where the languages do not possess words which
precisely correspond, and where the original author does not always
use the same word in the same sense. Both these circumstances, I
apprehend, apply to the case in question. The term _Mundus_ is used
by Pliny, sometimes to mean _the earth_ and its immediate appendages,
the visible solar system; and at other times _the universe_; while
I think we may venture to assert, that in some instances it is used
in rather a vague manner, without any distinct reference to either
one or other of the above designations. I have, in almost all cases,
translated it by the term _world_, as approaching nearest to the
sense of the original. The word _mundus_ is frequently employed by
Lucretius, especially in his fifth book, and seems to be almost always
used in the more extended sense of _universe_. There are, indeed, a
few passages where either meaning would be equally appropriate, and in
one line it would appear to be equivalent to _firmament_ or _heavens_;
“et mundi speciem violare serenam,” iv. 138. Cicero, in his treatise
De Natura Deorum, generally uses the term _mundus_ in the sense of
_universe_, as in ii. 22, 37, 58 and 154; while in one passage, ii.
132, it would appear to be employed in the more limited sense of _the
earth_. It occasionally occurs in the Fasti of Ovid, but it is not
easy to ascertain its precise import; as in the line “Post chaos, ut
primum data sunt tria corpora mundo,” v. 41, where from the connexion
it may be taken either in the more confined or in the more general
sense. Manilius employs the word very frequently, and his commentators
remark, that he uses it in two distinct senses, _the visible firmament_
and the _universe_; and I am induced to think that he attaches still
more meaning to the term. It occurs three times in the first eleven
lines of his poem. In the third line, “deducere mundo aggredior,”
_mundus_ may be considered as equivalent to the celestial regions as
opposed to the earth. In the ninth line, “concessumque patri mundo,”
we may consider it as signifying the celestial regions generally; and
in the eleventh, “Jamque favet mundus,” the whole of the earth, or
rather its inhabitants. We meet with it again in the sixty-eighth line,
“lumina mundi,” where it seems more properly to signify the visible
firmament; again in the 139th, “Et mundi struxere globum,” it seems
to refer especially to the earth, synonymous with the general sense
of the English term _world_; while in the 153rd line, “per inania
mundi,” it must be supposed to mean the universe. Hyginus, in his
Poeticon Astronomicon, lib. i. p. 55, defines the term as follows:
“Mundus appellatur is qui constat in sole et luna et terra et omnibus
stellis;” and again, p. 57, “Terra mundi media regione collocata.” We
may observe the different designations of the term _mundus_ in Seneca;
among other passages I may refer to his Nat. Quæst. vii. 27 & iii. 30;
to his treatise De Consol. § 18 and De Benef. iv. 23, where I conceive
the precise meanings are, respectively, the universe, the terrestrial
globe, the firmament, and the heavenly bodies. The Greek term κόσμος,
which corresponds to the Latin word _mundus_, was likewise employed to
signify, either the visible firmament or the universe. In illustration
of this, it will be sufficient to refer to the treatise of Aristotle
Περὶ Κόσμου, cap. 2. p. 601. See also Stephens’s Thesaurus, _in loco_.
In Apuleius’s treatise De Mundo, which is a free translation of
Aristotle’s Περὶ Κόσμου, the term may be considered as synonymous with
universe. It is used in the same sense in various parts of Apuleius’s
writings: see Metam. ii. 23; De Deo Socratis, 665, 667; De Dogmate
Platonis, 574, 575, _et alibi_.

[87] Cicero, in his Timæus, uses the same phraseology; “Omne igitur
cœlum, sive mundus, sive quovis alio vocabulo gaudet, hoc a nobis
nuncupatum est,” § 2. Pomponius Mela’s work commences with a similar
expression; “Omne igitur hoc, quidquid est, cui mundi cœlique nomen
indideris, unum id est.” They were probably taken from a passage in
Plato’s Timæus, “Universum igitur hoc, Cœlum, sive Mundum, sive quo
alio vocabulo gaudet, cognominemus,” according to the translation of
Ficinus; Platonis Op. ix. p. 302. The word _cœlum_, which is employed
in the original, in its ordinary acceptation, signifies _the heavens_,
the visible firmament; as in Ovid, Met. i. 5, “quod tegit omnia,
cœlum.” It is, in most cases, employed in this sense by Lucretius and
by Manilius, as in i. 2. of the former and in i. 14. of the latter.
Occasionally, however, it is employed by both of these writers in the
more general sense of _celestial regions_, in opposition to the earth,
as by Lucretius, i. 65, and by Manilius, i. 352. In the line quoted
by Cicero from Pacuvius, it would seem to mean the place in which the
planets are situated; De Nat. Deor. ii. 91. The Greek word οὐρανὸς may
be regarded as exactly corresponding to the Latin word _cœlum_, and
employed with the same modifications; see Aristotle, De Mundo and De
Cœlo, and Ptolemy, Mag. Const. lib. i. _passim_; see also Stephens’s
Thesaurus, _in loco_. Aratus generally uses it to designate the visible
firmament, as in l. 10, while in l. 32 it means the heavenly regions.
Gesner defines _cœlum_, “Mundus exclusa terra,” and _mundus_, “Cœlum et
quidquid cœli ambitu continetur.” In the passage from Plato, referred
to above, the words which are translated by Ficinus _cœlum_ and
_mundus_, are in the original οὐρανὸς and κόσμος; Ficinus, however, in
various parts of the Timæus, translates οὐρανὸς by the word _mundus_:
see t. ix. p. 306, 311, _et alibi_.

[88] The following passage from Cicero may serve to illustrate the
doctrine of Pliny: “Novem tibi orbibus, vel potius globis, connexa
sunt omnia: quorum unus est cœlestis, extimus, qui reliquos omnes
complectitur, summus ipse Deus, arcens et continens cœlum;” Som. Scip.
§ 4. I may remark, however, that the term here employed by our author
is not _Deus_ but _Numen_.

[89] We have an interesting account of the opinions of Aristotle on
this subject, in a note in M. Ajasson’s translation, ii. 234 _et seq._,
which, as well as the greater part of the notes attached to the second
book of the Natural History, were written by himself in conjunction
with M. Marcus.

[90] The philosophers of antiquity were divided in their opinions
respecting the great question, whether the active properties of
material bodies, which produce the phænomena of nature, are inherent
in them, and necessarily attached to them, or whether they are
bestowed upon them by some superior power or being. The Academics and
Peripatetics generally adopted the latter opinion, the Stoics the
former: Pliny adopts the doctrine of the Stoics; see Enfield’s Hist. of
Phil. i. 229, 283, 331.

[91] I may remark, that the astronomy of our author is, for the most
part, derived from Aristotle; the few points in which they differ will
be stated in the appropriate places.

[92] This doctrine was maintained by Plato in his Timæus, p. 310,
and adopted by Aristotle, De Cœlo, lib. ii. cap. 14, and by Cicero,
De Nat. Deor. ii. 47. The spherical form of the world, οὐρανὸς, and
its circular motion are insisted upon by Ptolemy, in the commencement
of his astronomical treatise Μεγάλη Σύνταξις, Magna Constructio,
frequently referred to by its Arabic title Almagestum, cap. 2. He is
supposed to have made his observations at Alexandria, between the years
125 and 140 A.D. His great astronomical work was translated into Arabic
in the year 827; the original Greek text was first printed in 1538 by
Grynæus, with a commentary by Theon. George of Trebisond published a
Latin version of it in 1541, and a second was published by Camerarius
in 1551, along with Ptolemy’s other works. John Muller, usually called
Regiomontanus, and Purback published an abridgement of the Almagest in
1541. For an account of Ptolemy I may refer to the article in the Biog.
Univ. xxxv. 263 _et seq._, by Delambre, also to Hutton’s Math. Dict.,
_in loco_, and to the high character of him by Whewell, Hist. of the
Inductive Sciences, p. 214.

[93] See Ptolemy, _ubi supra_.

[94] This opinion, which was maintained by Pythagoras, is noticed and
derided by Aristotle, De Cœlo, lib. ii. cap. 9. p. 462-3. A brief
account of Pythagoras’s doctrine on this subject is contained in
Enfield’s Philosophy, i. 386.

[95] Pliny probably here refers to the opinion which Cicero puts into
the mouth of one of the interlocutors in his treatise De Nat. Deor.
ii. 47, “Quid enim pulchrius ea figura, quæ sola omnes alias figuras
complexa continet, quæque nihil asperitatis habere, nihil offensionis
potest, nihil incisum angulis, nihil anfractibus, nihil eminens, nihil
lacunosum?”

[96] The letter Δ, in the constellation of the triangle; it is named
Δελτωτὸν by Aratus, l. 235; also by Manilius, i. 360. We may remark,
that, except in this one case, the constellations have no visible
resemblance to the objects of which they bear the name.

[97] “Locum hunc Plinii de Galaxia, sive Lactea via, interpretantur
omnes docti.” Alexandre, in Lemaire, i. 227. It may be remarked, that
the word _vertex_ is here used in the sense of the astronomical term
zenith, not to signify the pole.

[98] De Ling. Lat. lib. iv. p. 7, 8. See also the remarks on the
derivation of the word in Gesner, Thes., _in loco_.

[99] “Signifer.” The English term is taken from the Greek word
Ζωδιακὸς, derived from Ζῶον; see Aristotle, De Mundo, cap. 2. p. 602.
The word _Zodiacus_ does not occur in Pliny, nor is it employed by
Ptolemy; he names it λοξὸς κύκλος, _obliquus circulus_; Magn. Const.
i. 7, 13, _et alibi_. It is used by Cicero, but professedly as a Greek
term; Divin. ii. 89, and Arati Phænom. l. 317. It occurs in Hyginus,
p. 57 _et alibi_, and in A. Gellius, 13. 9. Neither _signifer_ taken
substantively, nor _zodiacus_ occur in Lucretius or in Manilius.

[100] The account of the elements, of their nature, difference, and,
more especially, the necessity of their being four, are fully discussed
by Aristotle in various parts of his works, more particularly in his
treatise De Cœlo, lib. iii. cap. 3, 4 and 5, lib. iv. cap. 5, and De
Gener. et Cor. lib. ii. cap. 2, 3, 4 and 5. For a judicious summary of
the opinions of Aristotle on this subject, I may refer to Stanley’s
History of Philosophy; Aristotle, doctrines of, p. 2. l. 7, and to
Enfield, i. 764 _et seq._ For the Epicurean doctrine, see Lucretius, i.
764 _et seq._

[101] Although the word _planeta_, as taken from the Greek πλανήτης, is
inserted in the title of this chapter, it does not occur in any part
of the text. It is not found either in Lucretius, Manilius, or Seneca,
nor, I believe, was it used by any of their contemporaries, except
Hyginus, p. 76. The planets were generally styled _stellæ erraticæ_,
_errantes_, or _vagæ_, _sidera palantia_, as in Lucretius, ii. 1030,
or simply the _five stars_, as in Cicero, De Nat. Deor. ii. 51, and
in Seneca, Nat. Quæst. vii. 24. Pliny, by including the sun and moon,
makes the number seven. Aratus calls them πέντ’ ἄστερες, l. 454.

[102] “Aër.” “Circumfusa undique est (terra) hac animabili spirabilique
natura, cui nomen est aër; Græcum illud quidem, sed perceptum jam tamen
usu a nobis;” Cicero, De Nat. Deor. ii. 91.

[103] “universi cardine.” “Revolutionis, ut aiunt, centro. Idem
Plinius, hoc ipso libro, cap. 64, terram cœli cardinem esse dicit;”
Alexandre, in Lem. i. 228. On this subject I may refer to Ptolemy,
Magn. Const, lib. i. cap. 3, 4, 6. See also Apuleius, near the
commencement of his treatise De Mundo.

[104] “Sidera.” The word _sidus_ is used, in most cases, for one of the
heavenly bodies generally, sometimes for what we term a constellation,
a particular assemblage of them, and sometimes specially for an
individual star. Manilius employs the word in all these senses, as will
appear by the three following passages respectively; the first taken
from the opening of his poem,

  “Carmine divinas artes, et conscia fati
  Sidera....”

The second,

  “Hæc igitur texunt æquali sidera tractu
  Ignibus in varias cœlum laqueantia formas.” i. 275, 276.

The third

  “... pectus, fulgenti sidere clarius;” i. 356.

In the Fasti of Ovid, we have examples of the two latter of these
significations:—

  “Ex Ariadnæo sidere nosse potes;” v. 316.

  “Et canis (Icarium dicunt) quo sidere noto
  Tosta sitit tellus;” iv. 939, 940.

Lucretius appears always to employ the term in the general sense. J.
Obsequens applies the word _sidus_ to a meteor; “sidus ingens cœlo
demissum,” cap. 16. In a subsequent part of this book, chap. 18 _et
seq._, our author more particularly restricts the term _sidus_ to the
planets.

[105] Cicero remarks concerning them; “quæ (stellæ) falso vocantur
errantes;” De Nat. Deor. ii. 51.

[106] “... vices dierum alternat et noctium, quum sidera præsens
occultat, illustrat absens;” Hard. in Lem. i. 230.

[107] “ceteris sideribus.” According to Hardouin, _ubi supra_, “nimium
stellis errantibus.” There is, however, nothing in the expression of
our author which sanctions this limitation.

[108] See Iliad, iii. 277, and Od. xii. 323.

[109] It is remarked by Enfield, Hist. of Phil. ii. 131, that “with
respect to philosophical opinions, Pliny did not rigidly adhere to any
sect.... He reprobates the Epicurean tenet of an infinity of worlds;
favours the Pythagorean notion of the harmony of the spheres; speaks
of the universe as God, after the manner of the Stoics, and sometimes
seems to pass over into the field of the Sceptics. For the most part,
however, he leans to the doctrine of Epicurus.”

[110] “Si alius est Deus quam sol,” Alexandre in Lem. i. 230. Or
rather, if there be any God distinct from the world; for the latter
part of the sentence can scarcely apply to the sun. Poinsinet and
Ajasson, however, adopt the same opinion with M. Alexandre; they
translate the passage, “s’il en est autre que le soleil,” i. 17 and ii.
11.

[111] “totus animæ, totus animi;” “Anima est qua vivimus, animus quo
sapimus.” Hard. in Lem. i. 230, 231. The distinction between these two
words is accurately pointed out by Lucretius, iii. 137 _et seq._

[112] “fecerunt (Athenienses) Contumeliæ fanum et Impudentiæ.” Cicero,
De Leg. ii. 28. See also Bossuet, Discours sur l’Histoire univ. i. 250.

[113] The account which Cicero gives us of the opinions of Democritus
scarcely agrees with the statement in the text; see De Nat. Deor. i.
120.

[114] “In varios divisit Deos numen unicum, quod Plinio cœlum est aut
mundus; ejusque singulas partes, aut, ut philosophi aiunt, attributa,
separatim coluit;” Alexandre in Lemaire, i. 231.

[115] “Febrem autem ad minus nocendum, templis celebrant, quorum adhuc
unum in Palatio....” Val. Max. ii. 6; see also Ælian, Var. Hist. xii.
11. It is not easy to ascertain the precise meaning of the terms
_Fanum_, _Ædes_, and _Templum_, which are employed in this place by
Pliny and Val. Maximus. Gesner defines _Fanum_ “area templi et solium,
_templum_ vero ædificium;” but this distinction, as he informs us,
is not always accurately observed; there appears to be still less
distinction between _Ædes_ and _Templum_; see his Thesaurus _in loco_,
also Bailey’s Facciolati _in loco_.

[116] “Orbona est Orbitalis dea.” Hardouin in Lemaire, i. 231.

[117] “Appositos sibi statim ab ortu custodes credebant, quos viri
Genios, Junones fœminæ vocabant.” Hardouin in Lemaire, i. 232. See
Tibullus, 4. 6. 1, and Seneca, Epist. 110, _sub init._

[118] We may suppose that our author here refers to the popular
mythology of the Egyptians; the “fœtidi cibi” are mentioned by Juvenal;
“Porrum et cæpe nefas violare et frangere morsu,” xv. 9; and Pliny, in
a subsequent part of his work, xix. 32, remarks, “Allium cæpeque inter
Deos in jurejurando habet Ægyptus.”

[119] See Cicero, De Nat. Deor. i. 42 _et alibi_, for an illustration
of these remarks of Pliny.

[120] This sentiment is elegantly expressed by Cicero, De Nat. Deor.
ii. 62, and by Horace, Od. iii. 3. 9 _et seq._ It does not appear,
however, that any of the Romans, except Romulus, were deified, previous
to the adulatory period of the Empire.

[121] “Planetarum nempe, qui omnes nomina mutuantur a diis.” Alexandre
in Lemaire, i. 234.

[122] This remark may be illustrated by the following passage from
Cicero, in the first book of his treatise De Nat. Deor. Speaking of
the doctrine of Zeno, he says, “neque enim Jovem, neque Junonem, neque
Vestam, neque quemquam, qui ita appelletur, in deorum habet numero:
sed rebus inanimis, atque mutis, per quandam significationem, hæc docet
tributa nomina.” “Idemque (Chrysippus) disputat, æthera esse eum,
quem homines Jovem appellant: quique aër per maria manaret, eum esse
Neptunum: terramque eam esse, quæ Ceres diceretur: similique ratione
persequitur vocabula reliquorum deorum.”

[123] The following remarks of Lucretius and of Cicero may serve to
illustrate the opinion here expressed by our author:—

“Omnis enim per se Divum natura necesse est Immortali ævo summa cum
pace fruatur, Semota ab nostris rebus, sejunctaque longe;” Lucretius,
i. 57-59.

“Quod æternum beatumque sit, id nec habere ipsum negotii quidquam, nec
exhibere alteri; itaque neque ira neque gratia teneri, quod, quæ talia
essent, imbecilla essent omnia.” Cicero, De Nat. Deor. i. 45.

[124] The author here alludes to the figures of the Egyptian deities
that were engraven on rings.

[125] His specific office was to execute vengeance on the impious.

[126] “sola utramque paginam facit.” The words _utraque pagina_
generally refer to the two sides of the same sheet, but, in this
passage, they probably mean the contiguous portions of the same surface.

[127] “astroque suo eventu assignat;” the word _astrum_ appears to
be synonymous with _sidus_, generally signifying a single star, and,
occasionally, a constellation; as in Manilius, i. 541, 2.

  “... quantis bis sena ferantur
  Finibus astra....”

It is also used by synecdoche for the heavens, as is the case with the
English word _stars_. See Gesner’s Thesaurus.

[128] “Quæ si suscipiamus, pedis offensio nobis ... et sternutamenta
erunt observanda.” Cicero, De Nat. Deor. ii. 84.

[129] “Divus Augustus.” The epithet _divus_ may be regarded as merely
a term of court etiquette, because all the Emperors after death were
deified _ex officio_.

[130] We learn the exact nature of this ominous accident from
Suetonius; “... si mane sibi calceus perperam, et sinister pro dextro
induceretur;” Augustus, Cap. 92. From this passage it would appear,
that the Roman sandals were made, as we term it, right and left.

[131] It is scarcely necessary to remark, that the opinions here
stated respecting the Deity are taken partly from the tenets of the
Epicureans, combined with the Stoical doctrine of Fate. The examples
which are adduced to prove the power of fate over the Deity are, for
the most part, rather verbal than essential.

[132] “affixa mundo.” The peculiar use of the word _mundus_ in this
passage is worthy of remark, in connexion with note [86], ch. 1.
page 13.

[133] We have many references in Pliny to the influence of the
stars upon the earth and its inhabitants, constituting what was
formerly regarded as so important a science, judicial astrology.
Ptolemy has drawn up a regular code of it in his “Centum dicta,” or
“Centiloquiums.” We have a highly interesting account of the supposed
science, its origin, progress, and general principles, in Whewell’s
History of the Inductive Sciences, p. 293 _et seq._ I may also refer to
the same work for a sketch of the history of astronomy among the Greeks
and the other nations of antiquity.

[134] There are certain metaphorical expressions, which have originated
from this opinion, adopted by the moderns; “his star is set;” “the star
of his fortune,” &c.

[135] Ovid, when he compares Phaëton to a falling star, remarks,
concerning this meteor,—

  “Etsi non cecidit, potuit cecidisse videri.” Metam. ii. 322.

[136] Manilius supposes that comets are produced and rendered luminous
by an operation very similar to the one described in the text; i. 815
_et seq._ Seneca, in the commencement of his Nat. Quæst., and in other
parts of the same treatise, refers to this subject. His remarks may be
worth perusing by those who are curious to learn the hypotheses of the
ancients on subjects of natural science. We may remark, that Seneca’s
opinions are, on many points, more correct than our author’s.

[137] The author probably refers to that part of his work in which he
treats on agriculture, particularly to the 17th and 18th books.

[138] The æra of the Olympiads commenced in the year 776 before
Christ; each olympiad consists of 4 years; the 58th olympiad will
therefore include the interval 548 to 544 B.C. The 21st vol. of the
“Universal History” consists entirely of a “chronological table,” and
we have a useful table of the same kind in Brewster’s Encycl., article
“Chronology.”

[139] “rerum fores aperuisse ... traditur.” An account of the astronomy
of Anaximander is contained in Brewster’s Encycl., article “Astronomy,”
p. 587, and in the article “Anaximander” in the supplement to the same
work by Scott of Aberdeen. I may remark, that these two accounts do
not quite agree in their estimate of his merits; the latter author
considers his opinions more correct. We have also an account of
Anaximander in Stanley, pt. 2. p. 1 _et seq._, and in Enfield, i. 154
_et seq._

[140] In the translation of Ajasson, ii. 261-7, we have some valuable
observations by Marcus, respecting the origin and progress of astronomy
among the Greeks, and the share which the individuals mentioned in the
text respectively had in its advancement; also some interesting remarks
on the history of Atlas. Diodorus Siculus says, that “he was the first
that discovered the knowledge of the sphere; whence arose the common
opinion, that he carried the world upon his shoulders.” Booth’s trans.
p. 115.

[141] “nunc relicto mundi ipsius corpore, reliqua inter cœlum terrasque
tractentur.” I have already had occasion to remark upon the various
modes in which the author uses the word _mundus_; by _cœlum_, in
this passage, he means the body or region beyond the planets, which
is conceived to contain the fixed stars. _Sphæra_, in the preceding
sentence, may be supposed to mean the celestial globe.

[142] “ac trigesimo anno ad brevissima sedis suæ principia regredi;” I
confess myself unable to offer any literal explanation of this passage;
nor do the remarks of the commentators appear to me satisfactory; see
Hardouin and Alexandre in Lemaire, ii. 241, 2. It is translated by
Ajasson “en trente ans il reviens à l’espace minime d’où il est parti.”
The period of the sidereal revolutions of the planets, as stated by
Mrs. Somerville, in her “Mechanism of the Heavens,” and by Sir J.
Herschel, in his “Treatise on Astronomy,” are respectively as follows:—

                days.            days.
  Mercury      87·9705         87·9692580
  Venus       224·7           224·7007869
  Earth       365·2564        365·2563612
  Mars        686·99          686·9796458
  Jupiter    4332·65         4332·5848212
  Saturn    10759·4         10759·2198174

  Somerville, p. 358.       Herschel, p. 416.

[143] “‘mundo;’ hoc est, cœlo inerrantium stellarum.” Hardouin, in
Lemaire, ii. 242.

[144] Our author supposes, that the spectator has his face directed
towards the south, as is the case with the modern observers. We are,
however, informed by Hardouin, that this was not the uniform practice
among the ancients; see the remarks of Alexandre in Lemaire, ii. 242,
and of Marcus in Ajasson, ii. 269.

[145] The _constant revolution_ refers to the apparent daily
motion; the _opposite direction_ to their annual course through the
zodiac. Ptolemy gives an account of this double motion in his Magna
Constructio, i. 7.

[146] For the exact period, according to Somerville and Herschel, see
note [142], p. 27.

[147] Aristotle informs us, that Mars was also called Hercules or
Pyrosis; De Mundo, cap. ii. p. 602. See also Apuleius, De Mundo, § 710.
Hyginus is said by Hardouin to give the name of Hercules to the planet
Mars, but this appears to be an inaccuracy; he describes the planet
under its ordinary appellation; lib. ii. p. 62; and ii. 78, 9.

[148] Cicero, speaking of the period of Mars, says, “Quatuor et viginti
mensibus, sex, ut opinor, diebus minus;” De Nat. Deor. For the exact
period, see note [142], p. 27.

[149] “Sed ut observatio umbrarum ejus redeat ad notas.” According to
the interpretation of Hardouin, “Ad easdem lineas in solari horologio.”
Lemaire, ii. 243.

[150] This is an example of the mode of computation which we meet with
among the ancients, where, in speaking of the period of a revolution,
both the time preceding and that following the interval are included.

[151] The division of the planets into superior and inferior was not
known to Aristotle, De Mundo, cap. ii. p. 602, to Plato, Timæus, p.
318, 319, or the older Greek astronomers. It was first made by the
Egyptians, and was transferred from them to the Romans. It is one of
the points in which our author differs from Aristotle. See the remarks
of Marcus in Ajasson, ii. 242 _et seq._ Marcus notices the various
points which prove the deficiency of Pliny’s knowledge of astronomy; he
particularizes the four following:—his ignorance of the true situation
of the constellations; his erroneous opinion respecting the cause of
the seasons; his account of the phases of the moon, and of the position
of the cardinal points. He appears not to have been aware, that certain
astronomical phænomena undergo a regular progression, but supposed that
they remained, at the time when he wrote, in the same state as in the
age of Hipparchus or the original observers. Columella, when treating
on these subjects, describes the phænomena according to the ancient
calculation, but he informs us, that he adopts it, because it was the
one in popular use, and better known by the farmers (De Re Rust. ix.
14), while Pliny appears not to have been aware of the inaccuracy.

[152] “Modo solem antegrediens, modo subsequens.” Hardouin in Lemaire,
ii. 243.

[153] It was not known to the earlier writers that Lucifer and Vesper
were the same star, differently situated with respect to the Sun.
Playfair remarks, that Venus is the only planet mentioned in the sacred
writings, and in the most ancient poets, such as Hesiod and Homer;
Outlines, ii. 156.

[154] There has been much discussion among the commentators respecting
the correctness of the figures in the text; according to the æra of the
olympiads, the date referred to will be between the years 750 and 754
B.C.; the foundation of Rome is commonly referred to the year 753 B.C.
See the remarks of Marcus in Ajasson, ii. 278, 9.

[155] Aristotle informs us, that it was called either Phosphorus, Juno,
or Venus; De Mundo, cap. 2. t. i. p. 602. See also Hyginus, Poet. Astr.
lib. iii. p. 76, 7; and Apuleius, De Mundo, § 710.

[156] It will be scarcely necessary to refer the reader to the
well-known commencement of Lucretius’s poem for the illustration of
this passage; it is remarkable that Pliny does not refer to this writer.

[157] The periodical revolution of Venus is 224·7 days, see note
[142], p. 27. Its greatest elongation is 47° 1′; Somerville, § 641.
p. 391.

[158] According to Aristotle, this planet had the three appellations
of Stilbon, Mercury, and Apollo; De Mundo, cap. 2. p. 602; see also
Apuleius, De Mundo, § 710. Cicero inverts the order of the planets;
he places Mercury next to Mars, and says of Venus, that it is “infima
quinque errantium, terræque proxima;” De Nat. Deor. ii. 53. Aristotle
places the stars in the same order, _ubi supra_, and he is followed in
this by Apuleius, _ubi supra_; this appears to have been the case with
the Stoics generally; see Enfield’s Phil. i. 339.

[159] For the periodical revolution of Mercury see note[142], p. 27.
Its greatest elongation, according to Playfair, p. 160, is 28°. Mrs.
Somerville, p. 386, states it to be 28° 8′. Ptolemy supposed it to be
26·5 degrees; Almagest, ix. 7. We learn from Hardouin, Lemaire, i. 246,
that there is considerable variation in the MSS. with respect to the
greatest elongation of Mercury.

[160] Sosigenes was an Egyptian mathematician and astronomer, who is
said to have assisted Cæsar in the formation of his Kalendar, as our
author informs us in a subsequent part of his work, xviii. 25; see also
Aikin, Gen. Biog., _in loco_; Enfield’s Phil. ii. 96; Whewell, p. 210;
and Hardouin’s “Index Auctorum,” in Lemaire, i. 213.

[161] Concerning the “magnus annus” Cicero remarks, “efficitur cum
solis et lunæ et quinque errantium ad eandem inter se comparationem,
confectis omnibus spatiis, est facta conversio.” De Nat. Deor. ii. 51.
See the remarks of Marcus in Ajasson, ii. 281-3.

[162] For the various appellations which the moon has received in the
ancient and modern languages, and their relation to each other, the
reader is referred to the learned remarks of Marcus in Ajasson, ii.
283-5.

[163] Marcus conceives that the epithet _maculosa_ does not refer to
what are called the spots on the moon, but to the circumstance of
the edge of the disc being not illuminated when it is near the full;
Ajasson, ii. 286. But, from the way in which the word is employed at
the end of the chapter, and from the explanation which is given of the
cause of the “maculæ,” I think it ought to be referred to the spotted
appearance of the face of the moon.

[164] “Quum laborare non creditur.” It was a vulgar notion among the
ancients, that when the moon is eclipsed, she is suffering from the
influence of magicians and enchanters, who are endeavouring to draw
her down to the earth, in order to aid them in their superstitious
ceremonies. It was conceived that she might be relieved from her
sufferings by loud noises of various kinds which should drown the songs
of the magicians. Allusion is frequently made to this custom by the
ancient poets, as Virgil, Æn. i. 742, Manilius, i. 227, and Juvenal,
vi. 444; and the language has been transferred to the moderns, as in
Beattie’s Minstrel, ii. 47, “To ease of fancied pangs the labouring
moon.”

[165] We have some interesting remarks by Marcus respecting Endymion,
and also on the share which Solon and Thales had in correcting the
lunar observations; Ajasson, ii. 288-290.

[166] “Lucem nobis aperuere in hac luce.”

[167] “Cardo.”

[168] Astronomers describe two different revolutions or periods of the
moon; the synodical and the sidereal. The synodical marks the time in
which the moon passes from one conjunction with the sun to the next
conjunction, or other similar position with respect to the sun. The
sidereal period is the time in which the moon returns to the same
position with respect to the stars, or in which it makes a complete
revolution round the earth. These numbers are, for the synodical
period, 29ᵈ 12ʰ 44ᵐ 2·87ˢ, and for the sidereal, 27ᵈ 7ʰ 43ᵐ 11·5ˢ;
Herschel, pp. 213, 224.

[169] Our author, as Marcus remarks, “a compté par nombres ronds;”
Ajasson, ii. 291; the correct number may be found in the preceding note.

[170] It was a general opinion among the ancients, and one which
was entertained until lately by many of the moderns, that the moon
possessed the power of evaporating the water of the ocean. This opinion
appears to have been derived, at least in part, from the effect which
the moon produces on the tides.

[171] “quantum ex sole ipsa concipiat;” from this passage, taken
singly, it might be concluded, that the author supposed the quantity
of light received by the moon to differ at different times; but the
succeeding sentence seems to prove that this is not the case; see the
remarks of Alexandre in Lemaire, ii. 249. Marcus, however, takes a
different view of the subject; Ajasson, ii. 291, 292. He had previously
pointed out Pliny’s opinion respecting the phases of the moon, as one
of the circumstances which indicate his ignorance of astronomy, _ut
supra_, ii. 245, 246.

[172] This doctrine is maintained by Seneca, Quæst. Nat. lib. ii. §
5. p. 701, 702. From the allusion which is made to it by Anacreon, in
his 19th ode, we may presume that it was the current opinion among the
ancients.

[173] I may remark, that Poinsinet, in this passage, substitutes
“umbra” for “umbræque,” contrary to the authority of all the MSS.,
merely because it accords better with his ideas of correct reasoning.
Although it may be of little consequence in this particular sentence,
yet, as such liberties are not unfrequently taken, I think it
necessary to state my opinion, that this mode of proceeding is never
to be admitted, and that it has proved a source of serious injury to
classical literature. In this account of the astronomical phenomena,
as well as in all the other scientific dissertations that occur in
our author, my aim has been to transfer into our language the exact
sense of the original, without addition or correction. Our object in
reading Pliny is not to acquire a knowledge of natural philosophy,
which might be better learned from the commonest elementary work of the
present day, but to ascertain what were the opinions of the learned
on such subjects when Pliny wrote. I make this remark, because I have
seldom if ever perused a translation of any classical author, where, on
scientific topics, the translator has not endeavoured, more or less, to
correct the mistakes of the original, and to adapt his translation to
the state of modern science.

[174] The terms here employed are respectively _interventus_,
_objectio_, and _interpositus_; it may be doubted whether the author
intended to employ them in the precise sense which is indicated by
their etymology.

[175] “metæ et turbini inverso.” The _metæ_ were small pyramids placed
at the two extremities of the spina, or central division of the circus:
see Montfaucon, v. iii. p. 176; Adam, p. 341.

[176] The eclipses of the moon are only visible when the spectator is
so situated as to be able to observe the shadow of the earth, or is on
that side of the earth which is turned from the sun.

[177] “non semper in scrupulis partium congruente siderum motu.” On
the term _scrupulus_ Hardouin remarks, “Scrupuli, nodi sunt, in quibus
circuli, quos in suo cursu Sol et Luna efficiunt, se mutuo secant.”
Lemaire, ii. 251. Ptolemy, Magn. Const. vi. 6-11, gives a full and
generally correct account of the principal phænomena of eclipses.

[178] Marcus conceives that our author must here mean, not the actual,
but the apparent size of these bodies; Ajasson, ii. 295; but I do not
perceive that the text authorizes this interpretation.

[179] I have given the simple translation of the original as it
now stands in the MSS.; whether these may have been corrupted, or
the author reasoned incorrectly, I do not venture to decide. The
commentators have, according to their usual custom, proposed various
emendations and explanations, for which I may refer to the note of
Hardouin in Lemaire, ii. 252, with the judicious remarks of Alexandre,
and to those of Marcus in Ajasson, ii. 295-298, who appear to me to
take a correct view of the subject.

[180] Alexandre remarks, “Hinc tamen potius distantia quam magnitudo
Solis colligi potest.” Lemaire, ii. 252. And the same remark applies to
the two next positions of our author.

[181] Alexandre remarks on the argument of our author, perhaps a little
too severely, “Absurde dictum; nam aliis oritur, aliis occidit, dum
aliis est a vertice; quod vel pueri sentiunt.” Lemaire, ii. 253. But
we may suppose, that Pliny, in this passage, only meant to say, that
as the sun became vertical to each successive part of the equinoctial
district, no shadows were formed in it.

[182] The commentators have thought it necessary to discuss the
question, whether, in this passage, Pliny refers to the Ida of Crete
or of Asia Minor. But the discussion is unnecessary, as the statement
of the author is equally inapplicable to both of them. Mela appears to
refer to this opinion in the following passage, where he is describing
the Ida of Asia Minor; “ipse mens ... orientem solem aliter quam in
aliis terris solet aspici, ostentat.” lib. i. cap. 18.

[183] “Ut dictum est superiore capite, quo Plinius falso contendit
Terram esse Luna minorem.” Alexandre in Lemaire, ii. 253. The words of
the text, however, apply equally to the comparative size of the earth
and the sun, as of the earth and the moon.

[184] “turbo rectus;” literally an upright top.

[185] “meta.”

[186] This has been pointed out as one of our author’s erroneous
opinions on astronomy. The earth is really about 1/30 nearer the sun in
our winters than in our summers. The greater degree of heat produced
by his rays in the latter case depends upon their falling on the
surface of the earth less obliquely. This is the principal cause of the
different temperatures of the equatorial and polar regions.

[187] This eclipse is calculated to have occurred on the 28th of June,
168 B.C.; Brewster’s Encyc. “Chronology,” p. 415, 424. We have an
account of this transaction in Livy, xliv. 37, and in Plutarch, Life of
Paulus Æmilius, Langhorne’s trans. ii. 279; he however does not mention
the name of Gallus. See also Val. Maximus, viii. 11. 1, and Quintilian,
i. 10. Val. Maximus does not say that Gallus predicted the eclipse, but
explained the cause of it when it had occurred; and the same statement
is made by Cicero, De Repub. i. 15. For an account of Sulpicius, see
Hardouin’s Index auctorum, Lemaire, i. 214.

[188] An account of this event is given by Herodotus, Clio, § 74. There
has been the same kind of discussion among the commentators, respecting
the dates in the text, as was noticed above, note [154], p. 29: see the
remarks of Brotier and of Marcus in Lemaire and Ajasson, _in loco_.
Astronomers have calculated that the eclipse took place May 28th, 585
B.C.; Brewster, _ut supra_, pp. 414, 419.

[189] Hipparchus is generally regarded as the first astronomer who
prosecuted the science in a regular and systematic manner. See Whewell,
C. 3. p. 169 _et seq._, 177-179. He is supposed to have made his
observations between the years 160 and 125 B.C. He made a catalogue of
the fixed stars, which is preserved in Ptolemy’s Magn. Const. The only
work of his now extant is his commentary on Aratus; it is contained in
Petau’s Uranologie. We find, among the ancients, many traces of their
acquaintance with the period of 600 years, or what is termed the great
year, when the solar and lunar phænomena recur precisely at the same
points. Cassini, Mem. Acad., and Bailly, Hist. Anc. Astron., have shown
that there is an actual foundation for this opinion. See the remarks of
Marcus in Ajasson, ii. 302, 303.

[190] Seneca, the tragedian, refers to this superstitious opinion in
some beautiful verses, which are given to the chorus at the termination
of the fourth act of the Thyestes.

[191] We have an account of this event in Thucydides, Smith’s trans.
ii. 244, and in Plutarch, Langhorne’s trans. iii. 406. It is calculated
to have happened Aug. 27th, 413 B.C.; Brewster, _ut supra_, p. 415, 421.

[192] The elegant lines of Ovid, in his Fasti, i. 297 _et seq._,
express the same sentiment: “Felices animos, quibus hoc cognoscere
primis,” &c.

[193] I have already remarked upon the use of this term as applied to
the eclipses of the moon in note [164], p. 31.

[194] According to the remarks of Marcus, it appears probable that
this sol-lunar period, as it has been termed, was discovered by the
Chaldeans; Ajasson, ii. 306, 307.

[195] “coitus.”

[196] “Hoc enim periodo (223 mensium) plerumque redeunt eclipses, non
multum differentes, denis tamen gradibus zodiaci antecedentes;” Kepler,
as quoted by Alexandre, in Lemaire, ii. 238.

[197] The terms “sub terra” and “superne” are interpreted, by most of
the commentators, below and above the horizon respectively; see Marcus
in Ajasson, ii. 307.

[198] “globo terræ obstante convexitatibus mundi.” The term _convexus_,
as applied to the heavens, or visible firmament, simply signifies
_arched_; not opposed to _concave_, like the English word _convex_.

[199] This point is discussed by Ptolemy, Magn. Const. vi. 6; “De
distantia eclipticorum mensium.” See also the remarks of Hardouin in
Lemaire, ii. 260, 261; and of Poinsinet, i. 67.

[200] These are styled horizontal eclipses; they depend on the
refractive power of the atmosphere, causing the sun to be visible above
the horizon, although it is actually below it. Brotier states, that
eclipses of this description occurred on the 17th July, 1590, on the
30th November, 1648, and on the 16th January, 1660; Lemaire, ii. 260.

[201] This is supposed to have been in the year 72 of our æra, when it
is said that the sun was eclipsed, in Italy, on the 8th, and the moon
on the 22nd of February; see Hardouin and Alexandre, in Lemaire, ii.
261.

[202] In a subsequent part of the work, xviii. 75, the author gives
a different rate of increase, viz. 51-1/2 minutes; neither of these
numbers is correct; the mean rate of increase being, according to
Alexandre, about 54′ or 55′; Lemaire, ii. 261, 262. See also Marcus in
Ajasson, ii. 311-14.

[203] It is scarcely necessary to remark, that the effect, as here
stated, has no connexion with the supposed cause.

[204] “luminum canonica.”

[205] Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn.

[206] They are then said, in astronomical language, to rise heliacally.

[207] In the last chapter this distance was stated to be 7 degrees; see
the remarks of Alexandre, in Lemaire, ii. 263.

[208] “radiorum ejus contactu reguntur.” The doctrine of the ancient
astronomers was, that the motions of the planets are always governed by
the rays of the sun, according to its position, attracting or repelling
them.

[209] A planet appears to be stationary, _i. e._ to be referred to
the same point of the zodiac, when it is so situated with respect to
the earth, that a straight line passing through the two bodies forms
a tangent to the smaller orbit. The apparent motion of the planets,
sometimes direct and at other times retrograde, with their stationary
positions, is occasioned by the earth and the planets moving in
concentric orbits, with different velocities. One hundred and twenty
degrees is the mean distance at which the three superior planets become
stationary. We have an elaborate dissertation by Marcus, on the unequal
velocities of the planets, and on their stations and retrogradations,
as well according to the system of Aristotle as to that of Copernicus;
Ajasson, ii. 316 _et seq._ He remarks, and, I conceive, with justice,
“... ce n’est pas dans les traités d’astronomie de nos savans que l’on
doit puiser les détails destinés à éclaircir le texte des chapitres
xii, xiii, xiv et xv du second livre de Pline.... Je ne dis rien des
commentaires de Poinsinet, d’Hardouin et d’autres savans peu versés
en matière d’astronomie, qui ont fait dire à Pline les plus grandes
absurdités.”

[210] “Occasus planetæ vespertinus dicitur, quo die desinit post
occasum solis supra horizontem oculis se præbere manifestum;” Alexandre
in Lemaire, ii. 265. It is then said to set heliacally.

[211] The interpretation of this passage has given rise to much
discussion among the commentators and translators; I may refer the
reader to the remarks of Poinsinet, i. 70, 71; of Alexandre in Lemaire,
ii. 266; and of Marcus in Ajasson, ii. 328. I conceive the meaning
of the author to be, that while the other planets become stationary,
when at 120 degrees from the sun, Mars becomes so at 90 degrees,
being detained by the rays, which act upon him more powerfully, in
consequence of his being nearer to their source.

[212] I may refer to the remarks of Marcus on the respective distances
from the sun at which Venus and Mercury become stationary, and when
they attain their greatest elongations; Ajasson, ii. 328, 329.
According to Ptolemy, Magn. Constr. lib. viii. cap. 7, the evening
setting of Venus is at 5° 40′ from the sun, and that of Mercury at 11°
30′.

[213] “Ἁψὶς, ligneus rotæ circulus, ab ἅπτω necto;” Hederic _in loco_.
The term is employed in a somewhat different sense by the modern
astronomers, to signify the point in the orbit of a planet, when it
is either at the greatest or the least distance from the earth, or
the body about which it revolves; the former being termed the apogee,
aphelion, or the higher apsis; the latter the perigee, perhelion, or
lower apsis; Jennings on the Globes, pp. 64, 65.

[214] “mundo.”

[215] “ratione circini semper indubitata.”

[216] In consequence of the precession of the equinoxes these points
are continually advancing from W. to E., and are now about 30 degrees
from the situation they were in when the observations were first made
by the modern astronomers.

[217] Our author here probably refers to the motions of the planets
through their epicycles or secondary circles, the centres of which were
supposed to be in the peripheries of the primary circles. See Alexandre
in Lemaire, ii. 270.

[218] It is to this visible appearance of convexity in the heavens that
Ovid refers in the story of Phaëton, where he is describing the daily
path of the sun; Metam. ii. 63-67.

[219] “quam quod illi subjacet;” under this designation the author
obviously meant to include the temperate zones, although it technically
applies only to the part between the tropics. It is scarcely necessary
to remark, that modern discoveries have shown that this opinion
respecting the Arctic zone is not strictly correct.

[220] The breadth of the zodiac, which was limited by the ancients
to 12 degrees, has been extended by the modern astronomers to 18,
and would require to be much farther extended to include the newly
discovered planet. Herschel’s Astronomy, § 254.

[221] There is considerable difficulty in ascertaining the meaning
of the terms employed by our author in describing the course of
the planet Mercury through the zodiac; “medio ejus,” “supra,” and
“infra.” Hardouin’s comment is as follows: “Duas zodiaci partes seu
gradus pererrat, quum ipse per medium incedit signiferum: supra, quum
deflectit ad Aquilonem, per quatuor alias ejusdem partes vagatur:
infra, quum descendit ad Austrum, discedit duabus.” Lemaire, ii. 271,
272. But Marcus has shown that the opinion of Hardouin is inadmissible
and inconsistent with the facts; Ajasson, ii. 338-341. He proposes one,
which he conceives to be more correct, but we may probably be led to
the conclusion, that the imperfect knowledge and incorrect opinions of
our author on these subjects must render it impossible to afford an
adequate explanation.

[222] “flexuoso draconum meatu;” Poinsinet remarks, “Les Grecs ...
appellaient dragons les bracelets, les hausse-cols, les chainettes, et
généralement tout ce qui avait une figure armillaire;” i. 79, 80.

[223] As this remark appears to contradict what was said in the last
sentence respecting the sun, we may suspect some error in the text; see
Poinsinet, Alexandre, and Marcus, _in loco_.

[224] The following comparative statement is given by Alexandre of the
geocentric latitudes of the planets, as assigned by Pliny, and as laid
down by the moderns. Lemaire, ii. 273:—

              _Pliny._    _Moderns._
  Venus         8°          9° 22′
  Moon          6           6   0
  Mercury       5           6  54
  Mars          2  0        1  51
  Jupiter       1 30        1  30
  Saturn        1 (or 2°)   2  30

[225] It appears from the remark at the end of this chapter, that this
explanation applies to the superior planets alone.

[226] It is not easy, as Marcus observes, Ajasson, ii. 341, 345, to
comprehend the exact meaning of this passage, or to reconcile it with
the other parts of our author’s theory.

[227] “Ecliptica,” called by the moderns the nodes; i. e. the two
points where the orbits of the planets cut the ecliptic. See the
remarks of Marcus on this term; Ajasson, ii. 345, 346.

[228] We may presume that our author here refers to the apparent motion
of the planets, not to their actual acceleration or retardation.

[229] The editors have differed in the reading of this passage; I have
followed that of Lemaire.

[230] “incipit detrahi numerus.” According to the explanation of
Alexandre, “numerus nempe partium quas certo temporis intervallo
emetiuntur.” Lemaire, ii. 275. Marcus remarks in this place, “Dans tout
ce chapitre et dans le suivant, Pline a placé dans une correlation de
causité, tout ce qu’il croit arriver en même temps; mais il n’a pas
prouvé par-là que les phenomènes célestes qui sont contemporains sont
engendrés les uns par les autres.” Ajasson, ii. 349.

[231] The hypothesis of Pliny appears to be, that the planets are
affected by the rays of the sun, and that according to the angle at
which they receive the impulse, they are either accelerated or retarded
in their course.

[232] “ex priore triquetro.”

[233] Alexandre supposes, as I conceive justly, that our author, in
this passage, only refers to the writings of his own countrymen;
Lemaire, ii. 276.

[234] According to Ptolemy, these numbers are respectively 47° 51′ and
24° 3′; the modern astronomers have ascertained them to be 48° and 29°.
The least elongations of the planets are, according to Ptolemy, 44° 7′
and 18° 50′, and according to the observations of the moderns, 45° and
16°; Marcus in Ajasson, ii. 354.

[235] I have not translated the clause, “quum sint diversæ stelæ,” as,
according to Hardouin, it is not found “in probatissimis codd.,” and
appears to have little connexion with the other parts of the sentence;
it is omitted by Valpy and Lemaire, but is retained by Poinsinet and
Ajasson.

[236] When these inferior planets have arrived at a certain apparent
distance from the sun, they are come to the extent of their orbits, as
seen from the earth.

[237] “Quum ad illam Solis distantiam pervenerunt, ultra procedere
non possunt, deficiente circuli longitudine, id est, amplitudine.”
Alexandre in Lemaire, ii. 277.

[238] The transits of the inferior planets had not been observed by the
ancients.

[239] “utroque modo;” “latitudine et altitudine;” Hardouin in Lemaire,
ii. 279.

[240] “Catholica.”

[241] “... quæ (stella Martis) ut maxime excentrica volvitur, motus
etiam maxime dissonos habere diu visa est....;” Alexandre in Lemaire,
ii. 180.

[242] “... qui numerus sexangulas mundi efficit formas.”

[243] Lynceus was one of the Argonauts and was celebrated for the
acuteness of his vision; Val. Flaccus, i. 462 _et seq._

[244] The relative situation of these astronomical phænomena has
changed since the time of Pliny, in consequence of the precession of
the equinoxes. For an illustration and explanation of the various
statements in this chapter I may refer to the remarks of Marcus in
Ajasson, ii. 368-370.

[245] Ptolemy’s account of the colours of the planets is nearly similar
to that of our author; “Candidus color Jovialis est, rutilus Martius,
flavus Veneris, varius Mercurii;” De Jur. Astrol. ii. 9.

[246] This effect cannot be produced by any of the planets, except
perhaps, to a certain extent, by Venus.

[247] “mundi.”

[248] It is scarcely necessary to remark, that the method which Pliny
employs to explain the different phases of the moon betrays his
ignorance, not only of the cause of these particular phænomena, but
of the general principles which affect the appearance of the heavenly
bodies.

[249] “seminani ambitur orbe.” According to the interpretation of
Hardouin, “Orbe non perfecto et absoluto;” “major dimidia, minor
plena;” Lemaire, ii. 284.

[250] As Alexandre justly remarks, our author refers here to the
aspects only of the planets, not to their phases; ii. 284.

[251] “centrum terræ;” the equator, the part equally distant from the
two poles or extremities.

[252] It may be remarked, that the equinoxes did not actually take
place at this period in the points mentioned by Pliny, but in the
28th degrees of Pisces and Virgo respectively; he appears to have
conformed to the popular opinion, as we may learn from Columella, lib.
ix. cap. 14. The degrees mentioned above were those fixed by the Greek
astronomers who formed the celestial sphere, and which was about 138
years before the Christian æra. See the remarks of Marcus in Ajasson,
ii. 246 & 373, 374.

[253] The same remark applies to this as to the former observation.

[254] “siderum.”

[255] The hypothesis of the author is, that the excess of moisture in
the orbit of Saturn, and the excess of heat in that of Mars, unite in
the orbit of Jupiter and are discharged in the form of thunder.

[256] Alexandre remarks, that Pliny mentions this, not as his own
opinion, but that of _many_ persons; for, in chap. 21, he attempts to
prove mathematically, that the moon is situated at an equal distance
between the sun and the earth; Lemaire, ii. 286.

[257] Marcus remarks upon the inconsistency between the account here
given of Pythagoras’s opinion, and what is generally supposed to have
been his theory of the planetary system, according to which the sun,
and not the earth, is placed in the centre; Enfield’s Philosophy, i.
288, 289. Yet we find that Plato, and many others among the ancients,
give us the same account of Pythagoras’s doctrine of the respective
distances of the heavenly bodies; Ajasson, ii. 374. Plato in his
Timæus, 9. p. 312-315, details the complicated arrangement which he
supposes to constitute the proportionate distances of the planetary
bodies.

[258] Sulpicius has already been mentioned, in the ninth chapter of
this book, as being the first among the Romans who gave a popular
explanation of the cause of eclipses.

[259] “Διὰ πασῶν, omnibus tonis contextam harmoniam.” Hardouin in
Lemaire, ii. 287.

[260] These appellations appear to have originated from different
nations having assumed different notes as the foundation or
commencement of their musical scale. The Abbé Barthelemi informs
us, that “the Dorians executed the same air a tone lower than the
Phrygians, and the latter a tone still higher than the Lydians; hence
the denomination of the Dorian, Phrygian, and Lydian modes.” It appears
to have been a general practice to employ the lowest modes for the
slowest airs; Anacharsis’s Travels, iii. 73, 74.

[261] Hence the passus will be equal to 5 Roman feet. If we estimate
the Roman foot at 11·6496 English inches, we shall have the _miliare_
of 8 stadia equal to 1618 English yards, or 142 yards less than an
English statute mile. See Adam’s Roman Antiquities, p. 503; also the
articles Miliare and Pes in Smith’s Dictionary of Greek and Roman
Antiquities; and for the varieties of the stadium, as employed at
different periods and in different countries, see the article Stadium.
The stadium which Herodotus employed in measurements of Babylon has
been supposed to consist of 490 English feet, while that of Xenophon
and Strabo has been estimated at 505; see Ed. Rev. xlviii. 190. The
Abbé Barthelemi supposes the stadium to be equal to 604 English feet;
Anach. Travels, vii. 284.

[262] There appears to have been two individuals of this name, who
have been confounded with each other; the one referred to by Pliny was
an astronomer of Alexandria, who flourished about 260 years B.C.; the
other was a native of Apamea, a stoic philosopher, who lived about two
centuries later; see Aikin’s Biog. _in loco_; also Hardouin’s Index
Auctorum, Lemaire, i. 209.

[263] The terms in the original are respectively _nubila_ and _nubes_.
The lexicographers and grammarians do not appear to have accurately
discriminated between these two words.

[264] The words in the text are “vicies centum millia” and “quinquies
millia.”

[265] Archimedes estimated that the diameter of a circle is to its
circumference as 1 to 3·1416; Hutton’s Dict. _in loco_. Ptolemy states
it to be precisely as 1 to 3; Magn. Const. i. 12.

[266] The author’s reasoning is founded upon the supposition of the
length of the sun’s path round the earth being twelve times greater
than that of the moon’s; the orbit therefore would be twelve times
greater and the radius in the same proportion.

[267] “Non inter Lunam et Saturnum, sed inter Lunam et cœlum affixarum
stellarum, medium esse Solem modo dixerat. Quam parum sui meminit!”
Alexandre in Lem. i. 291.

[268] “Qui computandi modus plurimum habet verecundiæ et modestiæ, quum
ibi sistit, nec ulterius progreditur.” Hardouin in Lemaire, i. 292.

[269] “... ad Saturni circulum addito Signiferi ipsius intervallo, ...”

[270] We may remark, that our author, for the most part, adopts the
opinions of Aristotle respecting comets and meteors of all kinds, while
he pays but little attention to those of his contemporary Seneca,
which however, on some points, would appear to be more correct.
See the remarks of Marcus in Ajasson, ii. 244. Under the title of
comets he includes, not only those bodies which are permanent and
move in regular orbits, but such as are transient, and are produced
from various causes, the nature of which is not well understood. See
Aristotle, Meteor. lib. i. cap. 6, 7, and Seneca, Nat. Quæst. lib. 7,
and Manilius, i. 807 _et seq._

[271] a κόμη, coma.

[272] a πωγωνίος, barbatus. Most of these terms are employed by
Aristotle and by Seneca.

[273] ab ἀκόντιον, jaculum.

[274] a ξίφος, ensis.

[275] a δίσκος, orbis.

[276] a πίθος, dolium. Seneca describes this species as “magnitudo
vasti rotundique ignis dolio similis;” Nat. Quæst. lib. i. § 14. p. 964.

[277] a κέρας, cornu.

[278] a λαμπὰς, fax.

[279] ab ἵππος, equus. Seneca mentions the fax, the jaculum, and the
lampas among the prodigies that preceded the civil wars; Phars. i. 528
_et seq._

[280] Alexandre remarks, that these dates do not correspond, and adds,
“Desperandum est de Pliniana chronologia; nec satis interdum scio,
utrum librarios, an scriptorem ipsum incusem,....” Lemaire, i. 295.
According to the most approved modern chronology, the middle of the
109th olympiad corresponds to the 211th year of the City.

[281] “errantium modo;” this may mean, that they move in orbits like
those of the planets and exhibit the same phænomena, or simply that
they change their situation with respect to the fixed stars.

[282] Seneca remarks on this point, “Placet igitur nostris (Stoicis)
cometas ... denso aëri creari. Ideo circa Septemtrionem frequentissime
apparent, quia illic plurimi est aëris frigor.” Quæst. Nat. i. 7.
Aristotle, on the contrary, remarks that comets are less frequently
produced in the northern part of the heavens; Meteor. lib. i. cap. 6.
p. 535.

[283] _Ubi supra._

[284] See Aristotle, _ut supra_, p. 537.

[285] “Videtur is non cometes fuisse, sed meteorus quidam ignis;”
Alexandre in Lemaire, i. 296.

[286] Virgil, Geor. i. 488 _et seq._, Manilius, i. 904 _et seq._, and
Lucan, i. 526 _et seq._, all speak of the comets and meteors that
were observed previous to the civil wars between Pompey and Cæsar. In
reference to the existence of a comet about the time of Julius Cæsar,
Playfair remarks, that Halley supposed the great comet of 1680 to
have been the same that appeared in the year 44 A.C., and again in
Justinian’s time, 521 P.C., and also in 1106; Elem. Nat. Phil. ii. 197,
198. See Ptolemy’s Cent. Dict. no. 100, for the opinion, that comets
presented an omen especially unfavourable to kings. To this opinion the
following passage in the Paradise Lost obviously refers; “And with fear
of change perplexes monarchs.”

[287] Seneca refers to the four comets that were seen, after the death
of Cæsar, in the time of Augustus, of Claudius, and of Nero; Quæst.
Nat. i. 7. Suetonius mentions the comet which appeared previous to the
death of Claudius, cap. 46, and Tacitus that before the death of Nero,
Ann. xiv. 22.

[288] “A Julio Cæsare. Is enim paulo ante obitum collegium his ludis
faciendis instituerat, confecto Veneris templo;” Hardouin in Lemaire,
i. 299. Jul. Obsequens refers to a “stella crinita,” which appeared
during the celebration of these games, cap. 128.

[289] “Hoc est, hora fere integra ante solis occasum;” Hardouin in
Lemaire, i. 299.

[290] All these circumstances are detailed by Suetonius, in Julio, §
88. p. 178.

[291] “terris.”

[292] Seneca remarks, “... quidam nullos esse cometas existimant, sed
species illorum per repercussionem vicinorum siderum,... Quidam aiunt
esse quidem, sed habere cursus suos et post certa lustra in conspectum
mortalium exire.” He concludes by observing, “Veniet tempus, quo ista
quæ nunc latent, in lucem dies extrahat, et longioris diei diligentia;”
Nat. Quæst. lib. 7. § 19. p. 807.

[293] For some account of Hipparchus, see note [189], p. 37.

[294] Nothing is known respecting the nature of these instruments, nor
have we any means of forming even a conjecture upon the subject.

[295] The terms “faces,” “lampades,” “bolides,” and “trabes,” literally
torches, lamps, darts, and beams, which are employed to express
different kinds of meteors, have no corresponding words in English
which would correctly designate them.

[296] From this account it would appear, that the “fax” was what we
term a falling star. “Meteora ista, super cervices nostras transeuntia,
diversaque a stellis labentibus, modo aërolithis ascribenda sunt, modo
vaporibus incensis aut electrica vi prognata videntur, et quamvis
frequentissime recurrant, explicatione adhuc incerta indigent.”
Alexandre in Lemaire, i. 302.

[297] Seneca refers to this meteor; “Vidimus non semel flammam ingenti
pilæ specie, quæ tamen in ipso cursu suo dissipata est ... nec
Germanici mors sine tali demonstratione fuit;” Nat. Quæst, lib. i. cap.
1. p. 683.

[298] This meteor is mentioned by Dion Cassius, lib. xlv. p. 278, but
is described by him as a lampas.

[299] We may presume that the _trabes_ are, for the most part, to be
referred to the aurora borealis. _The chasma_ and the appearances
described in the twenty-seventh chapter are probably varieties of this
meteor. On these phænomena we have the following remarks by Seneca:
“Lucem in aëre, seu quamdam albedinem, angustam quidem, sed oblongam,
de noctu quandoque visam, sereno cœlo, si parallelo situ sit, Trabem
vocant; si perpendiculari, Columnam; si, cum cuspide Bolida, sive
Jaculum.” Nat. Quæst. vii. 4, and again, vii. 5, “Trabes autem non
transcurrunt nec prætervolant, ut faces, sed commorantur, et in eadem
parte cœli collucent.”

[300] Seneca describes this meteor, _ubi supra_, i. 14. “Sunt chasmata,
cum aliquando cœli spatium discedit, et flammam dehiscens velut in
abdito ostentat. Colores quoque horum omnium plurimi sunt. Quidam
ruboris acerrimi, quidam evanidæ et levis flammæ, quidam candidæ lucis,
quidam micantes, quidam æquabiliter et sine eruptionibus aut radiis
fulvi.” Aristotle’s account of chasmata is contained in his Meteor.
lib. i. cap. 5. p. 534.

[301] The meteor here referred to is probably a peculiar form of the
aurora borealis, which occasionally assumes a red colour. See the
remarks of Fouché, in Ajasson, i. 382.

[302] The doctrine of the author appears to be, that the prodigies are
not the cause, but only the indication of the events which succeed
them. This doctrine is referred to by Seneca; “Videbimus an certus
omnium rerum ordo ducatur, et alia aliis ita complexa sint, ut quod
antecedit, aut causa sit sequentium aut signum.” Nat. Quæst. i. 1.

[303] It would appear that, in this passage, two phænomena are
confounded together; certain brilliant stars, as, for example, Venus,
which have been occasionally seen in the day-time, and the formation
of different kinds of halos, depending on certain states of the
atmosphere, which affect its transparency.

[304] This occurrence is mentioned by Seneca, Nat. Quæst. i. 2; he
enters into a detailed explanation of the cause; also by V. Paterculus,
ii. 59, and by Jul. Obsequens, cap. 128. We can scarcely doubt of the
reality of the occurrence, as these authors would not have ventured to
relate what, if not true, might have been so easily contradicted.

[305] The term here employed is “arcus,” which is a portion only of a
circle or “orbis.” But if we suppose that the sun was near the horizon,
a portion only of the halo would be visible, or the condition of the
atmosphere adapted for forming the halo might exist in one part only,
so that a portion of the halo only would be obscured.

[306] The dimness or paleness of the sun, which is stated by various
writers to have occurred at the time of Cæsar’s death, it is
unnecessary to remark, was a phænomenon totally different from an
eclipse, and depending on a totally different cause.

[307] Aristotle, Meteor. lib. iii. cap. 2. p. 575, cap. 6. p. 582, 583,
and Seneca, Quæst. Nat. lib. i. § 11, describe these appearances under
the title which has been retained by the moderns of παρήλια. Aristotle
remarks on their cause as depending on the refraction (ἀνάκλασις) of
the sun’s rays. He extends the remark to the production of halos (ἅλως)
and the rainbow, _ubi supra_.

[308] This occurrence is referred to by Livy, xli. 21.

[309] This meteor has been named παρασελήνη; they are supposed to
depend upon the same cause with the Parhelia. A phænomenon of this
description is mentioned by Jul. Obsequens, cap. 92, and by Plutarch,
in Marcellus, ii. 360. In Shakspeare’s King John the death of Prince
Arthur is said to have been followed by the ominous appearance of five
moons.

[310] This phænomenon must be referred to the aurora borealis. See
Livy, xxviii. 11. and xxix. 14.

[311] “clypei.”

[312] Probably an aërolite. Jul. Obsequens describes a meteor as “orbis
clypei similis,” which was seen to pass from west to east, cap. 105.

[313] “ceu nubilo die.”

[314] It would be difficult to reconcile this phænomenon with any
acknowledged atmospherical phenomenon.

[315] Perhaps the phænomena here alluded to ought to be referred to
some electric action; but they are stated too generally to admit of our
forming more than a conjecture on the subject. Virgil refers to the
occurrence of storms of wind after the appearance of a falling star;
Geor. i. 265-6.

[316] These phænomena are admitted to be electrical; they are referred
to by Seneca, Nat. Quæst. i. 1. This appearance is noticed as of
frequent occurrence in the Mediterranean, where it is named the fire of
St. Elmo; see Hardouin in Lemaire, i. 311, and Fouché in Ajasson, ii.
382.

[317] Perhaps this opinion may be maintained on the principle, that,
when there is a single luminous appearance only, it depends upon the
discharge of a quantity of electrical fluid in a condensed state; its
effects are, in this case, those that would follow from a stroke of
lightning.

[318] This is said by Livy to have occurred to Servius Tullius while he
was a child; lib. i. cap. 39; and by Virgil to Ascanius, Æn. ii. 632-5.

[319] “Ut circumagendo balistæ vel fundæ impetus augetur.” Alexandre in
Lemaire, i. 313.

[320] “sed assidue rapta (natura) convolvitur, et circa terram immenso
rerum causas globo ostendit, subinde per nubes cœlum aliud obtexens.”
On the words “immenso globo,” Alexandre has the following comment:
“Immensis cœli fornicibus appicta sidera, dum circumvolvitur, terris
ostendit;” and on the words “cœlum aliud,” “obductæ scilicet nubes
falsum quasi cœlum vero prætexunt.” Lemaire, i. 313.

[321] The author probably means to speak of all the atmospheric
phænomena that have been mentioned above.

[322] Marcus has made some remarks on this subject which may be read
with advantage; Ajasson, ii. 245-6.

[323] The diminutive of Sus.

[324] Ab ὕω, pluo.

[325] The Hædi were in the constellation Auriga.

[326] We have the same account of the Oryx in Ælian, lib. vii. cap. 8.

[327] Our author again refers to this opinion, viii. 63, and it was
generally adopted by the ancients; but it appears to be entirely
unfounded.

[328] “cum tempestatibus confici sidus intelligimus.”

[329] “afflantur.” On this term Hardouin remarks, “Siderantur.
Sideratio morbi genus est, partem aliquam corporis, ipsumque sæpe
totum corpus percutientis subito: quod quum repentino eveniat impetu, e
cœlo vi quadam sideris evenire putatur.” Lemaire, i. 317.

[330] Cicero alludes to these opinions in his treatise De Divin. ii.
33; see also Aul. Gellius, ix. 7.

[331] The heliotropium of the moderns has not the property here
assigned to it, and it may be doubted whether it exists in any plant,
except in a very slight and imperfect degree: the subject will be
considered more fully in a subsequent part of the work, xxii. 29, where
the author gives a more particular account of the heliotrope.

[332] “conchyliorum;” this term appears to have been specifically
applied to the animal from which the Tyrian dye was procured.

[333] “soricum fibras;” Alexandre remarks on these words, “fibras
jecoris intellige, id est, lobos infimos ...;” Lemaire, i. 318; but I
do not see any ground for this interpretation.

[334] It does not appear from what source our author derived this
number; it is considerably greater than that stated by Ptolemy and the
older astronomers. See the remarks of Hardouin and of Brotier; Lemaire.
i. 319.

[335] The Vergiliæ or Pleiades are not in the tail of the Bull,
according to the celestial atlas of the moderns.

[336] “Septemtriones.”

[337] The doctrine of Aristotle on the nature and formation of mists
and clouds is contained in his treatises De Meteor. lib. i. cap. 9.
p. 540, and De Mundo, cap. 4. p. 605. He employs the terms ἀτμὶς,
νέφος, and νεφέλη, which are translated _vapor_, _nubes_ and _nebula_,
respectively. The distinction, however, between the two latter does not
appear very clearly marked either in the Greek or the Latin, the two
Greek words being indiscriminately applied to either of the Latin terms.

[338] It is doubtful how far this statement is correct; see the remarks
of Hardouin, Lem. i. 320.

[339] The words in the original are respectively _fulmen_ and
_fulgetrum_; Seneca makes a similar distinction between _fulmen_ and
_fulguratio_: “Fulguratio est late ignis explicitus; fulmen est coactus
ignis et impetu jactus.” Nat. Quæst. lib. ii. cap. 16. p. 706.

[340] “Præsertim ex tribus superioribus planetis, uti dictum est, cap.
18.” Hardouin, in Lemaire, i. 322.

[341] Our author’s opinion respecting the origin of winds nearly
agrees with that of Aristotle; “nihil ut aliud ventus (ἄνεμος) sit,
nisi aër multus fluctuans et compressus, qui etiam spiritus (πνεῦμα)
appellatur;” De Meteor. This treatise contains a full account of the
phænomena of winds. Seneca also remarks, “Ventus est aër fluens;” Nat.
Quæst. lib. 3 & 5.

[342] Aristotle informs us, that the winds termed apogæi (ἀπόγαιοι)
proceed from a marshy and moist soil; De Mundo, cap. 4. p. 605. For
the origin and meaning of the terms here applied to the winds, see the
remarks of Hardouin and Alexandre, in Lemaire, i. 323.

[343] This is mentioned by Pomp. Mela.

[344] “In domibus etiam multis manu facta inclusa opacitate
conceptacula....” Some of the MSS. have _madefacta_ for _manu facta_,
and this reading has been adopted by Lemaire; but nearly all the
editors, as Dalechamps, Laët, Grovonius, Poincinet and Ajasson, retain
the former word.

[345] The terms in the original are “flatus” and “ventus.”

[346] “illos (flatus) statos atque perspirantes.”

[347] “qui non aura, non procella, sed mares appellatione quoque ipsa
venti sunt.” This passage cannot be translated into English, from
our language not possessing the technical distinction of genders, as
depending on the termination of the substantives.

[348] “Septem nimirum errantibus.” Hardouin, in Lemaire, i. 306.

[349] In his account and nomenclature of the winds, Pliny has, for the
most part, followed Aristotle, Meteor. lib. ii. cap. 4. pp. 558-560,
and cap. 6. pp. 563-565. The description of the different winds by
Seneca is not very different, but where it does not coincide with
Aristotle’s, our author has generally preferred the former; see Nat.
Quæst. lib. 5. We have an account of the different winds, as prevailing
at particular seasons, in Ptolemy, De Judiciis Astrol. 1. 9. For the
nomenclature and directions of the winds, we may refer to the remarks
of Hardouin, Lemaire, i. 328 _et seq._

[350] Odyss. v. 295, 296.

[351] In giving names to the different winds, the author designates the
points of the compass whence they proceed, by the place where the sun
rises or sets, at the different periods of the year. The following are
the terms which he employs:—“Oriens æquinoctialis,” the place where the
sun rises at the equinox, i. e. the East. “Oriens brumalis,” where he
rises on the shortest day, the S.E. “Occasus brumalis,” where he sets
on the shortest day, the S.W. “Occasus æquinoctialis,” where he sets
at the equinox, the W. “Occasus solstitialis,” where he sets on the
longest day, the N.W. “Exortus solstitialis,” where he rises on the
longest day, the N.E. “Inter septemtrionem et occasum solstitialem,”
between N. and N.W., N.N.W. “Inter aquilonem et exortum æquinoctialem,”
between N. and N.E., N.N.E. “Inter ortum brumalem et meridiem,” between
S. and S.E., S.S.E. “Inter meridiem et hybernum occidentem,” between S.
and S.W., S.S.W.

[352] “Quod sub sole nasci videtur.”

[353] This name was probably derived from the town Vulturnum in
Campania.

[354] Seneca informs us, that what the Latins name Subsolanus, is named
by the Greeks Ἀφηλιώτης; Quæst. Nat. lib. 5. § 16. p. 764.

[355] “quia favet rebus nascentibus.”

[356] “... semper spirantes frigora Cauri.” Virgil, Geor. iii. 356.

[357] The eight winds here mentioned will bear the following relation
to our nomenclature: Septemtrio, N.; Aquilo, N.E.; Subsolanus, E.;
Vulturnus, S.E.; Auster, S.; Africus, N.W.; Favonius, W.; and Corus,
N.W.

[358] The four winds here mentioned, added to eight others, making, in
the whole, twelve, will give us the following card:—

  N. Septemtrio.
  N.N.E. Boreas or Aquilo.
  E.N.E. Cæcias.
  E. Apeliotes or Subsolanus.
  E.S.E. Eurus or Vulturnus.
  S.S.E. Euronotus or Phœnices.
  S. Notos or Auster.
  S.S.W. Libonotos.
  W.S.W. Libs or Africus.
  W. Zephyrus or Favonius.
  W.N.W. Argestes or Corus.
  N.N.W. Thrascias.

We are informed by Alexandre, Lemaire, i. 330, that there is an ancient
dial plate in the Vatican, consisting of twelve sides, in which the
names of the twelve winds are given both in Greek and in Latin. They
differ somewhat from those given above, both absolutely and relatively;
they are as follows:—

  Ἀπαρκτίας, Septemtrio.
  Βορέας, Aquilo.
  Καικίας, Vulturnus.
  Ἀφηλιώτης, Solanus.
  Εὖρος, Eurus.
  Εὐρόνοτος, Euronotus.
  Νότος, Auster.
  Λιβόνοτος, Austroafricus.
  Λὶψ, Africus.
  Ζέφυρος, Zephyrus.
  Ἰάπυξ, Corus.
  Θρασκίας, Circius.

[359] This wind must have been N.N.W.; it is mentioned by Strabo, iv.
182; A. Gellius, ii. 22; Seneca, Nat. Quæst. v. 17; and again by our
author, xvii. 2.

[360] We may learn the opinions of the Romans on the subject of this
chapter from Columella, xi. 2.

[361] corresponding to the 8th day of the month.

[362] ... lustro sequenti ...; “tribus annis sequentibus.” Alexandre,
in Lemaire, i. 334.

[363] corresponding to the 22nd of February.

[364] a χελιδὼν, hirundo.

[365] This will be either on March 2nd or on February 26th, according
as we reckon from December the 21st, the real solstitial day, or the
17th, when, according to the Roman calendar, the sun is said to enter
Capricorn.

[366] “quasi Avicularem dixeris.” Hardouin, in Lemaire, i. 334.

[367] Corresponding to the 10th of May.

[368] According to the Roman calendar, this corresponds to the 20th
July, but, according to the text, to the 17th. Columella says, that the
sun enters Leo on the 13th of the Calends of August; xi. 2.

[369] “quasi præcursores;” Hardouin, in Lemaire, i. 335. Cicero refers
to these winds in one of his letters to Atticus; xiv. 6.

[370] ἐτησίαι, ab ἔτος, annus.

[371] This will be on the 13th of September, as, according to our
author, xviii. 24, the equinox is on the 24th.

[372] This corresponds to the 11th of November; forty-four days before
this will be the 29th of September.

[373] Or Halcyonides. This topic is considered more at length in a
subsequent part of the work; x. 47.

[374] The author, as it appears, portions out the whole of the year
into fourteen periods, during most of which certain winds are said to
blow, or, at least, to be decidedly prevalent. Although the winds of
Italy are less irregular than those of England, Pliny has considerably
exaggerated the real fact.

[375] On this subject the reader may peruse the remarks of Seneca, Nat.
Quæst. v. 18, written in his style of flowery declamation.

[376] The greatest part of the remarks on the nature of the winds, in
this chapter, would appear to be taken from Aristotle’s Treatise De
Meteor., and it may be stated generally, that our author has formed
his opinions more upon those of the Greek writers than upon actual
observation.

[377] 9 A.M.

[378] In the last chapter Ornithias is said to be a west wind.

[379] This obviously depends upon the geographical situation of the
northern parts of Africa, to which the observation more particularly
applies, with respect to the central part of the Continent and the
Mediterranean. See the remarks of Alexandre, in Lemaire, i. 340.

[380] The influence of the fourth day of the moon is referred to by
Virgil, Geor. i. 432 _et seq._ “Sin ortu quarto,” &c.

[381] This refers to the genders of the names of the winds, analogous
to the remark in note [346], p. 71.

[382] Eudoxus was a native of Cnidus, distinguished for his knowledge
in astrology and science generally; he was a pupil of Plato, and is
referred to by many of the ancients; see Hardouin’s Index Auctorum, in
Lemaire, i. 187, and Enfield’s Hist. of Phil. i. 412, with the very
copious list of references.

[383] “flatus repentini.”

[384] Cicero refers to an opinion very similar to this as maintained by
the Stoics; De Div. ii. 44.

[385] “procella.”

[386] “ἐκ νέφους, ex nube, erumpente spiritu.” Hardouin, in Lemaire, i.
343. Perhaps it most nearly corresponds to the term “hurricane.”

[387] a τύφω, incendo, ardeo. We have no distinct term in our language
which corresponds to the account of the typhon; it may be considered as
a combination of a whirlwind and a hurricane.

[388] Plutarch, Sympos. Quæst. iii. 5, refers to the extraordinary
power of vinegar in extinguishing fire, but he ascribes this effect,
not to its coldness, but to the extreme tenuity of its parts. On this
Alexandre remarks, “Melius factum negassent Plinius et Plutarchus, quam
causam inanem rei absurdissimæ excogitarent.” Lemaire, i. 344.

[389] The terms here employed are respectively “turbines,” “presteres,”
and “vortices.”

[390] πρηστὴρ, a πρήθω, incendo. Seneca calls it “igneus turbo;” Nat.
Quæst. v. 13. p. 762. See also Lucretius, vi. 423.

[391] Plutarch.

[392] A water-spout. We have a description of this phænomenon in
Lucretius, vi. 425 _et seq._

[393] “fulmen.”

[394] This has been pointed out by Alexandre, Lemaire, i. 346, as one
of the statements made by our author, which, in consequence of his
following the Greek writers, applies rather to their climate than to
that of Italy. The reader may form a judgement of the correctness of
this remark by comparing the account given by Aristotle and by Seneca;
the former in Meteor. iii. 1. p. 573, 574, the latter in Nat. Quæst.
ii. 32 _et seq._

[395] “fulgur.” The account of the different kinds of thunder seems
to be principally taken from Aristotle; Meteor. iii. 1. Some of the
phænomena mentioned below, which would naturally appear to the ancients
the most remarkable, are easily explained by a reference to their
electrical origin.

[396] “quod clarum vocant.”

[397] This account seems to be taken from Aristotle, Meteor. iii. 1. p.
574; see also Seneca, Nat. Quæst. ii. 31. p. 711. We have an account of
the peculiar effects of thunder in Lucretius, vi. 227 _et seq._

[398] This effect may be easily explained by the agitation into which
the female might have been thrown. The title of “princeps Romanarum,”
which is applied to Marcia, has given rise to some discussion among the
commentators, for which see the remarks of Hardouin and Alexandre, in
Lemaire, i. 348.

[399] Sometimes a partial thunder-cloud is formed, while the atmosphere
generally is perfectly clear, or, as Hardouin suggests, the effect
might have been produced by a volcanic eruption. See Lemaire, i. 348.

[400] Seneca gives us an account of the opinions of the Tuscans; Nat.
Quæst. ii. 32; and Cicero refers to the “libri fulgurales” of the
Etrurians; De Divin. i. 72.

[401] According to Hardouin, “Summanus est Deus summus Manium, idem
Orcus et Pluto dictus.” Lemaire, i. 349; he is again referred to by
our author, xxix. 14; Ovid also mentions him, Fast. vi. 731, with the
remark, “quisquis is est.”

[402] The city of Bolsena is supposed to occupy the site of the ancient
Volsinium. From the nature of the district in which it is situate,
it is perhaps more probable, that the event alluded to in the test
was produced by a volcanic eruption, attended by lightning, than by a
simple thunder-storm.

[403] “Vocant et familiaria ... quæ prima fiunt familiam suam cuique
indepto.” This remark is explained by the following passage from
Seneca; Nat. Quæst. ii. 47. “Hæc sunt fulmina, quæ primo accepto
patrimonio, in novo hominis aut urbis statu fiunt.” This opinion, as
well as most of those of our author, respecting the auguries to be
formed from thunder, is combated by Seneca; _ubi supra_, § 48.

[404] This opinion is also referred to by Seneca in the following
passage; “privata autem fulmina negant ultra decimum annum, publica
ultra trigesimum posse deferri;” _ubi supra_.

[405] “in deductione oppidorum;” according to Hardouin, Lemaire, i.
350, “quum in oppida coloniæ deducuntur.”

[406] The following conjecture is not without a degree of probability;
“Ex hoc multisque aliis auctorum locis, plerique conjiciunt Etruscis
auguribus haud ignotam fuisse vim electricam, licet eorum arcana
nunquam divulgata sint.” Alexandre in Lemaire, i. 350.

[407] Alexandre remarks in this place, “An morbus aliquis fuit, qui
primum in agros debacchatus, jam urbi minabatur, forsitan ab aëris
siccitate natus, quem advenientes cum procella imbres discusserunt?”
Lemaire, i. 350.

[408] For a notice of Piso, see Lemaire, i. 208.

[409] We have an account of the death of Tullus Hostilius in Livy, i.
31.

[410] “ab eliciendo, seu quod precationibus cœlo evocaretur, id nomen
traxit.” This is confirmed by the following lines from Ovid, Fast. iii.
327, 328:—

  “Eliciunt cœlo te, Jupiter: unde minores
    Nunc quoque te celebrant, Eliciumque vocant.”

[411] “beneficiis abrogare vires.”

[412] “ictum autem et sonitum congruere, ita modulante natura.” This
remark is not only incorrect, but appears to be at variance both with
what precedes and what follows.

[413] The following remark of Seneca may be referred to, both as
illustrating our author and as showing how much more correct the
opinions of Seneca were than his own, on many points of natural
philosophy; “... necesse est, ut impetus fulminis et præmittat
spiritus, et agat ante se, et a tergo trahat ventum....;” Nat. Quæst.
lib. ii. § 20. p. 706.

[414] “quoniam læva parte mundi ortus est.” On this passage Hardouin
remarks; “a Deorum sede, quum in meridiem spectes, ad sinistram sunt
partes mundi exorientes;” Lemaire, i. 353. Poinsinet enters into a
long detail respecting opinions of the ancients on this point and the
circumstances which induced them to form their opinions; i. 34 _et seq._

[415] See Cicero de Divin. ii. 42.

[416] “Junonis quippe templum fulmine violatum ostendit non a Jove, non
a Deis mitti fulmina.” Alexandre in Lemaire, i. 354. The consulate of
Scaurus was in the year of Rome 638. Lucan, i. 155, and Horace, Od. i.
2. refer to the destruction of temples at Rome by lightning.

[417] Obviously because faint flashes are more visible in the night.

[418] We have an explanation of this peculiar opinion in Tertullian, as
referred to by Hardouin, Lemaire. i. 355; “Qui de cœlo tangitur, salvus
est, ut nullo igne decinerescat.”

[419] Although it has been thought necessary by M. Fée, in the notes to
Ajasson’s trans., ii. 384, 385, to enter into a formal examination of
this opinion of the author’s, I conceive that few of our readers will
agree with him in this respect.

[420] Suetonius informs us, that Augustus always wore a seal’s skin for
this purpose; Octavius, § 90.

[421] The eagle was represented by the ancients with a thunderbolt in
its claws.

[422] There is strong evidence for the fact, that, at different
times, various substances have fallen from the atmosphere, sometimes
apparently of mineral, and, at other times, of animal or vegetable
origin. Some of these are now referred to those peculiar bodies termed
aërolites, the nature and source of which are still doubtful, although
their existence is no longer so. These bodies have, in other instances,
been evidently discharged from distant volcanoes, but there are many
cases where the substance could not be supposed to have proceeded
from a volcano, and where, in the present state of our knowledge,
it appears impossible to offer an explanation of their nature, or
the source whence they are derived. We may, however, conclude,
that notwithstanding the actual occurrence of a few cases of this
description, a great proportion of those enumerated by the ancients
were either entirely without foundation or much exaggerated. We meet
with several variations of what we may presume to have been aërolites
in Livy; for example, xxiv. 10, xxx. 38, xli. 9, xliii. 13, and xliv.
18, among many others. As naturally may be expected, we have many
narratives of this kind in Jul. Obsequens.

[423] The same region from which lightning was supposed to proceed.

[424] We have several relations of this kind in Livy, xxiv. 10, xxxix.
46 and 56, xl. 19, and xliii. 13. The red snow which exists in certain
alpine regions, and is found to depend upon the presence of the Uredo
nivalis, was formerly attributed to showers of blood.

[425] This occurrence may probably be referred to an aërolite, while
the wool mentioned below, i. e. a light flocculent substance, was
perhaps volcanic.

[426]

  Armorum sonitum toto Germania cœlo
  Audiit.—Virgil, Geor. i. 474, 475.

“ ... in Jovis Vicilini templo, quod in Compsano agro est, arma
concrepuisse.” Livy, xxiv. 44.

[427] See Plutarch, by Langhorne; Marius, iii. 133.

[428] See Livy, iii. 5 & 10, xxxi. 12, xxxii. 9, _et alibi_.

[429] I have already had occasion to remark, concerning this class of
phænomena, that there is no doubt of their actual occurrence, although
their origin is still unexplained.

[430] The life of Anaxagoras has been written by Diogenes Laërtius. We
have an ample account of him by Enfield in the General Biography, _in
loco_; he was born B.C. 500 and died B.C. 428.

[431] There is some variation in the exact date assigned by different
authors to this event; in the Chronological table in Brewster’s Encyc.
vi. 420, it is said to have occurred 467 B.C.

[432] Aristotle gives us a similar account of this stone; that it fell
in the daytime, and that a comet was then visible at night; Meteor.
i. 7. It is scarcely necessary to remark, that the authority for this
fact must be referred entirely to Aristotle, without receiving any
additional weight from our author. The occurrence of the comet at the
same time with the aërolite must have been entirely incidental.

[433] “Deductis eo sacri lapidis causa colonis, extructoque oppido,
cui nomen a colore adusto lapidis, est inditum, Potidæa. Est enim ποτὶ
Dorice πρὸς, ad, apud; δαίομαι, uror.” Hardouin, in Lemaire, i. 361. It
was situated in the peninsula of Pallene, in Macedonia.

[434] The Vocontii were a people of Gallia Narbonensis, occupying a
portion of the modern Dauphiné.

[435] “Manifestum est, radium Solis immissum cavæ nubi, repulsa acie in
Solem, refringi.”

[436] Aristotle treats of the Rainbow much in detail, principally in
his Meteor. iii. 2, 3, 4, and 5, where he gives an account of the
phænomena, which is, for the most part, correct, and attempts to form
a theory for them; see especially cap. 4. p. 577 _et seq._ In the
treatise De Mundo he also refers to the same subject, and briefly sums
up his doctrine with the following remark: “arcus est species segmenti
solaris vel lunaris, edita in nube humida, et cava, et perpetua;
quam velut in speculo intuemur, imagine relata in speciem circularis
ambitûs.” cap. 4. p. 607. Seneca also treats very fully on the
phænomena and theory of the Rainbow, in his Nat. Quæst. i. 3-8.

[437] _Vide supra_, also Meteor. iii. 2, and Seneca, Nat. Quæst. i. 3.

[438] Aristotle, Meteor. iii. 5. p. 581, observes, that the rainbow is
less frequently seen in the summer, because the sun is more elevated,
and that, consequently, a less portion of the arch is visible. See also
Seneca, Nat. Quæst. i. 8. p. 692.

[439] Aristotle treats at some length of dew, snow, and hail, in his
Meteor. i. cap. 10, 11 & 12 respectively.

[440] When water is frozen, its bulk is increased in consequence of its
assuming a crystalline structure. Any diminution which may be found
to have taken place in the bulk of the fluid, when thawed, must be
ascribed to evaporation or to some accidental circumstance.

[441] “Velini lacus ... præcipiti cursu in gurgitem subjectum defertur,
et illo aquarum lapsu, dispersis in aëra guttis humidis, ... iridis
multiplicis phænomenon efficit....” Alexandre, in Lemaire, i. 365.

[442] We have an example in Martial, v. 34. 9, of the imprecation which
has been common in all ages:

  Mollia nec rigidus cespes tegat ossa, nec illi
    Terra gravis fueris;

and in Seneca’s Hippolytus, _sub finem_:

  ... istam terra defossam premat,
  Gravisque tellus impio capiti incubet.

[443] The author refers to this opinion, xxix. 23, when describing the
effects of venomous animals.

[444] inertium; “ultione abstinentium,” as explained by Alexandre, in
Lemaire, i. 367.

[445] “Quod mortis genus a terræ meritis et benignitate valde
abhorret.” Hardouin, in Lemaire, i. 367.

[446] “Terra, inquit, sola est, e quatuor naturæ partibus sive
elementis, adversus quam ingrati simus.” Alexandre, in Lemaire, i. 368.

[447] “Est ironiæ formula. Quid, ait, feras et serpentes et venena
terræ exprobramus, quæ ne ad tuendam quidem illam satis valent?”
Alexandre, in Lemaire, i. 369.

[448] “ossa vel insepulta cum tempore tellus occultat, deprimentia
pondere suo mollitam pluviis humum.” Alexandre, in Lemaire, i. 370.

[449] “figura prima.” I may refer to the second chapter of this book,
where the author remarked upon the form of the earth as perfect in all
its parts, and especially adapted for its supposed position in the
centre of the universe.

[450] “... si capita linearum comprehendantur ambitu;” the meaning of
this passage would appear to be: if the extremities of the lines drawn
from the centre of the earth to the different parts of the surface were
connected together, the result of the whole would be a sphere. I must,
however, remark, that Hardouin interprets it in a somewhat different
manner; “Si per extremitates linearum ductarum a centro ad _summos_
quosque vertices montium circulus exigatur.” Lemaire, i. 370.

[451] “... immensum ejus globum in formam orbis assidua circa eam mundi
volubilitate cogente.” As Hardouin remarks, the word _mundus_ is here
used in the sense of _cœlum_. Lemaire, i. 371.

[452] As our author admits of the existence of antipodes, and expressly
states that the earth is a perfect sphere, we may conclude that the
resemblance to the cone of the pine is to be taken in a very general
sense. How far the ancients entertained correct opinions respecting the
globular figure of the earth, or rather, at what period this opinion
became generally admitted, it is perhaps not easy to ascertain. The
lines in the Georgics, i. 242, 243, which may be supposed to express
the popular opinion in the time of Virgil, certainly do not convey the
idea of a sphere capable of being inhabited in all its parts:

  Hic vertex nobis semper sublimis; at illum
  Sub pedibus Styx atra videt, manesque profundi.

[453] “spiritus vis mundo inclusi.”

[454] “... Alpium vertices, longo tractu, nec breviore quinquaginta
millibus passuum assurgere.” To avoid the apparent improbability of
the author conceiving of the Alps as 50 miles high, the commentators
have, according to their usual custom, exercised their ingenuity in
altering the text. See Poinsinet, i. 206, 207, and Lemaire, i. 373. But
the expression does not imply that he conceived them as 50 miles in
perpendicular height, but that there is a continuous ascent of 50 miles
to get to the summit. This explanation of the passage is adopted by
Alexandre; Lemaire, _ut supra_. For what is known of Dicæarchus I may
refer to Hardouin, Index Auctorum, in Lemaire, i. 181.

[455] “coactam in verticem aquarum quoque figuram.”

[456] “aquarum nempe convexitas.” Alexandre, in Lemaire, i. 374.

[457] “Quam quæ ad extremum mare a primis aquis.” I profess myself
altogether unable to follow the author’s mode of reasoning in this
paragraph, or to throw any light upon it. He would appear to be arguing
in favour of the actual flatness of the surface of the ocean, whereas
his previous remarks prove its convexity.

[458] Alexandre remarks on this passage, “Nempe quod remotissimos etiam
fontes alat oceanus. Sed omittit Plinius vaporationis intermedia ope
hoc fieri.” Lemaire, i. 376. Aristotle has written at considerable
length on the origin of springs, in his Meteor. i. 13. p. 543 _et seq._
He argues against the opinion of those who suppose that the water of
springs is entirely derived from evaporation. Seneca’s account of the
origin of springs is found in his Nat. Quæst. iii. 1.

[459] The voyage which is here alluded to was probably that performed
by Drusus; it is mentioned by Dio, lib. iv., Suetonius, Claud. § 1,
Vel. Paterculus, ii. 106, and by Tacitus, Germ. § 34.

[460] What is here spoken of we may presume to have been that part of
the German Ocean which lies to the N.W. of Denmark; the term Scythian
was applied by the ancients in so very general a way, as not to afford
any indication of the exact district so designated.

[461] “Sub eodem sidere;” “which lies under the same star.”

[462] The ancients conceived the Caspian to be a gulf, connected with
the northern ocean. Our author gives an account of it, vi. 15.

[463] That is, of the Caspian Sea.

[464] The remarks which our author makes upon the Palus Mæotis, in the
different parts of his work, ii. 112 and vi. 7, appear so inconsistent
with each other, that we must suppose he indiscriminately borrowed
them from various writers, without comparing their accounts, or
endeavouring to reconcile them to each other. Such inaccuracies may
be thought almost to justify the censure of Alexandre, who styles our
author, “indiligens plane veri et falsi compilator, et ubi dissentiunt
auctores, nunquam aut raro sibi constans.” Lemaire, i. 378.

[465] The son of Agrippa, whom Augustus adopted. Hardouin, in Lemaire,
i. 378.

[466] See Beloe’s Herodotus, ii. 393, 394, for an account of the voyage
round Africa that was performed by the Phœnicians, who were sent to
explore those parts by Necho king of Egypt.

[467] It is generally supposed that C. Nepos lived in the century
previous to the Christian æra. Ptolemy Lathyrus commenced his reign
U.C. 627 or B.C. 117, and reigned for 36 years. The references made to
C. Nepos are not found in any of his works now extant.

[468] We have previously referred to Eudoxus, note [382], p. 78.

[469] We have a brief account of Antipater in Hardouin’s Index
Auctorum; Lemaire, i. 162.

[470] We are informed by Alexandre that this was in the year of the
City 691, the same year in which Cicero was consul; see note in
Lemaire, i. 379.

[471] It is scarcely necessary to remark, that the account here given
must be incorrect; the reader who may be disposed to learn the opinions
of the commentators on this point, may consult the notes in Poinsinet
and Lemaire _in loco_.

[472] Dividuo globo; “Eoas partes a vespertinis dividente oceano.”
Alexandre in Lemaire, i. 380.

[473] “Jam primum in dimidio computari videtur.”

[474] “Cœlum;” the rigour of the climate.

[475] The division of the globe into five zones is referred to by
Virgil, Geor. i. 233-239, and by Ovid, Met. i. 45, 46.

[476] “... interna maria allatrat, ...”

[477] This is considerably more than the distance in the present day.
The Isthmus of Suez appears, according to the statement of the most
accurate geographers, to be about 70 miles in breadth.

[478] Hæ tot portiones terræ, as Alexandre correctly remarks, “ironice
dictum. Quam paucæ enim supersunt!” Lemaire, i. 383.

[479] “Mundi punctus.” This expression, we may presume, was taken from
Seneca; “Hoc est illud punctum, quod inter tot gentes ferro et igni
dividitur.” Nat. Quæst. i. præf. p. 681.

[480] Nostro solo adfodimus; “addimus, adjungimus, annectimus, ut una
fossione aretur.” Hardouin, in Lemaire, i. 383.

[481] “Mundi totius.”

[482] “Æquinoctii paribus horis.”

[483] Dioptra. “Græce διόπτρα, instrumentum est geometricum, _un quart
de cercle_, quo apparentes rerum inter se distantiæ anguli apertura
dijudicantur.” Alexandre, in Lemaire, i. 384.

[484] This title does not correspond with the contents of the chapter.

[485] “Tropici duo, cum æquinoctiali circulo;” Hardouin, in Lemaire, i.
384.

[486] The Troglodytice of the ancients may be considered as nearly
corresponding to the modern Abyssinia and Nubia.

[487] This remark is incorrect, as far as respects nearly the whole of
Egypt; see the remarks of Marcus, in Ajasson, ii. 245.

[488] This is a star of the first magnitude in the southern
constellation of Argo; we have a similar statement in Manilius, i. 216,
217.

[489] The commentators suppose that the star or constellation here
referred to cannot be the same with what bears this name on the modern
celestial atlas; vide Hardouin _in loco_, also Marc. in Ajasson, _ut
supra_. The constellation of Berenice’s hair forms the subject of
Catullus’s 67th poem.

[490] In Troglodytice and in Egypt.

[491] The first watch of the night was from 6 P.M. to 9; the second
from 9 to midnight.

[492] According to Columella, xi. 2. 369, this was 9 Calend. Mart.,
corresponding to the 21st of February.

[493] “In alia adverso, in alia prono mari.” I have adopted the opinion
of Alexandre, who explains the terms “adverso” and “prono,” “ascendenti
ad polum,” and “ad austrum devexo;” a similar sense is given to the
passage by Poinsinet and Ajasson, in their translations.

[494] “Anfractu pilæ.” See Manilius, i. 206 _et seq._ for a similar
mode of expression.

[495] “Aut;” as Poinsinet remarks, “_aut_ est ici pour _alioqui_;” and
he quotes another passage from our author, xix. 3, where the word is
employed in a similar manner.

[496] We may presume that the author meant to convey the idea, that
the eclipses which are visible in any one country are not so in those
which are situated under a different meridian. The terms “vespertinos,”
“matutinos,” and “meridianos,” refer not to the time of the day, but
to the situation of the eclipse, whether recurring in the western,
eastern, or southern parts of the heavens.

[497] Brewster, in the art. “Chronology,” p. 415, mentions this eclipse
as having taken place Sept. 21st, U.C. 331, eleven days before the
battle of Arbela; while, in the same art. p. 423, the battle is said to
have taken place on Oct. 2nd, eleven days after a total eclipse of the
moon.

[498] It took place on the 30th of April, in the year of the City 811,
A.D. 59; see Brewster, _ubi supra_. It is simply mentioned by Tacitus,
Ann. xiv. 12, as having occurred among other prodigies which took place
at this period.

[499] We have an account of Corbulo’s expedition to Armenia in Dion
Cassius, lx. 19-24, but there is no mention of the eclipse or of any
peculiar celestial phænomenon.

[500] The terms employed in the original are “oppositu” and “ambitu.”
Alexandre’s explanation of the first is, “quum globi terraquei
crassitudo interposita solis arcet radios;” and of the second, “quum
nostra hujus globi pars a sole ambitur.” Lemaire, i. 389.

[501] One of these towers is mentioned by Livy, xxxiii. 48; it is said
to have been situated between Acholla and Thapsus, on the sea-coast.

[502] Hardouin, according to his usual custom, employs all his
learning and ingenuity to give a plausible explanation of this
passage. Alexandre, as it must be confessed, with but too much reason,
remarks, “Frustra desudavit Harduinus ut sanum aliquem sensum ex illis
Plinii deliramentis excuteret.” He correctly refers the interval
of time, which was said to occur between these signals, not to any
astronomical cause, but to the necessary delay which took place in the
transmission of them. He concludes, “Sed ad cursum solis hoc referre,
dementiæ est. Nam ut tanta horarum differentia intersit, si moram
omnem in speculandis ac transmittendis signis sustuleris, necesse
erit observatores illos ultimos 135 gradibus, id est, sesquidimidio
hemisphærio, a primis distare furribus. Recte igitur incredibilem
Plinii credulitatem ludibrio vertit Baylius in Dictionario suo.”
Lemaire, i. 389.

[503] The distance, as here stated, is about 150 miles, which he is
said to have performed in nine hours, but that the same distance, in
returning, required fifteen hours. We have here, as on the former
occasion, a note of Hardouin’s to elucidate the statement of the
author. On this Alexandre observes, “Optime; sed in tam parva locorum
distantia, Elidis et Sicyonis horologia vix quinque unius horæ
sexagesimis differre poterant; quare eunti ac redeunti ne discrimen
quidem quadrantis horæ intererat. Ineptos igitur auctores sequitur hoc
quoque loco Plinius.” Lemaire, i. 390, 391.

[504] “Vincunt spatia nocturnæ navigationis.” This expression would
appear to imply, that the author conceived some physical difficulty
in sailing during the night, and so it seems to be understood by
Alexandre; vide not. _in loco_.

[505] “Vasa horoscopica.” “Vasa horoscopica appellat horologia in plano
descripta, horizonti ad libellam respondentia. Vasa dicuntur, quod area
in qua lineæ ducebantur, labri interdum instar et conchæ erat, cujus in
margine describebantur horæ. Horoscopa, ab ὥρα et σκοπέω, hoc est, ab
inspiciendis horis.” Hardouin, in Lemaire, i. 391.

[506] These distances are respectively about 38 and 62 miles.

[507] We are not to expect any great accuracy in these estimates, and
we accordingly find, that our author, when referring to the subject in
his 6th book, ch. 39, makes the shadow at Ancona 1/35 greater than the
gnomon, while, in Venetia, which is more northerly, he says, as in the
present chapter, that the shadow and the gnomon are equal in length.
See the remarks of M. Alexandre in Lemaire, _ut supra_.

[508] This would be about 625 miles. Strabo, ii. 114, and Lucan, ii.
587, give the same distance, which is probably nearly correct. Syene
is, however, a little to the north of the tropic.

[509] This remark is not correct, as no part of this river is between
the tropics. For an account of Onesicritus see Lemaire, i. 203, 204.

[510] “In meridiem umbras jaci.” M. Ajasson translates this passage,
“les ombres tombent pendant quatre-vingt-dix jours sur le point central
du méridien.” ii. 165. But I conceive that Holland’s version is more
correct, “for 90 days’ space all the shadows are cast into the south.”
i. 36. The remarks of M. Alexandre are to the same effect; “... ut bis
solem in zenitho haberet (Ptolemais), Maii mensis et Augusti initio;
interea vero, solem e septemtrione haberet.” Lemaire, i. 393.

[511] About 625 miles.

[512] These days correspond to the 8th of May and the 4th of August
respectively.

[513] There is considerable uncertainty respecting the identity of this
mountain; our author refers to it in a subsequent part of his work,
where it is said to be in the country of the Monedes and Suari; vi. 22.
See the note of Alexandre in Lemaire, i. 394.

[514] Our author, in a subsequent part of his work, vi. 23, describes
the island of Patale as situated near the mouth of the Indus; he again
refers to it, xii. 25. His account of the position of the sun does not,
however, apply to this place.

[515] If we may suppose this to have been actually the case, we might
calculate the time of the year when Alexander visited this place and
the length of his stay.

[516] We may presume, that our author means to say no more than that,
in those places, they are occasionally invisible; literally the
observation would not apply to any part of India.

[517] ἄσκια, shadowless.

[518] If this really were the case, it could have no relation to the
astronomical position of the country.

[519] “In contrarium,” contrary to what takes place at other times,
_i. e._ towards the south. This observation is not applicable to the
whole of this country, as its northern and southern parts differ from
each other by seven or eight degrees of latitude. For an account of
Eratosthenes see Lemaire, i. 186.

[520] “Hora duodecim in partes, ut as in totidem uncias dividebatur.
Octonas igitur partes horæ antiquæ, sive bessem, ut Martianus vocat,
nobis probe repræsentant horarum nostratium 40 sexagesimæ, quas minutas
vocamus.” Alexandre in Lemaire, i. 396.

[521] For a notice of Pytheas see Lemaire, i. 210. He was a geographer
and historian who lived in the time of Ptolemy Philadelphus; but
his veracity does not appear to have been highly estimated by his
contemporaries.

[522] The Thule of Pliny has been generally supposed to be the Shetland
Isles. What is here asserted respecting the length of the day, as well
as its distance from Britain, would indeed apply much more correctly
to Iceland than to Shetland; but we have no evidence that Iceland was
known to the ancients. Our author refers to the length of the day in
Thule in two subsequent parts of his work, iv. 30 and vi. 36.

[523] Supposed to be Colchester in Essex; while the Mona of Pliny
appears to have been Anglesea. It is not easy to conceive why the
author measured the distance of Mona from Camelodunum.

[524] Chap. 6 of this book.

[525] a σκιὰ, umbra, and θηράω, sector. It has been a subject for
discussion by the commentators, how far this instrument of Anaximenes
is entitled to the appellation of a dial, whether it was intended to
mark the hours, or to serve for some other astronomical purpose. See
Hardouin in Lemaire, i. 398, 399. It has been correctly remarked by
Brotier, that we have an account of a much more ancient dial in the 2nd
book of Kings, xx. 9, 11.

[526] A. Gellius, iii. 3, informs us, that the question concerning
the commencement of the day was one of the topics discussed by Varro,
in his book “Rerum Humanarum:” this work is lost. We learn from the
notes of Hardouin, Lemaire, i. 399, that there are certain countries in
which all these various modes of computation are still practised; the
last-mentioned is the one commonly employed in Europe.

[527] It has been supposed, that in this passage the author intended
to say no more than that the nights are shorter at the summer solstice
than at the other parts of the year; see Alexandre in Lemaire, i. 399,
400. But to this, I conceive, it may be objected, that the words “inter
ortus solis” can scarcely apply to the period while the sun is below
the horizon, and that the solstices generally would seem to be opposed
to the equinoxes generally. Also the words “obliquior” and “rectior”
would appear to have some farther reference than merely to the length
of time during which the sun is above or below the horizon.

[528] “Vibrato;” the same term is applied by Turnus to the hair of
Æneas; Æn. xii. 100.

[529] “Mobilitate hebetes;” it is not easy to see the connexion between
these two circumstances.

[530] There is a passage in Galen, De Temperamentis, iii. 6, which may
appear to sanction the opinion of our author; “Siccos esse, quibus
macra sunt crura; humidos, quibus crassa.”

[531] The latter part of the remark is correct, but the number of
ferocious animals is also greater in the warmer regions; there is, in
fact, a greater variety in all the productions of nature in the warmer
districts of the globe, except in those particular spots where animal
or vegetable life is counteracted by some local circumstances, as in
many parts of Asia and Africa by the want of water.

[532] “Sensus liquidus;” Alexandre explains this expression, “judicium
sanum, mens intelligendo apta.” Lemaire, i. 401.

[533] Saturn, Jupiter and Mars: see the 8th chapter of this book.

[534] “Vel quando meant cum Sole in conjunctione cum eo, vel quando
cum eo conveniunt in aspectu, maxime vero in quadrato, qui fit, quum
distant a Sole quarta mundi sive cœli parte.” Hardouin in Lemaire, i.
401.

[535] “Ut urbem et tecta custodirent.” This anecdote is referred to by
Cicero, who employs the words “ut urbem et tecta linquerent.” De Divin.
i. 112.

[536] This anecdote is also referred to by Cicero, de Div. ii.

[537] It has been observed that earthquakes, as well as other great
convulsions of nature, are preceded by calms; it has also been observed
that birds and animals generally exhibit certain presentiments of the
event, by something peculiar in their motions or proceedings; this
circumstance is mentioned by Aristotle, Meteor. ii. 8, and by Seneca,
Nat. Quæst. vi. 12.

[538] It is scarcely necessary to remark, that this supposed
resemblance or analogy is entirely without foundation. The phænomena of
earthquakes are described by Aristotle, De Mundo, cap. 4, and Meteor.
ii. 7 and 8; also by Seneca in various parts of the 6th book of his
Quæst. Nat.

[539] On this subject we shall find much curious matter in Aristotle’s
Treatise de Mundo, cap. 4.

[540] Poinsinet enters into a long detail of some of the most
remarkable earthquakes that have occurred, from the age of Pliny to the
period when he wrote, about fifty years ago; i. 249. 2.

[541] See Aristotle, Meteor. ii. 8.

[542] See Aristotle, Meteor. ii. 8, and Seneca, Nat. Quæst. vi. 13.

[543] “Fervente;” “Fremitum aquæ ferventis imitante.” Alexandre in
Lemaire, i. 404.

[544] The reader will scarcely require to be informed, that many of the
remarks in the latter part of this chapter are incorrect. Our author
has principally followed Aristotle, whose treatise on meteorology,
although abounding in curious details, is perhaps one of the least
correct of his works.

[545] This observation is taken from Aristotle, Meteor. ii. 8.

[546] Phænomena of this kind have been frequently noticed, and are not
difficult of explanation.

[547] “In iisdem;” “Iidem, inquit, putei inclusum terra spiritum libero
meatu emittentes, terræ motus avertunt.” Alexandre in Lemaire, i. 406.

[548] “Quæ pendent.” M. Ajasson translates this passage, “qui sont
comme suspendues.” Hardouin’s explanation is, “Structis fornice cameris
imposita ædificia intelligit; quod genus camerarum spiramenta plerumque
habet non pauca, quibus exeat ad libertatem aer.” Lemaire, i. 407.

[549] Many of these circumstances are referred to by Seneca, Nat.
Quæst. vi. 30. On the superior security of brick buildings, M.
Alexandre remarks, “Muri e lateribus facti difficilius quam cæteri
dehiscunt, unde fit ut in urbibus muniendis id constructionum genus
plerumque præferatur. Ex antiquæ Italiæ palatiis templisve nihil fere
præter immensas laterum moles hodie superest.”

[550] These remarks upon the different kinds of shocks are probably
taken from Aristotle, Meteor. ii. 8.

[551] This observation is also in Aristotle, ii. 8.

[552] In the year of the city 663; A.C. 90.

[553] In the year of the city 821; A.D. 68.

[554] The continuation of Aufidius Bassus’ history; our author refers
to it in the first book.

[555] We have no authentic accounts of this mutual change of place
between two portions of land, nor can we conceive of any cause capable
of effecting it. Our author mentions this circumstance again in book
xvii. ch. 38.

[556] See Aristotle, Meteor. ii. 8.

[557] “Eodem videlicet spiritu infusi (maris) ac terræ residentis sinu
recepti.”

[558] U.C. 770; A.D. 17. We have an account of this event in Strabo,
xii. 57; in Tacitus, Ann. ii. 47; and in the Universal History,
xiv. 129, 130. We are informed by Hardouin, that coins are still in
existence which were struck to commemorate the liberality of the
emperor on the occasion, inscribed “civitatibus Asiæ restitutis.”
Lemaire, i. 410.

[559] U.C. 537; A.C. 217.

[560] This circumstance is mentioned by Livy, xxii. 5, and by Floras,
ii. 6.

[561] “Præsagiis, inquit, quam ipsa clade, sæviores sunt terræ motus.”
Alexandre in Lemaire, i. 410.

[562] This phænomenon is distinctly referred to by Seneca, Nat. Quæst.
vi. 21. It presents us with one of those cases, where the scientific
deductions of the moderns have been anticipated by the speculations of
the ancients.

[563] Odyss. iv. 354-357; see also Arist. Meteor. i. 14; Lucan, x.
509-511; Seneca, Nat. Quæst. vi. 26; Herodotus, ii. 4, 5; and Strabo,
i. 59.

[564] These form, at this day, the Monte Circello, which, it is
remarked, rises up like an island, out of the Pontine marshes. It
seems, however, difficult to conceive how any action of the sea could
have formed these marshes.

[565] See Strabo, i. 58.

[566] ii. 5. _et alibi_.

[567] The plain in which this river flows, forming the windings from
which it derives its name, appears to have been originally an inlet of
the sea, which was gradually filled up with alluvial matter.

[568] “Paria secum faciente natura.” This appears to have been a
colloquial or idiomatic expression among the Romans. See Hardouin in
Lemaire, i. 412.

[569] It may be remarked, that the accounts of modern travellers and
geologists tend to confirm the opinion of the volcanic origin of many
of the islands of the Archipelago.

[570] Brotier remarks, that, according to the account of Herodotus,
this island existed previous to the date here assigned to it; Lemaire,
i. 412, 413: it is probable, however, that the same name was applied to
two islands, one at least of which was of volcanic origin.

[571] U.C. 517, A.C. 237; and U.C. 647, A.C. 107; respectively.

[572] Hiera, Automata; ab ἱερὰ, sacer, et αὐτομάτη, sponte nascens.
Respecting the origin of these islands there would appear to be some
confusion in the dates, which it is difficult to reconcile with each
other; it is, I conceive, impossible to decide whether this depends
upon an error of our author himself, or of his transcribers.

[573] July 25th, U.C. 771; A.C. 19.

[574] U.C. 628; A.C. 125.

[575] See Ovid, Metam. xv. 290, 291; also Seneca, Nat. Quæst. vi. 29.

[576] This event is mentioned by Thucydides, lib. 3, Smith’s Trans, i.
293; and by Diodorus, xii. 7, Booth’s Trans. p. 287, as the consequence
of an earthquake; but the separation was from Locris, not from Eubœa.
See the remarks of Hardouin in Lemaire, i. 415.

[577] It is somewhat uncertain to what island our author applied this
name; see the remarks of Alexandre in Lemaire.

[578] See Ovid, Metam. xv. 287.

[579] It is not improbable, from the situation and geological structure
of the places here enumerated, that many of the changes mentioned above
may have actually occurred; but there are few of them of which we have
any direct evidence.

[580] This celebrated narrative of Plato is contained in his Timæus,
Op. ix. p. 296, 297; it may be presumed that it was not altogether a
fiction on the part of the author, but it is, at this time, impossible
to determine what part of it was derived from ancient traditions and
what from the fertile stores of his own imagination. It is referred
to by various ancient writers, among others by Strabo. See also the
remarks of Brotier in Lemaire, i. 416, 417.

[581] Many of these changes on the surface of the globe, and others
mentioned by our author in this part of his work, are alluded to by
Ovid, in his beautiful abstract of the Pythagorean doctrine, Metam. xv.
_passim_.

[582] See Aristotle, Meteor. ii. 8, and Strabo, i. For some account of
the places mentioned in this chapter the reader may consult the notes
of Hardouin _in loco_.

[583] Poinsinet, as I conceive correctly, makes the following clause
the commencement of the next chapter.

[584] See Ovid, Metam. xv. 293-295; also the remarks of Hardouin in
Lemaire, i. 418.

[585] “Spatium intelligit, fretumve, quo Sicilia nunc ab Italia
dispescitur.” Hardouin in Lemaire, i. 419.

[586] See Strabo, ix.

[587] “Spiracula.”

[588] “Busta urbium.”

[589] “Suboriens,” as M. Alexandre explains it, “renascens;” Lemaire,
i. 420.

[590] “Scrobibus;” “aut quum terra fossis excavatur, ut in Pomptina
palude, aut per naturales hiatus.” Alexandre in Lemaire, i. 420.

[591] This circumstance is mentioned by Seneca, Nat. Quæst. vi. 28,
as occurring “pluribus Italiæ locis;” it may be ascribed to the
exhalations from volcanos being raised up into the atmosphere. It does
not appear that there is, at present, any cavern in Mount Soracte which
emits mephitic vapours. But the circumstance of Soracte being regarded
sacred to Apollo, as we learn from our author, vii. 2, and from Virgil,
Æn. xi. 785, may lead us to conjecture that something of the kind may
formerly have existed there.

[592] The author may probably refer to the well-known Grotto del Cane,
where, in consequence of a stratum of carbonic acid gas, which occupies
the lower part of the cave only, dogs and other animals, whose mouths
are near the ground, are instantly suffocated.

[593] Celebrated in the well-known lines of Virgil, Æn. vii. 563 _et
seq._, as the “sævi spiracula Ditis.”

[594] Apuleius gives us an account of this place from his own
observation; De Mundo, § 729. See also Strabo, xii.

[595] See Aristotle, De Mundo, cap. iv.

[596] “Ad ingressum ambulantium, et equorum cursus, terræ quoque
tremere sentiuntur in Brabantino agro, quæ Belgii pars, et circa S.
Audomari fanum.” Hardouin in Lemaire, i. 421, 422.

[597] See Seneca, Nat. Quæst. iii. 25.

[598] Martial speaks of the marshy nature of the Cæcuban district,
xiii. 115. Most of the places mentioned in this chapter are illustrated
by the remarks of Hardouin; Lemaire, i. 422, 423.

[599] “Saltuares.” In some of the MSS. the term here employed is
Saliares, or Saltares; but in all the editions which I am in the habit
of consulting, it is Saltuares.

[600] There is, no doubt, some truth in these accounts of floating
islands, although, as we may presume, much exaggerated. There are
frequently small portions of land detached from the edges of lakes, by
floods or rapid currents, held together and rendered buoyant by a mass
of roots and vegetable matter. In the lake of Keswick, in the county
of Cumberland, there are two small floating islands, of a few yards in
circumference, which are moved about by the wind or by currents; they
appear to consist, principally, of a mass of vegetable fibres.

[601] It has been observed, that there are certain places where bodies
remain for a long time without undergoing decomposition; it depends
principally upon a dry and cool condition of the air, such as is
occasionally found in vaults and natural caverns. See the remarks of
Alexandre in Lemaire, i. 424.

[602] We may conceive of a large mass of rock being so balanced upon
the fine point of another rock, as to be moved by the slightest touch;
but, that if it be pushed with any force, it may be thrown upon a plane
surface, and will then remain immovable.

[603] Perhaps the author may refer to some kind of earth, possessed
of absorbent or astringent properties, like the Terra Sigillata or
Armenian Bole of the old Pharmacopœias.

[604] A σὰρξ, caro, and φάγω, edo. We may conceive this stone to have
contained a portion of an acrid ingredient, perhaps of an alkaline
nature, which, in some degree, might produce the effect here described.
It does not appear that the material of which the stone coffins are
composed, to which this name has been applied, the workmanship of which
is so much an object of admiration, are any of them possessed of this
property.

[605] Alexandre remarks on this statement, “Montes istæ videntur
originem dedisse fabulæ quæ in Arabicis Noctibus legitur ...;” Lemaire,
i. 425. Fouché, indeed, observes, that there are mountains composed
principally of natural loadstone, which might sensibly attract a shoe
containing iron nails. Ajasson, ii. 386. But I conceive that we have no
evidence of the existence of the magnetic iron pyrites having ever been
found in sufficient quantity to produce any sensible effect of the kind
here described.

[606] We may remark generally, that of the “miracula” related in this
chapter, the greatest part are entirely without foundation, and the
remainder much exaggerated.

[607] “Mundo;” the heavens or visible firmament, to which the stars and
planets appear to be connected, so as to be moved along with it.

[608] “Ancillante;” “Credas ancillari sidus, et indulgere mari, ut non
ab eadem parte, qua pridie, pastum ex oceano hauriat.” Hardouin in
Lemaire, i. 427.

[609] Not depending on the time of the rising and setting of the sun
or the latitude of the place, but determinate portions of the diurnal
period.

[610] By a conjectural variation of a letter, viz. by substituting
“eos” for “eas,” Dalechamp has, as he conceives, rendered this passage
more clear; the alteration is adopted by Lemaire.

[611] “In iisdem ortus occasusque operibus;” “Eodem modo utrinque
orientibus occidentibusque sideribus,” as interpreted by Alexandre in
Lemaire, i. 428.

[612] It is scarcely necessary to remark, that both the alleged fact
and the supposed cause are incorrect. And this is the case with what
our author says in the next sentence, respecting the period of eight
years, and the hundred revolutions of the moon.

[613] “Solis annuis causis.” The circumstances connected with the
revolution of the sun, acting as causes of the period and height of the
tides, in addition to the effect of the moon.

[614] “Inanes;” “Depressiores ac minus tumentes.” Hardouin in Lemaire,
i. 429.

[615] According to the remark of Alexandre, “Uno die et dimidio altero,
36 circiter horis, in Gallia.” Lemaire, i. 429.

[616] Alexandre remarks on this passage, “Variat pro locis hoc
intervallum a nullo fere temporis momento ad undecim horas et amplius;”
Lemaire, i. 429.

[617] Our author has already referred to Pytheas, in the 77th chapter
of this book.

[618] It is scarcely necessary to remark, that the space here
mentioned, which is nearly 120 feet, is far greater than the actual
fact.

[619] “Ditioni paret;” “Lunæ solisque efficientiæ, quæ ciet æstum.”
Hardouin in Lemaire, i. 430.

[620] The effect here described could not have depended upon the tides,
but upon some current, either affecting the whole of the Mediterranean,
or certain parts of it. See the remarks of Hardouin in Lemaire.

[621] Pliny naturally adopted the erroneous opinions respecting the
state of the blood-vessels, and the cause of the pulse, which were
universally maintained by the ancients.

[622] The name of Euripus is generally applied to the strait between
Bœotia and Eubœa, but our author here extends it to that between Italy
and Sicily. A peculiarity in the tide of this strait is referred to by
Cicero, De Nat. Deor. iii. 24.

[623] “Æstus idem triduo in mense consistit.” “Consistentia, sive
mediocritas aquarum non solum septima die sentitur, sed et octava, ac
nona durat,” as Hardouin explains this passage, Lemaire, i. 431.

[624] Now called the Guadalquivir.

[625] The modern Seville.

[626] This circumstance is noticed by most of the ancients, as by
Aristotle, Meteor. ii. 1; by Seneca, Nat. Quæst. iv. 2; and by Strabo.
It has, however, no relation to the tide, but depends upon the quantity
of water transmitted into the Euxine by the numerous large rivers that
empty themselves into it.

[627] It has been suggested, with some plausibility, that the greater
height of the tides at this period will cause a greater quantity of
matter to be cast on shore. This circumstance is referred to by Seneca,
Nat. Quæst. iii. 26; and by Strabo.

[628] Alexandre observes on this supposed fact, “Algarum molles
quædam species intelligendæ sunt, quæ convolutæ et marcidæ in littus
ejiciuntur.” Lemaire, i. 432.

[629] It may cause some surprise to find that such an opinion has been
entertained even in modern times; but more correct observation has
shown it to be without foundation. Lemaire.

[630] “Spiritus sidus;” “Quod vitalem humorem ac spiritus in corporibus
rebusque omnibus varie temperet.” Hardouin in Lemaire, i. 433.

[631] “Terras saturet;” as Alexandre interprets it, “succo impleat;”
Lemaire.

[632] This circumstance is alluded to by Cicero, De Divin. ii. 33, and
by Horace, Sat. ii. 4, 30. It is difficult to conceive how an opinion
so totally unfounded, and so easy to refute, should have obtained
general credence.

[633] Lib. xviii. chap. 75.

[634] Aristotle, Meteor. ii. 1, remarks, that as the sun is continually
evaporating the water of the sea, it must eventually be entirely
dried up. But we have reason to believe, that all the water which is
evaporated by the solar heat, or any other natural process, is again
deposited in the form of rain or dew.

[635] “Terræ sudor;” according to Aristotle, Meteor. ii. 4: this
opinion was adopted by some of the ancients.

[636] The commentators discuss at considerable length the relative
merits of the three hypotheses here proposed, to account for the
saltness of the ocean; all of which are equally unfounded. See Hardouin
in Lemaire, i. 434, 435. Aristotle’s opinion on this subject is
contained in his Meteor.

[637] It is not easy to ascertain the origin of the very general
opinion respecting the peculiar physical action of the moon. The
alleged facts are, for the most part, without foundation, and I am
not aware of any circumstance which could, originally, have made them
a part of the popular creed of so many nations, ancient as well as
modern. Perhaps some of the effects which have been ascribed to the
specific action of the moon, may be explained by the lower temperature
and greater dampness of the air, during the absence of the sun.

[638] There appears to be some doubt respecting the history of the
person here referred to: according to the account of Hardouin, Fabianus
was a naturalist, who enjoyed a high reputation; he lived in the time
of Tiberius: see Lemaire, i. 188.

[639] This would be a depth of 3125 yards, not very far short of two
miles; see Adam’s Rom. Antiq. p. 503.

[640] “Βαθέα Ponti;” Aristotle refers to this as one of those parts
where the sea is unfathomable; Meteor. i. 13.

[641] A distance of nearly nine and a half miles.

[642] The specific gravity of sea water varies from 1·0269 to 1·0285.
The saline contents of the water of the English Channel are stated to
be 27 grs. in 1000. Turner’s Chem. p. 1289, 1290.

[643] The modern names of the rivers and lakes here mentioned are the
Liris, communicating with the Lago di Celano; the Adda, with the Lago
di Como; the Ticino, with the Lago Maggiore; the Mincio, with the Lago
di Guarda; the Oglio, with the Lago di Sero; and the Rhone with the
Lake of Geneva. There may be some foundation for the alleged fact,
because the specific gravity and the temperature of the lake may differ
a little from that of the river which passes through it.

[644] According to Brotier, “fons ille olim nobilissimus, nunc ignobile
est lavacrum, cujus aqua marino sapore inficitur.” He conceives that
there is no actual foundation for this so frequently repeated story;
and conjectures that it originated from the similitude of the names,
the fountain in Sicily and the river in the Peloponnesus being both
named Alpheus. He goes on to mention some examples of springs of fresh
water rising up on the sea-coast; Lemaire, i. 438. The allusion to
the fountain of Arethusa, by Virgil, in the commencement of the 10th
eclogue, is well known to all classical scholars. The lines of Virgil
have been elegantly imitated by Voltaire, in the Henriade, ix. 269, 270.

[645] This is mentioned by Ovid, Met. xv. 273, 274.

[646] This is again referred to by our author, vi. 31; also by Strabo,
and by Seneca, Nat. Quæst. iii. 26.

[647] Pausanias.

[648] The river here referred to is the Tanager, the modern Rio Negro.
See the remarks of Hardouin and Alexandre in Lemaire, i. 439.

[649] From a note in Poinsinet, i. 302, we learn that there has been
some doubt respecting the locality of this river. It is mentioned by
Virgil, Æn. i. 244, and it forms the subject of Heyne’s 7th Excursus,
ii. 124 _et seq._ Virgil also speaks of the Timavus, Ec. viii. 6; and
Heyne, in a note, gives the following description of it: “Timavus in
ora Adriæ, non longe ab Aquileia fluvius ex terra novem fontibus seu
capitibus progressus, brevi cursu, in unum alveum collectus, lato
altoque flumine in mare exit.” i. 127, 128.

[650] This remark is not to be taken in its full extent; the water of
these lakes contains a large quantity of saline and other substances
dissolved in it, and, consequently, has its specific gravity so much
increased, that various substances float on it which sink in pure water.

[651] According to Hardouin, this is now called the Lake of Andoria,
near the town of Casalnuovo; Lemaire, i. 439. Poinsinet calls it
Anduria, i. 303.

[652] The petrifying quality of this river is referred to by Ovid, Met.
xv. 313, 314; Seneca quotes these lines when treating on this subject,
Nat. Quæst. iii. 20.

[653] Aristotle, Strabo, and Silius Italicus, viii. 582, 583, refer to
this property of the Silarus; but, according to Brotier, it does not
appear to be known to the present inhabitants of the district through
which it flows. Lemaire, i. 440.

[654] In a subsequent part of the work, xxxi. 8, our author remarks,
“Reatinis tantum paludibus ungulas jumentorum indurari.” We may presume
that the water contained some saline, earthy or metallic substance,
either in solution, or in a state of minute division, which would
produce these effects. It does not appear that anything of this kind
has been observed by the moderns in this water.

[655] The coral beds with which the Red Sea abounds may have given
rise to this opinion: see the remarks of Alexandre _in loco_. Hardouin
informs us, that this clause respecting the Red Sea is not found in
any of the MSS. Lemaire, i. 441. A similar observation occurs in a
subsequent part of the work, xiii. 48.

[656] There are thermal springs in the Alpine valleys, but not any in
the elevated parts of the Alps themselves.

[657] The volcanic nature of a large portion of the south of Italy
and the neighbouring islands may be regarded as the cause of the warm
springs which are found there.

[658] This river may be supposed to have been principally supplied by
melted snow; it would appear to be colder, because its temperature
would be less elevated than the other streams in the neighbourhood.

[659] The statement, if correct, may be referred to the discharge of a
quantity of inflammable gas from the surface of the water. The fact is
mentioned by Lucretius, vi. 879, 880, and by Mela.

[660] “Quasi alternis requiescens, ac meridians: diem diffindens, ut
Varro loquitur, insititia quiete.” Hardouin in Lemaire, i. 443. He says
that there is a similar kind of fountain in Provence, called Collis
Martiensis.

[661] There has been considerable difference of opinion among
the commentators, both as to the reading of the text and its
interpretation, for which I shall refer to the notes of Poinsinet,
i. 307, of Hardouin and Alexandre, Lemaire, i. 443, and of Richelet,
Ajasson, ii. 402.

[662] We have an account of the Troglodytæ in a subsequent part of the
work, v. 5. The name is generally applied by the ancients to a tribe
of people inhabiting a portion of Æthiopia, and is derived from the
circumstance of their dwellings being composed of caverns; a τρωγλὴ
and δύνω. Alexandre remarks, that the name was occasionally applied
to other tribes, whose habitations were of the same kind; Lemaire, i.
443. They are referred to by Q. Curtius as a tribe of the Æthiopians,
situated to the south of Egypt and extending to the Red Sea, iv. 7.

[663] Q. Curtius gives nearly the same account of this fountain.

[664] The Po derives its water from the torrents of the Alps, and is
therefore much affected by the melting of the snow or the great falls
of rain, which occur at different seasons of the year; but the daily
diminution of the water, as stated by our author, is without foundation.

[665] “Fontem ibi intermittentem frustra quæsivit cl. Le Chevalier,
Voyage de la Troade, t. i. p. 219.” Lemaire, i. 444.

[666] Strabo, in allusion to this circumstance, remarks, that some
persons make it still more wonderful, by supposing that this spring
is connected with the Nile. We learn from Tournefort, that there is a
well of this name in Delos, which he found to contain considerably more
water in January and February than in October, and which is supposed to
be connected with the Nile or the Jordan: this, of course, he regards
as an idle tale. Lemaire.

[667] Hardouin informs us, that these warm springs are called “i bagni
di Monte Falcone,” or “di S. Antonio.” They are situate so very near
the sea, that we may suppose some communication to exist, which may
produce the alleged effect. Lemaire.

[668] According to Hardouin this is the modern Torre di Pitino; he
conceives that the river here mentioned must be the Vomanus. The effect
here described is, to a certain extent, always the case with rivers
which proceed from mountains that are covered with snow. Lemaire, i.
445.

[669] Seneca, Nat. Quæst. iii. 25, makes the same remark: the fact
would seem to be, that in certain districts the cattle are found to
be for the most part white, and in other places black; but we have no
reason to suppose that their colour has any connexion with the water
which they employ.

[670] This is asserted by Aristotle, Hist. Anim. iii. 12. We have a
similar statement made by Ælian respecting the Scamander; viii. 21.

[671] “Annonæ mutationem significans.”

[672] The peculiar nature of the water of the Lyncestis is referred
to by many of the ancients: we may suppose that it was strongly
impregnated with carbonic acid gas. See Ovid, Met. xv. 329-331; also
Aristotle, Meteor. ii. 3, and Seneca, Nat. Quæst. iii. 20.

[673] Vitruvius and Athenæus.

[674] Calenum was a town in Campania; this peculiar property of its
water is referred to by Val. Maximus, i. 8, 18.

[675] Literally, Jovis cultus; as interpreted by Hardouin, “tanquam si
dixeris, divinum Jovis munus hunc fontem esse.” Lemaire, i. 447.

[676] Seneca affirms its poisonous nature; Nat. Quæst. iii. 25.
Q. Curtius refers to a spring in Macedonia of the same name, “quo
pestiferum virus emanat.” x. 10.

[677] There appears to be some uncertainty respecting the locality of
this district; see the remarks of Hardouin, Lemaire, i. 447.

[678] “Hunc fontem describit eximie Plinius jun. lib. iv. epist. ult.
Est ad orientalem Larii lacus plagam, Lago di Como, x mill. pass. a
Como.” Hardouin, Lemaire, i. 448.

[679] Our author, in a subsequent passage, v. 39, speaks of Cydonea,
“cum fonte calido.”

[680] According to Hardouin, i. 448, there is a considerable variation
in the MSS. with respect to this name: he informs us that “Συναὸς urbs
est Magnæ Phrygiæ Ptolemæo, v. 2.”

[681] Tacitus gives an account of this oracle as having been visited by
Germanicus; Ann. ii. 54.

[682] Our author refers to this history in the First book of the
present work.

[683] “Comparatos scilicet cum aëris externi temperie.” Alexandre in
Lemaire, i. 448.

[684] Thin leaves or films of metal have little affinity for water, and
have, generally, bubbles of air attached to them; so that, when placed
upon the water, the fluid is prevented from adhering to them, and thus
they remain on the surface.

[685] Depending not upon their absolute, but their specific gravity.

[686] Being partly supported by the water.

[687] The stone may have floated in consequence of its being full of
pores: these are more quickly filled with water when it is broken into
small pieces. It was probably of the nature of pumice or some other
volcanic product.

[688] This is well known to depend upon the commencement of the
decomposition of some part of the viscera, by which there is an
evolution of gaseous matter.

[689] This is an erroneous statement; it is not easy to ascertain what
was the source of the error.

[690] Rain, as it falls from the clouds, is nearly pure; and rivers, or
receptacles of any kind, that are supplied by it, are considerably more
free from saline impregnations than the generality of springs.

[691] This statement is altogether incorrect.

[692] When salt water freezes, it is disengaged from the saline matter
which it previously held in solution; a greater degree of cold is
therefore required to overcome the attraction of the water for the
salt, and to form the ice, than when pure water is congealed.

[693] “Celerius accendi.” We can scarcely suppose that by this term
our author intended to express the actual burning or inflaming of the
water, which is its literal and ordinary meaning. This, however, would
appear to be the opinion of Hardouin and Alexandre; Lemaire, i. 449.
Holland translates it, “made hot and set a-seething,” i. 46; Poinsinet,
“s’échauffe le plus vîte,” i. 313; and Ajasson, “plus prompte à
s’échauffer,” ii. 217.

[694] The temperature of the ocean, in consequence of its great
mass and the easy diffusion and mixture of its various parts, may
be conceived to be longer in becoming raised or depressed than any
particular portion of the land, where contemporary observations may be
made.

[695] The evaporation that is going on during the heats of summer, and
the heavy rains which in many countries fall during the autumn, may
produce the effects here described, in confined seas or inlets.

[696] The statement is true to a certain extent, as is proved by the
well-known experiments of Franklin and others; but the degree of the
effect is considerably exaggerated. See the observations of Hardouin,
Brotier, and Alexandre; Lemaire, i. 450, 451.

[697] In the Mediterranean the warm vapours rising from the water and
its shores may melt the snow as it descends; but this is not the case
in the parts of the main ocean which approach either to the Arctic or
the Antarctic regions.

[698] The theory of springs is well understood, as depending upon
the water tending to rise to its original level, so as to produce an
equilibrium of pressure.

[699] When we consider the great extent of the base of Ætna, and that
the crater is in the form of an inverted cone, we shall perceive that
there is ample space for the existence of springs in the lower part of
the mountain, without their coming in contact with the heated lava.

[700] Samosata is situated on the Euphrates, in the north of Syria.

[701] The Petroleum or Bitumen of the modern chemists; it is a tarry
substance, more or less fluid, which has probably been produced by
carbonaceous matter, as affected by heat or decomposition, below the
surface of the earth. Our author has exaggerated its properties and
action upon other bodies.

[702] Respecting the transaction here mentioned, I shall refer to the
note of Hardouin, Lemaire, i. 452.

[703] The substance here mentioned may be considered as not differing
essentially from the Maltha of the last chapter, except in being of a
more fluid consistence.

[704] The Astaceni are supposed to have inhabited a district near the
sources of the Indus, probably corresponding to the modern Cabul.

[705] We may conceive of a quantity of inflammable vapour on the
surface of the naphtha, which might, in some degree, produce the effect
here described.

[706] Horace, in one of his Epodes, where he refers to the magical arts
of Medea, says, that it was a cloak, “palla,” which was sent to Creüsa;
v. 65. So far as there is any foundation for the story, we may suppose
that some part of her dress had been impregnated with an inflammable
substance, which took fire when she approached the blazing altar.

[707] When the volcanos are less active the flame is visible in the
night only.

[708] The observations of modern travellers and geologists have proved,
that the number of extinct volcanos is considerably greater than those
now in action.

[709] Chimæra was a volcano in Lycia, not far from the Xanthus; the
circumstance of its summit emitting flame, while its sides were the
resort of various savage animals, probably gave rise to the fabulous
story of the Centaur of this name, a ferocious monster who was
continually vomiting forth flame.

[710] The word in the text is “fœnum”; Hardouin suggests that the
meaning of the author may have been litter, or the refuse of stables.
Lemaire, i. 454.

[711] The emission of a gas, which may be kindled by the application of
flame, is a phænomenon of no very rare occurrence; but the effects are,
no doubt, much exaggerated. See the remarks of Alexandre in Lemaire, i.
454.

[712] The country of the Bactrians was a district to the S.E. of the
Caspian Sea, and to the north of the sources of the Indus, nearly
corresponding to the modern Bucharia.

[713] There would appear to be some uncertainty as to the locality of
this place: our author derived his statement from the writer of the
treatise de Mirab. Auscult.

[714] “Caminis.”

[715] Probably the crater of a former volcano.

[716] This mountain, as well as the Θεῶν ὄχημα mentioned below, has
been supposed to be situated on the west of Africa, near Sierra Leone,
or Cape Verd; but, as I conceive, without sufficient authority. See
Alexandre in Lemaire, i. 455.

[717] “Internus.” “In interiore nemore abditus.” Hardouin in Lemaire,
i. 455.

[718] If this account be not altogether fabulous, the appearance here
described may be, perhaps, referred to the combustion of an inflammable
gas which does not acquire a very high temperature.

[719] We have an account of this place in Strabo, vii. 310. Our author
has already referred to it in the 96th chapter of this book, as a pool
or lake, containing floating islands; and he again speaks of it in the
next chapter.

[720] We have an account of this volcano in Ælian, Var. Hist. xiii. 16.
It would appear, however, that it had ceased to emit flame previous to
the calamitous events of which it was supposed to be the harbinger.

[721] This circumstance is mentioned by Dion Cassius, xli. 174. We may
conceive that a sudden influx of water might force up an unusually
large quantity of the bitumen.

[722] We have a full account of this circumstance in Strabo, vi. 277.

[723] “Currum deorum Latine licet interpretari.” Hardouin in Lemaire,
i. 456.

[724] “torrentesque solis ardoribus flammas egerit;” perhaps the author
may mean, that the fires of the volcano assist those of the sun in
parching the surface of the ground.

[725] “Tot rogis terræ?” in reference to the remark in a former
chapter, “natura terras cremat.”

[726] “Humani ignes,” according to Hardouin, “Hi nostri ignes, quos
vitæ usus requirit, ut Tullius ait de Nat. Deor. ii. 67;” Lemaire, i.
457.

[727] This is the mode which many savage tribes employ for exciting
flame.

[728] It is not known whether the Scantia was a river or a lake, or
where it was situated; see Alexandre in Lemaire, i. 457.

[729] This may have been owing to the emission of an inflammable gas
which burns at a comparatively low temperature, as was observed on a
former occasion.

[730] These are said by Columella, xi. 3, to occur in August; the
statement as to the fire occurring on these particular days we may
presume is erroneous.

[731] Aricia was a town in Campania, near the modern Lake of Nemi:
this place, as well as the other places mentioned by our author, were
probably of volcanic origin.

[732] Sidicinum was a town in Campania, also called Teanum; probably
the modern Teano.

[733] Egnatia was a town in Calabria, on the coast of the Adriatic: the
circumstance mentioned by our author is ridiculed by Horace, in his
well-known lines, Sat. i. 5, 97; but it is not improbable that there
may be some foundation for it.

[734] This circumstance is referred to by Val. Maximus, i. 8, 18. The
altar was probably in the neighbourhood of the Lacinian Promontory,
at the S.W. extremity of the Bay of Tarentum, the modern Capo delle
Colonne.

[735] This may be referred to the inflammable vapours mentioned above,
unless we regard the whole narrative as fabulous.

[736] See Livy, i. 39, and Val. Maximus, i. 6. 2. Although it would
be rash to pronounce this occurrence and the following anecdotes
respecting Marcius to be absolutely impossible, we must regard them as
highly improbable, and resting upon very insufficient evidence.

[737] In the 66th chapter of this book.

[738] In the estimate of distances I have given the numbers as they
occur in the text of Lemaire, although, in many cases, there is
considerable doubt as to their accuracy. See the observations of
Hardouin and Alexandre in Lemaire, i. 460.

[739] Artemidorus was an Ephesian, who wrote on geography; see
Hardouin’s Index Auct., Lemaire, i. 167.

[740] Isidorus was a native of Nicæa; he appears to have been a writer
on various topics in natural history, but not much estimated; see
Hardouin’s Index Auct., in Lemaire, i. 194.

[741] The modern Cape St. Vincent and Cape Finisterre.

[742] This was a city on the Sinus Issicus, the present Gulf of Aiasso,
situated, according to Brotier, between the sites of the modern towns
of Scanderoon and Rosos. See Lemaire, i. 461.

[743] Respecting this and the other distances mentioned in this
chapter, I may refer the reader to the remarks of Hardouin in Lemaire,
i. 461.

[744] It is scarcely necessary to remark, that the calculations of our
author do not indicate the real distance between the extreme points of
the habitable parts of the globe, as known to the ancients, but the
number of miles which must be passed over by a traveller, in going from
place to place; in the first instance, a considerable part of the way
by sea, and, in the second, almost entirely by land.

[745] It appears to be difficult to ascertain the identity of the place
here mentioned; I may refer to the remarks of Hardouin and Brotier in
Lemaire, i. 464.

[746] The same remarks may be made upon this and the following numbers
as upon those in the former paragraph; for further information I shall
refer my readers to the notes of Hardouin, Brotier, and Alexandre, in
Lemaire, i. 465-468.

[747] There is great uncertainty respecting the locality of the Thule
of the ancients; there was, in fact, nothing known respecting the
locality or identity of any of the places approaching to the Arctic
circle; the name appears to have been vaguely applied to some country
lying to the north of the habitable parts of Europe. In note [522], p. 109,
I have already had occasion to offer some remarks on the locality of
Thule. Our author speaks of Thule in two subsequent parts of his work,
iv. 30 and vi. 39.

[748] It is probable, that these supposed “immense islands,” if they
were not entirely imaginary, were the countries of Sweden and Norway,
the southern extremities alone of which had been visited by the
ancients.

[749] Strabo, ii.; Vitruvius, i. 6; Macrobius, in Somn. Scip. ii. 20.

[750] Our author has previously referred to Eratosthenes, in the 76th
chapter of this book.

[751] Our author has referred to Hipparchus, in the 9th chapter of this
book.

[752] “Aliter, inquit, et cautius multo Dionysodorus est audiendus, qui
miraculo solo nititur, quam Hipparchus et Eratosthenes, qui geometricis
nituntur principiis.” Hardouin in Lemaire, i. 469. Nothing further is
known of Dionysodorus; see Hardouin’s Index Auct. in Lemaire, i. 123.

[753] Marcus Terentius Varro. He was born B.C. 116, espoused the cause
of Pompey against Cæsar, and served as his lieutenant in Spain. He
afterwards became reconciled to Cæsar, and died in the year B.C. 26.
He is said to have written 500 volumes, but nearly all his works are
lost (destroyed, it is said, by order of Pope Gregory VII.). His only
remains are a Treatise on Agriculture, a Treatise on the Latin Tongue,
and the fragments of a work called _Analogia_.

[754] C. Sulpicius Gallus was Consul in the year 166 B.C. He wrote a
Roman History, and a work on the Eclipses of the Sun and Moon.

[755] Titus Vespasianus, the Emperor, to whom Pliny dedicates his work.
His poem is mentioned in c. 22 of this Book. See pages 1, 2, and 55 of
the present volume.

[756] It is most probable that Quintus Ælius Pætus Tubero is here
meant. He was son-in-law, and, according to Cicero, nephew of Æmilius
Paulus, and Consul in the year B.C. 167. There are two other persons
found mentioned of the name of Q. Ælius Tubero.

[757] The freedman and amanuensis of Cicero. He was a man of great
learning, and was supposed to have invented short-hand. He also wrote a
Life of Cicero.

[758] Lucius Calpurnius Piso Frugi. He was Consul in the year B.C. 133,
and was a stout opponent of the Gracchi. He wrote Annals of the History
of Rome from the earliest periods.

[759] Livy, the well-known Roman historian.

[760] He was the intimate friend of Cicero, and wrote Chronicles or
Annals, in three books, a Life of Cicero, and some other historical
works. A work still exists, called “Lives of Eminent Commanders,” which
is ascribed sometimes to him and sometimes to one Æmilius Probus, a
writer of the reign of Theodosius. The latter probably abridged the
original work of Nepos.

[761] Statius Sebosus. He is mentioned by Cicero as the friend of
Catulus. He wrote a work called the “Periplus,” and another on the
Wonders of India.

[762] A Roman historian and lawyer, who flourished about B.C. 124. He
wrote a Book of Annals, in which was contained a valuable account of
the Second Punic war. This work was epitomized by Brutus and held in
high estimation by the Emperor Adrian.

[763] Fabianus Papirius, a Roman rhetorician and naturalist, whose
works are highly commended by Pliny and Seneca. He wrote a History of
Animals, and a book on Natural Causes.

[764] Quintus Valerius Antias. He flourished about B.C. 80, and wrote
the Annals of Rome, down to the time of Sylla.

[765] Marcus Licinius Crassus Mucianus. He was instrumental in raising
the Emperor Vespasian to the throne, and was Consul in the years A.D.
52, 70, and 74. He published three Books of Epistles, and a History in
eleven Books, which appears to have treated chiefly of Eastern affairs.

[766] Aulus Cæcina. He was sent into exile by Cæsar, joined the
Pompeians in Africa, and was taken prisoner by Cæsar, but his life
was spared. Cicero wrote several letters to him, and commends his
abilities. His work appears to have been on Divination as practised by
the Etrurians.

[767] He appears to have been a diviner or soothsayer of Etruria, and
to have written a work on Etruscan prodigies.

[768] He also wrote a work on Etruscan divination, but it does not
appear that any thing further is known of him.

[769] Sergius Paulus. He is also mentioned in the Index to the 18th
Book. Nothing further seems to be known of him.

[770] The greatest, with the exception of Aristotle, of the Greek
Philosophers, and the disciple of Socrates.

[771] A native of Nicæa in Bithynia, who flourished B.C. 160. He
is called the “Father” of Astronomy. He wrote a Commentary on the
Phænomena of Aratus and Eudoxus, which is still extant. His works,
including those on the Lunar Month and the Fixed Stars, have not come
down to us. His Catalogue of the Stars is preserved in the Almagest of
Ptolemy.

[772] Timæus of Locri in Italy, a Pythagorean philosopher, said to have
been the instructor of Plato. He wrote a work on Mathematics. A work
“On the Soul of the World and of Nature,” which is still extant, has
been ascribed to him, but on doubtful grounds.

[773] An astronomer and peripatetic philosopher of Alexandria. He was
employed by Julius Cæsar to superintend his revision of the Calendar.
It is supposed that he wrote a work on the Celestial Revolutions, and a
Commentary on the works of Aristotle.

[774] A priest, mathematician, and astrologer of Egypt. A Letter on
the Astrological Sciences, written by him to King Necepsos, is said to
be extant in the Royal Library at Vienna, as also a work called the
“Organum Astrologicum,” dedicated to the same king. Juvenal seems to
use his name as a common term for an astrologer.

[775] He is mentioned by Julius Firmicus as “a most just emperor of
Egypt, and a very good astronomer.” A work by him is quoted by Galen in
his tenth Book on Simples, but it was most probably of spurious origin.

[776] “Pythagoricis” here may either mean the works of the followers
of Pythagoras of Samos, or the books which were written by that
philosopher. Pliny, in Books 19, 20, and 24, speaks of several writings
of Pythagoras, and Diogenes Laertius mentions others; but it is more
generally supposed that he wrote nothing, and that everything that
passed by his name in ancient times was spurious.

[777] A Stoic philosopher of Apamea in Syria. He was the instructor
of Cicero, and the friend of Pompey. He wrote works on history,
divination, the tides, and the nature of the gods. Some fragments only
have survived.

[778] Of Miletus, was born B.C. 610, and was the successor of Thales,
the founder of the Ionian school of philosophy. He is said to have
first taught the obliquity of the ecliptic and the use of the gnomon.

[779] A philosopher of Rhodes or Byzantium. Seneca says that he boasted
of having studied astronomy among the Chaldeans. He is mentioned by
Varro and Columella as having written on rural matters, and is praised
by Censorinus.

[780] Of Alexandria, the great geometrician, and instructor of Ptolemy
I. He was the founder of the mathematical school of Alexandria.

[781] He was a Greek by birth, and lived in the time of Nero. He is
extolled by Tacitus, B. 14, for his superlative wisdom, beyond which
nothing is known of him.

[782] Of Cnidus, an astronomer and legislator who flourished B.C. 366.
He was a friend and disciple of Plato, and said to have been the first
who taught in Greece the motions of the planets. His works on astronomy
and geometry are lost, but his Phænomena have been preserved by Aratus,
who turned his prose into verse.

[783] Born at Abdera in Thrace, about B.C. 460. He was one of the
founders of the atomic theory, and looked upon peace of mind as
the _summum bonum_ of mortals. He wrote works on the nature and
organization of the world, on physics, on contagious maladies, on the
chameleon, and on other subjects.

[784] A Grecian astronomer. A work of his, called “Apotelesmatica,” is
said to be preserved in the Imperial Library at Vienna.

[785] An astrologer of Rhodes, patronized by Augustus and Tiberius. He
wrote a work on Stones, and a History of Egypt. Tacitus, in his Annals,
B. vi., speaks highly of his skill in astrology.

[786] A geographer of Antioch, and an opponent of the views of
Eratosthenes. Cicero declares that he himself was unable to understand
a thousandth part of his work.

[787] A Peripatetic philosopher and geographer, of Messina in Sicily.
He studied under Aristotle and wrote several works, the principal of
which was an account of the history, geography, and moral and religious
condition of Greece. A few fragments only are extant.

[788] Of Syracuse, the most famous mathematician of antiquity, born
B.C. 287. A few only of his works have come down to us, published at
Oxford in 1792, by Torelli.

[789] Born either at Astypalæa or Ægina. He was chief pilot of the
fleet of Alexander during the descent of the Indus and the voyage to
the Persian Gulf. He wrote a work called the “Alexandropædia,” or
Education of Alexander. In his description of what he saw in India,
many fables and falsehoods are said to have been interwoven, so much
so that the work (which is now lost) is said to have resembled a fable
more than a history.

[790] Of Cyrene, born B.C. 276. He was invited from Athens by Ptolemy
Euergetes, to become keeper of the library at Alexandria. He was a man
of most extensive erudition, as an astronomer, geographer, philosopher,
historian and grammarian. All of his writings have perished, with the
exception of a few fragments on geographical subjects.

[791] Of Massilia, now Marseilles, a celebrated navigator who
flourished about the time of Alexander the Great. In his voyages he
visited Britain and Thule, of which he probably gave some account
in his work “On the Ocean.” He has been wrongfully accused of
falsehood by Strabo. Another work written by him was his “Periplus,”
or ‘Circumnavigation’ from Gades to the Tanais, probably, in this
instance, the Elbe.

[792] Of Halicarnassus, the father of Grecian history; born B.C. 484.
Besides his great work which has come down to us, he is supposed to
have written a history of Arabia.

[793] Probably the most learned of the Greek philosophers. His works
were exceedingly numerous, and those which have survived to us treat
of natural history, metaphysics, physical science, ethics, logic, and
general literature.

[794] A native of Cnidus in Caria, and private physician to Artaxerxes
Mnemon, having been made prisoner by him at the battle of Cunaxa. He
wrote a History of Persia in 23 books, which, with the exception of
a small abridgement by Photius and a few fragments, is now lost. He
also wrote a book on India. He was much censured, probably without
sufficient reason, for the credulity displayed in his works.

[795] Of Ephesus, a geographer, who lived about B.C. 100. He wrote a
Periplus, and a work on Geography; a few fragments only of abridgements
of these have survived.

[796] Of Charax in Parthia, of which country he wrote an account which
still exists. He flourished in the reign of Augustus.

[797] Of Chios, a celebrated historian, and disciple of the orator
Isocrates. His principal works were a History of Greece, and a Life of
Philip of Macedon, father of Alexander the Great.

[798] Now the Straits of Gibraltar.

[799] This is said more especially in reference to the western parts
of Asia, the only portion which was perfectly known to the ancients.
His meaning is, that Asia as a portion of the globe does not lie so far
north as Europe, nor so far south as Africa.

[800] Now the Don. It was usually looked upon as the boundary between
Europe and Asia. Pliny’s meaning seems to be, that the Tanais divides
Asia from Europe, and the Nile, Asia from Africa, the more especially
as the part to the west of the Nile was sometimes considered as
belonging to Asia. It has been however suggested that he intends to
assign these rivers as the extreme eastern boundaries of the internal
or Mediterranean sea.

[801] At no spot are the Straits less than ten miles in width; although
D’Anville makes the width to be little less than five miles. This
passage of our author is probably in a corrupt state.

[802] This probably stood near the site of the town of Tarifa of the
present day.

[803] Probably the point called ‘Punta del Sainar’ at the present day.

[804] Now called Ximiera, Jebel-el-Mina, or Monte del Hacho.

[805] The Rock of Gibraltar.

[806] The fable was that they originally formed one mountain, which was
torn asunder by Hercules, or as Pliny says, “dug through.”

[807] This was the opinion of Herodotus, but it had been so strenuously
combated by Polybius and other writers before the time of Pliny, that
it is difficult to imagine how he should countenance it.

[808] He probably alludes to Leucopetra, now called Capo dell’ Armi.
Locri Epizephyrii was a town of Bruttium, situate north of the
promontory of Zephyrium, now called Capo di Bruzzano.

[809] So called from the Bætis, now the Guadalquivir or Great River.

[810] The situation of this town is not known, but it is supposed to
have been about five leagues from the present city of Mujacar, or
Moxacar. It was situate on the Sinus Urgitanus.

[811] So called from the city of Tarraco, on the site of the present
Tarragona.

[812] Corresponding nearly in extent with the present kingdom of
Portugal.

[813] Now Gaudiana, a corruption of the Arabic Wadi Ana, “the river
Ana.”

[814] According to Hardouin this place is the modern town of Montiel,
but Pinet and D’Anville make it the same as Alhambra.

[815] According to modern writers it conceals itself in this manner for
a distance of fifteen miles.

[816] From the Balearic Channel to the Gulf of Gascony or Bay of Biscay.

[817] Probably the Sierra Nevada is meant by this name; Hardouin
considers it the same as the Sierra de los Vertientes.

[818] Probably the Sierra Morena.

[819] The Monte de Toledo.

[820] The Sierra de las Asturias.

[821] The present Cadiz. It was originally a Phœnician colony.

[822] Now Cordova.

[823] Now Ecija.

[824] Now Seville.

[825] The _Roman_ colonies or colonies “civium Romanorum” are those
here meant. The colonists in such case enjoyed all the rights of
Roman citizens, the town in which they lived being founded under the
supervision of the Roman magistracy.

[826] “Municipia.” These were towns in conquered countries which were
_not_ founded by the Romans, but whose inhabitants retained their
original institutions, at the same time receiving certain of the rights
of Roman citizens; most frequently, immunity to a greater or less
degree from payment of tribute.

[827] “Latium;” also called “Jus Latii” and “Latinitas.” This was the
name given to those circumscribed or limited rights as Roman citizens
which were at first bestowed upon the conquered states of Italy,
before the time of the Social War. Indeed the _Latinus_ held a kind of
intermediate state between the _Civis Romanus_ with all his rights, and
the _peregrinus_ or foreigner with all his disabilities. These Latin
rights were afterwards extended to the people of other countries, but
retained their original name.

[828] The free towns were those, the inhabitants of which were at
liberty to enjoy their ancient institutions and modes of internal
government, though at the same time they enjoyed none of the privileges
of Roman citizens.

[829] “Fœderati civitates;” the inhabitants of which were called
‘fœderati’ or ‘socii.’ They were in alliance with the Romans, but in
some cases paid them tribute in the same manner as the ‘stipendiaria’
next mentioned. In some instances they also enjoyed the Latin rights.

[830] From the numerous creeks or æstuaries with which the coast is
here indented. Commentators are at a loss for the site of the town of
Onoba (or Ossonoba according to some readings). D’Anville considers it
to be the same with the present town of Moguer; other commentators have
suggested Gibraleon, and the vicinity of Palos.

[831] The Odiel and the Tinto; the Urium being supposed to be the same
with the Tinto of the present day.

[832] Some readings have “Hareni montes,” and others “Arenæ montes,”
the “mountains of sand.” There is no doubt that the sandy heights or
downs on this coast are here meant, which are called at the present day
“Dunes” by the French, and by the natives “Arenas gordas.”

[833] Probably the line of sea-shore between Roia and the city of
Cadiz, skirting the Bay of Cadiz. Hardouin however thinks that the
coast between the Guadalquivir and the Guadalete is meant, now occupied
in part by the town of San Lucar de Barameda.

[834] In the Fourth Book, c. 36.

[835] The present Cape Trafalgar.

[836] Hardouin says that the present Vejer is the place meant, while
others have suggested Puerto de Santa Maria, or Cantillana. Others
again identify it with Bejer de la Frontera, though that place probably
lies too far inland. The Roman ruins near Porto Barbato were probably
its site.

[837] Hardouin and other commentators suggest that the site of the
present Tarifa is here meant; it is more probable however that
D’Anville is right in suggesting the now deserted town of Bolonia.

[838] Probably the present Tarifa.

[839] The exact site of Carteia is unknown; but it is generally
supposed to have stood upon the bay which opens out of the straits on
the west of the Rock of Gibraltar, now called the Bay of Algesiras or
Gibraltar; and upon the hill at the head of the bay of El Rocadillo,
about half-way between Algesiras and Gibraltar.

[840] We learn also from Strabo, that Tartessus was the same place as
Carteia; it is not improbable that the former was pretty nearly the
Phœnician name of the place, and the latter a Roman corruption of it,
and that in it originated the ‘Tarshish’ of Scripture, an appellation
apparently given to the whole of the southern part of the Spanish
peninsula. Probably the Greeks preserved the appellation of the place
more in conformity with the original Phœnician name.

[841] By the “inland sea” Pliny means the Mediterranean, in
contradistinction to the Atlantic Ocean without the Straits of Cadiz.

[842] The ruins of this place, probably, are still to be seen on the
east bank of the river Guadiaro, here alluded to.

[843] With its river flowing by it. This place is probably the present
Marbella, situate on the Rio Verde.

[844] Probably the present Castillo de Torremolinos, or else Castillo
de Fuengirola.

[845] The present city of Malaga. Hardouin thinks that the river
Guadalquivirejo is here meant, but as that is some miles distant from
the city, it is more probable that Guadalmedina, which is much nearer
to it, is the stream alluded to.

[846] Not improbably Velez Malaga, upon a river of the same name.
Hardouin thinks that the place is the modern Torrox on the Fiu Frio,
and D’Anville the present city of Almunecar, on the Rio Verde.

[847] Most probably the present Almunecar, but it is uncertain.
D’Anville says the present Torre de Banas; others have suggested the
town of Motril.

[848] Now Salobrena.

[849] Either the present Adra or Abdera: it is uncertain which.

[850] Probably the present Mujacar. D’Anville suggests Almeria.

[851] Also called Bastitani, a mixed race, partly Iberian and partly
Phœnician.

[852] The Greek Λύσσα, “frantic rage” or “madness.” The etymologies
here suggested are puerile in the extreme.

[853] Plutarch, quoting from the Twelfth Book of the Iberica of
Sosthenes, tells us that, “After Bacchus had conquered Iberia [the
present Spain], he left Pan to act as his deputy, and he changed its
name and called the country _Pania_, after himself, which afterwards
became corrupted into _Spania_.”

[854] He alludes to the expedition of Hercules into Spain, of which
Diodorus Siculus makes mention; also his courtship of the nymph
Pyrene, the daughter of Bebryx, who was buried by him on the Pyrenæan
mountains, which thence derived their name.

[855] It is unknown where this town was situate; Hardouin and D’Anville
think it was on the site of the present village of San Thome, once an
episcopal see, now removed to Jaen. The people of Mentisa, mentioned in
c. 4, were probably inhabitants of a different place. D’Anville in his
map has two Mentisas, one ‘Oretana,’ the other ‘Bastitana.’

[856] According to D’Anville, the place now called Toia.

[857] Now the Segura.

[858] ‘Nova’ or ‘New’ Carthage, so called from having been originally
founded by a colony of Carthaginians B.C. 242. It was situate a little
to the west of the Saturni Promontorium, or Promontory of Palos. It was
taken by Scipio Africanus the elder B.C. 210.

[859] The present Lorca.

[860] This place is even now called by the inhabitants Sepulcro de
Scipion. Cneius Cornelius Scipio Calvus, after the defeat of his
brother P. Cornelius Scipio, in the year B.C. 211, by the forces of
Asdrubal and Mago, fled to a tower at this spot, which was set fire to
by the troops of Asdrubal, and he perished in the flames.

[861] So called from the town of Ossigi afterwards mentioned.

[862] It is unknown where this place stood; Medina Sidonia has been
suggested.

[863] Probably the present Fuentes del Rey, between Andujar and Jaen,
according to Pinet.

[864] D’Anville suggests that this is the present Arjona; but more
probably it was the village of Arjonilla, two leagues south of Andujar.
Gruter has an inscription found here, “MUNIC. ALBENSE URGANON.”

[865] There were five cities of this name in Spain. Hardouin thinks
that this is the modern Alcala la Real, between Granada and Cordova.

[866] Most probably the modern Sierra de Elvira, though some writers
have suggested the city of Granada.

[867] Probably near the modern Montilla. Hardouin takes it to be the
present Granada.

[868] Poinsinet thinks that this is the present Ecija, but other
writers take it to be Alhama, between Granada and Malaga.

[869] Perhaps the present Archidona. Some writers have suggested the
modern Faventia and Velez.

[870] Probably near the present Puente de Don Gonzalo, on the banks of
the Rio Genil.

[871] Probably near Aguilar on the river Cabra; or else the present
Teba, between Osuna and Antequera.

[872] Agla the Less.

[873] Probably the present Cabra. The sites of the two preceding towns
are not known.

[874] “The Encampment in the Vineyards.” Probably this was the same as
the Castra Postumiana mentioned by Hirtius in his Book on the Spanish
War as being four miles from Attegua. It appears to be the present
Castro, or Castro el Rio, situate on the banks of the river Guadajoz.

[875] In some readings “Episibrium.” Probably the present Espeja.

[876] Its present site is unknown.

[877] According to D’Anville, the present Puente de Pinos, six leagues
north of Granada. Others take it to be Illora, south of Alcala la Real.

[878] The present Huesca, according to Hardouin; more probably,
however, Huector, on the banks of the river Genil.

[879] Perhaps Escusar, five leagues from Granada. But according to some
it is the same as Truelo or Eruelo.

[880] Called Ucubis by Hirtius. Morales suggests that it is Sierra la
Ronda, but Pinet says Stoponda.

[881] The sites of this and the preceding place are unknown.

[882] In relation to the ‘conventus juridicus,’ we may here observe
that under the Roman sway, in order to facilitate the administration of
justice, a province was divided into a number of districts or circuits,
each of which was so called, as also ‘forum’ or ‘jurisdictio’. At
certain times of the year fixed by the proconsul or chief magistrate,
the people assembled in the chief town of the district (whence the name
‘conventus’), upon which judges were selected to try the causes of
litigant parties.

[883] Probably near the town at the present day called Espelui. Strabo,
in Book iii., tells us that Laconian institutions and customs were
prevalent in some parts of Spain.

[884] This place was ravaged by fire and levelled with the ground by
the troops of Scipio, in consequence of the vigorous defence they had
made, and the losses they had caused to the Roman army. It probably
stood about four miles from the present city of Baeza.

[885] The sites of this place and the next are unknown.

[886] Most probably the present town of Porcuna. Ubeda or Ubedos has
also been suggested.

[887] The present town of Montoro.

[888] Now Alcoorrucen, near Perabad.

[889] Ansart suggests that the reading is not Sacili of the Martiales,
but Onoba of the Martiales, to distinguish it from Onoba Æstuaria,
previously mentioned. It is not improbable that the place was so called
from the Martian or Martial legion having originally colonized it. The
site of Onoba is unknown.

[890] Cordova was so called from the great number of patricians, who
were among the original colonists, when it was founded by Marcellus.
To the present day it is noted for the pride of its nobles. The Great
Captain Gonzalo de Cordova used to say, that “other towns might be
better to live in, but there was none better to be born in.” It was the
birth-place of Lucan and the two Senecas.

[891] The site of these two places is unknown at the present day.

[892] Now called by the similar name of Genil or Xenil.

[893] Perhaps the present Alcolea.

[894] Perhaps the Cantillana of the present day: there is, however, the
greatest uncertainty as to the sites of these places.

[895] According to Hardouin, the modern city of Penaflor: D’Anville
places it about two leagues thence, and near the city of Lora.

[896] Now Sevilla la Vieja, or Old Seville; called by the lower classes
Santi-pone.

[897] Now Seville. This colony was founded by Julius Cæsar, and also
bore the name of Julia Romula.

[898] Or north side of the river.

[899] Probably on the site of the present Alcala del Rio.

[900] ‘The [good] genius of Julius,’ probably meaning Cæsar. Nothing
seems to be known of its site.

[901] Caura may be the present Coria, a town three leagues from Seville.

[902] Probably the Rio Guadalete.

[903] Either the present Sebrija, or in the vicinity of the city of San
Lucar.

[904] Probably the present Bonania.

[905] Probably between Trebujena and the city of Xeres. It was the
usual place of meeting for the people of the territory of Gades; and
its importance may be judged from its appellation ‘Regia’ or ‘royal,’
and its numerous coins. Its ruins are still to be seen on a hill there.

[906] It is not improbable that this was the present city of Xeres.
Some geographers however take it to be that of Medina Sidonia, and look
upon Xeres as the site of the ancient Asta.

[907] Now Ecija. It stood on the plain of the Bætis, some distance
south of the river, on its tributary the Singulis or Xenil.

[908] The site of this place is unknown. It probably obtained its name
from being a colony of one of the legions, the 7th, 10th, 13th or 14th;
which were called ‘geminæ’ or ‘gemellæ,’ from being composed of the men
of two legions originally.

[909] “The Valour of Julius.” Sanson places it not far from Miragenil.

[910] “The Fame of Julius.” Perhaps the present Olivera, or else Teba,
six leagues to the south of Estepa.

[911] The present city of Ossuna. “Genua Urbanorum” would seem to
mean “the knees of the citizens.” Though all the MSS. agree in this
reading, it probably is an error for “gemina Urbanorum,” and it may
have been a colony of one of the legions called ‘geminæ’ or ‘gemellæ,’
as previously mentioned. The other part of its appellation may possibly
have originated in the fact of its first inhabitants being all natives
of the city of Rome.

[912] The use of the word _fuit_, ‘was,’ implies that the place had
been destroyed. Cneius Pompeius, the eldest son of Pompey the Great,
was defeated at Munda, in the year B.C. 45, and the town destroyed.
Pompey escaped from the battle, but was taken a short time after and
put to death. The site of the ancient town is very generally supposed
to be the modern village of Monda, S.W. of Malaga, and about three
leagues from the sea. It is more probable however that it was in the
vicinity of Cordova, and there are ruins of ancient walls and towers
between Martos, Alcandete, Espejo and Baena, which are supposed to
denote its site.

[913] Now Alameda; eight leagues from the other Astiji or Ecija.

[914] Now Estepa, six leagues from Ecija.

[915] Perhaps Mancloua, between the towns of Ecija and Carmona; the
sites of all the other places here mentioned appear to be quite unknown.

[916] Sanson supposes the Alostigi to have inhabited the territory near
Almagia, between Malaga and Antiqueira.

[917] The Celtici are supposed to have inhabited the country between
the Guadiana and Guadalquivir, the eastern parts of Alentejo and the
west of Estremadura, as far as the city of Badajoz.

[918] Probably part of Estremadura, and the vicinity of Badajoz in an
easterly direction.

[919] The exact meaning of this passage is somewhat obscure, but he
probably means to say that the Celtici have an identity of sacred
rites, language, and names of towns with the Celtiberians; though it
had become the usage in Bætica more generally to distinguish the towns
by their Roman names.

[920] “The Fame of Julius.” Its site is not known.

[921] “The Concord of Julius.” Probably the same as the modern Valera
la Vega, near Frejenal.

[922] Probably meaning “Restored by Julius.” Nothing is known of its
site.

[923] According to an authority quoted by Hardouin, this may possibly
be Medina de las Torres.

[924] Probably Constantina in Andalusia, to the north of Penaflor.

[925] The tribe or nation of the Tereses are supposed to have dwelt in
the vicinity of the modern San Nicolo del Puerto.

[926] Calentum was their town; probably the present Cazalla near
Alaniz. This place will be found mentioned by Pliny in B. xxxv. c. 14.

[927] The ruins two leagues north of Ronda la Vieja are supposed to be
those of this place. There are the remains of an aqueduct and theatre,
and numerous coins are found here.

[928] Probably the present Ronda la Vieja.

[929] Identified by inscriptions with the present Aroche. The sites of
several of the following places are unknown.

[930] The Azuaga of modern times; but, according to Hardouin, Argallen.

[931] According to Hardouin this was on the site of the modern Fuente
de la Ovejuna, fourteen leagues from Cordova.

[932] This has been identified by inscriptions with the modern Villa de
Capilla.

[933] According to Hardouin, the modern Almaden de la Plata.

[934] Probably the same as the modern Monte Major.

[935] The ruins of this place are probably those seen at Carixa, near
Bornos, in the vicinity of Seville.

[936] According to Hardouin, the same as the modern Las Cabezas, not
far from Lebrija.

[937] The sites of these two towns are unknown. Bæsippo, Barbesula and
Callet have been already mentioned.

[938] The ruins of Saguntia are to be seen between Arcos and Xeres
della Frontera, on the river Guadalete; they bear their ancient name
under the form of Cigonza. Mela, B. iii. c. 1, says that Oleastro was a
grove near the Bay of Cadiz. Brana was probably the same place that is
mentioned by Ptolemy under the name of Urbona.

[939] We may here mention for the more correct information of the
reader that the Roman mile consisted of 1000 paces, each pace being
five English feet. Hence its length was 1618 English yards (taking
the Roman foot at 11·6496 English inches), or 142 yards less than the
English statute mile.

[940] Nova Carthago, or New Carthage.

[941] Now Cazlona, on the confines of New Castile and the kingdom of
Granada. It was a place of great importance, and the chief town of the
Oretani. Himilce, the rich wife of Hannibal, was a native of this place.

[942] This was the ‘porticus Octaviæ,’ which, having been commenced by
his sister Octavia, the wife of Marcellus and Antony, was completed
by Augustus. It lay between the Circus Flaminius and the Theatre of
Marcellus, occupying the site of the former portico, which had been
built by Q. Cæcilius Metellus, and enclosing the two temples of Juno
and of Jupiter Stator. It contained a public library, in which the
Senate often met, and it was in this probably that the map or plan,
mentioned by Pliny, was deposited. It also contained a great number of
statues, paintings, and other works of art, which, with the library,
were destroyed by fire in the reign of Titus.

[943] Nova Carthago or New Carthage, now Carthagena.

[944] Now Zaragoza or Saragossa, on the right bank of the river
Ebro. Its original name was Salduba, but it was changed in honour of
Augustus, who colonized it after the Cantabrian war, B.C. 25.

[945] This was the most remote place of any consideration in
Celtiberia, on the west. Its ruins are still to be seen on the summit
of a hill surrounded with rocks, forming a natural wall between Corunna
del Conde and Pennalda de Castro.

[946] This was Asturica Augusta, the chief city of the nation of the
Astures, and situate on one of the tributaries of the Astura, now
Esta. On its site is situate the present Astorga: its ruins are very
extensive.

[947] Now Lugo.

[948] Or Bracara Augusta, now Braga. Among the ruins of the ancient
city there are the remains of an aqueduct and amphitheatre.

[949] Probably the present town of Vera near Muxacra.

[950] The “Promontory of Saturn,” now Cabo de Palos.

[951] D’Anville takes this place to be the port of Vacur; if so, the
distance from Cape Palos is exactly 170 miles.

[952] Now Segura.

[953] The modern town of Elche was probably built from the ruins of
this place.

[954] Now called the Gulf of Alicant.

[955] With the Arabian _El_ prefixed, this has formed the name of the
famous port of Alicant.

[956] Now Denia, a thriving town.

[957] Now called the Xucar.

[958] Now called Albufera.

[959] The present city of Valencia.

[960] Or Turia, now the Guadalaviar.

[961] Or Saguntus, famed for the fidelity of its inhabitants to the
Roman cause: after a siege of nine months, rather than submit to the
Carthaginians under Hannibal, they set fire to their town and perished
in the flames, B.C. 219. It was rebuilt eight years afterwards and
made a Roman colony. The ruins of the ancient town, which was said to
have been originally founded by Greeks from Zacynthus, are still to be
seen, and the ancient walls (_muri veteres_) give name to the present
Murviedro, which is built on its site.

[962] Now the Murviedro, which flows past the city of that name and the
town of Segorbe.

[963] Dertosa, the present Tortosa, is supposed to have been inhabited
by them.

[964] Now the Ebro.

[965] Hardouin places this on the site of the modern Fuente de Ivero.
The Ebro takes its rise in the Val de Vieso.

[966] According to D’Anville, the present Logrono. At present the
Ebro only becomes navigable at Tudela, 216 miles from the sea. Other
writers, however, take Varia to be the present Valtierra, near Tudela.

[967] Or the Subur, now the Francoli. It flows into the sea at the port
of Tarraco, now Tarragona.

[968] The more ancient commentators think that Carthago Vetus, or the
colony of Old Carthage (now Carta la Vieja), is here alluded to, but
more probably it is Carthago Nova that is meant.

[969] On the Subi, previously mentioned; now called Villa Nova.

[970] Now the Llobregat.

[971] Their territory was situate around the present Gulf of Ampurias.

[972] Their chief cities were Gerunda, the present Gerona, and Ausa or
Vicus Ausæ, now Vic d’Osona.

[973] In the country beyond Gerona.

[974] Living in the upper valley of the river Sicoris or Segre, which
still retains, from them, the name of Cerdague.

[975] The people of the modern Navarre and Guipuzcoa.

[976] In the later writers Barcelo, now Barcelona. It was said to have
been originally founded by Hercules, and afterwards rebuilt by Hamilcar
Barcas, who gave it the name of his family. Its name as a Roman colony
was Colonia Faventia Julia Augusta Pia Barcino. The modern city stands
somewhat to the east of the ancient one.

[977] The modern Badalona, two leagues from Barcelona.

[978] On the sea-shore,—the present Pineda.

[979] Now the Tordera.

[980] The modern city of Blanos stands on its site.

[981] Probably the present Ter or Tet.

[982] The modern Ampurias. We learn from Strabo that a wall divided the
town of the Greeks from that of the old inhabitants. It was the usual
landing-place for travellers from Gaul. It was originally colonized by
the Phocæans from Massilia or Marseilles.

[983] Hardouin says that the Ticher or Tichis is the same with the
modern Ter, but in such case Pliny would have mentioned it before
coming to Emporiæ. Its present name however does not appear to be
accurately known.

[984] A promontory extending from the Pyrenæan chain, on which a temple
of Venus was situate. It is now called Cabo de Cruz. The distance
mentioned by Pliny is probably too great.

[985] The people of the present Tortosa.

[986] Probably not the same people as the Edetani, in whose district
Saguntum and Valencia were situate.

[987] The people of Gerunda or Gerona.

[988] They are nowhere else mentioned. Ukert supposes that their city
stood in the district between the Sicoris and Nucaria.

[989] Their city was Tiara Julia.

[990] The people of Aquæ Calidæ or the ‘Hot Springs,’ called at the
present day Caldes, four leagues from the city of Barcelona.

[991] Ptolemy places Bæcula between Ausa and Gerunda.

[992] The people of the present Belchite.

[993] The people of the present Xelsa, on the Ebro.

[994] The inhabitants of Calagurris, now Calahorra, a city of the
Vascones, on the banks of the Ebro. They remained faithful to Sertorius
to the last, and after slaughtering their wives and children and eating
their flesh, their city was taken and destroyed; which event put an end
to the Sertorian war. It was called “Nassica,” in contradistinction
to Calagurris Fibularia, which is afterwards mentioned by Pliny. The
latter is mentioned by Cæsar as forming one community with Osca (now
Huesca), and was probably the present Loarre, though some writers take
the first-named Calagurris to be that place, and the latter one to be
the present Calahorra.

[995] The people of Ilerda, the present Lerida, on the Sicoris or
Segre. It is memorable for its siege by Cæsar, when the Pompeian
forces under Afranius and Petreius had retired thither. It was a most
flourishing city, though in the times of the later Roman emperors it
had fallen into decay.

[996] The people of the present Huesca.

[997] The inhabitants of Turiazo, the present Tarazona, five leagues
south of Tudela.

[998] The people of Cascantum, the present town of Cascante in Navarre.

[999] The people of Ergavica. Its ruins, at the confluence of the
Guadiela and Tagus, are still to be seen, and are called Santaver. By
some writers this place is considered to be the same as the modern
Fraga, on the river Cinca, five leagues from Lerida.

[1000] The people of Graccuris. Its former name of Ilurcis was changed
in honour of Sempronius Gracchus, who placed new settlers there after
the conquest of Celtiberia. It is supposed to be the same as the modern
Agreda, four leagues from Tarazona.

[1001] The people of Leonica, probably the modern Alcaniz, on the river
Guadalope, in Arragon.

[1002] The people of Tarraga, the present Tarrega, nine leagues east of
Lerida, in Catalonia.

[1003] The people of Arcobriga, now Los Arcos, in Navarre, five leagues
south of Estella.

[1004] Perhaps the same as the Andosini, a people mentioned by
Polybius, B. iii. c. 35, as situate between the Iberus and the
Pyrenees. There is a small town of Navarre called Androilla.

[1005] The people probably of the site now occupied by Huarte Araquil,
six leagues to the west of Pampeluna.

[1006] Probably the same as the Bursaones of Livy, the Bursavolenses
of Hirtius, and the Bursadenses of Ptolemy. Their exact locality is
unknown.

[1007] Mention has been made of Calagurris Fibularensis or Fibulicensis
under Calagurris Nassica: see p. 168.

[1008] The people of Complutum, the modern Alcala de Henares, on the
river Henares, six leagues to the east of Madrid. It is not quite
certain whether it stood on the exact site of Alcala, or on the hill of
Zulema, on the other side of the Henares.

[1009] The town of Cares, adjoining the more modern one of Puente la
Reyna, probably marks their site.

[1010] Probably so called from the river Cinga, the modern Cinca: or
they may have given their name thereto.

[1011] The people probably of the present Mediana on the Ebro, six
leagues below Zaragoza.

[1012] Their town was Larnum, situate on a river of the same name. It
was probably the present Torderas, situate on the river of that name.

[1013] Of this people nothing appears to be known. In the old editions
the next people mentioned are the “Ispalenses,” but since the time of
Hardouin, they have been generally omitted, as wrongly introduced,
and as utterly unknown. Spanish coins have however been more recently
discovered with the name ‘Sblaie’ or ‘Splaie,’ inscribed in Celtiberian
characters, and numismatists are of opinion that they indicate the name
of the town of this people, which in Latin would be Ispala. This at all
events is the opinion of M. de Sauley.

[1014] The people of the present town of Lumbier in Navarre, called by
its inhabitants Irumberri.

[1015] The people of the present city of Pampeluna.

[1016] Carthago Nova, or New Carthage.

[1017] The colony of Acci was called Colonia Julia Gemella Accitana.
The town of Acci or Accis was on the site of the present Guadix el
Viejo, between Granada and Baza. It was colonized by the third and
sixth legions under Julius or Augustus, from which it obtained the name
of ‘Gemella,’ the origin of which name is previously mentioned, p. 161.

[1018] The ruins of this place are supposed to be those seen at
Lebazuza or Lezuza, not far from the city of Cuença.

[1019] The “jus Italicum” or “Italiæ,” “Italian rights” or
“privileges,” differed from the “jus Latinum.” It was granted to
provincial towns which were especially favoured by the magistracy of
Rome, and consisted of exemption from taxes, a municipal constitution,
after the manner of the Italian towns, and many other rights and
exemptions.

[1020] According to Hardouin, the people of the town formerly called
Saliotis, now Cazorla. They are called “Cæsari venales,” from the
circumstance of their territory having been purchased by Cæsar.—Castulo
or Cazlona has been previously mentioned.

[1021] The people of Sætabis, now Xativa in Valencia. This town was
famous for its manufacture of fine table-napkins, to which reference
is made by Pliny at the beginning of his Introduction addressed to
Titus, in his quotation from the lament of Catullus on the loss of his
table-napkins which his friends had filched from him. See p. 1 of the
present volume.

[1022] According to some writers, the present Cuença was the ancient
Valeria; but perhaps it was situate at the present village of Valera la
Vieja, or Old Valeria, eight leagues south of Cuença.

[1023] The people of Alaba, not far from the present town of Ergavica.

[1024] They were so called from their town of Basti, now Baza, on the
river Guadalentin in Granada.

[1025] Their town was probably the present Consuegra, twelve leagues
from the city of Toledo.

[1026] So called from the promontory Dianium or Artemisium, named from
a temple of Diana there situate, and having in its vicinity a town
of the same name. The present town of Denia still retains nearly the
original name. Its lake, now called Albufera de Valencia, has been
previously mentioned, p. 166.

[1027] The modern Yniesta marks the site of their town.

[1028] The people probably of Eliocroca, now Lorca, on the high road,
from Carthago Nova to Castulo.

[1029] There were two places of the name of Mentesa, one in the
district of the Oritani, and the other in that of the Bastitani or
Bastuli.

[1030] Ptolemy, B. ii., mentions a city of this nation, called ‘Oretum
Germanorum.’ It has been supposed that it was the present Calatrava,
five leagues from Ciudad Real.

[1031] Supposed to be in the vicinity of the present Calatajud.

[1032] The present Toledo.

[1033] Their town is supposed to have stood on the site of the present
Murcia.

[1034] Now Coruña del Conde.

[1035] The people of the present Alava on the Ebro.—A small town there
still bears the name of Alvana.

[1036] This nation is not mentioned elsewhere. Possibly they are the
Murbogi, mentioned by Ptolemy.

[1037] Their town Segisamon was either the present Veyzama in
Guipuzcoa, or, more probably, Sasamon, eight leagues north-west of
Burgos.

[1038] The people of Carissa, on the site of the present Carixa near
Seville.

[1039] Strabo assigns the Numantini to the Arevacæ, and not the
Pelendones. The ruins of the city of Numantia were still to be seen
at Puente Garray near the city of Soria, in Hardouin’s time, the 17th
century.

[1040] D’Anville places their city, Intercatia, at the place called
Villa nueva de Azuague, forty miles from the present Astorga; others
again make it to have been sixty miles from that place.

[1041] Their town was on the site of the modern city of Palencia, on
the river Carion.

[1042] The people of Cauca, the present Coca, situate between Segovia
and Valladolid, on the river Eresma.

[1043] This was the chief city of the Cantabri. It has been already
mentioned, but we may add that it stood near the sources of the Ebro,
on the eminence of Retortillo, south of Reynosa. Five stones still mark
the boundaries which divided the territory from that of the Fourth
Legio.

[1044] Supposed to be the present Briviesca; the site of Tritium does
not appear to be known, but it has been suggested that it was near
Najara, in the vicinity of Logrono.

[1045] It does not appear to be certain whether the Areva was the
present Ucero, or the Arlanzon, which flows near Valladolid.

[1046] The modern Siguenza.

[1047] Now El Burgo d’Osma, in the province of Soria.

[1048] This must not be mistaken for the modern Segovia, between Madrid
and Valladolid: it was a small town in the vicinity of Numantia.

[1049] Probably the present Lerma, on the river Arlanza.

[1050] The people of Asturica Augusta, now Astorga, in the province of
Leon. The ruins of this fine city are said still to give a perfect idea
of a fortified Roman town.

[1051] Their chief city stood on the site of the present Cigarrosa,
or San Estevan de Val de Orres. Its ruins are still to be seen, and a
Roman bridge, the people preserving a tradition that an old town once
stood there called Guigurra.

[1052] The people of Lance or Lancia, probably the present Lollanco or
Mansilla; though Oviedo has been suggested. This however may be the
Ovetum mentioned by Pliny in B. xxxiv. c. 17.

[1053] Mentioned by Pliny in B. xix. c. 2, as famous for their flax.
Their locality near the coast does not appear to be exactly known. The
Pæsici previously mentioned were situate on the peninsula of Cabo de
Penas.

[1054] Now the city of Lugo in Gallicia.

[1055] The people of Bracara Augusta, now Braga. Among the ruins of
the ancient city are the remains of an aqueduct and an amphitheatre.
This people probably derived their name from their fashion of wearing
braccæ, “breeches” or “trowsers,” like their neighbours of Gallia
Braccata. The exact localities of the various other tribes here
mentioned do not appear to be exactly known.

[1056] Our author is mistaken here, even making allowance for the
shortness of the Roman mile (1618 yards), as the length is only 470
miles. Coastwise it is 620.

[1057] Now Oyarzun. It is also mentioned in B. iv. c. 34.

[1058] He is also in error here; for, taken in a straight line, this
distance is but 210 miles.

[1059] The distance is about 560 miles.

[1060] It may be worth while here to take some notice of the mineral
productions of Spain in modern times, from which we shall be able to
form a more accurate judgement as to the correctness of the statement
here made by Pliny. Grains of gold are still to be found in the rivers
Tagus and Douro; but there is not found sufficient of the precious
metal to pay for the search. Silver is found in the mines of the Guadal
canal. Copper and lead are to be found in abundance. There is a mine
of plumbago four leagues from Ronda; and tin is found in Gallicia. In
every province there are iron mines, those in Biscay being the most
remarkable. Lodestone is found in Seville, cobalt on the Pyrenees,
quicksilver and cinnabar at Almaden, arsenic in Asturias, and coal in
Asturias and Arragon. There are salt-mines at Mingrilla and Cardona;
alum is found in Arragon, antimony at Alcaraz. On the Sierra Morena,
and in Gallicia, there is saltpetre in numerous localities; amber in
Asturias and Valencia, and sulphur in Murcia, Arragon, and Seville.
Pipe-clay of a peculiar quality is found in the vicinity of Andujar.
Gypsum and marble are found in great abundance, and stone for budding
purposes, of the best quality. Amethysts, white cornelians, rubies,
agates, garnets, and rock crystals, with other precious stones, are
also found in abundance and of the finest quality.

[1061] Transparent stone. Further mention is made of it by Pliny in B.
xxxv. c. 45.

[1062] Or Mediterranean.

[1063] From the chief city Narbo Martius, and later Narbona, now
Narbonne, situate on the river Atax, now Aude. It was made a Roman
colony by the Consul Q. Martius B.C. 118, and from him received its
surname. It was the residence of the Roman governor of the province and
a place of great commercial importance. There are scarcely any remains
of the ancient city, but some vestiges of the canal, by which it was
connected with the sea at twelve miles’ distance.

[1064] From the linen breeches which the inhabitants wore, a fashion
which was not adopted by the Romans till the time of the Emperors.
Severus wore them, but the use of them was restricted by Honorius.

[1065] Still called the ‘Var.’ It divides France from Nice, a province
of Sardinia.

[1066] Now the Cevennes. They lie as much to the west as the north of
Gallia Narbonensis.

[1067] The range of the Jura, north of the Lake of Geneva.

[1068] Inhabiting the former Comté de Roussillon, or Département des
Pyrénées Orientales. They were said to have been originally a Bebrycian
or Thracian colony.

[1069] Probably the inhabitants of the present Conserans, on the west
of the Département de l’Arriége.

[1070] Probably the Tech, and the Verdouble, which falls into the Gly.

[1071] Probably the present Elne, on the Tech.

[1072] The present Castel Roussillon.

[1073] The Aude of the present day.

[1074] The bodies of water now called Etangs de Bages et de Sigean.

[1075] Now the Herault.

[1076] Now called the Lez, near the city of Montpellier.

[1077] Now called Etangs de Leucate, de Sigean, de Gruissan, de
Vendres, de Thau, de Maguelonne, de Perols, de Mauguio, du Repausset;
Marais d’Escamandre, de Lermitane et de la Souteyrane, and numerous
others.

[1078] Now the town of Agde. Strabo also informs us that this place was
founded by the Massilians.

[1079] This people seems to have inhabited the eastern parts of the
departments of l’Arriége and the Haute Garonne, that of Aude, the south
of that of Tarn, and of that of Herault, except the arrondissement of
Montpellier.

[1080] Dalechamp takes this to be Foz les Martigues; but the locality
is doubtful. Most probably this is the same place that is mentioned by
Strabo as Rhoë, in conjunction with the town of Agathe or Agde, and the
Rodanusia of Stephen of Byzantium, who places it in the district of
Massilia or Marseilles.

[1081] Now the Rhone.

[1082] Now the Lake of Geneva.

[1083] The modern Saone.

[1084] Now the rivers Isère and Durance.

[1085] Most probably from Libici, a town in the south of Gaul, of which
there are coins in existence, but nothing else seems to be known. At
the present day there are four mouths of the Rhone, the most westerly
of which is called the “Dead” Rhone; the next the “Lesser” Rhone; the
third the “Old” Rhone; and the fourth simply the Rhone. D’Anville
considers the “Lesser” Rhone to have been the “Spanish” mouth of the
ancients. In consequence of the overflowings of this river there is
great confusion upon this subject.

[1086] This mouth of the Rhone was much used by the Massilians for the
purposes of commerce with the interior of Gaul, and the carriage of the
supplies of tin which they obtained thence.

[1087] The manner in which Pliny here expresses himself shows that he
doubts the fact of such a place having even existed; it is mentioned
by none of the preceding geographers, and of those who followed him
Stephen of Byzantium is the only one who notices it. An inscription was
found however in the reign of Charles V. of France, in which it was
stated that Ataulphus, king of the Visigoths, selected Heraclea as his
place of residence. On the faith of this inscription, Spon and Ducange
have placed Heraclea at the modern Saint-Gilles, and other writers at
Saint-Remy, where the inscription was found. Unfortunately, however,
Messrs. Devic and Vaissette, in their “History of Languedoc,” have
proved that this inscription is of spurious origin.

[1088] The “Fossæ Marianæ” are also mentioned by Ptolemy and Solinus;
though they differ in the situation which they have respectively
assigned them. They were formed by Marius when advancing to dispute the
passage of the Rhone with the Cimbri, who had quitted Spain for the
purpose of passing the Pyrenees and invading Italy, in the year B.C.
102. There is considerable difficulty in determining their position,
but they are supposed to have commenced at the place now called the
Camp of Marius, and to have terminated at the eastern mouth of the
Rhone near the present Arles.

[1089] Pliny is the first who mentions the name of this lake, though
previous writers had indicated its existence. Strabo informs us that
above the mouth of the Rhone there is a large lake that communicates
with the sea, and abounds in fish and oysters. Brotier and D’Anville
identify it with the present lake of Martigues or of Berre.

[1090] D’Anville takes this place to be the present town of Martigues;
Brotier thinks that it was situate on the spot now called Le Cap
d’Œil, near the town of Saint-Chamas; and Bouche, the historian of the
Province, places it at Marignane, on the east side of the lake already
mentioned.

[1091] “Campi Lapidei,” called by the natives at the present day “La
Crau;” probably from the same Celtic root as our word “Crags;” though
Bochart derives it from the Hebrew. Æschylus and Hyginus speak of this
combat of Hercules, and Mela relates that being engaged in a mortal
struggle with Albion and Geryon, the sons of Neptune, he invoked the
aid of Jupiter, on which a shower of stones fell from the heavens and
destroyed his antagonists. Those on this plain are said to be the
remains of the stony shower. It is supposed by the scientific that
many of these stones are aërolites, and that tradition has ingeniously
adapted this story to their real origin. The vicinity of Tunbridge
Wells presents a somewhat similar appearance.

[1092] The people probably of the site of the present isle of Camargue.

[1093] They probably inhabited the district south of the Durance,
between it and the Rhone.

[1094] They inhabited the country in which the present Avignon, Orange,
Cavaillon, and perhaps Carpentras are situate.

[1095] They are thought by Hardouin to have dwelt in the vicinity of
the present town of Talard in the department of the Hautes Alpes.

[1096] They inhabited the eastern part of the departments of the Drôme
and the Vaucluse.

[1097] Their territory comprehended the southern part of the department
of the Ain, the department of the Isère, the canton of Geneva, and part
of Savoy.

[1098] It was said to have been colonized from Phocæa, a town of Ionia
in Asia Minor. Lucan in his Third Book more than once falls into the
error of supposing that it was colonized from Phocis in Greece.

[1099] We learn from Justin, B. xliii., that this privilege, as well as
others, and a seat at the public shows, were granted to the Massilians
by the Roman Senate, in return for their sympathy and assistance after
the city had been taken and plundered by the Gauls.

[1100] According to D’Anville the present Cap de l’Aigre, though
Mannert takes it to be the Cap de la Croisette.

[1101] D’Anville takes this to be the same as the present Port de la
Ciotat.

[1102] Probably occupying the south-east of the department of the Var.
It is supposed by Hardouin that the village of Ramatuelle, near the
coast, south of the Gulf of Grimaud, represents the ancient name; and
D’Anville and other writers are of the same opinion.

[1103] Probably the country around the modern Brignole and Draguignan
was inhabited by them.

[1104] They inhabited Verignon and Barjols in the southern part of the
department of the Var.

[1105] D’Anville takes this to be the place called Agaï, between Frejus
and La Napoule: but in so doing he disregards the order in which they
are given by Pliny.

[1106] “The Forum of Julius.” Now Frejus. As its name implies, it was
a colony of the Eighth Legion. It was probably called ‘Pacensis,’
on some occasion when peace had happily been made with the original
inhabitants, and ‘Classica’ from the fleet being stationed there by
Augustus.

[1107] Still known as the Argens, from the silvery appearance of the
water. It has choked up the harbour with sand, in which probably the
ships of Augustus rode at anchor.

[1108] They inhabited the coast, in the vicinity of the modern Cannes.

[1109] They are supposed to have inhabited the country of Grasse, in
the south-east of the department of the Var.

[1110] According to Ptolemy they had for their capital the town of
Salinæ; which some take to be the modern Saluces, others Castellane,
and others again Seillans, according to Holstein and D’Anville.

[1111] D’Anville thinks that they lived in the valley of Queyras, in
the department of the Hautes Alpes, having a town of the same name.

[1112] The Adunicates are supposed by Hardouin to have inhabited the
department of the Basses Alpes, between the towns of Senez and Digne.

[1113] The modern Antibes. Mount Cema is the present Monte-Cemelione.

[1114] “Arelate of the Sixth Legion,” a military colony; now the city
of Arles. It is first mentioned by Cæsar, who had some ships built
there for the siege of Massilia or Marseilles. It was made a military
colony in the time of Augustus.

[1115] “Beterræ of the Seventh Legion.” The modern town of Beziers.

[1116] “Arausio of the Second Legion,” now Orange, a town in the
department of Vaucluse.

[1117] Now Valence, in the department of the Drôme.

[1118] Now Vienne, in the department of the Isère.

[1119] Aix, in the department of the Bouches du Rhône.

[1120] Avignon, in the Vaucluse.

[1121] Apt, in the department of Vaucluse.

[1122] Riez, in the department of the Basses Alpes.

[1123] The modern Alps, near Viviers, is probably built on the site of
this town. The text shows that it was different from Augusta, probably
the Alba Augusta mentioned by Ptolemy, though D’Anville supposes them
to have been the same place.

[1124] Some writers take this place to be the present
Saint-Paul-Trois-Châteaux, in the department of the Drôme.

[1125] Probably so called from its lofty position, and supposed by
D’Anville to have been situate on the modern Mont Ventoux, or “Windy
Mountain.” Other writers place it at La Croix Haute, near the city of
Avignon.

[1126] There is a village in the department of the Var, six leagues
from Toulon, called Bormes, not improbably from these people.

[1127] The modern Cavaillon, in the department of the Vaucluse.

[1128] Now Carcassone, in the department of the Aude.

[1129] Probably Saint Tibéry, on the river Hérault.

[1130] Now Carpentras. Ptolemy also makes mention of the Memini.

[1131] Probably situate on the river Cœnus of Ptolemy, between the
eastern mouth of the Rhone and Massilia. Probably the name in Pliny
should be “Cœnienses.”

[1132] Walckenaer places this people in the vicinity of Cambo, in the
arrondissement of Bayonne, in the department of the Basses Pyrenees.

[1133] In names similar to this, as Festus remarks, “Forum” has the
meaning of “Market;” much as that word is used as a compound in our
names, such as Market Drayton, &c. Bouche thinks that by this place is
meant the modern Le Canet: but D’Anville takes it to be Gonfaron, a
corruption, he thinks, of Voconfaron from the Latin name.

[1134] The site of Glanum was about a mile to the south of the village
of Saint Remi, between Cavaillon and Arles. On the spot there are the
remains of a Roman mausoleum and a triumphal arch.

[1135] The people of Luteva, now Lodève, in the department of the
Hérault.

[1136] “The people of Forum Neronis,” which place has been supposed
by some to have been the same with Carpentoracte: D’Anville supposes
Forcalquier to have been Forum Neronis, while Walckenaer takes Momas
to have been that place. From the text it would appear to have been
identical with Luteva.

[1137] The modern Nismes, which in its ruins contains abundant marks
of its ancient splendour. The family of the Antonines came from this
place. The remains of its aqueduct still survive, containing three rows
of arches, one above the other, and 180 feet in height.

[1138] The people of the present Pézenas, in the department of the
Hérault.

[1139] Their chief town is supposed to have been Albiga, now Albi, in
the department of Tarn.

[1140] The inhabitants of the present Senez in the Basses Alpes.
De la Saussaye says that their coins read ‘Samnagenses,’ and not
‘Sanagenses,’ and that they inhabited Senas, a town in the vicinity of
Aix.

[1141] Their chief town was Tolosa, now Toulouse, in the department of
the Haute-Garonne.

[1142] They probably lived in the vicinity of the present Montauban, in
the department of the Tarn et Garonne.

[1143] Probably the inhabitants of the site of the modern town of
Tarascon. There is, however, considerable doubt as to these two names.

[1144] Poinsinet thinks that they occupied Vabres, a place situate in
the south of the department of Aveyron.

[1145] Now Vaison, in the department of Vaucluse.

[1146] “The Grove of Augustus.” This town appears to have been
overflowed by the river Druma, which formed a lake on its site. Its
remains were still to be seen in the lake in modern times, and from it
the town on the margin of the lake takes its name of Le Luc.

[1147] Under the name “formula” Pliny perhaps alludes to the official
list of the Roman government, which he had consulted for the purposes
of accuracy.

[1148] Bouche places the site of this people at the village of Avançon,
between Chorges and Gap, in the department of the Hautes Alpes.

[1149] The present town of Digne, in the department of the Basses Alpes.

[1150] It is not known from what points these measurements of our
author are taken.

[1151] The modern names of these localities will form the subject of
consideration when we proceed, in c. 7, to a more minute description of
Italy.

[1152] This passage is somewhat confused, and may possibly be in a
corrupt state. He here speaks of the Apennine Alps. By the “lunata
juga” he means the two promontories or capes, which extend east and
west respectively.

[1153] This seems to be the meaning of “alumna,” and not “nurse” or
“foster-mother,” as Ajasson’s translation has it. Pliny probably
implies by this antithesis that Rome has been “twice blessed,” in
receiving the bounties of all nations of the world, and in being able
to bestow a commensurate return. Compared with this idea, “at once the
nurse and mother of the world” would be tame indeed!

[1154] By adding its deified emperors to the number of its divinities.
After what Pliny has said in his Second Book, this looks very much like
pure adulation.

[1155] Or “Great Greece.” This is a poor and frivolous argument used
by Pliny in support of his laudations of Italy, seeing that in all
probability it was not the people of Greece who gave this name to
certain cities founded by Greek colonists on the Tarentine Gulf, in the
south of Italy; but either the Italian tribes, who in their simplicity
admired their splendour and magnificence, or else the colonists
themselves, who, in using the name, showed that they clung with
fondness to the remembrance of their mother-country; while at the same
time the epithet betrayed some vanity and ostentation in wishing thus
to show their superiority to the people of their mother-country.

[1156] The comparison of its shape to an oak leaf seems rather
fanciful; more common-place observers have compared it to a boot: by
the top (cacumen) he seems to mean the southern part of Calabria about
Brundisium and Tarentum; which, to a person facing the south, would
incline to the coast of Epirus on the left hand.

[1157] The ‘Parma’ or shield here alluded to, would be one shaped like
a crescent, with the exception that the inner or concave side would be
formed of two crescents, the extremities of which join at the central
projection. He says that Cocinthos (now Capo di Stilo) would in such
case form the central projection, while Lacinium (now Capo delle
Colonne) would form the horn at the extreme right, and Leucopetra (now
Capo dell’ Armi) the horn on the extreme left.

[1158] The Tuscan or Etrurian sea, and the Adriatic.

[1159] The Varus, as already mentioned, was in Gallia Narbonensis,
while the Arsia, now the Arsa, is a small river of Istria, which became
the boundary between Italy and Illyricum, when Istria was annexed by
order of Augustus to the former country. It flows into the Flanaticus
Sinus, now Golfo di Quarnero, on the eastern coast of Istria, beyond
the town of Castel Nuovo, formerly Nesactium.

[1160] Now the Pescara.

[1161] Now Palo, a city on the coast of Etruria, eighteen miles from
Portus Augusti, at the mouth of the Tiber.

[1162] This distance is overstated: the circuit is in reality about
2500 miles.

[1163] For instance, from Pola to Ravenna, and from Iadera to Ancona.

[1164] Sardinia is in no part nearer to Italy than 140 miles.

[1165] Issa, now Lissa, is an island of the Adriatic, off the coast of
Liburnia; it is not less than eighty miles distant from the nearest
part of the coast of Italy.

[1166] That is to say, the south, which was so called by the Romans:
the meaning being that Italy extends in a south-easterly direction.

[1167] Italy was divided by Augustus into eleven districts; the ninth
of which nearly corresponded to the former republic of Genoa.

[1168] The modern Nizza of the Italians, or Nice of the French.

[1169] Now the Paglione.

[1170] Livy mentions four of these tribes, the Celelates, the
Cerdiciates, the Apuani, and the Friniates.

[1171] Or “Long-haired.” Lucan, B. i. l. 442, 3, refers to this
characteristic of the Alpine Ligurians:

  Et nunc tonse Ligur, quondam per colla decora
  Crinibus effusis toti prælate Comatæ.

[1172] It is probably the ruins of this place that are to be seen at
the present day at Cimiez in the vicinity of Nice.

[1173] The modern Monaco.

[1174] These tribes have been already mentioned in c. 5, as belonging
to the province of Gallia Narbonensis.

[1175] It is supposed that they dwelt near the present Vinadio in
Piedmont.

[1176] It is supposed that they inhabited the vicinity of the present
town of Chorges, between Embrun and Gap.

[1177] They probably dwelt near the modern town of Montserrat.

[1178] They probably dwelt near the modern Biela, eight leagues from
Verceil in Piedmont.

[1179] Some writers place them near the modern city of Casale.

[1180] Their locality is supposed by some writers to be near the
present Cortemiglia, five leagues from the town of Alba.

[1181] Now the Roya, flowing between very high banks.—Lucan, B. ii. l.
422, speaks of the Rutuba as “Cavus,” “flowing in deep cavities.”

[1182] Probably the present Vintimiglia.

[1183] The modern Arozia.

[1184] The present town of Albenga.—Livy, B. xxix. c. 5, calls the
inhabitants Albingauni.

[1185] Now called Vaï or Ve, and Savona.

[1186] The modern Bisagna, which waters Genua, the modern Genoa.

[1187] Now the Lavagna, which also washes Genoa.

[1188] “The Port of the Dolphin;” now Porto Fino.

[1189] Probably the ruins called those of Tregesa or Trigoso are those
of Tigullia.

[1190] Now Sestri di Levante.

[1191] The modern Magra.

[1192] Of which they were considered as a chain, and called the
Apennine Alps.

[1193] Now the Po.

[1194] According to D’Anville, now Castel Arqua.

[1195] Now Tortona. It was a city of importance, and there are
considerable ruins still in existence.

[1196] The modern Voghera, upon the river Staffora.

[1197] Probably the present Verrua.

[1198] Called by the Ligurians Bodincomagus, by the Romans Industria.
Its remains are to be found at Monteù di Po, a few miles below
Chevasso, on the right bank of the river.

[1199] The modern Pollenza, a small town on the river Tenaro near Alba.

[1200] Its site has been placed at Chieri near Turin, and at Carrù
on the Tanaro, a few miles south of Bene, which is perhaps the most
probable.

[1201] The modern Valenza.

[1202] Placed by D’Anville at Vico near Mondovi, and by other writers
at Carmagnole and Saluzzo: but Durandi has shown that the ruins still
to be seen near Bene in Piedmont are those of Augusta Vagiennorum. Bene
is supposed to be a corruption of Bagienna, the name of the town in the
middle ages. The name of the Vagienni also probably survives in that of
Viozenna, an obscure place in that vicinity.

[1203] Still called Alba; a town near the northern foot of the
Apennines. It probably had its appellation from Cn. Pompeius Strabo,
the father of Pompey the Great, who conferred many privileges on the
Cisalpine Gauls. It was the birth-place of the Emperor Helvius Pertinax.

[1204] The modern Aste.

[1205] The modern Acqui, so called from its mineral springs. It is
again mentioned by Pliny in B. XXXI. Numerous remains of the ancient
town have been discovered.

[1206] Ansart observes that this measurement is nearly correct.

[1207] For an account of this see Herodotus, B. i. c. 94, Tacitus, Ann.
B. iv. c. 55, and Velleius Paterculus, B. i. c. 1. These writers all
agree as to the fact of the migration of a colony of Lydians under the
conduct of Tyrrhenus to the part of Italy afterwards called Etruria.
This subject however, as well as the migrations of the Pelasgi, is
involved in the greatest obscurity.

[1208] From the Greek verb θύειν “to sacrifice,” he implies:—from
their custom of frequently sacrificing, says Servius, on the Xth Book
of the Æneid. Dionysius of Halicarnassus says that they were from
their frequent sacrifices called θυόσκοοι. These are probably fanciful
derivations; but there is no doubt that the people of Etruria were
for several centuries the instructors of the Romans in the arts of
sacrifice, augury, and divination.

[1209] The ruins of Luna, which was destroyed by the Normans in the
middle ages, are still visible on the banks of the Magra. The modern
name of the port is Golfo della Spezzia.

[1210] The modern city of Lucca has its site and name.—Livy, B. xli.
c. 13, informs us that this colony was founded in the year of the city
576, during the Consulship of Claudius Pulcher and Sempronius Gracchus.

[1211] The modern city of Pisa. See Virgil, B. x. l. 179, as to the
origin of this place.

[1212] The modern Serchio.

[1213] Now the Arno.

[1214] The people of Pisa or Pisæ, a city of Elis in the Peloponnesus.

[1215] Now Vadi, a small village on the sea-shore.

[1216] Still called the Cecina. It entered the Tyrrhenian sea, near the
port of Vada Volaterrana just mentioned.

[1217] The present Piombino is supposed to have arisen from the ruins
of this place.

[1218] Now the Bruno.

[1219] The modern Ombrone.

[1220] Now known as Telamone Vecchio.

[1221] There are ruins near lake Orbitello, which bear the name of
Cosa; Ansedonia was said to have risen from its ruins, and in its turn
fallen to decay.

[1222] Two localities have been mentioned as the site of Graviscæ, at
both of which there are ancient remains: one on the right bank of the
Marta, about a mile from its mouth, and the other on the sea-coast at
a spot called Santo Clementino or Le Saline, a mile south of the mouth
of the Marta. Probably the latter are the remains of Graviscæ, although
Dennis (Etruria, i. pp. 387-395) inclines to be in favour of the former.

[1223] The modern Torre Chiaruccia, five miles south of Civita Vecchia.

[1224] The modern Torre di Santa Severa.

[1225] Now the Vaccina.

[1226] The remains of this once powerful city are marked by the village
of Cervetri or Old Cære. According to Strabo it received its name from
the Greek word χαῖρε “hail!” with which the inhabitants saluted the
Tyrrhenian or Lydian invaders. It was to this place that the Romans
sent their most precious sacred relics when their city was taken by the
Gauls. Its most interesting remains are the sepulchres, of which an
account is given in Dennis’s Etruria.

[1227] Its remains are to be seen in the vicinity of the modern village
of Palo.

[1228] Its site is supposed to have been at the spot now called the
Torre di Maccarese, midway between Palo and Porto, and at the mouth of
the river Arone. Its situation was marshy and unhealthy.

[1229] This exceeds the real distance, which is about 230 miles.

[1230] The site of the Etruscan Falerii or Falisci is probably occupied
by the present Civita Castellana; while that of the Roman city of the
same name, at a distance of four miles, is marked by a single house and
the ruins of a church, called Santa Maria di Falleri. The ancient city
was captured by the Romans under Camillus.

[1231] In his book of “Origines,” which is now lost.

[1232] “The Grove of Feronia.” The town was so called from the grove
of that Sabine goddess there situate. In the early times of Rome there
was a great resort to this spot not only for religious purposes, but
for those of trade as well. Its traces are still to be seen at the
village of Saint Orestes, near the south-east extremity of the hill
there, which is still called Felonica. This is in southern Etruria,
but Ptolemy mentions another place of the same name in the north-west
extremity of Etruria, between the Arnus and the Macra.

[1233] The people of the spot now called Siena, in Tuscany.

[1234] Now Sutri, on the river Pozollo.

[1235] The people of Arretium, one of the most powerful cities of
Etruria. The three tribes or peoples here mentioned probably did
not occupy distinct towns, but constituted separate communities or
municipal bodies, being distinct colonies or bodies of settlers. The
Julienses were the colonists settled there by Augustus. The Fidentes
had probably settled at an earlier period. The modern Arezzo has
risen on the remains of the Roman city, while the remains of the
Etruscan city are pointed out on an elevated spot called Poggio di
San Cornellio, two or three miles south-east of Arezzo. Many valuable
relics of antiquity have been discovered here. The family of Mæcenas
sprang from this place.

[1236] The people of Aquæ Tauri, a watering-place of Etruria, situate
about three miles north of the present Civita Vecchia, and now called
Bagni di Ferrata. The baths are described by Rutilius in his Itinerary,
who calls them Tauri Thermæ (the Bull’s Baths), and ascribes their name
to the fact of their having been accidentally discovered by a bull.

[1237] The people of Blera, on the site of the modern village of Bieda,
about twelve miles south of Viterbo. Numerous remains of Etruscan
antiquity have been found here.—See Dennis’s Etruria, vol. i. pp.
260-272.

[1238] The people of Cortona, a powerful city of Etruria, which is
still known by the same name. It was probably in the number of the
cities of Etruria that were ravaged by Sylla, and then recolonized by
him. Numerous remains of Etruscan antiquity have been discovered there.

[1239] The people of Capena, an ancient and important city of Etruria,
which, after long opposing the inroads of the Romans, was reduced to
submission shortly after the fall of Veii, B.C. 393. It existed and
held municipal rank till the time of the Emperor Aurelian, after which
all traces of its name or existence were lost, till 1750, when Galetti
fixed its site with great accuracy at Civitucola or San Martino, about
24 miles from Rome. It was situate on the banks of a small river now
called the Grammiccia, and in its territory was the celebrated ‘Lucus
Feroniæ’ previously mentioned.

[1240] The new and old colonists of the city of Clusium, who probably
enjoyed distinct municipal rights. The modern Chiusi stands on its site.

[1241] The modern Fiorenze or Florence occupies the site of their city.

[1242] The village of Fiesole stands on its site. Extensive remains of
the ancient city are still to be found.

[1243] The site of Ferentinum is now uninhabited, but is still known
by the name of Ferento. The rivers of the ancient city are very
considerable; it was finally destroyed by the people of Viterbo in the
12th century.

[1244] An ancient town of Etruria near Falisci. Cluver thinks that
it was situate at Gallese, a village nine miles north of Civita
Castellana; but Dennis considers its site to have been between
Borghetto on the Tiber and Corchiano, where there are considerable
remains of an Etruscan city. The spot is named San Silvestro, from a
ruined church there.

[1245] Or Horta; the spot now called Orte, where numerous Etruscan
remains are found; it probably derived its name from the Etruscan
goddess Horta. Hortanum, the name given to it by Pliny, is perhaps an
adjective form of the name, “oppidum” being understood.

[1246] Possibly the same as ‘Urbs Vetus,’ on the side of which the
present Orvieto stands.

[1247] Now Nepi, near the river Pozzolo.

[1248] According to Hardouin the site of the Novem Pagi, or nine
Boroughs, is occupied by the modern Il Mignone, near Civita Vecchia.

[1249] Its site is generally supposed to have been at Oriuolo, about
five miles north of Bracciano; but Dennis informs us that there are no
ancient remains at that place. Being a præfecture it may have consisted
of only a number of little villages, united in one jurisdiction.

[1250] The modern Pistoia stands on its site.

[1251] Now Perugia.

[1252] Supposed by Hardouin to have inhabited the site of the modern
Sovretto.

[1253] Probably situate in the modern duchy of Castro.

[1254] The people of Tarquinii near Rome, the head of the Etruscan
confederation. It was here that Demaratus the Corinthian, the father
of Tarquinius Priscus, settled. It was deserted by its inhabitants in
the eighth or ninth century, who founded the town of Corneto on a hill
opposite to it. The ruins are known as Turchina, a corruption of the
ancient name.

[1255] The site of their town is probably marked by the modern
Toscanella.

[1256] The ruins of their town still retain somewhat of their ancient
name in that of “Vetulia.”

[1257] The people of the powerful city of Veii, subdued by Camillus.
Its ruins have been discovered in the vicinity of the village of Isola
Farnese.

[1258] Their town stood on the site of the present Bisontia.

[1259] The people of Volaterræ, the present Volterra, one of the twelve
cities of the Etruscan Confederation. It was for a time the residence
of the kings of Lombardy. The modern town covers only a small portion
of the area of the ancient city, of which there are some interesting
remains.

[1260] The people of Volci or Vulci, of which the ruins bear the same
name. Its sepulchres have produced vast treasures of ancient art.

[1261] The people of Volsinii or Vulsinii, now called Bolsena. This
was one of the most ancient and powerful of the twelve cities of the
Etruscan confederation. On their subjugation by the Romans the Etruscan
city was destroyed, and its inhabitants were compelled to settle on a
less defensible site. The new city was the birth-place of Sejanus, the
worthless favourite of Tiberius. Of the ancient city there are scarcely
any remains.

[1262] Called also Crustumeria, Crustumium, and Crustuminium. It was a
city of Latium on the borders of the Sabine country, and was subdued
by Romulus, though it afterwards appears as independent in the time
of Tarquinius Priscus. The territory was noted for its fertility. The
exact site of the city is unknown; a place called Marcigliana Vecchia,
about nine miles from Rome, seems the most probable.

[1263] The site of Caletra is quite unknown. It was situate at some
point in the present valley of the Albegna.

[1264] The First Region extended from the Tiber to the Gulf of
Salernum, being bounded in the interior by the Apennines. It consisted
of ancient Latium and Campania, comprising the modern Campagna di Roma,
and the provinces of the kingdom of Naples.

[1265] Livy, B. i. c. 3, and Ovid, Fasti, B. iii. l. 389, inform us
that the name of Albula was changed into Tiberis in consequence of king
Tiberinus being accidentally drowned in it.

[1266] Still known by that name. The Glanis is called la Chiana.

[1267] According to D’Anville, now known as Citta di Castello.

[1268] A municipal town of Umbria, situate near the confluence of the
rivers Nar and Tiber, and on the Flaminian Way. There are the ruins of
an aqueduct, an amphitheatre, and some temples, now the modern Otricoli.

[1269] The territory of Umbria extended from the left bank of the
Tiber, near its rise, to the Adriatic.

[1270] The Sabines occupied the left bank of the Tiber from the Umbri
to the Anio. The Crustumini and the Fidenates probably occupied the
southern part of the district about the river Alba.

[1271] The Nera and the Teverone. The exact situation of the district
of Vaticanum has not been ascertained with exactness.

[1272] As not so much causing mischief by its inundations, as giving
warning thereby of the wrath of the gods and of impending dangers;
which might be arrested by sacrifices and expiatory rites.—See Horace,
Odes, B. i. 2. 29.

[1273] The frontier of ancient Latium was at Circeii, but that of
modern Latium extended to Sinuessa.

[1274] A town of Latium, situate at the foot of the Mons Circeius, now
Monte Circello. It was used as a place of retirement, and Tiberius and
Domitian had villas there. The Triumvir Lepidus was banished thither
by Octavius after his deposition. It was also famous for its oysters,
which were of the finest quality. Considerable remains of it are still
to be seen on the hill called Monte di Citadella, about two miles from
the sea.

[1275] Now the Garigliano, the same river which he previously calls the
Glanis. It was the boundary between Latium and Campania.

[1276] Founded by Ancus Martius, as we learn from Livy. It was
abandoned under the Emperor Claudius, who built the Portus Romanus or
Portus Augusti in its vicinity; and it only continued famous for its
salt-works, which had been established there by Ancus Martius. Its
ruins, still called Ostia, are nearly three miles from the coast, in
consequence of the receding of the sea.

[1277] Now San Lorenzo. It was between Ostia and Antium.

[1278] By some, Æneas was supposed to have been worshiped by that name.

[1279] Now the river Numico.

[1280] The ruins of this once great city may still be seen near
the present village of the same name. Its situation was peculiarly
unhealthy. Another tradition, besides the one mentioned by Pliny, was,
that it was founded by a son of Ulysses and Circe. It was twenty-four
miles distant from Rome.

[1281] A temple of Venus, of which the ruins are still to be seen.

[1282] Its few ruins are still known as Anzio Rovinato. It was famous
for its temple of Fortune, addressed by Horace, Odes, i. 35. Near the
site is the modern village of Porto d’Anzo.

[1283] This island was occupied by villas of the Roman nobility, and
was the resort of Cicero, Augustus and Tiberius. There is still a
fortified town called the Torre di Astura.

[1284] The modern Ninfa.

[1285] “The Roman Bulwarks.” They were thrown up to protect the
frontier of the ancient kingdom of Rome from the inroads of the
Volscians.

[1286] To our previous note we may add that this spot was supposed to
have been once inhabited by the enchantress Circe, the daughter of the
Sun, and from her to have taken its name.

[1287] This has been also translated “dedicated to Nicodorus, the
Archon of Athens,” but nothing appears to be known of such a fact as
the dedication to Nicodorus of any of his works.

[1288] Now called the “Palude Pontine.” They are again mentioned in B.
xxvi. c. 9.

[1289] Now called Il Portatore.

[1290] It was situate fifty-eight miles from Rome; the modern town of
Terracina stands on its site. The remains of the ancient citadel are
visible on the slope of Montecchio.

[1291] The exact site of this place is unknown. Servius, in his
Commentary on B. x. of the Æneid, l. 564, tells the same story of the
serpents.

[1292] This was near Amyclæ. A villa was situate there called
“Speluncæ,” from the cavities in the rock, in one of which the Emperor
Tiberius nearly lost his life by the falling in of the roof. The modern
village of Sperlonga, eight miles west of Gaëta, marks its site.

[1293] Now Lago di Fondi.

[1294] Now Gaëta, said to have received its name from being the
burial-place of Caieta, the nurse of Æneas. The shore was studded
with numerous villas of the Roman nobility. It is now a city of great
opulence; in its vicinity extensive ruins are to be seen.

[1295] On the spot now called Mola di Gaëta. Many of the wealthy
Romans, and among them Cicero, had villas here: and at this place he
was put to death. It was destroyed by the Saracens in the year 856. The
remains of antiquity to be seen on this spot are very extensive.

[1296] Homer places these Cannibals on the coast of Sicily, but the
Romans in general transplanted them to the vicinity of Circeii, and
suppose Formiæ to have been built by Lamus, one of their kings. It is
more probable however that it was founded by the Laconians, from whom
it may have received its name of Hormiæ (from the Greek ὅρμος), as
being a good roadstead for shipping.

[1297] Its site is occupied by the present Trajetta. In its marshes,
formed by the overflow of the Liris, Caius Marius was taken prisoner,
concealed in the sedge.

[1298] The town of Minturnæ stood on both banks of the river.

[1299] Its ruins are probably those to be seen in the vicinity of Rocca
di Mondragone. It was a place of considerable commercial importance. On
its site Livy says there formerly stood the Greek city of Sinope.

[1300] “Felix illa Campania.”

[1301] Now Sezza.

[1302] A marshy district of Latium, extending about eight miles along
the coast from Terracina to Speluncæ, famous in the time of Horace for
the first-rate qualities of its wines.

[1303] A district famous for its wines, extending from the Massican
Hills to the north bank of the Volturnus.

[1304] According to Hardouin, the town of Calenum was on the site of
the present Calvi near Capua.

[1305] Now called Monte Marsico, and as famous for its wine (called
Muscatella) as it was in the Roman times.

[1306] Now Monte Barbaro. The wines of most of these places will be
found fully described by Pliny in B. xiv.

[1307] More fully mentioned, B. xviii. c. 29, where the ‘alicæ’ or
fermenty made from the spelt grown here is again referred to.

[1308] Of Baiæ, Puteoli, and Stabiæ, for instance.

[1309] The modern Saove.

[1310] Now called the Volturno, with a small place on its banks called
Castel Volturno.

[1311] The present village of Torre di Patria is supposed to occupy its
site.

[1312] Strabo describes Cumæ as a joint colony of the Chalcidians of
Eubœa and the Cymæans of Æolis. Its sea-shore was covered with villas
of the Roman aristocracy, and here Sylla spent the last years of
his life. Its site is now utterly desolate and its existing remains
inconsiderable.

[1313] Now Capo or Punta di Miseno; a town built on a promontory of
Campania, by Æneas, it was said, in honour of his trumpeter, Misenus,
who was drowned there. It was made by Augustus the principal station
of the Roman fleet. Here was the villa of Marius, which afterwards
belonged to Lucullus and the Emperor Tiberius, who died here.

[1314] Famous for its warm springs, and the luxurious resort of the
Roman patricians. Marius, Lucullus, Pompey, and Cæsar had villas
here. In later times it became the seat of every kind of pleasure and
dissipation. It is now rendered unwholesome by the Malaria, and the
modern Castello di Baja, with numerous ruins, alone marks its site.

[1315] The modern village of Baolo stands near its site. It was here
that Hortensius had his fish-ponds, mentioned by Pliny in B. ix. c.
55. It rivalled its neighbour Baiæ in ministering to the luxury of the
wealthy Romans, and was occupied by numerous villas so late as the
reign of Theodosius.

[1316] Probably the inner part of the Gulf of Cumæ or Puteoli, but
separated from the remainder by an embankment eight stadia in length.
It was famous for its oyster-beds. Behind it was the Lake Avernus,
occupying the crater of an extinct volcano, and supposed by the
Greeks to be the entrance to the Infernal Regions. Agrippa opened a
communication with the Lucrine Lake to render Lake Avernus accessible
to ships. The Lucrine Lake was filled up by a volcanic eruption in
1538, and a mountain rose in its place. The Lake Avernus is still
called the Lago di Averno.

[1317] Or “the town Cimmerium.” Nothing is known of it.

[1318] Now Pozzuolo. The Romans called it Puteoli, from the strong
smell of its mineral springs. There are still many ruins of the ancient
town, which was destroyed by Alaric, Genseric, and Totila, and as many
times rebuilt.

[1319] Now called Salpatara. This was the name given to the volcanic
plain extending from Cumæ to Capua, and supposed to have been once
covered with fire; whence the name, from φλέγω, “to burn.”

[1320] Now the Lago di Fusaro. It seems to have had its name from its
vicinity to Avernus, the supposed entrance to the infernal regions. Its
banks were, in the later times of the Roman republic, adorned with the
villas of the wealthy.

[1321] Neapolis, or the “New City,” was founded by the Chalcidians of
Cumæ on the site of Parthenope, the supposed burial-place of the Siren
of that name. It was so called as being only a ‘new quarter’ of the
neighbouring city of Cumæ. The modern city of Naples stands nearly on
its site.

[1322] Said to have been founded by Hercules. It was on the occasion of
its destruction by an eruption of Vesuvius, A.D. 79, that our author
unfortunately met his death, a martyr to his thirst for knowledge.
Its closer proximity to Vesuvius caused it to be buried under a more
solid body of materials ejected from the mountain than was the case
with Pompeii; which seems to have been suffocated with ashes, while
Herculaneum was covered with volcanic tufa most probably hardened by
the agency of water. A few scattered inhabitants are supposed to have
afterwards settled upon the site where it was buried, which for many
centuries was utterly forgotten, till brought to light in 1738. Part of
the site over the buried town is occupied by the villages of Resina and
Portici. The works of art found here far exceed in value and interest
those discovered at Pompeii.

[1323] This seems to have been a town of Oscan origin. The first traces
of it were found in 1689, but excavations were not commenced till 1721.
It perished in the same eruption of Vesuvius as Herculaneum.

[1324] Now the Sarno. Its course was changed by the great eruption of
Vesuvius previously mentioned.

[1325] The modern Nocera stands on its site. Pompeii was used as its
harbour.

[1326] Now Sorrento.

[1327] Now also called Capo della Minerva.

[1328] It probably had its name from Campania, of which it was the
capital, and which was so called from its extensive _campi_ or plains.
The site of this luxurious and magnificent city is now occupied by the
village of Santa Maria di Capoua, the modern city of Capua being on the
site of ancient Casilinum. Of ancient Capua there are but few remains.
It was made a Roman colony by Julius Cæsar.

[1329] Originally a city of the Volscians: Cicero had a villa there,
and Juvenal and the emperor Pescennius Niger were natives of it. The
present Aquino stands on its site, and there are considerable remains
of it to be seen.

[1330] Or Suessa Aurunca, to distinguish it from the Volscian city of
Suessa Pometia. The poet Lucilius was a native of it. The modern Sessa
stands in its vicinity.

[1331] The modern Venafri stands near its site. It was famous for the
excellence of its olives.

[1332] On the banks of the Suris, and the most northerly town of the
Volsci. The modern Sora is in its vicinity, and the remains of its
walls are still to be seen.

[1333] The modern Teano occupies its site. It was famous for the
medicinal springs in its vicinity. There was another Teanum, in Apulia.

[1334] The town on its site still preserves the name. Bells were made
here, whence in the later writers they are called “Nolæ.” There is also
an ecclesiastical tradition that church bells were first used by Saint
Paulinus, bishop of this place, whence they were called ‘Campanæ.’ The
emperor Augustus died here.

[1335] The remains of the ancient town, of which the ruins are
very extensive, are called Avella Vecchia. It was famous for its
fruit, especially its filberts, to which it gives name in the French
“Avelines.” It was first a Greek colony, and then a town of the Oscans.

[1336] A city of Latium, sixteen miles from Rome, and said to have been
of Sicilian origin. The modern town of La Riccia occupies the site of
its citadel. It was celebrated for the temple and grove of Diana, whose
high priest was always a fugitive slave who had killed his predecessor,
and was called “Rex nemorensis,” or “king of the grove.” See Ovid,
Fasti, B. vi. l. 59; Art of Love, B. i. l. 260; and Lucan, B. vi. l. 74.

[1337] The ancient city was destroyed by Tullus Hostilius, king of
Rome. The Roman colony here was probably but small. The Roman patrician
families, the Julii, Servilii, Tullii, and Quintii, are said to have
migrated from Alba Longa, which, according to tradition, had given to
Rome her first king.

[1338] The people of Acerra, still called by the same name; it was
plundered and burnt by Hannibal, B.C. 216, but was rebuilt by order of
the Roman senate.

[1339] The people of Allifæ, a former city of Samnium, on the borders
of Campania. The modern city of Alife, a decayed place, stands on its
site. There are considerable remains.

[1340] The people of Atina, an ancient city of the Volscians. The
modern city of Atina, noted for the bleakness of its situation, stands
on its site. There are extensive ruins of the ancient city.

[1341] The people of Aletrium or Alatrium, an ancient city of the
Hernici. The modern Alatri stands on its site; there are but few
ancient remains.

[1342] The people of Anagnia in Latium, still called Anagni. There are
scarcely any remains of the ancient place, which was of considerable
importance.

[1343] The people of Atella, an ancient city of Campania. Some remains
of its ruins are to be seen two miles east of the town of Aversa, near
the villages of San Arpino and San Elpidio.

[1344] The people of Affilæ, an ancient Hernican town. It is still
called Affile, and has many ancient remains.

[1345] The people of Arpinum, once a famous city of the Volscians. The
present Arpino occupies its site; there are few Roman remains, but
its ancient walls, of Cyclopean construction, still exist. It was the
birth-place of Marius and Cicero. The villa of the latter was on the
banks of the adjoining river Fibrenus. It was, and is still, famous for
its woollen manufactures.

[1346] The people of Auximum, a city of Picenum. Its site is occupied
by the modern Osimo; there are numerous remains of antiquity to be seen.

[1347] Or perhaps “Abellini,” people of Abelliacum; which, if meant,
ought not to be included in this division, being a city of the Hirpini.
This city was finally destroyed in the wars of the Greeks and Lombards,
and the modern Avellino rose on its site. There are considerable
ruins in the vicinity. According to Hardouin, this place also claimed
the honour of giving name to filberts, which grew abundantly in
its vicinity. If such is the case, it seems probable that both it
and Abella took their names from that fruit as called by the early
inhabitants. See Note [1335] p. 198.

[1348] An ancient city of Latium. Its ruins are to be seen in the
vicinity of the Via Appia. See a curious story connected with it in
Ovid’s Fasti, B. iii. l. 667 _et seq._

[1349] There were two cities of this name on the confines of Samnium
and Campania, one in the valley of the Volturnum, the modern Caiazzo,
the other in Campania, between Capua and Beneventum, whose ruins are
probably those to be seen at Le Galazzi, between Caserta and Maddaloni.

[1350] Once a considerable city of Latium. The modern city of San
Germano has risen on its ruins, while the name of Monte Casino has been
retained by the monastery founded near it by St. Bernard A.D. 529.

[1351] The present Calvi probably occupies its site.

[1352] It is not named in history. Its site was probably between
Palestrina and Il Piglio.

[1353] The people of Cereatæ, a town of Latium. It is supposed that the
ancient monastery of Casamari occupied its site.

[1354] The people of Cora, an ancient city of Latium. The present Cori
stands on its site, and there are considerable remains of the ancient
walls and other buildings.

[1355] The people of Castrimœnium, a colony of Sylla. It has been
suggested that these were the same people whom Pliny speaks of at a
subsequent place in this chapter as the Munienses, an extinct people
of Latium. If so, the name was perhaps changed on the establishment
here by Sylla of his colony. It probably stood near the modern city of
Marino.

[1356] The people of Cingulum, a city of Picenum, the site of which is
occupied by the modern Cingoli.

[1357] It is conjectured that Fabia was on the same site as the present
village of Rocca di Papa.

[1358] The inhabitants of Forum Popilii in Campania; its site is
unknown.

[1359] The people of Frusino, originally a Volscian city. The modern
Frosinone occupies its site.

[1360] The people of Ferentinum, a city of the Hernici: the present
city of Ferentino stands on its site. The ruins are very extensive.

[1361] Probably the people of Fregellæ, an ancient city of the
Volscians. Its site is now unknown, but it was probably on the banks of
the Liris, opposite to the modern Ceprano.

[1362] The people of Fabrateria or Frabateria, a Volscian city. A Roman
colony was placed there B.C. 124, by C. Gracchus, and probably the old
inhabitants for that reason styled themselves “Veteres.” The ruins at
San Giovanni in Cerico, about three miles from Falvaterra, are supposed
to be those of this place, or at least of the new town or colony. In
such case Falvaterra may occupy the site of the original city.

[1363] The people of Ficulnea or Ficulia, a city of ancient Latium, on
the Via Nomentana. It is supposed to have decayed soon after the reign
of M. Aurelius. Its site was probably on the modern domain of Cesarini,
though some separate the ancient Latin city from the Roman town, and
fix the locality of the former on the hill called Monte Gentile, or
that of the Torre Lupara.

[1364] These are omitted in most editions, but if a correct reading,
the word must signify the “people of Fregellæ,” and the Freginates
must be the people of Fregenæ in Etruria; although they do not appear
properly to belong to this locality.

[1365] “The Market of Appius.” It was distant forty-three miles from
Rome, and we learn from Horace, that it was the usual resting-place
for travellers at the end of one day’s journey from Rome. It is also
mentioned in the account of the journey of St. Paul (Acts xxviii. 15)
as one of the usual resting-places on the Appian way. There are now no
inhabitants on the spot, but considerable ruins still exist, as well as
the forty-third milestone, which is still to be seen.

[1366] Probably the inhabitants of Ferentium or Ferentinum, now
Ferento, five miles from Viterbo, a city of Etruria, of which very
considerable remains exist.

[1367] The people of Gabii, formerly one of the most famous cities of
Latium. On its site the ruins of a mediæval fortress now stand, known
as Castiglione. Some remains of the walls still exist.

[1368] The people of Interamna Lirinas, a Roman colony on the banks
of the Liris; and as there were several cities of the same name, it
was generally distinguished by the epithet “Lirinas.” Pliny no doubt
calls it “Succasina,” from its vicinity to Casinum. Its site, though
uninhabited, is still called Terame, and there are numerous remains of
antiquity.

[1369] Probably the people of Lavinium were thus called from their
supposed Trojan descent. The town was said to have been founded by
Æneas in honour of his wife Lavinia, the daughter of Latinus. In the
times of the Antonines it was united with Laurentum; their ruins are to
be seen at Casale di Copocotta.

[1370] The people of Norba, a town of Latium. It is now called Norma,
and there are still some remains of the ancient walls.

[1371] Nomentum, now called La Mentana, was a Latin town, fourteen
miles from Rome.

[1372] The people of Præneste, one of the most ancient towns of Latium.
It was originally a Pelasgic city, but claimed a Greek origin, and was
said to have been built by Telegonus, the son of Ulysses. During summer
it was much frequented by the Romans for its delightful coolness. The
remains of its ancient walls are still to be seen at Palestrina.

[1373] The people of Privernum, now Piperno, an ancient city of Latium.

[1374] The people of Setia, now Sesse or Sezza, an ancient town of
Latium, to the east of the Pomptine marshes. It was famous for its wine.

[1375] The people of Signia, now Segni, a town of Latium founded by
Tarquinius Priscus. There are still some remains of its walls.

[1376] The people of Suessula, now Castel di Sessola.

[1377] The people of Telesia, a town of Samnium seven leagues from
Capua, now called Telese.

[1378] Trebula was distinguished probably by this surname from a town
of that name in Samnium. There seem to have been two places of the name
in the Sabine territory, but it is not known which is here meant. The
ruins of one of them are supposed to be those not far from Maddaloni.

[1379] The people of Treba, now Trevi, a town of Latium.

[1380] The people of Tusculum, an ancient town of Latium, the ruins of
which are to be seen on a hill about two miles distant from the modern
Frascati. Cicero’s favourite residence was his Tusculan villa, and Cato
the censor was a native of this place.

[1381] The people of Verulæ, a town of the Hernici, in Latium, now
Veroli.

[1382] The people of Velitræ, an ancient town of the Volsci, now
Velletri. It was the birth-place of the emperor Augustus.

[1383] The people of Ulubræ, a small town of Latium, near the Pomptine
Marshes; its site is unknown.

[1384] The people of Urbinum; there were two places of that name in
Umbria, now called Urbeno and Urbania.

[1385] The name probably by which the city was called in the mystical
language of the priesthood. It has been said that this mysterious name
of Rome was Valentia; if so, it appears to be only a translation of her
name Græcized—Ῥώμη, “strength.” This subject will be found again
mentioned in B. xxviii. c. 4.

[1386] Solinus says that he was put to death as a punishment for his
rashness. M. Sichel has suggested that this mysterious name was no
other than Angerona.

[1387] It is not known whether this mystical divinity was the goddess
of anguish and fear, or of silence, or whether she was the guardian
deity of Rome. Julius Modestus says that she relieved men and cattle
when visited by the disease called “angina,” or “quinsy,” whence her
name.

[1388] The Carmental, the Roman, and the Pandanian or Saturnian gates,
according to Varro.

[1389] Titus was saluted Imperator after the siege of Jerusalem, and
was associated with his father Vespasian in the government. They also
acted together as Censors.

[1390] The Lares Compitales presided over the divisions of the city,
which were marked by the _compita_ or points where two or more streets
crossed each other, and where ‘ædiculæ’ or small chapels were erected
in their honour. Statues of these little divinities were erected at
the corner of every street. It was probably this custom which first
suggested the idea of setting up images of the Virgin and Saints at
the corners of the streets, which are still to be seen in many Roman
Catholic countries at the present day.

[1391] This was a gilded column erected by Augustus in the Forum, and
called “milliarium aureum;” on it were inscribed the distances of the
principal points to which the “viæ” or high-roads conducted.

[1392] Supposing the circuit of the city to have been as he says,
13-2/5 miles, he must either make a great miscalculation here, or the
text must be very corrupt. The average diameter of the city would be
in such case about 4-1/2 miles, the average length of each radius
drawn from the mile-column 2-1/4 miles, and the total amount 83-1/4
miles, whereas he makes it but 20-3/4 miles, or little better than an
average of half-a-mile for each radius. We may also remark that the
camp of the Prætorian cohorts here mentioned was established by the
emperor Tiberius, by the advice of Sejanus. Ajasson’s translation makes
the measurement to be made to _twelve_ gates only, but the text as it
stands will not admit of such a construction.

[1393] The Aventine, Cælian, and Quirinal hills.

[1394] Such as Ocriculum, Tibur, Aricia, &c.

[1395] Near Antium. Casale di Conca stands on its site.

[1396] Suæssa Pometia. It was destroyed by the consul Servilius, and
its site was said, with that of twenty-two other towns, to have been
covered by the Pomptine Marsh, to which it gave its name.

[1397] A town of Latium destroyed by Ancus Martius.

[1398] An ancient city of Latium, conquered by Romulus; on which
occasion he slew its king Acron and gained the _spolia opima_. Nibby
suggests that it stood on the Magugliano, two miles south-east of Monte
Gentile. Holstein says that it stood where the present Sant’ Angelo or
Monticelli stands.

[1399] Also destroyed by Ancus Martius. A farm called Dragonello,
eleven miles from Rome, is supposed to have stood upon its site.
Tellene was also destroyed by the same king. Tifata was a town of
Campania.

[1400] A city of Latium, which was conquered by Tarquinius Priscus. It
has been suggested that its ruins are visible about a mile to the north
of Monte Sant’ Angelo.

[1401] A Sabine town, the people of which were incorporated by
Tarquinius Priscus with the Roman citizens. It is supposed to have
stood on the present Monte Sant’ Angelo.

[1402] An ancient city of Latium, subdued by Tarquinius Priscus, on
which occasion Ocrisia, the mother of Servius Tullius, fell into the
hands of the Romans as a captive. It was probably situate on one of the
isolated hills that rise from the plain of the Campagna.

[1403] Both Virgil and Ovid allude to this tradition.

[1404] Said to have been so called from being “opposite” to the ancient
city of Saturnia. The Janiculus or Janiculum was a fortress on the
opposite bank of the Tiber, and a suburb of Rome, connected with it by
the Sublician bridge.

[1405] A very ancient city situate three miles from Rome, and said
to have been so called from its position on the Tiber, _ante amnem_.
In the time of Strabo it had become a mere village. It stood at the
confluence of the Anio and the Tiber.

[1406] An ancient city of Latium reduced by Tarquinius Priscus. It
has been suggested that the town of Palombara, near the foot of Monte
Gennaro, stands on its site.

[1407] An ancient city of Latium. It probably gradually fell into
decay. Lucius Tarquinius, the husband of Lucretia, is represented as
dwelling here during the siege of Ardea. Its site is thought by some
to have been at Castellaccio or Castel dell’ Osa, and by others at
Lunghezza, which is perhaps the most probable conjecture.

[1408] An ancient city of the Sabines. Its ruins are visible at San
Vittorino, a village near Aquila.

[1409] An ancient town of the Volsci, five leagues from Velletri.
Sermonata now stands on its site. It must not be confounded with the
town of the Peligni, the birth-place of Ovid.

[1410] “Populi Albenses.” It does not appear to be exactly known what
is the force of this expression, but he probably means either colonies
from Alba, or else nations who joined in the confederacy of which Alba
was the principal. Niebuhr looks upon them as mere demi or boroughs of
the territory of Alba.

[1411] “Accipere carnem.” Literally, “to take the flesh.” It appears
that certain nations, of which Alba was the chief, were in early times
accustomed to meet on the Alban Mount for the purposes of sacrifice.
The subject is full of obscurity, but it has been suggested that this
minor confederacy co-existed with a larger one including all the Latin
cities, and there can be little doubt that the common sacrifice was
typical of a bond of union among the states that partook therein.
It does not necessarily appear from the context that more than the
thirty-one states _after_ mentioned took part therein, though the text
may be so construed as to imply that the Latin nations previously
mentioned also shared in the sacrifice; if so, it would seem to imply
that Alba was the chief city of the _whole_ Latin confederacy. See this
subject ably discussed in Dr. Smith’s Dictionary of Ancient Geography,
under the article _Latini_.

[1412] The people of Æsulæ. Of this Latin city nothing is known. The
territory is mentioned by Horace, and Gell places its site on the Monte
Affiliano.

[1413] The people of Bubentum. Nothing is known of this Latin city or
of the preceding ones.

[1414] Bola was an ancient city of Latium, taken successively by
Coriolanus and M. Postumius. Its site is supposed to have been five
miles from the modern Palestrina, at the modern village of Lugnano.

[1415] The people of Corioli. It was probably a Latian town, but fell
into the possession of the Volsci, from whom it was taken by Cn.
Marcius, who thence obtained the name of “Coriolanus.” Monte Giove,
nineteen miles from Rome, has been suggested as its site.

[1416] Pliny is supposed to be in error in representing Fidenæ, the
early antagonist of Rome, as being extinct in his time, and he will be
found in the sequel reckoning it in the Fourth Region. This ancient
Latian town never lost its municipal rank, though it had no doubt in
his time become a mere country town. The present Castel Giubilco is
supposed to be situate on its site.

[1417] The people of Horta, a town of Etruria, now Horte. Many Etruscan
remains have been discovered there.

[1418] The people of Longula, a Volscian town. Buon Riposo now occupies
its site.

[1419] The people of Pedum; nothing is known of it. The rest of these
nations are either almost or entirely unknown.

[1420] This was an ancient town between Pompeii and Surrentum. After
its overthrow, as mentioned by Pliny, it was in some measure rebuilt,
possibly after this passage was penned. It was finally destroyed by the
great eruption of Vesuvius in the year A.D. 79, and it was here that
our author breathed his last.

[1421] A town three miles west of Capua. It was of much importance as a
military position, and played a considerable part in the second Punic
war. The period of its final destruction is unknown; but modern Capua
is built on its site.

[1422] This city took the lead in the war of the Latin cities against
Tarquinius Priscus. Gell and Nibby think that it was situate about
eleven miles from Rome, a mile to the south of the Appian way, where
there are some remains that indicate the site of an ancient city, near
the stream called the Fosso delle Fratocche. Livy tells us that with
the spoils thence derived, Tarquinius celebrated the _Ludi Magni_ for
the first time.

[1423] Opposite Capreæ, and situate on the Promontory of Minerva.
Sorrento now stands on its site.

[1424] The modern Silaro; it was the boundary between Lucania and
Campania, and rises in the Apennines.

[1425] A town in the south of Campania, at the head of the Gulf of
Pæstum. In consequence of the aid which they gave to Hannibal, the
inhabitants were forced to abandon their town and live in the adjoining
villages. The name of Picentini was given, as here stated, to the
inhabitants of all the territory between the Promontory of Minerva and
the river Silarus. They were a portion of the Sabine Picentes, who
were transplanted thither after the conquest of Picenum, B.C. 268. The
modern Vicenza stands on its site.

[1426] The Argonaut. Probably this was only a vague tradition.

[1427] By using the genitive ‘Salerni,’ he would seem to imply that
the Roman colony of Salernum then gave name to the district of which
Picentia was the chief town. Ajasson however has translated it merely
“Salernum and Picentia.” ‘Intus’ can hardly mean “inland,” as Picentia
was near the coast, and so was Salernum.

[1428] This was an ancient town of Campania, at the innermost corner of
the Gulf of Pæstum, situate near the coast, on a height at the foot of
which lay its harbour. It attained great prosperity, as Salerno, in the
middle ages, and was noted for its School of Health established there;
which issued periodically rules for the preservation of health in Latin
Leonine verse.

[1429] “Græciæ maxime populi.” This may also be rendered “a people who
mostly emigrated from Greece,” in reference to the Siculi or Sicilians,
but the other is probably the correct translation.

[1430] A town of Lucania, colonized by the Sybarites about B.C. 524. In
the time of Augustus it seems to have been principally famous for the
exquisite beauty of its roses. Its ruins are extremely magnificent.

[1431] Now the Golfo di Salerno.

[1432] A Greek town founded by the Phocæans. It was the birth-place
of the philosophers Parmenides and Zeno, who founded a school of
philosophy known as the Eleatic. Castell’ a Mare della Brucca stands on
its site.

[1433] Now Capo di Palinuro; said to have received its name from
Palinurus, the pilot of Æneas, who fell into the sea there and was
murdered by the natives. See Virgil, Æneid, B. vi. l. 381 _et seq._

[1434] Now the Golfo di Policastro.

[1435] This tower or column was erected in the vicinity of Rhegium on
the Straits of Sicily. It was 100 stadia, or about eight miles, from
the town, and at it passengers usually embarked for Sicily. The spot is
now called Torre di Carallo.

[1436] Now the Faraone.

[1437] A Greek colony. The present Policastro occupies very nearly its
site. It seems to have received its name from the cultivation of box
trees in its vicinity.

[1438] Or more properly Laos, originally a Greek colony. In the
vicinity is the modern town of Laino, and the river is called the Lao.

[1439] Ptolemy mentions it as an inland town, and Livy speaks of it
as a Lucanian city. It probably stood near the modern Maratea, twelve
miles south-east of Policastro.

[1440] The modern Bato.

[1441] The bay of Bivona, formerly Vibo, the Italian name for the Greek
city of Hippo or Hippona. On its site stands the modern Bivona.

[1442] “Locus Clampetiæ.” Clampetia or Lampetia stood in the vicinity
of the modern Amantia. From other authors we find that it was still
existing at this time. If such is the fact, the meaning will be “the
place where the former _municipal town_ of Clampetia stood,” it being
supposed to have lost in its latter years its municipal privileges.

[1443] One of the ancient Ausonian towns, and afterwards colonized by
the Ætolians. Like its namesake in Cyprus it was famous for its copper.
Its site is now occupied by Torre di Lupi.

[1444] A Greek city, almost totally destroyed by Hannibal; Santa
Eufemia occupies its site.

[1445] One of the cities of the Bruttii; now Cosenza.

[1446] The part which now constitutes the Farther Calabria.

[1447] Supposed to be the same as the Arconte, which falls into the
Crathis near Consentia. Nothing is known of the town here alluded to,
but it must not be confounded with Acherontia, the modern Acerenza, in
Apulia, which was a different place.

[1448] Supposed to have been the same as the modern port of Tropea.

[1449] The modern Marro.

[1450] Its ruins are supposed to be those seen near Palmi.

[1451] Probably the modern Melia stands on its site.

[1452] A town on the promontory of the same name, now called Scilla or
Sciglio, where the monster Scylla was fabled to have dwelt.

[1453] Homer says (Odyssey, xii. 124), that it had its name from the
nymph Cratæis, the mother of Scylla. It is probably the small stream
now called Fiume di Solano or dei Pesci.

[1454] The modern Capo di Cavallo, according to the older commentators;
but more recent geographers think that the Punta del Pezzo was the
point so called.

[1455] Now called Capo di Faro, from the lighthouse there erected.

[1456] Originally a Greek colony; a Roman colony was settled there by
Augustus. The modern city of Reggio occupies its site.

[1457] it extended south of Consentia to the Sicilian Straits, a
distance of 700 stadia. It produced the pitch for which Bruttium was so
celebrated. Its site still has the name of Sila.

[1458] Or White Rock, now Capo dell’ Armi. It forms the extremity of
the Apennine Chain.

[1459] The site of the city of Locri is supposed to have been that of
the present Motta di Burzano.

[1460] He says that they were called Epizephyrii, from the promontory
of Zephyrium, now the Capo di Burzano; but according to others, they
had this name only because their colony lay _to the west_ of their
native Greece. Strabo says that it was founded by the Locri Ozolæ, and
not the Opuntii, as most authors have stated.

[1461] This expression is explained by a reference to the end of the
First Chapter of the present Book.

[1462] Called by some the Canal de Baleares.

[1463] Or Southern Sea.

[1464] The modern Iviza and Formentera.

[1465] The Greek for which is πίτυς.

[1466] Less than two leagues in width.

[1467] The real distance is 34 miles from the northern point of
Iviza, called Punta de Serra, to the southern point of Formentera,
namely—across Iviza 22 miles, across the sea 5, and across Formentera 7.

[1468] Now Denia.

[1469] This is not correct: the distance is but 45 miles.

[1470] This is incorrect: taken at the very greatest, the distance is
only 522 stadia, eight to the mile.

[1471] The Xucar in Spain.

[1472] We more generally find it stated that the isle of Formentera,
one of the Pityussæ, was called Colubraria. He probably refers to the
islands of the group about twenty leagues from the coast of Spain, now
known by the name of Columbrete; but they are not near the Xucar, from
which, as well as from the Pityussæ, they are distant about seventy
miles. The latter islands are now generally considered as part of the
group of the Baleares.

[1473] Now Majorca and Minorca, with the ancient Pityussæ.

[1474] They served as mercenaries, first under the Carthaginians and
afterwards under the Romans. The ancient writers generally derive the
name of the people from their skill as archers—βαλεαρεῖς, from βάλλω,
“to throw”; but Strabo assigns to the name a Phœnician origin, as
being equivalent to the Greek γυμνῆται, “light-armed soldiers.” It is
probably from their light equipment that the Greeks gave to the islands
the name of Γυμνησίαι. Livy says that they used to go naked during the
summer.

[1475] Seventy miles is the real length of Majorca, and the
circumference is barely 250 miles.

[1476] Still called Palma. This and Pollentia were Roman colonies
settled by Metellus.

[1477] Now Pollenza.

[1478] Now Sineu on the Borga.

[1479] The circumference is about 110 miles, the length 32.

[1480] Now Ciudadela.

[1481] Now Port Mahon. The site of Sanisera, which was probably more
inland, is unknown.

[1482] Now Cabrera. The distance is not twelve, but nine miles.

[1483] Now called the Malgrates.

[1484] Now Dragonera.

[1485] Now El Torre.

[1486] As already mentioned he seems to confound Formentera, which was
called Ophiusa, with the present group of Columbrete, which islands
were probably called Colubraria.

[1487] The former editions mostly omit “nec”; and so make it that
Ebusus _does_ produce the rabbits. Certainly, it does seem more likely
that he would mention that fact than the absence of it, which even to
Pliny could not appear very remarkable.

[1488] D’Anville thinks that this is Metapina, but D’Astruc thinks that
the flat islands, called Les Tignes, are meant.

[1489] Now called Brescon, near Agde, according to D’Anville.

[1490] Who were of Greek origin, and so called them, because they stood
in a row, στοῖχος.

[1491] Now called Porqueroles. Prote signifies the first, Mese the
middle one, and Hypæa the one below the others.

[1492] Now Port Croz. D’Anville considers that Pliny is mistaken
in identifying this island with Pomponiana or Pompeiana, which he
considers to be the same with the peninsula now called Calle de Giens,
which lies opposite to Porqueroles.

[1493] Now called the Ile du Levant or du Titan. The group is called
the Islands of Hières or Calypso.

[1494] These are probably the little islands now known as Ratoneau,
Pomègue, and If. It has however been suggested that these names belong
to the islands of Hières already mentioned in the text, and that
Sturium is the present Porquerolles, Phœnice Port-Croz, and Phila,
Levant or Titan.

[1495] Now Antibes, or Antiboul in the Provençal idiom.

[1496] Now Saint Honorat de Lérins. The island of Lero is the present
Sainte Marguerite de Lérins, and is nearer to Antibes than Lerina.
The Lerinian monastery was much resorted to in the early ages of
Christianity.

[1497] In ancient Etruria, now Torre di Vada. The distance is, in
reality, about ninety miles.

[1498] Mariana was situate in the northern part of the island, and
the ruins of Aleria are still to be seen on the banks of the river
Tavignano, near the coast.

[1499] Probably near the present Monte Cristo.

[1500] He probably means the _group_ of islands called Formicole, which
are situate only thirty-three miles from Corsica, and not near sixty.

[1501] Now La Gorgona.

[1502] Both of these names meaning “Goat island.” It is now called
Capraia.

[1503] The modern Giglio.

[1504] Now Gianuto, opposite Monte Argentaro on the main-land.

[1505] These are probably the small islands now called Formiete or
Formicole di Grossetto, Troja, Palmajola, and Cervoli.

[1506] The modern Elba.

[1507] Now Pianosa.

[1508] Astura still retains its ancient name, Palmaria is the present
Palmarola, Sinonia is now Senone, and Pontiæ is the modern Isola di
Ponza.

[1509] Now Ventotiene.

[1510] Deriving its name from the Greek word προχυτὸς, meaning “poured
forth.”

[1511] The present island of Ischia, off the coasts of Campania. The
name of Pithecusæ appears to have been given by the Greeks to the two
islands of Ænaria and Prochyta collectively.

[1512] Ovid, like many other writers, mentions Inarime as though a
different island from Pithecusæ. See Met. B. xiv. l. 89. As is here
mentioned by Pliny, many persons derived the name “Pithecusæ” from
πίθηκος “an ape,” and, according to Strabo, “Aremus” was the Etrurian
name for an ape. Ovid, in the Metamorphoses, _loc. cit._, confirms this
tradition by relating the change of the natives into apes. The solution
of its name given by Pliny appears however extremely probable, that it
gained its name from its manufacture of πιθηκὰ, or earthen vessels.
Virgil is supposed to have coined the name of “Inarime.”

[1513] Now Posilippo. It is said to have derived its name from the
Greek παυσίλυπον, as tending to drive away care by the beauty of its
situation. Virgil was buried in its vicinity.

[1514] The modern Castel del’ Ovo.

[1515] Now Capri. Here Tiberius established his den of lustfulness
and iniquity. He erected twelve villas in the island, the remains of
several of which are still to be seen.

[1516] The distance between is hardly five miles.

[1517] These rocks appear at the present day to be nameless. The old
name seems to mean, the “Rabbit Warrens.”

[1518] Phintonis, according to Hardouin, is the modern Isola di Figo,
according to Mannert, Caprera. Cluver makes Fossæ to be the present
Isola Rossa, while Mannert considers it to be the same with Santa
Maddalena.

[1519] Ταφρὸς being the Greek for the Latin word “fossa,” the ordinary
meaning of which is an “excavation.”

[1520] Probably the Cape of Carbonara, from which however Africa is
distant only 121 miles, and the gulf of Gades or Cadiz 980.

[1521] Now Capo Falcone.

[1522] Now Asinara or Zavara, and Isola Piana.

[1523] Now called Santo Antiocho, off La Punta dell’ Ulga.

[1524] According to Cluver, the modern Coltelalzo.

[1525] The “Baths of Juno.” The identity of these islands does not
appear to have been ascertained.

[1526] Said by Pausanias to have been descended from persons who
escaped on the fall of Troy under the command of Iolaüs.

[1527] Of the town of Sulcis. Its ruins are probably those seen at the
village of Sulci, near the port Palma di Solo.

[1528] Their town was probably on the site of the present Iglesias.

[1529] Their town was probably either the present Napoli or Acqua di
Corsari.

[1530] Their town is probably indicated by the ruins on the river
Gavino.

[1531] Their town was Caralis, the present Cagliari.

[1532] Their town was probably Nora, the present Torre Forcadizo.

[1533] “At Libyso’s Tower.”

[1534] From the Greek ἴχνος, “a footstep.”

[1535] Now La Licosa, a small rocky island.

[1536] Now Torricella, Praca, and Brace, with other rocks.

[1537] Posidonius, quoted by Strabo, says 550.

[1538] Meaning that it comes from the Greek verb ῥηγνύμι, “to break.”
This is probably only a fanciful origin of the name.

[1539] The present Garofalo. At the present day small boats approach it
without danger.

[1540] In Chap. x. Pelorus is the modern Capo di Faro.

[1541] Now Capo di Passaro.

[1542] The present Capo di Boco Marsala.

[1543] Now Cape Bon. The real distance is but seventy-eight miles.

[1544] The following are more probably the correct distances: 150, 210,
and 230 miles.

[1545] Now Messina.

[1546] The modern Capo di Santo Alessio.

[1547] Now called Taormini; the remains of the ancient town are very
considerable.

[1548] Probably the present Alcantara.

[1549] The present Madonia and Monte di Mele.

[1550] Now called I Fariglioni.

[1551] In modern times called “Lognina Statione,” according to Hardouin.

[1552] The modern city of Catania stands on its site.

[1553] The Fiume di Santo Leonardo, according to Hardouin, but Mannert
says the river Lentini. Ansart suggests the Guarna Lunga.

[1554] Now Lentini. The ruins of Megaris are still to be seen,
according to Mannert.

[1555] Now the Porcaro.

[1556] The modern city of Siracosa.

[1557] See B. xxxi. c. 30, for particulars of this fountain.

[1558] According to Mirabella, these springs are in modern times called
Fonte di Canali, Cefalino, Fontana della Maddalena, Fonte Ciane, and
Lampismotta.

[1559] The modern Fonte Bianche. The Elorus, according to Hardouin, is
the modern Acellaro, according to Mannert, the Abisso.

[1560] The southern side.

[1561] Now the Maulo, or Fiume di Ragusa.

[1562] Still called Camarina. Scarcely any vestiges of the ancient city
now remain.

[1563] According to Hardouin the Fiume Salso; but according to
D’Anville and Mannert, the Fiume Ghiozzo.

[1564] Now Girgenti. Gigantic remains of the ancient city are still to
be seen.

[1565] See note [1572] in this page.

[1566] The Achates is the modern Belice, the Mazara retains its name,
and the Hypsa is now the Marsala.

[1567] So called by the Greeks from its abundant growth of parsley,
called by them σέλινον. Its remains are still to be seen at the spot
called Selenti.

[1568] Now Trapani. Some vestiges of its ancient mole are to be seen.

[1569] The present Monte San Juliano.

[1570] The great city of Palermo stands on its site. It was founded by
the Phœnicians.

[1571] The modern Solunto.

[1572] Himera was destroyed by the Carthaginians, B.C. 408, upon which
its inhabitants founded Thermæ, so called from its hot springs. This
was probably the colony of Thermæ mentioned above by Pliny, though
wrongly placed by him on the southern coast between Selinus and
Agrigentum. The modern town of Termini stands on the site of Thermæ;
remains of its baths and aqueduct are still to be seen. Himera stood
on a river of the same name, most probably the present Fiume Grande,
and Fazello is of opinion that the town was situate on the site now
occupied by the Torre di Bonfornello. Himera was the birth-place of the
poet Stesichorus.

[1573] Or Cæphalœdium. Some remains of it are to be seen at the spot
called Cefalu.

[1574] Probably on the site now occupied by the town of San Marco.
Fazello and Cluver however place Aluntium near San Filadelfo, where
some ruins were formerly visible, and regard San Marco as the site of
Agathyrna or Agathyrnum.

[1575] Probably situate near the church of Santa Maria at Tindari, now
the Capo di Mongioio.

[1576] Now called Melazzo.

[1577] Their city was Centuripa, on a hill S.W. of Ætna. The modern
Centorbi occupies its site, and some of its ruins may still be seen.

[1578] Netum probably stood on the spot now known as Noto Anticho.

[1579] The ruins of Segesta are supposed to be those near the river San
Bartolomeo, twelve miles south of Alcamo.

[1580] Asaro occupies its site.

[1581] A people dwelling at the foot of Mount Ætna, according to
D’Anville, at a place now called Nicolosi.

[1582] The people of Agyrium; the site of which is now called San
Filippo d’Argiro. Diodorus Siculus was a native of this place.

[1583] Acræ occupied a bleak hill in the vicinity of the modern
Pallazolo, where its ruins are still to be seen.

[1584] Their town was Bidis near Syracuse. The modern Bibino or San
Giovanni di Bidini is supposed to stand on its site.

[1585] The people of Cetaria, between Panormus and Drepanum. Its site
is unknown.

[1586] The people of Cacyrum, supposed to have stood on the site of
the modern Cassaro. The Drepanitani were so called from living on the
promontory of Drepanum.

[1587] The ruins near La Cittadella are probably those of Ergetium.

[1588] The people of Echetla. According to Faziello and Cluver its
ruins were those to be seen at the place called Occhiala or Occhula,
two miles from the town of Gran Michele.

[1589] The inhabitants of the city of Eryx, on the mountain of that
name, now San Giuliano. The ancient city stood probably half-way down
the mountain.

[1590] The town of Entella survived till the thirteenth century, when
it was destroyed by the Emperor Frederic II. The ruins were formerly to
be seen near Poggio la Reale.

[1591] Perhaps the people of Enna, once a famous city. According to
the story as related by Ovid and Claudian, it was from this spot that
Proserpine was carried off by Pluto. It stood on the same site as the
town of Castro Giovanni. This note may however be more applicable to
the Hennenses, mentioned below.

[1592] The ruins of Enguinum are probably those in the vicinity of the
modern town of Gangi.

[1593] The people of Gela, one of the most important cities of Sicily.
Its site was probably the modern Terranova, near the river Fiume di
Terranova.

[1594] The people probably of Galata or Galaria; on the site of which
the modern village of Galata is supposed to stand.

[1595] The people probably of Halesa; its ruins are supposed to be
those near the village of Tysa, near the river Pettineo.

[1596] The people of Hybla. There were three cities of this name in
Sicily, the Greater, the Less, and Hybla Megara. The name was probably
derived from the local divinity mentioned by Pausanias as being so
called.

[1597] The people of Herbita; the site of which was probably at
Nicosia, or else at Sperlinga, two miles south of it.

[1598] There were two places in Sicily known as Herbessus or
Erbessus—one near Agrigentum, the other about sixteen miles from
Syracuse, on the site, it is supposed, of the present Pantalica.

[1599] The people of Halicyæ, in the west of Sicily. The modern town of
Salemi is supposed to occupy its site.

[1600] The people of Adranum or Hadranum, a town famous for its temple
of the Sicilian deity Adranus. Its site is occupied by the modern town
of Aderno. The ruins are very considerable.

[1601] The people of Ietæ; the site of which town is said by Fazello to
be the modern Iato. The sites of the places previously mentioned cannot
be identified.

[1602] The site of their town is situate at the modern Mistretta, where
some ruins are still to be seen.

[1603] The site of their town was probably the present village of
Mandri Bianchi on the river Dittaino.

[1604] Probably the people of Motuca, mentioned by Ptolemy, now Modica.

[1605] Their town probably stood on the site of the present Mineo.

[1606] It has been suggested that these are the same as the people of
Tauromenium, said to have been a Naxian colony.

[1607] They are supposed to have dwelt on the site of the present Noara.

[1608] The ruins of the town of Petra are supposed to have been those
to be seen near Castro Novo, according to Mannert.

[1609] Fazello is of opinion that the present Colisano occupies the
site of the ancient Paropus.

[1610] The city of Phthinthias was peopled by the inhabitants of Gela,
by command of Phthinthias the despot of Agrigentum. Its ruins are
probably those seen in the vicinity of the modern Alicata.

[1611] The people of Selinus previously mentioned in p. 218.

[1612] Randazzo, at the foot of Ætna, is supposed to occupy the site of
the ancient Tissa.

[1613] The people of Triocala, now Troccoli, near Calata Bellota.

[1614] Zancle was the ancient Greek name of Messina, which was so
called from its similarity in shape to a sickle. The Messenian colony
of the Zanclæi probably dwelt in its vicinity.

[1615] Gaulos is the present Gozo, and Melita the important island of
Malta. The distance here mentioned is in reality only sixty-one miles
from Camerina.

[1616] Now Pantellaria.

[1617] The modern island of Maretimo.

[1618] Probably the present island of Limosa.

[1619] Galata still has the name of Calata, Lopadusa is the present
Lampedosa, and Æthusa, according to Mannert, is called Favignana.

[1620] Now Levanzo.

[1621] According to Mannert, this is the island Alicur, to the west of
the Æolian or Liparian islands. Ustica still retains its ancient name.

[1622] The least distance between these localities is forty-five miles.

[1623] There are now eleven, some of which are supposed to have risen
from the sea since the time of Pliny.

[1624] From Vulcan the god of fire, the Greek Hephæstus.

[1625] Now called the Great Lipara.

[1626] According to Solinus, c. vi., Æolus succeeded him. Its name
Melogonis was by some ascribed to its great produce of honey.

[1627] The shortest distance between these localities is forty-six
miles.

[1628] Now called Volcano.

[1629] Now Strongoli and Stromboli. It is the only one of these
mountains that is continually burning. Notwithstanding the dangers of
their locality, this island is inhabited by about fifty families.

[1630] Strabo makes the same mistake; the distance is twenty miles.

[1631] According to Hardouin and D’Anville this is the modern Saline,
but Mannert says Panaria. The geographers differ in assigning their
ancient names to the other three, except that Euonymos, from its name,
the “left-hand” island, is clearly the modern Lisca Bianca.

[1632] These are the Gulf of Locri, the Gulf of Scyllacium, and the
Gulf of Tarentum.

[1633] Now called the Sagriano, though some make it to be the modern
Alaro. The site of the town of Caulon does not appear to be known: it
is by some placed at Castel Vetere on the Alaro.

[1634] Said by Hardouin to be the modern Monasteraci or Monte Araci.

[1635] Supposed to have been situate on a hill near the modern Padula.

[1636] The modern Punta di Stilo, or “Point of the Column.”

[1637] The modern Gulf of Squillace.

[1638] Now Squillace.

[1639] Now the Gulf of Saint Eufemia.

[1640] “Hannibal’s Camp.” This was the seaport of Scyllacium, and its
site was probably near the mouth of the river Corace.

[1641] According to Strabo, B. vi., he intended to erect a high wall
across, and so divide it from the rest of Italy; but if we may judge,
from the use by Pliny of the word “intercisam,” it would seem that it
was his design to cut a canal across this neck of land.

[1642] According to Hardouin, the Carcines is the present river Corace,
the Crotalus the Alli, the Semirus the Simari, the Arocas the Crocchio,
and the Targines the Tacina.

[1643] The present Strongolo, according to D’Anville and Mannert.

[1644] The present Monte Monacello and Monte Fuscaldo are supposed to
form part of the range called Clibanus.

[1645] Meaning that it was sacred to Castor and Pollux. Such are the
changes effected by lapse of time that these two islands are now only
bleak rocks. The present locality of the other islands does not appear
to be known.

[1646] Now Capo di Colonne.

[1647] The real distance from Acroceraunium, now Capo Linguetta, is 153
miles, according to Ansart.

[1648] Or Crotona, one of the most famous Greek cities in the south of
Italy. No ruins of the ancient city, said by Livy to have been twelve
miles in circumference, are now remaining. The modern Cotrone occupies
a part of its site. Pythagoras taught at this place.

[1649] The modern Neto.

[1650] Now called Turi, between the rivers Crati and Sibari or Roscile.

[1651] A Greek town, famous for the inordinate love of luxury displayed
by its inhabitants, whence a voluptuary obtained the name of a
“Sybarite.” It was destroyed by the people of Crotona, who turned the
waters of the Crathis upon the town. Its site is now occupied by a
pestilential swamp.

[1652] A famous Greek city founded on the territory of the former
Ionian colony of Siris. The foundations of it may still be seen, it is
supposed, near a spot called Policoro, three miles from the sea. The
rivers are now called the Sinno and the Agri.

[1653] The modern Salandra or Salandrella, and the Basiento.

[1654] So called from its lying between the two seas. It was once a
celebrated Greek city, but was in ruins in the time of Pausanias. The
place called Torre di Mare now occupies its site.

[1655] The site of Aprustum is supposed to be marked by the village of
Argusto, near Chiaravalle, about five miles from the Gulf of Squillace.
Atina was situate in the valley of the Tanager, now the Valle di Diano.
The ruins of Atina, which are very extensive, are to be seen near the
village of Atena. Livy and Acron speak of Bantia as in Apulia, and not
in Lucania. An ancient abbey, Santa Maria di Vanze, still marks its
site.

[1656] The ruins of Eburi are supposed to be those between the modern
Eboli and the right bank of the Silarus. The remains of Grumentum, a
place of some importance, are still to be seen on the river Agri, half
a mile from the modern Saponara. Potenza occupies the site of ancient
Potentia.

[1657] The Sontini were probably situate on the river Sontia, now the
Sanza, near Policastro. The Sirini probably had their name from the
river Siris.

[1658] Volcentum was situate near the Silarus, probably on the spot now
called Bulcino or Bucino. The site of Numistro appears to be unknown.

[1659] In his work “De Originibus.”

[1660] Livy, B. viii., and Justin mention how that Alexander I. (in the
year B.C. 326) was obliged to engage under unfavourable circumstances
near Pandosia, on the Acheron, and fell as he was crossing the river;
thus accomplishing a prophecy of Dodona which had warned him to beware
of Pandosia and the Acheron. He was uncle to Alexander the Great, being
the brother of Olympias. The site of Pandosia is supposed to have been
the modern Castro Franco.

[1661] This word is understood in the text, and Ansart would have it to
mean that the “Gulf of Tarentum is distant,” &c., but, as he says, such
an assertion would be very indefinite, it not being stated what part of
the Gulf is meant. He therefore suggests that the most distant point
from Lacinium is meant; which however, according to him, would make but
117 miles straight across, and 160 by land. The city of Tarentum would
be the most distant point.

[1662] Messapus, a Bœotian, mentioned by Strabo, B. ix.

[1663] A son of Lycaon.

[1664] Of Lacinium and Acra Iapygia. About seventy miles seems to be
the real distance; certainly not, as Pliny says, 100.

[1665] The modern Taranto to Brindisi.

[1666] Probably situate at the further extremity of the bay on which
Tarentum stood.

[1667] According to D’Anville and Mannert, the modern Oria. Messapia is
the modern Mesagna.

[1668] The modern Santa Maria dell’ Alizza, according to D’Anville.

[1669] The modern Gallipoli, in the Terra di Otranto. The real distance
from Tarentum is between fifty and sixty miles.

[1670] The “Iapygian Point,” the present Capo di Santa Maria di Leuca.

[1671] Its site is occupied by the little village of Vaste near
Poggiordo, ten miles S.W. of Otranto. In the sixteenth century
considerable remains of Basta were still to be seen.

[1672] The modern Otranto stands on its site. In the fourth century it
became the usual place of passage from Italy to Greece, Apollonia, and
Dyrrhachium. Few vestiges of the ancient city are now to be seen.

[1673] Anciently Apollonia, in Illyria, now called Pallina or Pollona.

[1674] This was M. Terentius Varro, called “the most learned of the
Romans.” His design, here mentioned, seems however to have evinced
neither learning nor discretion.

[1675] Now called Soleto. The ruins of the ancient city, described by
Galateo as existing at Muro, are not improbably those of Fratuertium,
or, perhaps more rightly, Fratuentum.

[1676] The modern Lecce is supposed to occupy its site.

[1677] Called Valetium by Mela. Its ruins are still to be seen near San
Pietro Vernotico, on the road from Brindisi to Lecce. The site is still
called Baleso or Valesio.

[1678] Ansart takes this to be the modern village of Cavallo, on
the promontory of that name; but it is more probably the modern
Ceglie, situate on a hill about twelve miles from the Adriatic, and
twenty-seven miles west of Brindisi. Extensive ruins still exist there.
There was another town of the same name in the south of Apulia.

[1679] Now Brindisi. Virgil died here. The modern city, which is
an impoverished place, presents but few vestiges of antiquity. The
distance to Dyrrhachium is in reality only about 100 miles.

[1680] They occupied probably a portion of the modern Terra di Bari.

[1681] Said by Hardouin to be the modern Carouigna or Carovigni; but
Mannert asserts it to be the same as the modern Ruvo.

[1682] Or Gnatia, called by Strabo and Ptolemy a city of Apulia. It
was probably the last town of the Peucetians towards the frontiers of
Calabria. Horace, in the account of his journey to Brundusium (I. Sat.
i. 97-100), makes it his last halting-place, and ridicules a pretended
miracle shown by the inhabitants, who asserted that incense placed
on a certain altar was consumed without fire being applied. The same
story is referred to by Pliny, B. ii. c. 111, where he incorrectly
makes Egnatia a town of the Salentini. Its ruins are visible on the
sea-coast, about six miles S.E. of Monopali, and an old town still
bears the name of Torre d’Agnazzo.

[1683] Now Bari, a considerable city. In the time of Horace it was only
a fishing town. It probably had a considerable intercourse with Greece,
if we may judge from the remains of art found here.

[1684] It is difficult to identify these rivers, from the number of
small torrents between Brindisi and the Ofanto or Aufidus. According to
Mannert, the Pactius is the present Canale di Terzo.

[1685] An important city of Apulia, said to have been founded by
Diomedes. Horace alludes to its deficiency of water. The modern Canosa
is built on probably the site of the citadel of the ancient city, the
ruins of which are very extensive.

[1686] The ruins of this place are still to be seen at some little
distance from the coast, near the village of Salpi. The story about
Hannibal was very probably of Roman invention, for Justin and Frontinus
speak in praise of his continence and temperance. Appian however gives
some further particulars of this alleged amour.

[1687] The present Manfredonia has arisen from the decay of this town,
in consequence of the unhealthiness of the locality. Ancient Uria is
supposed to have occupied the site of Manfredonia, and the village of
Santa Maria di Siponto stands where Siponti stood.

[1688] Probably the Cervaro. Hardouin says the Candelaro.

[1689] The present Porto Greco occupies its site.

[1690] Still known as Gargano.

[1691] Probably the present Varano.

[1692] Now Lago di Lesina. The Frento is now called the Fortore.

[1693] To distinguish it from Teanum of the Sidicini, previously
mentioned.

[1694] Between the Tifernus and the Frento. Its remains are said to be
still visible at Licchiano, five miles from San Martino. The Tifernus
is now called the Biferno.

[1695] A people of Central Italy, occupying the tract on the east coast
of the peninsula, from the Apennines to the Adriatic, and from the
frontiers of Apulia to those of the Marrucini.

[1696] Strabo (B. vi.) refers to this tradition, where he mentions the
oracle of Calchas, the soothsayer, in Daunia in Southern Italy. Here
answers were given in dreams, for those who consulted the oracle had to
sacrifice a black ram, and slept a night in the temple, lying on the
skin of the victim.

[1697] The modern Lucera in the Capitanata.

[1698] The birth-place of Horace; now Venosa in the Basilicata.

[1699] The modern Canosa stands on the site of the citadel of ancient
Canusium, an Apulian city of great importance. The remains of the
ancient city are very considerable.

[1700] So called, it was said, in remembrance of Argos, the native city
of Diomedes. It was an Apulian city of considerable importance. Some
slight traces of it are still to be seen at a spot which retains the
name of Arpa, five miles from the city of Foggia.

[1701] The names of these two defunct cities were used by the Romans
to signify anything frivolous and unsubstantial; just as we speak of
“castles in the air,” which the French call “châteaux en Espagne.”

[1702] Livy and Ptolemy assign this place to Samnium Proper, as
distinguished from the Hirpini. It was a very ancient city of the
Samnites, but in the year B.C. 268, a Roman colony was settled there,
on which occasion, prompted by superstitious feelings, the Romans
changed its name Maleventum, which in their language would mean “badly
come,” to Beneventum or “well come.” The modern city of Benevento
still retains numerous traces of its ancient grandeur, among others a
triumphal arch, erected A.D. 114 in honour of the emperor Trajan.

[1703] The remains of Æculanum are to be seen at Le Grotte, one mile
from Mirabella. The ruins are very extensive.

[1704] There were probably two places called Aquilonia in Italy; the
remains of the present one are those probably to be seen at La Cedogna.
That mentioned by Livy, B. x. c. 38-43, was probably a different place.

[1705] These are supposed by some to be the people of Abellinum
mentioned in the first region of Italy. Nothing however is known of
these or of the Abellinates Marsi, mentioned below.

[1706] Æcæ is supposed to have been situate about nineteen miles from
Herdonia, and to have been on the site of the modern city of Troja,
an episcopal see. The Compsani were the people of Compsa, the modern
Conza; and the Caudini were the inhabitants of Caudium, near which
were the Fauces Caudinæ or “Caudine Forks,” where the Roman army was
captured by the Samnites. The site of this city was probably between
the modern Arpaja and Monte Sarchio; and the defeat is thought to have
taken place in the narrow valley between Santa Agata and Moirano, on
the road from the former place to Benevento, and traversed by the
little river Iselero. The enumeration here beginning with the Æclani
is thought by Hardouin to be of nations belonging to Apulia, and not
to the Hirpini. The Æclani, here mentioned, were probably the people
of the place now called Ascoli di Satriano, not far from the river
Carapella. Of the Aletrini and Atrani nothing appears to be known.

[1707] Probably the people of Affilæ, still called Affile, and seven
miles from Subiaco. Inscriptions and fragments of columns are still
found there.

[1708] The people of Atinum, a town of Lucania, situate in the upper
valley of the Tanager, now the Valle di Diano. Its site is ascertained
by the ruins near the village of Atena, five miles north of La Sala.
Collatia was situate on the Anio, now called the Teverone.

[1709] The ruins of the town of Canuæ are still visible at a place
called Canne, about eight miles from Canosa. The Romans were defeated
by Hannibal, on the banks of the Aufidus in its vicinity, but there is
considerable question as to the exact locality. The ruins of the town
are still considerable.

[1710] Forentum was the site of the present Forenza in the Basilicate.
It is called by Horace and Diodorus Siculus, Ferentum. The ancient town
probably stood on a plain below the modern one. Some remains of it are
still to be seen.

[1711] On the site of Genusium stands the modern Ginosa. The ruins of
the ancient city of Herdonea are still to be seen in the vicinity of
the modern Ordona, on the high road from Naples to Otranto. This place
witnessed the defeat by Hannibal of the Romans twice in two years.

[1712] The mention of the Hyrini, or people of Hyrium or Hyria, is
probably an error, as he has already mentioned Uria, the same place,
among the Daunian Apulians, and as on the sea-shore. See p. 228. It is
not improbably a corrupted form of some other name.

[1713] From the Frento, on the banks of which they dwelt.

[1714] Viesta, on the promontory of Gargano, is said to occupy the site
of the ancient Merinum.

[1715] According to Mannert, the modern town of Noja stands on the site
of ancient Netium.

[1716] They inhabited Ruvo, in the territory of Bari, according to
Hardouin.

[1717] Their town was Silvium; probably on the site of the modern
Savigliano.

[1718] According to D’Anville their town was Strabellum, now called
Rapolla.

[1719] Their town is supposed to have been on the site of the modern
Bovino, in the Capitanata.

[1720] The people of Apamestæ; probably on the site of the modern San
Vito, two miles west of Polignano.

[1721] The people of Butuntum, now Bitonto, an inland city of Apulia,
twelve miles from Barium, and five from the sea. No particulars of it
are known. All particulars too of most of the following tribes have
perished.

[1722] D’Anville places their city, Sturni, at the present Ostuni, not
far from the Adriatic, and fourteen leagues from Otranto.

[1723] The people of Aletium already mentioned.

[1724] Their town possibly stood on the site of the present village of
Veste, to the west of Castro. The Neretini were probably the people of
the present Nardo.

[1725] Probably the people of the town which stood on the site of the
present San Verato.

[1726] They occupied what is now called the Abruzzo Inferiore.

[1727] Now the Trigno.

[1728] On the site of the present Vasto d’Ammone, five miles south of
the Punta della Penna. There are numerous remains of the ancient city.

[1729] According to Strabo Buca bordered on the territory of Teanum,
which would place its site at Termoli, a seaport three miles from the
mouth of the Biferno or Tifernus. Other writers, however, following
Pliny, have placed it on the Punta della Penna, where considerable
remains were visible in the 17th century. Ortona still retains its
ancient name.

[1730] Now the Pescara.

[1731] The sites of their towns are unknown; but D’Anville supposes the
Higher or Upper Carentum to have occupied the site of the modern Civita
Burella, and the Lower one the Civita del Conte.

[1732] Teate is supposed to be the present Chieti.

[1733] The people of Corfinium, the chief city of the Peligni. It is
supposed to have remained in existence up to the tenth century. Its
ruins are seen near Pentima, about the church of San Pelino.

[1734] The site of Superæquum is occupied by the present Castel Vecchio
Subequo.

[1735] The people of Sulmo, a town ninety miles from Rome. It was the
birth-place of Ovid, and was famous for the coldness of its waters, a
circumstance mentioned by Ovid in his Tristia, B. iv. ch. x. l. 4. It
is now called Sulmona.

[1736] The people of Anxanum or Anxa, on the Sangro, now known as the
city of Lanciano; in the part of which, known as Lanciano Vecchio,
remains of the ancient town are to be seen.

[1737] The people probably of Atina in Samnium, which still retains the
same name.

[1738] They probably took their name from the Lake Fucinus, the modern
Lago Fucino, or Lago di Celano.

[1739] They dwelt in a town on the verge of Lake Fucinus, known as
Lucus.

[1740] The ruins of Marruvium may still be seen at Muria, on the
eastern side of Lake Fucinus.

[1741] It has been suggested, from the discovery of a sepulchral
inscription there, that Capradosso, about nine miles from Rieti in the
upper valley of the Salto, is the site of ancient Cliternia. The small
village of Alba retains the name and site of the former city of Alba
Fucensis, of which there are considerable remains.

[1742] The modern town of Carsoli is situate three miles from the site
of ancient Carseoli, the remains of which are still visible at Civita
near the Ostoria del Cavaliere. Ovid tells us that its climate was cold
and bleak, and that it would not grow olives, though fruitful in corn.
He also gives some other curious particulars of the place.—Fasti, B.
iv. l. 683 _et seq._

[1743] The modern Civita Sant Angelo retains nearly its ancient name as
that of its patron saint. It is situate on a hill, four miles from the
Adriatic, and south of the river Matrinus, which separated the Vestini
from the territories of Adria and Picenum.

[1744] The village of Ofena, twelve miles north of Popoli, is supposed
to retain the site of ancient Aufina. Numerous antiquities have been
found here.

[1745] Cato in his ‘Origines’ stated that they were so called from the
fact of their being descended from the Sabines.

[1746] The site of the town of Bovianum is occupied by the modern
city of Bojano; the remains of the walls are visible. Mommsen however
considers Bojano to be the site of only Bovianum Undecumanorum, or
“of the Eleventh Legion,” and considers that the site of the ancient
Samnite city of Bovianum Vetus is the place called Piettrabondante,
near Agnone, twenty miles to the north, where there appear to be the
remains of an ancient city.

[1747] The people of Aufidena, a city of northern Samnium, in the upper
valley of the Sagrus or Sagro. Its remains, which show it to have been
a place of very great strength, are to be seen near the modern village
of Alfidena, on a hill on the left bank of the modern Sangro.

[1748] The people of Esernia, now Isernia.

[1749] The people of Ficulia or Ficolea, a city of ancient Latium
on the Via Nomentana. It is supposed that it was situate within the
confines of the domain of Cesarini, and upon either the hill now called
Monte Gentile, or that marked by the Torre Lupara.

[1750] Sæpinum is supposed to be the same with the modern Supino or
Sipicciano.

[1751] The ruins of the ancient Sabine city of Amiternum are still
visible at San Vittorino, a village about five miles north of Aquila.
Considerable remains of antiquity are still to be seen there.

[1752] The people of Cures, an ancient city of the Sabines, to the left
of the Via Salaria, about three miles from the left bank of the Tiber,
and twenty-four from Rome. It was the birth-place of Numa Pompilius.
Its site is occupied by the present villages of Correse and Arci, and
considerable remains of the ancient city are still to be seen.

[1753] Nothing is known of this place; but it has been suggested that
it stood in the neighbourhood of Forum Novum (or ‘New Market’), next
mentioned, the present Vescovio.

[1754] This Interamna must not be confounded with Interamna Lirinas,
mentioned in C. 9, nor Interamna Nartis, mentioned in C. 19. It was a
city of Picenum in the territory of the Prætutii. The city of Teramo
stands on its site; and extensive remains of the ancient city are still
in existence.

[1755] From their town, Norsia in the duchy of Spoleto is said to
derive its name.

[1756] The people of Nomentum, now La Mentana.

[1757] The people of Reate, now Rieti, below Mursia.

[1758] The people of Trebulæ Mutuscæ, said to have stood on the site
of the present Monte Leone della Sabina, below Rieti. This place
is mentioned in the seventh Æneid of Virgil, as the “Olive-bearing
Mutuscæ.”

[1759] Their town was Trebula Suffena, on the site of the present
Montorio di Romagna. The Tiburtes were the people of Tibur, the modern
Tivoli; and the Tarinates were the inhabitants of Tarinum, now Tarano.

[1760] The people of Cominium, the site of which is uncertain. It
is supposed that there were three places of this name. One Cominium
is mentioned in the Samnite wars as being about twenty miles from
Aquilonia, while Cominium Ceritum, probably another place, is spoken
of by Livy in his account of the second Punic War. The latter, it is
suggested, was about sixteen miles north-west of Beneventum, and on the
site of the modern Cerreto. The Comini here mentioned by Pliny, it is
thought, dwelt in neither of the above places. The sites of the towns
of many of the peoples here mentioned are also equally unknown.

[1761] Solinus, B. ii., also states, that this place was founded by
Marsyas, king of the Lydians. Hardouin mentions that in his time the
remains of this town were said to be seen on the verge of the lake near
Transaco.

[1762] From the Greek σέβεσθαι “to worship.”

[1763] The river Velinus, now Velino, rising in the Apennines, in
the vicinity of Reate, overflowed its banks and formed several small
lakes, the largest of which was called Lake Velinus, now Pie di Lugo or
Lago, while a smaller one was called Lacus Reatinus, now Lago di Santa
Susanna. In order to carry off these waters, a channel was cut through
the rocks by Curius Dentatus, the conqueror of the Sabines, by means of
which the waters of the Velinus were carried through a narrow gorge to
a spot where they fall from a height of several hundred feet into the
river Nar. This fall is now known as the Fall of Terni or the Cascade
Delle Marmore.

[1764] Still called Monte Fiscello, near the town of Civita Reale.
Virgil calls the Nar (now the Nera), “Sulphureâ Nar albus aquâ,” “The
white Nar with its sulphureous waters.”—Æneid, vii. 517.

[1765] A Sabine divinity said to have been identical with Victory.
The Romans however made her the goddess of leisure and repose, and
represented her as being worshiped by the husbandmen at harvest home,
when they were “vacui,” or at leisure. She is mentioned by Ovid in
the Fasti, B. vi. l. 307. The grove here alluded to was one of her
sanctuaries.

[1766] The modern Teverone, which rises near Tervi or Trevi.

[1767] A town of the Æqui, now known as Subiaco. In its vicinity was
the celebrated villa of Claudius and Nero, called the Villa Sublacencis.

[1768] This was a town of the Sabines between Reate and Interocrea,
in the vicinity of a small lake of the same name. It was a mere pool,
according to Dionysius, being but 400 feet in diameter. It is supposed
that the floating island was formed from the incrustations of carbonate
of lime on the banks, which, becoming detached, probably collected
in the middle. The lake still exists, but the floating island has
disappeared. There are some fine ruins of Roman baths in the vicinity
of the lake.

[1769] It was a custom with the early Italian nations, especially the
Sabines, in times of danger and distress, to vow to the deity the
sacrifice of all the produce of the ensuing spring, that is, of the
period from the first day of March till the last day of April. It is
probable that in early times human sacrifices were the consequence;
but at a later period the following custom was adopted instead. The
children were allowed to grow up, and in the spring of their twentieth
or twenty-first year were with covered faces driven across the frontier
of their native country, to go whithersoever chance or the guidance of
the deity might lead them. The Mamertini in Sicily were said to have
had this origin.

[1770] Now the Aterno, which falls into the sea at Atri or Ortona.

[1771] A famous city of Etruscan origin, which still retains its name
of Adria or Atri. It had very considerable intercourse with Greece,
and there are extensive remains of antiquity in its vicinity, towards
Ravegnano. The river is still called the Vomano.

[1772] These places are again mentioned in B. xiv. c. 8.

[1773] Or “New Castle.” It probably occupied the site of the now
deserted town of Santo Flaviano, near the banks of the river Tordino,
the Batinus of Pliny, and below the modern town of Giulia Nova.

[1774] The river still has the name of Tronto; Porto di Martin Scuro
occupies the site of the town.

[1775] Who had crossed over as colonists from the opposite coast of
Illyricum.

[1776] According to Mannert the river Tesino is the same as the Albula,
and Tervium is the modern town of Grotte a Mare; but D’Anville makes
the latter to be the town of Cupra next mentioned.

[1777] This was called Cupra Maritima, to distinguish it from the town
of the Cuprenses Montani, afterwards mentioned. It is said by Strabo to
have had its name from the Tyrrhenian name of Juno. From the discovery
of an inscription belonging to her temple here, there is little doubt
that D’Anville is right in his suggestion that the site of Cupra is at
Grotte a Mare, eight miles from the mouth of the Truentus or Tronto.

[1778] “The Fortress of the Firmani,” five miles from Firmum, an
important city of Picenum. The Fortress was situate at the mouth of the
Leta, and was the port of the city. It is still called Porto di Fermo.

[1779] Often called “Asculum Picenum” to distinguish it from Asculum
in Apulia. It was a place of considerable strength, and played a great
part in the Social War. It is unknown at what period it became a Roman
colony. The modern city of Ascoli stands on its site.

[1780] Now called Monte Novano, according to D’Anville and Brotier.

[1781] Its site is supposed to have been that of the small town called
Santo Elpidio a Mare, four miles from the sea, and the same distance
north of Fermo. The remains of Potentia are supposed to be those in the
vicinity of the modern Porto di Recanati. Numana is supposed to be the
modern Umana, near the Cuscione, where, in the seventeenth century,
extensive ruins were to be seen.

[1782] It still retains its ancient name, which was derived from the
Greek ἀγκὼν “the elbow,” it being situate on a promontory which forms
a curve, and almost encloses the port. The promontory is still called
Monte Comero. A triumphal arch, erected in honour of Trajan, who
constructed a new mole for the port, is still in fine preservation, and
there are remains of an amphitheatre.

[1783] The modern city of Osimo stands on the site of Auximum, about
twelve miles south-west of Ancona. Numerous inscriptions, statues, and
other remains have been found there.

[1784] Cluver conjectures that Beregra stood at Civitella di Tronto,
ten miles north of Teramo; but nothing further relative to it is known.
Cingulum was situate on a lofty mountain; the modern town of Cingoli
occupies its site.

[1785] “The mountaineers.” They inhabited Cupra Montana, which is
supposed to have stood on the same site as the modern Ripa Transone.

[1786] The people of Falaria or Faleria. There are considerable remains
of this town about a mile from the village of Falerona, among which a
theatre and amphitheatre are most conspicuous. The remains of Pausula
are supposed to be those seen on the Monte dell’ Olmo. The town of
the Ricinenses is supposed to have been on the banks of the Potenza,
two miles from Macerata, where some remains were to be seen in the
seventeenth century.

[1787] Septempeda is supposed to have occupied the site of the modern
San Severino, on the river Potenza. Tollentinum or Tollentura was
probably on the site of the modern Tolentino. The town of the Treienses
is supposed to have occupied a site near the modern San Severino, in
the vicinity of Montecchio.

[1788] A colony of the people of Pollentia was established at Urbs
Salvia, occupying the site of the modern Urbisaglia on the bank of the
Chiento.

[1789] Cisalpine Gaul was so called because the inhabitants adopted the
use of the Roman toga.

[1790] This fanciful derivation would make their name to come from the
Greek ὄμβρος “a shower.”

[1791] Now the Esino.

[1792] So called from the Galli Senones. The modern city of Sinigaglia
occupies its site. The river Metaurus is still called the Metauro.

[1793] “The Temple of Fortune.” At this spot the Flaminian Way joined
the road from Ancona and Picenum to Ariminum. The modern city of Fano
occupies the site, but there are few remains of antiquity.

[1794] The modern Pesaro occupies the site of the town; the river is
called the Foglia.

[1795] This was a flourishing town of Umbria. Augustus showed it
especial favour and bestowed on it the Grove and Temple of Clitumnus,
though at twelve miles’ distance from the town. The modern town of
Spello occupies its site, and very extensive remains of antiquity
are still to be seen. It probably received two Roman colonies, as
inscriptions mention the “Colonia Julia Hispelli” and the “Colonia
Urbana Flavia.” It is considered probable that Hispellum, rather than
Mevania, was the birth-place of the poet Propertius. Tuder is supposed
to have occupied the site of the modern Todi, on the Tiber.

[1796] The people of Ameria, an important and flourishing city of
Umbria. There are still remains of the ancient walls; the modern town
of Amelia occupies its site.

[1797] The site of Attidium is marked by the modern village of Attigio,
two miles south of the city of Fabriano, to which the inhabitants of
Attidium are supposed to have migrated in the middle ages.

[1798] The people of Asisium. The modern city of Assisi (the
birth-place of St. Francis) occupies its site. There are considerable
remains of the ancient town.

[1799] The people of Arna, the site of which is now occupied by the
town of Civitella d’Arno, five miles east of Perugia. Some inscriptions
and other objects of antiquity have been found here.

[1800] The people of Æsis, situate on the river of the same name. It is
still called Iesi. Pliny, in B. xi. c. 97, mentions it as famous for
the excellence of its cheeses.

[1801] The people of Camerinum, a city of Umbria. The present Camerino
occupies its site. Its people were among the most considerable of
Umbria. The site of the Casuentillani does not appear to be known.

[1802] The people of Carsulæ, an Umbrian town of some importance. Its
ruins are still visible about half way between San Germino and Acqua
Sparta, ten miles north of Narni. Holsten states that the site was
still called Carsoli in his time, and there existed remains of an
amphitheatre and a triumphal arch in honour of Trajan. Nothing seems to
be known of the Dolates.

[1803] The people of Fulginium. From Cicero we learn that it was a
municipal town. The modern city of Foligno has risen on its site.
An inscription discovered here has preserved the name of Fulginia,
probably a local divinity.

[1804] The people of Forum Flaminii, situated on the Flaminian Way,
where it first entered the Apennines, three miles from Fulginium. It
was here that the Emperors Gallus and Volusianus were defeated and
slain by Æmilianus, A.D. 256. The ruins at the spot called Giovanni pro
Fiamma mark its site. The site of Forum Julii appears to be unknown, as
also that of Forum Brentani.

[1805] The people of Forum Sempronii, the only town in the valley of
the Metaurus. The modern city of Fossombrone, two miles distant, has
thence taken its name. Considerable vestiges of the ancient town are
still to be seen. The battle in which Hasdrubal was defeated by the
Roman consuls Livius and Nero, B.C. 207, was probably fought in its
vicinity.

[1806] The people of Iguvium, an ancient and important town of Umbria.
Its site is occupied by the modern city of Gubbio. Interamna on the Nar
has been previously mentioned.

[1807] The people of the town of Mevania, now called Bevagna, in the
duchy of Spoleto. The Mevanionenses were the people of Mevanio, or
Mevaniolæ, in the vicinity of Mevania, and thought by Cluver to be the
modern Galeata.

[1808] Their town was Matilica, which still retains that name. It is
situate in the Marches of Ancona.

[1809] Their town still retains the name of Narni.

[1810] Their town was surnamed Favonia and Camellaria, to distinguish
it from several others of the same name. The present Nocera stands on
its site.

[1811] The people of Ocriculum, now Otricoli, previously mentioned.

[1812] According to Hardouin, the ruins of Ostra are those near Monte
Nuovo, now Sinigaglia, but D’Anville thinks that the modern Corinaldo
marks its site.

[1813] Nothing is known of the Plestini, nor yet of the Pitulani, who
seem to have been a different people to those mentioned in the First
Region.

[1814] The town of Sentis, according to D’Anville and Mannert, was in
the vicinity of the modern town of Sasso Ferrato.

[1815] The people of Sarsina, an important town of Umbria, famous as
being the birth-place of the comic poet Plautus. It is now called
Sassina, on the Savio.

[1816] The people of Spoletum, now Spoleto. It was a city of Umbria on
the Via Flaminia, colonized by the Romans B.C. 242. In the later days
of the Empire it was taken by Totilas, and its walls destroyed. They
were however restored by Narses.

[1817] The people of Suasa; the remains of which, according to
D’Anville and Mannert, are those seen to the east of the town of San
Lorenzo, at a place called Castel Leone.

[1818] The monastery of Sestino is supposed to stand on the site of
Sestinum, their town, at the source of the river Pesaro.

[1819] The site of their town is denoted by the modern Sigello in the
Marches of Ancona.

[1820] Their town is supposed to have been also situate within the
present Marches of Ancona, where they join the Duchy of Spoleto.

[1821] Their town was Trebia. The modern Trevi stands on its site.

[1822] The people of Tuficum, which Holsten thinks was situate between
Matelica and Fabrianum, on the river called the Cesena.

[1823] The site of Tifernum Tiberinum is occupied by the present Citta
di Castello, and that of Tifernum Metaurense, or “on the Metaurus,” by
Sant Angelo in Vado in the Duchy of Urbino. The first-named place was
in the vicinity of the estates of the Younger Pliny.

[1824] D’Anville and Mannert are of opinion that Urbania on the
Metaurus, two leagues south-east of Urbino, marks the site of their
town. The Hortenses probably dwelt on the site of the present Urbino.

[1825] The site of their town was probably the present Bettona. The
site of the towns of the peoples next mentioned is unknown.

[1826] Nothing is known of its position. There were cities in Campania
and Cisalpine Gaul also called Acerræ. The first has been mentioned
under the First Region. Of the other places and peoples mentioned in
this Chapter no particulars seem to have come down to us.

[1827] Now the Conca. It is called “rapax Crustumium” by Lucan, B. ii.
l. 406.

[1828] One of the most important cities of Umbria. It played a
conspicuous part in most of the internal wars of the Romans. The modern
city of Rimini which stands on its site, still retains two striking
monuments of its grandeur; the Roman bridge of marble, which crosses
the river Ariminus, erected by Augustus and Tiberius, and a triumphal
arch of marble, erected in honour of Augustus. The river Ariminus is
now called the Marocchia, and the Aprusa is the Ausa.

[1829] A papal decree, issued in 1756, declared the river Lusa to
have been the ancient Rubicon, but the more general opinion is that
the Pisatello, a little to the north of it, has better claims to that
honour. On the north bank of the Rubicon a pillar was placed by a
decree of the Senate, with an inscription giving notice that whoever
should pass in arms into the Roman territory would be deemed an enemy
to the state. It is especially celebrated in history by Cæsar’s passage
across it at the head of his army, by which act he declared war against
the republic. See Lucan, B. i. l. 200-230.

[1830] The Sapis is the modern Savio, or Rio di Cesena; the Vitis is
the Bevano, and the Anemo is the Roncone.

[1831] Strabo and Zosimus however state that it was first founded by
the Thessalians. Ravenna first came into notice on being made one of
the two chief stations of the Roman fleet. The harbour which was made
for it was called “Classes,” and between it and Ravenna sprang up
the town of Cæsarea. Though not deemed unhealthy, it lay in a swampy
district. Theodoric made it the capital of the kingdom of the Goths.
The modern city stands on the site of the ancient town. The river
Bedesis is now called the Montone.

[1832] No remains of it are extant; but it is supposed that it stood
near the entrance of the Lagunes of Comacchio.

[1833] The modern Bologna stands on its site, and there are but few
remains of antiquity to be seen.

[1834] He probably means only the Etruscan cities north of the
Apennines.

[1835] The modern town of Brescello occupies its site. Here the Emperor
Otho put an end to his life on learning the defeat of his troops by
Vitellius. It appears to have been a strong fortress in the time of the
Lombard kings.

[1836] The modern Modena stands on its site. It was famous in the
history of the civil wars after Cæsar’s death. Decimus Brutus was
besieged here by M. Antonius, in the years B.C. 44 and 43, and under
its walls the consuls Hirtius and Pansa were slain. Its vicinity, like
that of Parma, was famous for the excellence of its wool.

[1837] This was a Roman colony, which was enlarged by Augustus, and
from him received the name of Colonia Julia Augusta. It was called,
after the fall of the Western Empire, Chrysopolis or the “Golden City.”
The modern city of Parma occupies its site.

[1838] A Roman colony. The present city of Piacenza stands on its site.

[1839] It still retains the name of Cesena, and is a considerable
place. After the fall of the Western Empire it was used as a fortress
of great strength. We shall find Pliny again mentioning it in B. xiv.
c. 6, as famous for the goodness of its wines, a reputation which
it still maintains. The name of Claterna, once a municipal town of
importance, is still retained in part by a small stream which crosses
the road nine miles from Bologna, and is called the Quaderna. An old
church and a few houses, called Santa Maria di Quaderna, probably mark
the site of the vicinity of the town, which was situate on the high
road.

[1840] This Forum Clodii is said by D’Anville to be the modern
Fornocchia. Forum Livii is supposed to have occupied the site of the
present city of Forli. Forum Popili or Forli Piccolo occupies the site
of Forum or Foro Popili.

[1841] This place is supposed to have stood on the spot where the
episcopal town of Bertinoro now stands. In inscriptions it is called
Forodruentinorum. Forum Cornelii, said to have been so called from the
Dictator Sylla, occupied the site of the modern town of Imola. The poet
Martial is said to have resided for some time in this town.

[1842] The people of Faventia, now Faenza. Pliny, B. xix. c. i., speaks
of the whiteness of its linen, for the manufacture of which it was
celebrated. At this place Carbo and Norbanus were defeated with great
loss by Metellus, the partisan of Sylla, in B.C. 82.

[1843] The people of Fidentia. The present Borga di San Donnino stands
on its site, which is between Parma and Placentia, fifteen miles from
the former city.

[1844] Cluver thinks that their town was on the site of the modern
Castel Bondino.

[1845] So named after Æmilius Lepidus. The people of Regium Lepidum,
the site of whose town is occupied by the modern Reggio.

[1846] Solonatium is supposed to have had the site of the modern Citta
di Sole or Torre di Sole.

[1847] Nothing certain is known of this people or their town, but it is
thought by Rezzonico that by this name were meant those who occupied
the wood-clad heights of the Apennines, above Modena and Parma. Cicero
mentions a Saltus Gallicanus as being a mountain of Campania, but that
is clearly not the spot meant here.

[1848] Their town is thought to have stood on the same site as the
modern Tenedo.

[1849] Their town was perhaps on the same site as the modern Villac, on
the river Nura.

[1850] The modern city of Ombria probably stands on the site of Urbana,
their town, of which considerable remains are still to be seen.

[1851] These and the Senones were nations of Cisalpine Gaul. The Boii
emigrated originally from Transalpine Gaul, by the Penine Alps, or
the Pass of Great St. Bernard. They were completely subdued by Scipio
Nasica in B.C. 191, when he destroyed half of their population, and
deprived them of nearly half of their lands. They were ultimately
driven from their settlements, and established themselves in the modern
Bohemia, which from them takes its name. The Senones, who had taken the
city of Rome in B.C. 390, were conquered and the greater part of them
destroyed by the Consul Dolabella in B.C. 283.

[1852] The Po, which rises in Monte Viso in Savoy.

[1853] Already mentioned in C. 7 of the present Book.

[1854] Ovid in his account of the adventure of Phaëton (Met. B. ii.)
states that he fell into the river Padus.

[1855] The Tanarus is still called the Tanaro. The Trebia, now the
Trebbia, is memorable for the defeat on its banks of the Romans by
Hannibal, B.C. 218. The Incia is the modern Enza or Lenza, the Tarus
the Taro, the Gabellus the Secchia, the Scultenna the Panaro, and the
Rhenus the Reno.

[1856] The Stura still has the same name; the Orgus is the modern
Orco. The streams called Duriæ are known as the Dora Baltea and the
Dora Riparia; the Sessites is the Sesia, the Ticinus the Tessino, the
Lambrus the Lambro, the Addua the Adda, the Ollius the Oglio, and the
Mincius the Menzo.

[1857] This seems to be the meaning of “gravis terræ,” unless it
signifies “pressing heavily upon the land,” and so cutting out channels
for its course. He has previously stated that, though rapid, it is not
in the habit of carrying away its banks. See a very able article on the
question whether the name Eridanus belonged originally to this river
or to some other in the north of Europe, in Dr. Smith’s Dictionary of
Ancient Geography under the word “Eridanus.”

[1858] That is to say, the canal made by Augustus was so called.

[1859] It was on this occasion that, after a stay of only a few days
in Britain, he quitted the island, returned to Rome, and celebrated
a splendid triumph. This outlet of the Po has now the name of Po di
Primero.

[1860] Now the Santerno, noted for the sluggishness of its waters.

[1861] The Ostium Caprasiæ is now called the Porto Interito di Bell’
Ochio, the Ostium Sagis the Porto di Magnavacca; Volane, or Volana, is
the south main branch of the river. The Ostia Carbonaria, mentioned
below, was the north main branch, subdivided into several small
branches; and the Fossæ or Fossiones Philistinæ connected the river, by
means of the Tartarus, with the Athesis.

[1862] The reading is doubtful here, and even this, which is perhaps
the best, appears to be corrupt; for it is difficult to conceive how
all the mouths previously mentioned could have been upon one canal, and
besides it would seem that Olane was one of the natural mouths of the
river.

[1863] More generally Adria, from which, as Pliny says, the Adriatic
takes its name. Either a Greek, or, what is more probable, as Pliny
states, an Etruscan colony, it became the principal emporium of trade
with the Adriatic, in consequence of which it was surrounded with
canals and other works to facilitate its communications with other
rivers. It is still called Adria, and in its vicinity to the south,
considerable remains of the ancient city are still to be seen.

[1864] So called from the Philistæi, said to have been the ancient
inhabitants of the spot. They are now called the Bocca della Gnoca, the
Bocca della Scovetta, the Busa delle Tole, the Sbocco dell’ Asinino,
&c. The Ostia Carbonaria and the Fossæ Philistinæ were to the north of
the ones previously mentioned.

[1865] He seems to confound the Fosses of Philistina with the Tartarus
(now Tartaro). That river however connected the Fosses of Philistina
with the Athesis, now the Adige.

[1866] Now the Bacchiglione.

[1867] The modern Brondolo.

[1868] Now Chioggia, formed by the rivers Brenta and Brentella.
Hardouin thinks the Clodian Canal to be the same as the modern Fossa
Paltana.

[1869] Now Monteu di Po, below Chevasso, mentioned in the 7th Chapter.

[1870] This place is supposed to have been situate in the vicinity of
the modern Saluzzo, on the north bank of the Po. Segusio occupied the
site of the modern Susa.

[1871] Augusta of the Taurini. The present city of Turin stands on its
site. It was made a Roman colony by Augustus. With the exception of
some inscriptions, Turin retains no vestiges of antiquity.

[1872] The present city of Aosta occupies its site. This was also a
Roman colony founded by Augustus, after he had subdued the Salassi. It
was, as Pliny says in C. 5, the extreme point of Italy to the north.
The remains of the ancient city are of extreme magnificence.

[1873] The Grecian pass of the Alps was that now known as the
Little St. Bernard; while the Penine pass was the present Great St.
Bernard. Livy in his History, B. xxi. c. 38, points out the error of
taking these mountains to have derived their name from the Pœni or
Carthaginians. There is no doubt that they took their name from the
Celtic word signifying a mountain, which now forms the “Pen” of the
Welsh and the “Ben” of the Scotch.

[1874] Now called Ivrea or Lamporeggio, at the entrance of the valley
of the Salassi, the present Val d’Aosta. There are some remains of the
ancient town to be seen.

[1875] The present town of Vercelli stands on its site.

[1876] Now called Novara, in the Duchy of Milan.

[1877] It became a Roman municipal town, but owes its greatness to the
Lombard kings who made it their capital, and altered the name to Papia,
now Pavia.

[1878] “Pompey’s Praises.” The present Lodi Vecchio marks its site.

[1879] It was the capital of the Insubres, a Gallic nation, and was
taken by the Romans in B.C. 222, on which it became a municipium and
Roman colony. On the division of the empire by Diocletian, it became
the residence of his colleague Maximianus, and continued to be the
abode of the Emperors of the West till it was plundered by Attila, who
transferred the seat of government to Ravenna. It afterwards became the
capital of the kingdom of the Ostro-Goths, and was again sacked by the
Goths in A.D. 539, and its inhabitants put to the sword. The present
city, known to us as Milan, contains no remains of antiquity.

[1880] The modern Como and Bergamo stand on their sites.

[1881] From its name, signifying the “market of Licinius,” it would
appear to be of Roman origin. Its site is supposed to have been at a
place called Incino, near the town of Erba, between Como and Lecco,
where inscriptions and other antiquities have been found.

[1882] Deriving it from the Greek ὄρος, “a mountain,” and βίος, “life.”

[1883] “Etiamnum prodente se altius quam fortunatius situm.” Hardouin
seems to think that “se” refers to Cato, and that he informs us to that
effect; but to all appearance, it relates rather to the town, which
even yet, by its ruins, showed that it was perched too high among the
mountains to be a fertile spot.

[1884] The district of the Veneti. These people, taking refuge in the
adjoining islands in the fifth century to escape the Huns under Attila,
founded the modern city of Venice.

[1885] Now called the Sile, which flows past Trevigio or Treviso.

[1886] The mountainous district in the vicinity of Tarvisium, the
modern Treviso.

[1887] Situate in a marsh or lagune on the river Sile. It became a
Roman colony after Pliny’s time, under the Emperor Trajan. Its villas
are described by Martial as rivalling those of Baiæ. The Emperor Verus
died here A.D. 169. The modern village of Altino is a very impoverished
place. The Liquentia is now called the Livenza.

[1888] Now called Oderzo, on the river Montegano, which flows into the
Liquenza. The conduct of the people of this place, in the wars between
Pompey and Cæsar, is mentioned by Lucan, in his Pharsalia, B. iv. l.
462.

[1889] From inscriptions we find that this place was called Colonia
Julia Concordia, from which it seems probable that it was one of the
colonies founded by Augustus to celebrate the restoration of peace. It
rapidly rose into importance, and is often mentioned during the later
ages of the Roman Empire, as one of the most important cities in this
part of Italy. It is now a poor village, with the same name, and no
remains of antiquity beyond a few inscriptions.

[1890] The Romatinum is the modern Lemene. Pliny seems to imply,
(though from the uncertainty of the punctuation it is not clear,)
that on the Romatinum there was a port of that name. If so, it would
probably occupy the site of the present Santa Margherita, at the mouth
of the Lemene.

[1891] The greater Tiliaventum is the modern Tagliamento; and Hardouin
suggests that the smaller river of that name is the Lugugnana.

[1892] This river is supposed to be the same with the modern Stella,
and the Varamus the Revonchi, which joins the Stella.

[1893] Now called the Ansa. The Natiso is the modern Natisone, and the
Turrus the Torre; the former flowed past Aquileia on the west, the
latter on the east, in former times, but their course is probably now
changed, and they fall into the Isonzo, four miles from the city.

[1894] The capital of Venetia, and one of the most important cities of
Northern Italy. In the year A.D. 452 it was besieged by Attila, king
of the Huns, taken by storm, and plundered and burnt to the ground. On
its site, which is very unhealthy, is the modern village of Aquileia,
with about 1400 inhabitants. No ruins of any buildings are visible, but
the site abounds with coins, shafts of columns, inscriptions, and other
remains of antiquity.

[1895] Ptolemy states that Concordia and Aquileia were situate in the
district of the Carni.

[1896] Still called the Timavo.

[1897] Castel Duino stands on its site. It will be found again
mentioned in B. xiv. C. 8, for the excellence of its wines.

[1898] Now the Gulf of Trieste. Tergeste was previously an
insignificant place, but made a Roman colony by Vespasian. The modern
city of Trieste occupies its site.

[1899] Most probably the modern Risano. Cluver and D’Anville are of
that opinion, but Walckenaer thinks that it was a small stream near
Muja Yecchia; which seems however to be too near Trieste.

[1900] In the time of Augustus, and before Istria was added as a
province to Italy.

[1901] He alludes to an old tradition that the Argonauts sailed into
the Ister or Danube, and then into the Save, till they came to the spot
where the modern town of Upper Laybach stands, and that here they built
Nauportus, after which they carried their ship across the mountains on
men’s shoulders into the Adriatic. He intends to suggest therefore that
the place had its name from the Greek ναῦς “a ship” and πορθμὸς “a
passage.”

[1902] The modern town of Laybach stands on its site. It is situate on
the Save, and on the road from Aquileia to Celeia. The Roman remains
prove that the ancient city exceeded the modern one in magnitude.
According to tradition it was founded by the Argonauts. It subsequently
became a Roman colony, with the title of Julia Augusta. It is again
mentioned in C. 28.

[1903] Now the Golfo di Quarnaro. Liburnia was separated from Istria on
the north-west by the river Arsia, and from Dalmatia on the south by
the river Titus or Kerka, corresponding to the western part of modern
Croatia, and the northern part of modern Dalmatia. Iapydia was situate
to the north of Dalmatia and east of Liburnia, or the present military
frontier of Croatia, between the rivers Kulpa and Korana to the north
and east, and the Velebich mountains to the south. Istria consisted of
the peninsula which still bears the same appellation.

[1904] This passage, “while others make it 225,” is omitted in many
of the MSS. and most of the editions. If it is retained, it is not
improbable that his meaning is, “and the circumference of Liburnia
which joins it, with the Flanatic Gulf, some make 225, while others
make the compass of Liburnia to be 180 miles.” It depends on the
punctuation and the force of “item,” and the question whether the
passage is not in a corrupt state; and it is not at all clear what his
meaning really is.

[1905] He alludes to C. Sempronius Tuditanus, Consul B.C. 129. He
gained his victory over the Iapydes chiefly through the skill of his
legatus, D. Junius Brutus. He was a distinguished orator and historian.
He was the maternal grandfather of the orator Hortensius.

[1906] This place is only mentioned by Pliny, but from an inscription
found, it appears that the emperor Justin II. conferred on it the title
of Justinopolis. It is thought that it occupied the site of the present
town of Capo d’Istria.—Parentium stood on the site of the present
Parenzo.

[1907] It still retains its name.

[1908] Supposed to have occupied the site of the modern Castel Nuovo,
past which the Arsia, now the Arsa, flows.

[1909] Since Istria had been added to it by Augustus.

[1910] Livy seems to imply that Cremona was originally included in
the territory of the Insubres. A Roman colony being established there
it became a powerful city. It was destroyed by Antonius, the general
of Vespasian, and again by the Lombard king Agilulfus in A.D. 605. No
remains of antiquity, except a few inscriptions, are to be seen in the
modern city.

[1911] The modern city of Este stands on the site of Ateste. Beyond
inscriptions there are no remains of this Roman colony.

[1912] Asolo stands on its site.

[1913] It was said to have been founded by the Trojan Antenor. Under
the Romans it was the most important city in the north of Italy, and by
its commerce and manufactures attained great opulence. It was plundered
by Attila, and, by Agilulfus, king of the Lombards, was razed to the
ground. It was celebrated as being the birth-place of Livy. Modern
Padua stands on its site, but has no remains of antiquity.

[1914] Now called Belluno. Vicetia has been succeeded by the modern
Vicenza.

[1915] Mantua was not a place of importance, but was famous as being
the birth-place of Virgil; at least, the poet, who was born at the
village of Andes, in its vicinity, regarded it as such. It was said to
have had its name from Manto, the daughter of Tiresias. Virgil, in the
Æneid, B. x., alludes to its supposed Tuscan origin.

[1916] Led by Antenor, as Livy says, B. i.

[1917] The Cenomanni, a tribe of the Cisalpine Gauls, seem to have
occupied the country north of the Padus, between the Insubres on the
west and the Veneti on the east. From Polybius and Livy we learn that
they had crossed the Alps within historical memory, and had expelled
the Etruscans and occupied their territory. They were signalized for
their amicable feelings towards the Roman state.

[1918] Their town was Fertria or Feltria, the modern Feltre.

[1919] The modern city of Trento or Trent occupies the site of
Tridentum, their town. It is situate on the Athesis or Adige. It became
famous in the middle ages, and the great ecclesiastical council met
here in 1545.

[1920] It was a Roman colony under the name of Colonia Augusta, having
originally been the capital of the Euganei, and then of the Cenomanni.
It was the birth-place of Catullus, and according to some accounts, of
our author, Pliny. Modern Verona exhibits many remains of antiquity.

[1921] D’Anville says that the ruins of this town are to be seen at the
modern Zuglio.

[1922] Hardouin thinks that their town, Flamonia, stood on the site of
the modern Flagogna.

[1923] Their town, Forum Julii, a Roman colony, stood on the site of
the modern Friuli. Paulus Diaconus ascribes its foundation to Julius
Cæsar.

[1924] Supposed by Miller to have inhabited the town now called Nadin
or Susied.

[1925] Their town was probably on the site of the modern Quero, on the
river Piave, below Feltre.

[1926] Probably the same as the Tarvisani, whose town was Tarvisium,
now Treviso.

[1927] The conqueror of Syracuse. The fact here related probably took
place in the Gallic war.

[1928] This must be the meaning; and we must not, as Holland does,
employ the number as signifying that of the lakes and rivers; for the
Ticinus is in the eleventh region.

[1929] Now the Adda, running through Lago di Como, the Tesino through
Lago Maggiore, the Mincio through Lago di Garda, the Seo through Lago
di Seo, and the Lambro now communicating with the two small lakes
called Lago di Pusiano and Lago d’Alserio, which in Pliny’s time
probably formed one large lake.

[1930] Now Vado in Liguria, the harbour of Sabbata or Savo. Using the
modern names, the line thus drawn runs past Vado, Turin, Como, Brescia,
Verona, Vicenza, Oderzo, Aquileia, Trieste, Pola, and the Arsa.

[1931] It is from this people that the group of volcanic hills between
Padua and Verona derive their present name of Colli Euganei or the
“Euganean Hills.” From the Triumpilini and the Camuni, the present Val
Camonica and Val Trompia derive their names.

[1932] Probably meaning, that for a sum of money they originally
acknowledged their subjection to the Roman power.

[1933] The Lepontii probably dwelt in the modern Val Leventina and the
Val d’Osula, near Lago Maggiore; the Salassi in the Val d’Aosta.

[1934] Making it to come from the Greek verb λείπω, “to leave behind.”

[1935] As though being εὐγένειοι or εὐγενεῖς, “of honourable descent,”
or “parentage.”

[1936] Strabo mentions the Stoni or Stœni among the minor Alpine
tribes. Mannert thinks that they dwelt near the sources of the river
Chiese, about the site of the modern village of Storo.

[1937] It has been suggested that from them the modern Valtelline takes
its name.

[1938] Hardouin suggests that the Suanetes, who are again mentioned,
are the people here meant.

[1939] They are supposed to have dwelt in the present canton of
Martignac in the Valais, and the Vaudois.

[1940] They dwelt in the Tarantaise, in the duchy of Savoy. The village
called Centron still retains their name.

[1941] The states subject to Cottius, an Alpine chief, who having
gained the favour of Augustus, was left by him in possession of this
portion of the Alps, with the title of Præfect. These states, in
the vicinity of the modern Mount Cenis, seem to have extended from
Ebrodunum or Embrun in Gaul, to Segusio, the modern Susa, in Italy,
including the Pass of Mont Genèvre. The territory of Cottius was united
by Nero to the Roman empire, as a separate province called the “Alpes
Cottiæ.”

[1942] They dwelt in the vicinity of Ebrodunum or Embrun already
mentioned.

[1943] The “mountaineers.” Some editions read here “Appuani,” so called
from the town of Appua, now Pontremoli.

[1944] The Vagienni, and the Capillati Ligures, or “Long-haired
Ligurians,” have been previously mentioned in Chap. 7.

[1945] The trophy or triumphal arch which bore this inscription is that
which was still to be seen at Torbia near Nicæa in Illyria, in the time
of Gruter, who has given that portion of the inscription which remained
unobliterated, down to “gentes Alpinæ,” “the Alpine nations.” Hardouin
speaks of another triumphal arch in honour of Augustus at Segusio or
Susa in Piedmont, which appears to have commenced in a somewhat similar
manner, but only the first twelve words were remaining in 1671.

[1946] Adopted son of his great uncle Julius Cæsar.

[1947] Most of the MSS. omit the figures XVII here, but it is evidently
an accident; if indeed they were omitted in the original.

[1948] They are supposed to have occupied the Val Venosco, at the
sources of the Adige. The Isarci dwelt in the Val de Sarra or Sarcha,
near Val Camonica; and the Breuni in the Val Brounia or Bregna, at the
source of the Tessino.

[1949] D’Anville thinks that they inhabited the Val d’Agno, near
Trento, between Lake Como and the Adige. He also detects the name of
the Focunates in the village of Vogogna.

[1950] They inhabited the banks of the river Lech, their town being,
according to Strabo, Damasia, afterwards Augusta Vindelicorum, now
Augsburg.

[1951] Probably the Sarunetes, already mentioned. The Brixentes
inhabited the modern Brixen in the Tyrol. The Lepontii have been
previously mentioned. The Seduni occupied the present Sion, the capital
of the Valais. The Salassi have been already mentioned. According to
Bouche, the Medulli occupied the modern Maurienne in Savoy. The Varagri
dwelt in Le Chablais.

[1952] The Uceni, according to Hardouin, occupied Le Bourg d’Oysans in
the modern Graisivaudan; the Caturiges, the modern Chorges according to
Ansart; the Brigiani, probably Briançon, and the Nemaloni, as Hardouin
thinks, the place called Miolans.

[1953] They probably dwelt in the Ville de Seyne, in Embrun; the
Esubiani near the river Hubaye, in the Vallée de Barcelone in Savoy;
the Veamini in Senez, the Triulatti at the village of Alloz, the Ecdini
near the river Tinea, and the Vergunni in the vicinity of the district
of Vergons.

[1954] The Eguituri probably dwelt near the modern town of Guillaumes,
the Oratelli at the place now called Le Puget de Théniers, and the
Velauni near the modern Bueil.

[1955] Or subjects of Cottius, previously mentioned.

[1956] A mistake for L. Æmilius Papus. He and C. Regulus were Consuls
in B.C. 225. They successfully opposed the Cisalpine Gauls, who invaded
Italy; but Regulus was slain in the engagement.

[1957] It is difficult to say what is the exact force of “parci” here;
whether in fact it means that Italy shall be wholly exempted from such
treatment, as an indignity offered to her soil, or whether her minerals
were to be strictly kept in reserve as a last resource. Ajasson, in his
Translation, seems to take the former view, Littré the latter.

[1958] From the river now called the Arsa to that called the Kerka.

[1959] Hardouin thinks that “Ismeni” is the proper reading here; but
all the MSS. seem to be against him.

[1960] Mentioned in the next Chapter.

[1961] Their town was Aluus or Aloüs.

[1962] Their town was Flanona, which gave name to the Sinus Flanaticus
or Golfo di Quarnero. The chief town of the Lopsi was Lopsica, and of
the Varvarini, Varvaria.

[1963] The island of Fertina is supposed to have been the modern
Berwitch or Parvich. Curicta is now called Karek or Veglia. The
Illyrian snails mentioned by our author, B. ix. c. 56, are very
numerous here. Caius Antonius, the brother of Marcus, acting under
Julius Cæsar, was besieged here by Libo. See the interesting account in
Lucan’s Pharsalia, B. iv. l. 402-464.

[1964] The places on their sites are now called Albona, Fianona,
Tersact or Tersat near Fiume, Segna, Lopsico, Ortopia, and Veza.

[1965] Now Carin. Ænona is now called Nona, and the Tedanius is the
modern Zermagna.

[1966] The whole of this group of islands were sometimes called the
Absyrtides, from Absyrtus, the brother of Medea, who according to
tradition was slain there. See the last Chapter, p. 266. Ovid, however,
in his “Tristia,” states that, this took place at Tomi, on the Pontus
Euxinus or Black Sea, the place of his banishment.

[1967] Said by D’Anville to be now called Arbe, and Crexa to be the
modern Cherso. Gissa is thought to have been the modern Pago.

[1968] It was the capital of Liburnia. The city of Zara or Zara Vecchia
stands on its site. There are but little remains of the ancient city.

[1969] Supposed to be the present Mortero.

[1970] The Titus or Kerka. Scardona still retains its name.

[1971] Now called the Cabo di San Nicolo.

[1972] This measurement would make it appear that the present
Sabioncello is meant, but that it ought to come below, after Narona. He
probably means the quasi peninsula upon which the town of Tragurium,
now Trau Vecchio, was situate; but its circumference is hardly fifty
miles. So, if Sicum is the same as the modern Sebenico, it ought to
have been mentioned previously to Tragurium.

[1973] Spalatro, the retreat of Diocletian, was in the vicinity of
Salona. Its ancient name was Spolatum, and at the village of Dioclea
near it, that emperor was born. On the ruins of the once important city
of Salona, rose the modern Spalato or Spalatro.

[1974] Its site is unknown, though D’Anville thinks that it was
probably that of the modern Tain.

[1975] Clissa is supposed to occupy its site. Tribulium is probably the
modern Ugliane.

[1976] The people of the island of Issa, now Lissa, off the coast of
Liburnia. It was originally peopled by a Parian or a Syracusan colony.
It was famous for its wine, and the beaked ships “Lembi Issaici,”
rendered the Romans good service in the war with Philip of Macedon.

[1977] The modern Almissa stands on its site; and on that of Rataneum,
Mucarisca.

[1978] Now called Narenta; the river having the same name.

[1979] The localities of all these peoples are unknown.

[1980] Or Epidaurus. It is not noticed in history till the civil war
between Pompey and Cæsar, when, having declared in favour of the
latter, it was besieged by M. Octavius. The site of it is known as
Ragusa Vecchia, or Old Ragusa, but in the Illyric language it is called
Zaptal. Upon its destruction, its inhabitants moved to Rausium, the
present Ragusa. There are no remains extant of the old town.

[1981] It still retains the name of Risine, upon the Golfo di Cattaro,
the ancient Sinus Rhizonicus.

[1982] In the former editions called “Ascrivium.” The modern Cattaro is
supposed to occupy its site. Butua is the modern Budua, and Olcinium,
Dulcigno. It is probable that the derivation of the name of this last
place, as suggested by Pliny, is only fanciful.

[1983] Now called Drin and Drino.

[1984] Now called Scutari or Scodar, the capital of the province called
by the Turks Sangiac de Scodar.

[1985] According to Hardouin, the modern Endero stands on the site of
their capital.

[1986] Grabia, mentioned by Pouqueville, in his “Voyage de la Grèce,”
seems to retain the name of this tribe.

[1987] Pouqueville is of opinion that they occupied the district now
known as Musaché.

[1988] Dalechamp thinks that the two words “Retinet nomen” do not
belong to the text, but have crept in from being the gloss of some more
recent commentator. They certainly appear to be out of place. This
promontory is now called Cabo Rodoni.

[1989] The modern Albania.

[1990] Pouqueville is of opinion that they inhabited the district about
the present village of Presa, seven leagues N.E. of Durazzo.

[1991] From Ptolemy we learn that Lychnidus was their town; the site
of which, according to Pouqueville, is still pointed out at a spot
about four leagues south of Ochrida, on the eastern bank of the Lake of
Ochrida.

[1992] Now called El Bassan; though Pouqueville says Tomoros or
De Caulonias. Commencing in Epirus, they separated Illyricum from
Macedonia. See Lucan’s Pharsalia, B. vi. l. 331.

[1993] The Romans are said to have changed its Greek name Epidamnum,
from an idea that it was inauspicious, as implying “damnum” or “ruin.”
It has been asserted that they gave it the name of Durrhachium or
Dyrrhachium, from “durum,” rugged, on account of the ruggedness of
its locality. This however cannot be the case, as the word, like its
predecessor, is of Greek origin. Its unfortunate name, “Epidamnus,” is
the subject of several puns and witticisms in that most amusing perhaps
of all the plays of Plautus, the Menæchmi. It was of Corcyræan origin,
and after playing a distinguished part in the civil wars between Pompey
and Cæsar, was granted by Augustus to his veteran troops. The modern
Durazzo stands on its site.

[1994] Now called the Voioussa.

[1995] The monastery of Pollina stands on its site. It was founded by
the Corinthians and Corcyræans. There are scarcely any vestiges of it
remaining.

[1996] See further mention of this spot in B. ii. c. 110.

[1997] Pouqueville states that the ruins of Amantia are to be seen near
the village of Nivitza, on the right bank of the river Suchista. The
remains of Bullis, the chief town of the Buliones, according to the
same traveller, are to be seen at a place called Gradista, four miles
from the sea.

[1998] The same writer states that Oricum was situate on the present
Gulf De la Vallona or d’Avlona, and that its port was the place now
called by the Greeks Porto Raguseo, and by the Turks Liman Padisha.

[1999] The “Heights of Thunder.” They were so called from the frequent
thunderstorms with which they were visited. The range however was more
properly called the “Ceraunii Montes,” and the promontory terminating
it “Acroceraunii” or “Acroceraunia,” meaning “the end of the Ceraunii.”
The range is now called the Mountains of Khimara, and the promontory,
Glossa, or in Italian, Linguetta, meaning “the Tongue.”

[2000] In C. 15 of the present Book.

[2001] About 70 English miles is the distance.

[2002] The Donau or Danube.

[2003] Noricum corresponded to the greater part of the present Styria
and Carinthia, and a part of Austria, Bavaria, and Salzburg.

[2004] According to D’Anville the modern Wolk-Markt, on the river Drau
or Drave. Celeia is the modern Cilley in Carniola. Teurnia, according
to Mannert, is the Lurnfelde, near the small town of Spital.

[2005] According to Mannert it was situate near the modern town of
Innichen, near the sources of the Drave.

[2006] Supposed to be the same as the Vindobona or Vindomona of other
authors, standing on the site of the modern city of Vienna.

[2007] According to Cluver, it stood on the site of the modern Clausen
in Bavaria.

[2008] Mannert says that this place was the same with the modern
Solfeld, near Klagenfurt.

[2009] D’Anville and other writers think that this is the Neusiedler
See, not far from Vienna. Mannert, however, is of opinion that the name
ought to be written Pelso, and that the modern Balaton or Platten See
is meant.

[2010] The mountainous and woody tract in the vicinity of the Lake
Balaton, on the confines of ancient Noricum and Pannonia.

[2011] Now Sarvar on the river Raab, on the confines of Austria and
Hungary.

[2012] According to Hardouin, the modern Sopron or Œdenburg.

[2013] This province corresponded to the eastern part of Austria,
Styria, Carinthia, Carniola, the whole of Hungary between the Danube
and Saave, Slavonia, and part of Croatia and Bosnia. It was reduced by
Tiberius, acting under the orders of Augustus.

[2014] Now Laybach, previously mentioned in c. 22. Sissia has been
succeeded by the modern Sissek on the Saave.

[2015] The modern Draave or Drau.

[2016] Now the Sau or Saave.

[2017] According to Hardouin the Serretes and the Serrapilli inhabited
the modern Carinthia on both sides of the Draave. The sites of the
other nations here mentioned are unknown.

[2018] So called from the river Colapis. The other tribes are unknown.

[2019] Probably the same as the mountain range near Warasdin on the
Draave. The nations mentioned here dwelt on the western and eastern
slopes of this range.

[2020] Now known as Zagrabia.

[2021] Now the Culpa.

[2022] Dion Cassius, B. xix., says that the river Colapis or Colops
flowed past the walls of the town of Siscia, but that Tiberius Cæsar
caused a trench to be dug round the town, and so drew the river round
it, leading it back on the other side into its channel. He calls the
island Segetica.

[2023] Now the Bossut. Sirmium occupied the site of the present Sirmich.

[2024] The modern Tzeruinka, according to D’Anville and Brotier.

[2025] Now the Walpo and the Sarroiez, according to Hardouin; or the
Bosna and the Verbas, according to Brotier and Mannert.

[2026] Corresponding to the present Servia and Bulgaria.

[2027] Of the Danube with the Saave or Savus just mentioned.

[2028] Now the Morava, which runs through Servia into the Danube. The
Pingus is probably the Bek, which joins the Danube near Gradistic. The
Timachus is the modern Timoch, and the Œscus is the Iscar in Bulgaria.

[2029] Now called the Vid, the Osma, and the Jantra, rising in the
Balkan chain.

[2030] Ajasson remarks here that the name of Illyricum was very
vaguely used by the ancients, and that at different periods, different
countries were so designated. In Pliny’s time that region comprised
the country between the Arsia and the mouth of the Drilo, bounding it
on the side of Macedonia. It would thus comprehend a part of modern
Carniola, with part of Croatia, Bosnia, Dalmatia, and Upper Albania. In
later times this name was extended to Noricum, Pannonia, Mœsia, Dacia,
Macedonia, Thessalia, Achaia, Epirus, and even the Isle of Crete.

[2031] Here meaning that part of the Mediterranean which lies between
Italy and Greece south of the Adriatic. In more ancient times the
Adriatic was included in the Ionian Sea, which was probably so called
from the Ionian colonies which settled in Cephallenia and the other
islands on the western coast of Greece.

[2032] More properly “Diomedeæ,” being a group of small islands off
the coast of Apulia now called Isole di Tremiti, about eighteen miles
from the mouth of the Fortore. They were so called from the fable that
here the companions of Diomedes were changed into birds. A species of
sea-fowl (which Pliny mentions in B. x. c. 44) were said to be the
descendants of these Greek sailors, and to show a great partiality for
such persons as were of kindred extraction. See Ovid’s Metamorphoses,
B. xiv. l. 500. The real number of these islands was a matter of
dispute with the ancients, but it seems that there are but three,
and some mere rocks. The largest of the group is the island of San
Domenico, and the others are San Nicola and Caprara. The small island
of Pianosa, eleven miles N.E., is not considered one of the group, but
is not improbably the Teutria of Pliny. San Domenico was the place of
banishment of Julia, the licentious daughter of Augustus.

[2033] Now called the Bagni di Monte Falcone. See B. ii. c. 106.

[2034] Now called Cherso and Osero, off the Illyrian coast. Ptolemy
mentions only one, Apsorrus, on which he places a town of that name and
another called Crepsa. The Pullaria are now called Li Brioni, in the
Sinus Flanaticus, opposite the city of Pola.

[2035] See p. 258.

[2036] In B. xxxvii. c. 11, he again mentions this circumstance, and
states that some writers have placed them in the Adriatic opposite
the mouths of the Padus. Scymnus of Chios makes mention of them in
conjunction with the Absyrtides. This confusion probably arose from
the fact previously noted that the more ancient writers had a confused
idea that the Ister communicated with the Adriatic, at the same time
mistaking it probably for the Vistula, which flows into the Baltic.
At the mouth of this last-mentioned river, there were Electrides or
“amber-bearing” islands.

[2037] “Vanitatis.”

[2038] Crexa, Grissa, and Colentum, in c. 25.

[2039] According to Brotier, these are situate between the islands of
Zuri and Sebenico, and are now called Kasvan, Capri, Smolan, Tihat,
Sestre, Parvich, Zlarin, &c. Some writers however suggest that there
were no islands called Celadussæ, and that the name in Pliny is a
corruption of Dyscelados in Pomponius Mela; which in its turn is
supposed to have been invented from what was really an epithet of Issa,
in a line of Apollonius Rhodius, B. iv. l. 565. Ἰσσά τε δυσκέλαδος,
“and inauspicious Issa.” See Brunck’s remarks on the passage.

[2040] Now Brazza. According to Brotier the island is still celebrated
for the delicate flavour of the flesh of its goats and lambs. Issa is
now called Lissa, and Pharia is the modern Lesina. Baro, now Bua, lies
off the coast of Dalmatia, and was used as a place of banishment under
the emperors.

[2041] Now Curzola, or, in the Sclavonic, Karkar. It obtained its name
of Nigra or Melæna, “black,” from the dark colour of its pine woods.
Sir G. Wilkinson describes it in his “Dalmatia and Montenegro,” vol. i.

[2042] Now called Meleda or Zapuntello. It is more generally to the
other island of Melita or Malta that the origin of the “Melitæi” or
Maltese dogs is ascribed. Some writers are of opinion that it was upon
this island that St. Paul was shipwrecked, and not the larger Melita.

[2043] So called from their resemblance to a stag, ἔλαφος, of which the
modern Giupan formed the head, Ruda the neck, Mezzo the body, Calamotta
the haunches, and the rock of Grebini or Pettini the tail. They produce
excellent wine and oil, and are looked upon as the most valuable part
of the Ragusan territory.

[2044] Still known as Sasino. It is ten miles from Ragusa, the port of
Oricum, according to Pouqueville.

[2045] The original numbers are lost.

[2046] He was a Spaniard by birth, a native of Mellaria in Hispania
Bætica. He is mentioned by Cicero as a man of great learning, and
is probably the same person that is mentioned by Ovid in his Pontic
Epistles, B. iv. ep. xvi. l. 29, as a distinguished tragic writer.

[2047] See end of B. ii.

[2048] See end of B. ii.

[2049] M. Porcius Cato, or Cato the Elder; famous as a statesman, a
patriot, and a philosopher. He wrote “De Re Rustica,” a work which
still survives, and “Letters of Instruction to his Son,” of which
only some fragments remain. He also wrote a historical work called
“Origines,” of which Pliny makes considerable use. Of this also only a
few fragments are left. His life has been written by Cornelius Nepos,
Plutarch, and Aurelius Victor.

[2050] M. Vipsanius Agrippa, the distinguished partisan of Augustus,
to whose niece Marcella he was married, but he afterwards divorced her
for Julia, the daughter of Augustus by Scribonia, and the widow of
Marcellus. He distinguished himself in Gaul, at Actium, and in Illyria.
He constructed many public works at Rome, and among them the Pantheon;
he also built the splendid aqueduct at Nismes. He died suddenly in
his 51st year. His body was buried in the Mausoleum of Augustus, who
pronounced his funeral oration. He wrote memoirs of his own life. Pliny
often refers to the “Commentarii” of Agrippa, by which are meant, it is
supposed, certain official lists drawn up by him in the measurement of
the Roman world under Augustus. His map of the world is also mentioned
by Pliny in c. 3 of the present Book.

[2051] See end of B. ii.

[2052] From Servius, Suetonius and Plutarch we learn that Augustus
wrote Memoirs of his Life, in thirteen books; from Suetonius, that he
composed a Summary of the Empire (which was probably that referred to
in the above note on Agrippa); and from Quintilian, Aulus Gellius,
and Pliny, B. xviii. c. 38, that he published Letters written to his
grandson Caius.

[2053] P. Terentius Varro, surnamed Atacinus, from the Atax, a river
of Gallia Narbonensis, in which province he was born, B.C. 82. Of his
“Argonautica,” his “Cosmographia” (probably the same with his “Iter”),
his “Navales Libri,” and his Heroic and Amatory Poems, only a few
fragments now exist. Of his life nothing whatever is known.

[2054] Valerias Antias. See end of B. ii.

[2055] C. Julius Hyginus, a native of Spain, and freedman of Augustus,
by whom he was placed at the Palatine Library. He lived upon terms of
intimacy with Ovid. He wrote works on the sites of the cities of Italy,
the Nature of the Gods, an account of the Penates, an account of Virgil
(probably the same as the work called “Commentaries on Virgil”), on the
Families of Trojan descent, on Agriculture, the “Propempticon Cinnæ,”
the Lives of Illustrious Men (quoted by John of Salisbury in his
“Polycraticon”), a book of Examples, and a work on the Art of War, also
mentioned by John of Salisbury. A book of Fables, and an Astronomical
Poem, in four books, are ascribed to him, but they are probably
productions of a later age.

[2056] L. Antistius Vetus, Consul with Nero, A.D. 55. While commanding
in Germany he formed the project of connecting the Moselle and the
Saone by a canal, thus establishing a communication between the
Mediterranean and the Northern Ocean. Nero having resolved on his
death, he anticipated his sentence by opening his veins in a warm bath.
His mother-in-law Sextia, and his daughter Pollentia, in a similar
manner perished with him.

[2057] He was born, it is supposed, at Tingentera, or Cingentera, on
the bay of Algesiras, and probably flourished in the reign of Claudius.
He was the first Roman author who wrote a treatise on Geography. It is
still extant, and bears marks of great care, while it is written in
pure and unaffected language.

[2058] C. Scribonius Curio, the third known of that name. He was the
first Roman general who advanced as far as the Danube. Like his son
of the same name, he was a violent opponent of Julius Cæsar. He was
eloquent as an orator, but ignorant and uncultivated. His orations were
published, as also an invective against Cæsar, in form of a dialogue,
in which his son was introduced as one of the interlocutors. He died
B.C. 53.

[2059] L. Cælius Antipater. See end of B. ii.

[2060] L. Arruntius, Consul, A.D. 6. Augustus declared in his last
illness that he was worthy of the empire. This, with his riches and
talents, rendered him an object of suspicion to Tiberius. Being charged
as an accomplice in the crimes of Albucilla, he put himself to death
by opening his veins. It appears not to be certain whether it was this
person or his father who wrote a history of the first Punic war, in
which he imitated the style of Sallust.

[2061] Statius Sebosus. See end of B. ii.

[2062] Licinius Crassus Mucianus. See end of B. ii.

[2063] Of this writer no particulars whatever are known.

[2064] In most editions this name appears as L. Ateius Capito, but
Sillig separates them, and with propriety it would appear, as the name
of Capito the great legist was not Lucius. Ateius here mentioned was
probably the person surnamed Prætextatus, and Philologus, a freedman
of the jurist Ateius Capito. For Sallust the historian he composed an
Abstract of Roman History, and for Asinius Pollio he compiled precepts
on the Art of Writing. His Commentaries were numerous, but a few only
were surviving in the time of Suetonius.

[2065] C. Ateius Capito, one of the most famous of the Roman legists,
and a zealous partisan of Augustus, who had him elevated to the
Consulship A.D. 5. He was the rival of Labeo, the republican jurist.
His legal works were very voluminous, and extracts from them are to be
found in the Digest. He also wrote a work on the Pontifical Rights and
the Law of Sacrifices.

[2066] A distinguished grammarian of the latter part of the first
century B.C. He was entrusted by Augustus with the education of his
grandsons Caius and Lucius Cæsar. He died at an advanced age in the
reign of Tiberius. He wrote upon antiquities, history, and philosophy:
among his numerous works a History of the Etruscans is mentioned, also
a treatise on Orthography. Pliny quotes him very frequently.

[2067] See end of B. ii.

[2068] He is mentioned in c. 17, but nothing more is known of him.

[2069] Nothing is known of him. The younger Pliny addressed three
Epistles to a person of this name, B. ii. Ep. 15, B. v. Ep. 4, 14.

[2070] See end of B. ii.

[2071] Also called by Pliny Cornelius Alexander. Suidas states that he
was a native of Ephesus and a disciple of Crates, and during the war of
Sylla in Greece was made prisoner and sold as a slave to C. Lentulus,
who made him the tutor of his children, and afterwards restored him
to freedom. Servius however says that he received the franchise from
L. Cornelius Sylla. He was burnt with his house at Laurentum. Other
writers say that he was a native of Catiæum in Lesser Phrygia. The
surname of “Polyhistor” was given to him for his prodigious learning.
His greatest work seems to have been a historical and geographical
account of the world, in forty-two books. Other works of his are
frequently mentioned by Plutarch, Photius, and other writers.

[2072] The historian of the Peloponnesian war, and the most famous,
perhaps, of all the ancient writers in prose.

[2073] Of Eresus in Lesbos; the favourite disciple of Aristotle, and
designated by him as his successor in the presidency of the Lyceum. He
composed more than 200 works on various subjects, of which only a very
few survive.

[2074] See end of B. ii.

[2075] See end of B. ii.

[2076] He is frequently mentioned by Cicero, and was famous for his
eloquence. Pliny informs us in his 34th book, that from his hatred of
the Romans he was called the “Roman-hater.” It is probable that he was
the writer of a Periegesis, or geographical work, from which Pliny
seems to quote.

[2077] No particulars of this author are known. He probably wrote on
geography.

[2078] He is again mentioned by Pliny in B. iv. c. 13, and B. vi. c.
31, and by Solinus, c. xxii. 60. It is supposed that he was the author
of a Periplus or Circumnavigation of the Earth, mentioned by Pliny B.
vii. c. 48; but nothing further is known of him.

[2079] Diodorus Siculus was a native of Agyra or Agyrium, and not of
Syracuse, though he may possibly have resided or studied there. It
cannot be doubted that he is the person here meant, and Pliny refers in
his preface by name to his Βιβλιοθήκη, “Library,” or Universal History.
A great portion of this miscellaneous but valuable work has perished.
We have but few particulars of his life; but he is supposed to have
written his work after B.C. 8.

[2080] Of Syracuse; an historian probably of the time of Philip and
Alexander. He was the author of a Periplus of Asia, and an account of
Sicily and Sardinia. From his stories in the last he obtained the name
of “Thaumatographus” or “writer of wonders.”

[2081] Of Calliphanes the Geographer nothing is known.

[2082] Probably Timagenes, the rhetorician of Alexandria. He was taken
prisoner and brought to Rome, but redeemed from captivity by Faustus,
the son of Sylla. He wrote many works, but it is somewhat doubtful
whether the “Periplus,” in five Books, was written by this Timagenes.
He is also supposed to have written a work on the Antiquities of Gaul.

[2083] Now called Monti della Chimera, or Mountains of Khimara. See p.
262.

[2084] The Ægean Sea, the present Archipelago.

[2085] This country contained, according to Pouqueville, the present
Sangiacs of Janina, Delvino, and Chamouri, with the Vavodilika or
Principality of Arta. This name was originally given to the whole of
the west of Greece, from the Promontory of Acroceraunia to the entrance
of the Corinthian Gulf, in contradistinction to Corcyra and the island
of Cephallenia.

[2086] This district, according to Pouqueville, occupied the present
Cantons of Chimera, Iapouria, Arboria, Paracaloma, and Philates.

[2087] They occupied the site of the present Paramythia, according to
Pouqueville.

[2088] Antigonia was about a mile distant, Pouqueville says, from the
modern town of Tebelen.

[2089] From Ἀ “not,” and ὄρνις “a bird.” Its site is now unknown. There
were many places of this name. Avernus or Aornos in Campania has been
previously mentioned.

[2090] The remains of Cestria are still to be seen at Palea Venetia,
near the town of Filiates. Pouqueville calls the place Chamouri.

[2091] According to Pouqueville, the modern Zagori stands on the site
of Perrhæbia. Pindus is sometimes called Grammos, but is still known by
its ancient name.

[2092] Cassiope or Cassope stood near the sea, and near the present
village of Kamarina. Its extensive ruins are still to be seen.

[2093] Their district, according to Pouqueville, was in the present
Canton of Drynopolis.

[2094] The Selli or Sellæ lived in the vicinity of the temple of
Jupiter at Dodona, in the modern canton of Souli, according to
Pouqueville.

[2095] The country about Dodona is called Hellopia by Hesiod. By some
the Helli or Hellopes are considered the same as the Selli. Pouqueville
thinks that the Hellopes dwelt in the modern cantons of Janina,
Pogoniani, Sarachovitzas, and Courendas, and that the temple of Jupiter
stood at the spot now called Proskynisis, near Gardiki, the town of
Dodona being near Castritza. Leake is of the same opinion as to the
site of the town; but, as has been a subject of remark, it is the only
place of celebrity in Greece of which the situation is not exactly
known. Leake however thinks that the temple stood on the peninsula now
occupied by the citadel of Joanina.

[2096] Pouqueville thinks that this is the hill to be seen at the
modern village of Gardiki. He is also of opinion that the springs
here mentioned are those at the modern village of Besdounopoulo. His
opinions however on these points have not been implicitly received.

[2097] B. iii. c. 26. The Dardani, Triballi, and Mœsi are mentioned in
c. 29. The localities of the other tribes here mentioned are not known
with any exactness.

[2098] It retains the same name or that of Khimara, and gives its name
to the Acroceraunian range. It was situate at the foot of the chain,
which begins at this spot.

[2099] “Aquæ regiæ.” Pouqueville suggests, without good reason, as
Ansart thinks, that this spring was situate near the modern Drimodez or
Dermadez.

[2100] The place called Palæo-Kistes now stands on its site, and some
remains of antiquity are to be seen.

[2101] Now the Calama.

[2102] Its ruins are to be seen near the modern Butrinto. It was said
to have been founded by Helenus, the son of Priam. Pomponius Atticus
had an estate here.

[2103] This corresponds to the present Gulf of Arta, and was especially
famous for being the scene of the battle of Actium. The city of
Ambracia lay to the north of it. The present Arta is generally believed
to occupy its site.

[2104] Pouqueville has shown that Pliny is in error here, and he says
that the Acheron is the modern Mavro Potamos; but according to Leake,
the name of it is Gurla, or the river of Suli. It flows into the Port
Fanari, formerly called Glykys Limen, or Sweet Harbour, from the
freshness of the water there. The Acherusian Lake is probably the great
marsh that lies below Kastri.

[2105] It is now called the Arta, and gives name to the Gulf.

[2106] The site of Anactoria or Anactorium, like that of its neighbour
Actium, has been a subject of much dispute; but it is now pretty
generally agreed that the former stood on the modern Cape Madonna, and
Actium on the headland of La Punta.

[2107] Pouqueville takes the ruins in the vicinity of Turco Palaka,
eight miles from Margariti, to be those of Pandosia.

[2108] This district probably occupied the present cantons of Vonitza
and Xeromeros. It was called Curetis from the Curetes, who are said to
have come from Ætolia and settled in Acarnania after their expulsion by
Ætolus and his followers.

[2109] The modern Vonitza is supposed to stand on its site.

[2110] Leake places its site at Ai Vasili, where some ruins are to be
seen.

[2111] “The city of Victory.” Founded by Augustus on the spot where he
had pitched his camp before the battle of Actium.

[2112] Now called Capo Ducato or Capo tis Kiras. It is situate at the
extremity of the island of Leucas, and opposite to Cephallenia. Sappho
is said to have leapt from this rock on finding her love for Phaon
unrequited: the story however is devoid of all historical truth.

[2113] Now the island of Santa Maura. It was originally a peninsula,
and Homer speaks of it as such; but the Corinthians cut a canal through
the isthmus and converted it into an island. After the canal had been
choked up for some time with sand, the Romans reopened it. It is at
present dry in some parts.

[2114] Probably from its town Nericus, mentioned by Homer.

[2115] From the Greek word διορυκτὸς, a “foss” or “trench.”

[2116] It probably had this name from the circumstance of the
inhabitants of Nericus being removed thither by the Corinthians under
Cypselus. The remains of Leucas, which was ravaged by the Romans B.C.
197, are still to be seen.

[2117] Its remains are still to be seen in the valley of Kandili, south
of Vonitza.

[2118] Pouqueville says that very extensive and perfect ruins of this
place are to be seen near the village of Lepenou.

[2119] This famous city was deserted on the foundation of Nicopolis by
Augustus. The place of its site has been a subject of much dispute, but
it is considered most probable that Leake has rightly suggested that
the ruins in the plain of Vlikha, at the village of Neokhori, are those
of this city.

[2120] Now the Aspropotamo.

[2121] One of the group of the Echinades; small islands off the coast
of Acarnania, which are mentioned by Pliny, in C. 19 of the present
Book. It is now quite united to the mainland.

[2122] Pouqueville says that Athamania occupied the localities now
known as Djoumerca and Radovitch. It properly belonged to Epirus, and
Pliny makes a mistake in considering it as a part of Ætolia.

[2123] According to Pouqueville the ruins of Tymphæa are to be seen
near the village of Paliouri, four miles from Janina.

[2124] Ephyre, a town of the Agræi, is also mentioned by Strabo, but
nothing whatever is known of it.

[2125] The main body of the Perrhæbi were a people of Thessaly.

[2126] Dolopia, now called Anovlachia, was properly reckoned part of
Epirus.

[2127] They are probably not the same people as the inhabitants of
Atrax in Thessaly, which will be found mentioned in the 15th Chapter of
this Book.

[2128] The most famous city of Ætolia in its day, and the residence of
Œneus, father of Meleager and Tydeus, and grandfather of Diomedes. The
greater part of its inhabitants were removed by Augustus to his new
city of Nicopolis. Leake supposes its ruins to be those seen by him at
Kurt-Aga, to the east of the river Evenus.

[2129] Now called the Fidaris.

[2130] Pouqueville supposes the site of Macynia to have been that of
the modern Koukio-Castron, and that of Molycria the present Manaloudi.

[2131] Probably the present Varassova; there was a town called Chalcis,
or Hypochalcis, at its foot. The present Kaki-Skala was probably the
mountain of Taphiassus.

[2132] Opposite the Promontory of Rhium, at the entrance of the
Corinthian Gulf. It is now called the Castle of Roumelia, or the Punta
of the Dardanelles of Roum Ili.

[2133] Leake and Dodwell make it a mile and a half.

[2134] Or Rhium. It is now called the Castle of the Morea.

[2135] The modern Enebatché or Lepanto; whence the Corinthian Gulf
takes its modern name.

[2136] Proschium was built at a later period on the site of Pylene. Its
site appears to be unknown. The modern Kyra-tis-Irinis is thought to
occupy the site of Pleuron.

[2137] Leake supposes some ruins between Kurt-aga, the site of
Chalcedon, and the east end of the Lagoon of Missolonghi, to be the
remains of Halicyrna.

[2138] Leake supposes it to be identical with the high mountain now
called Kelberini. Others again identify it with Gribovo.

[2139] Pliny erroneously places this mountain in Acarnania. It was a
range of Ætolia, now called Zygos.

[2140] Perhaps the modern Djourmerca.

[2141] Either the present Plocopari, or perhaps, more probably, Viena.

[2142] A part of Mount Taphiassus. It is mentioned only by Pliny.

[2143] They are supposed to have inhabited the modern districts of
Malandrino and Salone. They were called “Ozolæ” or ‘strong-smelling,’
either from the undressed skins worn by them, or from the quantities of
asphodel that grew in their country; or else from the vapours thrown
off by the mineral springs in those parts.

[2144] Pouqueville imagines its ruins to be those seen about two
leagues from the modern Galaxidi.

[2145] Lapie marks this in his map as the modern port of Ianakhi.

[2146] So called from the ancient town of Crissa, which stood on it. It
is the same as the modern Gulf of Salona.

[2147] Or Eupalium. Leake supposes it to have stood in the plain of
Marathia, opposite the islands of Trazonia, where some ruins still
exist.

[2148] Pausanias makes this town to be the same with the Homeric
Crissa, but Strabo distinguishes the two places, and his opinion is now
generally followed; Cirrha being thought to have been built at the head
of the Crissæan gulf, as the port of Crissa. Its ruins are thought to
be those which bear the modern name of Magula.

[2149] Or Chalæum. Pliny erroneously calls it a town of Phocis, it
being on the coast of the Locri Ozolæ. He is wrong also in placing it
seven miles from Delphi, and not improbably confounded it with Cirrha.
Leake suggests that its site was the present Larnaki.

[2150] The modern village of Kastri stands on part of the site of
ancient Delphi. Its ruins have been explored by Chandler, Leake, and
Ulrichs.

[2151] The two highest summits of the range of Parnassus in the
vicinity of Delphi were Tithorea, now Velitza, to the N.W., and
Lycorea, now Liakura, to the N.E. Its rocks above Delphi were called
the Phædriades or “Resplendent.”

[2152] The famed Castalian spring is now called the Fountain of St.
John, from the chapel of that saint which stands close to its source.

[2153] Now the Mavro-Potamo.

[2154] Its ruins are still to be seen about three leagues from Kastri.

[2155] Or Crisso. It was situate inland to the S.W. of Delphi. Its
ruins are to be seen at a short distance from the modern village of
Chryso.

[2156] It is supposed that the few ruins seen near the modern Aspra
Spitia are those of this place. It was famous for its hellebore, which
was extensively used for the cure of madness. There were two other
places of the same name.

[2157] The people of Bulis, near the Crissæan Gulf. Its ruins are
situate at a short distance from the monastery of Dobé.

[2158] Ansart suggests that this was the present port of Agio-Sideri or
Djesphina.

[2159] It occupied the site of the modern Salona; the walls of its
ancient Acropolis are still to be seen. It was the chief town of the
Locri Ozolæ.

[2160] Pouqueville thinks that the ruins seen near Moulki are those of
Tithrone, and that Tritea stood on the site of the present Turcochorion.

[2161] Or Amphrysus, famous for the strength of its fortifications and
its scarlet berries for dyeing. Some remains of it are to be seen at
the modern village of Dhistomo.

[2162] On the frontiers of Doris and Phocis. Leake thinks that its
ruins are those seen midway between Kamares and Glamista. Daulis was
also the name of an ancient town of Phocis, the ruins of which are to
be seen at the modern village of Dhavlia.

[2163] Probably the present Palæo Kastro, at the Port de Dobrena or
Polaca.

[2164] Leake thinks that the Corsian Thebes, a port of Bœotia, is
represented by the modern Khosia.

[2165] Helicon is a range of mountains with several summits, the
loftiest of which is now called Paleovuni. Helicon was a grove of the
Muses, and the fountain of Aganippe was supposed to impart poetic
inspiration to those who drank of it.

[2166] See p. 288.

[2167] From Apis, the son of Phoroneus, or Telchines, according to
Pausanias. After the arrival of Pelops, it took from him its name of
Peloponnesus, or the “Island of Pelops.”

[2168] The Ionian from the north, and the Ægean, or rather, Myrtoan,
Sea from the east.

[2169] That part of Greece proper which lies to the north of the
Isthmus.

[2170] Now the Gulfs of Lepanto and Egina.

[2171] Lecheæ was the harbour of Corinth on the Corinthian, and
Cenchreæ on the Saronic Gulf. The name of the latter is still preserved
in the modern appellation Kechries, which is given to its ruins.

[2172] Demetrius Poliorcetes, king of Macedonia, son of Antigonus, king
of Asia.

[2173] Caius Caligula, the Emperor.

[2174] The Emperor Nero actually commenced the work, having opened
the undertaking with great pomp, and cut away a portion of the earth
with his own hands. He had advanced four stadia, when the work was
interrupted by the insurrection of Julius Vindex in Gaul.

[2175] We cannot agree with Hardouin that “exitus” here means “death,”
in allusion to the unfortunate end of all those who had made the
attempt. The opinion of Spanheim seems rather deserving of support
(though censured by Hardouin), that it merely means “the result”
in each case; it being the fact, that in all the instances the
contemplated undertaking was interrupted by some unforeseen event.
Periander and Herodes Atticus also contemplated the formation of this
channel.

[2176] It is not known when it exchanged this name for that of Corinth;
being called by both names in Homer. Scarcely any remains of it are now
to be seen. The small town on its site is called Gortho, a corruption
of its ancient name. The water of the famed spring of Pirene is now
only used for washing clothes.

[2177] Now Patras. There are few remains of the ancient city, which
was one of the twelve cities of Achaia. It was made a Roman colony by
Augustus.

[2178] See C. 3 of the present Book, p. 275.

[2179] Originally a district in the south of Thessaly had this name;
but to distinguish it from that in the Peloponnesus, its people were
called the Phthiotian Achæi.

[2180] From the Greek word αἰγιαλὸς, “the sea-shore.”

[2181] Situate on the coast, about five miles from the present Vostitza.

[2182] In the interior. The modern Trikala stands on its site.

[2183] Helice was the place of meeting of the Achæan league; when, in
B.C. 373, together with Bura, it was swallowed up by an earthquake,
and their sites were covered by the sea. Such of the people as escaped
fled to the places mentioned above by Pliny. Pouqueville says that some
remains of these places may still be seen emerging from the sea.

[2184] The modern Basilico or Vasilika stands on its site.

[2185] The places called Palæo-Kastro and Vostitza are supposed
to occupy the sites of Ægira and Ægium. To the east of Vostitza
considerable ruins are still to be seen.

[2186] Supposed to be the present Artotina.

[2187] Towns of Roman Argolis. The ruins of the former are supposed to
be those at a spot still called Klenes, near the village of Curtesi.
The remains of Hysiæ, on the road from Argos to Tegea, stand on a hill
above the plain of Achladokampos.

[2188] Now called Tekieh; fifteen stadia from Rhium.

[2189] Or Pharæ; 150 stadia from Patræ.

[2190] The modern Kato-Achaia.

[2191] Its remains are to be seen near the modern village of
Karavostasi. Pliny is mistaken probably in calling it a colony, as we
know that it was placed under the authority of the colony of Patræ,
which alone was allowed to enjoy the privilege of self-government.

[2192] Pouqueville thinks that it was situate on the river now called
the Verga. Leake supposes that the town of Hyrmine stood on the site of
the present Kastro Tornese on the peninsula of Khlemutzi; but Boblaye
and Curtius place it further north, at the modern harbour of Kunupeli,
where there are some ancient ruins.

[2193] Now Capo Papa.

[2194] The locality of Cyllene is doubtful. Most writers place it at
Glarentza but Pouqueville suggests Andravida or Andravilla, and Mannert
places it near Clarenza. Chelinates or Chelonatas was probably the name
originally of the whole peninsula of Khlemutzi, but the point here
mentioned was most probably the modern Cape Tornese.

[2195] It lay in the interior, south of Sicyonia, and north of Argos.
Pouqueville found its ruins on the banks of the Asopus.

[2196] Strabo says that this was the name of the most ancient town of
Phliasia, and that the inhabitants afterwards deserted it for Phlius.

[2197] Some small ruins of it are to be seen at the foot of the hill of
Kaloskopi, its ancient Acropolis.

[2198] By Olympiads, which were reckoned according to the order of
celebration of the Olympic games: they were established in the year
B.C. 776, and were celebrated every fourth year.

[2199] It was destroyed in the year B.C. 572 by the Eleans, not a
vestige of it being left. The Alpheus retains the name of Alfio.

[2200] Or “the Fish,” from its peculiar shape. It is now called
Katakolo.

[2201] Probably situate in the valley between Elis and Messenia, which
was so called. It is not elsewhere mentioned; and its ruins are thought
to be those near the sea, on the right bank of the river Cyparissus.
Leprion is again mentioned in c. x.

[2202] Or Platamodes. Supposed to be the present Aja Kyriaki.

[2203] This city survived through the middle ages, when it was called
Arkadia. In 1525 it was destroyed by the Turks, and when rebuilt
resumed nearly its ancient name as Cyparissia, by which it is now
called. The bay or gulf is called the Gulf of Arkadia.

[2204] Messenian Pylos probably stood on the site of the modern Erana;
Pouqueville says however that it is still called Pilo, and other
writers place it at Zonchio. It stood on the modern Bay of Navarino.

[2205] Its site was at the spot called Palæo Kastro, near the modern
town of Modon. The site of Messenian Helos, so called from its position
in the marshes, τὸ ἕλος, is now unknown.

[2206] Now Capo Gallo.

[2207] It stood on the western side of the Messenian Gulf, which
from it was called the Asinæan Gulf. Grisso, or, according to some,
Iaratcha, occupies its site. Koroni however is most probably the spot
where it stood, the inhabitants of ancient Corone having removed to
it. Petalidhi stands on the site of Corone. A small portion of the
Messenian Gulf was probably called the Coronean.

[2208] Now Cape Matapan.

[2209] Now the Pyrnatza.

[2210] Its ruins, which are extensive, are to be seen in the vicinity
of the modern village of Mavromati. Ithome was the citadel of Messene,
on a mountain of the same name, now called Vourcano.

[2211] It is supposed that in ancient times it occupied the site of the
more modern Samos or Samia in Triphylia. The modern Sareni is thought
to occupy its site.

[2212] Dorion or Dorium, the spot where, according to Homer, the Muses
punished Thamyris with blindness, is supposed to have been situate on
the modern plain of Sulima.

[2213] Nothing seems to be known of this place; but it is not
improbable that it gave its name to the place so called in Sicily,
originally a Messenian colony.

[2214] Or Tænarus, afterwards called Cænopolis. The present town of
Kisternes, or Kimaros, occupies its site.

[2215] Its site is generally placed at Sklavokhori, six miles from
Sparta; but Leake supposes it to have been situate on the hill called
Aghia Kyriaki, between that place and Sparta.

[2216] Or Pharis. The present Chitries occupies its site.

[2217] Or Leuctrum, on the river Pamisus, now called Levtros. It must
not be confounded with the town in Bœotia where the Thebans defeated
the Spartans, B.C. 371.

[2218] Or Lacedæmon. Its site is occupied by the modern villages of
Magula and Psykhiko. The principal modern town in the vicinity is
Mistra.

[2219] Or Therapnæ, on the left bank of the Eurotas. Some ruins of it
are still to be seen.

[2220] Considerable ruins of it are still to be seen to the N.E. of the
modern town of Skarhamula.

[2221] Authors are not agreed as to the site of this town and that of
Anthea or Anthene.

[2222] Memorable for the pitched battle between 300 Argives and 300
Spartans,—Othryades being the sole survivor of the Spartans, and
Alcenor and Chromius of the Argives.

[2223] By Homer called Enope.

[2224] Pente Dactylon, or Pente Dactyli, the “Five Fingers,” is the
present name of the range of Taygetus. Its principal summits are now
St. Elias and Paixamadhi. The river Eurotas is now called Iris and
Niris in its upper and middle course, and Basili-potamo from the
Spartan plain to the sea.

[2225] Ægila, according to Leake, occupied the site of the present
Scutari; if so, this gulf was probably the Gulf of Scutari. Psamathus
was near the point of Tænarum.

[2226] Or Gythium, near the mouth of the Eurotas. It was famous for
its cheeses. The ruins are called Paleopoli, a little to the north of
Marathonisi.

[2227] Now Capo Santo Angelo.

[2228] Now Capo Skillo.

[2229] Or Bœæ. Its ruins are to be seen at the head of the Gulf of
Vatika.

[2230] It stood on the site of the place called Palæ-Emvasia, above
Monembasia.

[2231] Its site is the modern Porto Kari, according to Ansart.

[2232] Leake places Cyphanta either at Cyparissi, or farther north, at
Lenidhi. Ansart makes it the modern Porto Botte, or Stilo.

[2233] Now the Banitza. The Erasinus is the modern Kephalari.

[2234] So called from its breed of horses. It is now also called Argos;
three leagues from Napoli di Romania.

[2235] Its site is now called Milos. In the marshes in its vicinity
Hercules was said to have killed the Lernæan Hydra.

[2236] Karvata is the name of the place on its site. Its ruins are
numerous, and of great magnificence.

[2237] Its ruins are of the most interesting nature, presenting
enormous masses of stone, of Cyclopian architecture. The spot is at the
present day called Palæ-Nauplia.

[2238] It must not be confounded with the place in Arcadia, where
Epaminondas fell. Its site appears to be unknown.

[2239] Or Apesas, in the territory of Cleonæ, now called Fuka. Artemius
is probably the present Malvouni, or Malcyo.

[2240] A river of the same name rose in this mountain; its identity is
unknown.

[2241] So called from Niobe, the sister of Pelops and wife of Amphion,
king of Thebes. The spring of Amymone ran into the lake of Lerna.

[2242] Its ruins are to be seen in the vicinity of the modern village
of Castri: they are very extensive.

[2243] The modern Dhamala occupies the site of Trœzen.

[2244] The identity of this Coryphasium seems to be unascertained.
There was a promontory of that name in Messenia; but it cannot be the
place here spoken of.

[2245] It is supposed that Pliny here alludes to Argos Hippium, which
he has previously mentioned; but only in connection with the rivers
Inachus and Erasinus, and not as included in the list of the towns of
Argolis. The origin of the term “Dipsian” is probably unknown. It could
hardly allude to drought, as Argos was abundantly supplied with water.
But see B. vii. c. 57.

[2246] Ansart says that this is the modern Porto Estremo, at the mouth
of the Saronic Gulf.

[2247] Hesychius says that oaks were called σαρωνιδὲς in the language
of ancient Greece. This gulf is now called the Gulf of Egina, or of
Athens.

[2248] He was worshipped here under the form of a serpent; and his
temple, five miles from Epidaurus, was resorted to by patients from
all parts of Greece for the cure of their diseases. The ruins of this
temple are still to be seen, and those of the theatre at Epidaurus are
very extensive. The village of Pidharvo stands in the midst of the
ruins.

[2249] The modern Capo Franco.

[2250] Lapie takes Anthedus, or Anthedon, to be the place now called
Porto d’Athene.

[2251] This appears to have been a port of Corinth, on a promontory
of the same name, meaning, probably from its shape, the “Bull’s Head
Point.”

[2252] Called the ‘Posideium’; in its vicinity the games were
celebrated. The Isthmian Sanctuary was especially famous as a place of
refuge.

[2253] From δρυμωδὴς, “woody,” it being filled with groves and forests.

[2254] Now called the Khan of Tripotamo.

[2255] Now called Paleopoli. Here Epaminondas fell, fighting against
the Spartans, B.C. 362.

[2256] In the N.E. of Arcadia. Its ruins are supposed to be those seen
near the modern Chionia. It was in the vicinity of the lake of the same
name, the scene of one of the labours of Hercules.

[2257] An important city: the modern Piali marks its site.

[2258] Built upon the ruins of the ancient Mantinea.

[2259] An ancient town mentioned by Homer, N.W. of Mantinea. The modern
Kalpaki stands on its site.

[2260] Or Pheneus, on the N.W. of Arcadia. Phonia stands on its site.

[2261] Near Tegea; said to have been the birth-place of Evander. On the
foundation of Megalopolis, it was nearly deserted, but was restored by
Antoninus Pius. Its ruins are supposed to be those seen near the modern
village of Thana, according to Ansart.

[2262] It being said to have been so called in compliment to Evander, a
native, as above stated, of Palantium.

[2263] Founded by the advice of Epaminondas, after the battle of
Leuctra, B.C. 371, near the frontiers of Messenia. The ruins of its
theatre, once the largest in Greece, are the only remains of it now to
be seen, near the modern village of Sinano.

[2264] It contained a famous temple of Æsculapius. Its ruins are to be
seen near the village of Atzikolo. The exact site of Bucolion, which
was near Megalopolis, is probably unknown, though Ansart says that the
spot is called Troupiais. Of Carnion nothing is known.

[2265] The town of Parrhasia, which is mentioned by Homer, seems to
have given name to the Parrhasian district. Leake thinks it to be the
same as Lycosura.

[2266] On the river Ladon: its ruins are seen near the modern Vanena.

[2267] In the west of Arcadia, on the river Alpheus.

[2268] Or “Juno’s Town.” It was a place of great importance, situate
on the lower Alpheus. Its remains are to be seen on a hill west of the
village of Aianni, or St. John. They are very inconsiderable. Its wine
was highly esteemed, and still maintains its ancient celebrity.

[2269] Of Pylæ, Pallene, Agræ, and Epium, nothing appears to be known.

[2270] Or Cynætha, in the north of Arcadia, upon the Aroanian
mountains, beyond the natural boundaries of Arcadia. The modern village
of Kalavryta occupies its site; but there are scarcely any traces of
its remains.

[2271] Or Lepreum, so called to distinguish it from Lepreum in Elis.

[2272] Nothing seems to be known of this Parthenium. Alea lay between
Orchomenus and Stymphalus. Its ruins have been discovered in the dark
valley of Skotini, a mile to the N.E. of the village of Buyati.

[2273] Its site has the modern name of Palæopyrgos. The sites of
Enispe, mentioned by Homer, and Macistum, are unknown.

[2274] Or Cleitor, a famous town of Arcadia. Its ruins are to be seen
on the plain of Kalzana, or Katzanes. One of the rivulets that ran past
it still retains the name of Clitora.

[2275] Its ruins, few in number, but testifying its importance, are
found near the modern village of Kleves, not far from Kurtesi. The
Nemean games were celebrated in honour of Hercules in the grove of
Nemea, between Cleonæ and Phlius.

[2276] From the village of Bembina there, mentioned by Strabo, and on
which Koutzomati probably now stands.

[2277] Now called Olono. It received its name from the Centaur Pholus,
accidentally slain by one of the poisoned arrows of Hercules.

[2278] The modern Zyria.

[2279] Nomiai and Hellenitza are modern names given to this mountain.

[2280] In the south of Arcadia. It is now called Roïnon.

[2281] Or Artemisium, forming the boundary between Argolis and Arcadia.
It is now called Turniki.

[2282] The pass by this mountain from Argolis to Tegea is still called
Partheni.

[2283] Now called Zembi, according to Ansart.

[2284] The town of Nonacris stood at its foot. The river Styx took its
rise in these mountains.

[2285] Now called the Landona.

[2286] The town now called Fonia, already mentioned by Pliny. The
waters of its marshes were discharged by a subterranean passage, said
to have been made by Hercules.

[2287] Now called the Dogana. The two principal heights of Mount
Erymanthus are Olonos and Kalefoni.

[2288] The people of Aliphira, a town of Arcadia, in the district of
Cynura. Considerable remains of it are still to be seen on the hill of
Nerovitza.

[2289] The people of Abea, in Messenia.

[2290] The people of Pyrgos, in Arcadia.

[2291] The people of Paroræa, in Arcadia. Of the two next, nothing
appears to be known.

[2292] The inhabitants of Typaneæ, in Elis.

[2293] The people of Thrius, in Elis, near Patræ.

[2294] The people of Tritia, in Achaia, now Chalanthistra.

[2295] Nero abolished the institutions of the Roman province of
Achaia, which had been assigned to the Roman senate, and governed
by a proconsul, granting it its liberty. Vespasian, however, again
established the provincial government, and compelled the Greeks to pay
a yearly tribute.

[2296] Now Vostitza.

[2297] See p. 281.

[2298] From the Greek ἀκτὴ, “the sea-shore.”

[2299] It still retains its ancient name.

[2300] Or Pegæ. It lay on the borders of the Corinthian Gulf, being,
as Pliny says, the utmost point of the Peloponnesus on that side, as
Megara was on the Saronic Gulf. According to Kruse, Psato occupies its
site, but according to Lapie, Alepochori. The former is most probably
correct.

[2301] On the Corinthian Gulf. Porto Ghermano occupies its site.

[2302] On the Saronic Gulf, to the north of Cenchreæ. The present Porto
Cocosi occupies its site.

[2303] Now Leandra, according to Ansart.

[2304] Or Crommyon. It was the chief place on the Saronic Gulf, between
the Isthmus, properly so called, and Megara. Its ruins are thought to
be those seen near the chapel of Saint Theodorus. It was said to have
been the haunt of the wild boar killed by Theseus.

[2305] So called from being the scene of the ravages of the robber
Sciron. They are now called Kaki Scala.

[2306] Famous as the principal seat of the worship of the goddesses
Demeter and Persephone. Its remains are to be seen at the modern
Lefsina.

[2307] Pera Chora marks its site. It was a member of the Tetrapolis of
Attica, and Probalinthos another.

[2308] Ulrichs, the best authority, places the port of Phalerum at the
east corner of the great Phaleric Bay, in the vicinity of Tripirghi,
or the Three Towers. The three harbours of the Piræus are the present
Phanari, Stratiotiki or Paschalimani, and Drako or Porto Leone.

[2309] The Piræus was united to the city by two walls, called the “Long
Walls,” forty stadia in length. The length of the Phaleric wall was
thirty-five stadia.

[2310] It is to be regretted that such was his opinion. He could have
well spared space for a description of it.

[2311] The city of Cephisia, still called Kivisia, was one of the
twelve cities of Cecrops. The fountain of transparent water is still to
be seen here.

[2312] Or the “Nine Springs.” It was the only source of good water for
drinking purposes in Athens. This spring is still called by its ancient
name. Of Larine nothing seems to be known.

[2313] This is thought to have been the ancient name of the mountain
afterwards known as Pentelicus, so famous for its marble, now called
Mendeli or Penteli.

[2314] The northern or Greater Hymettus is now called Telo-Vuni, the
southern or Lesser Mavro-Vuni.

[2315] On the N.E. of Athens, now called the Hill of Saint George.

[2316] Probably on the river of the same name.

[2317] Now Capo Colonna.

[2318] North of Sunium and the modern bay of Panorimo. Thoricus was one
of the Demi of Attica.

[2319] This was the name of two Demi, though probably one place. It lay
on the east coast to the north of Thoricus. Its harbour was probably
the modern Dhaskalio; and the town is placed by Leake at the ruins
called Paleokastro, to the south of the village of Dardheza.

[2320] On the east coast, between Prasiæ and Brauron.

[2321] One of the twelve ancient cities of Cecrops, on the eastern
coast. Its name is supposed to be preserved in those of the villages
Vraona and Paleo Vraona.

[2322] A Demus belonging to the tribe Æantis. It was famous for its
temple of Nemesis, the goddess of retribution. The present Obrio Castro
occupies its site.

[2323] Memorable for the defeat of the Persians by the Athenians, B.C.
490. The site of the ancient town of Marathon is thought not to have
been at the modern village of Marathon, but a place called Vrana, to
the south of it.

[2324] The eastern part of the Eleusinian plain was thus called, from
the Demus of Thria. Its exact site is uncertain.

[2325] Melite was a Demus of the tribe Cecropis, of Athens, west of the
Inner Ceramicus.

[2326] Now Oropo, on the eastern frontiers of Bœotia and Attica, near
the Euripus. It originally belonged to the Bœotians.

[2327] Its ruins are supposed to be those seen eight miles from Egripo.
Lukisi has also been suggested.

[2328] Its ruins are still to be seen on the S.W. slope of Mount Faga.

[2329] On the S.E. slope of Mount Helicon. Its ruins are to be seen at
the modern Eremo or Rimokastro.

[2330] Now Livadhia. The celebrated cave of Trophonius stood in its
vicinity.

[2331] Extensive remains of it are still to be seen; but the modern
town of Theba or Stiva stands only on the site of its ancient Cadmea or
citadel.

[2332] To distinguish it from places of the same name in Egypt,
Phthiotis, and Lucania.

[2333] On the range of mountains of that name separating Bœotia from
Megaris and Attica. The forest abounded in game, and the vicinity was a
favourite scene of the poetic legends. Paleovuni is the highest summit
of the Heliconian range. Leake fixes the Grove of the Muses at the
present church of Saint Nicholas, at the foot of Mount Marandali, one
of the summits of Helicon.

[2334] These fountains or springs are very difficult to identify,
but Hippocrene, or the “Horse-Spring” (said to have been produced by
Pegasus striking the ground with his feet), was probably at the present
Makariotissa; while Aganippe is the fountain that flows midway between
Paleo-panaghia and Pyrgaki.

[2335] This place was originally a member of the Bœotian confederacy,
but joined the Athenians, though it did not become an Attic Demus.
Leake thinks that its ruins are those seen at Myupoli. Ross thinks
that it stood to the east of Ghyfto-kastro, while other writers are
of opinion that it stood more to the west, near the modern village of
Kundara.

[2336] Razed to the ground by the Roman prætor Lucretius, for having
espoused the cause of king Perseus. Its remains are seen about a mile
from the village of Mazi, on the road from Thebes to Lebadæa.

[2337] Memorable for the defeat of the Persians under Mardonius, B.C.
479.

[2338] Distant twenty stadia from Orchomenus. Leake places it at the
modern Izamali, Forchhammer at Avro-Kastro.

[2339] Its site is uncertain. Leake supposes it to be at Paleokastro,
between the north end of Lake Hylica and the foot of Mount Palea.
Ulrichs places it at the south end of the lake.

[2340] The modern Kakosia occupies its site.

[2341] At the foot of Mount Cithæron. Leake places it eastward of
Katzula, at the foot of the rocks there.

[2342] Leake identifies it with the ruins on the torrent of Plataniki,
below the mountain of Siamata. Pausanias says it was situate seven
stadia beyond Teumessus, and at the foot of Hypatus, now Siamata.

[2343] On Lake Copaïs. The modern village of Topolia occupies its site.

[2344] The waters of the Cephisus here burst forth from their
subterraneous channel.

[2345] On Lake Copaïs. Its ruins are at a short distance to the south
of the modern Kardhitza.

[2346] South of Mount Helicon. Its principal remains are those of its
theatre, a temple of Hera, and the agora or market-place.

[2347] On the borders of Phocis; famous for the battles fought in its
vicinity between the Athenians and Bœotians, B.C. 447, and between
Philip of Macedon and the Athenians and Bœotians, B.C. 338, and that in
which Sylla defeated the generals of Mithridates B.C. 86. It stood on
the site of the modern village of Kapurna.

[2348] On the river Copaïs, at the foot of Mount Tilphusion.

[2349] On the river of that name, and on the road from Thebes to
Anthedon.

[2350] Its site appears to be unknown.

[2351] Enumerated by Homer with Aulis. Ancient critics have, without
sufficient reason, identified it with Hysiæ.

[2352] It was sacked by the Athenians, B.C. 413, and in ruins in the
time of Pausanias.

[2353] The modern Grimadha or Grimala occupies its site.

[2354] The modern channel of Egripo.

[2355] The place where the Grecian fleet assembled when about to sail
for Troy. Leake says that its harbour is now called Vathy, evidently
from the Greek βαθὺς, “wide.”

[2356] So called from dwelling near Mount Cnemis.

[2357] Its ruins are to be seen three miles from the modern Talanti.

[2358] Now the Golfo di Talanti.

[2359] On the Eubœan Sea, which here extended to the Corinthian Gulf.
It was in ruins in the time of Strabo. Cynus was the chief sea-port of
the Locri Opuntii. Its site is marked by a tower called Palæopyrgo, and
some ruins to the south of the village of Livanates.

[2360] The modern village of Lefti stands on its site, and there are
some ruins to be seen.

[2361] In C. iv. of this Book.

[2362] Or Cnemides, a fortress built on the range of Mount Cnemis, near
the modern Nikoraki.

[2363] Ravaged by Philip of Macedon. Its ruins are near the modern
village of Vogdhani.

[2364] The Lower Larymna. Its ruins are seen between the modern
Matzumadi and Martini.

[2365] Its ruins are to be seen near the modern Andera.

[2366] Between Daphnus and Cynus. Gell found its ruins on a hill near
the sea-shore.

[2367] Its ruins are to be seen three miles from those of Thronium.

[2368] Now called the Gulf of Zeitoun. The people from whom it received
its name were the Malienses.

[2369] Its ruins are two leagues from the modern town of Zeitoun.

[2370] Or Sperchia.

[2371] Strabo says that it lay below the town of Pindus. It is perhaps
the present Palæo Choria.

[2372] Its ruins are placed by Leake near the modern Mariolates.

[2373] Like Pindus, one of the four towns or Tetrapolis of Doris. Its
site corresponds to the modern Gravia.

[2374] He seems to think that the name Græcus is older than that of
Hellen, in which he is supported by Apollodorus.

[2375] So called from Echion, fabled to have sprung from the dragon’s
teeth. Its site is marked by the modern village called Akhino. The
Sperchius is now called the Ellada.

[2376] This famous spot still retains its name. It is also called Bocca
di Lupo.

[2377] From τραχὺς, “narrow,” in allusion to the narrowness of the
mountain passes. Brotier places it on the site of the modern Zeitoun,
but he is probably in error.

[2378] A peak of the range of Œta.

[2379] The name of a town and small district of Phthiotis: it
eventually gave its name to the whole of Greece, which by its
inhabitants was called Hellas.

[2380] Near the river Amphrysus. Leake places it at Kefalosi, at the
extremity of Mount Othrys.

[2381] The modern Zeitoun.

[2382] Said to have been the city of Achilles.

[2383] According to Stephanus of Byzantium, Cierium was identical with
Arne. Leake places it at the modern Mataranga.

[2384] So called from the people called Minyæ, who derived their name
from Minyas, the father of Orchomenus. In the time of Strabo, this
city, the capital of the Minyan empire, was in ruins. Its site is now
called Seripu.

[2385] Leake places its site on the left bank of the Peneius, opposite
the village of Gunitza.

[2386] The residence of Admetus, and in later times of the tyrants of
Thessaly. The modern Valestina occupies its site.

[2387] Spoken of in C. 17 of the present book.

[2388] The ancient capital of the Pelasgi. It is now called Larissa,
Larza, or Ienitchen.

[2389] Leake places Gomphi on the heights now called Episkopi, on the
left bank of the Bliuri.

[2390] Its ruins are said to be seen about eight miles from the modern
city of Volo.

[2391] The city of Volo stands on its site. The Gulf is called the Bay
of Volo.

[2392] This is not strictly correct. Demetrias was founded by Demetrius
Poliorcetes, about two or three miles to the west of Pagasa, the
inhabitants of which were removed to that place. Its remains are to
be seen, according to Leake, on the face of a maritime height called
Goritza.

[2393] Pharsalus, now Farsa or Fersala, in Thessaliotis. On its plain
Pompey was defeated by Cæsar, B.C. 48.

[2394] Or Cranon; said to have been anciently called Ephyre. Leake
places its site at some ruins called Palea Larissa, distant two hours
and twenty-seven minutes’ journey from Larissa. It was the residence of
the powerful family of the Scopadæ.

[2395] This range in Macedonia is now called Verria. Herodotus states
that it was impassably for cold, and that beyond were the gardens of
Midas, where roses grew spontaneously.

[2396] The name of the eastern part of the great mountain chain
extending west and east from the Promontory of Acroceraunia on the
Adriatic to the Thermaic Gulf. It is now called by the Greeks Elymbo,
and by the Turks Semavat-Evi, the “Abode of the Celestials.” A portion
of this range was called Pierus; and Ossa, now Kissavo, the “ivy-clad,”
was divided from Olympus on the N.W. by the Vale of Tempe. Othrys
extended from the south of Mount Pindus, to the eastern coast and the
Promontory between the Gulf of Pagasa and the northern point of Eubœa.

[2397] Now called Plessedhi or Zagora; situate in the district of
Magnesia in Thessaly, between lake Bœbeis and the Pagasæan Gulf.

[2398] Now the Gouropotamo.

[2399] Flowing into the Asopus near Thermopylæ.

[2400] In Pieria. Supposed to be the modern Litokhoro.

[2401] The modern Rajani.

[2402] This lake received the rivers Onchestus, Amyrus, and others.
It is now called Karla, from an adjoining village which has ceased to
exist. The town of Bœbe was in its vicinity.

[2403] Now the Salambria or Salamria.

[2404] The _jugerum_ was properly 240 feet long and 120 broad, but
Pliny uses it here solely as a measure of length; corresponding
probably to the Greek πλέθρον, 100 Grecian or 104 Roman feet long.
Tempe is the only channel through which the waters of the Thessalian
plain flow into the sea.

[2405] Il. B. ii. c. 262. He alludes to the poetical legend that the
Orcus or Titaresius was a river of the infernal regions. Its waters
were impregnated with an oily substance, whence probably originated the
story of the unwillingness of the Peneus to mingle with it. It is now
called the Elasonitiko or Xeraghi.

[2406] Near Libethrum; said to be a favourite haunt of the Muses,
whence their name “Libethrides.” It is near the modern Goritza.

[2407] Leake places its site on the height between the southernmost
houses of Volo and Vlakho-Makhala. No remains of it are to be seen.

[2408] Ansart says that on its site stands the modern Korakai Pyrgos.

[2409] Near Neokhori, and called Eleutherokhori.

[2410] Now Kortos, near Argalisti, according to Ansart.

[2411] Now Haghios Georgios, or the Promontory of St. George.

[2412] At the foot of Mount Pelion. Leake places it at some ruins near
a small port called Tamukhari. The chestnut tree derived its Greek and
modern name from this place, in the vicinity of which it still abounds.

[2413] Probably near the village of Hagia Eutimia, according to Ansart.

[2414] Now Trikeri.

[2415] Melibœa was near the modern Mintzeles, and Rhizus near Pesi
Dendra, according to Ansart.

[2416] Ansart says, in the vicinity of the modern Conomio.

[2417] Situate at the foot of Mount Homole, between Tempe and the
village of Karitza. Leake thinks that the Convent of St. Demetrius, on
the lower part of Mount Kissavo, stands on its site.

[2418] Now Tournovo, according to Ansart.

[2419] Now called Democo, according to Ansart.

[2420] Between the Titaresius and the Peneus. The modern village of
Tatari stands on its site.

[2421] Probably the place of the same name mentioned in the last
Chapter.

[2422] Probably the same as Acharræ on the river Pamisus, mentioned by
Livy, B. xxxii. c. 13.

[2423] On the Dotian Plain, mentioned by Hesiod, and probably the same
place that Pindar calls Lacereia.

[2424] The birth-place of Protesilaüs, the first victim of the Trojan
war.

[2425] Nothing is known of this place. The word “porro” appears instead
of it in some editions.

[2426] Philip, the Conqueror of Greece, and Alexander, the Conqueror of
Asia.

[2427] The original Emathia, as mentioned by Homer, is coupled with
Pieria as lying between the Hellenic cities of Thessaly and Pæonia, and
Thrace.

[2428] A tribe of the south-west of Mœsia, and extending over a part
of Illyricum. According to Strabo, they were a wild race, of filthy
habits, living in caves under dunghills, but fond of music.

[2429] A people of Mœsia, mentioned in C. 29 of the last Book.

[2430] Supposed by some writers to be the same place as Edessa. Ansart
says it is the spot now known as Moglena.

[2431] Now Verria in Roumelia. St. Paul and Silas withdrew to this
place from Thessalonica. The remains are very considerable.

[2432] Described by Livy as of great strength. It occupied the site of
the modern Stagus.

[2433] Surnamed Lyncestis; the chief town of Upper Macedonia. It must
have stood not far from the modern town of Felurina.

[2434] Now the Platamona.

[2435] Now Kitron. The Romans usually called it Citron or Citrus.

[2436] In the inmost recess of the Thermaic Gulf. Leake supposes it to
have occupied the site of the present Palea Khora, near Kapsokhori.

[2437] Now the Vistritza, by the Turks called Inje-Karra. Cæsar calls
it the boundary between Macedonia and Thessaly.

[2438] The people apparently of Aloros just mentioned.

[2439] Vallæ and Phylacæ appear to have been two towns of Pieria.

[2440] The people of Cyrrhus; probably on the site of the present
Vistritza. Leake however makes a place called Paleokastro to occupy its
site. Tyrissæ was probably in its vicinity.

[2441] Now Alaklisi, upon a lake formed by the Lydias. Philip made it
the capital of Macedonia, and it was the birth-place of Alexander the
Great. It was made a Roman colony under the name of Julia Augusta Pella.

[2442] Its ruins are still called Stoli.

[2443] There were two places of this name in Macedonia; one called
Antigonia Psaphara in Chalcidice, and the other in Pæonia.

[2444] Between Idomene and the plains of Pella. As Pliny here says, it
was a different place from Europus of Almopia, by which the Rhœdias
flows. Of the following places nothing seems to be known.

[2445] Coupled by Herodotus with Pella. Eordæa seems to have been the
name of the district on the river Eordaicus, identified with the modern
Devol.

[2446] They dwelt in the vicinity of Mount Scomium. The river Axius is
the modern Vardhari.

[2447] Or Thrace.

[2448] People of Paroræa in Thrace.

[2449] The people probably of Eordæa, already mentioned.

[2450] Leake thinks that Almopia was the name of the district now
called Moglena.

[2451] The Mygdones were a Thracian people in the east of Macedonia, on
the Thermaic Gulf.

[2452] The people of Arethusa, a town of Bisaltia in Macedonia, in the
pass of Aulon. Euripides, the tragic poet, was buried here.

[2453] A town of Mygdonia.

[2454] The people of Idomene, a town about twelve miles from the pass
of Stena, now Demirkapi, or the ‘Iron Gate,’ on the river Vardhari.

[2455] Their district of Doberus is supposed to have been near the
modern Doghiran.

[2456] It has been suggested that Garescus stood on the same site as
the modern Nurocopo. Many of these peoples are now entirely unknown.

[2457] The people of Lyncestis, in Macedonia, of Illyrian origin and on
the frontiers of Illyria. Lyncus was the ancient capital, Heraclæa the
more modern one.

[2458] Probably the inhabitants of the slopes of Mount Othrys.

[2459] Amantia was properly in Illyria, to the south of the river Aoüs.
Leake places it at Nivitza.

[2460] A people of the north of Epirus, on the borders of Macedonia.
They were said to have derived their name from Orestes, who, after the
murder of his mother, founded in their territory the town of Argos
Oresticum.

[2461] A Greek city of Illyria. Dr. Holland discovered its remains at
Graditza on the Aoüs or Viosa.

[2462] The bulwark of the Macedonian maritime frontier to the south.
Leake discovered its site near the modern Malathria.

[2463] On the right bank of the river Strymon in Thracian Macedonia. It
stood on the site of the modern Zervokhori.

[2464] A people of Epirus on the borders of Thessaly.

[2465] In Mygdonia, at the mouth of the Axius—King Perseus put all its
male inhabitants to death. Its site was at or near the modern Kulakia.

[2466] Now Saloniki. Its original name was Thermæ, but it was first
made an important city by Cassander, B.C. 315, who gave it its new name
in honour of his wife, the sister of Alexander the Great: St. Paul
visited it about A.D. 53, and two years after addressed from Corinth
two Epistles to his converts in the city.

[2467] Polybius says, in Strabo, B. vii., 267 miles.

[2468] As already mentioned, Thermæ became merged in Thessalonica, when
refounded by Cassander under that name.

[2469] Now the Gulf of Saloniki.

[2470] This is probably an error. Pydna, already mentioned, lay far
inland in the district of Pieria.

[2471] On the peninsula of Pallene. Its male inhabitants were put to
death by the Athenians in the Peloponnesian war.

[2472] Now Capo Paliuri, the extreme point of the Isthmus of Pallene.

[2473] The most westerly of the three peninsulas of Chalcidice. Phlegra
is generally understood to have been its former name.

[2474] Perhaps the same as Nyssa, between the rivers Nestus or Mestus,
and Strymon.

[2475] Its ruins are now called Pinaka. It was a colony of the
Corinthians but refounded by Cassander, King Philip having previously
destroyed the city.

[2476] South-east of Thessalonica, and north of Chalcidice. It was
given by King Philip to the Olynthians.

[2477] Near Mount Athos.

[2478] Now Molivo, at the head of the Toronaic Gulf, part of which
thence took its name.

[2479] The name of a promontory at the extremity of the peninsula of
Sithonia, in Chalcidice. It seems to correspond with the modern Capo
Kartali.

[2480] In the district of Chalcidice, on the S.W. of the peninsula of
Sithonia.

[2481] On the east of the peninsula of Sithonia. It gave its name to
the Sinus Singiticus or Singitic Gulf.

[2482] Now Monte Santo, at the end of the long peninsula running out
from Chalcidice.

[2483] This is a mistake. It is only forty miles in length. From Lieut.
Smith (_Journal of Royal Geogr. Soc._ vol. vii. p. 65) we learn that
its average breadth is about four miles; consequently Pliny’s statement
as to its circumference must be greatly exaggerated. Juvenal, Sat.
x. l. 174, mentions the story of the canal as a specimen of Greek
falsehood; but distinct traces have survived, to be seen by modern
travellers, all the way from the Gulf of Monte Santo to the Bay of Erso
in the Gulf of Contessa, except about 200 yards in the middle, which
has been probably filled up.

[2484] Or Acrothoüm. Pliny, with Strabo and Mela, errs in thinking
that it stood _on_ the _mountain_. It stood on the _peninsula_ only,
probably on the site of the modern Lavra.

[2485] Or the ‘Heaven City,’ from its elevated position. It was founded
by Alexarchus, brother of Cassander, king of Macedon.

[2486] Probably on the west side of the peninsula, south of Thyssus.

[2487] Or “long-lived.”

[2488] Now Erisso; on the east side of the Isthmus, about a mile and a
half from the canal of Xerxes. There are ruins here of a large mole.

[2489] A little to the north of the Isthmus now called Stavro. It was
the birth-place of Aristotle the philosopher, commonly called the
Stagirite, and was, in consequence, restored by Philip, by whom it had
been destroyed; or, as Pliny says in B. vii. c. 30, by Alexander the
Great.

[2490] The name of the central one of the three peninsulas projecting
from Chalcidice. The poets use the word _Sithonius_ frequently as
signifying ‘Thracian.’

[2491] Possibly not the same as the Heraclea Sintica previously
mentioned.

[2492] Now called Pollina, south of Lake Bolbe, on the road from
Thessalonica to Amphipolis.

[2493] Sacred to Poseidon or Neptune. Now Capo Stavros in Thessaly,
the west front of the Gulf of Pagasa, if indeed this is the place here
meant.

[2494] On the left or eastern bank of the river Strymon, which flowed
round it, whence its name Amphi-polis, “round the city.” Its site is
now occupied by a village called Neokhorio, in Turkish Jeni-Keni or
“Newtown.” A few remains are still to be seen. The bay at the mouth of
the Strymon, now Struma or Kara-Sou, is called the Gulf of Orphano.

[2495] A Thracian people, extending from the river Strymon on the east
to Crestonica on the west.

[2496] In Mount Scomius namely, one of the Hæmus or Balkan range.

[2497] Under Alexander the Great. On his death his empire was torn in
pieces by the contentions of his generals.

[2498] In allusion to the legendary accounts of the Indian expeditions
of Bacchus and Hercules.

[2499] On the conquest of Perseus. Plutarch says that these seventy
cities were pillaged in one and the same hour. They were thus punished
for their support of Perseus.

[2500] Alexander the Great and Paulus Æmilius.

[2501] Or præfectures, as the Romans called them.

[2502] In the last Chapter.

[2503] An extensive tribe occupying the country about the rivers Axius,
Strymon, and Nestus or Mestus.

[2504] This river is now called the Mesto or Kara-Sou.

[2505] A range between the Strymon and the Nestus, now the Pangea or
Despoto-Dagh.

[2506] Probably a canton or division of the Bessi.

[2507] The most powerful people of Thrace; dwelling on both sides of
the Artiscus, and on the plain of the Hebrus.

[2508] Now the Maritza. It rises near the point where Mount Scomius
joins Mount Rhodope. The localities of most of the tribes here named
are unknown.

[2509] The name of this people is often used by the poets to express
the whole of Thrace. The district of Edonis, on the left bank of the
Strymon, properly extended from Lake Cercinitis as far east as the
river Nestus.

[2510] Or “Trouble City,” also called Eumolpias.

[2511] Or “Philip’s City,” founded by Philip of Macedon; still called
Philippopoli.

[2512] Because it stood on a hill with three summits. Under the Roman
empire it was the capital of the province of Thracia.

[2513] On account probably of the winding nature of the roads; as
the height of the Balkan range in no part exceeds 3000 feet. With
Theopompus probably originated the erroneous notion among the ancients
as to its exceeding height.

[2514] The people of Mœsia. The Aorsi and Getæ are again mentioned in
C. 25 of this Book.

[2515] The inhabitants of the present Bulgaria, it is supposed.

[2516] Following the account which represent him as a king of the
Cicones, and dwelling in the vicinity of Mount Rhodope. The Sithonii
here mentioned dwelt about the mouth of the Ister, or Danube, and were
a different people from those of Sithonia, in Chalcidice, referred to
in a previous note.

[2517] The Sea of Marmora.

[2518] It is difficult to conceive which place of this name is here
alluded to, as there seem to have been four places on this coast so
called, and all mentioned by Pliny in the present Book.

[2519] Called Æsyma by Homer; between the rivers Strymon and Nestus.

[2520] Now called Kavallo, on the Strymonic Gulf. The site of Datos
appears to be unknown.

[2521] Now called Filiba, or Felibejik, on a height of Mount Pangæus,
on the river Gangites, between the Nestus and the Strymon. It was
founded by Philip, on the site of the ancient town of Crenides, in the
vicinity of the gold mines. Here Augustus and Antony defeated Brutus
and Cassius, B.C. 42; and here the Apostle Paul first preached the
Gospel in Europe, A.D. 53. See Acts xvi. 12.

[2522] Its site seems unknown, but it is evidently a different place
from that mentioned in the last Chapter.

[2523] Also called Mestus.

[2524] Sintica, previously mentioned.

[2525] Now Aco Mamas, at the head of the Toronaic Gulf. It was the
most important Greek city on the coast of Macedon. It was taken and
destroyed by Philip, B.C. 347, and its inhabitants sold as slaves.
Mecyberna, already mentioned, was used as its sea-port.

[2526] On the coast, and east of the river Nestus. Its people were
proverbial for their stupidity, though it produced the philosophers
Democritus, Protagoras, and Anaxarchus. No traces of its site are to be
found.

[2527] Now called the Lagos Buru. The name of the Bistones is sometimes
used by the poets for that of the Thracians in general.

[2528] Or mares rather. Diomedes was the son of Ares, or Mars, and king
of the Bistones. He was slain by Hercules.

[2529] By some identified with the modern Curnu, by others with Bauron.

[2530] Or Ismarus, at the foot of Mount Ismarus.

[2531] Now Marogna.

[2532] A promontory opposite the island of Samothrace.

[2533] A town on a promontory of the same name, said to have been
frequented by Orpheus.

[2534] The Plain of Doriscus is now called the Plain of Romigik.
Parisot suggests the true reading here to be 100,000, or, as some MSS.
have it, 120,000, there being nothing remarkable in a plain containing
10,000 men. Pliny however does not mention it as being remarkable, but
merely suggests that the method used by Xerxes here for numbering his
host is worthy of attention.

[2535] Now the Maritza. At its mouth it divides into two branches, the
eastern forming the port of Stentor.

[2536] Still called Enos.

[2537] A son of Priam and Hecuba, murdered by Polymnestor, king of the
Thracian Chersonesus, to obtain his treasures. See the Æneid, B. iii.

[2538] From the Greek, μάκρον τεῖχος.

[2539] Now the Gulf of Enos.

[2540] Now Ipsala, or Chapsylar, near Keshan.

[2541] Now Rodosto, or Rodostshig, on the coast of the Propontis, or
Sea of Marmora.

[2542] Now called the Peninsula of the Dardanelles, or of Gallipoli.
The wall was built to protect it from incursions from the mainland.

[2543] He here skips nearly five degrees of latitude, and at once
proceeds to the northern parts of Thrace, at the mouth of the Danube,
and moves to the south.

[2544] Or, the “city of the Ister,” at the south of Lake Halmyris, on
the Euxine. Its site is not exactly known; but by some it is supposed
to have been the same with that of the modern Kostendsje.

[2545] Now Temesvar, or Jegni Pangola, the capital of Scythia Minor. It
was said to have been so called from the Greek τέμνω, “to cut,” because
Medea here cut to pieces the body of her brother Absyrtus. It is famous
as the place of Ovid’s banishment; and here he wrote his ‘Tristia’ and
his ‘Pontic Epistles.’

[2546] Usually identified with the modern Collat, or Collati.

[2547] Its site does not appear to be known, nor yet those of many of
the towns here mentioned.

[2548] This story no doubt arose from the similarity of its name to
γέρανος, “a crane;” the cranes and the Pigmies, according to the
poets, being in a state of continual warfare.

[2549] Supposed to be the present Varna.

[2550] Now called Daphne-Soui, according to D’Anville.

[2551] Said to have been built by Aristæus, son of Apollo.

[2552] Now Missivri.

[2553] Or Anchiale, now Akiali.

[2554] Now Sizeboli, famous for its temple of Apollo, with his statue,
thirty cubits in height, which Lucullus carried to Rome. In later times
it was called Sozopolis.

[2555] Now Tiniada.

[2556] The present Midjeh, according to D’Anville.

[2557] Afterwards called Zagora, which name it still bears.

[2558] Or Straits of Constantinople.

[2559] Between Galata and Fanar, according to Brotier.

[2560] Or Golden Horn; still known by that name.

[2561] The site of the present Constantinople.

[2562] These rivers do not appear to have been identified.

[2563] The present Silivri occupies its site.

[2564] An important town of Thrace. Eski Erckli stands on its site.

[2565] Now Vizia, or Viza.

[2566] He alludes to the poetical story of Tereus, king of Thrace,
Progne, and Philomela. Aldrovandus suggests that the real cause of the
absence of the swallow is the great prevalence here of northern winds,
to which they have an aversion.

[2567] So called probably from the Thracian tribe of the Cænici, or
Cæni.

[2568] Now called Erkene, a tributary of the Hebrus.

[2569] All that is known of it is, that it is mentioned as a fortress
on the Propontis.

[2570] Hexamila now occupies its site.

[2571] The isthmus or neck of the Peninsula of Gallipoli, or the
Dardanelles.

[2572] That of Corinth. They are both about five miles wide at the
narrowest part.

[2573] Now Cardia, or Caridia. It was the birth-place of king Eumenes.

[2574] From καρδία, in consequence of its supposed resemblance to a
heart.

[2575] Lysimachus destroyed Cardia, and, building Lysimachia, peopled
it with the inhabitants.

[2576] Mannert identities it with the ancient Ægos and the modern
Galata.

[2577] More generally called Ægospotamos, the “Goat River,” upon which
the town of Ægos stood. It was here that Lysander defeated the Athenian
fleet, B.C. 405, which put an end to the Peloponnesian war.

[2578] Antoninus, in his Itinerary, makes this distance twenty-six
miles.

[2579] B. ii. c. 92. The present Straits of Gallipoli.

[2580] Now Gallipoli, a place of considerable commercial importance.

[2581] Now Ialova; famous in Grecian poetry, with Abydos, for the loves
of Hero and Leander.

[2582] Now Lamsaki.

[2583] The village of Aidos, or Avido, probably marks its site. To the
north, Xerxes passed over to Sestos on his bridge of boats, B.C. 480.

[2584] Now Capo Helles.

[2585] Now Jeni-Hisari, the N.W. promontory of Troas. Here Homer places
the Grecian camp during the Trojan war.

[2586] Meaning the “Bitch’s tomb,” the fable being that Hecuba, in her
old age, was changed into that animal. It was near the town of Madytus.

[2587] Meaning that their fleet was anchored off here during the Trojan
war.

[2588] A magnificent temple was erected near his tomb at Eleus, where
he also had a sacred grove. It was greatly enriched by the votive
offerings of Greek travellers. According to D’Anville, its site lay to
the south of Mastusia.

[2589] Now called Kilidbahr. Near this place the Spartans were defeated
by the Athenians, who erected a trophy near the tomb of Hecuba.

[2590] In the present Chapter; where he says that the distance from
Byzantium to Dyrrhachium is 711 miles. See p. 305.

[2591] Αἲξ, “a goat.” Other authors give other derivations for the name
of Ægean,—from the town of Ægæ in Eubœa, or from Ægeus, the father
of Theseus, who threw himself into it; or from Ægæa, a queen of the
Amazons, who perished there; or from Ægæon, a god of the sea; or from
the Greek αἰγὶς, “a squall,” on account of its storms.

[2592] See c. 5 of this Book.

[2593] Both places in Eubœa, mentioned in c. 21 of this Book.

[2594] Now Corfu. Of its city of Corcyra only a few ruins now exist.

[2595] There are still some remains of it near the village called
Cassopo.

[2596] Now Fano, or Merlere.

[2597] Now Paxo and Antipaxo.

[2598] On the contrary, they lie at the other end of the isle of
Corcyra. Some of them are mere rocks, and cannot be distinguished by
their ancient names. The present names of four are Sametraki, Diaplo,
Boaia, and the Isle of Ulysses.

[2599] Now Capo Drasti.

[2600] Now Capo Levkimo. The islands are those of Santo Niccolo.

[2601] Or Islands of the Teleboans.

[2602] These three seem to be those now called Magnisi, Kalamota,
and Kastus. These lie facing the promontory of Leucadia, the others
opposite Ætolia.

[2603] Opposite Acarnania: by the Venetians they were called the
Islands of Kurtzolari. Some of them are cultivated, others again are
mere rocks.

[2604] Now called Cephallenia.

[2605] Now Zante.

[2606] Now Thiaki, or Cefalogna Piccola—Little Cephallenia.

[2607] The general opinion is, that Strabo is right in identifying this
island with one of the Echinades; but it seems impossible now to say
which of them was so called.

[2608] Sometimes confounded with Cephallenia; but, according to Virgil
and Mela, as well as Pliny, they were different islands.

[2609] Crocylæa was a town of Acarnania, referred to by Homer; and
there was a district of Ithaca called Crocylcium. Pliny is probably in
error in mentioning Crocyle as an island.

[2610] Or the “Black Island;” probably from its thick foliage.

[2611] Pale, Cranii, and Proni.

[2612] So called from its fir-trees. It now has the name of Scopo.

[2613] Now Monte Stefano.

[2614] See c. 6 of this Book.

[2615] Supposed by some writers to be the same with the rocky isle now
called Dyscallio. Though mentioned by Homer, its existence was disputed
by many of the ancient commentators.

[2616] The modern Strivali and Stamphane.

[2617] The present Guardiania, according to Lapie.

[2618] According to Ansart, these were Prote, now Prodano, and Sphagia,
formerly Sphacteria, before Pylos, now called Zonchio, or Old Navarino;
the third being perhaps the isle of Bechli, in the Bay of Navarino.

[2619] Now called Sapienza, Santa Maria, and Cabrera.

[2620] Venetico and Formignes are the names of two of them.

[2621] Now Servi.

[2622] The modern Cerigo.

[2623] It is much further from the Cape of Malea or Santo Angelo than
the distance here mentioned. It derived its name of Porphyris from the
purple fishery established here by the Phœnicians.

[2624] The modern Isle of Port Tolon. Irine is the present Hipsyli
according to Leake, who also identifies Ephyre with Spetzia.

[2625] At the south of Argolis.

[2626] The modern Dhoko, according to Leake. Some authorities think
that Tiparenus, and not Ephyre, is the modern Spetzia.

[2627] Leake thinks that Colonis and Hydreia, now called Hydra, were
the same island; but Kiepert thinks it the same as the small island to
the south of Spetzia.

[2628] Now Poros.

[2629] These are the islands now called Moni Jorench, Kophinidia, and
San Giorgio d’Arbora. It is perhaps impossible to identify them, except
that Belbina is generally supposed to be the island of San Giorgio.

[2630] Now Kyra.

[2631] The modern Angistri.

[2632] Which name, or Eghina, it still retains.

[2633] See c. 9 of this Book.

[2634] Probably the modern Laoussa, one of this group.

[2635] By Brotier said to be the modern Pentenesia. The other islands
here mentioned seem not to have been identified.

[2636] Now Cerigotto.

[2637] Dalechamps suggests Hesperus.

[2638] The island “of the Blessed.”

[2639] Now Capo Salomon.

[2640] From the Greek κριοῦ μέτωπον, “the ram’s forehead”; now called
Capo Crio.

[2641] Also called Elæa. Pococke speaks of it as a promontory called
Chaule-burnau.

[2642] Hardouin calls it Chisamo.

[2643] The modern Khania. The quince derived its Latin name, “Malum
Cydonium,” from this district, to which it was indigenous. From its
Latin name it was called _melicotone_ by the writers of the Elizabethan
period.

[2644] Now Minolo, according to Hardouin.

[2645] The port of Apteron, or Aptera, which Mr. Pashley supposes to be
denoted by the ruins of Palæokastro; he also thinks that its port was
at or near the modern Kalyres.

[2646] Now La Suda, according to Hardouin, who says that Rhithymna is
called Retimo; Panormus, Panormo; and Cytæum, Setia.

[2647] Supposed by Ansart to have stood in the vicinity of the modern
city of Candia.

[2648] Strabo says that it stood on the narrowest part of the island,
opposite Minoa. Vestiges of it have been found at the Kastéle of
Hierapetra. Its foundation was ascribed to the Corybantes.

[2649] Now Lionda.

[2650] Next to Cnossus in splendour and importance. Mr. Pashley places
its site near the modern Haghius Dheka, the place of the martyrdom of
the ten Saints, according to tradition, in the Decian persecution.

[2651] It has been remarked, that Pliny is mistaken here if he intends
to enumerate Cnossus among the towns of the interior of Crete. The only
remains of this capital of Crete, situate on the north of the island,
are those seen at Makro-Teikho, or the “Long Walls,” so called from the
masses of Roman brick-work there seen.

[2652] Though an inland town, it probably stood in the vicinity of
the headland or promontory of the same name, which is now called Kavo
Stavro. Many of these names are utterly unknown.

[2653] One of the most important towns of Crete, on the N.W. slope of
Mount Ida, about fifty stadia from the port of Astale. Mr. Pashley says
that some remains probably of this place are still to be seen on a hill
near a place called Eletherna, five miles south of the great convent of
Arkadhi.

[2654] The loftiest point of the mountain-range that traverses the
island of Crete from west to east. Its head is covered with snow. The
modern name is Psiloriti, looking down on the plain of Mesara. The word
_Ida_ is supposed to mean a mountain in which mines are worked, and the
Idæi Dactyli of Crete were probably among the first workers in iron and
bronze. The position of Mount Cadistus, belonging to the range of White
Mountains, has been fixed by Hoeck at Cape Spadha, the most northerly
point of the island. It is thought that Pliny and Solinus are in error
in speaking of Cadistus and Dictynnæus as separate peaks, these being,
both of them, names of the mountain of which the cape was formed; the
latter name having been given in later times, from the worship and
temple there of Dictynna.

[2655] Now Grabusa, the N.W. promontory of Crete.

[2656] Now Ras-al-Sem, or Cape Rasat, in Africa. The distance,
according to Brotier, is in reality about 225 miles.

[2657] Now Skarpanto.

[2658] According to Hardouin, all of these are mere rocks rather than
islands.

[2659] The modern Haghios Theodhoros.

[2660] According to Hoeck, they are now called Turlure.

[2661] Now called Standiu.

[2662] Now Capo Xacro, on the east, though Cape Salomon, further north,
has been suggested. In the latter case, the Grandes islands would
correspond with Onisia and Leuce, mentioned by Pliny.

[2663] Now Gaidurognissa. None of the other islands here mentioned seem
to have been identified.

[2664] Between Eubœa and Locris. They are now called Ponticonesi.

[2665] Now Koluri. It is memorable for the naval battle fought off its
coast, when Xerxes was defeated by the Greeks, B.C. 480.

[2666] Now called Lypsokutali.

[2667] Now Makronisi, or “the Long Island.” Its ancient name was also
Macris. Strabo identifies it with the Homeric Cranaë, to which Paris
fled with Helen.

[2668] Usually called Cea, one of the Cyclades, about thirteen miles
S.E. of Sunium. Its modern name is Zea. Iulis was the most important
town, and the birth-place of the poets Simonides and Bacchylides, of
the sophist Prodicus, the physician Erasistratus, and the Peripatetic
philosopher Ariston. Extensive remains of it still exist.

[2669] There are considerable remains of this town, called by the
inhabitants Stais Palais.

[2670] Or Coresia. It was the harbour of Iulis, to which place we learn
from Strabo that its inhabitants were transferred.

[2671] On the S.W. side of the island. Its ruins are inconsiderable,
but retain their ancient name.

[2672] Now called Eubœa, as also Egripo, or Negropont,—a corruption of
the former word and “pont,” “a bridge.”

[2673] Hardouin speaks of this as existing in his time, 1670, and being
250 feet in length. It is supposed to have been first constructed about
B.C. 411, for the purpose of uninterrupted communication with Bœotia.

[2674] Now Capo Mandili.

[2675] Now Kavo Doro, or Xylofago.

[2676] Now Lithadha, with a mountain 2837 feet above the sea.

[2677] These measurements are not exactly correct. The length from
north to south is about ninety miles; the extreme breadth across,
thirty, and in one part, not more than four miles.

[2678] Still extant in the time of Strabo, who speaks of it as an
inconsiderable place.

[2679] Its site is now called Lipso. It contained warm baths sacred to
Hercules, and used by the Dictator Sylla. They are still to be seen.

[2680] Now Egripo, or Negropont, having given name to the rest of the
island. The Euripus is here only forty yards across, being crossed by
a bridge, partly of stone, partly of wood. The poet Lycophron and the
orator Isæus were natives of this place, and Aristotle died here.

[2681] Near the promontory of that name, now Capo Mandili. In the
town there was a famous temple of Poseidon, or Neptune. According to
Hardouin, the modern name is Iastura.

[2682] One of the most powerful cities of Eubœa. It was destroyed by
the Persians under Darius, and a new town was built to the south of the
old one. New Eretria stood, according to Leake, at the modern Kastri,
and old Eretria in the neighbourhood of Vathy. The tragic poet Achæus,
a contemporary of Æschylus, was born here; and a school of philosophy
was founded at this place by Menedemus, a disciple of Plato.

[2683] Now Karysto, on the south of the island, at the foot of Mount
Ocha, upon which are supposed to have been its quarries of marble.
There are but few remains of the ancient city. The historian Antigonus,
the comic poet Apollodorus, and the physician Diocles, were natives of
this place.

[2684] Probably on the promontory of the same name. It was off this
coast that the Greek fleet engaged that of Xerxes, B.C. 480.

[2685] There were tame fish kept in this fountain; and its waters were
sometimes disturbed by volcanic agency. Leake says that it has now
totally disappeared.

[2686] From the fact of its producing copper, and of its being in shape
long and narrow.

[2687] Strabo remarks, that Homer calls its inhabitants Abantes, while
he gives to the island the name of Eubœa. The poets say that it took
its name from the cow (Βοῦς) Io, who gave birth to Epaphus on this
island.

[2688] Hardouin remarks here, that Pliny, Strabo, Mela, and Pausanias
use the term “Myrtoan Sea,” as meaning that portion of it which lies
between Crete and Attica, while Ptolemy so calls the sea which lies off
the coast of Caria.

[2689] Now called Spitilus, and the group of Micronisia, or “Little
Islands,” according to Hardouin.

[2690] From κύκλος, “a circle.”

[2691] Now Andro. It gives name to one of the comedies of Terence. The
ruins of the ancient city were found by the German traveller Ross, who
has published a hymn to Isis, in hexameter verse, which he discovered
here. It was famous for its wines.

[2692] Now Tino.

[2693] From its abounding in snakes (ὄφεις) and scorpions.

[2694] Now Mycono, south-east of Tenos and east of Delos. It was
famous in ancient mythology as one of the places where Hercules was
said to have defeated the Giants. It was also remarkable for the great
proportion of bald persons among its inhabitants.

[2695] So called from its resemblance to two breasts, μαζοι.

[2696] Wheeler says that the distance is but three miles; Tournefort,
six.

[2697] Once famous for its gold and silver mines, but equally notorious
for the bad character of its people. It is now called Siphno.

[2698] Now Serpho, lying between Cythnos and Siphnus.

[2699] Now Fermina, according to Hardouin.

[2700] Between Ceos and Seriphus. It is now called Thermia. Cydias the
painter was born here, and it was famous for its cheeses. Its modern
name is derived from its hot springs, which are much frequented.

[2701] Still called Delos; and, though so celebrated, nothing more than
a mere rock, five miles in circumference.

[2702] That is, according to Varro, whose statement is ridiculed
by Seneca. Some of the editors, however, punctuate this passage
differently, making it to mean, “the only island that has never
experienced an earthquake. Mucianus however has informed us, that down
to the time of M. Varro, it has been twice so visited.”

[2703] From its then becoming δῆλος, “plain,” or “manifest.” It was
after the fall of Corinth that Delos became so famous for its commerce.
Its bronze was in great request.

[2704] From ὄρτυξ, “a quail”; the legend being, that Latona was changed
into that bird by Jupiter, in order to effect her escape thither from
the anger of Juno. Its name of Asteria was derived from ἄστρον, “a
star,” either in consequence of its being devoted to the worship of
the great luminary Apollo, or of its being considered by the gods the
star of the earth. It was also called Lagia, from λαγὼς, “a hare,” that
animal abounding there; and Cynæthus, from κύων, “a dog,” it being
famous for its hounds.

[2705] A bare granite rock, not more than 500 feet in height. The
island is now a mass of ruins; a great part of its remains having been
carried away in the middle ages to Venice and Constantinople.

[2706] Divided by a strait of four stadia in width from Delos. Nicias
connected the two islands by a bridge. Its name of Celadussa was said
to be derived from the noise of the waves, κέλαδος, and of Artemite,
from Artemis, or Diana.

[2707] Now Syra; famous for its wine and corn.

[2708] Now Antiparos; famous for its stalactite grotto, which is not
mentioned by the ancient writers.

[2709] Now Paro; south of Delos and west of Naxos. The ruins of its
town are still to be seen at the modern Paroikia. The Parian Chronicle,
inscribed on marble, and containing a chronicle of Grecian history from
Cecrops, B.C. 1582, to B.C. 264, was found here. It is preserved at
Oxford.

[2710] Chiefly obtained from a mountain called Marpessa.

[2711] Now Naxia, famous both in ancient and modern times for its
remarkable fertility.

[2712] From στρογγύλος, “round,” its shape being somewhat inclined
to circular, though by Eustathius it is compared to the shape of a
vine-leaf. It is commonly called Dia by the poets. Tournefort says that
it is distant forty miles from Delos.

[2713] From Διόνυσος, or Bacchus, the god of wine.

[2714] Or “Fine City.” It took its other name from the fact of its
rivalling the fertility of Sicily.

[2715] According to Brotier, the Jesuit Babin, on visiting it, found
its circumference estimated at thirty-six miles only.

[2716] So called from lying scattered at random as it were, σπορὰς
“scattered.”

[2717] Helene is supposed to be the modern Pira; Phacussa, Fecussa;
Nicasia, Rachia; Schinussa, Schinusa; and Pholegandros, Policandro.

[2718] Now Nikaria, to the west of Samos. According to tradition, it
derived its name from Icarus, the son of Dædalus, who was believed to
have fallen into the sea in its vicinity.

[2719] Its length is not so great as is here mentioned by Pliny. Its
towns were Drepanum, or Dracanum, Œnoë, and Isti.

[2720] The first two names are from the Greek, in allusion to its long,
narrow shape, and the last bears reference to the fact of its shores
abounding in fish.

[2721] Now Scyro, east of Eubœa, and one of the Sporades. Here Achilles
was said to have been concealed by his mother Thetis, in woman’s attire.

[2722] Now Nio, one of the Sporades, inaccurately called by Stephanus
one of the Cyclades. The modern town is built on the site of the
ancient one, of which there are some remains. It was said that Homer
died here, on his voyage from Smyrna to Athens, and that his mother,
Clymene, was a native of this island. In 1773, Van Krienen, a Dutch
nobleman, asserted that he had discovered the tomb of Homer here, with
certain inscriptions relative to him; but they have been generally
regarded by the learned as forgeries. Odia and Oletandros seem not to
have been identified.

[2723] Now called Gioura, or Jura. It was little better than a barren
rock, though inhabited; but so notorious for its poverty, that its mice
were said to be able to gnaw through iron. It was used as a place of
banishment under the Roman emperors, whence the line of Juvenal, i. 73—

  “Aude aliquid brevibus Gyaris et carcere dignum.”

“Dare some deed deserving of the little Gyara and the gaol.” It is now
uninhabited, except by a few shepherds in the summer.

[2724] Now Telos, or Piskopi, a small island in the Carpathian Sea, and
one of the Sporades. It lies off the coast of Caria. Syrnos appears not
to have been identified.

[2725] Near Naxos. Virgil calls it ‘viridis,’ or ‘green,’ which
Servius explains by the colour of its marble. Like Gyara, it was used
as a place of banishment under the Roman Empire. In C. 22, Pliny has
mentioned Cynæthus as one of the names of Delos.

[2726] Now Patmo, one of the Sporades, and west of the Promontory of
Posidium, in Caria. To this place St. John was banished, and here he
wrote the Apocalypse.

[2727] A group between Icaria and Samos. They are now called Phurni and
Krusi.

[2728] One of the Sporades, now Lebitha.

[2729] Now Lero. Its inhabitants were of Milesian origin, and of
indifferent character. In its temple of Artemis, the sisters of
Meleager were said to have been changed into guinea-fowls. It was
opposite the coast of Caria.

[2730] Now Zinari, N.E. of Amorgos. The artichoke (called κίναρα in
Greek) is said to have given name to it.

[2731] Now Sikino; between Pholegandros and Ios.

[2732] So called, according to Stephanus, from its cultivation of the
vine and produce of wine, οἶνος. It was situate between Pholegandros
and Ios. It was said to have had the name of Sicinus from a son of
Thoas and Œnoë. Hieracia seems to be unknown.

[2733] Still known by that name, and lying between Carpathus and Crete.
The ruins of the ancient town of Casos are still to be seen at the
village of Polin. It is mentioned by Homer.

[2734] Now Kimoli, one of the Cyclades, between Siphnos and Melos. It
took its name of Echinussa from the ‘Echinus,’ or Sea-urchin, of which
various fossil specimens are still found on the coast; but nowhere
else in these islands, except the opposite coast of Melos. There are
considerable ruins of its ancient town.

[2735] Now Milo, the most westerly of the Cyclades. It is remarkable
for its extreme fertility. Its town, which, according to most
authorities, was called Byblis, was situate on the north of the island.

[2736] Ansart remarks, that our author is mistaken in this assertion,
for not only are many others of these islands more circular in form,
but even that of Kimolo, which stands next to it.

[2737] Now Amorgo, S.E. of Naxos. It was the birth-place of the
Iambic poet Simonides. It is noted for its fertility. Under the Roman
emperors, it was used as a place of banishment.

[2738] Now Polybos, or Antimelos, an uninhabited island near Melos.
Phyle seems not to have been identified.

[2739] Now Santorin, south of the island of Ios. The tradition was,
that it was formed from a clod of earth, thrown from the ship Argo. It
is evidently of volcanic origin, and is covered with pumice-stone. It
was colonized by Lacedæmonians and Minyans of Lemnos, under the Spartan
Theras, who gave his name to the island.

[2740] A small island to the west of Thera, still known by the same
name.

[2741] In Lapie’s map, Ascania is set down as the present Christiana.

[2742] Now Anaphe, Namfi, or Namphio, one of the Sporades. It was
celebrated for the temple of Apollo Ægletes, the foundation of which
was ascribed to the Argonauts, and of which considerable remains still
exist. It abounds in partridges, as it did also in ancient times.

[2743] Now Astropalæa, or Stamphalia. By Strabo it is called one of the
Sporades, by Stephanus one of the Cyclades. It probably was favoured
by the Romans for the excellence and importance of its harbours. From
Hegesander we learn that it was famous for its hares, and Pliny tells
us, in B. viii. c. 59, that its mussels were (as they still are) very
celebrated.

[2744] None of these islands can be now identified, except perhaps
Chalcia, also mentioned by Strabo, and now known as Karki.

[2745] Now Kalymno, the principal island of the group, by Homer called
Calydne. According to most of the editions, Pliny mentions here
Calydna and Calymna, making this island, which had those two names,
into two islands. Although Pliny here mentions only the town of Coös,
still, in B. v. c. 36, he speaks of three others, Notium, Nisyrus, and
Mendeterus. There are still some remains of antiquity to be seen here.

[2746] Or Carpathus, now Skarpanto. It gave name to the sea between
Crete and Rhodes.

[2747] It still preserves its ancient name, and presents some
interesting remains of antiquity.

[2748] Brotier says that the distance is really fifty-two miles.

[2749] So called from the town of Petalia, on the mainland. Ansart says
that their present name is Spili.

[2750] Now Talanti, giving name to the Channel of Talanti.

[2751] The present Gulf of Volo, mentioned in C. 15 of the present Book.

[2752] Ansart suggests that this may possibly be the small island now
called Agios Nicolaos.

[2753] Now Trikeri.

[2754] In the present Chapter.

[2755] Now Scangero, or Skantzoura, according to Ansart.

[2756] Now the Gulf of Saloniki, mentioned in C. 17. The islands here
mentioned have apparently not been identified.

[2757] Off the coast of Thessaly, now Piperi.

[2758] Now Skiathos. It was famous for its wine.

[2759] Now called Embro, or Imru. Both the island and city of Imbros
are mentioned by Homer.

[2760] This is double the actual circumference of the island.

[2761] Now called Stalimene.

[2762] Its site is now called Palæo Kastro. Hephæstia, or Vulcan’s
Town, stood near the modern Rapanidi. That god was said to have fallen
into this island when thrown from heaven by Jupiter.

[2763] Now Thaso, or Tasso. Its gold mines were in early periods very
valuable.

[2764] Mentioned in C. 17 of this Book.

[2765] Ansart says that “forty-two” would be the correct reading here,
that being also the distance between Samothrace and Thasos.

[2766] Its modern name is Samothraki. It was the chief seat of the
mysterious worship of the Cabiri.

[2767] Only twelve, according to Ansart.

[2768] Barely eighteen, according to Brotier.

[2769] Now Monte Nettuno. Of course the height here mentioned by Pliny
is erroneous; but Homer says that from this mountain Troy could be seen.

[2770] Now called Skopelo, if it is the same island which is mentioned
by Ptolemy under the name of Scopelus. It exports wine in large
quantities.

[2771] Or the Fox Island, so called from its first settlers having
been directed by an oracle to establish a colony where they should
first meet a fox with its cub. Like many others of the islands here
mentioned, it appears not to have been identified.

[2772] See C. 18 of this Book.

[2773] None of these islands appear to have been identified by modern
geographers.

[2774] Now generally known as the Palus Mæotis or Sea of Azof.

[2775] The modern Caraboa, according to Brotier, stands on its site.
Priapus was the tutelary divinity of Lampsacus in this vicinity.

[2776] Or “entrance of Pontus”; now the Sea of Marmora.

[2777] “Ox Ford,” or “passage of the cow,” Io being said to have
crossed it in that form: now called the “Straits of Constantinople.”

[2778] Said to have been called ἄξενος or “inhospitable,” from its
frequent storms and the savage state of the people living on its
shores. In later times, on the principle of Euphemism, or abstaining
from words of ill omen, its name was changed to εὔξεινος, “hospitable.”

[2779] This was a favourite comparison of the ancients; the north
coast, between the Thracian Bosporus and the Phasis, formed the bow,
and the southern shores the string. The Scythian bow somewhat resembled
in form the figure Σ, the capital Sigma of the Greeks.

[2780] Now the Straits of Kaffa or Enikale.

[2781] This town lay about the middle of the Tauric Chersonesus or
Crimea, and was situate on a small peninsula, called the Smaller
Chersonesus, to distinguish it from the larger one, of which it formed
a part. It was founded by the inhabitants of the Pontic Heraclea, or
Heracleium, the site of which is unknown. See note [2844] to p. 333.

[2782] Now Kertsch, in the Crimea. It derived its name from the river
Panticapes; and was founded by the Milesians about B.C. 541. It was the
residence of the Greek kings of Bosporus, and hence it was sometimes so
called.

[2783] “Thirty-six” properly.

[2784] The Tanais or Don does not rise in the Riphæan Mountains, or
western branch of the Uralian chain, but on slightly elevated ground in
the centre of European Russia.

[2785] Chap. 18 of the present Book. Istropolis is supposed to be the
present Istere, though some would make it to have stood on the site of
the present Kostendsje, and Brotier identifies it with Kara-Kerman.

[2786] Now called the Schwarzwald or Black Forest. The Danube or Ister
rises on the eastern side at the spot called Donaueschingen.

[2787] So called from the Raurici, a powerful people of Gallia Belgica,
who possessed several towns, of which the most important were Augusta,
now Augst, and Basilia, now Bâle.

[2788] Only three of these are now considered of importance, as being
the main branches of the river. It is looked upon as impossible by
modern geographers to identify the accounts given by the ancients with
the present channels, by name, as the Danube has undergone in lapse of
time, very considerable changes at its mouth. Strabo mentions seven
mouths, three being lesser ones.

[2789] So called, as stated by Pliny, from the island of Peuce, now
Piczina. Peuce appears to have been the most southerly of the mouths.

[2790] Now called Kara-Sou, according to Brotier. Also called Rassefu
in the maps.

[2791] Now called Hazrali Bogasi, according to Brotier. It is called by
Ptolemy the Narakian Mouth.

[2792] Or the “Beautiful Mouth.” Now Susie Bogasi, according to Brotier.

[2793] Or the “False Mouth”: now the Sulina Bogasi, the principal mouth
of the Danube, so maltreated by its Russian guardians.

[2794] Or the “Passage of the Gnats,” so called from being the resort
of swarms of mosquitoes, which were said at a certain time of the year
to migrate to the Palus Mæotis. According to Brotier the present name
of this island is Ilan Adasi, or Serpent Island.

[2795] The “Northern Mouth”: near the town of Kilia.

[2796] Or the “Narrow Mouth.”

[2797] Though Strabo distinguishes the Getæ from the Daci, most of the
ancient writers, with Pliny, speak of them as identical. It is not
known, however, why the Getæ in later times assumed the name of Daci.

[2798] “Dwellers in waggons.” These were a Sarmatian tribe who wandered
with their waggons along the banks of the Volga. The chief seats of
the Aorsi, who seem in reality to have been a distinct people from
the Hamaxobii, was in the country between the Tanais, the Euxine, the
Caspian, and the Caucasus.

[2799] “Dwellers in Caves.” This name appears to have been given to
various savage races in different parts of the world.

[2800] There were races of the Alani in Asia on the Caucasus, and in
Europe on the Mæotis and the Euxine; but their precise geographical
position is not clearly ascertained.

[2801] The present Transylvania and Hungary.

[2802] The name given in the age of Pliny to the range of mountains
extending around Bohemia, and through Moravia into Hungary.

[2803] Its ruins are still to be seen on the south bank of the Danube
near Haimburg, between Deutsch-Altenburg and Petronell. The Roman fleet
of the Danube, with the 14th legion, was originally established there.

[2804] In Pliny’s time this migratory tribe seems to have removed to
the plains between the Lower Theiss and the mountains of Transylvania,
from which places they had expelled the Dacians.

[2805] The Lower Theiss.

[2806] Now the river Mark, Maros, or Morava.

[2807] The name of the two streams now known as the Dora Baltea and
Dora Riparia, both of which fall into the Po. This passage appears to
be in a mutilated state.

[2808] A chief of the Quadi; who, as we learn from Tacitus, was made
king of the Suevi by Germanicus, A.D. 19. Being afterwards expelled by
his nephews Vangio and Sido, he received from the emperor Claudius a
settlement in Pannonia. Tacitus gives the name of Suevia to the whole
of the east of Germany from the Danube to the Baltic.

[2809] According to Hardouin, Pliny here speaks of the other side of
the mountainous district called Higher Hungary, facing the Danube and
extending from the river Theiss to the Morava.

[2810] This, according to Sillig, is the real meaning of _a desertis_
here, the distance being measured from the Danube, and not between
the Vistula and the wilds of Sarmatia. The reading “four thousand” is
probably corrupt, but it seems more likely than that of 404 miles,
adopted by Littré, in his French translation.

[2811] Placed by Forbiger near Lake Burmasaka, or near Islama.

[2812] The Dniester. The mountains of Macrocremnus, or the “Great
Heights,” seem not to have been identified.

[2813] According to Hardouin, the modern name of this island is Tandra.

[2814] Now called the Teligul, east of the Tyra or Dniester.

[2815] Now called Sasik Beregen, according to Brotier.

[2816] The modern Gulf of Berezen, according to Brotier.

[2817] Probably the modern Okzakow.

[2818] The modern Dnieper. It also retains its ancient name of
Borysthenes.

[2819] We learn from Strabo that the name of this town was Olbia, and
that from being founded by the Milesians, it received the name of
Miletopolis. According to Brotier, the modern Zapurouski occupies its
site, between the mouths of the river Buzuluk.

[2820] This was adjacent to the strip of land called “Dromos
Achilleos,” or the ‘race-course of Achilles.’ It is identified by
geographers with the little island of Zmievoi or Oulan Adassi, the
‘Serpents Island.’ It was said that it was to this spot that Thetis
transported the body of Achilles. By some it was made the abode of the
shades of the blest, where Achilles and other heroes of fable were the
judges of the dead.

[2821] A narrow strip of land N.W. of the Crimea and south of the mouth
of the Dnieper, running nearly due west and east. It is now divided
into two parts called Kosa Tendra and Kosa Djarilgatch. Achilles was
said to have instituted games here.

[2822] According to Hardouin, the Siraci occupied a portion of the
present Podolia and Ukraine, and the Tauri the modern Bessarabia.

[2823] According to Herodotus, this region, called Hylæa, lay to the
east of the Borysthenes. It seems uncertain whether there are now any
traces of this ancient woodland; some of the old maps however give the
name of the “Black Forest” to this district. From the statements of
modern travellers, the woody country does not commence till the river
Don has been reached. The district of Hylæa has been identified by
geographers with the great plain of Janboylouk in the steppe of the
Nogai.

[2824] For Enœchadlæ, Hardouin suggests that we should read _Inde
Hylæi_, “hence the inhabitants are called by the name of Hylæi.”

[2825] The Panticapes is usually identified with the modern Somara, but
perhaps without sufficient grounds. It is more probably the Kouskawoda.

[2826] The Nomades or _wandering_, from the Georgi or _agricultural_
Scythians.

[2827] The Acesinus does not appear to have been identified by modern
geographers.

[2828] Above called Olbiopolis or Miletopolis.

[2829] The Bog or Boug. Flowing parallel with the Borysthenes or
Dnieper, it discharged itself into the Euxine at the town of Olbia, at
no great distance from the mouth of the Borysthenes.

[2830] Probably meaning the mouth or point at which the river
discharges itself into the sea.

[2831] The modern Gulf of Negropoli or Perekop, on the west side of the
Chersonesus Taurica or Crimea.

[2832] Forming the present isthmus of Perekop, which divides the Sea of
Perekop from the Sea of Azof.

[2833] Called by Herodotus Hypacyris, and by later writers Carcinites.
It is generally supposed to be the same as the small stream now known
as the Kalantchak.

[2834] Hardouin says that the city of Carcine has still retained its
name, but changed its site. More modern geographers however are of
opinion that nothing can be determined with certainty as to its site.
Of the site also of Navarum nothing seems to be known.

[2835] Or Buces or Byce. This is really a gulf, _almost_ enclosed, at
the end of the Sea of Azof. Strabo gives a more full description of it
under the name of the _Sapra Limnè_, “the Putrid Lake,” by which name
it is still called, in Russian, _Sibaché_ or Sivaché Moré. It is a vast
lagoon, covered with water when an east wind blows the water of the Sea
of Azof into it, but at other times a tract of slime and mud, sending
forth pestilential vapours.

[2836] It is rather a ridge of sand, that _almost_ separates it from
the waters of the gulf.

[2837] This river has not been identified by modern geographers.

[2838] According to Herodotus the Gerrhus or Gerrus fell into the
Hypacaris; which must be understood to be, not the Kalantchak, but the
Outlouk. It is probably now represented by the Moloschnijawoda, which
forms a shallow lake or marsh at its mouth.

[2839] It is most probable that the Pacyris, mentioned above, the
Hypacaris, and the Carcinites, were various names for the same river,
generally supposed, as stated above, to be the small stream of
Kalantchak.

[2840] Now the Crimea.

[2841] It does not appear that the site of any of these cities has been
identified. Charax was a general name for a fortified town.

[2842] Mentioned again by Pliny in B. vi. c. 7. Solinus says that in
order to repel avarice, the Satarchæ prohibited the use of gold and
silver.

[2843] On the site of the modern Perekop, more commonly called Orkapi.

[2844] Or Chersonesus of the Heracleans. The town of Kosleve or
Eupatoria is supposed to stand on its site.

[2845] After the conquest of Mithridates, when the whole of these
regions fell into the hands of the Romans.

[2846] The modern Felenk-burun. So called from the Parthenos or Virgin
Diana or Artemis, whose temple stood on its heights, in which human
sacrifices were offered to the goddess.

[2847] Supposed to be the same as the now-famed port of Balaklava.

[2848] The modern Aia-burun, the great southern headland of the Crimea.
According to Plutarch, it was called by the natives Brixaba, which,
like the name Criumetopon, meant the “Ram’s Head.”

[2849] Now Kerempi, a promontory of Paphlagonia in Asia Minor. Strabo
considers this promontory and that of Criumetopon as dividing the
Euxine into two seas.

[2850] According to Strabo, the sea-line of the Tauric Chersonesus,
after leaving the port of the Symboli, extended 125 miles, as far as
Theodosia. Pliny would here seem to make it rather greater.

[2851] The modern Kaffa occupies its site. The sites of many of the
places here mentioned appear not to be known at the present day.

[2852] The modern Kertsch, situate on a hill at the very mouth of the
Cimmerian Bosporus, or Straits of Enikale or Kaffa, opposite the town
of Phanagoria in Asia.

[2853] In C. 24 of the present Book. Clark identifies the town of
Cimmerium with the modern Temruk, Forbiger with Eskikrimm. It is again
mentioned in B. vi. c. 2.

[2854] He alludes here, not to the Strait so called, but to the
Peninsula bordering upon it, upon which the modern town of Kertsch is
situate, and which projects from the larger Peninsula of the Crimea, as
a sort of excrescence on its eastern side.

[2855] Probably Hermes or Mercury was its tutelar divinity: its site
appears to be unknown.

[2856] Probably meaning the Straits or passage connecting the Lake
Mæotis with the Euxine. The fertile district of the Cimmerian Bosporus
was at one time the granary of Greece, especially Athens, which
imported thence annually 400,000 medimni of corn.

[2857] A town so called on the Isthmus of Perekop, from a τάφρος or
trench, which was cut across the isthmus at this point.

[2858] Lomonossov, in his History of Russia, says that these people
were the same as the Sclavoni: but that one meaning of the name
‘Slavane’ being “a boaster,” the Greeks gave them the corresponding
appellation of Auchetæ, from the word αὐχὴ, which signifies “boasting.”

[2859] Of the Geloni, called by Virgil “picti,” or “painted,” nothing
certain seems to be known: they are associated by Herodotus with the
Budini, supposed to belong to the Slavic family by Schafarik. In B. iv.
c. 108, 109, of his History, Herodotus gives a very particular account
of the Budini, who had a city built entirely of wood, the name of which
was Gelonus. The same author also assigns to the Geloni a Greek origin.

[2860] The Agathyrsi are placed by Herodotus near the upper course of
the river Maris, in the S.E. of Dacia or the modern Transylvania. Pliny
however seems here to assign them a different locality.

[2861] Also called “Assedones” and “Issedones.” It has been suggested
by modern geographers that their locality must be assigned to the east
of Ichim, on the steppe of the central horde of the Kirghiz, and that
of the Arimaspi on the northern declivity of the chain of the Altaï.

[2862] Now the Don.

[2863] Most probably these mountains were a western branch of the
Uralian chain.

[2864] From the Greek πτεροφορὸς, “wing-bearing” or “feather-bearing.”

[2865] This legendary race was said to dwell in the regions beyond
Boreas, or the northern wind, which issued from the Riphæan mountains,
the name of which was derived from ῥιπαὶ or “hurricanes” issuing from
a cavern, and which these heights warded off from the Hyperboreans
and sent to more southern nations. Hence they never felt the northern
blasts, and enjoyed a life of supreme happiness and undisturbed repose.
“Here,” says Humboldt, “are the first views of a natural science which
explains the distribution of heat and the difference of climates by
local causes—by the direction of the winds—the proximity of the sun,
and the action of a moist or saline principle.”—_Asie Centrale_, vol. i.

[2866] Pindar says, in the “Pythia,” x. 56, “The Muse is no stranger
to their manners. The dances of girls and the sweet melody of the lyre
and pipe resound on every side, and wreathing their locks with the
glistening bay, they feast joyously. For this sacred race there is
no doom of sickness or of disease; but they live apart from toil and
battles, undisturbed by the exacting Nemesis.”

[2867] Hardouin remarks that Pomponius Mela, who asserts that the sun
rises here at the vernal and sets at the autumnal equinox, is right in
his position, and that Pliny is incorrect in his assertion. The same
commentator thinks that Pliny can have hardly intended to censure Mela,
to whose learning he had been so much indebted for his geographical
information, by applying to him the epithet “imperitus,” ‘ignorant’ or
‘unskilled’; he therefore suggests that the proper reading here is,
“ut non imperiti dixere,” “as some by no means ignorant persons have
asserted.”

[2868] The Attacori are also mentioned in B. vi. c. 20.

[2869] Sillig omits the word “non” here, in which case the reading
would be, “Those writers who place them anywhere but, &c.;” it is
difficult to see with what meaning.

[2870] Herodotus, B. iv., states to this effect, and after him,
Pomponius Mela, B. iii. c. 5.

[2871] These islands, or rather rocks, are now known as Fanari, and lie
at the entrance of the Straits of Constantinople.

[2872] From σὺν and πληγὴ, “a striking together.” Tournefort has
explained the ancient story of these islands running together, by
remarking that each of them consists of one craggy island, but that
when the sea is disturbed the water covers the lower parts, so as to
make the different points of each resemble isolated rocks. They are
united to the mainland by a kind of isthmus, and appear as islands only
when it is inundated in stormy weather.

[2873] Upon which the city of Apollonia (now Sizeboli), mentioned in C.
18 of the present Book, was situate.

[2874] So called because it was dedicated by Lucullus in the Capitol.
It was thirty cubits in height.

[2875] In C. 24 of the present Book.

[2876] Mentioned in the last Chapter as the “Island of Achilles.”

[2877] From the Greek μακαρῶν, “(The island) of the Blest.” It was also
called the “Island of the Heroes.”

[2878] Meaning all the inland or Mediterranean seas.

[2879] As the whole of Pliny’s description of the northern shores
of Europe is replete with difficulties and obscurities, we cannot
do better than transcribe the learned remarks of M. Parisot, the
Geographical Editor of Ajasson’s Edition, in reference to this subject.
He says, “Before entering on the discussion of this portion of Pliny’s
geography, let us here observe, once for all, that we shall not remark
as worthy of our notice all those ridiculous hypotheses which could
only take their rise in ignorance, precipitation, or a love of the
marvellous. We shall decline then to recognize the Doffrefelds in
the mountains of Sevo, the North Cape in the Promontory of Rubeas,
and the Sea of Greenland in the Cronian Sea. The absurdity of these
suppositions is proved by—I. The impossibility of the ancients ever
making their way to these distant coasts without the aid of large
vessels, the compass, and others of those appliances, aided by which
European skill finds the greatest difficulty in navigating those
distant seas. II. The immense lacunæ which would be found to exist in
the descriptions of these distant seas and shores: for not a word do
we find about those numerous archipelagos which are found scattered
throughout the North Sea, not a word about Iceland, nor about the
numberless seas and fiords on the coast of Norway. III. The absence of
all remarks upon the local phænomena of these spots. The North Cape
belongs to the second polar climate, the longest day there being two
months and a half. Is it likely that navigators would have omitted to
mention this remarkable phænomenon, well known to the Romans by virtue
of their astronomical theories, but one with which practically they had
never made themselves acquainted?—The only geographers who here merit
our notice are those who are of opinion that in some of the coasts or
islands here mentioned Pliny describes the Scandinavian Peninsula,
and in others the Coast of Finland. The first question then is, to
what point Pliny first carries us? It is evident that from the Black
Sea he transports himself on a sudden to the shores of the Baltic,
thus passing over at a single leap a considerable space filled with
nations and unknown deserts. The question then is, what line has he
followed? Supposing our author had had before his eyes a modern map,
the imaginary line which he would have drawn in making this transition
would have been from Odessa to the Kurisch-Haff. In this direction the
breadth across Europe is contracted to a space, between the two seas,
not more than 268 leagues in length. A very simple mode of reasoning
will conclusively prove that Pliny has deviated little if anything
from this route. If he fails to state in precise terms upon what point
of the shores of the Baltic he alights after leaving the Riphæan
mountains, his enumeration of the rivers which discharge themselves
into that sea, and with which he concludes his account of Germany, will
supply us with the requisite information, at all events in great part.
In following his description of the coast, we find mention made of
the following rivers, the Guttalus, the Vistula, the Elbe, the Weser,
the Ems, the Rhine, and the Meuse. The five last mentioned follow in
their natural order, from east to west, as was to be expected in a
description starting from the east of Europe for its western extremity
and the shores of Cadiz. We have a right to conclude then that the
Guttalus was to the east of the Vistula. As we shall now endeavour to
show, this river was no other than the Alle, a tributary of the Pregel,
which the Romans probably, in advancing from west to east, considered
as the principal stream, from the circumstance that they met with it,
before coming to the larger river. The Pregel after being increased
by the waters of the Alle or Guttalus falls into the Frisch-Haff,
about one degree further west than the Kurisch-Haff. It may however
be here remarked, Why not find a river more to the east, the Niemen,
for instance, or the Duna, to be represented by the Guttalus? The
Niemen in especial would suit in every respect equally well, because
it discharges itself into the Kurisch-Haff. This conjecture however
is incapable of support, when we reflect that the ancients were
undoubtedly acquainted with some points of the coast to the east of
the mouth of the Guttalus, but which, according to the system followed
by our author, would form part of the Continent of Asia. These points
are, 1st. The Cape Lytarmis (mentioned by Pliny, B. vi. c. 4). 2ndly.
The mouth of the river Carambucis (similarly mentioned by him), and
3rdly, a little to the east of Cape Lytarmis, the mouth of the Tanais.
The name of Cape Lytarmis suggests to us Lithuania, and probably
represents Domess-Ness in Courland; the Carambucis can be no other
than the Niemen; while the Tanais, upon which so many authors, ancient
and modern, have exhausted their conjectures, from confounding it with
the Southern Tanais which falls into the Sea of Azof, is evidently the
same as the Dwina or Western Duna. This is established incontrovertibly
both by its geographical position (the mouth of the Dwina being only
fifty leagues to the east of Domess-Ness) and the identity evidently
of the names Dwina and Tanais. Long since, Leibnitz was the first to
remark the presence of the radical _T. n_, or _D. n_, either with or
without a vowel, in the names of the great rivers of Eastern Europe;
Danapris or Dnieper, Danaster or Dniester, Danube (in German Donau, in
Hungarian Duna), Tanais or Don, for example; all which rivers however
discharge themselves into the Black Sea. There can be little doubt then
of the identity of the Duna with the Tanais, it being the only body of
water in these vast countries which bears a name resembling the initial
_Tan_, or _Tn_, and at the same time belongs to the basin of the
Baltic. We are aware, it is true, that the White Sea receives a river
Dwina, which is commonly called the Northern Dwina, but there can be no
real necessity to be at the trouble of combating the opinion that this
river is identical with the Northern Tanais. As the result then of our
investigations, it is at the eastern extremity of the Frisch-Haff and
near the mouth of the Pregel, that we would place the point at which
Pliny sets out. As for the Riphæan mountains, they have never existed
anywhere but in the head of the geographers from whom our author drew
his materials. From the mountains of Ural and Poias, which Pliny could
not possibly have in view, seeing that they lie in a meridian as
eastern as the Caspian Sea, the traveller has to proceed 600 leagues to
the south-west without meeting with any chains of mountains or indeed
considerable elevations.”

[2880] It is pretty clear that he refers to the numerous islands
scattered over the face of the Baltic Sea, such as Dago, Oesel,
Gothland, and Aland.

[2881] The old reading here was Bannomanna, which Dupinet would
translate by the modern Bornholm. Parisot considers that the modern
Runa, a calcareous rock covered with vegetable earth, in the vicinity
of Domess-Ness, is the place indicated.

[2882] It has been suggested by Brotier that Pliny here refers to the
Icy Sea, but it is more probable that he refers to the north-eastern
part of the Baltic, which was looked upon by the ancients us forming
part of the open sea.

[2883] With reference to these divisions of land and sea, a subject
which is involved in the greatest obscurity, Parisot states it as his
opinion that the Amalchian or Icy Sea is that portion of the Baltic
which extends from Cape Rutt to Cape Grinea, while on the other hand
the Cronian Sea comprehends all the gulfs which lie to the east of
Cape Rutt, such as the Haff, the gulfs of Stettin and Danzic, the
Frisch-Haff, and the Kurisch-Haff. He also thinks that the name of
‘Cronian’ originally belonged only to that portion of the Baltic which
washes the coast of Courland, but that travellers gradually applied
the term to the whole of the sea. He is also of opinion that the word
“Cronium” owes its origin to the Teutonic and Danish adjective _groen_
or “green.” The extreme verdure which characterizes the islands of the
Danish archipelago has given to the piece of water which separates
the islands of Falster and Moen the name of Groensund, and it is far
from improbable that the same epithet was given to the Pomeranian and
Prussian Seas, which the Romans would be not unlikely to call ‘Gronium’
or ‘Cronium fretum,’ or ‘Cronium mare.’ In the name ‘Parapanisus’ he
also discovers a resemblance to that of modern Pomerania.

[2884] Upon this Parisot remarks that on leaving Cape Rutt, at a
distance of about twenty-five leagues in a straight line, we come
to the island of Funen or Fyen, commonly called Fionia, the most
considerable of the Danish archipelago next to Zealand, and which lying
between the two Belts, the Greater and the Smaller, may very probably
from that circumstance have obtained the name of Baltia. Brotier takes
Baltia to be no other than Nova Zembla—so conflicting are the opinions
of commentators!

[2885] Parisot suggests that under this name may possibly lie concealed
that of the modern island of Zealand or Seeland, and that it may have
borne on the side of it next to the Belt the name of Baltseeland,
easily corrupted by the Greeks into Basilia.

[2886] Brotier takes these to be the islands of Aloo, and Bieloi or
Ostrow, at the mouth of the river Paropanisus, which he considers to
be the same as the Obi. Parisot on the other hand is of opinion that
islands of the Baltic are here referred to; that from the resemblance
of the name Oönæ to the Greek ὠὸν, “an egg,” the story that the natives
subsisted on the eggs of birds was formed; that not improbably the
group of the Hippopodes resembled the shape of a horse-shoe, from which
the story mentioned by Pliny took its rise; and that the Fanesii (or,
as the reading here has it, the Panotii, “all-ears”) wore their hair
very short, from which circumstance their ears appeared to be of a
larger size than usual.

[2887] Tacitus speaks of three great groups of the German tribes, the
Ingævones forming the first thereof, and consisting of those which
dwelt on the margin of the ocean, the Hermiones in the interior, and
the Istævones in the east and south of Germany. We shall presently find
that Pliny adds two groups, the Vandili as the fourth, and the Peucini
and Basternæ as the fifth. This classification however is thought to
originate in a mistake, for Zeuss has satisfactorily shown that the
Vandili belonged to the Hermiones, and that Peucini and Basternæ are
only names of individual tribes and not of groups of tribes.

[2888] Brotier and other geographers are of opinion that by this name
the chain of the Doffrefeld mountains is meant; but this cannot be the
case if we suppose with Parisot that Pliny here returns south from the
Scandinavian islands and takes his departure from Cape Rutt in the
territory of the Ingævones. Still, it is quite impossible to say what
mountains he would designate under the name of Sevo. Parisot suggests
that it is a form of the compound word “seevohner,” “inhabitants of the
sea,” and that it is a general name for the elevated lands along the
margin of the sea-shore.

[2889] Parisot supposes that under this name the isle of Funen is
meant, but it is more generally thought that Norway and Sweden are thus
designated, as that peninsula was generally looked upon as an island by
the ancients. The Codanian Gulf was the sea to the east of the Cimbrian
Chersonesus or Jutland, filled with the islands which belong to the
modern kingdom of Denmark. It was therefore the southern part of the
Baltic.

[2890] By Eningia Hardouin thinks that the country of modern Finland
is meant. Poinsinet thinks that under the name are included Ingria,
Livonia, and Courland; while Parisot seems inclined to be of opinion
that under this name the island of Zealand is meant, a village of
which, about three-fourths of a league from the western coast,
according to him, still bears the name of Heinïnge.

[2891] Parisot is of opinion that the Venedi, also called Vinidæ and
Vindili, were of Sclavish origin, and situate on the shores of the
Baltic. He remarks that this people, in the fifth century, founded
in Pomerania, when quitted by the Goths, a kingdom, the chiefs of
which styled themselves the Konjucs of Vinland. Their name is also
to be found in Venden, a Russian town in the government of Riga, in
Windenburg in Courland, and in Wenden in the circle of the Grand Duchy
of Mecklenburg Schwerin.

[2892] Parisot remarks that these two peoples were probably only tribes
of the Venedi.

[2893] Parisot feels convinced that Pliny is speaking here of the
Gulf of Travemunde, the island of Femeren, and then of the gulf
which extends from that island to Kiel, where the Eider separates
Holstein from Jutland. On the other hand, Hardouin thinks that by the
Gulf of Cylipenus the Gulf of Riga is meant, and that Latris is the
modern island of Oësel. But, as Parisot justly remarks, to put this
construction on Pliny’s language is to invert the order in which he has
hitherto proceeded, evidently from east to west.

[2894] The modern Cape of Skagen on the north of Jutland.

[2895] When Drusus held the command in Germany, as we learn from
Strabo, B. vii.

[2896] It is generally agreed that this is the modern island of
Borkhum, at the mouth of the river Amaiius or Ems.

[2897] To a bean, from which (_faba_) the island had its name of
Fabaria. In confirmation of this Hardouin states, that in his time
there was a tower still standing there which was called by the natives
_Het boon huys_, “the bean house.”

[2898] From the word _gles_ or _glas_, which primarily means ‘glass,’
and then figuratively “amber.” Probably Œland and Gothland. They will
be found again mentioned in the Thirtieth Chapter of the present Book.
See p. 351.

[2899] Now the Scheldt.

[2900] In a straight line, of course. Parisot is of opinion that in
forming this estimate Agrippa began at the angle formed by the river
Piave in lat. 46° 4′, measuring thence to Cape Rubeas (now Rutt) in
lat. 54° 25′. This would give 8° 21′, to which, if we add some twenty
leagues for obliquity or difference of longitude, the total would make
exactly the distance here mentioned.

[2901] As Parisot remarks, it is totally impossible to conceive the
source of such an erroneous conclusion as this. Some readings make the
amount 248, others 268.

[2902] As already mentioned, Zeuss has satisfactorily shown that the
Vandili or Vindili properly belonged to the Hermiones. Tacitus mentions
but three groups of the German nations; the Ingævones on the ocean, the
Hermiones in the interior, and the Istævones in the east and south of
Germany. The Vandili, a Gothic race, dwelt originally on the northern
coast of Germany, but afterwards settled north of the Marcomanni on the
Riesengebirge. They subsequently appeared in Dacia and Pannonia, and in
the beginning of the fifth century invaded Spain. Under Genseric they
passed over into Africa, and finally took and plundered Rome in A.D.
455. Their kingdom was finally destroyed by Belisarius.

[2903] It is supposed that the Burgundiones were a Gothic people
dwelling in the country between the rivers Viadus and Vistula, though
Ammianus Marcellinus declares them to have been of pure Roman origin.
How they came into the country of the Upper Maine in the south-west
of Germany in A.D. 289, historians have found themselves at a loss
to inform us. It is not improbable that the two peoples were not
identical, and that the similarity of their name arose only from the
circumstance that they both resided in “burgi” or burghs. See Gibbon,
iii. 99. _Bohn’s Ed._

[2904] The Varini dwelt on the right bank of the Albis or Elbe, north
of the Langobardi. Ptolemy however, who seems to mention them as the
Avarini, speaks of them as dwelling near the sources of the Vistula, on
the site of the present Cracow. See Gibbon, iv. 225. _Bohn’s Ed._

[2905] Nothing whatever is known of the locality of this people.

[2906] They are also called in history Gothi, Gothones, Gotones and
Gutæ. According to Pytheas of Marseilles (as mentioned by Pliny, B.
xxxvii. c. 2), they dwelt on the coasts of the Baltic, in the vicinity
of what is now called the Fritsch-Haff. Tacitus also refers to the
same district, though he does not speak of them as inhabiting the
coast. Ptolemy again speaks of them as dwelling on the east of the
Vistula, and to the south of the Venedi. The later form of their name,
_Gothi_, does not occur till the time of Caracalla. Their native name
was Gutthinda. They are first spoken of as a powerful nation at the
beginning of the third century, when we find them mentioned as ‘Getæ,’
from the circumstance of their having occupied the countries formerly
inhabited by the Sarmatian Getæ. The formidable attacks made by this
people, divided into the nations of the Ostrogoths and Visigoths, upon
the Roman power during its decline, are too well known to every reader
of Gibbon to require further notice.

[2907] The inhabitants of Chersonesus Cimbrica, the modern peninsula
of Jutland. It seems doubtful whether these Cimbri were a Germanic
nation or a Celtic tribe, as also whether they were the same race
whose numerous hordes successively defeated six Roman armies, and were
finally conquered by C. Marius, B.C. 101, in the Campi Raudii. The more
general impression, however, entertained by historians, is that they
were a Celtic or Gallic and not a Germanic nation. The name is said to
have signified “robbers.” See Gibbon, i. 273, iii. 365. _Bohn’s Ed._

[2908] The Teutoni or Teutones dwelt on the coasts of the Baltic,
adjacent to the territory of the Cimbri. Their name, though belonging
originally to a single nation or tribe, came to be afterwards applied
collectively to the whole people of Germany. See Gibbon, iii. 139.
_Bohn’s Ed._

[2909] Also called Cauchi, Cauci, and Cayci, a German tribe to the east
of the Frisians, between the rivers Ems and Elbe. The modern Oldenburg
and Hanover are supposed to pretty nearly represent the country of the
Chauci. In B. xvi. c. 1. 2, will be found a further account of them by
Pliny, who had visited their country, at least that part of it which
lay on the sea-coast. They are mentioned for the last time in the third
century, when they had extended so far south and west that they are
spoken of as living on the banks of the Rhine.

[2910] Mentioned by Tacitus as dwelling in the east and south of
Germany.

[2911] It has been suggested by Titzius that the words “quorum Cimbri,”
“to whom the Cimbri belong,” are an interpolation; which is not
improbable, or at least that the word “Cimbri” has been substituted for
some other name.

[2912] This appears to be properly the collective name of a great
number of the German tribes, who were of a migratory mode of life, and
spoken of in opposition to the more settled tribes, who went under the
general name of Ingævones. Cæsar speaks of them as dwelling east of the
Ubii and Sygambri, and west of the Cherusci. Strabo makes them extend
in an easterly direction beyond the Albis or Elbe, and southerly as far
as the sources of the Danube. Tacitus gives the name of Suevia to the
whole of the east of Germany, from the Danube to the Baltic. The name
of the modern Suabia is derived from a body of adventurers from various
German tribes, who assumed the name of Suevi in consequence of their
not possessing any other appellation.

[2913] A large and powerful tribe of Germany, which occupied the
extensive tract of country between the mountains in the north-west of
Bohemia and the Roman Wall in the south-west, which formed the boundary
of the Agri Decumates. On the east they bordered on the Narisci, on
the north-east on the Cherusci, and on the north-west on the Chatti.
There is little doubt that they originally formed part of the Suevi.
At a later period they spread in a north-easterly direction, taking
possession of the north-western part of Bohemia and the country about
the sources of the Maine and Saale, that is, the part of Franconia as
far as Kissingen and the south-western part of the kingdom of Saxony.
The name Hermunduri is thought by some to signify highlanders, and to
be a compound of _Her_ or _Ar_, “high,” and _Mund_, “man.”

[2914] One of the great tribes of Germany, which rose to importance
after the decay of the power of the Cherusci. It is thought by
ethnographers that their name is still preserved in the word “Hessen.”
They formed the chief tribe of the Hermiones here mentioned, and
are described by Cæsar as belonging to the Suevi, though Tacitus
distinguishes them, and no German tribe in fact occupied more
permanently its original locality than the Chatti. Their original abode
seems to have extended from the Westerwald in the west to the Saale in
Franconia, and from the river Maine in the south as far as the sources
of the Elison and the Weser, so that they occupied exactly the modern
country of Hessen, including perhaps a portion of the north-west of
Bavaria. See Gibbon, vol. iii. 99. _Bohn’s Ed._

[2915] The Cherusci were the most celebrated of all the German tribes,
and are mentioned by Cæsar as of the same importance as the Suevi,
from whom they were separated by the Silva Bacensis. There is some
difficulty in stating their exact locality, but it is generally
supposed that their country extended from the Visurgis or Weser in the
west to the Albis or Elbe in the east, and from Melibocus in the north
to the neighbourhood of the Sudeti in the south, so that the Chamavi
and Langobardi were their northern neighbours, the Chatti the western,
the Hermunduri the southern, and the Silingi and Semnones their eastern
neighbours. This tribe, under their chief Arminius or Hermann, forming
a confederation with many smaller tribes in A.D. 9, completely defeated
the Romans in the famous battle of the Teutoburg Forest. In later times
they were conquered by the Chatti, so that Ptolemy speaks of them
only as a small tribe on the south of the Hartz mountain. Their name
afterwards appears, in the beginning of the fourth century, in the
confederation of the Franks.

[2916] The Peucini are mentioned here, as also by Tacitus, as identical
with the Basternæ. As already mentioned, supposing them to be names
for distinct nations, they must be taken as only names of individual
tribes, and not of groups of tribes. It is generally supposed that
their first settlements in Sarmatia were in the highlands between the
Theiss and the March, whence they passed onward to the lower Danube,
as far as its mouth, where a portion of them, settling in the island
of Peuce, obtained the name of Peucini. In the later geographers we
find them settled between the Tyrus or Dniester, and the Borysthenes or
Dnieper, the Peucini remaining at the mouth of the Danube.

[2917] According to Parisot, the Guttalus is the same as the Alle, a
tributary of the Pregel. Cluver thinks that it is the same as the Oder.
Other writers again consider it the same as the Pregel.

[2918] Or Elbe.

[2919] Now the Weser.

[2920] The modern Ems.

[2921] The Meuse.

[2922] The ‘Hercynia Silva,’ Hercynian Forest or Range, is very
differently described by the writers of various ages. The earliest
mention of it is by Aristotle. Judging from the accounts given by
Cæsar, Pomponius Mela, and Strabo, the ‘Hercynia Silva’ appears to
have been a general name for almost all the mountains of Southern
and Central Germany, that is, from the sources of the Danube to
Transylvania, comprising the Schwarzwald, Odenwald, Spessart,
Rhön, Thuringer Wald, the Hartz mountain (which seems in a great
measure to have retained the ancient name), Raube Alp, Steigerwald,
Fichtelgebirge, Erzgebirge, and Riesengebirge. At a later period when
the mountains of Germany had become better known, the name was applied
to the more limited range extending around Bohemia, and through Moravia
into Hungary.

[2923] This island appears to have been formed by the bifurcation of
the Rhine, the northern branch of which enters the sea at Katwyck, a
few miles north of Leyden, by the Waal and the course of the Maas,
after it has received the Waal, and by the sea. The Waal or Vahalis
seems to have undergone considerable changes, and the place of its
junction with the Maas may have varied. Pliny makes the island nearly
100 miles in length, which is about the distance from the fort of
Schenkenschanz, where the first separation of the Rhine takes place,
to the mouth of the Maas. The name of Batavia was no doubt the genuine
name, which is still preserved in Betuwe, the name of a district at
the bifurcation of the Rhine and the Waal. The Canninefates, a people
of the same race as the Batavi, also occupied the island, and as the
Batavi seem to have been in the eastern part, it is supposed that the
Canninefates occupied the western. They were subdued by Tiberius in the
reign of Augustus.

[2924] The Frisii or Frisones were one of the great tribes of
north-western Germany, properly belonging to the group of the
Ingævones. They inhabited the country about Lake Flevo and other lakes,
between the Rhine and the Ems, so as to be bounded on the south by the
Bructeri, and on the east by the Chauci. Tacitus distinguishes between
the Frisii Majores and Minores, and it is supposed that the latter
dwelt on the east of the canal of Drusus in the north of Holland,
and the former between the rivers Flevus and Amisia, that is, in the
country which still bears the name of Friesland. The Chauci have been
previously mentioned.

[2925] The Frisiabones or Frisævones are again mentioned in C. 31 of
the present Book as a people of Gaul. In what locality they dwelt has
not been ascertained by historians.

[2926] The Sturii are supposed to have inhabited the modern South
Holland, while the Marsacii probably inhabited the island which the
Meuse forms at its junction with the Rhine, at the modern Dortrecht in
Zealand.

[2927] Supposed to be the site of the modern fortress of Briel, situate
at the mouth of the Meuse.

[2928] Probably the same as the modern Vlieland (thus partly retaining
its ancient name), an island north of the Texel. The more ancient
writers speak of two main arms, into which the Rhine was divided on
entering the territory of the Batavi, of which the one on the east
continued to bear the name of Rhenus, while that on the west into which
the Masa, Maas or Meuse, flowed, was called Vahalis or Waal. After
Drusus, B.C. 12, had connected the Flevo Lacus or Zuyder-Zee with
the Rhine by means of a canal, in forming which he probably made use
of the bed of the Yssel, we find mention made of three mouths of the
Rhine. Of these the names, as given by Pliny, are, on the west, Helium
(the Vahalis of other writers), in the centre Rhenus, and at the north
Flevum; but at a later period we again find mention made of only two
mouths.

[2929] Britain was spoken of by some of the Greek writers as superior
to all other islands in the world. Dionysius, in his Periegesis, says,
“that no other islands whatsoever can claim equality with those of
Britain.”

[2930] Said to have been so called from the whiteness of its cliffs
opposite the coast of Gaul.

[2931] Afterwards called Bononia, the modern Boulogne. As D’Anville
remarks, the distance here given by Pliny is far too great, whether
we measure to Dover or to Hythe; our author’s measurement however is
probably made to Rutupiæ (the modern Richborough), near Sandwich, where
the Romans had a fortified post, which was their landing-place when
crossing over from Gaul. This would make the distance given by Pliny
nearer the truth, though still too much.

[2932] Probably the Grampian range is here referred to.

[2933] The people of South Wales.

[2934] The Orkney islands were included under this name. Pomponius Mela
and Ptolemy make them but thirty in number, while Solinus fixes their
number at three only.

[2935] Also called Æmodæ or Hæmodæ, most probably the islands now known
as the Shetlands. Camden however and the older antiquarians refer the
Hæmodæ to the Baltic sea, considering them different from the Acmodæ
here mentioned, while Salmasius on the other hand considers the Acmodæ
or Hæmodæ and the Hebrides as identical. Parisot remarks that off the
West Cape of the Isle of Skye and the Isle of North Uist, the nearest
of the Hebrides to the Shetland islands, there is a vast gulf filled
with islands, which still bears the name of Mamaddy or Maddy, from
which the Greeks may have easily derived the words Αἱ Μαδδαὶ, whence
the Latin Hæmodæ.

[2936] The Isle of Anglesea.

[2937] Most probably the Isle of Man.

[2938] Camden and Gosselin (_Rech. sur la Géogr. des Anciens_) consider
that under this name is meant the island of Racklin, situate near the
north-eastern extremity of Ireland. A Ricina is spoken of by Ptolemy,
but that island is one of the Hebrides.

[2939] This Vectis is considered by Gosselin to be the same as the
small island of White-Horn, situate at the entrance of the Bay of
Wigtown in Scotland. It must not be confounded with the more southern
Vectis, or Isle of Wight.

[2940] According to Gosselin this is the island of Dalkey, at the
entrance of Dublin Bay.

[2941] Camden thinks that this is the same as Bardsey Island, at the
south of the island of Anglesea, while Mannert and Gosselin think that
it is the island of Lambay.

[2942] According to Brotier these islands belong to the coast of
Britanny, being the modern isles of Sian and Ushant.

[2943] As already mentioned, he probably speaks of the islands of Œland
and Gothland, and Ameland, called Austeravia or Actania, in which
_glæsum_ or amber was found by the Roman soldiers. See p. 344.

[2944] The opinions as to the identity of ancient Thule have been
numerous in the extreme. We may here mention six:—1. The common,
and apparently the best founded opinion, that Thule is the island
of Iceland. 2. That it is either the Ferroe group, or one of those
islands. 3. The notion of Ortelius, Farnaby, and Schœnning, that it is
identical with Thylemark in Norway. 4. The opinion of Malte Brun, that
the continental portion of Denmark is meant thereby, a part of which
is to the present day called Thy or Thyland. 5. The opinion of Rudbeck
and of Calstron, borrowed originally from Procopius, that this is a
general name for the whole of Scandinavia. 6. That of Gosselin, who
thinks that under this name Mainland, the principal of the Shetland
Islands, is meant. It is by no means impossible that under the name of
Thule two or more of these localities may have been meant, by different
authors writing at distant periods and under different states of
geographical knowledge. It is also pretty generally acknowledged, as
Parisot remarks, that the Thule mentioned by Ptolemy is identical with
Thylemark in Norway.

[2945] B. ii. c. 77.

[2946] Brotier thinks that under this name a part of Cornwall is meant,
and that it was erroneously supposed to be an island. Parisot is of
opinion that the copyists, or more probably Pliny himself, has made an
error in transcribing Mictis for Vectis, the name of the Isle of Wight.
It is not improbable however that the island of Mictis had only an
imaginary existence.

[2947] “White lead”: not, however, the metallic substance which we
understand by that name, but tin.

[2948] Commonly known as “coracles,” and used by the Welch in modern
times. See B. vii. c. 57 of this work, and the Note.

[2949] Brotier, with many other writers, takes these names to refer to
various parts of the coast of Norway. Scandia he considers to be the
same as Scania, Bergos the modern Bergen, and Nerigos the northern part
of Norway. On the other hand, Gosselin is of opinion that under the
name of Bergos the Scottish island of Barra is meant, and under that
of Nerigos, the island of Lewis, the northern promontory of which is
in the old maps designated by the name of Nary or Nery. Ptolemy makes
mention of an island called Doumna in the vicinity of the Orcades.

[2950] Transalpine Gaul, with the exception of that part of it called
Narbonensis, was called Gallia Comata, from the custom of the people
allowing their hair to grow to a great length.

[2951] From the Scheldt to the Seine.

[2952] From the Seine to the Garonne.

[2953] Lyonese Gaul, from Lugdunum, the ancient name of the city of
Lyons.

[2954] Said by Camden to be derived from the Celtic words _Ar - mor_,
“by the Sea.”

[2955] The provinces of Antwerp and North Brabant.

[2956] Inhabiting Western Flanders.

[2957] So called, it is supposed, from the Celtic word _Mor_, which
means “the sea.” Térouane and Boulogne are supposed to occupy the site
of their towns, situate in the modern Pas de Calais.

[2958] D’Anville places them between Calais and Gravellines, in the Pas
de Calais, and on the spot now known as the Terre de Marck or Merk.

[2959] Boulogne, previously mentioned.

[2960] Cluver thinks that “Brianni” would be the correct reading here;
but D’Anville places the Britanni on the southern bank of the stream
called La Canche in the Pas de Calais.

[2961] According to Parisot and Ansart they occupied the department of
the Somme, with places on the site of Amiens (derived from their name)
and Abbeville for their chief towns.

[2962] They dwelt in the modern department of the Oise, with Beauvais
(which still retains their name) for their chief town.

[2963] D’Anville is of opinion that the place called Haiz or Hez in
the diocese of Beauvais, received its name from this people, of whom
nothing else is known. The name is omitted in several of the editions.

[2964] D’Anville is of opinion that their chief town was situate at the
modern Chaours, at the passage of the river Serre, not far from Vervins
in the department of the Aisne.

[2965] According to Ptolemy their chief town would be on the site of
the modern Orchies in the department du Nord, but Cæsar makes it to be
Nemetacum, the modern Arras, the capital of the department of the Pas
de Calais.

[2966] According to Ansart their chief town was Bavai, in the
department du Nord. They are called “Liberi,” or free, because they
were left at liberty to enjoy their own laws and institutions.

[2967] Their capital was Augusta Veromanduorum, and it has been
suggested that the place called Vermand, in the department de l’Aisne,
denotes its site; but according to Bellay and D’Anville the city of St.
Quentin, which was formerly called Aouste, marks the spot.

[2968] Nothing whatever is known of them, and it is suggested by
the commentators that this is a corrupted form of the name of the
Suessiones, which follows.

[2969] They gave name to Soissons in the southern part of the
department de l’Aisne.

[2970] It has been suggested that these are the same as the
Silvanectes, the inhabitants of Senlis in the department de l’Oise.

[2971] The people of Tongres, in the provinces of Namur, Liège, and
Limbourg.

[2972] They are supposed to have dwelt in the eastern part of the
province of Limbourg.

[2973] They probably dwelt between the Sunuci and the Betasi.

[2974] They are supposed to have dwelt in the western part of the
province of Limbourg, on the confines of that province and South
Brabant, in the vicinity probably of the place which still bears the
name of Beetz, upon the river Gette, between Leau and Haclen, seven
miles to the east of Louvain.

[2975] According to Ptolemy the Leuci dwelt on the sites of Toul in the
department of the Meurthe, and of Nais or Nays in that of the Meuse.

[2976] From them Trèves or Trier, in the Grand Duchy of the Lower
Rhine, takes its name.

[2977] Their chief town was on the site of Langres, in the department
of the Haute Marne.

[2978] They gave name to the city of Rheims in the department of the
Marne.

[2979] Their chief town stood on the site of the modern Metz, in the
department of the Moselle.

[2980] Besançon stands on the site of their chief town, in the
department of the Doubs, extending as far as Bâle.

[2981] The inhabitants of the district called the Haut Rhin or Higher
Rhine.

[2982] The inhabitants of the west of Switzerland.

[2983] Or the “Equestrian Colony,” probably founded by the Roman
Equites. It is not known where this colony was situate, but it is
suggested by Cluver and Monetus that it may have been on the lake of
Geneva, in the vicinity of the modern town of Nyon.

[2984] Littré, in a note, remarks that Rauriaca is a barbarism, and
that the reading properly is “Raurica.”

[2985] Spire was their chief city, in the province of the Rhine.

[2986] They are supposed to have occupied Strasbourg, and the greater
part of the department of the Lower Rhine.

[2987] They dwelt in the modern Grand Duchy of Hesse Darmstadt; Worms
was their chief city.

[2988] That is, nearer the mouths of the Rhine.

[2989] They originally dwelt on the right bank of the Rhine, but were
transported across the river by Agrippa in B.C. 37, at their own
request, from a wish to escape the attacks of the Suevi.

[2990] Now known as the city of Cologne. It took its name from
Agrippina, the wife of Claudius and the mother of Nero, who was born
there, and who, as Tacitus says, to show off her power to the allied
nations, planted a colony of veteran soldiers in her native city, and
gave to it her own name.

[2991] Their district was in the modern circle of Clèves, in the
province of Juliers-Berg-Clèves.

[2992] Dwelling in the Insula Batavorum, mentioned in C. 29 of the
present Book.

[2993] He first speaks of the nations on the coast, and then of those
more in the interior.

[2994] Dwelling in the west of the department of Calvados, and the east
of the department of the Eure. From them Lisieux takes its name.

[2995] They occupied the department of the Lower Seine.

[2996] They are supposed to have dwelt in the vicinity of Lillebonne,
in the department of the Lower Seine.

[2997] They gave name to the town of Vannes in the department of
Morbihan.

[2998] From them the city of Avranches, in the department of La Manche,
derives its name.

[2999] They occupied the modern department of Finisterre.

[3000] The Loire.

[3001] This spot is placed by D’Anville near the modern city of Saint
Brieuc. He refers here to the peninsula of Brittany, which ends in
Finisterre.

[3002] Ansart remarks that the circuit of the peninsula from Saint
Brieuc to the mouth of the river Vilaine is only 450 miles, but that if
taken from the city of Avranches to the mouth of the Loire, it is 650.

[3003] Ansart states that from Avranches to the mouth of the Loire, in
a straight line, is twenty miles less than the distance here given by
Pliny.

[3004] Inhabitants of the department of the Lower Loire or Loire
Inférieure.

[3005] This extensive people inhabited the present departments of the
Saone et Loire, Allier, Nievre, Rhone nord, and Loire nord. Autun and
Chalons-sur-Marne stand on the site of their ancient towns.

[3006] They inhabited the departments of the Eure et Loire, and
portions of those of the Seine et Oise, of the Loire et Cher, and of the
Loiret. Chartres occupies the site of their town.

[3007] They occupied a part of the department of the Allier. Moulins
stands on the site of their chief town.

[3008] Sens, in the department of the Yonne, stands on the site of
their chief town.

[3009] The chief town of the Aulerci Eburovices was on the site of the
present Passy-sur-Eure, called by the inhabitants Old Evreux, in the
department of the Eure.

[3010] They dwelt in the vicinity of the city of Le Mans, in the
department of the Sarthe.

[3011] Meaux, in the department of the Seine et Marne, denotes the site
of their principal town.

[3012] Paris, anciently Lutetia, denotes their locality.

[3013] The city of Troyes, in the department of the Aube, denotes their
locality.

[3014] Their chief town stood on the site of Angers, in the department
of the Maine et Loire.

[3015] D’Anville says that their chief town stood on the spot now known
as Vieux, two leagues from Caen, in the department of Calvados.

[3016] The reading here is not improbably “Vadicasses.” If so, they
were a people situate at a great distance from the other tribes here
mentioned by Pliny. They dwelt in the department De l’Oise, in the
district formerly known as Valois, their chief town or city occupying
the site of Vez, not far from Villers Cotterets.

[3017] D’Anville assigns to the Venelli, or Unelli, as some readings
have it, the former district of Cotantin, now called the department of
La Manche.

[3018] According to D’Anville, Corseuil, two leagues from Dinan, in the
department of the Côtes du Nord, denotes the site of their chief town.
Hardouin takes Quimper to mark the locality.

[3019] They are supposed by Ansart to have occupied that part of the
department of La Mayenne where we find the village of Jublains, two
leagues from the city of Mayenne.

[3020] D’Anville assigns to them the greater part of the department of
the Ile et Vilaine, and is of opinion that the city of Rennes occupies
the site of Condate, their chief town.

[3021] Tours, in the department of the Indre et Loire, marks the site
of their chief town.

[3022] They are supposed to have occupied a portion of the department
of the Loire.

[3023] They probably occupied a part of the department of the Loire, as
also of that of the Rhone. Their town, Forum Secusianorum, stood on the
site of the present Feurs, in the department of the Loire.

[3024] The city of Lyons occupies the site of ancient Lugdunum. It
is suggested by Hardouin, that the name Lugdunum is a corruption of
“Lucudunum,” a compound of the Latin word _lucus_, “a grove,” and the
Celtic _dun_, “a hill” or “mountain.”

[3025] They are mentioned by Cæsar (B. C. iii. 9), in conjunction with
the Nannetes, Morini, and others, but nothing can be inferred as to the
precise position they occupied.

[3026] Their locality also is unknown, but it is supposed that they
dwelt in the vicinity of the department of La Vendée.

[3027] From them ancient Poitou received its name. They are supposed to
have occupied the department of the Haute-Vienne, and portions of the
departments of La Vendée, the Loire Inférieure, the Maine et Loire, the
Deux-Sèvres, and La Vienne.

[3028] They gave name to the former Saintonge, now the department of
Charente and Charente Inférieure. The town of Saintes occupies the site
of their chief town.

[3029] They occupied the modern department of the Gironde. The city of
Bordeaux occupies the site of their chief town.

[3030] They gave name to Aquitaine, which became corrupted into
Guyenne. Pliny is the only author that makes the Aquitani a distinct
people of the province of Aquitanica. The Tarusates are supposed to
have afterwards occupied the site here referred to by him, with Atures
for their chief town, afterwards called Aire, in the department of the
Landes.

[3031] Their locality is unknown, but it has been suggested that they
occupied the departments of the Basses Pyrénées, or Lower Pyrenees.

[3032] So called from the Latin verb _convenire_, “to assemble” or
“meet together.” They are said to have received this name from the
circumstance that Ptolemy, after the close of the Sertorian war,
finding a pastoral people of predatory habits inhabiting the range
of the Pyrenees, ordered them to unite together and form a community
in a town or city. From them the present town of Saint Bertrand de
Comminges, in the S.W. of the department of the Haute Garonne, derives
its Latin name “Lugdunum Convenarum.”

[3033] By Cæsar called the Bigerriones. Their name was preserved
in that of the district of Bigorre, now the department of the
Hautes-Pyrénées. Their chief town was Turba, now Tarbes.

[3034] By calling the Tarbelli _Quatuorsignani_, he seems to imply that
their chief town was a place garrisoned by four maniples of soldiers,
each with a _signum_ or standard. Aquæ Tarbellicæ was their chief town,
the modern Acqs or Dax, in the S.W. of the department of the Landes.

[3035] Their chief town was probably garrisoned by six _signa_ or
maniples. Cocosa, or Coequosa, as it is written in the Antonine
Itinerary, is the first place on a road from Aquæ Tarbellicæ or Dax to
Burdegala or Bordeaux, now called Marensin. Their locality was in the
southern part of the department of the Landes, the inhabitants of which
are still divided into two classes, the Bouges, those of the north, or
of the Tête de Buch; and the Cousiots, those of the south.

[3036] Their locality is unknown.

[3037] D’Anville would read “Onobusates,” and thinks that they dwelt in
the district called Nébousan, in the department of the Hautes Pyrénées.
He is also of opinion that their town stood on the site of the modern
Cioutat, between the rivers Adour and Neste.

[3038] They occupied the southern part of the department of the Gironde.

[3039] From them Hardouin suggests that Moneins, in the department of
the Basses Pyrénées, takes its name.

[3040] D’Anville is of opinion that they inhabited and gave name to
the Vallée d’Ossun, between the Pyrenees and the city of Oléron in the
department of the Basses Pyrénées.

[3041] D’Anville places them in the Vallée de Soule, in the department
of the Basses Pyrénées.

[3042] From them Campon, a place in the department of the Hautes
Pyrénées, is supposed to have received its name.

[3043] Biscarosse, not far from Tête de Buch in the department of the
Landes, is supposed to derive its name from this tribe.

[3044] Nothing whatever is known of them.

[3045] The more general reading is “Sassumini.” Ansart suggests that
the town of Sarrum, between Cognac and Périgueux, in the department of
the Dordogne, may have received its name from them.

[3046] Ansart suggests that Rieumes, in the department of the Haute
Garonne, occupies the site of Ryesium, their chief town, mentioned by
Ptolemy.

[3047] They are supposed to have given name to Tournay, in the
department of the Hautes Pyrénées.

[3048] Supposed to be the same as the Consuarini, mentioned in B. iii.
c. 5.

[3049] They probably gave name to Auch, in the department of Gers.

[3050] Their chief town occupied the site of Euse or Eause, in the
department of Gers.

[3051] Their locality is marked by Soz, in the department of the
Lot-et-Garonne.

[3052] Or “Oscidates of the Plains.” They probably gave name to Ossun,
two miles from Tarbes, in the department of the Hautes Pyrénées.

[3053] From them the village of Cestas, three leagues from Bordeaux, in
the department of the Gironde, is supposed to derive its name.

[3054] The village of Tursan, in the department of the Landes, probably
derived its name from this tribe.

[3055] Their town was Cossio, afterwards Vasates, now Bazas, in the
department of the Gironde.

[3056] The site of the Vassei and the Sennates appears to be unknown.

[3057] D’Anville is of opinion that this tribe gave name to Aisenay
or Azenay, a village four leagues distant from Bourbon-Vendée, in the
department of La Vendée.

[3058] They occupied the district formerly known as Berry, but now the
departments of the Indre, the Cher, and the west of the department of
the Allier. Their chief town was Avaricum, now Bourges.

[3059] They inhabited the district formerly known as the Limosin, now
the departments of the Creuse, the Haute Vienne, and the Corrèze. Their
chief town was Augustoritum, afterwards Lemovices, now Limoges.

[3060] They occupied the district formerly known as Auvergne, forming
the present department of the Allier, and the southern part of the
Puy de Dôme and the Cantal. Augustonemetum was their chief town, now
Clermont.

[3061] Situate in the district formerly known as Gevaudan, now the
department of La Lozère. Their chief town stood on the site of the
present small town of Javoulx, four leagues from Mende.

[3062] They are supposed to have occupied the former district of
Rouergue, now known as the department of Aveyron. Their chief town was
Segodunum, afterwards Ruteni, now known as Rhodez.

[3063] They occupied the former district of Querci, the present
department of Lot and Lot-et-Garonne. Divona, afterwards Cadurci, now
Cahors, was their principal town.

[3064] According to Ptolemy their town was Aginnum, probably the modern
Agen, in the present department of Lot-et-Garonne. “Antobroges,”
however, is the more common reading.

[3065] They occupied the district formerly known as Périgord, in
the department of the Dordogne; their town was Vesanna, afterwards
Petrocori, now Périgueux.

[3066] Ansart says they are about 200 in number, consisting of Belle
Isle, Groaix, Houat, Hoedic, and others. Also probably Morbihan.

[3067] The Isle of Oleron, the fountain-head of the maritime laws of
Europe.

[3068] He means to say that it gradually increases in breadth after
leaving the narrow neck of the Pyrenees and approaching the confines of
Lusitania.

[3069] B. iii. c. 3.

[3070] From Ruscino to Gades.

[3071] In the province now known as Guipuzcoa.

[3072] Supposed to be the present Cabo de la Higuera.

[3073] Probably inhabiting the eastern part of the provinces of Biscay
and Alava, the eastern portion of Navarre, and, perhaps, a part of the
province of Guipuzcoa.

[3074] According to Hardouin the modern San Sebastian occupies the site
of their town.

[3075] On the same site as the modern Bermeo, according to Mannert.
Hardouin thinks, however, and with greater probability, that it was
situate at the mouth of the river Orio.

[3076] D’Anville considers this to be the site of the city of Bermeo.

[3077] Poinsinet thinks that this is Flavio in Bilbao, D’Anville calls
it Portugalette, and Mannert thinks that it is the same as Santander,
with which opinion Ansart agrees.

[3078] According to Ptolemy, the Cantabri possessed the western part of
the province of La Montana, and the northern parts of the provinces of
Palencia and Toro.

[3079] Most probably the present Rio de Suancès, by Mannert called
the Saya, into which the Besanga flows. Hardouin however calls it the
Nervio.

[3080] Ansart suggests that this is the modern San Vicente de la
Barquera. If the river Sauga is the same with the Suancès, this cannot
be the port of Santander, as has been suggested.

[3081] Or Ebro.

[3082] According to Ansart, this is either the modern Ensenada de
Ballota or else the Puerta de Pô.

[3083] According to Ansart, the Orgenomesci occupied the same territory
which Ptolemy has assigned to the Cantabri in general. See Note [3078]
above.

[3084] Hardouin takes this to be Villaviciosa. Ansart thinks that Ria
de Cella occupies its site.

[3085] They are supposed to have occupied the greater part of the
principality of the Asturias and the province of Leon.

[3086] Hardouin and Mannert consider this to be identical with Navia
or Nava, six miles to the east of Oviedo, an obscure place in the
interior. Ansart however would identify it with Villaviciosa.

[3087] No doubt the headland now known as the Cabo de Penas.

[3088] Now Lugo in Gallicia.

[3089] Supposed by Ansart to be the Rio Caneiro, into which the Rio
Labio discharges itself.

[3090] Supposed by Ansart to have dwelt in the vicinity of the Celtic
promontory, now Cabo de Finisterra or Cape Finisterre. Of the Egovarri
and Iadoni nothing whatever is known.

[3091] Their towns are mentioned by Ptolemy as being situate on a bay
near Nerium or the promontory of Cape Finisterre.

[3092] Mannert thinks that the Nelo is the same as the Rio Allones; the
Florius seems not to have been identified.

[3093] The inhabitants of Cape Finisterre.

[3094] Dwelling on the banks of the river which from them takes its
modern name of Tambre.

[3095] Mannert and Ansart are of opinion that this peninsula was
probably the modern Cabo Taurinan or Cabo Villano, most probably the
latter.

[3096] On the occasion probably of his expedition against the Cantabri.

[3097] Their towns, Iria Flavia and Lacus Augusti, lay in the interior,
on the sites of the present Santiago de Compostella and Lugo.

[3098] Probably the modern Noya.

[3099] They are supposed to have occupied the district in which the
warm springs are found, which are known as Caldas de Contis and Caldas
de Rey.

[3100] It is suggested by Ansart that the islands here meant are those
called Carreira, at the mouth of the river Ulla, and the Islas de Ons,
at the mouth of the Tenario.

[3101] See B. iii. c. 4.

[3102] Inhabiting the vicinity of the modern Pontevedra.

[3103] According to Ptolemy also their town was Tudæ, the modern Tuy.

[3104] The modern Islas de Seyas or of Bayona.

[3105] The town of Bayona, about six leagues from the mouth of the
river Minho.

[3106] The Minho.

[3107] They occupied the tract of country lying between the rivers, and
known as Entre Douro y Minho.

[3108] Now Braga on the Cavado.

[3109] The Lima.

[3110] The river Douro.

[3111] See B. iii. c. 3.

[3112] Both lead, properly so called, and tin.

[3113] In a great degree corresponding with modern Portugal, except
that the latter includes the tract of country between the Minho and
Douro.

[3114] To distinguish them from the nation of the same name sprung
from them, and occupying the Farther Spain. (B. iii. c. 3.) The Pæsuri
occupied the site of the present towns of Lamego and Arouca.

[3115] The modern Vouga, which runs below the town of Aveiro, raised
from the ruins of ancient Talabrica.

[3116] Agueda, which, according to Hardouin, is the name of both the
river and the town.

[3117] Coimbra, formerly Condeja la Veja.

[3118] Leiria is supposed to occupy its site.

[3119] According to Hardouin, the modern Ebora de Alcobaza, ten leagues
from Leiria.

[3120] The modern Cabo de la Roca, seven leagues from Lisbon.

[3121] Pliny, in C. 34, places the Arrotrebæ, belonging to the
Conventus of Lucus Augusti, about the Promontorium Celticum, which,
if not the same as the Nerium (or Cape Finisterre) of the others, is
evidently in its immediate neighbourhood; but he confuses the whole
matter by a very curious error. He mentions a promontory called
Artabrum as the headland _at the N.W. extremity of Spain_; the coast
on the one side of it looking to the north and the Gallic Ocean, on
the other to the west and the Atlantic Ocean. But he considers this
promontory to be the west _headland of the estuary of the Tagus_,
and adds, that some called it _Magnum Promontorium_, or the “Great
Promontory,” and others Olisiponense, from the city of Olisipo, or
Lisbon. He assigns, in fact, all the west coast of Spain, down to the
mouth of the Tagus, to the north coast, and, instead of being led
to detect his error by the resemblance of name between his Artabrum
Promontorium and his Arrotrebæ (the Artabri of his predecessors, Strabo
and Mela), he perversely finds fault with those who had placed above
the promontory Artabrum, a people of the same name who never were there.

[3122] On the site of which the present city of Lisbon stands.

[3123] See note [3121] in the preceding page.

[3124] See note [3121].

[3125] See note [3116] in the preceding page.

[3126] Among these is Pomponius Mela, who confounds the river Limia,
mentioned in the last chapter, with the Æminius, or Agueda.

[3127] Now the river Mondego.

[3128] See B. xxxiii. c. 21.

[3129] Now Cape St. Vincent.

[3130] Pliny continues his error here, in taking part of the western
side of Spain for the north, and part of the southern coast for the
western.

[3131] B. iii. c. 2.

[3132] With the Vettones, situate in the province of the Alentejo. See
B. iii. c. 3.

[3133] In the present province of Algarve.

[3134] Now Lisbon. Both Strabo, Solinus, and Martianus Capella make
mention of a story that Ulysses came to Spain and founded this city.

[3135] See B. viii. c. 67 of the present work.

[3136] According to Hardouin, followed by D’Anville and Uckert, this
place gives name to Alcazar do Sal, nearly midway between Evora and the
sea-shore. Mannert says Setuval, which D’Anville however supposes to be
the ancient Cetobriga.

[3137] On its site stands Santiago de Cacem, nearly midway between
Lisbon and Cape St. Vincent.

[3138] Or the “Wedge,” generally supposed to be Cabo de Santa Maria.
Ansart however thinks that it is the Punta de Sagres, near Cape St.
Vincent. Pliny’s words indeed seem to imply a closer proximity than
that of Capes St. Vincent and Santa Maria.

[3139] According to Hardouin, the modern Estombar; according to
D’Anville, in the vicinity of Faro; but ten leagues from that place,
according to Mannert.

[3140] Hardouin and D’Anville are of opinion that Tavira occupies its
site.

[3141] Now Mertola, on the river Guadiana.

[3142] Now Merida, on the Guadiana. A colony of veterans (Emeriti) was
planted there by Augustus.

[3143] Now Medellin, in the province of Estremadura.

[3144] Pax Julia, or Pax Augusta, in the country of the Turduli, or
Turdetani; now Beja, in the province of the Alentejo.

[3145] Now Alcantara, in the province of Estremadura.

[3146] Now Truxillo, so called from Turris Julia.

[3147] Now Caceres.

[3148] Now called Santarem, from Saint Irene, the Virgin.

[3149] “The Garrison of Julius.”

[3150] “The Success of Julius.”

[3151] Evora, between the Guadiana and the Tagus.

[3152] “The Liberality of Julius.”

[3153] B. iii. c. 3.

[3154] Hardouin takes Augustobriga to have stood on the site of Villar
del Pedroso on the Tagus. Other writers think that it is represented by
the present Ponte del Arcobispo.

[3155] From Ammia, now Portalegre, on the frontier of Portugal. The
sites of Arabrica and Balsa do not appear to have been ascertained.

[3156] Capera stood on the site now called Las Ventas de Capara,
between Alcantara and Coria. The site of Cæsarobrica has not been
ascertained.

[3157] Coria, in Estremadura, probably occupies the site of Caura.

[3158] Hardouin suggests that the modern Tomar occupies the site of
Concordia.

[3159] Mannert is of opinion that the city of Lancia was situate in
the north of Lusitania, on the river Durius, or Douro, near the modern
Zamora.

[3160] To distinguish them from the Mirobrigenses, surnamed Turduli,
mentioned in B. iii. c. 3. Some writers think that this Mirobriga is
the present Ciudad Rodrigo; but Ambrose Morales takes it to be the
place called Malabriga, in the vicinity of that city.

[3161] The name of Medubriga was afterwards Aramenha, of which Hardouin
says the ruins only were to be seen. They were probably called
_Plumbarii_, from lead mines in their vicinity.

[3162] According to Hardouin, Ocelum was in the vicinity of the modern
Capara.

[3163] From Cape de Creuz to the Promontory between the cities of
Fontarabia and Saint Sebastian.

[3164] From the Greek κασσίτερος, “tin.” It is generally supposed that
the “Tin Islands” were the Scilly Isles, in the vicinity of Cornwall.
At the same time the Greek and Roman geographers, borrowing their
knowledge from the accounts probably of the Phœnician merchants, seem
to have had a very indistinct notion of their precise locality, and to
have thought them to be nearer to Spain than to Britain. Thus we find
Strabo, in B. iii., saying, that “the Cassiterides are ten in number,
lying near each other in the ocean, towards the north _from the haven
of the Artabri_.” From a comparison of the accounts, it would almost
appear that the ancient geographers confused the Scilly Islands with
the Azores, as those, who enter into any detail, attribute to the
Cassiterides the characteristics almost as much of the Azores and the
sea in their vicinity, as of the Scilly Islands.

[3165] Cape Finisterre.

[3166] Or the “Islands of the Blest.” We cannot do better than quote a
portion of the article on this subject in Dr. Smith’s “Dictionary of
Ancient Geography.” “‘Fortunatæ Insulæ’ is one of those geographical
names whose origin is lost in mythic darkness, but which afterwards
came to have a specific application, so closely resembling the old
mythical notion, as to make it almost impossible to doubt that that
notion was based, in part at least, on some vague knowledge of the
regions afterwards discovered. The earliest Greek poetry places the
abode of the happy departed spirits far beyond the entrance of the
Mediterranean, at the extremity of the earth, and upon the shores of
the river Oceanus, or in islands in its midst; and Homer’s poetical
description of the place may be applied almost word for word to those
islands in the Atlantic, off the west coast of Africa, to which the
name was given in the historical period. (Od. iv. l. 563, _seq._)
‘There the life of mortals is most easy; there is no snow, nor winter,
nor much rain, but Ocean is ever sending up the shrill breathing
breezes of Zephyrus to refresh men.’ Their delicious climate, and their
supposed identity of situation, marked out the Canary Islands, the
Madeira group, and the Azores, as worthy to represent the Islands of
the Blest. In the more specific sense, however, the name was applied
to the two former groups; while, in its widest application, it may
have even included the Cape de Verde Islands, its extension being in
fact adapted to that of maritime discovery.” Pliny gives a further
description of them in B. vi. c. 37.

[3167] The strait between the island and the mainland is now called the
River of Saint Peter. The circuit of the island, as stated by Pliny,
varies in the MSS. from fifteen to twenty-five miles, and this last is
probably correct.

[3168] Julius Cæsar, on his visit to the city of Gades, during the
Civil War in Spain, B.C. 49, conferred the citizenship of Rome on all
the citizens of Gades. Under Augustus it became a _municipium_, with
the title of ‘Augusta urbs Julia Gaditana.’ The modern city of Cadiz is
built upon its site.

[3169] Or the Island of Venus.

[3170] From the Greek word κότινος, “an olive-tree.”

[3171] If Gades was not the same as Tartessus (probably the Tarshish of
Scripture), its exact locality is a question in dispute. Most ancient
writers place it at the mouth of the river Bætis, while others identify
it, and perhaps with more probability, with the city of Carteia, on
Mount Calpe, the Rock of Gibraltar. The whole country west of Gibraltar
was called Tartessis. See B. iii. c. 3.

[3172] Or more properly ‘Agadir,’ or ‘Hagadir.’ It probably received
this name, meaning a ‘hedge,’ or ‘bulwark,’ from the fact of its being
the chief Phœnician colony outside of the Pillars of Hercules.

[3173] Of Erythræa, or Erytheia. The monster Geryon, or Geryones,
fabled to have had three bodies, lived in the fabulous Island of
Erytheia, or the “Red Isle,” so called because it lay under the rays of
the setting sun in the west. It was originally said to be situate off
the coast of Epirus, but was afterwards identified either with Gades
or the Balearic islands, and was at all times believed to be in the
distant west. Geryon was said to have been the son of Chrysaor, the
wealthy king of Iberia.

[3174] Alluding to B. iii. c. 6. From Rhegium to the Alps. But _there_
the reading is 1020.

[3175] Meaning Gessoriacum, the present Boulogne. He probably calls it
_Britannicum_, from the circumstance that the Romans usually embarked
there for the purpose of crossing over to Britain.

[3176] The present Santen in the Duchy of Cleves.

[3177] See end of B. iii.

[3178] See end of B. ii.

[3179] See end of B. iii.

[3180] See end of B. iii.

[3181] See end of B. iii.

[3182] See end of B. ii.

[3183] See end of B. iii.

[3184] See end of B. iii.

[3185] See end of B. iii.

[3186] See end of B. ii.

[3187] See end of B. iii.

[3188] See end of B. iii.

[3189] Ateius, surnamed _Prætextatus_, and also Philologus, which
last name he assumed to indicate his learning, was born at Athens,
and was one of the most celebrated grammarians of Rome, in the latter
part of the first century B.C. He was originally a freedman of the
jurist Ateius Capito, by whom he was described as “a rhetorician among
grammarians, and a grammarian among rhetoricians.” He was on terms of
intimacy with Sallust the historian, and Asinius Pollio. It is supposed
that he assisted Sallust in the compilation of his history; but to what
extent is not known. But few of his numerous commentaries were extant
even in the time of Suetonius.

[3190] A native of Megalopolis in Arcadia, born about B.C. 204. He was
trained probably in political knowledge and the military art under
Philopœmen, and was sent, as a prisoner to Rome, with others, to answer
the charge of not aiding the Romans in their war against Perseus. Here,
by great good fortune, he secured the friendship of Scipio Africanus,
with whom he was present at the destruction of Carthage. His history is
one of the most valuable works that has come down to us from antiquity.

[3191] Of Miletus, one of the earliest and most distinguished Greek
historians and geographers. He lived about the 65th Olympiad, or
B.C. 520. A few fragments, quoted, are all that are left of his
historical and geographical works. There is little doubt that Herodotus
extensively availed himself of this writer’s works, though it is
equally untrue that he has transcribed whole passages from him, as
Porphyrius has ventured to assert.

[3192] Of Mitylene, supposed to have flourished about B.C. 450. He
appears to have written numerous geographical and historical works,
which, with the exception of a considerable number of fragments, are
lost.

[3193] Of Sigæum, a Greek historian, contemporary with Herodotus. He
wrote a history of Greece, and several other works, all of which, with
a few unimportant exceptions, are lost.

[3194] See end of B. ii.

[3195] See end of B. ii.

[3196] A Rhodian by birth. He was admiral of the fleet of Ptolemy
Philadelphus, who reigned from B.C. 285 to 247. He wrote a work “On
Harbours,” in ten books, which was copied by Eratosthenes, and is
frequently quoted by ancient writers. Strabo also says that he composed
poetry.

[3197] See end of B. ii.

[3198] Of Cumæ, or Cymæ, in Ionia. He flourished about B.C. 408. He
studied under Isocrates, and gained considerable fame as a historian.
Though anxious to disclose the truth, he has been accused of sometimes
forcing his authorities to suit his own views. Of his history of
Greece, and his essays on various subjects, a few fragments only
survive.

[3199] A grammarian of Mallus, in Cilicia. He lived in the time of
Ptolemy Philopater, and resided at Pergamus, under the patronage of
Eumenes II. and Attalus II. In his grammatical system he made a strong
distinction between _criticism_ and _grammar_, the latter of which
sciences he regarded as quite subordinate to the former. Of his learned
commentaries on the Iliad and the Odyssey, only a few fragments have
come down to us.

[3200] See end of B. ii.

[3201] Of Cyrene, an Alexandrian grammarian and poet. He flourished at
Alexandria, whither Ptolemy Philadelphus had invited him to a place
in the Museum. Of his Hymns and Epigrams many are still extant. His
Elegies, which were of considerable poetical merit, with the exception
of a few fragments, have all perished. Of his numerous other works in
prose, not one is extant in an entire state.

[3202] See end of B. ii.

[3203] Probably Apollodorus of Artemita, in Mesopotamia. It is probably
to him that a Treatise on Islands and Cities has been ascribed by
Tzetzes, as also a History of the Parthians, and a History of Pontus.

[3204] Probably the author of that name, who wrote the History of
Cyzicus, is the person here referred to. He is called by Athenæus both
a Babylonian and a Cyzican. His work is entirely lost; but it appears
to have been extensively read, and is referred to by Cicero and other
ancient writers.

[3205] Of Neapolis. He wrote a History of Hannibal, and to him has
been ascribed a Description of the Universe, of which a fragment still
survives.

[3206] Of Tauromenium, in Sicily; a celebrated historian, who
flourished about the year B.C. 300. He was banished from Sicily by
Agathocles, and passed his exile at Athens. He composed a History of
Sicily, from the earliest times to the year B.C. 264. The value of his
history has been gravely attacked by Polybius; but there is little
doubt that it possessed very considerable merit. Of this, and other
works of Timæus, only a few fragments survive.

[3207] A Greek historian; a native of Lesbos. When he lived is unknown.
Dionysius, of Halicarnassus, has borrowed from him a portion of his
account of the Pelasgians. He is said to have been the author of the
notion that the Tyrrhenians, in consequence of their wanderings after
they left their original settlement, got the name of πελαργοὶ, or
“storks.” He is supposed to have written a History of Lesbos, as also a
work called “Historical Paradoxes.”

[3208] See end of B. iii.

[3209] See end of B. iii.

[3210] Of this author nothing whatever seems to be known.

[3211] Of Miletus, born B.C. 610. One of the earliest philosophers of
the Ionian school, and said to be a pupil of Thales. Unless Pherecydes
of Scyros be an exception, he was the first author of a philosophical
treatise in Greek prose. Other writings are ascribed to him by Suidas;
but, no doubt, on insufficient grounds. Of his treatise, which seems to
have contained summary statements of his opinions, no remains exist.

[3212] Of this writer nothing whatever is known, beyond the fact that,
from his name, he seems to have been a native of Mallus, in Cilicia.

[3213] It seems impossible to say which, out of the vast number of
the authors who bore this name, is the one here referred to. It is
not improbable that Dionysius of Chalcis, a Greek historian who lived
before the Christian era, is meant. He wrote a work on the Foundation
of Towns, in five books, which is frequently referred to by the
ancients. It is not probable that the author of the Periegesis, or
“Description of the World,” is referred to, as that book bears internal
marks of having been compiled in the third or fourth century of the
Christian era.

[3214] Of Miletus. He was the author of the “Milesiaca,” a romance of
licentious character, which was translated into Latin by L. Cornelius
Sisenna. He is looked upon as the inventor of the Greek romance, and
the title of his work is supposed to have given rise to the term
_Milesian_, as applied to works of fiction.

[3215] A Greek author, of whom nothing is known, except that Pliny, and
after him Solinus, refer to him as the authority for the statement that
Eubœa was originally called Chalcis, from the fact of (χαλκὸς) copper
being first discovered there.

[3216] Probably Menæchmus of Sicyon, who wrote a book on Actors, a
History of Alexander the Great, and a book on Sicyon. Suidas says that
he flourished in the time of the successors of Alexander.

[3217] When he flourished is unknown. He is said by Hyginus to have
written a History of the Island of Naxos.

[3218] He lived after the time of Alexander the Great; but his age is
unknown. He wrote a book, περὶ νόστων, on the returns of the Greeks
from their various expeditions, an account of Delos, a History of
Alexander the Great, and other works, all of which have perished.

[3219] Of Heraclæa, in Pontus. He was a pupil of Plato, and, after him,
of Aristotle. His works upon philosophy, history, mathematics, and
other subjects, were very numerous; but, unfortunately, they are nearly
all of them lost. He wrote a Treatise upon Islands, and another upon
the Origin of Cities.

[3220] A geographical writer, of whom nothing further is known.

[3221] The Greek historian, the disciple of Socrates, deservedly
styled the “Attic Bee.” His principal works are the Anabasis, or the
History of the Expedition of the younger Cyrus and the Retreat of the
Ten Thousand; the Hellenica, or History of Greece, from the time when
that of Thucydides ends to the battle of Mantinea, B.C. 362; and the
Cyropædia, or Education of Cyrus. The greater portion of his works is
now lost.

[3222] See end of B. ii.

[3223] See end of B. ii.

[3224] There were two physicians of this name, one of Catana, in
Sicily, the other of Dyrrhachium, in Illyricum, who, like his namesake,
was the author of numerous works. It is doubtful, however, whether
Pliny here refers to either of those authors.

[3225] A Greek historian, quoted by Dionysius of Halicarnassus. If
the same person as the father of the historian Nymphis, he must have
lived in the early part of the second century B.C. He wrote a work on
Islands, and another entitled Χρόνοι, or Chronicles.

[3226] A Greek geographer, who seems to have written an account of
Cyprus.

[3227] He is quoted by Strabo, Athenæus, and the Scholiasts; but all
that is known of him is, that he wrote a work on Thessaly, Æolia,
Attica, and Arcadia.

[3228] He wrote a work relative to Miletus; but nothing further is
known of him.

[3229] See end of B. ii.

[3230] Probably a writer on geography, of whom no particulars are known.

[3231] See end of B. ii.

[3232] Not reckoning under that appellation the country of Egypt,
which was more generally looked upon as forming part of Asia. Josephus
informs us that Africa received its name from Ophir, great-grandson of
Abraham and his second wife, Keturah.

[3233] ‘Castella,’ fortified places, erected for the purpose of
defence; not towns formed for the reception of social communities.

[3234] The Emperor Caligula, who, in the year 41 A.D., reduced the two
Mauritanias to Roman provinces, and had King Ptolemy, the son of Juba,
put to death.

[3235] Now Cape Spartel. By Scylax it is called Hermæum, and by Ptolemy
and Strabo Cote, or Coteis. Pliny means “extreme,” with reference to
the sea-line of the Mediterranean, in a direction due west.

[3236] Mentioned again by Pliny in B. xxxii. c. 6. Lissa was so called,
according to Bochart, from the Hebrew or Phœnician word _liss_, ‘a
lion.’ At the present day there is in this vicinity a headland called
the ‘Cape of the Lion.’ Bochart thinks that the name ‘Cotta,’ or
‘Cotte,’ was derived from the Hebrew _quothef_, a ‘vine-dresser.’

[3237] The modern Tangier occupies its site. It was said to have
derived its name from Tinge, the wife of Antæus, the giant, who was
slain by Hercules. His tomb, which formed a hill, in the shape of a man
stretched out at full length, was shown near the town of Tingis to a
late period. It was also believed, that whenever a portion of the earth
covering the body was taken away, it rained until the hole was filled
up again. Sertorius is said to have dug away a portion of the hill;
but, on discovering a skeleton sixty cubits in length, he was struck
with horror, and had it immediately covered again. Procopius says, that
the fortress of this place was built by the Canaanites, who were driven
by the Jews out of Palestine.

[3238] It has been supposed by Salmasius and others of the learned,
that Pliny by mistake here attributes to Claudius the formation of a
colony which was really established by either Julius Cæsar or Augustus.
It is more probable, however, that Claudius, at a later period, ordered
it to be called “Traducta Julia,” or “the removed Colony of Julia,” in
remembrance of a colony having proceeded thence to Spain in the time of
Julius Cæsar. Claudius himself, as stated in the text, established a
colony here.

[3239] Its ruins are to be seen at Belonia, or Bolonia, three Spanish
miles west of the modern Tarifa.

[3240] At this point Pliny begins his description of the western side
of Africa.

[3241] Now Arzilla, in the territory of Fez. Ptolemy places it at the
mouth of the river Zileia. It is also mentioned by Strabo and Antoninus.

[3242] Now El Araiche, or Larache, on the river Lucos.

[3243] Mentioned again in B. ix. c. 4 and c. 5 of the present Book,
where Pliny speaks of them as situate elsewhere. The story of Antæus is
further enlarged upon by Solinus, B. xxiv.; Lucan, B. iv. l. 589, _et
seq._; and Martianus Capella, B. vi.

[3244] Now the Lucos.

[3245] Hardouin is of opinion, that he here has a hit at Gabinius, a
Roman author, who, in his Annals of Mauritania, as we learn from Strabo
(B. xvii.), inserted numerous marvellous and incredible stories.

[3246] When we find Pliny accusing other writers of credulity, we are
strongly reminded of the proverb, ‘Clodius accusat mœchos.’

[3247] Or the “Julian Colony on the Plains.” Marcus suggests that
the word _Babba_ may possibly have been derived from the Hebrew
or Phœnician word _beab_ or _beaba_, “situate in a thick forest.”
Poinsinet takes Babba to be the Beni-Tuedi of modern times. D’Anville
thinks that it is Naranja.

[3248] There is considerable difficulty about the site of Banasa.
Moletius thinks that it is the modern Fanfara, or Pefenfia as Marmol
calls it. D’Anville suggests that it may be Old Mahmora, on the coast;
but, on the other hand, Ptolemy places it among the _inland_ cities,
assigning to it a longitude at some distance from the sea. Pliny
also appears to make it inland, and makes its distance from Lixos
seventy-five miles, while he makes the mouth of the Subur to be fifty
miles from the same place.

[3249] From both the Atlantic and the Mediterranean. According to
Poinsinet, Volubilis was the synonym of the African name _Fez_,
signifying a ‘band,’ or ‘swathe.’ Mannert conjectures that it is the
same as the modern Walili, or Qualili. D’Anville calls it Guulili, and
says that there are some remains of antiquity there.

[3250] The modern Subu, or Sebou. D’Anville is of opinion that this
river has changed a part of its course since the time of Pliny.

[3251] Most probably the modern Sallee stands on its site.

[3252] Not in reference to the fact of its existence, but the wonderful
stories which were told respecting it.

[3253] Like others of the ancient writers, Pliny falls into the error
of considering Atlas, not as an extensive chain of mountains, but as an
isolated mountain, surrounded by sands. With reference to its height,
the whole range declines considerably from west to east; the highest
summits in Morocco reaching near 13,000 feet, in Tunis not 5000.

[3254] Or “Goat-Pans;” probably another name for the Fauni, or Fauns.
More usually, there is but one Ægipan mentioned,—the son, according to
Hyginus, of Zeus or Jupiter, and a goat,—or of Zeus and Æga, the wife
of Pan. As a foundation for one part of the stories here mentioned,
Brotier suggests the fact, that as the Kabyles, or mountain tribes,
are in the habit of retiring to their dwellings and reposing during
the heat of the day, it would not, consequently, be improbable that
they would devote the night to their amusements, lighting up fires, and
dancing to the music of drums and cymbals.

[3255] Under his name we still possess a “Periplus,” or account of
a voyage round a part of Libya. The work was originally written in
Punic, but what has come down to us is a Greek translation. We fail,
however, to discover any means by which to identify him with any one of
the many Carthaginians of the same name. Some writers call him king,
and others _dux_, or _imperator_ of the Carthaginians; from which we
may infer, that he held the office of _suffetes_. This expedition has
by some been placed as far back as the time of the Trojan war, or of
Hesiod, while others again place it as late as the reign of Agathocles.
Falconer, Bougainville, and Gail, place the time of Hanno at about B.C.
570, while other critics identify him with Hanno, the father or son of
Hamilcar, who was killed at Himera, B.C. 480. Pliny often makes mention
of him; more particularly see B. viii. c. 21.

[3256] M. Gosselin thinks that the spot here indicated was at the
south-western extremity of the Atlas range, and upon the northern
frontier of the Desert of Zahara.

[3257] Supposed by some geographers to be the same as that now called
the Ommirabih, or the Om-Rabya. This is also thought by some to have
been the same river as is called by Pliny, in p. 381, by the name of
Asana; but the distances do not agree.

[3258] Supposed by Gosselin to be the present bay of Al-cazar, on the
African coast, in the Straits of Cadiz; though Hardouin takes it to be
the κόλπος ἐμπορικὸς, or “Gulf of Commerce,” of Strabo and Ptolemy.
By first quoting from one, and then at a tangent from another, Pliny
involves this subject in almost inextricable confusion.

[3259] Probably the place called Thymiaterion in the Periplus of Hanno.

[3260] The present Subu, and the river probably of Sallce, previously
mentioned.

[3261] The modern Mazagan, according to Gosselin.

[3262] Cape Cantin, according to Gosselin; Cape Blanco, according to
Marcus.

[3263] Probably the Safi, Asafi, or Saffee of the present day.

[3264] The river Tensift, which runs close to the city of Morocco, in
the interior.

[3265] The river Mogador of the present day.

[3266] The modern river Sus, or Sous.

[3267] The learned Gosselin has aptly remarked, that this cannot be
other than an error, and that “ninety-six” is the correct reading, the
Gulf of Sainte-Croix being evidently the one here referred to.

[3268] Mount Barce seems to be here a name for the Atlas, or Daran
chain.

[3269] Supposed by Gosselin to be the present Cape Ger.

[3270] The river Assa, according to Gosselin. There is also a river
Suse placed here in the maps.

[3271] These two tribes probably dwelt between the modern Capes Ger and
Non.

[3272] Marcus believes these to have been the ancestors of the present
race of the Touaricks, while the Melanogætuli were the progenitors of
the Tibbos, of a darker complexion, and more nearly resembling the
negroes in bodily conformation.

[3273] Supposed by Gosselin to be the present river Nun, or Non.
According to Bochart, this river received its name from the Hebrew or
Phœnician word _behemoth_ or _bamoth_, the name by which Job (xl. 15)
calls the crocodile [or rather the hippopotamus]. Bochart, however,
with Mannert, Bougainville, De Rennet, and De Heeren, is of opinion,
that by this name the modern river Senegal is meant. Marcus is of
opinion that it is either the Non or the modern Sobi.

[3274] Marcus here observes, that from Cape Alfach, below Cape Non,
there are no mountains, but continual wastes of sand, bordering on the
sea-shore. Indeed there is no headland, of any considerable height,
between Cape Sobi and Cape Bajador.

[3275] “The Chariot of the Gods.” Marcus is of opinion that it is the
modern Cape Verde; while, on the other hand, Gosselin takes it to be
Cape Non. Brotier calls it Cape Ledo.

[3276] In B. vi. c. 36, Pliny speaks of this promontory as the
“Hesperian Horn,” and says that it is but four days’ sail from the
Theon Ochema. Brotier identifies this promontory with the modern Cape
Roxo. Marcus is of opinion that it was the same as Cape Non; but there
is considerable difficulty in determining its identity.

[3277] Alluding to Polybius; though, according to the reading which
Sillig has adopted a few lines previously, Agrippa is the last author
mentioned. Pliny has here mistaken the meaning of Polybius, who has
placed Atlas midway between Carthage, from which he had set out, and
the Promontory of Theon Ochema, which he reached.

[3278] Ptolemy the son of Juba II. and Cleopatra, was summoned to Rome
in the year A.D. 40, by Caligula, and shortly after put to death by
him, his riches having excited the emperor’s cupidity. Previously to
this, he had been on terms of strict alliance with the Roman people,
who had decreed him a _toga picta_ and a sceptre, as a mark of their
friendship.

[3279] Ivory and citron-wood, or cedar, were used for the making and
inlaying of the tables used by the Roman nobility. See B. xiii. c. 23.

[3280] Supposed by some geographers to be the modern Wadi-Tensift. It
has been also confounded with the Anatis (see note [3171], p. 369);
while others again identify it with the Anidus. It is more commonly
spelt ‘Asama.’

[3281] Or Phuth. It does not appear to have been identified.

[3282] The range is still called by the name of Daran.

[3283] The same general who afterwards conquered the Britons under
Boadicea or Bonduca. While Proprætor in Mauritania under the Emperor
Claudius, in the year A.D. 42, he defeated the Mauri who had risen in
revolt, and advanced, as Pliny here states, as far as Mount Atlas. It
is not known from what point Paulinus made his advance towards the
Atlas range. Mannert and Marcus are of opinion that he set out from
Sala, the modern Sallee, while Latreille, Malte Brun, and Walkenaer
think that his point of departure was the mouth of the river Lixos.
Sala was the most southerly town on the western coast of Africa that in
the time of Pliny had submitted to the Roman arms.

[3284] Some of the editions read ‘Niger’ here. Marcus suggests that
that river may have been called ‘Niger’ by the Phœnician or Punic
colonists of the western Mauritania, and ‘Ger’ or ‘Gar’ in another
quarter. The same writer also suggests that the Sigilmessa was the
river to which Paulinus penetrated on his march beyond Atlas.

[3285] The Sigilmessa, according to Marmol, flows between several
mountains which appear to be of a blackish hue.

[3286] Bocchus however, the kinsman of Massinissa, had previously for
some time reigned over both the Mauritanias, consisting of Mauritania
Tingitana and Mauritania Cæsariana.

[3287] See B. xxv. c. 7. 12, and B. xxvi. c. 8.

[3288] Extending from the sea to the river Moluga, now called the
Molucha and Molochath, or Malva and Malvana.

[3289] From whom the Moors of the present day take their name. Marcus
observes here, that though Pliny distinguishes the Mauri from the
Gætuli, they essentially belonged to the same race and spoke the same
language, the so-called Berber, and its dialects, the Schellou and the
Schoviah.

[3290] ‘Maurusii’ was the Greek name, ‘Mauri’ the Latin, for this
people. Marcus suggests that Mauri was a synonym only for the Greek
word _nomades_, ‘wanderers.’

[3291] As Marcus observes, Pliny is here greatly in error. On the
inroads of Paulinus, the Mauri had retreated into the interior and
taken refuge in the deserts of Zahara, whence they had again emerged in
the time of the geographer Ptolemy.

[3292] From the time of the second Punic War this people had remained
in undisputed possession of the country situate between the rivers
Molochath or Moluga and Ampsaga, which formed the Cæsarian Mauritania.
Ptolemy speaks of finding some remains of them at Siga, a town situate
on a river of the same name, and at which King Syphax had formerly
resided.

[3293] While Pomponius Mela does not make any difference between the
Mauri and the Gætuli, Pliny here speaks of them as being essentially
different.

[3294] Derived, according to Marcus, from the Arabic compound
_bani-our_, ‘child of nakedness,’ as equivalent to the Greek word
_gymnetes_, by which name Pliny and other ancient writers designate the
wandering naked races of Western Africa.

[3295] The Autololes or, as Ptolemy calls them, the Autololæ, dwelt, it
is supposed, on the western coast of Africa, between Cape Cantin and
Cape Ger. Their city of Autolala or Autolalæ is one of Ptolemy’s points
of astronomical observation, having the longest day thirteen hours
and a half, being distant three hours and a half west of Alexandria,
and having the sun vertical once a year, at the time of the winter
solstice. Reichard takes it for the modern Agulon or Aquilon.

[3296] The Æthiopian Daratitæ, Marcus says.

[3297] The present Ceuta.

[3298] They were so called from the circumstance, Marcus says, of their
peaks being so numerous, and so strongly resembling each other. They
are now called, according to D’Anville, ‘Gebel Mousa,’ which means “the
Mountain of Apes,” an animal by which they are now much frequented,
instead of by elephants as in Pliny’s time.

[3299] Or Mediterranean.

[3300] The modern Bedia, according to Olivarius, the Tasanel, according
to Dupinet, and the Alamos or Kerkal, according to Ansart. Marcus says
that it is called the Setuan, and is the largest stream on the northern
shores of Western Africa.

[3301] The modern Gomera according to Hardouin, the Nocor according to
Mannert.

[3302] The modern Melilla most probably.

[3303] The modern Maluia. Antoninus calls it Malva, and Ptolemy Maloua.

[3304] Its site is occupied by the modern Aresgol, according to
Mariana, Guardia or Sereni according to Dupinet, Ned-Roma according
to Mannert and D’Anville, and Tachumbrit according to Shaw. Marcus is
inclined to be of the same opinion as the last-mentioned geographer.

[3305] Now the city of Malaga.

[3306] Mauritania Cæsariensis, or Cæsarian Mauritania, now forming the
French province of Algiers.

[3307] “Bogudiana;” from Bogud or Bogoas. The last king Bogud was
deprived of his kingdom by Bocchus, king of Mauritania Cæsariensis, a
warm partisan of Cæsar.

[3308] Or the “Great Harbour,” now Arzeu according to D’Anville, and
Mars-el-Kebir according to Marcus.

[3309] The same river probably as the Malva or Malvana previously
mentioned, the word _mulucha_ or _malacha_ coming from the Greek
μολόχη, “a marsh mallow,” which _malva_, as a Latin word, also
signifies. See p. 383.

[3310] From the Greek word ξένος, “a stranger.” Pomponius Mela and
Antoninus call this place Guiza, and Ptolemy Quisa. D’Anville places it
on the right side of the river Malvana or Mulucha, and Shaw says that
it was situate in the vicinity of the modern town of Oran.

[3311] Now Marz-Agolet, or situate in its vicinity, according to
Hardouin and Ansart, and the present Arzen, according to Marcus, where
numerous remains of antiquity are found.

[3312] Now Tenez, according to D’Anville, and Mesgraïm, according to
Mannert; with which last opinion Marcus agrees.

[3313] Ptolemy and Antoninus place this colony to the east of the
Promontory of Apollo, and not the west as Pliny does.

[3314] The present Cape Mestagan.

[3315] According to Dupinet and Mannert, the modern Tenez occupies
its site, Zershell according to Hardouin and Shaw, Vacur according to
D’Anville and Ansart, and Algiers according to others. It is suggested
by Marcus that the name Iol is derived from the Arabic verb _galla_,
“to be noble” or “famous.” There is no doubt that the magnificent ruins
at Zershell are those of Iol, and that its name is an abbreviation of
Cæsarea Iol.

[3316] Or New Town.

[3317] Scylax calls it Thapsus; Ammianus Marcellinus, Tiposa. According
to Mannert it was situate in the vicinity of the modern Damas.

[3318] Or Icosium. It has been identified by inscriptions discovered
by the French as standing on the same site as the modern Algiers.
D’Anville, Mannert and others identify it with Scherchell or Zershell,
thus placing it too far west. Mannert was evidently misled by an error
in the Antonine Itinerary, whereby all the places along this coast are,
for a considerable distance, thrown too far to the west; the researches
however which followed the French conquest of the country have revealed
inscriptions which completely set the question at rest.

[3319] According to Mannert, this was situate on the modern Cape
Arbatel. Marcus thinks that the Hebrew _ros_, or Arab _ras_, “a rock,”
enters into the composition of the word.

[3320] Now Hur according to D’Anville, Colcah according to Mannert.

[3321] The modern Acor, according to Marcus.

[3322] The modern Pedeles or Delys, according to Ortellius and Mannert,
Tedles according to D’Anville.

[3323] The modern Jigeli or Gigeri. It was probably in ancient times
the emporium of the surrounding country.

[3324] Destroyed, according to Hardouin, and probably by the incursions
of the sea. At the mouth of the Ampsaga (now called the Wad-El-Kebir
or Sufjimar, and higher up the Wadi Roumel) there is situate a small
sea-port called Marsa Zeitoun.

[3325] Near the present Mazuaa, according to Mannert.

[3326] The modern Burgh, according to D’Anville and Mannert, but more
probably considerably to the east of that place.

[3327] The modern El-Herba, according to Mannert.

[3328] Marcus suggests that this is the Chinalaph of Ptolemy, and
probably the modern Schellif.

[3329] The same that is called Savis by Ptolemy, who places Icosium on
its banks.

[3330] By Mela called the Vabar. Marcus supposes it to be the same as
the modern Giffer.

[3331] By Ptolemy called the Sisar; the Ajebbi of modern geographers,
which falls into the Mediterranean, near the city of Budja.

[3332] Brotier says that this reading is incorrect, and that 222 is the
proper one, that being the true distance between the river Ampsaga or
Wad-el-Kebir and the city of Cæsarea, the modern Zershell.

[3333] It was not only Numidia that bore this name, but all the
northern coast of Africa from the frontiers of the kingdom of Carthage
near Hippo Regius to the Columns of Hercules. It was thus called
from the Greek _metagonos_, a “descendant” or “successor;” as the
Carthaginians established a number of small towns and villages on the
coast, which were thus posterior in their origin to the large cities
already founded there.

[3334] Hardouin says that the Moors in the interior still follow the
same usage, carrying their houses from pasture to pasture on waggons.

[3335] Now Chollum or Collo.

[3336] The modern Sgigada or Stora, according to Mannert, D’Anville,
and Shaw.

[3337] The modern Constantina occupies its site. Numerous remains of
the ancient town are still discovered. Sitius was an officer who served
under Cæsar, and obtained a grant of this place after the defeat of
Juba.

[3338] Called Urbs, or Kaff, according to D’Anville and Shaw; the
latter of whom found an inscription there with the words _Ordo
Siccensium_.

[3339] Or ‘Royal Bulla’; which epithet shows that it was either a
residence or a foundation of the kings of Numidia, and distinguishes
it from a small place called Bulla Mensa, south of Carthage. Bulla
Regia was four days’ journey south-west of Carthage, on a tributary of
the river Bagrada, the valley of which is still called Wad-el-Boul.
This place was one of the points of Ptolemy’s recorded astronomical
observations, having its longest day fourteen hours and one-eighth, and
being distant from Alexandria two hours to the west.

[3340] The modern Tamseh, according to Shaw and Mannert, and Tagodet,
according to D’Anville.

[3341] Its ruins are south of the modern Bona. It received the name of
_Regius_ or ‘Royal’ from being the residence of the Numidian kings. It
was also famed as being the see of St. Augustine. It was a colony of
Tyre, and stood on the bay now forming the Gulf of Bona. It was one
of the most flourishing cities of Africa till it was destroyed by the
Vandals A.D. 430.

[3342] Now the Mafragg, according to Mannert.

[3343] Still called Tabarca, according to Hardouin.

[3344] Now the Zaina, according to Marcus.

[3345] For the character of the Numidian marble, see Pliny, B. xxxvi.
c. 7.

[3346] Extending from the river Tusca, or Zaina, to the northern
frontiers of Byzacium. It corresponds with the Turkish province or
beylik of Tunis.

[3347] He says this not only to distinguish it from Africa, considered
as one-third of the globe, but also in contradistinction to the
proconsular province of the Roman empire of the same name, which
contained not only the province of Zeugitana, but also those of
Numidia, Byzacium, and Tripolis.

[3348] Candidum: now Ras-el-Abiad.

[3349] The references to this headland identify it with Cape Farina, or
Ras Sidi Ali-al-Mekhi, and not, as some have thought, the more westerly
Cape Zibeeb or Ras Sidi Bou-Shoushe. Shaw however applies the name of
Zibeeb to the former.

[3350] Now Cape Bon, or Ras-Addar.

[3351] More properly called Hippo Diarrhytus or Zaritus, a Tyrian
colony, situate on a large lake which communicated with the sea, and
received the waters of another lake. Its situation exposed it to
frequent inundations, whence, as the Greeks used to state, the epithet
διάῤῥυτος. It seems more probable however that this is the remnant of
some Phœnician title, as the ancients were not agreed on the true form
of the name, and of this uncertainty we have a further proof in the
_Hippo Dirutus_ of our author.

[3352] This is placed by Ptolemy to the south-east of Hippo, and near
the southern extremity of Lake Sisar.

[3353] This important city stood on the north part of the Carthaginian
Gulf, west of the mouth of the Bagrada, and twenty-seven Roman miles
N.W. of Carthage; but the site of its ruins at the modern Bou-Shater
is now inland, in consequence of the changes made by the Bagrada
in the coast-line. In the Third Punic war Utica took part with the
Romans against Carthage, and was rewarded with the greater part of the
Carthaginian territory.

[3354] Now called the Mejerdah, and though of very inconsiderable
size, the chief river of the Carthaginian territory. The main stream
is formed by the union of two branches, the southern of which, the
ancient Bagrada, is now called the Mellig, and in its upper course the
Meskianah. The other branch is called the Hamiz.

[3355] Or the “Cornelian Camp.” The spot where Cornelius Scipio
Africanus the Elder first encamped, on landing in Africa, B.C. 204.
Cæsar describes this spot, in his description of Curio’s operations
against Utica, B. C. b. ii. c. 24, 25. This spot is now called Ghellah.

[3356] This colony was first established by Caius Gracchus, who sent
6000 settlers to found on the site of Carthage the new city of Junonia.
The Roman senate afterwards annulled this with the other acts of
Gracchus. Under Augustus however the new city of Carthage was founded,
which, when Strabo wrote, was as prosperous as any city in Africa. It
was made, in place of Utica, which had favoured the Pompeian party,
the seat of the proconsul of Old Africa. It stood on the peninsula
terminated by Ras-Sidi-Bou-Said, Cape Carthage or Carthagena. As Gibbon
has remarked, “The place might be unknown if some broken arches of an
aqueduct did not guide the footsteps of the inquisitive traveller.”

[3357] The original city of Carthage was called ‘Carthago Magna’ to
distinguish it from New Carthage and Old Carthage, colonies in Spain.

[3358] Now Rhades, according to Marcus.

[3359] Marcus identifies it with the modern Gurtos.

[3360] By the Greeks called ‘Aspis.’ It derived its Greek and Roman
names from its site on a hill of a shield-like shape. It was built by
Agathocles, the Sicilian, B.C. 310. In the first Punic war it was the
landing-place of Manlius and Regulus, whose first action was to take
it, B.C. 256. Its site is still known as Kalebiah, and its ruins are
peculiarly interesting. The site of Misua is occupied by Sidi-Doud,
according to Shaw and D’Anville.

[3361] Shaw informs us that an inscription found on the spot designates
this place as a colony, not a free city or town. Its present name is
Kurbah.

[3362] The present Nabal, according to D’Anville.

[3363] Zeugitana extended from the river Tusca to Horrea-Cælia, and
Byzacium from this last place to Thenæ.

[3364] As sprung partly from the Phœnician immigrants, and partly from
the native Libyans or Africans.

[3365] Pliny says, B. xvii. c. 3, “A hundred and fifty fold.” From Shaw
we learn that this fertility no longer exists, the fields producing not
more than eight- or at most twelve-fold.

[3366] The modern Lempta occupies its site.

[3367] Originally a Phœnician colony, older than Carthage. It was the
capital of Byzacium, and stood within the southern extremity of the
Sinus Neapolitanus or Gulf of Hammamet. Trajan made it a colony, under
the high-sounding name, as we gather from inscriptions, of _Colonia
Concordia Ulpia Trajana Augusta Frugifera Hadrumetana_, or, as set
forth on coins, _Colonia Concordia Julia Hadrumetana Pia_. The epithet
_Frugifera_ refers to the fact that it was one of the chief sea-ports
for the corn-producing country of Byzacium. It was destroyed by the
Vandals, but restored by the Emperor Justinian under the name of
Justiniana or Justinianopolis. The modern Sousa stands on its site; and
but slight traces of the ancient city are to be found.

[3368] Situate in the vicinity of the modern Monastir.

[3369] Shaw discovered its ruins at the modern town of Demas.

[3370] Now Taineh, according to D’Anville. This place formed the
boundary between the proconsular province of Africa and the territory
of the Numidian king Masinissa and his descendants.

[3371] The present Mahometa, according to Marcus, El Mahres according
to D’Anville.

[3372] Now Cabès, according to D’Anville, giving name to the Gulf of
Cabès. Marcus calls it Gaps.

[3373] Now Tripoli Vecchio; also called Sabart according to D’Anville.

[3374] Scipio Æmilianus, the son-in-law of Æmilius Paulus.

[3375] Micipsa, the son of Masinissa, and his two legitimate brethren.
Scipio having been left by Masinissa executor of his will, the
sovereign power was divided by him between Micipsa and his two brethren
Gulussa and Mastanabal. On this occasion also he separated Numidia from
Zeugitana and Byzacium, by a long dyke drawn from Thenæ, due south,
to the borders of the Great Desert, and thence in a north-westerly
direction to the river Tusca.

[3376] The Syrtes or ‘Quicksands’ are now called, the Lesser Syrtes the
Gulf of Cabès, and the Greater the Gulf of Sydra. The country situate
between the two Syrtes is called Tripoli, formerly Tripolis, a name
which, according to Solinus, it owed to its three cities, Sabrata,
Leptis, and Œa.

[3377] Marcus observes with reference to this passage, that both
Hardouin and Poinsinet have mistaken its meaning. They evidently think
that Pliny is speaking here of a route to the Syrtes leading from the
interior of Africa, whereas it is pretty clear that he is speaking
of the dangers which attend those who approach it by the line of the
sea-coast, as Cato did, on his march to Utica, so beautifully described
by Lucan in his Ninth Book. This is no doubt the same route which was
taken by the caravans on their passage from Lebida, the ancient Leptis,
to Berenice in Cyrenaica.

[3378] Those which we find at the middle of the coast bordering upon
the Greater Syrtis, and which separate the mountains of Fezzan and
Atlas from Cyrenaica and Barca.

[3379] In its widest sense this name is applied to all the Libyan
tribes inhabiting the Oases on the eastern part of the Great Desert,
as the Gætulians inhabited its western part, the boundary between the
two nations being drawn at the sources of the Bagrada and the mountain
Usargala. In the stricter sense however, and in which the term must be
here understood, the name ‘Garamantes’ denoted the people of Phazania,
the modern Fezzan, which forms by far the largest oasis in the Grand
Desert of Zahara.

[3380] Augylæ, now Aujelah, was an oasis in the desert of Barca, in the
region of Cyrenaica, about 3-1/2° south of Cyrene. It has been remarked
that Pliny, here and in the Eighth Chapter of the present Book, in
abridging the account given by Herodotus of the tribes of Northern
Africa, has transferred to the Augylæ what that author really says
of the Nasamones. This oasis forms one of the chief stations on the
caravan route from Cairo to Fezzan. It is placed by Rennell in 30° 3′
North Lat. and 22° 46′ East Long., 180 miles south-east of Barca, 180
west by north of Siwah, the ancient Ammonium, and 426 east by north of
Mourzouk. Later authorities, however, place the village of Aujelah in
29° 15′ North Lat. and 21° 55′ East Long.

[3381] For an account of the Psylli see B. vii. c. 2. They probably
dwelt in the vicinity of the modern Cape Mesurata.

[3382] Now Lake Lynxama, according to Marcus.

[3383] Marcus observes that in order properly to understand this
passage we must remember that the ancients considered Africa as
terminating north of the Equator, and imagined that from the Straits of
Hercules the western coast of Africa ran, not towards the south-west,
but slanted in a south-easterly direction to the Straits of Babelmandel.

[3384] The modern Tripoli.

[3385] A flourishing city with a mixed population of Libyans and
Sicilians. It was at this place that Apuleius made his eloquent and
ingenious defence against the charge of sorcery brought against him by
his step-sons. According to some writers the modern Tripoli is built on
its site, while other accounts make it to have been situate six leagues
from that city.

[3386] Now called the Wady-el-Quaham.

[3387] Mannert is of opinion that this was only another name for the
city of Leptis Magna or the “Greater Leptis” here mentioned by Pliny.
There is little doubt that his supposition is correct.

[3388] The more common reading is Taphra or Taphara. D’Anville
identifies it with the town of Sfakes.

[3389] Scylax identifies it with Neapolis or Leptis, and it is
generally looked upon as being the same place as Sabrata or Old Tripoli.

[3390] Now called Lebida. It was the birth-place of the Emperor
Septimius Severus. It was almost destroyed by an attack from a Libyan
tribe A.D. 366, and its ruin was completed by the invasion of the
Arabs. Its ruins are considerable.

[3391] “Men of sea complexion,” is the meaning of this Greek name.
According to Marcus they dwelt between the Greater Leptis and the Lake
Tritonis, at the present day called Schibkah-el-Loudeah. For a further
account of the Lotophagi, see B. xiii. c. 32.

[3392] Two brothers, citizens of Carthage, who in a dispute as to
their respective territories with the people of Cyrene, submitted to
be buried alive in the sand, at the boundary-line between the two
countries. Sallust (Jugurthine War) is the main authority for the
story. It is also related by Pomponius Mela, B. i. c. 7, and Valerius
Maximus, B. v. c. 6, but from the Greek name of the brothers, meaning
“lovers of praise,” it is doubtful whether the story is not of spurious
origin.

[3393] The Lake Tritonis mentioned in note [3391], p. 393.

[3394] Now called El Hammah, according to Shaw.

[3395] According to some accounts the goddess Pallas or Minerva was
born on the banks of Lake Tritonis.

[3396] The modern Cape of Tajuni.

[3397] Now called Udina, according to Marcus.

[3398] Now called Tabersole, according to Marcus.

[3399] In the north of Byzacium, near the Bagrada and the confines
of Numidia. It was the station of a Roman garrison, and considerable
remains of it are still visible near the modern Zanfour.

[3400] Called Cannopissæ by Ptolemy, who places it to the east of
Tabraca.

[3401] There is great doubt as to the correct orthography of these
places, most of which can be no longer identified.

[3402] According to Marcus the present Porto Tarina.

[3403] Also called Achilla and Achulla, the ruins of which are to be
seen at the modern El Aliah. It stood on the sea-coast of Byzacium,
a little above the northern extremity of the Lesser Syrtis. It was a
colony from the island of Melita, now Malta.

[3404] Now called El-Jemma, according to Marcus.

[3405] From it modern Tunis takes its name.

[3406] The birth-place of St. Augustin. It was to the north-west of
Hippo Regius.

[3407] In the vicinity of this place, if it is the same as the Tigisis
mentioned by Procopius, there were two columns to be seen in his day,
upon which was written in the Phœnician language, “We fled from before
the robber, Joshua the son of Nun.”

[3408] There were two towns of this name in the proconsular province
of Africa. The first was situate in the country of Zeugitana, five
days’ journey west of Carthage, and it was here that Scipio defeated
Hannibal. The other bore the surname of _Regia_ or Royal, from being
the frequent residence of the Numidian kings. It lay in the interior,
and at the present day its site bears the name of ‘Zowarin’ or
‘Zewarin.’

[3409] The ruins of Capsa still bear the name of Cafsa or Ghafsah.
It was an important city in the extreme south of Numidia, situate in
an oasis, in the midst of an arid desert abounding in serpents. In
the Jugurthine war it was the treasury of Jugurtha, and was taken and
destroyed by Marius; but was afterwards rebuilt and made a colony.

[3410] They dwelt between the river Ampsaga or Wady-El-Kebir and the
Tusca or Wady-Zain, the western boundary of the Carthaginian territory.

[3411] Dwelling to the east of the mountain Zalycus, now known as the
Wanashrise, according to Shaw.

[3412] The ancients called by the name of ‘Gætulians’ all the people of
Africa who dwelt south of the Mauritanias and Numidia, as far as the
line which, according to their ideas, separated Africa from Æthiopia.

[3413] The Quorra most probably of modern geographers.

[3414] So called, as mentioned below, from its five principal cities.

[3415] Where Jupiter Ammon or Hammon was worshiped under the form of
a ram, the form he was said to have assumed when the deities were
dispersed in the war with the Giants. Ancient Ammonium is the present
oasis of Siwah in the Libyan Desert.

[3416] The same that has been already mentioned in B. ii. c. 106. It is
mentioned by Herodotus and Pomponius Mela.

[3417] Previously called Hesperis or Hesperides. It was the most
westerly city of Cyrenaica, and stood just beyond the eastern extremity
of the Greater Syrtis, on a promontory called Pseudopenias, and near
the river Lethon. Its historical importance only dates from the times
of the Ptolemies, when it was named Berenice, after the wife of Ptolemy
III. or Euergetes. Having been greatly reduced, it was fortified anew
by the Emperor Justinian. Its ruins are to be seen at the modern Ben
Ghazi.

[3418] So called from Arsinoë, the sister of Ptolemy Philadelphus.
Its earlier name was Taucheira or Teucheira, which name, according to
Marcus, it still retains.

[3419] Its ruins may still be seen at Tolmeita or Tolometa. It was
situate on the N.W. coast of Cyrenaica, and originally bore the name of
Barca. From which of the Ptolemies it took its name is not known. Its
splendid ruins are not less than four miles in circumference.

[3420] Its ruins are still to be seen, bespeaking its former splendour,
at the modern Marsa Sousah. It was originally only the port of Cyrene,
but under the Ptolemies it flourished to such an extent as to eclipse
that city. It is pretty certain that it was the Sozusa of the later
Greek writers. Eratosthenes was a native of this place.

[3421] The chief city of Cyrenaica, and the most important Hellenic
colony in Africa, the early settlers having extensively intermarried
with wives of Libyan parentage. In its most prosperous times it
maintained an extensive commerce with Greece and Egypt, especially in
silphium or assafœtida, the plantations of which, as mentioned in the
present chapter, extended for miles in its vicinity. Great quantities
of this plant were also exported to Capua in Southern Italy, where it
was extensively employed in the manufacture of perfumes. The scene of
the ‘Rudens,’ the most picturesque (if we may use the term) of the
plays of Plautus, is laid in the vicinity of Cyrene, and frequent
reference is made in it to the extensive cultivation of silphium;
a head of which plant also appears on the coins of the place. The
philosophers Aristippus and Carneades were born here, as also the poet
Callimachus. Its ruins, at the modern Ghrennah, are very extensive, and
are indicative of its former splendour.

[3422] In C. 1 of the present Book. It was only the poetical fancy
of the Greeks that found the fabled gardens of the Hesperides in the
fertile regions of Cyrenaica. Scylax distinctly mentions the gardens
and the lake of the Hesperides in this vicinity, where we also find
a people called Hesperidæ, or, as Herodotus names them, Euesperidæ.
It was probably in consequence of this similarity of name, in a great
degree, that the gardens of the Hesperides were assigned to this
locality.

[3423] Now called Ras-Sem or Ras-El-Kazat. It is situate a little to
the west of Apollonia and N.W. of Cyrene.

[3424] According to Ansart, 264 miles is the real distance between
Capes Ras-Sem and Tænarum or Matapan

[3425] As already mentioned, Apollonia formed the harbour of Cyrene.

[3426] This was called the Chersonesus Magna, being so named in
contradistinction to the Chersonesus Parva, on the coast of Egypt,
about thirty-five miles west of Alexandria. It is now called
Ras-El-Tin, or more commonly Raxatin.

[3427] So called from the peculiar features of the locality, the Greek
word καταβαθμὸς, signifying “a descent.” A deep valley, bounded east
and west by ranges of high hills, runs from this spot to the frontiers
of Egypt. It is again mentioned by Pliny at the end of the present
Chapter. The spot is still known by a similar name, being called Marsa
Sollern, or the “Port of the Ladder.” In earlier times the Egyptian
territory ended at the Gulf of Plinthinethes, now Lago Segio, and did
not extend so far as Catabathmos.

[3428] This name was unknown to Herodotus. As Marcus observes, it was
probably of Phœnician origin, signifying “leading a wandering life,”
like the term “nomad,” derived from the Greek.

[3429] Now called El Bareton or Marsa-Labeit. This city was of
considerable importance, and belonged properly to Marmaria, but was
included politically in the Nomos Libya of Egypt. It stood near the
promontory of Artos or Pythis, now Ras-El-Hazeit.

[3430] So called from the words _Matâ-Ammon_, “the tribe of Ammon,”
according to Bochart. The Nasamones were a powerful but savage people
of Libya, who dwelt originally on the shores of the Greater Syrtis, but
were driven inland by the Greek settlers of Cyrenaica, and afterwards
by the Romans.

[3431] From μεσὸς “the middle,” and ἄμμος “sand.”

[3432] See note [3421] in p. 396.

[3433] Herodotus places this nation to the west of the Nasamones and on
the river Cinyps, now called the Wadi-Quaham.

[3434] In most of the editions they are called ‘Hammanientes.’ It has
been suggested that they were so called from the Greek word ἄμμος
“sand.”

[3435] This story he borrows from Herodotus, B. iv. c. 158.

[3436] From the Greek word τρωγλοδύται, “dwellers in caves.” Pliny has
used the term already (B. iv. c. 25) in reference to the nations on
the banks of the Danube. It was a general name applied by the Greek
geographers to various uncivilized races who had no abodes but caves,
and more especially to the inhabitants of the western coasts of the Red
Sea, along the shores of Upper Egypt and Æthiopia.

[3437] At the beginning of C. 4.

[3438] Which gives name to the modern Fezzan.

[3439] Now called Tanet-Mellulen, or the station of Mellulen, on the
route from Gadamez to Oserona.

[3440] Zaouila or Zala, half way between Augyla and Mourzouk.

[3441] Now Gadamez, which, according to Marcus, is situate almost under
the same meridian as Old Tripoli, the ancient Sabrata.

[3442] According to Marcus this range still bears the name of
Gibel-Assoud, which in the Arabic language means the “Black Mountain.”

[3443] In a southerly direction. He alludes probably to the Desert of
Bildulgerid.

[3444] This spring is also mentioned by Pliny in B. ii. c. 106. Marcus
suggests that the Debris of Pliny is the same as the Bedir of Ptolemy.
He also remarks that the English traveller Oudney discovered caverns
hewn out of the sides of the hills, evidently for the purposes of
habitation, but of which the use is not known by the present people.
These he considers to have been the abodes of the ancient Troglodytæ or
“cave-dwellers.” In the Tibesti range of mountains, however, we find a
race called the Rock Tibboos, from the circumstance of their dwelling
in caves.

[3445] Cornelius Balbus Gaditanus the Younger, who, upon his victories
over the Garamantes, obtained a triumph in the year B.C. 19.

[3446] L. Cornelius Balbus the Elder, also a native of Gades. He
obtained the consulship in B.C. 40, the first instance, as we find
mentioned by Pliny, B. vii. c. 44, in which this honour had been
conferred upon one who was not a Roman citizen.

[3447] On the occasion of a triumph by a Roman general, boards were
carried aloft on “fercula,” on which were painted in large letters
the names of vanquished nations and countries. Here too models were
exhibited in ivory or wood of the cities and forts captured, and
pictures of the mountains, rivers, and other great natural features
of the subjugated region, with appropriate inscriptions. Marcus is of
opinion that the names of the places here mentioned do not succeed
in any geographical order, but solely according to their presumed
importance as forming part of the conquest of Balbus. He also thinks
that Balbus did not penetrate beyond the fifteenth degree of north
latitude, and that his conquests did not extend so far south as the
banks of Lake Tchad.

[3448] The site of Garama still bears the name of ‘Gherma,’ and
presents very considerable remains of antiquity. It is four days’
journey north of Mourzouk, the capital of Fezzan.

[3449] Now Tibesti, according to Marcus.

[3450] Marcus suggests that this is probably the Febabo of modern
geographers, to the N.E. of Belma and Tibesti.

[3451] Discera was the Im-Zerah of modern travellers, on the road from
Sockna to Mourzouk, according to Marcus, who is of opinion that the
places which follow were situate at the east and north-east of Thuben
and the Black Mountain.

[3452] Om-El-Abid, to the N.W. of Garama or Gherma, according to
Marcus, and Oudney the traveller.

[3453] The same, Marcus thinks, as the modern Tessava in Fezzan.

[3454] Marcus suggests that this may be the modern Sana.

[3455] The town of Winega mentioned by Oudney, was probably the ancient
Pega, according to Marcus.

[3456] The modern Missolat, according to Marcus, on the route from
Tripoli to Murmuck.

[3457] According to Marcus, this was the Mount Goriano of the English
travellers Denham, Clapperton, and Oudney, where, confirming the
statement here made by Pliny, they found quartz, jasper, onyx, agates,
and cornelians.

[3458] Mentioned by Tacitus, B. iv. c. 50. The town of Œa has been
alluded to by Pliny in C. 4.

[3459] “Past the head of the rock.” Marcus suggests that this is the
Gibel-Gelat or Rock of Gelat spoken of by the English travellers
Denham, Clapperton, and Oudney, forming a portion of the chain of
Guriano or Gyr. He says, that at the foot of this mountain travellers
have to pass from Old and New Tripoli on their road to Missolat, the
Maxala of Pliny, and thence to Gerama or Gherma, the ancient capital of
Fezzan.

[3460] As Marcus observes, this would not make it to extend so far
south as the sixteenth degree of north latitude.

[3461] The Mareotis of the time of the Ptolemies extended from
Alexandria to the Gulf of Plinthinethes; and Libya was properly that
portion of territory which extended from that Gulf to Catabathmos.
Pliny is in error here in confounding the two appellations, or rather,
blending them into one. It includes the eastern portion of the modern
Barca, and the western division of Lower Egypt. It most probably
received its name from the Lake Mareotis, and not the lake from it.

[3462] This was a seaport town on the northern coast of Africa,
probably about eleven or twelve miles west of Parætonium, sometimes
spoken of as belonging to Egypt, sometimes to Marmorica. Scylax places
it at the western boundary of Egypt, on the frontier of the Marmaridæ.
Ptolemy, like Pliny, speaks of it as being in the Libyan Nomos. The
distances given in the MSS. of Pliny of this place from Parætonium are
seventy-two, sixty-two, and twelve miles; the latter is probably the
correct reading, as Strabo, B. xvii., makes the distance 100 stadia. It
is extremely doubtful whether the Apis mentioned by Herodotus, B. ii.
c. 18, can be the same place: but there is little doubt, from the words
of Pliny here, that it was dedicated to the worship of the Egyptian god
Apis, who was represented under the form of a bull.

[3463] Now called Zerbi and Jerba, derived from the name of Girba,
which even in the time of Aurelius Victor, had supplanted that of
Meninx. It is situate in the Gulf of Cabes. According to Solinus, C.
Marius lay in concealment here for some time. It was famous for its
purple. See B. ix. c. 60.

[3464] Now called Kerkéni, Karkenah, or Ramlah.

[3465] Now Gherba. It was reckoned as a mere appendage to Cercina, to
which it was joined by a mole, and which is found often mentioned in
history.

[3466] Still called Lampedusa, off the coast of Tunis. This island,
with Gaulos and Galata, has been already mentioned among the islands
off Sicily; see B. iii. c. 14.

[3467] Now Pantellaria. See B. iii. c. 14.

[3468] A lofty island surrounded by dangerous cliffs, now called
Zowamour or Zembra.

[3469] In the former editions the word “Aræ” is taken to refer to the
Ægimuri, as meaning the same islands. Sillig is however of opinion that
totally distinct groups are meant, and punctuates accordingly. The
“Aræ” were probably mere rocks lying out at sea, which received their
name from their fancied resemblance to altars. They are mentioned by
Virgil in the Æneid, B. i. l. 113, upon which lines Servius says, that
they were so called because there the Romans and the people of Africa
on one occasion made a treaty.

[3470] The greater portion of this Chapter is extracted almost
verbatim from the account given by Mela. Ptolemy seems to place the
Liby-Egyptians to the south of the Greater and Lesser Oasis, on the
route thence to Darfour.

[3471] Or “White Æthiopians,” men though of dark complexion, not
negroes. Marcus is of opinion that the words “intervenientibus
desertis” refer to the tract of desert country lying between the
Leucæthiopians and the Liby-Egyptians, and not to that between the
Gætulians on the one hand and the Liby-Egyptians and the Leucæthiopians
on the other.

[3472] Meaning to the south and the south-east of these three nations,
according to Marcus. Rennel takes the Leucæthiopians to be the present
Mandingos of higher Senegambia: Marcus however thinks that they are the
Azanaghis, who dwell on the edge of the Great Desert, and are not of so
black a complexion as the Mandingos.

[3473] Probably the people of the present Nigritia or Soudan.

[3474] Marcus is of opinion that Pliny does not here refer to the
Joliba of Park and other travellers, as other commentators have
supposed; but that he speaks of the river called Zis by the modern
geographers, and which Jackson speaks of as flowing from the south-east
towards north-west. The whole subject of the Niger is however enwrapped
in almost impenetrable obscurity, and as the most recent inquirers have
not come to any conclusion on the subject, it would be little more than
a waste of time and space to enter upon an investigation of the notions
which Pliny and Mela entertained on the subject.

[3475] From γυμνὸς, “naked.”

[3476] Mentioned in C. 1 of the present Book.

[3477] He refers to the words in the Odyssey, B. i. l. 23, 24.—

  Αἰθίοπας τοὶ δίχθα δεδαιάται, ἔσχατοι ἄνδρων·
  Οἱ μὲν δυσομένου Ὑπερίονος, οἱ δ’ ἀνιόντος.

“The Æthiopians, the most remote of mankind, are divided into two
parts, the one at the setting of Hyperion, the other at his rising.”

[3478] A tribe of Æthiopia, whose position varied considerably at
different epochs of history. Their predatory and savage habits caused
the most extraordinary reports to be spread of their appearance and
ferocity. The more ancient geographers bring them as far westward as
the region beyond the Libyan Desert, and into the vicinity of the
Oases. In the time however of the Antonines, when Ptolemy was composing
his description of Africa, they appear to the south and east of Egypt,
in the wide and almost unknown tract which lay between the rivers
Astapus and Astobores.

[3479] Mela speaks of this race as situate farthest to the west. The
description of them here given is from Herodotus, B. iv. c. 183-185,
who speaks of them under the name of “Atarantes.”

[3480] The people who are visited by no dreams, are called Atlantes by
Herodotus, the same name by which Pliny calls them. He says that their
territory is ten days’ journey from that of the Atarantes.

[3481] This also is borrowed from Herodotus. As some confirmation of
this account, it is worthy of remark, that the Rock Tibboos of the
present day, who, like the ancient Troglodytæ, dwell in caves, have so
peculiar a kind of speech, that it is compared by the people of Aujelah
to nothing but the whistling of birds. The Troglodytæ of Fezzan are
here referred to, not those of the coasts of the Red Sea.

[3482] Mela says that they look upon the Manes or spirits of the
departed as their only deities.

[3483] This is said, in almost the same words, of the Garamantes,
by Herodotus. The mistake was probably made by Mela in copying from
Herodotus, and continued by Pliny when borrowing from him.

[3484] So called from their supposed resemblance in form to the Satyrs
of the ancient mythology, who were represented as little hairy men with
horns, long ears, and tails. They were probably monkeys, which had been
mistaken for men.

[3485] Half goat, half man. See the Note [3254] relative to Ægipan, in C. 1 of
the present Book, p. 378.

[3486] Evidently intended to be derived from the Greek ἱμὰς “a thong,”
and πόδες “the feet.” It is most probable that the name of a savage
people in the interior bore a fancied resemblance to this word, upon
which the marvellous story here stated was coined for the purpose
of tallying with the name. From a statement in the Æthiopica of
Heliodorus, B. x., Marcus suggests that the story as to the Blemmyæ
having no heads arose from the circumstance, that on the invasion of
the Persians they were in the habit of falling on one knee and bowing
the head to the breast, by which means, without injury to themselves,
they afforded a passage to the horses of the enemy.

[3487] It must be remembered, as already mentioned, that the ancients
looked upon Egypt as forming part of Asia, not of Africa. It seems
impossible to say how this supposition arose, when the Red Sea and the
Isthmus of Suez form so natural and so palpable a frontier between Asia
and Africa.

[3488] It is not improbable that these numbers are incorrectly stated
in the MSS. of our author.

[3489] Parisot remarks that Pliny is in error in this statement. A
considerable part of Lower Egypt lay both on the right and left of
the Delta or island formed by the branches of the Nile. It must be
remembered, however, that our author has already included a portion of
what was strictly Egypt, in his description of Libya Mareotis.

[3490] By reason of its triangular form, Δ.

[3491] The Ombite nome worshipped the crocodile as the emblem of Sebak.
Its capital was Ombos.

[3492] This nome destroyed the crocodile and worshipped the sun. Its
capital was Apollinopolis Magna.

[3493] It worshipped Osiris and his son Orus. The chief town was
Thermonthis.

[3494] Probably the original kingdom of Menes of This, the founder of
the Egyptian monarchy. It worshipped Osiris. Its capital was This,
afterwards called Abydos.

[3495] The nome of Thebes, which was its chief town.

[3496] Its capital was Coptos.

[3497] Its chief town was Tentyra. This nome worshipped Athor or Venus,
Isis, and Typhon. It destroyed the crocodile.

[3498] Perhaps the same as the Panopolite or Chemmite nome, which had
for its chief town Chemmis or Panopolis. It paid divine honours to a
deified hero.

[3499] It probably worshipped Typhon. Its capital was Antæopolis.

[3500] Probably an offshoot from a nome in the Heptanomis of similar
name.

[3501] Dedicated to the worship of the wolf. Its chief town was
Lycopolis. It should be remarked that these names do not appear to be
given by Pliny in their proper geographical order.

[3502] Some of these nomes were inconsiderable and of little
importance. The Bubastite nome worshipped Bubastis, Artemis, or Diana,
of whom it contained a fine temple.

[3503] Its chief town was Tanis. In this nome, according to tradition,
Moses was born.

[3504] Its capital was Athribis, where the shrew-mouse and crocodile
were worshipped.

[3505] The seat of the worship of the dog-headed deity Anubis.
Its capital was Cynopolis; which is to be distinguished from the
Deltic city and other places of that name, as this was a nome of the
Heptanomis or Middle Egypt, to which also the Hammonian nome belonged.

[3506] The border nome of Upper and Middle Egypt.

[3507] Its capital was Pachnamunis. It worshipped a goddess
corresponding to the Greek Leto, or the Latona of the Romans.

[3508] Its capital was Busiris. It worshipped Isis, and at one period
was said to have sacrificed the nomad tribes of Syria and Arabia.

[3509] Its chief town was Onuphis.

[3510] Its chief city was Sais, and it worshipped Neith or Athene, and
contained the tomb and a sanctuary of Osiris.

[3511] Its capital was Tava.

[3512] Its chief town was Naucratis on the coast, the birth-place of
Athenæus, the Deipnosophist. By some authors it is made part of the
Saitic nome. The names given by Pliny vary very considerably from those
found in others of the ancient writers.

[3513] The capital of this nome was Heracleopolis, ‘The city of
Hercules,’ as Pliny calls it, situate, as he says, on an island, at the
entrance of the nome of Arsinoïtes, formed by the Nile and a canal.
After Memphis and Heliopolis, it was probably the most important city
south of the Thebaid. Its ruins are inconsiderable; a portion of them
are to be seen at the modern hamlet of Amasieh.

[3514] He probably means Arsinoë or Arsinoïtis, the chief town of the
nome of that name, and the city so called at the northern extremity
of the Heroöpolite Gulf in the Red Sea. The former is denoted by the
modern district of El-Fayoom, the most fertile of ancient Egypt. At
this place the crocodile was worshipped. The Labyrinth and Lake Mœris
were in this nome. Extensive ruins at Medinet-el-Fayoom, or El-Fares,
represent its site. The modern Ardscherud, a village near Suez,
corresponds to Arsinoë on the Red Sea. There is some little doubt
however whether this last Arsinoë is the one here meant by Pliny.

[3515] Memphis was the chief city of this nome, which was situate
in Middle Egypt, and was the capital of the whole country, and the
residence of the Pharaohs, who succeeded Psammetichus, B.C. 616. This
nome rose in importance on the decline of the kingdom of Thebais,
but was afterwards eclipsed by the progress of Alexandria under the
successors of Alexander the Great.

[3516] At which Middle Egypt terminates.

[3517] They are more generally looked upon as forming one nome only,
and included under the name of Hammonium.

[3518] Its chief town was Heroöpolis, a principal seat of the worship
of Typhon, the evil or destroying genius.

[3519] The same as the nome of Arsinoïtes, the capital of which,
Arsinoë, was originally called Crocodilopolis.

[3520] Now known as Birket-el-Keroum. This was a vast lake on the
western side of the Nile in Middle Egypt, used for the reception and
subsequent distribution of a part of the overflow of the Nile. The
supposition that it was formed by artificial means is now pretty
generally exploded, and it is regarded as of natural formation. It was
situate in the nome of Arsinoïtes or Crocodilopolites. Its length seems
to be overstated by our author, as at the present day it is only thirty
miles in length and five in breadth at the widest part.

[3521] And it is generally supposed that they are so up to the present
day. The ethnographer Jablonski is of opinion that this river derives
its name from the Coptish word _tneialei_ “to rise at stated times.”
Servius, the commentator on Virgil, says that it is derived from the
two Greek words νέα ἰλὺς “fresh mud,” in allusion to the fresh mud
or slime which it leaves after each inundation. Singularly enough,
Champollion prefers this silly etymology to that suggested by Jablonski.

[3522] An interesting disquisition on the probable sources of the Nile,
as viewed by the ancients, is to be found in the Ninth Book of Lucan’s
Pharsalia. The Indian word “_nilas_,” “black,” has also been suggested
as its possible origin.

[3523] What spot is meant under this name, if indeed it is anything
more than the creation of fancy, it is impossible to ascertain with
any degree of precision. It is possible however that the ancients may
have had some knowledge of Lake Tchad, and the Mountains of the Moon,
or Djebel-Kumri, though at the same time it is more than doubtful that
the Nile has its source in either of those localities, the former
especially.

[3524] Perhaps a kind of river lamprey. As to the Coracinus, see B.
ix. c. 24, 32, and B. xxxii. c. 19, 24, 34, 44, and 53; and as to the
Silurus, B. ix. c. 17, 25, and B. xxxii. c. 31, 36, 40, 43, 44, &c.

[3525] The modern Vacur in Northern Africa.

[3526] A district which in reality was at least 1200 or 1500 miles
distant from any part of the Nile, and probably near 3000 from its real
source.

[3527] “Spargit.” It is doubtful whether this word means here “waters,”
or “divides.” Probably however the latter is its meaning.

[3528] This is the third or eastern branch of the river, now known as
the Tacazze. It rises in the highlands of Abyssinia, in about 11° 40′
north lat. and 39° 40′ east long., and joins the main stream of the
Nile, formed by the union of the Abiad and the Azrek, in 17° 45′ north
lat. and about 34° 5′ east long.; the point of junction being the apex
of the island of Meroë, here mentioned by Pliny.

[3529] Possibly by this name he designates the Bahr-el-Abied, or White
River, the main stream of the Nile, the sources of which have not
been hitherto satisfactorily ascertained. The Astapus is supposed to
have been really the name of the Bahr-el-Azrek, or Blue River, the
third branch of the Nile, the sources of which are in the highlands of
Abyssinia, in about 11° 40′ north lat. and 39° 40′ east long.

[3530] Or “side of the water that issues from the shades.” As Hardouin
says, this does not appear to be a very satisfactory explanation.

[3531] Said by Tzetzes to have been derived from the Greek τρίτος,
“the third,” because it had three times changed its name: having been
called, first, the Ocean; secondly, Aëtus, or the Eagle; and thirdly,
Ægyptus.

[3532] Or the “Cataracts,” for which it is the Greek name. The most
northerly of these cataracts, called the First Cataract, is, and always
has been, the southern boundary of Egypt. According to the most recent
accounts, these Cataracts are devoid of any stupendous features, such
as characterize the Falls of Niagara.

[3533] The one now called the First Cataract.

[3534] Seven mouths in ancient times, which have now dwindled down to
two of any importance, the Damietta mouth on the east, and the Rosetta
on the west.

[3535] The Etesians are periodical winds, which blow steadily from one
quarter for forty days each year, during the season of the Dog-days.
The opinion here stated was that promulgated by Thales the philosopher.
Seneca refutes it in B. iv. c. 2. of his Quæst. Nat.

[3536] This was the opinion of Democritus of Abdera, and of
Agatharchidas of Cnidos. It is combated by Diodorus Siculus, B. i., but
it is the opinion most generally received at the present day. See the
disquisition on the subject introduced in the Ninth book of Lucan’s
Pharsalia.

[3537] And that the high tide or inundation would be consequently
continuous as well.

[3538] The principal well for this purpose was called the “Nilometer,”
or “Gauge for the Nile.”

[3539] On this subject see Pliny, B. xviii. c. 47, and B. xxxvi. c. 11.

[3540] Seneca says that the Nile did not rise as usual in the tenth and
eleventh years of the reign of Cleopatra, and that the circumstance was
said to bode ruin to her and Antony.—Nat. Quæst. B. iv. c. 2.

[3541] He means dense clouds, productive of rain, not thin mists. See
what is said of the Borysthenes by our author, B. xxxi. c. 30.

[3542] Syene was a city of Upper Egypt, on the eastern bank of the Nile
just below the First Cataract, and was looked upon as the southern
frontier city of Egypt against Æthiopia. It was an important point in
the geography and astronomy of the ancients; for, lying just under the
tropic of Cancer, it was chosen as the place through which they drew
their chief parallel of latitude. The sun was vertical to Syene at the
time of the summer solstice, and a well was shown there where the face
of the sun was seen at noon at that time. Its present name is Assouan
or Ossouan.

[3543] If this word means the “Camp,” it does not appear to be known
what camp is meant. Most editions have “Cerastæ,” in which case it
would mean that at Syene the Cerastes or horned serpent is found.

[3544] One of these (if indeed Philæ did consist of more than a single
island, which seems doubtful) is now known as Djeziret-el-Birbe, the
“Island of the Temple.”

[3545] This island was seated just below the Lesser Cataract, opposite
Syene, and near the western bank of the Nile. At this point the river
becomes navigable downward to its mouths, and the traveller from
Meroë or Æthiopia enters Egypt Proper. The original name of this
island was “Ebo,” Eb being in the language of hieroglyphics the symbol
of the elephant and ivory. It was remarkable for its fertility and
verdure, and the Arabs of the present day designate the island as
Djesiret-el-Sag, or “the Blooming.”

[3546] This is a mistake of Pliny’s, for it was opposite to Syene.
Brotier thinks that Pliny intended to write ‘Philæ,’ but by mistake
inserted Syene.

[3547] Artemidorus, Juba, and Aristocreon.

[3548] They were probably made of papyrus, or else of hides, like the
British coracles.

[3549] The last king of the line of Psammetichus, B.C. 569. He
succeeded Apries, whom the Egyptians put to death. He died just before
the invasion by Cambyses, having displayed great abilities as a ruler.

[3550] There was the Greater Apollinopolis, the modern Edfoo, in the
Thebaid, on the western bank of the Nile, in lat. 25° north, about
thirteen miles below the lesser Cataract: its inhabitants were enemies
of the crocodile and its worshippers. The remains of two temples there
are considered second only to the temple of Denderah as specimens of
the sacred structures of Egypt. A Lesser Apollinopolis was in Upper
Egypt, on the western bank of the Nile, in lat. 27° north. Another
Lesser Apollinopolis was a town of the Thebaid in the Coptite Nome, in
lat. 26° north, situate between Thebes and Coptos. It was situate at
the present Kuss.

[3551] Its site is unknown. Hardouin suggests that it is the Eilethuia
of Ptolemy, the modern El-Kab.

[3552] “City of Jupiter,” the Greek name for Thebes, the No or No Ammon
of Scripture. It stood in the centre of the Thebaid, on both banks of
the Nile, above Coptos, and in the Nomos Coptites. Its ruins, which are
the most magnificent in the world, enclose within their site the four
villages of Carnac, Luxor, Medinet Abou, and Gournou.

[3553] Its hieroglyphical name was Kobto, and its site is now occupied
by the modern town of Kouft or Keft. It was situate in lat. 26°
north, on the right bank of the Nile, about a mile from its banks.
As a halting place or rather watering-place for the caravans, it was
enriched by the commerce between Libya and Egypt on the one hand, and
Arabia and India and Egypt on the other, the latter being carried
on through the port of Berenice on the Red Sea, founded by Ptolemy
Philadelphus, B.C. 266. In the seventh century of the Christian era, it
bore for some time the name of Justinianopolis. There are a few remains
of Roman buildings to be seen on its site.

[3554] Also called Aphrodite or Aphroditopolis. Of this name there
were several towns or cities in ancient Egypt. In Lower Egypt there
was Atarbechis, thus named, and a town mentioned by Strabo in the
nome of Leontopolites. In the Heptanomis or Middle Egypt there was
the place, the ruins of which are called Aftyeh, on the east side of
the Nile, and the capital of the nome of Aphroditopolites. In Upper
Egypt or the Thebais there was the present Tachta, on the west side of
the Nile, between Ptolemais and Panopolis, capital of another nome of
Aphroditopolites, and that one the ruins of which are now called Deir,
on the west bank of the Nile, higher up than the former, and, like it,
some distance from the river. It was situate in the nome Hermonthites.

[3555] Another Diospolis. Great Diospolis is mentioned in the preceding
page.

[3556] Or Tentyra. The modern Dendera of the Arabs, called Dendôri or
Hidendôri by the ancient Egyptians.

[3557] In ancient times called This, and in Coptic Ebôt, the ruins of
which are now known as Arábat-el-Matfoon. It was the chief town of the
Nomos Thinites, and was situate in lat. 26° 10′ north and long. 32° 3′
east. In the Thebaid it ranked next to Thebes itself. Here according to
general belief was the burial-place of Osiris. In the time of Strabo it
had sunk into a mere village. Its ruins, though nearly buried in the
sand, are very extensive. There is, however, some uncertainty as to the
exact identity of This with Abydus.

[3558] The ruins of these places are still to be seen at Abydus.

[3559] He calls the whole of the country on the western bank of the
Nile by this name.

[3560] Called Absou or Absaï by the Arabs, and Psoë by the ancient
Egyptians. It has been suggested that it was the same place as This,
more generally identified with Abydus.

[3561] Its site is now called Ekhmin or Akhmin by the Arabs, Khmim
being its ancient Egyptian name. It was the chief town of the nome of
Panopolites, and the deity Phthah was worshipped there under the form
of Priapus.

[3562] Another Aphroditopolis, the present Tachta, mentioned above, in
Note[3554] in the last page. Pliny distinguishes it from that now called
Deir, mentioned above.

[3563] Now known as Es-Siout.

[3564] Or Hermopolis—the modern Esh-moon or Ash-mounion, on the eastern
bank of the Nile, in lat. 27° 54′ north. It was the capital of the
Hermopolite nome in the Heptanomis. It was a place of great opulence
and densely populated. The deities Typhon and Thoth were principally
worshipped at this place. The latter, the inventor of the pen and
letters, nearly corresponded with the Hermes of the Greeks (the Mercury
of the Romans), from which the Hellenized name of the place. Its ruins
are very extensive.

[3565] This town was no doubt connected with the alabaster quarries
of Mount Alabasternus, now Mount St. Anthony, and the hill of
Alabastrites, now the Côteau Hessan.

[3566] Or Cynopolis, the chief place of the Cynopolite nome. The
Dog-headed deity Anubis was worshipped here. The modern Samallus
occupies its site. This place was in the Heptanomis, but there were
several other towns of the same name, one of which was situate in the
Delta or Lower Egypt.

[3567] In C. 9, when speaking of the nome of Heracleopolites; of which
nome, this place, called Heracleopolis, was the capital. It was situate
at the entrance of the valley of the Fayoum, on an island formed by
the Nile and a canal. After Memphis and Heliopolis it was probably the
most important city north of the Thebaid. It furnished two dynasties of
kings to Egypt. The ichneumon was worshipped here, from which it may be
inferred that the people were hostile to the crocodile. Its ruins are
inconsiderable; the village of Anasieh covers part of them.

[3568] The capital of the nome of Arsinoïtes, seated on the western
bank of the Nile, between the river and Lake Mœris, south-west of
Memphis, in lat. 29° north. It was called under the Pharaohs, “the City
of Crocodiles,” from the reverence paid by the people to that animal.
Its ruins are to be seen at Medinet-el-Fayoom or El-Fares.

[3569] Its magnificent ruins, known by the name of Menf and Metrabenny,
are to be seen about ten miles above the pyramids of Gizeh.

[3570] This lay beyond Lake Mœris, or Birket-el-Keroun, at a short
distance from the city of Arsinoë. It had 3000 apartments, 1500 of
which were underground. The accounts given by modern travellers of its
supposed ruins do not agree with what we have learned from the ancients
respecting its architecture and site. The purposes for which it was
built are unknown. Its supposed site is called Havara.

[3571] If this is not an abbreviation or corruption for Crocodilon, as
Hardouin suggests, it may probably mean the “town of Rams,” from the
worship perhaps of that animal there.

[3572] Heliopolis or Rameses. In Scripture it is called by the names of
On and No—Gen. xli. 45 and Ezek. xxx. 15. It stood on the eastern side
of the Pelusiac arm of the Nile, near the right bank of the Great Canal
which connected the river with the Red Sea, and close adjoining to
the present overland route for travellers to India. It was one of the
most ancient of the Egyptian cities; here the father-in-law of Joseph
exercised the office of high-priest, and here the prophet Jeremiah is
supposed to have written his Book of Lamentations. Its priests were the
great depositaries of the theological and historical learning of Egypt.
Solon, Thales, and Plato were reputed each to have visited its schools.
According to Macrobius, Baalbec, the Syrian City of the Sun, was a
colony from this place. It was the capital of the nome Heliopolites,
and paid worship to the sun and the bull Mnevis, the rival of Apis.
From Josephus we learn that after the dispersion and fall of the tribes
of Judah and Israel, great numbers of the Jews took refuge at this
place, forming almost one-half of its population. The ruins, which
were extremely magnificent, occupied in the twelfth century an area
nearly three miles in extent. Pliny speaks of the great obelisk there,
which is still standing. (See B. xxxvi. c. 9.) The village of Matarieh
occupies a part of its site, and besides the obelisk of red granite,
there are a few remains of the Temple of the Sun.

[3573] Now called Birk-el-Mariout.

[3574] Or Dinocrates. He was the architect of the new temple of Diana
at Ephesus, which was built after the destruction of the former one
by Herostratus. It was this architect who formed a design for cutting
Mount Athos into a statue of Alexander, with a city in the right hand
and a reservoir of the mountain streams in the left.

[3575] Holland seems to think that the word “laxitate” applies to
chlamys.

[3576] The _chlamys_ was a scarf or cloak worn over the shoulders, and
especially used by military persons of high rank. It did not reach
lower than the knees, and was open in front, covering only the neck,
back, and shoulders.

[3577] Its real dimensions were something less than 300 stadia, or
thirty geographical miles long, and rather more than 150 stadia wide.

[3578] Or “Pseudostomata.” These were crossed in small boats, as they
were not navigable for ships of burden.

[3579] In the Pharaonic times Canopus was the capital of the nome of
Menelaïtes, and the principal harbour of the Delta. It probably owed
its name to the god Canobus, a pitcher full of holes, with a human
head, which was worshipped here with peculiar pomp. It was remarkable
for the number of its festivals and the general dissoluteness of its
morals. Traces of its ruins are to be seen about three miles from the
modern Aboukir.

[3580] Corresponding to the modern Raschid or Rosetta. It is supposed
that this place was noted for its manufactory of chariots.

[3581] The town of Sebennys or Sebennytum, now Samannoud, gave name to
one of the nomes, and the Sebennytic Mouth of the Nile.

[3582] Or the Pathinetic or Bucolic Mouth, said to be the same as the
modern Damietta Mouth.

[3583] The capital of the Mendesian nome, called by the Arabs Ochmoun.
This mouth is now known as the Deibeh Mouth.

[3584] Now called Szan or Tzan. The Tanitic Mouth, which is sometimes
called the Saitic, is at the present day called Omm-Faredjé.

[3585] Its ruins are to be seen at the modern Tineh. This city in early
times had the name of Abaris. It was situate on the eastern side of
the most easterly mouth of the Nile, which, after it, was called the
Pelusiac Mouth, about two miles from the sea, in the midst of morasses.
Being the frontier city towards Syria and Arabia it was strongly
fortified. It was the birth-place of Ptolemy the geographer.

[3586] Butos or Buto stood on the Sebennytic arm of the Nile near its
mouth, on the southern shores of the Butic Lake. It was the chief seat
of the worship of the goddess Buto, whom the Greeks identified with
Leto or Latona. The modern Kem Kasir occupies its site.

[3587] Called Harbait by the Arabs, and Farbait by the ancient
Egyptians.

[3588] In the Delta. It was the capital of the nome of Leontopolites,
and probably of late foundation, as no writer previous to Pliny
mentions it. Its site is uncertain, but Thall-Essabouah, the “Hill of
the Lion,” has been suggested.

[3589] The chief town of the Athribitic nome in Lower Egypt. It
stood on the eastern bank of the Tanitic branch of the Nile. This
nome and town derived their name from the goddess Thriphis, whom the
inscriptions there and at Panopolis designate as the “most great
goddess.” The ruins at Atrieb or Trieb, at the spot where the modern
canal of Moueys turns off from the Nile, represent the ancient
Athribis. They are very extensive, and among them are considerable
remains of the Roman era.

[3590] This was situate near the city or town of Busiris in the Delta.
The modern village of Bahbeyt is supposed to cover the ruins of the
temple of Isis.

[3591] The modern Busyr or Abousir, where considerable ruins of the
ancient city are still to be seen. It was the chief town of the nome of
Busirites, and stood south of Sais, near the Phatnitic mouth, on the
western bank of the Nile. This was also the name of a town in Middle
Egypt, in the neighbourhood of Memphis, and represented by another
village of the name of Abousir. Pliny, B. xxxvi. c. 16, speaks of the
Catacombs in its vicinity.

[3592] The place of that name in the Delta is here meant.

[3593] Probably the town of that name, otherwise called Aphroditopolis,
in the nome of Leontopolites.

[3594] The ruins of which are now called Sa-el-Hajjar. It was situate
in the Delta, on the east side of the Canopic branch of the Nile. It
was the ancient capital of Lower Egypt and contained the palace and
burial-place of the Pharaohs. It was the chief seat of the worship of
the Egyptian goddess Neith, also known as Sais. It gave its name to the
nome of Saïtes.

[3595] It was situate in the Delta of Egypt and in the nome of Saïtes,
on the eastern bank of the Canopic branch of the Nile. It was a colony
of the Milesians, founded probably in the reign of Amasis, about B.C.
550, and remained a pure Greek city. It was the only place in Egypt in
which, in the time of the later Pharaohs, foreigners were permitted
to settle and trade. In later times it was famous for the worship of
Aphrodite or Venus, and rivalled Canopus in the dissoluteness of its
manners.

[3596] Ptolemy the geographer does this.

[3597] Arabia Petræa; that part of Arabia which immediately joins up to
Egypt.

[3598] Called Arabia Felix to the present day.

[3599] The part of Arabia which joins up to Egypt, Arabia Petræa namely.

[3600] Strabo places this people as far south as the mouth of the Red
Sea, _i. e._ on the east of the Straits of Bab-el-Mandeb. Forster (in
his ‘Arabia,’ vol. ii.) takes this name to be merely an inversion of
Beni Kahtan, the great tribe which mainly peoples, at the present day,
central and southern Arabia.

[3601] Probably the people of Esebon, the Heshbon of Scripture, spoken
of by Jerome as being the city of Sihon, king of the Amorites.

[3602] The “tent-people,” from the Greek σκηνὴ, “a tent.” This seems
to have been a name common to the nomadic tribes of Arabia. Ammianus
Marcellinus speaks of them as being the same as the Saraceni or
Saracens.

[3603] The modern El Katieh or El Kas; which is the summit of a lofty
range of sandstone hills on the borders of Egypt and Arabia Petræa,
immediately south of the Sirbonian Lake and the Mediterranean Sea. On
its western side was the tomb of Pompey the Great.

[3604] The same as the Amalekites of Scripture, according to Hardouin.
Bochart thinks that they are the same as the Chavilæi, who are
mentioned as dwelling in the vicinity of Babylon.

[3605] The position which Pliny assigns to this nation would correspond
with the northern part of the modern district of the Hedjaz. Forster
identifies them with the Cauraitæ, or Cadraitæ of Arrian, and the Darræ
of Ptolemy, tracing their origin to the Cedar or Kedar, the son of
Ishmael, mentioned in Genesis xxv. 13, and represented by the modern
Harb nation and the modern town of Kedeyre. See Psalm cxx. 5: “Woe is
me, that I sojourn in Mesech, that I dwell in the tents of Kedar!”

[3606] An Arabian people, said to have descended from the eldest son
of Ishmael, who had their original abodes in the north-western part
of the Arabian peninsula, east and south-east of the Moabites and
Edomites. Extending their territory, we find the Nabatæi of Greek and
Roman history occupying nearly the whole of Arabia Petræa, along the
north-east coast of the Red Sea, on both sides of the Ælanitic Gulf,
and on the Idumæan mountains, where they had their capital, Petra, hewn
out of the rock.

[3607] Now the Bahr-el-Soueys, or Gulf of Suez.

[3608] The Bahr-el-Akabah, or Gulf of Akabah.

[3609] Now Akabah, an Idumæan town of Arabia Petræa, situate at the
head of the eastern gulf of the Red Sea, which was called after this
town “Ælaniticus Sinus.” It was annexed to the kingdom of Judah, with
the other cities of Idumæa, by David, 2 Sam. viii. 14, and was one of
the harbours on the Red Sea from which the ships of Solomon sailed for
Ophir. See 1 Kings ix. 26 and 2 Chron. viii. 17. It was a place of
commercial importance under the Romans and the head-quarters of the
Tenth Legion. A fortress now occupies its site.

[3610] Its site is now known as Guzzah. It was the last city on the
south-west frontier of Palestine, and from the earliest times was a
strongly fortified place. It was taken from the Philistines by the Jews
more than once, but as often retaken. It was also taken by Cyrus the
Great and Alexander, and afterwards by Ptolemy Lagus, who destroyed it.
It afterwards recovered, and was again destroyed by Alexander Jannæus,
B.C. 96, after which, it was rebuilt by Gabinius and ultimately united
to the Roman province of Syria. In A.D. 65 it was again destroyed, but
was rebuilt, and finally fell into the hands of the Arabs, in A.D. 634.

[3611] Meaning the Mediterranean.

[3612] The present Suez. See B. vi. c. 33.

[3613] Or the “Hollow” Syria. This was properly the name given, after
the Macedonian conquest, to the great valley between the two great
ranges of Mount Lebanon, in the south of Syria, bordering upon Phœnicia
on the west, and Palestine on the south. In the wars between the
Ptolemies and the Seleucidæ, the name was applied to the whole of the
southern portion of Syria, which became subject for some time to the
kings of Egypt; but under the Romans, it was confined to Cœlesyria
proper with the district east of Anti-Libanus, about Damascus, and a
portion of Palestine east of Jordan.

[3614] Or Ostracine, the northern point of Arabia.

[3615] This was a great fortress of Syria founded by Seleucus B.C. 300,
at the foot of Mount Pieria and overhanging the Mediterranean, four
miles north of the Orontes and twelve miles west of Antioch. It had
fallen entirely to decay in the sixth century of our era. There are
considerable ruins of its harbour and mole, its walls and necropolis.
They bear the name of Seleukeh or Kepse.

[3616] From the Greek ζεῦγμα, “a junction;” built by Seleucus Nicator
on the borders of Commagene and Cyrrhestice, on the west bank of the
Euphrates, where the river had been crossed by a bridge of boats
constructed by Alexander the Great. The modern Rumkaleh is supposed to
occupy its site.

[3617] On this subject see B. vii. c. 57. The invention of letters and
the first cultivation of the science of astronomy have been claimed for
the Egyptians and other nations. The Tyrians were probably the first
who applied the science of astronomy to the purposes of navigation.
There is little doubt that warfare must have been studied as an art
long before the existence of the Phœnician nation.

[3618] Strabo places this between Mount Casius and Pelusium.

[3619] See C. 12 of the present Book. Chabrias the Athenian aided
Nectanebus II. against his revolted subjects.

[3620] Its ruins are to be seen on the present Ras Straki.

[3621] Now called the Sabakat Bardowal. It lay on the coast of Egypt,
east of Mount Casius, and it is not improbable that the boundary-line
between Egypt and Palæstina or Idumæa ran through the middle of its
waters. It was strongly impregnated with asphaltus. A connection
formerly existed between it and the Mediterranean, but this being
stopped up, it gradually grew smaller by evaporation and is now nearly
dry.

[3622] The present Kulat-el-Arich or El Arish, situate at the mouth
of the brook El-Arish, called by the Scriptures the “river of Egypt.”
Its name signifies in Greek, “cutting off of noses,” and is probably
derived from the fact of its having been the place of exile for
criminals who had been so mutilated, under the Æthiopian kings of
Egypt. Poinsinet suggests however that the name means the “town of the
circumcised.”

[3623] The place on its site is still called Refah, but it was really
situate on the coast. Gaza has been already mentioned in a Note [3610]
to C. 12, p. 423.

[3624] Anthedon was on the coast of Palestine, although Pliny says to
the contrary. It was situate about three miles to the south-west of
Gaza, and was destroyed by Alexander Jannæus. In the time of Julian it
was addicted to the worship of Astarte, the Syrian Venus. According to
Dupinet the present name of its site is Daron.

[3625] Brotier says that this is the same as the Mount Gerizim of
Scripture, but that was situate in Samaria, a considerable distance
from the southern coast of Palæstina. Pliny is the only author that
mentions it.

[3626] The Ascalon of Scripture, one of the five cities of the
Philistines, situate on the coast of the Mediterranean, between Gaza
and Jamnia. In early times it was the seat of the worship of Derceto,
a fish with a woman’s head. The ruins, which still bear the name of
Askulân, are very extensive, and indicative of great strength. The
shalot or scallion was originally a native of this place, and thence
derived its name.

[3627] The Ashdod of Scripture. It was one of the five cities of the
Philistines and the chief seat of the worship of Dagon. Herodotus
states that it stood a siege of twenty-nine years from Psammetichus,
king of Egypt. It was afterwards taken and retaken several times. It
was situate between Ascalon and Jamnia, and its site is indicated by
the modern village of Esdad, but no ruins of the ancient city are
visible.

[3628] One of these was a city of the Philistines, assigned to the
tribe of Judah in the fifteenth Chapter of Joshua, 45, according to the
Septuagint version, but omitted in the Hebrew, which only mentions it
in 2 Chron. xxvi. 6 (where it is called Jabneh in the English version),
as one of the cities of the Philistines taken and destroyed by King
Uzziah. The place of this name that lay in the interior, is probably
the one spoken of by Josephus as in that part of the tribe of Judah
occupied by the children of Dan, as also in the 1 Maccabees, x. 69-71.
The one was probably the port of the other. The ruins of the port still
retain the name of Yebora, and are situate on an eminence about an
hour’s distance from the sea, on the banks of the river Rûbin.

[3629] Or Joppa of Scripture, now called Yâfa or Jaffa. The timber
from Lebanon intended for both the first and second Temples was landed
here. It was taken and retaken more than once during the wars of the
Maccabees, and was finally annexed by Pompey to the Roman province of
Syria. It is mentioned several times in the New Testament in connection
with Saint Peter. In the Jewish war, having become a refuge for
pirates, it was taken by Cestius and destroyed, and even the very ruins
were demolished by Vespasian. It was afterwards rebuilt, and in the
time of the Crusades was alternately in the hands of the Christians and
the Moslems.

[3630] To be devoured by the sea monster, from which she was delivered
by Perseus, who had borrowed for the occasion the _talaria_ or winged
shoes of Mercury. In B. ix. c. 4, Pliny states that the skeleton of the
monster was exhibited at Rome by M. Æmilius Scaurus, when he was Curule
Ædile.

[3631] Probably the same as Derceto or Atargatis, the fish-goddess with
a woman’s head, of the Syrians.

[3632] Situate between Cæsarea and Joppa. It is probable that it owed
its name to the Macedonian kings of either Egypt or Syria. Arsûf, a
deserted village, but which itself was of considerable importance in
the time of the Crusades, represents the ancient Apollonia.

[3633] The site of the Turris Stratonis was afterwards occupied by
Cæsarea, a city on the coast, founded by Herod the Great, and named
Cæsarea in honour of Augustus Cæsar. It was renowned for the extent
and magnificence of its harbour, which was secured by a breakwater of
stupendous construction. For some time it was considered the principal
city of Palestine and the chief seat of the Roman government. Although
it again changed its name, as Pliny states, it still retained its name
of Cæsarea as the Metropolitan See of the First Palestine. It was also
of considerable importance during the occupation of the Holy Land by
the Crusaders. Its ruins are still visible, but have served as a quarry
for many generations, and Jaffa, Sidon, Acre and Beyrout have been
supplied with stones from this site. Massive remains of its mole or
breakwater and its towers still exist.

[3634] Or Phœnicia.

[3635] By some regarded as the Scriptural town of Sichem, but by others
as a distinct place, though in its immediate vicinity. Its present
name is Naplous or Nabolos, situate between Mounts Ebal and Gerizim.
Its proper name under the Romans was Flavia Neapolis. It was the
birth-place of Justin Martyr.

[3636] The city of Samaria, so called from Shemer, the owner of the
hill which Omri, King of Israel, purchased, about B.C. 922, for its
site. Herod greatly renovated this city, which he called Sebaste, in
honour of his patron Augustus, in Greek “Sebastos.” Its site is now
occupied by a poor village, which bears the name of Sebustieh.

[3637] A town of Palæstina, frequently mentioned by Josephus as
remarkable for the strength of its fortifications, and situate on the
Lake Tiberias, opposite to Tarichæa. After a spirited defence, it was
taken by Vespasian, who slaughtered 4000 of the survivors, upon which
5000 threw themselves from the walls, and were dashed to pieces below.
The site had been forgotten for nearly eighteen centuries, when Lord
Lindsay discovered it on a lofty hill on the east of Lake Tiberias, and
nearly opposite the town of that name. It is now called El-Hossn, and
the ruins of the fortifications are very extensive.

[3638] Antiochian Syria.

[3639] Peræa was the general name of that part of Palæstina which lay
east of the river Jordan; but more usually, in a restricted sense, it
signified a part only of that region, namely the district between the
rivers Hieromax on the north, and Arnon on the south.

[3640] Jericho, so often mentioned in Scripture. It was celebrated for
its palm-grove, which was presented by Antony to Cleopatra. A Bedouin
encampment called Riha is all that now occupies its site.

[3641] A city eight or ten miles from the village Emmaüs of the New
Testament. It was called Nicopolis, in commemoration, it has been
suggested, of the destruction of Jerusalem. Its site is still marked by
a village called Ammious, on the road from Jerusalem to Jaffa.

[3642] So often mentioned in the New Testament. This town lay to the
S.E. of Joppa, and N.W. of Jerusalem, at the junction of several roads
which lead from the sea-coast. It was destroyed by the Romans in the
Jewish war, but was soon after rebuilt, and called Diospolis. A village
called Lud occupies its site.

[3643] So called from Acrabbim, its chief town, situate nine miles from
Nicopolis. The toparchy of Acrabbim, which formerly formed part of
Samaria, was the most northerly of those of Judæa.

[3644] Situate in the country of Benjamin. Josephus reckons it second
in importance only to Jerusalem, from which, according to Eusebius,
it was distant fifteen miles, on the road to the modern Nablous. That
author also identifies it with the Eshcol of Scripture. Its site is
marked by a small Christian village, called by the natives Jufna.

[3645] Like the two preceding ones, this toparchy for a long time
belonged to Samaria. Thamna, or Thamnis, was the Timnath-Serah in Mount
Ephraim, mentioned in Joshua xix. 50, and xxiv. 30, as the place where
Joshua was buried.

[3646] The toparchy of Bethleptepha of other authors. It appears to
have been situate in the south of Judæa, and in that part which is by
Josephus commonly called Idumæa. Reland has remarked, that the name
resembles Beth-lebaoth, a city of the tribe of Simeon, mentioned in
Joshua xix. 6.

[3647] From the Greek, meaning the “mountain district,” or the “hill
country,” as mentioned in Luke i. 39.

[3648] Or “Sacred Solyma.”

[3649] A fortress of Palæstina, erected by Herod the Great, at a
distance of about sixty stadia from Jerusalem, and not far from Tekoa.
Its site has been identified by modern travellers with El-Furedis,
or the Paradise; probably the same as the spot called the “Frank
Mountain,” on the top of which the ruined walls of the fortress are
still to be seen.

[3650] Called by the Arabs Bahr-el-Arden.

[3651] Situate on Mount Panias, or Paneas, on the range of Anti-Libanus.

[3652] In C. 16 of the present Book.

[3653] On the contrary, as Parisot observes, the Jordan runs in a
straight line almost into the Dead Sea.

[3654] The Lake of Sodom, or the Dead Sea, in which the Cities of the
Plain were swallowed up.

[3655] In Scripture also called the Lake Tiberias, and the Sea of
Gennesareth, or Chinnereth. It is now called the Sea of Tabariah, or
Tabarieh.

[3656] The one of the two Bethsaidas, which was situate on the north
of the Sea of Tiberias. It was enlarged by Philip the Tetrarch, who
greatly beautified it, and changed its name to Julias, in honour of the
daughter of Augustus, the wife of Tiberius. It is generally supposed by
the learned world, that this was not the Bethsaida mentioned so often
in the New Testament. Its ruins are probably those now seen on a hill
called Et-Tell, on the north-western extremity of the lake.

[3657] On the east of the lake. From it the district of Hippene took
its name.

[3658] Its ruins are to be seen at El-Kereh, on the south side of the
lake. It was strongly fortified, and made a vigorous resistance against
the Romans in the Jewish War. It received its name from the great
quantities of fish which were salted there, τάριχοι.

[3659] Now Tabariah, or Tabarieh, a miserable village. It was built by
Herod Antipas, in honour of the Emperor Tiberius. After the destruction
of Jerusalem, it became the seat of the Jewish Sanhedrin.

[3660] These hot springs are by Josephus called Emmaüs, probably a form
of the Hebrew name Hammath. Dr. Robinson, in his Biblical Researches,
identifies this with the town of Hammath, of the tribe of Naphthali,
mentioned in Joshua xix. 35.

[3661] From the Greek ἄσφαλτος.

[3662] This is an exaggeration, though it is the fact that many heavy
substances, which in ordinary water would sink immediately, will float
on the surface of this lake. It has been suggested, that the story
here mentioned arose from the circumstance of the name of ‘bulls,’ or
‘cows,’ having been applied by the ancient Nabatæi to the large masses
of asphaltum which floated on its surface.

[3663] The country of the Arabian Scenitæ, or “tent people.”

[3664] It lay on the east of the Dead Sea, and not the south, as here
mentioned by Pliny, being a border fortress in the south of Peræa, and
on the confines of the Nabatæi. There was a tradition that it was at
this place that John the Baptist was beheaded. The city now bears the
name of Mascra.

[3665] A Greek name, signifying the “Fine Stream.” These were warm
springs, situate on the eastern side of Jordan, to which Herod
the Great resorted during his last illness, by the advice of his
physicians. The valley of Callirhoë was visited by Captains Irby and
Mangles in 1818, and an interesting account of it is to be found in
their ‘Travels,’ pp. 467-469. The waters are sulphureous to the taste.

[3666] The Essenes, or Hessenes. These properly formed one of the
great sects into which the Jews were divided in the time of Christ.
They are not mentioned by name in the New Testament, but it has been
conjectured that they are alluded to in Matt. xix. 12, and Col. ii.
18, 23. As stated here by Pliny, they generally lived at a distance
from large towns, in communities which bore a great resemblance to the
monkish societies of later times. They sent gifts to the Temple at
Jerusalem, but never offered sacrifices there. They were divided into
four classes, according to the time of their initiation. Their origin
is uncertain. Some writers look upon them as the same as the Assidians,
or Chasidim, mentioned in 1 Maccabees, ii. 42, vii. 13. Their principal
society was probably the one mentioned by Pliny, and from this other
smaller ones proceeded, and spread over Palestine, Syria, and Egypt.
The Essenes of Egypt were divided into two sects; the _practical_
Essenes, whose mode of life was the same as those of Palestine; and
the _contemplative_ Essenes, who were called _Therapeutæ_. Both sects
maintained the same doctrines; but the latter were distinguished by a
more rigid mode of life. It has been suggested by Taylor, the editor of
‘Calmet’s Dictionary of the Bible,’ that John the Baptist belonged to
this sect.

[3667] Or Engedi. Its ancient name was Hazezon-Tamar, when it was
inhabited by the Amorites. See Gen. xiv. 7; 2 Chron. xx. 2. According
to Josephus, it gave name to one of the fifteen toparchies of Judæa. It
still retains its name, Ain-Jedey, or “Fountain of the Goats,” and was
so called from a spring which issued out of the limestone rock at the
base of a lofty cliff.

[3668] Its site is now known as Sebbeh, on the south-west of the Dead
Sea.

[3669] Δεκὰ πολεῖς, the “Ten Cities.” He alludes to the circumstance,
that the number of cities varied from time to time in this district;
one being destroyed in warfare, and others suddenly rising from its
foundation.

[3670] The capital city of Syria, both in ancient and modern times.
It is now called Es-Sham. The only epithet given to it by the ancient
poets is that of “ventosa,” or “windy,” found in the Pharsalia of
Lucan, B. iii. l. 215, which, it has been remarked, is anything but
appropriately chosen.

[3671] Or the “Golden River.” It is uncertain whether this was the
Abana or Pharpar, mentioned in 2 Kings v. 12. Strabo remarks, that the
waters of the Chrysorroös “are almost entirely consumed in irrigation,
as it waters a large extent of deep soil.”

[3672] The ancient Rabbath Ammon, a city of the Ammonites. It was
afterwards called Astarte, and then Philadelphia, in honour of Ptolemy
Philadelphus. According to D’Anville, the present name of its site is
Amman.

[3673] Thirty-three miles from Apamea. Its ruins are probably those
mentioned by Abulfeda under the name of Rafaniat. William of Tyre says,
that it was taken in the year 1125 by the Count of Tripoli.

[3674] Previously called Beth-shan. It was the next city of the
Decapolis in magnitude after Damascus. It was situate in the land of
the tribe of Issachar, though it belonged to the Manasites. At this
place the bodies of Saul and his sons were hung up by the Philistines;
see 1 Sam. xxxi. 10-12. Reland suggests that it received the name of
Scythopolis, not from a Scythian colony, but from the Succoth of Gen.
xxxiii. 17, which appears to have been in its vicinity. Its ruins,
which still bear the name of Baisan, are very extensive.

[3675] Called by Josephus the capital of Peræa, and the chief place of
the district of the Gadarenes of the Evangelists. Its ruins, about six
miles south-east of the Sea of Galilee, are very extensive.

[3676] Still called the Yarmak, evidently from its ancient name. Hippo
has been mentioned in the last Chapter.

[3677] Or Dium, between Pella and Gadara. In later times, this place
was included in Roman Arabia.

[3678] Also called Butis. It was the most southerly of the ten cities
which comprised the Decapolis, standing about five miles south of
Scythopolis, or Beth-shan. Its exact site seems not to have been
ascertained; but it has been suggested that it is the modern El-Bujeh.
From the expression used by Pliny, it would appear to have had mineral
waters in its vicinity.

[3679] Of this place nothing is known; but it is most probable that
the _Gerasa_ of Ptolemy and Josephus is meant. According to the former
writer, it was thirty-five miles from Pella. Its site is marked by
extensive ruins, thirty-five miles east of the Jordan, known by the
name of Gerash, and on the borders of the Great Desert of the Hauvan.
According to Dr. Keith, the ruins bear extensive marks of splendour.

[3680] Ptolemy mentions a city of this name in Cœlesyria.

[3681] So called from having been originally groups of four
principalities, held by princes who were vassals to the Roman emperors,
or the kings of Syria.

[3682] Containing the northern district of Palestine, beyond the
Jordan, between Antilibanus and the mountains of Arabia. It was bounded
on the north by the territory of Damascus, on the east by Auranitis, on
the south by Ituræa, and on the west by Gaulanitis. It was so called
from its ranges of rocky mountains, or τραχῶνες, the caves in which
gave refuge to numerous bands of robbers.

[3683] So called from the mountain of that name. Cæsarea Philippi also
bore the name of Panias. It was situate at the south of Mount Hermon,
on the Jordan, just below its source. It was built by Philip the
Tetrarch, B.C. 3. King Agrippa called it Neronias; but it soon lost
that name.

[3684] In C. xiv. of the present Book, as that in which the Jordan
takes its rise.

[3685] A place of great strength in Cœle-Syria, now known as Nebi Abel,
situate between Heliopolis and Damascus.

[3686] Situate between Tripolis and Antaradus, at the north-west foot
of Mount Libanus. It lay within a short distance of the sea, and
was famous for the worship paid by its inhabitants to Astarte, the
Syrian Aphrodite. A temple was erected here to Alexander the Great,
in which Alexander Severus, the Roman Emperor, was born, his parents
having resorted thither to celebrate a festival, A.D. 205. From this
circumstance, its name was changed to Cæsarea. Burckhardt fixes its
site at a hill called Tel-Arka.

[3687] Of this place, which probably took its name from its numerous
vines, nothing whatever is known.

[3688] Called by Pliny, in B. xii. c. 41, Gabba. It was situate at the
foot of Mount Carmel between Cæsarea and Ptolemais, sixteen miles from
the former. No remains of it are to be seen. It must not be confounded
with Gabala, in Galilee, fortified by Herod the Great.

[3689] The town was situate between Cæsarea and Ptolemais. The river
has been identified with the modern Nahi-el-Zerka, in which, according
to Pococke, crocodiles have been found.

[3690] Called Dor, before the conquest of Canaan by the Israelites.
See Joshua xvii. 11, and Judges i. 27. It afterwards belonged to the
half-tribe of Manasseh. Its site is now called Tortura.

[3691] Its site is now called Atlik, according to D’Anville. Parisot
suggests that it is the modern Keufah; others that it is Hepha, near
Mount Carmel.

[3692] Insignificant in height and extent, but celebrated in Scripture
history. It still bears the name of Cape Carmel.

[3693] It is not improbable that he means the town of Porphyrium, now
Khaifa, at the foot of the mountain.

[3694] Probably the Gitta of Polybius. Of it and Jeba, nothing is known.

[3695] The Nahr-Naman, or Abou, on which Ptolemais was situate.

[3696] Employed in the extensive manufacture of that article at Tyre
and Sidon, to the north of this district.

[3697] A corruption of Acco, the native name; from which the English
name Acre, and the French St. Jean d’Acre. The earliest mention of it
is in the Book of Judges, i. 31. It is supposed that it was Ptolemy I.,
the son of Lagus, who enlarged it and gave it the name of Ptolemais.
Its citadel, however, still retained the name of Ace. Under the Romans,
Ptolemais, as mentioned by Pliny, was a colony, and belonged to
Galilee. The modern city of Acre occupies its site.

[3698] The Ach-Zib of Scripture, mentioned in Joshua xix. 29, and
Judges i. 31. Its ruins are to be seen near the sea-shore, about three
hours’ journey north of Acre. The spot is still called Es-Zib.

[3699] Still called the Ras-el-Abiad, or White Promontory.

[3700] A colony of the Sidonians: its scanty ruins are still to be seen
at the poor village of Sur. The wars of the Crusades completed its
downfall. The island is still joined to the mainland by the mole which
was erected by Alexander the Great during the siege of the place; or,
according to some, by the Syrians themselves.

[3701] Carthage is supposed to have been colonized _immediately_ by the
people of Utica.

[3702] From which was made the famous Tyrian purple.

[3703] Or “ancient Tyre,” which was built on the mainland.

[3704] The Zarephath of 1 Kings xvii. 9, 10, whither Elijah was sent to
the widow, whose son he afterwards raised from the dead. Its site is
now known as Sarfand.

[3705] Probably meaning “City of the Birds,” perhaps from the
quantities of game in its vicinity. Its site now bears the name of
Adlan.

[3706] Its site is now called Saïda. In the time of David and Solomon,
it was probably subject to the kings of Tyre.

[3707] Cadmus, the founder of Thebes, was said to have been the son of
its king Agenor.

[3708] The Lebanon of Scripture. This intervening space, the ancient
Cœle-Syria, is now inhabited by the Druses.

[3709] Perhaps the modern Nahr-el-Damur.

[3710] Now Beyrout. By some it has been identified with the Berotha,
or Berothai, of the Hebrew Scriptures. Its full name as a Roman colony
was, “Colonia Julia Augusta Felix Berytus.” It was colonized by the
veterans of the Fifth, or Macedonian, and the Eighth, or Augustan,
Legions. Beyrout, or Berut, is now, in a commercial point of view, the
most important place in Syria.

[3711] Nothing is known of this place. The name seems to mean, the
“Town of the Lion.”

[3712] Now the Nahr-el-Kelb, or “Dog’s River.”

[3713] The site of this place seems not to be known.

[3714] Now the Nahr-el-Ibrahim.

[3715] The modern town which stands on its site is called Jebeil. It
is situate at the foot of Lebanon. The ancient name seems to have been
Gebal, and the Geblites are mentioned in Joshua, xiii. 5; 1 Kings,
v. 18; and Ezek. xxvii. 9. The ruins of the ancient city are very
extensive. Astarte and Isis seem to have been worshipped here.

[3716] Now Batrun, a small town about twelve miles north of Byblus,
said to have been founded by Ithobal, king of Tyre.

[3717] Now Gazir, according to D’Anville.

[3718] Twelve miles from Tripolis. Its name would seem to bear
reference to a trireme, or galley. It has been said that this is the
place referred to in the Book of Daniel, xi. 30.

[3719] Polybius speaks of this place as being burnt by Antiochus. Its
site still bears the name of Calamon, according to D’Anville.

[3720] This properly consisted of three distinct cities, 600 feet
apart, each with its own walls, but all connected in a common
constitution; having one place of assembly, and forming in reality one
city only. They were colonies, as here suggested by Pliny, of Tyre,
Sidon, and Arados respectively. It is still a considerable place,
called Tarabolos, or Tarablis, by the Turks.

[3721] Its site is still known as Ortosa, or Tortosa.

[3722] Probably the same as the Nahr-el-Kebir, or “Great River,” to the
north of Tripolis. It may have derived its Greek name, which signifies
“free,” from its similarity to that given to it by the people of the
country.

[3723] This was an important city, near Antarados. Its ruins are spoken
of as very extensive. Simyra is still called Sumira.

[3724] Now called Ruad; an island off the northern coast of Phœnicia,
at a distance of twenty stadia from the mainland, Pliny falling short
here in his measurement. The city of Arados was very populous, though
built on a mere rock; and, contrary to Eastern custom, the houses
contained many stories. It is spoken of by the prophet Ezekiel under
the name of Arvad: see c. xxvii. 8, 11. In importance, it ranked next
to the cities of Tyre and Sidon.

[3725] Its modern name does not appear to be known.

[3726] Also called Antarados, as lying nearly opposite to the city of
Arados. According to Strabo, the port of Antarados was called Carne,
or Carnos. In the time of the Crusades, it was known under the name of
Tortosa. Its present name is Tartus.

[3727] Now Banias. It was situate twenty-four miles north of Antarados.
Its name is supposed to have originated in the baths in its vicinity.
The site is deserted; but a few ruins of the ancient town are still to
be seen.

[3728] Eight miles from Balanea. Its ruins are known by the name of
Boldo.

[3729] Its site is now known as Djebeleh, a small village in the
vicinity of Laodicea, or Latakia. The sun was probably worshipped here,
and hence the Emperor Heliogabalus derived his name.

[3730] About fifty miles south of Antioch, now called Ladikiyeh, or
Latakia, noted for the excellence of its tobacco, which has an European
reputation. It was built by Seleucus I., on the site of an earlier
city, called Ramitha. It was afterwards greatly favoured by Julius
Cæsar. Herod the Great built an aqueduct here, the ruins of which are
still in existence. It is now a poor Turkish village; but there are
considerable remains of the ancient city to be seen in its vicinity.

[3731] It has been suggested, that Pliny means the city of Lydda, in
the tribe of Benjamin, which of course would be very much to the south,
and quite out of the order in which he is proceeding. If that is not
the place meant, this Diospolis is utterly unknown.

[3732] At some miles’ distance to the north of Laodicea. Pococke found
some traces of its site at a spot called Minta Baurdeleh, or the Bay of
the Tower.

[3733] Pliny is in error here most probably, and is speaking of a place
as being in Syria which in reality was in Cilicia, between Platanus and
Cragus. The name implies its situation near a mountain torrent.

[3734] On a small bay, some miles north of Heraclea.

[3735] Or Antioch, the capital of the Greek kings of Syria, and the
most famous of the sixteen cities built by Seleucus Nicator, and called
after the name of his father, (or son, as some say,) Antiochus. It was
built on the Orontes, and formed one of the most beautiful and pleasant
cities of the ancient world. The modern Antakieh is a poor town, built
on the north-western part of the site of the ancient city, by the
river. The walls, built by Justinian, may still be traced for a circuit
of four miles. Here the followers of our Saviour first obtained the
name of “Christians.”

[3736] That is, “Near Daphne,” there being a celebrated grove of that
name, consecrated to Apollo, in its immediate vicinity.

[3737] Now called the Nahr-el-Asy.

[3738] Now Seleuca, or Kepse, at the foot of Mount Pieria. It has been
referred to in a previous note.

[3739] Now known as Djebel-el-Akra.

[3740] In the extreme north-east of Egypt. See pp. 422 and 424.

[3741] The beginning of the fourth watch was three o’clock in the
morning. The height of this mountain does not in reality appear to be
anything remarkable, and has been ascertained to be but 5318 feet.
There is probably no foundation for the marvellous story here told
by Pliny; nevertheless, we are told by Spartianus, that the Emperor
Adrian passed a night upon the mountain, for the purpose of seeing
this extraordinary sight; but a storm arising, it prevented the
gratification of his curiosity. It lay near Nymphæum and Seleucia, and
its base was washed by the waters of the Orontes.

[3742] Or Baalbec, in the interior of Syria.

[3743] According to Ansart, it still retains that name.

[3744] Now called Bylan. This was the name of the narrow pass between a
portion of Mount Taurus and the Rock of Rossicum. According to Ansart,
the spot is called at the present day Saggal Doutan.

[3745] This was a Phœnician colony, on the eastern side of the Gulf of
Issus; it is said by Ansart still to retain its ancient name.

[3746] Now called Alma-Dagh, a branch of Mount Taurus, running from
the head of the Gulf of Issus, north-east, to the principal chain, and
dividing Syria from Cilicia and Cappadocia. There were two passes in
it, the Syrian Gates and the Amanian Gates. It is often spoken of by
Cicero, who was the Roman governor of Cilicia.

[3747] The locality of this place is unknown, as Pliny is the only
author who mentions it.

[3748] Now Kulat-el-Mudik, situate in the valley of the Orontes, and
capital of the province of Apamene. It was fortified and enlarged
by Seleucus Nicator, who gave it its name, after his wife Apama. It
also bore the Macedonian name of Pella. It was situate on a hill, and
was so far surrounded by the windings of the Orontes, as to become a
peninsula, whence its name of Chersonesus. Very extensive ruins of this
place still exist.

[3749] It is suggested, that these are the Phylarchi Arabes of Strabo,
now called the Nosairis, who were situate to the east of Apamea. The
river Marsyas here mentioned was a small tributary of the Orontes, into
which it falls on the east side, near Apamea.

[3750] This was situate in Cyrrhestica, in Syria, on the high road
from Antioch to Mesopotamia, twenty-four miles to the west of the
Euphrates, and thirty-six to the south-west of Zeugma; two and a half
days’ journey from Berœa, and five from Antioch. It obtained its Greek
name of the “Sacred City” from Seleucus Nicator, owing to its being the
chief seat of the worship of the Syrian goddess Astarte. Its ruins were
first discovered by Maundrell.

[3751] In the former editions it is “Magog;” but Sillig’s reading of
“Mabog” is correct, and corresponds with the Oriental forms of Munbedj,
Manbesja, Manbesjun, Menba, Manba, Manbegj, and the modern name, Kara
Bambuche, or Buguk Munbedj.

[3752] Astarte, the semi-fish goddess.

[3753] This Chalcis is supposed to have been situate somewhere in the
district of the Buckaa, probably south of Heliopolis, or Baalbec. It
has been suggested, that its site may have been at, or near Zahle; in
the vicinity of which, at the village of Heusn Nieba, are to be seen
some remarkable remains. Or else, possibly, at Majdel Anjar, where
Abulfeda speaks of great ruins of hewn stone.

[3754] Ansart suggests, that Belus is here the name of a mountain, and
that it may be the same that is now called Djebel-il-Semmaq.

[3755] To the north of Chalcidene, a town of Syria, on the slopes of
the Taurus, eighty miles to the north-cast of Antioch. In the Roman
times, it was the head-quarters of the Tenth Legion. The ruins near the
modern village of Corus represent the ancient Cyrrhus. Of the Gazatæ
and Gindareni, nothing is known.

[3756] Possibly meaning the “Burghers of Granum.” Nothing is known of
these people.

[3757] The people of Emesa, a city in the district of Apamene, on
the right, or eastern bank of the Orontes, to which, in C. 26 of the
present Book, Pliny assigns a desert district beyond Palmyra. It was
celebrated in ancient times for its magnificent temple of the sun,
and the appointment of its priest, Bassianus, or Heliogabalus, to the
imperial dignity, in his fourteenth year. It was made a colony, with
the _jus Italicum_, by Caracalla, and afterwards became the capital of
Phœnicia Libanesia. The present name of its site is Hems.

[3758] The Hylatæ are totally unknown. Ituræa was situate in the
north-east of Palestine, and, with Trachonitis, belonged to the
tetrarchy of Philip. Its boundaries cannot be precisely determined; but
it may probably be traversed by a line drawn from the Lake of Tiberias
to Damascus.

[3759] According to Ptolemy, the people of Mariama, some miles to the
west of Emesa.

[3760] In the district of Laodicea, according to Ptolemy.

[3761] Near the Portæ Amani, or “Passes of Amanus.”

[3762] Pinara was near Pagræ, in Pieria, last mentioned.

[3763] Probably Seleucia, in Mesopotamia, now called Bir, on the left
bank of the Euphrates, opposite to the ford of Zeugma, a fortress of
considerable importance.

[3764] Its site is doubtful. Sebj d’Aboulgazi has been suggested.

[3765] The people of Arethusa, a city of Syria, not far from Apamea,
situate between Epiphania and Emesa. In later times, it took the name
of Restan.

[3766] The people of Berœa, a town of Syria, midway between Antioch and
Hierapolis. Seleucus Nicator gave to it the Macedonian name of Berœa;
but, in A.D. 638, it resumed its ancient name of Chaleb, or Chalybon.
The modern Haleb, or Aleppo, occupies its site. Some excavations, on
the eastern side of it, are the only vestiges of ancient remains in the
neighbourhood.

[3767] The people of Epiphanæa, placed by Ptolemy in the district
of Cassiotis, in which also Antioch and Larissa were situate. The
Itinerary of Antoninus places it sixteen miles from Larissa, thirty-two
from Emesa, and 101 from Antioch of Syria. It is supposed to have been
identical with the ancient Hamath, mentioned in 2 Sam. viii. 9; 1 Kings
viii. 65; Isaiah x. 9, and called “Hamath the great” in Amos vi. 2,
which name it also retained in the time of St. Jerome.

[3768] The people of Laodicea ad Libanum, a city of Cœle-Syria, at
the northern entrance to the narrow valley, between Libanus and
Anti-Libanus. During the possession of Cœle-Syria by the Greek kings of
Egypt, it was the south-west border fortress of Syria. It was the chief
city of a district called Laodicene.

[3769] Of Leucas, or Leucadia, nothing is known. Larissa, in Syria, was
a city in the district of Apamene, on the western bank of the Orontes,
about half-way between Apamea and Epiphania. The site is now called
Kulat-Seijar.

[3770] In the western branch of the plateau of Iran, a portion of
the Taurus chain. Considerable changes in the course of the lower
portion of the river have taken place since the time when Pliny wrote.
Caranitis is the modern Arzrum, or Erzrúm, of the Turks.

[3771] Now called Dujik Tagh, a mountain of Armenia.

[3772] It has been suggested, that the proper reading here would be
_Xerxene_.

[3773] Probably the district where the goddess Anais was worshipped,
who is mentioned by Pliny in B. xxxiii. c. 24.

[3774] From the place of confluence where the two mountain streams
forming the Euphrates unite. This spot is now known as Kebban Ma’den.

[3775] A fortress upon the river Euphrates, in Lesser Armenia. It has
been identified with the ferry and lead-mines of Kebban Ma’den, the
points where the Kara Su is joined by the Myrad-Chaï, at a distance
of 270 miles from its source; the two streams forming, by their
confluence, the Euphrates.

[3776] Other readings have “Pastona” here, said by D’Anville to be the
modern Pastek.

[3777] Called the metropolis of Lesser Armenia by Procopius. It was
situate between Anti-Taurus and the Euphrates, and celebrated for its
fertility, more especially in fruit-trees, oil, and wine. The site
of the city Melitene is now called Malatiyah, on a tributary of the
Euphrates, and near that river itself.

[3778] It is generally supposed that “twenty-four” would be the correct
reading here.

[3779] There were two places of this name. The one here spoken of was
a town of Lesser Armenia, on the right bank of the Euphrates, at the
first, or principal curve, which takes place before the river enters
Mount Taurus. It is represented by the modern Iz Oghlu.

[3780] No other writer is found to make mention of the Lycus, which
flows into the Euphrates, though there is a river formerly so called,
which flows into the Tigris below Larissa, the modern Nimroud.
D’Anville is of opinion, that it is formed from the numerous springs,
called by the people of the district Bing-gheul, or the “Thousand
Springs.”

[3781] Now called the Myrad-Chaï. Ritter considers it to be the south
arm of the Euphrates. The Arsanus is mentioned by no writer except
Pliny.

[3782] The defile at this place is now called the Cataract of Nachour,
according to Parisot.

[3783] The more general reading here is “Omira.” Hardouin is of
opinion, that this is the district referred to in the Book of Judith,
ii. 24. In the Vulgate, it appears to be twice called the river
_Mambre_; but in our version it is called _Arbonaï_.

[3784] Burnouf has concluded, from a cuneiform inscription which he
deciphered, that the name of this people was Ayurâ, and that Hardouin
is wrong in conjecturing that it was a name derived from the Greek
ὄρος, “a mountain,” and designating the people as a mountain tribe. If
Burnouf is right, the proper reading here would seem to be Arœi, or
Arrhœi.

[3785] The length of the _schœnus_ has been mentioned by our author in
C. 11 of the present Book. M. Saigey makes the Persian parasang to be
very nearly the same length as the schœnus of Pliny.

[3786] Commagene was a district in the north of Syria, bounded by the
Euphrates on the east, by Cilicia on the west, and by Amanus on the
north. Its capital was Samosata.

[3787] The place here spoken of by Pliny is probably the same mentioned
by Ptolemy as in Cataonia, one of the provinces of Cappadocia.
According to Parisot, the site of the place is called at the present
day ‘Ra Claudie.’

[3788] Salmasius has confounded these cataracts with those of Nachour,
or Elegia, previously mentioned. It is evident, however, that they are
not the same.

[3789] Now called Someisat. In literary history, it is celebrated as
being the birth-place of the satirist Lucian. Nothing remains of it but
a heap of ruins, on an artificial mound.

[3790] In the district of Osrhoëne, in the northern part of
Mesopotamia. It was situate on the Syrtus, now the Daisan, a small
tributary of the Euphrates. Pliny speaks rather loosely when he places
it in Arabia. It is supposed that it bore the name of Antiochia during
the reign of the Syrian king, Antiochus IV. The modern town of Orfahor
Unfah is supposed to represent its site.

[3791] “The beautiful stream.” It is generally supposed that this was
another name of Edessa.

[3792] Supposed to be the Haran, or Charan, of the Old Testament.
It was here, as alluded to by Pliny, that Crassus was defeated and
slain by the Parthian general, Surena. It was situate in Osroëne, in
Mesopotamia, and not far from Edessa. According to Stephanus, it had
its name from Carrha, a river of Syria, and was celebrated in ancient
times for its temple of Luna, or Lunus.

[3793] According to Strabo, the Aborras, now the Khabur, flowed round
this town. By Tacitus it is called Anthemusias. According to Isidorus
of Charax, it lay between Edessa and the Euphrates.

[3794] Now Rakkah, a fortified town of Mesopotamia, on the Euphrates,
near the mouth of the river Bilecha. It was built by order of Alexander
the Great, and completed probably by Seleucus. It is supposed to
have been the same place as Callinicum, the fortifications of which
were repaired by Justinian. Its name was changed in later times to
Leontopolis by the Emperor Leo.

[3795] Now called Sinjar, according to Brotier. Some writers imagine
that this was the site of “the plain in the land of Shinar,” on which
the Tower of Babel was built, mentioned in the Book of Genesis, xi. 2.

[3796] Mentioned in C. 17 of the present Book.

[3797] Probably not that in the district of Cassiotis, and on the
western bank of the Orontes, mentioned in C. 19 of the present Book.
Of this locality nothing seems to be known, except that Dupinet states
that it is now called Adelphe by the Turks.

[3798] Probably the “Antiochia ad Taurum” mentioned by the geographer
Stephanus, and by Ptolemy. Some writers place it at the modern Aintab,
seventy-five miles north-east of Aleppo.

[3799] Now called Roum-Cala, or the “Roman Castle.” For Zeugma see p.
424.

[3800] In the north-east of the district of Astropatene, originally
called Rhaga. It was rebuilt by Seleucus Nicator, and by him called
Europus. Colonel Rawlinson has identified it with the present Veramin,
at no great distance from the ancient Rhages.

[3801] Its ruins are to be seen at the ford of El Hamman, near the
modern Rakkah. It stood on the banks of the Euphrates; and here was
the usual, and, for a long time, the only ford of the Euphrates. It is
supposed to have derived its name from the Aramean word “Thiphsach,”
signifying “a ford.”

[3802] Or “Dwellers in Tents.” See p. 422.

[3803] According to Ortelius and Hardouin, this is the place called
Sura by Pliny, in C. 26 of the present Book; but Parisot differs from
that opinion. Bochart suggests, that “Ur, of the Chaldees,” is the
place referred to under this name; but, as Hardouin observes, that
place lay at a considerable distance to the south.

[3804] So called from the circumstance that Palmyra stood in the midst
of them. It was built by King Solomon, in an oasis of the Desert,
in the midst of palm groves, from which it received its Greek name,
which was a translation also of the Hebrew “Tadmor,” “the city of
palm-trees.” It lay at a considerable distance from the Euphrates. Its
site presents considerable ruins; but they are all of the Roman period,
and greatly inferior to those of Baalbec or Heliopolis.

[3805] The rock fortress of the Idumæans in Arabia Petræa, now called
Wady-Musa, half-way between the head of the Gulf of Akabah and the Dead
Sea.

[3806] Which it continued to do until it was conquered under its
queen, Zenobia, by the Emperor Aurelian, in A.D. 270. It was partially
destroyed by him, but was afterwards fortified by Justinian; though it
never recovered its former greatness.

[3807] See B. vi. c. 30.

[3808] Pliny is the only author that makes mention of Stelendene.

[3809] In C. 19 of the present Book.

[3810] Previously mentioned by Pliny. See p. 439. Of Elatium nothing is
known.

[3811] The same place that is also mentioned in history as Flavia Firma
Sura. The site of Philiscum is totally unknown.

[3812] Nothing is known of this place.

[3813] Parisot remarks, that it is true that the Euphrates increases
periodically, much in the same manner as the Nile; but that its
increase does not arise from similar causes, nor are the same results
produced by it, seeing that the river does not convey the same volume
of water as the Nile, and that the country in the vicinity of its bed
does not, like Egypt, form a valley pent up between two ranges of hills.

[3814] So called probably from the Greek διαφανὴς, “transparent.” It
has not been identified, but it was no doubt a small stream falling
into the Gulf of Issus.

[3815] Or “Passes.” As to Mount Amanus, see C. 18 of the present Book.

[3816] Parisot suggests that this is the Chersos of Xenophon, the
modern Kermes.

[3817] The Deli-Su of modern times according to D’Anville, the Maher-Su
according to Pococke.

[3818] Pliny is the only writer that mentions this river Lycus.

[3819] The Gulf of Issos is now called the Gulf of Scanderoon or
Iskenderun, from the town of that name, the former Alexandria ad Issum,
mentioned here by Pliny. In the vicinity of Issus, Alexander defeated
the army of Darius. The exact site of the town appears not to have been
ascertained.

[3820] Which still preserves its name in Iskenderun, on the east side
of the Gulf. It probably received its name in honour of Alexander the
Great.

[3821] Or the “Green” River. Its identity is unknown.

[3822] Now called Ayas Kala or Kalassy. It was a place, in the Roman
period, of some importance.

[3823] The modern river Jihan.

[3824] Or “Passes” of Cilicia, through the range of Taurus.

[3825] Called Mallo in modern times, according to Hardouin and Dupinet.

[3826] At the mouth of the Pyramus, according to Tzetzes.

[3827] Famous as the birth-place of St. Paul, the Apostle of the
Gentiles. Its ruins still bear the name of Tersus. During the civil
war it took part with Julius Cæsar, and from him received the name of
Juliopolis.

[3828] They lie between the rivers Djihoun and Syhoun, according to
Ansart.

[3829] Now called Messis, according to D’Anville and Mannert. The site
of Cassipolis, or Cassiopolis according to some readings, is unknown.

[3830] The sites of Thynos and Zephyrium appear to be unknown. Anchiale
was situate on the coast, upon the river Anchialeus, according to the
geographer Stephanus. Aristobulus, quoted by Strabo, says that at
this place was the tomb of Sardanapalus, and on it a relief in stone
representing a man snapping the fingers of the right hand. He adds,
“It is said that there is an Assyrian inscription also, recording that
Sardanapalus built Anchiale and Tarsus in one day, and exhorting the
reader to eat, drink, &c., as everything else is not worth That, the
meaning of which was shown by the attitude of the figure.” Athenæus
however cites Amyntas as his authority for stating that the tomb of
Sardanapalus was at Nineveh. Leake is of opinion that a mound on the
banks of the river beyond the modern villages of Kazalu and Karaduar
forms the remains of Anchiale.

[3831] The modern Syhou, according to Ansart.

[3832] Now called the Tersoos Chai. It is remarkable for the coldness
of its waters, and it was here that Alexander the Great nearly met with
his death from bathing when heated, in the stream.

[3833] Now Chelendreh. It was a strong place on the coast, situate on
a high rock nearly surrounded by the sea. None of its ruins seem older
than the early period of the Roman empire. The Turks call it Gulnare.

[3834] Probably so called from a temple to the Sea Nymphs there.

[3835] To distinguish it from Solæ or Soli of Cyprus. It was situate
between the rivers Cydnus and Lamus, and was said to have been
colonized by Argives and Lydians from Rhodes. Alexander mulcted its
inhabitants of 200 talents, for their adhesion to the Persians. It was
celebrated as the birth-place of the Stoic philosopher Chrysippus, the
comic poet Philemon, and the poet and astronomer Aratus. Its name is
perpetuated in the word _Solecism_, which is said to have been first
applied to the corrupt dialect of Greek spoken by the inhabitants of
this city, or as some say, of Soli in Cyprus.

[3836] It still retains its ancient name, and is situate on the western
side of the Sarus, now the Syhoun or Syhan. Pompey settled here some of
the Cilician pirates whom he had conquered.

[3837] Leake, in his ‘Asia Minor,’ p. 196, says, “The vestiges of
Cibyra are probably those observed by Captain Beaufort upon a height
which rises from the right bank of a considerable river about eight
miles to the eastward of the Melas, about four miles to the west of
Cape Karáburnu, and nearly two miles from the shore.” Ptolemy mentions
Cibyra as an inland town of Cilicia Trachea, but Scylax places it on
the coast.

[3838] Its ruins are still called Pinara or Minara. It was an inland
city of Lycia, some distance west of the river Xanthus, and at the foot
of Mount Cragus.

[3839] Or perhaps ‘Podalie.’ Of it nothing seems to be known.

[3840] Or Selinuntum, now Selenti, on the coast of Cilicia. In
consequence of the death here of the Emperor Trajan, it received the
name of Trajanopolis. Of Ale, if that is the correct reading, nothing
whatever is known.

[3841] On the coast of Cilicia; mentioned by Strabo as having a port.
Leake places it at or near the ruined castle called Sokhta Kalesi,
below which is a port, and a peninsula on the east side of the harbour
covered with ruins.

[3842] In the district of Selenitis. It has been identified with the
site of the modern fortress of Lambardo. It is also suggested that it
may have been the same place as Laerte, the native city of Diogenes
Laertius. Of Doron nothing seems to be known.

[3843] Its ruins are supposed to be those seen by Leake near the island
of Crambusa. Here the walls of an ancient city may still be traced, and
a mole of unhewn rocks projects from one angle of the fortress about
100 yards across the bay.

[3844] Strabo describes this cave as a vast hollow of circular form,
surrounded by a margin of rock on all sides of considerable height; on
descending it, the ground was found full of shrubs, both evergreens and
cultivated, and in some parts the best saffron was grown. He also says
that there was a cave which contained a large spring, from which arose
a river of clear water which immediately afterwards sank into the earth
and flowed underground into the sea. It was called the Bitter Water.
This cave, so famed in ancient times, does not appear to have been
examined by any modern traveller. It was said to have been the bed of
the giant Typhon or Typhœus.

[3845] Now known as the Ghiuk-Su.

[3846] Supposed to be the same as the modern Lessan-el-Kahpeh.

[3847] Or Holmi, on the coast of Cilicia Tracheia, a little to the
south-west of Seleucia. Leake thinks that the modern town of Aghaliman
occupies the site of Holmœ.

[3848] Probably the same place as the Aphrodisias mentioned by Livy,
Diodorus Siculus, and Ptolemy.

[3849] On the headland now called Cape Anemour, the most southerly
part of Asia Minor. Beaufort discovered on the point indications of a
considerable ancient town.

[3850] Its site is now called Alaya or Alanieh. This spot was Strabo’s
boundary-line between Pamphylia and Cilicia. Some slight remains of the
ancient town were seen here by Beaufort, but no inscriptions were found.

[3851] Identified by Beaufort with the modern Manaugat-Su.

[3852] So called, either from an adjacent mountain of that name, or
its founder, Anazarbus. Its later name was Cæsarea ad Anazarbum. Its
site is called Anawasy or Amnasy, and is said to display considerable
remains of the ancient town. Of Augusta nothing is known: Ptolemy
places it in a district called Bryelice.

[3853] Identified by Ainsworth with the ruins seen at Kara Kaya in
Cilicia.

[3854] Pompey settled some of the Cilician pirates here after his
defeat of them. It was thirty miles east of Anazarbus, but its site
does not appear to have been identified.

[3855] An island off the shore of Cilicia, also called Sebaste.

[3856] Some of the MSS. read “Riconium” here.

[3857] Its ruins are called Selefkeh. This was an important city of
Seleucia Aspera, built by Seleucus I. on the western bank of the river
Calycadnus. It had an oracle of Apollo, and annual games in honour of
Zeus Olympius. It was a free city under the Romans. It was here that
Frederick Barbarossa, the emperor of Germany, died. Its ruins are
picturesque and extensive.

[3858] Meaning that the inhabitants of Holmia were removed by Seleucus
to his new city of Seleucia.

[3859] Said by Vitruvius to have had the property of anointing those
who bathed in its waters. If so, it probably had its name from the
Greek word λιπαρὸς, “fat.” It flowed past the town of Soloë. Bombos and
Paradisus are rivers which do not appear to have been identified.

[3860] A branch of the Taurus range.

[3861] It bordered in the east on Lycaonia, in the north on Phrygia, in
the west on Pisidia, and in the south on Cilicia and Pamphylia.

[3862] A well-fortified city at the foot of Mount Taurus. It was
twice destroyed, first by its inhabitants when besieged by Perdiccas,
and again by the Roman general Servilius Isauricus. Strabo says that
Amyntas of Galatea built a new city in its vicinity out of the ruins
of the old one. D’Anville and others have identified the site of Old
Isauria with the modern Bei Sheher, and they are of opinion that Seidi
Sheher occupies the site of New Isaura, but Hamilton thinks that the
ruins on a hill near the village of Olou Bounar mark the site of New
Isaura. Of the two next places nothing seems to be known at the present
day.

[3863] In the last Chapter.

[3864] In Pisidia, at the southern extremity of Lake Caralitis.
Tacitus, Annals, iii. 48, says that this people possessed forty-four
fortresses: whereas Strabo speaks of them as the most barbarous of all
the Pisidian tribes, dwelling only in caves. They were conquered by the
consul Quirinius in the time of Augustus.

[3865] Pisidia was a mountainous region formed by that part of the main
chain of Mount Taurus which sweeps round in a semicircle parallel to
the shore of the Pamphylian Gulf; the shore itself at the foot of the
mountains forming the district of Pamphylia. On the south-east it was
bounded by Cilicia, on the east and north-east by Lycaonia and Isauria,
and by Phrygia Parorios on the north, where its boundaries greatly
varied at different times.

[3866] Generally called “Antioch of Pisidia,” was situate on the south
side of the mountain boundary between Phrygia and Pisidia. The modern
Yalobatch is supposed to occupy its site. The remains of the ancient
town are numerous. Its title of Cæsarea was probably given to it on its
becoming a Roman colony early in the imperial period.

[3867] D’Anville suggests that the modern Haviran occupies its site,
and that Sadjakla stands on that of Sagalessos.

[3868] This country was bounded on the north by Galatia, on the east
by Cappadocia, on the south by Cilicia Aspera, on the south-west by
Isauria and Phrygia Parorios, and on the north-west by Great Phrygia.
It was assigned under the Persian empire to the satrapy of Cappadocia,
but considered by the Greek and Roman geographers the south-east part
of Phrygia.

[3869] Phrygia, or the western part of Asia, the first part of the
Asiatic continent that received the name of Asia. Sec Chapters 28 & 29
of the present Book.

[3870] D’Anville thinks that the place called Il-Goun occupies the site
of Philomela.

[3871] Hardouin suggests that the reading here is “Tibriani,” the
people of Tibrias. Ansart is of opinion that Thymbrium is meant, the
place at which Cyrus defeated the army of Crœsus.

[3872] Its site is unknown. It was probably so called from the quarries
of white stone or marble in its vicinity. Pelta and Tyrium are also
equally unknown.

[3873] Iconium was regarded in the time of Xenophon as the easternmost
town of Phrygia, while all the later authorities described it as the
principal city of Lycaonia. In the Acts of the Apostles it is described
as a very populous city, inhabited by Greeks and Jews. Its site is now
called Kunjah or Koniyeh.

[3874] It has been suggested that this may be the Tarbassus of
Artemidorus, quoted by Strabo. Hyde was in later times one of the
episcopal cities of Lycaonia.

[3875] Their district is called Melyas by Herodotus, B. i. c. 173. The
city of Arycanda is unknown.

[3876] United with Cilicia it now forms the province of Caramania or
Kermanieh. It was a narrow strip of the southern coast of Asia Minor,
extending in an arch along the Pamphylian Gulf between Lycia on the
west, Cilicia on the east, and on the north bordering on Pisidia.

[3877] Tradition ascribed the first Greek settlements in this country
to Mopsus, son of Apollo (or of Rhacius), after the Trojan war.

[3878] Now called the Gulf of Adalia, lying between Cape Khelidonia and
Cape Anemour.

[3879] Now called Candeloro, according to D’Anville and Beaufort.

[3880] Or Aspendus, an Argeian colony on the river Eurymedon. The
“mountain” of Pliny is nothing but a hill or piece of elevated ground.
It is supposed that it still retains its ancient name. In B. xxxi. c.
7, Pliny mentions a salt lake in its vicinity.

[3881] Hardouin suggests that the correct reading is ‘Petnelessum.’

[3882] A city of remarkable splendour, between the rivers Catarrhactes
and Cestrus, sixty stadia from the mouth of the former. It was a
celebrated seat of the worship of Artemis or Diana. In the later Roman
empire it was the capital of Pamphylia Secunda. It was the first place
visited by St. Paul in Asia Minor. See Acts, xiii. 13 and xiv. 25.
Its splendid ruins are still to be seen at Murtana, sixteen miles
north-east of Adalia.

[3883] Now known as the Kapri-Su.

[3884] Now called Duden-Su. It descends the mountains of Taurus in a
great broken waterfall, whence its name.

[3885] Probably occupying the site of the modern Atalieh or Satalieh.

[3886] On the borders of Lycia and Pamphylia, at the foot of Mount
Solyma. Its ruins now bear the name of Tekrova.

[3887] It was inclosed by Caria and Pamphylia on the west and east, and
on the north by the district of Cibyrates in Phrygia.

[3888] The Gulf of Satalieh or Adalia.

[3889] Still known as Cape Khelidonia or Cameroso.

[3890] Parisot remarks here, “Pliny describes on this occasion, with an
exactness very remarkable for his time, the chain of mountains which
runs through the part of Asia known to the ancients, although it is
evident that he confines the extent of them within much too small a
compass.”

[3891] The Caspian and the Hyrcanian Seas are generally looked upon
as identical, but we find them again distinguished by Pliny in B. vi.
c. 13, where he says that this inland sea commences to be called the
_Caspian_ after you have passed the river Cyrus (or Kúr), and that the
Caspii live near it; and in C. 16, that it is called the _Hyrcanian_
Sea, from the Hyrcani who live along its shores. The western side would
therefore in strictness be called the _Caspian_, and the eastern the
_Hyrcanian_ Sea.

[3892] “The name of Imaüs was, in the first instance, applied by the
Greek geographers to the Hindú-Kúsh and to the chain parallel to the
equator, to which the name of Himâlaya is usually given at the present
day. The name was gradually extended to the intersection running north
and south, the meridian axis of Central Asia, or the _Bolor_ range. The
divisions of Asia into ‘intra et extra Imaum,’ were unknown to Strabo
and Pliny, though the latter describes the knot of mountains formed
by the intersections of the Himâlaya, the Hindú-Kúsh, and Bolor, by
the expression ‘quorum (Montes Emodi) promontorium Imaüs vocatur.’ The
Bolor chain has been for ages, with one or two exceptions, the boundary
between the empires of China and Turkestan.”—_Dr. Smith’s Dictionary of
Ancient Geography._

[3893] The Gates of Armenia are spoken of in B. vi. c. 12, the Gates of
the Caspian in C. 16 of the same Book, and the Gates of Cilicia in C.
22 of the present Book.

[3894] See C. ix. of the next Book.

[3895] “Strabo gives this name to only the eastern portion of the
Caucasian chain which overhangs the Caspian Sea and forms the northern
boundary of Albania, and in which he places the Amazons. Mela seems to
apply the name to the whole chain which other writers call Caucasus,
confining the latter term to a part of it. Pliny (B. v. c. 27 & B. vi.
c. 11) gives precisely the same representation, with the additional
error of making the Ceraunii (_i. e._ the Caucasus of others) part of
the Great Taurus Chain. He seems to apply the name of Caucasus to the
spurs which spread out both to the north-east and the south-east from
the main chain near its eastern extremity, and which he regarded as a
continuous range, bordering the western shores of the Caspian. See B.
vi. c. 10.”—_Dr. Smith’s Dictionary of Ancient Geography._

[3896] Of Chelidonium, now Khelidonia, formed by the range of Taurus.

[3897] See B. ii. c. 110. The flame which continually burned on this
mountain has been examined by Beaufort, the modern traveller. The name
of the mountain is now Yanar: it is formed of a mass of scaglia with
serpentine. Spratt says that the flame is nothing more than a stream
of inflammable gas issuing from a crevice, such as is seen in several
places in the Apennines. By Homer it is represented as a fabulous
monster, which is explained by Servius, the commentator of Virgil, in
the following manner. He says that flames issue from the top of the
mountain, and that there are lions in the vicinity; the middle part
abounds in goats, and the lower part with serpents. Simena appears to
be unknown.

[3898] So called from Ἥφαιστος, the Greek name of Vulcan. Pliny
mentions this spot also in B. ii. c. 110. The flame probably proceeded
from an inflammable gas, or else was ignited by a stream of naphtha.

[3899] More generally known as Phœnicus, a flourishing city on Mount
Olympus; now Yanar Dagh, a volcano on the eastern coast of Lycia, with
which it often exchanged names. Having become the head-quarters of the
pirates, it was destroyed by the Roman general Servilius Isauricus. Its
ruins are to be seen at a spot called Deliktash.

[3900] Mentioned again in B. xxxvi. c. 34, as the spot whence the
_gagates lapis_ or ‘agate’ took its name. The ruins at Aladja are
regarded by Leake as marking the site of Gagæ; but Sir Charles Fellowes
identifies the place with the modern village of Hascooe, the vicinity
of which is covered with ruins.

[3901] On the road from Phaselis in Lycia to Patara. Its site is a
village called Hadgivella, about sixteen miles south-west of Phaselis.
The remains are very considerable.

[3902] The remains of Rhodiopolis were found by Spratt and Forbes in
the vicinity of Corydalla.

[3903] On the Limyrus, probably the modern Phineka; the ruins to the
north of which are supposed to be those of Limyra.

[3904] The modern Akhtar Dagh.

[3905] Now Andraki. This was the port of Myra, next mentioned. It stood
at the mouth of the river now known as the Andraki. Cramer observes
that it was here St. Paul was put on board the ship of Alexandria, Acts
xxvii. 5, 6.

[3906] Still called Myra by the Greeks, but Dembre by the Turks. It was
built on a rock twenty stadia from the sea. St. Paul touched here on
his voyage as a prisoner to Rome, and from the mention made of it in
Acts xxvii. 5, 6, it would appear to have been an important sea-port.
There are magnificent ruins of this city still to be seen, in part hewn
out of the solid rock.

[3907] From an inscription found by Cockerell at the head of the
Hassac Bay, it is thought that _Aperlæ_ is the proper name of this
place, though again there are coins of Gordian which give the name as
_Aperræ_. It is fixed by the Stadismus as sixty stadia west of Somena,
which Leake supposes to be the same as the Simena mentioned above by
Pliny.

[3908] Now called Antephelo or Andifilo, on the south coast of Lycia,
at the head of a bay. Its theatre is still complete, with the exception
of the proscenium. There are also other interesting remains of
antiquity.

[3909] Fellowes places the site of Phellos near a village called
_Saaret_, west-north-west of Antiphellos, where he found the remains
of a town; but Spratt considers this to mark the site of the Pyrra of
Pliny, mentioned above—judging from Pliny’s words. Modern geographers
deem it more consistent with his meaning to look for Phellos north of
Antiphellos than in any other direction, and the ruins at Tchookoorbye,
north of Antiphellos, on the spur of a mountain called Fellerdagh, are
thought to be those of Phellos.

[3910] The most famous city of Lycia. It stood on the western bank
of the river of that name, now called the Echen Chai. It was twice
besieged, and on both occasions the inhabitants destroyed themselves
with their property, first by the Persians under Harpagus, and
afterwards by the Romans under Brutus. Among its most famous temples
were those of Sarpedon and of the Lycian Apollo. The ruins now known
by the name of Gunik, have been explored by Sir C. Fellows and other
travellers, and a portion of its remains are now to be seen in the
British Museum, under the name of the Xanthian marbles.

[3911] Its ruins still bear the same name. It was a flourishing
seaport, on a promontory of the same name, sixty stadia east of the
mouth of the Xanthus. It was early colonized by the Dorians from Crete,
and became a chief seat of the worship of Apollo, from whose son
Patarus it was said to have received its name. Ptolemy Philadelphus
enlarged it, and called it Arsinoë, but it still remained better known
by its old name. This place was visited by St. Paul, who thence took
ship for Phœnicia. See Acts xxi. 1.

[3912] This was more properly the name of a mountain district of Lycia.
Strabo speaks of Cragus, a mountain with eight summits, and a city of
the same name. Beaufort thinks that Yedy-Booroon, the Seven Capes, a
group of high and rugged mountains, appear to have been the ancient
Mount Cragus of Lycia.

[3913] Probably the Gulf of Macri, equal in size to the Gulf of
Satalia, which is next to it.

[3914] This place lay in the interior at the base of Cragus, and
its ruins are still to be seen on the east side of the range, about
half-way between Telmessus and the termination of the range on the
south coast.

[3915] Its ruins are to be seen at Mei, or the modern port of Macri.

[3916] Its site is unknown. That of Candyba has been ascertained to be
a place called Gendevar, east of the Xanthus, and a few miles from the
coast. Its rock-tombs are said to be beautifully executed. The Œnian
grove or forest, it has been suggested, may still be recognized in the
extensive pine forest that now covers the mountain above the city. The
sites of Podalia and Choma seem to be unknown.

[3917] In some editions “Cyane.” Leake says that this place was
discovered to the west of Andriaca by Cockerell. It appears from
Scott and Forbes’s account of Lycia, that three sites have been found
between port Tristorus and the inland valley of Kassabar, which from
the inscriptions appeared anciently to have borne this name, Yarvoo,
Ghiouristan, and Toussa. The former is the chief place and is covered
with ruins of the Roman and middle-age construction. At Ghiouristan
there are Lycian rock-tombs.

[3918] Its ruins are to be seen near the modern Doover, in the interior
of Lycia, about two miles and a half east of the river Xanthus. Of the
three places previously mentioned the sites appear to be unknown.

[3919] Mentioned by the geographer Stephanus as being in Caria.

[3920] Its site is fixed at Katara, on both sides of the Katara Su, the
most northern branch of the Xanthus. The ruins are very considerable,
lying on both sides of the stream. Balbura is a neuter plural.

[3921] It lay to the west of Balbura, near a place now called Ebajik,
on a small stream that flows into the Horzoom Tchy. In B. xxxv. c. 17,
Pliny mentions a kind of chalk found in the vicinity of this place. Its
ruins are still to be seen, but they are not striking.

[3922] In the south-west corner of Asia Minor, bounded on the north and
north-east by the mountains Messagis and Cadmus, dividing it from Lydia
and Phrygia, and adjoining to Phrygia and Lycia on the south-east.

[3923] Caria.

[3924] Now Cape Ghinazi. It was also called Artemisium, from the temple
of Artemis or Diana situate upon it.

[3925] Discharging itself into the bay of Telmissus, now Makri.

[3926] “Telmissus” is the reading here in some editions.

[3927] Situate in the district of Caria called Peræa. It was also the
name given to a mountainous district. In Hoskyn’s map the ruins of
Dædala are placed near the head of the Gulf of Glaucus, on the west
of a small river called Inegi Chai, probably the ancient Ninus, where
Dædalus was bitten by a water-snake, in consequence of which he died.

[3928] On the Gulf of Glaucus: Stephanus however places it in Lycia.
Mela speaks only of a promontory of this name.

[3929] Leake places this river immediately west of the Gulf of Glaucus.

[3930] Placed by Strabo sixty stadia from the sea, west of the Gulf
of Glaucus, and east of Carinus. Its site is uncertain, but it may
possibly be the place discovered by Fellows, which is proved by
inscriptions to have been called Cadyanda, a name otherwise unknown to
us. This lies N.N.E. of Makri, on the Gulf of Glaucus or Makri, at a
place called Hoozoomlee, situate on an elevated plain.

[3931] The same as the river Calbis of Strabo and Mela, at present the
Dalamon Tchy, Quingi or Taas, having its sources in Mount Cadmus above
Cibyra. It was said to have derived its name from an Indian, who had
been thrown into it from an elephant.

[3932] Their district was Cibyratis, of which the chief city was
Cibyra. This place, uniting with the towns of Balbura, Bubon, and
Œnianda, had the name of Tetrapolis; of which league Cibyra was the
head, mustering 30,000 infantry and 2000 cavalry. The iron found in
this district was easily cut with a chisel or other sharp tool. The
site of this powerful city has been ascertained to be at Horzoom, on
the Horzoom Tchy, a branch of the Dalamon Tchy or Indus. The ruins are
very extensive, and the theatre in fine preservation.

[3933] Placed by Strabo west of Calynda. The ancient descriptions of
its locality vary, but the place now known as Kaiguez is said to denote
its site. The Caunii are frequently mentioned in the Persian, Grecian,
and Roman histories. It was noted for its dried figs, mentioned by
Pliny in B. xv. c. 19.

[3934] Supposed by Mannert to be the Physcus of Strabo and the Phuscæ
of Ptolemy.

[3935] Leake says that this harbour is now called Aplothíka by the
Greeks, and Porto Cavaliere by the Italians, lie also says that on its
western shore are the ruins of an Hellenic fortress and town, which are
undoubtedly those of Loryma.

[3936] It had a port of the same name.

[3937] Called Pandion by Mela, according to Parisot.

[3938] Parisot suggests that it is the same as Loryma previously
mentioned.

[3939] Like the Gulf of Schœnus, a portion probably of the Dorian Gulf,
now the Gulf of Syme.

[3940] The modern name of this promontory is not given by Hamilton, who
sailed round it. It has been confounded with the Cynos Sema of Strabo,
now Capo Velo. The site of Hyda or Hyde is unknown.

[3941] There was a town of this name as well. Stephen of Byzantium
tells us that it received its name from a shepherd who saved the life
of Podalirius, when shipwrecked on the coast of Caria.

[3942] Part of it was situate on an island now called Cape Krio,
connected by a causeway with the mainland. Its site is covered with
ruins of a most interesting character in every direction. The Triopian
promontory, evidently alluded to by Pliny, is the modern Cape Krio.

[3943] It has been remarked that in his description here Pliny is very
brief and confused, and that he may intend to give the name of Triopia
either to the small peninsula or island, or may include in this term
the western part of the whole of the larger peninsula.

[3944] Of these _conventus_. For an account of Cibyra see last page.

[3945] On the Lycus, now known as the Choruk-Su. By different writers
it has been assigned to Lydia, Caria, and Phrygia, but in the ultimate
division of the Roman provinces it was assigned to the Greater Phrygia.
It was founded by Antiochus II. on the site of a previous town, and
named in honour of his wife Laodice. Its site is occupied by ruins
of great magnificence. In the Apostolic age it was the seat of a
flourishing Christian Church, which however very soon gave signs of
degeneracy, as we learn from St. John’s Epistle to it, Revel. ii.
14-22. St. Paul also addresses it in common with the neighbouring
church of Colossæ. Its site is now called Eski-Hissar, or the Old
Castle.

[3946] A tributary of the Phrygian Mæander.

[3947] The people of Hydrela, a town of Caria, said to have been
founded by one of three brothers who emigrated from Sparta.

[3948] The people of Themisonium, now called Tseni.

[3949] The people of Hierapolis, a town of Phrygia, situate on a
height between the rivers Lycus and Mæander, about five miles north
of Laodicea, on the road from Apamea to Sardis. It was celebrated for
its warm springs, and its Plutonium, or cave of Pluto, from which
issued a mephitic vapour of a poisonous nature; see B. ii. c. 95. The
Christian Church here is alluded to by St. Paul in his Epistle to the
Colossians, iv. 13. Its ruins are situate at an uninhabited place
called Pambuk-Kalessi.

[3950] Situate in the north of Phrygia Salutaris; its ruins being
probably those to be seen at Afiour-Kara-Hisar. From the time of
Constantine this place became the capital of Phrygia Salutaris. It
stood in a fruitful plain, near a mountain quarry of the celebrated
Synnadic marble, which was white with red veins and spots. This marble
was also called “Docimiticus,” from Docimia, a nearer place.

[3951] As already mentioned in C. 25 of the present Book.

[3952] The site of Appia does not appear to be known. Cicero speaks
of an application made to him by the Appiani, when he was governor of
Cilicia, respecting the taxes with which they were burdened, and the
buildings of their town.

[3953] Eucarpia was a town of Phrygia, not far from the sources of the
Mæander, on the road from Dorylæum to Apamea Cibotus. The vine grew
there in great luxuriance, and to its fruitfulness the town probably
owed its name. Kiepert places it in the vicinity of Segielar, but its
exact site is unknown.

[3954] The site of Dorylæum is now called Eski-Shehr. The hot-baths
here are mentioned by Athenæus, and its waters were pleasant to the
taste. Sheep-feeding appears to have been carried on here to a great
extent, and under the Greek empire it was a flourishing place. The site
of Midæum does not seem to be known.

[3955] The people of Julia, Juliopolis, or Julianopolis, a town of
Lydia, probably to the south of Mount Tmolus.

[3956] This place was built near Celænæ by Antiochus Soter, and named
after his mother Apama. Strabo says that it lay at the mouth of the
river Marsyas. Its site has been fixed at the modern Denair. Some
ancient ruins are to be seen.

[3957] Pliny commits an error here; Celænæ was a different place from
Apamea, though close to it.

[3958] Meaning the “Fountains of the Pipe,” and probably deriving
its name from the legend here mentioned by Pliny, and in B. xvi. c.
44. Strabo describes the Marsyas and Mæander as rising, according to
report, in one lake above Celænæ, which produced reeds adapted for
making the mouth-pieces of musical instruments, but he gives no name
to the lake. Hamilton found near Denair or Apamea, a lake nearly two
miles in circumference, full of reeds and rushes, which he looks upon
as the lake on the mountain Aulocrene, described by Pliny in the 31st
Chapter of the present Book. His account however is very confused, as
he mentions on different occasions a _region_ of Aulocrene, a _valley_
of Aulocrene, and a _mountain_ of Aulocrene.

[3959] People of “the Mother City,” said by Stephen of Byzantium to
have received that name from Cybele, the _Mother_ of the Gods.

[3960] Nothing is known of the site of Dionysopolis. It is mentioned in
a letter of Cicero’s to his brother Quintus, in which he speaks of the
people of this place as being very hostile to the latter.

[3961] The site of Euphorbium is denoted, according to Leake, by the
modern Sandukli. It lay between Synnas and Apamea, and not improbably,
like Eucarpia, received its name from the fertility of its territory.

[3962] The site of Acmona has been fixed at Ahatkoi, but it seems
doubtful.

[3963] The site of Pelta is by D’Anville called Ris-Chak or Hou-Chak.

[3964] The people of Silbium or Silbia, near Metropolis.

[3965] The Dorian settlements on the coast of Caria were so called. The
Dorian Gulf was probably the Sinus Ceramicus mentioned below.

[3966] Of these places nothing whatever seems to be known.

[3967] Pitaium and Eutane seem to be unknown.

[3968] A member of the Dorian Hexapolis, or League of the Six Cities.
The site of this famous city is occupied by the modern Boodroum, and
its ruins are very extensive. It was famous as being the birth-place of
the two historians Herodotus and Dionysius. It was the largest and best
fortified city of Caria.

[3969] According to Parisot the site of this place is now called Angeli
and Karabaglas.

[3970] This place must not be confounded with Telmessus or Telmissus in
Lycia, which has been previously mentioned. It was situate six miles
from Halicarnassus. Of the other places here mentioned nothing seems to
be known.

[3971] Now the Gulf of Staneo, Kos, or Boodroum. It took its name from
the port of Ceramus, now Keramo, according to D’Anville.

[3972] Now the Gulf of Mandeliyeh. It took its name from the city of
Iasus, the site of which is now called Askem or Asyn-Kalessi.

[3973] Its ruins are to be seen at the port called Gumishlu. This was
a Dorian colony on the coast of Caria, founded probably on the site of
the old town of the Leleges.

[3974] It has been suggested that this was only another name for the
new town of Myndos, in contradistinction to Palæomyndos, or “old
Myndos.”

[3975] Scylax the geographer is supposed to have been a native of this
place. The town is supposed to have been built partly on the mainland
and partly on an island. Pastra Limani is supposed to have been the
harbour of Caryanda.

[3976] A Dorian city on the Promontory of Termerium.

[3977] Situate near Iasus and Myndos. Leake conjectures that it may
have been on the bay between Pastra Limâne and Asyn Kalesi. There was
a statue here of Artemis Cindyas, under the bare sky, of which the
incredible story was told that neither rain nor snow ever fell on it.

[3978] See note [3972] on the last page.

[3979] Its ruins are to be seen at the spot still called Melasso. It
was a very flourishing city, eight miles from the coast of the Gulf of
Iasus, and situate at the foot of a rock of fine white marble. It was
partly destroyed in the Roman civil wars by Labienus. Its ruins are
very extensive.

[3980] Hamilton has fixed the site of this place between four and
five miles south-east of Kuyuja, near the mouth of the valley of the
Kara-Su. The surrounding district was famous for the excellence of its
figs. The city was built by Antiochus, the son of Seleucus.

[3981] Now called the Mendereh or Meinder.

[3982] Pococke thinks that the present Jenjer is the Orsinus, while
Mannert takes it to be the Hadchizik, a little winding river that falls
into the Mæander.

[3983] Now called Guzel-Hissar, according to Ansart.

[3984] On the road from Dorylæum to Apamea. It is said to have received
its name from Attalus II., who named the town after his brother and
predecessor Eumenes II. Its site is known as Ishekle, and it is still
marked by numerous ruins and sculptures.

[3985] A tributary of the Mæander. Its modern name is not mentioned.

[3986] Mannert takes the ruins to be seen at Jegni-Chehr to be those
of ancient Orthosia. The town of Lysias does not appear to have been
identified.

[3987] The situation of this district is not known. See B. xvi. c. 16,
where it appears that this region was famous for its boxwood.

[3988] One of the numerous places of that name devoted to the worship
of Bacchus. It was built on both sides of the ravine of the brook
Eudon, which fell into the Mæander. Its ruins are to be seen at
Sultan-Hissar, a little to the west of Hazeli.

[3989] Its ruins are to be seen at Ghiuzel-Hissar, near Aidin. This was
a flourishing commercial city, included sometimes in Ionia, sometimes
in Caria. It stood on the banks of the Eudon, a tributary of the river
Mæander. Under the Seleucidæ it was called Antiochia and Seleucia.

[3990] From the beauty and fertility of the surrounding country.

[3991] An Ionic town of Caria, on the north side of the Sinus Latmicus,
fifty stadia from the mouth of the Mæander.

[3992] Or Euromus, a town of Caria, at the foot of Mount Grion, which
runs parallel with Latmos. Ruins of a temple to the north-west of
Alabanda are considered to belong to Euromus.

[3993] A town of uncertain site. It must not be confounded with the
place of the same name, mentioned in c. 31 of the present Book.

[3994] The ruins of its citadel and walls still exist on the east side
of Mount Latmos, on the road from Bafi to Tchisme.

[3995] Situate about twenty miles south of Tralles. The modern site is
doubtful, but Arab Hissa, on a branch of the Mæander, now called the
Tchina, is supposed to represent Alabanda. It was notorious for the
luxuriousness of its inhabitants. A stone found in the vicinity was
used for making glass and glazing vessels. See B. xxxvi. c. 13.

[3996] Built by Antiochus I. Soter, and named, in honour of his wife,
Stratonice. It stood south of Alabanda, near the river Marsyas. It is
supposed that it stood on the site of a former city called Idrias, and
still earlier, Chrysaoris.

[3997] D’Anville identifies it with a place called Keramo, but no such
place appears to be known. Strabo places it near the sea between Cnidus
and Halicarnassus, and Ceramus comes next after Cnidus. Ptolemy seems
to place it on the south side of the bay. Of Hynidos nothing appears to
be known.

[3998] Its situation is unknown; but there can be little doubt that it
was founded by the Dorians who emigrated to the coast of Asia Minor
from Argolis and Trœzene in the Peloponnesus. Phorontis appears to be
unknown.

[3999] Parisot observes that many of the towns here mentioned belonged
to the northern part of Phrygia.

[4000] The people of Alinda in Caria, which was surrendered to
Alexander the Great by Alinda, queen of Caria. It was one of the
strongest places in Caria. Its position has been fixed by Fellowes at
Demmeergee-derasy, between Arab-Hissa and Karpuslee, on a steep rock.

[4001] Of Xystis, as also of Hydissa, nothing appears to be known.

[4002] Inhabitants of Apollonia in Caria, of which place nothing
appears to be known.

[4003] Pococke says that the modern site of Trapezopolis is called
Karadche.

[4004] The people of Aphrodisias, an ancient city of Caria, situate at
the modern Ghera or Geyra, south of Antiochia on the Mæander. Aphrodite
or Venus seems to have been principally worshipped at this place.
Strabo places it in Phrygia.

[4005] Or Coscinia, a place in Caria, which, as we may gather from
Strabo, ranked below a town. Leake thinks that Tshina, where Pococke
found considerable remains, is the site of this place.

[4006] On the eastern bank of the Harpasus, a tributary of the Mæander.
Its ruins are supposed to be those seen at a place called Harpas
Kalessi. In B. ii. c. 98, Pliny speaks of a wonderful rock at this
place.

[4007] Now known as the Harpa.

[4008] By this name alone it is known to Homer.

[4009] Its ruins, now called Sart, are very extensive, though
presenting nothing of importance. Its citadel, situated on a rock, was
considered to be almost impregnable.

[4010] Now called Kisilja Musa Dagh. It was famous for its wine,
saffron, and gold.

[4011] Now called the Sarabat. It was famous for its gold-producing
sands.

[4012] On the road between Thyatira and Sardes: near it was situate the
necropolis of Sardes.

[4013] Strabo says that some persons called the citadel only by that
name.

[4014] There was a city of Mysia or Phrygia of the name of Cadus or
Cadi; but nothing is known of the place here alluded to, whose people
would appear to have been a colony from Macedonia.

[4015] The people of Philadelphia, now Ala-Cher, or the “Fine City,”
twelve leagues south-east of Sardes, and nine leagues south of Attalia.

[4016] So called from the Greek Ἀπόλλωνος ἱερὸν, “the temple of
Apollo,” in the vicinity of which, south-east of Pergamus, their town
was probably situate. Nothing is known of these localities.

[4017] Dwellers in Mesotmolus, a town which, from its name, would
appear to have been situate on the middle of Mount Tmolus.

[4018] Now called the Gulf of Melasso.

[4019] Now the Cape of Melasso.

[4020] The remains of the Temple of Didymæan Apollo at Branchidæ are
still visible to those sailing along the coast. It was in the Milesian
territory, and above the harbour Panormus. The name of the site was
probably Didyma or Didymi, but the place was also called Branchidæ,
from that being the name of a body of priests who had the care of the
temple. We learn from Herodotus that Crœsus, king of Lydia, consulted
this oracle, and made rich presents to the temple. The temple, of which
only two columns are left, was of white marble.

[4021] The ruins of this important city are difficult to discover on
account of the great changes made on the coast by the river Mæander.
They are usually supposed to be those at the poor village of Palatia on
the south bank of the Mendereh; but Forbiger has shown that these are
more probably the remains of Myus, and that those of Miletus are buried
in a lake formed by the Mendereh at the foot of Mount Latmus.

[4022] See B. vii. c. 57. Josephus says that he lived very shortly
before the Persian invasion of Greece.

[4023] Now called the Monte di Palatia.

[4024] Generally called “Heraclea upon Latmus,” from its situation at
the western foot of Mount Latmus. Ruins of this town still exist at the
foot of that mountain on the borders of Lake Baffi.

[4025] Its ruins are now to be seen at Palatia. It was the smallest
city of the Ionian Confederacy, and was situate at the mouth of the
Mæander, thirty stadia from its mouth.

[4026] Mannert says that its ruins are to be seen at a spot called by
the Turks Sarasun-Kalesi.

[4027] One of the twelve Ionian cities, situate at the foot of Mount
Mycale. It stood originally on the shore, but the change in the coast
by the alluvial deposits of the Mæander left it some distance from the
land. It was celebrated as being the birth-place of the philosopher
Bias. Its ruins are to be seen at the spot called Samsun.

[4028] Now called Cape Santa Maria, or Samsun.

[4029] He implies that it is derived from φυγὴ “flight.”

[4030] Between Ephesus and Neapolis. It belonged to the Samians who
exchanged with the Ephesians for Neapolis, which lay nearer to their
island. The modern Scala Nova occupies the site of one of them, it is
uncertain which.

[4031] Its ruins are to be seen at the modern Inek-Bazar. It was
situate on the river Lethæus, a tributary of the Mæander. It was famous
for its temple of Artemis Leucophryene, the ruins of which still exist.

[4032] See B. ii. c. 91.

[4033] Now known as Ak-Hissar or the “White Castle.” Strabo informs us
that it was founded by Seleucus Nicator.

[4034] From the excellence of its horses.

[4035] Its ruins are to be seen near the modern Ayazaluk. It was
the chief of the twelve Ionian cities on the coast of Asia Minor,
and devoted to the worship of Artemis, whose temple here was deemed
one of the wonders of the world. Nothing, except some traces of its
foundations, is now to be seen of this stupendous building.

[4036] It was more generally said to have been founded by the Carians
and the Leleges.

[4037] Now called the Kara-Su, or Black River, or Kuchuk-Meinder, or
Little Mæander.

[4038] It has been observed that though Pliny seems to say that the
Caÿster receives many streams, they must have had but a short course,
and could only be so many channels by which the rivers descend from the
mountain slopes that shut in the contracted basin of the river.

[4039] This lake or marsh seems to be the morass situate on the road
from Smyrna to Ephesus, into which the Phyrites flows, and out of which
it comes a considerable stream.

[4040] The Phyrites is a small river that is crossed on the road from
Ephesus to Smyrna, and joins the Caÿster on the right bank ten or
twelve miles above Ayazaluk, near the site of Ephesus.

[4041] See B. ii. c. 91. for further mention of this island.

[4042] Said to be derived from the Greek, meaning “The beautiful
(stream) from Pion.”

[4043] One of the twelve Ionian cities of Asia, founded by Andræmon.
Notium was its port. There do not seem to be any remains of either of
these places.

[4044] Called also the Hales or Ales, and noted for the coolness of its
waters.

[4045] At Clarus, near Colophon. When Germanicus was on his way to the
East, this oracle foretold to him his speedy death. Chandler is of
opinion that he discovered the site of this place at Zillé, where he
found a spring of water with marble steps to it, which he considers to
have been the sacred fountain. Others again suggest that these ruins
may be those of Notium.

[4046] Its site was probably near the modern Ekklesia, but no traces of
the city itself are to be found.

[4047] Implying that in his time Notium was not in existence, whereas
in reality Notium superseded Old Colophon, of which it was the port,
and was sometimes known as New Colophon.

[4048] Now known as Cape Curco.

[4049] The site of this place is now known as Ritri, on the south side
of a small peninsula, which projects into the bay of Erythræ. The ruins
are considerable.

[4050] On the south side of the bay of Smyrna. In Strabo’s time this
city appears to have been removed from Chytrium, its original site.
Chandler found traces of the city near Vourla, from which he came to
the conclusion that the place was very small and inconsiderable.

[4051] According to Nicander, this was a mountain of the territory of
Clazomenæ, almost surrounded by sea.

[4052] Or “the Horses,” originally four islands close to the mainland,
off Clazomenæ.

[4053] This was probably the same causeway that was observed by
Chandler in the neighbourhood of Vourla, the site of ancient Clazomenæ.

[4054] See B. ii. c. 91, where he speaks of this place as being
swallowed up in the earth.

[4055] From Clazomenæ.

[4056] Now called Izmir by the Turks, Smyrna by the western nations of
Europe; the only one of the great cities on the western coast of Asia
Minor that has survived to the present day. This place stood at the
head of the cities that claimed to be the birth-place of Homer; and
the poet was worshipped here for a hero or demi-god in a magnificent
building called the Homereum. There are but few remains of the ancient
city: the modern one is the greatest commercial city of the Levant.

[4057] Hardouin takes this to be the name of a town, but Ortelius and
Pinetus seem to be more correct in thinking it to be the name of a
mountain.

[4058] It does not appear that all these mountains have been
identified. Cadmus is the Baba Dagh of the Turks.

[4059] Mentioned in C. 29 of the present Book.

[4060] In the time of Strabo this tributary of the Hermus seems to have
been known as the Phrygius.

[4061] Its site is now called Menemen, according to D’Anville. The
Cryus was so called from the Greek κρύος, “cold.”

[4062] The present Gulf of Smyrna.

[4063] Or the “Ants.”

[4064] Probably so called from the whiteness of the promontory on
which it was situate. It was built by Tachos, the Persian general, in
B.C. 352, and remarkable as the scene of the battle between the Consul
Licinius Crassus and Aristonicus in B.C. 131. The modern name of its
site is Lefke.

[4065] Its ruins are to be seen at Karaja-Fokia or Old Fokia,
south-west of Fouges or New Fokia. It was said to have been founded by
Phocian colonists under Philogenes and Damon.

[4066] The people of Hyrcania, one of the twelve cities which were
prostrated by an earthquake in the reign of Tiberius Cæsar; see B. ii.
c. 86.

[4067] The people of Magnesia “ad Sipylum,” or the city of Magnesia on
the Sipylus. It was situate on the south bank of the Hermus, and is
famous in history as the scene of the victory gained by the two Scipios
over Antiochus the Great, which secured to the Romans the empire of the
East, B.C. 190. This place also suffered from the great earthquake in
the reign of Tiberius, but was still a place of importance in the fifth
century.

[4068] The people, it is supposed, of a place called Hierocæsarea.

[4069] The people probably of Metropolis in Lydia, now Turbali, a
city on the plain of the Caÿster, between Ephesus and Smyrna. Cilbis,
perhaps the present Durgut, was their chief place.

[4070] A people dwelling in the upper valley of Caÿster.

[4071] Or Mysian Macedonians.

[4072] The people of Mastaura in Lydia. Its site is still known as
Mastaura-Kalesi.

[4073] The people of Briula, the site of which is unknown.

[4074] The people of Hypæpæ, a small town of Lydia, on the southern
slope of Mount Tmolus, forty-two miles from Ephesus. Under the Persian
supremacy, the worship of Fire was introduced at this place. Arachne,
the spinner, and competitor with Minerva, is represented by Ovid as
dwelling at this place; he calls it on two occasions “the _little_
Hypæpæ.” Leake is of opinion that the ruins seen at Bereki belong to
this place.

[4075] The people of Dios Hieron, or the “Temple of Jupiter.” This
was a small place in Ionia between Lebedus and Colophon. It has been
suggested that it was on the banks of the Caÿster, but its site is
uncertain.

[4076] Æolis, properly so called, extended as far north as the
promontory of Lectum, at the northern entrance of the bay of
Adramyttium.

[4077] Near Cyme, a place of Pelasgian origin. It was called Egyptian
Larissa, because Cyrus the Great settled here a body of his Egyptian
soldiers. According to D’Anville its site is still known as Larusar.

[4078] Said to have been so called from Cyme an Amazon. It was on
the northern side of the Hermus: Herodotus gives it the surname of
Phriconis. Its site is supposed to be at the modern Sanderli or
Sandarlio. The father of the poet Hesiod was a native of this place.

[4079] It was probably so called in honour of the Emperor Augustus.

[4080] Situate at a short distance from the coast. We learn from
Tacitus that it suffered from the great earthquake in the time of
Tiberius. Its site is called Guzel-Hissar, according to D’Anville.

[4081] Originally named Agroeira or Alloeira. There is a place still
called _Adala_, on the river Hermus, but Hamilton found no remains of
antiquity there.

[4082] Or the “New Walls.” Strabo speaks of it as distant thirty stadia
from Larissa.

[4083] Its site is unknown; but it must not be confounded with the
place of that name mentioned in the last Chapter, which stood on the
sea-coast. It suffered from the great earthquake in the reign of
Tiberius Cæsar.

[4084] Or Grynium, forty stadia from Myrina, and seventy from Elæa. It
contained a sanctuary of Apollo with an ancient oracle and a splendid
temple of white marble. Parmenio, the general of Alexander, took the
place by assault and sold the inhabitants as slaves. It is again
mentioned by Pliny in B. xxxii. c. 21.

[4085] This passage seems to be in a corrupt state, and it is difficult
to arrive at Pliny’s exact meaning.

[4086] The port of the Pergameni. Strabo places it south of the river
Caïcus, twelve stadia from that river, and 120 from Pergamum. Its site
is uncertain, but Leake fixes it at a place called Kliseli, on the road
from the south to Pergamum.

[4087] Its modern name is said to be Ak-Su or Bakir.

[4088] On the coast of the Elaitic gulf. It was almost destroyed by
an earthquake in the reign of the Emperor Titus. Its site is by some
thought to have been at Sanderli.

[4089] Supposed to have been situate near the modern Cape Coloni. It
was here that in the war with Antiochus, B.C. 191-190, the Roman fleet
was hauled up for the winter and protected by a ditch or rampart.

[4090] So called from Lysimachus, the son of Agathocles.

[4091] A strong place opposite to Lesbos. It was on the road from
Adramyttium to the plain of the Caïcus. Its site is generally fixed at
Dikeli Koi.

[4092] Or Carine. The army of Xerxes, on its route to the Hellespont,
marched through this place. Its site is unknown.

[4093] It lay outside of the bay of Adramyttium and the promontory of
Pyrrha.

[4094] Mentioned in the Iliad with Chryse and Tenedos.

[4095] A place called Kutchulan, or, as some write it,
Cotschiolan-Kuni, is supposed to occupy its site.

[4096] Or Thebes, in the vicinity of Troy.

[4097] In the plain of Thebes between Antandros and Adramyttium. It had
a temple of Artemis, of which the Antandrii had the superintendence.
Its site does not appear to have been ascertained.

[4098] Not improbably the Chryse, mentioned by Homer in the Iliad, B.
i. ll. 37, 390, 431; but there were several places of this name.

[4099] See the note [4105] to Scepsis in the present Chapter.

[4100] Or Gergis, Gergithus, or Gergithes, a town in the Troad, north
of Scamander. It was a place with an acropolis and strong walls.
Attalus, king of Pergamus, transplanted the people of Gergis to another
spot near the sources of the Caïcus, whence we afterwards find a place
called Gergetha or Gergithion, in the vicinity of Larissa. The old town
of Gergis was by some said to have been the birth-place of the Sibyl,
and its coins have her image impressed on them.

[4101] Also called Neandria, upon the Hellespont.

[4102] South of Adramyttium; in its vicinity were copper-mines and
celebrated vineyards. It was here that Thucydides is said to have died.

[4103] In the district of Coryphantes, opposite to Lesbos, and north of
Atarneus. Pliny speaks of the oysters of Coryphas, B. xxxii. c. 6.

[4104] This Aphrodisias does not appear to have been identified.

[4105] Again mentioned by Pliny in B. xi. c. 80. Scepsis was an
ancient city in the interior of the Troad, south-east of Alexandria,
in the mountains of Ida. Its inhabitants were removed by Antigonus to
Alexandria; but being permitted by Lysimachus to return to their homes,
they built a new city, and the remains of the old town were then called
Palæscepsis. This place is famous in literary history for being the
spot where certain MSS. of Aristotle and Theophrastus were buried to
prevent their transfer to Pergamus. When dug up they were found nearly
destroyed by mould, and in this condition were removed by Sylla to
Athens.

[4106] Sometimes called the Lycormas, now known as the Fidhari or
Fidharo.

[4107] Frequently mentioned by Homer.

[4108] Still known as Ida or Kas-Dagh.

[4109] More generally known as Adramyttium or Adramyteum, now Adramiti
or Edremit. According to tradition it was founded by Adramys, the
brother of Crœsus, king of Lydia. It is mentioned as a sea-port in the
Acts, xxvii. 2. There are no traces of ancient remains on its site.

[4110] One of the heights of Mount Ida in the Troad, now called
Kaz-Dag. The territory in this vicinity, as we learn from Virgil and
Seneca, was famous for its fertility. The modern village of Iné is
supposed to occupy the site of the ancient town of Gargara.

[4111] Now Antandro, at the head of the Gulf of Adramyttium. Aristotle
also says that its former name was Edonis, and that it was inhabited by
a Thracian tribe of Edoni. Herodotus as well as Aristotle also speak of
the seizure of the place by the Cimmerii in their incursion into Asia.

[4112] Now Cape Baba or Santa Maria, the south-west promontory of the
Troad.

[4113] Or Sminthian Apollo. This appears to have been situate at the
Chrysa last mentioned by Pliny as no longer in existence. Strabo places
Chrysa on a hill, and he mentions the temple of Smintheus and speaks of
a symbol which recorded the etymon of that name, the mouse which lay
at the foot of the wooden figure, the work of Scopas. According to an
ancient tradition, Apollo had his name of Smintheus given him as being
the mouse-destroyer, for, according to Apion, the meaning of Smintheus
was a “mouse.”

[4114] According to tradition this place was in early times the
residence of Cycnus, a Thracian prince, who possessed the adjoining
country, and the island of Tenedos, opposite to which Colone was
situate on the mainland. Pliny however here places it in the interior.

[4115] The site of this Apollonia is at Abullionte, on a lake of
the same name, the Apolloniatis of Strabo. Its remains are very
inconsiderable.

[4116] Or Lycus, now known as the Edrenos.

[4117] Of this people nothing whatever is known.

[4118] D’Anville thinks that the modern Bali-Kesri occupies the site of
Miletopolis.

[4119] Stephanus Byzantinus mentions a place called Pœmaninum near
Cyzicus.

[4120] The inhabitants of Polichna, a town of the Troad.

[4121] The people of Pionia, near Scepsis and Gargara.

[4122] They occupied the greater part of Mysia Proper. They had a
native divinity to which they paid peculiar honours, by the Greeks
called Ζεὺς Ἀβρεττηνὸς.

[4123] The same as the Olympeni or Olympieni, in the district of
Olympene at the foot of Mount Olympus; next to whom, on the south and
west, were the Abretteni.

[4124] On the south-western coast of the Troad, fifty stadia south of
Larissa. In the time of Strabo it had ceased to exist. No ruins of
this place have been known to be discovered, but Prokesch is induced
to think that the architectural remains to be seen near Cape Baba are
those of Hamaxitus.

[4125] Or Cebrene or Cebren. It was separated from the territory of
Scepsis by the river Menander. Leake supposes it to have occupied the
higher region of Ida on the west, and that its site may have been at a
place called Kushunlu Tepe, not far from Baramitsh.

[4126] Mentioned in Acts xvi. 8. It is now called Eski Stambul or
Old Stambul. It was situate on the coast of Troas, opposite to the
south-eastern point of the island of Tenedos, and north of Assus.
It was founded by Antigonus, under the name of Antigonia Troas, and
peopled with settlers from Scepsis and other neighbouring towns. The
ruins of this city are very extensive.

[4127] Or Nea, mentioned in B. ii. c. 97.

[4128] Now called the Mendereh-Chai.

[4129] On the north-west promontory of Troas. Here Homer places the
Grecian fleet and camp during the Trojan war. The promontory is now
called Yenisheri.

[4130] Now called Jeni-Scher, according to Ansart. It was at this spot
that the Greeks landed in their expedition against Troy.

[4131] Usually identified with the Mendereh-Chai or Scamander.

[4132] The modern Gumbrek.

[4133] Or “ancient Scamander.”

[4134] Now known as the Koja-Chai; memorable as the scene of the three
great victories by which Alexander the Great overthrew the Persian
empire, B.C. 334. Here also a victory was gained by Lucullus over
Mithridates, B.C. 73.

[4135] Or Sea of Marmora.

[4136] It is not exactly known whether _New_ Ilium was built on the
same site as the Ilium or Troy which had been destroyed by the Greeks;
but it has been considered improbable that the exploits mentioned
in the Iliad should have happened in so short a space as that lying
between the later Ilium and the coast. The site of New Ilium is
generally considered to be the spot covered with ruins, now called
Kissarlik, between the villages called Kum-kioi, Kalli-fath, and
Tchiblak.

[4137] The Dictator Sylla showed especial favour to Ilium.

[4138] Now called Cape Intepeh or Barbieri.

[4139] The modern Paleo Castro probably occupies its site.

[4140] More generally called Dardanus, or Dardanum, said to have been
built by Dardanus. It was situate about a mile south of the promontory
Dardanis or Dardanium. Its exact site does not appear to bo known: from
it the modern Dardanelles are supposed to have derived their name.

[4141] Situate between Percote and Abydus, and founded by Scamandrius
and Ascanius the son of Æneas. The village of Moussa is supposed to
occupy its site. The army of Alexander mustered here after crossing the
Hellespont.

[4142] Alexander the Great visited this place on his Asiatic expedition
in B.C. 334, and placed chaplets on the tomb of Achilles.

[4143] So called from Æas, the Greek name of Ajax.

[4144] Teuthrania was in the south-western comer of Mysia, between
Temnus and the borders of Lydia, where in very early times Teuthras was
said to have founded a Mysian kingdom, which was early subdued by the
kings of Lydia: this part was also called Pergamene.

[4145] Called Pionitæ in the preceding Chapter.

[4146] A town in the Troad, the site of which is unknown.

[4147] A town on the Propontis, according to Stephanus. The sites of
most of the places here mentioned are utterly unknown.

[4148] Also called Pergama or Pergamus. Its ruins are to be seen at
the modern Pergamo or Bergamo. It was the capital of the kingdom of
Pergamus, and situate in the Teuthranian district of Mysia, on the
northern bank of the river Caïcus. Under its kings, its library almost
equalled that of Alexandria, and the formation of it gave rise to the
invention of parchment, as a writing material, which was thence called
_Charta Pergamena_. This city was an early seat of Christianity, and is
one of the seven churches of Asia to whom the Apocalyptic Epistles are
addressed. Its ruins are still to be seen.

[4149] At the beginning of the preceding Chapter.

[4150] The people of Thyatira, mentioned in B. v. c. 31.

[4151] The people of Mygdonia, a district between Mount Olympus and the
coast, in the east of Mysia and the west of Bithynia.

[4152] “The people of the Holy Village.” Hierocome is mentioned by Livy
as situate beyond the river Mæander.

[4153] The people of Attalia, mentioned in C. 32.

[4154] Previously mentioned in the present Chapter.

[4155] Or “the Table.” Now known as Capo de Janisseri.

[4156] Also called the Milyæ, probably of the Syro-Arabian race; they
were said to have been the earliest inhabitants of Lycia.

[4157] The Leleges are now considered to have been a branch of the
great Indo-Germanic race, who gradually became incorporated with the
Hellenic race, and thus ceased to exist as an independent people.

[4158] A nation belonging probably more to mythology than history.
Strabo supposes them to have been of Thracian origin, and that their
first place of settlement was Mysia.

[4159] By some supposed to have been a people of Phrygia.

[4160] Mentioned in C. 29 of the present Book.

[4161] From the Greek δαμάω, “to subdue.” Hardouin thinks that this
appellation is intended to be given by Pliny to Asia in general, and
not to the city of Apamea in particular, as imagined by Ortelius and
others.

[4162] It is so described by Homer.

[4163] This was the light-house built upon it by Ptolemy II.
Philadelphus, whence the name of _pharus_ came to be applied to similar
structures. It was here also that, according to the common story, the
seventy Translators of the Greek version of the Old Testament, hence
called the Septuagint, were confined while completing their work.

[4164] The _narrow_ or _fortified_ channel.

[4165] The _Neptunian_ channel.

[4166] Mentioned also in C. 14 of the present Book.

[4167] In C. 17 of the present Book.

[4168] The boatmen of Ruad, the ancient Aradus, still draw fresh water
from the spring Ain Ibrahim, in the sea, a few rods from the shore of
the opposite coast.

[4169] Now called Kibris.

[4170] Strabo makes it 425. Hardouin remarks that Isidorus has not made
allowance for the margin of the creeks and bays.

[4171] The north-eastern extremity of Cyprus. It is now called Capo
Sant Andreas. It is more generally known in the editions of Pliny by
the name of Dinaretum.

[4172] Now called Capo Sant Epifanio, or Pifano, after the celebrated
metropolitan of Cyprus. It is the western extremity of the island.

[4173] From the Greek κέρας, “a horn.” It was not improbably so called
from the numerous _horns_ or promontories on its coast.

[4174] From the Greek μακάριος, “blessed,” in compliment to its fertile
soil and delightful temperature.

[4175] Apparently from the Greek κρυπτὸς, “concealed.” Stephanus
Byzantinus says that it was so called because it was frequently hidden
beneath the surface of the sea.

[4176] Or New Paphos. The spot is still called Bafa or Bafo.

[4177] Or Old Paphos, now Kukala or Konuklia. Old Paphos was situate
near the promontory Zephyrium on the river Bocarno, where it had a good
harbour; while New Paphos lay more inland, in the midst of a fertile
plain, sixty stadia from the former. Old Paphos was the chief seat of
worship of Aphrodite or Venus, who was said to have landed at that
place after her ascent from the sea.

[4178] Situate on the most southerly point in the island; now Capo
Gavatta or delle Gatte.

[4179] A town situate on the south coast of Cyprus. Its ruins are to be
seen between Larnika and the port now known as Salines; they are very
extensive. In B. xxx. c. 9, Pliny speaks of the salt lakes near this
place, which are worked at the present day.

[4180] In the middle of the east coast. It was said to have been
founded by Teucer the son of Telamon, who gave it the name of his
native land from which he had been banished by his father.

[4181] Now called Old Limasol, a town on the south coast, celebrated
for its worship of Aphrodite or Venus. It was a Phœnician settlement,
and Stephanus calls it the most ancient city in the island. It long
preserved its oriental customs, and here the Tyrian Hercules was
worshipped under his name of Melkart.

[4182] Its site is now called Lapitho or Lapta.

[4183] Probably the same as the Temese of Homer. It was situate in a
fertile district in the middle of Cyprus, and in the neighbourhood
of extensive copper mines. Near it was a celebrated plain, sacred to
Venus, mentioned by Ovid.

[4184] Now called Chytria, a town of Cyprus on the road from Cerinea to
Salamis.

[4185] In the east of Cyprus, near the Promontory of Acamas, formerly
called Marion. Ptolemy Soter destroyed this town, and removed the
inhabitants to Paphos. The modern name of its site is Polikrusoko or
Crisophou, from the gold mines in the neighbourhood. There was more
than one city of this name in Cyprus, which was probably bestowed on
them during its subjection to the princes of the line of Lagus. Another
Arsinoë is placed near Ammochostus to the north of the island, and a
third of the same name appears in Strabo with a harbour, temple and
grove, between Old and New Paphos.

[4186] Or Carpasia, to the north-east of the island, facing the
Promontory of Sarpedon on the Cilician coast. It was said to have
been founded by Pygmalion, king of Tyre. Pococke speaks of remains at
Carpas, the site of this place, especially a long wall and a pier.

[4187] Or Golgos, famous for the worship of Aphrodite or Venus, which
had existed here even before its introduction at Paphos by Agapenor.
Its position is unknown.

[4188] Or Idalia, adjoining to which was a forest sacred to Aphrodite.
The poets, who connect this place with her worship, give us no
indications whatever of its precise locality. Engel identifies it with
the modern Dalin, situate to the south of Leucosia, at the foot of
Mount Olympus.

[4189] Now Cape Anamur.

[4190] “Aulon Cilicium,” now the Sea of Caramania or Cyprus.

[4191] The Cilician Sea, namely.

[4192] There were several islands of this name. It is not improbable
that Pliny alludes to the one lying off the coast of Caria between
the isle of Rhodes and the mainland, and which seems to be the island
marked Alessa in the maps. There was another of the same name close to
the shore of Cilicia, afterwards known by the name of Sebaste.

[4193] Or Cleides, meaning the “Keys.” This was a group of small
islands lying to the north-east of Cyprus. The name of the islands was
afterwards transferred by some geographer to the Cape which Pliny above
calls Dinæ, and others Dinaretum.

[4194] Cape Acamas, now Pifano.

[4195] Or the “Sacred Garden.” The names of this and the Salaminiæ do
not appear to be known to the modern geographers.

[4196] This is identified by Beaufort with the islet called Bœshat,
which is separated by a narrow channel from the Lycian shore. The
others do not seem to have been identified. Attelebussa is supposed to
take its name from a kind of destructive grasshopper without wings,
called by the Greeks ἀττέλεβος.

[4197] Situate off the commencement of the sea-coast of Pamphylia, on
the borders of Lycia. Beaufort speaks of them as five in number; he did
not meet with any of the dangers of the navigation here mentioned by
Pliny. The Greeks still call them Chelidoniæ, and the Italian sailors
Celidoni, which the Turks have corrupted into Shelidan.

[4198] Hardouin supposes these four islands to be the names of the
group forming the Pactyæ. The names given appear to signify, the “Wild”
or “Rough Islands,” the “Isle of the Nymphs,” the “Long Island,”
and the “Greatest Island.” They were off the coast of Lycia, and
seem to have belonged to the Rhodians. The modern name of Megista is
Kastelorizo, according to Ansart.

[4199] Or Doliche, the “Long Island,” in the Lycian Sea, west of the
ruins of Myra. Its modern name is Kakava. It is now uninhabited.

[4200] Still known as Grambousa, a small island off the east coast of
Lycia. There seems to have been another of the same name off the Lycian
coast.

[4201] An island off the coast of Lycia.

[4202] Hardouin thinks that they were opposite to the city of Dædala on
the coast of Caria.

[4203] Off the city of Crya, probably, in Caria.

[4204] On the coast of Lycia.

[4205] In Lycia. See C. 29 of the present Book.

[4206] Probably so called from the number of hares found there.

[4207] On the coast of Caria.

[4208] Still known as Lindo and Camiro, according to D’Anville.

[4209] One of the three ancient Doric cities of Rhodes. It lay
three-quarters of a mile to the south-west of the city of Rhodes,
with which Pliny seems here to confound it. Its site is occupied by a
village which still bears the name of Ialiso, and where a few ancient
remains are to be found.

[4210] From its productiveness of serpents.

[4211] Either from Asterius, its former king, or from its being a
“constellation” of the sea.

[4212] Probably because of the clearness and serenity of its
atmosphere. See B. ii. c. 62.

[4213] From its three-cornered shape.

[4214] Perhaps so called from its fruitfulness in ivy, in Greek
κορυμβήθρα, or else from κόρυμβος, “a summit,” from its elevated
position.

[4215] From its verdant and grassy soil.

[4216] Either from King Atabyrius, or the mountain Atabyrion; or else
from the temple of Jupiter Tabyrius, which Appian speaks of as situate
in this island.

[4217] The “fortunate,” or “blessed” island.

[4218] “Venomous,” or “deadly.” This name it most probably had in early
times (and not more recently, as Pliny says), when it was covered with
dense forests, the retreats of serpents and noxious reptiles.

[4219] Now known as Skarpanto.

[4220] Mentioned by Homer, Il. ii. 676. See also B. iv. c. 23 of the
present work. It is described by Ross as a single ridge of mountains,
of considerable height.

[4221] Signifying “sea-foam.”

[4222] Still known as Nicero.

[4223] From its production of the ‘murex,’ or ‘purple.’

[4224] Now called Symi, a small island off the south-west coast of
Caria, at the mouth of the Gulf of Doris, to the west of the Promontory
of Cynossema.

[4225] Now called the Island of St. Catherine, according to Ansart.

[4226] Stephanus Byzantinus mentions these islands as lying in the
vicinity at Syme. Perhaps they are the group lying to the south of it,
now called Siskle.

[4227] Distant about fifty miles from Carpathus, or Skarpanto. It was
probably subject to Rhodes, in the vicinity of which it was situate.
Its present name is Chalki.

[4228] An island, according to Hardouin, not far from Halicarnassus, on
the coast of Ionia.

[4229] So called from its productiveness of the νάρθηξ, or ferula.

[4230] More probably Calydnæ, because there were several islands
forming the group, of which Calymna was the chief. See B. iv. c. 23,
where Pliny mentions only one town, that of Coös. There are some
remains of the ancient towns still to be seen.

[4231] A small island of Caria, south of Halicarnassus. It is now
called Orak-Ada.

[4232] Probably so called from the almost continual rains there.

[4233] Now called Stanko, or Stanchio, a corruption of ἐς τὰν Κῶ.

[4234] Which has been previously mentioned in this Chapter.

[4235] In C. 29, Pliny has mentioned a Caryanda on the mainland. It
is probable that there was a town on the mainland and another in the
island of the same name. Leake says, that there can be little doubt
that the large peninsula, towards the west end of which is the fine
harbour called by the Turks Pasha Limani, is the ancient island of
Caryanda, now joined to the mainland by a narrow sandy isthmus.

[4236] The island of Hyali, near the harbour of Meffi, on the coast of
Caria, according to Dupinet.

[4237] Probably so called from the worship of the god Priapus there.

[4238] Few, if any, of these islets can now be recognized. Sepiussa was
probably so called from the abundance of the sepia, or cuttle-fish,
there.

[4239] Over against the isle of Samos.

[4240] B. iv. c. 23.

[4241] Near the city of Miletus.

[4242] So called from their resemblance to camels.

[4243] Lying before the Promontory of Trogilium, mentioned in C. 31.

[4244] Augustus gave their liberty to the Samians. The island is still
called by the Greeks Samo, and by the Turks Susam Adassi.

[4245] The “Virgin’s Island,” if so called after Juno, as some say; but
according to Strabo, it received its name from the river Parthenius.

[4246] From its numerous oaks.

[4247] From the abundance of its flowers.

[4248] “Of dark,” or “black foliage;” in allusion probably to its
cypresses.

[4249] “Cypress-bearing.”

[4250] This is not improbably a compound, formed by a mistake of
the copyists, of the two names, Parthenia and Aryusa, mentioned by
Heraclides.

[4251] “The Crown.” This island was the birth-place of Pythagoras.

[4252] Now known as Khio, Scio, Saka Adassi, or Saksadasi. Chios was
declared free by the Dictator Sulla.

[4253] Χιὼν, gen. Χιόνος.

[4254] Macris, from its length, and Pityusa, from its pine-trees.

[4255] Dalechamps says 112 is the correct measurement.

[4256] Mentioned in C. 31 of the present Book.

[4257] Meaning “green and flourishing.”

[4258] “Productive of laurels.” None of these islets appear to have
been recognized by their modern names.

[4259] By Strabo called Pordoselene. He says that the islands in its
vicinity were forty in number; of which Pliny here gives the names of
two-and-twenty.

[4260] South of Proconnesus; now called Aloni.

[4261] Near the city of Clazomenæ. It is now called Vourla, according
to Ansart.

[4262] Now Koutali, according to Ansart.

[4263] We learn from Strabo and other writers, that this city was on
a peninsula, and that it stood on the southern side of the isthmus,
connecting Mount Mimas with the mainland of Lydia. It was the
birth-place of Anacreon and Hecatæus.

[4264] Or the “Dove Islands;” probably from the multitude of those
birds found on those islands.

[4265] Now called Antigona, according to Ansart.

[4266] Now Mitylene, or Metelin.

[4267] We find it also stated by Herodotus, that this island was
destroyed by the Methymnæans. The cities of Mitylene, Methymna, Eresus,
Pyrrha, Antissa, and Arisbe, originally formed the Æolian Hexapolis, or
Confederation of Six Cities.

[4268] The ruins found by Pococke at Calas Limneonas, north-east of
Cape Sigri, may be those of Antissa. This place was the birth-place of
Terpander, the inventor of the seven-stringed lyre.

[4269] Or Eressus, according to Strabo. It stood on a hill, reaching
down to the sea. Its ruins are said to be near a place still called
Eresso. It was the birth-place of the philosopher Theophrastus, the
disciple of Aristotle.

[4270] Still called Mitylene, or Metelin.

[4271] Strabo makes it about only 137 miles.

[4272] Or the White Islands.

[4273] So called from its fruitfulness in quinces, or “_Mala Cydonia_.”

[4274] These were three small islands, near the mainland of Æolis. It
was off these islands that the ten generals of the Athenians gained a
victory over the Spartans, B.C. 406. The modern name of these islands
is said to be Janot.

[4275] One of the Leucæ, previously mentioned.

[4276] So called from the φελλὸς, or “cork,” which it produced.

[4277] Still known as Tenedos, near the mouth of the Hellespont. Here
the Greeks were said to have concealed their fleet, to induce the
Trojans to think that they had departed, and then introduce the wooden
horse within their walls.

[4278] “Having white eye-brows;” probably from the whiteness of its
cliffs.

[4279] In C. 33 of the present Book.

[4280] Opposite to Sestos, made famous by the loves of Hero and
Leander. Aidos, or Avido, a village on the Hellespont, is thought to
occupy its site.

[4281] Now called Bergase, according to D’Anville.

[4282] Its ruins are still known as Lapsaki. This important city was
celebrated for its wine, and was the chief seat of the worship of the
god Priapus.

[4283] Its site is now called Camanar, according to D’Anville.

[4284] According to Ansart, the modern Caraboa marks its site.

[4285] Now called the Satal-dere, according to Ansart.

[4286] Its locality was not far from the modern Biga, according to
Ansart.

[4287] Now the Sea of Marmora.

[4288] Mentioned in C. 33 of the present Book.

[4289] Now called Artaki, or Erdek, a town of Mysia, and a Milesian
colony. A poor town now occupies its site.

[4290] Its ruins are called by the Turks Bal Kiz, probably meaning “Old
Cyzicus.” There are many subterraneous passages, and the ruins are of
considerable extent. Its temples and storehouses appear to have been
built on a scale of great magnificence. See Pliny, B. xxxvi. c. 15.

[4291] The “Island of the Bears,” which animals frequented the mountain
in its vicinity.

[4292] Called Dindymum by Herodotus; probably the modern Morad Dagh, in
which the river Hermus rises.

[4293] Now called Saki, according to Ansart.

[4294] Now called the Lartacho, according to Ansart.

[4295] Previously mentioned in C. 32 of the present Book.

[4296] In its limited sense; considered as a portion only of Asia Minor.

[4297] On the west it bordered on Mysia, and on the south on Phrygia
and Galatia, while the eastern boundary seems to have been less
definite.

[4298] Ephorus, as quoted by Stephanus Byzantinus, says, that the
Halizones inhabited the district lying between Caria, Mysia, and Lydia.
Hesychius incorrectly places them in Paphlagonia.

[4299] Meaning the “Village of Gordius,” one of its ancient kings. It
was also called Gordium. After falling to decay, it was rebuilt by
Augustus, and called Juliopolis. It is celebrated in history as the
place where Alexander the Great cut the Gordian knot; the scene of the
adventure being the Acropolis of the town, the former palace of King
Gordius.

[4300] There were several Asiatic cities of the similar name of
Dascylium. The site of the one here mentioned does not appear to have
been ascertained.

[4301] More generally read “Gebes.”

[4302] The “Bull’s Bed,” or “Den.” It probably took its second name
from the Roman general Germanicus.

[4303] Now called Medania, or Mutania. It received its name of Apamea
from Prusias, king of Bithynia, in compliment to his wife. In the time
of the first Cæsars, it was made a Roman colony.

[4304] The Bay of Cios. The river runs into a lake, formerly known as
Lake Ascanius; probably that mentioned by Pliny in B. xxxi. c. 10.

[4305] Stephanus Byzantinus says that it was the same as the town of
Cios, or Cius, here mentioned as near to it. It was on the shores of
the Propontis.

[4306] Cape Baba, or Santa Maria; the south-western promontory of the
Troad.

[4307] In Phrygia Epictetus, or “Conquered Phrygia,” so called from its
conquest by certain of the kings of Bithynia. Strabo calls this place a
“small city, or hill-fortress, towards Lydia.” It was probably situate
near the source of the Macestus, now the Susugherli Su, or the Simaul
Su, as it is called in its upper course.

[4308] The place from which the citizens were removed to Apamea, as
mentioned in C. 29 of the present Book. Hamilton (Researches, &c., p.
499) supposes its acropolis to have been situate about half a mile from
the sources of the river Marsyas.

[4309] First mentioned by Herodotus, and situate on the Lycus, a
branch of the Mæander. It had greatly declined in Strabo’s time, and
in the middle ages there rose near it a town of the name of Chonæ, and
Colossæ disappeared. Hamilton found extensive ruins of an ancient city
about three miles north of the modern Khonos. It was one of the early
Christian churches of Asia, and the Apostle Paul addressed one of his
Epistles to the people of this place. It does not appear from it that
he had ever visited the place; indeed, from Chap. ii. 1 we may conclude
that he had not.

[4310] This does not appear to be the same as the Carine mentioned in
C. 32 of this Book, as having gone to decay. Its site is unknown.

[4311] Or Cotiæum, or Cotyæum. It was on the Roman road from Dorylæum
to Philadelphia, and in Phrygia Epictetus, according to Strabo. The
modern Kutahiyah is supposed to denote its site; but there are no
remains of antiquity.

[4312] It was bounded on the west, south, and south-east by those
countries; and on the north-east, north, and north-west by Pontus,
Paphlagonia, and Bithynia.

[4313] Mentioned in C. 40, under the name of Gordiucome.

[4314] Who invaded and settled in Asia Minor, at various periods during
the third century B.C.

[4315] Near a small stream, which seems to enter the Sangarius. It
originally belonged to Phrygia, and its mythical founder was Midas, the
son of Gordius, who was said to have found an anchor on the spot, and
accordingly given the name to the town; which story would, however,
as it has been observed, imply that the name for anchor (ἄγκυρα)
was the same in the Greek and the Phrygian languages. The Tectosages,
who settled here about B.C. 277, are supposed to have been from the
neighbourhood of Toulouse. It is now called Angora, or Engareh; and
the fine hair of the Angora goat may have formed one of the staple
commodities of the place, which had a very considerable trade. The
chief monument of antiquity here is the marble temple of the Emperor
Augustus, built in his honour during his lifetime. In the inside is the
Latin inscription known as the _monumentum_, or _marmor Ancyranum_,
containing a record of the memorable actions of Augustus. The ruins
here are otherwise interesting in a high degree.

[4316] Now Tchoroum, according to Ansart.

[4317] Its ruins are called Bala-Hisar, in the south-west of Galatia,
on the southern slope of Mount Didymus. This place was celebrated as a
chief seat of the worship of the goddess Cybele, under the surname of
Agdistis, whose temple, filled with riches, stood on a hill outside of
the city.

[4318] Hardouin suggests that these are the Chomenses, the people of
the city of Choma, in the interior of Lycia, mentioned in C. 28 of the
present Book.

[4319] The people of Lystra, a city of Lycaonia, on the confines of
Isauria, celebrated as one of the chief scenes of the preaching of Paul
and Barnabas. See Acts xiv.

[4320] The people of Seleucia, in Pisidia.

[4321] The people of Sebaste, a town of the Tectosages.

[4322] The people of Timonium, a town of Paphlagonia, according to
Stephanus Byzantinus.

[4323] Thebasa, a town of Lycaonia, has been mentioned in C. 25 of the
present Book.

[4324] See C. 25 of the present Book.

[4325] The town of Oroanda, giving name to this district, is mentioned
at the end of C. 24 of the present Book.

[4326] The Caÿster, the Rhyndacus, and the Cios.

[4327] Now called the Sakariyeh, the largest river of Asia Minor after
the ancient Halys.

[4328] Now called the Lefke, which discharges itself into the
Tangarius, or Sakariyeh.

[4329] Called “Galli.” They were said to become mad from drinking of
the waters of this river, and to mutilate themselves when in a frantic
state. See Ovid’s Fasti, B. iv. l. 364 _et seq._

[4330] Now called Brusa. It stood on the north side of Mount Olympus,
fifteen Roman miles from Cius. According to most accounts, it was
built by Prusias, king of Bithynia. It is most probable that Hannibal
superintended the works, while staying as a refugee at the court of
Prusias.

[4331] Now Lake Iznik.

[4332] Its ruins are to be seen at Iznik, on the east side of the lake
of that name. Its site is supposed to have been originally occupied by
the town of Attæa, and afterwards by a settlement of the Bottiæans,
called Ancore, or Helicore, which was destroyed by the Mysians. On this
spot, shortly after the death of Alexander the Great, Antigonus built
a city which he named after himself, Antigonæa; but Lysimachus soon
afterwards changed the name into Nicæa, in honour of his wife. Under
the kings of Bithynia, it was often the royal residence, and it long
disputed with Nicomedia the rank of capital of Bithynia. The modern
Iznik is only a poor village, with about 100 houses. Considerable ruins
of the ancient city are still in existence. Littré seems to think that
there are two Nicæas meant in these passages; but it would seem that
the same place is alluded to in both lines. The only thing that seems
to give countenance to Littré’s supposition (in which he is supported
by Hardouin) is, the expression “Et Prusa _item_ altera.”

[4333] It has been suggested, that this is only another name for the
town of Cios, previously mentioned; but it is most probable that they
were distinct places, and that this was originally called Cierus,
and belonged to the territory of Heraclea, but was conquered by King
Prusias, who named it after himself. It stood to the north-west of the
other Prusa.

[4334] Or the “Golden Stream.”

[4335] Suggested by Parisot to be the modern Cape Fagma.

[4336] From the Greek κράσπεδον, a “skirt.”

[4337] Or Astacus, a colony originally from Megara and Athens. From
Scylax it would appear that this city was also called Olbia. Its site
is placed by some of the modern geographers at a spot called Ovaschik,
and also Bashkele.

[4338] Called Gebiseh, according to Busbequis,—at least in his day. The
modern Hereket, on the coast, has been suggested.

[4339] Its ruins now bear the name of Izmid, or Iznikmid, at the
north-eastern corner of the Sinus Astacenus, or Gulf of Izmid. It was
the chief residence of the kings of Bithynia, and one of the most
splendid cities in the world. Under the Romans it was made a colony,
and was a favourite residence of Diocletian and Constantine the Great.
Arrian the historian was born here.

[4340] Now Akrita. It is also called Akritas by Ptolemy.

[4341] The Straits, or Channel of Constantinople.

[4342] Its site is supposed to have been about two miles south of
the modern Scutari, and it is said that the modern Greeks call it
Chalkedon, and the Turks Kadi-Kioi. Its destruction was completed by
the Turks, who used its materials for the construction of the mosques
and other buildings of Constantinople.

[4343] So called, Hardouin thinks, from its being opposite to the
Golden Horn, or promontory on which Byzantium was built.

[4344] Or Myrlea, mentioned above in C. 40. See p. 490.

[4345] Or Bithynium, lying above Tius. Its vicinity was a good feeding
country for cattle, and noted for the excellence of its cheese, as
mentioned by Pliny, B. xi. c. 42. Antinoüs, the favourite of the
Emperor Adrian, was born here, as Pausanias informs us. Its site does
not appear to be known.

[4346] These rivers do not appear to have been identified by the modern
geographers.

[4347] The modern Scutari occupies its site. Dionysius of Byzantium
states, that it was called Chrysopolis, either because the Persians
made it the place of deposit for the gold which they levied from the
cities, or else from Chryses, a son of Agamemnon and Chryseis.

[4348] A king of the Bebrycians. For some further particulars relative
to this place, see B. xvi. c. 89 of the present Book.

[4349] Situate on a promontory, which is represented by the modern
Algiro, according to Hardouin and Parisot.

[4350] Other writers say that it was erected in honour of the Twelve
Greater Divinities.

[4351] Called Phinopolis in most of the editions. It is very doubtful
whether this passage ought not to be translated, “At a distance thence
of eight miles and three-quarters is the first entrance to this strait,
at the spot,” &c. We have, however, adopted the rendering of Holland,
Ajasson, and Littré.

[4352] Mentioned in C. 28 of the present Book.

[4353] In B. iv. c. 24.

[4354] Or “Deer Island.”

[4355] Now Afzia, according to D’Anville.

[4356] There is still an island in the Sea of Marmora known by the
name Alon, which is separated from the north-western extremity of the
Peninsula of Cyzicus by a narrow channel.

[4357] Hesychius says, that there were two islands near Byzantium
called by the common name of Demonnesi, but severally having the names
of Chalcitis and Pityusa. Pliny, on the other hand, places Demonnesus
opposite to Nicomedia, and at the same time mentions Chalcitis and
Pityodes (probably the same as Pityusa) as distinct places. D’Anville
calls Demonnesus “The Isle of Princes.”

[4358] The position assigned to this island by Pliny and Strabo
corresponds with that of Kalolimno, a small island ten miles north of
the mouth of the Rhyndacus.

[4359] Now called Prota, according to Parisot.

[4360] So called from its copper-mines; now called Khalki, or Karki.

[4361] Now called Prinkipo, east of Khalki.

[4362] See end of B. iii.

[4363] A celebrated Roman general, who was successively governor
of Numidia and Britain, where he defeated Queen Boadicea. He was a
supporter of the Emperor Otho, but afterwards obtained a pardon from
Vitellius on the plea that he had betrayed Otho at the battle of
Bedriacum, and so contributed to his defeat; which, however, was not
the case.

[4364] See end of B. ii.

[4365] See end of B. iii.

[4366] See end of B. ii.

[4367] See end of B. iii.

[4368] See end of B. iii.

[4369] See end of B. iii.

[4370] Brother of Cæsonia, the wife of Caligula, and father of Domitia
Longina, the wife of Domitian. He was the greatest general of his day,
and conquered Tiridates, the powerful king of Parthia. He slew himself
at Cenchreæ, A.D. 67, upon hearing that Nero had given orders for his
execution.

[4371] See end of B. ii.

[4372] The Roman emperor, grandson of Livia, the wife of Augustus. As
an author, the character in which he is here referred to, he occupied
himself chiefly with history, and was encouraged in the pursuit by
Livy the historian. At an early age he began to write a history from
the death of the Dictator Cæsar, a plan which he afterwards abandoned,
and began his work with the restoration of peace, after the battle of
Actium. Of the earlier period he had written only four books, but the
latter work he extended to forty-four. He also wrote memoirs of his own
life, which Suetonius describes as written with more silliness than
inelegance. A fourth work was a defence of Cicero against the attacks
of Asinius Pollio. He also wrote histories of Carthage and of Etruria
in Greek. All of his literary works have perished.

[4373] See end of B. iii.

[4374] Nothing whatever is known of this son of T. Livius, the
great Roman historian. It is not improbable that the transcribers
have committed an error in inserting the word _filio_, and that the
historian himself is the person meant.

[4375] See end of B. ii.

[4376] “Acta Triumphorum” probably mean the registers kept in the
Capitol, in which were inscribed the names of those who were honoured
with triumphs, and the decrees of the senate or the people in their
favour. This register must not be confounded with the “Tabulæ
Consulares.”

[4377] Juba II., king of Mauritania. After the defeat of his father at
Thapsus, he was carried a prisoner to Rome, though quite a child, and
compelled to grace the conqueror’s triumph. Augustus Cæsar afterwards
restored to him his kingdom, and gave him in marriage Cleopatra, or
Selene, the daughter of Antony and Cleopatra. To his literary pursuits
he is chiefly indebted for his reputation. His works are continually
quoted by Pliny, who regards his authority with the utmost deference.
Among his numerous works he seems to have written a History of Africa,
Assyria, Arabia, and Rome; as also Treatises on the Stage, Music,
Grammar, and Painting.

[4378] Of Miletus. See end of B. iv.

[4379] See end of B. iv.

[4380] See end of B. iv.

[4381] See end of B. ii.

[4382] He was employed by Alexander the Great in measuring distances in
his marches. He wrote a work upon this subject, entitled, “Distances of
the Marches of Alexander.”

[4383] See end of B. iv.

[4384] See end of B. iv.

[4385] See end of B. iv.

[4386] See end of B. iv.

[4387] See end of B. iv.

[4388] See end of B. ii.

[4389] See end of B. iv.

[4390] Of Chalcis. See end of B. iv.

[4391] See end of B. iv.

[4392] See end of B. ii.

[4393] See end of B. ii.

[4394] Of Rhodes, the friend of P. Scipio Æmilianus and Lælius. He was
the head of the Stoic School at Athens, where he died. His principal
work was a Treatise on Moral Duties, which served as a model for Cicero
in the composition of his work, “De Officiis.” He also wrote a work on
the philosophical sects.

[4395] See end of B. ii.

[4396] See end of B. iv.

[4397] See end of B. iv.

[4398] See end of B. iv.

[4399] See end of B. ii.

[4400] See end of B. ii.

[4401] See end of B. iv.

[4402] See end of B. iii.

[4403] See end of B. iii.

[4404] See end of B. ii.

[4405] There are four literary persons mentioned of this name. 1. An
Athenian comic poet of the middle comedy. 2. A native of Maronæa, in
Thrace, or else of Crete, who wrote lascivious and abusive verses,
and was at last put to death by order of Ptolemy Philadelphus. He was
the inventor of the Sotadean verse, or Ionic a Majore, Tetrameter
Brachycatalectic. 3. An Athenian philosopher, who wrote a book on
mysteries. 4. A Byzantine philosopher, of whom nothing whatever is
known.

[4406] There were two writers of this name, before the time of Pliny.
1. Periander of Corinth, one of the Seven Wise Men, who wrote a
didactic poem, containing moral and political precepts, in 2000 lines;
and, 2. a physician and bad poet, contemporary with Archidamas, the son
of Agesilaüs. It is uncertain to which Pliny here refers.

[4407] Probably a writer on geography. Nothing appears to be known of
him.

[4408] Of Cyzicus, see end of B. ii.; of Cnidos, see end of B. iv.

[4409] A Greek historian, who appears, from Plutarch, to have written a
history of the expeditions of Alexander the Great.

[4410] See end of B. iii.

[4411] See end of B. iii.

[4412] See end of B. iii.

[4413] The author of the Periplus, or voyage which he performed round
a part of Libya, of which we have a Greek translation from the Punic
original. His age is not known, but Pliny states (B. ii. c. 67, and B.
v. c. 1) that the voyage was undertaken in the most flourishing days of
Carthage. It has been considered on the whole, that he may be probably
identified with Hanno, the son or the father of Hamilcar, who was slain
at Himera, B.C. 480.

[4414] Mentioned also by Pliny, B. ii. c. 67, as having conducted a
voyage of discovery from Gades towards the north, along the western
shores of Europe, at the same time that Hanno proceeded on his voyage
along the western coast of Africa. He is repeatedly quoted by Festus
Avienus, in his geographical poem called _Ora Maritima_. His voyage is
said to have lasted four months, but it is impossible to judge how far
it extended.

[4415] See end of B. iii.

[4416] See end of B. iii.

[4417] See end of B. ii.

[4418] A Greek geographer, and friend of Seleucus Nicator, by whom
he was sent on an embassy to Sandrocottus, king of the Prasii, whoso
capital was Palibothra, a town probably in the vicinity of the present
Patna. Whether he had accompanied Alexander on his invasion of India is
quite uncertain. He wrote a work on India in four books, to which the
subsequent Greek writers were chiefly indebted for their accounts of
India. Arrian speaks highly of him as a writer, but Strabo impeaches
his veracity; and we find Pliny hinting the same in B. vi. c. 21. Of
his work only a few fragments survive.

[4419] See end of B. ii.

[4420] See end of B. iv.

[4421] There was a philosopher of this name, a nephew of Chrysippus,
and his pupil; but it is not known whether he is the person referred
to, in C. 10, either as having written a work on universal geography,
or on that of Egypt.