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Transcriber's note: The Errata (after the List of Plates) have been worked
into the main text. All other apparent mistakes have been retained as
printed. Text enclosed by underscores is in italics (_italics_); page
numbers enclosed by curly braces (example: {25}) have been incorporated to
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       *       *       *       *       *




THE GEOGRAPHICAL

DISTRIBUTION OF ANIMALS

_WITH A STUDY OF THE RELATIONS OF LIVING AND EXTINCT FAUNAS AS ELUCIDATING
THE PAST CHANGES OF THE EARTH'S SURFACE._

BY

ALFRED RUSSEL WALLACE,

AUTHOR OF "THE MALAY ARCHIPELAGO," ETC.

WITH MAPS AND ILLUSTRATIONS.

_IN TWO VOLUMES.--VOLUME II._

London: MACMILLAN AND CO. 1876.

[_The Right of Translation and Reproduction is Reserved._]




  LONDON:
  R. CLAY, SONS, AND TAYLOR, PRINTERS,
  BREAD STREET HILL.




  CONTENTS OF THE SECOND VOLUME.

  PART III. (_continued_).

  ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY: A REVIEW OF THE CHIEF FORMS OF
  ANIMAL LIFE IN THE SEVERAL REGIONS AND SUB-REGIONS,
  WITH THE INDICATIONS THEY AFFORD OF GEOGRAPHICAL MUTATIONS.

  CHAPTER XIV.

  THE NEOTROPICAL REGION.

  General Zoological Features of the Neotropical Region (p. 5)--Distinctive
  Characters of Neotropical Mammalia (p. 6)--Of Neotropical Birds (p. 7)--
  Neotropical Reptiles (p. 9)--Fresh-water Fishes (p. 12)--Insects (p. 13)
  --Coleoptera (p. 15)--Land Shells (p. 19)--Marine Shells (p. 20)--
  Brazilian Sub-region (p. 21)--Its Mammalia (p. 23)--Its Birds (p. 24)--
  Islands of Tropical South America, Galapagos (p. 29)--Chilian Sub-region
  (p. 36)--Birds (p. 38)--Reptiles and Amphibia (p. 40)--Fresh-water
  Fishes (p. 42)--Lepidoptera (p. 42)--Coleoptera (p. 44)--Islands of South
  Temperate America (p. 49)--Mexican Sub-region (p. 51)--Mammalia and
  Birds (p. 52)--Reptiles and Fishes (p. 54)--Insects (p. 55)--Relations of
  the Mexican Sub-region to the North and South American Continents (p. 57)
  --Islands of the Mexican Sub-region (p. 59)--The Antillean Sub-region
  (p. 60)--Its Mammalia (p. 62)--Its Birds (p. 64)--Table of the Resident
  Land Birds of the Antilles (p. 68)--Reptiles (p. 72)--Insects (p. 73)--
  Land Shells (p. 75)--Past History of the Antilles (p. 78)--Summary of the
  Past History of the Neotropical Region (p. 80)--Table I. Families of
  Animals inhabiting the Neotropical Region (p. 85)--Table II. Genera of
  Terrestrial Mammalia and Birds of the Neotropical Region (p. 91)
                                                                      1-113

  CHAPTER XV.

  THE NEARCTIC REGION.
  Zoological Characteristics of the Nearctic Region (p. 115)--List of
  Typical Nearctic Genera of Land Birds (p. 118)--Summary of Nearctic
  Vertebrata (p. 120)--Insects (p. 122)--Terrestrial and Fluviatile
  Mollusca (p. 124)--The Californian Sub-region (p. 127)--The Rocky
  Mountain Sub-region (p. 129)--The Alleghany Sub-region (p. 131)--The
  Bermudas (p. 134)--The Canadian Sub-region (p. 135)--Greenland
  (p. 138)--Table I. Families of Animals inhabiting the Nearctic Region
  (p. 140)--Table II. Genera of Terrestrial Mammalia and Birds of the
  Nearctic Region (p. 145)                                          114-153

  CHAPTER XVI.

  SUMMARY OF THE PAST CHANGES AND GENERAL RELATIONS OF THE SEVERAL REGIONS
                                                                    154-164

  PART IV.

  GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY: A SYSTEMATIC SKETCH OF THE CHIEF FAMILIES OF LAND
  ANIMALS IN THEIR GEOGRAPHICAL RELATIONS.

  INTRODUCTION                                                      167-169

  CHAPTER XVII.

  THE DISTRIBUTION OF THE FAMILIES AND GENERA OF MAMMALIA.

  Primates (p. 170)--General Remarks on the Distribution of Primates
  (p. 179)--Chiroptera (p. 181)--Remarks on the Distribution of Chiroptera
  (p. 185)--Insectivora (p. 186)--General Remarks on the Distribution of
  Insectivora (p. 191)--Carnivora (p. 192)--General Remarks on the
  Distribution of the Carnivora (p. 204)--Cetacea (p. 207)--Sirenia
  (p. 210)--Ungulata (p. 211)--General Remarks on the Distribution of the
  Ungulata (p. 226)--Proboscidea (p. 227)--Hyracoidea (p. 228)--Rodentia
  (p. 229)--General Remarks on the Distribution of the Rodentia (p. 243)--
  Edentata (p. 244)--General Remarks on the Distribution of the Edentata
  (p. 247)--Marsupialia (p. 248)--General Remarks on the Distribution of
  Marsupialia (p. 253)--Monotremata (p. 253)                        170-254

  CHAPTER XVIII.

  THE DISTRIBUTION OF THE FAMILIES AND GENERA OF BIRDS.

  Passeres (p. 255)--General Remarks on the Distribution of the Passeres
  (p. 299)--Picariæ (p. 302)--General Remarks on the Distribution of the
  Picariæ (p. 322)--Psittaci (p. 324)--General Remarks on the Distribution
  of the Psittaci (p. 329)--Columbæ (p. 331)--General Remarks on the
  Distribution of the Columbæ (p. 335)--Gallinæ (p. 337)--General Remarks
  on the Distribution of Gallinæ (p. 344)--Opisthocomi (p. 345)--Accipitres
  (p. 345)--General Remarks on the Distribution of the Accipitres (p. 351)
  --Grallæ (p. 351)--General Remarks on the Distribution of the Grallæ
  (p. 362)--Anseres (p. 363)--General Remarks on the Distribution of the
  Anseres (p. 367)--Struthiones (p. 368)--Struthious Birds recently Extinct
  (p. 369)--General Remarks on the Distribution of the Struthiones (p. 370)
                                                                    255-371

  CHAPTER XIX.

  THE DISTRIBUTION OF THE FAMILIES AND GENERA OF REPTILES AND AMPHIBIA.

  Ophidia (p. 372)--General Remarks on the Distribution of Ophidia (p. 386)
  --Lacertilia (p. 388)--General Remarks on the Distribution of Lacertilia
  (p. 403)--Rhyncocephalina (p. 405)--Crocodilia (p. 405)--General Remarks
  on the Distribution of Crocodilia (p. 406)--Chelonia (p. 407)--Remarks on
  the Distribution of Chelonia (p. 410)--Amphibia, Pseudophidia (p. 411)--
  Urodela (p. 411)--Anura (p. 414)--General Remarks on the Distribution of
  Amphibia (p. 422)                                                 372-423

  CHAPTER XX.

  THE DISTRIBUTION OF THE FAMILIES OF FISHES, WITH THE RANGE OF SUCH GENERA
  AS INHABIT FRESH WATER.

  Acanthopterygii (p. 424)---Acanthopterygii Pharyngognathi (p. 437)--
  Anacanthini (p. 439)--Physostomi (p. 441)--Lophobranchii (p. 456)--
  Plectognathi (p. 457)--Sirenoidei (p. 458)--Ganoidei (p. 458)--
  Chondropterygii (p. 460)--Cyclostomata (p. 463)--Leptocardii (p. 464)--
  Remarks on the Distribution of Fishes (p. 464)                    424-467

  CHAPTER XXI.

  THE DISTRIBUTION OF SOME OF THE MORE IMPORTANT FAMILIES AND GENERA OF
  INSECTS.

  Lepidoptera (p. 470)--General Remarks on the Distribution of the Diurnal
  Lepidoptera and Sphingidea (p. 483)--Coleoptera (p. 486)--Cicindelidæ
  (p. 486)--Carabidæ (p. 488)--Lucanidæ (p. 492)--Cetoniidæ (p. 494)--
  Buprestidæ (p. 495)--Longicornia (p. 498)--General Observations on the
  Distribution of Coleoptera (p. 502)                               468-503

  CHAPTER XXII.

  AN OUTLINE OF THE GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF MOLLUSCA.

  Cephalopoda (p. 505)--Gasteropoda (p. 507)--Pulmonifera (p. 512)--General
  Observations on the Distribution of Land Mollusca (p. 522)--Pteropoda
  (p. 531)--Brachiopoda (p. 532)--Conchifera (p. 533)--General Remarks on
  the Distribution of Marine Mollusca (p. 537)                      504-539

  CHAPTER XXIII.

  SUMMARY OF THE DISTRIBUTION AND LINES OF MIGRATION OF THE SEVERAL
  CLASSES OF ANIMALS.

  Mammalia (p. 540)--Lines of Migration of the Mammalia (p. 544)--Birds
  (p. 545)--Reptiles (p. 547)--Amphibia (p. 548)--Fresh-water Fishes
  (p. 549)--Insects (p. 550)--Terrestrial Mollusca (p. 551)--Conclusion
  (p. 552)                                                          540-553

  GENERAL INDEX                                                         557




MAPS AND ILLUSTRATIONS IN VOL. II.



                                                             _To face page_

  1. Map of the Neotropical Region                                        3

  2. Plate   XIV. A Brazilian Forest with Characteristic Mammalia        24

  3. Plate    XV. A Scene on the Upper Amazon, with some Characteristic
                    Birds                                                28

  4. Plate   XVI. The Chilian Andes, with Characteristic Animals         40

  5. Plate  XVII. A Scene in Cuba, with Characteristic Animals           67

  6. Map of the Nearctic Region                                         115

  7. Plate XVIII. Scene in California with some Characteristic Birds    128

  8. Plate   XIX. The North American Prairies with Characteristic
                    Mammalia                                            130

  9. Plate    XX. A Canadian Forest with Characteristic Mammalia        136






ERRATA IN VOL. II.

As in Vol. I. mis-spellings are not given here, being mostly corrected in
the Index.


  Page 111, No. 642, _for_ 1 _read_ 2.
    "  111, No. 643, _for_ 15 _read_ 9.
    "  267, line 7, _add_ Borneo.
    "  276, line 10, _for_ 16 Genera _read_ 11 Genera.
    "   "   8 lines from foot, for _Drepanornis_ read _Neodrepanis_.
    "  291, 5 lines from foot, for _Sayornis_ read _Empidias_.




THE

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION
OF ANIMALS.

PART III. (_continued._)

_ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY:_

_A REVIEW OF THE CHIEF FORMS OF ANIMAL LIFE IN THE SEVERAL REGIONS AND
SUB-REGIONS, WITH THE INDICATIONS THEY AFFORD OF GEOGRAPHICAL MUTATIONS._

[Illustration: NEOTROPICAL REGION]




{3}CHAPTER XIV.

THE NEOTROPICAL REGION.


This region, comprehending not only South America but Tropical North
America and the Antilles, may be compared as to extent with the Ethiopian
region; but it is distinguished from all the other great zoological
divisions of the globe, by the small proportion of its surface occupied by
deserts, by the large proportion of its lowlands, and by the altogether
unequalled extent and luxuriance of its tropical forests. It further
possesses a grand mountain range, rivalling the Himalayas in altitude and
far surpassing them in extent, and which, being wholly situated within the
region and running through eighty degrees of latitude, offers a variety of
conditions and an extent of mountain slopes, of lofty plateaus and of deep
valleys, which no other tropical region can approach. It has a further
advantage in a southward prolongation far into the temperate zone,
equivalent to a still greater extension of its lofty plateaus; and this
has, no doubt, aided the development of the peculiar alpine forms of life
which abound in the southern Andes. The climate of this region is
exceptionally favourable. Owing to the lofty mountain range situated along
its western margin, the moisture-laden trade winds from the Atlantic have
free access to the interior. A sufficient proportion of this moisture
reaches the higher slopes of the Andes, where its condensation gives rise
to innumerable streams, which cut deep ravines and carry down such an
amount of sediment, that they have formed the vast plains of the Amazon, of
{4}Paraguay, and of the Orinooko out of what were once, no doubt, arms of
the sea, separating the large islands of Guiana, Brazil, and the Andes.
From these concurrent favourable conditions, there has resulted that
inexhaustible variety of generic and specific forms with a somewhat limited
range of family and ordinal types, which characterise neotropical zoology
to a degree nowhere else to be met with.

Together with this variety and richness, there is a remarkable uniformity
of animal life over all the tropical continental portions of the region, so
that its division into sub-regions is a matter of some difficulty. There
is, however, no doubt about separating the West Indian islands as forming a
well-marked subdivision; characterised, not only by that poverty of forms
which is a general feature of ancient insular groups, but also by a number
of peculiar generic types, some of which are quite foreign to the remainder
of the region. We must exclude, however, the islands of Trinidad, Tobago,
and a few other small islands near the coast, which zoologically form a
part of the main land. Again, the South Temperate portion of the continent,
together with the high plateaus of the Andes to near the equator, form a
well-marked subdivision, characterised by a peculiar fauna, very distinct
both positively and negatively from that of the tropical lowland districts.
The rest of Tropical South America is so homogeneous in its forms of life
that it cannot be conveniently subdivided for the purposes of a work like
the present. There are, no doubt, considerable differences in various parts
of its vast area, due partly to its having been once separated into three
or more islands, in part to existing diversities of physical conditions;
and more exact knowledge may enable us to form several provinces or perhaps
additional sub-regions. A large proportion of the genera, however, when
sufficiently numerous in species, range over almost the whole extent of
this sub-region wherever the conditions are favourable. Even the Andes do
not seem to form such a barrier as has been supposed. North of the equator,
where its western slopes are moist and forest-clad, most of the genera are
found on both sides. To the south of this line its western valleys are arid
and its lower plains almost deserts; and thus the absence of a {5}number of
groups to which verdant forests are essential, can be traced to the
unsuitable conditions rather than to the existence of the mountain barrier.
All Tropical South America, therefore, is here considered to form but one
sub-region.

The portion of North America that lies within the tropics, closely
resembles the last sub-region in general zoological features. It possesses
hardly any positive distinctions; but there are several of a negative
character, many important groups being wholly confined to South America. On
the other hand many genera range into Mexico and Guatemala from the north,
which never reach South America; so that it is convenient to separate this
district as a sub-region, which forms, to some extent, a transition to the
Nearctic region.

_General Zoological Features of the Neotropical Region._--Richness combined
with isolation is the predominant feature of Neotropical zoology, and no
other region can approach it in the number of its peculiar family and
generic types. It has eight families of Mammalia absolutely confined to it,
besides several others which are rare elsewhere. These consist of two
families of monkeys, Cebidæ and Hapalidæ, both abounding in genera and
species; the Phyllostomidæ, or blood-sucking bats; Chinchillidæ and Caviidæ
among rodents; besides the greater part of the Octodontidæ, Echimyidæ and
Cercolabidæ. Among edentata, it has Bradypodidæ, or sloths, Dasypodidæ, or
armadillos, and Myrmecophagidæ, or anteaters, constituting nearly the
entire order; while Procyonidæ, belonging to the carnivora, and
Didelphyidæ, a family of marsupials, only extend into the Nearctic region.
It has also many peculiar groups of carnivora and of Muridæ, making a total
of full a hundred genera confined to the region. Hardly less remarkable is
the absence of many wide-spread groups. With the exception of one genus in
the West Indian islands and a _Sorex_ which reaches Guatemala and Costa
Rica, the Insectivora are wholly wanting; as is also the extensive and
wide-spread family of the Viverridæ. It has no oxen or sheep, and indeed no
form of ruminant except deer and llamas; neither do its vast forests and
grassy plains support a single form of non-ruminant ungulate, except the
tapir and the peccary.

{6}_Birds._--In birds, the Neotropical region is even richer and more
isolated. It possesses no less than 23 families wholly confined within its
limits, with 7 others which only extend into the Nearctic region. The names
of the peculiar families are: Cærebidæ, or sugar-birds; Phytotomidæ, or
plant-cutters; Pipridæ, or manakins; Cotingidæ, or chatterers;
Formicariidæ, or ant-thrushes; Dendrocolaptidæ, or tree-creepers;
Pteroptochidæ; Rhamphastidæ, or toucans; Bucconidæ, or puff-birds;
Galbulidæ, or jacamas; Todidæ, or todies; Momotidæ, or motmots;
Steatornithidæ, the guacharo, or oil-bird; Cracidæ, or curassows; Tinamidæ,
or tinamous; Opisthocomidæ, the hoazin; Thinocoridæ; Cariamidæ; Aramidæ;
Psophiidæ, or trumpeters; Eurypygidæ, or sun-bitterns; and Palamedeidæ, or
horned-screamers. The seven which it possesses in common with North America
are: Vireonidæ, or greenlets; Mniotiltidæ, or wood-warblers; Tanagridæ, or
tanagers; Icteridæ, or hang-nests; Tyrannidæ, or tyrant-shrikes;
Trochilidæ, or humming-birds; and Conuridæ, or macaws. Most of these
families abound in genera and species, and many are of immense extent; such
as Trochilidæ, with 115 genera, and nearly 400 species; Tyrannidæ, with
more than 60 genera and nearly 300 species; Tanagridæ, with 43 genera and
300 species; Dendrocolaptidæ with 43 genera and more than 200 species; and
many other very large groups. There are nearly 600 genera peculiar to the
Neotropical region; but in using this number as a basis of comparison with
other regions we must remember, that owing to several ornithologists having
made the birds of South America a special study, they have perhaps been
more minutely subdivided than in the case of other entire tropical regions.

_Distinctive Characters of Neotropical Mammalia._--It is important also to
consider the kind and amount of difference between the various animal forms
of this region and of the Old World. To begin with the Quadrumana, all the
larger American monkeys (Cebidæ) differ from every Old World group in the
possession of an additional molar tooth in each jaw; and it is in this
group alone that the tail is developed into a prehensile organ of wonderful
power, adapting the animals to a purely arboreal life. Four of the genera,
comprising more than half the {7}species, have the prehensile tail, the
remainder having this organ either short, or lax as in the Old World
monkeys. Other differences from Old World apes, are the possession of a
broad nasal septum, and a less opposable thumb; and the absence of
cheek-pouches, ischial callosities, and a bony ear-tube. The Hapalidæ, or
marmozets, agree with the Cebidæ in all these characters, but have others
in addition which still more widely separate them from the Simiidæ; such as
an additional premolar tooth, acute claws, and thumb not at all opposable;
so that the whole group of American monkeys are radically different from
the remainder of the order.

The Procyonidæ are a distinct family of Carnivora, which make up for the
scarcity of Mustelidæ in South America. The Suidæ are represented by the
very distinct genus _Dicotyles_ (Peccary) forming a separate sub-family,
and differing from all other genera in their dentition, the absence of tail
and of one of the toes of the hind feet, the possession of a dorsal gland,
and only two mammæ. The rodents are represented by the Chinchillidæ and
Caviidæ, the latter comprising the largest animals in the order. The
Edentata are almost wholly confined to this region; and the three families
of the sloths (Bradypodidæ), armadillos (Dasypodidæ), and ant-eaters
(Myrmecophagidæ), are widely separated in structure from any Old World
animals. Lastly, we have the opossums (Didelphyidæ), a family of
marsupials, but having no close affinity to any of the numerous Australian
forms of that order. We have already arrived at the conclusion that the
presence of marsupials in South America is not due to any direct
transference from Australia, but that their introduction is comparatively
recent, and that they came from the Old World by way of North America (vol.
i., p. 155). But the numerous and deep-seated peculiarities of many other
of its mammalia, would indicate a very remote origin; and a long-continued
isolation of South America from the rest of the world is required, in order
to account for the preservation and development of so many distinct groups
of comparatively low-type quadrupeds.

_Distinctive Characters of Neotropical Birds._--The birds which are
especially characteristic of this region, present similar distinctive
features. In the enormous group of Passerine {8}birds which, though
comprising nearly three-fourths of the entire class, yet presents hardly
any well-marked differences of structure by which it can be subdivided--the
families confined to America are, for the most part, more closely related
to each other than to the Old World groups. The ten families forming the
group of "Formicaroid Passeres," in our arrangement (vol. i., p. 94), are
characterised by the absence of singing muscles in the larynx, and also by
an unusual development of the first primary quill; and seven of this series
of families (which are considered to be less perfectly developed than the
great mass of Old World passeres) are exclusively American, the three
belonging to the Eastern hemisphere being of small extent. Another group of
ten families--our "Tanagroid Passeres," are characterised by the abortion
or very rudimentary condition of the first quill; and of these, five are
exclusively American, and have numerous genera and species, while only two
are non-American, and these are of small extent. On the other hand the
"Turdoid Passeres," consisting of 23 families and comprising all the true
"singing-birds," is poorly represented in America; no family being
exclusively Neotropical, and only three being at all fully represented in
South America, though they comprise the great mass of the Old World
passeres. These peculiarities, which group together whole series of
families of American birds, point to early separation and long isolation,
no less surely than the more remarkable structural divergences presented by
the Neotropical mammalia.

In the Picariæ, we have first, the toucans (Rhamphastidæ); an extraordinary
and beautiful family, whose enormous gaily-coloured bills and long
feathered tongues, separate them widely from all other birds. The Galbulidæ
or jacamars, the motmots (Momotidæ), and the curious little todies (Todidæ)
of the Antilles, are also isolated groups. But most remarkable of all is
the wonderful family of the humming-birds, which ranges over all America
from Tierra del Fuego to Sitka, and from the level plains of the Amazon to
above the snow-line on the Andes; which abounds both in genera, species,
and individuals, and is yet strictly confined to this continent alone! How
vast must have been the time required to develop those beautiful and
{9}highly specialized forms out of some ancestral swift-like type; how
complete and long continued the isolation of their birthplace to have
allowed of their modification and adaptation to such divergent climates and
conditions, yet never to have permitted them to establish themselves in the
other continents. No naturalist can study in detail this single family of
birds, without being profoundly impressed with the vast antiquity of the
South American continent, its long isolation from the rest of the land
surface of the globe, and the persistence through countless ages of all the
conditions requisite for the development and increase of varied forms of
animal life.

Passing on to the parrot tribe, we find the peculiar family of the
Conuridæ, of which the macaws are the highest development, very largely
represented. It is in the gallinaceous birds however that we again meet
with wholly isolated groups. The Cracidæ, including the curassows and
guans, have no immediate relations with any of the Old World families.
Professor Huxley considers them to approach nearest to (though still very
remote from) the Australian megapodes; and here, as in the case of the
marsupials, we probably have divergent modifications of an ancient type
once widely distributed, not a direct communication between the southern
continents. The Tinamidæ or tinamous, point to a still more remote
antiquity, since their nearest allies are believed to be the Struthiones or
ostrich tribe, of which a few representatives are scattered widely over the
globe. The hoazin of Guiana (Opisthocomus) is another isolated form, not
only the type of a family, but perhaps of an extinct order of birds.
Passing on to the waders, we have a number of peculiar family types, all
indicative of antiquity and isolation. The _Cariama_ of the plains of
Brazil, a bird somewhat intermediate between a bustard and a hawk, is one
of these; the elegant _Psophia_ or trumpeter of the Amazonian forests; the
beautiful little sun-bittern of the river banks (_Eurypyga_); and the
horned screamers (_Palamedea_), all form distinct and isolated families of
birds, to which the Old World offers nothing directly comparable.

_Reptiles._--The Neotropical region is very rich in varied forms of reptile
life, and the species are very abundant. It has six {10}altogether peculiar
families, and several others which only range into the Nearctic region, as
well as a very large number of peculiar or characteristic genera. As the
orders of reptiles differ considerably in their distributional features,
they must be considered separately.

The snakes (Ophidia) differ from all other reptiles, and from most other
orders of vertebrates, in the wide average distribution of the families; so
that such an isolated region as the Neotropical possesses no peculiar
family, nor even one confined to the American continent. The families of
most restricted range are--the Scytalidæ, only found elsewhere in the
Philippine islands; the Amblycephalidæ, common to the Oriental and
Neotropical regions; and the Tortricidæ, most abundant in the Oriental
region, but found also in the Austro-Malay islands and Tropical South
America. Sixteen of the families of snakes occur in the region, the
Colubridæ, Amblycephalidæ, and Pythonidæ, being those which are best
represented by peculiar forms. There are 25 peculiar or characteristic
genera, the most important being _Dromicus_ (Colubridæ); _Boa_,
_Epicrates_, and _Ungalia_ (Pythonidæ); _Elaps_ (Elapidæ); and
_Craspedocephalus_ (Crotalidæ).

The lizards (Lacertilia) are generally more restricted in their range;
hence we find that out of 15 families which inhabit the region, 5 are
altogether peculiar, and 4 more extend only to N. America. The peculiar
families are Helodermidæ, Anadiadæ, Chirocolidæ, Iphisiadæ, and
Cercosauridæ; but it must be noted that these all possess but a single
genus each, and only two of them (Chirocolidæ and Cercosauridæ) have more
than a single species. The families which range over both South and North
America are Chirotidæ, Chalcidæ, Teidæ, and Iguanidæ; the first and second
are of small extent, but the other two are very large groups, the Teidæ
possessing 12 genera and near 80 species; the Iguanidæ 40 genera and near
150 species; the greater part of which are Neotropical. There are more than
50 peculiar or highly characteristic genera of lizards, about 40 of which
belong to the Teidæ and Iguanidæ, which thus especially characterize the
region. The most important and characteristic genera are the following;
_Ameiva_ (Teidæ); _Gymnopthalmus_ (Gymnopthalmidæ); {11}_Celestus_ and
_Diploglossus_ (Scincidæ); _Sphærodactylus_ (Geckotidæ); _Liocephalus_,
_Liolæmus_, _Proctotretus_, and many smaller genera (Iguanidæ). The three
extensive Old World families Varanidæ, Lacertidæ, and Agamidæ, are absent
from the entire American continent.

In the order Crocodilia, America has the peculiar family of the alligators
(Alligatoridæ), as well as several species of true crocodiles
(Crocodilidæ). The Chelonia (tortoises) are represented by the families
Testudinidæ and Chelydidæ, both of wide range; but there are six peculiar
genera,--_Dermatemys_ and _Staurotypus_ belonging to the former
family,--_Peltocephalus_, _Podocnemis_, _Hydromedusa_, and _Chelys_, to the
latter. Some of the Amazon river-turtles of the genus _Podocnemys_ rival in
size the largest species of true marine turtles (Cheloniidæ), and are
equally good for food.

_Amphibia._--The Neotropical region possesses representatives of sixteen
families of Amphibia of which four are peculiar; all belonging to Anoura or
tail-less Batrachians. The Cæciliadæ or snake-like amphibia, are
represented by two peculiar genera, _Siphonopsis_ and _Rhinatrema_. Tailed
Batrachians are almost unknown, only a few species of _Spelerpes_
(Salamandridæ) entering Central America, and one extending as far south as
the Andes of Bogota in South America. Tail-less Batrachians on the other
hand, are abundant; there being 14 families represented, of which
4,--Rhinophryndæ, Hylaplesidæ, Plectromantidæ, and Pipidæ are peculiar.
None of these families contain more than a single genus, and only the
second more than a single species; so that it is not these which give a
character to the South American Amphibia-fauna. The most important and best
represented families are, Ranidæ (true frogs), with eleven genera and more
than 50 species; Polypedatidæ (tree-frogs) with seven genera and about 40
species; Hylidæ (tree-frogs) with eight genera and nearly 30 species;
Engystomidæ (toads) (5 genera), Bombinatoridæ (frogs), (4 genera),
Phryniscidæ and Bufonidæ (toads), (each with 2 genera), are also fairly
represented. All these families are widely distributed, but the Neotropical
genera are, in almost every case, peculiar.

{12}_Fresh-water fishes._--The great rivers of Tropical America abound in
fish of many strange forms and peculiar types. Three families, and three
sub-family groups are peculiar, while the number of peculiar genera is
about 120. The peculiar families are Polycentridæ, with two genera;
Gymnotidæ, a family which includes the electric eels, (5 genera); and
Trygonidæ, the rays, which are everywhere marine except in the great rivers
of South America, where many species are found, belonging to two genera. Of
the extensive family Siluridæ, three sub-families Siluridæ anomalopteræ, S.
olisthopteræ, and S. branchiolæ, are confined to this region. The larger
and more important of the peculiar genera are the following: _Percilia_,
inhabiting Chilian and _Percichthys_ South Temperate rivers, belong to the
Perch family (Percidæ); _Acharnes_, found only in Guiana, belongs to the
Nandidæ, a family of wide range in the tropics; the Chromidæ, a family of
exclusively fresh-water fishes found in the tropics of the Ethiopian,
Oriental and Neotropical regions, are here represented by 15 genera, the
more important being _Acara_ (17 sp.), _Heros_ (26 sp.), _Crenicichla_ (9
sp.), _Satanoperca_ (7 sp.). Many of these fishes are beautifully marked
and coloured. The Siluridæ proteropteræ are represented by 14 genera, of
which _Pimelodus_ (42 sp.), and _Platystoma_ (11 sp.), are the most
important; the Siluridæ stenobranchiæ by 11 genera, the chief being _Doras_
(13 sp.), _Auchenipterus_ (9 sp.), and _Oxydoras_ (7 sp.). The Siluridæ
proteropodes are represented by 16 genera, many of them being among the
most singular of fresh-water fishes, clothed in coats of mail, and armed
with hooks and serrated spines. The following are the most
important,--_Chætostomus_ (25 sp.), _Loricaria_ (17 sp.), _Plecostonus_ (15
sp.) and _Callichthys_ (11 sp.). The Characinidæ are divided between
Tropical America and Tropical Africa, the former possessing about 40 genera
and 200 species. The Haplochitonidæ are confined to South America and
Australia; the American genus being _Haplochiton_. The Cyprinodontidæ are
represented by 18 genera, the most important being, _Pæcilia_ (16 sp.),
_Girardinus_ (10 sp.), and _Gambusia_ (8 sp.) The Osteoglossidæ, found in
Australian and African rivers, are represented in South America by the
peculiar _Arapaima_, the "pirarucu" of the {13}Amazon. The ancient
Sirenoidei, also found in Australia and Africa, have the _Lepidosiren_ as
their American representative. Lastly, _Ellipisurus_ is a genus of rays
peculiar to the fresh waters of South America. We may expect these numbers
to be largely increased and many new genera to be added, when the extensive
collections made by Agassiz in Brazil are described.

_Summary of Neotropical Vertebrates._--Summarizing the preceding facts, we
find that the Neotropical region possesses no less than 45 families and
more than 900 genera of Vertebrata which are altogether peculiar to it;
while it has representatives of 168 families out of a total of 330, showing
that 162 families are altogether absent. It has also representatives of 131
genera of Mammalia of which 103 are peculiar to it, a proportion of 4/5;
while of 683 genera of land-birds no less than 576 are peculiar, being
almost exactly 5/6 of the whole. These numbers and proportions are far
higher than in the case of any other region.


_Insects._

The Neotropical region is so excessively rich in insect life, it so abounds
in peculiar groups, in forms of exquisite beauty, and in an endless
profusion of species, that no adequate idea of this branch of its fauna can
be conveyed by the mere enumeration of peculiar and characteristic groups,
to which we are here compelled to limit ourselves. Our facts and figures
will, however, furnish data for comparison; and will thus enable those who
have some knowledge of the entomology of any other country, to form a
better notion of the vast wealth of insect life in this region, than a more
general and picturesque description could afford them.

_Lepidoptera._--The Butterflies of South America surpass those of all other
regions in numbers, variety and beauty; and we find here, not only more
peculiar genera and families than elsewhere, but, what is very remarkable,
a fuller representation of the whole series of families. Out of the 16
families of butterflies in all parts of the world, 13 are found here, and 3
of these are wholly peculiar--Brassolidæ, Heliconidæ, and Eurygonidæ, with
a fourth, Erycinidæ, which only extends into the Nearctic {14}region; so
that there are 4 families peculiar to America. These four families comprise
68 genera and more than 800 species; alone constituting a very important
feature in the entomology of the region. But in almost all the other
families there are numbers of peculiar genera, amounting in all to about
200, or not far short of half the total number of genera in the
world--(431). We must briefly notice some of the peculiarities of the
several families, as represented in this region. The Danaidæ consist of 15
genera, all peculiar, and differing widely from the generally sombre-tinted
forms of the rest of the world. The delicate transparent-winged Ithomias of
which 160 species are described, are the most remarkable. _Melinæa_,
_Napeogenes_, _Ceratina_ and _Dircenna_ are more gaily coloured, and are
among the chief ornaments of the forests. The Satyridæ are represented by
25 peculiar genera, many of great beauty; the most remarkable and elegant
being the genus _Hætera_ and its allies, whose transparent wings are
delicately marked with patches of orange, pink, or violet. The genus
_Morpho_ is perhaps the grandest development of the butterfly type, being
of immense size and adorned with the most brilliant azure tints, which in
some species attain a splendour of metallic lustre unsurpassed in nature.
The Brassolidæ are even larger, but are crepuscular insects, with rich
though sober colouring. The true Heliconii are magnificent insects, most
elegantly marked with brilliant and strongly contrasted tints. The
Nymphalidæ are represented by such a variety of gorgeous insects that it is
difficult to select examples. Prominent are the genera _Catagramma_ and
_Callithea_, whose exquisite colours and symmetrical markings are unique
and indescribable; and these are in some cases rivalled by _Agrias_ and
_Prepona_, which reproduce their style of coloration although not closely
allied to them. The Erycinidæ, consisting of 59 genera and 560 species,
comprise the most varied and beautiful of small butterflies; and it would
be useless to attempt to indicate the unimaginable combinations of form and
colour they present. It must be sufficient to say that nothing elsewhere on
the globe at all resembles them. In Lycænidæ the world-wide genus _Thecla_
is wonderfully developed, and the South {15}American species not only
surpass all others in size and beauty, but some of them are so gorgeous on
the under surface of their wings, as to exceed almost all the combinations
of metallic tints we meet with in nature. The last family, Hesperidæ, is
also wonderfully developed here, the species being excessively numerous,
while some of them redeem the character of this generally sober family, by
their rich and elegant coloration.

In the only other group of Lepidoptera we can here notice, the Sphingina,
the Neotropical region possesses some peculiar forms. The magnificent
diurnal butterfly-like moths, _Urania_, are the most remarkable; and they
are rendered more interesting by the occurrence of a species closely
resembling them in Madagascar. Another family of day-flying moths, the
Castniidæ, is almost equally divided between the Neotropical and Australian
regions, although the genera are more numerous in the latter. The American
Castnias are large, thick-bodied insects, with a coarse scaly surface and
rich dull colours; differing widely from the glossy and gaily coloured
Agaristas, which are typical of the family in the East.

_Coleoptera._--This is so vast a subject that, as in the case of the
regions already treated, we must confine our attention to a few of the more
important and best known families as representatives of the entire order.

Cicindelidæ.--We find here examples of 15 out of the 35 genera of these
insects; and 10 of these genera are peculiar. The most important are
_Oxychila_ (11 sp.), _Hiresia_ (14 sp.), and _Ctenostoma_ (26 sp.).
_Odontochila_ (57 sp.) is the most abundant and characteristic of all, but
is not wholly peculiar, there being a species in the Malay archipelago.
_Tetracha_, another large genus, has species in Australia and a few in
North America and Europe. The small genus _Peridexia_ is divided between
Brazil and Madagascar,--a somewhat similar distribution to that of _Urania_
noticed above. One genus, _Agrius_, is confined to the southern extremity
of the continent.

Carabidæ.--Besides a considerable number of cosmopolitan or wide-spread
genera, this family is represented by more than 100 genera which are
peculiar to the Neotropical region. The {16}most important of these are
_Agra_ (150 sp.), _Ardistonus_ (44 sp.), _Schizogenius_ (25 sp.),
_Pelecium_ (24 sp.), _Calophena_ (22 sp.), _Aspidoglossa_ (21 sp.), and
_Lia_, _Camptodonotus_, _Stenocrepis_, and _Lachnophorus_, with each more
than 12 species. These are all tropical; but there are also a number of
genera (26) peculiar to Chili and South Temperate America. The most
important of these are _Antarctia_ (29 sp,), all except two or three
confined to South Temperate America; _Scelodontis_ (10 sp.), mostly
Chilian; _Feronomorpha_ (6 sp.) all Chilian; and _Tropidopterus_ (4 sp.),
all Chilian. _Helluomorpha_ (18 sp.), is confined to North and South
America; _Galerita_, _Callida_, and _Tetragonoderus_, are large genera
which are chiefly South American but with a few species scattered over the
other tropical regions, _Casnonia_ and _Lebia_ are cosmopolite, but most
abundant in South America. _Pachyteles_ is mostly South American but with a
few species in West Africa; while _Lobodonotus_ has one species in South
America and two in Africa.

Lucanidæ.--The Neotropical species of this family almost all belong to
peculiar genera. Those common to other regions are _Syndesus_, confined to
Tropical South America and Australia, and _Platycerus_ which is Palæarctic
and Nearctic, with one species in Brazil. The most remarkable genus is
undoubtedly _Chiasognathus_, confined to Chili. These are large insects of
metallic green colours, and armed with enormous serrated mandibles. The
allied genera, _Pholidotus_ and _Sphenognathus_, inhabit Tropical South
America. _Streptocerus_ confined to Chili, is interesting, as being allied
to the Australian _Lamprima_. The other genera present no remarkable
features; but _Sclerognathus_ and _Leptinoptera_ are the most extensive.

Cetoniidæ.--These magnificent insects are but poorly represented in
America; the species being mostly of sombre colours. There are 14 genera,
12 of which are peculiar. The most extensive genus is _Gymnetis_, which,
with its allies _Cotinis_ and _Allorhina_, form a group which comprehends
two-thirds of the Neotropical species of the family. The only other genera
of importance are, _Inca_ (7 sp.), remarkable for their large size, and
being the only American group in which horns are developed on the head;
{17}and _Trigonopeltastes_ (6 sp.), allied to the European _Trichius_. The
non-peculiar genera are, _Stethodesma_, of which half the species are
African and half tropical American; and _Euphoria_, confined to America
both North and South.

Buprestidæ.--In this fine group the Neotropical region is tolerably rich,
having examples of 39 genera, 18 of which are peculiar to it. Of these, the
most extensive are _Conognatha_ and _Halecia_, which have a wide range over
most parts of the region; and _Dactylozodes_, confined to the south
temperate zone. Of important genera which range beyond the region,
_Dicerca_ is mainly Nearctic and Palæarctic; _Cinyra_ has a species in
North America and one in Australia; _Curis_ is divided between Chili and
Australia; the Australian genus _Stigmodera_ has a species in Chili;
_Polycesta_ has a species in Madagascar, two in the Mediterranean region,
and a few in North America; _Acherusia_ is divided between Australia and
Brazil; _Ptosima_ has one species in south temperate America, the rest
widely scattered from North America to the Philippines; _Actenodes_ has a
single species in North America and another in West Africa; _Colobogaster_
has two in West Africa, one in Java and one in the Moluccas. The relations
of South America and Australia as indicated by these insects has already
been sufficiently noticed under the latter region.

Longicornia.--The Neotropical Longicorn Coleoptera are overwhelming in
their numbers and variety, their singularity and their beauty. In the
recent Catalogue of Gemminger and Harold, it is credited with 516 genera,
489 of which are peculiar to it; while it has only 5 genera in common
(exclusively) with the Nearctic, and 4 (in the same way) with the
Australian region. Only the more important genera can be here referred to,
under the three great families into which these insects are divided.

The Prionidæ are excessively numerous, being grouped in 64 genera, more
than double the number possessed by any other region; and 61 of these are
peculiar. The three, common to other regions, are, _Parandra_ and
_Mallodon_, which are widely distributed; and _Ergates_, found also in
California and Europe. The most remarkable genera are, the
magnificently-coloured _Psalidognathus_ and _Pyrodes_; the large and
strangely marked {18}_Macrodontia_; and _Titanus_, the largest insect of
the entire family.

Of the Cerambycidæ there are 233 genera, exceeding by one-half, the number
in any other region; and 225 of these are peculiar. Only 2 are common to
the Neotropical and Nearctic regions exclusively, and 3 to the Neotropical
and Australian. The most extensive genera are the elegant _Ibidion_ (80
sp.); the richly-coloured _Chrysoprasis_ (47 sp.); the prettily-marked
_Trachyderes_ (53 sp.); with _Odontocera_ (25 sp.); _Criodon_ (22 sp.); and
a host of others of less extent, but often of surpassing interest and
beauty. The noteworthy genera of wide range are, _Oeme_ and _Cyrtomerus_,
which have each a species in West Africa, and _Hammatocerus_, which has one
in Australia.

The Lamiidæ have 219 genera, and this is the only tropical region in which
they do not exceed the Cerambycidæ. This number is almost exactly the same
as that of the Oriental genera, but here there are more peculiar groups,
203 against 160 in the other region. The most extensive genera are
_Hemilophus_ (80 sp.), _Colobothea_ (70 sp.), _Acanthoderes_ (56 sp.),
_Oncoderes_ (48 sp.), _Lepturgus_ (40 sp.), _Hypsioma_ (32 sp.), and
_Tæniotes_ (20 sp.). _Macropus longimanus_, commonly called the harlequin
beetle, is one of the largest and most singularly-marked insects in the
whole family. _Leptostylus_ has a single species in New Zealand;
_Acanthoderes_ has one species in Europe, W. Africa, and Australia,
respectively; _Spalacopsis_ has a species in W. Africa; _Pachypeza_ is
common to S. America and the Philippines; _Mesosa_ is Oriental and
Palæarctic, but has one species on the Amazon; _Apomecyna_ ranges through
the tropics of the Eastern Hemisphere, but has two species in S. America;
_Acanthocinus_ has one species in Tasmania, and the rest in South America,
North America, and Europe; _Phæa_ is wholly Neotropical, except two species
in the Philippine Islands.

_General Conclusions as to the Neotropical Insect-fauna._--Looking at the
insects of the Neotropical region as a whole, we are struck with the vast
amount of specialty they present; and, considering how many causes there
are which must lead to the dispersal of insects, the number of its groups
which are scattered {19}over the globe is not nearly so great as we might
expect. This points to a long period of isolation, during which the various
forms of life have acted and reacted on each other, leading to such a
complex yet harmoniously-balanced result as to defy the competition of the
chance immigrants that from time to time must have arrived. This is quite
in accordance with the very high antiquity we have shown most insect-forms
to possess; and it is no doubt owing to this antiquity, that such a
complete diversity of _generic_ forms has been here brought about, without
any important deviation from the great _family_ types which prevail over
the rest of the globe.


_Land Shells._--The Neotropical region is probably the richest on the globe
in Terrestrial Mollusca, but this is owing, not to any extreme
productiveness of the equatorial parts of the continent, where almost all
other forms of life are so largely developed, but to the altogether
exceptional riches of the West India Islands. The most recent estimates
show that the Antilles contain more species of land shells than all the
rest of the region, and almost exactly as many as all continental America,
north and south.

Mr. Thomas Bland, who has long studied American land shells, points out a
remarkable difference in the distribution of the Operculated and
Inoperculated groups, the former being predominant on the islands, the
latter on the continent. The Antilles possess over 600 species of
Operculata, to about 150 on the whole American continent, the genera being
as 22 to 14. Of Inoperculata the Antilles have 740, the Continent 1,250,
the genera being 18 and 22. The proportions of the two groups in each
country are, therefore:

               West India Islands.    American Continent.

  Operculata     Gen. 22  Sp. 608         14    151
  Inoperculata    "   18   "  737         22   1251

The extensive family of the Helicidæ is represented by 22 genera, of which
6 are peculiar. _Spiraxis_ is confined to Central America and the Antilles;
_Stenopus_ and _Sagda_ are Antillean only; _Orthalicus_, _Macroceramus_,
and _Bulimulus_ have a wider range, the last two extending into the
southern United {20}States. Important and characteristic genera are,
_Glandina_, in all the tropical parts of the region; _Cylindrella_, in
Central America and the Antilles; _Bulimus_, containing many large and
handsome species in South America; _Stenogyra_, widely spread in the
tropics; and _Streptaxis_, in Tropical South America.

Among the Operculata, the Aciculidæ are mostly Antillean, two genera being
peculiar there, and one, _Truncatella_, of wide distribution, but most
abundant in the West Indian Islands. The Cyclostomidæ are represented by 15
genera, 9 being peculiar to the region, and 5 of these (belonging to the
sub-family Licinidæ) to the Antilles only. Of these peculiar genera
_Cistula_ and _Chondropoma_ are the most important, ranging over all the
tropical parts of the region. Other important genera are _Cyclotus_ and
_Megalomastoma_; while _Cyclophorus_ also occurs all over the region. The
Helicinidæ are mostly Neotropical, six out of the seven genera being found
here, and four are peculiar. _Stoastoma_, is one of the largest genera;
and, with _Trochatella_ and _Alcadia_, is confined to the Antilles, while
the wide-spread _Helicina_ is most abundant there.

The Limacidæ, or Old World slugs, are absent from the region, their place
being taken by the allied family, Oncidiadæ.

_Marine Shells._--We go out of our usual course to say a few words about
the marine shells of this region, because their distribution on the two
sides of the continent is important, as an indication of the former
separation of North and South America, and the connection of the Atlantic
and Pacific Oceans. It was once thought that no species of shells were
common to the two sides of the Central American Isthmus, and Dr. Mörch
still holds that opinion; but Dr. Philip Carpenter, who has paid special
attention to the subject, considers that there are at least 35 species
absolutely identical, while as many others are so close that they may be
only varieties. Nearly 70 others are distinct but representative species.
The genera of marine mollusca are very largely common to the east and west
coasts, more than 40 being so named in the lists published by Mr. Woodward.
The West Indian Islands being a rich shell district, produce a number of
peculiar forms, and the west coast of {21}South America is, to some extent,
peopled by Oriental and Pacific genera of shells. On the west coast there
is hardly any coral, while on the east it is abundant, showing a difference
of physical conditions that must have greatly influenced the development of
mollusca. When these various counteracting influences are taken into
consideration, the identity or close affinity of about 140 species and 40
genera on the two sides of the Isthmus of Panama becomes very important;
and, combined with the fact of 48 species of fish (or 30 per cent. of those
known) being identical on the adjacent coasts of the two oceans (as
determined by Dr. Günther), render it probable that Central America has
been partially submerged up to comparatively recent geological times. Yet
another proof of this former union of two oceans is to be found in the
fossil corals of the Antilles of the Miocene age, which Dr. Duncan finds to
be more allied to existing Pacific forms, than to those of the Atlantic or
even of the Caribbean Sea.


NEOTROPICAL SUB-REGIONS.

In the concluding part of this work devoted to geographical zoology, the
sub-regions are arranged in the order best adapted to exhibit them in a
tabular form, and to show the affinities of the several regions; but for
our present purpose it will be best to take first in order that which is
the most important and most extensive, and which exhibits all the peculiar
characteristics of the region in their fullest development. We begin
therefore with our second division.


_II. Tropical South-America, or the Brazilian Sub-region._

This extensive district may be defined as consisting of all the tropical
forest-region of South America, including all the open plains and pasture
lands, surrounded by, or intimately associated with, the forests. Its
central mass consists of the great forest-plain of the Amazons, extending
from Paranaiba on the north coast of Brazil (long. 42° W.) to Zamora, in
the province of Loja (lat. 4° S., long. 79° W.), high up in the Andes, on
the west;--a distance in a straight line of more than 2,500 English miles,
{22}along the whole of which there is (almost certainly) one continuous
virgin forest. Its greatest extent from north to south, is from the mouths
of the Orinooko to the eastern slopes of the Andes near La Paz in Bolivia
and a little north of Sta. Cruz de la Sierra (lat. 18° S.), a distance of
about 1,900 miles. Within this area of continuous forests, are included
some open "campos," or patches of pasture lands, the most important
being,--the Campos of the Upper Rio Branco on the northern boundary of
Brazil; a tract in the interior of British Guiana; and another on the
northern bank of the Amazon near its mouth, and extending some little
distance on its south bank at Santarem. On the northern bank of the
Orinooko are the Llanos, or flat open plains, partly flooded in the rainy
season; but much of the interior of Venezuela appears to be forest country.
The forest again prevails from Panama to Maracaybo, and southwards in the
Magdalena valley; and on all the western side of the Andes to about 100
miles south of Guayaquil. On the N.E. coast of Brazil is a tract of open
country, in some parts of which (as near Ceara) rain does not fall for
years together; but south of Cape St. Roque the coast-forests of Brazil
commence, extending to lat. 30° S., clothing all the valleys and hill sides
as far inland as the higher mountain ranges, and even penetrating up the
great valleys far into the interior. To the south-west the forest country
reappears in Paraguay, and extends in patches and partially wooded country,
till it almost reaches the southern extension of the Amazonian forests. The
interior of Brazil is thus in the position of a great island-plateau,
rising out of, and surrounded by, a lowland region of ever-verdant forest.
The Brazilian sub-region comprises all this forest-country and its included
open tracts, and so far beyond it as there exists sufficient woody
vegetation to support its peculiar forms of life. It thus extends
considerably beyond the tropic in Paraguay and south Brazil; while the
great desert of Chaco, extending from 25° to 30° S., lat. between the
Parana and the Andes, as well as the high plateaus of the Andean range,
with the strip of sandy desert on the Pacific coast as far as to about 5°
of south latitude, belong to south temperate America, or the sub-region of
the Andes.

{23}Having already given a sketch, of the zoological features of the
Neotropical region as a whole, the greater part of which will apply to this
sub-region, we must here confine ourselves to an indication of the more
important groups which, on the one hand, are confined to it, and on the
other are absent; together with a notice of its special relations to other
regions.

_Mammalia._--Many of the most remarkable of the American monkeys are
limited to this sub-region; as _Lagothrix_, _Pithecia_, and _Brachyurus_,
limited to the great Amazonian forests; _Eriodes_ to south-east Brazil; and
_Callithrix_ to tropical South America. All the marmosets (Hapalidæ) are
also confined to this sub-region, one only being found at Panama, and
perhaps extending a little beyond it. Among other peculiar forms, are 8
genera of bats; 3 peculiar forms of wild dog; _Pteronura_, a genus of
otters; _Inia_, a peculiar form of dolphin inhabiting the upper waters of
the Amazon; tapirs of the genus _Tapirus_ (a distinct genus being found
north of Panama); 4 genera of Muridæ; _Ctenomys_, a genus of Octodontidæ;
the whole family of Echimyidæ, or spiny rats, (as far as the American
continent is concerned) consisting of 8 genera and 28 species; _Chætomys_,
a genus of Cercolabidæ; the capybara (_Hydrochoerus_) the largest known
rodent, belonging to the Caviidæ; the larger ant-eaters (_Myrmecophaga_);
sloths of the genus _Bradypus_; 2 genera of armadillos (Dasypodidæ); and
two peculiar forms of the opossum family (Didelphyidæ). No group that is
typically Neotropical is absent from this sub-region, except such as are
peculiar to other single sub-regions and which will be noticed accordingly.
The occurrence of a solitary species of hare (_Lepus braziliensis_) in
central Brazil and the Andes, is remarkable, as it is cut off from all its
allies, the genus not being known to occur elsewhere on the continent
further south than Costa Rica. The only important external relation
indicated by the Mammalia of this sub-region is towards the Ethiopian
region, 2 genera of Echimyidæ, _Aulacodes_ and _Petromys_, occurring in
South and South-east Africa.

_Plate IV. Characteristic Neotropical Mammalia._--Our illustration
represents a mountainous forest in Brazil, the part of South America where
the Neotropical Mammalia are perhaps best {24}developed. The central and
most conspicuous figure is the collared ant-eater, (_Tamandua
tetradactyla_), one of the handsomest of the family, in its conspicuous
livery of black and white. To the left are a pair of sloths (_Arctopithecus
flaccidus_) showing the curious black spot on the back with which many of
the species are marked, and which looks like a hole in the trunk of a tree;
but this mark seems to be only found on the male animal. The fur of many of
the sloths has a greenish tinge, and Dr. Seemann remarked its resemblance
to the _Tillandsia usneoides_, or "vegetable horsehair," which clothes many
of the trees in Central America; and this probably conceals them from their
enemies, the harpy-eagles. On the right are a pair of opossums (_Didelphys
azaræ_), one of them swinging by its prehensile tail. Overhead in the
foreground are a group of howling monkeys (_Mycetes ursinus_) the largest
of the American Quadrumana, and the noisiest of monkeys. The large hollow
vessel into which the hyoid bone is transformed, and which assists in
producing their tremendous howling, is altogether unique in the animal
kingdom. Below them, in the distance, are a group of Sapajou monkeys
(_Cebus_ sp.); while gaudy screaming macaws complete the picture of
Brazilian forest life.

_Birds._--A very large number of genera of birds, and some entire families,
are confined to this sub-region, as will be seen by looking over the list
of genera at the end of this chapter. We can here only notice the more
important, and summarize the results. More than 120 genera of Passeres are
thus limited, belonging to the following 12 families: Sylviidæ (1),
Troglodytidæ (2), Coerebidæ (4), Tanagridæ (26), Fringillidæ (8), Icteridæ
(5), Pteroptochidæ (3), Dendrocolaptidæ (12), Formicariidæ (16), Tyrannidæ
(22), Cotingidæ (16), Pipridæ (10). Of the Picariæ there are 76 peculiar
genera belonging to 9 families, viz., Picidæ (2), Rhamphastidæ (1),
Cuculidæ (1), Bucconidæ (2), Galbulidæ (5), Momotidæ (2), Podargidæ (1),
Caprimalgidæ (4), Trochilidæ (58). There are 3 peculiar genera of Psittaci,
8 of Gallinæ, the only genus of Opisthocomidæ, 3 of Accipitres, 1 of
Rallidæ, _Psophia_ and _Eurypyga_ types of distinct families, and 1 genus
of Ardeidæ, Palamedeidæ, and Anatidæ respectively. The preceding
enumeration shows how very rich this sub-region is in peculiar types of all
the most characteristic American families, such as the Tanagridæ,
Tyrannidæ, Cotingidæ, Formicariidæ, Trochilidæ, and Galbulidæ. A
considerable proportion of the genera of the Chilian and Mexican
sub-regions also occur here, so that out of about 680 genera of Neotropical
land-birds more than 500 are represented in this sub-region.



Plate XIV.

[Illustration]

A BRAZILIAN FOREST, WITH CHARACTERISTIC MAMMALIA.

{25}Without entering minutely into the distribution of species it is
difficult to sub-divide this extensive territory with any satisfactory
result.[1] The upland tract between the Amazon and Orinooko, which may be
termed Guiana, was evidently once an island, yet it possesses few marked
distinctive features. Brazil, which must have formed another great island,
has more speciality, but the intermediate Amazonian forests form a perfect
transition between them. The northern portion of the continent west of the
Orinooko has more character; and there are indications that this has
received many forms from Central and North America, and thus blended two
faunas once more distinct than they are now. The family of wood-warblers
(Mniotiltidæ) seems to have belonged to this more northern fauna; for out
of 18 genera only 5 extend south of the equator, while 6 range from Mexico
or the Antilles into Columbia, some of these being only winter immigrants
and no genus being exclusively South American. The eastern slopes of the
Andes constitute, however, the richest and best marked province of this
sub-region. At least 12 genera of tanagers (Tanagridæ) are found here only,
with an immense number of Fringillidæ,--the former confined to the forests;
the latter ranging to the upland plains. The ant-thrushes (Formicariidæ) on
the other hand seem more abundant in the lowlands, many genera being
peculiar to the Amazonian forests. The superb chatterers (Cotingidæ) also
seem to have their head-quarters in the forests of Brazil and Guiana, and
to have thence spread {26}into the Amazonian valley. Guiana still boasts
such remarkable forms as the cardinal chatterer (_Phoenicocercus_), the
military chatterer (_Hæmatoderus_), as well as _Querula_, _Gymnoderus_, and
_Gymnocephalus_; but the first three pass to the south side of the Lower
Amazon. Here also belong the cock of the rock (_Rupicola_), which ranges
from Guiana to the Andes, and the marvellous umbrella-birds of the Rio
Nigro and Upper Amazon (_Cephalopterus_), which extends across the
Ecuadorean Andes and into Costa Rica. Brazil has _Ptilochloris_,
_Casiornis_, _Tijuca_, _Phibalura_, and _Calyptura_; while not a single
genus of this family, except perhaps _Heliochæra_, is confined to the
extensive range of the Andes. Almost the same phenomena are presented by
the allied Pipridæ or manakins, the greater part of the genera and species
occurring in Eastern South America, that is in Brazil, Guiana, and the
surrounding lowlands rather than in the Andean valleys. The same may be
said of the jacamars (Galbulidæ) and puff-birds (Bucconidæ); but the
humming-birds (Trochilidæ) have their greatest development in the Andean
district. Brazil and Guiana have each a peculiar genus of parrots; Guiana
has three peculiar genera of Cracidæ, while the Andes north of the equator
have two. The Tinamidæ on the other hand have their metropolis in Brazil,
which has two or three peculiar genera, while two others seem confined to
the Andes south of the equator. The elegant trumpeters (Psophiidæ) are
almost restricted to the Amazonian valley.

Somewhat similar facts occur among the Mammalia. At least 3 genera of
monkeys are confined to the great lowland equatorial forests and 1 to
Brazil; _Icticyon_ (Canidæ) and _Pteronura_ (Mustelidæ) belong to Guiana
and Brazil; and most of the Echimyidæ are found in the same districts. The
sloths, ant-eaters, and armadillos all seem more characteristic of the
eastern districts than of the Andean; while the opossums are perhaps
equally plentiful in the Andes.

The preceding facts of distribution lead us to conclude that the highlands
of Brazil and of Guiana represent very ancient lands, dating back to a
period long anterior to the elevation of the Andean range (which is by no
means of great geological {27}antiquity) and perhaps even to the elevation
of the continuous land which forms the base of the mountains. It was, no
doubt, during their slow elevation and the consequent loosening of the
surface, that the vast masses of debris were carried down which filled up
the sea separating the Andean chain from the great islands of Brazil and
Guiana, and formed that enormous extent of fertile lowland forest, which
has created a great continent; given space for the free interaction of the
distinct faunas which here met together, and thus greatly assisted in the
marvellous development of animal and vegetable life, which no other
continent can match. But this development, and the fusion of the various
faunas into one homogeneous assemblage must have been a work of time; and
it is probable that most of the existing continent was dry land before the
Andes had acquired their present altitude. The blending of the originally
distinct sub-faunas has been no doubt assisted by elevations and
depressions of the land or of the ocean, which have alternately diminished
and increased the land-area. This would lead to a crowding together at one
time, and a dispersion at others, which would evidently afford opportunity
for many previously restricted forms to enter fresh areas and become
adapted to new modes of life.

From the preceding sketch it will appear, that the great sub-region of
Tropical South America as here defined, is really formed of three
originally distinct lands, fused together by the vast lowland Amazonian
forests. In the class of birds sufficient materials exist for separating
these districts; and that of the Andes contains a larger series of peculiar
genera than either of the other sub-regions here adopted. But there are
many objections to making such a sub-division here. It is absolutely
impossible to define even approximate limits to these divisions--to say for
example where the "Andes" ends and where "Brazil" or "Amazonia" or "Guiana"
begins; and the unknown border lands separating these are so vast, that
many groups, now apparently limited in their distribution, may prove to
have a very much wider range. In mammalia, reptiles, and insects, it is
even more difficult to maintain such divisions, so that on the whole it
seems better to treat the entire area as one sub-region, {28}although
recognizing the fact of its zoological and geographical diversity, as well
as its vast superiority over every other sub-region in the number and
variety of its animal forms.

The reptiles, fishes, mollusca, and insects of this sub-region have been
sufficiently discussed in treating of the entire region, as by far the
larger proportion of them, except in the case of land-shells, are found
here.

_Plate XV. Characteristic Neotropical Birds._--To illustrate the
ornithology of South America we place our scene on one of the tributaries
of the Upper Amazon, a district where this class of animals is the most
prominent zoological feature, and where a number of the most remarkable and
interesting birds are to be found. On the left we have the umbrella-bird
(_Cephalopterus ornatus_), so called from its wonderful crest, which, when
expanded, completely overshadows its head like an umbrella. It is also
adorned with a long tassel of plumes hanging from its breast, which is
formed by a slender fleshy tube clothed with broad feathers. The bird is as
large as a crow, of a glossy blue-black colour, and belongs to the same
family as the exquisitely tinted blue-and-purple chatterers. Flying towards
us are a pair of curl-crested toucans (_Pteroglossus beauharnaisii_),
distinguished among all other toucans by a crest composed of small black
and shining barbless plumes, resembling curled whalebone. The general
plumage is green above, yellow and red beneath, like many of its allies. To
the right are two of the exquisite little whiskered hummers, or
"frill-necked coquettes," as they are called by Mr. Gould, (_Lophornis
gouldi_). These diminutive birds are adorned with green-tipped plumes
springing from each side of the throat, as well as with beautiful crests,
and are among the most elegant of the great American family of
humming-birds, now numbering about 400 known species. Overhead are perched
a pair of curassows (_Crax globulosa_), which represent in America the
pheasants of the Old World. There are about a dozen species of these fine
birds, most of which are adorned with handsome curled crests. That figured,
is distinguished by the yellow caruncular swellings at the base of the
bill. The tall crane-like bird near the water is one of the trumpeters,
(_Psophia leucoptera_), elegant birds with silky plumage peculiar to the
Amazon valley. They are often kept in houses, where they get very tame and
affectionate; and they are useful in catching flies and other house
insects, which they do with great perseverance and dexterity.



Plate XV.

[Illustration]

A FOREST SCENE ON THE UPPER AMAZON, WITH SOME CHARACTERISTIC BIRDS.


{29}_Islands of Tropical South America._

These are few in number, and, with one exception, not of much interest.
Such islands as Trinidad and Sta. Catherina form parts of South America,
and have no peculiar groups of animals. The small islands of Fernando
Noronha, Trinidad, and Martin Vaz, off the coast of Brazil, are the only
Atlantic islands somewhat remote from land; while the Galapagos Archipelago
in the Pacific is the only group whose productions have been carefully
examined, or which present features of special interest.

_Galapagos Islands._--These are situated on the equator, about 500 miles
from the coast of Ecuador. They consist of the large Albemarle island, 70
miles long; four much smaller (18 to 25 miles long), named Narborough,
James, Indefatigable, and Chatham Islands; four smaller still (9 to 12
miles long), named Abingdon, Bindloes, Hood's, and Charles Islands. All are
volcanic, and consist of fields of black basaltic lava, with great numbers
of extinct craters, a few which are still active. The islands vary in
height from 1,700 to 5,000 feet, and they all rise sufficiently high to
enter the region of moist currents of air, so that while the lower parts
are parched and excessively sterile, above 800 or 1,000 feet there is a
belt of comparatively green and fertile country.

These islands are known to support 58 species of Vertebrates,--1 quadruped,
52 birds and 5 reptiles, the greater part of which are found nowhere else,
while a considerable number belong to peculiar and very remarkable genera.
We must therefore notice them in some detail.

_Mammalia._--This class is represented by a mouse belonging to the American
genus _Hesperomys_, but slightly different from any found on the continent.
A true rat (_Mus_), slightly differing from any European species, also
occurs; and as there can be little doubt that this is an escape from a
ship, somewhat {30}changed under its new conditions of life (the genus
_Mus_ not being indigenous to the American continent), it is not
improbable, as Mr. Darwin remarks, that the American mouse may also have
been imported by man, and have become similarly changed.

_Birds._[2]--Recent researches in the islands have increased the number of
land-birds to thirty-two, and of wading and aquatic birds to twenty-three.
All the land birds but two or three are peculiar to the islands, and
eighteen, or considerably more than half, belong to peculiar genera. Of the
waders 4 are peculiar, and of the swimmers 2. These are a rail (_Porzana
spilonota_); two herons (_Butorides plumbea_ and _Nycticorax pauper_); a
flamingo (_Phoenicopterus glyphorhynchus_); while the new aquatics are a
gull (_Larus fuliginosus)_, and a penguin (_Spheniscus mendiculus_).

The land-birds are much more interesting. All except the birds of prey
belong to American genera which abound on the opposite coast or on that of
Chili a little further south, or to peculiar genera allied to South
American forms. The only _species_ not peculiar are, _Dolichonyx
oryzivorus_, a bird of very wide range in America and of migratory habits,
which often visits the Bermudas 600 miles from North America,--and _Asio
accipitrinus_, an owl which is found almost all over the world. The only
genera not exclusively American are _Buteo_ and _Strix_, of each of which a
peculiar species occurs in the Galapagos, although very closely allied to
South American species. There remain 10 genera, all either American or
peculiar to the Galapagos; and on these we will remark in systematic order.

1. _Mimus_, the group of American mocking-thrushes, is represented by three
distinct and well-marked species. 2. _Dendroeca_, an extensive and
wide-spread genus of the wood-warblers (Mniotiltidæ), is represented by one
species, which ranges over the greater part of the archipelago. The genus
is especially abundant in Mexico, the Antilles, and the northern parts of
{31}tropical America, only one species extending south as far as Chili. 3.
_Certhidea_, a peculiar genus originally classed among the finches, but
which Mr. Sclater, who has made South American birds his special study,
considers to belong to the _Coerebidæ_, or sugar-birds, a family which is
wholly tropical. Two species of this genus inhabit separate islands. 4.
_Progne_, the American martins (Hirundinidæ), is represented by a peculiar
species. 5. _Geospiza_, a peculiar genus of finches, of which no less than
eight species occur in the archipelago, but not more than four in any one
island. 6. _Camarhynchus_ (6 sp.) and 7. _Cactornis_ (4 sp.) are two other
peculiar genera of finches; some of the species of which are confined to
single islands, while others inhabit several. 8. _Pyrocephalus_, a genus of
the American family of tyrant-flycatchers (Tyrannidæ), has one peculiar
species closely allied to _T. rubineus_, which has a wide range in South
America. 9. _Myiarchus_, another genus of the same family which does not
range further south than western Ecuador, has also a representative species
found in several of the islands. 10. _Zenaida_, an American genus of
pigeons, has a species in James Island and probably in some of the others,
closely allied to a species from the west coast of America.

It has been already stated that some of the islands possess peculiar
species of birds distinct from the allied forms in other islands, but
unfortunately our knowledge of the different islands is so unequal and of
some so imperfect, that we can form no useful generalizations as to the
distribution of birds among the islands themselves. The largest island is
the least known; only one bird being recorded from it, one of the
mocking-thrushes found nowhere else. Combining the observations of Mr.
Darwin with those of Dr. Habel and Prof. Sundevall, we have species
recorded as occurring in seven of the islands. Albemarle island has but one
definitely known species; Chatham and Bindloe islands have 11 each;
Abingdon and Charles islands 12 each; Indefatigable island and James island
have each 18 species. This shows that birds are very fairly distributed
over all the islands, one of the smallest and most remote (Abingdon)
furnishing as many as the much larger Chatham Island, which is also the
nearest {32}to the mainland. Taking the six islands which seem tolerably
explored, we find that two of the species (_Dendroeca aureola_ and
_Geospiza fortis_) occur in all of them; two others (_Geospiza strenua_ and
_Myiarchus magnirostris_) in five; four (_Mimus melanotis_, _Geospiza
fuliginosa_, _G. parvula_, and _Camarhynchus prosthemelas_) in four
islands; five (_Certhidea olivacea_, _Cactornis scandens_, _Pyrocephalus
nanus_), and two of the birds of prey, in three islands; nine (_Certhidea
fusca_, _Progne concolor_, _Geospiza nebulosa_, _G. magnirostris_,
_Camarhynchus psittaculus_, _C. variegatus_, _C. habeli_ and _Asio
accipitrinus_) in two islands; while the remaining ten species are confined
to one island each. These peculiar species are distributed among the
islands as follows. James, Charles and Abingdon islands, have 2 each;
Bindloes, Chatham, and Indefatigable, 1 each. The amount of speciality of
James Island is perhaps only apparent, owing to our ignorance of the fauna
of the adjacent large Albemarle island; the most remote islands north and
south, Abingdon and Charles, have no doubt in reality most peculiar
species, as they appear to have. The scarcity of peculiar species in
Chatham Island is remarkable, it being large, very isolated, and the
nearest to the mainland. There is still room for exploration in these
islands, especially in Albemarle, Narborough, and Hood's islands of which
we know nothing.

_Reptiles._--The few reptiles found in these islands are very interesting.
There are two snakes, a species of the American genus _Herpetodryas_, and
another which was at first thought to be a Chilian species (_Psammophis
Temminckii_), but which is now considered to be distinct. Of lizards there
are four at least, belonging to as many genera. One is a species of
_Phyllodactylus_, a wide-spread genus of Geckotidæ; the rest belong to the
American family of the Iguanas, one being a species of the Neotropical
genus _Leiocephalus_, the other two very remarkable forms, _Trachycephalus_
and _Oreocephalus_ (formerly united in the genus _Amblyrhynchus_). The
first is a land, the second a marine, lizard; both are of large size and
very abundant on all the islands; and they are quite distinct from any of
the very numerous genera of Iguanidæ, spread all over the American
continent. The last {33}reptile is a land tortoise (_Testudo nigra_) of
immense size, and also abundant in all the islands. Its nearest ally is the
equally large species of the Mascarene Islands; an unusual development due,
in both cases, to the absence of enemies permitting these slow but
continually growing animals to attain an immense age. It is believed that
each island has a distinct variety or species of tortoise.

_Insects_.--Almost the only insects known from these islands are some
Coleoptera, chiefly collected by Mr. Darwin. They consist of a few peculiar
species of American or wide-ranging genera, the most important being, a
_Calosoma_, _Poecilus_, _Solenophorus_, and _Notaphus_, among the Carabidæ;
an _Oryctes_ among the Lamellicornes; two new genera of obscure Heteromera;
two Curculionidæ of wide-spread genera; a Longicorn of the South American
genus _Eburia_; and two small Phytophaga,--a set of species highly
suggestive of accidental immigrations at rare and distant intervals.

_Land-Shells._--These consist of small and obscure species, forming two
peculiar sub-genera of _Bulimulus_, a genus greatly developed on the whole
West coast of America; and a single species of _Buliminus_, a genus which
ranges over all the world except America. As in the case of the birds, most
of the islands have two or three peculiar species.

_General Conclusions._--These islands are wholly volcanic and surrounded by
very deep sea; and Mr. Darwin is of opinion, not only that the islands have
never been more nearly connected with the mainland than at present, but
that they have never been connected among themselves. They are situated on
the Equator, in a sea where gales and storms are almost unknown. The main
currents are from the south-west, an extension of the Peruvian drift along
the west coast of South America. From their great extent, and their
volcanoes being now almost extinct, we may assume that they are of
considerable antiquity. These facts exactly harmonize with the theory, that
they have been peopled by rare accidental immigrations at very remote
intervals. The only peculiar _genera_ consist of birds and lizards, which
must therefore have been the earliest {34}immigrants. We know that small
Passerine birds annually reach the Bermudas from America, and the Azores
from Europe, the former travelling over 600, the latter over 1000 miles of
ocean. These groups of islands are both situated in stormy seas, and the
immigrants are so numerous that hardly any specific change in the resident
birds has taken place. The Galapagos receive no such annual visitants;
hence, when by some rare accident a few individuals of a species did
arrive, they remained isolated, probably for thousands of generations, and
became gradually modified through natural selection under completely new
conditions of existence. Less rare and violent storms would suffice to
carry some of these to other islands, and thus the archipelago would in
time become stocked. It would appear probable, that those which have
undergone most change were the earliest to arrive; so that we might look
upon the three peculiar genera of finches, and _Certhidea_, the peculiar
form of Coerebidæ, as among the most ancient inhabitants of the islands,
since they have become so modified as to have apparently no near allies on
the mainland. But other birds may have arrived nearly at the same time, and
yet not have been much changed. A species of very wide range, already
adapted to live under very varied conditions and to compete with varied
forms of life, might not need to become modified so much as a bird of more
restricted range, and more specialized constitution. And if, before any
considerable change had been effected, a second immigration of the same
species occurred, crossing the breed would tend to bring back the original
type of form. While, therefore, we may be sure that birds like the finches,
which are profoundly modified and adapted to the special conditions of the
climate and vegetation, are among the most ancient of the colonists; we
cannot be sure that the less modified form of tyrant-flycatcher or
mocking-thrush, or even the unchanged but cosmopolitan owl, were not of
coeval date; since even if the parent form on the continent has been
changed, successive immigrations may have communicated the same change to
the colonists.

The reptiles are somewhat more difficult to account for. We know, however,
that lizards have some means of dispersal over {35}the sea, because we find
existing species with an enormous range. The ancestors of the
_Amblyrhynchi_ must have come as early, probably, as the earliest birds;
and the same powers of dispersal have spread them over every island. The
two American genera of lizards, and the tortoises, are perhaps later
immigrants. Latest of all were the snakes, which hardly differ from
continental forms; but it is not at all improbable that these latter, as
well as the peculiar American mouse, have been early human importations.
Snakes are continually found on board native canoes whose cabins are
thatched with palm leaves; and a few centuries would probably suffice to
produce some modification of a species completely isolated, under
conditions widely different from those of its native country. Land-shells,
being so few and small, and almost all modifications of one type, are a
clear indication of how rare are the conditions which lead to their
dispersal over a wide extent of ocean; since two or three individuals,
arriving on two or three occasions only during the whole period of the
existence of the islands, would suffice to account for the present fauna.
Insects have arrived much more frequently; and this is in accordance with
their habits, their lower specific gravity, their power of flight, and
their capacity for resisting for some time the effects of salt water.

We learn, then, from the fauna of these islands, some very important facts.
We are taught that tropical land-birds, unless blown out of their usual
course by storms, rarely or never venture out to sea, or if they do so, can
seldom pass safely over a distance of 500 miles. The immigrants to the
Galapagos can hardly have averaged a bird in a thousand years. We learn,
that of all reptiles lizards alone have some tolerably effective mode of
transmission across the sea; and this is probably by means of currents, and
in connection with floating vegetation. Yet their transmission is a far
rarer event than that of land-birds; for, whereas three female immigrants
will account for the lizard population, at least eight or ten ancestors are
required for the birds. Land serpents can pass over still more rarely, as
two such transmissions would have sufficed to stock the islands with their
snakes; and it is not certain that either of these occurred without the aid
of man. {36}It is doubtful whether mammals or batrachians have any means of
passing, independently of man's assistance; the former having but one
doubtfully indigenous representative, the latter none at all. The
remarkable absence of all gay or conspicuous flowers in these tropical
islands, though possessing a zone of fairly luxuriant shrubby vegetation,
and the dependence of this phenomenon on the extreme scarcity of insects,
has been already noticed at Vol. I. p. 461, when treating of a somewhat
similar peculiarity of the New Zealand fauna and flora.


_I. South Temperate America, or the Chilian Sub-region._

This sub-region may be generally defined as the temperate portion of South
America. On the south, it commences with the cold damp forests of Tierra
del Fuego, and their continuation up the west coast to Chiloe and northward
to near Santiago. To the east we have the barren plains of Patagonia,
gradually changing towards the north into the more fertile, but still
treeless, pampas of La Plata. Whether this sub-region should be continued
across the Rio de la Plata into Uruguay and Entre-rios, is somewhat
doubtful. To the west of the Parana it extends northward over the Chaco
desert, till we approach the border of the great forests near St. Cruz de
la Sierra. On the plateau of the Andes, however, it must be continued still
further north, along the "paramos" or alpine pastures, till we reach 5° of
South latitude. Beyond this the Andes are very narrow, having no double
range with an intervening plateau; and although some of the peculiar forms
of the temperate zone pass on to the equator or even beyond it, these are
not sufficiently numerous to warrant our extending the sub-region to
include them. Along with the high Andes it seems necessary to include the
western strip of arid country, which is mostly peopled by forms derived
from Chili and the south temperate regions.

_Mammalia._--This sub-region is well characterised by the possession of an
entire family of mammalia having Neotropical affinities--the Chinchillidæ.
It consists of 3 genera--_Chinchilla_ (2 sp.), inhabiting the Andes of
Chili and Peru as far as 9° south latitude, and at from 8,000 to 12,000
feet altitude; _Lagidium_ (3 sp.), ranging over the Andes of Chili, Peru,
and South Ecuador, {37}from 11,000 to 16,000 feet altitude; and
_Lagostomus_ (1 sp.), the "viscacha," confined to the pampas between the
Uruguay and Rio Negro. Many important genera are also confined to this
sub-region. _Auchenia_ (4 sp.), including the domesticated llamas and
alpacas, the vicugna which inhabits the Andes of Peru and Chili, and the
guanaco which ranges over the plains of Patagonia and Tierra del Fuego.
Although this genus is allied to the Old World camels, it is a very
distinct form, and its introduction from North America, where the family
appear to have originated, may date back to a remote epoch. _Ursus
ornatus_, the "spectacled bear" of the Chilian Andes, is a remarkable form,
supposed to be most allied to the Malay bear, and probably forming a
distinct genus, which has been named _Tremarctos_. Four genera of
Octodontidæ are also peculiar to this sub-region, or almost so;
_Habrocomus_ (1 sp.) is Chilian; _Spalacopus_ (2 sp.) is found in Chili and
on the east side of the southern Andes; _Octodon_ (3 sp.) ranges from Chili
into Peru and Bolivia; _Ctenomys_ (6 sp.) from the Straits of Magellan to
Bolivia, with one species in South Brazil. _Dolichotis_, one of the Cavies,
ranges from Patagonia to Mendoza, and on the east coast to 37½° S.
latitude. _Myopotamus_ (1 sp.), the coypu (Echimyidæ), ranges from 33° to
48° S. latitude on the west side of the Andes, and from the frontiers of
Peru to 42° S. on the east side. _Reithrodon_ and _Acodon_, genera of
Muridæ, are also confined to Temperate South America; _Tolypeutes_ and
_Chlamydophorus_, two genera of armadillos, the latter very peculiar in its
organization and sometimes placed in a distinct family, are found only in
La Plata and the highlands of Bolivia, and so belong to this sub-region.
_Otaria_, one of the "eared seals" (Otariidæ), is confined to the coasts of
this sub-region and the antarctic islands. Deer of American groups extend
as far as Chiloe on the west, and the Straits of Magellan on the east
coast. Mice of the South American genera _Hesperomys_ and _Reithrodon_, are
abundant down to the Straits of Magellan and into Tierra del Fuego, Mr.
Darwin having collected more than 20 distinct species. The following are
the genera of Mammalia which have been observed on the shores of the
Straits of Magellan, those marked * extending into Tierra del Fuego:
{38}*_Pseudalopex_ (two wolf-like foxes), _Felis_ (the puma), _Mephitis_
(skunks), _Cervus_ (deer), *_Auchenia_ (guanaco), *_Ctenomys_ (tucu-tucu),
*_Reithrodon_ and *_Hesperomys_ (American mice).

_Birds._--Three families of Birds are confined to this
sub-region,--Phytotomidæ (1 genus, 3 sp.), inhabiting Chili, La Plata, and
Bolivia; Chionididæ (1 genus, 2 sp.) the "sheath-bills," found only at the
southern extremity of the continent and in Kerguelen's Island, which with
the other antarctic lands perhaps comes best here; Thinocoridæ (2 genera, 6
species) an isolated family of waders, ranging over the whole sub-region
and extending northward to the equatorial Andes. Many genera are also
peculiar: 3 of Fringillidæ, and 1 of Icteridæ; 9 of Dendrocolaptidæ, 6 of
Tyrannidæ, 3 of Trochilidæ, and 4 of Pteroptochidæ,--the last four South
American families. There is also a peculiar genus of parrots
(_Henicognathus_) in Chili; two of pigeons (_Metriopelia_ and _Gymnopelia_)
confined to the Andes and west coast from Peru to Chili; two of Tinamous,
_Tinamotes_ in the Andes, and _Calodromus_ in La Plata; three of
Charadriidæ, _Phægornis_, _Pluvianellus_, and _Oreophilus_; and _Rhea_, the
American ostriches, inhabiting all Patagonia and the pampas. Perhaps the
Cariamidæ have almost as much right here as in the last sub-region,
inhabiting as they do, the "pampas" of La Plata and the upland "campos" of
Brazil; and even among the wide-ranging aquatic birds, we have a peculiar
genus, _Merganetta_, one of the duck family, which is confined to the
temperate plateau of the Andes.

Against this extensive series of characteristic groups, all either of
American type or very distinct forms of Old World families, and therefore
implying great antiquity, we find, in mammalia and birds, very scanty
evidence of that direct affinity with the north temperate zone, on which
some naturalists lay so much stress. We cannot point to a single
terrestrial genus, which is characteristic of the north and reappears in
this south temperate region without also occurring over much of the
intervening land. _Mustela_ seems only to have reached Peru; _Lepus_ is
isolated in Brazil; true _Ursus_ does not pass south of Mexico. In birds,
the northern groups rarely go further south than Mexico or the Columbian
Andes; and the only case of discontinuous {39}distribution we can find
recorded is that of the genus of ducks, _Camptolæmus_, which has a species
on the east side of North America and another in Chili and the Falkland
Islands, but these, Professor Newton assures me, do not properly belong to
the same genus. Out of 30 genera of land-birds collected on the Rio Negro
in Patagonia, by Mr. Hudson, only four extend beyond the American
continent, and the same exclusively American character applies equally to
its southern extremity. No list appears to have been yet published of the
land-birds of the Straits of Magellan and Tierra del Fuego. The following
is compiled from the observations of Mr. Darwin, the recent voyage of
Professor Cunningham, and other sources; and will be useful for comparison.

  TURDIDÆ.
     1. Turdus falklandicus.

  TROGLODYTIDÆ.
     2. Troglodytes magellanicus.

  FRINGILLIDÆ.
     3. Chrysomitris barbata.
    *4. Phrygilus gayi.
    *5.     "     aldunatii.
     6.     "     fruticeti.
    *7.     "     xanthogrammus.
     8. Zonotrichia pileata.

  ICTERIDÆ.
     9. Sturnella militaris.
    10. Curæus aterrimus.

  HIRUNDINIDÆ.
    11. Hirundo meyeni.

  TYRANNIDÆ.
    12. Tænioptera pyrope.
    13. Myiotheretes rufiventris.
    14. Muscisaxicola mentalis.
    15. Centrites niger.
    16. Anæretes parulus.
    17. Elainea griseogularis.

  DENDROCOLAPTIDÆ.
    18. Upucerthia dumetoria.
   *19. Cinclodes patagonicus.
   *20.     "     fuscus.
   *21. Oxyurus spinicauda.

  PTEROPTOCHIDÆ.
   *22. Scytalopus magellanicus.

  PICIDÆ.
   *23. Campephilus magellanicus.
    24. Picus lignarius.

  ALCEDINIDÆ.
    25. Ceryle stellata.

  TROCHILIDÆ.
    26. Eustephanus galeritus.

  CONURIDÆ.
    27. Conurus patagonus.

  VULTURIDÆ.
    28. Cathartes aura.
    29. Sarcorhamphus gryphus.

  FALCONIDÆ.
    30. Circus macropterus.
    31. Buteo erythronotus.
    32. Geranoaëtus melanolencus.
    33. Accipiter chilensis.
    34. Cerchneis sparverius.
    35. Milvago albogularis.
    36. Polyborus tharus.

  STRIGIDÆ.
    37. Asio accipitrinus.
    38. Bubo magellanicus.
    39. Pholeoptynx cunicularia.
    40. Glaucidium nana.
    41. Syrnium rufipes.

  STRUTHIONIDÆ.
    42. Rhea darwinii.

{40}In the above list the species marked * extend to Tierra del Fuego. It
is a remarkable fact that so many of the species belong to genera which are
wholly Neotropical, and that the specially South American families of
Icteridæ, Tyrannidæ, Dendrocolaptidæ, Pteroptochidæ, Trochilidæ, and
Conuridæ, should supply more than one-third of the species; while the
purely South American genus _Phrygilus_, should be represented by four
species, three of which abound in Tierra del Fuego.

_Plate XVI. A Scene in the Andes of Chili, with characteristic
Animals._--The fauna of South Temperate America being most fully developed
in Chili, we place the scene of our illustration in that country. In the
foreground we have a pair of the beautiful little chinchillas (_Chinchilla
lanigera_), belonging to a family of animals peculiar to the sub-region.
There are only two species of this group, both confined to the higher
Andes, at about 8000 feet elevation. Coming round a projecting ridge of the
mountain, are a herd of vicunas (_Auchenia vicugna_), one of that peculiar
form of the camel tribe found in South America and confined to its
temperate and alpine regions. The upper bird is a plant-cutter (_Phytotoma
rara_), of sober plumage but allied to the beautiful chatterers, though
forming a separate family. Below, standing on a rock, is a plover-like
bird, the _Thinocorus orbignianus_, which is considered to belong to a
separate family, though allied to the plovers and sheath-bills. Its habits
are, however, more those of the quails or partridges, living inland in dry
and desert places, and feeding on plants, roots, and insects. Above is a
condor, the most characteristic bird of the high Andes.

_Reptiles and Amphibia._--These groups show, for the most part, similar
modifications of American and Neotropical forms, as those we have seen to
prevail among the birds. Snakes do not seem to go very far south, but
several South American genera of Colubridæ and Dendrophidæ occur in Chili;
while _Enophrys_ is peculiar to La Plata, and _Callorhinus_ to Patagonia,
both belonging to the Colubridæ. The Elapidæ do not extend into the
temperate zone; but _Craspedocephalus_, one of the Crotalidæ, occurs at
Bahia Blanca in Patagonia (Lat. 40° S.)



Plate XVI.

[Illustration]

THE CHILIAN ANDES, WITH CHARACTERISTIC ANIMALS.

{41}Lizards are much more numerous, and there are several peculiar and
interesting forms. Three families are represented; Teidæ by two
genera--_Callopistes_ peculiar to Chili, and _Ameiva_ which ranges over
almost the whole American continent and is found in Patagonia; _Geckotidæ_
by four genera, two of which,--_Caudiverbera_ and _Homonota_--are peculiar
to Chili, while _Sphærodactylus_ and _Cubina_ are Neotropical, the former
ranging to Patagonia, the latter to Chili; and lastly the American family
Iguanidæ represented by eight genera, no less than six being peculiar, (or
almost so,) to the South temperate region. These are _Leiodera_,
_Diplolæmus_ and _Proctrotretus_, ranging from Chili to Patagonia;
_Leiolæmus_, from Peru to Patagonia; _Phrymaturus_, confined to Chili, and
_Ptygoderus_ peculiar to Patagonia and Tierra del Fuego. The other two
genera, _Oplurus_ and _Leiosaurus_, are common to Chili and tropical South
America.

Tortoises appear to be scarce, a species of _Hydromedusa_ only being
recorded. Of the Amphibia, batrachia (frogs and toads) alone are
represented, and appear to be tolerably abundant, seventeen species having
been collected by Mr. Darwin in this sub-region. Species of the South
American genera _Phryniscus_, _Hylaplesia_, _Telmatobius_, _Cacotus_,
_Hylodes_, _Cyclorhamphus_, _Pleurodema_, _Cystignathus_, and _Leiuperus_,
are found in various localities, some extending even to the Straits of
Magellan,---the extreme southern limit of both Reptilia and Amphibia,
except one lizard (_Ptygoderus_) found by Professor Cunningham in Tierra
del Fuego. There are also four peculiar genera, _Rhinoderma_ belonging to
the Engystomidæ; _Alsodes_ and _Nannophryne_ to the Bombinatoridæ;
_Opisthodelphys_ to the Hylidæ; and _Calyptocephalus_ to the Discoglossidæ.

It thus appears, that in the Reptiles all the groups are typically
American, and that most of the peculiar genera belong to families which are
exclusively American. The Amphibia, on the other hand, present some
interesting external relations, but these are as much with Australia as
with the North temperate regions. The Bombinatoridæ are indeed Palæarctic,
but a larger proportion are Neotropical, and one genus inhabits New
Zealand. The Chilian genus _Calyptocephalus_ is allied to Australian
tropical genera. {42}The Neotropical genera of Ranidæ, five of which extend
to Chili and Patagonia, belong to a division which is Australian and
Neotropical, and which has species in the Oriental and Ethiopian regions.

_Fresh-water Fishes._--These present some peculiar forms, and some very
interesting phenomena of distribution. The genus _Percilia_ has been found
only in the Rio de Maypu in Chili; and _Percichthys_, also belonging to the
perch family, has five species confined to the fresh waters of South
Temperate America, and one far away in Java. _Nematogenys_ (1 sp.) is
peculiar to Chili; _Trichomycterus_ reaches 15,000 feet elevation in the
Andes,--both belonging to the Siluridæ; _Chirodon_ (2 sp.), belonging to
the Characinidæ, is peculiar to Chili; and several other genera of the same
family extend into this sub-region from Brazil. The family _Haplochitonidæ_
has a remarkable distribution; one of its genera, Haplochiton (2 sp.),
inhabiting Tierra del Fuego and the Falkland Islands, while the other,
_Prototroctes_, is found only in South Australia and New Zealand. Still
more remarkable is _Galaxias_ (forming the family Galaxidæ), the species of
which are divided between Temperate South America, and Australia, Tasmania,
and New Zealand; and there is even one species (_Galaxias attenuatus_)
which is found in the Chatham Islands, New Zealand, and Tasmania, as well
as in the Falkland Islands and Patagonia. _Fitzroya_ (1 sp.) is found only
at Montevideo; _Orestias_ (6 sp.) is peculiar to Lake Titicaca in the high
Andes of Bolivia; _Jenynsia_ (1 sp.) in the Rio de la Plata--all belonging
to the characteristic South American family of the Cyprinodontidæ.

_Insects._--It is in insects more than in any other class of animals, that
we find clear indications of a not very remote migration of northern forms,
along the great mountain range to South Temperate America, where they have
established themselves as a prominent feature in the entomology of the
country. The several orders and families, however, differ greatly in this
respect; and there are some groups which are only represented by
modifications of tropical forms, as we have seen to be almost entirely the
case in birds and reptiles.

{43}_Lepidoptera._--The butterflies of the South Temperate Sub-region are
not numerous, only about 29 genera and 80 species being recorded. Most of
these are from Chili, which is sufficiently accounted for by the general
absence of wood on the east side of the Andes from Buenos Ayres to South
Patagonia. The families represented are as follows: Satyridæ, with 11
genera and 27 species, are the most abundant; Nymphalidæ, 2 genera and 8
species; Lemoniidæ, 1 genus, 1 species; Lycænidæ, 3 genera, 8 species;
Pieridæ, 6 genera, 14 species; Papilionidæ, 2 genera, 8 species; Hesperidæ,
4 genera, 13 species. One genus of Satyridæ (_Elina_) and 2 of Pieridæ
(_Eroessa_ and _Phulia_) are peculiar to Chili. The following are the
genera whose derivation must be traced to the north temperate
zone:--_Tetraphlybia_, _Neosatyrus_, and 3 allied genera of 1 species each,
were formerly included under _Erebia_, a northern and arctic form, yet
having a few species in South Africa; _Argyrophorus_, allied to _Æneis_, a
northern genus; _Hipparchia_, a northern genus yet having a species in
Brazil;--all Satyridæ. The Nymphalidæ are represented by the typical north
temperate genus _Argynnis_, with 7 species in Chili; _Colias_, among the
Pieridæ, is usually considered to be a northern genus, but it possesses
representatives in South Africa, the Sandwich Islands, Malabar, New
Grenada, and Peru, as well as Chili, and must rather be classed as
cosmopolitan. These form a sufficiently remarkable group of northern forms,
but they are accompanied by others of a wholly Neotropical origin. Such are
_Stibomorpha_ with 6 species, ranging through South America to Guatemala,
and _Eteona_, common to Chili and Brazil (Satyridæ); _Apodemia_ (Lemoniidæ)
confined to Tropical America and Chili. _Hesperocharis_ and _Callidryas_
(Pieridæ), both tropical; and _Thracides_ (Hesperidæ) confined to Tropical
America and Chili. Other genera are widely scattered; as, _Epinephile_
found also in Mexico and Australia; _Cupido_, widely spread in the tropics;
_Euryades_, found only in La Plata and Paraguay, allied to South American
forms of _Papilio_, to the Australian _Eurycus_, and the northern
_Parnassius_; and _Heteropterus_, scattered in Chili, North America, and
Tropical Africa. We find then, among butterflies, a large north-temperate
element, {44}intermingled in nearly equal proportions with forms derived
from Tropical America; and the varying degrees of resemblances of the
Chilian to the northern species, seems to indicate successive immigrations
at remote intervals.

_Coleoptera._--It is among the beetles of South Temperate America that we
find some of the most curious examples of remote affinities, and traces of
ancient migrations. The Carabidæ are very well represented, and having been
more extensively collected than most other families, offer us perhaps the
most complete materials. Including the Cicindelidæ, about 50 genera are
known from the South Temperate Sub-region, the greater part from Chili, but
a good number also from Patagonia and the Straits of Magellan. Of these
more than 30 are peculiar, and most of them are so isolated that it is
impossible to determine with precision their nearest allies.

The only remarkable form of Cicindelidæ is _Agrius_, a genus allied to the
_Amblycheila_ and _Omus_ of N.W. America. Two genera of Carabidæ,
_Cascellius_ and _Baripus_, are closely allied to _Promecoderus_, an
Australian genus; and another, _Lecanomerus_, has one species in Chili and
the other in Australia. Five or six of the peculiar genera are undoubtedly
allied to characteristic Palæarctic forms; and such northern genera as
_Carabus_, _Pristonychus_, _Anchomenus_, _Pterostichus_, _Percus_,
_Bradycellus_, _Trechus_, and _Bembidium_, all absent from Tropical
America, give great support to the view that there is a close relation
between the insects of the northern regions and South Temperate America. A
decided tropical element is, however, present. _Tropopterus_ is near
_Colpodes_, a Tropical and South American genus; _Mimodromius_ and
_Plagiotelium_ are near _Calleida_, a South American genus; while
_Pachyteles_, _Pericompsus_, _Variopalpus_, and _Calleida_ are widely
spread American groups. The preponderance of northern forms seems, however,
to be undoubted.

Six Carabidæ are known from Juan Fernandez, 3 being identical with Chilian
species and 3 peculiar. As the island is 350 miles from the mainland, we
have here a proof of how readily insects may be transported great
distances.

{45}The Palæarctic affinity of the South Temperate Carabidæ may be readily
understood, if we bear in mind the great antiquity of the group, and the
known long persistence of generic and specific forms of Coleoptera; the
facility with which they may be transported to great distances by gales and
hurricanes, either on land or over the sea; and, therefore, the probability
that suitable stations would be rapidly occupied by species already adapted
to them, to the exclusion of those of the adjacent tracts which had been
specialised under different conditions. If, for example, we carry ourselves
back to the time when the Andes had only risen to half their present
altitude, and Patagonia had not emerged from the ocean (an epoch not very
remote geologically), we should find nearly all the Carabidæ of South
America, adapted to a warm, and probably forest-covered country. If, then,
a further considerable elevation of the land took place, a large temperate
and cold area would be formed, without any suitable insect inhabitants.
During the necessarily slow process of elevation, many of the tropical
Carabidæ would spread upwards, and some would become adapted to the new
conditions; while the majority would probably only maintain themselves by
continued fresh immigrations. But, as the mountains rose, another set of
organisms would make their way along the highest ridges. The abundance and
variety of the North Temperate Carabidæ, and their complete adaptation to a
life on barren plains and rock-strewn mountains, would enable them rapidly
to extend into any newly-raised land suitable to them; and thus the whole
range of the Rocky Mountains and Andes would obtain a population of
northern forms, which would overflow into Patagonia, and there, finding no
competitors, would develope into a variety of modified groups. This
migration was no doubt effected mainly, during successive glacial epochs,
when the mountain-range of the Isthmus of Panama, if moderately increased
in height, might become adapted for the passage of northern forms, while
storms would often carry insects from peak to peak over intervening forest
lowlands or narrow straits of sea. If this is the true explanation, we
ought to find no such preponderant northern element in groups which {46}are
proportionally less developed in cold and temperate climates. Our further
examination will show how far this is the case.

Lucanidæ.--Only four genera are known in the sub-region. Two are peculiar,
_Chiasognathus_ and _Streptocerus_, the former allied to Tropical American,
the latter to Australian genera; the other two genera are exclusively South
American.

Cetoniidæ.--These seem very scarce, only a few species of the Neotropical
genus _Gymnetis_ reaching Patagonia.

Buprestidæ.--These are rather numerous, many very beautiful species being
found in Chili. Nineteen genera are represented in South Temperate America,
and 5 of these are peculiar to it; 3 others are South American genera; 2
are Australian, and the remainder are wide-spread, but all are found also
in Tropical America. The only north-temperate genus is _Dicerca_, and even
this occurs also in the Antilles, Brazil, and Peru. Of the peculiar genera,
the largest, _Dactylozodes_ (26 sp.), has one species in South Brazil, and
is closely allied to _Hyperantha_, a genus of Tropical America;
_Epistomentis_ is allied to _Nascis_, an Australian genus; _Tyndaris_ is
close to _Acmoeodera_, a genus of wide range and preferring desert or dry
countries. The other two are single species of cosmopolitan affinities. On
the whole, therefore, the Buprestidæ are unmistakeably Neotropical in
character.

Longicorns.--Almost the whole of the South Temperate Longicorns inhabit
Chili, which is very rich in this beautiful tribe. About 75 genera and 160
species are known, and nearly half of the genera are peculiar. Many of the
species are large and handsome, rivalling in beauty those of the most
favoured tropical lands. Of the 8 genera of Prionidæ 6 are peculiar, but
all are allied to Tropical American forms except _Microplophorus_, which
belongs to a group of genera spread over Australia, Europe, and Mexico. The
Cerambycidæ are much more abundant, and their affinities more interesting.
Two (_Syllitus_ and _Pseudocephalus_) are common to Australia and Chili.
Twenty-three are Neotropical; and among these _Ibidion_, _Compsocerus_,
_Callideriphus_, _Trachyderes_, and _Xylocharis_, are best represented.
Twenty are {47}altogether peculiar, but most of them are more or less
closely allied to genera inhabiting Tropical America. Some, as the handsome
_Cheloderus_ and _Oxypeltus_, have no close allies in any part of the
world. _Holopterus_, though very peculiar, shows most resemblance to a New
Zealand insect. _Sibylla_, _Adalbus_, and _Phantagoderus_, have Australian
affinities; while _Calydon_ alone shows an affinity for north-temperate
forms. One species of the northern genus, _Leptura_, is said to have been
found at Buenos Ayres.

The Lamiidæ are less abundant. Nine of the genera are Neotropical. Two
(_Apomecyna_ and _Exocentrus_) are spread over all tropical regions. Ten
genera are peculiar; and most of these are related to Neotropical groups or
are of doubtful affinities. Only one, _Aconopterus_, is decidedly allied to
a northern genus, _Pogonochærus_. It thus appears, that none of the Lamiidæ
exhibit Australian affinities, although these are a prominent feature in
the relations of the Cerambycidæ.



It is evident, from the foregoing outline, that the insects of South
Temperate America, more than any other class of animals, exhibit a
connection with the north temperate regions, yet this connection is only
seen in certain groups. In Diurnal Lepidoptera and in Carabidæ, the
northern element is fully equal to the tropical, or even preponderates over
it. We have already suggested an explanation of this fact in the case of
the Carabidæ, and with the butterflies it is not more difficult. The great
mass of Neotropical butterflies are forest species, and have been developed
for countless ages in a forest-clad tropical country. The north temperate
butterflies, on the other hand, are very largely open-country species,
frequenting pastures, mountains, and open plains, and often wandering over
an extensive area. These would find, on the higher slopes of mountains, a
vegetation and conditions suited to them, and would occupy such stations in
less time than would be required to adapt and modify the forest-haunting
groups of the American lowlands. In those groups of insects, however, in
which the conditions of life are nearly the same as regards both temperate
and tropical species, the superior {48}number and variety of the tropical
forms has given them the advantage. Thus we find that among the Lucanidæ,
Buprestidæ, and Longicorns, the northern element is hardly perceptible.
Most of these are either purely Neotropical, or allied to Neotropical
genera, with the admixture, however, of a decided Australian element. As in
the case of the Amphibia and fresh-water fishes, the Australian affinity,
as shown by insects, is of two kinds, near and remote. We have a few genera
common to the two countries; but more commonly the genera are very
distinct, and the affinity is shown by the genera of both countries
belonging to a group peculiar to them, but which may be of very great age.
In the former case, we must impute some of the resemblance of the two
faunas to an actual interchange of forms within the epoch of existing
genera--a period of vast and unknown duration in the class of insects;
while in the latter case, and perhaps also in many of the former, it seems
more in accordance with the whole of the phenomena, to look upon most of
the instances as survivals, in the two southern temperate areas, of the
relics of groups which had once a much wider distribution. That this is the
true explanation, is suggested by the numerous cases of discontinuous and
scattered distribution we have had to notice, in which every part of the
globe, without exception, is implicated; and there is a reason why these
survivals should be rather more frequent in Australia and temperate South
America, inasmuch as these two areas agree in the absence of a considerable
number of otherwise cosmopolitan vertebrate types, and are also in many
respects very similar in climatic and other physical conditions. The
preponderating influence of the organic over the physical environment, as
taught by Mr. Darwin, leads us to give most weight to the first of the
above-mentioned causes; to which we may also impute such undoubted cases of
survival of ancient types as the Centetidæ of the Antilles and
Madagascar--both areas strikingly deficient in the higher vertebrate forms.
The probable mode and time of the cross migration between Australia and
South America, has been sufficiently discussed in our chapter on the
Australian region, when treating of the origin and affinities of the New
Zealand fauna.


{49}_Islands of the South Temperate Sub-region._

These are few, and of not much zoological interest. Tierra del Fuego,
although really an island, is divided from the mainland by so narrow a
channel that it may be considered as forming part of the continent. The
guanaco (_Auchenia huanaco_) ranges over it, and even to small islands
further south.

_The Falkland Islands._--These are more important, being situated about 350
miles to the east of Southern Patagonia; but the intervening sea is
shallow, the 100 fathom line of soundings passing outside the islands. We
have therefore reason to believe that they have been connected with South
America at a not distant epoch; and in agreement with this view we find
most of their productions identical, while the few that are peculiar are
closely allied to the forms of the mainland.

The only indigenous Mammals are a wolf-like fox (_Pseudalopex antarcticus_)
said to be found nowhere else, but allied to two other species inhabiting
Southern Patagonia; and a species of mouse, probably one of the American
genera _Hesperomys_ or _Reithrodon_.

Sixty-seven species of Birds have been obtained in these islands, but only
18 are land-birds; and even of these 7 are birds of prey, leaving only 11
Passeres. The former are all common South American forms, but one species,
_Milvago australis_, seems peculiar. The 11 Passeres belong to 9 genera,
all found on the adjacent mainland. Three, or perhaps four, of the species
are however peculiar. These are _Phrygilus melanoderus_, _P.
xanthogrammus_, _Cinclodes antarcticus_, and _Muscisaxicola macloviana_.
The wading and swimming birds are of little interest, except the penguins,
which are greatly developed; no less than eight species being found, five
as residents and three as accidental visitors.

No reptiles are known to inhabit these islands.

_Juan Fernandez._--This island is situated in the Pacific Ocean, about 400
miles west of Valparaiso in Chili. It is only a few miles in extent, yet it
possesses four land-birds, excluding the powerful Accipitres. These are
_Turdus falklandicus_; _Anæretes {50}fernandensis_, one of the Tyrannidæ;
and two humming-birds, _Eustephanus fernandensis_ and _E. galeritus_. The
first is a widespread South Temperate species, the two next are peculiar to
the island, while the last is a Chilian species which ranges south to
Tierra del Fuego. But ninety miles beyond this island lies another, called
"Mas-a-fuero," very much smaller; yet this, too, contains four species of
similar birds; one, _Oxyurus mas-a-fueræ_, allied to the wide-spread South
Temperate _O. spinicauda_, and _Cinclodes fusus_, a South Temperate
species--both Dendrocolaptidæ; with a humming-bird, _Eustephanus leyboldi_,
allied to the species in the larger island. The preceding facts are taken
from papers by Mr. Sclater in the _Ibis_ for 1871, and a later one in the
same journal by Mr. Salvin (1875). The former author has some interesting
remarks on the three species of humming-birds of the genus _Eustephanus_,
above referred to. The Chilian species, _E. galeritus_, is green in both
sexes. _E. fernandensis_ has the male of a fine red colour and the female
green, though differently marked from the female of _E. galeritus_. _E.
leyboldi_ (of Mas-a-fuera) has the male also red and the female green, but
the female is more like that of _E. galeritus_, than it is like the female
of its nearer ally in Juan Fernandez. Mr. Sclater supposes, that the
ancient parent form of these three birds had the sexes alike, as in the
present Chilian bird; that a pair (or a female having fertilised ova)
reached Juan Fernandez and colonised it. Under the action of sexual
selection (unchecked by some conditions which had impaired its efficacy on
the continent) the male gradually assumed a brilliant plumage, and the
female also slightly changed its markings. Before this change was completed
the bird had established an isolated colony on Mas-a-fuera; and here the
process of change was continued in the male, but from some unknown cause
checked in the female, which thus remains nearer the parent form. Lastly
the slightly modified Chilian bird again reached Juan Fernandez and exists
there side by side with its strangely altered cousin.

All the phenomena can thus be accounted for by known laws, on the theory of
very rare accidental immigrations from the {51}mainland. The species are
here so very few, that the greatest advocate for continental extensions
would hardly call such vast causes into action, to account for the presence
of these three birds on so small and so remote an island, especially as the
union must have continued down to the time of existing species. But if
accidental immigration has sufficed here, it will also assuredly have
sufficed where the islands are larger, and the chances of reaching them
proportionately greater; and it is because an important principle is here
illustrated on so small a scale, and in so simple a manner as to be almost
undeniable, that we have devoted a paragraph to its elucidation.

A few Coleoptera from Juan Fernandez present analogous phenomena. All
belong to Chilian genera, while a portion of them constitute peculiar
species.

Land-shells are rather plentiful, there being about twenty species
belonging to seven genera, all found in the adjacent parts of South
America; but all the species are peculiar, as well as four others found on
the island of Mas-a-fuera.


_III. Tropical North America, or the Mexican Sub-region._

This sub-region is of comparatively small extent, consisting of the
irregular neck of land, about 1,800 miles long, which connects the North
and South American continents. Almost the whole of its area is mountainous,
being in fact a continuation of the great range of the Rocky Mountains. In
Mexico it forms an extensive table-land, from 6,000 to 9,000 feet above the
sea, with numerous volcanic peaks from 12,000 to 18,000 feet high; but in
Yucatan and Honduras, the country is less elevated, though still
mountainous. On the shores of the Caribbean Sea and Gulf of Mexico, there
is a margin of low land from 50 to 100 miles wide, beyond which the
mountains rise abruptly; but on the Pacific side this is almost entirely
wanting, the mountains rising almost immediately from the sea shore. With
the exception of the elevated plateaus of Mexico and Guatemala, and the
extremity of the peninsula of Yucatan, the whole of Central America is
clothed with forests; and as its surface is much broken up into hill and
valley, and the volcanic {52}soil of a large portion of it is very fertile,
it is altogether well adapted to support a varied fauna, as it does a most
luxuriant vegetation. Although many peculiar Neotropical types are absent,
it yet possesses an ample supply of generic and specific forms; and, as far
as concerns birds and insects, is not perhaps inferior to the richest
portions of South America in the number of species to be found in equal
areas.

Owing to the fact that the former Republic of Mexico comprised much
territory that belongs to the Nearctic region, and that many Nearctic
groups extend along the high-lands to the capital city of Mexico itself,
and even considerably further south, there is much difficulty in
determining what animals really belong to this sub-region. On the
low-lands, tropical forms predominate as far as 28° N. latitude; while on
the cordilleras, temperate forms prevail down to 20°, and are found even
much farther within the tropics.

_Mammalia._--Very few peculiar forms of Mammalia are restricted to tropical
North America; which is not to be wondered at when we consider the small
extent of the country, and the facility of communication with adjacent
sub-regions. A peculiar form of tapir (_Elasmognathus bairdi_) inhabits
Central America, from Panama to Guatemala, and, with _Myxomys_, a genus of
Muridæ, are all at present discovered. _Bassaris_, a remarkable form of
Procyonidæ, has been included in the Nearctic region, but it extends to the
high-lands of Guatemala. _Heteromys_, a peculiar genus of Saccomyidæ or
pouched rats, inhabits Mexico, Honduras, Costa Rica, and Trinidad. Five
genera of monkeys extend here,--_Ateles_, _Mycetes_, _Cebus_,
_Nyctipithecus_, and _Saimiris_; the two former alone reaching Mexico, the
last only going as far as Costa Rica. Other typical Neotropical forms are
_Galera_, the tayra, belonging to the weasel family; _Nasua_, the
coatimundi; _Dicotyles_, the peccary; _Cercolabes_, the tree porcupine;
_Dasyprocta_, the agouti; _Cælogenys_, the paca; _Choloepus_, and
_Arctopithecus_, sloths; _Cyclothurus_, an ant-eater; _Tatusia_, an
armadillo; and _Didelphys_, oppossum. Of Northern forms, _Sorex_, _Vulpes_,
_Lepus_, and _Pteromys_ reach Guatemala.

_Birds._--The productiveness of this district in bird life, may {53}be
estimated from the fact, that Messrs. Salvin and Sclater have catalogued
more than 600 species from the comparatively small territory of Guatemala,
or the portion of Central America between Mexico and Honduras. The great
mass of the birds of this sub-region are of Neotropical families and
genera, but these are intermingled with a number of migrants from temperate
North America, which pass the winter here; with some northern forms on the
high-lands; and with a considerable number of peculiar genera, mostly of
Neotropical affinities.

The genera of birds peculiar to this sub-region belong to the following
families:--Turdidæ (2 genera); Troglodytidæ (1 gen.); Vireonidæ (1 gen.);
Corvidæ (2 gen.); Ampelidæ (1 gen.); Tanagridæ (1 gen.); Fringillidæ (2
gen.); Icteridæ (1 gen.); Formicariidæ (2 gen.); Tyrannidæ (2 gen.);
Cotingidæ (1 gen.); Momotidæ (1 gen.); Trogonidæ (1 gen.); Trochilidæ (14
gen.); Conuridæ (1 gen.); Cracidæ (2 gen.); Strigidæ (1 gen.); in all 37
genera of land-birds. The Neotropical families that do not extend into this
sub-region are, Pteroptochidæ; the sub-family _Furnariinæ_ of the
Dendrocolaptidæ; the sub-family _Conophaginæ_ of the Tyrannidæ; the
sub-family _Rupicolinæ_ of the Cotingidæ; Phytotomidæ; Todidæ;
Opisthocomidæ; Chionididæ; Thinocoridæ; Cariamidæ; Psophiidæ; Eurypygidæ;
Palamedeidæ; and Struthionidæ. On the other hand Paridæ, Certhiidæ,
Ampelidæ, and Phasianidæ, are northern families represented here, but which
do not reach South America; and there are also several northern genera and
species, of Turdidæ, Troglodytidæ, Mniotiltidæ, Vireonidæ, Fringillidæ,
Corvidæ, Tetraonidæ, and Strigidæ, which are similarly restricted. Some of
the most remarkable of the Neotropical genera only extend as far as Costa
Rica and Veragua,--countries which possess a rich and remarkable fauna.
Here only are found an umbrella bird, (_Cephalopterus glabricollis_); a
bell bird (_Chasmorhynchus tricarunculatus_); and species of _Dacnis_
(Ceroebidæ), _Buthraupis_, _Eucometis_, _Tachyphonus_ (Tanagridæ),
_Xiphorhynchus_ (Dendrocolaptidæ); _Hypocnemis_ (Formicariidæ);
_Euscarthmus_ (Tyrannidæ); _Attila_ (Cotingidæ); _Piprites_ (Pipridæ);
_Capito_, _Tetragonops_ (Megalæmidæ); _Selenidera_ (Rhamphastidæ);
_Neomorphus_ {54}(Cuculidæ); _Monasa_ (Bucconidæ); many genera of
Trochilidæ; and _Nothocercus_ (Tinamidæ); none of which extend further
north. A considerable number of the peculiar genera noted above, are also
found in this restricted area, which is probably one of the richest
ornithological districts on the globe.

_Reptiles._--These are much less known than the preceding classes, but they
afford several peculiar and interesting forms. Snakes are perhaps the least
remarkable; yet there are recorded 4 peculiar genera of Calamariidæ, 1 of
Colubridæ, 1 of Homalopsidæ, 3 of Dipsadidæ; while _Boa_ and _Elaps_ are in
common with South America. Lizards are much more specially developed.
_Chirotes_, one of the Amphisbænians, is confined to Mexico and the
southern part of the Nearctic region; _Heloderma_ forming a peculiar
family, Helodermidæ, is Mexican only; _Abronia_ and _Barissia_ (Zonuridæ)
are also Mexican, as is _Siderolampus_ belonging to the Scincidæ, while
_Blepharactitis_ (same family) inhabits Nicaragua; _Brachydactylus_, one of
the geckoes, is from Costa Rica; while _Phymatolepis_, _Lamanctus_,
_Corytheolus_, _Cachrix_, _Corythophanes_ and _Chamæleopsis_, all belonging
to the Iguanidæ, are confined to various parts of the sub-region. In the
same family we have also the Antillean, _Cyclura_, and the Nearctic
_Phrynosoma_ and _Tropidolepis_, as well as the wide-spread American genus
_Anolius_.

Among the tortoises, _Staurotypus_, allied to _Chelydra_, is found in
Mexico and Guatemala; and another genus, _Claudius_, has been lately
described from Mexico.

_Amphibia._--These are chiefly Batrachians; _Rhinophryna_ (forming a
peculiar family) being confined to Mexico; _Triprion_, a genus of Hylidæ,
inhabiting Yucatan, with _Leyla_ and _Strabomantis_ (Polypedatidæ) found
only in Costa Rica and Veragua, are peculiar genera. The Salamandridæ, so
abundant in the Nearctic region, are represented by a few species of
_Amblystoma_ and _Spelerpes_.

_Fresh-water fish._--Since the British Museum catalogue was published, a
valuable paper by Dr. Günther, in the Transactions of the Zoological
Society for 1868, furnishes much additional information on the fishes of
Central America. In that part of the region south of Mexico, 106 species of
fresh-water fishes are {55}enumerated; and 17 of these are found in streams
flowing into both the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. On the whole, 11
families are represented among the fresh-water fish, and about 38 genera.
Of these, 14 are specially Nearctic,--_Amiurus_ (Siluridæ); _Fundulus_
(Cyprinodontidæ); _Sclerognathus_ (Cyprinidæ); and _Lepidosteus_
(Ganoidei). A much larger number are Neotropical; and several Neotropical
genera, as _Heros_ and _Poecilia_, are more largely developed here than in
any other part of the region. There are also a considerable number of
peculiar genera;--_Petenia_, _Theraps_, and _Neotrophus_ (Chromides);
_Ælurichthys_ (Siluridæ); _Chalcinopsis_ (Characniidæ); _Characodon_,
_Belonesox_, _Pseudoxiphophorus_, _Platypoecilus_, _Mollienesia_, and
_Xiphophorus_ (Cyprinodontidæ). A few peculiar Antillean forms are also
present; as _Agonostoma_ (Mugilidæ); _Gambusia_ and _Girardinuus_
(Cyprinodontidæ). The other families represented are Percidæ (1 genus);
Pristopomatidæ (2 gen.); Gobiidæ (1 gen.); Clupeidæ (2 gen.); and Gymnotidæ
(1 genus).

On the whole the fish-fauna is typically Neotropical, but with a small
infusion of Nearctic forms. There are a considerable proportion of peculiar
genera, and almost all the species are distinct from those of other
countries. The predominant family is that of the Cyprinodontidæ,
represented by 12 genera; and the genus _Heros_ (Chromidæ) has here its
maximum development, containing between thirty and forty species. Dr.
Günther considers that a number of sub-faunas can be distinguished,
corresponding to some extent, with the islands into which the country would
be divided by a subsidence of about 2,000 feet. The most important of these
divisions is that separating Honduras from Costa Rica, and as it also
divides a very marked ornithological fauna we have every reason to believe
that such a division must have existed during the latter portion of the
tertiary epoch. We shall find some farther evidence of this division in the
next class.

_Insects._--The butterflies of various parts of Central America and Mexico,
having been largely collected, offer us some valuable evidence as to the
relations of this sub-region. Their general character is wholly
Neotropical, about one half of the {56}South American genera being found
here. There are also a few peculiar genera, as, _Drucina_ (Satyridæ);
_Microtia_ (Nymphalidæ); _Eumæus_ (Lycænidæ); and _Eucheira_ (Pieridæ).
_Clothilda_ (Nymphalidæ) is confined to this sub-region and the Antilles.
The majority of the genera range over the whole sub-region from Panama to
Mexico, but there are a considerable number, comprising many of the most
characteristic South American forms, which do not pass north of Costa Rica
or Nicaragua. Such are _Lycorea_, _Ituna_, _Thyridia_, _Callithomia_,
_Oleria_ and _Ceratina_,--all characteristic South American groups of
Danaidæ; _Pronophila_ and _Dynastor_ (Satyridæ); _Protogonius_, _Pycina_,
_Prepona_, _Nica_, _Ectima_ and _Colænis_ (Nymphalidæ); _Eurybia_ and
_Methonella_ (Nemeobiidæ); _Hades_, and _Panthemos_ (Erycinidæ).

_Coleoptera._--These present some interesting features, but owing to their
vast number only a few of the more important families can be noticed.

Cicindelidæ.--The only specially Neotropical genera recorded as occurring
in this sub-region, are _Ctenostoma_ and _Hiresia_, both reaching Mexico.

Carabidæ.--Several genera are peculiar. _Molobrus_ is found in all parts of
the sub-region, while _Onychopterygia_, _Phymatocephalus_, and
_Anisotarsus_ are Mexican only. There are about 20 South American genera,
most of which extend to Mexico, and include such characteristic Neotropical
forms as _Agra_, _Callida_, _Coptodera_, _Pachyteles_, _Ardistomus_,
_Aspidoglossa_, _Stenocrepis_, and _Pelecium_.

Lucanidæ.--Of this important family there is, strange to say, not a single
species recorded in Gemminger and Harold's catalogue up to 1868! It is
almost impossible that they can be really absent; yet their place seems to
he, to some extent, supplied by an unusual development of the allied
Passalidæ, of which there are five South American and six peculiar genera.

Cetoniidæ.--All the larger South American genera extend to Mexico, which
country possesses 3 peculiar forms, _Ischnoscelis_, _Psilocnemis_, and
_Dialithus_; while _Trigonopeltastes_ is characteristic, having 4 Mexican,
1 Brazilian, and 1 North American species.

{57}Buprestidæ.--In this family there are no peculiar genera. All the large
South American groups are absent, the only important and characteristic
genus being _Stenogaster_.

Longicorns.--This important group is largely developed, the country being
well adapted to them; and their distribution presents some features of
interest.

In the Prionidæ there are 6 peculiar genera, the largest being _Holonotus_
with 3 species; two others, _Derotrachus_ and _Mallaspis_, are
characteristic; 3 more are common to South America, and 1 to Cuba. The
Cerambycidæ are much more numerous, and there are 24 peculiar genera, the
most important being _Sphenothecus_, _Entomosterna_, and _Cyphosterna_;
while _Crioprosopus_ and _Metaleptus_ are characteristic of the sub-region,
although extending into South America; about 12 Neotropical genera extend
to Mexico or Guatemala, while 12 more stop short, as far as yet known, at
Nicaragua. Lamiidæ have a very similar distribution; 13 genera are
peculiar, the most important being _Monilema_, _Hamatoderus_, and
_Carneades_, while _Phæa_ and _Lagochirus_ are characteristic. About
sixteen typical Neotropical genera extend to Mexico, and 15 more only reach
Nicaragua, among which are such important genera as _Anisopus_,
_Lepturgus_, and _Callia_.

The land-shells are not sufficiently known to furnish any corresponding
results. They are however mostly of South American genera, and have
comparatively little affinity for those of the Antilles.

_Relations of the Mexican sub-region to the North and South American
Continents._--The sudden appearance of numerous South American forms of
Edentata in temperate North America, in Post-Tertiary times, as narrated in
Chapter VII., together with such facts as the occurrence of a considerable
number of identical species of sea fish on the two sides of the Central
American isthmus, render it almost certain that the union of North and
South America is comparatively a recent occurrance, and that during the
Miocene and Pliocene periods, they were separated by a wide arm of the sea.
The low country of Nicaragua was probably the part submerged, leaving the
highlands of Mexico and Guatemala still united with the North {58}American
continent, and forming part of the Tertiary "Nearctic region." This is
clearly indicated both by the many Nearctic forms which do not pass south
of Nicaragua, of which the turkeys (_Meleagris_) are a striking example,
and by the comparative poverty of this area in typical Neotropical groups.
During the Miocene period there was not that marked diversity of climate
between North and South America that now prevails; for when a luxuriant
vegetation covered what are now the shores of the Arctic Ocean, the country
south of the great lakes must have been almost or quite tropical. At an
early Tertiary period, the zoological differences of the Nearctic and
Neotropical regions were probably more radical than they are now, South
America being a huge island, or group of islands--a kind of Australia of
the New World, chiefly inhabited by the imperfectly organized Edentata;
while North America abounded in Ungulata and Carnivora, and perhaps formed
a part of the great Old World continent. There were also one or more very
ancient unions (in Eocene or Miocene times) of the two continents,
admitting of the entrance of the ancestral types of Quadrumana into South
America, and, somewhat later, of the Camelidæ; while the isthmus south of
Nicaragua was at one time united to the southern continent, at another made
insular by subsidence near Panama, and thus obtained that rich variety of
Neotropical types that still characterises it. When the final union of the
two continents took place, the tropical climate of the lower portions of
Guatemala and Mexico would invite rapid immigration from the south; while
some northern forms would extend their range into and beyond the newly
elevated territory. The Mexican sub-region has therefore a composite
character, and we must not endeavour too rigidly to determine its northern
limits, nor claim as exclusively Neotropical, forms which are perhaps
comparatively recent immigrants; and it would perhaps be a more accurate
representation of the facts, if we were to consider all the highlands of
Mexico and Guatemala above the limits of the tropical forests, as still
belonging to the Nearctic region, of which the whole country so recently
formed a part.

The long-continued separation of North and South America {59}by one or more
arms of the sea, as above indicated, is further rendered necessary by the
character of the molluscan fauna of the Pacific shores of tropical America,
which is much more closely allied to that of the Caribbean sea, and even of
West Africa, than to that of the Pacific islands. The families and many of
the genera are the same, and a certain proportion of very closely allied or
identical species, shows that the union of the two oceans continued into
late Tertiary times. When the evidence of both land and sea animals support
each other as they do here, the conclusions arrived at are almost as
certain as if we had (as we no doubt some day shall have) geological proof
of these successive subsidences.

_Islands of the Mexican Sub-region._--The only islands of interest
belonging to this sub-region, are Tres Marias and Socorro, recently
investigated by Col. Grayson for some of the American Natural History
societies.

Tres Marias consist of four small islands lying off the coast of
north-western Mexico, about 70 miles from San Blas. The largest is about 15
miles long by 10 wide. They are of horizontally stratified deposits, of
moderate height and flat-topped, and everywhere covered with luxuriant
virgin forests. They appear to lie within the 100 fathom line of soundings.
Fifty-two species of birds, of which 45 were land-birds, were collected on
these islands. They consisted of 19 Passeres; 11 Picariæ (7 being
humming-birds); 10 Accipitres; 2 parrots, and 3 pigeons. All were Mexican
species except 4, which were new, and presumably peculiar to the islands,
and one tolerably marked variety. The new species belong to the following
genera;--_Parula_ and _Granatellus_ (Mniotiltidæ); _Icterus_ (Icteridæ);
and _Amazilia_ (Trochilidæ). A small _Psittacula_ differs somewhat from the
same species on the mainland.

There are a few mammalia on the islands; a rabbit (_Lepus_) supposed to be
new; a very small opossum (_Didelphys_), and a racoon (_Procyon_). There
are also several tree-snakes, a _Boa_, and many lizards. The occurrence of
so many mammalia and snakes is a proof that these islands have been once
joined to the mainland; but the fact that some of the species of both birds
and {60}mammals are peculiar, indicates that the separation is not a very
recent one. At the same time, as all the species are very closely allied to
those of the opposite coasts when not identical, we may be sure that the
subsidence which isolated them is not geologically remote.

Socorro, the largest of the Revillagigedo Islands, is altogether different
from the Tres Marias. It is situated a little further south (19 S.
Latitude), and about 300 miles from the coast, in deep water. It is about
2,000 feet high, very rugged and bare, and wholly volcanic. No mammalia
were observed, and no reptiles but a small lizard, a new species of a genus
(_Uta_) characteristic of the deserts of N.-Western Mexico. The only
observed land-shell (_Orthalicus undatus_) also inhabits N.-W. Mexico. Only
14 species of birds were obtained, of which 9 were land-birds; but of these
4 were new species, one a peculiar variety, and another (_Parula
insularis_) a species first found in the Tres Marias. With the exception of
this bird and a _Buteo_, all the land-birds belonged to different _genera_
from any found on the Tres Marias, though all were Mexican forms. The
peculiar species belonged to the genera _Harporhynchus_ (Turdidæ);
_Troglodytes_ (Troglodytidæ); _Pipilo_ (Fringillidæ); _Zenaidura_
(Columbidæ); and a variety of _Conurus holochrous_ (Psittacidæ).

The absence of mammals and snakes, the large proportion of peculiar
species, the wholly volcanic nature of these islands, and their situation
in deep water 300 miles from land,--all indicate that they have not formed
part of the continent, but have been raised in the ocean; and the close
relation of their peculiar species to those living in N.-Western Mexico,
renders it probable that their antiquity is not geologically great.

The Cocos Islands, about 300 miles S.-W. of the Isthmus of Panama, are
known to possess one peculiar bird, a cuckoo of the _Coccyzus_ type, which
is considered by some ornithologists to constitute a peculiar genus,
_Nesococcyx_.


_IV. The West Indian Islands, or Antillean Sub-region._

The West Indian islands are, in many respects, one of the most interesting
of zoological sub-regions. In position they {61}form an unbroken chain
uniting North and South America, in a line parallel to the great Central
American isthmus; yet instead of exhibiting an intermixture of the
productions of Florida and Venezuela, they differ widely from both these
countries, possessing in some groups a degree of speciality only to be
found elsewhere in islands far removed from any continent. They consist of
two very large islands, Cuba and Hayti;[3] two of moderate size, Jamaica
and Portorico; and a chain of much smaller islands, St. Croix, Anguilla,
Barbuda, Antigua, Guadeloupe, Dominica, Martinique, St. Lucia, St. Vincent,
Barbadoes, and Grenada, with a host of intervening islets. Tobago,
Trinidad, Margarita, and Curaçao, are situated in shallow water near the
coast of South America, of which they form part zoologically. To the north
of Cuba and Hayti are the Bahamas, an extensive group of coral reefs and
islands, 700 miles long, and although very poor in animal life, belonging
zoologically to the Antilles. All the larger islands, and most of the
smaller ones (except those of coral formation) are very mountainous and
rocky, the chains rising to about 8,000 feet in Hayti and Jamaica, and to
nearly the same height in Cuba. All, except where they have been cleared by
man, are covered with a luxuriant forest vegetation; the temperature is
high and uniform; the rains ample; the soil, derived from granitic and
limestone rocks, exceedingly fertile; and as the four larger islands
together are larger than Great Britain, we might expect an ample and
luxuriant fauna. The reverse is however the case; and there are probably no
land areas on the globe, so highly favoured by nature in all the essentials
for supporting animal life, and at the same time so poor in all the more
highly organised groups of animals. Before entering upon our sketch of the
main features of this peculiar but limited fauna, it will be well to note a
few peculiarities in the physical structure of the islands, which have an
important bearing on their past {62}history, and will enable us to account
for much that is peculiar in the general character of their natural
productions.

If we draw a line immediately south of St. Croix and St. Bartholomew, we
shall divide the Archipelago into two very different groups. The southern
range of islands, or the Lesser Antilles, are, almost without exception,
volcanic; beginning with the small detached volcanoes of Saba and St.
Eustatius, and ending with the old volcano of Grenada. Barbuda and Antigua
are low islands of Tertiary or recent formation, connected with the
volcanic islands by a submerged bank at no great depth. The islands to the
north and west are none of them volcanic; many are very large, and these
have all a central nucleus of ancient or granitic rocks. We must also note,
that the channels between these islands are not of excessive depth, and
that their outlines, as well as the direction of their mountain ranges,
point to a former union. Thus, the northern range of Hayti is continued
westward in Cuba, and eastward in Portorico; while the south-western
peninsula extends in a direct line towards Jamaica, the depth between them
being 600 fathoms. Between Portorico and Hayti there is only 250 fathoms;
while close to the south of all these islands the sea is enormously deep,
from more than 1,000 fathoms south of Cuba and Jamaica, to 2,000 south of
Hayti, and 2,600 fathoms near the south-east extremity of Portorico. The
importance of the division here pointed out will be seen, when we state,
that indigenous mammalia of peculiar genera are found on the western group
of islands only; and it is on these that all the chief peculiarities of
Antillian zoology are developed.

_Mammalia._--The mammals of the West Indian Islands are exceedingly few,
but very interesting. Almost all the orders most characteristic of South
America are absent. There are no monkeys, no carnivora, no edentata.
Besides bats, which are abundant, only two orders are represented; rodents,
by peculiar forms of a South American family; and insectivora (an order
entirely wanting in South America) by a genus belonging to a family largely
developed in Madagascar and found nowhere else. The early voyagers mention
"Coatis" and "Agoutis" as being {63}found in Hayti and the other large
islands, and it is not improbable that species allied to _Nasua_ and
_Dasyprocta_ did exist, and have been destroyed by the dogs of the
invaders; though, on the other hand, these names may have been applied to
the existing species, which do bear some general resemblance to these two
forms.

The Chiroptera, or bats, are represented by a large number of species and
by several peculiar genera. The American family of Phyllostomidæ or
vampires, has six genera in the Antilles, of which three, _Lonchorina_,
_Brachyphylla_, and _Phyllonycteris_, are peculiar, the latter being found
only in Cuba. The Vespertilionidæ have four genera, of which one,
_Nycticellus_, is confined to Cuba. There are six genera of Noctilionidæ,
of which one, _Phyllodia_, is confined to Jamaica.

The Insectivora are represented by the genus _Solenodon_, of which two
species are known, one inhabiting Cuba the other Hayti. These are small
animals about the size of a cat, with long shrew-like snout, bare rat-like
tail, and long claws. Their peculiar dentition and other points of their
anatomy shows that they belong to the family Centetidæ, of which five
different genera inhabit Madagascar; while there is nothing closely allied
to them in any other part of the world but in these two islands.

Seals are said to be found on the shores of some of the islands, but they
are very imperfectly known.

The rodents belong to the family Octodontidæ, or, according to some
authors, to the Echimyidæ, both characteristic South American groups. They
consist of two genera, _Capromys_, containing three or four species
inhabiting Cuba and Jamaica; while _Plagiodontia_ (very closely allied) is
confined to Hayti. A peculiar mouse, a species of the American genus
_Hesperomys_, is said to inhabit Hayti and Martinique, and probably other
islands. A _Dasyprocta_ or agouti, closely allied to, if not identical
with, a South American species, inhabits St. Vincent, St. Lucia, and
Grenada, and perhaps St. Thomas, and is the only mammal of any size
indigenous to the Lesser Antilles. All the islands in which sugar is
cultivated are, however, overrun with European rats and mice, and it is not
improbable that these may have {64}starved out and exterminated some of the
smaller native rodents.

_Birds._--The birds of the Antilles, although very inferior in number and
variety to those of the mainland, are yet sufficiently abundant and
remarkable, to offer us good materials for elucidating the past history of
the country, when aided by such indications as geology and physical
geography can afford.

The total number of land-birds which are permanent residents in the West
India islands is, as nearly as can be ascertained from existing materials,
203. There are, in addition to this number, according to Prof. Baird, 88
migrants from North America, which either spend the winter in some of the
islands or pass on to Central or South America. These migrants belong to 55
genera, and it is an interesting fact that so many as 40 of these genera
have no resident representatives in the islands. This is important, as
showing that this northern migration is probably a recent and superficial
phenomenon, and has not produced any (or a very slight) permanent effect on
the fauna. The migratory genera which have permanent residents, and almost
always representative species, in the islands, are in most cases
characteristic rather of the Neotropical than of the Nearctic fauna, as the
following list will show; _Turdus_, _Dendroeca_, _Vireo_, _Polioptila_,
_Agelæus_, _Icterus_, _Contopus_, _Myiarchus_, _Tyrannus_, _Antrostomus_,
_Chordeiles_, _Coccyzus_, _Columba_. By far the larger part of these birds
visit Cuba only; 81 species being recorded as occurring in that island,
while only 31 have been found in Jamacia, 12 in Porto Rico and St. Croix,
and 2 in Tobago and Trinidad. Setting aside these migratory birds, as
having no bearing on the origin of the true Antillean fauna, we will
discuss the residents somewhat in detail.

The resident land-birds (203 in number) belong to 95 genera and 26
families. Of these families 15 are cosmopolitan or nearly so--Turdidæ,
Sylviidæ, Corvidæ, Hirundinidæ, Fringillidæ, Picidæ, Cuculidæ,
Caprimulgidæ, Cypselidæ, Trogonidæ, Psittacidæ, Columbidæ, Tetraonidæ,
Falconidæ, and Strigidæ; 5 are American only--Vireonidæ, Mniotiltidæ,
Icteridæ, Tyrannidæ, Trochilidæ; 4 are Netropical only or almost
{65}exclusively--Coerebidæ, Tanagridæ, Cotingidæ, Conuridæ; 1 is Antillean
only--Todidæ; while 1--Ampelidæ--is confined (in the western hemisphere) to
North America, and almost to the Nearctic region. Of the 95 genera, no less
than 31, or almost exactly one-third, are peculiar; while of the 203
resident species, 177 are peculiar, the other 26 being all inhabitants of
South or Central America. Considering how closely the islands approach the
continent in several places--Florida, Yucatan, and Venezuela--this amount
of speciality in such locomotive creatures as birds, is probably unexampled
in any other part of the globe. The most interesting of these peculiar
genera are the following: 4 of Turdidæ, or thrushes--1 confined to the
large islands, 1 to the whole archipelago, while 2 are limited to the
Lesser Antilles; 2 genera of Tanagridæ, confined to the larger islands; 2
of Trogonidæ, also confined to the larger islands; 5 of hummingbirds, 3
confined to the Greater, 1 to the Lesser Antilles; 2 of cuckoos, one
represented in all the large islands, the other in Jamaica only; 2 of owls,
one peculiar to Jamaica, the other represented in St. Croix, St. Thomas,
Portorico, and Cuba; and lastly, _Todus_, constituting a peculiar family,
and having representative species in each of the larger islands, is
especially interesting because it belongs to a group of families which are
wholly Neotropical--the Momotidæ, Galbulidæ, and Todidæ. The presence of
this peculiar form, with 2 trogons; 10 species of parrots, all but one
peculiar; 16 peculiar humming-birds belonging to 8 genera; a genus of
Cotingidæ; 10 peculiar tanagers belonging to 3 genera; 9 Coerebidæ of 3
genera; together with species of such exclusively Netropical genera as
_Coereba_, _Certhiola_, _Sycalis_, _Phonipara_, _Elainea_, _Pitangus_,
_Campephilus_, _Chloronerpes_, _Nyctibius_, _Stenopsis_, _Lampornis_,
_Calypte_, _Ara_, _Chrysotis_, _Zenaida_, _Leptoptila_, and _Geotrygon_,
sufficiently demonstrate the predominant affinities of this fauna; although
there are many cases in which it is difficult to say, whether the ancestors
of the peculiar genera or species may not have been derived from the
Nearctic rather than from the Neotropical region.

The several islands differ considerably in their apparent
{66}productiveness, but this is, no doubt, partly due to our knowledge of
Cuba and Jamaica being much more complete than of Hayti. The species of
resident land-birds at present known are as follows:--

  Cuba               68 species of which 40 are peculiar to it.
  Hayti              40    "         "   17         "        "
  Jamaica            67    "         "   41         "        "
  Portorico          40    "         "   15         "        "
  Lesser Antilles    45    "         "   24         "        "

If we count the peculiar genera of each island, and reckon as (½) when a
genus is common to two islands only, the numbers are as follows:--Cuba 7½,
Hayti 3½, Jamaica 8½, Portorico 1, Lesser Antilles 3½. These figures show
us, that although Jamaica is one of the smaller and the most isolated of
the four chief islands, it yet stands in the first rank, both for the
number of its species and of its peculiar forms of birds,--and although
this superiority may be in part due to its having been more investigated,
it is probably not wholly so, since Cuba has also been well explored. This
fact indicates, that the West Indian islands have undergone great changes,
and that they were not peopled by immigration from surrounding countries
while in the condition we now see them; for in that case the smaller and
more remote islands would be very much poorer, while Cuba, which is not
only the largest, but nearest to the mainland in two directions, would be
immensely richer, just as it really is in migratory birds.

The number of birds common to the four larger islands is very
small--probably not more than half a dozen; between 20 and 30 are common to
some two of the islands (counting the Lesser Antilles as one island) and a
few to three; but the great mass of the species (at least 140) are confined
each to some one of the five islands or groups we have indicated. This is
an amount of isolation and speciality, probably not to be equalled
elsewhere, and which must have required a remarkable series of physical
changes to bring about. What those changes probably were, we shall be in a
better position to consider when we have completed our survey of the
various classes of land animals.



Plate XVII.

[Illustration]

A SCENE IN CUBA, WITH CHARACTERISTIC ANIMALS.

{67}In the preceding enumeration the Bahamas have been included with Cuba,
as regards the birds they have in common; but they possess some half dozen
species not found elsewhere, and even one central American genus of
humming-birds (_Doricha_) not found in any other part of the Antilles. We
have thus given Cuba rather more peculiar species than it really possesses,
so that the proportionate richness of Jamaica is rather greater than shown
by our figures.

The destruction of the forests and the increase of population, with,
perhaps, the use of firearms, seem to have led to the extermination of some
species of birds in the smaller islands. Professor Newton has called
attention to the work of M. Ledru, who, in 1796, described the birds of St.
Thomas. He mentions a parrot and a parroquet in the island, the latter only
being now known, and very scarce; also a green pigeon and a tody, both now
unknown. No less than six species of parrots are said to have been formerly
found in Guadeloupe and Martinique, which are now extinct.

_Plate XVII. Illustrating the peculiar Mammalia and Birds of the
Antilles._--The scene of this illustration is Cuba, the largest of the West
Indian islands, and one in which all its peculiar zoological features are
well developed. In the foreground is the agouta (_Solenodon cubanus_), a
remarkable insectivorous animal which, with another species inhabiting
Hayti, has no allies on the American continent; nor anywhere in the world
but in Madagascar, where a group of animals are found constituting the
family Centetidæ, to which _Solenodon_ is said undoubtedly to belong. Above
it are a pair of hutias (_Capromys fournieri_), rat-like animals belonging
to the South American family Octodontidæ. They live in the forests, and
climb trees readily, eating all kinds of vegetable food. Three species of
the genus are known, which are found only in Cuba and Jamaica. Just above
these animals is a white-breasted trogon (_Prionoteles temnurus_), confined
to Cuba, and the only species of the genus. Near the top of the picture are
a pair of todies (_Todus multicolor_), singular little insectivorous birds
allied to the motmots, but forming a very distinct family which is confined
to the islands of the {68}Greater Antilles. They are beautifully-coloured
birds,--green above, red and white beneath, and are exceedingly active in
their movements. To the right are a pair of small humming-birds
(_Sporadinus ricordi_), not very remarkable in this beautiful family, but
introduced here because they belong to a genus which is confined to the
Greater Antilles.


_Table of distribution of West-Indian Birds._--As the birds of the West
Indian islands are particularly interesting and their peculiarities
comparatively little known, we give here a table of the genera of
land-birds, compiled from all available sources of information. Owing to
the numerous independent observations on which it is founded, the
discrepancies of nomenclature, and uncertainty in some cases as to the
locality of species, it can only be looked upon as an approximative summary
of the existing materials on Antillean ornithology.


_TABLE OF THE RESIDENT LAND-BIRDS OF THE ANTILLES._

NOTE.--Genera confined to the West Indies are in Italics. An (_a_) after
(1) indicates a species common to two islands: but where there are two or
more species in an island, or the localities are doubtful, this indication
cannot be given. All species not otherwise noted are peculiar to the
Antilles.

  Key to columns:
  Column 1 Cuba.
     "   2 Bahamas.
     "   3 Hayti.
     "   4 Jamaica.
     "   5 Portorico & St. Croix.
     "   6 Lesser Antilles.
     "   7 Total resident species.

  ----------------+-----------------------------+----+---------------------
                  |      Number of Species in   |    |
     Family and   |         each Island.        |    |
       Genus.     +----+----+----+----+----+----+    |   Remarks.
                  |  1 |  2 |  3 |  4 |  5 |  6 |  7 |
  ----------------+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+---------------------
  TURDIDÆ.        |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
   Turdus         | -- | -- | -- |  1 | -- | -- |  1 | Five species migrate
                  |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    to Cuba
   _Mimocichla_   |  2 |  1 |  1 |  1 | -- | -- |  5 |
   _Margarops_    | -- | -- | 1a | -- | 1a |  3 |  4 | Martinique, St.
                  |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |   Lucia, Guada.
   _Rhamphocinclus_ -- | -- | -- | -- | -- |  1 |  1 | Martinique and St.
                  |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |   Lucia
   _Cinclocerthia_| -- | -- | -- | -- | -- |  3 |  3 | Nevis to St. Lucia
   Mimus          |  1 |  1 | -- |  1 | (?)| -- |  3 | Another species
                  |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |   migrates to the
                  |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |   Antilles
                  |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
  SYLVIIDÆ.       |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
   Myiadestes     |  1 | -- | -- |  1 | -- |  1 |  3 | St. Lucia
   Polioptila     |  1 | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- |  1 |
                  |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
  VIREONIDÆ.      |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
   Vireosylvia    |  1 | -- |  1 |  1 |  1 |  1 |  2 | One S. American
                  |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |   species
   Vireo          |  1 |  1 | -- |  1 |  1 | -- |  4 | Five species migrate
                  |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |   to Cuba
   _Laletes_      | -- | -- | -- |  1 | -- | -- |  1 |
   _Phoenicomanes_| -- | -- | -- |  1 | -- | -- |  1 |
                  |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
  CORVIDÆ.        |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
   Corvus         |  1 | -- | 1a |  1 | 1a | -- |  3 |
   Cyanocorax     | -- | -- | -- |  1 | -- | -- |  1 | S. American species
                  |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
  MNIOTILTIDÆ.    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
   Perissoglossa  |  1 | -- |  1 | -- |  1 | -- |  1 | N. American species
   Dendroeca      |  2 |  2 |  1 |  3 |  1 |  1 |  7 | Twelve sp. migrate
                  |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |   to W. I.
   _Teretristis_  |  2 | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- |  2 |
                  |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
  COEREBIDÆ.      |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
   Certhiola      | -- |  1 |  1 |  1 |  2 |  2 |  7 | Dominica and
                  |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |   Martinique
   _Glossiptila_  | -- | -- | -- |  1 | -- | -- |  1 |
   Coereba        |  1 | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- |  1 | S. American species
                  |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
  AMPELIDÆ.       |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
   _Dulus_        | (?)| -- |  1 | (?)| (?)| (?)|  2 | One species locality
                  |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |   unknown
                  |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
  HIRUNDINIDÆ.    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
   Progne         | -- | -- |  1 |  1 |  1 | -- |  1 |
   Pterochelidon  |  1 | -- | -- |  1 |  1 | -- |  1 |
   Hirundo        |  1 | -- | 1a | 1a | -- | -- |  2 | One S. American
                  |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |   species
                  |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
  TANAGRIDÆ.      |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
   Euphonia       | 1a | -- | 1a |  1 |  1 |  1 |  4 | St. Bartholom. &
                  |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |   Martinique
   _Spindalis_    |  2 |  1 |  1 |  1 |  1 | -- |  5 |
   _Phænicophilus_| -- | -- |  1 | -- | -- | -- |  1 |
   Saltator       | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- |  1 |  1 | Guadeloupe and St.
                  |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |   Lucia
                  |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
  FRINGILLIDÆ.    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
    _Loxigilla_   | -- | -- |  1 |  1 | -- |  1 |  3 | Martinique and
                  |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |   Dominica
    _Melopyrrha_  |  1 | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- |  1 |
   Sycalis        | -- | -- | -- |  1 | -- | -- |  1 | S. American species
   Phonipara      |  3 | -- |  3 |  3 |  2 | -- |  4 | One S. American
                  |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |   species
   Chrysomitris   | -- | -- |  1 | -- | -- | -- |  1 |
                  |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
  ICTERIDÆ.       |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
   Icterus        |  1 | -- |  1 |  1 |  2 |  2 |  6 |
   Agelæus        |  2 | -- | -- | -- |  1 | -- |  3 |
   Sturnella      |  1 | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- |  1 | Mexican species
   _Nesopsar_     | -- | -- | -- |  1 | -- | -- |  1 |
   Scolecophagus  |  1 | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- |  1 |
   Quiscalus      | -- | -- |  1 |  1 |  2 |  2 |  4 | St. Lucia,
                  |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |  Martinique and
                  |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |  Barbadoes
                  |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
  TYRANNIDÆ.      |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
   Elainea        | -- | -- | -- |  2 | -- |  1 |  3 |
   Pitangus       | 1a | -- | -- | 1a |  1 | -- |  2 |
   Contopus       | -- | -- | -- |  1 | -- |  1 |  2 | St. Lucia
   Myiarchus      |  2 | -- |  1 |  3 |  1 | 1b |  7 | One S. American
                  |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |   species (b)
   _Blacicus_     | 1a | -- | 1a |  1 | -- | -- |  2 |
   Tyrannus       |  2 | -- | -- | 1b | 1b | 2b |  3 | One sp. in Cen.
                  |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |   America (b)
                  |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
  COTINGIDÆ.      |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
   Hadrostomus    | -- | -- | -- |  1 | -- | -- |  1 |
                  |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
  PICIDÆ.         |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
   Campephilus    |  1 | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- |  1 |
   _Xiphidiopicus_|  1 | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- |  1 |
   Melanerpes     | -- | -- | -- | -- |  1 | -- |  1 |
   Chloronerpes   | -- | -- |  1 | -- | -- | -- |  1 |
   Centurus       |  1 | -- |  1 |  1 | -- | -- |  3 |
   Colaptes       |  2 | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- |  2 |
   _Nesoceleus_   |  1 | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- |  1 |
   _Picumnus_     | -- | -- | ?1 | -- | -- | -- |  1 |
                  |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
  CUCULIDÆ.       |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
   _Saurothera_   |  1 | -- |  1 |  1 |  1 | -- |  4 |
   _Hyetornis_    | -- | -- |  1 |  1 | -- | -- |  2 |
   Coccygus       |  1 | -- |  2 |  1 |  1 |  1 |  3 | Dominica, St. Lucia,
                  |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |   all Neotropical
                  |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |   species
   Crotophaga     |  1 | -- | -- |  1 |  1 |  1 |  2 | N. & Cen. American
                  |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |   species
                  |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
  TODIDÆ.         |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
   _Todus_        |  1 | -- |  1 |  2 |  1 | -- |  5 |
                  |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
  TROGONIDÆ.      |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
   _Prionoteles_  |  1 | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- |  1 |
   _Temnotrogon_  | -- | -- |  1 | -- | -- | -- |  1 |
                  |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
  CAPRIMULGIDÆ.   |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
   Nyctibius      | -- | -- | -- |  1 | -- | -- |  1 | Neotropical species
   Chordeiles     | -- | -- | -- |  1 | -- | -- |  1 |
   Antrostomus    |  2 | -- | -- |  1 | -- |  1 |  2 | One Neotropical
                  |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |   species
   _Siphonorhis_  | -- | -- | -- |  1 | -- | -- |  1 |
   Stenopsis      | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- |  1 |  1 | Martinique
                  |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |   (S. America sp.)
                  |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
  CYPSELIDÆ.      |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
   Cypselus       |  1 | -- | -- |  1 | -- | -- |  1 |
   Panyptila      | -- | -- |  1 | -- | -- | -- |  1 | S. American species
   Hemiprocne     | -- | -- |  1 |  1 | -- | -- |  1 | Mexican species
   Cypseloides    | -- | -- | -- |  1 | -- | -- |  1 |
                  |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
  TROCHILIDÆ.     |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
   Lampornis      | -- | -- | 1a |  1 | 2a | 1a |  3 |
   Doricha        | -- |  2 | -- | -- | -- | -- |  2 |
   _Eulampis_     | -- | -- | -- | -- |  1 |  2 |  2 | St. Croix, Dominica,
                  |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |   St. Lucia,
                  |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |   Martinique
   _Aithurus_     | -- | -- | -- |  1 | -- | -- |  1 |
   _Mellisuga_    | -- | -- |  1 |  1 | -- | -- |  1 |
   Calypte        |  1 | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- |  1 |
   _Orthorhynchus_| -- | -- | -- | -- |  1 |  2 |  3 | Domin., Martini.,
                  |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |   St. Lucia
   _Sporadinus_   |  1 | -- |  1 | -- |  1 | -- |  3 |
                  |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
  CONURIDÆ.       |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
   Ara            |  1 | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- |  1 | S. American species
   Conurus        |  1 | -- | -- |  1 |  1 |  1 |  1 | St. Thomas
                  |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
  PSITTACIDÆ.     |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
   Chrysotis      |  1 | -- |  1 |  2 |  1 |  3 |  8 |
                  |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
  COLUMBIDÆ.      |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
   Columba        |  1 | -- |  1 |  2 |  2 |  1 |  3 | One in Honduras
   Chamæpelia     | -- | -- | -- |  1 |  1 |  1 |  1 |
   Zenaida        |  1 | -- |  1 |  1 |  1 |  2 |  2 |
   Leptoptila     | -- | -- | -- |  1 | -- | -- |  1 |
   Geotrygon      |  2 | -- |  1 |  2 |  1 |  2 |  5 | St. Lucia,
                  |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |   Martinique, one
                  |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |   species Mexican
   _Starnoenas_   |  1 | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- |  1 |
                  |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
  TETRAONIDÆ.     |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
   Ortyx          |  1 | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- |  1 |
                  |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
  FALCONIDÆ.      |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
   Accipiter      |  2 | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- |  2 |
   Hypotriorchis  | -- | -- | -- |  1 | -- | -- |  1 | Mexican species
   Cerchneis      |  2 | -- |  1 | -- | -- |  1 |  2 |
   Cymindis       |  1 | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- |  1 |
   Polyborus      |  1 | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- |  1 | Mexican species
                  |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
  STRIGIDÆ.       |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
   Nyctalops      |  1 | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- |  1 | S. American species
   _Pseudoscops_  | -- | -- | -- |  1 | -- | -- |  1 |
   _Gymnoglaux_   |  1 | -- | -- | -- |  1 | -- |  2 | St. Croix and St.
                  |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |   Thomas
   Glaucidium     |  1 | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- |  1 |
  ----------------+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+---------------------

         {Number of families of resident land-birds in the Antilles   26
  TOTALS { "     "  genera          "        "                "       95
         { "     "  species         "        "                "      203

{72}_Reptiles and Amphibia._--These classes not having been systematically
collected, and the numerous described genera not having undergone careful
revision, little trustworthy information can be derived from them. The
following enumeration of the chief groups hitherto noticed or described,
will, however, show very similar features to those presented by the
birds--a general relation to Neotropical forms, a more special relation to
those of Central America and Mexico, and a considerable number of peculiar
types.

Snakes.--_Arrhyton_ (Calamariidæ) from Cuba, _Hypsirhynchus_ from
Barbadoes, _Cryptodacus_ from Cuba, _Ialtris_ from Hayti, and _Coloragia_
from Cuba (all Colubridæ), have been described as genera peculiar to the
Antilles. _Phylodryas_ and _Dromicus_ (Colubridæ) are Antillean and
Neotropical; _Ahætulla_, (Dendrophidæ) has the same distribution but
extends to tropical Africa; _Epicrates_ and _Corallus_ (Pythonidæ) are
Neotropical and Antillean; while _Chilabothrus_ from Jamaica and _Ungalia_
from Cuba and Jamaica (both Pythonidæ) are found elsewhere only in Central
America and Mexico. There appear to be no Crotalidæ except an introduced
species of _Craspedocephalus_ in St. Lucia.

Lizards are more numerous. _Ameiva_ (Teidæ) is found all over America,
_Gerrhonotus_ (Zonuridæ) is Neotropical and occurs in Cuba; _Gymnopthalmus_
is South American and Antillean. Of Scincidæ seven genera are noted.
_Celestus_ (with 9 species) is peculiar to the Antilles; _Camilia_ (1
species) to Jamaica, _Panoplus_ (1 species) and _Embryopus_ (1 species) to
Hayti; _Diplogossus_ is Antillean and South American; while _Plestiodon_
and _Mabouya_ are cosmopolite. Of Geckotidæ there are four genera;
_Phyllodactylus_ and _Hemidactylus_ which are cosmopolite; _Sphærodactylus_
which is wholly American; and _Cubina_ found only in Martinique and Brazil.
Of Iguanidæ there are six genera; _Anolis_, which ranges all over America;
_Polychrus_, which is Neotropical; _Iguana_ and _Liocephalus_ which are
South American; _Tropedurus_ found in Cuba and Brazil; and _Cyclura_ only
known from Jamaica, Cuba, and Central America.

_Amphibia._--The genus _Trachycephalus_, belonging to the {73}Hylidæ or
tropical tree-frogs, is almost peculiar to the Antilles; Cuba, Hayti, and
Jamaica possessing seven species, while only one is recorded from South
America. Other genera are, _Peltaphryne_ (Bufonidæ) from Portorico;
_Phyllobates_ (Polypedatidæ) from Cuba; _Leiuperus_ (Ranidæ) from
Hayti,--all Neotropical. Of the Urodela, or tailed batrachians, no
representative occurs, although they are so characteristic a feature of the
Nearctic region.

_Fresh-water fish._--The same general remarks apply to these as to the
reptiles. Only one peculiar genus is noted--_Lebistes_, a form of
Cyprinodontidæ from Barbadoes; other genera of the same family being,
_Haplochilus_, _Rivulus_, and _Girardinus_, widely spread in the
Neotropical region; while _Gambusia_ is confined to Central America,
Mexico, and the Antilles. Four other families are represented; Siluridæ by
_Chætostomus_, found in Portorico and South America; Chromidæ by the South
American _Acara_; Mugillidæ by the Central American _Agonostoma_; and
Percidæ by the North American _Centrarchus_, of which a species is recorded
from Cuba.

_Insects._--The various West Indian islands have not been well explored
entomologically; one reason no doubt being, that their comparative poverty
renders them little attractive to the professional collector, while the
abounding riches of Central and South America lie so near at hand. We can,
therefore, hardly tell whether the comparative poverty, or even total
absence of some families while others seem fairly represented, is a real
phenomenon of distribution, or only dependent on imperfect knowledge.
Bearing this in mind, we proceed to give a sketch of what is known of the
chief groups of Lepidoptera and Coleoptera.

_Lepidoptera._--The Neotropical butterfly-fauna is but poorly represented,
the majority of the most remarkable types being entirely wanting; yet there
are a few peculiar and very characteristic forms which show great
isolation, while the majority of the species are peculiar. Four genera are
exclusively or characteristically Antillean,--_Calisto_ belonging to the
Satyridæ, with four species, of which one ranges to South Carolina;
_Clothilda_ {74}(Nymphalidæ) a fine genus which has 4 Antillean species and
2 in Central America; _Lucinia_ (Nymphalidæ) 2 species, confined to Jamaica
and Hayti; and _Kricogonia_ belonging to the Pieridæ, which has 2 West
Indian species, while 1 inhabits Mexico and Florida. Genera which show a
special relation to Central America are _Euptoieta_, _Eumæus_, and
_Nathalis_. Almost all the other genera are South American, the total
number recorded in each family as occurring in the West Indian islands,
being, 3 of Danaidæ; 1 of Heliconiidæ; 2 of Satyridæ; 18 of Nymphalidæ; 1
of Erycinidæ; 4 of Lycænidæ; 6 of Pieridæ; 1 of Papilionidæ, and 10 of
Hesperidæ. The genus _Papilio_ is represented by about 20 species, 2 of
which are North American, 4 South American, while the rest form little
characteristic groups allied to those of Central America. The most marked
feature seems to be the scarcity of Satyridæ and the almost total absence
of Erycinidæ, with a great deficiency in characteristic Neotropical forms
of Danaidæ and Nymphalidæ.

_Coleoptera._--Cicindelidæ and Carabidæ are very poorly represented, by a
few species of wide-spread groups, and hardly any peculiar genera. No
Lucanidæ are recorded. Of Cetoniidæ, _Gymnetis_ only appears to be
represented. Buprestidæ seem to be more numerous; 15 genera being recorded,
but almost all of wide distribution. One only is
peculiar--_Tetragonoschoma_, found in Hayti; _Halecia_ is the only
exclusively South American genus; _Chalcophora_ is widely scattered over
the tropical regions but is absent from South America, yet it occurs in the
Nearctic region and extends to Jamaica and Guadeloupe. We now come to the
Longicorns, the only group of Coleoptera which seems to be well
represented, or which has been carefully collected. No less than 40 genera
are known from the West Indian islands, and 15 of these are peculiar.
Prionidæ are proportionately very numerous, there being 10 genera, 2 of
which are widely distributed in both South and North America, 1 is North
American, and 1 South American, while the following are
peculiar,--_Stenodontes_ (Hayti and Cuba); _Dendroblaptus_ (Cuba);
_Monodesmus_ (Cuba and Jamaica); _Prosternodes_ (Cuba); _Solenoptera_ and
_Elateropsis_, the two largest genera found in most of the {75}islands. Of
Cerambycidæ there are 16 genera, 2 of which range all over America, 4 are
Neotropical, 1 South American only, while the following are confined to the
islands,--_Merostenus_, _Pentomacrus_, and _Eburiola_ (Jamaica);
_Bromiades_ (Cuba); _Trichrous_, _Heterops_, and _Pæciloderma_ (Antilles).
One genus, _Smodicum_, is widely spread, having a species in Carolina, 1 in
South America, 1 in Hayti, and 1 in West Africa. Of Lamiidæ there are 14
genera, 8 of which are Neotropical, 1 common to Central America and Mexico,
1 to the United States and Cuba, while 2, _Proecha_ and _Phidola_, are
confined to Cuba. Several of the genera are curiously
distributed;--_Spalacopsis_ is South American, with 4 species in Cuba and
Tropical Africa; _Lagocheirus_ is Neotropical, with a species in Australia;
while _Leptostilus_ is characteristic of the Antilles and North America,
with a few species in South America, and one in New Zealand. These cases of
erratic distribution, so opposed to the general series of phenomena among
which they occur, must be held to be sufficiently explained by the great
antiquity of these groups and their former wide distribution. They may be
supposed to be the remnants of types, now dying out, which were once, like
_Callichroma_, _Clytus_, and many others, almost universally distributed.

All the peculiar Antillean genera of Cerambycidæ and Lamiidæ are allied to
Neotropical forms. The peculiar Prionidæ, however, are mostly allied to
Mexican and North American groups, and one, _Monodesmus_, belongs to a
group all the other genera of which inhabit the East Indies and South
Africa.

_Land-shells._--This subject has already been generally treated under the
Region, of which, in this class of animals, the Antilles form so important
a part. We must therefore now confine ourselves mainly to the internal
distribution of the genera, and to a few remarks on the general bearing of
the facts.

The excessive and altogether unexampled productiveness of the West Indian
islands in land-shells, may be traced to two main sets of causes. The first
and least known, consist of the peculiar influences and conditions which
render islands always more productive than continents. Whatever these
conditions {76}are, they will be more effective where the islands have been
long separated from the mainland, as is here undoubtedly the case. It seems
most probable that the great development of land-shells in islands, is due
to the absence or deficiency of the vertebrata, which on continents supply
a variety of species adapted to prey upon these molluscs. This view is
supported by the fact, that in such islands as have been united to a
continent at no very distant epoch, and still maintain a continental
variety of vertebrata, no such special development of land-shells has taken
place. If we compare the Philippine islands with the Sunda group, we find
the development of vertebrata and land-molluscs in inverse ratio to each
other. The same thing occurs if we compare New Zealand and Tasmania; and we
have a still more striking example in the Antillean group itself,
continental Trinidad having only 20 genera and 38 species, while the highly
insular Jamaica has about 30 genera and more than 500 species.

The other causes favourable to the increase and development of land-shells
are of a physical nature. A great extent of limestone-rock is one; and in
the larger West Indian islands we have a considerable proportion of the
surface consisting of this rock. But perhaps equally or more important, is
the character of the land surface, and the texture of the exposed rock
itself. A much broken surface, with numerous deep ravines, cutting up the
whole country into isolated valleys and ridges, seems very favourable to
the specialization of forms in this very sedentary class of animals.
Equally favourable is a honeycombed and highly-fissured rock-surface,
affording everywhere cracks and crannies for concealment. Now, taking
Jamaica as an example of the archipelago, we find all these conditions in a
wonderful degree. Over a large part of this island, a yard of level ground
can hardly be found; but ridges, precipices, ravines, and rock-bound
valleys, succeed each other over the whole country. At least five-sixths of
the entire surface is limestone, and under the influence of tropical rains
this rock is worn, fissured, and honeycombed, so as to afford ample shelter
and concealment for land-shells.

{77}It is probable that the three chief islands, Cuba, Jamaica and Hayti,
are nearly equally rich in land-shells; but the last is very much less
known, and therefore, perhaps, appears to be much poorer. Cuba has rather
more species than Jamaica; but while the former has only 1 peculiar genus
(_Diplopoma_), the latter has 3 (_Geomelania_, _Chittya_, and _Jamaicea_),
as well as two others only represented in the other islands by single
species. From Hayti, only about one-third as many species are known as from
the two former islands. It has no peculiar genera, but it has some forms in
common with Cuba and others with Jamaica, which show that those islands
have more connection with it, than with each other; just as we found to be
the case in birds. Portorico and the Virgin islands have still fewer
species than Hayti; and, as many of the genera common to the other three
islands are wanting, there is, no doubt, here a real deficiency. In the
islands farther south (Barbuda to Martinique) more Antillean genera
disappear or become very rare, while some continental forms take their
place. The islands from St. Lucia to Trinidad have a still more continental
character; the genus _Bulimus_, so largely developed on the continent, only
reaching St. Lucia. The Bahamas contain about 80 species of land-shells, of
which 25 are Antillean, the rest peculiar; all the genera being Antillean.
The affinity is chiefly with Hayti and Cuba, but closest with the latter
island.

In the West Indian islands as a whole, there are 11 peculiar genera; 9
operculate (_Geomelania_, _Chittya_, _Jamaicea_, _Licina_, _Choanopoma_,
_Ctenopoma_, _Diplopoma_, _Stoastoma_, _Lucidella_); and 2 inoperculate
(_Sagda_ and _Stenopus_), besides _Cyclostomus_, which belongs to the Old
World and is not found on the American continent. Mr. Bland considers, that
many of the Antillean land-shells exhibit decided African and Asiatic,
rather than South American affinities. A species of the Asiatic genus
_Diplommatina_ has been found in Trinidad, and an Indian species of _Ennea_
occurs in Grenada and St. Thomas; a clear indication that land-shells are
liable to be accidentally imported, and to become established in the less
productive islands.

Although these islands are so wonderfully rich even now, {78}there is good
reason to believe that many species have become extinct since the European
occupation of them. When small islands are much cultivated, many of these
molluscs which can only live under the shade of forests, are soon
extirpated. In St. Croix many species have become extinct at a
comparatively recent period, from the burning of forests; and as we know
that in all the islands many of the species are excessively local, being
often confined to single valleys or ridges, we may be sure that wherever
the native forests have disappeared before the hand of man, numbers of land
shells have disappeared with them. As some of the smaller islands have been
almost denuded of their wood, and in the larger ones extensive tracts have
been cleared for sugar cultivation, a very considerable number of species
have almost certainly been exterminated.

_General Conclusions as to the Past History of the West Indian
Islands._--The preceding sketch of the peculiarities of the animal life of
these islands, enables us to state, that it represents the remains of an
ancient fauna of decided Neotropical type, having on the whole most
resemblance to that which now inhabits the Mexican sub-region. The number
of peculiar genera in all classes of animals is so great in proportion to
those in common with the adjacent mainland, as to lead us to conclude that,
subsequent to the original separation from the Mexican area, a very large
tract of land existed, calculated to support a rich and varied fauna, and,
by the interaction of competing types, give rise to peculiar and specially
modified organisms. We have already shown that the outline of the present
islands and the depths of the surrounding seas, give indications of the
position and extent of this ancient land; which not improbably occupied the
space enclosed by uniting Western Cuba with Yucatan, and Jamaica with the
Mosquito Coast. This land must have stretched eastward to include Anguilla,
and probably northward to include the whole of the Bahamas. At one time it
perhaps extended southward so as to unite Hayti with northern Venezuela,
while Panama and Costa Pica were sunk beneath the Pacific. At this time the
Lesser Antilles had no existence.

The only large island of whose geology we have any detailed {79}account, is
Jamaica; and taking this as a type of what will probably be found in Cuba
and Hayti, we must place the continental period as having occurred after
the close of the Miocene, or during some part of the Pliocene epoch, since
a large portion of the surface of the former island consists of beds of
marine limestone from 2,000 to 3,000 thick, believed to be of Pliocene age.
After some time, the land between Hayti and South America subsided, and
still later that between Central America and Cuba with Jamaica; but a large
tract of land remained insulated, and no doubt supported a very much richer
and more varied fauna than now. We have evidence of this in extinct
Mammalia of large size, belonging to the peculiar South American family of
the chinchillas, which have been found in caves in the small islands of
Anguilla, and which, from the character of the land-shells associated with
them, are believed to be of Pliocene or Post-pliocene age. This discovery
is most interesting, and gives promise of very valuable results from the
exploration of the numerous caverns that undoubtedly exist in the abundant
limestone strata of the larger islands. This extensive Antillean land,
after long continuing undivided, was at length broken up by subsidence into
several islands; but as this alone would not account for the almost
complete annihilation of the mammalian fauna, it seems probable that the
subsidence was continued much farther, so as greatly to reduce the size and
increase the number of the islands. This is indicated, by the extensive
alluvial plains in Cuba and Hayti, and to a less extent in Jamaica; and by
elevated beds of Post-pliocene marls in the latter island.

The series of changes now suggested, will account for all the main features
of the Antillean fauna in its relations to that of the American continent.
There remains the affinity with Madagascar, indicated by _Solenodon_, and a
few cases of African and Asiatic affinity in insects and land-shells; but
these are far too scanty to call for any attempt at special explanation.
Such cases of remote affinity and discontinuous distribution, occur in all
the regions, and in almost every group of animals; and we look upon them
almost all, as cases of survival, under favourable {80}conditions, of once
wide-spread groups. If no wild species of the genus _Equus_ were now to be
found, except in South Africa (where they are still most abundant), and in
South Temperate America, where their fossil remains show us they did exist
not very long ago, what a strong fact it would have appeared for the
advocates of continental extensions! Yet it would have been due to no
former union of the great southern continents, but to the former extensive
range of the family or the genus to which the two isolated remnants
belonged. And if such an explanation will apply to the higher vertebrata,
it is still more likely to be applicable to similar cases occurring among
insects or mollusca, the genera of which we have every reason to believe to
be usually much older than those of vertebrates. It is in these classes
that examples of widely scattered allied species most frequently occur; and
the facility with which they are diffused under favourable conditions,
renders any other explanation than that here given altogether superfluous.

The _Solenodon_ is a member of an order of Mammalia of low type
(Insectivora) once very extensive and wide-spread, but which has begun to
die out, and which has left a number of curious and isolated forms thinly
scattered over three-fourths of the globe. The occurrence, therefore, of an
isolated remnant of this order in the Antilles is not in itself remarkable;
and the fact that the remainder of the family to which the Antillean
species belong has found a refuge in Madagascar, where it has developed
into several distinct types, does not afford the least shred of argument on
which to found a supposed independent land connection between these two
sets of islands.


_Summary of the Past History of the Neotropical Region._

We have already discussed this subject, both in our account of extinct
animals, and in various parts of the present chapter. It is therefore only
necessary here, briefly to review and summarise the conclusions we have
arrived at.

The whole character of Neotropical zoology, whether as regards its
deficiencies or its specialities, points to a long continuance of isolation
from the rest of the world, with a few very distant {81}periods of union
with the northern continent. The latest important separation took place by
the submergence of parts of Nicaragua and Honduras, and this separation
probably continued throughout much of the Miocene and Pliocene periods; but
some time previous to the coming on of the glacial epoch, the union between
the two continents took place which has continued to our day. Earlier
submergences of the isthmus of Panama probably occurred, isolating Costa
Rica and Veragua, which then may have had a greater extension, and have
thus been able to develope their rich and peculiar fauna.

The isthmus of Tehuantepec, at the south of Mexico, may, probably, also
have been submerged; thus isolating Guatemala and Yucatan, and leading to
the specialization of some of the peculiar forms that now characterise
those countries and Mexico.

The West Indian Islands have been long isolated and have varied much in
extent. Originally, they probably formed part of Central America, and may
have been united with Yucatan and Honduras in one extensive tropical land.
But their separation from the continent took place at a remote period, and
they have since been broken up into numerous islands, which have probably
undergone much submergence in recent times. This has led to that poverty of
the higher forms of life, combined with the remarkable speciality, which
now characterises them; while their fauna still preserves a sufficient
resemblance to that of Central America to indicate its origin.

The great continent of South America, as far as we can judge from the
remarkable characteristics of its fauna and the vast depths of the oceans
east and west of it, has not during Tertiary, and probably not even during
Secondary times, been united with any other continent, except through the
intervention of North America. During some part of the Secondary epoch it
probably received the ancestral forms of its Edentates and Rodents, at a
time when these were among the highest types of Mammalia on the globe. It
appears to have remained long isolated, and to have already greatly
developed these groups of animals, before it received, in early Tertiary
times, the ancestors of its marmosets and monkeys, and, perhaps also, some
of its peculiar forms of {82}Carnivora. Later, it received its Camelidæ,
peccaries, mastodons, and large Carnivora; and later still, just before the
Glacial epoch, its deer, tapir, opossums, antelopes, and horses, the two
latter having since become extinct. All this time its surface was
undergoing important physical changes. What its earlier condition was we
cannot conjecture, but there are clear indications that it has been broken
up into at least three large masses, and probably a number of smaller ones;
and these have no doubt undergone successive elevations and subsidences, so
as at one time to reduce their area and separate them still more widely
from each other, and at another period to unite them into continental
masses. The richness and varied development of the old fauna of South
America, as still existing, proves, however, that the country has always
maintained an extensive area; and there is reason to believe that the last
great change has been a long continued and steady increase of its surface,
resulting in the formation of the vast alluvial plains of the Amazon,
Orinoko, and La Plata, and thus greatly favouring the production of that
wealth of specific forms, which distinguishes South America above all other
parts of our globe.

The southern temperate portion of the continent, has probably had a
considerable southward extension in late Tertiary times; and this, as well
as the comparatively recent elevation of the Andes, has given rise to some
degree of intermixture of two distinct faunas, with that proper to South
Temperate America itself. The most important of these, is the considerable
Australian element that appears in the insects, and even in the reptiles
and fresh-water fishes, of South Temperate America. These may be traced to
several causes. Icebergs and icefloes, and even solid fields of ice, may,
during the Glacial epoch, have afforded many opportunities for the passage
of the more cold-enduring groups; while the greater extension of southern
lands and islands during the warm periods--which there is reason to believe
prevailed in the southern as well as in the northern regions in Miocene
times--would afford facilities for the passage of the reptiles and insects
of more temperate zones. That no actual land-connection occurred, is proved
by the total absence {83}of interchange of the mammals or land-birds of the
two countries, no less than by the very fragmentary nature of the
resemblances that do exist. The northern element consists almost wholly of
insects; and is evidently due to the migration of arctic and north
temperate forms along the ridges and plateaus of the Andes; and most likely
occurred when these organisms were driven southward at successive cold or
Glacial periods.

A curious parallel exists between the past history and actual zoological
condition of South America and Africa. In both we see a very ancient
land-area extending into the South Temperate zone, isolated at a very early
period, and developing only a low grade of Mammalian life; chiefly
Edentates and Rodents on the one, Lemurs and Insectivora in the other.
Later we find an irruption into both of higher forms, including Quadrumana,
which soon acquired a large and special development in the tropical
portions of each country. Still later we have an irruption into both of
northern forms, which spread widely over the two regions, and having become
extinct in the land from whence they came, have been long held to be the
original denizens of their adopted country. Such are the various forms of
antelopes, the giraffe, the elephant, rhinoceros, and lion in Africa; while
in America we have deer and peccaries, the tapir, opossums, and the puma.

On the whole, we cannot but consider that the broad outlines of the
zoological history of the Neotropical region can be traced with some degree
of certainty; but, owing to the absence of information as to the most
important of the geological periods--the Miocene and Eocene--we have no
clue to the character of its early fauna, or to the land connections with
other countries, which may possibly have occurred in early Tertiary times.




{84}TABLES OF DISTRIBUTION.


In drawing up these tables, showing the distribution of the various classes
of animals in the Neotropical region, the following sources of information
have been relied on, in addition to the general treatises, monographs, and
catalogues used in the compilation of the Fourth Part of this work.

_Mammalia._--D'Orbigny, and Burmeister, for Brazil and La Plata; Darwin,
and Cunningham, for Temperate S. America; Tschudi, for Peru; Frazer, for
Ecuador; Salvin, for Guatemala; Frantzius, for Costa Rica; Sclater, for
Quadrumana N. of Panama; Gundlach, for Cuba; and papers by Dr. J. E. Gray,
and Mr. Tomes.

_Birds._--Sclater and Salvin's Nomenclator; Notes by Darwin, and
Cunningham; Gundlach, March, Bryant, Baird, Elliot, Newton, Semper, and
Sundevall, for various islands of the Antilles; and papers by Hudson,
Lawrence, Grayson, Abbott, Sclater, and Salvin.


{85}TABLE I.

_FAMILIES OF ANIMALS INHABITING THE NEOTROPICAL REGION._

EXPLANATION.

  Names in _italics_ show the families which are peculiar to the region.

  Names enclosed thus (......) indicate families which barely enter the
  region, and are not considered properly to belong to it.

  Numbers correspond with those of the series of families in Part IV.

  ---------------------+-------------------+-------------------------------
                       | Sub-regions       |
                       | 1=Chili.          |
    Order and Family   | 2=Brazil.         |   Range beyond the Region.
                       | 3=Mexico.         |
                       | 4=Antilles.       |
  ---------------------+----+----+----+----+-------------------------------
                       | 1. | 2. | 3. | 4. |
  ---------------------+----+----+----+----+-------------------------------
                       |    |    |    |    |
  MAMMALIA.            |    |    |    |    |
  PRIMATES.            |    |    |    |    |
    4. _Cebidæ_        |    | -- | -- |    |
    5. _Hapalidæ_      |    | -- | (?)|    |
                       |    |    |    |    |
  CHIROPTERA.          |    |    |    |    |
   10. _Phyllostomidæ_ | -- | -- | -- | -- | California
   12. Vespertilionidæ | -- | -- | -- | -- | Cosmopolite
   13. Noctilionidæ    | -- | -- | -- | -- | All tropical regions
                       |    |    |    |    |
  INSECTIVORA.         |    |    |    |    |
   18. Centetidæ       |    |    |    | -- | Madagascar
                       |    |    |    |    |
  CARNIVORA.           |    |    |    |    |
   23. Felidæ          | -- | -- | -- |    | All regions but Australian
   28. Canidæ          | -- | -- | -- |    | All regions but Australian
   29. Mustelidæ       | -- | -- | -- |    | All regions but Australian
   30. Procyonidæ      | -- | -- | -- |    | N. America
   32. Ursidæ          | -- |    |    |    | All regions but Ethiopian and
                       |    |    |    |    |   Australian
   33. Otariidæ        | -- |    |    |    | S. temperate zone
   35. Phocidæ         | -- |    |    | (?)| N. and S. temperate zones
                       |    |    |    |    |
  CETACEA.             |    |    |    |    |
   36 to 41            | -- |    |    |    | Oceanic
                       |    |    |    |    |
  SIRENIA.             |    |    |    |    |
   42. Manatidæ        |    | -- | -- | -- | Tropical shores
                       |    |    |    |    |
  UNGULATA.            |    |    |    |    |
   44. Tapiridæ        |    | -- | -- |    | Indo-Malaya
   47. Suidæ           |    | -- | -- |    | Cosmopolite, excl. Australia
   48. Camelidæ        | -- |    |    |    | Palæarctic
   50. Cervidæ         | -- | -- | -- |    | All regions but Ethiopian and
                       |    |    |    |    |   Australian
                       |    |    |    |    |
  RODENTIA.            |    |    |    |    |
   55. Muridæ          | -- | -- | -- | -- | Cosmopolite
   59. Saccomyidæ      |    |    | -- |    | Nearctic
   61. Sciuridæ        |    | -- | -- |    | All regions but Australian
   63. _Chinchillidæ_  | -- |    |    |    |
   64. Octodontidæ     | -- | -- |    | -- | Africa
   65. Echimyidæ       | -- | -- |    |    | Ethiopian
   66. Cercolabidæ     |    | -- | -- |    | Nearctic
   68. _Caviidæ_       | -- | -- | -- | -- |
   70. Leporidæ        |    | -- | -- |    | All regions but Australian
                       |    |    |    |    |
  EDENTATA.            |    |    |    |    |
   71. _Bradypodidæ_   |    | -- | -- |    |
   73. _Dasypodidæ_    | -- | -- | -- |    |
   75. _Myrmecophagidæ_|    | -- | -- |    |
                       |    |    |    |    |
  MARSUPIALIA.         |    |    |    |    |
   76. Didelphyidæ     | -- | -- | -- |    | Temperate N. America
                       |    |    |    |    |
  BIRDS.               |    |    |    |    |
  PASSERES.            |    |    |    |    |
    1. Turdidæ         | -- | -- | -- | -- | Almost cosmopolite
    2. Sylviidæ        |    | -- | -- | -- | Almost cosmopolite
    5. Cinclidæ        |    | -- | -- |    | Nearctic, Palæarctic, Oriental
    6. Troglodytidæ    | -- | -- | -- | -- | Nearctic, Palæarctic, Oriental
    8. Certhiidæ       |    |    | -- |    | Nearctic, Palæarctic, Oriental
    9. Sittidæ         |    |    | -- |    | All regions, excl. Africa
   10. Paridæ          |    |    | -- |    | Nearctic, Palæarctic, Oriental
   20. Corvidæ         | -- | -- | -- | -- | Cosmopolite
   26. _Coerebidæ_     |    | -- | -- | -- |
   27. Mniotiltidæ     |    | -- | -- | -- | Nearctic
   28. Vireonidæ       |    | -- | -- | -- | Nearctic
   29. Ampelidæ        |    |    | -- | -- | Nearctic, Palæarctic
   30. Hirundinidæ     | -- | -- | -- | -- | Cosmopolite
   31. Icteridæ        | -- | -- | -- | -- | Nearctic
   32. Tanagridæ       | -- | -- | -- | -- | Nearctic
   33. Fringillidæ     | -- | -- | -- | -- | All regions but Australian
   38. Motacillidæ     | -- | -- | -- | -- | Cosmopolite
   38a. _Oxyrhamphidæ_ |    | -- | -- |    |
   39. Tyrannidæ       | -- | -- | -- |--  | Nearctic
   40. _Pipridæ_       |    | -- | -- |    |
   41. _Cotingidæ_     | -- | -- | -- | -- |
   42. _Phytotomidæ_   | -- |    |    |    |
   44._Dendrocolaptidæ_| -- | -- | -- |    |
   45. _Formicariidæ_  |    | -- | -- |    |
   46. _Pteroptochidæ_ | -- | -- |    |    |
                       |    |    |    |    |
  PICARIÆ.             |    |    |    |    |
   51. Picidæ          | -- | -- | -- | -- | All regions but Australian
   54. Megalæmidæ      |    | -- | -- |    | Ethiopian, Oriental
   55. _Rhamphastidæ_  |    | -- | -- |    |
   58. Cuculidæ        | -- | -- | -- | -- | Cosmopolite
   60. _Bucconidæ_     |    | -- | -- |    |
   61. _Galbulidæ_     |    | -- | -- |    |
   64. _Todidæ_        |    |    |    | -- |
   65. _Momotidæ_      |    | -- | -- |    |
   66. Trogonidæ       |    | -- | -- | -- | Ethiopian, Oriental
   67. Alcedinidæ      | -- | -- | -- | -- | Cosmopolite
   72. _Steatornithidæ_|    | -- |    |    |
   73. Caprimulgidæ    | -- | -- | -- | -- | Cosmopolite
   74. Cypselidæ       | -- | -- | -- | -- | Almost cosmopolite
   75. Trochilidæ      | -- | -- | -- | -- | Nearctic
                       |    |    |    |    |
  PSITTACI.            |    |    |    |    |
   80. Conuridæ        | -- | -- | -- | -- | S. United States
   81. Psittacidæ      |    | -- | -- | -- | Ethiopian
                       |    |    |    |    |
  COLUMBÆ.             |    |    |    |    |
   84. Columbidæ       | -- | -- | -- | -- | Cosmopolite
                       |    |    |    |    |
  GALLINÆ.             |    |    |    |    |
   87. Tetraonidæ      |    | -- | -- | -- | Almost cosmopolite
   88. Phasianidæ      |    |    | -- |    | All regions but Australian
   91. _Cracidæ_       |    | -- | -- |    |
   92. _Tinamidæ_      | -- | -- | -- |    |
                       |    |    |    |    |
  OPISTHOCOMI.         |    |    |    |    |
   93. _Opisthocomidæ_ |    | -- |    |    |
                       |    |    |    |    |
  ACCIPITRES.          |    |    |    |    |
   94. Vulturidæ       | -- | -- | -- | -- | All regions but Australian
   96. Falconidæ       | -- | -- | -- | -- | Cosmopolite
   97. Pandionidæ      |    | -- | -- | -- | Cosmopolite
   98. Strigidæ        | -- | -- | -- | -- | Cosmopolite
                       |    |    |    |    |
  GRALLÆ.              |    |    |    |    |
   99. Rallidæ         | -- | -- | -- | -- | Cosmopolite
  100. Scolopacidæ     | -- | -- | -- | -- | Cosmopolite
  101. _Chionididæ_    | -- |    |    |    |
  102. _Thinocoridæ_   | -- |    |    |    |
  103. Parridæ         |    | -- | -- |    | Tropical regions
  105. Charadriidæ     | -- | -- | -- | -- | Cosmopolite
  108. _Cariamidæ_     | -- | -- |    |    |
  109. _Aramidæ_       |    | -- | -- |    |
  110. _Psophiidæ_     |    | -- |    |    |
  111. _Eurypygidæ_    |    | -- | -- |    |
  113. Ardeidæ         | -- | -- | -- | -- | Cosmopolite
  114. Plataleidæ      | -- | -- | -- | -- | Almost cosmopolite
  115. Ciconiidæ       | -- | -- | -- |    | Nearly cosmopolite
  116. _Palamedeidæ_   | -- | -- |    |    |
  117. Phoenicopteridæ | -- | -- | -- |    | Ethiopian, Indian
                       |    |    |    |    |
  ANSERES.             |    |    |    |    |
  118. Anatidæ         | -- | -- | -- | -- | Cosmopolite
  119. Laridæ          | -- | -- | -- | -- | Cosmopolite
  120. Procellariidæ   | -- | -- | -- | -- | Cosmopolite
  121. Pelecanidæ      | -- | -- | -- | -- | Cosmopolite
  122. Spheniscidæ     | -- |    |    |    | S. temperate zone
  124. Podicipidæ      | -- | -- | -- | -- | Cosmopolite
                       |    |    |    |    |
  STRUTHIONES.         |    |    |    |    |
  126. Struthionidæ    | -- |    |    |    | Ethiopian
                       |    |    |    |    |
  REPTILIA.            |    |    |    |    |
  OPHIDIA.             |    |    |    |    |
    1. Typhlopidæ      |    | -- | -- | -- | Tropical regions and
                       |    |    |    |    |   S. Palæarctic
    2. Tortricidæ      |    | -- |    |    | Oriental, N.-W. America
    5. Calamariidæ     | -- | -- | -- | -- | All warm countries
    6. Oligodontidæ    |    | -- |    |    | Oriental, Japan
    7. Colubridæ       | -- | -- | -- | -- | Almost cosmopolite
    8. Homalopsidæ     | -- |    |    | -- | All the regions
   11. Dendrophidæ     | -- | -- | -- | -- | All tropical regions
   12. Dryiophidæ      |    | -- | -- |    | Oriental, Ethiopian
   13. Dipsadidæ       |    | -- | -- |    | All tropical regions
   14. Scytalidæ       |    | -- | -- |    | Philippine Islands
   16. Amblycephalidæ  |    | -- | -- |    | Oriental
   17. Pythonidæ       | -- | -- | -- | -- | All tropical regions,
                       |    |    |    |    |   California
   20. Elapidæ         | -- | -- | -- |    | Tropical regions, Japan,
                       |    |    |    |    |   S. Carolina
   23. Hydrophidæ      |    |    | -- |    | Oriental, Australian,
                       |    |    |    |    |   Madagascar
   24. Crotalidæ       | -- | -- | -- | -- | Nearctic, Palæarctic, Oriental
                       |    |    |    |    |
  LACERTILIA.          |    |    |    |    |
   27. Chirotidæ       |    |    | -- |    | Missouri
   28. Amphisbænidæ    | -- | -- |    | -- | Ethiopian, S. Palæarctic
   29. Lepidosternidæ  | -- | -- |    |    | Ethiopian
   31. _Helodermidæ_   |    |    | -- |    |
   32. Teidæ           | -- | -- | -- | -- | Nearctic
   34. Zonuridæ        |    | -- | -- | -- | Nearctic, Ethiopian,
                       |    |    |    |    |   S. Europe, and N. India
   35. _Chalcidæ_      | -- | -- | -- |    | Nearctic
   36. _Anadiadæ_      |    | -- |    |    |
   37. _Chirocolidæ_   |    | -- |    |    |
   38. _Iphisadæ_      |    | -- |    |    |
   39. _Cercosauridæ_  |    | -- |    |    |
   41. Gymnopthalmidæ  |    | -- |    | -- | Australian, Ethiopian,
                       |    |    |    |    |   Palæarctic
   45. Scincidæ        | -- | -- | -- | -- | Almost cosmopolite
   49. Geckotidæ       | -- | -- | -- | -- | Almost cosmopolite
   50. Iguanidæ        | -- | -- | -- | -- | Nearctic
                       |    |    |    |    |
  CROCODILIA.          |    |    |    |    |
   55. Crocodilidæ     |    | -- | -- | -- | Ethiopian, Oriental,
                       |    |    |    |    |   N. Australian
   56. Alligatoridæ    |    | -- | -- |    | Nearctic
                       |    |    |    |    |
  CHELONIA.            |    |    |    |    |
   57. Testudinidæ     | -- | -- | -- | -- | All continents but Australian
   58. Chelydidæ       |    | -- |    |    | Ethiopian, Australian
   60. Cheloniidæ      |    |    |    |    | Marine
                       |    |    |    |    |
  AMPHIBIA.            |    |    |    |    |
  PSEUDOPHIDIA.        |    |    |    |    |
    1. Ceciliadæ       |    | -- | -- |    | Oriental, Ethiopian
                       |    |    |    |    |
  URODELA.             |    |    |    |    |
    6. (Salamandridæ)  |    | -- | -- |    | Nearctic, Palæarctic
                       |    |    |    |    |
  ANOURA.              |    |    |    |    |
    7. _Rhinophrynidæ_ |    |    | -- |    |
    8. Phryniscidæ     | -- | -- | -- |    | Ethiopian, Australian, Java
    9. _Hylaplesidæ_   | -- | -- |    | -- |
   10. Bufonidæ        | -- | -- | -- | -- | All continents but Australia
   12. Engystomidæ     | -- | -- | -- |    | All regions but Palæarctic
   13. Bombinatoridæ   | -- | -- |    |    | Palæarctic, New Zealand
   14. _Plectromantidæ_| -- |    |    |    |
   15. Alytidæ         |    | -- |    |    | All regions but Oriental
   16. Pelodryadæ      | -- | -- |    |    | Australia
   17. Hylidæ          | -- | -- | -- | -- | All regions but Ethiopian
   18. Polypedatidæ    | -- | -- | -- | -- | All the regions
   19. Ranidæ          | -- | -- | -- | -- | Almost cosmopolite
   20. Discoglossidæ   | -- | -- |    |    | All regions but Nearctic
   21. _Pipidæ_        |    | -- |    |    |
                       |    |    |    |    |
  FISHES.              |    |    |    |    |
  (FRESHWATER).        |    |    |    |    |
  ACANTHOPTERYGII.     |    |    |    |    |
    3. Percidæ         | -- | -- |    | -- | All regions but Australian
   11. (Trachinidæ)    | -- |    |    |    | Australia
   12. Scienidæ        | (?)| -- | -- | (?)| All regions but Australian
   33. Nandidæ         |    | -- |    |    | Oriental
   34. _Polycentridæ_  |    | -- | -- |    |
   38. Mugillidæ       |    | (?)| -- | -- | Australian, Ethiopian
   52. Chromidæ        | -- | -- | -- | -- | Ethiopian, Oriental
                       |    |    |    |    |
  PHYSOSTOMI.          |    |    |    |    |
   59. Siluridæ        | -- | -- | -- | -- | All warm regions
   60. Characinidæ     | -- | -- | -- | -- | Ethiopian
   61. Haplochitonidæ  | -- |    |    |    | S. Australia
   67. Galaxidæ        | -- |    |    |    | Tasmania and New Zealand
   73. Cyprinodontidæ  | -- | -- | -- | -- | Absent from Australia
   78. Osteoglossidæ   |    | -- |    |    | All tropical regions
   84. _Gymnotidæ_     |    | -- |    |    |
   85. Symbranchidæ    |    | -- |    |    | Oriental, Australian,
                       |    |    |    |    |    (? marine)
                       |    |    |    |    |
  DIPNOI.              |    |    |    |    |
   92. Sirenoidei      |    | -- |    |    | Ethiopian, Australian
                       |    |    |    |    |
  PLAGIOSTOMATA.       |    |    |    |    |
  112. _Trygonidæ_     |    | -- |    |    |
                       |    |    |    |    |
  INSECTS.             |    |    |    |    |
  LEPIDOPTERA (PART).  |    |    |    |    |
  DIURNI (BUTTERFLIES).|    |    |    |    |
   1. Danaidæ          | -- | -- | -- | -- | All warm regions, and to
                       |    |    |    |    |   Canada
   2. Satyridæ         | -- | -- | -- | -- | Cosmopolite
   4. Morphidæ         |    | -- | -- |    | Australian, Oriental
   5. _Brassolidæ_     |    | -- | -- |    |
   6. Acræidæ          |    | -- | -- |    | All tropical regions
   7. _Heliconiidæ_    |    | -- | -- | -- |
   8. Nymphalidæ       | -- | -- | -- | -- | Cosmopolite
   9. Libytheidæ       |    | -- |    | -- | Absent from Australia
  10. Nemeobiidæ       |    | -- | -- |    | Not in Australia or Nearctic
                       |    |    |    |    |   regions
  11. _Eurygonidæ_     |    | -- | -- |    |
  12. Erycinidæ        |    | -- | -- | -- | Nearctic
  13. Lycænidæ         | -- | -- | -- | -- | Cosmopolite
  14. Pieridæ          | -- | -- | -- | -- | Cosmopolite
  15. Papilionidæ      | -- | -- | -- | -- | Cosmopolite
  16. Hesperidæ        | -- | -- | -- | -- | Cosmopolite
                       |    |    |    |    |
  SPHINGIDEA.          |    |    |    |    |
   17. Zygænidæ        | -- | -- | -- | -- | Cosmopolite
   18. Castniidæ       |    | -- | -- | -- | Australian
   20. Uraniidæ        |    | -- | -- | -- | All tropical regions
   21. Stygiidæ        |    | -- |    |    | Palæarctic
   22. Ægeriidæ        | -- | -- | -- | -- | Not in Australia
   23. Sphingidæ       | -- | -- | -- | -- | Cosmopolite
  ---------------------+----+----+----+----+-------------------------------

{91}TABLE II.

_GENERA OF TERRESTRIAL MAMMALIA AND BIRDS INHABITING THE NEOTROPICAL
REGION._

EXPLANATION.

  Names in _italics_ show the genera peculiar to the region.

  Names enclosed thus (......) indicate genera which barely enter the
  region, and are not considered properly to belong to it.

  Genera undoubtedly belonging to the region are numbered consecutively.


  _MAMMALIA._

  -------------------+-------+----------------------+----------------------
  Order, Family, and | No. of|     Range within     |     Range beyond
    Genus.           |Species|      the Region.     |      the Region.
  -------------------+-------+----------------------+----------------------
                     |       |                      |
  PRIMATES.          |       |                      |
  CEBIDÆ.            |       |                      |
  1. _Cebus_         |   18  | Costa Rica to        |
                     |       |   Paraguay           |
  2. _Lagothrix_     |    5  | Upper Amazon and     |
                     |       |   E. Andes           |
  3. _Eriodes_       |    3  | East Brazil, S. of   |
                     |       |   Equator            |
  4. _Ateles_        |   14  | Almost all tropical  |
                     |       |   America            |
  5. _Mycetes_       |   10  | E. Guatemala to      |
                     |       |   Paraguay           |
  6. _Pithecia_      |    7  | Equatorial Forests   |
  7. _Brachiurus_    |    5  | Equatorial Forests   |
  8. _Nyctipithecus_ |    5  | Nicaragua to Amazonia|
  9. _Saimiris_      |    3  | Costa Rica to Brazil |
                     |       |   and Bolivia        |
  10. _Callithrix_   |   11  | Panama to Paraguay   |
                     |       |                      |
  HAPALIDÆ.          |       |                      |
  11. _Hapale_       |    9  | Brazil and Upper     |
                     |       |   Amazon             |
  12. _Midas_        |   24  | Equatorial America   |
                     |       |   to Panama          |
                     |       |                      |
  CHIROPTERA.        |       |                      |
  PHYLLOSTOMIDÆ.     |       |                      |
  13. _Lonchorina_   |    1  | West Indian Islands  |
  14. _Macrophyllum_ |    1  | Brazil               |
  15. _Vampyrus_    }|       |                      |
  16. _Lophostoma_  }|   25  | Tropical America and |
                    }|       |   Chili              |
  17. _Phyllostoma_ }|       |                      |
  18. Macrotus       |    1  | Antilles and Mexico  | California
  19. _Schizostoma_  |    5  | South America        |
  20. _Brachyphylla_ |    1  | Antilles             |
  21. _Glossophaga_  |    8  | Tropical America     |
  22._Phyllonycteris_|    2  | Cuba                 |
  23. _Artibeus_     |    4  |S. America & Antilles,|
                     |       |   Costa Rica         |
  24. _Stenoderma_   |    7  | The whole region     |
  25. _Sturnira_     |    3  | Chili to Guatemala   |
  26. _Desmodus_     |    3  | Chili to Mexico      |
  27. _Saccopteryx_  |    1  | Ecuador              |
  28. _Diphylla_     |    1  | Brazil               |
  29. _Centurio_     |    3  | Brazil to Mexico     |
                     |       |                      |
  VESPERTILIONIDÆ.   |       |                      |
  30. Lasiurus       |    2  | Tropical America     | Nearctic
  31. Scotophilus    |    7  | Antilles, Mexico to  | Nearc., Austral.,
                     |       |   S. America         |   Orien.
  32. Vespertilio    |   12  | The whole region     | Cosmopolite
  33. Nycticejus     |    3  | S. Temperate America | Nearctic, India,
                     |       |                      |   Tropical Africa
  34. _Natalus_      |    1  | S. America and       |
                     |       |   Antilles           |
  35. _Furipterus_   |    2  | S. America           |
  36. _Thyroptera_   |    2  | S. America           |
  37. _Nycticellus_  |    1  | Cuba                 |
  38. Taphozous      |    5  | S. America           | Ethiopian, Oriental,
                     |       |                      |   Austro-Malayan
  39. _Diclidurus_   |    1  | Brazil               |
                     |       |                      |
  NOCTILIONIDÆ.      |       |                      |
  40. _Noctilio_     |    2  | Paraguay to W. Indies|
  41. _Mormops_      |    1  | Antilles and Mexico  |
  42. _Phyllodia_    |    1  | Jamaica              |
  43. _Chilonycteris_|    5  | Brazil and West      |
                     |       |   Indies             |
  44. _Pteronotus_   |    1  | Trinidad             |
  45. Nyctinomus     |    2  | La Plata to Antilles | S. Nearc., Orien.,
                     |       |   & Costa Rica       |   Madag.
  46. Molossus       |   16  | Paraguay and Chili   | Ethiopian, S.
                     |       |   to Antilles        |  Palæarc., Australian
                     |       |                      |
  INSECTIVORA.       |       |                      |
  CENTETIDÆ.         |       |                      |
  47. _Solenodon_    |    2  | Cuba and Hayti       |
                     |       |                      |
  SORICIDÆ.          |       |                      |
      (Sorex         |    1  | Guatemala and Costa  | All other reg. but
                     |       |   Rica)              |   Austrl.
                     |       |                      |
  CARNIVORA.         |       |                      |
  FELIDÆ.            |       |                      |
  48. Felis          |   13  | The whole region,    | All regions but
                     |       |   excl. Antilles     |   Austral.
                     |       |                      |
  CANIDÆ.            |       |                      |
  49. _Icticyon_     |    1  | Brazil               |
  50. _Chrysocyon_   |    1  | S. America           |
      (Lupus         |    2  | Mexico to Costa Rica)| Northern genus
  51. _Lycalopex_    |    2  | S. America           |
  52. _Pseudalopex_  |    5  | S. America, Falkland |
                     |       |   Islands, & Tierra  |
                     |       |   del Fuego          |
  53. _Thous_        |    2  | S. America to Chili  |
                     |       |                      |
  MUSTELIDÆ.         |       |                      |
  54. Mustela        |    2  | Andes of Peru        | All other reg. but
                     |       |                      |   Austrl.
  55. _Galictis_     |    2  | S. America to Chili  |
                     |       |   & Patagonia        |
  56. _Lontra_       |    3  |Central and S. America|
                     |       | to Chonos Archipelago|
  57. Nutria         |    1  | W. coast of America  | W. coast of N.
                     |       |  to Chiloe           |   America
  58. _Pteronura_    |    1  | Surinam and Brazil   |
  59. Mephitis       |    3  | Mexico to Sts. of    | Nearctic to Canada
                     |       |   Magellan           |
                     |       |                      |
  PROCYONIDÆ.        |       |                      |
  60. Procyon        |    1  | Tropical America     | Nearctic to Canada
  61. _Nasua_        |    5  | Mexico to Paraguay & |
                     |       |   La Plata           |
  62. _Cercoleptes_  |    1  | Mexico to Peru and   |
                     |       |   N. Brazil          |
  63. Bassaris       |    2  | Mexico and Guatemala | California and Texas
                     |       |                      |
  URSIDÆ.            |       |                      |
  64. _Tremarctos_   |    1  | Andes of Peru and    |
                     |       |   Chili              |
                     |       |                      |
  OTARIIDÆ.          |       |                      |
  65. _Otaria_       |    1  | Chili, La Plata, and |
                     |       |   Patagonia          |
  66. Arctocephalus  |    1  | Falkland Islands &   | New Zealand
                     |       |   Cape Horn          |
                     |       |                      |
  PHOCIDÆ.           |       |                      |
  67. Stenorhynchus  |    1  | Falkland Islands     | New Zealand
  68. Lobodon        |    1  | Antarctic shores     |
  69. Leptonyx       |    1  | Antarctic shores,    | S. Australia
                     |       |   E. Patagonia       |
  70. Ommatophoca    |    1  | Antarctic shores     |
  71. Morunga        |    1  | Falkland Islands     | California, S. temp.
                     |       |                      |   zone
  72. Cystophora     |    1  | Antilles             | N. Atlantic
                     |       |                      |
  CETACEA.           |       |                      |
  DELPHINIDÆ.        |       |                      |
  73. _Inia_         |    1  | Upper Amazon         |
                     |       |                      |
  SIRENIA.           |       |                      |
  MANATIDÆ.          |       |                      |
  74. Manatus        |    1  | Gulf of Mexico to N. | W. Africa
                     |       |   Brazil, Amazon R.  |
                     |       |                      |
  UNGULATA.          |       |                      |
  TAPIRIDÆ.          |       |                      |
  75. Tapirus        |    2  | Equatorial S. America| Indo-Malaya
  76. _Elasmognathus_|    1  | Panama to Guatemala  |
                     |       |                      |
  SUIDÆ.             |       |                      |
  77. _Dicotyles_    |    2  | Mexico to Paraguay   | Texas
                     |       |                      |
  CAMELIDÆ.          |       |                      |
  78. _Auchenia_     |    4  | Temp. S. America,    |
                     |       |   from Cape Horn to  |
                     |       |   Andes of Peru      |
                     |       |                      |
  CERVIDÆ.           |       |                      |
  79. Cervus         |   12  | Mexico to Patagonia  | All regions but
                     |       |  and Tierra del Fuego|   Ethiopian and
                     |       |                      |   Australian
                     |       |                      |
  RODENTIA.          |       |                      |
  MURIDÆ.            |       |                      |
  80. Reithrodon     |    4  | South Temp. America  | United States
                     |       |   to Tierra del Fuego|
  81. _Acodon_       |    1  | Peru, 14,000 ft.     |
                     |       |   elevation          |
  82. _Myxomys_      |    1  | Guatemala            |
  83. Hesperomys     |   76  | The whole region     | Nearctic
  84. _Holochilus_   |    4  | S. America           |
  85. _Oxymycterus_  |    3  | Brazil and La Plata  |
  86. _Drymomys_     |    1  | Peru                 |
  87. _Neotomys_     |    2  | S. America           |
      (Fiber         |    1  | Mexico)              | Nearctic genus
                     |       |                      |
  SACCOMYIDÆ.        |       |                      |
  88. _Heteromys_    |    6  | Mexico, Honduras,    |
                     |       | Costa Rica & Trinidad|
                     |       |                      |
                     |       |                      |
  SCIURIDÆ.          |       |                      |
  89. Sciurus        |   30  | Mexico to Paraguay   | All reg. but
                     |       |                      |   Australian
                     |       |                      |
  CHINCHILLIDÆ.      |       |                      |
  90. _Chinchilla_   |    2  | Andes of Chili and   |
                     |       |   Peru               |
  91. _Lagidium_     |    3  | Chili to Ecuador     |
                     |       |   (11,000 to         |
                     |       |     16,000 ft.)      |
  92. _Lagostomus_   |    1  | Uruguay to Rio Negro |
                     |       |   of Patagonia       |
                     |       |                      |
  OCTODONTIDÆ.       |       |                      |
  93. _Habrocomus_   |    2  | Chili                |
  94. _Capromys_     |    3  | Cuba and Jamaica     |
  95. _Plagiodontia_ |    1  | Hayti                |
  96. _Spalacopus_   |    2  | Chili and E. of Andes|
  97. _Octodon_      |    3  | Chili, Peru, and     |
                     |       |   Bolivia            |
  98. _Ctenomys_     |    6  | S. Brazil to Tierra  |
                     |       |  del Fuego           |
                     |       |                      |
  ECHIMYIDÆ.         |       |                      |
  99. _Dactylomys_   |    2  | Guiana and Brazil    |
  100. _Cercomys_    |    1  | Central Brazil       |
  101. _Lasiuromys_  |    1  | St. Paulo, Brazil    |
  102. _Myopotamus_  |    1  | S. half of tropical  |
                     |       |   S. America         |
  103. _Carterodon_  |    1  | Central Brazil       |
  104. _Mesomys_     |    1  | Upper Amazon         |
  105. _Echimys_     |   11  | Equatorial America   |
                     |       |   to Paraguay        |
  106. _Loncheres_   |   10  | New Granada to Brazil|
                     |       |                      |
  CERCOLABIDÆ.       |       |                      |
  107. _Cercolabes_  |   12  | Mexico to Paraguay   |
  108. _Chætomys_    |    1  | N. Brazil            |
                     |       |                      |
  CAVIIDÆ.           |       |                      |
  109. _Dasyprocta_  |    9  | Paraguay to Mexico   |
                     |       |   and Lesser Antilles|
  110. _Coelogenys_  |    2  | Guatemala to Paraguay|
  111. _Hydrochoerus_|    1  | Guiana to La Plata   |
  112. _Cavia_       |    9  | Brazil and Peru to   |
                     |       |   Magellan Sts.      |
  113. _Kerodon_     |    6  | Brazil and Peru to   |
                     |       |   Magellan Sts.      |
  114. _Dolichotis_  |    1  | The Pampas and       |
                     |       |   Patagonia          |
                     |       |                      |
  LEPORIDÆ.          |       |                      |
  115. Lepus         |    1  | Central Brazil and   | All regions but
                     |       |   Andes, Costa Rica  |   Austral.
                     |       |   to Mexico          |
                     |       |                      |
  EDENTATA.          |       |                      |
  BRADYPODIDÆ.       |       |                      |
  116. _Choloepus_   |    2  | Costa Rica to Brazil |
  117. _Bradypus_    |    2  | Amazon to Rio de     |
                     |       |   Janeiro            |
  118._Arctopithecus_|    8  | Costa Rica to Brazil |
                     |       |   and Bolivia        |
                     |       |                      |
  DASYPODIDÆ.        |       |                      |
  119. _Tatusia_     |    5  | Rio Grande, Texas,   |
                     |       |   to Patagonia       |
  120. _Prionodontes_|    1  | Surinam to Paraguay  |
  121. _Dasypus_     |    4  | Brazil to Chili and  |
                     |       | La Plata, Costa Rica?|
  122. _Xenurus_     |    3  | Guiana to Paraguay,  |
                     |       |   Costa Rica?        |
  123. _Tolypeutes_  |    2  | Bolivia and La Plata |
  124._Chlamydophorus_    2  | La Plata and Bolivia |
                     |       |                      |
  MYRMECOPHAGIDÆ.    |       |                      |
  125. _Myrmecophaga_|    1  | Costa Rica?, &       |
                     |       |   N. Braz., to Parag.|
  126. _Tamandua_    |    2  | Guatemala to Paraguay|
  127. _Cyclothurus_ |    2  | Honduras and Costa   |
                     |       |   Rica to Paraguay   |
                     |       |                      |
  MARSUPIALIA.       |       |                      |
  DIDELPHYIDÆ.       |       |                      |
  128. Didelphys     |   20  | Mexico to Uruguay    | Temperate N. America
                     |       |   and S. Chili       |
  129. _Chironectes_ |    1  | Guiana and Brazil,   |
                     |       |   Costa Rica         |
  130. _Hyracodon_   |    1  | Ecuador              |

  _BIRDS._

  PASSERES.          |       |                      |
  TURDIDÆ.           |       |                      |
    1. Turdus        |   32  | The whole reg. to    | Almost cosmopolite
                     |       |   Tierra del Fuego   |
    2._Rhodinocichla_|    1  | Mexico to Venezuela  |
    3. _Melanoptila_ |    1  | Honduras             |
    4. _Catharus_    |   10  | Mexico to Ecuador    |
                     |       |   and Columbia       |
    5. _Margarops_   |    4  | Hayti and Lesser     |
                     |       |   Antilles           |
    6. Mimus         |   16  | Nearly the whole     | Nearctic
                     |       |   region             |
    7. _Melanotis_   |    2  | Mexico and Guatemala |
    8. Galeoscoptes  |    1  | Mexico to Panama     | Nearctic
    9. _Mimocichla_  |    4  | Cuba to Porto Rico   |
      (Harporhynchus |    3  | Mexico)              | Nearctic genus
   10._Cinclocerthia_|    3  | Lesser Antilles      |
   11._Ramphocinclus_|    1  | Martinique and       |
                     |       |   St. Lucia          |
                     |       |                      |
  SYLVIIDÆ.          |       |                      |
   12. _Myiadestes_  |    8  |Mexico and Antilles   | N. & W. of N. America
                     |       |  to Peru and Bolivia |
   13. _Cichlopsis_  |    1  | Brazil               |
       (Sialia       |    2  | Mexico and Guatemala)| United States &
                     |       |                      |   Canada
   14. Regulus       |    2  | Mexico and Guatemala | Nearctic, Palæarctic
   15. Polioptila    |    6  | Mexico and Cuba to   | Cen. and S. U. States
                     |       |  Bolivia and La Plata|
                     |       |                      |
  CINCLIDÆ.          |       |                      |
   16. Cinclus       |    4  | Mexico to Venezuela  | Nearctic, Palæarctic
                     |       |    and Peru          |
                     |       |                      |
  TROGLODYTIDÆ.      |       |                      |
   17. Troglodytes   |    5  | Mexico to Straits of | Nearctic, Palæarctic
                     |       |   Magellan           |
   18. Thryophilus   |   13  | Mexico to Central    | N.-W. America
                     |       |   Brazil             |
   19. Thryothorus   |   12  | Mexico to S. Brazil  | N. America
   20. Cistothorus   |    3  | Mexico to Chili and   | N. America
                     |       |   Patagonia          |
   21. _Donacobius_  |    2  | Columbia to Brazil   |
                     |       |   and Bolivia        |
   22._Campylorhynchus_  18  | Mexico to Brazil and | New Mexico
                     |       |   Bolivia            |
   23. _Cyphorhinus_ |    5  | Costa Rica to Peru   |
   24._Microcerculus_|    5  | Mexico to Peru       |
   25. _Henicorhina_ |    2  | Mexico to Peru       |
       (Salpinctes   |    1  | Mexico and Guatemala)| Nearctic genus
       (Catherpes    |    1  | Mexico)              | Gila and Colorado
   26. _Cinnicerthia_|    2  | Columbia and Ecuador |
   27. _Uropsila_    |    1  | Mexico               |
                     |       |                      |
  CERTHIIDÆ.         |       |                      |
       (Certhia      |    1  | Mexico and Guatemala)| North temperate genus
                     |       |                      |
  SITTIDÆ.           |       |                      |
       (Sitta        |    2  | Mexico)              | North temperate genus
                     |       |                      |
  PARIDÆ.            |       |                      |
       (Parus        |    1  | Mexico)              | Nearc., Palæarc.,
                     |       |                      |   Orient.
       (Lophophanes  |    2  | Mexico)              | North temperate genus
       (Psaltriparus |    1  | Mexico and Guatemala)| Nearctic
                     |       |                      |
  CORVIDÆ.           |       |                      |
   28. Cyanocitta    |   16  | Mexico to Peru and   |Nearctic
                     |       |   Bolivia            |
   29. _Cyanocorax_  |   12  | Mexico to Paraguay,  |
                     |       |   Jamaica            |
   30. _Calocitta_   |    2  | Mexico to Guatemala  |
   31. _Psilorhinus_ |    3  | Mexico to Costa Rica |
   32. Corvus        |    4  | Mexico to Guatemala, | Cosmop., excl.
                     |       |   Cuba to Porto Rico |   S. Amer.
                     |       |                      |
  COEREBIDÆ.         |       |                      |
   33. _Diglossa_    |   14  | Mexico to Guiana,    |
                     |       |   Peru, and Bolivia  |
   34. _Diglossopis_ |    1  | Venezuela to Ecuador |
   35. _Oreomanes_   |    1  | Ecuador              |
   36. _Conirostrum_ |    6  | Columbia to Bolivia  |
   37. _Hemidacnis_  |    1  | Columbia and Upper   |
                     |       |   Amazon             |
   38. _Dacnis_      |   13  | Costa Rica to Guiana |
                     |       |   & S. Brazil        |
   39. _Certhidea_   |    2  | Galapagos Islands    |
   40. _Chlorophanes_|    2  | Brazil to Central    |
                     |       |   America, Cuba      |
   41. _Coereba_     |    4  | Mexico and Cuba to   |
                     |       |   Guiana and Brazil  |
   42. _Certhiola_   |   10  | Antilles to Ecuador  | Florida
                     |       |   and Brazil         |
   43. _Glossiptila_ |    1  | Jamaica              |
                     |       |                      |
  MNIOTILTIDÆ.       |       |                      |
   44. Siurus        |    3  | Mexico to Columbia,  | S. & E. States &
                     |       |   Antilles           |   Canada
   45. Mniotilta     |    1  | Columbia to Mexico   | Eastern United States
                     |       |   and Antilles       |
   46. Parula        |    5  | Brazil and Ecuador   | Eastern U. S. &
                     |       |   to Mexico          |   Canada
   47. Protonotaria  |    1  | Venezuela to Central | Florida to Ohio
                     |       |  America and W. India|
   48. Helminthophaga|    5  | Mexico to Columbia   | North America
   49. Helmintherus  |    1  | Mexico to Veragua    | U. States to Canada
   50. Perissoglossa |    1  | Cuba, Hayti, and     | E. United States
                     |       |   Porto Rico         |
   51. Dendroeca     |   25  | Mexico & W. Indies to| All N. America
                     |       |   Ecuador and Chili  |
   52. _Oporornis_   |    1  | Guatemala to Panama  |
   53. Geothlypis    |   10  | Brazil to Mexico     | All N. America
   54. Setophaga     |   12  | Mexico to Brazil     | E. U. States & Canada
   55. _Cardellina_  |    1  | Guatemala and Mexico |
   56. _Ergaticus_   |    2  | Guatemala and Mexico |
   57. Myiodioctes   |    3  | Columbia to Mexico   | U. States and Canada
   58. _Basileuterus_|   22  | Mexico to Brazil     |
   59. Icteria       |    1  | Costa Rica to Mexico | E. and Central United
                     |       |                      |   States to Canada
   60. _Granatellus_ |    3  | Amazon to Mexico     |
   61. _Teretristis_ |    2  | Cuba                 |
                     |       |                      |
  VIREONIDÆ.         |       |                      |
   62. Vireosylvia   |    9  | Venezuela to Mexico  | All N. America
                     |       |   & Antilles         |
   63. Vireo         |   10  | Mexico to Costa Rica | All United States
                     |       |   & Antilles         |
   64. _Neochloe_    |    1  | Mexico               |
   65. _Hylophilus_  |   16  | Brazil to Mexico     |
   66. _Laletes_     |    1  | Jamaica              |
   67._Phoenicomanes_|    1  | Jamaica              |
   68. _Vireolanius_ |    4  | Mexico to Amazon     |
   69. _Cychloris_   |    9  | Mexico to Paraguay   |
                     |       |                      |
  AMPELIDÆ.          |       |                      |
   70. _Dulus_       |    2  | Hayti                |
      (Ampelis       |    1  | Mexico and Guatemala)| N. temperate genus
   71. _Ptilogonys_  |    2  | Mexico to Costa Rica |
      (Phainopepla   |    1  | Mexico)              | Gila and Lower
                     |       |                      |   Colorado
                     |       |                      |
  HIRUNDINIDÆ.       |       |                      |
   72. Hirundo       |    9  | Mexico and Antilles  | Almost cosmopolite
                     |       |   to Chili and       |
                     |       |   La Plata           |
   73. Petrochelidon |    3  | Mexico and Antilles  | Nearctic
                     |       |   to Paraguay        |
   74. _Atticora_    |    6  | Guatemala to Peru    |
                     |       |   and Brazil         |
   75. Cotyle        |    2  | Central America to   | All regions but
                     |       |   La Plata           |   Austral.
   76. Stelgidopteryx|    4  | Mexico to Brazil     | S. United States
   77. Progne        |    4  | The whole region     | Nearctic
                     |       |                      |
  ICTERIDÆ.          |       |                      |
   78. _Clypeicterus_|    1  | Upper Amazon         |
   79. _Ostinops_    |    8  | Mexico to Guiana,    |
                     |       |   Brazil, and Bolivia|
   80. _Cassiculus_  |    1  | Mexico               |
   81. _Cassicus_    |   10  | Mexico to S. Brazil  |
                     |       |   and Bolivia        |
   82. Icterus       |   33  | Mexico to Antilles   | All U. States &
                     |       |   and La Plata       |   Canada
   83. Dolichonyx    |    1  | Mexico to Paraguay,  | E. U. States and
                     |       |   Galapagos          |   Canada
   84. Molothrus     |    8  | Mexico to La Plata   | All U. States &
                     |       |   and Bolivia        |   Canada
   85. Agelæus       |    6  | Mexico to Paraguay,  | All U. States &
                     |       |   Cuba, Porto Rico   |   Canada
      (Xanthocephalus|    1  | Mexico)              | Nearctic genus
   86. _Xanthosomus_ |    4  | Venezuela to La Plata|
   87._Amblyrhamphus_|    1  | Bolivia and La Plata |
   88._Gymnomystax_  |    1  | Guiana and Amazonia  |
   89._Pseudoleistes_|    2  | Brazil and La Plata  |
   90. _Leistes_     |    3  | Venezuela to Paraguay|
                     |       |    & Bolivia         |
   91. Sturnella     |    4  | Cuba and Mexico to   | All U. States &
                     |       |   Chili, Falkland    |   Canada
                     |       |   Islands & Tierra   |
                     |       |   del Fuego          |
   92. _Curoeus_     |    1  | Chili to Magellan    |
                     |       |   Straits            |
   93. _Nesopsar_    |    1  | Jamaica              |
       (Scolecophagus|    1  | Mexico, Cuba ?)      | Nearctic genus
   94. _Lampropsar_  |    4  | Guatemala to Peru    |
                     |       |   and Guiana         |
   95. Quiscalus     |    9  | Mexico to Antilles & | S. and E. United
                     |       |   Venezuela          |   States to Labrador
   96. _Hypopyrrhus_ |    1  | Columbia             |
   97. _Aphobus_     |    1  | Brazil Paraguay and  |
                     |       |   Bolivia            |
   98. _Cassidix_    |    1  | Mexico to Brazil and |
                     |       |  Guiana              |
                     |       |                      |
  TANAGRIDÆ.         |       |                      |
   99. _Procnias_    |    2  | Brazil and Peru to   |
                     |       |   Columbia           |
  100. _Chlorophonia_|    7  | Brazil to Mexico     |
  101. _Euphonia_    |   32  | Mexico and W. Indies |
                     |       | to Brazil and Bolivia|
                     |       |                      |
  102. _Tanagrella_  |    4  | Columbia to Guiana   |
                     |       |   and Brazil         |
  103. _Chlorochrysa_|    2  | Columbia to Peru     |
  104. _Pipridea_    |    2  | Venezuela to Brazil  |
                     |       |   and Bolivia        |
  105. _Diva_        |    1  | Columbia and Ecuador |
  106. _Calliste_    |   56  | Guatemala to Bolivia |
                     |       |   & Paraguay         |
  107. _Iridornis_   |    4  | Columbia to Peru     |
  108._Poecilothraupis_   4  |Columbia to Bolivia   |
  109._Stephanophorus_    1  | Brazil and La Plata  |
  110. _Buthraupis_  |    5  | Veragua to Bolivia   |
  111. _Compsocoma_  |    5  | Columbia to Bolivia  |
  112. _Dubusia_     |    2  | Columbia and Ecuador |
  113. _Tanagra_     |   12  | Mexico to Bolivia and|
                     |       |   La Plata           |
  114. _Spindalis_   |    5  | Porto Rico to Bahamas|
  115._Rhamphocoelus_|   11  | Guatemala to Brazil  |
                     |       |   and Bolivia        |
  116._Phlogothraupis_    1  | Mexico to Costa Rica |
  117. _Euchætes_    |    1  | Eastern Ecuador      |
  118. _Pyranga_     |   11  | Mexico to Bolivia and| U. States and Canada
                     |       |   Paraguay           |
  119. _Orthogonys_  |    2  | Brazil and Guiana    |
  120. _Lamprotes_   |    2  | Brazil and Columbia  |
  121._Phænicothraupis_   7  | Mexico to Paraguay   |
                     |       |   and Bolivia        |
  122. _Lanio_       |    4  | Mexico to Bolivia    |
  123. _Eucometis_   |    5  | Costa Rica to Bolivia|
  124._Trichothraupis_    1  | S. Brazil and Paraguay
  125. _Creurgops_   |    1  | West Ecuador         |
  126. _Tachyphonus_ |   11  | Nicaragua to Paraguay|
  127. _Cypsnagra_   |    1  | S. Brazil and Bolivia|
  128. _Nemosia_     |   11  |Venezuela, W. Ecuador,|
                     |       |  to Brazil and       |
                     |       |  Bolivia             |
  129. _Pyrrhocoma_  |    1  | S. Brazil and Paraguay
  130._Chlorospingus_|   18  | Mexico to Peru and   |
                     |       |   Bolivia            |
  131. _Buarremon_   |   20  | Mexico to S. Brazil  |
                     |       |   and Bolivia        |
  132._Phænicophilus_|    1  | Hayti                |
  133. _Arremon_     |   12  | Mexico to S. Brazil  |
  134. _Oreothraupis_|    1  | East Ecuador         |
  135. _Cissopis_    |    3  | Columbia to Peru and |
                     |       |   Bolivia            |
  136. _Lamprospiza_ |    1  | Guiana               |
  137. _Psittospiza_ |    2  | Columbia to Peru     |
  138. _Saltator_    |   17  | Mexico to La Plata   |
                     |       |   and Bolivia        |
  139. _Diucopis_    |    2  | Upper Amazon and     |
                     |       |   S. Brazil          |
  140. _Orchesticus_ |    3  | Tropical S. America  |
  141. _Pitylus_     |    8  | Mexico to Brazil and |
                     |       |   Ecuador            |
                     |       |                      |
  FRINGILLIDÆ.       |       |                      |
  142. Chrysomitris  |   12  | Mexico to Brazil,    | Nearctic, Palæarctic
                     |       |   Chili and Patagonia|
  143. _Sycalis_     |    9  | Mexico to Chili and  |
                     |       |   La Plata, Jamaica  |
  144. Coccothraustes|    2  | Mexico and Guatemala | Nearctic, Palæarctic
  145. _Geospiza_    |    7  | Galapagos Islands    |
  146. _Camarhynchus_|    5  | Galapagos Islands    |
  147. _Cactornis_   |    4  | Galapagos Islands    |
  148. _Phrygilus_   |   10  | Columbia to Fuegia and
                     |       |   Falkland Islands   |
  149. _Xenospingus_ |    1  | Peru                 |
  150. _Diuca_       |    3  | Peru, Chili, and     |
                     |       |   Patagonia          |
  151. _Emberizoides_|    3  | Venezuela to Paraguay|
  152. _Donacospiza_ |    1  |S. Brazil and La Plata|
  153. _Chamæospiza_ |    1  | Mexico               |
  154. Embernagra    |    9  | Mexico to La Plata   | Rocky Mountains
  155. _Hæmophila_   |    6  | Mexico to Costa Rica |
  156. Atlapetes     |    1  | Mexico               | Nearctic?
  157. _Pyrgisoma_   |    5  | Mexico to Costa Rica |
  158. Pipilo        |    4  | Mexico to Guatemala  | All Nearctic region
  159. Junco         |    2  | Mexico and Guatemala | United States
  160. Zonotrichia   |    5  | Mexico to Straits of | Nearctic
                     |       |   Magellan           |
       (Melospiza    |    2  | Mexico and Guatemala)| Nearctic genus
       (Spizella     |    3  | Mexico and Guatemala)| Nearctic genus
       (Passerculus  |    1  | Mexico and Guatemala)| Nearctic genus
       (Pooecetes    |    1  | Mexico)              | Nearctic genus
  161. Ammodramus    |    1  | Guatemala            | Nearctic
  162. Coturniculus  |    4  | Mexico to Bolivia,   | E. & N. of N. America
                     |       |   Jamaica            |
  163. Peucæa        |    4  | Mexico               | S. E. States &
                     |       |                      |   California
  164. _Tiaris_      |    1  | Brazil               |
  165. _Volatinia_   |    1  | Mexico to Brazil     |
       (Cyanospiza   |    4  | Mexico and Central   | Nearctic
                     |       |   America)           |
  166. _Paroaria_    |    6  | Trop. S. America,    |
                     |       |   E. of Andes        |
  167._Coryphospingus_    4  | Tropical S. America  |
  168._Porphyrospiza_|    1  | Brazil               |
  169. _Haplospiza_  |    2  | Mexico and Brazil    |
  170. _Phonipara_   |    5  | Mexico to Columbia,  |
                     |       |   Greater Antilles   |
  171. Poospiza      |   12  | Mexico to Bolivia and| W. & Central
                     |       |   La Plata           |   U. States
  172. _Spodiornis_  |    1  | Ecuador              |
       (Carpodacus   |    2  | Mexico)              | Nearctic, Palæarctic
  173. Cardinalis    |    2  | Mexico to Venezuela  | S. & S. Cent.
                     |       |                      |   U. States
  174. Guiraca       |    6  | Mexico to Brazil and | Southern U. States
                     |       |   La Plata           |
  175. _Amaurospiza_ |    2  | Costa Rica and Brazil|
  176. Hedymeles     |    2  | Mexico to Columbia   | Nearctic
  177. _Pheucticus_  |    5  | Mexico to Peru and   |
                     |       |   Bolivia            |
  178. _Oryzoborus_  |    6  | Mexico to Ecuador and|
                     |       |   S. Brazil          |
  179. _Melopyrrha_  |    1  | Cuba                 |
  180. _Loxigilla_   |    4  | Antilles             |
  181. _Spermophila_ |   44  | Mexico to Bolivia and| Texas
                     |       |   Uruguay            |
  182. _Catamenia_   |    4  | Columbia to Bolivia  |
  183. _Neorhynchus_ |    1  | W. Peru              |
  184._Catamblyrhynchus_  1  | Columbia             |
       (Loxia        |    1  | Mexico)              | North temperate genus
       (Calamospiza  |    1  | Mexico)              | Arizona and Texas
       (Chondestes   |    1  | Mexico)              | W. and Cent.
                     |       |                      |   U. States
       (Euspiza      |    1  | Mexico to Columbia)  | S.-E. U. States,
                     |       |                      |   Palæarc.
  185. _Gubernatrix_ |    1  | Paraguay and La Plata|
       (Plectrophanes|    1  | Mexico)              | N. temp. & Arctic
                     |       |                      |   genus
                     |       |                      |
  ALAUDIDÆ.          |       |                      |
  186. Otocorys      |    1  | Mexico, Andes of     | Nearc. & Palæarc.
                     |       |   Columbia           |   genus
                     |       |                      |
  MOTACILLIDÆ.       |       |                      |
  187. Anthus        |    4  | Mexico to Patagonia  | Cosmopolite
                     |       |  and Falkland Islands|
                     |       |                      |
  OXYRHAMPHIDÆ.      |       |                      |
  187a. _Oxyrhamphus_|    2  | Brazil to Costa Rica |
                     |       |                      |
  TYRANNIDÆ.         |       |                      |
  188. _Conophaga_   |   11  | Columbia to Bolivia  |
                     |       |   and Brazil         |
  189. _Corythopis_  |    2  | Brazil and Guiana    |
  190. _Agriornis_   |    5  | Ecuador, Peru, and   |
                     |       |   Chili              |
  191. _Myiotheretes_|    3  | Columbia to Ecuador, |
                     |       |   Patagonia          |
  192. _Tænioptepa_  |    8  | S. Brazil and Bolivia|
                     |       |   to Patago.         |
  193. _Ochthodioeta_|    1  | Columbian Andes      |
  194. _Ochthæca_    |   17  | Andes, Bolivia to    |
                     |       |   Columbia and       |
                     |       |   Venezuela          |
  195. Sayornis      |    4  | Mexico to Ecuador    | E. United Sts. to
                     |       |                      |   Canada
  196. _Fluvicola_   |    4  | Guiana & W. Ecuador  |
                     |       |   to Brazil, and     |
                     |       |   Bolivia            |
  197. _Arundinicola_|    1  | Tropical S. America  |
  198. _Alectorurus_ |    2  |S. Brazil and La Plata|
  199. _Cybernetes_  |    1  | Brazil               |
  200. _Sysopygis_   |    1  |S. Brazil and La Plata|
  201. _Cnipolegus_  |    9  | Amazonia to Patagonia|
  202. _Lichenops_   |    1  | Brazil and La Plata  |
  203. _Muscipipra_  |    1  | S. Brazil            |
  204. _Copurus_     |    3  | Costa Rica to        |
                     |       |   S. Brazil          |
  205. _Machetornis_ |    1  | Venezuela to Brazil  |
  206._Muscisaxicola_|   11  | Andes of Ecuador to  |
                     |       |   Chili and Patagonia|
  207. _Centrites_   |    2  | Bolivia to Patagonia |
  208. _Muscigralla_ |    1  | W. Ecuador           |
  209._Platyrhynchus_|    7  | Mexico to Brazil     |
  210. _Todirostrum_ |   11  | Tropical N. and      |
                     |       |   S. America         |
  211. _Oncosotma_   |    2  | Tropical N. America  |
  212. _Euscarthmus_ |   12  | Costa Rica to W.     |
                     |       |   Ecuador, Brazil,   |
                     |       |   and Bolivia        |
  213. _Orchilus_    |    2  | Costa Rica to Brazil |
                     |       |   and Bolivia        |
  214. _Colopterus_  |    2  | Veragua to Columbia  |
                     |       |   and Guiana         |
  215. _Hemitriccus_ |    1  | Brazil               |
  216._Phylloscartes_|    1  | Columbia to Brazil   |
  217. _Hapalocercus_|    3  | Brazil to Chili and  |
                     |       |   La Plata           |
  218. _Habrura_     |    1  | Uruguay              |
  219._Pogonotriccus_|    2  | Brazil and Columbia  |
  220. _Leptotriccus_|    2  | Brazil and Veragua   |
  221. _Stigmatura_  |    2  | Upper Amazon to      |
                     |       |   La Plata           |
  222. _Serphophaga_ |    7  | Columbia to Chili and|
                     |       |   La Plata           |
  223. _Anæretes_    |    4  | Columbia to Chili and|
                     |       |  La Plata, Magell.   |
                     |       |  Sts. & Juan Fernand.|
  224. _Cyanotis_    |    1  | W. Peru to La Plata  |
  225. _Mionectes_   |    4  | Mexico to Brazil and |
                     |       |   Bolivia            |
  226. _Leptopogon_  |    6  | Mexico to Peru and   |
                     |       |   Brazil             |
  227. _Capsiempis_  |    1  | Chiriqui to Brazil   |
  228. _Phyllomyias_ |    5  | Columbia to Brazil   |
  229. _Ornithion_   |    4  | Mexico to Brazil     |
  230. _Tyrannulus_  |    3  | Guatemala to Amazonia|
  231. _Tyranniscus_ |    9  | Guatemala to E. Peru |
  232. _Elainea_     |   18  | Mexico to Tierra del |
                     |       |   Fuego, Antilles    |
  233. _Empidagra_   |    1  | Bolivia and La Plata |
  234. _Legatus_     |    2  | Mexico to Brazil     |
  235. _Sublegatus_  |    2  | Venezuela and Lower  |
                     |       |   Amazon             |
  236. _Myiozetetes_ |    8  | Mexico to W. Peru and|
                     |       |   Brazil             |
  237._Rhynchocyclus_|   10  | Mexico to W. Ecuador |
                     |       |   & Brazil           |
  238. _Conopias_    |    3  | Venezuela to Peru and|
                     |       |   Brazil             |
  239. _Pitangus_    |    7  | Mexico to La Plata,  |
                     |       |   Antilles           |
  240. _Sirystes_    |    2  | Panama to Brazil     |
  241. _Myiodynastes_|    6  | Mexico to Bolivia and|
                     |       |   Paraguay           |
  242. _Megarhynchus_|    1  | Mexico to Brazil     |
  243. _Muscivora_   |    5  | Mexico to W. Ecuador |
                     |       |   & Brazil           |
  244. _Hirundinea_  |    3  | Columbia & Guiana to |
                     |       |   Paraguay           |
  245. _Cnipodectes_ |    1  | Panama to W. Ecuador |
                     |       |   & Amazon           |
  246. _Myiobius_    |   13  | Mexico to W. Peru,   |
                     |       |   Bolivia, and       |
                     |       |   La Plata           |
  247. _Pyrocephalus_|    3  | Tropical N. and S.   | Gila and Rio Grande
                     |       |   America and        |
                     |       |   Galapagos Islands  |
  248. _Empidochanes_|    4  | Venezuela to         |
                     |       |   S. Brazil.         |
  249. _Mitrephorus_ |    2  | Mexico to Costa Rica |
  250. Empidonax     |   12  | Mexico to Columbia & | All N. America
                     |       |   Ecuador            |
  251. Contopus      |   10  | Mexico to Amazonia,  | N. & E. of Rocky
                     |       |   Antilles           |   Mtns.
  252. _Myiochanes_  |    1  | Amazonia and Brazil  |
  253. Myiarchus     |   12  | Mexico to W. Ecuador | East and West Coasts
                     |       |   & Brazil, Galapagos|   to  Canada
                     |       |   and Antilles       |
  254. _Blacicus_    |    2  | Cuba, Hayti, Jamaica |
       (Empidias     |    1  | Mexico)              | Eastern United States
  255. _Empidonomus_ |    1  | Guiana and Brazil    |
  256. Tyrannus      |   11  | All tropical         | All U. States to
                     |       |   sub-regions        |   Canada
  257. _Milvulus_    |    2  | Tropical N. and S.   | Texas
                     |       |   America            |
                     |       |                      |
  PIPRIDÆ.           |       |                      |
  258. _Piprites_    |    4  | Costa Rica to Brazil |
  259. _Masius_      |    2  | Columbia and Ecuador |
  260. _Chloropipo_  |    1  | Columbia             |
  261. _Xenopipo_    |    1  | Guiana and Columbia  |
  262. _Pipra_       |   19  |Trop. N. and S. America
  263. _Neopipo_     |    1  | Upper Amazon         |
  264._Machæropterus_|    4  | Columbia to Brazil   |
  265. _Ilicura_     |    1  | Brazil               |
  266. _Chiroxiphia_ |    5  | Guatemala to Brazil  |
  267. _Metopia_     |    1  | Brazil               |
  268. _Metopothrix_ |    1  | Upper Amazon         |
  269._Chiromachæris_|    6  | Mexico to Ecuador and|
                     |       |   Brazil             |
  270. _Hetoropelma_ |   10  | Mexico to Guiana and |
                     |       |   Brazil             |
  271. _Heterocercus_|    2  | Guiana and Upper     |
                     |       |   Amazon             |
  272. _Schiffornis_ |    2  |Upper Amazon and Brazil
                     |       |                      |
  COTINGIDÆ.         |       |                      |
  273. _Tityra_      |    6  | Tropical N. and S.   |
                     |       |   America            |
  274. _Hadrostomus_ |    5  | Mexico to W. Ecuador |
                     |       |   & Brazil, Jamaica  |
  275. _Pachyhamphus_|   11  | Mexico to W. Ecuador |
                     |       |   & Brazil           |
  276. _Lathria_     |    5  | Mexico to Brazil     |
  277. _Aulia_       |    3  | Veragua to Brazil    |
  278. _Lipaugus_    |    3  | Guatemala to Brazil  |
                     |       |   and Guiana         |
  279. _Ptilochloris_|    2  | Brazil               |
  280. _Attila_      |    8  | Costa Rica to Brazil |
                     |       |   and Guiana         |
  281. _Casiornis_   |    2  | S. Brazil to Paraguay|
  282. _Rupicola_    |    3  | Guiana to W. Ecuador |
                     |       |   & Bolivia          |
  283._Phoenicocercus_    2  | Guiana and Amazonia  |
  284. _Tijuca_      |    1  | Brazil               |
  285. _Phibalura_   |    1  | Brazil               |
  286. _Pipreola_    |    7  | Venezuela to Ecuador |
                     |       |   and Peru           |
  287. _Ampelio_     |    4  | Columbia to Peru and |
                     |       |   Brazil             |
  288. _Carpodectes_ |    1  | Nicaragua and Costa  |
                     |       |   Rica               |
  289. _Heliochæra_  |    2  | Columbia to Peru and |
                     |       |   Bolivia            |
  290. _Cotinga_     |    6  | Guatemala to Peru and|
                     |       |   Brazil             |
  291. _Xipholena_   |    3  | Guiana to Brazil     |
  292. _Iodopleura_  |    3  | Guiana to Brazil     |
  293. _Calyptura_   |    1  | Brazil               |
  294. _Querula_     |    1  | Panama to Amazonia   |
  295. _Hæmatoderus_ |    1  |Guiana and Lower Amazon
  296._Chasmorhynchus_    4  | Costa Rica to Guiana |
                     |       |   and Brazil         |
  297._Gymnocephalus_|    1  | Guiana and Rio Negro |
  298. _Gymnoderus_  |    1  |Guiana and Upper Amazon
  299. _Pyroderus_   |    3  | Venezuela to Brazil  |
  300._Cephalopterus_|    3  | Costa Rica to W.     |
                     |       | Ecuador & Upr. Amazon|
                     |       |                      |
  PHYTOTOMIDÆ.       |       |                      |
  301. _Phytotoma_   |    3  | Bolivia, Chili, and  |
                     |       |   La Plata           |
                     |       |                      |
  DENDROCOLAPTIDÆ.   |       |                      |
  302. _Geobates_    |    1  | South Brazil         |
  303. _Geositta_    |    6  | Peru to Chili and    |
                     |       |   Patagonia          |
  304. _Furnarius_   |    9  | Guiana & W. Ecuador  |
                     |       |   to La Plata        |
  305. _Clibanornis_ |    1  | S. Brazil            |
  306. _Upucerthia_  |    4  | Andes of Ecuador to  |
                     |       |   Chili and Patagonia|
  307. _Cinclodes_   |    5  | Ecuador to Chili,    |
                     |       |   Patagonia and      |
                     |       |   Tierra del Fuego   |
  308. _Henicornis_  |    2  | Patagonia            |
  309. _Lochmias_    |    2  | Venezuela and Brazil |
  310. _Sclerurus_   |    6  | Mexico to Brazil     |
  311. _Oxyurus_     |    2  | Chili to Tierra del  |
                     |       |   Fuego, and         |
                     |       |   Masafuera Islands  |
  312. _Sylviortho-  |    1  | Chili                |
          rhynchus_  |    1  | Chili                |
  313. _Phlæocryptes_|    1  | W. Peru to La Plata  |
  314._Leptasthenura_|    5  | Andes of Ecuador to  |
                     |       |  Brazil and Patagonia|
  315. _Synallaxis_  |   55  | The whole region     |
                     |       |   (excl. Antilles)   |
  316. _Coryphistera_|    1  | La Plata             |
  317. _Anumbius_    |    1  | Paraguay and La Plata|
  318. _Limnornis_   |    1  | Uruguay and La Plata |
  319._Placellodomus_|    4  | Venezuela to Peru and|
                     |       |   La Plata           |
  320. _Thripophaga_ |    3  | Brazil and Columbia  |
  321._Pseudocolaptes_    1  | Columbia to Peru     |
  322. _Homorus_     |    3  | Brazil, Bolivia, and |
                     |       |   La Plata           |
  323. _Thripadectes_|    1  | Columbia             |
  324. _Ancistrops_  |    1  | Upper Amazon         |
  325. _Automolus_   |    9  | Mexico to Amazonia   |
  326. _Philydor_    |   14  |Tropical South America|
                     |       |                      |
  327. _Heliobletus_ |    1  | Brazil               |
  328. _Anabatoides_ |    1  | Brazil               |
  329. _Anabazenops_ |    5  | Mexico to Brazil     |
  330. _Xenops_      |    3  | Trop. North and South|
                     |       |   America            |
  331. _Sittasomus_  |    3  | Mexico to Ecuador and|
                     |       |   Brazil             |
  332. _Margarornis_ |    4  | Costa Rica to Peru   |
                     |       |   and Bolivia        |
  333._Glyphorhynchus_    1  | Trop. North and South|
                     |       |   America            |
  334. _Pygarrhicus_ |    1  | Chili                |
  335. _Dendrocincla_|   10  | Mexico to Venezuela  |
                     |       |   and Brazil         |
  336._Dendrocolaptes_    7  | Guatemala to Peru and|
                     |       |   Brazil             |
  337. _Nasica_      |    1  | Guiana               |
  338. _Drymornis_   |    1  | La Plata             |
  339._Xiphocolaptes_|    5  | Mexico to Bolivia and|
                     |       |   Paraguay           |
  340._Dendrexetastes_    2  | Guiana               |
  341. _Dendrornis_  |   14  | Mexico, W. Ecuador   |
                     |       |   and Brazil         |
  342. _Dendroplex_  |    2  | Columbia & Venezuela |
                     |       |   to Brazil          |
  343. _Picolaptes_  |   14  | Mexico to Bolivia and|
                     |       |   La Plata           |
  344._Xiphorhynchus_|    4  | Veragua to Brazil    |
                     |       |                      |
  FORMICARIIDÆ.      |       |                      |
  345. _Cymbilanius_ |    1  | Amazonia and Guiana  |
  346. _Batara_      |    1  | S. Brazil            |
  347. _Thamnophilus_|   47  | Trop. North and South|
                     |       |   America            |
  348. _Biatas_      |    1  | Brazil               |
  349. _Thamnistes_  |    2  | Central America and  |
                     |       |   Ecuador            |
  350. _Pygoptila_   |    2  | Amazonia             |
  351. _Neoctantes_  |    1  | Amazonia             |
  352. _Clytoctantes_|    1  | Eastern Ecuador      |
  353. _Dysithamnus_ |   12  | Mexico to Bolivia and|
                     |       |   Brazil             |
  354. _Thamnomanes_ |    2  | Ecuador, Guiana, and |
                     |       |   Brazil             |
  355._Herpsilochmus_|    4  | Venezuela to Brazil  |
                     |       |   and Bolivia        |
  356. _Myrmotherula_|   21  | Tropical S. America  |
  357. _Formicivora_ |   14  | Trop. North and South|
                     |       |   America            |
  358. _Terenura_    |    3  | Veragua to W. Ecuador|
                     |       |   & Brazil           |
  359._Psilorhamphus_|    1  | Central Brazil       |
  360. _Microbates_  |    1  | Cayenne              |
  361. _Rhamphocænus_|    4  | Guatemala to Brazil  |
  362. _Cercomacra_  |    9  | Cen. America to W.   |
                     |       |   Equador & S. Brazil|
  363. _Pyriglena_   |    4  | Ecuador to Peru and  |
                     |       |   Brazil             |
  364. _Gymnocichla_ |    2  | Honduras to Panama   |
  365. _Percnostola_ |    3  |Guiana and Upper Amazon
  366. _Heterocnemis_|    3  |Guiana and Upper Amazon
  367. _Myrmeciza_   |   11  |Veragua to W. Ecuador,|
                     |       |   Bolivia, and Brazil|
  368. _Hypocnemis_  |   15  | Costa Rica to W.     |
                     |       |   Ecuador & Brazil   |
  369. _Pithys_      |    5  | Nicaragua to Amazonia|
  370. _Rhopoterpe_  |    1  | Guiana               |
  371. _Phlogopsis_  |    4  | Nicaragua to Guiana  |
                     |       |   and Bolivia        |
  372. _Formicarius_ |    9  | Mexico to Brazil and |
                     |       |   Bolivia            |
  373. _Pittasoma_   |    1  | Panama and Veragua   |
  374. _Chamæza_     |    4  | Columbia to Brazil   |
  375. _Grallaria_   |   20  | Mexico to W. Ecuador |
                     |       |   & Brazil           |
  376. _Grallaricula_|    5  | Costa Rica to Ecuador|
                     |       |                      |
  PTEROPTOCHIDÆ.     |       |                      |
  377. _Scytalopus_  |    8  | Columbia & Brazil to |
                     |       |   Chili and Tierra   |
                     |       |   del Fuego          |
  378. _Merulaxis_   |    1  | Central Brazil       |
  379. _Rhinocrypta_ |    2  | La Plata and         |
                     |       |   Patagonia          |
  380. _Liosceles_   |    1  | Madeira Valley       |
  381. _Pteroptochus_|    2  | Chili and Chiloe     |
  382. _Hylactes_    |    3  | Chili                |
  383. _Acropternis_ |    1  | Columbia and Ecuador |
  384. _Triptorhinus_|    1  | Chili                |
                     |       |                      |
  PICARIÆ.           |       |                      |
  PICIDÆ.            |       |                      |
  385. _Picumnus_    |   14  | Honduras to Brazil   |
                     |       |   and Bolivia        |
  386. Picus         |    6  | Mexico, Chili, La    | All reg. but Austral.
                     |       |  Plata, and S.       |   & Ethiopian
                     |       |  Patagonia           |
       (Sphyrapicus  |    1  | Mexico and Guatemala)| Nearctic genus
  387. Campephilus   |   12  | Mexico to Patagonia, | Nearctic
                     |       |   Cuba               |
  388. Dryocopus     |    4  | Mexico to S. Brazil  | Palæarctic
  389. _Celeus_      |   15  | Mexico and S. Brazil |
  390. _Nesoceleus_  |    1  | Cuba                 |
  391. _Chrysoptilus_|    6  | Tropical S. America  |
  392. Centurus      |   10  | Mexico to Venezuela, | Nearctic
                     |       |   Antilles           |
  393. _Chloronerpes_|   35  | Tropical America,    |
                     |       |   Hayti              |
  394._Xiphidiopicus_|    1  | Cuba                 |
  395. Melanerpes    |    9  | Mexico to Brazil,    | Nearctic
                     |       |   Porto Rico         |
  396. _Leuconerpes_ |    1  | Brazil, Bolivia      |
  397. Colaptes      |    7  | Open country of trop.| Nearctic
                     |       |   America, Greater   |
                     |       |   Antilles           |
  398. _Hypoxanthus_ |    1  | Venezuela and Ecuador|
                     |       |                      |
  MEGALÆMIDÆ.        |       |                      |
  399. _Capito_      |   10  | Costa Rica to Peru   |
                     |       |   and Guiana         |
  400. _Tetragonops_ |    2  | Costa Rica and       |
                     |       |   Ecuador            |
                     |       |                      |
  RHAMPHASTIDÆ.      |       |                      |
  401. _Rhamphastos_ |   12  | All tropical America |
  402. _Pteroglossus_|   16  | Mexico to Guiana and |
                     |       |   Brazil             |
  403. _Selenidera_  |    7  | Veragua to Brazil    |
  404. _Andigena_    |    6  |Columbia to W. Ecuador,
                     |       |   Bolivia and Brazil |
  405._Aulacorhamphus_   10  | Mexico to Venezuela  |
                     |       |   and Bolivia        |
                     |       |                      |
  CUCULIDÆ.          |       |                      |
  406. _Crotophaga_  |    3  | Tropical America and | Nearctic to
                     |       |   Antilles           |   Pennsylvania
  407. _Guira_       |    1  | Brazil and Paraguay  |
  408. _Neomorphus_  |    4  | Nicaragua to Brazil  |
                     |       |   and Upper Amazon   |
  409. _Geococcyx_   |    1  | Guatemala            | Texas to Calfornia
  410. _Dromococcyx_ |    2  | Mexico to Brazil     |
  411. _Diplopterus_ |    1  | Mexico to Ecuador and|
                     |       |   Brazil             |
  412. _Saurothera_  |    4  | Greater Antilles     |
  413. _Hyetornis_   |    2  | Jamaica and Hayti    |
  414. _Piaya_       |    3  | Mexico to W. Ecuador |
                     |       |   & Brazil           |
  415. _Morococcyx_  |    1  | Mexico to Costa Rica |
  416. Coccygus      |   10  | Tropical America and | Nearctic
                     |       |   Antilles, Cocos    |
                     |       |   Islands            |
                     |       |                      |
  BUCCONIDÆ.         |       |                      |
  417. _Bucco_       |   21  | Guatemala to Guiana, |
                     |       |  Paraguay and Bolivia|
  418. _Malacoptila_ |   10  | Guatemala to Guiana, |
                     |       |   W. Ecuador and     |
                     |       |   Bolivia            |
  419. _Nonnula_     |    5  | Columbia and Amazonia|
  420. _Monasa_      |    7  | Costa Rica to Brazil |
  421. _Chelidoptera_|    2  | Columbia to Guiana   |
                     |       |   and Brazil         |
  GALBRILIDÆ.        |       |                      |
  422. _Galbula_     |    9  | Guatemala to Brazil  |
                     |       |   and Bolivia        |
  423. _Urogalba_    |    2  |Guiana to Lower Amazon|
                     |       |                      |
  424. _Brachygalba_ |    4  | Columbia to Brazil   |
                     |       |   and Bolivia        |
  425._Jacamaralcyon_|    1  | Brazil               |
  426. _Jacamerops_  |    2  | Columbia to Amazonia |
  427._Galbalcyrhynchus_  1  | Upper Amazon         |
                     |       |                      |
  TODIDÆ.            |       |                      |
  428. _Todus_       |    5  | Greater Antilles     |
                     |       |                      |
  MOMOTIDÆ.          |       |                      |
  429. _Momotus_     |   10  | Mexico to W. Ecuador,|
                     |       |   Brazil and Bolivia |
  430. _Urospatha_   |    1  |Costa Rica to Columbia|
  431._Baryphthengus_|    1  | Brazil and Paraguay  |
  432. _Hylomanes_   |    2  | Mexico and Guatemala |
  433._Prionirhynchus_    2  | Guatemala to Upper   |
                     |       |   Amazon             |
  434. _Eumomota_    |    1  | Honduras to Chiriqui |
                     |       |                      |
  TROGONIDÆ.         |       |                      |
  435. _Prionoteles_ |    1  | Cuba                 |
  436. _Temnotrogon_ |    1  | Hayti                |
  437. _Trogon_      |   22  | Mexico to W. Ecuador |
                     |       |   & Parag.           |
  438. _Euptilotis_  |    1  | Mexico               |
  439. _Pharomacrus_ |    5  | Guatemala to Upper   |
                     |       |   Amazon and Bolivia |
                     |       |                      |
  ALCEDINIDÆ.        |       |                      |
  440. Ceryle        |    8  | Mexico to Brazil,    | Nearc., S. Palæarc.,
                     |       |   Patagonia and Chili|   Orien.
                     |       |                      |
  STEATORNITHIDÆ.    |       |                      |
  441. _Steatornis_  |    1  | Columb., Venezuela, &|
                     |       |   Trinidad           |
                     |       |                      |
  CAPRIMULGIDÆ.      |       |                      |
  442. _Nyctibius_   |    6  | Brazil to Guatemala  |
                     |       |   & Jamaica          |
  443. _Hydropsalis_ |    8  | Columbia & Guiana to |
                     |       |   La Plata           |
  444. Antrostomus   |   10  | Mexico and Cuba to   | All U. States to
                     |       | Bolivia and  La Plata|   Canada
  445. _Stenopsis_   |    4  |Martinique to Columb.,|
                     |       |   W. Peru and Chili  |
  446. _Siphonorhis_ |    1  | Jamaica              |
  447._Heleothreptus_|    1  | Central Brazil       |
  448. _Nyctidromus_ |    1  | Central America to   |
                     |       |   S. Brazil          |
  449. _Podager_     |    1  | Tropical S. America  |
  450. _Lurocalis_   |    2  | Guiana to Brazil     |
  451. Chordeiles    |    7  | Mexico to W. Peru and| All U. States to
                     |       |   Brazil Jamaica and |   Canada
                     |       |   Porto Rico         |
  452. _Nyctiprogne_ |    1  | Amazonia             |
                     |       |                      |
  CYPSELIDÆ.         |       |                      |
  453. Cypselus      |    3  | Antilles to Guiana   | The Eastern
                     |       |   and Bolivia        |   Hemisphere
  454. _Panyptila_   |    3  | Guatemala and Guiana |
  455. Chætura       |    9  | Mexico to Ecuador and| Almost cosmopolite
                     |       |   Brazil             |
  456. _Hemiprocne_  |    3  | Mexico to La Plata,  |
                     |       |   Jamaica and Hayti  |
  457. _Cypseloides_ |    2  | Brazil and Peru      |
  458. _Nephoecetes_ |    1  | Jamaica              |
                     |       |                      |
  TROCHILIDÆ.        |       |                      |
  459. _Grypus_      |    1  | Brazil               |
  460. _Androdon_    |    1  | Ecuador              |
  461. _Eutoxeres_   |    2  | Costa Rica to Ecuador|
  462. _Glaucis_     |    2  | Panama to Brazil     |
  463. _Phaethornis_ |   14  | Tropical N. and      |
                     |       |   S. America         |
  464. _Pygmornis_   |    8  | Mexico to Guiana and |
                     |       |   Brazil             |
  465. _Threnetes_   |    4  |Costa Rica to Amazonia|
                     |       |   and W. Ecuador     |
  466. _Dolerisca_   |    1  | Venezuela            |
  467. _Eupetomena_  |    1  | Guiana to Brazil     |
  468._Sphenoproctus_     2  | Mexico to Guatemala  |
  469._Campylopterus_     9  | Mexico to Amazonia   |
  470. _Phæochroa_   |    2  | Guatemala to Columbia|
  471. _Aphantochroa_|    3  | Ecuador and Brazil   |
  472. _Urochroa_    |    1  | Ecuador              |
  473. _Sternoclyta_ |    1  | Venezuela            |
  474. _Eugenes_     |    2  | Mexico to Costa Rica |
  475. _Coeligena_   |    1  | Mexico               |
  476. _Lamprolæma_  |    1  | Mexico and Guatemala |
  477. _Delattria_   |    2  | Guatemala            |
  478. _Oreopyra_    |    4  |Costa Rica to Chiriqui|
  479. _Heliopædica_ |    2  | Mexico and Guatemala |
  480. _Topaza_      |    2  | Guiana               |
  481._Oreotrochilus_|    6  | Ecuador to Peru and  |
                     |       |   Chili              |
  482. _Lampornis_   |    7  | Mexico & W. India to |
                     |       |   Amazonia           |
  483. _Eulampis_    |    2  | Lesser Antilles      |
  484. _Avocettula_  |    1  | Guiana               |
  485. _Lafresnaya_  |    2  |Venezuela and Columbia|
  486. _Doryphora_   |    5  | Costa Rica to Ecuador|
  487. _Chalybura_   |    5  |Costa Rica to Columbia|
  488. _Heliodoxa_   |    5  |Costa Rica to Venezue.|
                     |       |   & Boliv.           |
  489. _Iolæma_      |    2  | Ecuador to Peru      |
  490. _Phæolæma_    |    2  | Columbia and Ecuador |
  491. _Eugenia_     |    1  | Ecuador              |
  492. _Aithurus_    |    1  | Jamaica              |
  493. _Thalurania_  |   10  | Costa Rica to Guiana,|
                     |       |   Ecuador and Brazil |
  494. _Panoplites_  |    3  | Columbia and Ecuador |
  495. _Florisuga_   |    2  | Guatemala to Brazil  |
  496. _Microchera_  |    2  | Nicaragua to Veragua |
  497. _Lophorius_   |    7  | Mexico to Brazil,    |
                     |       |   Peru, & Bolivia    |
  498. _Polemistria_ |    2  | Columbia to S. Brazil|
  499. _Discura_     |    2  | Brazil               |
  500. _Gouldia_     |    4  | Costa Rica to Brazil |
                     |       |   & Bolivia          |
  501. Trochilus     |    2  | Mexico to Veragua    | To Canada and Sitka
  502. _Mellisuga_   |    1  | Jamaica to Hayti     |
  503. _Calypte_     |    3  | Mexico and Cuba      |
  504. Selasphorus   |    7  | Mexico to Veragua    | W. & Cen. United
                     |       |                      |   States
  505. Atthis        |    1  | Mexico and Guatemala | California and
                     |       |                      |   Colorado
  506. _Stellula_    |    1  | Mexico               |
  507. _Calothorax_  |    2  | Mexico               |
  508. _Acestrura_   |    3  | Venezuela to Ecuador |
                     |       |   & Bolivia          |
  509. _Chætocercus_ |    3  | Venezuela and Ecuador|
  510. _Myrtis_      |    2  | Ecuador to Bolivia,  |
                     |       |   W. of Andes        |
  511. _Thaumastura_ |    1  | W. Peru              |
  512. _Rhodopis_    |    2  | W. Peru and Chili    |
  513. _Doricha_     |    5  | Mexico to Veragua,   |
                     |       |   Bahamas            |
  514. _Tilmatura_   |    1  | Guatemala            |
  515. _Calliphlox_  |    2  | Ecuador and Brazil   |
  516. _Loddigesia_  |    1  | Peruvian Andes       |
  517. _Steganura_   |    6  | Venezuela to Ecuador |
                     |       |   & Bolivia          |
  518. _Lesbia_      |    6  | Columbia to Peru     |
  519. _Cynanthus_   |    2  | Venezuela to Ecuador |
  520. _Sparganura_  |    4  | Columbia to Bolivia &|
                     |       |   La Plata           |
  521. _Pterophanes_ |    1  | Columbia to Peru     |
  522. _Aglæactis_   |    4  | Columbia to Bolivia  |
  523. _Oxypogon_    |    2  | Venezuela and Columbia            |
  524. _Oreonympha_  |    1  | Peru                 |
  525._Rhamphomicron_|    6  | Columbia to Bolivia  |
  526. _Urosticte_   |    2  | Ecuador              |
  527. _Metallura_   |    6  | Columbia to Bolivia  |
  528. _Adelomia_    |    4  | Venezuela to Peru &  |
                     |       |    Bolivia           |
  529. _Avocettinus_ |    1  | Columbia             |
  530. _Anthocephala_|    1  | Columbia             |
  531. _Chrysolampis_|    1  | Venezuela to Brazil  |
  532._Orthorhynchus_|    2  | Lesser Antilles      |
  533. _Cephalolepis_|    3  | Brazil               |
  534. _Clais_       |    1  |Venezuela and Columbia|
  535. _Baucis_      |    1  | Mexico to Veragua    |
  536. _Heliactin_   |    1  | Brazil               |
  537. _Heliothrix_  |    3  | Guatemala to Ecuador |
                     |       |   & Brazil           |
  538. _Schistes_    |    2  | Columbia and Ecuador |
  539. _Phlogophilus_|    1  | Ecuador              |
  540. _Augastes_    |    2  | Brazil               |
  541. _Petasophora_ |    5  | Mexico to Peru and   |
                     |       |   Brazil             |
  542._Chrysobronchus_    3  | Venezuela to Brazil  |
  543. _Patagona_    |    1  | Ecuador to Bolivia   |
                     |       |   and Chili          |
  544. _Docimastes_  |    1  | Columbia and Ecuador |
  545. _Helianthea_  |    7  | Columbia to Bolivia  |
  546. _Heliotrypha_ |    2  | Columbia and Ecuador |
  547. _Heliangelus_ |    6  | Venezuela to Peru    |
  548. _Diphlogæna_  |    3  | Bolivia              |
  549. _Clytolæma_   |    2  | E. Ecuador and Brazil|
  550. _Bourcieria_  |    5  | Venezuela to Peru    |
  551. _Lampropygia_ |    4  | Venezuela to Bolivia |
  552. _Heliomastes_ |    5  | Mexico to Ecuador &  |
                     |       |   Venezuela          |
  553. _Lepidolarynx_|    1  | Brazil               |
  554. _Calliperidia_|    1  | Central Brazil and   |
                     |       |   Paraguay           |
  555. _Eustephanus_ |    3  | Chili, S. Patagonia, |
                     |       |   and Juan Fernandez |
                     |       |   Island             |
  556. _Eriocnemis_  |   14  | Venezuela to Ecuador |
  557. _Cyanomyia_   |    6  | Mexico to Peru       |
  558. _Hemistilbon_ |    1  | Mexico               |
  559. _Leucippus_   |    2  | Peru and Bolivia     |
  560. _Thaumatias_  |   15  | Mexico to Guiana,    |
                     |       |   Upr. Amazon, and   |
                     |       |    Brazil            |
  561. _Amazilia_    |   14  | Mexico to W. Ecuador |
                     |       |   & Peru             |
  562. _Saucerottia_ |    7  | Costa Rica to Columb.|
                     |       |   & Venezue.         |
  563. _Eupherusa_   |    3  | Mexico to Veragua    |
  564. _Chrysuronia_ |    5  | Guatemala to Ecuador |
                     |       |   & La Plata         |
  565. _Eucephala_   |    7  | Venezuela to Guiana  |
                     |       |   and Brazil         |
  566. _Panterpe_    |    1  | Costa Rica and       |
                     |       |   Chiriqui           |
  567. _Juliamyia_   |    2  | Panama to Ecuador    |
  568. _Circe_       |    3  | Mexico               |
  569. _Phæoptila_   |    1  | Mexico               |
  570. _Damophila_   |    1  | Costa Rica to Ecuador|
  571. _Hylocharis_  |    3  | Amazonia and Brazil  |
  572. _Sapphironia_ |    2  | Columbia and Veragua |
  573. _Sporadinus_  |    3  | Cuba, Bahamas, Hayti,|
                     |       |   Porto Rico         |
  574._Chlorostilbon_     8  | Mexico to Brazil and |
                     |       |   La Plata           |
  575. _Panychlora_  |    3  |Venezuela and Columbia|
  576._Smaragdochrysis_   1  | Brazil               |
                     |       |                      |
  PSITTACI.          |       |                      |
  CONURIDÆ.          |       |                      |
  577. _Ara_         |   15  | Trop. North and South|
                     |       |   America, Cuba,     |
                     |       |   Jamaica (extinct)  |
  578. _Rhyncopsitta_|    1  | Mexico               |
  579._Henicognathus_|    1  | Chili                |
  580. Conurus       |   30  | The whole region     | S. & S.E. United
                     |       |                      |   States
  581. _Pyrrhura_    |   16  | Costa Rica to        |
                     |       |   Paraguay & Bolivia |
  582._Bolborhynchus_|    7  | Mexico to Peru,      |
                     |       |   Central Brazil, and|
                     |       |   La Plata           |
  583. _Brotogerys_  |    9  | Trop. North and South|
                     |       |   America            |
                     |       |                      |
  PSITTACIDÆ.        |       |                      |
  584. _Caica_       |    9  | Mexico to Amazonia   |
  585. _Chrysotis_   |   32  | All the tropical     |
                     |       |   sub-regions        |
  586. _Triclaria_   |    1  | Brazil               |
  587. _Deroptyus_   |    1  | Guiana and Rio Negro |
  588. _Pionus_      |    9  | Costa Rica to Bolivia|
                     |       |   and Brazil         |
  589. _Urochroma_   |    7  | Venezuela to Brazil  |
  590. _Psittacula_  |    6  | Mexico to W. Ecuador |
                     |       |   & Brazil           |
                     |       |                      |
  COLUMBÆ.           |       |                      |
  591. Columba       |   18  |Trop. sub-regions with| All regions but
                     |       |   Chili and La Plata |   Austral.
  592. Zenaidura     |    2  | Mexico to Veragua    | Nearctic
  593. Chamæpelia    |    6  | Mexico to Brazil and | S. Nearctic
                     |       |   Bolivia            |
  594. _Columbula_   |    2  | Brazil and La Plata  |
                     |       |   to Chili           |
  595. _Scardafella_ |    2  | Guatemala and Brazil |
  596. _Zenaida_     |   10  | Antilles and S.      |
                     |       |   America to Chili   |
                     |       |   and La Plata       |
  597. Melopelia     |    2  | Mexico to Chili      | South & West
                     |       |                      |   Nearctic
  598. _Peristera_   |    4  | Mexico to Brazil     |
  599. _Metriopelia_ |    2  | W. America from      |
                     |       |   Ecuador to Chili   |
  600. _Gymnopelia_  |    1  | West Peru and Bolivia|
  601. _Leptoptila_  |   11  | Tropical sub-regions |
  602. _Geotrygon_   |   14  | Tropical sub-regions |
  603. _Starnoenas_  |    1  | Cuba                 |
                     |       |                      |
  GALLINÆ.           |       |                      |
  TETRAONIDÆ.        |       |                      |
  604. _Odontophorus_|   17  | Trop. North and South|
                     |       |   America            |
  605. _Dendrortyx_  |    3  | Mexico to Costa Rica |
  606. Cyrtonyx      |    3  | Mexico to Guatemala  | S. Central United
                     |       |                      |   States
  607. Ortyx         |    5  | Mexico to Costa Rica,| Nearctic to Canada
                     |       |   Cuba               |
  608. _Eupsychortyx_|    5  | Mexico to Columbia   |
                     |       |   and Guiana         |
       (Callipepla   |    2  | Mexico)              | California
                     |       |                      |
  PHASIANIDÆ.        |       |                      |
  609. Meleagris     |    2  | Mexico and Honduras  | Nearctic
                     |       |                      |
  CRACIDÆ.           |       |                      |
  610. _Crax_        |    8  | Mexico to Venezuela &|
                     |       |   S. Brazil          |
  611. _Nothocrax_   |    1  | Guiana and Upper     |
                     |       |   Amazon             |
  612. _Pauxi_       |    1  | Guiana and Venezuela |
  613. _Mitua_       |    2  | Guiana to Peru       |
  614. _Stegnolæma_  |    1  | Columbia and Ecuador |
  615. _Penelope_    |   13  | Trop. North and South|
                     |       |   America            |
  616. _Penelopina_  |    1  | Guatemala            |
  617. _Pipile_      |    3  | Venezuela to Brazil  |
                     |       |   and Peru           |
  618. Aburria       |    1  | Columbia             |
  619. _Chamæpetes_  |    2  | Costa Rica to Peru   |
  620. _Ortalida_    |   18  | Trop. North and South| New Mexico
                     |       |   America            |
  621. _Oreophasis_  |    1  | Guatemala            |
                     |       |                      |
  TINAMIDÆ.          |       |                      |
  622. _Tinamus_     |    7  | Trop. North and South|
                     |       |   America            |
  623. _Nothocercus_ |    3  |Costa Rica to Venezue.|
                     |       |   & Ecuador          |
  624. _Crypturus_   |   16  | Trop. North and South|
                     |       |   America            |
  625. _Rhynchotus_  |    2  | Brazil to Bolivia and|
                     |       |   La Plata           |
  626. _Nothoprocta_ |    4  | Ecuador to Bolivia   |
                     |       |   and Chili          |
  627. _Nothura_     |    4  | Brazil to Bolivia and|
                     |       |   La Plata           |
  628. _Taoniscus_   |    1  | Brazil and Paraguay  |
  629. _Calodromas_  |    1  | La Plata             |
  630. _Tinamotis_   |    1  | Andes of Peru and    |
                     |       |   Bolivia            |
                     |       |                      |
  OPISTHOCOMI.       |       |                      |
  OPISTHOCOMIDÆ      |       |                      |
  631. _Opisthocomus_|    1  | Guiana and Lower     |
                     |       |   Amazon             |
                     |       |                      |
  ACCIPITRES.        |       |                      |
  VULTURIDÆ.         |       |                      |
  (CATHARTINÆ.)      |       |                      |
  632._Sarcorhamphus_|    2  | The Andes and S. of  |
                     |       |   41° S. Lat.        |
  633. _Cathartes_   |    1  | Mexico to 20° S. Lat.|
  634. Catharista    |    1  | Mexico to 40° S. Lat.| S. United States
  635. Pseudogryphis |    3  | Mexico to Falkland   | United States
                     |       |   Ids., Cuba, Jamaica|
                     |       |                      |
  FALCONIDÆ.         |       |                      |
  636. Polyborus     |    2  | The whole region     | California and
                     |       |                      |   Florida
  637. _Ibycter_     |    8  | Guatemala to Terra   |
                     |       |   del Fuego          |
  638. Circus        |    3  | Nearly the whole     | Almost cosmopolite
                     |       |   region             |
  639. _Micrastur_   |    7  | Trop. North and South|
                     |       |   America            |
  640. _Geranospiza_ |    2  | Trop. North and South|
                     |       |   America            |
  641. Antenor       |    1  | Mexico to Chili and  | California and Texas
                     |       |   La Plata           |
  642. Astur         |    2  | Trop. N. and S.      | Almost cosmopolite
                     |       |   America            |
  643. Accipiter     |    9  | The whole region     | Almost cosmopolite
  644._Heterospizias_|    1  | Trop. S. America,    |
                     |       |   E. of Andes        |
  645. Tachytriorchis|    2  | Mexico to Paraguay   | California
  646. Buteo         |    9  | Mexico to Patagonia  | Almost cosmopolite
  647. _Buteola_     |    1  | Veragua to Amazonia  |
  648. Asturina      |    7  | Mexico to Bolivia and| S.E. United States
                     |       |   La Plata           |
  649. _Busarellus_  |    1  | Brazil and Guiana    |
  650. _Buteogallus_ |    1  | Columbia and Guiana  |
  651. _Urubutinga_  |   12  | Mexico to Brazil and |
                     |       |   Bolivia            |
  652._Harpyhaliæetus_    1  | Veragua to Chili &   |
                     |       |   N. Patagonia       |
  653. _Morphnus_    |    1  | Panama to Amazonia   |
  654. _Thrasaëtus_  |    1  | Mexico to Bolivia and|
                     |       |   Paraguay           |
  655. Lophotriorchis|    1  | Bogota               | Indo-Malaya
  656. _Spiziastur_  |    1  | Guatemala to Brazil  |
  657. Spizaëtus     |    4  | Mexico to Paraguay   | Africa, India, Malaya
  658._Herpetotheres_|    1  | S. Mexico to Bolivia |
                     |       |   & Paraguay         |
  659. Nauclerus     |    1  | Mexico to Brazil     | S. United States
  660. _Rostrhamus_  |    3  | Antilles to Brazil   | Florida
                     |       |   and Peru           |
  661. _Leptodon_    |    4  | Central America to S.|
                     |       |   Brazil and Bolivia |
  662. Elanus        |    1  | Mexico to Chili      | Califor., Old World
                     |       |                      |   trop.
  663. _Gampsonyx_   |    1  | Trinidad to Brazil   |
  664. _Harpagus_    |    3  | Central America to   |
                     |       |   Brazil & Peru      |
  665. _Ictinia_     |    2  | Mexico to Brazil     | South United States
  666. _Spiziapteryx_|    1  | La Plata             |
  667. Falco         |    3  | The whole region     | Almost cosmopolite
  668. Cerchneis     |    3  | The whole region     | Almost cosmopolite
                     |       |                      |
  PANDIONIDÆ.        |       |                      |
  669. Pandion       |    1  | The whole region     | Cosmopolite
                     |       |                      |
  STRIGIDÆ.          |       |                      |
  670. Glaucidium    |    6  | The whole region     | W. United Sts.,
                     |       |                      |   Palæarc.
  671. Micrathene    |    1  | Mexico               | Arizona, New Mexico
  672. Pholeoptynx   |    1  | The whole region     | N. W. America & Texas
  673. Bubo          |    1  | The whole region     | All regions but
                     |       |                      |   Austral.
  674. Scops         |    6  | Mexico to Brazil and | Almost cosmopolite
                     |       |   La Plata           |
  675. _Gymnoglaux_  |    2  | West India Islands   |
  676. _Lophostrix_  |    2  | Guatemala to Lower   |
                     |       |   Amazon             |
  677. Syrnium       |    3  | Mexico to Patagonia  | All regions but
                     |       |                      |   Austral.
  678. _Ciccaba_     |   10  | Mexico to Peru and   |
                     |       |   Paraguay           |
  679. _Nyctalatinus_|    1  | Columbia             |
  680. _Pulsatrix_   |    2  | Guatemala to Brazil  |
                     |       |   and Peru           |
  681. Asio          |    2  | The whole region     | All regions but
                     |       |                      |   Austral.
  682. _Nyctalops_   |    1  | Cuba and Mexico to   |
                     |       |   Brazil             |
  683. _Pseudoscops_ |    1  | Jamaica              |
       (Nyctale      |    1  | Mexico)              | N. Temperate genus
  684. Strix         |    2  | The whole region     | Almost cosmopolite

  _Peculiar or very Characteristic Genera of Wading and Swimming Birds._

                     |       |                      |
  GRALLÆ.            |       |                      |
  RALLIDÆ.           |       |                      |
  Aramides           |   23  | The whole region     | Nearctic
  _Heliornis_        |    1  | Tropical America     |
                     |       |                      |
  SCOLOPACIDÆ.       |       |                      |
  Eureunetes         |    3  | The whole region     | Nearctic
                     |       |                      |
  CHIONIDIDÆ.        |       |                      |
  Chionis            |    2  | Sts. of Magellan,    | Kerguelen's Island
                     |       |   Falkland Ids.      |
                     |       |                      |
  THINOCORIDÆ.       |       |                      |
  _Attagis_          |    4  | Andes to Fuegia and  |
                     |       |  Falkland Islands    |
  _Thinocoris_       |    2  | Peru, Chili, and     |
                     |       |   La Plata           |
                     |       |                      |
  CHARADRIIDÆ.       |       |                      |
  _Phægornis_        |    1  | Temperate S. America |
  _Oreophilus_       |    1  | Temperate S. America |
  _Pluvianellus_     |    1  | Temperate S. America |
  _Aphriza_          |    1  |W. coast of S. America| W. coast of
                     |       |                      |   N. America
                     |       |                      |
  CARIAMIDÆ.         |       |                      |
  _Cariama_          |    2  |S. Brazil and La Plata|
                     |       |                      |
  ARAMIDÆ.           |       |                      |
  _Aramus_           |    5  | Mexico and Cuba to   |
                     |       |   Brazil             |
                     |       |                      |
  PSOPHIIDÆ.         |       |                      |
  _Psophia_          |    6  | Equatorial S. America|
                     |       |                      |
  EURYPYGIDÆ.        |       |                      |
  _Eurypyga_         |    2  | Tropical America     |
                     |       |                      |
  ARDEIDÆ.           |       |                      |
  _Tigrisoma_        |    3  | The whole region     |
  _Cancroma_         |    1  | Tropical S. America  |
                     |       |                      |
  PALAMEDEIDÆ.       |       |                      |
  _Palamedea_        |    1  | Equatorial America   |
  _Chauna_           |    2  | Columbia, Brazil, and|
                     |       |   La Plata           |
                     |       |                      |
  ANSERES.           |       |                      |
  ANATIDÆ.           |       |                      |
  _Cairina_          |    1  | Tropical S. America  |
  _Merganetta_       |    3  | Andes                |
  _Micropterus_      |    1  | Temperate S. America |
                     |       |                      |
  SPHENISCIDÆ.       |       |                      |
  Eudyptes           |    6  |  Temperate S. America| Antarctic shores
  Aptenodytes        |    2  |  Falkland Islands    | Antarctic shores
                     |       |                      |
  STRUTHIONES.       |       |                      |
  STRUTHIONIDÆ.      |       |                      |
  685. _Rhea_        |    3  | S. Temperate America |

{114}CHAPTER XV.

THE NEARCTIC REGION.


This region consists almost wholly of Temperate North America as defined by
physical geographers. In area it is about equal to the Neotropical region.
It possesses a vast mountain range traversing its entire length from north
to south, comparable with, and in fact a continuation of, the Andes,--and a
smaller range near the east coast, equally comparable with the mountains of
Brazil and Guiana. These mountains supply its great river-system of the
Mississippi, second only to that of the Amazon; and in its vast group of
fresh-water lakes or inland seas, it possesses a feature unmatched by any
other region, except perhaps by the Ethiopian. It possesses every variety
of climate between arctic and tropical; extensive forests and vast
prairies; a greatly varied surface and a rich and beautiful flora. But
these great advantages are somewhat neutralized by other physical features.
It extends far towards the north, and there it reaches its greatest width;
while in its southern and warmest portion it suddenly narrows. The northern
mass of land causes its isothermal lines to bend southwards; and its winter
temperature especially, is far lower than at corresponding latitudes in
Europe. This diminishes the available area for supporting animal life; the
amount and character of which must be, to a great extent, determined by the
nature of the least favourable part of the year. Again, owing to the
position of its mountain ranges and the direction of prevalent winds, a
large extent of its interior, east of the Rocky Mountains, is bare and
arid, and often almost desert; while the most favoured districts,--those
east of the Mississippi and west of the Sierra Nevada, bear but a small
proportion to its whole area. Again, we know that at a very recent period
geologically, it was subjected to a very severe Glacial epoch, which
wrapped a full half of it in a mantle of ice, and exterminated a large
number of animals which previously inhabited it. Taking all this into
account, we need not be surprised to find the Nearctic region somewhat less
rich and varied in its forms of life than the Palæarctic or the Australian
regions, with which alone it can fairly be compared. The wonder rather is
that it should be so little inferior to them in this respect, and that it
should possess such a variety of groups, and such a multitude of forms, in
every class of animals.


[Illustration: NEARCTIC REGION]

{115}_Zoological characteristics of the Nearctic Region._--Temperate North
America possesses representatives of 26 families of Mammalia, 48 of Birds,
18 of Reptiles, 11 of Amphibia, and 18 of Fresh-water Fish. The first three
numbers are considerably less than the corresponding numbers for the
Palæarctic region, while the last two are greater--in the case of fishes
materially so, a circumstance readily explained by the wonderful group of
fresh-water lakes and the noble southward-flowing river system of the
Mississippi, to which the Palæarctic region has nothing comparable. But
although somewhat deficient in the total number of its families, this
region possesses its full proportion of peculiar and characteristic family
and generic forms. No less than 13 families or sub-families of Vertebrata
are confined to it, or just enter the adjacent Neotropical region. These
are,--three of mammalia, Antilocaprinæ, Saccomyidæ and Haploodontidæ; one
of birds, Chamæidæ; one of reptiles, Chirotidæ; two of amphibia, Sirenidæ
and Amphiumidæ; and the remaining six of fresh-water fishes. The number of
peculiar or characteristic genera is perhaps more important for our
purpose; and these are very considerable, as the following enumeration will
show.

_Mammalia._--Of the family of moles (Talpidæ) we have 3 peculiar genera:
_Condylura_, _Scapanus_, and _Scalops_, as well as the remarkable
_Urotrichus_, found only in California and Japan. In the weasel family
(Mustelidæ) we have _Latax_, a peculiar kind of otter; _Taxidea_, allied to
the badgers; and one of the {116}remarkable and characteristic skunks is
separated by Dr. J. E. Gray as a genus--_Spilogale_. In the American family
Procyonidæ, a peculiar genus (_Bassaris_) is found in California and Texas,
extending south along the mountains of Mexico and Guatemala. _Eumetopias_,
and _Halicyon_, are seals confined to the west coast of North America. The
Bovidæ, or hollow-horned ruminants, contain three peculiar forms;
_Antilocapra_, the remarkable prong-buck of the Rocky Mountains;
_Aplocerus_, a goat-like antelope; and _Ovibos_, the musk-sheep, confined
to Arctic America and Greenland. Among the Rodents are many peculiar
genera: _Neotoma_, _Sigmodon_, and _Fiber_, belong to the Muridæ, or rats;
_Jaculus_ to the Dipodidæ, or jerboas. The very distinct family
_Saccomyidæ_, or pouched rats, which have peculiar cheek pouches, or a kind
of outer hairy mouth, consists of five genera all confined to this region,
with one of doubtful affinities in Trinidad and Central America. In the
squirrel family (Sciuridæ), _Cynomys_, the prairie-dogs, are peculiar; and
_Tamias_, the ground squirrel, is very characteristic, though found also in
North Asia. _Haploodon_, or sewellels, consisting of two species, forms a
distinct family; and _Erethizon_ is a peculiar form of tree porcupine
(Cercolabidæ). True mice and rats of the genus _Mus_ are not indigenous to
North America, their place being supplied by a distinct genus
(_Hesperomys_), confined to the American continent.

_Birds._--The genera of birds absolutely peculiar to the Nearctic region
are not very numerous, because, there being no boundary but one of climate
between it and the Neotropical region, most of its characteristic forms
enter a short distance within the limits we are obliged to concede to the
latter. Owing also to the severe winter-climate of a large part of the
region (which we know is a comparatively recent phenomenon), a large
proportion of its birds migrate southwards, to pass the winter in the
West-Indian islands or Mexico, some going as far as Guatemala, and a few
even to Venezuela.

In our chapter on extinct animals, we have shown, that there is good reason
for believing that the existing union of North and South America is a quite
recent occurrence; and that the {117}separation was effected by an arm of
the sea across what is now Nicaragua, with perhaps another at Panama. This
would leave Mexico and Guatemala joined to North America, and forming part
of the Nearctic region, although no doubt containing many Neotropical
forms, which they had received during earlier continental periods; and
these countries might at other times have been made insular by a strait at
the isthmus of Tehuantepec, and have then developed some peculiar species.
The latest climatal changes have tended to restrict these Neotropical forms
to those parts where the climate is really tropical; and thus Mexico has
attained its present strongly marked Neotropical character, although
deficient in many of the most important groups of that region.

In view of these recent changes, it seems proper not to draw any decided
line between the Nearctic and Neotropical regions, but rather to apply, in
the case of each genus, a test which will show whether it was probably
derived at a comparatively recent date from one region or the other. The
test referred to, is the existence of peculiar species of the genus, in
what are undoubtedly portions of ancient North or South America. If, for
example, all the species of a genus occur in North America, some, or even
all, of them, migrating into the Neotropical region in winter, while there
are _no peculiar Neotropical species_, then we must class that genus as
strictly Nearctic; for if it were Neotropical it would certainly have
developed _some_ peculiar resident forms. Again, even if there should be
one or two resident species peculiar to that part of Central America north
of the ancient dividing strait, with an equal or greater number of species
ranging over a large part of Temperate North America, the genus must still
be considered Nearctic. Examples of the former case, are _Helminthophaga_
and _Myiodioctes_, belonging to the Mniotiltidæ, or wood-warblers, which
range over _all_ Temperate North America to Canada, where _all_ the species
are found, but in each case one of the species is found in South America,
probably as a winter migrant. Of the latter, are _Ammodramus_ and _Junco_
(genera of finches), which range over the whole United States, but each
have one peculiar species in Guatemala. These {118}may be claimed as
exclusively Nearctic genera, on the ground that Guatemala was recently
Nearctic; and is now really a transition territory, of which the lowlands
have been invaded and taken exclusive possession of by a Neotropical fauna,
while the highlands are still (in part at least) occupied by Nearctic
forms.

In his article on "Birds," in the new edition of the "Encyclopædia
Britannica" (now publishing), Professor Newton points out, that the number
of _peculiar genera_ of Nearctic birds is much less than in each of the
various sub-divisions of the Neotropical region; and that the total number
of genera is also less, while the bulk of them are common either to the
Neotropical or Palæarctic regions. This is undoubtedly the case if any
fixed geographical boundary is taken; and it would thus seem that the
"Nearctic" should, in birds, form a sub-region only. But, if we define
"Nearctic genera" as above indicated, we find a considerable amount of
speciality, as the following list will show. The names not italicised are
those which are represented in Mexico or Guatemala by peculiar species:--


LIST OF TYPICAL NEARCTIC GENERA OF LAND BIRDS.

   1. _Oreoscoptes_
   2. _Harporhynchus_
   3. _Sialia_
   4. _Chamæa_
   5. _Catherpes_
   6. _Salpinctus_
   7. _Psaltriparus_
   8. _Auriparus_
   9. _Gymnokitta_
  10. _Picicorvus_
  11. _Mniotilta_
  12. _Oporornis_
  13. _Icteria_
  14. _Helmintherus_
  15. _Helminthophaga_
  16. _Myiodioctes_
  17. _Phænopepla_
  18. _Xanthocephalus_
  19. _Scolecophagus_
  20. Pipilo
  21. Junco
  22. _Melospiza_
  23. Spizella
  24. _Passerculus_
  25. _Pooecetes_
  26. Ammodromus
  27. _Cyanospiza_
  28. _Pyrrhuloxia_
  29. _Calamospiza_
  30. Chondestes
  31. _Centronyx_
  32. _Neocorys_
  33. _Empidias_
  34. _Sphyrapicus_
  35. _Hylatomus_
  36. _Trochilus_
  37. _Atthis_
  38. _Ectopistes_
  39. _Centrocercus_
  40. _Pediocætes_
  41. _Cupidonia_
    ? Ortyx
  42. _Oreortyx_
  43. _Lophortyx_
  44. Callipepla
  45. Cyrtonyx
  46. Meleagris
  47. _Micrathene_

The above are all groups which are either wholly Nearctic or typically so,
but entering more or less into the debatable ground of the Neotropical
region; though none possess any peculiar species in the ancient Neotropical
land south of Nicaragua. But we have, besides these, a number of genera
which we are {119}accustomed to consider as typically European, or
Palæarctic, having representatives in North America; although in many cases
it would be more correct to say that they are Nearctic genera, represented
in Europe, since America possesses more species than Europe or North Asia.
The following is a list of genera which have as much right to be considered
typically Nearctic as Palæarctic:--

   1. Regulus
   2. Certhia
   3. Sitta
   4. Parus
   5. Lophophanes
   6. Lanius
   7. Perisoreus
   8. Pica
   9. Corvus
  10. _Ampelis_
  11. Loxia
  12. Pinicola
  13. Linota
  14. _Passerelia_
  15. _Leucosticte_
  16. _Euspiza_
  17. _Plectrophanes_
  18. Tetrao
  19. Lagopus
  20. _Nyctala_
  21. _Archibuteo_
  22. Haliæetus

The seven genera italicized have a decided preponderance of Nearctic
species, and have every right to be considered typically Nearctic; while
the remainder are so well represented by peculiar species, that it is quite
possible many of them may have originated here, rather than in the
Palæarctic region, all alike being quite foreign to the Neotropical.

On the whole, then, we have 47 in the first and 7 in the second table,
making 54 genera which we may fairly class as typically Nearctic, out of a
total of 168 genera of land-birds, or nearly one-third of the whole. This
is an amount of peculiarity which is comparable with that of either of the
less isolated regions; and, combined with the more marked and more
exclusively peculiar forms in the other orders of vertebrates, fully
establishes Temperate North America as a region, distinct alike from the
Neotropical and the Palæarctic.

_Reptiles._--Although temperate climates are always comparatively poor in
reptiles, a considerable number of genera are peculiar to the Nearctic
region. Of snakes, there are, _Conophis_, _Chilomeniscus_, _Pituophis_, and
_Ischnognathus_, belonging to the Colubridæ; _Farancia_, and _Dimodes_,
Homalopsidæ; _Lichanotus_, one of the Pythonidæ; _Cenchris_,
_Crotalophorus_, _Uropsophorus_, and _Crotalus_, belonging to the Crotalidæ
or rattlesnakes.

Of Lizards, _Chirotes_, forming a peculiar family; _Ophisaurus_, {120}the
curious glass-snake, belonging to the Zonuridæ; with _Phrynosoma_ (commonly
called horned toads), _Callisaurus_, _Uta_, _Euphryne_, _Uma_, and
_Holbrookia_, genera of Iguanidæ.

Testudinidæ, or Tortoises, show a great development of the genus _Emys_;
with _Aromochelys_ and _Chelydra_ as peculiar genera.

_Amphibia._--In this class the Nearctic region is very rich, possessing
representatives of nine of the families, of which two are peculiar to the
region, and there are no less than fifteen peculiar genera. _Siren_ forms
the family Sirenidæ; _Menobranchus_ belongs to the Proteidæ; _Amphiuma_ is
the only representative of the Amphiumidæ; there are nine peculiar genera
of Salamandridæ. Among the tail-less batrachians (frogs and toads) we have
_Scaphiopus_, belonging to the Alytidæ; _Pseudacris_ to the Hylidæ; and
_Acris_ to the Polypedatidæ.

_Fresh-water Fishes._--The Nearctic region possesses no less than five
peculiar family types, and twenty-four peculiar genera of this class. The
families are Aphredoderidæ, consisting of a single species found in the
Eastern States; Percopsidæ, founded on a species peculiar to Lake Superior;
Heteropygii, containing two genera peculiar to the Eastern States;
Hyodontidæ and Amiidæ, each consisting of a single species. The genera are
as follows: _Paralabrax_, found in California; _Huro_, peculiar to Lake
Huron; _Pileoma_, _Boleosoma_, _Bryttus_ and _Pomotis_ in the Eastern
States--all belonging to the perch family. _Hypodelus_ and _Noturus_,
belonging to the Siluridæ. _Thaleichthys_, one of the Salmonidæ peculiar to
the Columbia river. _Moxostoma_, _Pimephales_, _Hyborhynchus_,
_Rhinichthys_, in the Eastern States; _Ericymba_, _Exoglossum_,
_Leucosomus_, and _Carpiodes_, more widely distributed; _Cochlognathus_, in
Texas; _Mylaphorodon_ and _Orthodon_, in California; _Meda_, in the river
Gila; and _Acrochilus_, in the Columbia river--all belonging to the
Cyprinidæ. _Scaphirhynchus_, found only in the Mississippi and its
tributaries, belongs to the sturgeon family (Accipenseridæ).

_Summary of Nearctic Vertebrata._--The Nearctic region possesses 24
peculiar genera of mammalia, 49 of birds, 21 of reptiles, and 29 of
fresh-water fishes, making 123 in all. Of these 70 are mammals and
land-birds, out of a total of 242 {121}genera of these groups, a proportion
of about two-sevenths. This is the smallest proportion of peculiar genera
we have found in any of the regions; but many of the genera are of such
isolated and exceptional forms that they constitute separate families, so
that we have no less than 12 families of vertebrata confined to the region.
The Palæarctic region has only 3 peculiar families, and even the Oriental
region only 12; so that, judged by this test, the Nearctic region is
remarkably well characterized. We must also remember that, owing to the
migration of many of its peculiar forms during the Glacial period, it has
recently lost some of its speciality; and we should therefore give some
weight to the many characteristic groups it possesses, which, though not
quite peculiar to it, form important features in its fauna, and help to
separate it from the other regions with which it has been thought to be
closely allied. It is thus well distinguished from the Palæarctic region by
its Procyonidæ, or racoons, _Hesperomys_, or vesper mice, and _Didelphys_,
or opossums, among Mammalia; by its Vireonidæ, or greenlets, Mniotiltidæ,
or wood-warblers, Icteridæ, or hang-nests, Tyrannidæ, or tyrant shrikes,
and Trochilidæ, or humming-birds, among birds, families which, extending to
its extreme northern limits must be held to be as truly characteristic of
it as of the Neotropical region; by its Teidæ, Iguanidæ, and _Cinosternum_,
among reptiles; and by its Siluridæ, and Lepidosteidæ, among fishes. From
the Neotropical region it is still more clearly separated, by its numerous
insectivora; by its bears; its Old World forms of ruminants; its beaver;
its numerous _Arvicolæ_, or voles; its _Sciuropterus_, or flying squirrels;
_Tamias_, or ground-squirrels; and _Lagomys_, or marmots, among mammals;
its numerous Paridæ, or tits, and Tetraonidæ, or grouse, among birds; its
Trionychidæ among reptiles; its Proteidæ, and Salamandridæ, among Amphibia;
and its Gasterosteidæ, Atherinidæ, Esocidæ, Umbridæ, Accipenseridæ, and
Polydontidæ, among fishes.

These characteristic features, taken in conjunction with the absolutely
peculiar groups before enumerated, demonstrate that the Nearctic region
cannot with propriety be combined with {122}any other. Though not very
rich, and having many disadvantages of climate and of physical condition,
it is yet sufficiently well characterized in its zoological features to
rank as one of the well-marked primary divisions of the earth's surface.

There is one other consideration bearing on this question which should not
be lost sight of. In establishing our regions we have depended wholly upon
their _now_ possessing a sufficient number and variety of animal forms, and
a fair proportion of peculiar types; but when the validity of our
conclusion on these grounds is disputed, we may supplement the evidence by
an appeal to the past history of the region in question. In this case we
find a remarkable support to our views. During the whole Tertiary period,
North America was, zoologically, far more strongly contrasted with South
America than it is now; while, during the same long series of ages, it was
always clearly separated from the Eastern hemisphere or the Palæarctic
region by the exclusive possession of important families and numerous
genera of Mammalia, as shown by our summary of its extinct fauna in Chapter
VII. Not only may we claim North America as now forming one of the great
zoological regions, but as having continued to be one ever since the Eocene
period.


_Insects._

In describing the Palæarctic and Neotropical regions, many of the
peculiarities of the insect-fauna of this region have been incidentally
referred to; and as a tolerably full account of the distribution of the
several families is given in the Fourth Part of our work (Chapter XXI.), we
shall treat the subject very briefly here.

_Lepidoptera._--The butterflies of the Nearctic region have lately been
studied with much assiduity, and we are now able to form some idea of their
nature and extent. Nearly 500 species belonging to about 100 genera have
been described; showing that the region, which a few years ago was thought
to be very poor in species of butterflies, is really much richer than
Europe, and probably about as rich as the more extensive Palæarctic region.
There is, however, very little speciality in the {123}forms. A considerable
number of Neotropical types enter the southern States; but there are hardly
any peculiar genera, except one of the Lycænidæ and perhaps a few among the
Hesperidæ, The most conspicuous feature of the region is its fine group of
Papilios, belonging to types (_P. turnus_ and _P. troilus_) which are
characteristically Nearctic. It is also as rich as the Palæarctic region in
some genera which we are accustomed to consider as pre-eminently European;
such as _Argynnis_, _Melitæa_, _Grapta_, _Chionabas_, and a few others.
Still, we must acknowledge, that if we formed our conclusions from the
butterflies alone, we could hardly separate the Nearctic from the
Palæarctic region. This identity probably dates from the Miocene period;
for when our existing arctic regions supported a luxuriant vegetation,
butterflies would have been plentiful; and as the cold came on, these would
move southwards both in America and Europe, and, owing to the long
continuance of the generic types of insects, would remain little modified
till now.

_Coleoptera._--Only a few indications can be given of the peculiarities of
the Nearctic coleoptera. In Cicindelidæ the region possesses, besides the
cosmopolite _Cicindela_, four other genera, two of which--_Amblychile_ and
_Omus_--are peculiar to the West Coast and the Rocky Mountains. Of Carabidæ
it possesses _Dicælus_, _Pasimachus_, _Eurytrichus_, _Sphæroderus_,
_Pinacodera_, and a number of smaller genera, altogether peculiar to it;
_Helluomorpha_, _Galerita_, _Callida_, and _Tetragonoderus_, in common with
South America; and a large number of characteristic European forms.

The Lucanidæ are all of European types. The region is poor in Cetoniidæ,
but has representatives of the South American _Euphoria_, as well as of
four European genera. Of Buprestidæ it has the South American _Actenodes_;
a single species of the Ethiopian and Eastern _Belionota_, in California;
and about a dozen other genera of European and wide distribution.

Among Longicorns it possesses fifty-nine peculiar genera, representatives
of five Neotropical, and thirteen Palæarctic genera; as well as many of
wider distribution. _Prionus_ is the chief representative of the Prionidæ;
_Leptura_ and _Crossidius_ of the {124}Cerambycidæ; _Leptostylus_,
_Liopus_, _Graphidurus_, and _Tetraopes_, of the Lamiidæ, the latter genus
being confined to the region.


_Terrestrial and Fluviatile Mollusca._

The land-shells of temperate North America almost all belong to the
Inoperculate or Pulmoniferous division; the Operculata being represented
only by a few species of _Helicina_ and _Truncatella_, chiefly in the
Southern States. According to Mr. Binney's recent "Catalogue of the
Terrestrial Air-breathing Mollusks of North America," the fauna consists of
the following genera:--_Glandina_ (6 sp.); _Macrocyclis_ (5 sp.); _Zonites_
(37 sp.); _Vitrina_ (4 sp.); _Limax_ (5 sp.); _Arion_ (3 sp.); _Ariolimax_
(3 sp.); _Prophysaon_ (1 sp.); _Binneia_ (1 sp.); _Hemiphillia_ (1 sp.);
_Patula_ (16 sp.); _Helix_ (80); _Holospira_ (2 sp.); _Cylindrella_ (2
sp.); _Macroceramus_ (2 sp.); _Bulimulus_ (8 sp.); _Cionella_ (2 sp.);
_Stenogyra_ (4 sp.); _Pupa_ (19 sp.); _Strophia_ (1 sp.); _Vertigo_ (6
sp.); _Liguus_ (1 sp.); _Orthalicus_ (2 sp.); _Punctum_ (1 sp.); _Succinea_
(26 sp.); _Tebennophorus_ (1 sp.); _Pallifera_ (1 sp.); _Veronicella_ (2
sp.).

All the larger genera range over the whole region, but the following have a
more restricted distribution; _Macrocyclis_ has only one species in the
East, the rest being Californian or Central; _Ariolimax_, _Prophysaon_,
_Binneia_, and _Hemiphillia_, are confined to the Western sub-region. Lower
California has affinities with Mexico, 18 species being peculiar to it, of
which two are true _Bulimi_, a genus unknown in other parts of the region.
The Central or Rocky Mountain sub-region is chiefly characterised by six
peculiar species of _Patula_. The Eastern sub-region is by far the richest,
nine-tenths of the whole number of species being found in it. The Alleghany
Mountains form the richest portion of this sub-region, possessing nearly
half the total number of species, and at least 24 species found nowhere
else. The southern States have also several peculiar species, but they are
not so productive as the Alleghanies. The Canadian sub-region possesses 32
species, of which nearly half are northern forms more or less common to the
whole Arctic regions, and several of this character have spread southwards
all {125}over the United States. Species of _Vitrina_, _Zonites_, _Pupa_,
and _Succinea_, are found in Greenland; and Eastern Palæarctic species of
_Vitrina_, _Patula_, and _Pupa_ occur in Alaska. More than 30 species of
shells living in the Eastern States, are found fossil in the Post-Pliocene
deposits of the Ohio and Mississippi.

_Fresh-water Shells._--North America surpasses every other part of the
globe in the number and variety of its fresh-water mollusca, both univalve
and bivalve. The numbers up to 1866 were as follows:--Melaniadæ, 380
species; Paludinidæ, 58 species; Cycladidæ, 44 species; and Unionidæ, 552
species. The last family had, however, increased to 832 species in 1874,
according to Dr. Isaac Lea, who has made them his special study; but it is
probable that many of these are such as would be considered varieties by
most conchologists. Many of the species of _Unio_ are very large, of varied
forms, and rich internal colouring, and the group forms a prominent feature
of the Nearctic fauna. By far the larger proportion of the fresh-water
shells inhabit the Eastern or Alleghany sub-region; and their great
development is a powerful argument against any recent extensive submergence
beneath the ocean of the lowlands of North America.


_The Nearctic Sub-regions._

The sub-divisions of the Nearctic region, although pretty clearly indicated
by physical features and peculiarities of climate and vegetation, are by no
means so strongly marked out in their zoology as we might expect. The same
genera, as a rule, extend over the whole region; while the species of the
several sub-regions are in most cases different. Even the vast range of the
Rocky Mountains has not been an effectual barrier against this wide
dispersal of the same forms of life; and although some important groups are
limited by it, these are exceptions to the rule. Even now, we find fertile
valleys and plateaus of moderate elevation, penetrating the range on either
side; and both to the north and south there are passes which can be freely
traversed by most animals during the summer. Previous to the glacial epoch
there was probably a warm period, when every part of the range supported an
abundant and varied {126}fauna, which, when the cold period arrived, would
descend to the lowlands, and people the country to the east, west, and
south, with similar forms of life.

The first, and most important sub-division we can make, consists of the
Eastern United States, extending across the Mississippi and the more
fertile prairies, to about the 100°th. meridian of west longitude, where
the arid and almost desert country commences. Southwards, the boundary
bends towards the coast, near the line of the Brazos or Colorado rivers. To
the north the limits are undefined; but as a considerable number of species
and genera occur in the United States but not in Canada, it will be
convenient to draw the line somewhere near the boundary of the two
countries, except that the district between lakes Huron and Ontario, and
probably Nova Scotia, may be included in the present sub-region. As far
west as the Mississippi, this was originally a vast forest country; and it
is still well wooded, and clothed with a varied and luxuriant vegetation.

The next, or Central sub-region, consists of the dry, elevated, and often
arid district of the Rocky Mountains, with its great plateaus, and the
barren plains of its eastern slope; extending northwards to near the
commencement of the great forests north of the Saskatchewan, and southward
to the Rio Grande del Norte, the Gulf of California, and to Cape St. Lucas,
as shown on our maps. This sub-region is of an essentially desert
character, although the higher valleys of the Rocky Mountains are often
well wooded, and in these are found some northern and some western types.

The third, or Californian sub-region, is small, but very luxuriant,
occupying the comparatively narrow strip of country between the Sierra
Nevada and the Pacific. To the north it may include Vancouver's Island and
the southern part of British Columbia, while to the south it extends to the
head of the Gulf of California.

The fourth division, comprises the remainder of North America; and is a
country of pine forests, and of barren wastes towards the Arctic Ocean. It
has fewer peculiar species to characterise it than any other, but it
possesses several characteristic arctic {127}forms, while many of those
peculiar to the south are absent; so that it is a very convenient, if it
should not be considered an altogether natural, sub-region.

We will now give an outline of the most important zoological features of
each of these divisions, taking them in the order in which they are
arranged in the Fourth Part of this work. California comes first, as it has
some tropical forms not found elsewhere, and thus forms a transition from
the Neotropical region.


_I. The Western or Californian Sub-region._

This small district possesses a fruitful soil and a highly favourable
climate, and is, in proportion to its extent, perhaps the richest portion
of the continent, both zoologically and botanically. Its winters are far
milder than those of the Eastern States in corresponding latitudes; and
this, perhaps, has enabled it to support several tropical forms which give
a special character to its fauna. It is here only, in the whole region,
that bats of the families Phyllostomidæ and Noctilionidæ, and a serpent of
the tropical family, Pythonidæ, are found, as well as several Neotropical
forms of birds and reptiles.

_Mammalia._--The following genera are not found in any other part of the
Nearctic region. _Macrotus_ (Phyllostomidæ), one species in California;
_Antrozous_ (Vespertilionidæ), one species on the West Coast; _Urotrichus_
(Talpidæ) one species in British Columbia; sub-genus _Nesorex_ (Soricidæ),
one species in Oregon; _Bassaris_ (Procyonidæ), California; _Enhydra_
(Mustelidæ), Pacific Coast; _Morunga_ (Phocidæ), California; _Haploodon_
(Haploodontidæ) a rat-like animal, allied to the beavers and marmots, and
constituting a peculiar family found only in California and British
Columbia. The following characteristic Nearctic forms also extend into this
sub-region:--_Taxidea_, _Procyon_, _Didelphys_, _Sciuropterus_, _Tamias_,
_Spermophilus_, _Dipodomys_, _Perognathus_, _Jaculus_.

_Birds._--Few genera of birds are quite peculiar to this sub-region, since
most of the Western forms extend into the central district, yet it has a
few. _Glaucidium_, a genus of Owls, is confined {128}(in the Nearctic
region) to California; _Chamæa_, a singular form allied to the wrens, and
forming a distinct family, is quite peculiar; _Geococcyx_, a Neotropical
form of cuckoo, extends to California and Southern Texas. The following
genera are very characteristic of the sub-region, and some of them almost
confined to it: _Myiadestes_ (Sylviidæ); _Psaltriparus_ (Paridæ);
_Cyanocitta_, _Picicorvus_ (Corvidæ); _Hesperiphona_, _Peucæa_,
_Chondestes_ (Fringillidæ); _Selasphorus_, _Atthis_ (Trochilidæ);
_Columba_, _Melopelia_ (Columbidæ); _Oreortyx_ (Tetraonidæ).

_Reptiles._--The following genera are not found in any other part of the
Nearctic region: _Charina_ (Tortricidæ); _Lichanotus_ (Pythonidæ);
_Gerrhonotus_ (Zonuridæ); _Phyllodactylus_ (Geckotidæ); _Anolius_ and
_Tropidolepis_ (Iguanidæ). _Sceloporus_ (Iguanidæ) is only found elsewhere
in Florida. All the larger North American groups of lizards and snakes are
also represented here; but in tortoises it is deficient, owing to the
absence of lakes and large rivers.

_Amphibia._--California possesses two genera of Salamandridæ, _Aneides_ and
_Heredia_, which do not extend to the other sub-regions.

_Fresh-water Fish._--There are two or three peculiar genera of Cyprinidæ,
but the sub-region is comparatively poor in this group.

_Plate XVIII. Illustrative of the Zoology of California and the Rocky
Mountains._--We have chosen for the subject of this illustration, the
peculiar Birds of the Western mountains. The two birds in the foreground
are a species of grouse (_Pediocætes Columbianus_), entirely confined to
this sub-region; while the only other species of the genus is found in the
prairies north and west of Wisconsin, so that the group is peculiar to
northern and western America. The crested birds in the middle of the
picture (_Oreortyx picta_), are partridges, belonging to the American
sub-family Odontophorinæ. This is the only species of the genus which is
confined to California and Oregon. The bird at the top is the blue crow
(_Gymnokitta cyanocephala_), confined to the Rocky Mountains and Sierra
Nevada from New Mexico and Arizona northwards, and more properly belonging
to the Central sub-region. It is allied to the European nutcracker; but
according to the American ornithologist, Dr. Coues, has also resemblances
to the jays, and certainly forms a distinct genus. The grizzly bear (_Ursus
ferox_) in the background, is one of the characteristic animals of the
Californian highlands.



Plate XVIII.

[Illustration]

SCENE IN CALIFORNIA, WITH SOME CHARACTERISTIC BIRDS.


{129}_II. The Central, or Rocky Mountain Sub-region._

This extensive district is, for the greater part of its extent, from 2,000
to 5,000 feet above the sea, and is excessively arid; and, except in the
immediate vicinity of streams and on some of the higher slopes of the
mountains, is almost wholly treeless. Its zoology is therefore peculiar.
Many of the most characteristic genera and families of the Eastern States
are absent; while a number of curious desert and alpine forms give it a
character of its own, and render it very interesting to the naturalist.

_Mammalia._--The remarkable prong-horned antelope (_Antilocapra_), the
mountain goat (_Aplocerus_), the mountain sheep or bighorn (_Ovis
montana_), and the prairie-dog (_Cynomys_), one of the Rodentia, are
peculiar to this sub-region; while the family of the Saccomyidæ, or pouched
rats, is represented by many forms and is very characteristic. Here is also
the chief home of the bison. The glutton (_Gulo_) and marmot (_Lagomys_)
enter it from the north; while it has the racoon (_Procyon_), flying
squirrel (_Sciuropterus_), ground squirrel (_Tamias_), pouched marmot
(_Spermophilus_) and jumping mouse (_Jaculus_) in common with the countries
east or west of it.

_Plate XIX. Illustrative of the Zoology of the Central Plains or
Prairies._--We here introduce four of the most characteristic mammalia of
the great American plains or prairies, three of them being types confined
to North America. The graceful animals on the left are the prong-horned
antelopes (_Antilocapra americana_), whose small horns, though hollow like
those of the antelopes, are shed annually like those of the deer. To the
right we have the prairie-dogs of the trappers (_Cynomys ludovicianus_)
which, as will be easily seen, are rodents, and allied to the marmots of
the European Alps. Their burrows are numerous on the prairies, and the
manner in which they perch {130}themselves on little mounds and gaze on
intruders, is noticed by all travellers. On the left, in the foreground, is
one of the extraordinary pouched rats of America (_Geomys bursarius_).
These are burrowing animals, feeding on roots; and the mouth is, as it
were, double, the outer portion very wide and hairy, behind which is the
small inner mouth. Its use may be to keep out the earth from the mouth
while the animal is gnawing roots. A mouth so constructed is found in no
other animals but in these North American rats. In the distance is a herd
of bisons (_Bison americanus_), the typical beast of the prairies.

_Birds._--This sub-region has many peculiar forms of birds, both residents,
and migrants from the south or north. Among the peculiar resident species
we may probably reckon a dipper, (_Cinclus_); _Salpinctes_, one of the
wrens; _Poospiza_, _Calamospiza_, genera of finches; _Picicorvus_,
_Gymnokitta_, genera of the crow family; _Centrocercus_ and _Pediocætes_,
genera of grouse. As winter migrants from the north it has _Leucosticte_
and _Plectrophanes_, genera of finches; _Perisoreus_, a genus of the crow
family; _Picoides_, the Arctic woodpecker; and _Lagopus_, ptarmigan. Its
summer migrants, many of which may be resident in the warmer districts, are
more numerous. Such are, _Oreoscoptes_, a genus of thrushes;
_Campylorhynchus_ and _Catherpes_, wrens; _Paroides_, one of the tits;
_Phænopepla_, allied to the waxwing; _Embernagra_ and _Spermophila_, genera
of finches; _Pyrocephalus_, one of the tyrant shrikes; _Callipepla_ and
_Cyrtonyx_, American partridges. Besides these, the more widely spread
genera, _Harporhynchus_, _Lophophanes_, _Carpodacus_, _Spizella_, and
_Cyanocitta_, are characteristic of the central district, and two genera of
humming-birds--_Atthis_ and _Selasphorus_--only occur here and in
California. Prof. Baird notes 40 genera of birds which are represented by
distinct allied species in the western, central, and eastern divisions of
the United States, corresponding to our sub-regions.



Plate XIX.

[Illustration]

THE AMERICAN PRAIRIES, WITH CHARACTERISTIC MAMMALIA.

{131}It is a curious fact that the birds of this sub-region should extend
across the Gulf of California, and that Cape St. Lucas, at the southern
extremity of the peninsula, should be decidedly more "Central" than
"Californian" in its ornithology. Prof. Baird says, that its fauna is
almost identical with that of the Gila River, and has hardly any relation
to that of Upper California. It possesses a considerable number (about
twenty) of peculiar species of birds, but all belong to genera
characteristic of the present sub-region; and there is no resemblance to
the birds of Mazatlan, just across the gulf in the Neotropical region.

_Reptiles, Amphibia, and Fishes._--A large number of snakes and lizards
inhabit this sub-region, but they have not yet been classified with
sufficient precision to enable us to make much use of them. Among lizards,
Iguanidæ, Geckotidæ, Scincidæ, and Zonuridæ, appear to be numerous; and
many new genera of doubtful value have been described. Among snakes,
Calamariidæ, Colubridæ, and Crotalidæ are represented. Among Amphibia,
_Siredon_, one of the Proteidæ, is peculiar. The rivers and lakes of the
Great Central Basin, and the Colorado River, contain many peculiar forms of
Cyprinidæ.


_III. The Eastern or Alleghany Sub-region._

This sub-region contains examples of all that is most characteristic of
Nearctic zoology. It is for the most part an undulating or mountainous
forest-clad country, with a warm or temperate climate, but somewhat extreme
in character, and everywhere abounding in animal and vegetable life. To the
west, across the Mississippi, the country becomes more open, gradually
rises, becomes much drier, and at length merges into the arid plains of the
central sub-region. To the south, in Georgia, Florida, and Louisiana, a
sub-tropical climate prevails, and winter is almost unknown. To the north,
in Michigan and New England, the winters are very severe, and streams and
lakes are frozen for months together. These different climates, however,
produce little effect on the forms of animal life; the species to some
extent change as we go from north to south, but the same types everywhere
prevail. This portion of the United States, having been longest inhabited
by Europeans, has been more thoroughly explored than other parts of North
America; and to this more complete knowledge its superior zoological
richness {132}may be to some extent due; but there can be little doubt that
it is also positively, and not merely relatively, more productive in varied
forms of animal life than either of the other sub-regions.

_Mammalia._--There seems to be only one genus absolutely peculiar to this
sub-region--the very remarkable _Condylura_, or star-nosed mole, only found
from Pennsylvania to Nova Scotia, and as far as about 94° west longitude.
It also has opossums (_Didelphys_) in common with California, and three out
of four species of _Scalops_, a genus of moles; as well as the skunk
(_Mephitis_), American badger (_Taxidea_), racoon (_Procyon_), pouched rat
(_Geomys_), beaver rat (_Fiber_), jumping mouse (_Jaculus_), tree porcupine
(_Erethizon_), and other characteristic Nearctic forms.

_Birds._--The birds of this sub-region have been carefully studied by
American naturalists, and many interesting facts ascertained as to their
distribution and migrations. About 120 species of birds are peculiar to the
east coast of the United States, but only about 30 of these are residents
all the year round in any part of it; the bird population being essentially
a migratory one, coming from the north in winter and the south in summer.
The largest number of species seems to be congregated in the district of
the Alleghany mountains. A considerable proportion of the passerine birds
winter in Central America and the West Indian Islands, and go to the Middle
States or Canada to breed; so that even the luxuriant Southern States do
not possess many birds which may be called permanent residents. Thus, in
East Pennsylvania there are only 52, and in the district of Columbia 54
species, found all the year round, out of about 130 which breed in these
localities; very much below the number which permanently reside in Great
Britain.

This sub-region is well characterised by its almost exclusive possession of
_Ectopistes_, the celebrated passenger pigeon, whose enormous flocks and
breeding places have been so often described; and _Cupidonia_, a remarkable
genus of grouse. The only Nearctic parrot, _Conurus carolinensis_, is found
in the Southern States; as well as _Crotophaga_, a South American genus
usually associated with the cuckoos. _Helmintherus_ and {133}_Oporornis_,
genera of wood-warblers, may be considered to be peculiar to this
sub-region, since in each case only one of the two species migrates as far
as Central America; while two other genera of the same family, _Siurus_ and
_Setophaga_, as well as the finch genus, _Euspiza_, do not extend to either
of the western sub-regions. _Parus_, a genus of tits, comes into the
district from the north; _Otocorys_, an alpine lark, and _Coturniculus_, an
American finch, from the west; and such characteristic Nearctic genera as
_Antrostomus_ (the whip-poor-will goatsuckers); _Helminthophaga_,
_Dendræca_, and _Myiodioctes_ (wood-warblers); _Vireo_ (greenlets);
_Dolichonyx_ (rice-bird); _Quiscalus_ (troupial); _Meleagris_ (turkey); and
_Ortyx_ (American partridge), are wide-spread and abundant. In Mr. J. A.
Allen's elaborate and interesting paper on the birds of eastern North
America, he enumerates 32 species which breed only in the more temperate
portions of this province, and may therefore be considered to be especially
characteristic of it. These belong to the following genera:--_Turdus_,
_Galeoscoptes_, _Harporhynchus_, _Sialia_, _Dendræca_, _Wilsonia_,
_Pyranga_, _Vireo_, _Lanivireo_, _Lophophanes_, _Coturniculus_,
_Ammodromus_, _Spizella_, _Euspiza_, _Hedymeles_, _Cyanospiza_, _Pipilo_,
_Cardinalis_, _Icterus_, _Corvus_, _Centurus_, _Melanerpes_, _Antrostomus_,
_Coccyzus_, _Ortyx_, and _Cupidonia_.

_Reptiles._--In this class the Eastern States are rich, possessing many
peculiar forms not found in other parts of the region. Among snakes it has
the genera _Farancia_ and _Dimodes_ belonging to the fresh-water snakes
(Homalopsidæ); the South American genus _Elaps_; and 3 genera of
rattlesnakes, _Cenchris_, _Crotalophorus_, and _Crotalus_. The following
genera of snakes are said to occur in the State of New York:--_Coluber_,
_Tropidonotus_, _Leptophis_, _Calamaria_, _Heterodon_, _Trigonocephalus_,
_Crotalus_, _Psammophis_, _Helicops_, _Rhinostoma_, _Pituophis_, and
_Elaps_.

Among lizards, _Chirotes_, forming a peculiar family of Amphisbenians,
inhabits Missouri and Mexico; while the remarkable glass-snake,
_Ophisaurus_, belonging to the family Zonuridæ, is peculiar to the Southern
States; and the South American _Sphærodactylus_, one of the gecko family,
reaches Florida. Other genera which extend as far north as the State of New
{134}York are, _Scincus_, _Tropidolepis_, _Plestiodon_, _Lygosoma_,
_Ameiva_, and _Phrynosoma_.

Tortoises, especially the fresh-water kind, are very abundant; and the
genera _Aromochelys_, _Chelydra_, _Terrapene_, and _Trionyx_, are nearly,
if not quite, confined to this division of the region.

_Amphibia._--Almost all the remarkable forms of Urodela, or tailed
batrachians, peculiar to the region are found here only; such as _Siren_
and _Pseudobranchus_, constituting the family Sirenidæ; _Menobranchus_,
allied to the _Proteus_ of Europe; _Amphiuma_, an eel-like creature with
four rudimentary feet, constituting the family Amphiumidæ; _Notopthalmus_,
_Desmognathus_, and _Menopoma_, belonging to the Salamandridæ; together
with several other genera of wider range. Of Anura, or tail-less
batrachians, there are no peculiar genera, but the Neotropical genus of
toads, _Engystoma_, extends as far as South Carolina.

_Fishes._--Owing to its possession of the Mississippi and the great lakes,
almost all the peculiar forms of North American fishes are confined to this
sub-region. Such are _Perca_, _Pileoma_, _Huro_, _Bryttus_, and _Pomotis_
(Percidæ); the families Aphredoderidæ and Percopsidæ; several genera of
Cyprinodontidæ and Cyprinidæ; and the family Polydontidæ.


_Islands of the Alleghany Sub-region._

_The Bermudas._--These islands, situated in the Atlantic, about 700 miles
from the coast of Carolina, are chiefly interesting for the proof they
afford of the power of a great variety of birds to cross so wide an extent
of ocean. There are only 6 or 8 species of birds which are permanent
residents on the islands, all common North American species; while no less
than 140 species have been recorded as visiting them. Most of these are
stragglers, many only noticed once; others appear frequently and in great
numbers, but very few, perhaps not a dozen, come every year, and can be
considered regular migrants. The permanent residents are, a greenlet
(_Vireo noveboracensis)_, the catbird (_Galeoscoptes carolinensis_), the
blue bird (_Sialia sialis_), the cardinal (_Cardinalis virginianus_), the
American crow (_Corvus {135}americanus_), and the ground dove (_Chamæpelia
passerina_). The most regular visitants are a kingfisher (_Ceryle alcyon_),
the wood-wagtail (_Siurus noveboracensis_), the rice-bird (_Dolichonyx
oryzivorus_), and a moorhen (_Gallinula galeata_). Besides the American
species, four European birds have been taken at the Bermudas: _Saxicola
oenanthe_, _Alauda arvensis_ (perhaps introduced), _Crex pratensis_, and
_Scolopax gallinago_.

A common American lizard, _Plestiodon longirostris_, is the only land
reptile found on the islands.


_IV. The Sub-Arctic or Canadian Sub-region._

This sub-region serves to connect together the other three, since they all
merge gradually into it; while to the north it passes into the circumpolar
zone which is common to the Palæarctic and Nearctic regions. The greater
portion of it is an extensive forest-district, mostly of coniferæ; and
where these cease towards the north, barren wastes extend to the polar
ocean. It possesses several northern or arctic forms of Mammalia, such as
the glutton, lemming, reindeer, and elk, which barely enter the more
southern sub-regions; as well as the polar bear and arctic fox; but it also
has some peculiar forms, and many of the most characteristic Nearctic
types. The remarkable musk-sheep (_Ovibos_) is confined to this sub-region,
ranging over a considerable extent of country north of the forests, as well
as Greenland. It has been extinct in Europe and Asia since the
Post-pliocene epoch. Such purely Nearctic genera as _Procyon_, _Latax_,
_Erethizon_, _Jaculus_, _Fiber_, _Thomomys_, and _Hesperomys_, abound, many
of them ranging to the shores of Hudson's Bay and the barren wastes of
northern Labrador. Others, such as _Blarina_, _Condylura_, and _Mephitis_,
are found only in Nova Scotia and various parts of Canada. About 20 species
of Mammalia seem to be peculiar to this sub-region.

_Plate XX. Illustrating the Zoology of Canada._--We have here a group of
Mammalia characteristic of Canada and the colder parts of the United
States. Conspicuous in the foreground is the skunk (_Mephitis mephitica_),
belonging to a genus of the weasel family found only in America. This
animal is {136}celebrated for its power of ejecting a terribly offensive
liquid, the odour of which is almost intolerable. The skunks are nocturnal
animals, and are generally marked, as in the species represented, with
conspicuous bands and patches of white. This enables them to be easily seen
at night, and thus serves to warn larger animals not to attack them. To the
left is the curious little jumping mouse (_Jaculus hudsonius_), the
American representative of the Palæarctic jerboa. Climbing up a tree on the
left is the tree porcupine (_Erethizon dorsatus_), belonging to the family
Cercolabidæ, which represents, on the American continent, the porcupines of
the Old World. In the background is the elk or moose (_Alces americanus_),
perhaps identical with the European elk, and the most striking inhabitant
of the northern forests of America, as the bison is of the prairies.

_Birds._--Although the Canadian sub-region possesses very few resident
birds, the numbers which breed in it are perhaps greater than in the other
sub-regions, because a large number of circumpolar species are found here
exclusively. From a comparison of Mr. Allen's tables it appears, that more
than 200 species are regular migrants to Canada in the breeding season, and
nearly half of these are land-birds. Among them are to be found a
considerable number of genera of the American families Tyrannidæ and
Mniotiltidæ, as well as the American genera _Sialia_, _Progne_, _Vireo_,
_Cistothorus_, _Junco_, _Pipilo_, _Zonotrichia_, _Spizella_, _Melospiza_,
_Molothrus_, _Agelæus_, _Cyanura_, _Sphyrapicus_, and many others; so that
the ornithology of these northern regions is still mainly Nearctic in
character. Besides these, it has such specially northern forms as _Surnia_
(Strigidæ); _Picoides_ (Picidæ); _Pinicola_ (Fringillidæ); as well as
_Leucosticte_, _Plectrophanes_, _Perisoreus_, and _Lagopus_, which extend
further south, especially in the middle sub-region. No less than 212
species of birds have been collected in the new United States territory of
Alaska (formerly Russian America), where a humming-bird (_Selasphorus
rufus_) breeds. The great majority of these are typically American,
including such forms as _Colaptes_, _Helminthophaga_, _Siurus_, _Dendræca_,
_Myiodioctes_, _Passerculus_, _Zonotrichia_, _Junco_, _Spizella_,
_Melospizpa_, _Passerella_, _Scoleophagas_, _Pediocetes_, and _Bonasa_;
together with many northern birds common to both continents. Yet a few
Palæarctic forms, not known in other parts of the sub-region, appear here.
These are _Budytes flava_, _Phylloscopus kennicottii_, and _Pyrrhula
coccinea_, all belonging to genera not occurring elsewhere in North
America. Considering the proximity of the district to North-east Asia, and
the high probability that there was an actual land connection at, and south
of, Behring's Straits, in late Tertiary times, it is somewhat remarkable
that the admixture of Palæarctic and Nearctic groups is not greater than it
is. The Palæarctic element, however, forms so small apportion of the whole
fauna, that it may be satisfactorily accounted for by the establishment of
immigrants since the Glacial period. The great interest felt by
ornithologists in the discovery of the three genera above-named, with a
wren allied to a European species, is an indication that the faunas even of
the northern parts of the Nearctic and Palæarctic regions are, as regards
birds, radically distinct. It may be mentioned that the birds of the
Aleutian Isles are also, so far as known, almost wholly Nearctic. The
number of land-birds known from Alaska is 77; and from the Aleutian Isles
16 species, all of which, except one, are North American.



Plate XX.

[Illustration]

A CANADIAN FOREST, WITH CHARACTERISTIC MAMMALIA.

{137}_Reptiles._--These are comparatively few and unimportant. There are
however five snakes and three tortoises which are limited to Canada proper;
while further north there are only Amphibia, represented by frogs and
toads, and a salamander of the genus _Plethodon_.

_Fishes._--Most of the groups of fresh-water fish of the Nearctic region
are represented here, especially those of the perch, salmon, and pike
families; but there seem to be few or no peculiar genera.

_Insects._--These are far less numerous than in the more temperate
districts, but are still tolerably abundant. In Canada there are 53 species
of butterflies, viz., Papilionidæ, 4; Pieridæ, 2; Nymphalidæ, 21; Satyridæ,
3; Lycænidæ 16, and Hesperidæ 7. Most of these are, no doubt, found chiefly
in the southern parts of Canada. That Coleoptera are pretty numerous is
shown, by more than 800 species having been collected on the {138}shores of
Lake Superior; 177 being Geodephaga and 39 Longicorns.

_Greenland._--This great arctic island must be considered as belonging to
the Nearctic region, since of its six land mammals, three are exclusively
American (_Myodes torquatus_, _Lepus glacialis_, and _Ovibos moschatus_),
while the other three (_Vulpes lagopus_, _Ursus maritimus_, and _Rangifer
tarandus_) are circumpolar. Only fourteen land-birds are either resident
in, or regular migrants to the country; and of these two are European
(_Haliæetus albicilla_, and _Falco peregrinus_), while three are American
(_Anthus ludovicianus_, _Zonotrichia leucophrys_, and _Lagopus rupestris_),
the rest being arctic species common to both continents. The waders and
aquatics (49 in number) are nearly equally divided between both continents;
but the land-birds which visit Greenland as stragglers are mostly American.
Yet although the Nearctic element somewhat preponderates, Greenland really
belongs to that circumpolar debateable land, which is common to the two
North Temperate regions.



_Concluding remarks._--We have already discussed pretty fully, though
somewhat incidentally, the status and relations of the Nearctic region;
first in our chapter on Zoological regions, then in our review of extinct
faunas, and lastly in the earlier part of this chapter. It will not
therefore be necessary to go further into the question here; but we shall,
in our next chapter, give a brief summary of the general conclusions we
have reached as to the past history and mutual zoological relations of all
the great divisions of the earth.


{139}TABLES OF DISTRIBUTION.

In drawing up these tables, showing the distribution of various classes of
animals in the Nearctic region, the following sources of information have
been chiefly relied on, in addition to the general treatises, monographs,
and catalogues used in the compilation of the 4th Part of this work.

_Mammalia._--Professor Baird's Catalogue; Allen's List of the Bats; Mr.
Lord's List for British Columbia; Brown, for Greenland; Packard for
Labrador.

_Birds._--Baird, Cassin, and Allen's Lists for United States; Richardson's
Fauna Boreali Americana; Jones, for Bermudas; and papers by Brown, Coues,
Lord, Packard, Dall, and Professor Newton.


{140}TABLE I.

_FAMILIES OF ANIMALS INHABITING THE NEARCTIC REGION._

EXPLANATION.

  Names in _italics_ show the families which are peculiar to the region.

  Names inclosed thus (......) show families which barely enter the region,
  and are not considered properly to belong to it.

  Numbers correspond to the series of numbers to the families in Part IV.

  ---------------------+-------------------+-------------------------------
                       | Sub-regions       |
                       | 1=California.     |
    Order and Family   | 2=Rocky Mntns.    |   Range beyond the Region.
                       | 3=Alleghanies.    |
                       | 4=Canada.         |
  ---------------------+----+----+----+----+-------------------------------
                       | 1. | 2. | 3. | 4. |
  ---------------------+----+----+----+----+-------------------------------
                       |    |    |    |    |
  MAMMALIA.            |    |    |    |    |
  CHIROPTERA.          |    |    |    |    |
  10. Phyllostomidæ    | -- |    |    |    | Neotropical
  12. Vespertilionidæ  | -- | -- | -- | -- | Cosmopolite
  13. Noctilionidæ     | -- |    |    |    | Tropical regions
                       |    |    |    |    |
  INSECTIVORA.         |    |    |    |    |
  21. Talpidæ          | -- | -- | -- | -- | Palæarctic
  22. Soricidæ         | -- | -- | -- | -- | The Eastern Hemisphere, excl.
                       |    |    |    |    |   Australia
                       |    |    |    |    |
  CARNIVORA.           |    |    |    |    |
  23. Felidæ           | -- | -- | -- | -- | All regions but the Australian
  28. Canidæ           | -- | -- | -- | -- | All regions but the Australian
  29. Mustelidæ        | -- | -- | -- | -- | All regions but the Australian
  30. Procyonidæ       | -- | -- | -- | -- | Neotropical
  32. Ursidæ           | -- | -- | -- | -- | Palæarctic, Oriental
  33. Otariidæ         | -- |    |    | -- | N. and S. temperate zones
  34. Trichechidæ      |    |    |    | -- | Arctic regions
  35. Phocidæ          | -- |    |    | -- | N. and S. temperate zones
                       |    |    |    |    |
  CETACEA.             |    |    |    |    |
  36 to 41.            |    |    |    |    | Oceanic
                       |    |    |    |    |
  UNGULATA.            |    |    |    |    |
  47. Suidæ            |    |    | -- |    | All other continents but
                       |    |    |    |    |   Australia
  50. Cervidæ          | -- | -- | -- | -- | All regions but Ethiopian and
                       |    |    |    |    |   Australian
  52. Bovidæ           | -- | -- |    | -- |Palæarctic, Ethiopian, Oriental
                       |    |    |    |    |
  RODENTIA.            |    |    |    |    |
  55. Muridæ           | -- | -- | -- | -- | Almost cosmopolite
  57. Dipodidæ         | -- | -- | -- | -- | Palæarctic, Ethiopian
  59. _Saccomyidæ_     | -- | -- | -- | -- | Mexican sub-region
  60. Castoridæ        | -- | -- | -- | -- | Palæarctic
  61. Sciuridæ         | -- | -- | -- | -- | All regions but Australian
  62. _Haploodontidæ_  | -- |    |    |    |
  66. Cercolabidæ      | -- | -- | -- | -- | Neotropical
  69. Lagomyidæ        |    | -- |    | -- | Palæarctic
  70. Leporidæ         | -- | -- | -- | -- | All regions but Australian
                       |    |    |    |    |
  MARSUPIALIA.         |    |    |    |    |
  76. Didelphyidæ      | -- |    | -- |    | Neotropical
                       |    |    |    |    |
  BIRDS.               |    |    |    |    |
  PASSERES.            |    |    |    |    |
   1. Turdidæ          | -- | -- | -- | -- | Almost cosmopolite
   2. Sylviidæ         | -- | -- | -- | -- | Almost cosmopolite
   5. Cinclidæ         |    | -- |    | -- | Palæarctic, Oriental, Andes
   6. Troglodytidæ     | -- | -- | -- | -- | All regions but Australian
   7. _Chamæidæ_       | -- |    |    |    |
   8. Certhiidæ        | -- | -- | -- | -- | Palæarctic, Oriental,
                       |    |    |    |    |   Australian
   9. Sittidæ          | -- | -- | -- | -- | Palæarctic, Oriental,
                       |    |    |    |    |   Australian
  10. Paridæ           | -- | -- | -- | -- | The Eastern Hemisphere
  19. Laniidæ          | -- | -- | -- | -- | The Eastern Hemisphere
  20. Corvidæ          | -- | -- | -- | -- | Cosmopolite
  26. (Coerebidæ)      |    |    | -- |    | Neotropical family
  27. Mniotiltidæ      | -- | -- | -- | -- | Neotropical
  28. Vireonidæ        | -- | -- | -- | -- | Neotropical
  29. Ampelidæ         | -- | -- | -- | -- |Palæarctic, Antilles, Guatemala
  30. Hirundinidæ      | -- | -- | -- | -- | Cosmopolite
  31. Icteridæ         | -- | -- | -- | -- | Neotropical
  32. Tanagridæ        |    | -- | -- |    | Neotropical
  33. Fringillidæ      | -- | -- | -- | -- | All regions but Australian
  37. Alaudidæ         |    | -- | -- | -- | All regions but Neotropical
  38. Motacillidæ      | -- | -- | -- | -- | Cosmopolite
  39. Tyrannidæ        | -- | -- | -- | -- | Neotropical
                       |    |    |    |    |
  PICARIÆ.             |    |    |    |    |
  51. Picidæ           | -- | -- | -- | -- | All regions but Australian
  58. Cuculidæ         | -- | -- | -- |    | Almost cosmopolite
  67. Alcedinidæ       | -- | -- | -- | -- | Cosmopolite
  73. Caprimulgidæ     | -- | -- | -- | -- | Cosmopolite
  74. Cypselidæ        | -- | -- | -- | -- | Almost cosmopolite
  75. Trochilidæ       | -- | -- | -- | -- | Neotropical
                       |    |    |    |    |
  PSITTACI.            |    |    |    |    |
  80. Conuridæ         |    |    | -- |    | Neotropical
                       |    |    |    |    |
  COLUMBÆ.             |    |    |    |    |
  84. Columbidæ        | -- | -- | -- | -- | Cosmopolite
                       |    |    |    |    |
  GALLINÆ.             |    |    |    |    |
  87. Tetraonidæ       | -- | -- | -- | -- | Almost cosmopolite
  88. Phasianidæ       |    | -- | -- |    | Palæarctic, Oriental,
                       |    |    |    |    |   Ethiopian, Honduras
  91. (Cracidæ)        |    | -- |    |    | Neotropical
                       |    |    |    |    |
  ACCIPITRES.          |    |    |    |    |
  94. Vulturidæ        | -- | -- | -- |    | All regions but Australian
  96. Falconidæ        | -- | -- | -- | -- | Cosmopolite
  97. Pandionidæ       | -- | -- | -- | -- | Cosmopolite
  98. Strigidæ         | -- | -- | -- | -- | Cosmopolite
                       |    |    |    |    |
  GRALLÆ.              |    |    |    |    |
  99. Rallidæ          | -- | -- | -- | -- | Cosmopolite
  100. Scolopacidæ     | -- | -- | -- | -- | Cosmopolite
  105. Charadriidæ     | -- | -- | -- | -- | Cosmopolite
  107. Gruidæ          | -- | -- | -- |    | All regions but Neotropical
  113. Ardeidæ         | -- | -- | -- | -- | Cosmopolite
  114. Plataleidæ      | -- | -- | -- | -- | Almost cosmopolite
  115. Ciconiidæ       |    |    | -- |    | All the regions
                       |    |    |    |    |
  ANSERES.             |    |    |    |    |
  118. Anatidæ         | -- | -- | -- | -- | Cosmopolite
  119. Laridæ          | -- | -- | -- | -- | Cosmopolite
  120. Procellariidæ   | -- | -- | -- | -- | Cosmopolite
  121. Pelecanidæ      | -- | -- | -- | -- | Cosmopolite
  123. Colymbidæ       |    |    |    | -- | North temperate and arctic
                       |    |    |    |    |   zones
  124. Podicipidæ      | -- | -- | -- | -- | Cosmopolite
  125. Alcidæ          | -- |    |    | -- | North temperate and arctic
                       |    |    |    |    |   zones
                       |    |    |    |    |
  REPTILIA.            |    |    |    |    |
  OPHIDIA.             |    |    |    |    |
   5. Calamariidæ      | -- | -- | -- |    | All the regions
   6. Oligodontidæ     |    |    | -- |    | Neotropical, Oriental, Japan
   7. Colubridæ        | -- | -- | -- | -- | Almost cosmopolite
   8. Homalopsidæ      |    |    | -- |    | All the regions
  17. Pythonidæ        | -- |    |    |    | All tropical regions
  20. Elapidæ          |    |    | -- |    | All tropical regions, Japan
  24. Crotalidæ        | -- | -- | -- | -- | Neotropical, Palæarctic,
                       |    |    |    |    |   Oriental
                       |    |    |    |    |
  LACERTILIA.          |    |    |    |    |
  27. _Chirotidæ_      |    | -- | -- |    | Mexico
  32. Teidæ            | -- | -- | -- |    | Neotropical
  34. Zonuridæ         | -- | -- | -- | -- | All regions but Australian
  35. Chalcidæ         |    |    | -- |    | Neotropical
  45. Scincidæ         | -- | -- | -- |    | Almost cosmopolite
  49. Geckotidæ        | -- | -- | -- |    | Almost cosmopolite
  50. Iguanidæ         | -- | -- | -- |    | Neotropical
                       |    |    |    |    |
  CROCODILIA.          |    |    |    |    |
  56. Alligatoridæ     |    |    | -- |    | Neotropical
                       |    |    |    |    |
  CHELONIA.            |    |    |    |    |
  57. Testudinidæ      | -- | -- | -- | -- | All continents but Australian
  59. Trionychidæ      |    |    | -- |    | Ethiopian, Oriental, Japan
  60. Cheloniidæ       |    |    |    |    | Marine
                       |    |    |    |    |
  AMPHIBIA.            |    |    |    |    |
  URODELA.             |    |    |    |    |
   2. _Sirenidæ_       |    |    | -- |    |
   3. Proteidæ         |    |    | -- |    | Palæarctic
   4. _Amphiumidæ_     |    |    | -- |    |
   5. Menopomidæ       |    |    | -- |    | Palæarctic
   6. Salamandridæ     | -- | -- | -- | -- | Andes, Palæarctic
                       |    |    |    |    |
  ANOURA.              |    |    |    |    |
  10. Bufonidæ         | -- | -- | -- | -- | All continents but Australia
  12. Engystomidæ      |    |    | -- |    | All regions but Nearctic
  15. Alytidæ          | -- | -- | -- |    | All regions but Oriental
  17. Hylidæ           | -- | -- | -- | -- | All regions but Ethiopian
  18. Polypedatidæ     |    |    | -- |    | All the regions
  19. Ranidæ           | -- | -- | -- | -- | Almost cosmopolite
                       |    |    |    |    |
  FISHES (FRESHWATER). |    |    |    |    |
  ACANTHOPTERYGII.     |    |    |    |    |
   1. Gasterosteidæ    | -- | -- | -- | -- | Palæarctic
   3. Percidæ          | -- | -- | -- | -- | Cosmopolite
   4. _Aphredoderidæ_  |    |    | -- |    |
  12. Scienidæ         | -- | -- | -- | -- | All regions but Australian
  37. Atherinidæ       | -- | -- | -- | -- | Palæarctic
                       |    |    |    |    |
  PHYSOSTOMI.          |    |    |    |    |
  59. Siluridæ         | -- | -- | -- | -- | All warm regions
  65. Salmonidæ        | -- | -- | -- | -- | Palæarctic, New Zealand
  66. _Percopsidæ_     |    |    |    | -- |
  70. Esocidæ          | -- | -- | -- | -- | Palæarctic
  71. Umbridæ          | -- | -- | -- | -- | Palæarctic
  73. Cyprinodontidæ   | -- | -- | -- |    | All regions but Australian
  74. _Heteropygii_    |    |    | -- |    |
  75. Cyprinidæ        | -- | -- | -- | -- | Not in S. America or Australia
  77. _Hyodontidæ_     | -- | -- | -- | -- |
                       |    |    |    |    |
  GANOIDEI.            |    |    |    |    |
  93. _Amiidæ_         | -- | -- | -- | -- |
  95. _Lepidosteidæ_   | -- | -- | -- | -- |
  96. Accipenseridæ    | -- | -- | -- | -- | Palæarctic
  97. Polydontidæ      |    |    | -- |    | Palæarctic
                       |    |    |    |    |
  INSECTS.             |    |    |    |    |
  LEPIDOPTERA (PART)   |    |    |    |    |
  DIURNI (BUTTERFLIES).|    |    |    |    |
   1. Danaidæ          | -- | -- | -- | -- | All warm regions
   2. Satyridæ         | -- | -- | -- | -- | Cosmopolite
   7. (Heliconidæ)     |    |    | -- |    | Neotropical
   8. Nymphalidæ       | -- | -- | -- | -- | Cosmopolite
   9. Libytheidæ       |    | -- | -- |    | Not in Australia
  12. Erycinidæ        | -- | -- | -- |    | Neotropical
  13. Lycænidæ         | -- | -- | -- | -- | Cosmopolite
  14. Pieridæ          | -- | -- | -- | -- | Cosmopolite
  15. Papilionidæ      | -- | -- | -- | -- | Cosmopolite
  16. Hesperidæ        | -- | -- | -- | -- | Cosmopolite
                       |    |    |    |    |
  SPHINGIDEA.          |    |    |    |    |
  17. Zygænidæ         | -- | -- | -- | -- | Cosmopolite
  18. Castniidæ        |    |    | -- |    | Neotropical, Australian
  22. Ægeriidæ         | -- | -- | -- | -- | Not in Australia
  23. Sphingidæ        | -- | -- | -- | -- | Cosmopolite

{145}TABLE II.

_LIST OF GENERA OF TERRESTRIAL MAMMALIA AND BIRDS INHABITING THE NEARCTIC
REGION._

EXPLANATION.

  Names in _italics_ show genera peculiar to the region.

  Names enclosed thus (...) indicate genera which barely enter the region,
  and are not considered properly to belong to it.

  Genera properly belonging to the region are numbered consecutively.


_MAMMALIA._

  -------------------+-------+----------------------+----------------------
  Order, Family, and | No. of|     Range within     |     Range beyond
    Genus.           |Species|      the Region.     |      the Region.
  -------------------+-------+----------------------+----------------------
                      |     |                       |
  CHIROPTERA.         |     |                       |
  PHYLLOSTOMIDÆ.      |     |                       |
   1. Macrotus        |   1 | California Mexico,    |
                      |     |   Antilles            |
                      |     |                       |
  VESPERTILIONIDÆ.    |     |                       |
   2. Scotophilus     |   5 | Universal, to Hudson's| Neotr., Orient.,
                      |     |    Bay                |   Austral.
   3. Vespertilio     |   6 | Universal, to Hudson's| Cosmopolite.
                      |     |   Bay                 |
   4. Nycticejus      |   1 | South and East        | India, Tropical
                      |     |                       |   Africa, temperate
                      |     |                       |   S. America
   5. Lasiurus        |   3 | Temp. N. Amer. to     | Tropical America
                      |     |   Nova Scotia         |
   6. _Synotus_       |   2 |S. E. and Central States
   7. _Autrozous_     |   1 | W. Coast              |
                      |     |                       |
  NOCTILIONIDÆ.       |     |                       |
   8. Nyctinomus      |   1 | Cal. and S. Central   |Neotropical, Oriental,
                      |     |   Sub-region          |   S. Palæarctic
                      |     |                       |
  INSECTIVORA.        |     |                       |
  TALPIDÆ.            |     |                       |
   9. _Condylura_     |   1 | Eastern N. America    |
  10. _Scapanus_      |   2 | New York to San       |
                      |     |   Francisco           |
  11. _Scalops_       |   3 | S. of Great Lakes &   |
                      |     |   Brit. Columb.       |
  12. Urotrichus      |   1 | British Columbia      | Japan
                      |     |                       |
  SORICIDÆ.           |     |                       |
  13. Sorex           |  16 | The whole region      | Palæarc., Ethiop.,
                      |     |                       |   Orien.
  14. Neosorex        |   1 | Vancouver's Island    |
                      |     |   (a sub-genus)       |
  15. Blarina         |   7 | Canada to Mexico      |
                      |     |   (a sub-genus)       |
                      |     |                       |
  CARNIVORA.          |     |                       |
  FELIDÆ.             |     |                       |
  16. Felis           |   5 | S. of 55° N. Latitude | All regs. but
                      |     |                       |   Australian
  17. Lynx            |   3 | S. of 56° N. Latitude | Palæarctic
                      |     |                       |
  CANIDÆ.             |     |                       |
  18. Lupus           |   6 | All N. America        | Palæarctic, Oriental
  19. Vulpes          |   6 | N. America to Arctic  | Palæarc., Ethiop.,
                      |     |   Ocean and Greenland |    Orient.
                      |     |                       |
  MUSTELIDÆ.          |     |                       |
  20. Martes          |   2 | Pennsylvania to       | Palæarctic, Oriental
                      |     |   Paget's Sound       |
  21. Mustela         |  11 | All N. America        | Peru, Palæarctic,
                      |     |                       |   Ethiopian, Oriental
  22. Gulo            |   1 | Rocky Mountains and   | N. Palæarctic
                      |     |   Canada              |
  23. _Latax_         |   2 | United States and     |
                      |     |   Canada              |
  24. Enhydris        |   1 | Pacific coast         |W. coast of S. America
  25. _Taxidea_       |   2 |Arkansas to 58° N. Lat.|
  26. Mephitis        |   6 | United States and     | Neotropical
                      |     |   Canada              |
                      |     |                       |
  PROCYONIDÆ.         |     |                       |
  27. Procyon         |   2 | Texas to Canada,      | Neotropical
                      |     |   California          |
  28. Bassaris        |   1 | California and Texas  | Guatemala and Mexico
                      |     |                       |
  URSIDÆ.             |     |                       |
  29. Ursus           |   3 | N. America and        | Palæarctic, Oriental
                      |     |   Greenland           |
                      |     |                       |
  OTARIIDÆ.           |     |                       |
  30. Callorhinus     |   1 | Behring's Straits     | Kamschatka
  31. Zalophus        |   1 | S. California to      | Japan
                      |     |   N. Pacific          |
      _Eumetopias_    |   1 | California to         |
                      |     |   Behring's Straits   |
                      |     |                       |
  TRICHECHIDÆ.        |     |                       |
  32. Trichechus      |   1 | Arctic Ocean to 66° N.| Palæarctic
                      |     |   Lat. in N. America  |
  PHOCIDÆ.            |     |                       |
  33. Callocephalus   |   1 | Greenland             | Palæarctic
  34. Pagomys         |   1 | N. Atlantic and       | Japan
                      |     |   N. Pacific          |
  35. Pagophilus      |   1 | N. Atlantic and       | Palæarctic
                      |     |   N. Pacific          |
  36. _Halicyon_      |   1 | N. W. coast of America|
  37. Phoca           |   1 | Northern Coast        | Palæarctic
  38. Halichoerus     |   1 | Greenland             | Palæarctic
  39. Morunga         |   1 | California            | S. temperate shores
  40. Cystophora      |     | Greenland             | N. Atlantic
                      |     |                       |
  UNGULATA.           |     |                       |
  SUIDÆ.              |     |                       |
  41. Dicotyles       |   1 | Texas to Red River,   | Neotropical
                      |     |   Arkansas            |
                      |     |                       |
  CERVIDÆ.            |     |                       |
  42. Alces           |   1 | N. E. United States & | N. Palæarctic
                      |     |   Canada              |
  43. Rangifer        |   2 | Maine to Arctic Ocean | Arctic zone
                      |     |   & Greenl.           |
  44. Cervus          |   6 | N. America to 57° N.  | Neotr., Palæarc.,
                      |     |   Lat.                |   Orien.
                      |     |                       |
  BOVIDÆ.             |     |                       |
  45. Bison           |   1 | Between Missouri &    | E. Europe
                      |     |   Rocky Mtns.         |
  46. _Antilocapra_   |   1 | Central plains from   |
                      |     |   Rio Grande to       |
                      |     |   British Columbia    |
  47. _Aplocerus_     |   1 | Northern Rocky        |
                      |     |   Mountains           |
  48. Capra           |   1 | Upper Missouri and    | Palæarctic
                      |     |   Rocky Mountains     |
                      |     |   northwards          |
  49. _Ovibos_        |   1 | Arctic America and    |
                      |     |   Greenland           |
                      |     |                       |
  RODENTIA.           |     |                       |
  MURIDÆ.             |     |                       |
  50. Reithrodon      |   5 | N. America to Lat.    | Neotropical
                      |     |   39° N.              |
  51. Hesperomys      |  16 | Temperate N. America  | Neotropical
  52. _Neotoma_       |   7 | Temperate N. America  |
  53. _Sigmodon_      |   2 | S. and S. E. States   |
  54. Arvicola        |  27 | Texas and California  |  Palæarctic
                      |     |   to Hudson's Bay     |
  55. Myodes          |   3 | N. United States to   | N. Palæarctic
                      |     |   Arctic Reg. and     |
                      |     |   Greenland           |
  56. _Fiber_         |   1 | All N. America        | Mexico
                      |     |                       |
  DIPODIDÆ.           |     |                       |
  57. _Jaculus_       |   1 | Pennsylvania to Canada|
                      |     |   and California      |
                      |     |                       |
  SACCOMYIDÆ.         |     |                       |
  58. _Dipodomys_     |   5 | New Mexico to Columbia|
                      |     |   River and Carolina  |
  59. _Perognathus_   |   6 | New Mexico to British |
                      |     |   Columbia            |
  60. _Thomomys_      |   2 | Upper Missouri to     |
                      |     |   Hudson's Bay        |
  61. _Geomys_        |   5 | New Mexico to Alabama |
                      |     |   and Nebraska        |
  62. _Saccomys_      |   1 | N. America            |
                      |     |                       |
  CASTORIDÆ.          |     |                       |
  63. Castor          |   1 | N. Mexico to Labrador | Palæarctic
                      |     |                       |
  SCIURIDÆ            |     |                       |
  64. Sciurus         |  18 | N. America to Labrador| All regs. but
                      |     |                       |   Australian
  65. Sciuropterus    |   4 | California & E. States| Palæarctic, Oriental
                      |     |   northwds.           |
  66. Tamias          |   4 | Mexico and Virginia   | Mexico, N. Asia
                      |     |   to Canada           |
  67. Spermophilus    |  15 | N., W., & Central     | Palæarctic
                      |     |   N. America          |
  68. _Cynomys_       |   2 | Rio Grande to Missouri|
                      |     |    (Central)          |
  69. Arctomys        |   4 | Virginia and Nebraska,|  N. Palæarctic
                      |     |   northws.            |
                      |     |                       |
  HAPLOODONTIDÆ.      |     |                       |
  70. _Haploodon_     |   2 | California and British|
                      |     |   Columbia            |
                      |     |                       |
  CERCOLABIDÆ         |     |                       |
  71. _Erethizon_     |   2 |Pennsylvania to Canada,|
                      |     |   & Pacific coast     |
  LAGOMYIDÆ.          |     |                       |
  72. Lagomys         |   1 | Rocky Mountains, 42°  | Palæarctic
                      |     |   to 60° N. Lat.      |
                      |     |                       |
  LEPORIDÆ.           |     |                       |
  73. Lepus           |  15 | All N. America to     | All regs. but
                      |     |   Greenland           |   Australian
                      |     |                       |
  MARSUPIALIA.        |     |                       |
  DIDELPHYIDÆ.        |     |                       |
  74. Didelphys       |   2 | From Hudson's River & | Neotropical
                      |     |   Lower California,   |
                      |     |   southward           |

  _BIRDS._

  PASSERES.           |     |                       |
  TURDIDÆ.            |     |                       |
    1. Turdus         |   9 | The whole region      | Almost cosmopolite
    2. Mimus          |   2 | All U. States and to  | Neotropical
                      |     |   Canada              |
    3. Galeoscoptes   |   1 | E. of N. America      | To Panama
    4. _Oreoscoptes_  |   1 | California and Rocky  | Mexico
                      |     |   Mountains           |
    5. _Harporhynchus_|   7 | N. America, chiefly   | Mexico
                      |     |   the west            |
                      |     |                       |
  SYLVIIDÆ.           |     |                       |
    6. Myiadestes     |   1 | W. of Rocky Mountains | Neotropical
                      |     |   and to Canada       |
    7. _Sialia_       |   3 | All United States and | Mexico and Guatemala
                      |     |   to Canada           |
    8. Regulus        |   3 | All United States &   | Palæarc., Cent.
                      |     |   to Labrador         |   America
    9. Polioptila     |   3 | Central and Southern  | Neotropical
                      |     |   U. States           |
                      |     |                       |
  CINCLIDÆ.           |     |                       |
   10. Cinclus        |   1 | Rocky Mountains and   | Andes, Palæarctic
                      |     |   British America     |
                      |     |                       |
  TROGLODYTIDÆ.       |     |                       |
   11. Troglodytes    |   3 | N. America            | Neotropical,
                      |     |                       |   Palæarctic
   12. Thryophilus    |   1 | N. W. America         | Neotropical
   13. Thryothorus    |   3 | All N. America        | Neotropical
   14. Cistothorus    |   2 | N. America            | Neotropical
      (Campylorhynchus|   1 | Gila and Rio Grande)  | Neotropical genus
   15. _Salpinctes_   |   1 | Rocky Mountains to    |
                      |     |   Oregon              |
   16. _Catherpes_    |   1 | Gila and Colorado     |
                      |     |                       |
  CHAMÆIDÆ.           |     |                       |
   17. _Chamæa_       |   1 | California            |
                      |     |                       |
  CERTHIIDÆ.          |     |                       |
   18. Certhia        |   2 | All United States and | Palæarctic, Guatemala
                      |     |   Canada              |
                      |     |                       |
  SITTIDÆ.            |     |                       |
   19. Sitta          |   5 | All United States and | Palæarctic, Mexico
                      |     |   Canada              |
                      |     |                       |
  PARIDÆ.             |     |                       |
   20. Parus          |   8 | All United States and | Palæarc., Orien.,
                      |     |   Canada              |   Mexico
   21. Lophophanes    |   4 | All United States     | Palæarctic, Mexico
   22. _Psaltriparus_ |   3 | Central & Western     | Mexico and Guatemala
                      |     |   N. America          |
   23. _Auriparus_    |   1 | Rio Grande Valley     |
                      |     |                       |
  LANIIDÆ.            |     |                       |
   24. Lanius         |   4 | All N. America        | Palæarc., Ethio.,
                      |     |                       |   Orient.
                      |     |                       |
  CORVIDÆ.            |     |                       |
   25. Perisoreus     |   1 | Canada and Rocky      | Palæarctic
                      |     |   Mountains           |
   26. Cyanocitta     |   9 | All United States and | Neotropical
                      |     |   to Canada           |
   27. _Gymnokitta_   |   1 | Central and N. W.     |
                      |     |   States              |
   28. _Picicorvus_   |   1 | Central and Western   |
                      |     |   States to Sitka     |
   29. Pica           |   2 | Central and Western   | Palæarctic
                      |     |   States to Arctic    |
                      |     |    Ocean              |
   30. Corvus         |   7 | All N. America        | Cosmop., excl.
                      |     |                       |   S. Amer.
                      |     |                       |
  COEREBIDÆ.          |     |                       |
      (Certhiola      |   1 | Florida; summer       | Neotropical genus
                      |     |   migrant)            |
                      |     |                       |
  MNIOTILTIDÆ.        |     |                       |
   31. _Mniotilta_    |   1 | Eastern States        | Antilles, Andes of
                      |     |                       |   Columbia (migrant)
   32. Parula         |   1 | Eastern States and    | Neotropical
                      |     |   Canada              |
   33. Protonotaria   |   1 | Ohio and southwards   | Neotrop. to Venezuela
   34._Helminthophaga_|   8 | All N. America        | Mexico to Columbia
   35. _Helmintherus_ |   2 | S. and E. States to   | Mexico to Veragua
                      |     |   Canada              |
   36. Perissoglossa  |   1 | Eastern United States | Antilles
   37. Dendroeca      |  22 | All N. America        | Mex. to Ecuador &
                      |     |                       |   Chili
   38. _Oporornis_    |   2 | Eastern States        | Guatemala and Panama
   39. Geothlypis     |   4 | All N. America        | Neotropical
   40. Setophaga      |   2 | E. States & Canadian  | Neotropical
                      |     |   sub-region          |
   41. _Myiodioctes_  |   5 | United States and     | Mex. to Columb.
                      |     |   Canada              |   (migr.)
   42. Siurus         |   3 | S. and E. States to   | Mexico to Columbia
                      |     |   Canada              |
   43. _Icteria_      |   2 | E. and Central States | Mexico to Costa Rica
                      |     |   to Canada           |
                      |     |                       |
  VIREONIDÆ.          |     |                       |
   44. Vireosylvia    |   7 | All N. America        |Antilles and Venezuela
   45. Vireo          |   6 | All United States     | Antilles and Costa
                      |     |                       |   Rica
                      |     |                       |
  AMPELIDÆ.           |     |                       |
   46. Ampelis        |   2 | All N. America        | Palæarctic, Guatemala
   47. _Phænopepla_   |   1 |Gila and Lower Colorado| Mexico
                      |     |                       |
  HIRUNDINIDÆ.        |     |                       |
   48. Hirundo        |   3 | All N. America        | Almost cosmopolite
   49. Petrochelidon  |   1 | All N. America        | Neotropical
   50. Cotyle         |   1 | All N. America        | All regs. but
                      |     |                       |   Australian
   51. Stelgidopteryx |   1 | Southern States       | Neotropical
   52. Progne         |   1 | All N. America        | Neotropical
                      |     |                       |
  ICTERIDÆ.           |     |                       |
   53. Icterus        |   7 | All United States and | Neotropical
                      |     |   Canada              |
   54. Dolichonyx     |   1 | Eastern States and    | Neotropical
                      |     |   Canada              |
   55. Molothrus      |   1 | All United States and | Neotropical
                      |     |   Canada              |
   56. Agelæus        |   3 | All United Slates and | Neotropical
                      |     |   Canada              |
   57._Xanthocephalus_|   1 | The whole region      | Mexico
   58. Sturnella      |   2 | All United States and | Neotropical
                      |     |   Canada              |
   59. _Scolecophagus_|   2 | All United States and | Mexico
                      |     |   Canada              |
   60. Quiscalus      |   4 | S. and E. States to   | Mexico to Venezuela
                      |     |   Labrador            |
                      |     |                       |
  TANAGRIDÆ.          |     |                       |
   61. Pyranga        |   4 | United Stales and     | Neotropical
                      |     |   Canada              |
                      |     |                       |
  FRINGILLIDÆ.        |     |                       |
   62. Chrysomitris   |   7 | The whole region      | Neotropical,
                      |     |                       |   Palæarctic
   63. Coccothraustes |   1 | W. and N. W. America  | Palæarctic, Guatemala
   64. Embernagra     |   1 |Rocky Mountain district| Neotropical
   65. _Pipilo_       |   9 | All N. America        | Mexico and Guatemala
   66. _Junco_        |   5 | All United States     | Mexico and Guatemala
   67. Zonotrichia    |   5 | The whole region      | Neotropical
   68. _Melospiza_    |   7 | All United States to  | Mexico and Guatemala
                      |     |   Sitka               |
   69. _Spizella_     |   6 | N. America            | Mexico and Guatemala
   70. _Passerella_   |   3 | The whole region      | Northern Asia
   71. _Passerculus_  |   6 | The whole region      | Mexico and Guatemala
   72. _Pooecetes_    |   1 | All United States     | Mexico
   73. _Ammodromus_   |   3 | All United States     | Mexico and Guatemala
   74. Coturniculus   |   3 |E. and N. of N. America| Neotropical
   75. Peucæa         |   3 | S. Atlantic States and| Mexico
                      |     |   California          |
   76. _Cyanospiza_   |   5 | All United States to  | Central American
                      |     |   Canada              |
   77. Poospiza       |   2 | California and S.     | Neotropical
                      |     |   Central States      |
   78. Carpodacus     |   5 | The whole region      | Mexico, Palæarctic
   79. Cardinalis     |   1 | S. and S. Central     | Mexico to Venezuela
                      |     |   States              |
   80. _Pyrrhuloxia_  |   1 | Texas and Rio Grande  |
   81. Guiraca        |   1 | Southern States       | Neotropical
   82. Hedymeles      |   2 | All United States     | Mexico to Columbia
      (Spermophila    |   1 | Texas)                | Neotropical genus
   83. Loxia          |   2 | N. of Pennsylvania    | Palæarctic
   84. Pinicola       |   1 | Boreal America        | Palæarctic
   85. Linota         |   2 | E. and N. of N.       | Palæarctic
                      |     |   America             |
   86. Leucosticte    |   4 | Alaska to Utah        | Palæarctic
   87. _Calamospiza_  |   1 | Arizona and Texas to  | Mexico
                      |     |   Mexico              |
   88. _Chondestes_   |   1 | Western, Cen., &      | Mexico
                      |     |   Southern States     |
   89. Euspiza        |   2 | S. Eastern States     | Palæarc., Columb.
                      |     |                       |   (mig.)
   90. Plectrophanes  |   6 | Boreal America and E. | Palæarctic
                      |     |   side of Rocky       |
                      |     |   Mountains           |
   91. _Centronyx_    |   1 | Mouth of Yellowstone  |
                      |     |   River               |
                      |     |                       |
  ALAUDIDÆ.           |     |                       |
   92. Otocorys       |   1 | High central plains to| Palæarc., Mexico,
                      |     |   E. States and Canada|   Andes of Columbia
                      |     |                       |
  MOTACILLIDÆ.        |     |                       |
   93. Anthus         |   1 | The whole region      | Cosmopolite
   94. _Neocorys_     |   1 |  Nebraska             |
                      |     |                       |
  TYRANNIDÆ.          |     |                       |
   95. Sayornis       |   3 | E. States to Canada,  | Mexico to Ecuador
                      |     |   California          |
      (Pyrocephalus   |   1 | Gila and Rio Grande)  | Neotropical
   96. Empidonax      |   7 | The whole region      | Mexico to Ecuador
   97. Contopus       |   3 | N. and E. of Rocky    | Mexico to Amazonia
                      |     |   Mountains           |
   98. Myiarchus      |   2 | E. and W. coasts and  | Neotropical
                      |     |   Canada              |
   99. _Empidias_     |   1 | Eastern States        | Mexico
  100. Tyrannus       |   4 | All United States to  | Neotropical
                      |     |   Canada              |
       (Milvulus      |   1 | Texas)                | Neotropical genus
                      |     |                       |
  PICARIÆ.            |     |                       |
  PICIDÆ.             |     |                       |
  101. Picoides       |   3 | Arctic zone and Rocky | Palæarctic
                      |     |   Mounts.             |
  102. Picus          |   6 | All United States and | All regs. but Eth.
                      |     |   Canada              |   & Aus.
  103. _Sphyrapicus_  |   6 | Brit. Columbia and    | Mexico and Guatemala
                      |     |   Pennsylvania        |
                      |     |   southwards          |
  104. Campephilus    |   2 | United States and     | Neotropical
                      |     |   Canada              |
  105. _Hylatomus_    |   1 | E. and W. States and  |
                      |     |   Canada              |
  106. Centurus       |   3 | The whole region      | Mexico to Venezuela
  107. Melanerpes     |   3 | United States and     | Neotropical
                      |     |   S. Canada           |
  108. Colaptes       |   3 | United States and     | Neotropical
                      |     |   Canada              |
                      |     |                       |
  CUCULIDÆ.           |     |                       |
  109. Crotophaga     |   2 | E. States from        | Neotropical
                      |     |   Pennsylvania S.     |
  110. Coccyzus       |   3 | S. E. and Cen. States | Neotropical
                      |     |   to Canada           |
  111. Geococcyx      |   1 | California to New Mex.| Guatemala
                      |     |   & Texas             |
                      |     |                       |
  ALCEDINIDÆ.         |     |                       |
  112. Ceryle         |   2 | The whole region,     | Neotropical S.
                      |     |                       |  Palæarctic, Oriental
                      |     |                       |
  CAPRIMULGIDÆ.       |     |                       |
  113. Chordeiles     |   3 | All United States to  | Neotropical
                      |     |   Canada              |
  114. Antrostomus    |   3 | All United States to  | Neotropical
                      |     |   Canada              |
                      |     |                       |
  CYPSELIDÆ.          |     |                       |
  115. Nephoecetes    |   1 | N. W. America Jamaica |
  116. Chætura        |   2 | All U. States &       | Almost cosmopolite
                      |     |   British Columbia    |
                      |     |                       |
  TROCHILIDÆ.         |     |                       |
  117. _Trochilus_    |   2 | The whole region      | Mexico to Veragua
                      |     |                       |   (? mi.)
  118. Selasphorus    |   2 | W. coast and Centre   | Mexico to Veragua
  119. _Atthis_       |   2 | California and        | Mexico to Guatemala
                      |     |   Colorado Valley     |
                      |     |                       |
  PSITTACI.           |     |                       |
  CONURIDÆ.           |     |                       |
  120. Conurus        |   1 | S. and S. E. States   | Neotropical
                      |     |                       |
  COLUMBÆ.            |     |                       |
  COLUMBIDÆ.          |     |                       |
  121. Columba        |   3 | W. and Central States | All regs. but
                      |     |   to Canada           |   Australian
  122. _Ectopistes_   |   1 | E. coast to Cen.      |
                      |     |   plains, Canada and  |
                      |     |   British Columbia    |
  123. Melopelia      |   1 | W. and S. Central     | Neotropical
                      |     |   States              |
  124. Zenaidura      |   1 | All United States to  | Mexico to Veragua
                      |     |   Canada              |
  125. Chæmepelia     |   1 | California and S. E.  | Neotropical
                      |     |   States              |
                      |     |                       |
  GALLINÆ.            |     |                       |
  TETRAONIDÆ.         |     |                       |
  126. Cyrotonyx      |   1 | S. Central States     | Mexico and Guatemala
  127. Ortyx          |   5 | All United States and | Mexico to Honduras
                      |     |   to Canada           |   and Costa Rica
  128. Callipepla     |   1 | California            | Mexico
  129. _Lophortyx_    |   2 | Arizona and California|
  130. _Oreortyx_     |   1 | California and Oregon |
  131. Tetrao         |   3 | N. and N. W. America  | Palæarctic
  132. _Centrocercus_ |   1 | Rocky Mountains       |
  133. _Pediocætes_   |   2 | N. and N. W. America  |
  134. _Cupidonia_    |   1 | E. & N. Cen. States   |
                      |     |   and Canada          |
  135. Bonasa         |   1 | N. United States and  | Palæarctic
                      |     |   Canada              |
  136. Lagopus        |   4 | Arctic zone and to 39°| Palæarctic
                      |     |   N. Lat. in Rocky    |
                      |     |   Mountains           |
                      |     |                       |
  PHASIANIDÆ.         |     |                       |
  137. _Meleagris_    |   2 | E. and Central States | Mexico, Honduras
                      |     |   to Canada           |
  CRACIDÆ.            |     |                       |
       (Ortalida      |   1 | New Mexico)           | Neotropical genus
                      |     |                       |
  ACCIPITRES.         |     |                       |
  VULTURIDÆ.          |     |                       |
  _Sub-Family_        |     |                       |
  (CATHARTINÆ.)       |     |                       |
  138. Catharista     |   1 | United States to      | Neotropical
                      |     |   40° N. Lat.         |
  139. Psuedogryphis  |   2 | United States to      | Neotropical
                      |     |   49° N. Lat.         |
                      |     |                       |
  FALCONIDÆ.          |     |                       |
  140. Polyborus      |   1 | S. States to Florida  | Neotropical
                      |     |   & California        |
  141. Circus         |   1 | All N. America        | Nearly cosmopolite
  142. Antenor        |   2 | California and Texas  | Neotropical
  143. Astur          |   1 | All N. America        | Almost cosmopolite
  144. Accipiter      |   3 | All temperate         | Almost cosmopolite
                      |     |   N. America          |
  145. Tachytriorchis |   1 | New Mexico to         | Neotropical
                      |     |   California          |
  146. Buteo          |  12 | All N. America        | All regs. but
                      |     |                       |   Australian
  147. Archibuteo     |   3 | All N. America N.     | Palæarctic
  148. Asturina       |   1 | S. E. States          | Neotropical
  149. Aquila         |   1 | The whole region      | Palæarc., Ethiop.,
                      |     |                       |   Indian
  150. Haliæetus      |   2 | All N. America        | All regs. but
                      |     |                       |   Neotropical
  151. Nauclerus      |   1 | E. coast to           | Neotropical
                      |     |   Pennsylvania and    |
                      |     |   Wisconsin           |
       (Rostrhamus    |   1 | Florida)              | Neotropical
  152. Elanus         |   1 | Southern and Western  | Tropical regions
                      |     |   States              |
  153. Ictinia        |   1 | Southern States       | Neotropical
  154. Falco          |   7 | The whole region      | Almost cosmopolite
  155. Hierofalco     |   2 | N. of N. America      | N. Palæarctic
  156. Cerchneis      |   1 | All N. America        | Almost cosmopolite
                      |     |                       |
  PANDIONIDÆ.         |     |                       |
  157. Pandion        |   1 | Temperate N.          | America Cosmopolite
                      |     |                       |
  STRIGIDÆ.           |     |                       |
  158. Surnia         |   1 | Arctic & N. Temperate | N. Palæarctic
                      |     |   America             |
  159. Nyctea         |   1 | S. Carolina to        | N. Palæarctic
                      |     |   Greenland           |
  160. Glaucidium     |   1 | Oregon and California | Neotropical,
                      |     |                       |   Palæarctic
  161. _Micrathene_   |   1 | Arizona and New Mexico| Mexico
  162. Pholeoptynx    |   1 | N. W. America, Texas  | Neotropical
  163. Bubo           |   1 | All N. America        | All regs. but
                      |     |                       |   Australian
  164. Scops          |   2 | The whole region      | Almost cosmopolite
  165. Syrnium        |   2 | E. States, California,| All regs. but
                      |     |   Canada              |   Australian
  166. Asio           |   2 | The whole region      | All regs. but
                      |     |                       |   Australian
  167. Nyctale        |   3 | All N. America        | Palæarctic
  168. Strix          |   1 | Temperate N. America  | Almost cosmopolite

  _Peculiar or very Characteristic Genera of Wading and Swimming Birds._

  GRALLÆ              |     |                       |
  SCOLOPACIDÆ.        |     |                       |
    Micropelma        |   1 | N. America            | Andes to Chili
    _Philohela_       |   1 | Eastern States to     |
                      |     |   Canada              |
                      |     |                       |
  CHARADRIIDÆ.        |     |                       |
    Aphriza           |   1 |  W. coast of America  | West of S. America
                      |     |                       |
  ANSERES.            |     |                       |
  ANATIDÆ.            |     |                       |
    Aix               |   1 | N. America            | China
    Bucephala         |   4 | N. America            | Europe
    Oedemia           |   3 | N. America            | Europe
    Harelda           |   1 | Arctic                | Arctic Seas
    Somateria         |   5 | Arctic                | North Palæarctic
    _Camptolæmus_     |   1 | N. E. America         |
                      |     |   (? extinct)         |
                      |     |                       |
  LARIDÆ.             |     |                       |
    _Creagrus_        |   1 | California and        |
                      |     |   N. Pacific coasts   |

{154}CHAPTER XVI.

SUMMARY OF THE PAST CHANGES AND GENERAL RELATIONS OF THE SEVERAL REGIONS.


Having now closed our survey of the animal life of the whole earth--a
survey which has necessarily been encumbered with a multiplicity of
detail--we proceed to summarize the general conclusions at which we have
arrived, with regard to the past history and mutual relations of the great
regions into which we have divided the land surface of the globe.

All the palæontological, no less than the geological and physical evidence,
at present available, points to the great land masses of the Northern
Hemisphere as being of immense antiquity, and as the area in which the
higher forms of life were developed. In going back through the long series
of the Tertiary formations, in Europe, Asia, and North America, we find a
continuous succession of vertebrate forms, including all the highest types
now existing or that have existed on the earth. These extinct animals
comprise ancestors or forerunners of all the chief forms now living in the
Northern Hemisphere; and as we go back farther and farther into the past,
we meet with ancestral forms of those types also, which are now either
confined to, or specially characteristic of, the land masses of the
Southern Hemisphere. Not only do we find that elephants, and rhinoceroses,
and hippopotami, were once far more abundant in Europe than they are now in
the tropics, but we also find that the apes of West Africa and Malaya, the
lemurs of Madagascar, the Edentata of Africa and South America, and the
{155}Marsupials of America and Australia, were all represented in Europe
(and probably also in North America) during the earlier part of the
Tertiary epoch. These facts, taken in their entirety, lead us to conclude
that, during the whole of the Tertiary and perhaps during much of the
Secondary periods, the great land masses of the earth were, as now,
situated in the Northern Hemisphere; and that here alone were developed the
successive types of vertebrata from the lowest to the highest. In the
Southern Hemisphere there appear to have been three considerable and very
ancient land masses, varying in extent from time to time, but always
keeping distinct from each other, and represented, more or less completely,
by Australia, South Africa, and South America of our time. Into these
flowed successive waves of life, as they each in turn became temporarily
united with some part of the northern land. Australia appears to have had
but one such union, perhaps during the middle or latter part of the
Secondary epoch, when it received the ancestors of its Monotremata and
Marsupials, which it has since developed into a great variety of forms. The
South African and South American lands, on the other hand, appear each to
have had several successive unions and separations, allowing first of the
influx of low forms only (Edentata, Insectivora and Lemurs); subsequently
of Rodents and small Carnivora, and, latest of all, of the higher types of
Primates, Carnivora and Ungulata.

During the whole of the Tertiary period, at least, the Northern Hemisphere
appears to have been divided, as now, into an Eastern and a Western
continent; always approximating and sometimes united towards the north, and
then admitting of much interchange of their respective faunas; but on the
whole keeping distinct, and each developing its own special family and
generic types, of equally high grade, and generally belonging to the same
Orders. During the Eocene and Miocene periods, the distinction of the
Palæarctic and Nearctic regions was better marked than it is now; as is
shown by the floras no less than by the faunas of those epochs. Dr.
Newberry, in his Report on the Cretaceous and Tertiary floras of the
Yellowstone and Missouri Rivers, states, that although the Miocene flora of
Central North {156}America corresponds generally with that of the European
Miocene, yet many of the tropical, and especially the Australian types,
such as _Hakea_ and _Dryandra_, are absent. Owing to the recent discovery
of a rich Cretaceous flora in North America, probably of the same age as
that of Aix-la-Chapelle in Europe, we are able to continue the comparison;
and it appears, that at this early period the difference was still more
marked. The predominant feature of the European Cretaceous flora seems to
have been the abundance of Proteaceæ, of which seven genera now living in
Australia or the Cape of Good Hope have been recognised, besides others
which are extinct. There are also several species of _Pandanus_, or
screw-pine, now confined to the tropics of the Eastern Hemisphere, and
along with these, oaks, pines, and other more temperate forms. The North
American Cretaceous flora, although far richer than that of Europe,
contains no Proteaceæ or _Pandani_, but immense numbers of forest trees of
living and extinct genera. Among the former we have oaks, beeches, willows,
planes, alders, dog-wood, and cypress; together with such American forms as
magnolias, sassafras, and liriodendrons. There are also a few not now found
in America, as _Araucaria_ and _Cinnamomum_, the latter still living in
Japan. This remarkable flora has been found over a wide extent of
country--New Jersey, Alabama, Kansas, and near the sources of the Missouri
in the latitude of Quebec--so that we can hardly impute its peculiarly
temperate character to the great elevation of so large an area. The
intervening Eocene flora approximates closely, in North America, to that of
the Miocene period; while in Europe it seems to have been fully as tropical
in character as that of the preceding Cretaceous period; fruits of _Nipa_,
_Pandanus_, _Anona_, _Acacia_, and many Proteaceæ, occurring in the London
clay at the mouth of the Thames.

These facts appear, at first sight, to be inconsistent, unless we suppose
the climates of Europe and North America to have been widely different in
these early times; but they may perhaps be harmonised, on the supposition
of a more uniform and a somewhat milder climate then prevailing over the
whole Northern Hemisphere; the contrast in the vegetation of these
countries {157}being due to a radical difference of type, and therefore not
indicative of climate. The early European flora seems to have been a
portion of that which now exists only in the tropical and sub-tropical
lands of the Eastern Hemisphere; and, as much of this flora still survives
in Australia, Tasmania, Japan, and the Cape of Good Hope, it does not
necessarily imply more than a warm and equable temperate climate. The early
North American flora, on the other hand, seems to have been essentially the
same in type as that which now exists there, and which, in the Miocene
period, was well represented in Europe; and it is such as now flourishes
best in the warmer parts of the United States. But whatever conclusion we
may arrive at on the question of climate, there can be no doubt as to the
distinctness of the floras of the ancient Nearctic and Palæarctic regions;
and the view derived from our study of their existing and extinct
faunas--that these two regions have, in past times, been more clearly
separated than they are now--receives strong support from the unexpected
evidence now obtained as to the character and mutations of their vegetable
forms, during so vast an epoch as is comprised in the whole duration of the
Tertiary period.

The general phenomena of the distribution of living animals, combined with
the evidence of extinct forms, lead us to conclude that the Palæarctic
region of early Tertiary times was, for the most part, situated beyond the
tropics, although it probably had a greater southward extension than at the
present time. It certainly included much of North Africa, and perhaps
reached far into what is now the Sahara; while a southward extension of its
central mass may have included the Abyssinian highlands, where some truly
Palæarctic forms are still found. This is rendered probable by the fossils
of Perim Island a little further east, which show that the characteristic
Miocene fauna of South Europe and North India prevailed so far within the
tropics. There existed, however, at the extreme eastern and western limits
of the region, two extensive equatorial land-areas, our Indo-Malayan and
West African sub-regions--both of which must have been united for more or
less considerable periods with the northern continent. They would then have
received {158}from it such of the higher vertebrates as were best adapted
for the peculiar climatal and organic conditions which everywhere prevail
near the equator; and these would be preserved, under variously modified
forms, when they had ceased to exist in the less favourable and constantly
deteriorating climate of the north. At later epochs, both these equatorial
lands became united to some part of the great South African continent (then
including Madagascar), and we thus have explained many of the similarities
presented by the faunas of these distant, and generally very different
countries.

During the Miocene period, when a subtropical climate prevailed over much
of Europe and Central Asia, there would be no such marked contrast as now
prevails between temperate and tropical zones; and at this time much of our
Oriental region, perhaps, formed a hardly separable portion of the great
Palæarctic land. But when, from unknown causes, the climate of Europe
became less genial, and when the elevation of the Himalayan chain and the
Mongolian plateau caused an abrupt difference of climate on the northern
and southern sides of that great mountain barrier, a tropical and a
temperate region were necessarily formed; and many of the animals which
once roamed over the greater part of the older and more extensive region,
now became restricted to its southern or northern divisions respectively.
Then came the great change we have already described (vol. i. p. 288),
opening the newly-formed plains of Central Africa to the incursions of the
higher forms of Europe; and following on this, a still further
deterioration of climate, resulting in that marked contrast between
temperate and tropical faunas, which is now one of the most prominent
features in the distribution of animal as well as of vegetable forms.

It is not necessary to go into any further details here, as we have
already, in our discussion of the origin of the fauna of the several
regions, pointed out what changes most probably occurred in each case.
These details are, however, to a great extent speculative; and they must
remain so till we obtain as much knowledge of the extinct faunas and past
geological history of the southern lands, as we have of those of Europe and
North {159}America. But the broad conclusions at which we have now arrived
seem to rest on a sufficiently extensive basis of facts; and they lead us
to a clearer conception of the mutual relations and comparative importance
of the several regions than could be obtained at an earlier stage of our
inquiries.

If our views of the origin of the several regions are correct, it is clear
that no mere binary division--into north and south, or into east and
west--can be altogether satisfactory, since at the dawn of the Tertiary
period we still find our six regions, or what may be termed the rudiments
of them, already established. The north and south division truly represents
the fact, that the great northern continents are the seat and birth-place
of all the higher forms of life, while the southern continents have derived
the greater part, if not the whole, of their vertebrate fauna from the
north; but it implies the erroneous conclusion, that the chief southern
lands--Australia and South America--are more closely related to each other
than to the northern continent. The fact, however, is that the fauna of
each has been derived, independently, and perhaps at very different times,
from the north, with which they therefore have a true genetic relation;
while any intercommunion between themselves has been comparatively recent
and superficial, and has in no way modified the great features of animal
life in each. The east and west division, represents--according to our
views--a more fundamental diversity; since we find the northern continent
itself so divided in the earliest Eocene, and even in Cretaceous times;
while we have the strongest proof that South America was peopled from the
Nearctic, and Australia and Africa from the Palæarctic region: hence, the
Eastern and Western Hemispheres are the two great branches of the tree of
life of our globe. But this division, taken by itself, would obscure the
facts--firstly, of the close relation and parallelism of the Nearctic and
Palæarctic regions, not only now but as far back as we can clearly trace
them in the past; and, secondly, of the existing radical diversity of the
Australian region from the rest of the Eastern Hemisphere.

Owing to the much greater extent of the old Palæarctic region (including
our Oriental), and the greater diversity of {160}Mammalia it appears to
have produced, we can have little doubt that here was the earliest seat of
the development of the vertebrate type; and probably of the higher forms of
insects and land-molluscs. Whether the Nearctic region ever formed one mass
with it, or only received successive immigrations from it by northern
land-connections both in an easterly and westerly direction, we cannot
decide; but the latter seems the most probable supposition. In any case, we
must concede the first rank to the Palæarctic and Oriental regions, as
representing the most important part of what seems always to have been the
Great Continent of the earth, and the source from which all the other
regions were supplied with the higher forms of life. These once formed a
single great region, which has been since divided into a temperate and a
tropical portion, now sufficiently distinct; while the Nearctic region has,
by deterioration of climate, suffered a considerable diminution of
productive area, and has in consequence lost a number of its more
remarkable forms. The two temperate regions have thus come to resemble each
other more than they once did, while the Oriental retains more of the
zoological aspect of the great northern regions of Miocene times. The
Ethiopian, from having been once an insular region, where lower types of
vertebrates alone prevailed, has been so overrun with higher types from the
old Palæarctic and Oriental lands that it now rivals, or even surpasses,
the Oriental region in its representation of the ancient fauna of the great
northern continent. Both of our tropical regions of the Eastern Hemisphere
possess faunas which are, to some extent, composite, being made up in
different proportions of the productions of the northern and southern
continents,--the former prevailing largely in the Oriental, while the
latter constitutes an important feature in the Ethiopian fauna. The
Neotropical region has probably undergone great fluctuations in early
times; but it was, undoubtedly, for long periods completely isolated, and
then developed the Edentate type of Mammals and the Formicaroid type of
Passerine birds into a variety of forms, comparable with the diversified
Marsupials of Australia, and typical Passeres of the Eastern Hemisphere.
{161}It has, however, received successive infusions of higher types from
the north, which now mingle in various degrees with its lower forms. At an
early period it must have received a low form of Primates, which has been
developed into the two peculiar families of American monkeys; while its
llamas, tapirs, deer, and peccaries, came in at a later date, and its
opossums and extinct horses probably among the latest. The Australian
region alone, after having been united with the great northern continent at
a very early date (probably during the Secondary period) has ever since
remained more or less completely isolated; and thus exhibits the
development of a primeval type of mammal, almost wholly uninfluenced by any
incursions of a later and higher type. In this respect it is unique among
all the great regions of the earth.

We see, then, that each of our six regions has had a history of its own,
the main outlines of which we have been able to trace with tolerable
certainty. Each of them is now characterised--as it seems to have been in
all past time of which we have any tolerably full record--by well-marked
zoological features; while all are connected and related in the complex
modes we have endeavoured to unravel. To combine any two or more of these
regions, on account of existing similarities which are, for the most part,
of recent origin, would obscure some of the most important and interesting
features of their past history and present condition. And it seems no less
impracticable to combine the whole into groups of higher rank; since it has
been shown that there are two opposing modes of doing this, and that each
of them represents but one aspect of a problem, which can only be solved by
giving equal attention to all its aspects.



For reasons which have been already stated, and which are sufficiently
obvious, we have relied almost exclusively on the distribution of living
and extinct mammalia, in arriving at these conclusions. But we believe they
will apply equally to elucidate the phenomena presented by the distribution
of all terrestrial organisms, when combined with a careful consideration of
the {162}various means of dispersal of the different groups, and the
comparative longevity of their species and genera. Even insects, which are
perhaps of all animals the farthest removed from mammalia in this respect,
agree, in the great outlines of their distribution, with the vertebrate
orders. The Regions are admittedly the same, or nearly the same for both;
and the discrepancies that occur are of a nature which can be explained by
two undoubted facts--the greater antiquity, and the greater facilities for
dispersal, of insects.

But this principle, if sound, must be carried farther, and be applied to
plants also. There are not wanting indications that this may be
successfully done; and it seems not improbable, that the reason why
botanists have hitherto failed to determine, with any unanimity, which are
the most natural phytological regions, and to work out any connected theory
of the migrations of plants, is, because they have not been furnished with
the clue to the past changes of the great land masses, which could only be
arrived at by such an examination of the past and present distribution of
the higher animals as has been here attempted. The difficulties in the way
of the study of the distribution of plants, from this point of view, will
be undoubtedly very great; owing to the unusual facilities for distribution
many of them possess, and the absence of any group which might take the
place of the mammalia among animals, and serve as a guide and standard for
the rest. We cannot expect the regions to be so well defined in the case of
plants as in that of animals; and there are sure to be many anomalies and
discrepancies, which will require long study to unravel. The Six Great
Regions here adopted, are however, as a whole, very well characterised by
their vegetable forms. The floras of tropical America, of Australia, of
South Africa, and of Indo-Malaya, stand out with as much individuality as
do the faunas; while the plants of the Palæarctic and Nearctic regions,
exhibit resemblances and diversities, of a character not unlike those found
among the animals.

This is not a mere question of applying to the vegetable kingdom a series
of arbitrary divisions of the earth which have been {163}found useful to
zoologists; for it really involves a fundamental problem in the theory of
evolution. The question we have to answer, is, firstly--whether the
distribution of plants is, like that of animals, mainly and primarily
dependent on the past revolutions of the earth's surface; or, whether
other, and altogether distinct causes, have had a preponderating influence
in determining the range and limits of vegetable forms; and,
secondly--whether those revolutions have been, in their general outlines,
correctly interpreted by means of a study of the distribution and
affinities of the higher animals. The first question is one for botanists
alone to answer; but, on the second point, the author ventures to hope for
an affirmative reply, from such of his readers as will weigh carefully the
facts and arguments he has adduced.



The remaining part of this volume, will consist, of a systematic review of
the distribution of each family of animals, and an application of the
principles already established to elucidate the chief phenomena they
present. The present chapter must, therefore, be considered as the
conclusion of the argumentative and theoretical part of the present work;
but it must be read in connection with the various discussions in Parts II.
and III., in which the conclusions to be drawn from the several groups of
facts have been successively given;--and especially in connection with the
general observations at the end of each of the six chapters on the
Zoological Regions.

The hypothetical view, as to the more recent of the great Geographical
changes of the Earth's surface, here set forth, is not the result of any
preconceived theory, but has grown out of a careful study of the facts
accumulated, and has led to a considerable modification of the author's
previous views. It may be described, as an application of the general
theory of Evolution, to solve the problem of the distribution of animals;
but it also furnishes some independent support to that theory, both by
showing what a great variety of curious facts are explained by its means,
and by answering some of the objections, {164}which have been founded on
supposed difficulties in the distribution of animals in space and time.

It also illustrates and supports the geological doctrine, of the general
permanence of our great continents and oceans, by showing how many facts in
the distribution of animals can only be explained and understood on such a
supposition; and it exhibits, in a striking manner, the enormous influence
of the Glacial epoch, in determining the existing zoological features of
the various continents.

And, lastly, it furnishes a more consistent and intelligible idea than has
yet been reached by any other mode of investigation, of all the more
important changes of the earth's surface that have probably occurred during
the entire Tertiary period; and of the influence of these changes, in
bringing about the general features, as well as many of the more
interesting details and puzzling anomalies, of the Geographical
Distribution of Animals.






PART IV.

_GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY:_

_A SYSTEMATIC SKETCH OF THE CHIEF FAMILIES OF LAND ANIMALS IN THEIR
GEOGRAPHICAL RELATIONS._


{167}INTRODUCTION.


In the preceding part of our work, we have discussed the geographical
distribution of animals from the point of view of the geographer; taking
the different regions of the earth in succession, and giving as full an
account as our space would permit of their chief forms of animal life. Now,
we proceed from the standpoint of the systematic zoologist; taking in
succession each of the families with which we deal, and giving an account
of the distribution, both of the entire family and, as far as practicable,
of each of the genera of which it is composed. As in the former part, our
mode of treatment led us to speculate on the past changes of the earth's
surface; so here we shall endeavour to elucidate the past migrations of
animals, and thus, to some extent, account for their actual distribution.

The tabular headings, showing the range of the family in each region, will
enable the reader to determine at a glance the general distribution of the
group, as soon as he has familiarised himself, by a study of our general
and regional maps, with the limits of the regions and sub-regions, and the
figures (1 to 4) by which the latter are indicated. Much pains have been
taken, to give the number of the known genera and species in each family,
correctly; but these numbers must, in most cases, only be looked upon as
approximations; because, owing to constant accessions of fresh material on
the one hand, and the discovery that many supposed species are only
varieties, on the other, such statistics are in a continual state of
fluctuation. In the number of genera there is the greatest uncertainty; as
will be seen by the two sets of numbers sometimes given, which denote the
genera according to different modern authorities.

{168}There is also a considerable difference in the dependence to be placed
on the details given in the different classes of animals. In Mammalia and
Birds some degree of accuracy has, it is hoped, been attained; the
classification of these groups being much advanced, and the materials for
their study ample. In Reptiles this is not the case, as there is no
recently published work dealing with the whole subject, or with either of
the larger orders. An immense number of new species and new genera of
snakes and lizards, have been described in the last twenty years; and Dr.
Günther--our greatest authority on reptiles in this country--has kindly
assisted me in incorporating such of these as are most trustworthy, in a
general system; but until entire Orders have been described or catalogued
on a uniform plan, nothing more than a general approximation to the truth
can be arrived at. Still, so many of the groups are well defined, and have
a clearly limited distribution, that some interesting and valuable
comparisons may be made.

For Fishes, the valuable "Catalogue" of Dr. Günther was available, and it
has rarely been attempted to go beyond it. A large number of new species
have since been described, in all parts of the world; but it is impossible
to say how many of these are really new, or what genera they actually
belong to. The part devoted to this Class is, therefore, practically a
summary of Dr. Günther's Catalogue; and it is believed that the discoveries
since made will not materially invalidate the conclusions to be drawn from
such a large number of species, which have been critically examined and
classified on a uniform system by one of our most able naturalists. When a
supplement to this catalogue is issued, it will be easier to make the
necessary alterations in distribution, than if a mass of untrustworthy
materials had been mixed up with it.

For Insects, excellent materials are furnished, in the Catalogue of Mr.
Kirby for Butterflies and in that of Drs. Gemminger and Harold for
Coleoptera. I have also made use of some recently published memoirs on the
Insects of Japan and St. Helena, and a few other recent works; and have, I
believe, elaborated a more extensive series of facts to illustrate the
distribution of insects, {169}than has been made use of by any previous
writer. Several discussions on the bearing of the facts of insect
distribution, will also be found under the several Regions, in the
preceding part of this work.

Terrestrial Mollusca form a group, as to the treatment of which I have most
misgivings; owing to my almost entire ignorance of Malacology, and the
great changes recently made in the classification of shells. There is also
much uncertainty as to genera and sub-genera, which is very puzzling to one
who merely wishes to get at general results. Finding it impossible to
incorporate the new matter with the old, or to harmonise the different
classifications of modern conchologists, I thought it better to confine
myself to the standard works of Martens and Pfeiffer, with such additions
of new species as I could make without fear of going far wrong. In some
cases I have made use of recent monographs--especially on the shells of
Europe, North America, the West Indian Islands, and the Sandwich Islands;
and have, I venture to hope, not fallen into much error in the general
conclusions at which I have arrived.




{170}CHAPTER XVII.

THE DISTRIBUTION OF THE FAMILIES AND GENERA OF MAMMALIA.



_Order I.--PRIMATES._

FAMILY 1.--SIMIIDÆ. (4 Genera, 12 Species).

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- 2 -- -- |-- -- 3. 4 |-- -- -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

The Simiidæ, or Anthropoid Apes, comprehend those forms of the monkey-tribe
which, in general organization, approach nearest to man. They inhabit the
tropics of the Old World, and are most abundant near the equator; but they
are limited to certain districts, being quite unknown in eastern and
southern Africa, and the whole peninsula of Hindostan.

The genus _Troglodytes_ (or _Mimetes_, as it is sometimes named)
comprehends the chimpanzee and gorilla. It is confined to the West African
sub-region, being found on the coast about 12° North and South of the
equator, from the Gambia to Benguela, and as far inland as the great
equatorial forests extend. There are perhaps other species of chimpanzee;
since Livingstone met with what he supposed to be a new species in the
forest region west of Lake Tanganyika, while Dr. Schweinfurth found one in
the country beyond the western watershed of the Nile. The gorilla is
confined within narrower limits on and near the equator.

{171}We have to pass over more than 70° of longitude before we again meet
with Anthropoid Apes, in the northern part of Sumatra--where a specimen of
the orang-utan (_Simia satyrus_) now in the Calcutta Museum, was obtained
by Dr. Abel, and described by him in the _Asiatic Researches_, vol.
xv.--and in Borneo, from which latter island almost all the specimens in
European museums have been derived. There are supposed to be two species of
_Simia_ in Borneo, a larger and a smaller; but their distinctness is not
admitted by all naturalists. Both appear to be confined to the swampy
forests near the north, west, and south coasts.

The Gibbons, or long-armed apes, forming the genus _Hylobates_, (7 species)
are found in all the large islands of the Indo-Malayan sub-region, except
the Philippines; and also in Sylhet and Assam south of the Brahmaputra
river, eastward to Cambodja and South China to the west of Canton, and in
the island of Hainan.

The Siamang (_Siamanga syndactyla_) presents some anatomical peculiarities,
and has the second and third toes united to the last joint, but in general
form and structure it does not differ from _Hylobates_. It is the largest
of the long-armed apes, and inhabits Sumatra and the Malay peninsula.


FAMILY 2.--SEMNOPITHECIDÆ. (2 Genera, 30 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- 4 |1. 2 -- -- |1. 2. 3. 4 |-- -- -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

The Semnopithecidæ, are long-tailed monkeys without cheek-pouches, and with
rather rounded faces, the muzzle not being prominent. They have nearly the
same distribution as the last family, but are more widely dispersed in both
Africa and Asia, one species just entering the Palæarctic region.

The Eastern genus _Presbytes_ or _Semnopithecus_ (29 species), is spread
over almost the whole of the Oriental region wherever the forests are
extensive. They extend along the Himalayas to beyond Simla, where a species
has been observed at an altitude of 11,000 {172}feet, playing among
fir-trees laden with snow wreaths. On the west side of India they are not
found to the north of 14° N. latitude. On the east they extend into Arakan,
and to Borneo and Java, but not apparently into Siam or Cambodja. Along the
eastern extension of the Himalayas they again occur in East Thibet; a
remarkable species with a large upturned nose (_S. roxellana_) having been
discovered by Père David at Moupin (about Lat. 32° N.) in the highest
forests, where the winters are severe and last for several months, and
where the vegetation, and the other forms of animal life, are wholly those
of the Palæarctic region. It is very curious that this species should
somewhat resemble the young state of the proboscis monkey (_S. nasalis_),
which inhabits one of the most uniform, damp, and hot climates on the
globe--the river-swamps of Borneo.

_Colobus_, the African genus (11 species), is very closely allied to the
preceding, differing chiefly in the thumb being absent or rudimentary. They
are confined to the tropical regions--Abyssinia on the east, and from the
Gambia to Angola and the island of Fernando Po, on the west.


FAMILY 3.--CYNOPITHECIDÆ. (7 Genera, 67 Species).

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --| -- 2 -- 4 |1. 2. 3 -- |1. 2. 3. 4 |1 -- -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

This family comprehends all the monkeys with cheek pouches, and the
baboons. Some of these have very long tails, some none; some are dog-faced,
others tolerably round-faced; but there are so many transitions from one to
the other, and such a general agreement in structure, that they are now
considered to form a very natural family. Their range is more extensive
than any other family of Quadrumana, since they not only occur in every
part of the Ethiopian and Oriental regions, but enter the Palæarctic region
in the east and west, and the Australian region as far as the islands of
Timor and Batchian. The African genera {173}are _Myiopithecus_,
_Cercopithecus_, _Cercocebus_, _Theropithecus_, and _Cynocephalus_; the
Oriental genera, _Macacus_, and _Cynopithecus_.

_Myiopithecus_ (1 species), consisting of the talapoin monkey of West
Africa, differs from the other African monkeys in the structure of the last
molar tooth; in the large ears, short face, and wide internasal septum; in
this respect, as well as in its grace and gentleness, resembling some of
the American monkeys.

_Cercopithecus_ (24 species), contains all the more graceful and prettily
coloured monkeys of tropical Africa, and comprises the guenons, the
white-nosed, and the green monkeys. They range from the Gambia to the
Congo, and from Abyssinia to the Zambesi.

_Cercocebus_ (5 species), the mangabeys, of West Africa, are very closely
allied to the eastern genus _Macacus_.

_Theropithecus_ (2 species), including the gelada of Abyssinia and an
allied species, resemble in form the baboons, but have the nostrils placed
as in the last genus.

_Cynocephalus_ (10 species), the baboons, are found in all parts of Africa.
They consist of animals which vary much in appearance, but which agree in
having an elongated dog-like muzzle with terminal nostrils, and being of
terrestrial habits. Some of the baboons are of very large size, the
mandrill (_C. maimon_) being only inferior to the orang and gorilla.

_Macacus_ (25 species), is the commonest form of eastern monkey, and is
found in every part of the Oriental region, as well as in North Africa,
Gibraltar, Thibet, North China, and Japan; and one of the commonest
species, _M. cynomolgus_, has extended its range from Java eastward to the
extremity of Timor. The tail varies greatly in length, and in the Gibraltar
monkey (_M. innus_) is quite absent. A remarkable species clothed with very
thick fur, has lately been discovered in the snowy mountains of eastern
Thibet.

_Cynopithecus_ (? 2 sp.).--This genus consists of a black baboon-like Ape,
inhabiting Celebes, Batchian, and the Philippine Islands; but perhaps
introduced by man into the latter islands and into Batchian. It is doubtful
if there is more than one species. The tail of this animal is a fleshy
tubercle, the nostrils as in _Macacus_, but the muzzle is very prominent;
and the {174}development of the maxillary bones into strong lateral ridges
corresponds to the structure of the most typical baboons. This species
extends further east than any other quadrumanous animal.


FAMILY 4.--CEBIDÆ. (10 Genera, 78 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- 2. 3  --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

The Cebidæ, which comprehend all the larger American Monkeys, differ from
those of the Old World by having an additional molar tooth in each jaw, and
a broad nasal septum; while they have neither cheek-pouches nor ischial
callosities, and the thumb is never completely opposable. Some have
prehensile tails, especially adapting them for an arboreal life. They are
divided into four sub-families,--Cebinæ, Mycetinæ, Pitheciinæ, and
Nyctipithecinæ. The Cebidæ are strictly confined to the forest regions of
tropical America, from the southern part of Mexico to about the parallel of
30° South Latitude. The distribution of the genera is as follows:--

_Sub-family_, Cebinæ.--_Cebus_ (18 sp.), is the largest genus of American
monkeys, and ranges from Costa Rica to Paraguay. They are commonly called
sapajous. _Lagothrix_ (5 sp.), the woolly monkeys, are rather larger and
less active than the preceding; they are confined to the forests of the
Upper Amazon Valley, and along the slopes of the Andes to Venezuela and
Bolivia. _Ateles_ (14 sp.), the spider monkeys, have very long limbs and
tail. They range over the whole area of the family, and occur on the west
side of the Equatorial Andes and on the Pacific coast of Guatemala.
_Eriodes_ (3 sp.), are somewhat intermediate between the last two genera,
and are confined to the eastern parts of Brazil south of the equator. The
three last mentioned genera have very powerful prehensile tails, the end
being bare beneath; whereas the species of _Cebus_ have the tail
{175}completely covered with hair, although prehensile, and therefore not
so perfect a grasping organ.

_Sub-family_, Mycetinæ, consists of but a single genus, _Mycetes_ (10 sp.),
the howling monkeys, characterized by having a hollow bony vessel in the
throat formed by an enlargement of the hyoid bone, which enables them to
produce a wonderful howling noise. They are large, heavy animals, with a
powerful and perfect prehensile tail. They range from East Guatemala to
Paraguay. (Plate XIV., vol. ii., p. 24.)

_Sub-family_, Pitheciinæ, the sakis, have a non-prehensile bushy tail.
_Pithecia_ (7 sp.), has the tail of moderate length; while _Brachiurus_ (5
sp.) has it very short. Both appear to be restricted to the great
equatorial forests of South America.

_Sub-family_, Nyctipithecinæ, are small and elegant monkeys, with long,
hairy, non-prehensile tails. _Nyctipithecus_ (5 sp.), the night-monkeys or
douroucoulis, have large eyes, nocturnal habits, and are somewhat lemurine
in their appearance. They range from Nicaragua to the Amazon and eastern
Peru. _Saimiris_ or _Chrysothrix_ (3 sp.), the squirrel-monkeys, are
beautiful and active little creatures, found in most of the tropical
forests from Costa Rica to Brazil and Bolivia. _Callithrix_ (11 sp.), are
somewhat intermediate between the last two genera, and are found all over
South America from Panama to the southern limits of the great forests.


FAMILY 5.--HAPALIDÆ. (2 Genera, 32 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- 2 -- -- |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

The Hapalidæ, or marmosets, are very small monkeys, which differ from the
true Cebidæ in the absence of one premolar tooth, while they possess the
additional molar tooth; so that while they have the same number of teeth
(thirty-two) as the Old World monkeys, they differ from them even more than
do the {176}Cebidæ. The thumb is not at all opposable, and all the fingers
are armed with sharp claws. The hallux, or thumb-like great toe, is very
small; the tail is long and not prehensile. The two genera _Hapale_ (9
sp.), and _Midas_ (24 sp.), are of doubtful value, though some naturalists
have still further sub-divided them. They are confined to the tropical
forests of South America, and are most abundant in the districts near the
equator.


_Sub-order--LEMUROIDEA._

FAMILY 6.--LEMURIDÆ. (11 Genera, 53 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|1. 2. 3. 4 |-- 2. 3. 4 |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

The Lemuridæ, comprehending all the animals usually termed Lemurs and many
of their allies, are divided by Professor Mivart--who has carefully studied
the group--into four sub-families and eleven genera, as follows:--

_Sub-family_ Indrisinæ, consisting of the genus _Indris_ (5 sp.), is
confined to Madagascar.

_Sub-family_ Lemurinæ, contains five genera, viz.:--_Lemur_, (15 sp.);
_Hapalemur_ (2 sp.); _Microcebus_ (4 sp.); _Chirogaleus_ (5 sp.); and
_Lepilemur_ (2 sp.);--all confined to Madagascar.

_Sub-family_ Nycticebinæ, contains four genera, viz.:--_Nycticebus_ (3
sp.)--small, short-tailed, nocturnal animals, called slow-lemurs,--range
from East Bengal to South China, and to Borneo and Java; _Loris_ (1 sp.)--a
very small, tail-less, nocturnal lemur, which inhabits Madras, Malabar, and
Ceylon; _Perodicticus_ (1 sp.)--the potto--a small lemur with almost
rudimentary forefinger, found at Sierra Leone (Plate V., vol. i., p. 264);
_Arctocebus_ (1 sp.)--the angwantibo,--another extraordinary form in which
the forefinger is quite absent and the first toe armed with a long
claw,--inhabits Old Calabar.

{177}_Sub-family_ Galaginæ, contains only the genus _Galago_ (14 sp.),
which is confined to the African continent, ranging from Senegal and
Fernando Po to Zanzibar and Natal.


FAMILY 7.--TARSIIDÆ. (1 Genus, 1 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- 4 |-- -- -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

The curious _Tarsius spectrum_, which constitutes this family, inhabits
Sumatra, Banca, and Borneo, and is also found in some parts of Celebes,
which would bring it into the Australian region; but this island is
altogether so anomalous that we can only consider its productions to have
somewhat more affinity with the Australian than the Oriental region, but
hardly to belong to either. The Tarsier is a small, long-tailed, nocturnal
animal, of curious structure and appearance; and it forms the only link of
connection with the next family, which it resembles in the extraordinary
development of the toes, one of which is much larger and more slender than
the rest. (Plate VIII., vol. i. p. 337.)


FAMILY 8.--CHIROMYIDÆ. (1 Genus, 1 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- 4 |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

The Aye-aye, (_Chiromys_), the sole representative of this family, is
confined to the island of Madagascar. It was for a long time very
imperfectly known, and was supposed to belong to the Rodentia; but it has
now been ascertained to be an exceedingly specialized form of the Lemuroid
type, and must be considered to be one of the most extraordinary of the
mammalia now inhabiting the globe. (Plate VI., vol. i., p. 278.)


{178}_Fossil Quadrumana._

Not much progress has yet been made in tracing back the various forms of
Apes and Monkeys to their earliest appearance on the globe; but there have
been some interesting recent discoveries, which lead us to hope that the
field is not yet exhausted. The following is a summary of what is known as
to the early forms of each family:--

_Simiidæ._--Two or three species of this family have been found in the
Upper Miocene deposits of France and Switzerland. _Pliopithecus_, of which
a species has been found at each locality, was allied to the gibbons
(_Hylobates_), and perhaps to _Semnopithecus_. A more remarkable form,
named _Dryopithecus_, as large as a man, and having peculiarities of
structure which are thought by Gervais and Lartet to indicate a nearer
approach to the human form than any existing Ape, has been found in strata
of the same age in France.

_Semnopithecidæ._--Species of _Semnopithecus_ have been found in the Upper
Miocene of Greece, and others in the Siwalik Hills of N. W. India, also of
Upper Miocene age. An allied form also occurs in the Miocene of Wurtemburg.
_Mesopithecus_ from Greece is somewhat intermediate between _Semnopithecus_
and _Macacus_.

Remains supposed to be of _Semnopithecus_, have also occurred in the
Pliocene of Montpellier.

_Cynopithecidæ._--_Macacus_ has occurred in Pliocene deposits at Grays,
Essex; and also in the South of France along with _Cercopithecus_.

_Cebidæ._--In the caves of Brazil remains of the genera _Cebus_, _Mycetes_,
_Callithrix_, and _Hapale_, have been found; as well as an extinct form of
larger size--_Protopithecus_.

_Lemuroidea._--A true lemur has recently been discovered in the Eocene of
France; and it is supposed to be most nearly allied to the peculiar West
African genera, _Perodicticus_ and _Arctocebus_.

_Cænopithecus_, from the Swiss Jura, is supposed to have affinities both
for the Lemuridæ and the American Cebidæ.

In the lower Eocene of North America remains have been {179}discovered,
which are believed to belong to this sub-order: but they form two distinct
families,--Lemuravidæ and Limnotheridæ. Other remains from the Miocene are
believed to be intermediate between these and the Cebidæ,--a most
interesting and suggestive affinity, if well founded. For the genera of
these American Lemuroidea, see vol. i., p. 133.


_General Remarks on the Distribution of Primates._

The most striking fact presented by this order, from our present point of
view, is the strict limitation of well-marked families to definite areas.
The Cebidæ and Hapalidæ would alone serve to mark out tropical America as
the nucleus of one of the great zoological divisions of the earth. In the
Eastern Hemisphere, the corresponding fact is the entire absence of the
order from the Australian region, with the exception of one or two outlying
forms, which have evidently transgressed the normal limits of their group.
The separation of the Ethiopian and Oriental regions is, in this order,
mainly indicated by the distribution of the genera, no one of which is
common to the two regions. The two highest families, the Simiidæ and the
Semnopithecidæ, are pretty equally distributed about two equatorial foci,
one situated in West Africa, the other in the Malay archipelago,--in Borneo
or the Peninsula of Malacca;--while the third family, Cynopithecidæ, ranges
over the whole of both regions, and somewhat overpasses their limits. The
Lemuroid group, on the other hand, offers us one of the most singular
phenomena in geographical distribution. It consists of three families, the
species of which are grouped into six sub-families and 13 genera. One of
these families and two of the sub-families, comprising 7 genera, and no
less than 30 out of the total of 50 species, are confined to the one island
of Madagascar. Of the remainder, 3 genera, comprising 15 species, are
spread over tropical Africa; while three other genera with 5 species,
inhabit certain restricted portions of India and the Malay islands. These
curious facts point unmistakably to the former existence of a large tract
of land in what is now the Indian Ocean, connecting Madagascar on the one
hand with Ceylon, and with the Malay countries on the {180}other. About
this same time (but perhaps not contemporaneously) Madagascar must have
been connected with some portion of Southern Africa, and the whole of the
country would possess no other Primates but Lemuroidea. After the
Madagascar territory (very much larger than the existing island) had been
separated, a connection appears to have been long maintained (probably by a
northerly route) between the more equatorial portions of Asia and Africa;
till those higher forms had become developed, which were afterwards
differentiated into _Simia_, _Presbytes_, and _Cynopithecus_, on the one
hand, and into _Troglodytes_, _Colobus_, and _Cynocephalus_, on the other.
In accordance with the principle of competition so well expounded by Mr.
Darwin, we can understand how, in the vast Asiatic and African area north
of the Equator, with a great variety of physical conditions and the
influence of a host of competing forms of life, higher types were developed
than in the less extensive and long-isolated countries south of the
Equator. In Madagascar, where these less complex conditions prevailed in a
considerable land-area, the lowly organized Lemuroids have diverged into
many specialized forms of their own peculiar type; while on the continents
they have, to a great extent, become exterminated, or have maintained their
existence in a few cases, in islands or in mountain ranges. In Africa the
nocturnal and arboreal _Galagos_ are adapted to a special mode of life, in
which they probably have few competitors.

How and when the ancestors of the Cebidæ and Hapalidæ entered the South
American continent, it is less easy to conceive. The only rays of light we
yet have on the subject are, the supposed affinities of the fossil
_Cænopithecus_ of the Swiss, and the Lemuravidæ of the North American
Eocene, with both Cebidæ and Lemuroids, and the fact that in Miocene or
Eocene times a mild climate prevailed up to the Arctic circle. The
discovery of an undoubted Lemuroid in the Eocene of Europe, indicates that
the great Northern Continent was probably the birthplace of this low type
of mammal, and the source whence Africa and Southern Asia were peopled with
them, as it was, at a later period, with the higher forms of monkeys and
apes.


{181}_Order II.--CHIROPTERA._

FAMILY 9.--PTEROPIDÆ. (9 Genera, 65 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3 --
             |           |           |           |           |

The Pteropidæ, or fruit-eating Bats, sometimes called flying-foxes, are
pretty evenly distributed over the tropical regions of the Old World and
Australia. They range over all Africa and the whole of the Oriental Region,
and northward, to Amoy in China and to the South of Japan. They are also
found in the more fertile parts of Australia and Tasmania, and in the
Pacific Islands as far east as the Marianne and Samoa Islands; but not in
the Sandwich Islands or New Zealand.

The genera of bats are exceedingly numerous, but they are in a very
unsettled state, and the synonymy is exceedingly confused. The details of
their distribution cannot therefore be usefully entered into here. The
Pteropidæ differ so much from all other bats, that they are considered to
form a distinct suborder of Chiroptera, and by some naturalists even a
distinct order of Mammalia.

No fossil Pteropidæ have been discovered.


FAMILY 10.--PHYLLOSTOMIDÆ. (31 Genera, 60 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
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  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  1. 2. 3. --|1 -- -- -- |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

The Phyllostomidæ, or simple leaf-nosed Bats, are confined to the
Neotropical region, from Mexico and the Antilles to the {182}southern
limits of the forest region east of the Andes, and to about lat. 33° S. in
Chili. None are found in the Nearctic region, with the exception of one
species in California (_Macrotus Californicus_), closely allied to Mexican
and West Indian forms. The celebrated blood-sucking vampyre bats of South
America belong to this group. Two genera, _Desmodus_ and _Diphylla_, form
Dr. Peters' family Desmodidæ. Mr. Dobson, in his recently published
arrangement, divides the family into five groups:--Mormopes, Vampyri,
Glossophagæ, Stenodermata, and Desmodontes.

Numerous remains of extinct species of this family have been found in the
bone-caves of Brazil.


FAMILY 11.--RHINOLOPHIDÆ. (7 Genera, 70 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

The Rhinolophidæ, or Horse-shoe Bats (so-called from a curiously-shaped
membranous appendance to the nose), range over all the Ethiopian and
Oriental regions, the southern part of the Palæarctic region, Australia and
Tasmania. They are most abundant and varied in the Oriental region, where
twelve genera are found; while only five inhabit the Australian and
Ethiopian regions respectively. Europe has only one genus and four species,
mostly found in the southern parts, and none going further north than the
latitude of England, where two species occur. Two others are found in
Japan, at the opposite extremity of the Palæarctic region.

The genera _Nycteris_ and _Megaderma_, which range over the Ethiopian and
Oriental regions to the Moluccas, are considered by Dr. Peters to form a
distinct family, Megadermidæ; and Mr. Dobson in his recent arrangement
(published after our first {183}volume was printed) adopts the same family
under the name of Nycteridæ. The curious Indian genus _Rhinopoma_, which,
following Dr. J. E. Gray, we have classed in this family, is considered by
Mr. Dobson to belong to the Noctilionidæ.

_Fossil Rhinolophidæ._--Remains of a species of _Rhinolophus_ still living
in England, have been found in Kent's Cavern, near Torquay.


FAMILY 12.--VESPERTILIONIDÆ (18 Genera, 200 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4
             |           |           |           |           |

The small bats constituting the family Vespertilionidæ, have no
nose-membrane, but an internal earlet or _tragus_, and often very large
ears. They range over almost the whole globe, being apparently only limited
by the necessity of procuring insect food. In America they are found as far
north as Hudson's Bay and the Columbia river; and in Europe they approach,
if they do not pass the Arctic circle. Such remote islands as the Azores,
Bermudas, Fiji Islands, Sandwich Islands, and New Zealand, all possess
species of this group of bats, some of which probably inhabit every island
in warm or temperate parts of the globe.

The genus _Taphozous_, which, in our Tables of Distribution in vol. i. we
have included in this family, is placed by Mr. Dobson in his family
Emballonuridæ, which is equivalent to our next family, Noctilionidæ.

_Fossil Vespertilionidæ._--Several living European bats of this
family--_Scotophilus murinus_, _Plecotus auritus_, _Vespertilio noctula_,
and _V. pipestrellus_--have been found fossil in bone-caves in various
parts of Europe.

Extinct species of _Vespertilio_ have occurred in the Lower Miocene at
Mayence, in the Upper Miocene of the South of France, and in the Upper
Eocene of the Paris basin.


{184}FAMILY 13.--NOCTILIONIDÆ. (14 Genera, 50 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  1. 2. 3. 4 |1 -- -- -- |-- 2 -- -- |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |-- -- -- 4
             |           |           |           |           |

The Noctilionidæ, or short-headed Bats, are found in every region, but are
very unequally distributed. Their head-quarters is the Neotropical region,
where most of the genera occur, and where they range from Mexico to Buenos
Ayres and Chili, while in North America there is only one species in
California. They are unknown in Australia; but one species occurs in New
Zealand, and another in Norfolk Island. Several species of _Dysopes_ (or
_Molossus_) inhabit the Oriental region; one or two species being widely
distributed over the continent, while two others inhabit the Indo-Malayan
Islands. A species of this same genus occurs in South Africa, and another
in Madagascar and in the Island of Bourbon; while one inhabits Southern
Europe and North Africa, and another is found at Amoy in China. It will be
seen therefore, that these are really South American bats, which have a few
allies widely scattered over the various regions of the globe. Their
affinities are, according to Mr. Tomes, with the Phyllostomidæ, a purely
South American family. The species which forms the connecting link is the
_Mystacina tuberculata_, a New Zealand bat, which may, with almost equal
propriety be placed in either family, and which affords an interesting
illustration of the many points of resemblance between the Australian and
Neotropical regions.

Dr. Peters has separated this family into three,--Mormopidæ, which is
wholly Neotropical, and is especially abundant in the West Indian Islands;
Molossidæ, chiefly consisting of the genus _Molossus_; and Noctilionidæ,
comprising the remainder of the family, and wholly Neotropical. Mr. Dobson,
however, classes the Mormopes with the Phyllostomidæ, and reduces the
{185}Molossi to the rank of a sub-family. In our first volume we have
classed _Rhinopoma_ with the Rhinolophidæ, and _Taphozous_ with the
Vespertilionidæ; but according to Mr. Dobson both these genera belong to
the present family.


_Remarks on the Distribution of the Order Chiroptera._

Although the bats, from their great powers of flight, are not amenable to
the limitations which determine the distribution of other terrestrial
mammals, yet certain great facts of distribution come out in a very
striking manner. The speciality of the Neotropical region is well shown,
not only by its exclusive possession of one large family (Phyllostomidæ),
but almost equally so by the total absence of two others (Pteropidæ and
Rhinolophidæ). The Nearctic region is also unusually well marked, by the
total absence of a family (Rhinolophidæ) which is tolerably well
represented in the Palæarctic. The Pteropidæ well characterize the tropical
regions of the Old World and Australia; while the Vespertilionidæ are more
characteristic of the Palæarctic and Nearctic regions, which together
possess about 60 species of this family.

The bats are a very difficult study, and it is quite uncertain how many
distinct species are really known. Schinz, in his _Synopsis Mammalium_
(1844) describes 330, while the list given by Mr. Andrew Murray in his
_Geographical Distribution of Mammalia_ (1866), contains 400 species. A
small number of new species have been since described, but others have been
sunk as synonyms, so that we can perhaps hardly obtain a nearer
approximation to the truth than the last number. In Europe there are 35
species, and only 17 in North America.

_Fossil Chiroptera._--The fossil remains of bats that have yet been
discovered, being chiefly allied to forms still existing in the same
countries, throw no light on the origin or affinities of this remarkable
and isolated order of Mammalia; but as species very similar to those now
living were in existence so far back as Miocene or even Eocene times, we
may be sure the group is one of immense antiquity, and that there has been
ample time for the amount of variation and extinction required to bring
about {186}the limitation of types, and the peculiarities of distribution
we now find to exist.


_Order III.--INSECTIVORA._

FAMILY 14.--GALEOPITHECIDÆ. (1 Genus, 2 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
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  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- 4 |-- -- -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

The singular and isolated genus _Galeopithecus_, or flying lemur, has been
usually placed among the Lemuroidea, but it is now considered to come best
at the head of the Insectivora. Its food however, seems to be purely
vegetable, and the very small, blind, and naked young, closely attached to
the wrinkled skin of the mother's breast, perhaps indicates some affinity
with the Marsupials. This animal seems, in fact, to be a lateral offshoot
of some low form, which has survived during the process of development of
the Insectivora, the Lemuroidea, and the Marsupials, from an ancestral
type. Only two species are known, one found in Malacca, Sumatra, and
Borneo, but not in Java; the other in the Philippine islands (Plate VIII.
vol. i. p. 337).


FAMILY 15.--MACROSCELIDIDÆ. (3 Genera, 10 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
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  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- 2 -- -- | 1 -- 3 -- |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

The Macroscelides, or elephant shrews, are extraordinary little animals,
with trunk-like snout and kangaroo-like hind-legs. They are almost confined
to South Africa, whence they extend up the east coast as far as the Zambezi
and Mozambique. A {187}single outlying species of _Macroscelides_ inhabits
Barbary and Algeria; while the two genera _Petrodromus_, and _Rhyncocyon_,
each represented by a single species, have only been found at Mozambique.


FAMILY 16.--TUPAIIDÆ. (3 Genera, 10 species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
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  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- 2. 3. 4 |-- -- -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

The Tupaiidæ are squirrel-like shrews, having bushy tails, and often
climbing up trees, but also feeding on the ground and among low bushes. The
typical _Tupaia_ (7 species), are called ground squirrels by the Malays.
They are most abundant in the Malay islands and Indo-Chinese countries, but
one species is found in the Khasia Mountains, and one in the Eastern Ghauts
near Madras. The small shorter-tailed _Hylomys_ (2 species) is found from
Tenasserim to Java and Borneo; while the elegant little _Ptilocerus_ (1
species) with its long pencilled tail, is confined to Borneo; (Plate VIII.
vol. i. p. 337). The family is therefore especially Malayan, with outlying
species in northern and continental India.

_Extinct Species._--_Oxygomphus_, found in the Tertiary deposits of
Germany, is believed to belong to this family; as is _Omomys_, from the
Pliocene of the United States.


FAMILY 17.--ERINACEIDÆ. (2 Genera, 15 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|1. 2. 3. 4 |-- -- 3 -- |1. 2. -- 4 |-- -- -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

The Hedgehogs, comprised in the genus _Erinaceus_ (14 species), are widely
distributed over the Palæarctic, and a part of the {188}Oriental regions;
but they only occur in the Ethiopian region in South Africa and in the
Deserts of the north, which more properly belong to the Palæarctic region.
They are absent from the Malayan, and also from the Indo-Chinese
sub-regions; except that they extend from the north of China to Amoy and
Formosa and into the temperate highlands of the Western Himalayas. The
curious _Gymnura_ (1 species) is found in Borneo, Sumatra, and the Malay
peninsula.

_Extinct Species._--The common hedgehog has been found fossil in several
Post-tertiary deposits, while extinct species occur in the lower Miocene of
Auvergne and in some other parts of Europe. Many of these remains are
classed in different genera from the living species;--(_Amphechinus_,
_Tetracus_, _Galerix_.)


FAMILY 18.--CENTETIDÆ. (6 Genera, 10 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- -- -- 4 |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- 4 |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

The Centetidæ are small animals, many of them having a spiny covering,
whence the species of _Centetes_ have been called Madagascar hedgehogs. The
genera _Centetes_ (2 species), _Hemicentetes_ (1 species), _Ericulus_ (1
species), _Echinops_ (3 species), and the recently described _Oryzorictes_
(1 species), are all exclusively inhabitants of Madagascar, and are almost
or quite tail-less. The remaining genus, _Solenodon_, is a more slender and
active animal, with a long, rat-like tail, shrew-like head, and coarse fur;
and the two known species are among the very few indigenous mammals of the
West Indian islands, one being found in Cuba (Plate XVII., vol. ii., p.
67), the other in Hayti. Although presenting many points of difference in
detail, the essential characters of this curious animal are, according to
Professors Peters and Mivart, identical with the rest of the Centetidæ. We
have thus a most remarkable and well-established case of discontinuous
distribution, two portions of the same family {189}being now separated from
each other by an extensive continent, as well as by a deep ocean.

_Extinct Species._--Remains found in the Lower Miocene of the South of
France are believed to belong to the genus _Echinops_, or one closely
allied to it.


FAMILY 19.--POTAMOGALIDÆ. (1 Genus, 1 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
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  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- 2 -- -- |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

The genus _Potamogale_ was founded on a curious, small, otter-like animal
from West Africa, first found by M. Du Chaillu at the Gaboon, and
afterwards by the Portuguese at Angola. Its affinities are with several
groups of Insectivora, but it is sufficiently peculiar to require the
establishment of a distinct family for its reception. (Plate V., vol. i.,
p. 264.)


FAMILY 20.--CHRYSOCHLORIDÆ. (2 Genera, 3 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
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  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- 3.-- |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

The Chrysochloridæ, or golden moles, of the Cape of Good Hope have been
separated by Professor Mivart into two genera, _Chrysochloris_ and
_Chalcochloris_. They are remarkable mole-like animals, having beautiful
silky fur, with a metallic lustre and changeable golden tints. They are
peculiar to the Cape district, but one species extends as far north as the
Mozambique territory. Their dentition is altogether peculiar, so as to
completely separate them from the true moles.


{190}FAMILY 21.--TALPIDÆ. (8 Genera, 19 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
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  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- -- -- --|1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |-- -- -- --|-- -- 3 -- |-- -- -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

The Moles comprise many extraordinary forms of small mammalia especially
characteristic of the temperate regions of the northern hemisphere, only
sending out a few species of _Talpa_ along the Himalayas as far as Assam,
and even to Tenasserim, if there is no mistake about this locality; while
one species is found in Formosa, the northern part of which is almost as
much Palæarctic as Oriental. The genus _Talpa_ (7 species), spreads over
the whole Palæarctic region from Great Britain to Japan; _Scaptochirus_ (1
species) is a recent discovery in North China; _Condylura_ (1 species), the
star-nosed mole, inhabits Eastern North America from Nova Scotia to
Pennsylvania; _Scapanus_ (2 species) ranges across from New York to St.
Francisco; _Scalops_ (3 species), the shrew-moles, range from Mexico to the
great lakes on the east side of America, but on the west only to the north
of Oregon. An allied genus, _Myogale_ (2 species), has a curious
discontinuous distribution in Europe, one species being found in South-East
Russia, the other in the Pyrenees (Plate II., vol. i., p. 218). Another
allied genus, _Nectogale_ (1 species), has recently been described by
Professor Milne-Edwards from Thibet. _Urotrichus_ is a shrew-like mole
which inhabits Japan, and a second species has been discovered in the
mountains of British Columbia; an allied form, _Uropsilus_, inhabits East
Thibet. _Anurosorex_ and _Scaptonyx_, are new genera from North China.

_Extinct Species._--The common mole has been found fossil in bone-caves and
diluvial deposits, and several extinct species of mole-like animals occur
in the Miocene deposits of the South of France and of Germany. These have
been described under the generic names _Dimylus_, _Geotrypus_,
_Hyporissus_, _Galeospalax_; while _Palæospalax_ has been found in the
Pliocene forest-beds of Norfolk {191}and Ostend. Species of _Myogale_ also
occur from the Miocene downwards.


FAMILY 22.--SORICIDÆ. (1 Genus, 11 Sub-genera, 65 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
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  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- -- 3 -- |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |-- -- -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

The Shrews have a wide distribution, being found throughout every region
except the Australian and Neotropical; although, as a species is found in
Timor and in some of the Moluccas, they just enter this part of the former
region, while one found in Guatemala brings them into the latter. A number
of species have recently been described from India and the Malay Islands,
so that the Oriental region is now the richest in shrews, having 28
species; the Nearctic comes next with 24; while the Ethiopian has 11, and
the Palæarctic 10 species. The sub-genera are _Crossopus_, _Amphisorex_,
_Neosorex_, _Crocidura_, _Diplomesodon_, _Pinulia_, _Pachyura_, _Blarina_,
_Feroculus_, _Anausorex_.

_Extinct Species._--Several species of _Sorex_ have been found fossil in
the Miocene of the South of France, as well as the extinct genera
_Mysarachne_ and _Plesiosorex_; and some existing species have occurred in
Bone Caves and Diluvial deposits.


_General Remarks on the Distribution of the Insectivora._

The most prominent features in the distribution of the Insectivora
are,--their complete absence from South America and Australia; the presence
of _Solenodon_ in two of the West Indian islands while the five allied
genera are found only in Madagascar; and the absence of hedgehogs from
North America. If we consider that there are only 135 known species of the
order, 65 of which belong to the one genus _Sorex_; while the remaining 26
genera contain only 70 species, which have to be classed in 8 distinct
families, and present such divergent and highly specialized forms as
_Galeopithecus_, _Erinaceus_, _Solenodon_, and _Condylura_, it becomes
evident that we have here the detached fragments of a much more
{192}extensive group of animals, now almost extinct. Many of the forms
continue to exist only in islands, removed from the severe competition of a
varied mammalian population, as in Madagascar and the Antilles; while
others appear to have escaped extermination either by their peculiar
habits--as the various forms of Moles; by special protection--as in the
Hedgehogs; or by a resemblance in form, coloration, and habits to dominant
groups in their own district--as the Tupaias of Malay which resemble
squirrels, and the Elephant-shrews of Africa which resemble the jerboas.
The numerous cases of isolated and discontinuous distribution among the
Insectivora, offer no difficulty from this point of view; since they are
the necessary results of an extensive and widely-spread group of animals
slowly becoming extinct, and continuing to exist only where special
conditions have enabled them to maintain themselves in the struggle with
more highly organized forms.

The fossil Insectivora do not throw much light on the early history of the
order, since even as far back as the Miocene period they consist almost
wholly of forms which can be referred to existing families. In North
America they go back to the Eocene period, if certain doubtful remains have
been rightly placed. The occurrence of fossil Centetidæ in Europe, supports
the view we have maintained in preceding chapters, that the existing
distribution of this family between Madagascar and the Antilles, proves no
direct connection between those islands, but only shows us that the family
once had an extensive range.


_Order IV--CARNIVORA._

FAMILY 23.--FELIDÆ. (3 Genera, 14 Sub-genera, 66 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
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  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  1. 2. 3 -- |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. --|1. 2. 3. 4 |-- -- -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

The Cats are very widely distributed over the earth--with the exception of
the Australian region and the island sub-region {193}of Madagascar and the
Antilles--universally; ranging from the torrid zone to the Arctic regions
and the Straits of Magellan. They are so uniform in their organization that
many naturalists group them all under one genus, _Felis_; but it is now
more usual to class at least the lynxes as a separate genus, while the
hunting leopard, or cheetah, forms another. Dr. J. E. Gray divides these
again, and makes 17 generic groups; but as this subdivision is not
generally adopted, and does not bring out any special features of
geographical distribution, I shall not further notice it.

The genus _Felis_ (56 species) has the same general range as the whole
family, except that it does not go so far north; the Amoor river in Eastern
Asia, and 55° N. Lat. in America, marking its limits. _Lyncus_ (10 species)
is a more northern group, ranging to the polar regions in Europe and Asia,
and to Lat. 66° N. in America, but not going further south than Northern
Mexico and the European shores of the Mediterranean, except the caracal,
which may be another genus, and which extends to Central India, Persia,
North Africa and even the Cape of Good Hope. The lynxes are thus almost
wholly peculiar to the Nearctic and Palæarctic regions. _Cynælurus_ (1
species) the hunting leopard, ranges from Southern and Western India
through Persia, Syria, Northern and Central Africa, to the Cape of Good
Hope.

_Extinct Felidæ._--More than twenty extinct species of true Felidæ have
been described, ranging in time from the epoch of prehistoric man back to
the Miocene or even the Eocene period. They occur in the south of England,
in Central and South Europe, in North-West India, in Nebraska in North
America, and in the caves of Brazil. Most of them are referred to the genus
_Felis_, and closely resemble the existing lions, tigers, and other large
cats. Another group however forms the genus _Machairodus_, a highly
specialized form with serrated teeth. Five species have been described from
Europe, Northern India, and both North and South America; and it is
remarkable that they exhibit at least as wide a range, both in space and
time, as the more numerous species referred to _Felis_. One of them
undoubtedly coexisted {194}with man in England, while another, as well as
the allied _Dinictis_, has been found in the Mauvaises Terres of Nebraska,
associated with _Anchitherium_ and other extinct and equally remarkable
forms, which are certainly Miocene if not, as some geologists think,
belonging to the Eocene period. These facts clearly indicate that we have
as yet made little approach to discovering the epoch when Felidæ
originated, since the oldest forms yet discovered are typical and highly
specialized representatives of a group which is itself the most specialized
of the Carnivora. Another genus, _Pseudælurus_, is common to the Miocene
deposits of Europe and North America.


FAMILY 24.--CRYPTOPROCTIDÆ. (1 Genus, 1 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
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  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- 4 |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

The _Cryptoprocta ferox_, a small and graceful cat-like animal, peculiar to
Madagascar, was formerly classed among the Viverridæ, but is now considered
by Professor Flower to constitute a distinct family between the Cats and
the Civets.


FAMILY 25.--VIVERRIDÆ. (8-33 Genera, 100 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
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  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- 2 -- -- |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1 -- -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

The Viverridæ comprise a number of small and moderate-sized carnivorous
animals, popularly known as civets, genets, and ichneumons, highly
characteristic of the Ethiopian and Oriental regions, several of the genera
being common to both. A species of _Genetta_, and one of _Herpestes_,
inhabit South Europe; while _Viverra_ extends to the Moluccas, but is
doubtfully indigenous. The extreme geographical limits of the family are
marked by {195}_Genetta_ in France and Spain, _Viverra_ in Shanghae and
Batchian Island, and _Herpestes_ in Java and the Cape of Good Hope.

The following are the genera with their distribution as given by Dr. J. E.
Gray in his latest British Museum Catalogue:

Sub-family VIVERRINÆ.--_Viverra_ (3 species), North and tropical Africa,
the whole Oriental region to the Moluccas; _Viverricula_ (1 species) India
to Java; _Genetta_ (5 species), South Europe, Palestine, Arabia, and all
Africa; _Fossa_ (1 species), Madagascar; _Linsang_ (2 species), Malacca to
Java; _Poiana_ (1 species), West Africa; _Galidia_ (3 species), Madagascar;
_Hemigalea_ (1 species), Malacca and Borneo; _Arctictis_ (1 species) Nepal
to Sumatra and Java; _Nandinia_ (1 species), West Africa; _Paradoxurus_ (9
species), the whole Oriental region; _Paguma_ (3 species), Nepal to China,
Sumatra, and Borneo; _Arctogale_ (1 species), Tenasserim to Java.

Sub-family HERPESTINÆ.--_Cynogale_ (1 species), Borneo; _Galidictis_ (2
species), Madagascar; _Herpestes_ (22 species), South Palæarctic,
Ethiopian, and Oriental regions; _Athylax_ (3 species), Tropical and South
Africa; _Galogale_ (13 species), all Africa, North India, to Cambodja;
_Galerella_ (1 species), East Africa; _Calictis_ (1 species), Ceylon (?);
_Ariella_ (1 species), South Africa; _Ichneumia_ (4 species), Central,
East, and South Africa; _Bdeogale_ (3 species), West and East Africa;
_Urva_ (1 species), Himalayas to Aracan; _Tæniogale_ (1 species), Central
India; _Onychogale_ (1 species), Ceylon; _Helogale_ (2 species) East and
South Africa; _Cynictis_ (3 species), South Africa.

Sub-family RHINOGALIDÆ.--_Rhinogale_ (1 species), East Africa; _Mungos_ (3
species), all Africa; _Crossarchus_ (1 species), Tropical Africa;
_Eupleres_ (1 species), Madagascar; _Suricata_ (1 species), South Africa.

_Fossil Viverridæ._--Several species of _Viverra_ and _Genetta_ have been
found in the Upper Miocene of France, and many extinct genera have also
been discovered. The most remarkable of these was _Ictitherium_, from the
Upper Miocene of Greece, which has also been found in Hungary, Bessarabia,
and France. Some of the species were larger than any living forms of
Viverridæ, and approached the hyænas. Other extinct genera are
_Thalassictis_ {196}and _Soricictis_ from the Upper Miocene, the former as
large as a panther; _Tylodon_, of small size, from the Upper Eocene; and
_Palæonyctis_ from the Lower Eocene, also small and showing a very great
antiquity for this family, if really belonging to it.


FAMILY 26.--PROTELIDÆ. (1 Genus, 1 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
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  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- 3 -- |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
             |           |           |           |           |


The curious _Proteles_ or Aard-wolf, a highly-modified form of hyæna,
approaching the ichneumons, and feeding on white ants and carrion, is
peculiar to South Africa.


FAMILY 27.--HYÆNIDÆ. (1 Genus, 3 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
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  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- 2 -- -- |1. 2. 3 -- |1 -- -- -- |-- -- -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

The Hyænas are characteristically Ethiopian, to which region two of the
species are confined. The third, _Hyæna striata_, ranges over all the open
country of India to the foot of the Himalayas, and through Persia, Asia
Minor, and North Africa. Its fossil remains have been found in France.

_Extinct Species._--The cave hyæna (_H. spelæa_) occurs abundantly in the
caverns of this country and of Central Europe, and is supposed to be most
nearly allied to the _H. crocuta_ of South Africa. Another species is found
in some parts of France. The earliest known true hyænas occur in the
Pliocene formation in France, in the Red Crag (Older Pliocene) of England,
and in the Upper Miocene of the Siwalik hills. In the Miocene period in
Europe, quite distinct genera are found, such as Hyænictis and _Lycæna_
from the Upper Miocene of Greece; {197}_Ictitherium_, supposed to be
intermediate between Viverridæ and Hyænidæ; and _Thalassictis_, uniting the
weasels and hyænas.


FAMILY 28.--CANIDÆ. (3 Genera, 17 Sub-Genera, 54 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
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  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  1. 2. 3 -- |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3 -- |1. 2. 3. 4 |-- 2? -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

The Canidæ, comprising the animals commonly known as dogs, wolves, and
foxes, have an almost universal range over the earth, being only absent
from the island sub-regions of Madagascar, the Antilles, Austro-Malaya, New
Zealand, and the Pacific Islands. With the exception of two remarkable
forms--the hyæna dog (_Lycaon picta_), and the great-eared fox (_Megalotis
Lalandei_), both from South Africa--all the species are usually placed in
the genus _Canis_, the distribution of which will be the same as that of
the family. Dr. J. E. Gray, in his arrangement of the family (Proc. Zool.
Soc., 1868), subdivides it into fifteen genera, the names and general
distribution of which are as follows:--

_Icticyon_ (1 species), Brazil; _Cuon_ (4 species), Siberia to Java;
_Lupus_ (5 species), North America, Europe, India to Ceylon; _Dieba_ (1
species), North and West Africa; _Simenia_ (1 species), Abyssinia;
_Chrysocyon_ (2 species), North and South America; _Canis_ (4 species),
India, Australia (indigenous?) _Lycalopex_ (2 species), South America;
_Pseudalopex_ (5 species), South America and Falkland Islands; _Thous_ (2
species), South America to Chili; _Vulpes_ (17 species), all the great
continents, except South America and Australia; _Fennecus_ (4 species), all
Africa; _Leucocyon_ (1 species), Arctic regions; _Urocyon_ (2 species),
North America; _Nyctereutes_ (1 species), Japan, Amoorland to Canton (Plate
III., vol. i. p. 226). These are all sub-genera according to Professor
Carus, except _Icticyon_. The same author makes Lycaon a sub-genus, while
Dr. Gray makes it a sub-family!

_Extinct Species._--The dog, wolf, and fox, are found fossil in
{198}caverns in many parts of Europe, and several extinct species have been
found in Tertiary deposits in Europe, North India, and South America. Two
species have been found so far back as the Eocene of France, but the
fragments discovered are not sufficient to determine the characters with
any certainty. In North America, several species of _Canis_ occur in the
Pliocene of Nebraska and La Plata. The genus _Galecynus_, of the Pliocene
of Oeninghen, and _Palæocyon_, of the Brazilian caves, are supposed to
belong to the Canidæ. _Amphicyon_ abounded in the Miocene period, both in
Europe and North America; and some of the species were as large as a tiger.
Other extinct genera are, _Cynodictis_, _Cyotherium_, and _Galethylax_,
from the Eocene of France; _Pseudocyon_, _Simocyon_, and _Hemicyon_, from
the Miocene; but all these show transition characters to Viverridæ or
Ursidæ, and do not perhaps belong to the present family.


FAMILY 29.--MUSTELIDÆ. (21-28 Genera, 92 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
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  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  1. 2. 3 -- |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3  --|1. 2. 3. 4 |-- -- -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

The Mustelidæ constitute one of those groups which range over the whole of
the great continental areas. They may be divided into three
sub-families--one, the Mustelinæ, containing the weasels, gluttons, and
allied forms; a second, the Lutrinæ, containing the otters; and a third,
often considered a distinct family, the Melininæ, containing the badgers,
ratels, skunks, and their allies.

In the first group (Mustelinæ) the genera _Martes_ and _Putorius_ (13
species), range over all the Palæarctic region, and a considerable part of
the Oriental, extending through India to Ceylon, and to Java and Borneo.
Two species of _Martes_ (= _Mustela_ of Baird) occur in the United States.
The weasels, forming the genus _Mustela_ (20 species), have a still wider
range, extending into tropical Africa and the Cordilleras of Peru, but
{199}not going south of the Himalayas in India. The North American species
are placed in the genus _Putorius_ by Professor Baird. An allied genus,
_Gymnopus_ (4 species), is confined to the third and fourth Oriental
sub-regions. _Gulo_ (1 species), the glutton, is an arctic animal keeping
to the cold regions of Europe and Asia, and coming as far south as the
great lakes in North America. _Galictis_ (2 species), the grisons, are
confined to the Neotropical region.

The Otters (Lutrinæ) range over the whole area occupied by the family. They
have been subdivided into a number of groups, such as _Barangia_ (1
species), found only in Sumatra; _Lontra_, containing 3 South American
species; _Lutra_ (7 species), ranging over the whole of the Palæarctic and
Oriental regions; _Nutria_ (1 species), a sea-otter confined to the west
coast of America from California to Chiloe; _Lutronectes_ (1 species), from
Japan only; _Aonyx_ (5 species), found in West and South Africa, and the
third and fourth Oriental sub-regions. _Hydrogale_ (1 species), confined to
South Africa; _Latax_ (2 species), Florida and California to Canada and
British Columbia; _Pteronura_ (1 species), Brazil and Surinam; and
_Enhydris_ (1 species), the peculiar sea-otter of California, Kamschatka
and Japan. The last two are the only groups of otters, besides _Lutra_,
admitted by Professor Carus as genera.

The Badgers and allies (Melininæ) have also a wide range, but with one
exception are absent from South America. They comprise the following
genera: _Arctonyx_ (1 species), Nepal to Aracan; _Meles_ (4 species), North
Europe to Japan, and China as far south as Hongkong (Plate I., vol. i., p.
195); _Taxidea_ (2 species), Central and Western North America to 58° N.
Lat.; _Mydaus_ (1 species), mountains of Java and Sumatra; _Melivora_ (3
species), Tropical and South Africa and India to foot of Himalayas;
_Mephitis_ (12 species), America from Canada and British Columbia to the
Straits of Magellan (Plate XX., vol. ii., p. 136). _Ictonyx_ (2 species),
Tropical Africa to the Cape; _Helictis_ (4 species), Nepal to Java, Formosa
and Shanghai (Plate VII., vol. i. p. 331).

_Fossil Mustelidæ._--Species of otter, weasel, badger, and glutton, occur
in European bone caves and other Post-tertiary deposits; and in North
America _Galictis_, now found only in the Neotropical region, and, with
_Mephitis_, occurring in Brazilian caves.

{200}Species of _Mustela_ have been found in the Pliocene of France and of
South America; and _Lutra_ in the Pliocene of North America.

In the Miocene deposits of Europe several species of _Mustela_ and _Lutra_
have been found; with the extinct genera _Taxodon_, _Potamotherium_, and
_Palæomephitis_; as well as _Promephitis_ in Greece.

In the Upper Miocene of the Siwalik Hills species of _Lutra_ and
_Mellivora_ are found, as well as the extinct genera _Enhydrion_ and
_Ursitaxus_.

The family appears to have been unknown in North America during the Miocene
period.


FAMILY 30.--PROCYONIDÆ. (4 Genera, 8 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- 2. 3 -- |1. 2. 3. 4 |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

The Procyonidæ are a small, but very curious and interesting family of
bear-like quadrupeds, ranging from British Columbia and Canada on the
north, to Paraguay and the limits of the tropical forests on the south.

The Racoons, forming the genus _Procyon_, are common all over North
America; a well-marked variety or distinct species inhabiting the west
coast, and another, most parts of South America. The genus _Nasua_, or the
coatis (5 species?), extends from Mexico and Guatemala to Paraguay. The
curious arboreal prehensile-tailed kinkagou (_Cercoleptes candivolvus_) is
also found in Mexico and Guatemala, and in all the great forests of Peru
and North Brazil. _Bassaris_ (2 species), a small weasel-like animal with a
banded tail, has been usually classed with the Viverridæ or Mustelidæ, but
is now found to agree closely in all important points of internal structure
with this family. It is found in California, Texas, and the highlands of
Mexico, and belongs therefore as much to the Nearctic as to the Neotropical
region. A second species has recently been described by Professor Peters
{201}from Coban in Guatemala, in which, country it has also been observed
by Mr. Salvin.

_Fossil Procyonidæ._--A species of _Nasua_ has been found in the bone caves
of Brazil, and a _Procyon_ in the Pliocene or Post-pliocene deposits of
Illinois and Carolina.


FAMILY 31.--ÆLURIDÆ. (2 Genera, 2 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- 4 |-- -- -- --|-- -- 3 -- |-- -- -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

The Panda (_Ælurus fulgens_), of the forest regions of the Eastern
Himalayas and East Thibet, a small cat-like bear, has peculiarities of
organization which render it necessary to place it in a family by itself.
(Plate VII. vol. i. p. 331). An allied genus, _Æluropus_, a remarkable
animal of larger size and in colour nearly all white, has recently been
described by Professor Milne-Edwards, from the mountains of East Thibet; so
that the family may be said to inhabit the border lands of the Oriental and
Palæarctic regions. These animals have their nearest allies in the coatis
and bears.


FAMILY 32.--URSIDÆ. (5 Genera, or Sub-genera, 15 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  1 -- -- -- |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |-- -- -- --|1. 2. 3. 4 |-- -- -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

The Bears have a tolerably wide distribution, although they are entirely
absent from the Australian and Ethiopian, and almost so from the
Neotropical region, one species only being found in the Andes of Peru and
Chili. They comprise the following groups, some of which are doubtfully
ranked as genera.

_Thalassarctos_, the polar bear (1 species) inhabiting the Arctic regions;
_Ursus_, the true bears (12 species), which range over {202}all the
Nearctic and Palæarctic regions as far as the Atlas Mountains, the
Indo-Chinese sub-region in the mountains, and to Hainan and Formosa;
_Helarctos_, the Malay or sun-bear (1 species) confined to the Indo-Malayan
sub-region; _Melursus_ or _Prochilus_, the honey-bear (1 species), confined
to the first and second Oriental sub-regions, over which it ranges from the
Ganges to Ceylon; and _Tremarctos_, the spectacled bear--commonly known as
_Ursus ornatus_--which is isolated in the Andes of Peru and Chili, and
forms a distinct group.

_Fossil Ursidæ._--Two bears (_Ursus spelæus_ and _U. priscus_) closely
allied to living species, abound in the Post-tertiary deposits of Europe;
and others of the same age are found in North America, as well as an
extinct genus, _Arctodus_.

_Ursus arvernensis_ is found in the Pliocene formation of France, and the
extinct genus _Leptarchus_ in that of North America.

Several species of _Amphicyon_, which appears to be an ancestral form of
this family, are found in the Miocene deposits of Europe and N. India;
while _Ursus_ also occurs in the Siwalik Hills and Nerbudda deposits.


FAMILY 33.--OTARIIDÆ (4 Genera, 8 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  1 -- -- -- | 1 -- -- 4 |-- -- -- --|-- -- 3 -- |-- -- -- --|-- 2. 3 --
             |           |           |           |           |

The Otariidæ, or Eared Seals, comprehending the sea-bears and sea-lions,
are confined to the temperate and cold shores of the North Pacific, and to
similar climates in the Southern Hemisphere, where the larger proportion of
the species are found. They are entirely absent from the North Atlantic
shores. Mr. J. A. Allen, in his recent discussion of this family (Bull.
Harvard Museum) divides them into the following genera:--

_Otaria_ (1 species), Temperate South America, from Chili to La Plata;
_Callorhinus_ (1 species), Behring's Straits and Kamschatka;
_Arctocephalus_ (3 species), temperate regions of the {203}Southern
Hemisphere; _Zalophus_ (2 species), North Pacific, from California to
Japan, and the shores of Australia and New Zealand; _Eumetopias_ (1
species), Behring's Straits and California.

_Fossil Otariidæ._--Remains supposed to belong to this family have been
found in the Miocene of France.


FAMILY 34.--TRICHECHIDÆ. (1 Genus, 1 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- 4 | 1 -- 3 -- |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

The Morse, or Walrus (_Trichecus rosmarus_), which alone constitutes this
family, is a characteristic animal of the North Polar regions, hardly
passing south of the Arctic circle except on the east and west coasts of
North America, where it sometimes reaches Lat. 60°. It is most abundant on
the shores of Spitzbergen, but is not found on the northern shores of Asia
between Long. 80° and 160° E., or on the north shores of America from 100°
to 150° west.

Its remains have been found fossil in Europe as far south as France, and in
America as far as Virginia; but the small fragments discovered may render
the identification uncertain.


FAMILY 35.--PHOCIDÆ. (13 Genera, 21 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  1 -- -- 4? | 1 -- -- 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- 2. 3 --
             |           |           |           |           |

The earless or true Seals are pretty equally divided between the Northern
and Southern Hemispheres, frequenting almost exclusively the temperate and
cold regions, except two species said to occur among the West Indian
islands. The genus _Phoca_ and its close allies, as well as _Halichoerus_
and _Pelagius_, are {204}northern; while _Stenorhynchus_ and _Morunga_,
with their allies, are mostly southern. The genera admitted by Dr. Gray in
his catalogue are as follows:--

_Callocephalus_ (3 species), Greenland, North Sea, also the Caspian Sea,
and Lakes Aral and Baikal; _Pagomys_ (2 species), North Sea, North Pacific,
and Japan; _Pagophilus_ (2 species), North Pacific and North Atlantic;
_Halicyon_ (1 species), North West coast of America; _Phoca_ (2 species),
North Atlantic and North Pacific, Japan; _Halichoerus_ (1 species),
Greenland, North Sea, and Baltic; _Pelagius_ (2 species), Madeira,
Mediterranean, Black Sea; _Stenorhynchus_ (1 species), Antarctic Ocean,
Falkland Islands, New Zealand; _Lobodon_ (1 species), Antarctic Ocean;
_Leptonyx_ (1 species), Antarctic Ocean, South Australia, East Patagonia;
_Ommatophoca_ (1 species), Antarctic Ocean; _Morunga_ (2 species),
California, Falkland Islands, Temperate regions of Southern Ocean;
_Cystophora_ (2 species), North Atlantic, Antilles.

_Fossil Seals._--Remains of living species of seals have been found in
Post-tertiary deposits in many parts of Europe and in Algeria, as well as
in New Zealand. _Pristiphoca occitana_ is a fossil seal from the Pliocene
of Montpellier, while a species of _Phoca_ is said to have been found in
the Miocene deposits of the United States.


_General Remarks on the Distribution of the Carnivora._

_Terrestrial Carnivora._--For the purposes of geographical distribution,
the terrestrial and aquatic Carnivora differ too widely to be considered in
one view, their areas being limited by barriers of a very different nature.
The terrestrial Carnivora form a very extensive and considerably varied
group of animals, having, with the doubtful exception of Australia, a
world-wide distribution. Yet the range of modification of form is not very
great, and the occurrence of three families consisting of but one species
each, is an indication of a great amount of recent extinction. One of the
most marked features presented by this group is its comparative scarcity in
the Neotropical region, only four families being represented there (not
counting the Ursidæ, which has only one Andean species), and both genera
and species are few in number. Even the Procyonidæ, which are especially
South {205}American, have but two genera and six species in that vast area.
We might therefore, from these considerations alone, conclude that
Carnivora are a development of the northern hemisphere, and have been
introduced into the Neotropical region at a comparatively recent epoch. The
claim of the Nearctic region to be kept distinct from the Palæarctic (with
which some writers have wished to unite it) is well maintained by its
possession of at least six species of _Mephitis_, or skunk, a group having
no close allies in any other region,--and the genera _Procyon_ and
_Bassaris_,--for the latter, ranging from the high lands of Guatemala and
Mexico to Texas and California, may be considered a Nearctic rather than a
Neotropical form. In the other families, the most marked feature is the
total absence of Ursidæ from the Ethiopian region. The great mass of the
generic forms of Carnivora, however, are found in the Oriental and
Ethiopian regions, which possess all the extensive group of Viverridæ
(except a few species in the fourth Palæarctic sub-region) and a large
number of Felidæ and Mustelidæ.

_Aquatic Carnivora._--The aquatic Carnivora present no very marked features
of distribution, except their preference for cold and temperate rather than
tropical seas. Their nearest approximation to the terrestrial group, is
supposed to be that of the Otariidæ to the Ursidæ; but this must be very
remote, and the occurrence of both seals and bears in the Miocene period,
shows, that until we find some late Secondary or early Tertiary formation
rich in Mammalian remains, we are not likely to get at the transition forms
indicating the steps by which the aquatic Carnivora were developed. The
most interesting special fact of distribution to be noticed, is the
occurrence of seals, closely allied to those inhabiting the northern seas,
in the Caspian, Lake Aral, and Lake Baikal. In the case of the two
first-named localities there is little difficulty, as they are connected
with the North Sea by extensive plains of low elevation, so that a
depression of less than 500 feet would open a free communication with the
ocean. At a comparatively recent epoch, a great gulf of the Arctic ocean
must have occupied the valley of the Irtish, and extended to the Caspian
Sea; till the elevation of the Kirghiz Steppes cut off the
{206}communication with the ocean, leaving an inland sea with its seals.
Lake Baikal, however, offers much greater difficulties; since it is not
only a fresh-water lake, but is situated in a mountain district nearly
2,000 feet above the sea level, and entirely separated from the plains by
several hundred miles of high land. It is true that such an amount of
submergence and elevation is known to have occurred in Europe so recently
as during the Glacial period; but Lake Baikal is so surrounded by
mountains, that it must at that time have been filled with ice, if at
anything like its present elevation. Its emergence from the sea must
therefore have taken place since the cold epoch, and this would imply that
an enormous extent of Northern Asia has been very recently under water.

We are accustomed to look on Seals as animals which exclusively inhabit
salt water; but it is probably from other causes than its saltness that
they usually keep to the open sea, and there seems no reason why
fresh-water should not suit them quite as well, provided they find in it a
sufficiency of food, facilities for rearing their young, and freedom from
the attacks of enemies. As already remarked in vol. i. p. 218, Mr. Belt's
ingenious hypothesis (founded on personal examination of the Siberian
Steppes), that during the Glacial period the northern ice-cap dammed up the
waters of the northward flowing Asiatic rivers, and thus formed a vast
fresh-water lake which might have risen as high as Lake Baikal, seems to
offer the best solution of this curious problem of distribution.

_Range of Carnivora in Time._--Carnivora have been found in all the
Tertiary deposits, and comprise a number of extinct genera and even
families. Several genera of Canidæ occur in the Upper Eocene of Europe; but
the most remarkable fact is, that even in the Lower Eocene are found two
well-marked forms, _Palæonyctis_, one of the Viverridæ, and _Arctocyon_,
forming a distinct family type of very generalized characters, but
unmistakably a carnivore. This last has been found at La Fère, in the
north-east of France, in a deposit which, according to M. Gaudry, is the
very lowest of the Lower Eocene formation in Europe. _Arctocyon_ is
therefore one of the oldest, if not the very oldest, of the higher forms of
mammal yet discovered.


{207}_Order V.--CETACEA._


FAMILY 36.--BALÆNIDÆ. (6 Genera, 14 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.--Temperate and Cold Seas of both Northern and
Southern Hemispheres.

This family comprises the whalebone or "right" whales, the best known
species being the Greenland whale (_Balæna mysticetus_). Allied species are
found in all parts of the southern seas, as far north as the Cape of Good
Hope; while some of the northern species are found off the coast of Spain,
and even enter the Mediterranean. As most of the species indicated are
imperfectly known, and their classification by no means well settled, no
useful purpose will be served by enumerating the genera or sub-genera.


FAMILY 37.--BALÆNOPTERIDÆ. (9 Genera, 22 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.--Cold and Temperate Seas of both Hemispheres.

This family comprises the finner whales and rorquals, and are characterised
by possessing a dorsal fin and having the baleen or whalebone less
developed. They are abundant in all northern seas, less so in the southern
hemisphere, but they seem occasionally to enter the tropical seas. The best
known genera are _Megaptera_ (7 species); _Physalus_ (4 species); and
_Balænoptera_ (2 species); all of which have species in the North Sea.


FAMILY 38.--CATODONTIDÆ. (4 Genera, or Sub-Genera, 6 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.--All the Tropical Oceans, extending north and south
into Temperate waters.

This family, comprising the cachalots or sperm whales, and black-fish, are
separated from the true whales by having teeth in the lower jaw and no
whalebone. They are pre-eminently a tropical, as distinguished from the two
preceding which are {208}arctic and antarctic families. The spermaceti
whale (_Catodon macrocephalus_) abounds in the Pacific Ocean and in the
deep Moluccan Sea, and also in the Indian Ocean and the Mozambique Channel.
In the Atlantic it is scarce, although it occasionally comes north as far
as our shores.

The genera of Catodontidæ as given by Dr. Gray are, _Catodon_ (2 species?),
Warm Eastern Oceans; _Physeter_ (1 species), "the black fish," North Sea;
_Cogia_ (2 species), South Temperate Oceans; _Euphysetes_ (1 species),
Coast of Australia.


FAMILY 39.--HYPEROODONTIDÆ. (9 Genera or Sub-Genera, 12 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.--Atlantic, Mediterranean, Indian Ocean, and Southern
Ocean.

This family consists of the beaked whales, which have no permanent teeth in
the upper jaw. The genera, according to Dr. Gray, are, _Hyperoodon_ (2
species) "bottle-nosed whales," North Sea; _Lagenocetus_ (1 species), North
Sea; _Epiodon_ (2 species), North and South Atlantic; _Petrorhynchus_ (2
species), Mediterranean Sea and Southern Ocean; _Berardius_ (1 species),
New Zealand; _Xiphius_ (1 species) North Atlantic; _Dolichodon_ (1
species), Cape of Good Hope; _Neoziphius_ (1 species) Mediterranean;
_Dioplodon_ (1 species), Indian Ocean.


FAMILY 40.--MONODONTIDÆ. (1 Genus, 1 Species.)

The "Narwhal" (_Monodon monoceros_) which constitutes this family, is
placed by Dr. Gray along with the "white whales," in his family Belugidæ.
It inhabits the North Sea.


FAMILY 41.--DELPHINIDÆ. (24 Genera or Sub-Genera, 100 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.--All Oceans, Seas, and Great Rivers of the globe.

This family, including the Porpoises, Dolphins, White Whales, &c., may be
described as small, fish-shaped whales, having teeth {209}in both jaws.
According to Dr. Gray they form seven families and 24 genera; according to
Professor Carus, four sub-families and 8 genera, but as these groups appear
to be established on quite different principles, and often differ widely
from each other, I shall simply enumerate Dr. Gray's genera with their
distribution as given in his British Museum Catalogue.

_Platanista_ (2 species), long-snouted porpoises, inhabiting the Ganges and
Indus; _Inia_ (1 species), a somewhat similar form, inhabiting the upper
waters of the Amazonian rivers: _Steno_ (8 species), Indian Ocean, Cape of
Good Hope, and West Pacific; _Sotalia_ (1 species), Guiana; _Delphinus_ (10
species), all the oceans; _Clymenia_ (14 species), all the oceans;
_Delphinapterus_ (1 species), South Atlantic; _Tursio_ (7 species),
Atlantic and Indian Oceans; _Eutropia_ (2 species), Chili, and Cape of Good
Hope; _Electra_, (8 species), all the oceans; _Leucopleurus_ (1 species),
North Sea; _Lagenorhynchus_ (1 species), North Sea; _Pseudorca_ (2
species), North Sea, Tasmania; _Orcaella_ (2 species), Ganges;
_Acanthodelphis_ (1 species), Brazil; _Phocæna_ (2 species), North Sea;
_Neomeris_ (1 species), India; _Grampus_ (3 species), North Sea,
Mediterranean, Cape of Good Hope; _Globiocephalus_ (14 species), all the
oceans; _Sphærocephalus_ (1 species), North Atlantic; _Orca_ (9 species),
Northern and Southern Oceans; _Ophysia_ (1 species), North Pacific;
_Beluga_ (6 species), Arctic Seas, Australia; _Pontoporia_ (1 species),
Monte Video.


_Fossil Cetacea._

Remains of Cetacea are tolerably abundant in Tertiary deposits, both in
Europe and North America. In the Lower Pliocene of England, France, and
Germany, extinct species of five or six living genera of whales and
dolphins have been found; and most of these occur also in the Upper
Miocene, along with many others, referred to about a dozen extinct genera.

In the Post-pliocene deposits of Vermont and South Carolina, several
extinct species have been found belonging to living genera; but in the
Miocene deposits of the Eastern United States cetacean remains are much
more abundant, more than 30 species of {210}extinct whales and dolphins
having been described, most of them belonging to extinct genera.

The Zeuglodontidæ, an extinct family of carnivorous whales, with
double-fanged serrated molar teeth, whose affinities are somewhat doubtful,
are found in the older Pliocene of Europe, and in the Miocene and Eocene of
the Eastern United States. _Zeuglodon_ abounds in the United States, and
one species reached a length of seventy feet. A species of this genus is
said to have been found in Malta. _Squalodon_ occurs in Europe and North
America; and in the latter country four or five other genera have been
described, of which one, _Saurocetes_, has been found also at Buenos Ayres.


_Order VI.--SIRENIA._

FAMILY 42.--MANATIDÆ. (3 Genera, 5 Species?)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
   -- 2 -- 4 |-- -- -- --|1. -- 3 -- |1. 2 -- -- |1. 2. -- 4 |1 -- -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

The Sea-cows are herbivorous aquatic animals living on the coasts or in the
great rivers of several parts of the globe. _Manatus_ (2 species) inhabits
both shores of the Atlantic, one species ranging from the Gulf of Mexico to
North Brazil, and ascending the Amazon far into the interior of the
continent; while the other is found on the west coast of Africa. _Halicore_
(2 species?), the Dugong, is peculiar to the Indian Ocean, extending from
Mozambique to the Red Sea, thence to Western India and Ceylon, the Malay
Archipelago and the north coast of Australia. _Rytina_ (1 species),
supposed to be now extinct, inhabited recently the North Pacific, between
Kamschatka and Behring's Straits.

_Fossil Sirenia._--Extinct species of _Manatus_ have been found in the
Post-pliocene deposits of Eastern North America from {211}Maryland to
Florida; and an extinct genus, _Prorastomus_, in some Tertiary deposits in
the Island of Jamaica.

In Post-pliocene deposits in Siberia, remains of _Rytina_ have been found;
while several species of the extinct genus _Halitherium_, perhaps
intermediate between _Manatus_ and _Halicore_, have been found in the older
Pliocene and Upper Miocene of France and Germany.


_Order VII.--UNGULATA._

FAMILY 43.--EQUIDÆ. (1 Genus, 8 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
                               LIVING SPECIES.
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- 2. 3 -- |1. 2. 3 -- |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
             |           |           |           |           |
                              EXTINCT SPECIES.
             |           |           |           |           |
  1. 2 -- -- |1. 2. 3 -- |1. 2. 3. 4 |-- -- -- --| 1 -- 3 -- |-- -- -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

The Horses, Asses, and Zebras form a highly specialized group now confined
to the Ethiopian and Palæarctic regions, but during the middle and later
tertiaries having a very extensive range. The zebras (3 species) inhabit
the greater part of the Ethiopian region, while the asses (4 species) are
characteristic of the deserts of the Palæarctic region from North Africa
and Syria to Western India, Mongolia, and Manchuria. The domestic horse is
not known in a wild state, but its remains are found in recent deposits
from Britain to the Altai Mountains, so that its disappearance is probably
due to human agency.

_Extinct Equidæ._--Extinct forms of this family are very numerous. The
genus _Equus_ occurs in Post-pliocene and Pliocene deposits in Europe,
North America, and South America. In North America the species are most
numerous. An allied genus _Hipparion_, having rudimentary lateral toes, is
represented {212}by several species in the Pliocene of North America, while
in Europe it occurs both in the Older Pliocene and Upper Miocene. Various
other allied forms, in which the lateral toes are more and more developed,
and most of which are now classed in a distinct family, Anchitheridæ, range
back through the Miocene to the Eocene period. A sufficient account of
these has already been given in vol. i. chap. vi. p. 135, to which the
reader is referred for the supposed origin and migrations of the horse.


Family 44--TAPIRIDÆ. (2 Genera? 6 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- 2. 3 -- |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- 4 |-- -- -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

The Tapirs form a small group of animals whose discontinuous distribution
plainly indicates their approaching extinction. For a long time only two
species were known, the black American, and the white-banded Malay tapir,
the former confined to the equatorial forests of South America, the latter
to the Malay peninsula, Sumatra, and Borneo (Plate VIII. vol. i. p. 337).
Lately however another, or perhaps two distinct species (or according to
Dr. J. E. Gray, four!) have been discovered in the Andes of New Granada and
Ecuador, at an elevation of from 8,000 to 12,000 feet; while one or perhaps
two more, forming the allied genus _Elasmognathus_, have been found to
inhabit Central America from Panama to Guatemala.

_Extinct Tapirs._--True tapirs inhabited Western Europe, from the latest
Pliocene back to the earliest Miocene times; while they only occur in
either North or South America in the Post-pliocene deposits and caves. The
singular distribution of the living species is thus explained, since we see
that they are an Old World group which only entered the American continent
at a comparatively recent epoch. An ancestral form of this
group--_Lophiodon_--is found in Miocene and Eocene deposits of {213}Europe
and North America; while a still more ancient form of large size is found
in the Lower Eocene of France and England, indicating an immense antiquity
for this group of Mammalia. There are many other extinct forms connecting
these with the Palæotheridæ, already noticed in chapter vi. (vol. i. pp.
119-125).


FAMILY 45.--RHINOCEROTIDÆ. (1 Genus, 9 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
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  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
                               LIVING SPECIES.
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|1. 2. 3 -- |-- -- 3. 4 |-- -- -- --
             |           |           |           |           |
                              EXTINCT SPECIES.
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- -- -- --|1. 2 -- -- |1. 2. 3. 4 |-- -- -- --| 1 -- 3 -- |-- -- -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

Living Rhinoceroses are especially characteristic of Africa, with Northern
and Malayan India. Four or perhaps five species, all two-horned, are found
in Africa, where they range over the whole country south of the desert to
the Cape of Good Hope. In the Oriental region there are also four or five
species, which range from the forests at the foot of the Himalayas
eastwards through Assam, Chittagong, and Siam, to Sumatra, Borneo and Java.
Three of these are one-horned, the others found in Sumatra, and northwards
to Pegu and Chittagong, two-horned. The Asiatic differ from the African
species in some dental characters, but they are in other respects so much
alike that they are not generally considered to form distinct genera. In
his latest catalogue however (1873), Dr. Gray has four genera, _Rhinoceros_
(4 species), and _Ceratorhinus_ (2 species), Asiatic; _Rhinaster_ (2
species), and _Ceratotherium_ (2 species), African.

_Extinct Rhinocerotidæ._--Numerous species of _Rhinoceros_ ranged over
Europe and Asia from the Post-pliocene back to the Upper Miocene period,
and in North America during the Pliocene period {214}only. The hornless
_Acerotherium_ is Miocene only, in both countries. Other genera are
_Leptodon_ from Greece, and _Hyracodon_ from Nebraska, both of Miocene age.
More than 20 species of extinct rhinoceroses are known, and one has even
been found at an altitude of 16,000 feet in Thibet.


FAMILY 46.--HIPPOPOTAMIDÆ. (1 Genus, 2 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
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  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
                               LIVING SPECIES.
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|1. 2. 3 -- |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
             |           |           |           |           |
                              EXTINCT SPECIES.
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|1. 2 -- -- |-- -- -- --| 1 -- 3 -- |-- -- -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

The Hippopotamus inhabits all the great rivers of Africa; a distinct
species of a smaller size being found on the west coast, and on some of the
rivers flowing into Lake Tchad.

_Fossil Hippopotami._--Eight extinct species of _Hippopotamus_ are known
from Europe and India, the former Post-pliocene or Pliocene, the latter of
Upper Miocene age. They ranged as far north as the Thames valley. An
extinct genus from the Siwalik Hills, _Merycopotamus_, according to Dr.
Falconer connects _Hippopotamus_ with _Anthracotherium_, an extinct form
from the Miocene of Europe, allied to the swine.


FAMILY 47.--SUIDÆ. (5 Genera, 22 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
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  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- 2. 3 -- |-- 2. 3 -- |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. -- -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

The Swine may be divided into three well-marked groups, from peculiarities
in their dentition. 1. The Dicotylinæ, or {215}peccaries (1 genus,
_Dicotyles_). These offer so many structural differences that they are
often classed as a separate family. 2. The true swine (3 genera, _Sus_,
_Potamochoerus_, and _Babirusa_); and, 3. The Phacochoerinæ, or wart hogs
(1 genus, _Phacochoerus_). These last are also sometimes made into a
separate family, but they are hardly so distinct as the Dicotylinæ.

The Peccaries (2 species), are peculiar to the Neotropical region,
extending from Mexico to Paraguay. They also spread northwards into Texas,
and as far as the Red River of Arkansas, thus just entering the Nearctic
region; but with this exception swine are wholly absent from this region,
forming an excellent feature by which to differentiate it from the
Palæarctic.

_Sus_ (14 species), ranges over the Palæarctic and Oriental regions and
into the first Australian sub-region as far as New Guinea; but it is absent
from the Ethiopian region, or barely enters it on the north-east.
_Potamochoerus_ (3 species?), is wholly Ethiopian (Plate V. vol. i. p.
278). _Babirusa_ (1 species), is confined to two islands, Celebes and
Bouru, in the first Australian sub-region.

_Phacochoerus_ (2 species), ranges over tropical Africa from Abyssinia to
Caffraria.

Dr. J. E. Gray divides true swine (_Sus_) into 7 genera, but it seems far
better to keep them as one.

_Fossil Suidæ._--These are very numerous. Many extinct species of wild hog
(_Sus_), are found in Europe and North India, ranging back from the
Post-pliocene to the Upper Miocene formations. In the Miocene of Europe are
numerous extinct genera, _Bothriodon_, _Anthracotherium_, _Palæochoerus_,
_Hyotherium_, and some others; while in the Upper Eocene occur
_Cebochoerus_, _Choeropotamus_, and _Acotherium_,--these early forms having
more resemblance to the peccaries.

None of these genera are found in America, where we have the living genus
_Dicotyles_ in the Post-pliocene and Pliocene deposits, both of North and
South America; with a number of extinct genera in the Miocene. The chief of
these are, _Elotherium_, _Perchoerus_, _Leptochoerus_, and _Nanohyus_, all
from Dakota, and _Thinohyus_, from Oregon. One extinct genus, _Platygonus_,
closely allied to _Dicotyles_, is found in the Post-pliocene of Nebraska,
{216}Oregon, and Arkansas. _Elotherium_ is said to be allied to the peccary
and hippopotamus. _Hyopotamus_, from the Miocene of Dakota, is allied to
_Anthracotherium_, and forms with it (according to Dr. Leidy) a distinct
family of ancestral swine.

It thus appears, that the swine were almost equally well represented in
North America and Europe, during Miocene and Pliocene times, but by
entirely distinct forms; and it is a remarkable fact that these hardy
omnivorous animals, should, like the horses, have entirely died out in
North America, except a few peccaries which have preserved themselves in
the sub-tropical parts and in the southern continent, to which they are
comparatively recent emigrants. We can hardly have a more convincing proof
of the vast physical changes that have occurred in the North American
continent during the Pliocene and Post-pliocene epochs, than the complete
extinction of these, along with so many other remarkable types of Mammalia.

According to M. Gaudry, the ancestors of all the swine, with the
hippopotami and extinct _Anthracotherium_, _Merycopotamus_, and many allied
forms,--are the _Hyracotherium_ and _Pliolophus_, both found only in the
London clay belonging to the Lower Eocene formation.


FAMILY 48.--CAMELIDÆ. (2 Genera, 6 Species).

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
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  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
                               LIVING SPECIES.
             |           |           |           |           |
  1. -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- 2. 3 -- |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
             |           |           |           |           |
                              EXTINCT SPECIES.
             |           |           |           |           |
  1. -- -- --|-- 2. 3. 4 |-- -- 3 -- |-- -- -- --|-- -- 3. --|-- -- -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

The Camels are an exceedingly restricted group, the majority of the species
now existing only in a state of domestication. The genus _Camelus_ (2
species), is a highly characteristic desert form {217}of the Palæarctic
region, from the Sahara to Mongolia as far as Lake Baikal. _Auchenia_ (4
species), comprehending the Llamas and Alpacas, is equally characteristic
of the mountains and deserts of the southern part of South America. Two
species entirely domesticated inhabit the Peruvian and Bolivian Andes; and
two others are found in a wild state, the vicuna in the Andes of Peru and
Chili (Plate XVI. vol. ii. p. 40), and the guanaco over the plains of
Patagonia and Tierra del Fuego.

_Extinct Camelidæ._--No fossil remains of camels have been found in Europe,
but one occurs in the deposits of the Siwalik Hills, usually classed as
Upper Miocene, but which some naturalists think are more likely of Older
Pliocene age. _Merycotherium_, teeth of which have been found in the
Siberian drift, is supposed to belong to this family.

In North America, where no representative of the family now exists, the
camel-tribe were once abundant. In the Post-pliocene deposits of California
an _Auchenia_ has been found, and in those of Kansas one of the extinct
genus _Procamelus_. In the Pliocene period, this genus, which was closely
allied to the living camels, abounded, six or seven species having been
described from Nebraska and Texas, together with an allied form
_Homocamelus_. In the Miocene period different genera
appear,--_Poebrotherium_, and _Protomeryx_,--while a _Procamelus_ has been
found in deposits of this age in Virginia.

In South America a species of _Auchenia_ has been found in the caves of
Brazil, and others in the Pliocene deposits of the pampas, together with
two extinct genera, _Palæolama_ and _Camelotherium_.

We thus find the ancestors of the Camelidæ in a region where they do not
now exist, but which is situated so that the now widely separated living
forms could easily have been derived from it. This case offers a remarkable
example of the light thrown by palæontology on the distribution of living
animals; and it is a warning against the too common practice of assuming
the direct land connection of remote continents, in order to explain
similar instances of discontinuous distribution to that of the present
family.


{218}FAMILY 49.--TRAGULIDÆ. (2 Genera, 6 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
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  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- 2 -- -- |1. 2. 3. 4 |-- -- -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

The Tragulidæ are a group of small, hornless, deer-like animals, with tusks
in the upper jaw, and having some structural affinities with the camels.
The musk-deer was formerly classed in this family, which it resembles
externally; but a minute examination of its structure by M. Milne-Edwards,
has shown it to be more nearly allied to the true deer. The Chevrotains, or
mouse-deer, _Tragulus_ (5 species), range over all India to the foot of the
Himalayas and Ceylon, and through Assam, Malacca, and Cambodja, to Sumatra,
Borneo, and Java (Plate VIII., vol. i. p. 337). _Hyomoschus_ (1 species),
is found in West Africa.

_Extinct Tragulidæ._--A species of _Hyomoschus_ is said to have been found
in the Miocene of the South of France, as well as three extinct genera,
_Dremotherium_ (also found in Greece), with _Lophiomeryx_ from the Upper
Miocene, said to be allied to _Tragulus_; and _Amphitragulus_ from the
Lower Miocene, of more remote affinities, and sometimes placed among the
Deer. There seems to be no doubt, however, that this family existed in
Europe in Miocene times; and thus another case of discontinuous
distribution is satisfactorily accounted for.


FAMILY 50.--CERVIDÆ. (8 Genera, 52 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
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  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  1. 2. 3 -- |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |-- -- -- --|1. 2. 3. 4 |1  -- -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

The Cervidæ, or deer tribe, are an extensive group of animals equally
adapted for inhabiting forests or open plains, the Arctic {219}regions or
the Tropics. They range in fact over the whole of the great continents of
the globe, with the one striking exception of Africa, where they are only
found on the shores of the Mediterranean which form part of the Palæarctic
region. The following is the distribution of the genera.

_Alces_ (1 species), the elk or moose, ranges all over Northern Europe and
Asia, as far south as East Prussia, the Caucasus, and North China; and over
Arctic America to Maine on the East, and British Columbia on the west. The
American species may however be distinct, although very closely allied to
that of Europe. _Tarandus_ (1 species), the reindeer, has a similar range
to the last, but keeps farther north in Europe, inhabiting Greenland and
Spitzbergen; and in America extends farther south, to New Brunswick and the
north shore of Lake Superior. There are several varieties or species of
this animal confined to special districts, but they are not yet well
determined. _Cervus_ (40 species), the true deer, have been sub-divided
into numerous sub-genera characteristic of separate districts. They range
over the whole area of the family, except that they do not go beyond 57° N.
in America and a little further in Europe and Asia. In South America they
extend over Patagonia and even to Tierra del Fuego. They are found in the
north of Africa, and over the whole of the Oriental region, and beyond it
as far as the Moluccas and Timor, where however they have probably been
introduced by man at an early period. _Dama_ (1 species), the fallow deer,
is a native of the shores of the Mediterranean, from Spain and Barbary to
Syria. _Capreolus_ (2 species), the roe-deer, inhabits all Temperate and
South Europe to Syria, with a distinct species in N. China. _Cervulus_ (4
species), the muntjacs, are found in all the forest districts of the
Oriental region, from India and Ceylon to China as far north as Ningpo and
Formosa, also southward to the Philippines, Borneo, and Java. _Moschus_ (1
species), the musk-deer, inhabits Central Asia from the Amoor and Pekin, to
the Himalayas and the Siamese mountains above 8000 ft. elevation. This is
usually classed as a distinct family, but M. Milne-Edwards remarks, that it
differs in no important points of organisation from the rest of the
Cervidæ. _Hydropotes_ {220}(1 species) inhabits China from the Yang-tse
Kiang northwards. This new genus has recently been discovered by Mr.
Swinhoe, who says its nearest affinities are with _Moschus_. Other new
forms are _Lophotragus_, and _Elaphodus_, both inhabiting North China; the
former is hornless, the latter has very small horns about an inch long.

_Extinct Deer._--Numerous extinct species of the genus _Cervus_ are found
fossil in many parts of Europe, and in all formations between the
Post-pliocene and the Upper Miocene. The Elk and Reindeer are also found in
caves and Post-pliocene deposits, the latter as far south as the South of
France. Extinct genera only, occur in the Upper Miocene in various parts of
Europe:--_Micromeryx_, _Palæomeryx_, and _Dicrocercus_ have been described;
with others referred doubtfully to _Moschus_, and an allied genus
_Amphimoschus_.

In N. America, remains of this family are very scarce, a _Cervus_ allied to
the existing wapiti deer, being found in Post-pliocene deposits, and an
extinct genus, _Leptomeryx_, in the Upper Miocene of Dakota and Oregon.
Another extinct genus, _Merycodus_, from the Pliocene of Oregon, is said to
be allied to camels and deer.

In South America, several species of _Cervus_ have been found in the
Brazilian caves, and in the Pliocene deposits of La Plata.

It thus appears, that there are not yet sufficient materials for
determining the origin and migrations of the Cervidæ. There can be little
doubt that they are an Old World group, and a comparatively recent
development; and that some time during the Miocene period they passed to
North America, and subsequently to the Southern continent. They do not
however appear to have developed much in North America, owing perhaps to
their finding the country already amply stocked with numerous forms of
indigenous Ungulates.


{221}FAMILY 51.--CAMELOPARDALIDÆ. (1 Genus, 1 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
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  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
                               LIVING SPECIES.
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|1  -- 3 -- |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
             |           |           |           |           |
                              EXTINCT SPECIES.
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- 2 -- -- |1 -- -- -- |-- -- 3 -- |-- -- -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

The Camelopardalidæ, or giraffes, now consist of but a single species which
ranges over all the open country of the Ethiopian region, and is therefore
almost absent from West Africa, which is more especially a forest district.
During the Middle Tertiary period, however, these animals had a wider
range, over Southern Europe and Western India as far as the slopes of the
Himalayas.

_Extinct Species._--Species of _Camelopardalis_ have been found in Greece,
the Siwalik Hills, and Perim Island at the entrance to the Red Sea; and an
extinct genus, _Helladotherium_, more bulky but not so tall as the giraffe,
ranged from the south of France to Greece and North-west India.


FAMILY 52.--BOVIDÆ. (34 Genera, 149 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
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  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- -- -- --| 1. 2 -- 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3 -- |1. 2. 3. 4 |1 -- -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

This large and important family, includes all the animals commonly known as
oxen, buffaloes, antelopes, sheep, and goats, which have been classed by
many naturalists in at least three, and sometimes four or five, distinct
families. Zoologically, they {222}are briefly and accurately defined as,
"hollow-horned ruminants;" and, although they present wide differences in
external form, they grade so insensibly into each other, that no
satisfactory definition of the smaller family groups can be found. As a
whole they are almost confined to the great Old World continent, only a few
forms extending along the highlands and prairies of the Nearctic region;
while one peculiar type is found in Celebes, an island which is almost
intermediate between the Oriental and Australian regions. In each of the
Old World regions there are found a characteristic set of types. Antelopes
prevail in the Ethiopian region; sheep and goats in the Palæarctic; while
the oxen are perhaps best developed in the Oriental region.

Sir Victor Brooke, who has paid special attention to this family, divides
them into 13 sub-families, and I here adopt the arrangement of the genera
and species which he has been so good as to communicate to me in MSS.

Sub-family I. BOVINÆ (6 genera, 13 species). This group is one of the best
marked in the family. It comprises the Oxen and Buffaloes with their
allies, and has a distribution very nearly the same as that of the entire
family. The genera are as follows: BOS (1 sp.), now represented by our
domestic cattle, the descendants of the _Bos primigenius_, which ranged
over a large part of Central Europe in the time of the Romans. The
Chillingham wild cattle are supposed to be the nearest approach to the
original species. _Bison_ (2 sp.), one still wild in Poland and the
Caucasus; the other in North America, ranging over the prairies west of the
Mississippi, and on the eastern slopes of the Rocky Mountains (Plate XIX.,
vol. ii., p. 129). _Bibos_ (3 sp.), the Indian wild cattle, ranging over a
large part of the Oriental region, from Southern India to Assam, Burmah,
the Malay Peninsula, Borneo, and Java. _Poephagus_ (1 sp.), the yak,
confined to the high plains of Western Thibet. _Bubalus_ (5 sp.), the
buffaloes, of which three species are African, ranging over all the
continental parts of the Ethiopian region; one Northern and Central Indian;
and the domesticated animal in South Europe and North Africa. _Anoa_ (1
sp.), the small wild cow of Celebes, {223}a very peculiar form more nearly
allied to the buffaloes than to any other type of oxen.

Sub-family II. TRAGELAPHINÆ: (3 genera, 11 species). The Bovine Antelopes
are large and handsome animals, mostly Ethiopian, but extending into the
adjacent parts of the Palæarctic and Oriental regions. The genera are:
_Oreas_ (2 sp.), elands, inhabiting all Tropical and South Africa.
_Tragelaphus_ (8 sp.), including the bosch-bok, kudu, and other large
antelopes, ranges over all Tropical and South Africa (Plate IV., vol. i.,
p. 261). _Portax_ (1 sp.) India, but rare in Madras and north of the
Ganges.

Sub-family III. ORYGINÆ: (2 genera, 5 species). _Oryx_ (4 sp.) is a desert
genus, ranging over all the African deserts to South Arabia and Syria;
_Addax_ (1 sp.) inhabits North Africa, North Arabia, and Syria.

Sub-family IV. HIPPOTRAGINÆ (1 genus, 3 species). The Sable Antelopes,
_Hippotragus_, form an isolated group inhabiting the open country of
Tropical Africa and south to the Cape.

Sub-family V. GAZELLINÆ (6 genera, 23 species). This is a group of small or
moderate-sized animals, most abundant in the deserts on the borders of the
Palæarctic, Oriental, and Ethiopian regions. _Gazella_ (17 sp.) is
typically a Palæarctic desert group, ranging over the great desert plateaus
of North Africa, from Senegal and Abyssinia to Syria, Persia, Beloochistan,
and the plains of India, with one outlying species in South Africa.
_Procapra_ (2 sp.), Western Thibet and Mongolia to about 110° east
longitude. _Antilope_ (1 sp.) inhabits all the plains of India. _Æpyceros_
(1 sp.) the pallah, inhabits the open country of South and South-east
Africa. _Saiga_ (1 sp.) a singular sheep-faced antelope, which inhabits the
steppes of Eastern Europe and Western Asia from Poland to the Irtish River,
south of 55° north latitude. (Plate II., vol. i., p. 218.) _Panthalops_ (1
sp.) confined to the highlands of Western Thibet and perhaps Turkestan.

Sub-family VI. ANTILOCAPRINÆ (1 genus, 1 species), _Antilocapra_, the
prong-horned antelope, inhabit both sides of the Rocky Mountains, extending
north to the Saskatchewan and {224}Columbia River, west to the coast range
of California, and east to the Missouri. Its remarkable deciduous horns
seem to indicate a transition to the Cervidæ. (Plate XIX., vol. ii., p.
129.)

Sub-family VII. CERVICAPRINÆ (5 genera, 21 species). This group of
Antelopes is wholly confined to the continental portion of the Ethiopian
region. The genera are: _Cervicapra_ (4 sp.), Africa, south of the equator
and Abyssinia; _Kobus_ (6 sp.), grassy plains and marshes of Tropical
Africa; _Pelea_ (1 sp.), South Africa; _Nanotragus_ (9 species), Africa,
south of the Sahara; _Neotragus_ (1 sp.) Abyssinia and East Africa.

Sub-family VIII. CEPHALOPHINÆ (2 genera, 24 species), Africa and India;
_Cephalophus_ (22 sp.), continental Ethiopian region; _Tetraceros_ (2 sp.)
hilly part of all India, but rare north of the Ganges.

Sub-family IX. ALCEPHALINÆ (2 genera, 11 species), large African Antelopes,
one species just entering the Palæarctic region. The genera are:
_Alcephalus_ (9 sp.) all Africa and north-east to Syria; _Catoblepas_ (2
sp.), gnus, Africa, south of the Equator.

Sub-region X. BUDORCINÆ (1 genus, 2 species) _Budorcas_ inhabits the high
Himalayas from Nepal to East Thibet.

Sub-family XI. RUPICAPRINÆ (1 genus, 2 species) the Chamois, _Rupicapra_,
inhabit the high European Alps from the Pyrenees to the Caucasus. (Plate
I., vol. i., p. 195.)

Sub-family XII. NEMORHEDINÆ (2 genera, 10 species). These goat-like
Antelopes inhabit portions of the Palæarctic and Oriental regions, as well
as the Rocky Mountains in the Nearctic region. _Nemorhedus_ (9 sp.) ranges
from the Eastern Himalayas to N. China and Japan, and south to Formosa, the
Malay Peninsula and Sumatra. _Aplocerus_ (1 sp.), the mountain goat of the
trappers, inhabits the northern parts of California and the Rocky
Mountains.

Sub-family XIII. CAPRINÆ (2 genera, 23 species). The Goats and Sheep form
an extensive series, highly characteristic of the Palæarctic region, but
with an outlying species on the Neilgherries in Southern India, and one in
the Rocky Mountains and California. The genera are _Capra_ (22 sp.) and
_Ovibos_ (1 sp.). {225}The genus _Capra_ consists of several sub-groups
which have been named as genera, but it is unnecessary here to do more than
divide them into "Goats and Ibexes" on the one hand and "Sheep" on the
other--each comprising 11 species. The former range over all the South
European Alps from Spain to the Caucasus; to Abyssinia, Persia, and Scinde;
over the high Himalayas to E. Thibet and N. China; with an outlying species
in the Neilgherries. The latter are only found in the mountains of Corsica,
Sardinia, and Crete, in Europe; in Asia Minor, Persia, and in Central and
North-Eastern Asia, with one somewhat isolated species in the Atlas
mountains; while in America a species is found in the Rocky Mountains and
the coast range of California. _Ovibos_ (1 sp.), the musk-sheep, inhabits
Arctic America north of lat. 60; but it occurs fossil in Post-glacial
gravels on the Yena and Obi in Siberia, in Germany and France along with
the Mammoth and with flint implements, and in caves of the Reindeer period;
also in the brick earth in the south of England, associated with
_Rhinoceros megarhinus_ and _Elephas antiquus_.

_Extinct Bovidæ._--In the caverns and diluviums of Europe, of the
Post-Pliocene period, the remains are found of extinct species of _Bos_,
_Bison_, and _Capra_; and in the caverns of the south of France
_Rupicapra_, and an antelope near _Hippotragus_. _Bos_ and _Bison_ also
occur in Pliocene deposits. In the Miocene of Europe, the only remains are
antelopes closely allied to existing species, and these are especially
numerous in Greece, where remains referred to two living and four extinct
genera have been discovered. In the Miocene of India numerous extinct
species of _Bos_, and two extinct genera, _Hemibos_ and _Amphibos_, have
been found, one of them at a great elevation in Thibet. Antelopes, allied
to living Indian species, are chiefly found in the Nerbudda deposits.

In North America, the only bovine remains are those of a _Bison_, and a
sheep or goat, in the Post-pliocene deposits; and of two species of
musk-sheep, sometimes classed in a distinct genus _Bootherium_, from beds
of the same age in Arkansas and Ohio. _Casoryx_, from the Pliocene of
Nebraska, is supposed to be allied to the antelopes and to deer.

{226}In the caves of Brazil remains of two animals said to be antelopes,
have been discovered. They are classed by Gervais in the genera _Antilope_
and _Leptotherium_, but the presence of true antelopes in S. America at
this period is so improbable, that there is probably some error of
identification.

The extinct family Sivatheridæ, containing the extraordinary and gigantic
four-horned _Sivatherium_ and _Bramatherium_, of the Siwalik deposits, are
most nearly allied to the antelopes.

From the preceding facts we may conclude, that the great existing
development of the Bovidæ is comparatively recent. The type may have
originated early in the Miocene period, the oxen being at first most
tropical, while the antelopes inhabited the desert zone a little further
north. The sheep and goats seem to be the most recent development of the
bovine type, which was probably long confined to the Eastern Hemisphere.


_General Remarks on the Distribution of the Ungulata._

With the exception of the Australian region, from which this order of
mammalia is almost entirely wanting, the Ungulata are almost universally
distributed over the continental parts of all the other regions. Of the ten
families, 7 are Ethiopian, 6 Oriental, 5 Palæarctic, 4 Neotropical, and 3
Nearctic. The Ethiopian region owes its superiority to the exclusive
possession of the hippopotamus and giraffe, both of which inhabited the
Palæarctic and Oriental regions in Miocene times. The excessive poverty of
the Nearctic region in this order is remarkable; the swine being
represented only by _Dicotyles_ in its extreme southern portion, while the
Bovidæ are restricted to four isolated species. Deer alone are fairly well
represented. But, during the Eocene and Miocene periods, North America was
wonderfully rich in varied forms of Ungulates, of which there were at least
8 or 9 families; while we have reason to believe that during the same
periods the Ethiopian region was excessively poor, and that it probably
received the ancestors of all its existing families from Europe or Western
Asia in later Miocene or Pliocene times. Many types that once abounded in
both Europe and North America are now preserved only in South America and
Central or Tropical Asia,--as {227}the tapirs and camels; while others once
confined to Europe and Asia have found a refuge in Africa,--as the
hippopotamus and giraffe; so that in no other order do we find such
striking examples of those radical changes in the distribution of the
higher animals which were effected during the latter part of the Tertiary
period. The present distribution of this order is, in fact, utterly
unintelligible without reference to the numerous extinct forms of existing
and allied families; but as this subject has been sufficiently discussed in
the Second Part of this work (Chapters VI. and VII.) it is unnecessary to
give further details here.


_Order VIII.--PROBOSCIDEA._

FAMILY 53.--ELEPHANTIDÆ. (1 Genus, 2 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
                               LIVING SPECIES.
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|1. 2. 3 -- |1. 2. 3. 4 |-- -- -- --
             |           |           |           |           |
                              EXTINCT SPECIES.
             |           |           |           |           |
  1. 2 -- -- |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1 -- -- -- |1  -- 3 -- |-- -- -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

The elephants are now represented by two species, the African, which ranges
all over that continent south of the Sahara, and the Indian, which is found
over all the wooded parts of the Oriental region, from the slopes of the
Himalayas to Ceylon, and eastward, to the frontiers of China and to Sumatra
and Borneo. These, however, are but the feeble remnants of a host of
gigantic creatures, which roamed over all the great continents except
Australia during the Tertiary period, and several of which were
contemporary with man.

_Extinct Elephants._--At least 14 extinct species of _Elephas_, and a
rather greater number of the allied genus _Mastodon_ (distinguished by
their less complex grinding teeth) have now been {228}discovered. Elephants
ranged over all the Palæarctic and Nearctic regions in Post-Pliocene times;
in Europe and Central India they go back to the Pliocene; and only in India
to the Upper Miocene period; the number of species increasing as we go back
to the older formations.

In North America two or three species of _Mastodon_ are Post-pliocene and
Pliocene; and a species is found in the caves of Brazil, and in the
Pliocene deposits of the pampas of La Plata, of the Bolivian Andes, and of
Honduras and the Bahamas. In Europe the genus is Upper Miocene and
Pliocene, but is especially abundant in the former period. In the East, it
extends from Perim island to Burmah and over all India, and is mostly
Miocene, but with perhaps one species Pliocene in Central India.

An account of the range of such animals as belong to extinct families of
Proboscidea, will be found in Chapters VI. and VII.; from which it will be
seen that, although the family Elephantidæ undoubtedly originated in the
Eastern Hemisphere, it is not improbable that the first traces of the order
Proboscidea are to be found in N. America.


_Order IX.--HYRACOIDEA._

FAMILY 54.--HYRACIDÆ. (1 Genus. 10-12 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- 2. -- --|1. 2. 3 -- |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

The genus _Hyrax_, which alone constitutes this family, consists of small
animals having the appearance of hares or marmots, but which more resemble
the genus _Rhinoceros_ in their teeth and skeleton. They range all over the
Ethiopian region, except Madagascar; a peculiar species is found in
Fernando Po, and they just enter the Palæarctic as far as Syria. They may
therefore be considered as an exclusively Ethiopian group. In Dr. Gray's
{229}last Catalogue (1873) he divides the genus into three--_Hyrax_,
_Euhyrax_ and _Dendrohyrax_--the latter consisting of two species confined
apparently to West and South Africa.

No extinct forms of this family have yet been discovered; the
_Hyracotherium_ of the London clay (Lower Eocene) which was supposed to
resemble _Hyrax_, is now believed to be an ancestral type of the Suidæ or
swine.


_Order X.--RODENTIA._

FAMILY 55.--MURIDÆ. (37 Genera, 330 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |-- 2 -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

The Muridæ, comprising the rats and mice with their allies, are almost
universally distributed over the globe (even not reckoning the domestic
species which have been introduced almost everywhere by man), the
exceptions being the three insular groups belonging to the Australian
region, from none of which have any species yet been obtained. Before
enumerating the genera it will be as well to say a few words on the
peculiarities of distribution they present. The true mice, forming the
genus _Mus_, is distributed over the whole of the world except N. and S.
America where not a single indigenous species occurs, being replaced by the
genus _Hesperomys_; five other genera, comprehending all the remaining
species found in South America are peculiar to the Neotropical region.
Three genera are confined to the Palæarctic region, and three others to the
Nearctic. No less than twelve genera are exclusively Ethiopian, while only
three are exclusively Oriental and three Australian.

_Mus_ (100-120 sp.) the Eastern Hemisphere, but absent from the Pacific and
Austro-Malayan Islands, except Celebes and Papua; _Lasiomys_ (1 sp.)
Guinea; _Acanthomys_ (5-6 sp.) Africa, India and {230}N. Australia;
_Cricetomys_ (1 sp.) Tropical Africa; _Saccostomus_ (2 sp.) Mozambique;
_Cricetus_ (9 sp.) Palæarctic region and Egypt; _Cricetulus_ (1 sp.,
Milne-Edwards, 1870) Pekin; _Pseudomys_ (1 sp.) Australia; _Hapalotis_ (13
sp.) Australia; _Phlæomys_ (1 sp.) Philippines; _Platacanthomys_ (1 sp.,
Blyth, 1865) Malabar; _Dendromys_ (2 sp.) S. Africa; _Nesomys_ (1 sp.
Peters, 1870) Madagascar; _Steatomys_ (2 sp.) N. and S. Africa; _Pelomys_
(1 sp.) Mozambique; _Reithrodon_ (9 sp.) N. America, Lat. 29° to Mexico,
and south to Tierra del Fuego; _Acodon_ (1 sp.) Peru; _Myxomys_ (1 sp.)
Guatemala; _Hesperomys_ (90 sp.) North and South America; _Holochilus_ (4
sp.) South America; _Oxymycterus_ (4 sp.) Brazil and La Plata; _Neotoma_ (6
sp.) U.S., East coast to California; _Sigmodon_ (2 sp.) Southern United
States; _Drymomys_ (1 sp.) Peru; _Neotomys_ (2 sp.) S. America; _Otomys_ (6
sp.) S. and E. Africa; _Meriones_ = _Gerbillus_ (20-30 sp.) Egypt, Central
Asia, India, Africa; _Rhombomys_ (6 sp.) S. E. Europe, N. Africa, Central
Asia; _Malacothrix_ (2 sp.) South Africa; _Mystromys_ (1 sp.) South Africa;
_Psammomys_ (1 sp.) Egypt; _Spalacomys_ (1 sp.) India; _Sminthus_ (1-3 sp.)
East Europe, Tartary, Siberia; _Hydromys_ (5 sp.) Australia and Tasmania;
_Hypogeomys_ (1 sp., Grandidier, 1870) Madagascar; _Brachytarsomys_ (1 sp.,
Günther, 1874) Madagascar; _Fiber_ (2 sp.) N. America to Mexico; _Arvicola_
(50 sp.) Europe to Asia Minor, North Asia, Himalayas, Temp. N. America;
_Cuniculus_ (1 sp.) N. E. Europe, Siberia, Greenland, Arctic America;
_Myodes_ (4 sp.) Europe, Siberia, Arctic America, and Northern United
States; _Myospalax_ = _Siphneus_ (2 sp.) Altai Mountains and N. China[4];
_Lophiomys_ (1 sp.) S. Arabia, and N. E. Africa; _Echiothrix_ (1 sp.)
Australia.

_Extinct Muridæ._--Species of _Mus_, _Cricetus_, _Arvicola_, and _Myodes_,
occur in the Post-Pliocene deposits of Europe; _Arvicola_, _Meriones_, and
the extinct genus _Cricetodon_, with some others, in the Miocene.

In North America, _Fiber_, _Arvicola_, and _Neotoma_, occur in caves;
{231}an extinct genus, _Eumys_, in the Upper Miocene of Dakota, and
another, _Mysops_, in the Eocene of Wyoming.

In South America _Mus_, or more probably _Hesperomys_, is abundant in
Brazilian caverns, and _Oxymycterus_ in the Pliocene of La Plata; while
_Arvicola_ is said to have occurred both in the Pliocene and Eocene
deposits of the same country.


FAMILY 56.--SPALACIDÆ. (7 Genera, 17 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|1. 2. 3 -- |1. 2. 3 -- | 1 -- 3. 4 |-- -- -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

The Spalacidæ, or mole-rats, have a straggling distribution over the Old
World continents. They are found over nearly the whole of Africa, but only
in the South-east of Europe, and West of Temperate Asia, but appearing
again in North India, Malacca, and South China. _Ellobius_ (1 sp.), is
found in South Russia and South-west Siberia; _Spalax_ (1 sp.), Southern
Russia, West Asia, Hungary, Moldavia, and Greece (Plate II., vol. i. p.
218); _Rhizomys_ (6 sp.), Abyssinia, North India, Malacca, South China;
_Heterocephalus_ (1 sp.), Abyssinia; _Bathyerges_ (= _Orycterus_ 1 sp.),
South Africa; _Georychus_ (6 sp.), South, Central, and East Africa;
_Heliophobus_ (1 sp.), Mozambique.


FAMILY 57.--DIPODIDÆ. (3 Genera, 22 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- -- -- --|1. 2. 3. 4 |-- 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3 -- |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

The Jerboas, or jumping mice, are especially characteristic of the regions
about the eastern extremity of the Mediterranean, being found in South
Russia, the Caspian district, Arabia, Egypt, {232}and Abyssinia; but they
also extend over a large part of Africa, and eastward to India; while
isolated forms occur in North America, and the Cape of Good Hope. _Dipus_ =
_Gerbillus_ (20 sp.), inhabits North and Central Africa, South-East Europe,
and across Temperate Asia to North China, also Afghanistan, India, and
Ceylon; _Pedetes_ (1 sp.), South Africa to Mozambique and Angola; _Jaculus_
= _Meriones_ (1 sp.), North America, from Nova Scotia and Canada, south to
Pennsylvania and west to California and British Columbia (Plate XX., vol.
ii. p. 135).

_Extinct Dipodidæ._--_Dipus_ occurs fossil in the Miocene of the Alps; and
an extinct genus, _Issiodromys_, said to be allied to _Pedetes_ of the Cape
of Good Hope, is from the Pliocene formations of Auvergne in France.


FAMILY 58.--MYOXIDÆ. (1 Genus, 12 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3 -- |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

The Dormice (_Myoxus_), are small rodents found over all the temperate
parts of the Palæarctic region, from Britain to Japan; and also over most
parts of Africa to the Cape, but wanting in India. Some of the African
species have been separated under the name of _Graphidurus_, while those of
Europe and Asia form the sub-genera _Glis_, _Muscardinus_, and _Eliomys_.

_Extinct Myoxidæ._--_Myoxus_ ranges from the Post-pliocene of the Maltese
caverns to the Miocene of Switzerland and the Upper Eocene of France; and
an extinct genus _Brachymys_ is found in the Miocene of Central Europe.


{233}FAMILY 59.--SACCOMYIDÆ. (6 Genera, 33 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- -- -- --|1. 2. 3. 4 |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

The Saccomyidæ, or pouched rats, are almost wholly confined to our second
Nearctic sub-region, comprising the Rocky Mountains and the elevated plains
of Central North America. A few species range from this district as far as
Hudson's Bay on the north, to South Carolina on the east, and to California
on the west, while one genus, doubtfully placed here, goes south as far as
Honduras and Trinidad. The group must therefore be considered to be
pre-eminently characteristic of the Nearctic region.

The genera are,--_Dipodomys_ (5 sp.), North Mexico, California, the east
slope of the Rocky Mountains to the Columbia River, and one species in
South Carolina; _Perognathus_ (6 sp.), North Mexico, California, east slope
of the Rocky Mountains to British Columbia; _Thomomys_ (2 sp.), Upper
Missouri, and Upper Columbia Rivers to Hudson's Bay; _Geomys_ (5 sp.),
North Mexico, and east slope of Rocky Mountains to Nebraska (Plate XIX.,
vol. ii. p. 129); _Saccomys_ (1 sp.), North America, locality unknown;
_Heteromys_ (6 sp.), Mexico, Honduras, and Trinidad. _Geomys_ and
_Thomomys_ constitute a separate family Geomyidæ, of Professor Carus; but I
follow Professor Lilljeborg, who has made a special study of the Order, in
keeping them with this family.

In the Post-Pliocene deposits of Illinois and Nebraska, remains of an
existing species of _Geomys_ have been found.


{234}FAMILY 60.--CASTORIDÆ. (1 Genus, 2 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- -- -- --|1. 2. 3. 4 | 1 -- 3 -- |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

The Beavers, forming the genus _Castor_, consist of two species, the
American (_Castor canadensis_) ranging over the whole of North America from
Labrador to North Mexico; while the European (_Castor fiber_) appears to be
confined to the temperate regions of Europe and Asia, from France to the
River Amoor, over which extensive region it doubtless roamed in prehistoric
times, although now becoming rare in many districts.

_Extinct Castoridæ._--Extinct species of _Castor_ range back from the
Post-pliocene to the Upper Miocene in Europe, and to the Newer Pliocene in
North America. Extinct genera in Europe are, _Trogontherium_, Post-Pliocene
and Pliocene; _Chalicomys_, Older Pliocene; and _Steneofiber_, Upper
Miocene. In North America _Castoroides_ is Post-Pliocene, and
_Palæocastor_, Upper Miocene. The family thus first appears on the same
geological horizon in both Europe and North America.


FAMILY 61.--SCIURIDÆ.--(8 Genera, 180-200 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- 2. 3 -- |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3 -- |1. 2. 3. 4 |-- -- -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

The Squirrel family, comprehending also the marmots and prairie-dogs, are
very widely spread over the earth. They are especially abundant in the
Nearctic, Palæarctic, and Oriental regions, and rather less frequent in the
Ethiopian and Neotropical, in which last region they do not extend south of
Paraguay. They are absent from the West Indian islands, Madagascar, and
Australia, only occurring in Celebes which doubtfully belongs to the
Australian region. The genera are as follows:--

{235}_Sciurus_ (100-120 sp., including the sub-genera Spermosciurus, Xerus,
Macroxus, Rheithrosciurus, and Rhinosciurus), comprises the true squirrels,
and occupies the area of the whole family wherever woods and forests occur.
The approximate number of species in each region is as follows: Nearctic
18, Palæarctic 6, Ethiopian 18, Oriental 50, Australian (Celebes) 5,
Neotropical 30. _Sciuropterus_ (16-19 sp.), comprises the flat-tailed
flying squirrels, which range from Lapland and Finland to North China and
Japan, and southward through India and Ceylon, to Malacca and Java, with a
species in Formosa; while in North America they occur from Labrador to
British Columbia, and south to Minnesota and Southern California.
_Pteromys_ (12 sp.), comprising the round-tailed flying squirrels, is a
more southern form, being confined to the wooded regions of India from the
Western Himalayas to Java and Borneo, with species in Formosa and Japan.
_Tamias_ (5 sp.), the ground squirrels, are chiefly North American, ranging
from Mexico to Puget's Sound on the west coast, and from Virginia to
Montreal on the Atlantic coast; while one species is found over all
northern Asia. _Spermophilus_ (26 sp.), the pouched marmots, are confined
to the Nearctic and Palæarctic regions; in the former extending from the
Arctic Ocean to Mexico and the west coast, but not passing east of Lake
Michigan and the lower Mississippi; in the latter from Silesia through
South Russia to the Amoor and Kamschatka, most abundant in the desert
plains of Tartary and Mongolia. _Arctomys_ (8 sp.), the marmots, are found
in the northern parts of North America as far down as Virginia and Nebraska
to the Rocky Mountains and British Columbia, but not in California; and
from the Swiss Alps eastward to Lake Baikal and Kamschatka, and south as
far as the Himalayas, above 8,000 feet elevation. _Cynomys_ (2 sp.), the
prairie-dogs, inhabit the plains east of the Rocky Mountains from the Upper
Missouri to the Red River and Rio Grande (Plate XIX., vol. ii. p. 129).
_Anomalurus_ (5 sp.), consists of animals which resemble flying-squirrels,
but differ from all other members of the family in some points of internal
structure. They form a very aberrant portion of the Sciuridæ, and,
according to some naturalists, a distinct family. They inhabit West Africa
and the island of Fernando Po.

{236}_Extinct Sciuridæ._--These are tolerably abundant. The genus Sciurus
appears to be a remarkably ancient form, extinct species being found in the
Miocene, and even in the Upper Eocene formations of Europe. _Spermophilus_
goes back to the Upper Miocene; _Arctomys_ to the Newer Pliocene. Extinct
genera are, _Brachymys_, _Lithomys_ and _Plesiarctomys_, from the European
Miocene, the latter said to be intermediate between marmots and squirrels.

In North America, _Sciurus_, _Tamias_, and _Arctomys_ occur in the
Post-pliocene deposits only. The extinct genera are _Ischyromys_, from the
Upper Miocene of Nebraska; _Paramys_, allied to the marmots, and
_Sciuravus_, near the squirrels, from the Eocene of Wyoming.

Here we have unmistakable evidence that the true squirrels (_Sciurus_) are
an Old World type, which has only recently entered North America; and this
is in accordance with the comparative scarcity of this group in South
America, a country so well adapted to them, and their great abundance in
the Oriental region, which, with the Palæarctic, was probably the country
of their origin and early development. The family, however, has been traced
equally far back in Europe and North America, so that we have as yet no
means of determining where it originated.


FAMILY 62--HAPLOODONTIDÆ.--(1 Genus, 2 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- -- -- --|1 -- -- -- |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

The genus _Haploodon_ or _Aplodontia_, consists of two curious rat-like
animals, inhabiting the west coast of America, from the southern part of
British Columbia to the mountains of California. They seem to have
affinities both with the beavers and marmots, and Professor Lilljeborg
constitutes a separate family to receive them.


{237}FAMILY 63.--CHINCHILLIDÆ. (3 Genera, 6 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  1 -- -- -- |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

The Chinchillidæ, including the chinchillas and viscachas, are confined to
the alpine zones of the Andes, from the boundary of Ecuador and Peru to the
southern parts of Chili; and over the Pampas, to the Rio Negro on the
south, and the River Uruguay on the east. _Chinchilla_ (2 sp.), the true
chinchillas, are found in the Andes of Chili and Peru, south of 9° S. lat.,
and from 8,000 to 12,000 feet elevation (Plate XVI. vol. ii. p. 40);
_Lagidium_ (3 sp.), the alpine viscachas, inhabit the loftiest plateaus and
mountains from 11,000 to 16,000 feet, and extend furthest north of any of
the family; while _Lagostomus_ (1 sp.), the viscacha of the Pampas, has the
range above indicated. The family is thus confined within the limits of a
single sub-region.

_Extinct Chinchillidæ._--_Lagostomus_ has been found fossil in the caves of
Brazil, and in the Pliocene deposits of La Plata. The only known extinct
forms of this family are _Amblyrhiza_ and _Loxomylus_, found in
cavern-deposits in the island of Anguilla, of Post-Pliocene age. These are
very interesting, as showing the greater range of this family so recently;
though its absence from North America and Europe indicates that it is a
peculiar development of the Neotropical region.


FAMILY 64.--OCTODONTIDÆ. (8 Genera, 19 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
   1. 2 -- 4 |-- -- -- --|-- 2 -- -- |1 -- -- -- |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

{238}The Octodontidæ include a number of curious and obscure rat-like
animals, mostly confined to the mountains and open plains of South America,
but having a few stragglers in other parts of the world, as will be seen by
our notes on the genera. The most remarkable point in their distribution
is, that two genera are peculiar to the West Indian islands, while no
species of the family inhabits the northern half of South America. The
distribution of the genera is as follows:--_Habrocomus_ (2 sp.), Chili;
_Capromys_ (3 sp.), two of which inhabit Cuba, the third Jamaica (Plate
XVII. vol. ii. p. 67); _Plagiodontia_ (1 sp.), only known from _Hayti_;
_Spalacopus_, including _Schizodon_ (2 sp.), Chili, and east side of
Southern Andes; _Octodon_ (3 sp.), Peru, Bolivia, and Chili; _Ctenomys_ (6
sp.), the tuco-tuco of the Pampas, the Campos of Brazil to Bolivia and
Tierra del Fuego; _Ctenodactylus_ (1 sp.), Tripoli, North Africa;
_Pectinator_ (1 sp.), East Africa, Abyssinia, 4,000 to 5,000 feet.

_Capromys_ and _Plagiodontia_, the two West Indian genera, were classed
among the Echimyidæ by Mr. Waterhouse, but Professor Lilljeborg removes
them to this family.

_Extinct Octodontidæ._--Species of _Ctenomys_ have been found in the
Pliocene of La Plata, and an extinct genus _Megamys_, said to be allied to
_Capromys_, in the Eocene of the same country. In Europe, _Palæomys_ and
_Archæomys_ from the lower Miocene of Germany and France, are also said to
be allied to _Capromys_.


FAMILY 65.--ECHIMYIDÆ. (10 Genera, 30 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
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  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  1. 2 -- -- |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --| 1 -- 3 -- |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
             |           |           |           |           |


The Echimyidæ, or spiny rats, are a family, chiefly South American, of
which the Coypu, a large beaver-like water-rat from Peru and Chili is the
best known. Two of the genera are found in South Africa, but all the rest
inhabit the continent of South America, East of the Andes, none being yet
known north {239}of Panama. The genera are as follows:--_Dactylomys_ (2
sp.), Guiana and Brazil; _Cercomys_ (1 sp.), Central Brazil; _Lasiuromys_
(1 sp.), San Paulo, Brazil; _Petromys_ (1 sp.), South Africa; _Myopotamus_
(1 sp.), the coypu, on the East side of the Andes from Peru to 42° S. lat.,
on the West side from 33° to 48° S. lat.; _Carterodon_ (1 sp.), Minaes
Geraes, Brazil; _Aulacodes_ (1. sp.), West and South Africa; _Mesomys_ (1
sp.), Borba on the Amazon; _Echimys_ (11 sp.), from Guiana and the
Ecuadorian Andes to Paraguay; _Loncheres_ (10 sp.), New Granada to Brazil.

_Fossil and Extinct Echimyidæ._--The genus _Carterodon_ was established on
bones found in the Brazilian caves, and it was several years afterwards
that specimens were obtained showing the animal to be a living species.
Extinct species of _Myopotamus_ and _Loncheres_ have also been found in
these caves, with the extinct genera _Lonchophorus_ and _Phyllomys_.

No remains of this family have been discovered in North America; but in the
Miocene and Upper Eocene deposits of France there are many species of an
extinct genus _Theridomys_, which is said to be allied to this group or to
the next (Cercolabidæ). _Aulacodon_, from the Upper Miocene of Germany, is
allied to the West African _Aulacodes_; and some other remains from the
lower Miocene of Auvergne, are supposed to belong to _Echimys_.


FAMILY 66.--CERCOLABIDÆ. (3 Genera, 13-15 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
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  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- 2. 3 -- |1. 2. 3. 4 |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

The Cercolabidæ, or arboreal porcupines, are a group of rodents entirely
confined to America, where they range from the northern limit of trees on
the Mackenzie River, to the southern limit of forests in Paraguay. There is
however an intervening district, the Southern United States, from which
they are absent. _Erethizon_ (3 sp.), the Canadian porcupine, is found
throughout {240}Canada and as far south as Northern Pennsylvania, and west
to the Mississippi (Plate XX., vol. ii. p. 135); an allied species
inhabiting the west coast from California to Alaska, and inland to the head
of the Missouri River; while a third is found in the north-western part of
South America; _Cercolabes_ (12 sp.), ranges from Mexico and Guatemala to
Paraguay, on the eastern side of the Andes; _Chætomys_ (1 sp.), North
Brazil.

_Extinct Cercolabidæ._--A large species of _Cercolabes_ has been found in
the Brazilian caves, but none have been discovered in North America or
Europe. We may conclude therefore that this is probably a South American
type, which has thence spread into North America at a comparatively recent
epoch. The peculiar distribution of _Cercolabes_ may be explained by
supposing it to have migrated northwards along the west coast by means of
the wooded slopes of the Rocky Mountains. It could then only reach the
Eastern States by way of the forest region of the great lakes, and then
move southward. This it may be now doing, but it has not yet reached the
Southern States of Eastern North America.


_Family_ 67.--HYSTRICIDÆ. (3 Genera, 12 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
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  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- 2 -- -- |1. 2. 3 -- |1. 2. 3. 4 |-- -- -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

The true Porcupines have a very compact and well-marked distribution, over
the whole of the Oriental and Ethiopian regions (except Madagascar), and
the second Palæarctic sub-region. There is some confusion as to their
sub-division into genera, but the following are those most usually
admitted:--_Hystrix_ (5 sp.), South Europe to the Cape of Good Hope, all
India, Ceylon, and South China; _Atherura_ (5 sp.), "brush-tailed
porcupines," inhabit West Africa, India, to Siam, Sumatra, and Borneo;
_Acanthion_ (2 sp.), Nepal and Malacca, to Sumatra, Borneo, and Java.

_Extinct Hystricidæ._--Several extinct species of _Hystrix_ have {241}been
found in the Pliocene and Miocene deposits of Europe, and one in the
Pliocene of Nebraska in North America.

FAMILY 68.--CAVIIDÆ. (6 Genera, 28 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  1. 2. 3. 4 |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

The Cavies and Agoutis were placed in distinct families by Mr. Waterhouse,
in which he is followed by Professor Carus, but they have been united by
Professor Lilljeborg, and without pretending to decide which classification
is the more correct I follow the latter, because there is a striking
external resemblance between the two groups, and they have an identical
distribution in the Neotropical region, and with one exception are all
found east of the Andes. _Dasyprocta_ (9 sp.), the agouti, ranges from
Mexico to Paraguay, one species inhabiting the small West Indian islands of
St. Vincent, Lucia, and Grenada; _Cælogenys_ (2 sp.), the paca, is found
from Guatemala to Paraguay, and a second species (somewhat doubtful) in
Eastern Peru; _Hydrochoerus_ (1 sp.), the capybara inhabits the banks of
rivers from Guayana to La Plata; _Cavia_ (9 sp.), the guinea-pigs, Brazil
to the Straits of Magellan, and one species west of the Andes at Yça Peru;
_Kerodon_ (6 sp.), Brazil and Peru to Magellan; _Dolichotis_ (1 sp,), the
Patagonian cavy, from Mendoza to 48° 30' south latitude, on sterile plains.

_Extinct Caviidæ._--_Hydrochoerus_, _Cælogenys_, _Dasyprocta_, and
_Kerodon_, have occurred abundantly in the caves of Brazil, and the
last-named genus in the Pliocene of La Plata. _Hydrochoerus_ has been found
in the Post-Pliocene deposits of South Carolina. _Cavia_ and _Dasyprocta_
are said to have been found in the Miocene of Switzerland and France. No
well-marked extinct genera of this family have been recorded.

If the determination of the above-mentioned fossil species of _Cavia_ and
_Dasyprocta_ are correct, it would show that this now {242}exclusively
South American family is really derived from Europe, where it has long been
extinct.


FAMILY 69.--LAGOMYIDÆ. (1 Genus, 11 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
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  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- -- -- --| -- 2 -- 4 |-- -- 3 -- |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

The Lagomyidæ, or pikas, are small alpine and desert animals which range
from the south of the Ural Mountains to Cashmere and the Himalayas, at
heights of 11,000 to 14,000 feet, and northward to the Polar regions and
the north-eastern extremity of Siberia. They just enter the eastern
extremity of Europe as far as the Volga, but with this exception, seem
strictly limited to the third Palæarctic sub-region. In America they are
confined to the Rocky Mountains from about 42° to 60° north latitude.

_Extinct Lagomyidæ._--Extinct species of _Lagomys_ have occurred in the
southern parts of Europe, from the Post-Pliocene to the Miocene formations.
_Titanomys_, an extinct genus, is found in the Miocene of France and
Germany.


FAMILY 70.--LEPORIDÆ. (1 Genus, 35-40 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- 2. 3 -- |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 | 1 -- 3 -- |1. 2. 3 -- |-- -- -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

The Hares and Rabbits are especially characteristic of the Nearctic and
Palæarctic, but are also thinly scattered over the Ethiopian and Oriental
regions. In the Neotropical region they are very scarce, only one species
being found in South America, in the mountains of Brazil and various parts
of the Andes, while one or two of the North American species extend into
Mexico {243}and Guatemala. In the Nearctic region, they are most abundant
in the central and western parts of the continent, and they extend to the
Arctic Ocean and to Greenland. They are found in every part of the
Palæarctic region, from Ireland to Japan; three species range over all
India to Ceylon, and others occur in Hainan, Formosa, South China, and the
mountains of Pegu; the Ethiopian region has only four or five species,
mostly in the southern extremity and along the East coast. An Indian
species is now wild in some parts of Java, but it has probably been
introduced.

_Extinct Leporidæ._--Species of _Lepus_ occur in the Post-Pliocene and
Newer Pliocene of France; but only in the Post-Pliocene of North America,
and the caves of Brazil.


_General Remarks on the Distribution of the Rodentia._

With the exception of the Australian region and Madagascar, where Muridæ
alone have been found, this order is one of the most universally and evenly
distributed over the entire globe. Of the sixteen families which compose
it, the Palæarctic region has 10; the Ethiopian, Nearctic, and Neotropical,
each 9; and the Oriental only 5. These figures are very curious and
suggestive. We know that the rodentia are exceedingly ancient, since some
of the living genera date back to the Eocene period; and some ancestral
types might thus have reached the remote South American and South African
lands at the time of one of their earliest unions with the northern
continents. In both these countries the rodents diverged into many special
forms, and being small animals easily able to conceal themselves, have
largely survived the introduction of higher Mammalia. In the Palæarctic and
Nearctic regions, their small size and faculty of hibernation may have
enabled them to maintain themselves during those great physical changes
which resulted in the extermination or banishment of so many of the larger
and more highly organised Mammalia, to which, in these regions, they now
bear a somewhat inordinate proportion. The reasons why they are now less
numerous and varied in the Oriental region, may be of two kinds. The
comparatively small area of that region and its {244}uniformity of climate,
would naturally lead to less development of such a group as this, than in
the vastly more extensive and varied and almost equally luxuriant
Palæarctic region of Eocene and Miocene times; while on the other hand the
greater number of the smaller Carnivora in the tropics during the Pliocene
and Post-Pliocene epochs, would be a constant check upon the increase of
these defenceless animals, and no doubt exterminate a number of them.

The Rodents thus offer a striking contrast to the Ungulates; and these two
great orders afford an admirable illustration of the different way in which
physical and organic changes may affect large and small herbivorous
Mammalia; often leading to the extinction of the former, while favouring
the comparative development of the latter.


_Order XI.--EDENTATA._

FAMILY 71.--BRADYPODIDÆ. (3 Genera, 12 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
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  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- 2. 3 -- |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

The Sloths are a remarkable group of arboreal mammals, strictly confined to
the great forests of the Neotropical region, from Guatemala to Brazil and
Eastern Bolivia. None are found west of the Andes, nor do they appear to
extend into Paraguay, or beyond the Tropic of Capricorn on the east coast.
The genera as defined by Dr. Gray in 1871 are:--_Choloepus_ (2 sp.),
"Sloths with two toes on fore limbs, sexes alike," Costa Rica to Brazil;
_Bradypus_ (2 sp.), "Sloths with three toes on fore limbs, sexes alike,"
Central Brazil, Amazon to Rio de Janeiro; _Arctopithecus_ (8 sp.), "Sloths
with three toes on fore limbs, males with a coloured patch on the back,"
Costa Rica to Brazil and Eastern Bolivia (Plate XIV., vol ii. p. 24).

{245}_Extinct Bradypodidæ._--In the caves of Brazil are found three extinct
genera of Sloths--_Cælodon_, _Sphenodon_, and _Ochotherium_. More distantly
allied, and probably forming distinct families, are _Scelidotherium_ and
_Megatherium_, from the caves of Brazil and the Pliocene deposits of La
Plata and Patagonia.


FAMILY 72.--MANIDIDÆ. (1 Genus, 8 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
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  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|1. 2. 3 -- |1. 2. 3. 4 |-- -- -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

The Manididæ, or scaly ant-eaters, are the only Edentate Mammalia found out
of America, They are spread over the Ethiopian and Oriental regions; in the
former from Sennaar to West Africa and the Cape; in the latter from the
Himalayas to Ceylon, and Eastward to Borneo and Java, as well as to South
China, as far as Amoy, Hainan, and Formosa. They have been sub-divided,
according to differences in the scaly covering, into five groups, _Manis_,
_Phatagin_, _Smutsia_, _Pholidotus_ and _Pangolin_, the three former being
confined to Africa, the last common to Africa and the East, while
_Pholidotus_ seems confined to Java. It is doubtful if these divisions are
more than sub-genera, and as such they are treated here.

No extinct species referable to this family are yet known.


FAMILY 73.--DASYPODIDÆ. (6 Genera, 17 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  1. 2. 3 -- |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

The Dasypodidæ, or armadillos, are a highly characteristic Neotropical
family, ranging from the northern extremity of the region {246}in south
Texas, to 50° south latitude on the plains of Patagonia. The distribution
of the genera is as follows:--_Tatusia_ (5 sp.), has the range of the whole
family from the lower Rio Grande of Texas to Patagonia; _Prionodontes_ (1
sp.), the giant armadillo, Surinam to Paraguay; _Dasypus_ (4 sp.), Brazil
to Bolivia, Chili, and La Plata; _Xenurus_ (3 sp.), Guiana to Paraguay;
_Tolypeutes_ (2 sp.), the three-banded armadillos, Bolivia and La Plata;
_Chlamydophorus_ (2 sp.), near Mendoza in La Plata, and Santa Cruz de la
Sierra in Bolivia.

_Extinct Armadillos._--Many species of _Dasypus_ and _Xenurus_ have been
found in the caves of Brazil, together with many extinct
genera--_Hoplophorus_, _Euryodon_, _Heterodon_, _Pachytherium_, and
_Chlamydotherium_, the latter as large as a rhinoceros. _Eutatus_, allied
to _Tolypeutes_, is from the Pliocene deposits of La Plata.


FAMILY 74.--ORYCTEROPODIDÆ. (1 Genus, 2 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
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  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --| 1 -- 3 -- |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

The Aard-vark, or Cape ant-eater (_Orycteropus capensis_) is a curious form
of Edentate animal, with the general form of an ant-eater, but with the
bristly skin and long obtuse snout of a pig. A second species inhabits the
interior of North-East Africa and Senegal, that of the latter country
perhaps forming a third species (Plate IV. vol. i. p. 261).

_Extinct Orycteropodidæ._--The genus _Macrotherium_, remains of which occur
in the Miocene deposits of France, Germany, and Greece, is allied to this
group, though perhaps forming a separate family. The same may be said of
the _Ancylotherium_, a huge animal found only in the Miocene deposits of
Greece.


{247}FAMILY 75.--MYRMECOPHAGIDÆ. (3 Genera, 5 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  1. 2. 3 -- |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

The true ant-eaters are strictly confined to the wooded portions of the
Neotropical region, ranging from Honduras to Paraguay on the East side of
the Andes. The three genera now generally admitted are: _Myrmecophaga_ (1
sp.), the great ant-eater, Northern Brazil to Paraguay; _Tamandua_ (2 sp.),
4-toed ant-eaters, Guatemala, Ecuador to Paraguay (Plate XIV. vol. ii. p.
24); _Cyclothurus_ (2 sp.), 2-toed ant-eaters, Honduras and Costa Rica to
Brazil.

_Extinct Ant-eaters._--The only extinct form of this family seems to be the
_Glossotherium_, found in the caves of Brazil, and the Tertiary deposits of
Uruguay. It is said to be allied to _Myrmecophaga_ and _Manis_.


_General Remarks on the Distribution of the Edentata._

These singular animals are almost confined to South America, where they
constitute an important part of the fauna. In Africa, two family types are
scantily represented, and one of these extends over all the Oriental
region. In Pliocene and Post-Pliocene times the Edentata were wonderfully
developed in South America, many of them being huge animals, rivalling in
bulk, the rhinoceros and hippopotamus. As none of these forms resemble
those of Africa, while the only European fossil Edentata are of African
type, it seems probable that South Africa, like South America, was a centre
of development for this group of mammalia; and it is in the highest degree
probable that, should extensive fluviatile deposits of Pliocene or Miocene
age be discovered in the former country, an extinct fauna, not less strange
and grotesque than that of South America, will be brought to {248}light.
From the fact that so few remains of this order occur in Europe, and those
of one family type, and in Miocene deposits only, it seems a fair
conclusion, that this represents an incursion of an ancient Ethiopian form
into Europe analogous to that which invaded North America from the south
during the Post-Pliocene epoch. The extension of the Manididæ, or scaly
ant-eaters, over tropical Asia may have occurred at the same, or a somewhat
later epoch.

For a summary of the Numerous Edentata of North and South America which
belong to extinct families, see vol. i. p. 147.


_Order XII.--MARSUPIALIA._

FAMILY 76.--DIDELPHYIDÆ. (3 Genera, 22 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  1. 2. 3 -- | 1 -- 3 -- |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

The Didelphyidæ, or true opossums, range throughout all the wooded
districts of the Neotropical region from the southern boundary of Texas to
the River La Plata, and on the west coast to 42° S. Lat., where a species
of _Didelphys_ was obtained by Professor Cunningham. One species only is
found in the Nearctic region, extending from Florida to the Hudson River,
and west to the Missouri. The species named _Didelphys californica_
inhabits Mexico, and only extends into the southern extremity of
California. The species are most numerous in the great forest region of
Brazil, and they have been recently found to the west of the Andes near
Guayaquil, as well as in Chili. The exact number of species is very
doubtful, owing to the difficulty of determining them from dried skins. All
but two belong to the genus _Didelphys_, which has the range above given
for the family (Plate XIV., vol. ii. p. 24); _Chironectes_ (1 sp.), the
yapock or water opossum, inhabits Guiana and Brazil; _Hyracodon_ (1 sp.),
is a small {249}rat-like animal discovered by Mr. Fraser in Ecuador, and
which may perhaps belong to another family.

_Extinct Didelphyidæ._--No less than seven species of _Didelphys_ have been
found in the caves of Brazil, but none in the older formations. In North
America the living species only, has been found in Post-Pliocene deposits.
In Europe, however, many species of small opossums, now classed as a
distinct genus, _Peratherium_, have been found in various Tertiary deposits
from the Upper Miocene to the Upper Eocene.

We have here a sufficient proof that the American Marsupials have nothing
to do with those of Australia, but were derived from Europe, where their
ancestors lived during a long series of ages.


FAMILY 77.--DASYURIDÆ. (10 Genera, 30 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|1. 2 -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

The Dasyuridæ, or native cats, are a group of carnivorous or insectivorous
marsupials, ranging from the size of a wolf to that of a mouse. They are
found all over Australia and Tasmania, as well as in New Guinea and the
adjacent Papuan islands. Several new genera and species have recently been
described by Mr. G. Krefft, of the Sydney Museum, and are included in the
following enumeration. _Phasgogale_ (3 sp.), New Guinea, West, East, and
South Australia; _Antechinomys_ (1 sp.), Interior of South Australia;
_Antechinus_ (12 sp.), Aru Islands, all Australia, and Tasmania;
_Chætocercus_ (1 sp.), South Australia; _Dactylopsila_ (1 sp.), Aru Islands
and North Australia; _Podabrus_ (5 sp.), West, East, and South Australia,
and Tasmania; _Myoictis_ (1 sp.), Aru Islands; _Sarcophilus_ (1 sp.),
Tasmania; _Dasyurus_ (4 sp.), North, East, and South, Australia, and
Tasmania; _Thylacinus_ (1 sp.), Tasmania (Plate XI., vol. i. p. 439).

Extinct species of _Dasyurus_ and _Thylacinus_ have been found in the
Post-Pliocene deposits of Australia.


{250}FAMILY 78.--MYRMECOBIIDÆ. (1 Genus, 1 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- 2 -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

The only representative of this family is the _Myrmecobius fasciatus_, or
native ant-eater, a small bushy-tailed squirrel-like animal, found in the
South and West of Australia.


FAMILY 79.--PERAMELIDÆ. (3 Genera, 10 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|1. 2 -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

The Peramelidæ, or bandicoots, are small insectivorous Marsupials, having
something of the form of the kangaroos. They range over the whole of
Australia and Tasmania, as well as the Papuan Islands. The genus
_Perameles_ (8 sp.), has the range of the family, one species being found
in New Guinea and the Aru Islands (Plate XI., vol. i. p. 440); _Peragalea_
(1 sp.), inhabits West Australia only; and _Choeropus_ (1 sp.), a beautiful
little animal with something of the appearance of a mouse-deer, is found in
both South, East, and West Australia.


FAMILY 80.--MACROPODIDÆ. (10 Genera, 56 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|1. 2 -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

{251}The well-known Kangaroos are the most largely developed family of
Marsupials, and they appear to be the form best adapted for the present
conditions of life in Australia, over every part of which they range. One
genus of true terrestrial kangaroos (_Dorcopsis_), inhabits the Papuan
Islands, as do also the curious tree kangaroos (_Dendrolagus_) which,
without much apparent modification of form, are able to climb trees and
feed upon the foliage. The genera, as established by Mr. Waterhouse, are as
follows: _Macropus_ (4 sp.), West, South, and East Australia, and Tasmania
(Plate XII., vol. i. p. 441); _Osphranter_ (5 sp.), all Australia;
_Halmaturus_ (18 sp.), all Australia and Tasmania; _Petrogale_ (7 sp.), all
Australia; _Dendrolagus_ (2 sp.), New Guinea (Plate X., vol. i. p. 414);
_Dorcopsis_ (2 sp.) Aru and Mysol Islands, and New Guinea; _Onychogalea_ (3
sp.), Central Australia; _Lagorchestes_ (5 sp.), North, West, and South
Australia; _Bettongia_ (6 sp.), West, South, and East, Australia, and
Tasmania; _Hypsiprymnus_ (4 sp.), West and East Australia, and Tasmania.

_Extinct Macropodidæ._--Many species of the genera _Macropus_ and
_Hypsiprymnus_ have been found in the cave-deposits and other Post-Tertiary
strata of Australia. Among the extinct genera are _Protemnodon_ and
_Sthenurus_, which are more allied to the tree-kangaroos of New Guinea than
to living Australian species; the gigantic _Diprotodon_, a kangaroo nearly
as large as an elephant; and _Nototherium_, of smaller size.


FAMILY 81.--PHALANGISTIDÆ. (8 Genera, 27 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|1. 2 -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

The Phalangistidæ, or phalangers, are one of the most varied and
interesting groups of Marsupials, being modified in a variety of ways for
an arboreal life. We have the clumsy-looking tail-less koala, or native
sloth; the prehensile-tailed opossum-like phalangers; the beautiful flying
oppossums, so closely resembling {252}in form the flying squirrels of North
America and India, but often no larger than a mouse; the beautiful
dormouse-like _Dromiciæ_, one species of which is only 2¼ inches long or
less than the harvest-mouse; and the little _Tarsipes_, a true honey-sucker
with an extensile tongue, and of the size of a mouse. These extreme
modifications and specializations within the range of a single family, are
sufficient to indicate the great antiquity of the Australian fauna; and
they render it almost certain that the region it occupied was once much
more extensive, so as to supply the variety of conditions and the struggle
between competing forms of life, which would be required to develop so many
curiously modified forms, of which we now probably see only a remnant.

The Phalangistidæ not only range over all Australia and Tasmania, but over
the whole of the Austro-Malayan sub-region from New Guinea to the Moluccas
and Celebes. The distribution of the genera is as follows:--_Phascolarctos_
(1 sp.), the koala, East Australia; _Phalangista_ (5 sp.), East, South, and
West Australia, and Tasmania; _Cuscus_ (8 sp.), woolly phalangers, New
Guinea, North Australia, Timor, Moluccas and Celebes; _Petaurista_ (1 sp.)
large flying phalanger, East Australia; _Belideus_ (5 sp.), flying
opossums, South, East, and North Australia, New Guiana and Moluccas;
_Acrobata_ (1 sp.), pigmy flying opossum, South and East Australia;
_Dromicia_ (5 sp.), dormouse-phalangers, West and East Australia, and
Tasmania; _Tarsipes_ (1 sp.), West Australia.

_Thylacoleo_, a large extinct marsupial of doubtful affinities, seems to be
somewhat intermediate between this family and the kangaroos. Professor Owen
considered it to be carnivorous, and able to prey upon the huge
_Diprotodon_, while Professor Flower and Mr. Gerard Krefft, believe that it
was herbivorous.


FAMILY 82.--PHASCOLOMYIDÆ. (1 Genus, 3 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- 2 -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

{253}The Wombats are tail-less, terrestrial, burrowing animals, about the
size of a badger, but feeding on roots and grass. They inhabit South
Australia and Tasmania (Plate XI. vol. i. p. 439).

An extinct wombat, as large as a tapir, has been found in the Australian
Pliocene deposits.


_General Remarks on the Distribution of Marsupialia._

We have here the most remarkable case, of an extensive and highly varied
order being confined to one very limited area on the earth's surface, the
only exception being the opossums in America. It has been already shown
that these are comparatively recent immigrants, which have survived in that
country long after they disappeared in Europe. As, however, no other form
but that of the Didelphyidæ occurs there during the Tertiary period, we
must suppose that it was at a far more remote epoch that the ancestral
forms of all the other Marsupials entered Australia; and the curious little
mammals of the Oolite and Trias, offer valuable indications as to the time
when this really took place.

A notice of these extinct marsupials of the secondary period will be found
at vol. i. p. 159.


_Order XIII.--MONOTREMATA._

FAMILY 83.--ORNITHORHYNCHIDÆ. (1 Genus, 1 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- 2 -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

The _Ornithorhynchus_, or duck-billed Platypus, one of the most remarkable
and isolated of existing mammalia, is found in East and South Australia,
and Tasmania.


{254}FAMILY 84.--ECHIDNIDÆ. (1 Genus, 2 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- 2 -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

The _Echidna_, or Australian Hedgehog, although quite as remarkable in
internal structure as the Ornithorhynchus, is not so peculiar in external
appearance, having very much the aspect of a hedgehog or spiny armadillo.
The two species of this genus are very closely allied; one inhabits East
and South Australia, the other Tasmania.

_Extinct Echidnidæ._--Remains of a very large fossil species of _Echidna_
have lately (1868) been discovered at Darling Downs in Australia.


_Remark on the Distribution of the Monotremata._

This order is the lowest and most anomalous of the mammalia, and nothing
resembling it has been found among the very numerous extinct animals
discovered in any other part of the world than Australia.




{255}CHAPTER XVIII.

THE DISTRIBUTION OF THE FAMILIES AND GENERA OF BIRDS.



_Order I.--PASSERES._

FAMILY 1.--TURDIDÆ. (21 Genera, 205 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3 --
             |           |           |           |           |

The extensive and familiar group of Thrushes ranges over every region and
sub-region, except New Zealand. It abounds most in the North Temperate
regions, and has its least development in the Australian region. Thrushes
are among the most perfectly organized of birds, and it is to this cause,
perhaps, as well as to their omnivorous diet, that they have been enabled
to establish themselves on a number of remote islands. Peculiar species of
true thrush are found in Norfolk Island, and in the small Lord Howes'
Island nearer Australia; the Island of St. Thomas in the Gulf of Guinea has
a peculiar species; while the Mid-Atlantic island Tristan d'Acunha,--one of
the most remote and isolated spots on the globe,--has a peculiarly modified
form of thrush. Several of the smaller West Indian Islands have also
peculiar species or genera of thrushes.

The family is of somewhat uncertain extent, blending insensibly with the
warblers (Sylviidæ) as well as with the Indian bulbuls {256}(Pycnonotidæ),
while one genus, usually placed in it (_Myiophonus_) seems to agree better
with _Enicurus_ among the Cinclidæ. The genera here admitted into the
thrush family are the following, the numbers prefixed to some of the genera
indicating their position in Gray's _Hand List of the Genera and Species of
Birds_:--

(1143) _Brachypteryx_ (8 sp.), Nepaul to Java and Ceylon (this may belong
to the Timaliidæ); _Turdus_ (100 sp.) has the range of the whole family,
abounding in the Palæarctic, Oriental and Neotropical regions, while it is
less plentiful in the Nearctic and Ethiopian, and very scarce in the
Australian; (934) _Oreocincla_ (11 sp.), Palæarctic and Oriental regions,
Australia and Tasmania; (942) _Rhodinocichla_ (1 sp.), Venezuela; (946)
_Melanoptila_ (1 sp.), Honduras; (947 948) _Catharus_ (10 sp.) Mexico to
Equador; (949 950) _Margarops_ (4 sp.), Hayti and Porto Rico to St. Lucia;
(951) _Nesocichla_ (1 sp.), Tristan d'Acunha; (952) _Geocichla_ (8 sp.),
India to Formosa and Celebes, Timor and North Australia; (954 955)
_Monticola_ (8 sp.), Central Europe to South Africa and to China,
Philippine Islands, Gilolo and Java; (956) _Orocætes_ (3 sp.), Himalayas
and N. China; _Zoothera_ (3 sp.) Himalayas, Aracan, Java, and Lombok;
_Mimus_ (20 sp.) Canada to Patagonia, West Indies and Galapagos; (962)
_Oreoscoptes_ (1 sp.), Rocky Mountains and Mexico; (963) _Melanotis_ (2
sp.), South Mexico and Guatemala; (964) _Galeoscoptes_ (1 sp.), Canada and
Eastern United States to Cuba and Panama; (965 966) _Mimocichla_ (5 sp.),
Greater Antilles; (967 968) _Harporhynchus_ (7 sp.), North America, from
the great lakes to Mexico; _Cinclocerthia_ (3 sp.), Lesser Antilles; (970)
_Rhamphocinclus_ (1 sp.), Lesser Antilles; _Chætops_ (3 sp.), South Africa;
_Cossypha_ = _Bessonornis_ (15 sp.) Ethiopian region and Palestine.


FAMILY 2.--SYLVIIDÆ. (74 Genera, 640 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4
             |           |           |           |           |

{257}This immense family, comprising all the birds usually known as
"warblers," is, as here constituted, of almost universal distribution. Yet
it is so numerous and preponderant over the whole Eastern Hemisphere, that
it may be well termed an Old-World group; only two undoubted genera with
very few species belonging to the Nearctic region, while two or three
others whose position is somewhat doubtful, are found in California and the
Neotropical region.

Canon Tristram, who has paid great attention to this difficult group, has
kindly communicated to me a MSS. arrangement of the genera and species,
which, with a very few additions and alterations, I implicitly follow. He
divides the Sylviidæ into seven sub-families, as follows:

1. Drymoecinæ (15 genera, 194 sp.), confined to the Old World and
Australia, and especially abundant in the three Tropical regions. 2.
Calamoherpinæ (11 genera, 75 sp.), has the same general distribution as the
last, but is scarce in the Australian and abundant in the Palæarctic
region; 3. Phylloscopinæ (11 genera, 139 sp.), has the same distribution as
the entire family, but is most abundant in the Oriental and Palæarctic
regions. 4. Sylviinæ (6 genera, 33 sp.), most abundant in the Palæarctic
region, very scarce in the Australian and Oriental regions, absent from
America. 5. Ruticillinæ (10 genera, 50 sp.); entirely absent from America
and Australia; abounds in the Oriental and Palæarctic regions. 6.
Saxicolinæ (12 genera, 126 sp.), absent from America (except the extreme
north-west), abundant in the Oriental region and moderately so in the
Palæarctic, Ethiopian, and Australian. 7. Accentorinæ (6 genera, 21 sp.),
absent from the Ethiopian region and South America, most abundant in
Australia, one small genus (_Sialia_), in North America.

The distribution of the several genera arranged under these sub-families,
is as follows:

1. DRYMOECINÆ.--(736) Orthotomus (13 sp.), all the Oriental region; (737)
_Prinia_ (11 sp.), all the Oriental region; (738 740 742 746) _Drymoeca_
(83 sp.), Ethiopian and Oriental regions, most abundant in the former; (743
to 745 and 749 to 752) _Cisticola_ (32 sp.), Ethiopian and Oriental
regions, with South Europe, China {258}and Australia; (741) _Suya_ (5 sp.),
Nepal to South China and Formosa; (773) _Sphenæacus_ (7 sp.), Australia,
New Zealand, and Chatham Island, with one species (?) in South Africa; (770
772) _Megalurus_ (4 sp.), Central India to Java and Timor; (774 775)
_Poodytes_ (2 sp.), Australia; (766) _Amytis_ (3 sp.), Australia; (768)
_Sphenura_ (4 sp.), Australia; (764) _Malurus_ (16 sp.), Australia and
Tasmania; (762 763) _Chthonicola_ (3 sp.), Australia; (761) _Calamanthus_
(2 sp.), Australia and Tasmania; (759) _Camaroptera_ (5 sp.), Africa and
Fernando Po; (753) _Apalis_ (1 sp.), South Africa.

2. CALAMOHERPINÆ.--(777 to 781 and sp. 2968) _Acrocephalus_ (35 sp.),
Palæarctic, Ethiopian, continental part of Oriental region, Moluccas,
Caroline Islands, and Australia; (782 818) _Dumeticola_ (4 sp.), Nepal to
East Thibet, Central Asia, high regions; (783 790) _Potamodus_ (3 sp.),
Central and South Europe, and East Thibet; (789 and sp. 2969) _Lusciniola_
(1 sp.), South Europe; (791 792) _Locustella_ (8 sp.), Palæarctic region to
Central India and China; (739) _Horites_ (5 sp.), Nepal to North-west China
and Formosa; (784-786) _Bradyptetus_ = _Cettia_ (10 sp.), South Europe,
Palestine, and South Africa; (747 748) _Catriscus_ (3 sp.), Tropical and
South Africa; _Bernieria_ (2 sp.), and (756) _Ellisia_ (3 sp.), Madagascar;
(832 a) _Mystacornis_ (1 sp.), Madagascar; (787) _Calamodus_ (2 sp.),
Europe and Palestine; (734) _Tatare_ (2 sp.) Samoa to Marquesas Islands.

3. PHYLLOSCOPINÆ.[5]--_Phylloscopus_ (18 sp.), all Palæarctic and Oriental
regions to Batchian; (757 758 820) _Eremomela_ (16 sp.), Tropical and South
Africa; (754) _Eroessa_ (1 sp.), Madagascar; [5]_Hypolais_ (12 sp.),
Palæarctic region, all India, Timor, North and South Africa; (815 816 819)
_Abrornis_ (26 sp.), Oriental region; (814) _Reguloides_ (4 sp.),
Palæarctic and continental Oriental regions; (822) _Sericornis_ (7 sp.),
Australia and Tasmania (823 824 1451) _Acanthiza_ (14 sp.), Australia and
New Caledonia; (821) _Regulus_ (7 sp.), all Palæarctic and Nearctic regions
and south to Guatemala; (890) _Polioptila_ (13 sp,); Paraguay to New
Mexico; (825) _Gerygone_ (22 sp.), Australia, Papuan and Timor groups, New
Zealand and Norfolk Island.

{259}4. SYLVIINÆ.--(793) _Aedon_ (9 sp.), Spain and Palestine, to East and
South Africa; (858) _Drymodes_ (2 sp.), Australia; (800) _Pyrophthalma_ (2
sp.), South Europe and Palestine; (801) _Melizophilus_ (3 sp.), South-west
Europe and North-east Africa; (802 804) _Sylvia_ = _Alsecus_ (8 sp.),
Palæarctic region to India and Ceylon, and North-east Africa; (806 809)
_Curruca_ (7 sp.), Central and South Europe, Madeira, Palestine, Central
India, North-east Africa, and South Africa.

5. RUTICILLINÆ.--(827) _Luscinia_ (2 sp.), West Asia, Europe, North Africa;
(839) _Cyanecula_ (3 sp.), Europe, North-east Africa, India, Ceylon, and
China; (840) _Calliope_ (2 sp.), North Asia, Himalayas, Central India, and
China; (838) _Erithacus_ (3 sp.), Europe, North-east Africa, Japan, and
North China; (828 830 837) _Ruticilla_ (20 sp.), Palæarctic and Oriental
regions to Senegal and Abyssinia, and east to Timor; abounds in Himalayas;
(829) _Chæmarrhornis_ (1 sp.), Himalayas; (831 832 834) _Larvivora_ (10
sp.), Oriental region and Japan; (833) _Notodela_ (3 sp.), Himalayas, Pegu,
Formosa, Java; (835) _Tarsiger_ (2 sp.), Nepal; (841) _Grandala_ (1 sp.),
High Himalayas of Nepal.

6. SAXICOLINÆ.--(975) _Copsychus_ (7 sp.), all Oriental region and
Madagascar; (976) _Kittacincla_ (5 sp.), Oriental region to {260}Ceylon,
Andaman Islands, Formosa, and Borneo; (794-799) _Thamnobia_ (10 sp.),
Ethiopian region and India to foot of Himalayas; (977) _Gervasia_ (2 sp.),
Madagascar and Seychelle Islands; (845 847) _Dromolæa_ (18 sp.), Africa to
South Europe, Palestine, North-west India, and North China; (842 843 846)
_Saxicola_ (36 sp.), Africa, North-west India, whole Palæarctic region,
migrating to Alaska and Greenland; (848 849) _Oreicola_ (5 sp.), Timor,
Lombok, and Burmah; (844) _Cercomela_ (6 sp.), North-east Africa to
North-west India; (850) _Pratincola_ (15 sp.), Europe, Ethiopian, and
Oriental regions to Celebes and Timor; (917) _Ephthianura_ (3 sp.),
Australia; (851-856) _Petroeca_ (17 sp.), Australian region, Papua to New
Zealand, Chatham and Auckland Islands, and Samoa; (857) _Miro_ (2 sp.), New
Zealand (doubtfully placed here).

7. ACCENTORINÆ.--(771) _Cinclorhamphus_ (2 sp.), Australia; (860) _Origma_
(1 sp.), East Australia; (859) _Sialia_ (8 sp.), United States to
Guatemala; (861) _Accentor_ (12 sp.), Palæarctic region to Himalayas and
North-west China; (703) _Orthonyx_ (4 sp.), East Australia and New Zealand
(doubtfully placed here).

The following two genera, which have been usually classed as Ampelidæ, are
arranged by Messrs. Sclater and Salvin in the Sylviidæ:--

(1362) _Myiadestes_ (8 sp.), Peru and Bolivia, along the Andes to Mexico
and California, also the Antilles; (1364) _Cichlopsis_ (1 sp.), Brazil.


FAMILY 3.--TIMALIIDÆ. (35 Genera, 240 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --| -- 2 -- 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 | 1. 2 -- 4
             |           |           |           |           |

The Timaliidæ, or babbling thrushes, are a group of small strong-legged
active birds, mostly of dull colours, which are especially characteristic
of the Oriental region, in every part of which they abound, while they are
much less plentiful in {261}Australia and Africa. The Indo-Chinese
sub-region is the head quarters of the family, whence it diminishes rapidly
in all directions in variety of both generic and specific forms. Viscount
Walden has kindly assisted me in the determination of the limits of this
family, as to which there is still much difference of opinion. The
distribution of the genera here admitted is as follows; and as the genera
are widely scattered in the _Hand List_, reference numbers are prefixed in
every case.

(1023-1026 1008) _Pomatorhinus_ (27 sp.), the whole Oriental region
(excluding Philippines), Australia and New Guinea; (1027) _Pterohinus_ (3
sp.), North China, East Thibet; (1029 1030) _Malacocircus_ (9 sp.),
Continental India and Ceylon, Arabia, Nubia; (1031) _Chatarrhæa_ (5 sp.),
Abyssinia, Palestine, India, Nepal, Burmah, and Philippines; (1032)
_Layardia_ (3 sp.), India and Ceylon; (1033) _Acanthoptila_ (1 sp.), Nepal;
(1034) _Cinclosoma_ (4 sp.), Australia and Tasmania; (1035 1036)
_Crateropus_ (18 sp.), all Africa, Persia; (1037) _Hypergerus_ (1 sp.),
West Africa; (1038) _Cichladusa_ (3 sp.), Tropical Africa; (1039)
_Garrulax_ (23 sp.), the Oriental region (excluding Philippines); (1040)
_Janthocincla_ (10 sp.), Nepal, to East Thibet, Sumatra, Formosa; (1041
1042) _Gampsorhynchus_ (2 sp.), Himalayas; (1049) _Grammatoptila_ (1 sp.),
North India; (1043-1045) _Trochalopteron_ (24 sp.), all India to China and
Formosa; (1046) _Actinodura_ (4 sp.), Nepal to Burmah, 3,000-10,000 feet;
(1047) _Pellorneum_ (4 sp.), Nepal to Ceylon, Tenasserim; (1158 1159)
_Timalia_ (12 sp.), Malaya;[6] (1160) _Dumetia_ (2 sp.), Central India and
Ceylon; (1162) _Stachyris_ (6 sp.), Nepal to Assam, Sumatra, Formosa;
(1164) _Pyctorhis_ (3 sp.), India to Ceylon and Burmah; (1165) _Mixornis_
(8 sp.), Himalayas and Malaya; (1167) _Malacopteron_ (3 sp.), Malaya; (1168
1169) _Alcippe_ (15 sp.), Ceylon and South India, Himalayas to Aracan,
Malaya, Formosa, New Guinea; (1170) _Macronus_ (2 sp.), Malaya; (1171)
_Cacopitta_ (5 sp.), Malaya; (1172) _Trichastoma_ (11 sp.), Nepal, Burmah,
Malaya, Celebes; (1173) _Napothera_ (6 sp.), Malaya; (1174) _Drymocataphus_
(8 sp.), Burmah, Malaya, Ceylon, {262}Timor; (1175) _Turdinus_ (5 sp.),
Khasia Hills, Malacca, Tenasserim; (1176) _Trichixos_ (1 sp.), Borneo,
Malacca; (1004) _Sibia_ (6 sp.), Nepal to Assam, Tenasserim, Formosa; (1177
1178) _Alethe_ (4 sp.), West Africa; (1178 a) _Oxylabes_ (1 sp.),
Madagascar; (1050) _Psophodes_ (2 sp.), South, East, and West Australia;
(1048) _Turnagra_ (3 sp.), New Zealand.


FAMILY 4.--PANURIDÆ. (4 Genera, 13 Species).

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
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             |           |           |           |           |
  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --| 1. 2 -- 4 |-- -- -- --|-- -- 3 -- |-- -- -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

This new family is adopted, at the suggestion of Professor Newton, to
include some peculiar groups of Himalayan birds whose position has usually
been among the Timaliidæ or the Paridæ, but which are now found to be
allied to our Bearded Reedling. The supposed affinity of this bird for the
Tits has been long known to be erroneous, and the family Panuridæ was
formed for its reception (Yarrell's _British Birds_, 4th edit. p. 512). The
genera having hitherto been widely scattered in systematic works, are
referred to by the numbers of Mr. G. E. Gray's _Hand List_.

(1901) _Paradoxornis_ (3 sp.), Himalayas and East Thibet; (1904)
_Conostoma_ (1 sp.), Himalayas and East Thibet; (876) _Suthora_ (8 sp.),
Himalayas to North-west China, Formosa; (877) _Chlenasicus_ (1 sp.),
Darjeeling; (887) _Panurus_ (1 sp.), Central and Southern Europe; (1902)
_Heteromorpha_ (1 sp.), Nepal, 10,000 feet altitude; _Cholornis_ (1 sp.),
Moupin in East Thibet.


FAMILY 5.--CINCLIDÆ. (4 Genera, 27 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
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  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- 2. 3 -- | -- 2 -- 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |-- -- -- ?4|1. 2. 3. 4 |1 -- -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

{263}The Cinclidæ consist of a number of more or less thrush-like
ground-birds, of which the most remarkable are the Dippers, forming the
genus _Cinclus_. These are curiously distributed, from the Palæarctic
region as a centre, to the alpine districts of North and South America;
while the three genera which are here included as somewhat allied to
_Cinclus_, all inhabit the Oriental region. The genera which I class in
this family are the following:--

(978) _Cinclus_ (9 sp.), Palæarctic region to West China and Formosa, Rocky
Mountains, and Mexico in North America, and southward to the Andes of Peru;
(916) _Enicurus_ (9 sp.), Himalayas to Java and West China; (979) _Eupetes_
(4 sp.), Indo-Malay sub-region and New Guinea; (971) _Myiophonus_ (5 sp.),
Himalayas to Ceylon, Java, South China, and Formosa.

(981) _Mesites_ (1 sp.), Madagascar, is an anomalous bird placed with
_Eupetes_ by Mr. G. R. Gray, but of very uncertain affinities.


FAMILY 6.--TROGLODYTIDÆ. (17 Genera, 94 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
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  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3 -- |-- -- 3. 4 |1 -- -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

The Troglodytidæ, or Wrens, are small birds, rather abundant and varied in
the Neotropical region, with a few species scattered through the Nearctic,
Palæarctic, and parts of the Oriental regions, and one doubtful genus in
Africa. The constitution of the family is by no means well determined. The
South American genera are taken from Messrs. Sclater and Salvin's
_Nomenclator Avium Neotropicalium_.

_Tesia_ (2 sp.), Eastern Himalayas; _Pnoepyga_ (6 sp.), Himalayas to East
Thibet, Java; (716 and 723) _Troglodytes_ (15 sp.), Neotropical, Nearctic,
and Palæarctic regions to the Higher Himalayas; (697) _Rimator_ (1 sp.),
Darjeeling; _Thryothorus_ (13 sp.), South Brazil to Mexico, Martinique, and
Nearctic region; _Thryophilus_ (13 sp.), Brazil to Mexico, and North-west
America; _Cistothorus_ {264}(5 sp.), Patagonia to Greenland; _Uropsila_ (1
sp.), Mexico; _Donacobius_ (2 sp.), Tropical America; _Campylorhynchus_ (18
sp.), Brazil, and Bolivia to Mexico and the Gila valley; _Cyphorhinus_ (5
sp.), Equatorial South America to Costa Rica; _Microcerculus_ (5 sp.),
Brazil and Peru to Mexico; _Henicorhina_ (2 sp.), Peru and Guiana to Costa
Rica; _Salpinctes_ (1 sp.), High Plains of Rocky Mountains; _Catherpes_ (1
sp.), Mexico and Rio Grande; _Cinnicerthia_ (2 sp.), Ecuador and Columbia.
(760) _Sylvietta_ (2 sp.), Tropical and South Africa,--is placed in this
family by Mr. Tristram.


FAMILY 7.--CHAMÆIDÆ. (1 Genus, 1 Species).

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  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- -- -- --|1 -- -- -- |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

The bird which forms the genus _Chamæa_ inhabits California; and though
allied to the wrens it has certain peculiarities of structure which, in the
opinion of many ornithologists, require that it should be placed in a
distinct family.


FAMILY 8.--CERTHIIDÆ. (6 Genera, 18 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
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  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- -- -- --|-- -- 3 -- |1. 2. 3. 4 |-- -- -- --| 1 -- 3. 4 | 1.2 -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

The Certhiidæ, or Creepers, form a small family whose species are thinly
scattered over North America from Mexico, the Palæarctic region, parts of
the Oriental region, and Australia, where they are somewhat more abundant.
The distribution of the genera is as follows:

_Certhia_ (6 sp.), Nearctic and Palæarctic regions, Nepal, and Sikhim;
_Salpornis_ (1 sp.), Central India; _Tichodroma_, (1 sp.), South
{265}Europe to Abyssinia, Nepal, and North China; _Rhabdornis_ (1 sp.),
Philippine Islands; _Climacteris_ (8 sp.), Australia and New Guinea.


FAMILY 9.--SITTIDÆ. (6 Genera, 31 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
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  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- -- -- --|1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |-- -- -- --|1. 2. 3. 4 | 1. 2 -- 4
             |           |           |           |           |

The Sittidæ, or Nuthatches, are another small family of tree-creeping
birds, whose distribution is very similar to that of the Certhiidæ, but
with a more uniform range over the Oriental region, and extending to New
Zealand and Madagascar. The genera are as follows:--

_Sitta_ (17 sp.), Palæarctic and Nearctic regions to South India and
Mexico; _Dendrophila_ (2 sp.), Ceylon and India to Burmah and Malaya;
_Hypherpes_ (1 sp.), Madagascar; _Sittella_ (6 sp.), Australia and New
Guinea. _Acanthisitta_ (1 sp.) and _Xenicus_ (4 sp.), New Zealand, are
placed with some doubt in this family.


FAMILY 10.--PARIDÆ. (14 Genera, 92 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
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  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- -- 3 -- |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3 -- |1. 2. 3. 4 | -- 2 -- 4
             |           |           |           |           |

The Paridæ, or Tits, are very abundant in the Nearctic and Palæarctic
regions; many fine species are found in the Himalayas, but they are
sparingly scattered through the Ethiopian, Oriental, and Australian
regions. The genera usually admitted into this family are the following,
but the position of some of them, especially of the Australian forms, is
doubtful.

(864-867 870) _Parus_ (46 sp.), North America, from Mexico, Palæarctic, and
Oriental regions, Tropical and South Africa; {266}(868 869) _Lophophanes_
(10 sp.), Europe, the Higher Himalayas to Sikhim, North America to Mexico;
_Acredula_ = _Orites_ (6 sp.), Palæarctic region; _Melanochlora_ (2 sp.),
Nepal to Sumatra; _Psaltria_ (1 sp.), Java; _Psaltriparus_ (3 sp.),
Guatemala to California, and Rocky Mountains; _Auriparus_ (1 sp.), Rio
Grande; (881 882) _Parisoma_ (5 sp.), Tropical and South Africa; (883 884)
_Ægithalus_ (6 sp.), South-east Europe to South Africa; (885 889)
_Ægithaliscus_ (6 sp.), Afghanistan and Himalayas to Amoy; _Cephalopyrus_
(1 sp.), North-west Himalayas; _Sylviparus_ (1 sp.), Himalayas and Central
India; _Certhiparus_ (2 sp.), New Zealand; (879 880) _Sphenostoma_ (2 sp.),
East and South Australia.


FAMILY 11.--LIOTRICHIDÆ. (11 Genera, 35 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
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  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- 3. 4 |-- -- -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

The Liotrichidæ, or Hill-Tits, are small, active, delicately-coloured
birds, almost confined to the Himalayas and their extension eastward to
China. They are now generally admitted to form a distinct family. The
genera are distributed as follows:

(1146) _Liothrix_ (3 sp.), Himalayas to China; _Siva_ (3 sp.), Himalayas;
_Minla_ (4 sp.), Himalayas and East Thibet; _Proparus_ (7 sp.), Nepal to
East Thibet and Aracan; (1153) _Pteruthius_ (6 sp.), Himalayas to Java and
West China; (1155) _Cutia_ (2 sp.), Nepal; (1019) _Yuhina_ (3 sp.), High
Himalayas and Moupin; (1020) _Ixulus_ (3 sp.), Himalayas to Tenasserim;
(1021) _Myzornis_ (1 sp.), Darjeeling.


FAMILY 12.--PHYLLORNITHIDÆ. (3 Genera, 14 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
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  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|1. 2. 3. 4 |-- -- -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

{267}The Phyllornithidæ, or "Green Bulbuls," are a small group of
fruit-eating birds, strictly confined to the Oriental region, and ranging
over the whole of it, with the one exception of the Philippine Islands. The
genera are:--

(1022) _Phyllornis_ (12 sp.), India to Java, Ceylon, and Hainan; (1166)
_Iora_ (4 sp.), the whole Oriental region; (1163) _Erpornis_ (2 sp.),
Borneo, Himalayas, Hainan, and Formosa.


FAMILY 13.--PYCNONOTIDÆ. (9 Genera, 139 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
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  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --| -- 2 -- 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1 -- -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

The Pycnonotidæ, Bulbuls, or fruit-thrushes, are highly characteristic of
the Oriental region, in every part of which they abound; less plentiful in
the Ethiopian region, and extending to Palestine and Japan in the
Palæarctic, and to the Moluccas in the Australian region, but absent from
the intervening island of Celebes. The genera are:--

MICROSCELIS (6 sp.), Burmah, the Indo-Malay Islands, and Japan;
_Pycnonotus_ (52 sp., in many sub-genera), Palestine to South Africa, the
whole Oriental region, China and Japan; _Alcurus_ (1 sp.), Himalayas;
_Hemixus_ (2 sp.), Nepal, Bootan, Hainan; _Phyllastrephus_ (4 sp.), West
and South Africa; _Hypsipetes_ (20 sp.), the whole Oriental region,
Madagascar and the Mascarene Islands; _Tylas_ (1 sp.), Madagascar;
_Criniger_ (30 sp.), the whole Oriental region (excluding Philippines),
West and South Africa, Moluccas; _Ixonotus_ (7 sp.), West Africa; (1015
1017) _Setornis_ (3 sp.), Malacca, Sumatra, and Borneo; _Iole_ (4 sp.),
Aracan and Malaya; _Andropadus_ (9 sp.), Tropical Africa; (1157)
_Lioptilus_ (1 sp.), South Africa.


{268}FAMILY 14.--ORIOLIDÆ. (5 Genera, 40 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
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  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --| 1. 2 -- 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2 -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

The Orioles, or Golden Thrushes, are a small group characteristic of the
Oriental and Ethiopian regions, migrating into the western Palæarctic
region, and with some of the less typical forms in Australia. The genera
are:--

_Oriolus_ (24 sp.), Central Europe, throughout Africa, and the whole
Oriental region, northward to Pekin, and eastward to Flores; (1073)
_Analcipus_ (3 sp.), Himalayas, Formosa, Java and Borneo; _Mimeta_ (9 sp.),
the Moluccas and Australia; _Sphecotheres_ (3 sp.), Timor and Australia.
_Artamia_ (1 sp.), Madagascar,--perhaps belongs to the next family or to
Laniidæ.


FAMILY 15.--CAMPEPHAGIDÆ (3 Genera, 100 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
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  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3 --
             |           |           |           |           |

The Campephagidæ, or Cuckoo Shrikes, (Campephaginæ of the _Hand List_, with
the addition of _Cochoa_) are most abundant in the Australian region
(especially in the Austro-Malay sub-region), less so in the Oriental, and
still less in the Ethiopian region. The genera, for the most part as
adopted by Dr. Hartlaub, are as follows:--

_Pericrocotus_ (22 sp.), the whole Oriental region, extending north to
Pekin, and east to Lombok; (1242-1244) _Lanicterus_ (4 sp.), West and South
Africa; (1245 1246) _Graucalus_ (25 sp.), the whole Oriental region, and
eastward to Austro-Malaya, the New {269}Hebrides, and Tasmania; _Artamides_
(1 sp.), Celebes; _Pteropodocys_ (1 sp.), Australia; (1248 1250 1257 1258)
_Campephaga_ (16 sp.), Austro-Malaya, and New Caledonia, Philippines, the
Ethiopian region; _Volvocivora_ (8 sp.) the Oriental region (excluding
Philippines); _Lalage_ (18 sp.), the whole Malay Archipelago to New
Caledonia and Australia; _Symmorphus_ (1 sp.), Australia; _Oxynotus_ (2
sp.), Mauritius and Bourbon; (1204) _Cochoa_ (3 sp.), Himalayas, Java. The
position of this last genus is doubtful. Jerdon puts it in the Liotrichidæ;
Sundeval in the Sturnidæ; Bonaparte in the Dicruridæ; Professor Newton
suggests the Pycnonotidæ; but it seems on the whole best placed here.


FAMILY 16.--DICRURIDÆ. (6 Genera, 58 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
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  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2 -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

The Dicruridæ, or Drongo Shrikes (Dicruridæ of the _Hand List_, omitting
the genus _Melænornis_), have nearly the same distribution as the last
family, with which they are sometimes united. They are, however, most
abundant and varied in the Oriental region, much less so both in the
Australian and Ethiopian regions. The distribution of the genera is as
follows:--

_Dicrurus_ (46 sp., in several sub-genera), has the range of the whole
family, extending east to New Ireland, and one species in Australia;
_Chætorhynchus_ (1 sp.), New Guinea; _Bhringa_ (2 sp.), Himalayas to Borneo
(Plate IX. vol. i. p. 339); _Chibia_ (2 sp.), Himalayas eastward to North
China; _Chaptia_ (3 sp.), all India to Malacca and Formosa; _Irena_ (4
sp.), Central India, Assam, and Burmah to Borneo and the Philippine
Islands. This last genus is placed by Jerdon among the Pycnonotidæ, but
seems to come most naturally here or in the last family.


{270}FAMILY 17.--MUSCICAPIDÆ. (44 Genera, 283 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
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  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4
             |           |           |           |           |

The Muscicapidæ, or Flycatchers (Muscicapinæ and Myiagrinæ of the _Hand
List_, omitting _Cochoa_ and including _Pogonocichla_) form an extensive
family of usually small-sized and often bright-coloured birds, very
abundant in the warmer regions of the Old World and Australia, but becoming
scarce as we approach the temperate and colder regions. They are wholly
absent from North and South America. The genera, many of which are not well
defined, are distributed as follows:--

_Peltops_ (1 sp.), Papuan Islands; _Monarcha_ (28 sp.), Moluccas to the
Carolines and Marquesas Islands, Australia and Tasmania; _Leucophantes_ (1
sp.), New Guinea; _Butalis_ (4 sp.), Ethiopian and Palæarctic regions,
Moluccas and Formosa; _Muscicapa_ (12 sp.), Europe and Africa;
_Muscicapula_ (6 sp.), India to Western China; _Alseonax_ (1 sp.), South
Africa; _Erythrosterna_ (7 sp.), Europe to China and Java; _Newtonia_ (1
sp.), Madagascar; _Xanthopygia_ (2 sp.), Japan, China, Malacca; _Hemipus_
(1 sp.), India and Ceylon; _Pycnophrys_ (1 sp.), Java; _Hyliota_ (2 sp.),
West Africa; _Erythrocercus_ (2 sp.), West Africa and Zambesi; _Micræca_ (6
sp.), Australia, Timor, and Papuan Islands; _Artomyias_ (2 sp.), West
Africa; _Pseudobias_ (1 sp.), Madagascar; _Hemichelidon_ (3 sp.), the
Oriental region and North China; _Smithornis_ (2 sp.), West and South
Africa; _Megabias_ (1 sp.), West Africa; _Cassinia_ (2 sp.), West Africa;
_Bias_, (1 sp.), Tropical Africa; _Niltava_ (3 sp.), Himalayas to West
China; _Cyornis_ (16 sp.), the whole Oriental region; _Cyanoptila_ (1 sp.),
Japan, China, Hainan; _Eumyias_ (7 sp.), India to South China, Ceylon, and
Sumatra; (1213 and 1216) _Siphia_ (8 sp.), North India, Formosa, Timor;
_Anthipes_ (1 sp.), Nepal; _Seisura_ (5 sp.), Australia and
{271}Austro-Malaya (excluding Celebes); _Myiagra_ (16 sp.), Australia and
Moluccas to Caroline and Samoa Islands; _Hypothymis_ (2 sp.), Oriental
region and Celebes; _Elminia_ (2 sp.), Tropical Africa; _Muscitodus_ (2
sp.), Fiji Islands; _Machærirhynchus_ (4 sp.), Papuan Islands and North
Australia; _Platystira_ (12 sp.), Tropical and South Africa; _Rhipidura_
(45 sp.), the Oriental and Australian regions to the Samoa Islands and
Tasmania; _Chelidorynx_ (1 sp.), North India; _Myialestes_ (2 sp.), India
to Ceylon, China, Java and Celebes; _Tchitrea_ (26 sp.), the entire
Ethiopian and Oriental regions, and to North China and Japan; _Philentoma_
(4 sp.), Malacca, Sumatra, Borneo, and Philippine Islands; _Todopsis_ (6
sp.), Papuan Islands; (836) _Pogonocichla_ (1 sp.), South Africa;
(1061-1063) _Bradyornis_ (7 sp.), Tropical and South Africa; (1460)
_Chasiempis_ (2 sp.), Sandwich Islands.


FAMILY 18.--PACHYCEPHALIDÆ. (5 Genera, 62 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- 4 |-- -- 3. 4 |1. 2. 3 --
             |           |           |           |           |

The Pachycephalidæ, or Thick-headed Shrikes (Pachycephalinæ of the _Hand
List_ omitting _Colluricincla_, _Cracticus_, and _Pardalotus_) are almost
confined to the Australian region, a single species extending to Java and
Aracan, and another (?) to Madagascar. The family has generally been united
with the Laniidæ, but most modern ornithologists consider it to be
distinct. The distribution of the genera is as follows:--

_Oreoeca_ (1 sp.), Australia; _Falcunculus_ (2 sp.), Australia;
_Pachycephala_ (44 sp.), Sula Islands (east of Celebes) to the Fiji
Islands, and Australia; _Hylocharis_ (4 sp.), Timor, Celebes, Indo-Malaya,
and Aracan; _Calicalicus_ (1 sp.), Madagascar; _Eopsaltria_ (14 sp.),
Australia, New Caledonia, and the New Hebrides; _Artamia_ (4 sp.),
Madagascar,--may belong to this family, or to Laniidæ, Oriolidæ, or
Artamidæ, according to different authors.


{272}FAMILY 19.--LANIIDÆ. (19 Genera, 145 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- -- -- --|1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3 --
             |           |           |           |           |

The Laniidæ, or Shrikes (Laniinæ and Malaconotinæ of the _Hand List_, and
including _Colluricincla_), are most abundant and varied in Africa, less
plentiful in the Oriental, Australian, and Palæarctic regions, with a few
species in the Nearctic region as far as Mexico. The constitution of the
family is, however, somewhat uncertain. The genera here admitted are:--

_Colluricincla_ (4 sp.), Australia and Tasmania; _Rectes_ (18 sp.), Papuan
Islands, North Australia, to Pelew and Fiji Islands; (1462-1464 1466 1470
1471-1473) _Lanius_ (50 sp.), the whole Nearctic, Palæarctic, Ethiopian,
and Oriental regions, one species reaching Timor, none in Madagascar;
_Laniellus_ (1 sp.), Java; _Hypocolius_ (1 sp.), Abyssinia and Upper Nile;
_Corvinella_ (1 sp.), South and West Africa; _Urolestes_ (1 sp.), South and
East Africa; _Tephrodornis_ (4 sp.), Oriental region to Hainan and Java;
_Hypodes_ (1 sp.), West Africa; _Fraseria_ (2 sp.), West Africa;
_Cuphopterus_ (1 sp.), Princes' Island; _Nilaus_ (1 sp.), South and West
Africa; _Prionops_ (9 sp.), Tropical Africa; _Eurocephalus_ (2 sp.), North,
East, and South Africa, and Abyssinia; _Chaunonotus_ (1 sp.), West Africa;
_Vanga_ (4 sp.), Madagascar (Plate VI. vol. i. p. 278); _Laniarius_ (36
sp.), the whole Ethiopian region; _Telephonus_ (10 sp.), all Africa and
South Europe; _Meristes_ (2 sp.), Tropical and South Africa; _Nicator_ (1
sp.), East Africa.


FAMILY 20.--CORVIDÆ. (24 Genera, 190 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3 --
             |           |           |           |           |

{273}The Corvidæ, or Crows, Jays, &c., form an extensive and somewhat
heterogeneous group, some members of which inhabit almost every part of the
globe, although none of the genera are cosmopolitan. The true crows are
found everywhere but in South America; the magpies, choughs, and
nutcrackers are characteristic of the Palæarctic region; the jays are
Palæarctic, Oriental, and American; while the piping crows are peculiarly
Australian. The more detailed distribution of the genera is as follows:--

Sub-family I. Gymnorhininæ (Piping Crows).--_Strepera_ (4 sp.), and
_Gymnorhina_ (3 sp.), are Australian only; _Cracticus_ (9 sp.), ranges from
New Guinea to Tasmania (this is usually put with the Shrikes, but it has
more affinity with the preceding genera); _Pityriasis_ (1 sp.), Borneo (an
extraordinary bird of very doubtful affinities); _Grallina_ (1 sp.),
Australia, is put here by Sundevall,--among Motacillidæ, by Gould.

Sub-family II. _Garrulinæ_ (Jays).--_Platylophus_ = _Lophocitta_ (4 sp.),
Malaya; _Garrulus_ (12 sp.), Palæarctic region, China and Himalayas;
_Perisoreus_ (2 sp.), North of Palæarctic and Nearctic regions; _Cyanurus_
(22 sp.), American, from Bolivia to Canada, most abundant in Central
America, but absent from the Antilles; _Cyanocorax_ (15 sp.), La Plata to
Mexico; _Calocitta_ (2 sp.), Guatemala and Mexico; _Psilorhinus_ (3 sp.),
Costa Rica to Texas; _Urocissa_ (6 sp.), Western Himalayas to China and
Formosa; _Cissa_ (3 sp.), South-eastern Himalayas to Tenasserim, Ceylon,
Sumatra, and Java.

Sub-family III. Dendrocittinæ (Tree Crows).--_Temnurus_ (3 sp.), Cochin
China, Malacca to Borneo (not Java); _Dendrocitta_ (9 sp.), the Oriental
region to Sumatra, Hainan, and Formosa; _Crypsirhina_ (3 sp.), Pegu, Siam,
and Java; _Ptilostomus_ (2 sp.), West, East, and South Africa.

Sub-family IV. Corvinæ (Crows and Magpies).--_Nucifraga_ (4 sp.),
Palæarctic region to the Himalayas and North China; _Picicorvus_ (1 sp.),
the Rocky Mountains and California; _Gymnokitta_ (1 sp.), Rocky Mountains
and Arizona (Plate XVIII., Vol. II., p. 128); _Pica_ (9 sp.), Palæarctic
region, Arctic America, and California; _Cyanopica_ (3 sp.), Spain,
North-east Asia, Japan; {274}_Streptocitta_ (2 sp.), Celebes; _Charitornis_
(1 sp.), Sula Islands; _Corvus_ (55 sp.), universally distributed except
South America and New Zealand, but found in Guatemala and the Antilles to
Porto Rico; reaches the extreme north of Europe and Asia; _Gymnocorvus_ (2
sp.), Papuan Islands; _Picathartes_ (1 sp.), West Africa; _Corvultur_ (2
sp.), Tropical and South Africa.

Sub-family V. Fregilinæ (Choughs).--_Fregilus_ (3 sp.), mountains and
cliffs of Palæarctic region from West Europe to the Himalayas and North
China, Abyssinia (Plate I., Vol. I., p. 195); _Corcorax_ (1 sp.),
Australia.


FAMILY 21.--PARADISEIDÆ. (19 Genera, 34 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|1. 2 -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

The Paradiseidæ, or "Birds of Paradise," form one of the most remarkable
families of birds, unsurpassed alike for the singularity and the beauty of
their plumage. Till recently the family was restricted to about eight
species of the more typical Paradise birds, but in his splendid monograph
of the group, Mr. Elliot has combined together a number of allied forms
which had been doubtfully placed in several adjacent families. The various
species of true Paradise birds, having ornamental plumes developed from
different parts of the body, are almost wholly confined to New Guinea and
the adjacent Papuan Islands, one species only being found in the Moluccas
and one in North Australia; while the less typical Bower-birds, having no
such developments of plumage, are most characteristic of the north and east
of Australia, with a few species in New Guinea. The distribution of the
genera according to Mr. Elliot's monograph is as follows:--

Sub-family I. Paradiseinæ.--_Paradisea_ (4 sp.), Papuan Islands;
_Manucodia_ (3 sp.), Papuan Islands and North Australia; _Astrapia_ (1
sp.), New Guinea; _Parotia_ (1 sp.), New Guinea; _Lophorhina_ (1 sp.), New
Guinea; _Diphyllodes_ (3 sp.), Papuan {275}Islands; _Xanthomelus_ (1 sp.),
New Guinea; _Cicinnurus_ (1 sp.), Papuan Islands; _Paradigalla_ (1 sp.),
New Guinea; _Semioptera_ (1 sp.), Gilolo and Batchian.

Sub-family II. Epimachinæ.--_Epimachus_ (1 sp.), New Guinea; _Drepanornis_
(1 sp.), New Guinea; _Seleucides_ (1 sp.), New Guinea (Plate X., Vol. I.,
p. 414); _Ptilorhis_ (4 sp.), New Guinea and North Australia.

Sub-family III. Tectonarchinæ (Bower-birds).--_Sericulus_ (1 sp.), Eastern
Australia; _Ptilonorhynchus_ (1 sp.), Eastern Australia; _Chlamydodera_ (4
sp.), North and East Australia; _Ælurædus_ (3 sp.), Papuan Islands and East
Australia; _Amblyornis_ (1 sp.), New Guinea.


FAMILY 22.--MELIPHAGIDÆ. (23 Genera, 190 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|1. 2. 3. 4
             |           |           |           |           |

  (As in the _Hand List_, but omitting Zosterops, and slightly altering the
  arrangement.)

The extensive group of the Meliphagidæ, or Honey-suckers, is wholly
Australian, for the genus _Zosterops_, which extends into the Oriental and
Ethiopian regions, does not naturally belong to it. Several of the genera
are confined to Australia, others to New Zealand, while a few range over
the whole Australian region. The genera are distributed as follows:--

_Myzomela_ (18 sp.), has the widest range, extending from Celebes to the
Samoa Islands, and to Timor and Eastern Australia; _Entomophila_ (4 sp.),
Australia and New Guinea; _Gliciphila_ (10 sp.), Australia, Timor, New
Guinea, and New Caledonia; _Acanthorhynchus_ (2 sp.), Australia and
Tasmania; Meliphaga (1 sp.), Australia; _Ptilotis_ (40 sp.), Gilolo and
Lombok to Australia and Tasmania, and to the Samoa and Tonga Islands;
_Meliornis_ (5 sp.), Australia and Tasmania; _Prosthemadera_ (1 sp.),
_Pogonornis_ (1 sp.), New Zealand; _Anthornis_ (4 sp.), New Zealand and
Chatham Islands; _Anthochæra_ (4 sp.), Australia and Tasmania;
{276}_Xanthotis_ (4 sp.), Papuan Islands and Australia; _Leptornis_ (2
sp.), Samoa Islands and New Caledonia; _Philemon_ = _Tropidorhyncus_ (18
sp.), Moluccas and Lombok to New Guinea, Australia, Tasmania and New
Caledonia; _Entomiza_ (2 sp.), Australia; _Manorhina_ (5 sp.), Australia
and Tasmania; _Euthyrhynchus_ (3 sp.), New Guinea; _Melirrhophetes_ (2
sp.), New Guinea; _Melidectes_ (1 sp.), New Guinea; _Melipotes_ (1 sp.),
New Guinea; _Melithreptus_ (8 sp.), New Guinea, Australia, and Tasmania;
(397) _Moho_ (3 sp.), Sandwich Islands; _Chætoptila_ (1 sp.), Sandwich
Islands.


FAMILY 23.--NECTARINIIDÆ. (11 Genera, 122 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- 2 -- -- |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2 -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

The Nectariniidæ, or Sun-birds, form a rather extensive group of
insectivorous honey-suckers, often adorned with brilliant metallic plumage,
and bearing a superficial resemblance to the American humming-birds,
although not in any way related to them. They abound in the Ethiopian,
Oriental, and Australian regions, as far east as New Ireland, and south to
Queensland, while one species inhabits the hot Jordan Valley in the
Palæarctic region. For the Eastern genera I follow Lord Walden's
classification (Ibis, 1870); the African species not having been so
carefully studied are mostly placed in one genus. The genera adopted are as
follows:--

_Promerops_ (1 sp.), South Africa; _Nectarinia_ (60 sp.), the whole
Ethiopian region; _Cinnyricinclus_ (5 sp.), West Africa; _Neodrepanis_ (1
sp.), Madagascar; _Arachnecthra_ (13 sp.), Palestine, all India to Hainan,
the Papuan Islands, and North-east Australia; _Æthopyga_ (15 sp.),
Himalayas and Central India to West China, Hainan, Java, and Northern
Celebes; _Nectarophila_ (5 sp.), Central India and Ceylon, Assam and Aracan
to Java, Celebes and the Philippines; _Chalcostetha_ (6 sp.), Malay
Peninsula to New Guinea; _Anthreptes_ (1 sp.), Siam, Malay Peninsula to
{277}Sula Islands, and Flores; _Cosmeteira_ (1 sp.), Papuan Islands;
_Arachnothera_ (15 sp.), the Oriental region (excluding Philippines)
Celebes, Lombok, and Papuan Islands.


FAMILY 24.--DICÆIDÆ. (5 Genera, 107 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4
             |           |           |           |           |

The Dicæidæ, or Flower-peckers, consist of very small, gaily-coloured
birds, rather abundant over the whole Oriental and much of the Australian
regions, and one genus extending over the Ethiopian region. The genera here
adopted are the following:--

(622) _Zosterops_ (68 sp.), the whole Ethiopian, Oriental, and Australian
regions, as far east as the Fiji Islands, and north to Pekin and Japan;
(400-403) _Dicæum_ (25 sp.), the whole Oriental region, except China, with
the Australian region as far as the Solomon Islands; (404) _Pachyglossa_ (2
sp. 1437 1442), Nepal and Northern Celebes; (405) _Piprisoma_ (2 sp.),
Himalayas to Ceylon and Timor; (1450) _Pardalotus_ (10 sp.), Australia and
Tasmania; (407-409) _Prionochilus_ (5 sp.), Indo-Malay sub-region and
Papuan Islands.


FAMILY 25.--DREPANIDIDÆ. (4 Genera, 8 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- 3 --
             |           |           |           |           |

The Drepanididæ are confined to the Sandwich Islands, and I follow Mr.
Sclater's suggestion in bringing together the following genera to form this
family:--

_Drepanis_ (3 sp.); _Hemignathus_ (3 sp.); _Loxops_ (1 sp.); _Psittirostra_
(1 sp.). If these are correctly associated, the great {278}differences in
the bill indicate that they are the remains of a larger and more varied
family, once inhabiting more extensive land surfaces in the Pacific.


FAMILY 26.--COEREBIDÆ. (11 Genera, 55 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- 2. 3. 4 |-- -- 3 -- |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

  (According to the arrangement of Messrs. Sclater and Salvin.)

The Coerebidæ, or Sugar-birds, are delicate little birds allied to the
preceding families, but with extensile honey-sucking tongues. They are
almost wholly confined to the tropical parts of America, only one species
of _Certhiola_ ranging so far north as Florida. The following is the
distribution of the genera:--

_Diglossa_ (14 sp.), Peru and Bolivia to Guiana and Mexico; _Diglossopis_
(1 sp.), Ecuador to Venezuela; _Oreomanes_ (1 sp.), Ecuador; _Conirostrum_
(6 sp.), Bolivia to Ecuador and Columbia; _Hemidacnis_ (1 sp.), Upper
Amazon and Columbia; _Dacnis_ (13 sp.), Brazil to Ecuador and Costa Rica;
_Certhidea_ (2 sp.), Galapagos Islands; _Chlorophanes_ (2 sp.), Brazil to
Central America and Cuba; _Coereba_ (4 sp.), Brazil to Mexico; _Certhiola_
(10 sp.), Amazon to Mexico, West Indies, and Florida; _Glossoptila_ (1
sp.), Jamaica.


FAMILY 27.--MNIOTILTIDÆ. (18 Genera, 115 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

  (Messrs. Sclater and Salvin are followed for the Neotropical, Baird and
  Allen for the Nearctic region.)

The Mniotiltidæ, or Wood-warblers, are an interesting group of small and
elegant birds, allied to the preceding family and to the greenlets, and
perhaps also to the warblers and tits of Europe. {279}They range over all
North America from Panama to the Arctic regions, but do not extend far
beyond the tropic in Southern America. They are almost as abundant in the
Nearctic as in the Neotropical region; and considering the favourable
conditions of existence in Tropical America, this fact, in connection with
their absence from the South Temperate zone would lead us to suppose that
they originated in North Temperate America, and subsequently spread
southward into the tropics. This supposition is strengthened by the fact
that their metropolis, in the breeding season, is to the north of the
United States. The genera adopted by Messrs. Sclater and Salvin are as
follows:--

(918) _Siurus_ (4 sp.), Venezuela and West Indies to Eastern States and
Canada; _Mniotilta_ (1 sp.), Venezuela, Mexico, and Antilles to the Eastern
States; _Parula_ (5 sp.), Brazil to Mexico, and the Eastern States, and
Canada; _Protonotaria_ (1 sp.), Antilles to Ohio; _Helminthophaga_ (8 sp.),
Columbia to Arctic America; _Helmintherus_ (2 sp.), Central America to
Eastern States; _Perissoglossa_ (1 sp.), Antilles and Eastern States;
_Dendroeca_ (33 sp.), Amazon to Antilles, and Arctic America, and south to
Chili; _Oporornis_ (2 sp.), Guatemala to Eastern States; _Geothlypis_ (11
sp.), all North America and Brazil; _Myiodioctes_ (5 sp.), all North
America and Columbia; _Basileuterus_ (22 sp.), Bolivia and Brazil to
Mexico; _Setophaga_ (15 sp.), Brazil to Canada; _Ergaticus_ (2 sp.),
Guatemala and Mexico; _Cardellina_ (1 sp.), Guatemala and Mexico; (1440)
_Granatellus_ (3 sp.), Amazon to Mexico; (1441) _Teretristis_ (2 sp.),
Cuba; (1439) _Icteria_ (2 sp.), Costa Rica and United States to Canada.


FAMILY 28.--VIREONIDÆ. (7 Genera, 63 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

(Messrs. Sclater and Salvin are followed for the Neotropical genera;
Professor Baird and Mr. Allen for those of the Nearctic region.)

{280}The Vireonidæ, or Greenlets, are a family of small fly-catching birds
wholly restricted to the American continent, where they range from Paraguay
to Canada. They are allied to the Mniotiltidæ and perhaps also to the
Australian Pachycephalidæ. Only two of the genera, with about a dozen
species, inhabit the Nearctic region. The distribution of the genera is as
follows:--

_Vireosylvia_ (13 sp.), Venezuela to Mexico, the Antilles, the Eastern
States and Canada; _Vireo_ (14 sp.), Central America and the Antilles to
Canada; _Neochloe_ (1 sp.), Mexico; _Hylophilus_ (20 sp.), Brazil to
Mexico; _Laletes_ (1 sp.), Jamaica; _Vireolanius_ (5 sp.), Amazonia to
Mexico; _Cychlorhis_ (9 sp.), Paraguay to Mexico.


FAMILY 29.--AMPELIDÆ. (4 Genera, 9 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- -- 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

The Ampelidæ, represented in Europe by the waxwing, are a small family,
characteristic of the Nearctic and Palæarctic regions, but extending
southward to Costa Rica and the West Indian islands. The genera are
distributed as follows:--

(1539) _Ampelis_ (3 sp.), the Palæarctic and Nearctic regions, and
southward to Guatemala; (1360) _Ptilogonys_ (2 sp.), Central America;
(1442) _Dulus_ (2 sp.), West Indian Islands; (1361) _Phænopepla_ (1 sp.),
Mexico and the Gila Valley.


FAMILY 30.--HIRUNDINIDÆ. (9 Genera, 91 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4
             |           |           |           |           |

{281}The Hirundinidæ, or Swallows, are true cosmopolites. Although they do
not range quite so far north (except as stragglers) as a few of the extreme
polar birds, yet they pass beyond the Arctic Circle both in America and
Europe, _Cotyle riparia_ having been observed in the Parry Islands, while
_Hirundo rustica_ has been seen both in Spitzbergen and Nova Zembla.
_Cotyle riparia_ and _Chelidon urbica_ also breed in great numbers in
northern Lapland, latitude 67° to 70° north. Many of the species also, have
an enormous range, the common swallow (_Hirundo rustica_) inhabiting
Europe, Asia and Africa, from Lapland to the Cape of Good Hope and to the
Moluccas. The genera of swallows are not well determined, a number having
been established of which the value is uncertain. I admit the following,
referring by numbers to the _Hand List_:--

(215-221 226-228) _Hirundo_ (40 sp.), the range of the entire family; (222
223) _Psalidoprogne_ (10 sp.), Tropical and South Africa; (224) _Phedina_
(1 sp.), Madagascar and Mascarene Islands; (225) _Petrochelidon_ (5 sp.),
North and South America and Cape of Good Hope; (220-232 ?234) _Atticora_ (8
sp.), the Neotropical region and ? Australia; (235 237) _Cotyle_ (11 sp.),
Europe, India, Africa, North America, Antilles and Ecuador; (236)
_Stelgidopteryx_ (5 sp.), La Plata to United States; (238 and 239)
_Chelidon_ (6 sp.), Palæarctic region, Nepal, Borneo; (240-242) _Progne_ (5
sp.), all North and South America.


FAMILY 31.--ICTERIDÆ. (24 Genera, 110 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

The Icteridæ, or American hang-nests, range over the whole continent, from
Patagonia and the Falkland Islands to the Arctic Circle. Only about 20
species inhabit the Nearctic region, while, as usual with exclusively
American families, the larger proportion of the genera and species are
found in the {282}tropical parts of South America. The genera adopted by
Messrs. Sclater and Salvin are the following:--

_Clypeicterus_ (1 sp.), Upper Amazon; _Ocycalus_ (2 sp.), Upper Amazon to
Mexico; _Ostinops_ (8 sp.), Brazil and Bolivia to Mexico; _Cassiculus_ (1
sp.), Mexico; _Cassicus_ (10 sp.), South Brazil and Bolivia to Costa Rica;
_Icterus_ (34 sp.), La Plata to the Antilles and United States;
_Dolichonyx_ (1 sp.), Paraguay to Canada; _Molothrus_ (8 sp.), La Plata to
Northern United States; _Agelæus_ (7 sp.), La Plata and Chili to Northern
United States; _Xanthocephalus_ (1 sp.), Mexico to California and Canada;
_Xanthosomus_ (4 sp.), La Plata to Venezuela; _Amblyrhamphus_ (1 sp.), La
Plata and Bolivia; _Gymnomystax_ (1 sp.), Amazonia and Guiana;
_Pseudoleistes_ (2 sp.), La Plata and Brazil; _Leistes_ (3 sp.), La Plata
to Venezuela; _Sturnella_ (5 sp.), Patagonia and Falkland Islands to Middle
United States; _Curæus_ (1 sp.), Chili; _Nesopsar_ (1 sp.), Jamaica;
_Scolecophgaus_ (2 sp.), Mexico to Arctic Circle; _Lampropsar_ (4 sp.),
Amazonia and Ecuador to Mexico; _Quiscalus_ (10 sp.), Venezuela and
Columbia to South and Central United States; _Hypopyrrhus_ (1 sp.),
Columbia; _Aphobus_ (1 sp.), Brazil and Bolivia; _Cassidix_ (2 sp.), Brazil
to Mexico and Cuba.


FAMILY 32.--TANAGRIDÆ. (43 Genera, 304 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  1. 2. 3. 4 |-- 2. 3 -- |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

The Tanagers are an extensive family of varied and beautiful fruit-eating
birds, almost peculiar to the Neotropical region, only four species of a
single genus (_Pyranga_) extending into the Eastern United States and Rocky
Mountains. Southward they range to La Plata. They are especially abundant
in the forest regions of South America east of the Andes, where no less
than 40 out of the 43 genera occur; 23 of the genera are peculiar to this
sub-region, while only 1 (_Phlogothraupis_) is {283}peculiar to Central
America and Mexico, and 2 (_Spindalis_ and _Phænicophilus_) to the West
Indian islands. The genera adopted by Messrs. Sclater and Salvin with their
distribution will be found at Vol. II., p. 99, in our account of
Neotropical Zoology.


FAMILY 33.--FRINGILLIDÆ. (74 Genera, 509 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |-- -- -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

The great family of the Fringillidæ, or finches, is in a very unsettled
state as regards their division into genera, the most divergent views being
held by ornithologists as to the constitution and affinities of many of the
groups. All the Australian finch-like birds appear to belong to the
Ploceidæ, so that the finches, as here constituted, are found in every
region and sub-region, except the Australian region from which they are
entirely absent--a peculiar distribution hardly to be found in any other
family of birds.

Many European ornithologists separate the Emberizidæ, or buntings, as a
distinct family, but as the American genera have not been so divided I am
obliged to keep them together; but the genera usually classed as "buntings"
are placed last, as a sub-family. In the following arrangement of the
genera, I have done what I could to harmonize the views of the best modern
writers. For convenience of reference the succession of the genera is that
of the _Hand List_, and the numbers of the sub-genera are given whenever
practicable:--

(1793 1795) _Fringilla_ (6 sp.), the whole Palæarctic region, including the
Atlantic Islands; (1794) _Acanthis_ (3 sp.), Europe to Siberia, Persia, and
North-West Himalayas; (1796) _Procarduelis_ (1 sp.), High Himalayas and
East Thibet; (1797-1803) _Chrysomitris_ (18 sp.), Neotropical and Nearctic
regions, Europe, and Siberia; (1804) _Metoponia_ (1 sp.), East Europe to
North West Himalayas; (1805 and 1809) _Chlorospiza_ (9 sp.), Palæarctic
region and Africa to the {284}Cape of Good Hope; (1806-1809) _Dryospiza_
(14 sp.), South Europe, Palestine, Canaries, and all Africa; (1810)
_Sycalis_ (18 sp.), the whole Neotropical region; (1811-1813 1816-1819)
_Pyrgita_ (34 sp.), Palæarctic and Oriental regions, and all Africa; (1814)
_Montifringilla_ (4 sp.), Palæarctic region; (1815) _Fringillauda_ (2 sp.),
North-West Himalayas to East Thibet; (1820-1822) _Coccothraustes_ (6 sp.),
Palæarctic region and Nepal, Nearctic region to Mexico; (1823) _Eophona_ (2
sp.), China and Japan; (1824) _Mycerobas_ (2 sp.), Central Asia to Persia,
High Himalayas, and East Thibet; (1825) _Chaunoproctus_ (1 sp.), Bonin
Islands, south-east of Japan, (probably Palæarctic); (1826) _Geospiza_ (7
sp.), Galapagos Islands; (1827) _Camarhynchus_ (5 sp.), Galapagos Islands;
(1828) _Cactornis_ (4 sp.), Galapagos Islands; (1830-1832) _Phrygilus_ (10
sp.), Columbia to Fuegia and the Falkland Islands; (1833) _Xenospingus_ (1
sp.), Peru; (1834) _Diuca_ (3 sp.), Peru to Chili and Patagonia; (1835 and
1837) _Emberizoides_ (3 sp.), Venezuela to Paraguay; (1836) _Donacospiza_
(1 sp.), South Brazil and La Plata; (1839) _Chamæospiza_ (1 sp.), Mexico;
(1838 and 1840) _Embernagra_ (9 sp.), Arizona to La Plata; (1841)
_Hæmophila_ (6 sp.), Mexico to Costa Rica; (1842) _Atlapetes_ (1 sp.),
Mexico; (1843) _Pyrgisoma_ (5 sp.). Mexico to Costa Rica; (1844 and 1845)
_Pipilo_ (12 sp.), all North America to Guatemala; (1846) _Junco_ (6 sp.),
all the United States to Guatemala; (1847) _Zonotrichia_ (9 sp.), the whole
Nearctic and Neotropical regions; (1848 1849) _Melospiza_ (7 sp.), Sitka
and United States to Guatemala; (1850) _Spizella_ (7 sp.), Canada to
Guatemala; (1851) _Passerella_ (4 sp.), the Nearctic region and Northern
Asia; (1852) _Passerculus_ (6 sp.), Nearctic region and to Guatemala;
(1853) _Pooecetes_ (1 sp.), all United States and Mexico; (1854)
_Ammodromus_ (4 sp.), all United States to Guatemala; (1855) _Coturniculus_
(6 sp.), north and east of North America to Jamaica and Bolivia; (1856)
_Peucæa_ (6 sp.), South Atlantic States and California to Mexico; (1857)
_Tiaris_ (1 sp.), Brazil; (1858) _Volatinia_ (1 sp.), Mexico to Brazil and
Bolivia; (1859) _Cyanospiza_ (5 sp.), Canada to Guatemala; (1860 1861)
_Paroaria_ (6 sp.), Tropical South America, east of the Andes; (1862)
_Coryphospingus_ (4 sp.), Tropical South America; (1863) _Haplospiza_ (2
sp.), Mexico and Brazil; (1864 1891) _Phonipara_ (8 sp.), Mexico to
Columbia, the greater Antilles; (1865) _Poospiza_ {285}(13 sp.), California
and South Central States to Bolivia and La Plata; (424) _Spodiornis_ (1
sp.), Andes of Quito; (1866 1867) _Pyrrhula_ (9 sp.), the whole Palæarctic
region to the Azores and High Himalayas; (1868) _Crithagra_ (17 sp.),
Tropical and South Africa, Mauritius, Syria; (1869) _Ligurnus_ (2 sp.),
West Africa; (1870 1871) _Carpodacus_ (18 sp.), Nearctic and Palæarctic
regions to Mexico and Central India; (1872-1874) _Erythrospiza_ (6 sp.),
Southern parts of Palæarctic region; (1875) _Uragus_ (2 sp.), Siberia and
Japan; (1876) _Cardinalis_ (2 sp.), South and Central States to Venezuela;
(1877) _Pyrrhuloxia_ (1 sp.), Texas and Rio Grande; (1878 1879) _Guiraca_
(6 sp.), Southern United States to La Plata; (1880) _Amaurospiza_ (2 sp.),
Costa Rica and Brazil; (1881) _Hedymeles_ (2 sp.), all United States to
Columbia; (1882) _Pheucticus_ (5 sp.), Mexico to Peru and Bolivia; (1883)
_Oryzoborus_ (6 sp.), Mexico to Ecuador and South Brazil; (1884)
_Melopyrrha_ (1 sp.), Cuba; (1885) _Loxigilla_ (4 sp.), Antilles; (1886
1887) _Spermophila_ (44 sp.), Texas to Bolivia and Uruguay; (1888)
_Catamenia_ (4 sp.), Columbia to Bolivia; (1889) _Neorhynchus_ (3 sp.),
West Peru; (1892) _Catamblyrhyncus_ (1 sp.), Columbia; (1893) _Loxia_ (7
sp.), Europe to North-west India and Japan, Arctic America to Pennsylvania,
Mexico; (1894) _Pinicola_ (3 sp.), Arctic America, North-east Europe to the
Amoor, Camaroons Mountains West Africa; (1895) _Propyrrhula_ (1 sp.),
Darjeeling in the winter,? Thibet; (1896) _Pyrrhospiza_ (1 sp.), Snowy
Himalayas; (1897) _Hæmatospiza_ (1 sp.), South-east Himalayas, 5,000-10,000
feet; (1898 1899) _Linota_ (12 sp.), Europe to Central Asia, north and east
of North America; (1900) _Leucosticte_ (7 sp.), Siberia and Thibet to
Kamschatka, and from Alaska to Utah.

Sub-family Emberizinæ.--(1995) _Calamospiza_ (1 sp.), Arizona and Texas to
Mexico; (1906) _Chondestes_ (2 sp.), Western, Central, and Southern States
to Mexico and Nicaragua; (1907-1910) _Euspiza_ (9 sp.), Palæarctic region,
India, Burmah, and South China, South-east United States to Columbia;
(1911-1920) _Emberiza_ (28 sp.), the whole Palæarctic region (continental),
to Central India in winter; (1921) _Gubernatrix_ (1 sp.), Paraguay and La
Plata, (according to Messrs. Sclater and Salvin this comes next to
_Pipilo_); (1922) _Fringillaria_ (8 sp.), Africa and South Europe;
{286}(1923-1925) _Plectrophanes_ (6 sp.), Arctic Zone to Northern Europe
and North China, Arctic America, and east side of Rocky Mountains; (1926)
_Centronyx_ (1 sp.), Mouth of Yellowstone River.


FAMILY 34.--PLOCEIDÆ. (29 Genera, 252 species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3 --
             |           |           |           |           |

The Ploceidæ, or Weaver-finches, are especially characteristic of the
Ethiopian region, where most of the genera and nearly four-fifths of the
species are found; the remainder being pretty equally divided between the
Oriental and Australian regions. Like the true finches these have never
been properly studied, and it is exceedingly difficult to ascertain what
genera are natural and how far those of Australia and Africa are distinct.
The following enumeration must therefore be taken as altogether tentative
and provisional. When the genera adopted differ from those of the _Hand
List_ they will be referred to by numbers.

_Textor_ (5 sp.), Tropical and South Africa; (1650-1654 1657)
_Hyphantornis_ (32 sp.), Tropical and South Africa; (1655 1656)
_Symplectes_ (8 sp.), Tropical and South Africa; _Malimbus_ (9 sp.), West
Africa; (1659 1661) _Ploceus_ (6 sp.), West and East Africa, the Oriental
region (excluding Philippines); (1660) _Nelicurvius_ (1 sp.), Madagascar;
_Foudia_ (12 sp.), Madagascar and Mascarene Islands, Tropical Africa; (1663
1664) _Sporopipes_ (2 sp.), Tropical and South Africa; (1665-1667)
_Pyromelana_ (14 sp.), Tropical and South Africa, Abyssinia to 10,500 feet;
_Philetærus_ (1 sp.), South Africa; _Nigrita_ (7 sp.), West Africa to Upper
Nile; _Plocepasser_ (4 sp.), East and South Africa; (1672-1674) _Vidua_ (7
sp.), Tropical and South Africa (Plate V., Vol. I., p. 264); (1675-1677)
_Coliuspasser_ (9 sp.), Tropical and South Africa; _Chera_ (1 sp.), South
Africa; _Spermospiza_ (2 sp.), West Africa; _Pyrenestes_ (6 sp.), Tropical
and South Africa; (1682-1687 1689 1692 1693 1698) _Estrilda_ (26 sp.),
Tropical and South Africa, India, Burmah, and Java to Australia; (1688 1690
1691 1695 1696) {287}_Pytelia_ (24 sp.), Tropical and South Africa; (1694)
_Hypargos_ (2 sp.), Mozambique and Madagascar; (1697) _Emblema_ (1 sp.),
North-west Australia (1699 1712-1717) _Amadina_ (15 sp.), Tropical and
South Africa, Moluccas to Australia and the Samoa Islands; (1700 1701 1710)
_Spermestes_ (8 sp.), Tropical Africa and Madagascar; (1702) _Amauresthes_
(1 sp.), East and West Africa; (1703 1707-1709 1711) _Munia_ (30 sp.),
Oriental region to Timor and New Guinea; (1704) _Donacola_ (3 sp.),
Australia; (1705 1706) _Poephila_ (6 sp.), Australia; (1718-1721)
_Erythrura_ (7 sp.), Sumatra to Java, Moluccas, Timor, New Guinea, and Fiji
Islands; (1722) _Hypochera_ (3 sp.), Tropical and South Africa.


FAMILY 35.--STURNIDÆ. (29 Genera, 124 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 | 1 -- 3. 4
             |           |           |           |           |

The Sturnidæ or Starlings, are a highly characteristic Old-World group,
extending to every part of the great Eastern continent and its islands, and
over the Pacific Ocean to the Samoa Islands and New Zealand, yet wholly
absent from the mainland of Australia. The family appears to be tolerably
well-defined, and the following genera are generally considered to belong
to it: (1558 1559 1562) _Eulabes_ (13 sp.), the Oriental region to
South-west China, Hainan, and Java,--and Flores, New Guinea and the Solomon
Islands in the Australian region; _Ampeliceps_ (1 sp.), _Tenasserim_,
Burmah, and Cochin China; _Gymnops_ (1 sp.), Philippine Islands;
_Basilornis_ (2 sp.), Celebes and Ceram; _Pastor_ (1 sp.), South-east
Europe to India, Ceylon, and Burmah; _Acridotheres_ (7 sp.), the whole
Oriental region and Celebes; (1568 1569) _Sturnia_ (12 sp.), the whole
Oriental region, North China, Japan, and Siberia, Celebes; _Dilophus_ (1
sp.), South Africa; _Sturnus_ (6 sp.), Palæarctic region, to India and
South China in winter; _Sturnopastor_ (4 sp.), India to Burmah and East
Java; _Creadion_ (2 sp.), New Zealand; _Heterolocha_ (1 sp.), New Zealand;
(1520) _Callæas_ {288}(2 sp.), New Zealand; _Buphaga_ (2 sp.), Tropical and
South Africa; _Euryceros_ (1 sp.), Madagascar (see Plate VI., Vol. I., p.
278.) This genus and the last should perhaps form distinct families. (1577)
_Juida_ (5 sp.), Central, West, and South Africa; (1578) _Lamprocolius_ (20
sp.), Tropical and South Africa; _Cinnyricinclus_ (2 sp.), Tropical and
South Africa; _Onychognathus_ (2 sp.), West Africa; (1581) _Spreo_ (4 sp.),
Tropical and South Africa; (1582-1585) _Amydrus_ (7 sp.), South and East
Africa, Palestine; _Aplonis_ (9 sp.), New Caledonia to the Tonga Islands;
(1587-1589) _Calornis_ (18 sp.), the whole Malay Archipelago and eastward
to the Ladrone and Samoa Islands; (1590) _Enodes_ (1 sp.), Celebes;
_Scissirostrum_ (1 sp.), Celebes; (1592) _Saroglossa_ (1 sp.), Himalayas;
(1593) _Hartlaubius_ (1 sp), Madagascar; _Fregilupus_ (1 sp.), Bourbon, but
it has recently become extinct; (363) _Falculia_ (1 sp)., Madagascar.


FAMILY 36.--ARTAMIDÆ. (1 Genus, 17 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\___________________________________
  /                                                                       \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN  | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS |SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+------------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |            |           |
  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --?|1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3 --
             |           |           |            |           |

The Artamidæ, or Swallow-shrikes, are a curious group of birds, ranging
over the greater part of the Oriental and Australian regions as far east as
the Fiji Islands and south to Tasmania. Only a single species inhabits
India, and they are more plentiful in Australia than in any other locality.
The only well-marked genus is _Artamus_.

There are a few Madagascar birds belonging to the genus _Artamia_, which
some ornithologists place in this family, others with the Laniidæ, but
which are here classed with the Oriolidæ.


{289}FAMILY 37.--ALAUDIDÆ. (15 Genera, 110 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- 2. 3 -- |-- 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2 -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

The Alaudidæ, or Larks, may be considered as exclusively belonging to the
great Eastern continent, since the Nearctic, Neotropical, and Australian
regions have each only a single species. They abound most in the open
plains and deserts of Africa and Asia, and are especially numerous in South
Africa. The genera, including those recently established by Mr. Sharpe, are
as follows:--

_Otocorys_ (8 sp.); the Palæarctic region, North America and south to the
Andes of Columbia, North India; (1928 1929) _Alauda_ (17 sp.), Palæarctic
region, all Africa, the Peninsula of India, and Ceylon; (1931) _Galerita_
(10 sp.), Central Europe to Senegal and Abyssinia, Persia, India and North
China; (1932) _Calendula_ (2 sp.), Abyssinia and South Africa; (1933 1934)
_Calandrella_ (6 sp.), Europe, North Africa, India, Burmah, North China,
and Mongolia; (1935-1937) _Melanocorypha_ (7 sp.), South Europe to Tartary,
Abyssinia, and North-west India; _Pallasia_ (sp. 7781), East Asia; (1938)
_Certhilauda_ (4 sp.), South Europe, South Africa; _Heterocorys_ (sp. 7792)
South Africa; (1939) _Alæmon_ (3 sp.), South-east Europe to Western India,
and South Africa; (1940) _Mirafra_ (25 sp.), the Oriental and Ethiopian
regions to Australia; (1941) _Ammomanes_ (10 sp.), South Europe to
Palestine and Central India, and to Cape Verd Islands and South Africa;
(1942 1943) _Megalophonus_ (6 sp.), Tropical and South Africa;
_Tephrocorys_ (1 sp.), South Africa; _Pyrrhulauda_ (9 sp.), all Africa,
Canary Islands, India and Ceylon.


{290}FAMILY 38.--MOTACILLIDÆ. (9 Genera, 80 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. -- 4
             |           |           |           |           |

The Motacillidæ, or Wagtails and Pipits, are universally distributed, but
are most abundant in the Palæarctic, Ethiopian, and Oriental regions, to
which the true wagtails are almost confined. The following genera are
usually adopted, but some of them are not very well defined:--

_Motacilla_ (15 sp.), ranges over the greater part of Europe, Asia, and
Africa, and to Alaska in North-west America; _Budytes_ (10 sp.), Europe,
Africa, Asia to Philippines, Moluccas, Timor, and North Australia;
_Calobates_ (3 sp.), South Palæarctic and Oriental regions to Java;
_Nemoricola_ (1 sp.), Oriental region; _Anthus_ (30 sp.), all the great
continents; _Neocorys_ (1 sp.), Central North America; _Corydalla_ (14
sp.), South Europe to India, China, the Malay Islands, Australia, New
Zealand and the Auckland Islands: _Macronyx_ (5 sp.), Tropical and South
Africa; _Heterura_ (1 sp.), Himalayas.


FAMILY 39.--TYRANNIDÆ. (71 Genera, 329 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

The Tyrannidæ, or Tyrant Shrikes, form one of the most extensive and truly
characteristic American families of birds; as they extend over the whole
continent from Patagonia to the Arctic regions, and are found also in all
the chief American islands--the Antilles, the Galapagos, the Falkland
Islands, and {291}Juan Fernandez. As the genera are all enumerated in the
table, at p. 101 of this volume, I shall here confine myself to the
distribution of the sub-families, only referring to such genera as are of
special geographical interest.

Sub-family I. CONOPHAGINÆ (2 genera, 13 species). Confined to tropical
South America, from Brazil and Bolivia to Guiana and Columbia.

Sub-family II. TÆNIOPTERINÆ (19 genera, 76 species). This group ranges from
Patagonia and the Falkland Islands to the northern United States; yet it is
almost wholly South American, only 2 genera and 4 species passing north of
Panama, and none inhabiting the West Indian islands. _Empidias_ has 3
species in North America, while _Tænioptera_, _Cnipolegus_,
_Muscisaxicola_, and _Centrites_, range south to Patagonia.

Sub-family III. PLATYRHYNICHINÆ (16 genera, 60 species). This sub-family is
wholly Neotropical and mostly South American, only 7 of the genera passing
Panama and but 3 reaching Mexico, while there are none in the West Indian
islands. Only 3 genera extend south to the temperate sub-region, and one of
these, _Anæretes_, has a species in Juan Fernandez.

Sub-family IV. ELAINEINÆ (17 genera, 91 species). This sub-family is more
exclusively tropical, only two genera extending south as far as Chili and
La Plata, while none enter the Nearctic region. No less than 10 of the
genera pass north of Panama, and one of these, _Elainea_, which ranges from
Chili to Costa Rica has several species in the West Indian islands. About
one fourth of the species of this sub-family are found north of Panama.

Sub-family V. TYRANNINÆ (17 genera, 89 species). This sub-family is that
which is best represented in the Nearctic region, where 6 genera and 24
species occur. _Milvulus_ reaches Texas; _Tyrannus_ and _Myiarchus_ range
over all the United States; _Sayornis_, the Eastern States and California;
_Contopus_ extends to Canada; _Empidonax_ ranges all over North America;
and _Pyrocephalus_ reaches the Gila Valley as well as the Galapagos
Islands. No less than 5 genera of this sub-family occur in the West Indian
islands.


{292}FAMILY 39_a_.--OXYRHAMPHIDÆ. (1 Genus, 2 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- 2. 3 -- |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

The genus _Oxyrhamphus_ (2 sp.) which ranges from Brazil to Costa Rica, has
usually been placed in the Dendrocolaptidæ; but Messrs Sclater and Salvin
consider it to be the type of a distinct family group, most allied to the
Tyrannidæ.


FAMILY 40.--PIPRIDÆ. (15 Genera, 60 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- 2. 3 -- |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

The Pipridæ, or Manakins, have generally been associated with the next
family, and they have a very similar distribution. The great majority of
the genera and species are found in the equatorial regions of South
America, only 9 species belonging to 5 genera ranging north of Panama,
while 2 or 3 species extend to the southern limit of the tropical forests
in Paraguay and Brazil. The genera which go north of Panama are _Piprites_,
_Pipra_, _Chiroxiphia_, _Chiromachæris_, and _Hetoropelma_. _Pipra_ is the
largest genus, containing 19 species, and having representatives throughout
the whole range of the family. As in all the more extensive families
peculiar to the Neotropical region, the distribution of the genera will be
found in the tables appended to the chapter on the Neotropical region in
the Third Part of this work. (Vol. II. p. 103).


{293}FAMILY 41.--COTINGIDÆ. (28 Genera, 93 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- 2. 3. 4 |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

The Cotingidæ, or Chatterers, comprise some of the most beautiful and some
of the most remarkable of American birds, for such we must consider the
azure and purple Cotingas, the wine-coloured white-winged Pompadour, the
snowy carunculated Bell-birds, the orange-coloured Cocks-of-the-Rock, and
the marvellously-plumed Umbrella-birds, (Plate XV. Vol. II. p. 28). The
Cotingidæ are also one of the most pre-eminently Neotropical of all the
Neotropical families, the great mass of the genera and species being
concentrated in and around the vast equatorial forest region of the Amazon.
Only 13 species extend north of Panama, one to the Antilles, and not more
than 20 are found to the south of the Amazon Valley. Messrs. Sclater and
Salvin divide the family into six sub-families, the distribution of which
will be briefly indicated.

Sub-family I. TITYRINÆ (3 genera, 22 species). Ranges from Brazil to
Mexico, one species of _Hadrostomus_ inhabiting Jamaica.

Sub-family II. LIPAUGINÆ (4 genera, 14 species) also ranges from Brazil to
Mexico; one genus (_Ptilochloris_) is confined to Brazil.

Sub-family III. ATTALINÆ (2 genera, 10 species). Ranges from Paraguay to
Costa Rica; one genus (_Casiornis_) is confined to South Brazil and
Paraguay.

Sub-family IV. RUPICOLINÆ (2 genera, 5 species). This sub-family is
restricted to the Amazonian region and Guiana, with one species extending
along the Andean valleys to Bolivia. The genera are _Rupicola_ (3 species)
and _Phænicocercus_ (2 species).

Sub-family V. COTINGINÆ (10 genera, 28 species). Ranges from Southern
Brazil and Bolivia to Nicaragua; only two species {294}(belonging to the
genera _Carpodectes_ and _Cotinga_) are found north of Panama, and there
are none in the West Indian islands. The great majority of these, the true
Chatterers, are from the regions about the Equator.

Sub-family VI. GYMNODERINÆ (7 genera, 14 species). Ranges from Brazil to
Costa Rica; two species, of the genera _Chasmorhynchus_ and
_Cephalopterus_, are found north of Panama, while there are none in the
West Indian islands. Only 2 species are found south of the Amazon valley.


FAMILY 42.--PHYTOTOMIDÆ. (1 Genus, 3 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  1 -- -- -- |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

The Phytotomidæ, or Plant-cutters, are singular thick-billed birds,
strictly confined to the temperate regions of South America. The single
genus, _Phytotoma_, is found in Chili, La Plata, and Bolivia. Their
affinities are uncertain, but they are believed to be allied to the series
of families with which they are here associated. (Plate XVI. Vol. II. p.
128).


FAMILY 43.--EURYLÆMIDÆ. (6 Genera, 9 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- 3. 4 |-- -- -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

The Eurylæmidæ, or Broad-bills, form a very small family of birds, often
adorned with striking colours, and which have their nearest allies in the
South American Cotingidæ. They have a very limited distribution, from the
lower slopes of the Himalayas through Burmah and Siam, to Sumatra, Borneo,
and Java. They are evidently the remains of a once extensive group, and
from the small number of specific forms remaining, seem to be on {295}the
road to extinction. Thus we may understand their isolated geographical
position. The following are the names and distribution of the genera:--

_Eurylæmus_ (2 species), Malay Peninsula, Sumatra, Java, and Borneo;
_Corydon_ (1 species), Malacca, Sumatra and Borneo (Plate IX. Vol. I. p.
339); _Psarisomus_ (1 species), Himalayas to Burmah, up to 6,000 feet;
_Serilophus_ (2 species), Nepal to Tenasserim; _Cymbirhynchus_ (2 species),
Siam to Sumatra and Borneo; _Calyptomena_ (1 species), Penang to Sumatra
and Borneo.


FAMILY 44.--DENDROCOLAPTIDÆ. (43 Genera, 217 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  1. 2. 3 -- |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

The Dendrocolaptidæ, or American Creepers, are curious brown-coloured birds
with more or less rigid tail feathers, strictly confined to the continental
Neotropical region, and very numerous in its south-temperate extremity.
They are divided by Messrs. Sclater and Salvin into five sub-families, to
which I shall confine my remarks on their distribution. The details of the
numerous genera, being only interesting to specialists, will be given in
the table of genera of the Neotropical region. No less than 13 of the
genera are confined to South-Temperate America and the High Andes; 14 are
restricted to Tropical South America, while not one is peculiar to Tropical
North America, and only 15 of the 43 genera extend into that sub-region,
showing that this is one of the pre-eminently South American groups.

Sub-family I. FURNARIINÆ (8 genera, 30 species). Ranges over all South
America, 4 genera and 18 species being restricted to the temperate
sub-region; one species is found in the Falkland Islands.

Sub-family II. SCLERURINÆ (1 genus, 6 species). Brazil to Guiana, Columbia,
and north to Mexico.

Sub-family III. SYNALLAXINÆ (12 genera, 78 species). Ranges from Patagonia
to Mexico; 7 genera and 28 species are confined {296}to the temperate
sub-region; species occur in the islands of Mas-a-fuera, Trinidad, and
Tobago.

Sub-family IV. PHILYDORINÆ (6 genera, 35 species). Confined to Tropical
America from Brazil to Mexico; 4 genera and 8 species occur in Tropical
North America.

Sub-family V. DENDROCOLAPTINÆ (14 genera, 59 species). Ranges from Chili
and La Plata to Mexico; only 3 species occur in the South Temperate
sub-region, while 9 of the genera extend into Tropical North America. Two
of the continental species occur in the island of Tobago, which, together
with Trinidad, forms part of the South American rather than of the true
Antillean sub-region.

FAMILY 45.--FORMICARIIDÆ. (32 Genera, 211 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- 2. 3 -- |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

The Formicariidæ, comprising the Bush-Shrikes and Ant-thrushes, form one of
the most exclusively Neotropical families; and the numerous species are
rigidly confined to the warm and wooded districts, only a single species
extending to La Plata, and none to the Antilles or to the Nearctic region.
Less than 30 species are found north of Panama. Messrs. Sclater and Salvin
divide the group into three sub-families, whose distribution may be
conveniently treated, as in the Dendrocolaptidæ, without enumerating the
genera.

Sub-family I. THAMNOPHILINÆ.--(10 genera, 70 species.) One species of
_Thamnophilus_ inhabits La Plata; only 3 genera and 12 species are found
north of Panama, the species of this sub-family being especially abundant
in the Equatorial forest districts.

Sub-family II. FORMICIVORINÆ.--(14 genera, 95 species.) Only 8 species
occur north of Panama, and less than one-third of the species belong to the
districts south of the Equator.

{297}Sub-family III. FORMICARIINÆ.--(8 genera, 46 species.) About 12
species occur north of Panama, and only 5 south of the Equatorial district.

It appears, therefore, that this extensive family is especially
characteristic of that part of South America from the Amazon valley
northwards.


FAMILY 46.--PTEROPTOCHIDÆ. (8 Genera, 19 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  1. 2 -- -- |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

The Pteroptochidæ are a group of curious Wren-like birds, almost confined
to the temperate regions of South America, extending along the Andes beyond
the Equator, and with a few species in South-east Brazil, and one in the
valley of the Madeira. The genera are as follows:--

_Scytalopus_ (8 sp.), Chili and West Patagonia to the Andes of Columbia;
_Merulaxis_ (1 sp.), South-east Brazil; _Rhinocrypta_ (2 sp.), Northern
Patagonia and La Plata; _Lioscelis_ (1 sp.), Madeira valley; _Pteroptochus_
(2 sp.), Chili; _Hylactes_ (3 sp.), Western Patagonia and Chili;
_Acropternis_ (1 sp.), Andes of Ecuador and Columbia; _Triptorhinus_ (1
sp.), Chili.


FAMILY 47.--PITTIDÆ. (4 Genera, 40 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- 4 |-- 2 -- -- |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2 -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

The Pittas comprise a number of beautifully-coloured Thrush-like birds,
which, although confined to the Old World, are more nearly allied to the
South American Pteroptochidæ than to any other family. They are most
abundant in the Malay Archipelago, {298}between the Oriental and Australian
divisions of which they are pretty equally divided. They seem, however, to
attain their maximum of beauty and variety in the large islands of Borneo
and Sumatra; from whence they diminish in numbers in every direction till
we find single species only in North China, West Africa, and Australia, The
genera here adopted are the following:--

(1087 1088 1090 1092 1093) _Pitta_ (33 sp.), has the range of the family;
(1089) _Hydrornis_ (3 sp.), Himalayas and Malaya; _Eucichla_ (3 sp.),
Malaya; _Melampitta_ (1 sp.), recently discovered in New Guinea.


FAMILY 48.--PAICTIDÆ. (1 Genus, 2 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- 4 |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

This family was established by Professor Sundevall, for an anomalous bird
of Madagascar, which he believes to have some affinity for the American
Formicariidæ, but which perhaps comes best near the Pittas. The only genus
is _Philepitta_, containing two species.


FAMILY 49.--MENURIDÆ. (1 Genus, 2 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- 2 -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

The Menuridæ, or Lyre Birds, remarkable for the extreme elegance of the
lyre-shaped tail in the species first discovered, are birds of a very
anomalous structure, and have no near affinity to any other family. Two
species of _Menura_ are known, confined to South and East Australia (Plate
XII. Vol. I. p. 441).


{299}FAMILY 50.--ATRICHIIDÆ. (1 Genus, 2 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- 2 -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

The genus _Atrichia_, or Scrub-birds of Australia, have been formed into a
separate family by Professor Newton, on account of peculiarities in the
skeleton which separate them from all other Passeres. Only two species are
known, inhabiting East and West Australia respectively. They are very
noisy, brown-coloured birds, and have been usually classed with the
warblers, near _Amytis_ and other Australian species.


_General remarks on the distribution of the Passeres._

The order Passeres, is the most extensive among birds, comprehending about
5,700 species grouped in 870 genera, and 51 families. The distribution of
the genera, and of the families considered individually, has been already
sufficiently given, and we now have to consider the peculiarities of
distribution of the families collectively, and in their relations to each
other, as representing well-marked types of bird-structure. The first thing
to be noted is, how very few of these families are truly cosmopolitan; for
although there are seven which are found in each of the great regions, yet
few of these are widely distributed throughout all the regions, and we can
only find three that inhabit every sub-region, and are distributed with
tolerable uniformity; these are the Hirundinidæ, or swallows, the
Motacillidæ or wagtails and pipits, and the Corvidæ or crows,--but the
latter is a family of so heterogeneous a nature, that it possibly contains
the materials of several natural families, and if so divided, the parts
would probably all cease to be cosmopolitan. The Sylviidæ, the
{300}Turdidæ, and the Paridæ, are the only other families that approach
universality of distribution, and all these are wanting in one or more
sub-regions. If, now, we divide the globe into the New and the Old World,
the former including the whole American continent, the latter all the rest
of the earth, we find that the Old World possesses exclusively 23 families,
the New World exclusively 14, of which 5 are common to North and South
America. But if we take the division proposed by Professor Huxley--a
northern world, comprising our first four regions (from Nearctic to
Oriental), and a southern world comprising our last two regions (the
Australian and Neotropical)--we find that the northern division possesses
only 5 families exclusively, and the southern division 13 exclusively, of
which not one is common to Australia and South America. This plainly
indicates that, as far as the Passeres are concerned, the latter bipartite
division is not so natural as the former. Again, if we compare temperate
with tropical families (not too rigidly, but as regards their general
character), we find in the northern hemisphere only two families that have
the character of being typically temperate--the Cinclidæ, and in a less
degree the Ampelidæ--both of small extent. In the southern hemisphere we
have also two, the Phytotomidæ, and in a less degree, the Pteroptochidæ;
making two wholly and two mainly temperate families. Of exclusively
tropical families on the other hand, we have about 12, and several others
that are mainly tropical.

The several regions do not differ greatly in the number of families found
in each. The Nearctic has 19, the Palæarctic 21, the Ethiopian 23, the
Oriental 28, the Australian 29, and the Neotropical 23. But many of these
families are only represented by a few species, or in limited districts;
and if we count only those families which are tolerably well represented,
and help to form the ornithological character of the region, the richness
of the several tropical regions will appear to be (as it really is)
comparatively much greater. The families that are confined to single
regions are not very numerous, except in the case of the Neotropical
region, which has 5. The Australian has only {301}3, the Oriental 1, the
Ethiopian 1, and the other regions have no peculiar families.

The distribution of the Passeres may be advantageously considered as
divided into the five series of Turdoid, Tanagroid, Sturnoid, Formicarioid,
and Anomalous Passeres. The Turdoid Passeres, consisting of the first 23
families, are especially characteristic of the Old World, none being found
exclusively in America, and only two or three being at all abundant there.
The Tanagroid Passeres (Families 24-33) are very characteristic of the New
World, five being confined to it, and three others being quite as abundant
there as in the Old World; while there is not a single exclusively Old
World family in the series, except the Drepanididæ confined to the Sandwich
Islands. The Sturnoid Passeres (Families 34-38) are all exclusively Old
World, except that two larks inhabit parts of North America, and a few
pipits South America. The Formicarioid Passeres (Families 39-48) are
strikingly characteristic of the New World, to which seven of the families
exclusively belong; the two Old World groups being small, and with a very
restricted distribution. The Anomalous Passeres (Families 49-50) are
confined to Australia.

The most remarkable feature in the geographical distribution of the
Passeres is the richness of the American continent, and the large
development of characteristic types that occurs there. The fact that
America possesses 14 altogether peculiar families, while no less than 23
Old-World families are entirely absent from it, plainly indicates, that, if
this division does not represent the most ancient and radical separation of
the land surface of the globe, it must still be one of very great
antiquity, and have modified in a very marked way the distribution of all
living things. Not less remarkable is the richness in specific forms of the
13 peculiar American families. These contain no less than 1,570 species,
leaving only about 500 American species in the 13 other Passerine families
represented in the New World. If we make a deduction for those Nearctic
species which occur only north of Panama, we may estimate the truly
Neotropical species of Passerine birds at 1,900, which is almost exactly
{302}_one-third_ of the total number of Passeres; a wonderful illustration
of the Ornithological riches of South America.


_Order II.--PICARIÆ._

FAMILY 51.--PICIDÆ. (36 Genera, 320 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3 -- |1. 2. 3. 4 |1 -- -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

The Woodpeckers are very widely distributed, being only absent from the
Australian region beyond Celebes and Flores. They are most abundant in the
Neotropical and Oriental regions, both of which possess a number of
peculiar genera; while the other regions possess few or no peculiar forms,
even the Ethiopian region having only three genera not found elsewhere. The
soft-tailed Picumninæ inhabit the tropical regions only, _Picumnus_ being
Neotropical, _Vivia_ and _Sasia_ Oriental, and _Verreauxia_ Ethiopian.
_Picoides_, or _Apternus_, is an Arctic form peculiar to the Nearctic and
Palæarctic regions. _Celeus_, _Chrysoptilus_, _Chloronerpes_, and some
smaller genera, are Neotropical exclusively, and there are two peculiar
forms in Cuba. _Yungipicus_, _Chrysocolaptes_, _Hemicercus_,
_Mulleripicus_, _Brachypternus_, _Tiga_, and _Micropternus_, are the most
important of the peculiar Oriental genera. _Dendropicus_ and _Geocolaptes_
are Ethiopian; but there are no woodpeckers in Madagascar. The Palæarctic
woodpeckers belong to the genera _Picus_--which is widely distributed,
_Gecinus_--which is an Oriental form, and _Dryocopus_--which is South
American. Except _Picoides_, the Nearctic woodpeckers are mostly of
Neotropical genera; but _Sphyrapicus_ and _Hylatomus_ are peculiar. The
geological record is, as yet, almost silent as to this family; but remains
doubtfully referred to it have been found in the Miocene of Europe and the
Eocene of the United States. Yet the group is evidently one of very high
antiquity, as is shown by {303}its extreme isolation, its great
specialization of structure, its abundant generic forms, and its wide
distribution. It originated, probably, in Central Asia, and passed through,
the Nearctic region to South America, in whose rich and varied forests it
found the conditions for rapid development, and for the specialization of
the many generic forms now found there.

A large number of genera have been established by various authors, but
their limitations and affinities are not very well made out. Those which
seem best established are the following:--

(2107-2112) _Picumnus_ (22 sp.). Tropical South America to Honduras; (2113)
_Vivia_ (1 sp.), Himalayas to East Thibet; (2114) _Sasia_ (2 sp.), Nepal to
Java; (2115) _Verreauxia_ (1 sp.), West Africa; _Picoides_ (5 sp.),
northern parts of Nearctic and Palæarctic regions, and Mountains of East
Thibet; _Picus_ (42 sp.), the whole Palæarctic, Oriental, Nearctic, and
Neotropical regions; (2123) _Hyopicus_ (2 sp.), Himalayas and North China;
(2124) _Yungipicus_ (16 sp.), Oriental region, and to Flores, Celebes,
North China, and Japan; (2127-2129) _Sphyrapicus_ (7 sp.), Nearctic region,
Mexico, and Bolivia; (2130-2133 2139) _Campephilus_ (14 sp.), Neotropical
and Nearctic regions; _Hylatomus_ (1 sp.), Nearctic region; (2137 2140)
_Dryocopus_ (5 sp.), Mexico to South Brazil, Central and Northern Europe;
(2134) _Reinwardtipicus_ (1 sp.), Penang to Borneo; (2135 2136) _Venilia_
(2 sp.), Nepal to Borneo; _Chrysocolaptes_ (8 sp.), India and Indo-Malaya;
_Dendropicus_ (16 sp.), Tropical and South Africa; _Hemicercus_ (5 sp.),
Malabar and Pegu to Malaya; _Gecinus_ (18 sp.), Palæarctic and Oriental
regions to Java; (2151-2156) _Dendromus_ (15 sp.), West and South Africa,
Zanzibar, and Abyssinia; (2157-2159) _Mulleripicus_ (6 sp.), Malabar, Pegu,
Indo-Malaya, and Celebes; _Celeus_ (17 sp.), Paraguay to Mexico;
_Nesoceleus_ (sp. 8833) Cuba; (2162) _Chrysoptilus_ (9 sp.), Chili and
South Brazil to Mexico; _Brachypternus_ (5 sp.), India, Ceylon, and China;
(2165 2166) _Tiga_ (5 sp.), all India to Malaya; (2167) _Gecinulus_ (2
sp.), South-east Himalayas to Burmah; _Centurus_ (13 sp.), Nearctic Region
to Antilles and Venezuela; _Chloronerpes_ (35 sp.), Tropical America,
Hayti; (2171) _Xiphidiopicus_ (1 sp.), Cuba; _Melanerpes_ (11 sp.), Brazil
to {304}Canada, Porto Rico; _Leuconerpes_ (1 sp.), Bolivia to North Brazil;
_Colaptes_ (9 sp.), La Plata and Bolivia to Arctic America, Greater
Antilles; _Hypoxanthus_ (1 sp.), Venezuela and Ecuador; (2187)
_Geocolaptes_ (1 sp.), South Africa; _Miglyptes_ (3 sp.), Malaya;
_Micropternus_ (8 sp.), India and Ceylon to South China, Sumatra and
Borneo.


FAMILY 52.--YUNGIDÆ. (1 Genus, 5 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|1. 2. 3. 4 | 1 -- 3 -- |1 -- -- -- |-- -- -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

The Wrynecks (_Yunx_), which constitute this family, are small
tree-creeping birds characteristic of the Palæarctic region, but extending
into North and East Africa, over the greater part of the peninsula of India
(but not to Ceylon), and just reaching the lower ranges of the Himalayas.
There is also one species isolated in South Africa.


FAMILY 53.--INDICATORIDÆ. (1 Genus, 12 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|1. 2. 3. --|-- -- 3. 4 |-- -- -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

The Honey-guides (_Indicator_) constitute a small family of doubtful
affinities; perhaps most nearly allied to the woodpeckers and barbets. They
catch bees and sometimes kill small birds; and some of the species are
parasitical like the cuckoo. Their distribution is very interesting, as
they are found in every part of the Ethiopian region, except Madagascar,
and in the Oriental region only in Sikhim and Borneo, being absent from the
peninsula of India which is nearest, both geographically and zoologically,
to Africa.


{305}FAMILY 54.--MEGALÆMIDÆ. (13 Genera, 81 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- 2. 3 -- |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|1. 2. 3 -- |1. 2. 3. 4 |-- -- -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

The Megalæmidæ, or Barbets, consist of rather small, fruit-eating birds, of
heavy ungraceful shape, but adorned with the most gaudy colours, especially
about the head and neck. They form a very isolated family; their nearest
allies being, perhaps, the still more isolated Toucans of South America.
Barbets are found in all the tropics except Australia, but are especially
characteristic of the great Equatorial forest-zone; all the most remarkable
forms being confined to Equatorial America, West Africa, and the Indo-Malay
Islands. They are most abundant in the Ethiopian and Oriental regions, and
in the latter are universally distributed.

In the beautiful monograph of this family by the Messrs. Marshall, the
barbets are divided into three sub-families, as follows:--

Pogonorhynchinæ (3 genera, 15 sp.), which are Ethiopian except the 2
species of _Tetragonops_, which are Neotropical; Megalæminæ (6 genera, 45
sp.), which are Oriental and Ethiopian; and Capitoninæ (4 genera, 18 sp.),
common to the three regions.

The genera are each confined to a single region. Africa possesses the
largest number of peculiar forms, while the Oriental region is richest in
species.

This is probably a very ancient group, and its existing distribution may be
due to its former range over the Miocene South Palæarctic land, which we
know possessed Trogons, Parrots, Apes, and Tapirs, groups which are now
equally abundant in Equatorial countries.

{306}The following is a tabular view of the genera with their
distribution:--

  --------------------+------------------+----------------+----------------
        Genera        |    Ethiopian     |    Oriental    |   Neotropical
                      |     Region.      |     Region.    |     Region.
  --------------------+------------------+----------------+----------------
                      |                  |                |
  POGONORHYNCHINÆ.    |                  |                |
  Tricholæma     1 sp.|W. Africa         |                |
  Pogonorhynchus 12 " |All Trop. & S. Af.|                |
  Tetragonops     2 " |                  |                |Peru & Costa
                      |                  |                |  Rica
                      |                  |                |
  MEGALÆMINÆ.         |                  |                |
  Megalæma       29 " |                  |The whole region|
  Xantholæma      4 " |                  |The whole region|
  Xylobucco       2 " |W. Africa         |                |
  Barbatula       9 " |Trop. & S. Africa |                |
  Psilopogon      1 " |                  |                |Sumatra
  Gymnobucco      2 " |W. Africa         |                |
                      |                  |                |
  CAPITONINÆ.         |                  |                |
  Trachyphonus    5 " |Trop. & S. Africa |                |
  Capito         10 " |                  |                |Equatorial Amer.
                      |                  |                |  to Costa Rica
  Calorhamphus    2 " |                  |Malay Pen.,     |
                      |                  | Sumatra, Borneo|
  Stactolæma      1 " |W. Africa         |                |
                      |                  |                |
  --------------------+------------------+----------------+----------------


FAMILY 55.--RHAMPHASTIDÆ. (5 Genera, 51 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- 2. 3 -- |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

The Toucans form one of the most remarkable and characteristic families of
the Neotropical region, to which they are strictly confined. They differ
from all other birds by their long feathered tongues, their huge yet
elegant bills, and the peculiar texture and coloration of their plumage.
Being fruit-eaters, and strictly adapted for an arboreal life, they are not
found beyond the forest regions; but they nevertheless range from Mexico to
Paraguay, and from the Atlantic to the Pacific. One genus, {307}_Andigena_,
is confined to the forest slopes of the South American Andes. The genera
are:--

_Rhamphastos_ (12 sp.), Mexico to South Brazil; _Pteroglossus_ (16 sp.),
Nicaragua to South Brazil (Plate XV. Vol. II. p. 28); _Selenidera_ (7 sp.),
Veragua to Brazil, east of the Andes; _Andigena_ (6 sp.), the Andes, from
Columbia to Bolivia, and West Brazil; _Aulacorhamphus_ (10 sp.), Mexico to
Peru and Bolivia.


FAMILY 56.--MUSOPHAGIDÆ. (2 Genera, 18 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|1. 2. 3 -- |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

The Musophagidæ, or Plantain-eaters and Turacos, are handsome birds,
somewhat intermediate between Toucans and Cuckoos. They are confined to the
Ethiopian region and are most abundant in West Africa. The Plantain eaters
(_Musophaga_, 2 sp.), are confined to West Africa; the Turacos (_Turacus_,
16 sp., including the sub-genera _Corythaix_ and _Schizorhis_) range over
all Africa from Abyssinia to the Cape (Plate V. Vol. I. p. 264).


FAMILY 57.--COLIIDÆ. (1 Genus, 7 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|1. 2. 3 -- |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

The Colies, consisting of the single genus _Colius_, are an anomalous group
of small finch-like birds, occuping a position between the Picariæ and
Passeres, but of very doubtful affinities. Their range is nearly identical
with that of the Musophagidæ, but they are most abundant in South and East
Africa.


{308}FAMILY 58.--CUCULIDÆ. (35 Genera, 180 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3 -- |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4
             |           |           |           |           |

The Cuculidæ, of which our well-known Cuckoo is one of the most widely
distributed types, are essentially a tropical group of weak insectivorous
birds, abounding in varied forms in all the warmer parts of the globe, but
very scarce or only appearing as migrants in the temperate and colder
zones. Many of the smaller Eastern species are adorned with the most
intense golden or violet metallic lustre, while some of the larger forms
have gaily-coloured bills or bare patches of bright red on the cheeks. Many
of the cuckoos of the Eastern Hemisphere are parasitic, laying their eggs
in other birds' nests; and they are also remarkable for the manner in which
they resemble other birds, as hawks, pheasants, or drongo-shrikes. The
distribution of the Cuckoo family is rather remarkable. They abound most in
the Oriental region, which produces no less than 18 genera, of which 11 are
peculiar; the Australian has 8, most of which are also Oriental, but 3 are
peculiar, one of these being confined to Celebes and closely allied to an
Oriental group; the Ethiopian region has only 7 genera, all of which are
Oriental but three, 2 of these being peculiar to Madagascar, and the other
common to Madagascar and Africa. America has 11 genera, all quite distinct
from those of the Eastern Hemisphere, and only three enter the Nearctic
region, one species extending to Canada.

Remembering our conclusions as to the early history of the several regions,
these facts enable us to indicate, with considerable probability, the
origin and mode of dispersal of the cuckoos. They were almost certainly
developed in the Oriental and Palæarctic regions, but reached the
Neotropical at a very early date, where they have since been completely
isolated. Africa must have long remained without cuckoos, the earliest
immigration {309}being to Madagascar at the time of the approximation of
that sub-region to Ceylon and Malaya. A later infusion of Oriental forms
took place probably by way of Arabia and Persia, when those countries were
more fertile and perhaps more extensive. Australia has also received its
cuckoos at a somewhat late date, a few having reached the Austro-Malay
Islands somewhat earlier.

The classification of the family is somewhat unsettled. For the American
genera I follow Messrs. Sclater and Salvin; and, for those of the Old
World, Mr. Sharpe's suggestive paper in the _Proceedings of the Zoological
Society_, 1873, p. 600. The following is the distribution of the various
genera:--

(2195) _Phænicophaës_ (1 sp.), Ceylon; (2196) _Rhamphococcyx_ (1 sp.),
Celebes; (2196) _Rhinococcyx_ (1 sp.), Java; (2196 pt. and 2203)
_Rhopodytes_ (6 sp.), Himalayas to Ceylon, Hainan, and Malaya; (2203 pt)
_Poliococcyx_ (1 sp.), Malacca, Sumatra, and Borneo; (2197) _Dasylophus_ (1
sp.), Philippine Islands; (2198) _Lepidogrammus_ (1 sp.), Philippine
Islands; (2200) _Zanclostomus_ (1 sp.), Malaya; (2201) _Ceuthmochares_ (2
sp.), Tropical and South Africa and Madagascar; (2202) _Taccocua_ (4 sp.),
Himalayas to Ceylon and Malacca; (2204) _Rhinortha_ (1 sp.), Malacca,
Sumatra, Borneo; (2199) _Carpococcyx_ (1 sp.), Borneo and Sumatra; (2220)
_Neomorphus_ (4 sp.), Brazil to Mexico; (2205 2206) _Coua_ (10 sp.),
Madagascar; (2207) _Cochlothraustes_ (1 sp.), Madagascar; (2221)
_Centropus_ (35 sp.), Tropical and South Africa, the whole Oriental region,
Austro-Malaya and Australia; (2213) _Crotophaga_ (3 sp.), Brazil to
Antilles and Pennsylvania; (2212) _Guira_ (1 sp.), Brazil and Paraguay;
(2209) _Geococcyx_ (2 sp.), Guatemala to Texas and California; (2211)
_Dromococcyx_ (2 sp.), Brazil to Mexico; (2210) _Diplopterus_ (1 sp.),
Mexico to Ecuador and Brazil; (2208) _Saurothera_ (4 sp.), Greater
Antilles; (2219) _Hyetornis_ (2 sp.), Jamaica and Hayti; (2215) _Piaya_ (3
sp.), Mexico to West Ecuador and Brazil; (2218) _Morococcyx_ (1 sp.), Costa
Rica to Mexico; (2214) _Coccygus_ (10 sp.), La Plata to Antilles, Mexico
and Pennsylvania, Cocos Island; (2227) _Cuculus_ (22 sp.), Palæarctic,
Ethiopian, and Oriental regions, to Moluccas and Australia; (2229)
_Caliecthrus_ (1 sp.), Papuan Islands; (2230-2232) _Cacomantis_ (15 sp.),
Oriental and Australian {310}regions to Fiji Islands and Tasmania;
(2233-2237) _Chrysococcyx_ (16 sp.), Tropical and South Africa, the
Oriental and Australian regions to New Zealand and Fiji Islands; (2238)
_Surniculus_ (2 sp.), India, Ceylon, and Malaya; (2239) _Hierococcyx_ (7
sp.), the Oriental region to Amoorland and Celebes; (2240 2241) _Coccystes_
(6 sp.), Tropical and South Africa, the Oriental region, excluding
Philippines; (2242) _Eudynamis_ (8 sp.), the Oriental and Australian
regions, excluding Sandwich Islands; (2243) _Scythrops_ (1 sp.), East
Australia to Moluccas and North Celebes.


FAMILY 59.--LEPTOSOMIDÆ. (1 Genus, 1 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- 4 |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

The _Leptosomus discolor_, which constitutes this family, is a bird of very
abnormal characters, having some affinities both with Cuckoos and Rollers.
It is confined to Madagascar (Plate VI. Vol. I. p. 278).


FAMILY 60.--BUCCONIDÆ. (5 Genera, 43 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- 2. 3 -- |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

The Bucconidæ, or Puff-birds, are generally of small size and dull colours,
with rather thick bodies and dense plumage. They form one of the
characteristic Neotropical families, being most abundant in the great
Equatorial forest plains, but extending as far north as Guatemala, though
absent from the West Indian Islands.

The genera are:--_Bucco_ (21 sp.), Guatemala to Paraguay, and West of the
Andes in Ecuador; _Malacoptila_ (10 sp.), Guatemala {311}to Bolivia and
Brazil; _Nonnula_ (3 sp.), Amazon and Columbia; _Monasa_ (7 sp.), Costa
Rica to Brazil; _Chelidoptera_ (2 sp.), Columbia and Guiana to Brazil.


FAMILY 61.--GALBULIDÆ. (6 Genera, 19 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- 2. 3 -- |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

The Galbulidæ, or Jacamars, are small slender birds, of generally metallic
plumage; somewhat resembling in form the Bee-eaters of the Old World but
less active. They have the same general distribution as the last family,
but they do not occur west of the Equatorial Andes. The genera are:--

_Galbula_ (9 sp.), Guatemala to Brazil and Bolivia; _Urogalba_ (2 sp.),
Guiana and the lower Amazon; _Brachygalba_ (4 sp.), Venezuela to Brazil and
Bolivia; _Jacamaralcyon_ (1 sp.), Brazil; _Jacamerops_ (2 sp.), Panama to
the Amazon; _Galbalcyrhynchus_ (1 sp.), Upper Amazon.


FAMILY 62.--CORACIIDÆ. (3 Genera, 19 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2 -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

The Rollers are a family of insectivorous birds allied to the Bee-eaters,
and are very characteristic of the Ethiopian and Oriental regions; but one
species (_Coracias garrula_) spreads over the Palæarctic region as far
north as Sweden and the Altai mountains, while the genus _Eurystomus_
reaches the Amoor valley, Australia, and the Solomon Islands. The
distribution of the genera is as follows:--

_Coracias_ (8 sp.), the whole Ethiopian region, the Oriental {312}region
except Indo-Malaya, the Palæarctic to the above-named limits, and the
island of Celebes on the confines of the Australian region; _Eurystomus_ (8
sp.), West and East Africa and Madagascar, the whole Oriental region except
the Peninsula of India, and the Australian as far as Australia and the
Solomon Islands; _Brachypteracias_ (possibly allied to _Leptosomus_?) (4
sp.), Madagascar only, but these abnormal birds form a distinct sub-family,
and according to Mr. Sharpe, three genera, _Brachypteracias_, _Atelornis_,
and _Geobiastes_.

A most remarkable feature in the distribution of this family is the
occurrence of a true roller (_Coracias temminckii_) in the island of
Celebes, entirely cut off from the rest of the genus, which does not occur
again till we reach Siam and Burmah.

The curious _Pseudochelidon_ from West Africa may perhaps belong to this
family or to the Cypselidæ. (Ibis. 1861, p. 321.)


FAMILY 63.--MEROPIDÆ. (5 Genera, 34 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|1. 2 -- -- |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2 -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

The Meropidæ, or Bee-eaters, have nearly the same distribution as the
Rollers, but they do not penetrate quite so far either into the Eastern
Palæarctic or the Australian regions. The distribution of the genera is as
follows:--

_Merops_ (21 sp.), has the range of the family extending on the north to
South Scandinavia, and east to Australia and New Guinea; _Nyctiornis_ (3
sp.), the Oriental region, except Ceylon and Java; _Meropogon_ (1 sp.),
Celebes; _Meropiscus_ (3 sp.), West Africa; _Melittophagus_ (6 sp.),
Ethiopian region, except Madagascar.


{313}FAMILY 64.--TODIDÆ. (1 Genus, 5 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- -- -- 4 |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

The Todies are delicate, bright-coloured, insectivorous birds, of small
size, and allied to the Motmots, although externally more resembling
flycatchers. They are wholly confined to the greater Antilles, the islands
of Cuba, Hayti, Jamaica, and Porto Rico having each a peculiar species of
_Todus_, while another species, said to be from Jamaica, has been recently
described (Plate XVI. Vol. II. p. 67).


FAMILY 65.--MOMOTIDÆ. (6 Genera, 17 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- 2. 3 -- |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

The Motmots range from Mexico to Paraguay and to the west coast of Ecuador,
but seem to have their head-quarters in Central America, five of the genera
and eleven species occurring from Panama northwards, two of the genera not
occurring in South America. The genera are as follows:--

_Momotus_ (10 sp.), Mexico to Brazil and Bolivia, one species extending to
Tobago, and one to Western Ecuador; _Urospatha_ (1 sp.), Costa Rica to the
Amazon; _Baryphthengus_ (1 sp.), Brazil and Paraguay; _Hylomanes_ (2 sp.),
Guatemala; _Prionirhynchus_ (2 sp.), Guatemala to Upper Amazon; _Eumomota_
(1 sp.), Honduras to Chiriqui.


{314}FAMILY 66.--TROGONIDÆ. (7 Genera, 44 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- 2. 3. 4 |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|1. 2. 3 -- |1. 2. 3. 4 |-- -- -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

The Trogons form a well-marked family of insectivorous forest-haunting
birds, whose dense yet puffy plumage exhibits the most exquisite tints of
pink, crimson, orange, brown, or metallic green, often relieved by delicate
bands of pure white. In one Guatemalan species the tail coverts are
enormously lengthened into waving plumes of rich metallic green, as
graceful and marvellous as those of the Paradise-birds. Trogons are
tolerably abundant in the Neotropical and Oriental regions, and are
represented in Africa by a single species of a peculiar genus. The genera
now generally admitted are the following:--

_Trogon_ (24 sp.), Paraguay to Mexico, and west of the Andes in Ecuador;
_Temnotrogon_ (1 sp.), Hayti; _Prionoteles_ (1 sp.), Cuba (Plate XVII. Vol.
II. p. 67); _Apaloderma_ (2 sp.), Tropical and South Africa; _Harpactes_
(10 sp.), the Oriental region, excluding China; _Pharomacrus_ (5 sp.),
Amazonia to Guatemala; _Euptilotis_ (1 sp.), Mexico.

Remains of _Trogon_ have been found in the Miocene deposits of France; and
we are thus able to understand the existing distribution of the family. At
that exceptionally mild period in the northern hemisphere, these birds may
have ranged over all Europe and North America; but, as the climate became
more severe they gradually became restricted to the tropical regions, where
alone a sufficiency of fruit and insect-food is found all the year round.


{315}FAMILY 67.--ALCEDINIDÆ. (19 Genera, 125 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4
             |           |           |           |           |

The Kingfishers are distributed universally, but very unequally, over the
globe, and in this respect present some of the most curious anomalies to be
found among birds. They have their metropolis in the eastern half of the
Malay Archipelago (our first Australian sub-region), from Celebes to New
Guinea, in which district no less than 13 out of the 19 genera occur, 8 of
them being peculiar; and it is probable that in no other equally varied
group of universal distribution, is so large a proportion of the generic
forms confined to so limited a district. From this centre kingfishers
decrease rapidly in every direction. In Australia itself there are only 4
genera with 13 species; the whole Oriental region has only 6 genera, 1
being peculiar; the Ethiopian also 6 genera, but 3 peculiar; and each of
these have less than half the number of species possessed by the Australian
region. The Palæarctic region possesses only 3 genera, all derived from the
Oriental region; but the most extraordinary deficiency is shown by the
usually rich Neotropical region, which possesses but a single genus, common
to the larger part of the Eastern Hemisphere, and the same genus is alone
found in the Nearctic region, the only difference being that the former
possesses eight, while the latter has but a single species. These facts
almost inevitably lead to the conclusion that America long existed without
kingfishers; and that in comparatively recent times (perhaps during the
Miocene or Pliocene period), a species of the Old World genus, _Ceryle_,
found its way into North America, and spreading rapidly southward along the
great river-valleys has become differentiated in South America into the few
closely allied forms that alone inhabit that vast country--the richest in
the world in {316}fresh-water fish, and apparently the best fitted to
sustain a varied and numerous body of kingfishers.

The names of the genera, with their distribution and the number of species
in each, as given by Mr. Sharpe in his excellent monograph of the family,
is as follows:--

_Alcedo_ (9 sp.), Palæarctic, Ethiopian, and Oriental regions (but absent
from Madagascar), and extending into the Austro-Malayan sub-region;
_Corythornis_ (3 sp.), the whole Ethiopian region; _Alcyone_ (7 sp.),
Australia and the Austro-Malayan sub-region, with one species in the
Philippine Islands; _Ceryle_ (13 sp.), absent only from Australia, the
northern half of the Palæarctic region, and Madagascar; _Pelargopsis_ (9
sp.), the whole Oriental region; and extending to Celebes and Timor in the
Austro-Malayan sub-region; _Ceyx_ (11 sp.), the Oriental region and
Austro-Malayan sub-region, but absent from Celebes, and only one species in
continental India and Ceylon; _Ceycopsis_ (1 sp.), Celebes; _Myioceyx_ (2
sp.), West Africa; _Ipsidina_ (4 sp.), Ethiopian region; _Syma_ (2 sp.),
Papua and North Australia; _Halcyon_ (36 sp.), Australian, Oriental, and
Ethiopian regions, and the southern part of the Palæarctic; _Dacelo_ (6
sp.), Australia and New Guinea; _Todirhamphus_ (3 sp.), Eastern Pacific
Islands only; _Monachalcyon_ (1 sp.), Celebes; _Caridonax_ (1 sp.), Lombok
and Flores; _Carcineutes_ (2 sp.), Siam to Borneo and Java; _Tanysiptera_
(14 sp.), Moluccas New Guinea, and North Australia (Plate X. Vol. I. p.
414); _Cittura_ (2 sp.), Celebes group; _Melidora_ (1 sp.), New Guinea.


FAMILY 68.--BUCEROTIDIÆ. (12 Genera, 50 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|1. 2. 3 -- |1. 2. 3. 4 |1 -- -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

The Hornbills form an isolated group of generally large-sized birds, whose
huge bills form their most prominent feature. They are popularly associated
with the American Toucans, but have no close relationship to them, and are
now generally {317}considered to show most resemblance, though still a very
distant one, to the kingfishers. They are abundant in the Ethiopian and
Oriental regions, and extend eastward to the Solomon Islands. Their
classification is very unsettled, for though they have been divided into
more than twenty genera they have not yet been carefully studied. The
following grouping of the genera--referring to the numbers in the _Hand
List_--must therefore be considered as only provisional:--

(1957 1958 1963) _Buceros_ (6 sp.), all Indo-Malaya, Arakan, Nepal and the
Neilgherries (Plate IX. Vol. I. p. 339); (1959-1961) _Hydrocissa_ (7 sp.),
India and Ceylon to Malaya and Celebes; (1962) _Berenicornis_ (2 sp.),
Sumatra and West Africa; (1964) _Calao_ (3 sp.), Tennaserim, Malaya,
Moluccas to the Solomon Islands; (1965) _Aceros_ (1 sp.), South-east
Himalayas; (1966 1967) _Cranorrhinus_ (3 sp.), Malacca, Sumatra, Borneo,
Philippines, Celebes; (1968) _Penelopides_ (1 sp.), Celebes; (1969-1971)
_Tockus_ (15 sp.), Tropical and South Africa; (1972) _Rhinoplax_ (1 sp.),
Sumatra and Borneo; (1973-1975) _Bycanistes_ (6 sp.), West Africa with East
and South Africa; (1976 1977) _Meniceros_ (3 sp.), India and Ceylon to
Tenasserim; (1978) _Bucorvus_ (2 sp.), Tropical and South Africa.


FAMILY 69.--UPUPIDÆ. (1 Genus, 6 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --| -- 2 -- 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3 -- |-- -- -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

The Hoopoes form a small and isolated group of semi-terrestrial
insectivorous birds, whose nearest affinities are with the Hornbills. They
are most characteristic of the Ethiopian region, but extend into the South
of Europe and into all the continental divisions of the Oriental region, as
well as to Ceylon, and northwards to Pekin and Mongolia.


{318}FAMILY 70.--IRRISORIDÆ. (1 Genus, 12 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|1. 2. 3 -- |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

The Irrisors are birds of generally metallic plumage, which have often been
placed with the Epunachidæ and near the Sun-birds, or Birds of Paradise,
but which are undoubtedly allied to the Hoopoes. They are strictly confined
to the continent of Africa, ranging from Abyssinia to the west coast, and
southward to the Cape Colony. They have been divided into several
sub-genera which it is not necessary here to notice (Plate IV. Vol. I. p.
261).


FAMILY 71.--PODARGIDÆ. (3 Genera, 20 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2 -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

The Podargidæ, or Frog-mouths, are a family of rather large-sized nocturnal
insectivorous birds, closely allied to the Goat-suckers, but distinguished
by their generally thicker bills, and especially by hunting for their food
on trees or on the ground, instead of seizing it on the wing. They abound
most in the Australian region, but one genus extends over a large part of
the Oriental region. The following are the genera with their
distribution:--

_Podargus_ (10 sp.), Australia, Tasmania, and the Papuan Islands (Plate
XII. Vol. I. p. 441); _Batrachostomus_ (6 sp.), the Oriental region
(excluding Philippine Islands and China) and the northern Moluccas;
_Ægotheles_ (4 sp.), Australia, Tasmania, and Papuan Islands.


{319}FAMILY 72.--STEATORNITHIDÆ. (1 Genus, 1 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- 2 -- -- |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

This family contains a single bird--the Guacharo--forming the genus
_Steatornis_, first discovered by Humboldt in a cavern in Venezuela, and
since found in deep ravines near Bogota, and also in Trinidad. Although
apparently allied to the Goat-suckers it is a vegetable-feeder, and is
altogether a very anomalous bird whose position in the system is still
undetermined.


FAMILY 73.--CAPRIMULGIDÆ. (17 Genera, 91 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2 -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

The Goat-suckers, or Night-jars, are crepuscular insectivorous birds, which
take their prey on the wing, and are remarkable for their soft and
beautifully mottled plumage, swift and silent flight, and strange cries
often imitating the human voice. They are universally distributed, except
that they do not reach New Zealand or the remoter Pacific Islands. The
South American genus, _Nyctibius_, differs in structure and habits from the
other goat-suckers and should perhaps form a distinct family. More than
half the genera inhabit the Neotropical region. The genera are as
follows:--

_Nyctibius_ (6 sp.), Brazil to Guatemala, Jamaica; _Caprimulgus_ (35 sp.),
Palæarctic, Oriental, and Ethiopian regions, with the Austro-Malay Islands
and North Australia; _Hydropsalis_ (8 sp.), Tropical South America to La
Plata; _Antrostomus_ (10 {320}sp.), La Plata and Bolivia to Canada, Cuba;
_Stenopsis_ (4 sp.), Martinique to Columbia, West Peru and Chili;
_Siphonorhis_ (1 sp.), Jamaica; _Heleothreptus_ (1 sp.), Demerara;
_Nyctidromus_ (2 sp.), South Brazil to Central America; _Scortornis_ (3
sp.), West and East Africa; _Macrodipteryx_ (2 sp.), West and Central
Africa; _Cosmetornis_ (1 sp.), all Tropical Africa; _Podager_ (1 sp.),
Tropical South America to La Plata; _Lurocalis_ (2 sp.), Brazil and Guiana;
_Chordeiles_ (8 sp.), Brazil and West Peru to Canada, Porto Rico, Jamaica;
_Nyctiprogne_ (1 sp.), Brazil and Amazonia; _Eurostopodus_ (2 sp.),
Australia and Papuan Islands; _Lyncornis_ (4 sp.), Burmah, Philippines,
Borneo, Celebes.


FAMILY 74.--CYPSELIDÆ. (7 Genera, 53 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3 --
             |           |           |           |           |

The Swifts can almost claim to be a cosmopolitan group, but for their
absence from New Zealand. They are most abundant both in genera and species
in the Neotropical and Oriental regions. The following is the distribution
of the genera:--

_Cypselus_ (1 sp.), absent only from the whole of North America and the
Pacific; _Panyptila_ (3 sp.), Guatemala and Guiana, and extending into
North-west America; _Collocalia_ (10 sp.), Madagascar, the whole Oriental
region and eastward through New Guinea to the Marquesas Islands;
_Dendrochelidon_ (5 sp.), Oriental region and eastward to New Guinea;
_Chætura_ (15 sp.), Continental America (excluding South Temperate), West
Africa and Madagascar, the Oriental region, North China and the Amoor,
Celebes, Australia; _Hemiprocne_ (3 sp.), Mexico to La Plata, Jamaica and
Hayti; _Cypseloides_ (2 sp.), Brazil and Peru; _Nephæcetes_ (2 sp.), Cuba,
Jamaica, North-west America.


{321}FAMILY 75.--TROCHILIDÆ. (118 Genera, 390 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

The wonderfully varied and beautiful Humming-Birds are confined to the
American continent, where they range from Sitka to Cape Horn, while the
island of Juan Fernandez has two peculiar species. Only 6 species,
belonging to 3 genera, are found in the Nearctic region, and most of these
have extended their range from the south. They are excessively abundant in
the forest-clad Andes from Mexico to Chili, some species extending up to
the limits of perpetual snow; but they diminish in number and variety in
the plains, however luxuriant the vegetation. In place of giving here the
names and distribution of the numerous genera into which they are now
divided (which will be found in the tables of the genera of the Neotropical
region), it may be more useful to present a summary of their distribution
in the sub-divisions of the American continent, as follows:--

  Sub-region I.   = Patagonia & S. Andes.
  Sub-region II.  = Tropical S. America.
  Sub-region III. = Tropical N. America.
  Sub-region IV.  = Antilles.
  Nearctic region = Temperate N. America.

                                 -------- Sub-regions --------    Nearctic
                                 I.      II.     III.      IV.    Regions.
  Genera in each Sub-region     10       90       41        8        3
  Peculiar Genera                3       58       14        5        0
  Species in each Sub-region    15      275      100       15        6

The island of Juan Fernandez has two species, and Masafuera, an island
beyond it, one; the three forming a peculiar genus. The island of Tres
Marias, about 60 miles from the west coast of Mexico, possesses a peculiar
species of humming-bird, and the Bahamas two species; but none inhabit
either the Falkland Islands or the Galapagos.

Like most groups which are very rich in species and in generic forms, the
humming-birds are generally very local, small {322}generic groups being
confined to limited districts; while single mountains, valleys, or small
islands, often possess species found nowhere else. It is now well
ascertained that the Trochilidæ are really insectivorous birds, although
they also feed largely, but probably never exclusively, on the nectar of
flowers. Their nearest allies are undoubtedly the Swifts; but the wide gap
that now separates them from these, as well as the wonderful variety of
form and of development of plumage, that is found among them, alike point
to their origin, at a very remote period, in the forests of the once
insular Andes. There is perhaps no more striking contrast of the like
nature, to be found, than that between the American kingfishers--confined
to a few closely allied forms of one Old World genus--and the American
humming-birds with more than a hundred diversified generic forms unlike
everything else upon the globe; and we can hardly imagine any other cause
for this difference, than a (comparatively) very recent introduction in the
one case, and a very high antiquity in the other.


_General Remarks on the Distribution of the Picariæ._

The very heterogeneous mass of birds forming the Order Picariæ, contains 25
families, 307 genera and 1,604 species. This gives about 64 species to each
family, while in the Passeres the proportion is nearly double, or 111
species per family. There are, in fact, only two very large families in the
Order, which happen to be the first and last in the series--Picidæ and
Trochilidæ. Two others--Cuculidæ and Alcedinidæ--are rather large; while
the rest are all small, seven of them consisting only of a single genus and
from one to a dozen species. Only one of the families--Alcedinidæ--is
absolutely cosmopolitan, but three others are nearly so, Caprimulgidæ and
Cypselidæ being only absent from New Zealand, and Cuculidæ from the
Canadian sub-region of North America. Eleven families inhabit the Old World
only, while seven are confined to the New World, only one of
these--Trochilidæ--being common to the Neotropical and Nearctic regions.

The Picariæ are highly characteristic of tropical faunas, for {323}while no
less than 15 out of the 25 families are exclusively tropical, none are
confined to, or have their chief development in, the temperate regions.
They are best represented in the Ethiopian region, which possesses 17
families, 4 of which are peculiar to it; while the Oriental region has only
14 families, none of which are peculiar. The Neotropical region has also 14
families, but 6 of them are peculiar. The Australian region has 8, the
Palæarctic 9 and the Nearctic 6 families, but none of these are peculiar.
We may see a reason for the great specialization of this tropical
assemblage of birds in the Ethiopian and Neotropical regions, in the fact
of the large extent of land on both sides of the Equator which these two
regions alone possess, and their extreme isolation either by sea or deserts
from other regions,--an isolation which we know was in both cases much
greater in early Tertiary times. It is, perhaps, for a similar reason that
we here find hardly any trace of the connection between Australia and South
America which other groups exhibit; for that connection has most probably
been effected by a former communication between the temperate southern
extremities of those two continents. The most interesting and suggestive
fact, is that presented by the distribution of the Megalæmidæ and Trogonidæ
over the tropics of America, Africa, and Asia. In the absence of
palæontological evidence as to the former history of the Megalæmidæ, we are
unable to say positively, whether it owes its present distribution to a
former closer union between these continents in intertropical latitudes, or
to a much greater northern range of the group at the period when a
luxuriant sub-tropical vegetation extended far toward the Arctic regions;
but the discovery of _Trogon_ in the Miocene deposits of the South of
France renders it almost certain that the latter is the true explanation in
the case of both these families.

The Neotropical region, owing to its enormous family of humming-birds, is
by far the richest in Picariæ, possessing nearly half the total number of
species, and a still larger proportion of genera. Three families, the
Bucerotidæ, Meropidæ and Coraciidæ are equally characteristic of the
Oriental and {324}Ethiopian regions, a few outlying species only entering
the Australian or the Palæarctic regions. One family (Todidæ) is confined
to the West Indian Islands; and another (Leptosomidæ) consisting of but a
single species, to Madagascar; parallel cases to the Drepanididæ among the
Passeres, peculiar to the Sandwich Islands, and the Apterygidæ among the
Struthiones, peculiar to New Zealand.


_Order III.--PSITTACI._

The Parrots have been the subject of much difference of opinion among
ornithologists, and no satisfactory arrangement of the order into families
and genera has yet been reached. Professor Garrod has lately examined
certain points in the anatomy of a large number of genera, and proposes to
revolutionize the ordinary classifications. Until, however, a general
examination of their whole anatomy, internal and external, has been made by
some competent authority, it will be unsafe to adopt the new system, as we
have as yet no guide to the comparative value of the characters made use
of. I therefore keep as much as possible to the old groups, founded on
external characters, only using the indications furnished by Professor
Garrod's paper, to determine the position of doubtful genera.


FAMILY 76.--CACATUIDÆ. (5 Genera, 35 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- 4 |1. 2 -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

The Cacatuidæ, Plyctolophidæ, or Camptolophidæ, as they have been variously
termed, comprise all those crested parrots usually termed Cockatoos,
together with one or two doubtful forms. They are very abundant in the
Australian region, more especially in the Austro-Malayan portion of it, one
species inhabiting {325}the Philippine Islands; but they do not pass
further east than the Solomon Islands and are not found in New Zealand. The
distribution of the genera is as follow:--

_Cacatua_ (18 sp.), ranges from the Philippine Islands, Celebes and Lombok,
to the Solomon Islands and to Tasmania; _Calopsitta_ (1 sp.), Australia;
_Calyptorhynchus_ (8 sp.), is confined to Australia and Tasmania;
_Microglossus_ (2 sp.), (perhaps a distinct family) to the Papuan district
and North Australia; _Licmetis_ (3 sp.), Australia, Solomon Islands, and
(?) New Guinea; _Nasiterna_ (3 sp.), a minute form, the smallest of the
whole order, and perhaps not belonging to this family, is only known from
the Papuan and Solomon Islands.


FAMILY 77.--PLATYCERCIDÆ. (11 Genera, 57 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|1. 2. 3. 4
             |           |           |           |           |

The Platycercidæ comprise a series of large-tailed Parrots, of weak
structure and gorgeous colours, with a few ground-feeding genera of more
sober protective tints; the whole family being confined to the Australian
region. The genera are:--

(1996 1999 2000) _Platycercus_ (14 sp.), Australia, Tasmania, and Norfolk
Island; _Psephotus_ (6 sp.), Australia; _Polytelis_ (3 sp.), Australia;
_Nymphicus_ (1 sp.), Australia and New Caledonia; (2002 2003) _Aprosmictus_
(6 sp.), Australia, Papua, Timor, and Moluccas; _Pyrrhulopsis_ (3 sp.),
Tonga and Fiji Islands; _Cyanoramphus_ (14 sp.), New Zealand, Norfolk
Island, New Caledonia, and Society Islands; _Melopsittacus_ (1 sp.),
Australia; _Euphema_ (7 sp.), Australia; _Pezoporus_ (1 sp.), Australia and
Tasmania; _Geopsittacus_ (1 sp.), West Australia. The four last genera are
ground-feeders, and are believed by Professor Garrod to be allied to the
Owl-Parrot of New Zealand (_Stringops_).


{326}FAMILY 78.--PALÆORNITHIDÆ. (8 Genera, 65 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --| 1. 2 -- 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2 -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

I class here a group of birds brought together, for the most part, by
geographical distribution as well as by agreement in internal structure,
but which is nevertheless of a very uncertain and provisional character.

_Palæornis_ (18 sp.), the Oriental region, Mauritius, Rodriguez, and
Seychelle Islands, and a species in Tropical Africa, apparently identical
with the Indian _P. torquatus_, and therefore--considering the very ancient
intercourse between the two countries, and the improbability of the
_species_ remaining unchanged if originating by natural causes--most likely
the progeny of domestic birds introduced from India. _Prioniturus_ (3 sp.),
Celebes and the Philippine Islands; (2061) _Geoffroyus_ (5 sp.), Bouru to
Timor and the Solomon Islands; _Tanygnathus_ (5 sp.), Philippines, Celebes,
and Moluccas to New Guinea; _Eclectus_ (8 sp.), Moluccas and Papuan
Islands; _Psittinus_ (1 sp.), Tenasserim to Sumatra and Borneo;
_Cyclopsitta_ (8 sp.), Papuan Islands, Philippines and North-east
Australia; _Loriculus_ (17 sp.), ranges over the whole Oriental region to
Flores, the Moluccas, and the Papuan island of Mysol; but most of the
species are concentrated in the district including the Philippines,
Celebes, Gilolo, and Flores, there being 1 in India, 1 in South China, 1 in
Ceylon, 1 in Java, 1 in Malacca, Sumatra, and Borneo, 3 in Celebes, 5 in
the Philippines, and the rest in the Moluccas, Mysol, and Flores. This
genus forms a transition to the next family.


{327}FAMILY 79.--TRICHOGLOSSIDÆ. (6 Genera, 57 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|1. 2. 3 --
             |           |           |           |           |

The Trichoglossidæ, or Brush-tongued Paroquets, including the Lories, are
exclusively confined to the Australian region, where they extend from
Celebes to the Marquesas Islands, and south to Tasmania. The genus
_Nanodes_ (= _Lathamus_) has been shown by Professor Garrod to differ from
_Trichoglossus_ in the position of the carotid arteries. I therefore make
it a distinct genus but do not consider that it should be placed in another
family. The genera here admitted are as follows:--

_Trichoglossus_ (29 sp.), ranges over the whole Austro-Malay and Australian
sub-regions, and to the Society Islands; (2047) _Nanodes_ (1 sp.),
Australia and Tasmania; _Charmosyna_ (1 sp.), New Guinea (Plate X. Vol. I.
p. 414); _Eos_ (9 sp.), Bouru and Sanguir Island north of Celebes, to the
Solomon Islands, and in Puynipet Island to the north-east of New Ireland;
(2039 2040) _Lorius_ (13 sp.), Bouru and the Solomon Islands; (2041 2043)
_Coriphilus_ (4 sp.), Samoa, Tonga, Society and Marquesas Islands.


FAMILY 80.--CONURIDÆ. (7 Genera, 79 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  1. 2. 3. 4 |-- -- 3 -- |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

The Conuridæ, which consist of the Macaws and their allies, are wholly
confined to America, ranging from the Straits of Magellan to South Carolina
and Nebraska, with Cuba and Jamaica. Professor Garrod places _Pyrrhura_
(which has generally {328}been classed as a part of the genus _Conurus_) in
a separate family, on account of the absence of the ambiens muscle of the
knee, but as we are quite ignorant of the classificational value of this
character, it is better for the present to keep both as distinct genera of
the same family. The genera are:--

_Ara_ (15 sp.), Paraguay to Mexico and Cuba; _Rhyncopsitta_ (1 sp.),
Mexico; _Henicognathus_ (1 sp.), Chili; _Conurus_ (30 sp.), the range of
the family; _Pyrrhura_ (16 sp.), Paraguay and Bolivia to Costa Pica;
_Bolborhynchus_ (7 sp.), La Plata, Bolivia and West Peru, with one species
in Mexico and Guatemala; _Brotogerys_ (9 sp.), Brazil to Mexico.


FAMILY 81.--PSITTACIDÆ.--(12 Genera, 87 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- 2. 3. 4 |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|1. 2. 3. 4 |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

The Psittacidæ comprise a somewhat heterogeneous assemblage of Parrots and
Paroquets of the Neotropical and Ethiopian regions, which are combined here
more for convenience than because they are believed to form a natural
group. The genera _Chrysotis_ and _Pionus_ have no oil-gland, while
_Psittacula_ and _Agapornis_ have lost the furcula, but neither of these
characters are probably of more than generic value. The genera are:--

_Psittacus_ (2 sp.), West Africa; _Coracopsis_ (5 sp.), Madagascar, Comoro,
and Seychelle Islands; _Pæocephalus_ (9 sp.), all Tropical and South
Africa; (2063-2066) _Caica_ (9 sp.), Mexico to Amazonia; _Chrysotis_ (32
sp.), Paraguay to Mexico and the West Indian Islands; _Triclaria_ (1 sp.),
Brazil; _Deroptyus_ (1 sp.), Amazonia; _Pionus_ (9 sp.), Paraguay to
Mexico; _Urochroma_ (7 sp.), Tropical South America; _Psittacula_ (6 sp.),
Brazil to Mexico; _Poliopsitta_ (2 sp.), Madagascar and West Africa;
_Agapornis_ (4 sp.), Tropical and South Africa.


{329}FAMILY 82.--NESTORIDÆ. (? 2 Genera, 6 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --| 1 -- -- 4
             |           |           |           |           |

The present family is formed to receive the genus _Nestor_ (5 sp.),
confined to New Zealand and Norfolk Island. Its affinities are doubtful,
but it appears to have relations with the American Conuridæ and the
Australian Trichoglossidæ. With it is placed the rare and remarkable
_Dasyptilus_ (1 sp.), of New Guinea, of which however very little is known.


FAMILY 83.--STRINGOPIDÆ. (1 Genus, 2 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- 4
             |           |           |           |           |

This family contains only the curious owl-like nocturnal Parrot of New
Zealand, _Stringops habroptilus_ (Plate XIII. Vol. I. p. 455). An allied
species is said to inhabit the Chatham Islands, if not now extinct.


_General Remarks on the Distribution of the Psittaci._

Although the Parrots are now generally divided into several distinct
families, yet they form so well marked and natural a group, and are so
widely separated from all other birds, that we may best discuss their
peculiarities of geographical distribution by treating them as a whole. By
the preceding enumeration we find that there are about 386 species of known
parrots, which are divided into 52 genera. They are pre-eminently a
tropical group, for although a few species extend a considerable distance
into the temperate zone, these are {330}marked exceptions to the rule which
limits the parrot tribe to the tropical and sub-tropical regions, roughly
defined as extending about 30° on each side of the equator. In America a
species of _Conurus_ reaches the straits of Magellan on the south, while
another inhabits the United States, and once extended to the great lakes,
although now confined to the south-eastern districts. In Africa parrots do
not reach the northern tropic, owing to the desert nature of the country;
and in the south they barely reach the Orange River. In India they extend
to about 35° N. in the western Himalayas; and in the Australian region, not
only to New Zealand but to Macquarie Islands in 54° S., the farthest point
from the equator reached by the group. But although found in all the
tropical regions they are most unequally distributed. Africa is poorest,
possessing only 6 genera and 25 species; the Oriental region is also very
poor, having but 6 genera and 29 species; the Neotropical region is much
richer, having 14 genera and 141 species; while the smallest in area and
the least tropical in climate--the Australian region, possesses 31 genera
and 176 species, and it also possesses exclusively 5 of the families,
Trichoglossidæ, Platycercidæ, Cacatuidæ, Nestoridæ, and Stringopidæ. The
portion of the earth's surface that contains the largest number of parrots
in proportion to its area is, undoubtedly, the Austro-Malayan sub-region,
including the islands from Celebes to the Solomon Islands. The area of
these islands is probably not one-fifteenth of that of the four tropical
regions, yet they contain from one-fifth to one-fourth of all the known
parrots. In this area too are found many of the most remarkable forms,--all
the crimson lories, the great black Cockatoos, the pigmy _Nasiterna_, the
raquet-tailed _Prioniturus_, and the bareheaded _Dasyptilus_.

The almost universal distribution of Parrots wherever the climate is
sufficiently mild or uniform to furnish them with a perennial supply of
food, no less than their varied details of organization, combined with a
great uniformity of general type,--tell us, in unmistakable language, of a
very remote antiquity. The only early record of extinct parrots is,
however, in the Miocene of France, where remains apparently allied to the
West {331}African _Psittacus_, have been found. But the origin of so
widespread, isolated, and varied a group, must be far earlier than this,
and not improbably dates back beyond the dawn of the Tertiary period. Some
primeval forms may have entered the Australian region with the Marsupials,
or not long after them; while perhaps at a somewhat later epoch they were
introduced into South America. In these two regions they have greatly
flourished, while in the two other tropical regions only a few types have
been found, capable of maintaining themselves, among the higher forms of
mammalia, and in competition with a more varied series of birds. This seems
much more probable than the supposition that so highly organized a group
should have originated in the Australian region, and subsequently become so
widely spread over the globe.


_Order IV.--COLUMBÆ._

FAMILY 84.--COLUMBIDÆ. (44 Genera, 355 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4
             |           |           |           |           |

The Columbidæ, or Pigeons and Doves, are almost universally distributed,
but very unequally in the different regions. Being best adapted to live in
warm or temperate climates, they diminish rapidly northwards, reaching
about 62° N. Latitude in North America, but considerably farther in Europe.
Both the Nearctic and Palæarctic regions are very poor in genera and
species of pigeons, those of the former region being mostly allied to
Neotropical, and those of the latter to Oriental and Ethiopian types. The
Ethiopian region is, however, itself very poor, and several of its peculiar
forms are confined to the Madagascar sub-region. The Neotropical region is
very rich in peculiar genera, though but moderately so in number of
species. The Oriental {332}region closely approaches it in both respects;
but the Australian region is by far the richest, possessing nearly double
the genera and species of any other region, and abounding in remarkable
forms quite unlike those of any other part of the globe. The following
table gives the number of genera and species in each region, and enables us
readily to determine the comparative richness and isolation of each, as
regards this extensive family:--

  Regions.      No. of Genera.    Peculiar Genera.    No. of Species.
  Neotropical         13                  9                 75
  Nearctic             5                  1                  7
  Palæarctic           3                  0                  9
  Ethiopian            6                  1                 37
  Oriental            12                  1                 66
  Australian          24                 14                148

With the exception of _Columba_ and _Turtur_, which have a wide range,
_Treron_, common to the Oriental and Ethiopian regions, and _Carpophaga_,
to the Oriental and Australian, most of the genera of pigeons are either
restricted to or very characteristic of a single region.

The distribution of the genera here admitted is as follows:--

_Treron_ (37 sp.), the whole Oriental region, and eastward to Celebes,
Amboyna and Flores, also the whole Ethiopian region to Madagascar;
_Ptilopus_ (52 sp.), the Australian region (excluding New Zealand) and the
Indo-Malay sub-region; _Alectroenas_ (4 sp.), Madagascar and the Mascarene
Islands; _Carpophaga_ (50 sp.), the whole Australian and Oriental regions,
but much the most abundant in the former; (2274) _Ianthoenas_ (11 sp.),
Japan, Andaman, Nicobar, and Philippine Islands, Timor and Gilolo to Samoa
Islands; (2278) _Leucomelæna_ (1 sp.), Australia; _Lopholaimus_ (1 sp.),
Australia; (2279 and 2283) _Alsæcomus_ (2 sp.), Himalayas to Ceylon and
Tenasserim; _Columba_ (46 sp.), generally distributed over all the regions
except the Australian, one species however in the Fiji Islands;
_Ectopistes_ (1 sp.), east of North America with British Columbia;
_Zenaidura_ (2 sp.), Veragua to Canada and British Columbia; _Oena_ (1
sp.), Tropical and South Africa; _Geopelia_ (6 sp.), Philippine Islands and
Java to Australia; _Macropygia_ (14 sp.), Nepal, Hainan, Nicobar, Java,
{333}and Philippines to Australia and New Ireland; _Turacoena_ (3 sp.),
Celebes, Timor, and Solomon Islands; _Reinwardtoenas_ (1 sp.), Celebes to
New Guinea; _Turtur_ (24 sp.), Palæarctic, Ethiopian and Oriental regions
with Austro-Malaya; _Chæmepelia_ (7 sp.), Brazil and Bolivia to Jamaica,
California, and South-east United States; _Columbula_ (2 sp.), Brazil and
La Plata to Chili; _Scardafella_ (2 sp.), Brazil and Guatemala; _Zenaida_
(10 sp.), Chili and La Plata to Columbia and the Antilles, Fernando
Noronha; _Melopelia_ (2 sp.), Chili to Mexico and California; _Peristera_
(4 sp.), Brazil to Mexico; _Metriopelia_ (2 sp.), West America from Ecuador
to Chili; _Gymnopelia_ (1 sp.), West Peru and Bolivia; _Leptoptila_ (11
sp.), Paraguay to Mexico and the Antilles; (2317 2318 and 2820) _Geotrygon_
(14 sp.), Paraguay to Mexico and the Antilles; _Aplopelia_ (5 sp.),
Tropical and South Africa, St. Thomas and Princes Island; _Chalocopelia_ (4
sp.), Tropical and South Africa; _Starnoenas_ (1 sp.), Cuba; Ocyphaps (1
sp.), Australia (Plate XII. Vol. I. p. 441); _Petrophassa_ (1 sp.),
North-west Australia; _Chalocophaps_ (8 sp.), the Oriental region to New
Guinea and Australia; _Trugon_ (1 sp.), New Guinea; _Henicophaps_ (1 sp.),
Waigiou and New Guinea; _Phaps_ (3 sp.), Australia and Tasmania;
_Leucosarcia_ (1 sp.), East Australia; _Phapitreron_ (2 sp.), Philippine
Islands; _Geophaps_ (2 sp.), North and East Australia; _Lophophaps_ (3
sp.), Australia; _Caloenas_ (1 sp.), scattered on the smaller islands from
the Nicobars and Philippines to New Guinea; _Otidiphaps_ (1 sp.), New
Guinea; _Phlogoenas_ (7 sp.), Philippine Islands and Celebes to the
Marquesas Islands; _Goura_ (2 sp.), New Guinea and the islands on the
north-east (Plate X. Vol. I. p. 414).


FAMILY 84_a_.--DIDUNCULIDÆ. (1 Genus, 1 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- 3 --
             |           |           |           |           |

{334}The _Didunculus stigirostris_, a hook-billed ground-pigeon, found only
in the Samoa Islands, is so peculiar in its structure that it is considered
to form a distinct family.


FAMILY 85.--DIDIDÆ.--(2 Genera, 3 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- 4 |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

The birds which constitute this family are now all extinct; but as numerous
drawings are in existence, taken from living birds some of which were
exhibited in Europe, and a stuffed specimen, fragments of which still
remain, was in the Ashmolean Museum at Oxford down to 1755, they must be
classed among recent, as opposed to geologically extinct species. The Dodo
(_Didus ineptus_) a large, unwieldy, flightless bird, inhabited Mauritius
down to the latter part of the 17th century; and an allied form, the
Solitaire (_Pezophaps solitaria_), was found only in the island of
Rodriguez, where it survived about a century later. Old voyagers mention a
Dodo also in Bourbon, and a rude figure of it exists; but no remains of
this bird have been found. Almost complete skeletons of the Dodo and
Solitaire have, however, been recovered from the swamps of Mauritius and
the caves of Rodriguez, proving that they were both extremely modified
forms of pigeon. These large birds were formerly very abundant, and being
excellent eating and readily captured, the early voyagers to these islands
used them largely for food. As they could be caught by man, and very easily
by dogs, they were soon greatly diminished in numbers; and the introduction
of swine, which ran wild in the forests and fed on the eggs and young
birds, completed their extermination.

The existence in the Mascarene Islands of a group of such remarkable
terrestrial birds, with aborted wings, is parallel to that of the _Apteryx_
and _Dinornis_ in New Zealand, the Cassowaries of Austro-Malaya, and the
short-winged Rails of New {335}Zealand, Tristan d'Acunha, and other oceanic
islands; and the phenomenon is clearly dependent on the long-continued
absence of enemies, which allowed of great increase of bulk and the total
loss of the power of flight, without injury. In some few cases (the Ostrich
for example) birds incapable of flight co-exist with large carnivorous
mammalia; but these birds are large and powerful, as well as very swift,
and are thus able to escape from some enemies and defend themselves against
others. The entire absence of the smaller and more defenceless ground-birds
from the adjacent island of Madagascar, is quite in accordance with this
view, because that island has several small but destructive carnivorous
animals.


_General Remarks on the Distribution of the Columbæ._

The striking preponderance of Pigeons, both as to genera and species, in
the Australian region, would seem to indicate that at some former period it
possessed a more extensive land area in which this form of bird-life took
its rise. But there are other considerations which throw doubt upon this
view. The western half of the Malay Archipelago, belonging to the Oriental
region, is also rich in pigeons, since it has 43 species belonging to 11
genera, rather more than are found in all the rest of the Oriental region.
Again, we find that the Mascarene Islands and the Antilles both possess
more pigeons than we should expect, in proportion to those of the regions
to which they belong, and to their total amount of bird-life. This looks as
if islands were more favourable to pigeon-development than continents; and
if we group together the Pacific and the Malayan Islands, the Mascarene
group and the Antilles, we find that they contain together about 170
species of pigeons belonging to 24 out of the 47 genera here adopted; while
all the great continents united only produce about the same number of
species belonging (if we omit those peculiar to Australia) to only 20
genera. The great development of the group in the Australian region may,
therefore, be due to its consisting mainly of islands, and not to the order
having originated there, and thus having had a longer period in which to
develop. I have elsewhere suggested (_Ibis_ 1865, p. 366) {336}a physical
cause for this peculiarity of distribution. Pigeons build rude, open nests,
and their young remain helpless for a considerable period. They are thus
exposed to the attacks of such arboreal quadrupeds or other animals as feed
on eggs or young birds. Monkeys are very destructive in this respect; and
it is a noteworthy fact that over the whole Australian region, the
Mascarene Islands and the Antilles, monkeys are unknown. In the Indo-Malay
sub-region, where monkeys are generally plentiful, the greatest variety of
pigeons occurs in the Philippines, where there is but a single species in
one island; and in Java, where monkeys are far less numerous than in
Sumatra or Borneo. If we add to this consideration the fact, that mammalia
and rapacious birds are, as a rule, far less abundant in islands than on
continents; and that the extreme development of pigeon-life is reached in
the Papuan group of islands, in which mammalia (except a few marsupials,
bats, and pigs) are wholly absent, we see further reason to adopt this
view. It is also to be noted that in America, comparatively few pigeons are
found in the rich forests (comparable to those of the Australian insular
region in which they abound), but are mostly confined to the open campos,
the high Andes, and the western coast districts, from which the
monkey-tribe are wholly absent.

This view is further supported by the great development of colour that is
found in the pigeons of these insular regions, culminating in the
golden-yellow fruit-dove of the Fiji Islands, the metallic green
Nicobar-pigeon of Malaya, and the black and crimson _Alectroenas_ of
Mauritius. Here also, alone, we meet with crested pigeons, rendering the
possessors more conspicuous; such as the _Lopholaimus_ of Australia and the
crowned _Goura_ of New Guinea; and here too are more peculiar forms of
terrestrial pigeons than elsewhere, though none have completely lost the
power of flight but the now extinct Dididæ.

The curious liking of pigeons for an insular habitat is well shown in the
genera _Ianthoenas_ and _Caloenas_. The former, containing 11 species,
ranges over a hundred degrees of longitude, and forty-five of latitude,
extending into three regions, yet nowhere inhabits a continent or even a
large island. It is {337}found in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands; in the
Philippines, Gilolo, and the smaller Papuan Islands, and in Japan; yet not
in any of the large Malay Islands or in Australia. The other genus,
_Caloenas_, consists of but a single species, yet this ranges from the
Nicobar Islands to New Guinea. It is not, however, as far as known, found
on any of the large islands, but seems to prefer the smaller islands which
surround them. We here have the general preference of pigeons for islands,
further developed in these two genera into a preference for small islands;
and it is probable that the same cause--the greater freedom from
danger--has produced both phenomena.

Of the geological antiquity of the Columbæ we have no evidence; but their
wide distribution, their varied forms, and their great isolation, all point
to an origin, at least as far back as that we have assigned as probable in
the case of the Parrots.


_Order V.--GALLINÆ._


FAMILY 86.--PTEROCLIDÆ. (2 Genera, 16 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- 2. 3. 4 | 1 -- 3. 4 |1 -- -- -- |-- -- -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

The Pteroclidæ, or Sand-grouse, are elegantly formed birds with pointed
tails, and plumage of beautifully varied protective tints, characteristic
of the Ethiopian region and Central Asia, though extending into Southern
Europe and Hindostan. Being pre-eminently desert-birds, they avoid the
forest-districts of all these countries, but abound in the most arid
situations and on the most open and barren plains. The distribution of the
genera is as follows:--

_Pterocles_ (14 sp.), has the same range as the family; _Syrrhaptes_ (2
sp.), normally inhabits Tartary, Thibet, and Mongolia to the country around
Pekin, and occasionally visits Eastern Europe. But a few years back (1863)
great numbers suddenly appeared in {338}Europe and extended westward to the
shores of the Atlantic, while some even reached Ireland and the Færoes.
(Plate III. Vol. I. p. 226.)


FAMILY 87.--TETRAONIDÆ. (29 Genera, 170 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2 -- 4.
             |           |           |           |           |

The Tetraonidæ, including the Grouse, Partridges, Quails, and allied forms,
abound in all parts of the Eastern continents; they are less plentiful in
North America and comparatively scarce in South America, more than half the
Neotropical species being found north of Panama; and in the Australian
region there are only a few of small size. The Ethiopian region probably
contains most species; next comes the Oriental--India proper from the
Himalayas to Ceylon having twenty; while the Australian region, with 15
species, is the poorest. These facts render it probable that the Tetraonidæ
are essentially denizens of the great northern continents, and that their
entrance into South America, Australia, and even South Africa, is,
comparatively speaking, recent. They have developed into forms equally
suited to the tropical plains and the arctic regions, some of them being
among the few denizens of the extreme north, as well as of the highest
alpine snows. The genera are somewhat unsettled, and there is even some
uncertainty as to the limits between this family and the next; but the
following are those now generally admitted:--

_Ptilopachus_ (1 sp.), West Africa; _Francolinus_ (34 sp.), all Africa,
South Europe, India to Ceylon, and South China; _Ortygornis_ (3 sp.),
Himalayas to Ceylon, Sumatra, and Borneo; _Peliperdix_ (1 sp.), West
Africa; _Perdix_ (3 sp.), the whole Continental Palæarctic region;
_Margaroperdix_ (1 sp.), Madagascar; _Oreoperdix_ (1 sp.), Formosa;
_Arborophila_ (8 sp.), the Oriental Continent and the Philippines;
_Peloperdix_ (4 sp.), Tenasserim and Malaya; _Coturnix_ (21 sp.), Temperate
Palæarctic, Ethiopian and {339}Oriental regions, and the Australian to New
Zealand; _Rollulus_ (2 sp.), Siam to Sumatra, Borneo, and Philippines;
_Caloperdix_ (1 sp.), Malacca and Sumatra; _Odontophorus_ (17 sp.), Brazil
and Peru to Mexico; _Dendrortyx_ (3 sp.), Guatemala and Mexico; _Cyrtonyx_
(3 sp.), Guatemala to New Mexico; _Ortyx_ (8 sp.), Honduras and Cuba to
Canada; _Eupsychortyx_ (6 sp.), Brazil and Ecuador to Mexico; _Callipepla_
(3 sp.), Mexico to California; _Lophortyx_ (2 sp.), Arizona and California;
_Oreortyx_ (1 sp.), California and Oregon (Plate XVIII., Vol. II. p. 128);
_Lerwa_ (1 sp.), Snowy Himalayas and East Thibet; _Caccabis_ (10 sp.),
Palæarctic region to Abyssinia, Arabia and the Punjaub; _Tetraogallus_ (4
sp.), Caucasus and Himalayas to Altai Mountains; _Tetrao_ (7 sp.), northern
parts of Palæarctic and Nearctic regions; _Centrocercus_ (1 sp.), Rocky
Mountains; _Pediocætes_ (2 sp.), North and North-west America (Plate XVIII.
Vol. II. p. 128); _Cupidonia_ (1 sp.), East and North-Central United States
and Canada; _Bonasa_ (3 sp.), north of Nearctic and Palæarctic regions;
_Lagopus_ (6 sp.), Arctic Zone and northern parts of Nearctic and
Palæarctic regions.


FAMILY 88.--PHASIANIDÆ. (18 Genera, 75 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- -- 3 -- |-- 2. 3 -- |-- 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1 -- -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

The Phasianidæ, including the Pea-fowl, Pheasants, and Jungle-fowl, the
Turkeys, and the Guinea-fowl, are very widely distributed, but are far more
abundant than elsewhere in the Eastern parts of Asia, both tropical and
temperate. Leaving out the African guinea-fowls and the American turkeys,
we have 13 genera and 63 species belonging to the Oriental and Palæarctic
regions. These are grouped by Mr. Elliot (whose arrangement we mainly
follow) in 5 sub-families, of which 3--Pavonniæ, Euplocaminæ, and
Gallinæ--are chiefly Oriental, while the Lophophorniæ and Phasianinæ are
mostly Palæarctic or from the highlands on the {340}borders of the two
regions. The genera adopted by Mr. Elliot in his _Monograph_ are the
following:--

PAVONINÆ, 4 genera.--_Pavo_ (2 sp.), Himalayas to Ceylon, Siam, to
South-west China and Java; _Argusianus_ (4 sp.), Siam, Malay Peninsula, and
Borneo (Plate IX. Vol. I. p. 339); _Polyplectron_ (5 sp.), Upper Assam to
South-west China and Sumatra; _Crossoptilon_ (4 sp.), Thibet and North
China. (Plate III. Vol. I. p. 226.)

LOPHOPHORINÆ, 4 genera.--_Lophophorus_ (3 sp.), High woody region of
Himalayas from Cashmere to West China; _Tetraophasis_ (1 sp.), East Thibet;
_Ceriornis_ (5 sp.), Highest woody Himalayas from Cashmere to Bhotan and
Western China (Plate VII. Vol. I. p. 331); _Pucrasia_ (3 sp.), Lower and
High woody Himalayas from the Hindoo Koosh to North-west China.

PHASIANINÆ, 2 genera.--_Phasianus_ (12 sp.), Western Asia to Japan and
Formosa, south to near Canton and Yunan, and the Western Himalayas, north
to the Altai Mountains; _Thaumalea_ (3 sp.), North-western China and
Mongolia. (Plate III. Vol. I. p. 226.)

EUPLOCAMINÆ, 2 genera.--_Euplocamus_ (12 sp.), Cashmere, along Southern
Himalayas to Siam, South China and Formosa, and to Sumatra and Borneo;
_Ithaginis_ (2 sp.), High Himalayas from Nepal to North-west China.

GALLINÆ, 1 genus.--_Gallus_ (4 sp.), Cashmere to Hainan, Ceylon, Borneo,
Java, and eastwards to Celebes and Timor. (Central India, Ceylon, and East
Java, have each a distinct species of Jungle-fowl.)

MELEAGRINÆ, 1 genus.--_Meleagris_ (3 sp.), Eastern and Central United
States and south to Mexico, Guatemala and Yucatan.

AGELASTINÆ, 2 genera.--_Phasidus_ (1 sp.), West Africa; _Agelastes_ (1
sp.), West Africa.

NUMIDINÆ, 2 genera.--_Acryllium_ (1 sp.), West Africa; _Numida_ (9 sp.),
Ethiopian region, east to Madagascar, south to Natal and Great Fish River.


{341}FAMILY 89.--TURNICIDÆ. (2 Genera, 24 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --| -- 2 -- 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2 -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

The Turnicidæ are small Quail-like birds, supposed to have remote
affinities with the American Tinamous, and with sufficient distinctive
peculiarities to constitute a separate family. They range over the Old
World, from Spain all through Africa and Madagascar, and over the whole
Oriental region to Formosa, and then north again to Pekin, as well as
south-eastward to Australia and Tasmania. The genus _Turnix_ (23 sp.), has
the range of the family; _Ortyxelos_ (1 sp.), inhabits Senegal; but the
latter genus may not belong to this family.


FAMILY 90.--MEGAPODIIDÆ. (4 Genera, 20 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|1. 2. 3 -- |-- -- -- 4
             |           |           |           |           |

The Megapodiidæ, or Mound-makers and Brush-turkeys, are generally
dull-coloured birds of remarkable habits and economy, which have no near
allies, but are supposed to have a remote affinity with the South American
Curassows. They are highly characteristic of the Australian region,
extending into almost every part of it except New Zealand and the remotest
Pacific islands, and only sending two species beyond its limits,--a
_Megapodius_ in the Philippine Islands and North-west Borneo, and another
in the Nicobar Islands, separated by about 1,800 miles from its nearest
ally in Lombok. The Philippine species offers little difficulty, for these
birds are found on the smallest {342}islands and sand-banks, and can
evidently pass over a few miles of sea with ease; but the Nicobar bird is a
very different case, because none of the numerous intervening islands offer
a single example of the family. Instead of being a well-marked and clearly
differentiated form, as we should expect to find it if its remote and
isolated habitat were due to natural causes, it so nearly resembles some of
the closely-allied species of the Moluccas and New Guinea, that, had it
been found with them, it would hardly have been thought specifically
extinct. I therefore believe that it is probably an introduction by the
Malays, and that, owing to the absence of enemies and general suitability
of conditions, it has thriven in the islands and has become slightly
differentiated in colour from the parent stock. The following is the
distribution of the genera at present known:--

_Talegallus_ (2 sp.), New Guinea and East Australia; _Megacephalon_ (1
sp.), East Celebes; _Lipoa_ (1 sp.), South Australia; _Megapodius_ (16
sp.), Philippine Islands and Celebes, to Timor, North Australia, New
Caledonia, the Marian and Samoa Islands, and probably every intervening
island,--also a species (doubtfully indigenous) in the Nicobar Islands.


FAMILY 91.--CRACIDÆ, (12 Genera, 53 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- 2. 3 -- |-- 2 -- -- |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

(Messrs. Sclater and Salvin's arrangement is here followed).

The Cracidæ, or Curassows and Guans, comprise the largest and handsomest
game-birds of the Neotropical region, where they take the place of the
grouse and pheasants of the Old World. They are almost all forest-dwellers,
and are a strictly Neotropical family, only one species just entering the
Nearctic region as far as New Mexico. They extend southward to Paraguay and
the extreme south of Brazil, but none are found in the {343}Antilles, nor
west of the Andes south of the bay of Guayaquil. The sub-families and
genera are as follows:--

CRACINÆ, 4 genera.--_Crax_ (8 sp.), Mexico to Paraguay (Plate XV., Vol. II.
p. 28); _Nothocrax_ (1 sp.), Guiana, Upper Rio Negro, and Upper Amazon;
_Pauxi_ (1 sp.), Guiana to Venezuela; _Mitua_ (2 sp.), Guiana and Upper
Amazon.

PENELOPINÆ, 7 genera.--_Stegnolæma_ (1 sp.), Columbia and Ecuador;
_Penelope_ (14 sp.), Mexico to Paraguay and to western slope of Ecuadorian
Andes; _Penelopina_ (1 sp.), Guatemala; _Pipile_ (3 sp.), Venezuela to
Eastern Brazil; _Aburria_ (1 sp), Columbia; _Chamæpetes_ (2 sp.), Costa
Rica to Peru; _Ortalida_ (18 sp.), New Mexico to Paraguay, also Tobago.

OREOPHASINÆ, 1 genus.--_Oreophasis_ (1 sp.), Guatemala.

It thus appears that the Cracinæ are confined to South America east of the
Andes, except one species in Central America; whereas nine Penelopinæ and
_Oreophasis_ are found north of Panama. The species of the larger genera
are strictly representative, each having its own distinct geographical
area, so that two species of the same genus are rarely or never found in
the same locality.


FAMILY 92.--TINAMIDÆ. (9 Genera, 39 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  1. 2. 3 -- |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

The Tinamous are a very remarkable family of birds, with the general
appearance of partridges or hemipodes, but with the tail either very small
or entirely wanting. They differ greatly in their organization from any of
the Old World Gallinæ, and approach, in some respects, the Struthiones or
Ostrich tribe. They are very terrestrial in their habits, inhabiting the
forests, open plains, and mountains of the Neotropical region, from
Patagonia and Chili to Mexico; but, like the Cracidæ, they are absent from
the Antilles. Their colouring is very sober and protective, as is the case
with so many ground-birds, and they are seldom adorned {344}with crests or
other ornamental plumes, so prevalent in the order to which they belong.
The sub-families and genera, according to the arrangement of Messrs.
Sclater and Salvin, are as follows:--

TINAMINÆ, 7 genera.--_Tinamus_ (7 sp.), Mexico to Paraguay; _Nothocercus_
(3 sp.), Costa Rica to Venezuela and Ecuador; _Crypturus_ (16 sp.), Mexico
to Paraguay and Bolivia; _Rhynchotus_ (2 sp.), Bolivia and South Brazil to
La Plata; _Nothoprocta_ (4 sp.), Ecuador to Bolivia and Chili; _Nothura_ (4
sp.), Brazil and Bolivia to Patagonia; _Taoniscus_ (1 sp.), Brazil to
Paraguay.

TINAMOTINÆ, 2 genera.-- _Calodromas_ (1 sp.), La Plata and Patagonia;
_Tinamotis_ (1 sp.), Andes of Peru and Bolivia.


_General Remarks on the Distribution of Gallinæ._

There are about 400 known species of Gallinaceous birds grouped into 76
genera, of which no less than 65 are each restricted to a single region.
The Tetraonidæ are the only cosmopolitan family, and even these do not
extend into Temperate South America, and are very poorly represented in
Australia. The Cracidæ and Tinamidæ are strictly Neotropical, the
Megapodiidæ almost as strictly Australian. There remains the extensive
family of the Phasianidæ, which offers some interesting facts. We have
first the well-marked sub-families of the Numidinæ and Meleagrinæ, confined
to the Ethiopian and Nearctic regions respectively, and we find the
remaining five sub-families, comprising about 60 species, many of them the
most magnificent of known birds, spread over the Oriental and the
south-eastern portion of the Palæarctic regions. This restriction is
remarkable, since there is no apparent cause in climate or vegetation why
pheasants should not be found wild throughout southern Europe, as they were
during late Tertiary and Post-Tertiary times. We have also to notice the
remarkable absence of the Pheasant tribe from Hindostan and Ceylon, where
the peacock and jungle-fowl are their sole representatives. These two forms
also alone extend to Java, whereas in the adjacent islands of Borneo and
Sumatra we have _Argusianus_, _Polyplectron_, and _Euplocamus_. The common
jungle-fowl (the origin of our domestic poultry) is the only {345}species
which enters the Australian region as far as Celebes and Timor, and another
species (_Gallus æneus_) as far as Flores, and it is not improbable that
these may have been introduced by man and become wild.

We have very little knowledge of the extinct forms of Gallinæ, but what we
have assures us of their high antiquity, since we find such distinct groups
as the jungle-fowl, partridges, and _Pterocles_, represented in Europe in
the Miocene period; while the Turkey, then as now, appears to have been a
special American type.


_Order VI.--OPISTHOCOMI._

FAMILY 93.--OPISTHOCOMIDÆ. (1 Genus, 1 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
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  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- 2 -- -- |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

The Hoazin (_Opisthocomus cristatus_) is the sole representative of this
family and of the order Opisthocomi. It inhabits the eastern side of
Equatorial America in Guiana and the Lower Amazon; and at Pará is called
"Cigana" or gipsy. It is a large, brown, long-legged, weakly-formed and
loosely-crested bird, having such anomalies of structure that it is
impossible to class it along with any other family. It is one of those
survivors, which tell us of extinct groups, of whose past existence we
should otherwise, perhaps, remain for ever ignorant.


_Order VII.--ACCIPITRES._

FAMILY 94.--VULTURIDÆ. (10 Genera, 25 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3 -- |1. 2. 3 -- |-- -- -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

{346}Vultures range over all the great continents south of the Arctic
Circle, being only absent from the Australian region, the Malay Islands,
Ceylon, and Madagascar. The Old and New World forms are very distinct,
belonging to two well-marked divisions, often ranked as families. The
distribution of the genera is as follows:--

Sub-family I. VULTURINÆ (6 genera, 16 species), confined to the Old
World.--_Vultur_ (1 sp.), Spain and North Africa through Nepal to China
north of Ningpo; _Gyps_ (5 sp.), Europe south of 59°, Africa, except the
western sub-region, India, Siam, and Northern China; _Pseudogyps_ (2 sp.),
North-east Africa and Senegal, India and Burmah; _Otogyps_ (2 sp.), South
Europe, North-east and South Africa, India, and Siam; _Lophogyps_ (1 sp.),
North-east and South Africa and Senegal; _Neophron_ (4 sp.), South Europe,
India and the greater part of Africa.

Sub-family II. SARCORHAMPHINÆ (4 genera, 9 species), confined to the New
World.--_Sarcorhamphus_ (2 sp.), "The Condor," Andes of South America, and
southern extremity below 41° south latitude; _Cathartes_ (1 sp.), America
from 20° south latitude to Trinidad and Mexico; _Catharistes_ (1 sp.),
America from 40° north to 40° south latitude, but not on Pacific coast of
United States; _Pseudogryphis_ (5 sp.), South America and Falkland Islands,
and to 49° north latitude in North America, also Cuba and Jamaica.


FAMILY 95.--SERPENTARIIDÆ. (1 Genus, 1 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
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  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|1. 2. 3 -- |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

The singular Secretary Bird (_Serpentarius_) is found over a large part of
Africa. Its position is uncertain, as it has affinities both with the
Accipitres, through _Polyboroides_ (?) and with _Cariama_, which we place
near the Bustards. (Plate IV. Vol. I. p. 261.)


{347}FAMILY 96.--FALCONIDÆ. (69 Genera, 325 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4
             |           |           |           |           |

The Falconidæ, including the various groups of Hawks, Kites, Buzzards,
Eagles, and Falcons, are absolutely cosmopolitan, ranging far into the
arctic zone and visiting the most remote oceanic islands. They are abundant
in all the great continents and larger islands, preferring open to woody
regions. They are divided into several sub-families, the range of some of
which are restricted. For this family as well as the preceding I follow the
arrangement of Mr. Sharpe's _British Museum Catalogue_, and shall give the
approximate distribution of each sub-family, as well as of the several
genera.

Sub-family I. POLYBORINÆ (2 genera, 10 species), the Neotropical region
with California and Florida, Tropical and South Africa.--_Polyborus_ (2
sp.), South America, and to California and Florida; _Ibycter_ (8 sp.),
Tierra del Fuego to Honduras and Guatemala.

_Cariama_ and _Serpentarius_, which Mr. Sharpe puts here, are so anomalous
that I think it better to class them in separate families--Serpentariidæ
among the Accipitres, and Cariamidæ near the Bustards.

Sub-family II. ACCIPITRINÆ (10 genera, 87
species).--Cosmopolitan.--_Polyboroides_ (2 sp.), Africa and Madagascar;
_Circus_ (15 sp.), Old and New Worlds, widely scattered, but absent from
Eastern Equatorial America, and the Malay Archipelago except Celebes;
_Micrastur_ (7 sp.), and _Geranospiza_ (2 sp.), Tropical parts of
Neotropical region; _Urotriorchis_ (1 sp.), West Africa; _Erythrocnema_ (1
sp.), Chili and La Plata to California and Texas; _Melierax_ (5 sp.),
Africa except West African sub-region; _Astur_ (30 sp.), cosmopolitan,
except the Temperate South American sub-region; {348}_Nisoides_ (1 sp.),
Madagascar; _Eutriorchis_ (1 sp.), Madagascar; _Accipiter_ (23 sp.),
cosmopolitan, except Eastern Oceania.

Sub-family III. BUTEONINÆ (13 genera, 51 sp.), cosmopolitan, except the
Malay and Pacific Islands.--_Urospizias_ (1 sp.), East and Central
Australia; _Heterospizias_ (1 sp.), Tropical South America east of the
Andes; _Tachytriorchis_ (2 sp.), Paraguay to California; _Buteo_ (18 sp.),
cosmopolitan, except the Australian region and the Indo-Malayan sub-region;
_Archibuteo_ (4 sp.), North America to Mexico and the cooler parts of the
Palæarctic region; _Buteola_ (1 sp.), Veragua to the Amazon Valley;
_Asturina_ (7 sp.), Paraguay and Bolivia to South-east United States;
_Busarellus_ (1 sp.), Brazil to Guiana; _Buteogallus_ (1 sp.), Guiana and
Columbia; _Urubutinga_ (12 sp.), South Brazil and Bolivia to Mexico;
_Harpyhaliæetus_ (1 sp.), Chili and North Patagonia to Veragua; _Morphnus_
(1 sp.), Amazonia to Panama; _Thrasaëtus_ (1 sp.), Paraguay and Bolivia to
Mexico.

Sub-family IV. AQUILINÆ (31 genera, 94 species), cosmopolitan.--_Gypaëtus_
(2 sp.), south of Palæarctic region from Spain to North China, Abyssinia,
and South Africa; _Uroaëtus_ (1 sp.), Australia and Tasmania; _Aquila_ (9
sp.), Nearctic, Palæarctic, and Ethiopian regions and India; _Nisaëtus_ (4
sp.), Africa and South Europe, India, Ceylon, and Australia;
_Lophotriorchis_ (2 sp.), Indo-Malay sub-region, and Bogotá in South
America; _Neopus_ (1 sp.), India and Ceylon to Burmah, Java, Celebes and
Ternate; _Spiziastur_ (1 sp.), Guatemala to Brazil; _Spizaëtus_ (10 sp.),
Central and South America, Africa, India, and Ceylon, to Celebes and New
Guinea, Formosa, and Japan; _Lophoaëtus_ (1 sp.), all Africa; _Asturinula_
(1 sp.), Africa, except extreme south; _Herpetotheres_ (1 sp.), Bolivia and
Paraguay to Southern Mexico; _Dryotriorchis_ (1 sp.), West Africa;
_Circaëtus_ (5 sp.) Africa to Central Europe, the Indian Peninsula, Timor;
_Spilornis_ (6 sp.), Oriental region and Celebes; _Butastur_ (4 sp.),
Oriental region to New Guinea and North-east Africa; _Helotarsus_ (2 sp.),
Africa south of the Sahara; _Haliæetus_ (7 sp.), cosmopolitan, except the
Neotropical region; _Gypohierax_ (1 sp.), West Africa and Zanzibar;
_Haliastur_ (2 sp.), Indian Peninsula to Ceylon, New {349}Caledonia, and
Australia; _Nauclerus_ (= _Elanoides_) (1 sp.), Brazil to Southern United
States; _Elanoides_ (= _Nauclerus_) (1 sp.), Western and North-eastern
Africa; _Milvus_ (6 sp.), the Old World and Australia; _Lophoictinia_ (1
sp.), Australia; _Rostrhamus_ (3 sp.), Antilles and Florida to Brazil and
Peru; _Leptodon_ (4 sp.), Central America to South Brazil and Bolivia;
_Gypoictinia_ (1 sp.), South and West Australia; _Elanus_ (5 sp.), Africa,
India, and Malay Archipelago to Australia, South America to California;
_Gampsonyx_ (1 sp.), Trinidad to Brazil; _Henicopernis_ (1 sp.), Papuan
Islands; _Machærhamphus_ (2 sp.), South-west Africa, Madagascar, and
Malacca; _Pernis_ (3 sp.), Palæarctic, Oriental, and Ethiopian regions.

Sub-family V. FALCONINÆ (11 genera, 80 species), cosmopolitan.--_Baza_ (10
sp.), India and Ceylon to the Moluccas and North Australia, West Coast of
Africa, Natal, and Madagascar; _Harpagus_ (3 sp.), Central America to
Brazil and Peru; _Ictinia_ (2 sp.), Brazil to Southern United States;
_Hierax_ (= _Microhierax_, Sharpe), (4 sp.), Eastern Himalayas to Borneo
and Philippines; _Poliohierax_ (2 sp.), East Africa and Burmah;
_Spiziapteryx_ (1 sp.), La Plata; _Harpa_ (1 sp.), New Zealand and the
Auckland Islands; _Falco_ (27 sp.), cosmopolitan, except the Pacific
Islands; _Hierofalco_ (6 sp.), Nearctic and Palæarctic regions;
_Hieracidea_ (2 sp.), Australia; _Cerchneis_ (22 sp.), cosmopolitan, except
Oceania.


FAMILY 97.--PANDIONIDÆ. (2 Genera, 3 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4
             |           |           |           |           |

The Pandionidæ, or Fishing Hawks, are universally distributed, with the
exception of the Southern Temperate parts of South America. The genera
are:--

_Pandion_ (1 sp.), the range of the entire family; _Polioaëtus_ (2 sp.),
India through Malay Archipelago to Celebes and Sandwich Islands.


{350}FAMILY 98.--STRIGIDÆ. (23 Genera, 180 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4
             |           |           |           |           |

The Strigidæ, or Owls, form an extensive and well-known family of nocturnal
birds, which, although invariably placed next the Hawks, are now believed
to be not very closely allied to the other Accipitres. They range over the
whole globe, extending to the extreme polar regions and to the remotest
oceanic islands. Their classification is very unsettled, and we therefore
place the genera, for convenience, in the order in which they follow each
other in the _Hand List of Birds_. Those adopted by most ornithologists are
the following:--

_Surnia_ (1 sp.), the Arctic regions of both hemispheres; _Nyctea_ (1 sp.),
South Carolina to Greenland and Northern Europe; _Athene_ (40 sp.), the
Eastern hemisphere to New Zealand and the Solomon Islands; _Ninox_ (7 sp.),
the Oriental region, North China and Japan; _Glaucidium_ (7 sp.),
Neotropical region, California, and Oregon, Europe to North China;
_Micrathene_ (1 sp.), Mexico and Arizona; _Pholeoptynx_ (2 sp.),
Neotropical region, Texas, and North-west America; _Bubo_ (16 sp.),
universally distributed, excluding the Australian region; _Ketupa_ (3 sp.),
the Oriental region, Palestine; _Scotopelia_ (2 sp.), West and South
Africa; _Scops_ (30 sp.), universally distributed, excluding Australia and
Pacific Islands; _Gymnoglaux_ (2 sp.), Antilles; _Lophostrix_ (2 sp.),
Lower Amazon to Guatemala; _Syrnium_ (22 sp.), all regions but the
Australian; _Ciccaba_ (10 sp.), Paraguay to Mexico; _Nyctalatinus_ (1 sp.),
Columbia; _Pulsatrix_ (2 sp.), Brazil and Peru to Guatemala; _Asio_ (6
sp.), all regions but the Australian, Sandwich Islands; _Nyctalops_ (1
sp.), Cuba and Mexico to Brazil and Monte Video; _Pseudoscops_ (1 sp.),
Jamaica; _Nyctala_ (4 sp.), the North Temperate zone; _Strix_ (18 sp.),
universally distributed; _Phodilus_ (1 sp.), Himalayas and Malaya.

{351}In Mr. Sharpe's Catalogue (published while this work was passing
through the press) the genera of Owls are reduced to 19, arranged in two
families--Strigidæ, containing our last two genera, and Bubonidæ,
comprising the remainder. The species are increased to 190; but some genera
are reduced, as _Strix_, which is said to contain only 5 species.


_General Remarks on the Distribution of the Accipitres._

The Birds of Prey are so widely distributed over the world's surface that
their general distribution calls for few remarks. Of the four families all
but one are cosmopolites, Vultures alone being absent from the Australian
region, as well as from Indo-Malaya and Madagascar. If we take the
sub-families, we find that each region has several which are confined to
it. The only parts of the world where there is a marked deficiency of
Accipitres is in the islands of the Pacific; and it may be noted, as a
rule, that these birds are more abundant in continents than in islands.
There is not so much difference between the number of Birds of Prey in
tropical and temperate regions, as is found in most other groups of
land-birds. North America and Europe have about 60 species each, while
India has about 80, and South America about 120. The total number of
Accipitres is 550 comprised in 104 genera, and 4 (or perhaps more properly
5) families. In this estimate I have not included the Serpentariidæ,
containing the Secretary Bird of Africa, as there is some doubt whether it
really belongs to the Order.


_Order VIII.--GRALLÆ._

FAMILY 99.--RALLIDÆ. (18 Genera, 153 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
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  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4
             |           |           |           |           |

The Rails are among the most widely distributed families of birds, many of
the genera being cosmopolitan, and several of the {352}species ranging over
half the globe. They are found in many remote islands; and in some of
these--as the _Gallinula_ of Tristan d'Acunha, and the _Notornis_ of Lord
Howe's Island and New Zealand,--they have lost the power of flight. The
classification of the Rallidæ is not satisfactory, and the following
enumeration of the genera must only be taken as affording a provisional
sketch of the distribution of the group:--

_Rallus_ (18 sp.), _Porzana_ (24 sp.), _Gallinula_ (17 sp.), and _Fulica_
(10 sp.), have a world-wide range; _Ortygometra_ (1 sp.), ranges over the
whole North Temperate zone; _Porphyrio_ (14 sp.), is more especially
Oriental and Australian, but occurs also in South America, in Africa, and
in South Europe; _Eulabeornis_ (15 sp.), is Ethiopian, Malayan, and
Australian; _Himantornis_ (1 sp.), is West African only; _Aramides_ (24
sp.), is North and South American; _Rallina_ (16 sp.), is Oriental, but
ranges eastward to Papua; _Habroptila_ (1 sp.), is confined to the
Moluccas; _Pareudiastes_ (1 sp.), the Samoa Islands; _Tribonyx_ (4 sp.), is
Australian, and has recently been found also in New Zealand; _Ocydromus_ (4
sp.); _Notornis_ (2 sp.), (Plate XIII. Vol. I. p. 455); and _Cabalus_ (1
sp.), are peculiar to the New Zealand group.

The sub-family, Heliornithinæ (sometimes classed as a distinct family)
consists of 2 genera, _Heliornis_ (1 sp.), confined to the Neotropical
region; and _Podica_ (4 sp.), the Ethiopian region excluding Madagascar,
and with a species (perhaps forming another genus) in Borneo.

_Extinct Rallidæ._--Remains of some species of this family have been found
in the Mascarene Islands, and historical evidence shows that they have
perhaps been extinct little more than a century. They belong to the genus
_Fulica_, and to two extinct genera, _Aphanapteryx_ and _Erythromachus_.
The _Aphanapteryx_ was a large bird of a reddish colour, with loose
plumage, and perhaps allied to _Ocydromus_. _Erythromachus_ was much
smaller, of a grey-and-white colour, and is said to have lived chiefly on
the eggs of the land-tortoises. (See _Ibis_, 1869, p. 256; and _Proc. Zool.
Soc._, 1875, p. 40.)


{353}FAMILY 100.--SCOLOPACIDÆ. (21 Genera, 121 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
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  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4
             |           |           |           |           |

The Scolopacidæ, comprehending the Snipes, Sandpipers, Curlews, and allied
genera, are perhaps as truly cosmopolitan as any family of birds, ranging
to the extreme north and visiting the remotest islands. The genera of
universal distribution are the following:--

_Numenius_ (16 sp.); _Limosa_ (6 sp.); _Totanus_ (12 sp.); _Tringoides_, (6
sp.); _Himantopus_ (6 sp.); _Tringa_ (20 sp.); and _Gallinago_ (24 sp.).
Those which have a more or less restricted distribution are:--

_Ibidorhyncha_ (1 sp.), Central Asia and the Himalayas (Plate VII. Vol. I.
p. 331); _Helodromas_ (1 sp.), Palæarctic region and North India; _Terekia_
(1 sp.), East Palæarctic, wandering to India and Australia; _Recurvirostra_
(6 sp.), Nearctic region to the High Andes, South Palæarctic, East and
South Africa, Hindostan and Australia; _Micropelama_ (1 sp.), North America
to Chili; _Machetes_ (1 sp.), Palæarctic region and Hindostan (Plate I.
Vol. I. p. 195); _Ereunetes_ (3 sp.), Nearctic and Neotropical;
_Eurinorhynchus_ (1 sp.), North-east Asia and Bengal; _Calidris_ (1 sp.),
all regions but Australian; _Macrorhamphus_ (3 sp.), Palæarctic and
Nearctic, visits Brazil and India; _Scolopax_ (4 sp.), the whole Palæarctic
region, to India, Java, and Australia; _Philohela_ (1 sp.), East Nearctic;
_Rhynchæa_ (4 sp.), Ethiopian and Oriental, Australia, and Temperate South
America; _Phalaropus_ (3 sp.), North Temperate zone, and West Coast of
America to Chili.


{354}FAMILY 101.--CHIONIDIDÆ. (1 Genus, 2 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
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  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  1 -- -- -- |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

The Sheath-bills, _Chionis_ (2 sp.), are curious white birds, whose thick
bill has a horny sheath at the base. Their nearest ally is _Hæmatopus_, a
genus of Charadriidæ. These birds are confined to the Antarctic Islands,
especially the Falkland Islands, the Crozets and Kerguelen's Land.


FAMILY 102.--THINOCORIDÆ. (2 Genera, 6 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
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  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  1 -- -- -- |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

The Thinocoridæ, or Quail-snipes, are small birds, confined to Temperate
South America. They have much the appearance of Quails but are more nearly
allied to Plovers. The two genera are:--

_Attagis_ (4 sp.), Falkland Islands, Straits of Magellan, Chili, Bolivia,
and the High Andes of Peru and Ecuador; _Thinocorus_ (2 sp.), La Plata,
Chili, and Peru. (Plate XVI. Vol. II. p. 40.)


FAMILY 103.--PARRIDÆ. (2 Genera, 11 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
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  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- 2. 3 -- |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2 -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

{355}The Parridæ, or Jacanas, are remarkable long-toed birds, often of
elegant plumage, frequenting swamps and marshes, and walking on the
floating leaves of aquatic plants. They are found in all the tropics.
_Parra_ (10 sp.), has the distribution of the family; _Hydrophasianus_ (1
sp.), is confined to the Oriental region.


FAMILY 104.--GLAREOLIDÆ. (3 Genera, 20 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
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  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2 -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

This family, comprising the Pratincoles and Coursers, is universally
distributed over the Old World and to Australia.

_Glareola_ (9 sp.), has the distribution of the family; _Pluvianus_ (1
sp.), is confined to North Africa; _Cursorius_ (10 sp.), ranges over
Africa, South Europe and India.

The position of the genus _Glareola_ is uncertain, for though generally
classed here, Prof. Lilljeborg considers it to be an aberrant form of the
Caprimulgidæ! It differs, in its insectivorous habits and in many points of
external structure, from all its allies, and should probably form a
distinct family.


FAMILY 105.--CHARADIIDÆ. (19 Genera, 101 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
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  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4
             |           |           |           |           |

The extensive family of the Plovers and their numerous allies, ranges over
the whole globe. The genera now usually admitted into this family are the
following:--

_Oedicnemus_ (9 sp.), is only absent from North America; _Æsacus_ (2 sp.),
India to Ceylon, Malay Islands and Australia; {356}_Vanellus_ (3 sp.),
Palæarctic and Neotropical regions; _Chætusia_ (15 sp.), the whole Eastern
Hemisphere; _Erythrogonys_ (1 sp.), Australia; _Hoplopterus_ (10 sp.),
widely scattered, but absent from North America; _Squatarola_ (1 sp), all
the regions; _Charadrius_ (14 sp.), cosmopolitan; _Eudromias_ (5 sp.),
Eastern Hemisphere and South Temperate America; _Ægialitis_ (22 sp.),
cosmopolitan; _Oreophilus_ (1 sp.), South Temperate America; _Thinornis_ (2
sp.), New Zealand; _Anarhynchus_ (1 sp.), New Zealand (Plate XIII. Vol I.
p. 455); _Hæmatopus_ (9 sp.), cosmopolitan; _Strepsilas_ (2 sp.) almost
cosmopolitan; _Aphriza_ (1 sp.), West Coast of America; _Pluvianellus_ (1
sp.), Straits of Magellan; _Dromas_ (1 sp.), India, Madagascar, and
North-east Africa; _Pedionomus_ (1 sp.), Australia. This last genus has
usually been placed with the Turnicidæ.


FAMILY 106.--OTIDIDÆ. (2 Genera, 26 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
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  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3 -- |1. 2. 3 -- |-- 2 -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

The Otididæ, or Bustards, occur in all parts of the Old World and Australia
where there are open tracts, being only absent from Madagascar and the
Malay Archipelago.

_Otis_ (2 sp.), ranges over most of the Palæarctic region; while
_Eupodotis_ (24 sp.), has the range of the family, but is most abundant in
the Ethiopian region, which contains three-fourths of the whole number of
species.


FAMILY 107.--GRUIDÆ. (3 Genera, 16 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
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  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- -- -- --|1. 2. 3 -- |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3 -- |1. 2. 3 -- |-- 2 -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

{357}The Gruidæ, or Cranes, are found in all the regions except the
Neotropical.

_Grus_ (12 sp.) inhabits the southern and western United States, the whole
Palæarctic region, South-east Africa, India, and Australia; _Anthropoides_
(2 sp.), Europe, North and South Africa and India; _Balearica_ (2 sp.), the
Ethiopian region (except Madagascar).


FAMILY 108.--CARIAMIDÆ. (1 Genus, 2 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
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  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  1. 2 -- -- |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

The genus _Cariama_ (2 sp.), consists of remarkable crested birds
inhabiting the mountains and open plains of Brazil and La Plata. In the
British Museum Catalogue of the Birds of Prey, they are classed as aberrant
Falconidæ, but their anomalous characters seem to require them to be placed
in a distinct family, which seems better placed among the Waders.


FAMILY 109.--ARAMIDÆ. (1 Genus, 2 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
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  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- 2. 3. 4 |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

The Guaraünas are birds which have somewhat the appearance of Herons, but
which are usually classed with the Rails. They are now, however, considered
to form a distinct family. The only genus, _Aramus_ (2 sp.), inhabits the
Neotropical region, from Mexico and Cuba to Central Brazil.


{358}FAMILY 110.--PSOPHIIDÆ. (1 Genus, 6 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
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  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- 2 -- -- |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

The remarkable and beautiful birds called Trumpeters, are confined to the
various parts of the Amazon valley; and it is an interesting fact, that the
range of each species appears to be bounded by some of the great rivers.
Thus, _Psophia crepitans_ inhabits the interior of Guiana as far as the
south bank of the Rio Negro; on the opposite or north bank of the Rio Negro
_Psophia ochroptera_ is found; beyond the next great rivers, Japura and
Iça, _Psophia napensis_ occurs; on the south bank of the Amazon, west of
the Madeira, we have the beautiful _Psophia leucoptera_; east of the
Madeira this is replaced by _Psophia viridis_, while near Pará, beyond the
Tapajoz, Xingu and Tocantins, there is another species, _Psophia obscura_.
Other species may exist in the intervening river districts; but we have
here, apparently, a case of a number of well-marked species of birds
capable of flight, yet with their range in certain directions accurately
defined by great rivers. (Plate XV. Vol. II. p. 28.)


FAMILY 111.--EURYPYGIDÆ. (1 Genus, 2 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
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  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- 2. 3 -- |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

The Eurypygidæ, or Sun-Bitterns, are small heron-like birds with
beautifully-coloured wings, which frequent the muddy and wooded river-banks
of tropical America. The only genus, _Eurypyga_ (2 sp.), ranges from
Central America to Brazil.


{359}FAMILY 112.--RHINOCHETIDÆ. (1 Genus, 1 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
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  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- -- 3 -- |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

The genus _Rhinochetus_ (1 sp.), consists of a singular bird called the
Kagu, which inhabits New Caledonia, an island which may be placed with
almost equal propriety in our 1st, 2nd, or 3rd Australian sub-regions. It
is a bird of a bluish ash-colour, with a loose plumage, partaking something
of the appearance of Rail, Plover, and Heron, but with peculiarities of
structure which require it to be placed in a distinct family. Its anatomy
shows that its nearest allies are the South American genera, _Eurypyga_ and
_Psophia_.


FAMILY 113.--ARDEIDÆ. (5 Genera, 80 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
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  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4
             |           |           |           |           |

The well-known Herons and Bitterns are found in every part of the globe,
and everywhere closely resemble each other. Omitting the minuter
sub-divisions, the genera are as follows:--

_Ardea_ (60 sp.), cosmopolitan; _Botaurus_ (6 sp.), almost cosmopolitan;
_Tigrisoma_ (4 sp.), Tropical America and West Africa; _Nycticorax_ (9
sp.), cosmopolitan; _Cancroma_ (1 sp.), Tropical America.


{360}FAMILY 114.--PLATALEIDÆ. (6 Genera, 30 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
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  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2 -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

The Plataleidæ, including the Spoonbills and Ibises, have been classed
either with the Herons or the Storks, but have most affinity with the
latter. Though not very numerous they are found over the greater part of
the globe, except the colder zones and the Pacific Islands. The following
is the distribution of the genera:--

_Platalea_ (6 sp.), all the warmer parts of the globe except the Moluccas
and Pacific Islands; _Ibis_ (2 sp.), Temperate North America and Tropical
South America; _Falcinellus_ (2 sp.), almost cosmopolitan; _Geronticus_ (19
sp.), all Tropical countries and Temperate South America; _Scopus_ (1 sp.),
Tropical and South Africa; _Balæniceps_ (1 sp.), the Upper Nile. This last
genus the "Shoe-bird," or boat-billed heron, perhaps forms a distinct
family.


FAMILY 115.--CICONIIDÆ. (5 Genera, 20 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
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  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  1. 2. 3 -- |-- -- 3 -- |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2 -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

The Ciconiidæ, or Storks, are mostly an Old World family, only three
species inhabiting the Neotropical, and one, the Nearctic region. They are
also absent from the islands of the Pacific, the Antilles, and, with one
exception, from Madagascar. The genera are as follows:--

_Ciconia_ (6 sp.), ranges through the Palæarctic, Ethiopian and
{361}Oriental regions as far as Celebes, and in South America; _Mycteria_
(4 sp.), inhabits Africa, India, Australia and the Neotropical region;
_Leptopiltus_ (3 sp.), the Ethiopian and Oriental regions to Java;
_Tantalus_ (5 sp.), the Ethiopian, Oriental and Neotropical regions, and
the South-east of North America; _Anastomus_ (2 sp.), the Ethiopian region,
and India to Ceylon.


FAMILY 116.--PALAMEDEIDÆ. (2 Genera, 3 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
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  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  1. 2 -- -- |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

The Palamedeidæ, or Screamers, are curious semi-aquatic birds of doubtful
affinities, perhaps intermediate between Gallinæ and Anseres. They are
peculiar to South America. The genera are:--

_Palamedea_ (1 sp.), which inhabits the Amazon valley; _Chauna_ (2 sp.), La
Plata, Brazil and Columbia,


FAMILY 117.--PHOENICOPTERIDÆ. (1 Genus, 8 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
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  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
   1 -- 3. 4 |-- -- -- --|-- 2 -- -- |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2 -- -- |-- -- -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

The Flamingoes (_Phoenicopterus_) seem peculiar to the Ethiopian and
Neotropical regions, ranging from the former into India and South Europe.
America has four species, inhabiting Chili and La Plata, the Galapagos,
Mexico and the West Indian islands; the others range over all Africa, South
Europe, India and Ceylon. These singular birds are placed by some authors
near the Spoonbills and Ibises, by others with the Geese. Professor Huxley
considers them to be "completely {362}intermediate between the Anserine
birds on the one side and the Storks and Herons on the other." The
pterolysis according to Nitzsch is "completely stork-like."


_General Remarks on the Distribution of the Grallæ, or Wading and Running
Birds._

The Waders, as a rule, are birds of very wide distribution, the four
largest families Rallidæ, Scolopacidæ, Charadriidæ and Ardeidæ, being quite
cosmopolitan, as are many of the genera. But there are also a number of
small families of very restricted distribution, and these all occur in the
two most isolated regions, the Neotropical and the Australian. The
Neotropical region is by far the richest in varied forms of Waders, having
representatives of no less than 15 out of the 19 families, while 7 are
altogether peculiar to it. The Australian region has 11 families, with 1
peculiar. The other two tropical regions each possess 11 families, but none
are peculiar. The Palæarctic region has 10, and the Nearctic 7 families. No
less than three families--Chionididæ, Thinocoridæ, and Cariamidæ--are
confined to the Temperate regions and highlands of South America; while
four others,--Aramidæ, Psophiidæ, Eurypygidæ and Palamedeidæ,--are found in
Tropical America only; and these present such an array of peculiar and
interesting forms as no other part of the globe can furnish. The
Phoenicopteridæ or Flamingoes, common to the Tropical regions of Asia,
Africa and America, but absent from Australia, is the only other feature of
general interest presented by the distribution of the Waders.

The Order contains about 610 species, which gives about 32 species to each
family, a smaller average than in the Gallinæ or Accipitres, and only about
one-fourth of the average number in the Passeres. This is partly due to the
unusual number of very small families, and partly to the wide average range
of the species, which prevents that specialization of forms that occurs in
the more sedentary groups of birds.


{363}_Order IX.--ANSERES._

FAMILY 118.--ANATIDÆ. (40 Genera, 180 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4
             |           |           |           |           |

The Anatidæ, comprehending the Ducks, Geese, and Swans with their allies,
are of such universal distribution that there is probably no part of the
globe where some of them are not occasionally found. They are, however,
most abundant in temperate and cold regions; and, contrary to what occurs
in most other families, the most beautifully-coloured species are
extra-tropical, and some even arctic. The distribution of the genera is as
follows:--

_Anseranas_ (1 sp.), Australia; _Plectropterus_ (2 sp.), Tropical Africa;
_Sarkidiornis_ (1 sp.), South America, Africa, and India; _Chenalopex_ (1
sp.), Amazonia; _Callochen_ (1 sp.), South Europe, North, East, and South
Africa; _Cereopsis_ (1 sp.), Australia; _Anser_ (13 sp.), Palæarctic and
Nearctic regions to Central America and the Antilles; _Bernicla_ (12 sp.),
Temperate regions of the Northern and Southern Hemispheres; _Chloephaga_ (5
sp.), South Temperate America and Aleutian Islands; _Nettapus_ (4 sp.),
Tropical Africa and Madagascar, India and Ceylon to Malaya and Australia;
_Cygnus_ (10 sp.), Temperate regions of the Northern and Southern
Hemispheres; _Dendrocygna_ (10 sp.), Tropical and sub-tropical regions;
_Tadorna_ (3 sp.), Palæarctic and Australian regions; _Casarca_ (5 sp.),
Palæarctic, Oriental, Ethiopian, and Australian regions, to New Zealand;
_Aix_ (2 sp.), Temperate North America and Eastern Asia; _Mareca_ (4 sp.),
Palæarctic region, North America, Temperate South America, and Australia;
_Dafila_ (3 sp.), all America and the Palæarctic region; _Anas_ (16 sp.),
cosmopolitan; _Querquedula_ (17 sp.), {364}cosmopolitan; _Chaulelasmus_ (2
sp.), Palæarctic region and North America; _Spatula_ (5 sp.), all Temperate
regions; _Malacorhynchus_ (1 sp.), Australia; _Cairina_ (1 sp.), Tropical
South America; _Branta_ (1 sp.), Palæarctic region and India; _Fuligula_ (5
sp.), North Temperate regions and New Zealand; _Æthya_ (5 sp.), Palæarctic
and Nearctic regions, India, Australia, and South Africa; _Metopiana_ (1
sp.), South Temperate America; _Bucephala_ (4 sp.), Nearctic and Palæarctic
regions; _Harelda_ (2 sp.), Northern Palæartic and Nearctic regions;
_Hymenolaimus_ (1 sp.), New Zealand; _Camptolaimus_ (1 sp.), North-east of
North America; _Micropterus_ (1 sp.), Temperate South America; _Somateria_
(5 sp.), Arctic and sub-arctic regions; _Oedemia_ (5 sp.), Nearctic and
Palæarctic regions; _Biziura_ (1 sp.), Australia; _Thalassornis_ (1 sp.),
South Africa; _Erismatura_ (6 sp.), all America, South-east Europe and
South Africa; _Nesonetta_ (1 sp.), Auckland Islands; _Merganetta_ (3 sp.),
Andes of Columbia to Chili; _Mergus_ (6 sp.), Palæarctic and Nearctic
regions, Brazil, and the Auckland Islands.


FAMILY 119.--LARIDÆ. (13 Genera, 132 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4
             |           |           |           |           |

The Laridæ, or Gulls and Terns, are true cosmopolites, inhabiting the
shores and islands of every zone; and most of the genera have also a wide
range. They are therefore of little use in the study of geographical
distribution. The genera are as follows:--

_Stercorarius_ (6 sp.), cosmopolitan, most abundant in cold and temperate
zones; _Rhodostethia_ (1 sp), North America; _Larus_ (60 sp.),
cosmopolitan; _Xema_ (1 sp.), North Temperate zone; _Creagrus_ (1 sp.),
North Pacific; _Pagophila_ (1 sp.), Arctic seas; _Rissa_ (3 sp.), Arctic
and Northern seas; _Sterna_ (36 sp.), cosmopolitan; _Hydrochelidon_ (12
sp.), Tropical and Temperate zones; {365}_Gygis_ (1 sp.), Indian Ocean and
Tropical Pacific Islands; _Anous_ (6 sp.), Tropical and Temperate zones;
_Nænia_ (1 sp.), South Temperate America; _Rhynchops_ (3 sp.), Tropical
America, Africa, and India.


FAMILY 120.--PROCELLARIIDÆ. (6 Genera, 96 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4
             |           |           |           |           |

The Procellariidæ, comprising the Shearwaters, Petrels, and Albatrosses,
are universally distributed, but some of the genera are local.

_Puffinus_ (20 sp.), _Procellaria_ (18 sp.), and _Fulmarus_ (40 sp.), are
cosmopolitan; _Prion_ (5 sp.) and _Pelecanoides_ (3 sp.), belong to the
South Temperate and Antarctic regions; _Diomedia_ (10 sp.), comprises the
Albatrosses, which are tropical, occasionally wandering into temperate
seas.


FAMILY 121.--PELECANIDÆ. (6 Genera, 61 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4
             |           |           |           |           |

The Pelecanidæ, comprising the Gannets, Pelicans, Darters, and
Frigate-Birds, although universally distributed, are more abundant in
tropical and temperate regions.

_Sula_ (8 sp.) and _Phalacrocorax_ (35 sp.), are cosmopolitan; _Pelecanus_
(9 sp.) is tropical and temperate; _Fregetta_ (2 sp.) and _Phaeton_ (3 sp.)
are confined to Tropical seas; _Ptotus_ (4 sp.) to Tropical and warm
Temperate zones.


{366}FAMILY 122.--SPHENISCIDÆ. (3 Genera, 18 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  1. 2 -- -- |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- 3 -- |-- -- -- --| -- 2 -- 4
             |           |           |           |           |

The Penguins are entirely confined to the Antarctic and South Temperate
regions, except two species which are found on the coast of Peru and the
Galapagos. They are most plentiful in the southern parts of South America,
Australia, New Zealand, and most of the Antarctic islands, and one or two
species are found at the Cape of Good Hope. The genera as given in the
_Hand List_ are:--

_Spheniscus_ (1 sp.), South Africa and Cape Horn; _Eudyptes_ (15 sp.), with
the range of the family; _Aptenodytes_ (2 sp.), Antarctic Islands.


FAMILY 123.--COLYMBIDÆ. (1 Genus, 4 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- 4 | 1 -- 3. 4 |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

The Northern Divers are confined to the Arctic and North Temperate Seas.
The only genus, _Colymbus_, has one species confined to the West Coast of
North America, the others being common to the two northern continents.


FAMILY 124.--PODICIPIDÆ. (2 Genera, 33 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4
             |           |           |           |           |

{367}The Grebes are universally distributed. The genera are _Podiceps_ (26
sp.), cosmopolitan; and _Podilymbus_ (2 sp.), confined to North and South
America. Some ornithologists group these birds with the Colymbidæ.


FAMILY 125.--ALCIDÆ. (7 Genera, 28 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- -- -- --| 1 -- -- 4 | 1 -- 3. 4 |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

The Alcidæ, comprising the Auks, Guillemots, and Puffins, are confined to
the North Temperate and Arctic regions, where they represent the Penguins
of the Antarctic lands. One of the most remarkable of these birds, the
Great Auk, formerly abundant in the North Atlantic, is now extinct. The
genera are as follows:--

_Alca_ (2 sp.), North Atlantic and Arctic seas; _Fratercula_ (4 sp.),
Arctic and North Temperate zones; _Ceratorhina_ (2 sp.), North Pacific;
_Simorhynchus_ (8 sp.), North Pacific; _Brachyrhamphus_ (3 sp.), North
Pacific to Japan and Lower California; _Uria_ (8 sp.), Arctic and North
Temperate zones; _Mergulus_ (1 sp.), North Atlantic and Arctic Seas. The
last three genera constitute the family Uriidæ, of some ornithologists.


_General Remarks on the Distribution of the Anseres._

The Anseres, or Swimmers, being truly aquatic birds, possess, as might be
expected, a large number of cosmopolitan families and genera. No less than
5 out of the 8 families have a world-wide distribution, and the others are
characteristic either of the North or the South Temperate zones. Hence
arises a peculiarity of distribution to be found in no other order of
birds; the Temperate being richer than the Tropical regions. The Nearctic
and Palæarctic regions each have seven families of Anseres, two of which,
the Colymbidæ and Alcidæ, are peculiar to them. The Ethiopian, Australian,
and Neotropical regions, which all {368}extend into the South Temperate
zone, have six families, with one peculiar to them; while the Oriental
region, which is wholly tropical, possesses the five cosmopolitan families
only.

There are about 78 genera and 552 species of Anseres, giving 69 species to
a family, a high number compared with the Waders, and due to there being
only one very small family, the Colymbidæ. The distribution of the Anseres,
being more determined by temperature than by barriers, the great regions
which are so well indicated by the genera and families of most other orders
of birds, hardly limit these, except in the case of the genera of Anatidæ.


_Order X.--STRUTHIONES._

FAMILY 126.--STRUTHIONIDÆ. (2 Genera, 4 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  1 -- -- -- |-- -- -- --|-- 2 -- -- | 1 -- 3 -- |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

The Ostriches consist of two genera, sometimes formed into distinct
families. _Struthio_ (2 sp.) inhabits the desert regions of North, East,
and South Africa, as well as Arabia and Syria. It therefore just enters the
Palæarctic region. _Rhea_ (3 sp.) inhabits Temperate South America, from
Patagonia to the confines of Brazil.


FAMILY 127.--CASUARIIDÆ. (2 Genera, 11 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|1. 2 -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

The Cassowaries and Emeus are confined to the Australian region. The Emeus,
_Dromæus_ (2 sp.), are found only on the {369}main-land of Australia (Plate
XII. Vol. I. p. 441). _Casuarius_ (9 sp.) inhabits the islands from Ceram
to New Britain, with one species in North Australia; it is most abundant in
the Papuan Islands.


FAMILY 128.--APTERYGIDÆ. (1 Genus, 4 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- 4
             |           |           |           |           |

The species of _Apteryx_ are entirely confined to the two larger islands of
New Zealand. They are supposed to have some remote affinity with
_Ocydromus_, a genus of Rails peculiar to Australia and New Zealand; but
they undoubtedly form one of the most remarkable groups of living birds
(Plate XIII. Vol. I. p. 445).


_Struthious Birds recently extinct._

A number of sub-fossil remains of birds, mostly large and some of gigantic
size, having affinities to the _Apteryx_ and, less closely, to the
Cassowaries, have been discovered in New Zealand. These are all classed by
Professor Owen in the genus _Dinornis_ and family _Dinornithidæ_; but Dr.
Haast, from the study of the rich collections in the Canterbury (New
Zealand) Museum, is convinced that they belong to two distinct families and
several genera. His arrangement is as follows. (See _Ibis_, 1874, p. 209).


FAMILY 129.--DINORNITHIDÆ. (2 Genera, 7 Species.)

_Dinornis_ (5 sp.); _Meionornis_ (2 sp.).

These had no hind toe, and include the largest species. Professor Newton
thinks that they were absolutely wingless, being the only birds in which
the fore limbs are entirely wanting.


{370}FAMILY 130.--PALAPTERYGIDÆ. (2 Genera, 4 Species.)

_Palapteryx_ (2 sp.); _Euryapteryx_ (2 sp.).

These had a well-developed hind toe, and rudimentary wings.


FAMILY 131.--ÆPYORNITHIDÆ. (1 Genus, 3 Species.)

A gigantic Struthious bird (_Æpyornis_), belonging to a distinct family,
inhabited Madagascar.

It was first made known by its enormous eggs, eight times the bulk of those
of the ostrich, which were found in a sub-fossil condition. Considerable
portions of skeletons have since been discovered, showing that these huge
birds formed an altogether peculiar family of the order.


_General Remarks on the Distribution of the Struthiones._

With the exception of the Ostrich, which has spread northward into the
Palæarctic region, the Struthious birds, living and extinct, are confined
to the Southern hemisphere, each continent having its peculiar forms. It is
a remarkable fact that the two most nearly allied genera, _Struthio_ and
_Rhea_, should be found in Africa and South Temperate America respectively.
Equally remarkable is the development of these large forms of wingless
birds in Australia and the adjacent islands, and especially in New Zealand,
where we have evidence which renders it probable that about 20 species
recently coexisted. This points to the conclusion that New Zealand must,
not long since, have formed a much more extensive land, and that the
diminution of its area by subsidence has been one of the causes--and
perhaps the main one--in bringing about the extinction of many of the
larger species of these wingless birds.

The wide distribution of the Struthiones may, as we have already suggested
(Vol. I., p. 287.), be best explained, by supposing them to represent a
very ancient type of bird, developed at a time when the more specialized
carnivorous mammalia had {371}not come into existence, and preserved only
in those areas which were long free from the incursions of such dangerous
enemies. The discovery of Struthious remains in Europe in the Lower Eocene
only, supports this view; for at this time carnivora were few and of
generalized type, and had probably not acquired sufficient speed and
activity to enable them to exterminate powerful and quick-running
terrestrial birds. It is, however, at a much more remote epoch that we may
expect to find the remains of the earlier forms of this group; while these
Eocene birds may perhaps represent that ancestral wide-spread type which,
when isolated in remoter continents and islands, became modified into the
American and African ostriches, the Emeus and Cassowaries of Australia, the
_Dinornis_ and _Æpyornis_ of New Zealand.




{372}CHAPTER XIX.

THE DISTRIBUTION OF THE FAMILIES AND GENERA OF REPTILES AND AMPHIBIA.



REPTILIA.

_Order I.--OPHIDIA._

FAMILY 1.--TYPHLOPIDÆ.--(4 Genera, 70 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- 2. 3. 4 |-- -- -- --| -- 2 -- 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2 -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

The Typhlopidæ, or Blind Burrowing Snakes, are widely scattered over the
warmer regions of the earth, but are most abundant in the Oriental and
Australian regions, and least so in the Neotropical. They are absent from
the Nearctic region; and in the Palæarctic are found only in South-eastern
Europe and Japan.

The most extensive genus is _Typhlops_, comprising over 60 species, and
having a range almost as extensive as the entire family. The other well
characterised genera are:--

_Typhlina_ (1 sp.), ranging from Penang to Java and Hong Kong; _Typhline_
(1 sp.), the Cape of Good Hope; _Dibamus_ (1 sp.), New Guinea.


{373}FAMILY 2.--TORTRICIDÆ. (3 Genera, 5 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- 2. 3 -- |1 -- -- -- |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|1. 2. 3. 4 |1 -- -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

The Tortricidæ, or Short-tailed Burrowing Snakes, are a small family, one
portion of which ranges from India to Cambodja, and through the Malay
islands as far as Celebes and Timor; these form the genus _Cylindrophis_.
Another portion inhabits America, and consists of:--

_Charina_ (1 sp.), found in California and British Columbia; and _Tortrix_
(1 sp.), in Tropical America.

We have here a case of discontinuous distribution, indicating, either very
imperfect knowledge of the group, or that it is the remnant of a once
extensive family, on the road to extinction.


FAMILY 3.--XENOPELTIDÆ. (1 Genus, 1 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- 3. 4 |1 -- -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

The curious nocturnal carnivorous Snake, forming the genus _Xenopeltis_,
and the sole representative of this family, ranges from Penang to Cambodja,
and through the Malay Islands to Celebes.


FAMILY 4.--UROPELTIDÆ. (5 Genera, 18 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- 2 -- -- |-- -- -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

{374}The Uropeltidæ, or Rough-tailed Burrowing Snakes, are strictly
confined to Ceylon and the adjacent parts of Southern India, and would
almost alone serve to mark out our second Oriental sub-region. The genera
are:--

_Rhinophis_ (7 sp.), Ceylon; _Uropeltis_ (1 sp.), Ceylon; _Silybura_ (8
sp.), Anamally Hills and Neilgherries; _Plecturus_ (3 sp.), Neilgherries
and Madras; and _Melanophidium_ (1 sp.), the Wynand.


FAMILY 5.--CALAMARIIDÆ. (32 Genera, 75 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3 -- |-- 2 -- -- |1. 2. 3 -- |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2 -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

The Calamariidæ, or Dwarf Ground Snakes, are found in all warm parts of the
globe, extending north into the United States as far as British Columbia
and Lake Superior; but they are absent from the Palæarctic region, with the
exception of a species found in Persia. The species are in a very confused
state. The best characterised genera are the following:--

_Calamaria_ (20 sp.), Persia, India to Java and the Philippine Islands,
Celebes, and New Guinea; _Rhabdosoma_ (18 sp.), Mexico and South America,
and also the Malay Islands as far east as Amboyna, Timor, and New Guinea;
_Typhlocalamus_ (1 sp.), Borneo; _Macrocalamus_ (1 sp.), India; _Aspidura_
(3 sp.), India and Ceylon; _Haplocerus_ (1 sp.), Ceylon; _Streptophorus_ (3
sp.), Central and South America;--with a host of others of less importance
or ill-defined.


FAMILY 6.--OLIGODONTIDÆ. (4 Genera, 40 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- 2. 3 -- |-- -- 3 -- |-- -- -- 4 |-- -- -- --|1. 2. 3. 4 |-- -- -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

{375}The Oligodontidæ are a small family of Ground Snakes which have been
separated from the Calamariidæ, and, with the exception of a few species,
are confined to the Oriental region. The best characterised genera are:--

_Oligodon_ (12 sp.), India, Ceylon, and Philippines; and, _Simotes_ (24
sp.), India to China and Borneo. In addition to these, _Achalinus_ is
founded on a single species from Japan; and _Teleolepis_ consists of three
species from North and South America.


FAMILY 7.--COLUBRIDÆ. (50 Genera, 270 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2 -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

The Colubrine Snakes are universally distributed over the globe, and they
reach the extreme northern limits of the order. They are, however, almost
absent from Australia, being there represented only by a few species of
_Tropidonotus_ and _Coronella_ in the northern and eastern districts. This
great family consists of four divisions or sub-families: the Coronellinæ
(20 genera, 100 species), the Colubrinæ (16 genera, 70 species), the
Dryadinæ (7 genera, 50 species), and the Natricinæ (7 genera, 50 species).
The more important genera of Colubridæ are the following:--

_Ablabes_, _Coronella_, _Ptyas_, _Coluber_, and _Tropidonotus_--all have a
very wide distribution, but the two last are absent from South America,
although _Tropidonotus_ reaches Guatemala; _Tomodon_, _Xenodon_, _Liopis_,
_Stenorhina_, _Erythrolampus_, _Elapochrus_, _Callirhinus_, _Enophrys_, and
_Dromicus_--are confined to the Neotropical region; _Hypsirhynchus_,
_Cryptodacus_, _Jaltris_, and _Coloragia_, are confined to the West Indian
Islands; _Chilomeniscus_, _Conophis_, _Pituophis_, and _Ischcognathus_, to
North America, the latter going as far south as Guatemala; _Compsosoma_,
_Zamenis_, _Zaocys_, _Atretium_, _Xenochrophys_, and _Herpetoreas_, are
peculiarly Oriental, but _Zamenis_ extends into South Europe;
{376}_Lytorhynchus_, _Rhamnophis_, _Herpetethiops_ and _Grayia_, are
Ethiopian; _Rhinechis_ is peculiar to Europe; _Megablabes_ to Celebes, and
_Styporhynchus_ to Gilolo; _Cyclophis_, is found in the Oriental region,
Japan, and North America; _Spilotes_, in the Nearctic and Neotropical
regions; _Xenelaphis_ in the Oriental, Ethiopian, and Palæarctic regions;
_Philodryas_, _Heterodon_ and _Herpetodryas_ in America and Madagascar, the
latter genus being also found in China.


FAMILY 8.--HOMALOPSIDÆ. (24 Genera, 50 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
   1 -- 3 -- |-- -- 3 -- |-- 2. 3. 4 |-- 2 -- -- |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2 -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

The Homalopsidæ, or Fresh-water Snakes, have been separated from the
Hydridæ by Dr. Günther, and they include some groups which have been
usually classed with the Natricinæ. They are especially characteristic of
the Oriental region, where considerably more than half the genera and
species are found; next comes the Neotropical region which has 6 species;
while none of the other regions have more than 4 or 5. It is to be observed
that the Ethiopian species occur in West Africa only, and mostly constitute
peculiar genera, so that in this family the separation of the Ethiopian and
Oriental regions is very well marked. The best characterised genera of the
family are the following:--

_Cantoria_ (10 sp.), ranging from Europe to Japan, the Philippines, and
Timor, with one species in Guinea; _Hypsirhina_ (6 sp.), Bengal, China, and
Borneo; _Fordonia_ (3 sp.), Rangoon to Borneo and Timor; _Homalopsis_ (2
sp.), Cambodja to Java; _Cerberus_ (2 sp.), Ceylon and Siam, the Malay
Islands, New Guinea, and North Australia; _Herpeton_ (1 sp.), Siam;
_Ferania_ (1 sp.), Bengal to Penang; _Pythonopsis_ (1 sp.), Borneo; _Myron_
(2 sp.), India and North Australia; _Homalophis_ (1 sp.), Borneo;
_Hipistes_ (1 sp.), Penang; _Xenodermus_ (1 sp.), Java; _Neusterophis_ and
_Limnophis_, with one species each, are peculiar to West {377}Africa;
_Helicops_ (2 sp.), North and South America; _Farancia_ and _Dimodes_, with
one species each, are from New Orleans; and a few others imperfectly known
from Tropical America.


FAMILY 9.--PSAMMOPHIDÆ. (5 Genera, 20 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- 2 -- -- |1. 2. 3. 4 | 1 -- 3. 4 |-- -- -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

The Psammophidæ, or Desert Snakes, are a small group characteristic of the
Ethiopian and Oriental regions, but more abundant in the former. The
distribution of the genera is as follows:--

_Psammophis_ (16 sp.), ranges from West Africa to Persia and Calcutta;
_Coelopeltis_ (1 sp.), North and West Africa; _Mimophis_ (1 sp.),
Madagascar; _Psammodynastes_ (2 sp.), Sikhim to Cochin China, Borneo and
the Philippine Islands; and _Dromophis_ (1 sp.), Tropical Africa.


FAMILY 10.--RACHIODONTIDÆ. (1 Genus, 2 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- 2. 3 -- |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

The Rachiodontidæ are a small and very isolated group of snakes of doubtful
affinities. The only genus, _Dasypeltis_ (2 sp.), is confined to West and
South Africa.


{378}FAMILY 11.--DENDROPHIDÆ. (7 Genera, 35 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  1. 2. 3. 4 |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2 -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

The Dendrophidæ, or Tree Snakes, are found in all the Tropical regions, but
are most abundant in the Oriental. The genera are distributed as follows:--

_Dendrophis_ ranges from India and Ceylon to the Pelew Islands and North
Australia, and has one species in West Africa; _Ahætulla_ is almost equally
divided between Tropical Africa and Tropical America; _Gonyosoma_ ranges
from Persia to Java and the Philippines; _Chrysopelea_ is found in India,
Borneo, the Philippines, Amboyna, and Mysol; _Hapsidrophis_ and
_Bucephalus_ are confined to Tropical Africa; and _Ithycyphus_ (1 sp.), is
peculiar to Madagascar.


FAMILY 12.--DRYIOPHIDÆ. (5 Genera, 15 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- 2. 3 -- |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --| -- 2 -- 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1 -- -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

The Dryiophidæ, or Whip Snakes, are a very well characterised family of
slender, green-coloured, arboreal serpents, found in the three tropical
regions but absent from Australia, although they just enter the Australian
region in the island of Celebes. In Africa they are confined to the West
Coast and Madagascar. The genera are:--

_Dryiophis_ (4 sp.), Tropical America and West Africa; _Tropidococcyx_ (1
sp.), Central India; _Tragops_ (4 sp.), Bengal to China, the Philippines,
Java, and Celebes; _Passerita_ (2 sp.), Ceylon {379}and the Indian
Peninsula; and _Langaha_ (2 sp.), confined to Madagascar.


FAMILY 13.--DIPSADIDÆ. (11 Genera, 45 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- 2. 3 -- |-- -- -- --|-- 2 -- -- |1. 2. 3 -- |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2 -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

The Dipsadidæ, or Nocturnal Tree Snakes, are distinguished from the last
family by their dark colours and nocturnal habits. They are about equally
abundant in the Oriental and Neotropical regions, less so in the Ethiopian,
while only a single species extends to North Australia. The following are
the best known genera:--

_Dipsas_, comprising all the Oriental species with one in Asia-Minor, and a
few from the Moluccas, New Guinea, North Australia, West Africa, and
Tropical America; _Thamnodyastes_, _Tropidodipsas_, and several others,
from Tropical America; _Dipsadoboa_, from West Africa and Tropical America;
_Leptodeira_, from Tropical and South Africa, South America, and Mexico;
and _Pythonodipsas_, from Central Africa.


FAMILY 14.--SCYTALIDÆ. (3 Genera, 10 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- 2. 3 -- |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- 4 |-- -- -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

It is doubtful how far the three genera which constitute this family form a
natural assemblage. We can therefore draw no safe conclusions from the
peculiarity of their distribution--_Scytale_ and _Oxyrhopus_ being confined
to Tropical America; while _Hologerrhum_ inhabits the Philippine Islands.


{380}FAMILY 15.--LYCODONTIDÆ. (11 Genera, 35 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|1. 2. 3 -- |1. 2. 3. 4 |1 -- -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

The Lycodontidæ, or Fanged Ground Snakes, are confined to the Ethiopian and
Oriental regions, over the whole of which they range, except that they are
absent from Madagascar and extend eastward to New Guinea. The genera have
often a limited distribution:--

_Lycodon_ ranges from India and Ceylon to China, the Philippines, and New
Guinea; _Tetragonosoma_, the Malay Peninsula and Islands; _Leptorhytaon_
and _Ophites_, India; _Cercaspis_, Ceylon; and _Cyclocorus_, the
Philippines. The African genera are _Boædon_, _Lycophidion_,
_Holuropholis_, _Simocephalus_, and _Lamprophis_, the latter being found
only in South Africa. The species are nearly equally abundant in both
regions, but no genus is common to the two.


FAMILY 16.--AMBLYCEPHALIDÆ. (5 Genera, 12 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- 2. 3 -- |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- 3. 4 |-- -- 3? --
             |           |           |           |           |

The Amblycephalidæ, or Blunt Heads, are very singularly distributed, being
nearly equally divided between Tropical America and the eastern half of the
Oriental region, as will be seen by the following statement of the
distribution of the genera:--

_Amblycephalus_ (1 sp.), Malay Peninsula to Borneo and the Philippines;
_Pareas_ (3 sp.), Assam, China, Java, and Borneo; {381}_Asthenodipsas_ (1
sp.), Malacca; _Leptognathus_ (6 sp.), Central and South America; and
_Anoplodipsas_ (1 sp.), supposed to come from New Caledonia, and, if so,
furnishing a link, though a very imperfect one, between the disconnected
halves of the family.


FAMILY 17.--PYTHONIDÆ. (21 Genera, 46 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  1. 2. 3. 4 |1 -- -- -- |-- -- -- --|1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3 --
             |           |           |           |           |

The Pythonidæ, comprising the Rock Snakes, Pythons, and Boas, are confined
to the tropics, with the exception of one species in California. They are
very abundant in the Neotropical region, where nearly half the known
species occur; the Australian region comes next, while the Oriental is the
least prolific in these large serpents. The genera which have been
described are very numerous, but they are by no means well defined. The
following are the most important:--

_Python_ is confined to the Oriental region; _Morelia_, _Liasis_, and
_Nardoa_ are Australian and Papuan; _Enygrus_ is found in the Moluccas, New
Guinea and the Fiji Islands; _Hortulia_ is African; _Sanzinia_ is peculiar
to Madagascar; _Boa_, _Epicrates_, _Corallus_, _Ungalia_, and _Eunectes_
are Tropical American; _Chilabothrus_ is peculiar to Jamaica and Mexico;
and _Lichanotus_ to California.

An extinct species belonging to this family has been found in the
Brown-coal formation of Germany, of Miocene age.


FAMILY 18.--ERYCIDÆ. (3 Genera, 6 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- 2 -- -- |-- 2 -- -- | 1 -- 3 -- |-- -- -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

{382}The Erycidæ, or Land Snakes, form a small but natural family, chiefly
found in the desert zone on the confines of the Palæarctic, Oriental, and
Ethiopian regions. They range from South Europe to West Africa and to
Sikhim. The three genera are distributed as follows:--

_Cursoria_ (1 sp.), Afghanistan; _Gongylophis_ (1 sp.), India and Sikhim;
_Eryx_ (4 sp.), has the range of the entire family.


FAMILY 19.--ACROCHORDIDÆ. (2 Genera, 3 Species)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --| -- 2 -- 4 |1 -- -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

The Acrochordidæ, or Wart Snakes, form a small and isolated group, found
only in two sub-divisions of the Oriental region--the South Indian and the
Malayan, and in New Guinea.

_Acrochordus_, inhabits Penang, Singapore, and Borneo; _Chersydrus_,
Southern India and the Malay Peninsula, with a species recently discovered
in New Guinea.


FAMILY 20.--ELAPIDÆ. (23 Genera, 100 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  1. 2. 3 -- |-- -- 3 -- |-- -- -- 4 |1. 2. 3 -- |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3 --
             |           |           |           |           |

The Elapidæ, or Terrestrial venomous Colubrine Snakes, are an extensive
group, spread over the tropics of the whole world, but especially abundant
in Australia, where half the known species occur, some of them being the
most deadly of venomous serpents. In the Oriental region they are also
abundant, containing amongst other forms, the well-known Cobras. The
American species are almost equally numerous, but they all belong to one
{383}genus, and they are annulated with rings of various colours in a
manner quite distinct from any other members of this family. The genera,
which are all very distinct, are distributed as follows:--

_Diemenia_, _Acanthophis_, _Hoplocephalus_, _Brachiurophis_, _Tropidechis_,
_Pseudechis_, _Cacophis_, _Pseudonaje_, _Denisonia_, and _Vermicella_, are
Australian, the first two ranging to the Moluccas and New Guinea; _Ogmodon_
occurs in the Fiji Islands; _Naja_, _Bungarus_, _Ophiophagus_,
_Pseudonaje_, _Xenurelaps_, _Doliophis_, _Megærophis_, and _Callophis_ are
Oriental, one species of the latter genus being found in Japan, while an
_Ophiophagus_ has been discovered in New Guinea; _Cyrtophis_, _Elapsoidea_,
and _Poecilophis_ are African: _Elaps_ is American, ranging as far north as
South Carolina, but not to the West Indian Islands.


FAMILY 21.--DENDRASPIDIDÆ. (1 Genus, 5 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|1. 2 -- -- |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

The single genus _Dendraspis_, constituting the family, is confined to
Tropical Africa.


FAMILY 22.--ATRACTASPIDIDÆ. (1 Genus, 4 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- 2. 3 -- |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

This small family, consisting of the genus _Atractaspis_, is also confined
to Africa, but has hitherto only been found in the West and South.


{384}FAMILY 23.--HYDROPHIDÆ. (8 Genera, 50 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- -- 3 -- |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4
             |           |           |           |           |

The Hydrophidæ, or Sea Snakes, are a group of small-sized marine serpents,
abundant in the Indian and Australian seas, and extending as far west as
Madagascar, and as far east as Panama. They are very poisonous, and it is
probable that many species remain to be discovered. The genera are
distributed as follows:--

_Hydrophis_ (37 sp.), ranging from India to Formosa and Australia;
_Platurus_ (2 sp.), from the Bay of Bengal to New Guinea and New Zealand;
_Aipysurus_ (3 sp.), Java to New Guinea and Australia; _Disteira_ (1 sp.),
unknown locality; _Acalyptus_ (1 sp.), South-west Pacific; _Enhydrina_ (1
sp.), Bay of Bengal to New Guinea; _Pelamis_ (1 sp.), Madagascar to New
Guinea, New Zealand, and Panama; _Emydocephalus_ (1 sp.), Australian Seas.


FAMILY 24.--CROTALIDÆ. (11 Genera, 40 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  1. 2 .3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |-- -- 3. 4 |-- -- -- --|1. 2. 3. 4 |-- -- -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

The Crotalidæ, or Pit Vipers, including the deadly Rattlesnakes, form a
well-marked family of fanged serpents, whose distribution is very
interesting. They abound most in the Oriental region, at least 5 of the
genera and 20 species being found within its limits, yet they are quite
unknown in the Ethiopian region--a parallel case to that of the Bears and
Deer. A few species are peculiar to the eastern portion of the Palæarctic
region, while {385}the Nearctic is actually richer than the Neotropical
region both in genera and species. This would point to the conclusion, that
the group originated in the Indo-Chinese sub-region and spread thence
north-east to North America, and so onward to South America, which, having
been the last to receive the group, has not had time to develop it largely,
notwithstanding its extreme adaptability to Reptilian life. The genera are
divided among the several regions as follows:--

_Craspedocephalus_ (7 sp.), Tropical America and the West Indian Islands;
_Cenchris_, _Crotalophorus_, _Uropsophorus_, and _Crotalus_, inhabiting
North America from Canada and British Columbia to Texas, one species
(_Crotalus horridus_) extending into South America; _Trimeresurus_ (16
sp.), all India from Ceylon to Assam, Formosa, the Philippines and Celebes;
_Peltopelor_ and _Hypnale_ (1 sp. each), peculiar to India; _Calloselasma_
(1 sp.), Siam; _Atropos_ (1 sp.), Java and Borneo; _Halys_ (3 sp.),
peculiar to Tartary, Thibet, Japan, North China, and Formosa.


FAMILY 25.--VIPERIDÆ. (3 Genera, 22 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |-- -- -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

The Viperidæ, or True Vipers, are especially characteristic of the
Palæarctic and Ethiopian regions, only one species being found over a large
part of the Oriental region, and another reaching Central India. They are
especially abundant in Africa, and the Palæarctic confines in South-western
Asia. The common Viper ranges across the whole Palæarctic region from
Portugal to Saghalien Island, reaching to 67° North Latitude, in
Scandinavia, and to 58° in Central Siberia. The genera, according to Dr.
Strauch's synopsis, are distributed as follows:--

_Vipera_ (17 sp.), which has the range of the family, extending over the
whole of the Palæarctic and Ethiopian regions, except Madagascar, and as
far as Ceylon, Siam, and Java, in the Oriental {386}region; _Echis_ (2
sp.), inhabiting North Africa to Persia and to Continental India; and
_Atheris_ (3 sp.), confined to West Africa.


_Remarks on the General Distribution of Ophidia._

The Ophidia, being preeminently a Tropical order--rapidly diminishing in
numbers as we go north in the Temperate Zone, and wholly ceasing long
before we reach the Arctic Circle--we cannot expect the two Northern
regions to exhibit any great variety or peculiarity. Yet in their warmer
portions they are tolerably rich; for, of the 25 families of snakes, 6 are
found in the Nearctic region, 10 in the Palæarctic, 13 in the Australian,
16 in the Neotropical, 17 in the Ethiopian, and no less than 22 in the
Oriental, which last is thus seen to be by far the richest of the great
regions in the variety of its forms of Ophidian life. The only regions that
possess altogether peculiar families of this order, are the Ethiopian (3),
and the Oriental (2); the usually rich and peculiar Neotropical region not
possessing exclusively, any family of snakes; and what is still more
remarkable, the Neotropical and Australian regions together, do not possess
a family peculiar to them. Every family inhabiting these two regions is
found also in the Oriental; and this fact, taken in connection with the
superior richness of the latter region both in families and genera, would
indicate that the Ophidia had their origin in the northern hemisphere of
the Old World (the ancient Palæarctic region) whence they spread on all
sides, in successive waves of migration, to the other regions. The
distribution of the genera peculiar to, or highly characteristic of, the
several regions is as follows:--

The Nearctic possesses 9; four of these belong to the Colubridæ, one to the
Pythonidæ, and four to the Crotalidæ. The Palæarctic region has only 2
peculiar genera, belonging to the Colubridæ and Crotalidæ. The Ethiopian
has 25, belonging to 11 families; four to Colubridæ, five to Lycodontidæ,
and three to Elapidæ. The Oriental has no less than 50, belonging to 15
families; five are Colubridæ, five Uropeltidæ, twelve Homalopsidæ, six
Lycodontidæ, three Amblycephalidæ, eight Elapidæ, and four {387}Crotalidæ.
The Australian has 16, belonging to three families only; eleven being
Elapidæ, and four Pythonidæ. The Neotropical has about 24, belonging to
eight families; ten are Colubridæ, six Pythonidæ, and the rest Dipsadidæ,
Scytalidæ, Amblycephalidæ, Elapidæ, and Crotalidæ.

We find then, that in the Ophidia, the regions adopted in this work are
remarkably distinct; and that, in the case of the Oriental and Ethiopian,
the difference is strongly marked, a very large number of the genera being
confined to each region. It is interesting to observe, that in many cases
the affinity seems to be rather between the West Coast of Africa and the
Oriental region, than between the East Coast and the plains of India; thus
the Homalopsidæ--a highly characteristic Oriental family--occur on the West
Coast of Africa only; the Dryiophidæ, which range over the whole Oriental
region, only occur in Madagascar and West Africa in the Ethiopian; the
genus _Dipsas_ is found over all the Oriental region and again in West
Africa. A cause for this peculiarity has been suggested in our sketch of
the past history of the Ethiopian region, Vol. I. p. 288. In the
Lycodontidæ, which are strictly confined to these two regions, the genera
are all distinct, and the same is the case with the more widely distributed
Elapidæ; and although a few desert forms, such as _Echis_ and the Erycidæ,
are common to Africa and the dry plains of India, this is evidently due to
favourable climatic conditions, and cannot neutralise the striking
differences in the great mass of the family and generic forms which inhabit
the two regions. The union of Madagascar with the South-western part of the
Oriental region under the appellation Lemuria, finds no support in the
distribution of Ophidia; which, however, strikingly accords with the views
developed in the Third Part of this work, as to the great importance and
high antiquity of the Euro-Asiatic continent, as the chief land-centre from
which the higher organisms have spread over the globe.

_Fossil Ophidia._--The oldest known remains of Ophidia occur in the Eocene
formation in the Isle of Sheppey; others are found in the Miocene (Brown
Coal) of Germany, and in some Tertiary beds in the United States. Most of
these appear to have been {388}large species belonging to the Pythonidæ, so
that we are evidently still very far from knowing anything of the earliest
forms of this order. In some of the later Tertiary deposits the poison
fangs of venomous species have been found; also a Colubrine snake from the
Upper Miocene of the South of France.


_Order II.--LACERTILIA._

FAMILY 26.--TROGONOPHIDÆ. (1 Genus, 1 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- 2 -- -- |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

The single species of _Trogonophis_, forming this family, is found only in
North Africa.


FAMILY 27.--CHIROTIDÆ. (1 Genus, 1 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- -- 3 -- |-- -- 3 -- |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

_Chirotes_, the genus which constitutes this family, inhabits Mexico, and
has also been found in Missouri, one of the Southern United States.


FAMILY 28.--AMPHISBÆNIDÆ. (1 Genus, 13 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
   1. 2 -- 4 |-- -- -- --|-- 2 -- -- |1. 2 -- -- |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

{389}The Amphisbænidæ, which, in the opinion of Dr. Günther, are all
comprised in the genus _Amphisbæna_, inhabit Spain and Asia Minor, North
and Tropical Africa, South America as far as Buenos-Ayres and the West
Indian Islands.


FAMILY 29.--LEPIDOSTERNIDÆ. (3 Genera, 6 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  1. 2 -- -- |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- 2. 3 -- |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

The small family of Lepidosternidæ has nearly the same distribution as the
last, indicating a curious relationship between the Tropical parts of
Africa and America. _Lepidosternon_ and _Cephalopeltis_ are American
genera, while _Monotrophis_ is African.


FAMILY 30.--VARANIDÆ. (3 Genera, 30 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- 2 -- -- |1. 2. 3 -- |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2 -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

The Varanidæ, or Water Lizards, are most abundant in the Oriental region,
whence they extend into the Austro-Malay Islands as far as New Guinea, and
into Australia. Several species are found in Africa. _Psammosaurus_ (1
sp.), is found in North Africa and North-western India; _Monitor_ (18 sp.),
has the range of the family; while _Hydrosaurus_ (8 sp.) ranges from Siam
to the Philippines, New Guinea, and Australia.


{390}FAMILY 31.--HELODERMIDÆ. (1 Genus, 1 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- -- 3 -- |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

The genus _Heloderma_, which constitutes this family, is found in Mexico.


FAMILY 32.--TEIDÆ. (12 Genera, 74 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3 -- |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

The Teidæ, or Teguexins--a group of Lizards allied to the European
Lacertidæ, but with differently formed superciliary scales--are highly
characteristic of the Neotropical region, abounding almost everywhere from
Patagonia to the Antilles and Mexico, and extending northwards to
California on the west and to Pennsylvania on the east. The most extensive
genus is _Ameiva_, containing nearly 60 species and having the range of the
entire family; _Teius_ (3 sp.), inhabits Brazil and Mendoza; _Callopistes_
(2 sp.), Chili; _Centropyx_ (3 sp.), Paraguay to Alabama; _Dicrodon_
(Peru); _Monoplocus_ (Western Ecuador); with _Acrantus_, _Acanthopyga_,
_Emminia_, _Crocodilurus_, _Custa_, and _Ada_, which each consist of a
single species, and all inhabit Tropical America.


FAMILY 33.--LACERTIDÆ. (18 Genera, 80 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3 -- |1. 2. 3. 4 |-- 2 -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

{391}The Lacertidæ, or Land Lizards, are small-sized, terrestrial,
non-burrowing lizards, very characteristic of the Palæarctic region, which
contains more than half the known species, and of the adjacent parts of the
Oriental and Ethiopian regions, but extending also to South Africa, to
Java, and even to Australia. The best-defined genera are the following:--

_Lacerta_ (10 sp.), ranging over all Central and South Europe to Poland,
and farther north in Russia and Siberia, eastward to Persia, and southward
to North and West Africa; _Zootoca_ (8 sp.), has nearly the same range in
Europe as the last genus, but has representatives in Madeira, South Africa,
and Australia; _Tachydromus_ (7 sp.) is widely scattered in Chinese Asia,
Japan, Borneo, and West Africa; _Acanthodactylus_ (10 sp.) is most abundant
in North Africa, but has a species in South Africa, and two in Central
India; _Eremias_ (18 sp.) is found all over Africa, and also in the Crimea,
Persia, Tartary and China; _Psammodromus_ (2 sp.), is confined to Spain,
France, and Italy; _Ophiops_ (6 sp.), inhabits India, Persia, and Asia
Minor to South Russia. Less strongly marked and perhaps less natural genera
are the following:--

_Thetia_ (1 sp.), Algiers; _Teira_ (1 sp.), Madeira; _Nucras_ (4 sp.),
Caucasus and South Africa; _Notopholis_ (4 sp.), South Europe and South
Africa; _Algira_ (3 sp.), North and South Africa; _Scrapteira_ (1 sp.),
Nubia; _Aspidorhinus_ (1 sp.), Caspian district; _Messalina_ (4 sp.), North
Africa, Persia, and North-west India _Cabrita_ (1 sp.), Central India;
_Pachyrhynchus_ (1 sp.), Benguela.


FAMILY 34.--ZONURIDÆ. (15 Genera, 52 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |-- 2 -- -- |1. 2. 3. 4 |-- -- 3 -- |-- 2 -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

The Zonuridæ, or Land Lizards, characterised by a longitudinal fold of skin
on each side of the body, have a very remarkable {392}distribution. Their
head-quarters is the Ethiopian region, which contains more than half the
known genera and species, most of which are found in South Africa and
several in Madagascar. Next to Africa the largest number of genera and
species are found in Mexico and Central America, with a few in the
Antilles, South America, and California, and even as far north as British
Columbia. Three of the genera form a distinct sub-group--the Glass
Snakes,--the four species composing it being located in North Africa, North
America, South-eastern Europe, and the Khasya Hills.

The prominent fact in the distribution of this family is, that the mass of
the genera and species form two groups, one in South Africa, the other in
Mexico,--countries between which it would be difficult to imagine any means
of communication. We have here, probably, an example of a once much more
extensive group, widely distributed over the globe, and which has continued
to maintain itself only in those districts especially adapted to its
peculiar type of organization. This must undoubtedly have been the case
with the genus _Pseudopus_, whose two species now inhabit South-eastern
Europe and the Khasya Hills in Assam respectively.

The genera are,--_Cordylus_, _Pseudocordylus_, _Platysaurus_,
_Cordylosaurus_, _Pleurostrichus_, and _Saurophis_, confined to South
Africa; _Zonurus_, South and East Africa and Madagascar; _Gerrhosaurus_,
ranges over the whole Ethiopian region; _Cicigna_ is confined to
Madagascar; _Gerrhonotus_ (22 sp.), ranges from British Columbia,
California, and Texas, to Cuba and South America, but is most abundant in
Mexico and Central America; _Abronia_ and _Barissia_, are two genera of
doubtful distinctness, peculiar to Mexico; _Ophisaurus_ (the Glass Snake)
is found in the Southern United States as far as Virginia; the allied genus
_Hyalosaurus_ in North Africa; and _Pseudopus_, as above stated, in
South-east Europe and the Khasya Hills.


{393}FAMILY 35.--CHALCIDÆ. (3 Genera, 8 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  1. 2. 3 -- |-- -- ?3 --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

The Chalcidæ are a small group of Lizards characteristic of Tropical
America, one species extending into the United States.

The genera are _Chalcis_ (6 sp.), ranging from Central America to Chili;
two other species, which have been placed in distinct genera, inhabit North
America and Peru.


FAMILY 36.--ANADIADÆ. (1 Genus, 1 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- 2 -- -- |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

The single species of _Anadia_, constituting this family, inhabits Tropical
America.


FAMILY 37.--CHIROCOLIDÆ. (1 Genus, 2 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- 2 -- -- |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

The genus _Heterodactylus_, which constitutes this family, inhabits Brazil.


{394}FAMILY 38.--IPHISADÆ. (1 Genus, 1 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- 2 -- -- |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

The single species of _Iphisa_, has been found only at Para in Equatorial
America.


FAMILY 39.--CERCOSAURIDÆ. (1 Genus, 5 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- 2 -- -- |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

The genus _Cercosaura_, is known only from Brazil and Ecuador.


FAMILY 40.--CHAMÆSAURIDÆ. (1 Genus, 1 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- 3 -- |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

This family, consisting of a single species of the genus _Chamæsaura_, is
confined to South Africa.


{395}FAMILY 41.--GYMNOPTHALMIDÆ . (5 Genera, 14 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
   -- 2 -- 4 |-- -- -- --|1. 2. 3 -- |-- 2 --  4 |-- -- -- --|1. 2. 3 --
             |           |           |           |           |

The Gymnopthalmidæ, or Gape-eyed Scinks, so called from their rudimentary
eyelids, form a small group, which is widely and somewhat erratically
distributed, as will be seen by the following account of the distribution
of the genera:--

_Lerista_ (1 sp.) and three other species for which Dr. Gray has
established the genera--_Morethria_ (1 sp.), and _Menetia_ (2 sp.), are
confined to Australia; _Cryptoblepharus_ (4 sp.), is found in West
Australia, Timor, New Guinea, the Fiji Islands, and Mauritius; _Ablepharus_
(4 sp.), inhabits Eastern and South-eastern Europe, Persia, Siberia, West
Africa, and the Bonin Islands; and _Gymnopthalmus_ (3 sp.), is found in
Brazil and the West Indies.


FAMILY 42.--PYGOPODIDÆ. (2 Genera, 3 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- 2 -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

This small family of two-legged Lizards, comprising the genera _Pygopus_
and _Delma_, is found only in Australia proper and Tasmania.


{396}FAMILY 43.--APRASIADÆ. (1 Genus, 2 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- 2 -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

The genus _Aprasia_, constituting this family, is found in West and South
Australia.


FAMILY 44.--LIALIDÆ. (1 Genus, 3 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- 2 -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

This family is also confined to Australia, the single genus, _Lialis_,
inhabiting the Western and Northern districts.


FAMILY 45.--SCINCIDÆ. (60 Genera, 300 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3 -- |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4
             |           |           |           |           |

The Scincidæ, or Scinks, are an extensive family of smooth-scaled lizards,
frequenting dry and stony places, and almost universally distributed over
the globe, being only absent from the cold northern and southern zones. The
family itself is a very natural one, and it contains many natural genera;
but a large number have been established which probably require careful
revision. The following include the more important and the best established
groups:--

{397}_Scincus_ (2 sp.), North Africa and Arabia; _Hinulia_ (20 sp.), most
of the Australian and Oriental regions; _Cyclodina_ (1 sp.), _Hombronia_ (1
sp.), and _Lygosomella_ (1 sp.), all from New Zealand; _Keneuxia_ (1 sp.),
Philippines, Moluccas, and Papuan Islands; _Elania_ (1 sp.) New Guinea;
_Carlia_ (2 sp.), North Australia and New Guinea; _Mocoa_ (16 sp.),
Australia and New Zealand, with species in Borneo, West Africa, and Central
America; _Lipinia_ (3 sp.), Philippine Islands and New Guinea; _Lygosoma_
(12 sp.), Australia, New Caledonia, Pelew and Philippine Islands;
_Tetradactylus_ (1 sp.), _Hemierges_ (2 sp.), _Chelomeles_ (2 sp.),
_Omolepida_ (1 sp.), _Lissolepis_ (1 sp.), _Siaphos_ (1 sp.), _Rhodona_ (3
sp.) _Anomalpus_ (1 sp.), _Soridia_ (2 sp.), and _Ophioscincus_ (1 sp.) all
confined to Australia; _Cophoscincus_ (3 sp.), Philippine Islands, Celebes,
and Queensland; _Plestiodon_ (18 sp.), China and Japan, Africa, and America
as far north as Pennsylvania and Nebraska; _Eumeces_ (30 sp.), South
Palæarctic, Oriental and Australian regions, to New Ireland and North
Australia; _Mabouya_ (20 sp.), Oriental region, Austro-Malaya, North
Australia, the Neotropical region, and to Lat. 42° 30' in North America;
_Amphixestus_ (1 sp.), Borneo; _Hagria_ (1 sp.), and _Chiamela_ (1 sp.),
India; _Senira_ (1 sp.), Philippine Islands; _Brachymeles_ (2 sp.),
Philippine Islands and Australia; _Ophiodes_ (1 sp.), Brazil; _Anguis_ (3
sp.), West Palæarctic region and South Africa; _Tribolonotus_ (1 sp.), New
Guinea; _Tropidophorus_ (2 sp.), Cochin-China and Philippine Islands;
_Norbea_ (2 sp.), Borneo and Australia; _Trachydosaurus_ (1 sp.),
Australia; Cyclodus (8 sp.), Australia, Aru Islands, and Ceram;
_Silubosaurus_ (2 sp.), _Egerina_ (2 sp.), and _Tropidolepisma_ (6 sp.),
all peculiar to Australia; _Heteropus_ (7 sp.), Australia, Austro-Malaya,
and Bourbon; _Pygomeles_ (1 sp.), Madagascar; _Dasia_ (1 sp.), Malaya;
_Euprepes_ (70 sp.), Ethiopian and Oriental regions, Austro-Malaya, South
America (?); _Celestus_ (9 sp.), peculiar to the Antilles, except a species
in Costa Rica; _Diploglossus_ (7 sp.), the Neotropical region;--with a
number of other genera founded on single species from various parts of the
world.


{398}FAMILY 46.--OPHIOMORIDÆ. (2 Genera, 2 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- 2 -- -- |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

The snake-like Lizard constituting the genus _Ophiomorus_, is found in
Southern Russia, Greece, and Algeria; while _Zygnopsis_ having four weak
limbs, has been recently discovered by Mr. Blanford in South Persia. The
family is therefore confined to our Mediterranean sub-region.


FAMILY 47.--SEPIDÆ. (7 Genera, 22 species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- 2 -- -- |1. 2. 3. 4 |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

The Sepidæ, or Sand-Lizards, are a very natural group, almost confined to
the Ethiopian region, but extending into the desert country on the borders
of the Oriental region, and into the south of the Palæarctic region as far
as Palestine, Madeira, Spain, Italy, and even the South of France. The
genera are:--

_Seps_ (10 sp.), South Europe, Madeira, Teneriffe, Palestine, North Africa,
South Africa and Madagascar; _Sphenops_ (2 sp.), North Africa, Syria, West
Africa; _Scelotes_ (3 sp.), Angola to South Africa, Madagascar; _Thyrus_ (1
sp.), Bourbon and Mauritius; _Amphiglossus_ (1 sp.), Madagascar;
_Sphenocephalus_ (1 sp.), Afghanistan; and _Sepsina_ (4 sp.), South-west
Africa.


{399}FAMILY 48.--ACONTIADÆ. (3 Genera, 7 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- 2. 3. 4 |-- 2 -- -- |1 -- -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

This small family of snake-like Lizards has a very curious distribution,
being found in South and West Africa, Madagascar, Ceylon, and Ternate in
the Moluccas. _Acontias_ (4 sp.), is found in the four first-named
localities; _Nessia_ (2 sp.), is confined to Ceylon; _Typhloscincus_ (1
sp.), to Ternate.


FAMILY 49.--GECKOTIDÆ. (50 Genera, 200 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3 -- |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4
             |           |           |           |           |

The Geckoes, or Wall-Lizards, form an extensive family, of almost universal
distribution in the warmer parts of the globe; and they must have some
exceptional means of dispersal, since they are found in many of the most
remote islands of the great oceans,--as the Galapagos, the Sandwich
Islands, Tahiti, New Zealand, the Loo-Choo and the Seychelle Islands, the
Nicobar Islands, Mauritius, Ascension, Madeira, and many others. The
following are the larger and more important genera:--

_Oëdura_ (3 sp.), Australia; _Diplodactylus_ (8 sp)., Australia, South
Africa, and California; _Phyllodactylus_ (8 sp.), widely scattered in
Tropical America, California, Madagascar, and Queensland; _Hemidactylus_
(40 sp.), all tropical and warm countries; _Peropus_ (12 sp.), the Oriental
region, Papuan Islands, Mauritius, and Brazil; _Pentadactylus_ (7 sp.),
Oriental region and Australia; _Gecko_ (12 sp.), Oriental region to New
Guinea and {400}North Australia; _Gehyra_ (5 sp.), Australia, New Guinea
and Fiji Islands; _Tarentola_ (7 sp.), North Africa, North America,
Madeira, Borneo, South Africa; _Phelsuma_ (6 sp.), Madagascar, Bourbon, and
Andaman Islands; _Pachydactylus_ (5 sp.), South and West Africa, and
Ascension Island; _Sphærodactylus_ (5 sp.), the Neotropical region;
_Naultinus_, (6 sp.), New Zealand; _Goniodactylus_ (5 sp.), Australia,
Timor, South America and Algiers; _Heteronota_ (4 sp.), Australia, Fiji
Islands, New Guinea and Borneo; _Cubina_ (4 sp.), the Neotropical region;
_Gymnodactylus_ (16 sp.), all warm countries except Australia; _Phyllurus_
(3 sp.), Australia; _Stenodactylus_ (4 sp.), North and West Africa, and Rio
Grande in North America.

The remaining genera mostly consist of single species, and are pretty
equally distributed over the various parts of the world indicated in the
preceding list. Madagascar, the Seychelle Islands, Chili, the Sandwich
Islands, South Africa, Tahiti, the Philippine Islands, New Caledonia, and
Australia--all have peculiar genera, while two new ones have recently been
described from Persia.


FAMILY 50.--IGUANIDÆ. (56 Genera, 236 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3 -- |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- 3 --
             |           |           |           |           |

The extensive family of the Iguanas is highly characteristic of the
Neotropical region, in every part of which the species abound, even as far
as nearly 50° South Latitude in Patagonia. They also extend northwards into
the warmer parts of the Nearctic region, as far as California, British
Columbia, and Kansas on the west, and to 43° North Latitude in the Eastern
States. A distinct genus occurs in the Fiji Islands, and one has been
described as from Australia, and another from Madagascar, but there is some
doubt about these. The most extensive genera are:--

_Anolius_ (84 sp.), found in most parts of Tropical America and {401}north
to California; _Tropidolepis_ (15 sp.), which has nearly the same range;
_Leiocephalus_ (14 sp.), Antilles, Guayaquil, and Galapagos Islands;
_Leiolæmus_ (14 sp.), Peru to Patagonia; _Sceloporus_ (9 sp.), from Brazil
to California and British Columbia, and on the east to Florida;
_Proctotretus_ (6 sp.), Chili and Patagonia; _Phrynosoma_ (8 sp), New
Mexico, California, Oregon and British Columbia, Arkansas and Florida;
_Iguana_ (5 sp.), Antilles and South America; _Cyclusa_ (4 sp.), Antilles,
Honduras, and Mexico.

Among the host of smaller genera may be noted:--

_Brachylophus_, found in the Fiji Islands; _Trachycephalus_ and
_Oreocephalus_, peculiar to the Galapagos; _Oreodeira_, said to be from
Australia; _Diplolæmus_ and _Phymaturus_, found only in Chili and
Patagonia; and _Callisaurus_, _Uta_, _Euphryne_, _Uma_, and _Holbrookia_,
from New Mexico and California. All the other genera are from various parts
of Tropical America.


FAMILY 51.--AGAMIDÆ. (42 Genera, 156 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3 --
             |           |           |           |           |

The extensive family Agamidæ--the Eastern representative of the Iguanas--is
highly characteristic of the Oriental region, which possesses about half
the known genera and species. Of the remainder, the greater part inhabit
the Australian region; others range over the deserts of Central and Western
Asia and Northern Africa, as far as Greece and South Russia. One genus
extends through Africa to the Cape of Good Hope, and there are three
peculiar genera in Madagascar, but the family is very poorly represented in
the Ethiopian region. Many of these creatures are adorned with beautifully
varied and vivid colours, and the little "dragons" or flying-lizards are
among the most interesting forms in the entire order. The larger genera are
distributed as follows:--

{402}_Draco_ (18 sp.), the Oriental region, excluding Ceylon; _Otocryptis_
(4 sp.), Ceylon, North India, Malaya; _Ceratophora_ (3 sp.), Ceylon;
_Gonyocephalus_ (8 sp.), Papuan Islands, Java, Borneo, Pelew Islands;
_Dilophyrus_ (7 sp.), Indo-Malaya and Siam; _Japalura_ (6 sp.), Himalayas,
Borneo, Formosa, and Loo Choo Islands; _Sitana_ (2 sp.), Central and South
India and Ceylon; _Bronchocela_ (3 sp.), Indo-Malaya, Cambodja, and
Celebes; _Calotes_ (12 sp.), Continental India to China, Philippine
Islands; _Oriocalotes_ (2 sp.), Himalayas; _Acanthosaura_ (5 sp.), Malacca
and Siam; _Tiaris_ (3 sp.), Andaman Islands, Borneo, Philippine and Papuan
Islands; _Physignathus_ (3 sp.), Cochin-China and Australia; _Uromastix_ (5
sp.), South Russia, North Africa, Central India; _Stellio_ (5 sp.),
Caucasus and Greece to Arabia, High Himalayas and Central India; _Trapelus_
(5 sp.), Tartary, Egypt, and Afghanistan; _Phrynocephalus_ (10 sp.),
Tartary and Mongolia, Persia and Afghanistan; _Lophura_ (2 sp.), Amboyna
and Pelew Islands; _Grammatophorus_ (14 sp.), Australia and Tasmania;
_Agama_ (14 sp.), North Africa to the Punjaub, South Africa. The remaining
genera each consist of a single species. Eight are peculiar to Australia,
one to the Fiji Islands, one to the Aru Islands, three to Ceylon, five to
other parts of the Oriental region, one to Persia, and one to South Russia.


FAMILY 52.--CHAMÆLEONIDÆ. (1 Genus, 30 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- 2 -- -- |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2 -- -- |-- -- -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

The Chamæleons are an almost exclusively Ethiopian group, only one species,
the common Chamæleon, inhabiting North Africa and Western Asia as far as
Central India and Ceylon. They abound all over Africa, and peculiar species
are found in Madagascar and Bourbon, as well as in the Island of Fernando
Po.


{403}_General Remarks on the Distribution of the Lacertilia._

The distribution of the Lacertilia is, in many particulars, strikingly
opposed to that of the Ophidia. The Oriental, instead of being the richest
is one of the poorest regions, both in the number of families and in the
number of peculiar genera it contains; while in both these respects the
Neotropical is by far the richest. The distribution of the families is as
follows:--

The Nearctic region has 7 families, none of which are peculiar to it; but
it has 3 peculiar genera--_Chirotes_, _Ophisaurus_, and _Phrynosoma_.

The Palæarctic region has 12 families, with two (Ophiomoridæ and
Trogonophidæ, each consisting of a single species) peculiar; while it has 6
peculiar or very characteristic genera, _Trogonophis_ in North Africa,
_Psammodromus_ in South Europe, _Hyalosaurus_ in North Africa, _Scincus_ in
North Africa and Arabia, _Ophiomorus_ in East Europe and North Africa, and
_Phrynocephalus_ in Siberia, Tartary, and Afghanistan. We have here a
striking amount of diversity between the Nearctic and Palæarctic regions
with hardly a single point of resemblance.

The Ethiopian region has 13 families, only one of which (the Chamæsauridæ,
consisting of a single species) is altogether peculiar; but it possesses 21
peculiar or characteristic genera, 9 belonging to the Zonuridæ, 2 to the
Sepidæ, 7 to the Geckotidæ, and 3 to the Agamidæ.

The Oriental region has only 8 families, none of which are peculiar; but
there are 28 peculiar genera, 6 belonging to the Scincidæ, 1 to the
Acontiadæ, 5 to the Geckotidæ, and 16 to the Agamidæ. Many lizards being
sand and desert-haunters, it is not surprising that a number of forms are
common to the borderlands of the Oriental and Ethiopian regions; yet the
Sepidæ, so abundant in all Africa, do not range to the peninsula of India;
and the equally Ethiopian Zonuridæ have only one Oriental species, found,
not in the peninsula but in the Khasya Hills. The Acontiadæ alone offer
some analogy to the distribution of the Lemurs, being found in Africa,
Madagascar, Ceylon, and the Moluccas.

The Australian region has 11 families, 3 of which are {404}peculiar; and it
has about 40 peculiar genera in ten families, about half of these genera
belonging to the Scincidæ. Only 3 families of almost universal distribution
are common to the Australian and Neotropical regions, with one species of
the American Iguanidæ in the Fiji Islands, so that, as far as this order is
concerned, these two regions have little resemblance.

The Neotropical region has 15 families, 6 of which are peculiar to it, and
it possesses more than 50 peculiar genera. These are distributed among 12
families, but more than half belong to the Iguanidæ, and half the remainder
to the Teidæ,--the two families especially characteristic of the
Neotropical region. All the Nearctic families which are not of almost
universal distribution are peculiarly Neotropical, showing that the
Lacertilia of the former region have probably been derived almost
exclusively from the latter.

On the whole the distribution of the Lacertilia shows a remarkable amount
of specialization in each of the great tropical regions, whence we may
infer that Southern Asia, Tropical Africa, Australia, and South America,
each obtained their original stock of this order at very remote periods,
and that there has since been little intercommunication between them. The
peculiar affinities indicated by such cases as the Lepidosternidæ, found
only in the tropics of Africa and South America, and _Tachydromus_ in
Eastern Asia and West Africa, may be the results either of once widely
distributed families surviving only in isolated localities where the
conditions are favourable,--or of some partial and temporary geographical
connection, allowing of a limited degree of intermixture of faunas. The
former appears to be the more probable and generally efficient cause, but
the latter may have operated in exceptional cases.


_Fossil Lacertilia._

These date back to the Triassic period, and they are found in most
succeeding formations, but it is not till the Tertiary period that forms
allied to existing genera occur. These are at present too rare and too
ill-defined to throw much light on the geographical distribution of the
order.


{405}_Order III.--RHYNCOCEPHALINA._

FAMILY 53.--RHYNCOCEPHALIDÆ. (1 Genus, 1 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- 4
             |           |           |           |           |

The singular and isolated genus _Hatteria_--the "Tuatara" or fringed
lizard--which alone constitutes this family, has peculiarities of structure
which separate it from both lizards and crocodiles, and mark it out as an
ancestral type, as distinct from other living reptiles as the Marsupials
are from other Mammalia. It is confined to New Zealand, and is chiefly
found on small islands near the north-east coast, being very rare, if not
extinct, on the main land. A fossil reptile named _Hyperodapedon_, of
Triassic age, has been found in Scotland and India, and is supposed by
Professor Huxley to be more nearly allied to _Hatteria_ than to any other
living animal.


_Order IV.--CROCODILIA._

FAMILY 54.--GAVIALIDÆ. (2 Genera, 3 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --| 1 -- -- 4 |1 -- -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

The Gavials are long-snouted Crocodiles with large front teeth, and canines
fitting in notches of the upper jaw. They consist of two genera, _Gavialis_
(1 sp.), inhabiting the Ganges; _Tomistoma_ (2 sp.), found in the rivers of
Borneo and North Australia.


{406}FAMILY 55.--CROCODILIDÆ. (1 Genus, 12 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- 2. 3. 4 |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1 -- -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

The true Crocodiles, which have the canines in notches, and the large front
teeth in pits in the upper jaw, are widely distributed over the tropical
regions of the globe, inhabiting all the rivers of Africa, the shores and
estuaries of India, Siam, and eastward to North Australia. Other forms
inhabit Cuba, Yucatan, and Guatemala, to Ecuador and the Orinooko. Four
species are Asiatic, one exclusively Australian, three African, and four
American. These have been placed in distinct groups, but Dr. Günther
considers them all to form one genus, _Crocodilus_.


FAMILY 56.--ALLIGATORIDÆ. (1 Genus, 10 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- 2. 3 -- |-- -- 3 -- |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

The Alligators, which are distinguished by having both the large front
teeth and the canines fitting into pits of the upper jaw, are confined to
the Neotropical, and the southern part of the Nearctic regions, from the
lower Mississippi and Texas through all Tropical America, but they appear
to be absent from the Antilles. They are all placed by Dr. Günther in the
single genus, _Alligator_.


_General Remarks on the Distribution of Crocodilia._

These animals, being few in number and wholly confined to the tropical and
sub-tropical regions, are of comparatively {407}little interest as regards
geographical distribution. America possesses both Crocodiles and
Alligators; India, Crocodiles and Gavials; while Africa has Crocodiles
only. Both Crocodiles and Gavials are found in the northern part of the
Australian region, so that neither of the three families are restricted to
a single region.


_Fossil Crocodilia._

The existing families of the order date back to the Eocene period in
Europe, and the Cretaceous in North America. In the south of England,
Alligators, Gavials and Crocodiles, all occur in Eocene beds, indicating
that the present distribution of these families is the result of partial
extinction, and a gradual restriction of their range--a most instructive
fact, suggesting the true explanation of a large number of cases of
discontinuous distribution which are sometimes held to prove the former
union of lands now divided by the deepest oceans. In more ancient
formations, a number of Crocodilian remains have been discovered which
cannot be classed in any existing families, and which, therefore, throw no
light on the existing distribution of the group.


_Order V.--CHELONIA._

FAMILY 57.--TESTUDINIDÆ. (14 Genera, 126 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 | 1. 2 -- 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1 -- -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

The Testudinidæ, including the land and many fresh-water tortoises, are
very widely distributed over the Old and New worlds, but are entirely
absent from Australia. They are especially abundant in the Nearctic region,
as far north as Canada and British Columbia, and almost equally so in the
{408}Neotropical and Oriental regions; in the Ethiopian there is a
considerable diminution in the number of species, and in the Palæarctic
they are still less numerous, being confined to the warmer parts of it,
except one species which extends as far north as Hungary and Prussia. The
genera are:--

_Testudo_ (25 sp.), most abundant in the Ethiopian region, but also
extending over the Oriental region, into South Europe, and the Eastern
States of North America; _Emys_ (64 sp.), abundant in North America and
over the whole Oriental region, less so in the Neotropical and the
Palæarctic regions; _Cinosternon_ (13 sp.), United States and California,
and Tropical America; _Aromochelys_ (4 sp.), confined to the Eastern States
of North America; _Staurotypus_ (2 sp.), Guatemala and Mexico; _Chelydra_
(1 sp.), Canada to Louisiana; _Claudius_ (1 sp.), Mexico; _Dermatemys_ (3
sp.), South America, Guatemala, and Yucatan; _Terrapene_ (4 sp.), Maine to
Mexico, Sumatra to New Guinea, Shanghae and Formosa--a doubtfully natural
group; _Cinyxis_ (3 sp.), _Pyxis_ (1 sp.), _Chersina_ (4 sp.), are all
Ethiopian; _Dumerilia_ (1 sp.), is from Madagascar only.


FAMILY 58.--CHELYDIDÆ. (10 Genera, 44 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- 2 -- -- |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|1. 2. 3. 4 |-- -- -- --|-- 2 -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

The Chelydidæ, or fresh-water tortoises with imperfectly retractile heads,
have a remarkable distribution in the three great southern continents of
Africa, Australia, and South America; the largest number of species being
found in the latter country. The genera are:--

_Peltocephalus_ (1 sp.), _Podocnemis_ (6 sp.), _Hydromedusa_ (4 sp.),
_Chelys_ (1 sp.), and _Platemys_ (16 sp.), inhabiting South America from
the Orinooko to the La Plata, the latter genus occurring also in Australia
and New Guinea; _Chelodina_ (5 sp.), _Chelemys_ (1 sp.), and _Elseya_ (2
sp.) from Australia; while _Sternotheres_ {409}(6 sp.), and _Pelomedusa_ (3
sp.), inhabit Tropical and South Africa and Madagascar.


FAMILY 59.--TRIONYCHIDÆ. (3 Genera, 25 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- -- -- --|-- -- 3 -- |-- -- -- 4 |1. 2. 3 -- |1. 2. 3. 4 |-- -- -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

The distribution of the Trionychidæ, or Soft Tortoises, is very different
from that of the Chelydidæ, yet is equally interesting. They abound most in
the Oriental region, extending beyond it to Northern China and Japan. In
the Nearctic region they are only found in the Eastern States,
corresponding curiously to the distribution of plants, in which the
affinity of Japan to the Eastern States is greater than to California. The
Trionychidæ are also found over the Ethiopian region, but not in
Madagascar.

The genera are,--_Trionyx_ (17 sp.), which extends over the whole area of
the family as above indicated; _Cycloderma_ (5 sp.), peculiar to Africa;
_Emyda_ (3 sp.), the peninsula of India, Ceylon, and Africa.


FAMILY 60.--CHELONIIDÆ. (2 Genera, 5 Species.)

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.--All the warm and tropical Seas.

The Marine Turtles are almost universally distributed. _Dermatochelys_ (1
sp.), is found in the temperate seas of both the Northern and Southern
Hemispheres; _Chelone_ (4 sp.), ranges over all the tropical seas--_C.
viridis_, the epicureans' species, inhabiting the Atlantic, while _C.
imbricata_ which produces the "tortoiseshell" of commerce is found in the
Indian and Pacific oceans.


{410}_Remarks on the Distribution of the Chelonia._

The four families into which the Chelonia are classed have all of them a
wide distribution, though none are universal. The Ethiopian region seems to
be the richest, as it possesses 3 of the four families, while no other
region has more than 2; and it also possesses 7 peculiar genera. Next comes
the Neotropical region with 2 families and 6 peculiar genera; the
Australian with 3, and the Nearctic with 2 peculiar genera; while the
Oriental and Palæarctic regions possess none that are peculiar. There are
about 30 genera and 200 species in the whole order.

_Fossil Chelonia._--The earliest undoubted remains of this order occur in
the Upper Oolite. These belong to the Cheloniidæ and Emydidæ, which are
also found in the Chalk. In the Tertiary beds Chelonia are more abundant,
and the Trionychidæ now appear. The Testudinidæ are first met with in the
Miocene formation of Europe and the Eocene of North America, the most
remarkable being the gigantic _Colossochelys Atlas_ of the Siwalik Hills.
It appears, therefore, that the families of the order Chelonia were already
specialised in the Secondary period, a fact which, together with their more
or less aquatic habits, sufficiently accounts for their generally wide
distribution. Species of _Testudo_, _Emys_, and _Trionyx_, are found in the
Upper Miocene of the south of France.


{411}AMPHIBIA.


_Order I.--PSEUDOPHIDIA._

FAMILY 1.--CÆCILIADÆ. (4 Genera, 10 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- 2. 3 -- |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- 2 -- -- |1. 2. 3 -- |-- -- -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

The Cæciliadæ are a curious group of worm-like Amphibia sparingly scattered
over the three great tropical regions. The genera are,--_Cæcilia_, which
inhabits West Africa, Malabar and South America; _Siphonopsis_, peculiar to
Brazil and Mexico; _Ichthyopsis_, from Ceylon and the Khasya Mountains; and
_Rhinatrema_ from Cayenne.


_Order II.--URODELA._

FAMILY 2.--SIRENIDÆ. (1 Genus, 3 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- -- -- --|-- -- 3 -- |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

The genus _Siren_, consisting of eel-like Batrachians with two anterior
feet and permanent branchiæ, inhabits the South-Eastern States of North
America from Texas to Carolina.


{412}FAMILY 3.--PROTEIDÆ. (2 Genera, 4 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- -- -- --|-- -- 3 -- |1 -- -- -- |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

The Proteidæ have four feet and persistent external branchiæ. The two
genera are,--_Proteus_ (1 sp.), found only in caverns of Central Europe;
and _Menobranchus_, which are like newts in form, and inhabit the Eastern
States of North America.


FAMILY 4.--AMPHIUMIDÆ. (1 Genus, 2 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- -- -- --|-- -- 3 -- |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

The genus _Amphiuma_, or _Murænopsis_, consists of slender eel-like
creatures with four rudimentary feet, and no external branchiæ. The species
inhabit the Southern United States from New Orleans to Carolina.


FAMILY 5.--MENOPOMIDÆ. (2 Genera, 4 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- -- -- --|-- -- 3 -- |-- -- -- 4 |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

There are large Salamanders of repulsive appearance, found only in Eastern
Asia and the Eastern United States. The genera are,--_Sieboldia_ (2 sp.),
Japan and north-west China; _Menopoma_ = _Protonopsis_ (2 sp.), Ohio and
Alleghany rivers.


{413}FAMILY 6.--SALAMANDRIDÆ. (20 Genera, 85 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- 2. 3 -- |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |-- -- -- --|-- -- 3 -- |-- -- -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

The Salamandridæ, of which our common Newts are characteristic examples,
form an extensive family highly characteristic of the North Temperate
regions, a few species only extending into the Neotropical region along the
Andes to near Bogota, and one into the Oriental region in Western China.
The genera, as arranged by Dr. Strauch, are as follows:--

_Salamandra_ (2 sp.), Central and South Europe and North Africa;
_Pleurodeles_ (1 sp.), Spain, Portugal, and Morocco; _Bradybates_ (1 sp.),
Spain; _Triton_ (16 sp.), all Europe except the extreme north, Algeria,
North China and Japan, Eastern States of North America, California and
Oregon; _Chioglossa_ (2 sp.), Portugal and South Europe; _Salamandrina_ (1
sp.), Italy to Dalmatia; _Ellipsoglossa_ (2 sp.), Japan; _Isodactylium_ (2
sp.), East Siberia; _Onychodactylus_ (1 sp.), Japan; _Amblystoma_ (21 sp.),
Nearctic region from Canada and Oregon to Mexico, most abundant in Eastern
States; _Ranodon_ (1 sp.), Tartary and North-east China; _Dicamptodon_ (1
sp.), California; _Plethodon_ (5 sp.), Massachusetts to Louisiana, and
Vancouver's Island to California; _Desmognathus_ (4 sp.), Eastern United
States south of latitude 43°; _Anaides_ (1 sp.), Oregon and Northern
California; _Hemidactylium_ (2 sp.), South-eastern United States and
Southern California; _Heredia_ (1 sp.), Oregon and California; _Spelerpes_
(18 sp.), Eastern United States from Massachusetts to Mexico, Guatemala,
Costa Rica and Andes of Bogota, with a species in South Europe;
_Batrachoseps_ (2 sp.), South-eastern United States and California;
_Tylotriton_ (1 sp.), Yunan in West China.


{414}_Order III.--ANURA._

FAMILY 7.--RHINOPHRYNIDÆ. (1 Genus, 1 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- -- 3 -- |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

The Rhinophrynidæ are Toads with imperfect ears and a tongue which is free
in front. The single species of _Rhinophrynus_, is a native of Mexico.


FAMILY 8.--PHRYNISCIDÆ. (5 Genera, 13 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  1. 2. 3 -- |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|1. 2 -- -- |-- -- -- 4 |-- 2 -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

The Phryniscidæ, or Toads with imperfect ears and tongue fixed in front,
are widely distributed over the warmer regions of the earth, but are most
abundant in the Neotropical region and Australia, while only single species
occur in the Old World. The genera are:--

_Phryniscus_ (7 sp.), from Costa Rica to Chili and Monte Video;
_Brachycephalus_ (1 sp.), Brazil; _Pseudophryne_ (3 sp.), Australia and
Tasmania; _Hemisus_ (1 sp.), Tropical Africa; _Micrhyla_ (1 sp.), Java.


FAMILY 9.--HYLAPLESIDÆ. (1 Genus, 5 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
   1. 2 -- 4 |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

{415}The Hylaplesidæ are Toads with perfect ears, and they seem to be
confined to the Neotropical region. The only genus, _Hylaplesia_ (5 sp.),
inhabits Brazil, Chili, and the Island of Hayti.


FAMILY 10.--BUFONIDÆ. (6 Genera, 64 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3 -- |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2 -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

The rather extensive family of the Bufonidæ, which includes our common
Toad, and is characterised by prominent neck glands and tongue fixed in
front, is almost universally distributed, but is very rare in the
Australian region; one species being found in Celebes and one in Australia.
The genera are:--

_Kalophrynus_ (2 sp.), Borneo; _Bufo_ (58 sp.), has the range of the entire
family, except Australia; _Otilophus_ (1 sp.), South America; _Peltaphryne_
(1 sp.), Porto Rico; _Pseudobufo_ (1 sp.), Malay Peninsula; _Schismaderma_
(1 sp.), Natal; _Notaden_ (1 sp.), East Central Australia.


FAMILY 11.--XENORHINIDÆ. (1 Genus, 1 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|1 -- -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

The Xenorhinidæ may be characterised as Toads with perfect ears and tongue
free in front. The only species of _Xenorhina_ is a native of New Guinea.


{416}FAMILY 12.--ENGYSTOMIDÆ. (15 Genera, 31 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  1. 2. 3 -- |-- -- 3 -- |-- -- -- --|-- 2. 3 -- |1. 2. 3. 4 |-- 2 -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

The Engystomidæ are Toads without neck-glands and with the tongue tied in
front. They are most abundant in the Oriental and Neotropical regions,
especially in the latter, which contains about half the known species, with
isolated species in Australia, Africa, and the Southern States of North
America. They appear to be the remnant of a once extensive and universally
distributed group, which has maintained itself in two remote regions, but
is dying out everywhere else. The genera are:--

_Engystoma_ (9 sp.), Carolina to La Plata, with one species in South China;
_Diplopelma_ (3 sp.), South India to China and Java; _Cacopus_ (2 sp.),
Central India; _Glyphoglossus_ (1 sp.), Pegu; _Callula_ (4 sp.), Sikhim,
Ceylon, China, and Borneo; _Brachymerus_ (1 sp.), South Africa; _Adenomera_
(1 sp.), Brazil; _Pachybatrachus_ (1 sp.), Australia; _Breviceps_ (2 sp.),
South and West Africa; _Chelydobatrachus_ (1 sp.), West Australia;
_Hypopachus_ (1 sp.), Costa Rica; _Rhinoderma_ (1 sp.), Chili; _Atelopus_
(1 sp.), Cayenne and Peru; _Copea_ (1 sp.), South America; _Paludicola_ (1
sp.), New Granada.


FAMILY 13.--BOMBINATORIDÆ. (8 Genera, 9 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  1. 2 -- -- |-- -- -- --|1. 2 -- -- |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- 4
             |           |           |           |           |

The Bombinatoridæ are a family of Frogs which have imperfect ears and no
neck-glands, and they have a very peculiar and {417}interesting
distribution, being confined to Central and South Europe, the southern part
of South America, and New Zealand. They consist of many isolated groups
forming five separate sub-families. The genera are:--

_Bombinator_, Central Europe and Italy; _Pelobates_ and _Didocus_, Central
Europe and Spain; _Telmatobius_ (2 sp.), Peru and Brazil; _Alsodes_, Chonos
Archipelago; _Cacotus_, Chili; _Liopelma_, New Zealand; _Nannophryne_,
Straits of Magellan.


FAMILY 14.--PLECTROMANTIDÆ. (1 Genus, 1 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  1 -- -- -- |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

The Plectromantidæ, which are Frogs with neck-glands, and the toes but not
the fingers dilated, consists of a single species of the genus
_Plectromantis_. It inhabits the region west of the Andes, and south of the
Equator.


FAMILY 15.--ALYTIDÆ. (5 Genera, 37 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- 2 -- -- |1. 2. 3 -- |1 -- -- -- |1. 2. 3 -- |-- -- -- --|1. 2 -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

The Alytidæ are Frogs with neck-glands and undilated toes. They are most
abundant in the Ethiopian region, with a few species in the Nearctic and
Australian regions, and one in Europe and Brazil respectively. The genera
are:--

_Alytes_ (1 sp.), Central Europe; _Scaphiopus_ (5 sp.), California to
Mexico and the Eastern States; _Hyperolius_ (29 sp.), all Africa, and two
in New Guinea and North Australia; _Helioporus_ (1 sp.), in Australia;
_Nattereria_ (1 sp.), Brazil.


{418}FAMILY 16.--PELODRYADÆ. (3 Genera, 7 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  1. 2 -- -- |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|1. 2 -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

The Pelodryadæ are Tree Frogs with neck-glands, and are confined to the
Australian and Neotropical regions. The genera are:--

_Phyllomedusa_ (3 sp.), South America to Paraguay; _Chirodryas_, Australia;
and _Pelodryas_ (3 sp.), Moluccas, New Guinea and Australia.


FAMILY 17.--HYLIDÆ. (11 Genera, 94 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3 -- |-- -- -- --|-- -- 3 -- |1. 2 -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

The Hylidæ are glandless Tree Frogs with a broadened sacrum. They are most
abundant in the Neotropical region, which contains more than two-thirds of
the species; about twenty species are Australian; six or seven are
Nearctic, reaching northward to Great Bear Lake; while one only is
European, and one Oriental. The genera are:--

_Hyla_ (62 sp.), having the range of the whole family; _Hylella_ (1 sp.),
_Ololygon_ (1 sp.), _Pohlia_ (2 sp.), _Triprion_ (1 sp.), _Opisthodelphys_
(1 sp.), and _Nototrema_ (4 sp.), are South American; while
_Trachycephalus_ (8 sp.), is peculiar to the Antilles, except one South
American species; _Pseudacris_ (1 sp.), ranges from Georgia, United States,
to Great Bear Lake; _Litoria_ (7 sp.), is Australian and Papuan, except one
species in Paraguay; _Ceratohyla_ (4 sp.), is only known from Ecuador.


{419}FAMILY 18.--POLYPEDATIDÆ. (24 Genera, 124 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  1. 2. 3. 4 |-- -- 3 -- |-- -- 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3 --
             |           |           |           |           |

The Polypedatidæ, or glandless Tree Frogs with narrowed sacrum, are almost
equally numerous in the Oriental and Neotropical regions, more than forty
species inhabiting each, while in the Ethiopian there are about half this
number, and the remainder are scattered over the other three regions, as
shown in the enumeration of the genera:--

_Ixalus_ (16 sp.), Oriental, except one in Japan, and one in Western
Polynesia; _Rhacophorus_ (7 sp.), and _Theloderma_ (1 sp.), are Oriental;
_Hylarana_ (10 sp.), Oriental, to the Solomon Islands and Tartary, Nicobar
Islands, West Africa, and Madagascar; _Megalixalus_ (1 sp.), Seychelle
Islands; _Leptomantis_ (1 sp.), Philippines; _Platymantis_ (5 sp.), New
Guinea, Philippines, and Fiji Islands; _Cornufer_ (2 sp.), Java and New
Guinea; _Polypedates_ (19 sp.), mostly Oriental, but two species in West
Africa, one Madagascar, two Japan, one Loo-Choo Islands, and one Hong Kong;
_Hylambates_ (3 sp.), _Hemimantis_ (1 sp.), and _Chiromantis_ (1 sp.), are
Ethiopian; _Rappia_ (13 sp.), is Ethiopian, and extends to Madagascar and
the Seychelle Islands; _Acris_ (2 sp.), is North American; _Elosia_ (1
sp.), _Epirhixis_ (1 sp.), _Phyllobates_ (9 sp.), _Hylodes_ (26 sp.),
_Hyloxalus_ (1 sp.), _Pristimantis_ (1 sp.), _Crossodactylus_ (1 sp.),
_Calostethus_ (1 sp.), _Strabomantis_ (1 sp.), and _Leiyla_ (1 sp.), are
Neotropical, the last two being Central American, while species of
_Hylodes_ and _Phyllobates_ are found in the West Indian Islands.


{420}FAMILY 19.--RANIDÆ. (26 Genera, 150 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2 -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

The Ranidæ, or true Frogs, are characterised by having simple undilated
toes, but neither neck-glands nor dilated sacrum. They are almost
cosmopolitan, extending to the extreme north and south from the North Cape
to Patagonia, and they are equally at home in the tropics. They are perhaps
most abundant in South America, where a large number of the genera and
species are found; the Ethiopian region comes next, while they are rather
less abundant in the Oriental and Australian regions; the Nearctic region
has much less (about 12 species), while the Palæarctic has only five, and
these two northern regions only possess the single genus _Rana_. The genera
are distributed as follows:--

_Rana_ (60 sp.), ranges all over the world, except Australia and South
America, although it extends into New Guinea and into Mexico and Central
America; it is most abundant in Africa. _Pyxicephalus_ (7 sp.), extends
over the whole Ethiopian region, Hindostan, the Himalayas, and Japan;
_Cystignathus_ (22 sp.), is mainly Neotropical, but has three species
Ethiopian. All the other genera are confined to single regions. The
Neotropical genera are:--_Odontophrynus_ (1 sp.), _Pseudis_ (1 sp.),
_Pithecopsis_ (1 sp.), _Ensophleus_ (1 sp.), _Limnocharis_ (1 sp.),
_Hemiphractus_ (1 sp.), all Tropical South American east of Andes;
_Ceratophrys_ (5 sp.), Panama to La Plata; _Cycloramphus_ (1 sp.), West
Ecuador and Chili; _Pleurodema_ (6 sp.), Venezuela to Patagonia;
_Leiuperus_ (12 sp.), Mexico and St. Domingo to Patagonia; _Hylorhina_ (1
sp.), Chiloe. The Australian genera are:--_Myxophyes_ (1 sp.), Queensland;
_Platyplectrum_ (2 sp.), Queensland and West Australia; _Neobatrachus_ (1
sp.), South Australia; _Limnodynastes_ (7 sp.), and _Crinia_ (11 sp.),
Australia and Tasmania. The {421}Oriental genera are:--_Dicroglossus_ (1
sp.), Western Himalayas; _Oxyglossus_ (2 sp.), Siam to Java, Philippines
and China; _Hoplobatrachus_ (1 sp.), Ceylon; _Phrynoglossus_ (1 sp.), Siam.
The Ethiopian genera are:--_Phrynobatrachus_ (1 sp.), _Stenorhynchus_ (1
sp.), both from Natal.


FAMILY 20.--DISCOGLOSSIDÆ, (14 Genera, 18 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  1. 2 -- -- |-- -- -- --|1. 2. 3. 4 |-- 2. 3 -- |-- 2. 3. 4 |1. 2 -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

The Discoglossidæ, or Frogs with a dilated sacrum, are remarkable for the
number of generic forms scattered over a large part of the globe, being
only absent from the Nearctic and the northern half of the Neotropical
regions, and also from Hindostan and East Africa. The genera are:--

_Chiroleptes_ (4 sp.), Australia; _Calyplocephalus_ (1 sp.), allied to the
preceding, from Chili; _Cryptotis_ (1 sp.), Australia; _Asterophys_ (2
sp.), New Guinea and Aru Islands; _Xenophrys_ (1 sp.), Eastern Himalayas;
_Megalophrys_ (2 sp.), Ceylon and the Malay Islands; _Nannophrys_ (1 sp.),
Ceylon; _Pelodytes_ (1 sp.), France only; _Leptobrachium_ (1 sp.), Java;
_Discoglossus_ (1 sp.), Vienna to Algiers; _Laprissa_ (1 sp.), _Latonia_ (1
sp.), Palæarctic region; _Arthroleptis_ (2 sp.), West Africa and the Cape;
_Grypiscus_ (1 sp.), South Brazil.


FAMILY 21.--PIPIDÆ. (1 Genus, 1 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- 2 -- -- |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

{422}The Pipidæ are toads without a tongue or maxillary teeth, and with
enormously dilated sacrum. The only species of _Pipa_ is a native of
Guiana.


FAMILY 22.--DACTYLETHRIDÆ. (1 Genus, 2 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|1. 2. 3 -- |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

The Dactylethridæ are Toads with maxillary teeth but no tongue, and with
enormously dilated sacrum. The species of _Dactylethra_ are natives of
West, East, and South Africa.


_General Remarks on the Distribution of the Amphibia._

The Amphibia, as here enumerated, consist of 22 families, 152 genera, and
nearly 700 species. Many of the families have a very limited range, only
two (Ranidæ and Polypedatidæ) being nearly universal; five more extend each
into five regions, while no less than thirteen of the families are confined
to one, two, or three regions each. By far the richest region is the
Neotropical, possessing 16 families (four of them peculiar) and about 50
peculiar or very characteristic genera. Next comes the Australian, with 11
families (one of which is peculiar) and 16 peculiar genera. The Nearctic
region has no less than 9 of the families (two of them peculiar to it) and
15 peculiar genera, 13 of which are tailed Batrachians which have here
their metropolis. The other three regions have 9 families each; the
Palæarctic has no peculiar family but no less than 15 peculiar genera; the
Ethiopian 1 family and 12 genera peculiar to it; and the Oriental, 19
genera but no family confined to it.

It is evident, therefore, that each of the regions is well characterised by
its peculiar forms of Amphibia, there being only a few genera, such as
_Hyla_, _Rana_, and _Bufo_ which have a wide range. The connection of the
Australian and Neotropical {423}regions is well shown in this group, by the
Phryniscidæ, Hylidæ, and Discoglossidæ, which present allied forms in both;
as well as by the genus _Liopelma_ of New Zealand, allied to the
Bombinatoridæ of South America, and the absence of the otherwise
cosmopolitan genus _Rana_ from both continents. The affinity of the
Nearctic and Palæarctic regions is shown by the Proteidæ, which are
confined to them, as well as by the genus _Triton_ and almost the whole of
the extensive family of the Salamandridæ. The other regions are also well
differentiated, and there is no sign of a special Ethiopian Amphibian fauna
extending over the peninsula of India, or of the Oriental and Palæarctic
regions merging into each other, except by means of genera of universal
distribution.

_Fossil Amphibia._--The extinct Labyrinthodontia form a separate order,
which existed from the Carboniferous to the Triassic period. No other
remains of this class are found till we reach the Tertiary formation, when
Newts and Salamanders as well as Frogs and Toads occur, most frequently in
the Miocene deposits. The most remarkable is the _Andrias scheuchzeri_ from
the Miocene of Oeningen, which is allied to _Sieboldia maxima_ the great
salamander of Japan.




{424}CHAPTER XX.

THE DISTRIBUTION OF THE FAMILIES OF FISHES, WITH THE RANGE OF SUCH GENERA
AS INHABIT FRESH WATER.



SUB-CLASS I.--TELEOSTEI.

_Order I.--ACANTHOPTERYGII._

FAMILY 1.--GASTEROSTEIDÆ. (1 Genus, 11 Species.)

"Fresh-water or marine scaleless fishes, with elongate compressed bodies
and with isolated spines before the dorsal fin."

DISTRIBUTION.--Palæarctic and Nearctic regions.

The species of _Gasterosteus_, commonly called Sticklebacks, are found in
rivers, lakes, estuaries, and seas, as far south as Italy and Ohio. Four
species occur in Britain.


FAMILY 2.--BERYCIDÆ. (10 Genera, 55 Species.)

"Marine fishes, with elevated compressed bodies covered with toothed
scales, and large eyes."

DISTRIBUTION.--Tropical and temperate seas of both hemispheres.

Their northern limit is the Mediterranean and Japan. Most abundant in the
Malayan seas.


{425}FAMILY 3.--PERCIDÆ. (61 Genera, 476 Species.)

"Marine or fresh-water carnivorous fishes, with oblong bodies covered with
toothed scales."

DISTRIBUTION.--Seas, rivers and lakes, of all regions.

The genera which inhabit fresh-waters are the following:--

_Perca_ (3 sp.), inhabits the Nearctic and Palæarctic regions as far south
as Ohio and Switzerland; one species, the common perch, is British.
_Percichthys_ (5 sp.), Chili and Patagonia, with one species in Java;
_Paralabrax_ (2 sp.), California; _Labrax_ (8 sp.), six species are marine,
inhabiting the shores of Europe and North America, one being British, two
species inhabit the rivers of the northern United States; _Lates_ (2 sp.),
Nile and large rivers of India and China; _Acerina_ (3 sp.), Europe, from
England to Russia and Siberia; _Percarina_ (1 sp.), River Dniester;
_Lucioperca_ (6 sp.), North America and Europe; _Pileoma_ (2 sp.), North
America, Texas to Lake Erie; _Boleosoma_ (3 sp.), Texas to Lake Superior;
_Aspro_ (2 sp.), Central Europe; _Huro_ (1 sp.), Lake Huron; _Percilia_, (1
sp.), Rio de Maypu in Chili; _Centrarchus_ (10 sp.), North America and
Cuba; _Bryttus_ (8 sp.), South Carolina to Texas; _Pomotis_ (8 sp.), North
America, Lake Erie to Texas.

Of the exclusively marine genera a species of _Polyprion_ and one of
_Serranus_ are British. The latter genus has nearly 150 species spread over
the globe, but is most abundant in the Tropics. _Mesoprion_ is another
extensive genus confined to the Tropics. _Apogon_ abounds from the Red Sea
to the Pacific, but has one species in the Mediterranean and one in the
coast of Brazil.


FAMILY 4.--APHREDODERIDÆ. (1 Genus, 1 Species.)

"Fresh-water fish, with oblong body covered with toothed scales, and wide
cleft mouth."

DISTRIBUTION.--Atlantic States of North America.


{426}FAMILY 5.--PRISTIPOMATIDÆ. (25 Genera, 206 Species.)

"Marine carnivorous fishes, with compressed oblong bodies, and without
molar or cutting teeth."

DISTRIBUTION.--Seas of temperate and tropical regions, a few only entering
fresh water.

Of the more extensive genera, nine, comprising more than half the species,
are confined to the Indian and Australian seas, while only one large genus
(_Hæmulon_) is found in the Atlantic on the coast of Tropical America. The
extensive Pacific genus, _Diagramma_, has one species in the Mediterranean.
One genus is confined to the Macquarie River in Australia. A species of
_Dentex_ has occurred on the English coast, and this seems to be the
extreme northern range of the family, which does not regularly extend
beyond the coast of Portugal, and in the East to Japan. Australia seems to
form the southern limit.


FAMILY 6.--MULLIDÆ. (5 Genera, 34 Species.)

"Marine fishes, with elongate slightly compressed bodies covered with large
scales, and two dorsal fins at a distance from each other."

DISTRIBUTION.--All tropical seas, except the West Coast of America,
extending into temperate regions as far as the Baltic, Japan, and New
Zealand.

Two species of _Mullus_ (Mullets) are British, and these are the only
European fish belonging to the family.


FAMILY 7.--SPARIDÆ. (22 Genera, 117 Species.)

"Herbivorous or carnivorous marine fishes, with oblong compressed bodies
covered with minutely serrated scales, and with one dorsal fin."

DISTRIBUTION.--Seas of temperate and tropical regions, a few entering
rivers.

{427}_Cantharus_, _Pagellus_, and _Chrysophrys_, have occurred on the
English Coast. _Haplodactylus_ is confined to the West Coast of South
America, and Australia; _Sargus_ to the temperate and warm parts of the
Atlantic and the shores of East Africa; _Pagellus_ to the western coasts of
Europe and Africa.

The other large genera have a wider distribution.


FAMILY 8.--SQUAMIPENNES. (12 Genera, 124 Species.)

"Carnivorous marine fishes, with compressed and elevated bodies, and scaly
vertical fins."

DISTRIBUTION.--The seas between the tropics, most abundant in the Oriental
and Australian regions, a few entering rivers or extending beyond the
tropics.

The extensive genus _Chætodon_ (67 sp.), ranges from the Red Sea to the
Sandwich Islands, and from Japan to Western Australia, while two species
are found in the West Indies. _Holacanthus_ (36 sp.), has a similar
distribution, one species only occurring in the West Indies and on the
coast of South America. Only one genus (_Pomacanthus_), with a single
species, is confined to the West Atlantic.


FAMILY 9.--CIRRHITIDÆ. (8 Genera, 34 Species.)

"Carnivorous marine fishes, with a compressed oblong body, covered with
cycloid scales."

DISTRIBUTION.--The tropical and south temperate waters of the Indian and
Pacific oceans, from Eastern Africa to Western America. Absent from the
Atlantic.


FAMILY 10.--TRIGLIDÆ. (50 Genera, 259 Species.)

"Carnivorous, mostly marine fishes, with oblong compressed or
subcylindrical bodies, and wide cleft mouths. They live at the bottom of
the water."

DISTRIBUTION.--All seas, some entering fresh water, and a few inhabiting
exclusively the fresh waters of the Arctic regions.

{428}They are divided by Dr. Günther into four groups. The Heterolepidina
(comprising 4 genera and 12 species) are confined to the North Pacific. The
Scorpænina (23 genera, 113 species) have an almost universal distribution,
but the genera are each restricted to one or other of the great oceans.
_Sebastes_ has occurred on the English coast. The Cottina (28 genera, 110
species) have also a universal distribution; the numerous species of
_Cottus_ are found either in the seas or fresh waters of Europe and North
America; four species are British, as well as seven species of the
wide-spread genus _Trigla_. _Ptyonotus_ (1 sp.) is confined to Lake
Ontario. The Cataphracti (5 genera, 23 species) have also a wide range; one
genus, _Agonus_, is found in the British seas, and also in Kamschatka and
on the coast of Chili. _Peristethus_ is also British.


FAMILY 11.--TRACHINIDÆ (24 Genera, 90 Species.)

"Carnivorous marine fishes, with elongate bodies, living at the bottom,
near the shore."

DISTRIBUTION.--Almost or quite universal.

_Trachinus_ is a British genus. A species of _Aphritis_ inhabits the fresh
waters of Tasmania, while its two allies are found on the coasts of
Patagonia.


FAMILY 12. SCIÆNIDÆ. (13 Genera, 102 Species.)

"Marine or fresh-water fishes, with compressed and rather elongate bodies,
covered with toothed scales."

DISTRIBUTION.--Temperate and tropical regions, but absent from Australia.

_Larimus_ is found in the Atlantic, and in African and American rivers.
_Corvina_, _Sciæna_, and _Otilothus_ are also marine and fresh-water, both
in the Atlantic and Pacific. The other genera are of small extent and more
restricted range. _Umbrina_ and _Sciæna_ have occurred in British seas.


{429}FAMILY 13.--POLYNEMIDÆ. (3 Genera, 23 Species.)

"Marine or fresh-water fishes, with compressed oblong bodies and entire or
ciliated scales."

DISTRIBUTION.--Tropical seas and rivers of both the great oceans, but most
abundant in the Pacific.


FAMILY 14.--SPHYRENIDÆ. (1 Genus, 15 Species.)

"Carnivorous marine fishes, with elongate sub-cylindrical bodies covered
with small cycloid scales."

DISTRIBUTION.--The warm and tropical seas of the globe.


FAMILY 15.--TRICHIURIDÆ. (7 Genera, 18 Species.)

"Marine fishes, with elongate compressed bodies covered with minute scales
or naked."

DISTRIBUTION.--All the tropical and sub-tropical seas.


FAMILY 16.--SCOMBRIDÆ. (20 Genera, 108 Species.)

"Marine fishes, with elongate compressed bodies, scaled or naked."

DISTRIBUTION.--All the temperate and tropical oceans. Mostly inhabiting the
open seas.

_Scomber_, (the Mackerel) _Thynnus_, _Naucrates_, _Zeus_, _Centrolophus_,
_Brama_, and _Lampris_, are genera which have occurred in the British seas.


FAMILY 17.--CARANGIDÆ. (27 Genera, 171 Species.)

"Marine fishes, with compressed oblong or elevated bodies covered with
small scales or naked."

DISTRIBUTION.--All temperate and tropical seas; some species occur in both
the great oceans, ranging from New York to Australia.

_Trachurus_ and _Capros_ are genera which occur in British seas.


{430}FAMILY 18.--XIPHIIDÆ. (2 Genera, 8 Species.)

"Marine fishes, with elongate compressed body and a produced sword-shaped
upper jaw."

DISTRIBUTION.--Mediterranean, and open seas between or near the Tropics.

_Xiphias_ (the Sword-fish) has occurred on the English coast.


FAMILY 19.--GOBIIDÆ. (24 Genera, 294 Species.)

"Carnivorous fishes, with elongate low, naked, or scaly bodies, living at
the bottom of the shallow seas or fresh waters of temperate or tropical
regions. Individuals of the same species often differ in inhabiting
exclusively fresh or salt water."

DISTRIBUTION.--All temperate and tropical regions, from Scotland and Japan
to New Zealand. Species of _Gobius_, _Latrunculus_, and _Callionymus_ occur
in Britain. Several genera are confined to the East Indian seas and rivers,
but none seem peculiar to America. The genus _Periopthalmus_ consists of
the curious, large-headed, projecting-eyed fishes, so abundant on the muddy
shores of African and Eastern tidal rivers, and which seem to spend most of
their time out of water, hunting after insects, &c.


FAMILY 20.--DISCOBOLI. (2 Genera, 11 Species.)

"Carnivorous fishes, with oblong naked or tubercular bodies, living at the
bottom of shallow seas, and attaching themselves to rocks by means of a
ventral disc."

DISTRIBUTION.--All northern seas, as far south as Belgium, England, and San
Francisco.

Species of both genera (_Cyclopterus_ and _Liparis_) occur in British seas.


{431}FAMILY 21.--OXUDERCIDÆ. (1 Genus, 1 Species.)

"A marine fish, with an elongate sub-cylindrical body and no ventral fins."

DISTRIBUTION.--Macao, China.


FAMILY 22.--BATRACHIDÆ. (3 Genera, 12 Species.)

"Marine fishes, with sub-cylindrical body and broad depressed head."

DISTRIBUTION.--The coasts of nearly all tropical and south temperate
regions, ranging from New York and Portugal to Chili and Tasmania.


FAMILY 23.--PEDICULATI. (8 Genera, 40 Species.)

"Marine carnivorous fishes, with very large heads and without scales."

DISTRIBUTION.--Seas of all temperate and tropical regions, extending south
to New Zealand and north to Greenland.

A species of _Lophius_ (the Fishing-frog or Sea-Devil) is found in British
seas. The genus _Antennarius_, comprising two-thirds of the species, is
wholly tropical.


FAMILY 24.--BLENNIDÆ. (33 Genera, 201 Species.)

"Carnivorous fishes, with long sub-cylindrical naked bodies, living at the
bottom of shallow water in seas, or tidal rivers."

DISTRIBUTION.--All seas from the Arctic regions to New Zealand, Chili, and
the Cape of Good Hope.

Species of _Anarrhichas_, _Blennius_, _Blenniops_, _Centronotus_ and
_Zoarces_ occur in British seas. _Chasmodes_ (3 sp.) is confined to the
Atlantic coasts of Temperate North America; _Petroscirtes_ (26 sp.) to the
tropical parts of the Indian and Pacific Oceans; and _Stichæus_ (9 sp.) to
the Arctic Seas.


{432}FAMILY 25.--ACANTHOCLINIDÆ. (1 Genus, 1 Species.)

"A carnivorous marine fish, with long flat body and very long dorsal fin."

DISTRIBUTION.--Coasts of New Zealand.


FAMILY 26.--COMEPHORIDÆ. (1 Genus, 1 Species.)

"An elongate, naked, large-headed fish, with two dorsal fins."

DISTRIBUTION.--Lake Baikal.

Dr. Günther remarks, that this fish approaches the Scombrina (Mackerel) in
several characters. These are exclusively marine fishes, while Lake Baikal
is fresh-water, and is situated among mountains, at an elevation of nearly
2000 feet, and more than a thousand miles from the ocean!


FAMILY 27.--TRACHYPTERIDÆ. (3 Genera, 16 Species.)

"Deep sea fishes, with elongate, much compressed, naked bodies."

DISTRIBUTION.--Europe, East Indies, West Coast of South America, New
Zealand. Dr. Günther remarks, that little is known of these fishes, from
their being so seldom thrown on shore, and then rapidly decomposing. The
Ribbon-fish (_Regalecus banksii_) has occurred frequently on our shores.
They have soft bones and muscles, small mouths, and weak dentition.


FAMILY 28.--LOPHOTIDÆ. (1 Genus, 1 Species.)

"A marine fish, with elongate compressed naked body, and high crested
head."

DISTRIBUTION.--Mediterranean Sea and Japan.


{433}FAMILY 29.--TEUTHIDIDÆ. (1 Genus, 29 Species.)

"Marine, herbivorous fishes, with compressed, oblong, small-scaled bodies."

DISTRIBUTION.--Eastern tropical seas, from Bourbon and the Red Sea to the
Marianne and Fiji Islands.


FAMILY 30.--ACRONURIDÆ. (5 Genera, 64 Species.)

"Marine, herbivorous fishes, with compressed, minutely-scaled bodies."

DISTRIBUTION.--All tropical seas, but most abundant in the Malay region,
and extending to Japan and New Zealand.


FAMILY 31.--HOPLEGNATHIDÆ. (1 Genus, 3 Species.)

"Marine fishes, with compressed elevated bodies, covered with very small
toothed scales."

DISTRIBUTION.--Seas of Australia, China, and Japan.


FAMILY 32.--MALACANTHIDÆ. (1 Genus, 3 Species.)

"Marine fishes, with elongate bodies covered with very small scales, and
with very long dorsal and anal fins."

DISTRIBUTION.--Atlantic coasts of Tropical America, Mauritius, and New
Guinea.


FAMILY 33.--NANDIDÆ. (6 Genera, 14 Species.)

"Marine or fresh-water carnivorous fishes, with oblong, compressed, scaly
bodies."

DISTRIBUTION.--From the Red Sea to the coasts of China and Australia; and
the fresh waters of the Neotropical and Oriental regions. _Badis_,
_Nandus_, and _Catopra_ inhabit the {434}rivers of India and the Malay
Islands; _Acharnes_ the rivers of British Guiana.


FAMILY 34.--POLYCENTRIDÆ. (2 Genera, 3 Species.)

"Fresh-water carnivorous fishes, with compressed elevated scaly bodies, and
many-spined dorsal and anal fins."

DISTRIBUTION.--Rivers of Tropical America.


FAMILY 35.--LABYRINTHICI. (9 Genera, 25 Species.)

"Fresh-water fishes, with compressed oblong bodies, and capable of living
for some time out of water or in dried mud."

DISTRIBUTION.--Fresh waters of South Africa and the East Indies from the
Mauritius to China, the Philippines, Celebes, and Amboyna.


FAMILY 36.--LUCIOCEPHALIDÆ. (1 Genus, 1 Species.)

"Fresh-water fish, with elongate scaled body, and a dilated branchial
membrane."

DISTRIBUTION.--Rivers of Borneo, Biliton, and Banca.


FAMILY 37.--ATHERINIDÆ. (3 Genera, 39 Species.)

"Marine or fresh-water carnivorous fishes, with subcylindrical scaled
bodies, and feeble dentition."

DISTRIBUTION.--All temperate and tropical seas, from Scotland and New York
to the Straits of Magellan and Tasmania.

_Atherina presbyter_ occurs in British seas. Species of _Atherina_ and
_Atherinichthis_ are found in fresh-water lakes and rivers in Europe,
America, and Australia.


{435}FAMILY 38.--MUGILIDÆ. (3 Genera, 78 Species.)

"Fresh-water and marine fishes, with oblong compressed bodies, cycloid
scales, and small mouths, often without teeth."

DISTRIBUTION.--Coasts and fresh waters of all temperate and tropical
regions.

_Mugil_ (66 sp.) is mostly marine, and is very widely distributed; several
species (Grey Mullets) occur on the British coasts. _Agonostoma_ (9 sp.) is
confined to the fresh waters of the West Indies, Central America, New
Zealand, Australia, Celebes, and the Comoro Islands. _Myxus_ (3 sp.) is
marine, and occurs both in the Atlantic and Pacific.


FAMILY 39.--OPHIOCEPHALIDÆ. (2 Genera, 26 Species.)

"Fresh-water fishes, with elongate subcylindrical scaled bodies; often
leaving the water for a considerable time."

DISTRIBUTION.--Rivers of the Oriental region:--India, Ceylon, China, Malay
Islands to Philippines and Borneo.


FAMILY 40.--TRICHONOTIDÆ. (2 Genera, 2 Species.)

"Marine carnivorous fishes, with elongate subcylindrical bodies, cycloid
scales, and eyes directed upwards."

DISTRIBUTION.--Coasts of Celebes, Ceram, and New Zealand.


FAMILY 41.--CEPOLIDÆ. (1 Genus, 7 Species.)

"Marine fishes, with very long, compressed, band-like bodies, covered with
small cycloid scales."

DISTRIBUTION.--Temperate seas of Western Europe and Eastern Asia, and one
species in the Malayan Seas.

_Cepola rubescens_ (the Band fish) ranges from Scotland to the
Mediterranean. All the other species but one are from Japan.


{436}FAMILY 42.--GOBIESOCIDÆ. (9 Genera, 21 Species.)

"Carnivorous marine fishes, elongate, anteriorly depressed and scaleless,
with dorsal fin on the tail."

DISTRIBUTION.--Temperate and tropical seas; Scandinavia to the Cape,
California to Chili, West Indies, Red Sea, Australia, New Zealand, and Fiji
Islands.

Three species of _Lepadogaster_ have occurred in the English Channel.


FAMILY 43.--PSYCHROLUTIDÆ. (1 Genus, 1 Species.)

"A large-headed, elongate, naked marine fish, with small teeth, and dorsal
fin on the tail."

DISTRIBUTION.--West Coast of North America (Vancouver's Island.)

FAMILY 44.--CENTRISCIDÆ. (2 Genera, 7 Species.)

"Marine fishes, with compressed, oblong or elevated bodies, elongate
tubular mouth and no teeth."

DISTRIBUTION.--West Coast of Europe and Africa, Mediterranean, Indian Ocean
to Java, Philippines, and Japan.

A species of _Centriscus_ has occurred on the South Coast of England, and
another species is found both at Madeira and Japan.


FAMILY 45.--FISTULARIDÆ. (2 Genera, 4 Species.)

"Marine fishes, very elongate, with long tubular mouth and small teeth."

DISTRIBUTION.--Tropical seas, both in the Atlantic and Indian Ocean, and as
far east as the New Hebrides.


{437}FAMILY 46.--MASTACEMBELIDÆ. (2 Genera, 9 Species.)

"Fresh-water fishes, with eel-like bodies and very long dorsal fin."

DISTRIBUTION.--Rivers of the Oriental region, one species from Ceram (?).


FAMILY 47.--NOTACANTHI. (1 Genus, 5 Species.)

"Marine fishes, with elongate bodies covered with very small scales, and
snout protruding beyond the mouth."

DISTRIBUTION.--Greenland, Mediterranean, and West Australia.


_Order II.--ACANTHOPTERYGII PHARYNGOGNATHI._


FAMILY 48.--POMACENTRIDÆ. (8 Genera, 143 Species.)

"Marine fishes, with short compressed bodies covered with toothed scales,
and with feeble dentition."

DISTRIBUTION.--Tropical parts of Pacific and Indian Ocean, less numerous in
Tropical Atlantic, a few reaching the Mediterranean, Japan, and South
Australia. _Pomacentrus_, _Glyphidodon_, and _Heliastes_ are Atlantic
genera.


FAMILY 49.--LABRIDÆ. (46 Genera, 396 Species.)

"Herbivorous or carnivorous marine fishes, with elongate bodies covered
with cycloid scales, and teeth adapted for crushing the shells of
mollusca."

DISTRIBUTION.--Temperate and tropical regions of all parts of the globe.

The genera _Labrus_, _Crenilabrus_, _Ctenolabrus_, _Acantholabrus_,
_Centrolabrus_, and _Coris_, have occurred in British seas, and all of
{438}these, except the last, are confined to the Mediterranean and the
Atlantic as far as Madeira. Eight other genera are characteristic of the
Atlantic, most of them being West Indian, but one from the coasts of North
America. Seven genera are common to all the great oceans; the remainder
being confined to the Indian and Pacific Oceans, ranging from Japan to New
Zealand, but being far more abundant between the Tropics.


FAMILY 50.--EMBROTOCIDÆ. (2 Genera, 17 Species.)

"Marine viviparous fishes, with compressed elevated bodies covered with
cycloid scales, and with small teeth."

DISTRIBUTION.--Pacific Ocean from Japan and California northwards. One
species enters the fresh waters of California.


FAMILY 51.--GERRIDÆ. (1 Genus, 28 Species.)

"Marine fishes, with compressed oblong bodies covered with minutely
serrated scales, and with small teeth."

DISTRIBUTION.--Tropical seas; ranging south as far as the Cape of Good Hope
and Australia, and north to Japan and (one species) to New Jersey, U.S.


FAMILY 52.--CHROMIDÆ. (19 Genera, 100 Species.)

"Fresh-water herbivorous or carnivorous fishes, with elevated or elongate
scaly bodies, and small teeth."

DISTRIBUTION.--The Oriental, Ethiopian, and Neotropical regions.

_Eutroplus_ (2 sp.) is from the rivers of Southern India and Ceylon;
_Chromis_ (15 sp.), _Sarotherodon_ (2 sp.), and _Hemichromis_ (4 sp.), are
from the rivers and lakes of Africa, extending to the Sahara and Palestine.
The remaining 15 genera are American, and several of them have a restricted
distribution. _Acara_ (17 sp.) inhabits Tropical South America and the
Antilies; _Theraps_ (1 sp.), Guatemala; _Heros_ (26 sp.), Texas and
{439}Mexico to La Plata; _Mesonauta_ (1 sp.), Brazil; _Petenia_ (1 sp.),
Lake Peten, Guatemala; _Uaru_ (2 sp.), Brazil; _Hygrogonus_ (1 sp.),
Brazil; _Cichla_ (4 sp.), Equatorial America; _Crenicichla_ (9 sp.), Brazil
and Guiana; _Chætobranchus_ (3 sp.), Brazil and Guiana; _Mesops_ (2 sp.),
Brazil; _Satanoperca_ (7 sp.), Amazon Valley and Guiana; _Geophagus_ (1
sp.), North Brazil and Guiana; _Symphysodon_ (1 sp.), Lower Amazon;
_Pterophyllum_ (1 sp.), Lower Amazon.


_Order III.--ANACANTHINI._


FAMILY 53.--GADOPSIDÆ. (1 Genus, 1 Species.)

"Fresh-water fish, with rather elongate body covered with very small
scales, the upper jaw overhanging the lower, forming an obtuse snout."

DISTRIBUTION.--Rivers of Australia and Tasmania.


FAMILY 53_a_.--LYCODIDÆ. (3 Genera, 14 Species.)

"Marine fishes, with elongate bodies, and the dorsal united with the anal
fin."

DISTRIBUTION.--Arctic seas of America and Greenland, and Antarctic seas
about the Falkland Islands and Chiloe Island.


FAMILY 54.--GADIDÆ. (21 Genera, 58 Species.)

"Marine fishes, with more or less elongate bodies covered with small smooth
scales."

DISTRIBUTION.--Cold and temperate regions of both hemispheres; in the North
extending as far south as the Mediterranean, Canary Islands, New York and
Japan (and one species to the Philippines and Bay of Bengal), and in the
South to Chili and New Zealand.

_Gadus_ (Cod), _Merluccius_ (Hake), _Phycis_, _Lota_, _Molva_, _Couchia_,
_Motella_, and _Raniceps_, are British. _Lota_ inhabits fresh waters.


{440}FAMILY 55.--OPHIDIIDÆ. (16 Genera, 43 Species.)

"Marine fishes, with more or less elongate bodies, the dorsal and anal fins
united, and the ventral fins rudimentary or absent."

DISTRIBUTION.--Almost universal; from Greenland to New Zealand, but most
abundant in the Tropics.

_Ophidium_ and _Ammodytes_ occur in British seas; _Lucifuga_ inhabits
subterranean fresh waters in Cuba.


FAMILY 56.--MACROURIDÆ. (3 Genera, 21 Species.)

"Marine fishes, with the body terminating in a long, compressed tapering
tail, and covered with spiny, keeled or striated scales."

DISTRIBUTION.--North Atlantic from Greenland to Madeira and the Canary
Islands, Mediterranean, Japanese and Australian seas.

None of these fishes have occurred in the British seas.


FAMILY 57.--ATELEOPODIDÆ. (1 Genus, 1 Species.)

"Marine fishes, with the naked body terminating in a long compressed,
tapering tail."

DISTRIBUTION.--Japan.


FAMILY 58.--PLEURONECTIDÆ. (34 Genera, 185 Species.)

"Marine carnivorous fishes, with strongly compressed flat bodies, one side
of which is colourless, and eyes unsymmetrically placed, both on the
coloured side. They inhabit the sandy bottoms of shallow seas, and often
ascend rivers."

DISTRIBUTION.--Universal, on Arctic, Temperate, and Tropical coasts.

{441}Seven genera occur in British seas, viz.: _Hippoglossus_,
_Hippoglossoides_, _Rhombus_, _Phrynorhombus_, _Arnoglossus_,
_Pleuronectes_ (Turbot), and _Solea_ (Sole). There are 13 genera in the
Atlantic and 23 in the Pacific, 4 being common to both; and 2 found only in
the Mediterranean. A Pacific genus, _Synaptura_, has one species in the
Mediterranean.


_Order IV.--PHYSOSTOMI._


FAMILY 59.--SILURIDÆ. (114 Genera, 547 Species.)

"Fresh-water or marine, scaleless fishes, often with bony shields, and the
head always furnished with barbels."

DISTRIBUTION.--The fresh waters of all the temperate and tropical regions,
those which enter the salt water keeping near the coast.

This extensive family is divided by Dr. Günther into eight sub-families and
seventeen groups, the distribution of which is as follows:--

Sub-family 1 (SILURIDÆ HOMALOPTERÆ) is confined to the Old World. It
consists of three groups: Clarina (2 genera, _Clarias_ and
_Heterobranchus_) ranges over the whole area of the Ethiopian and Oriental
regions, to which it appears to be strictly confined; Plotosina (3 genera,
_Plotosus_, _Copidoglanis_, and _Cnidoglanis_) ranges from the eastern
coasts of Africa to Japan, Polynesia, and Australia, in seas and rivers;
Chacina (1 genus, _Chaca_) ranges from India to Borneo.

Sub-family 2 (SILURIDÆ HETEROPTERÆ) is also confined to the Old World; it
consists of one group,--Silurina, containing 19 genera,
viz.:--_Saccobranchus_ (4 sp.), India to Cochin China and Ceylon; _Silurus_
(5 sp.), Palæarctic region from Central Europe to Japan, China, and
Afghanistan, and a species in Cochin China; _Silurichthys_ (3 sp.),
Cashmere, Java, and Borneo; _Wallago_ (2 sp.), Hindostan, Sumatra, and
Borneo; _Belodontichthys_ (1 sp.), Sumatra and Borneo; _Eutropiichthys_ (1
sp.), Bengal; _Cryptopterus_ {442}(15 sp.), Java, Sumatra, and Borneo, with
a species in the Ganges, in Siam, and (?) in Amboyna; _Callichrous_ (10
sp.), Afghanistan to Borneo and Java; _Schilbe_ (5 sp.), Tropical Africa;
_Eutropius_ (6 sp.), Tropical Africa and Central India; _Hemisilurus_ (2
sp.), Java and Sumatra; _Siluranodon_ (1 sp.), Nile; _Ailia_ (2 sp.),
Bengal; _Schilbichthys_ (1 sp.), Bengal; _Laïs_ (1 sp.), Java, Sumatra,
Borneo; _Pseudeutropius_ (6 sp.), India and Sumatra; _Pangasius_ (7 sp.),
Ganges, Sumatra, Java, Borneo; _Helicophagus_ (2 sp.), Sumatra; _Silondia_
(1 sp.), Ganges.

Sub-family 3 (SILURIDÆ ANOMALOPTERÆ) is confined to Equatorial America; it
consists of the group Hypopthalmina, containing 2 genera: _Helogenes_ (1
sp.), _Hypopthalmus_ (4 sp.), from the country north of the Amazon,
Surinam, and the Rio Negro.

Sub-family 4 (SILURIDÆ PROTEROPTERÆ) ranges over all the tropical and most
of the temperate parts of the globe, except Europe and Australia. It
consists of four groups: Bagrina (16 genera), ranging over most of the Old
World and North America; Pimelodina (15 genera), confined to Tropical
America, except one genus which is African; Ariina (10 genera), all
Tropical regions; and Bagarina (3 genera), Oriental region. The
distribution of the genera is as follows:--

_Bagrus_ (2 sp.), Nile; _Chrysichthys_ (5 sp.), Tropical Africa; _Clarotes_
(1 sp.), Upper Nile; _Macrones_ (19 sp.), India, Ceylon to Borneo, and one
species in Asia Minor; _Pseudobagrus_ (4 sp.), Japan, China, and Cochin
China; _Liocassis_ (5 sp.), Japan, China, Java, Sumatra, and Borneo;
_Bagroides_ (3 sp.), Sumatra and Borneo; _Bagrichthys_ (1 sp.), Sumatra and
Borneo; _Rita_ (5 sp.), Continental India and Manilla; _Acrochordonichthys_
(6 sp.), Java and Sumatra; _Akysis_ (3 sp.), Java and Sumatra; _Olyra_ (1
sp.), Khasya; _Branchiosteus_ (1 sp.), Khasya; _Amiurus_ (13 sp.), Nearctic
region to Guatemala and China; _Hopladelus_ (1 sp.), North America;
_Noturus_ (4 sp.), North America; _Sorubim_ (1 sp.), Amazon; _Platystoma_
(11 sp.), Tropical South America; _Hemisorubim_ (1 sp.) Rio Negro, Brazil;
_Platistomatichthys_ (1 sp.), Rio Branco, Brazil; _Phractocephalus_ (1
sp.), Amazon; _Piramutana_ (2 sp.), Equatorial America; _Platynematichthys_
{443}(1 sp.), northern and southern tributaries of Amazon; _Piratinga_ (3
sp.), Amazon Valley; _Sciades_ (2 sp.), Amazon; _Pimelodus_ (42 sp.),
Mexico to La Plata, single aberrant species from West Africa, Java and the
Sandwich Islands; _Pirinampus_ (1 sp.), Brazil; _Conorhynchus_ (1 sp.),
Brazil; _Notoglanis_ (1 sp.), Madeira, Amazon Valley; _Callophysus_ (3
sp.), Tropical South America; _Auchenaspis_ (1 sp.), Tropical Africa;
_Arius_ (68 sp.), all Tropical regions; _Galeichthys_ (1 sp.), Cape of Good
Hope; _Genidens_ (1 sp.), Brazil; _Hemipimelodus_ (3 sp.), India, Sumatra,
and Borneo; _Ketingus_ (1 sp.), Sunda Islands; _Ælurichthys_ (4 sp.),
Eastern United States to Guiana; _Paradiplomystax_ (1 sp.), Brazil;
_Diplomystax_ (1 sp.), Chili; _Osteogeniosus_ (3 sp.), India to Java;
_Batrachocephalus_ (1 sp.), Java and Sumatra; _Bagarius_ (1 sp.), India to
Java; _Euclyptosternum_ (1 sp.), India; _Glyptosternum_ (8 sp.), Himalayas,
Central India, Java, and Sumatra; _Hara_ (3 sp.), Continental India;
_Amblyceps_ (3 sp.), Continental India.

Sub-family 5 (SILURIDÆ STENOBRANCHIÆ) is confined to South America and
Africa, with one genus and species in the Ganges. It consists of three
groups: Doradina (12 genera), South America and Africa; Rhinoglanina (3
genera), Central Africa and the Ganges; Malapterurina (1 genus), Tropical
Africa. The distribution of the genera is as follows:--

_Ageniosus_ (4 sp.), Surinam to La Plata; _Tetranematichthys_ (1 sp.),
Central Brazil, Rio Guaporé; _Euanemus_ (1 sp.), Surinam and Brazil;
_Auchenipterus_ (9 sp.), Equatorial America; _Centromochlus_ (2 sp.),
Equatorial America; _Trachelyopterus_ (2 sp.), Equatorial America;
_Cetopsis_ (3 sp.), Brazil; _Asterophysus_ (1 sp.), Rio Negro, North
Brazil; _Doras_ (13 sp.), Tropical South America east of Andes; _Oxydoras_
(7 sp.), Amazon Valley and Guiana; _Rhinodoras_ (3 sp.), Tropical South
America east of Andes; _Synodontis_ (12 sp.), Tropical Africa;
_Rhinoglanis_ (1 sp.), Upper Nile; _Mochocus_ (1 sp.), Nile; _Callomystax_
(1 sp.), Nile; _Malapterurus_ (3 sp.), Tropical Africa.

Sub-family 6 (SILURIDÆ PROTEROPODES) inhabits Tropical America and Northern
India as far as Tenasserim. It consists of two groups: the Hypostomatina
(17 genera), with the same distribution as the sub-family, and the
Aspredinina (3 genera), {444}confined to Equatorial America. The
distribution of the genera is as follows:--

_Arges_ (2 sp.), Andes of Peru and Ecuador; _Stygogenes_ (2 sp.), Andes;
_Brontes_ (1 sp.), Andes; _Astroblepus_ (1 sp.), Popayan; _Callichthys_ (11
sp.), Tropical South America east of Andes, and Trinidad; _Plecostomus_ (15
sp.), Tropical South America east of Andes, and Trinidad; _Liposarcus_ (3
sp.), Surinam and Brazil; _Chætostomus_ (25 sp.), Tropical America,
Trinidad, and Porto Rico; _Pterygoplichthys_ (4 sp.), Brazil; _Rhinelepis_
(1 sp.), Brazil; _Acanthicus_ (2 sp.), Equatorial America; _Loricaria_ (17
sp.), Tropical South America east of Andes; _Acestra_ (4 sp.), Brazil and
Guiana; _Sisor_ (1 sp.), Northern Bengal; _Erethistes_ (1 sp.), Assam;
_Pseudecheneis_ (1 sp.), Khasya Hills; _Exostoma_ (2 sp.), Assam and
Tenasserim; _Bunocephalus_ (2 sp.), Guiana; _Bunocephalichthys_ (1 sp.),
Rio Branco, North Brazil; _Aspredo_ (6 sp.), Guiana.

Sub-family 7 (SILURIDÆ OPISTHOPTERÆ) consists of two groups: Nematogenyina
(2 genera), and Trichomycterina (3 genera), and is confined to South
America. The distribution of the genera is as follows:--

_Heptapterus_ (2 sp.), South America; _Nematogenys_ (1 sp.), Chili;
_Trichomycterus_ (7 sp.), South America to 15,000 feet elevation;
_Eremophilus_ (1 sp.), Andes of Bogota; _Pariodon_ (1 sp.), Amazon.

Sub-family 8 (SILURIDÆ BRANCHICOLÆ) is confined to Tropical South America.
It consists of one group, Stegophilina, and 2 genera: _Stegophilus_ (1
sp.), Brazil; and _Vandellia_ (2 sp.), Amazon Valley.


FAMILY 60. CHARACINIDÆ. (47 Genera, 230 Species.)

"Fresh-water fishes, with scaly bodies and without barbels."

DISTRIBUTION.--The Neotropical and Ethiopian regions.

This extensive family is divided by Dr. Günther into 10 groups, viz.:
Erythrinina (5 genera), South America; Curumatina {445}(6 genera), South
America; Citharinina (1 genus), Tropical Africa; Anostomatina (3 genera),
South America; Tetragonopterina (16 genera), South America and Tropical
Africa; Hydrocyonina (9 genera), Tropical America and Tropical Africa;
Distichodontina (1 genus), Tropical Africa; Icthyborina (1 genus), Africa;
Crenuchina (1 genus), Equatorial America; Serrasalmonina (4 genera), South
America.

The following is the distribution of the genera:--

_Macrodon_ (4 sp.), Tropical America; _Erythrinus_ (5 sp.), Brazil and
Guiana; _Lebiasina_ (1 sp.), West Equatorial America; _Pyrrhulina_ (1 sp.),
Guiana; _Corynopoma_ (4 sp.), Trinidad only; _Curimatus_ (15 sp.), Tropical
South America and Trinidad; _Prochilodus_ (12 sp.), South America to the La
Plata; _Cæntropus_ (2 sp.), East Equatorial America; _Hemiodus_ (8 sp.),
Equatorial America east of Andes; _Saccodon_ (1 sp.), Ecuador; _Parodon_ (1
sp.), Brazil; _Citharinus_ (2 sp.), Tropical Africa; _Anostomus_ (8 sp.),
Tropical America; _Rhytiodus_ (2 sp.), Equatorial America; _Leporinus_ (14
sp.), South America East of Andes; _Piabucina_ (2 sp.), Guiana; _Alestes_
(4 sp.), Tropical Africa; _Brachyalestes_ (5 sp.), Tropical Africa;
_Tetragonopterus_ (32 sp.), Tropical America; _Scissor_ (1 sp.), South
America; _Pseudochalceus_ (1 sp.), West Ecuador; _Chirodon_ (2 sp.), Chili;
_Chalceus_ (1 sp.), Guiana; _Brycon_ (10 sp.), South America east of Andes;
_Chalcinopsis_ (4 sp.), Central America and Ecuador; _Bryconops_ (2 sp.),
Tropical America; _Creagrutus_ (1 sp.), Western Ecuador; _Chalcinus_ (4
sp.), Tropical South America; _Gastropelecus_ (8 sp.), Tropical South
America; _Piabuca_ (2 sp.), Equatorial America; _Agoniates_ (1 sp.),
Guiana; _Anacyrtus_ (7 sp.), Central and South America; _Hystricodon_ (1
sp.), Equatorial America; _Salminus_ (3 sp.), South America; _Hydrocyon_ (3
sp.), Tropical Africa; _Sarcodaces_ (1 sp.), West Africa; _Oligosarcus_ (1
sp.), Brazil; _Xiphoramphus_ (7 sp.), South America east of Andes;
_Xiphostoma_ (5 sp.), Equatorial America east of Andes; _Cynodon_ (3 sp.),
Tropical America East of Andes; _Distichodus_ (7 sp.), Tropical Africa;
_Icthyborus_ (3 sp.), Nile; _Crenuchus_ (1 sp.), Guiana; _Mylesinus_ (1
sp.), Equatorial America; _Serrasalmo_ (13 sp.), Tropical South America
east of Andes; _Myletes_ (18 sp.), {446}Tropical South America east of
Andes; _Catoprion_ (1. sp.), Brazil and Guiana.


FAMILY 61.--HAPLOCHITONIDÆ. (2 Genera, 3 Species.)

"Fresh-water fishes, with naked or scaly bodies and without barbels."

DISTRIBUTION.--Temperate South America and South Australia.

The genera are, _Haplochiton_ (2 sp.), Tierra del Fuego and the Falkland
Islands; _Prototroctes_ (2 sp.), Southern Australia and New Zealand.


FAMILY 62.--STERNOPTYCHIDÆ. (6 Genera, 12 Species.)

"Marine fishes, with very thin deciduous scales or none, and with a row of
phosphorescent spots or organs on the under surface of the body."

DISTRIBUTION.--Mediterranean and Atlantic.

These are deep-sea fishes found in the Mediterranean sea, and in the deep
Atlantic from the coasts of Norway to the Azores and the Tropics.


FAMILY 63.--SCOPELIDÆ. (11 Genera, 47 Species.)

"Marine fishes, somewhat resembling the fresh-water Siluridæ."

DISTRIBUTION.--Almost universal, but most abundant in warm and tropical
seas.

These are deep-sea fishes, abounding in the Mediterranean and the great
oceans, a few extending north to near Greenland and south to Tasmania.


{447}FAMILY 64.--STOMIATIDÆ. (4 Genera, 8 Species.)

"Small marine fishes, naked or with very fine scales."

DISTRIBUTION.--The Mediterranean and Atlantic.

These are deep-sea fishes, ranging from Greenland to beyond the Equator.


FAMILY 65.--SALMONIDÆ (15 Genera, 157 Species.)

"Fresh-water fishes, many species periodically descending to the sea and a
few altogether marine:--Salmon and Trout."

DISTRIBUTION.--The Palæarctic and Nearctic Regions, and one genus and
species in New Zealand. A considerable number of species are confined to
single lakes or rivers, others have a wide distribution.

The genera are distributed as follows:--

_Salmo_ (83 sp.), rivers and lakes of the Palæarctic and Nearctic Regions,
as far south as Algeria, Asia Minor, the Hindoo-Koosh and Kamschatka, and
to about 38° North Latitude in North America, many of the species
migratory; _Onchorhynchus_ (8 sp.), American and Asiatic rivers entering
the Pacific, as far south as San Francisco and the Amur; _Brachymystax_ (1
sp.), Siberian rivers, from Lake Baikal and the Atlai Mountains northwards;
_Luciotrutta_ (2 sp.), Caspian Sea and Volga; _Plecoglossus_ (1 sp.), Japan
and Formosa; _Osmerus_ (3 sp.), rivers of temperate Europe and North
America entering the Atlantic, and one species in California;
_Thaleichthys_ (1 sp.), Columbia River, Vancouver's Island; _Hypomesus_ (1
sp.), coasts of California, Vancouver's Island, and North-eastern Asia;
_Mallotus_ (1 sp.), coasts of Arctic America from Greenland to Kamschatka;
_Retropinna_ (1 sp.), fresh waters of New Zealand; _Coregonus_ (41 sp.),
fresh waters of northern parts of temperate Europe, Asia and North America,
many of the species migratory: _Thymallus_ (6 sp.), fresh waters of
temperate parts of {448}Europe, Asia, and North America; _Argentina_ (4
sp.), Mediterranean and deep seas of Western Europe; _Microstoma_ (2 sp.),
Mediterranean, and seas of Greenland; _Salarix_ (2 sp.), China and Japan,
in seas and rivers. _Salmo_, _Osmerus_, _Coregonus_, and _Thymallus_, are
British genera.


FAMILY 66.--PERCOPSIDÆ. (1 Genus, 1 Species.)

"A fresh-water fish covered with toothed scales."

DISTRIBUTION.--Lake Superior, North America.


FAMILY 67.--GALAXIDÆ. (1 Genus, 12 Species.)

"Fresh-water fishes, with neither scales nor barbels."

DISTRIBUTION.--The temperate zone of the Southern Hemisphere.

The only genus, _Galaxias_, is found in New Zealand, Tasmania, and Tierra
del Fuego, ranging north as far as Queensland and Chili; and one of the
species is absolutely identical in the two regions.


FAMILY 68.--MORMYRIDÆ. (3 Genera, 25 Species.)

"Fresh-water fishes, with scales on the body and tail but not on the head,
and no barbels."

DISTRIBUTION.--The Ethiopian Region.

Most abundant in the Nile, a few from the Gambia, the Congo, and Rovuma.
The genera are:--

_Mormyrus_ (1 sp.), Nile, Gambia, West Africa, Mozambique, Rovuma;
_Hyperopsius_ (2 sp.), Nile and West Africa; _Mormyrops_ (4 sp.), Nile,
West Africa and Mozambique.


{449}FAMILY 69.--GYMNARCHIDÆ. (1 Genus, 1 Species.)

"Fresh-water fishes, resembling the Mormyridæ, but with tapering finless
tail, and neither anal nor ventral fins."

DISTRIBUTION.--Ethiopian region.

The only genus, _Gymnarchus_, inhabits the Nile and the rivers of West
Africa.


FAMILY 70.--ESOCIDÆ. (1 Genus, 7 Species.)

"Fresh-water fishes, with scaly bodies, no barbels, and dorsal fins
situated towards the tail."

DISTRIBUTION.--The Nearctic and Palæarctic regions.

One species, the Pike (_Esox lucius_) ranges from Lapland to Turkey, and in
America from the Arctic regions to the Albany river; the remainder are
American species extending South as far as New Orleans.


FAMILY 71.--UMBRIDÆ. (1 Genus, 2 Species.)

"Small fresh-water scaly fishes, without barbels or adipose fin."

DISTRIBUTION.--Central Europe and Temperate North America.


FAMILY 72.--SCOMBRESOCIDÆ. (5 Genera, 136 Species.)

"Marine or fresh-water fishes, with scaly bodies and a series of keeled
scales along each side of the belly."

DISTRIBUTION.--Temperate and tropical regions.

All the genera have a wide distribution. A species of _Belone_ and one of
_Scombresox_ are found on the British coast. The Flying-fishes (_Exocetus_,
44 sp.), belong to this family. They abound in all tropical seas and extend
as far as the Mediterranean and Australia. None of the genera are
exclusively fresh-water, {450}but a few species of _Belone_, and
_Hemiramphus_ are found in rivers in various parts of the world.


FAMILY 73.--CYPRINODONTIDÆ. (20 Genera, 106 Species.)

"Fresh-water fishes, covered with scales, the sexes frequently differing,
mostly viviparous."

DISTRIBUTION.--Southern Europe, Asia, Africa and North America, but most
abundant in Tropical America.

The distribution of the genera is as follows:--

_Cyprinodon_ (11 sp.), Italy, North Africa and Western Asia to Persia, also
North America from Texas to New York; _Fitzroya_ (1 sp.), Montevideo;
_Characodon_ (1 sp.), Central America; _Tellia_ (1 sp.), Alpine pools of
the Atlas: _Limnurgus_ (1 sp.), Mexican plateau; _Lucania_ (1 sp.), Texas;
_Haplochilus_ (18 sp.), India, Java, Japan, Tropical Africa, Madagascar,
and the Seychelle Islands, Carolina to Brazil, Jamaica; _Fundulus_ (17
sp.), North and Central America and Ecuador, Spain and East Africa;
_Rivulus_ (3 sp.), Tropical America, Cuba and Trinidad; _Orestias_ (6 sp.),
Lake Titacaca, Andes; _Jenynsia_ (1 sp.), Rio Plata; _Pseudoxiphophorus_ (2
sp.), Central America; _Belonesox_ (1 sp.), Central America; _Gambusia_ (8
sp.), Antilles, Central America and Texas; _Anableps_ (3 sp.), Central and
Equatorial America; _Poecilia_ (16 sp.), Antilles, Central and South
America; _Mollienesia_ (4 sp.), Louisiana to Mexico; _Platypoecilus_ (1
sp.), Mexico; _Girardinus_ (10 sp.), Antilles and South Carolina to
Uruguay; _Lepistes_ (1 sp.), Barbadoes.


FAMILY 74.--HETEROPYGII. (2 Genera, 2 Species.)

"Fresh-water fishes, with posterior dorsal fin, and very small scales."

DISTRIBUTION.--Fresh waters of the United States.

_Amblyopsis_ (1 sp.) is a blind fish found in the caverns of Kentucky;
while _Chologastes_ (1 sp.), which only differs from it in having perfect
eyes, is found in ditches in South Carolina.


{451}FAMILY 75.--CYPRINIDÆ. (109 Genera, 790 Species.)

"Fresh-water fishes, generally scaly, with no adipose fin, and pharyngeal
teeth only, the mouth being toothless."

DISTRIBUTION.--Fresh waters of the Old World and North America, but absent
from Australia and South America.

This enormous family is divided by Dr. Günther into fourteen groups, the
distribution of which is as follows:--

Catostomina (4 genera), North America and North-east Asia; Cyprinina (39
genera), same range as the family; Rohteichthyina (1 genus), Malay
Archipelago; Leptobarbina (1 genus), Malay Archipelago; Rasborina (5
genera), East Africa to China and Borneo; Semiplotina (2 genera), Western
Asia; Xenocypridina (3 genera), Eastern Asia; Leuciscina (10 genera),
Palæarctic and Nearctic regions; Rhodeina (3 genera), Palæarctic region;
Danionina (9 genera), India to China and Japan; Hypophthalmichthyina (1
genus), China; Abramidina (16 genera), same range as the family;
Homalopterina (2 genera), India to Java; Cobitidina (10 genera), Palæarctic
and Oriental regions.

The following is the distribution of the genera:--

_Catostomus_ (16 sp.), Nearctic region and Eastern Siberia; _Moxostoma_ (2
sp.), Eastern United States; _Sclerognathus_ (5 sp.), Temperate North
America to Guatemala, also Northern China; _Carpiodes_ (1 sp.), United
States; _Cyprinus_ (2 sp.), Temperate parts of Palæarctic region (1 sp.
British); _Carassius_ (3 sp.), Temperate Palæarctic region (1 sp. British);
_Catla_ (1 sp.), Continental India; _Cirrhina_ (5 sp.), Continental India
to China; _Dangila_ (6 sp.), Java, Sumatra, Borneo; _Osteochilus_ (14 sp.),
Siam to Java and Sumatra; _Labeo_ (27 sp.), Tropical Africa and Oriental
region; _Tylognathus_ (10 sp.), Syria, India to Java; _Abrostomus_ (2 sp.),
South Africa; _Discognathus_ (4 sp.), Syria to India and Java, mostly in
mountain streams; _Crossochilus_ (9 sp.), India to Sumatra and Java;
_Gymnostomus_ (7 sp.), Continental India; _Epalzeorhynchus_ (1 sp.),
Sumatra and Borneo; _Capoeta_ (13 sp.), Western Asia; _Barbus_ (163 sp.),
Temperate or Tropical {452}parts of Europe, Asia, and Africa (1 sp.
British); _Thynnichthys_ (2 sp.), Pegu, Borneo, and Sumatra; _Barbichthys_
(1 sp.), Java, Sumatra, and Borneo; _Amblyrhynchichthys_ (1 sp.), Sumatra
and Borneo; _Albulichthys_ (1 sp.), Sumatra and Borneo; _Oreinus_ (3 sp.),
Himalayan region; _Schizothorax_ (13 sp.), Himalayan region and west to
Afghanistan and Persia; _Ptychobarbus_ (1 sp.), Thibet; _Gymnocypris_ (1
sp.), loc. unknown; _Schizopygopsis_ (1 sp.), Thibet; _Diptychus_ (1 sp.),
Himalayas and Thibet; _Aulopyge_ (1 sp.), Western Asia; _Gobio_ (2 sp.),
Temperate Europe (1 sp. British); _Pseudogobio_ (4 sp.), China, Japan, and
Formosa; _Ceratichthys_ (9 sp.), Temperate North America; _Bungia_ (1 sp.),
Western Asia, Herat; _Pimephales_ (2 sp.), Eastern United States;
_Hyborhynchus_ (3 sp.), Eastern United States; _Ericymba_ (1 sp.), United
States; _Pseudorasbora_ (1 sp.), Japan, China; _Cochlognathus_ (1 sp.),
Texas; _Exoglossum_ (2 sp.), United States; _Rhinichthys_ (6 sp.), Eastern
United States; _Rohteichthys_ (1 sp.), Borneo and Sumatra; _Leptobarbina_
(1 sp.), Sumatra and Borneo; _Rasbora_ (12 sp.), East Coast of Africa,
India, to Java and Borneo; _Luciosma_ (3 sp.), Java, Sumatra, and Borneo;
_Nuria_ (2 sp.), India, Tenasserim, and Ceylon; _Aphyocypris_ (1 sp.),
North China; _Amblypharyngodon_ (3 sp.), India to Tenasserim; _Cyprinion_
(3 sp.), Syria and Persia; _Semiplotus_ (1 sp.), Assam; _Xenocypris_ (1
sp.), China; _Paracanthobrama_ (1 sp.), China; _Mystacoleucus_ (1 sp.),
Sumatra; _Leuciscus_ (84 sp.), Nearctic and Palæarctic regions (5 sp. are
British); _Ctenopharyngodon_ (1 sp.), China; _Mylopharodon_ (1 sp.),
California; _Paraphoxinus_ (2 sp.), South-eastern Europe; _Meda_ (1 sp.),
River Gila; _Tinca_ (1 sp.), Europe (Britain to Constantinople);
_Leucosomus_ (8 sp.), Nearctic region; _Chondrostoma_ (7 sp.), Europe and
Western Asia; _Orthodon_ (1 sp.), California; _Acrochilus_ (1 sp.),
Columbia River; _Achilognathus_ (6 sp.), China, Japan, and Formosa;
_Rhodeus_ (3 sp.), Central Europe and China; _Pseudoperilampus_ (1 sp.),
Japan; _Danio_ (8 sp.), India and Ceylon; _Pterosarion_ (2 sp.), Central
India and Assam; _Aspidoparia_ (3 sp.), Continental India; _Barilius_ (15
sp.), East Africa and Continental India; _Bola_ (1 sp.), Ganges to
Bramahputra; _Schacra_ (1 sp.), Bengal; _Opsariichthys_ (5 sp.), Japan and
Formosa; _Squaliobarbus_ (1 sp.), China; _Ochetobius_ (1 sp.), North China;
{453}_Hypophthalmichthys_ (2 sp.), China; _Abramis_ (16 sp.), North
America, Central Europe, and Western Asia (1 sp. is British); _Aspius_ (3
sp.), East Europe, Western Asia, China; _Alburnus_ (15 sp.), Europe and
Western Asia (1 British sp.); _Rasborichthys_ (1 sp.), Borneo;
_Elopichthys_ (1 sp.), China; _Pelotrophus_ (2 sp.), East Africa;
_Acanthobrama_ (3 sp.), Western Asia; _Osteobrama_ (5 sp.), Continental
India; _Chanodichthys_ (6 sp.), China and Formosa; _Smiliogaster_ (1 sp.),
Bengal; _Culter_ (2 sp.), China; _Pelecus_ (1 sp.), Eastern Europe;
_Eustira_ (1 sp.), Ceylon; _Chela_ (16 sp.), India to Siam, Java and
Borneo; _Pseudolabuca_ (1 sp.), China; _Cachius_ (1 sp.), Continental
India; _Homaloptera_ (8 sp.), India to Cochin China, Java, and Sumatra;
_Psilorhynchus_ (2 sp.), North-eastern India; _Misgurnus_ (5 sp.), Europe
to India, China, and Japan; _Nemachilus_ (37 sp.), Europe and Asia;
_Cobitis_ (3 sp.), Europe, India, Japan; _Lepidocepalichthys_ (3 sp.),
India, Ceylon, and Java; _Acanthopsis_ (2 sp.), Tenasserim, Sumatra, Java,
and Borneo; _Botia_ (7 sp.), India to Japan and Sunda Isles; _Oreonectes_
(1 sp.), China; _Lepidocephalus_ (1 sp.), Java and Sumatra;
_Acanthopthalmus_ (2 sp.), Java and Sumatra; _Apua_ (1 sp.), Tenasserim;
_Kneria_ (2 sp.), Tropical Africa.


FAMILY 76.--GONORHYNCHIDÆ. (1 Genus, 1 Species.)

"A marine fish with spiny scales, mouth with barbels, and with short dorsal
fin opposite the ventrals."

DISTRIBUTION.--Temperate parts of Southern Oceans, and Japan.


FAMILY 77.--HYODONTIDÆ. (1 Genus, 1 Species.)

"A fresh-water fish with cycloid scales and posterior dorsal fin."

DISTRIBUTION.--Fresh waters of North America.


{454}FAMILY 78.--OSTEOGLOSSIDÆ. (3 Genera, 5 Species.)

"Fresh-water fishes, with large hard scales, and dorsal fin opposite and
equal to the anal fin."

DISTRIBUTION.--Tropical rivers.

The genera are:--_Osteoglossum_ (3 sp.), Eastern South America, Sunda
Islands, and Queensland; _Arapaima_ (1 sp.), Eastern South America--the
"Pirarucú" of the Amazon; _Heterotis_ (1 sp.), Tropical Africa.


FAMILY 79.--CLUPEIDÆ. (18 Genera, 161 Species.)

"Marine scaly fishes, without barbels, and with the abdomen often
compressed and serrated."

DISTRIBUTION.--Seas of the whole globe, many species entering rivers. They
are most abundant in the Indian seas, less so in America, scarce in Africa,
while they are almost absent from Australia. The Herring, Sprat, Shad, and
Pilchard, are British species of _Clupea_, a genus which contains 61
species and ranges all over the world.


FAMILY 80.--CHIROCENTRIDÆ. (1 Genus, 1 Species.)

"A marine fish, with thin deciduous scales, no barbels, and posterior
dorsal fin."

DISTRIBUTION.--The Eastern seas from Africa to China.


FAMILY 81.--ALEPOCEPHALIDÆ. (1 Genus, 1 Species.)

"A marine fish, covered with thin cycloid scales, no barbels, and posterior
dorsal fin."

DISTRIBUTION.--Deep waters of the Mediterranean.


{455}FAMILY 82.--NOTOPTERIDÆ. (1 Genus, 5 Species.)

"Fresh-water fishes, without barbels, head and body scaly, long tapering
tail, and short posterior dorsal fin."

DISTRIBUTION.--Rivers of India, Siam, the Sunda Islands, and West Africa.


FAMILY 83.--HALOSAURIDÆ. (1 Genus, 1 Species.)

"Marine fishes, with cycloid scales, a short median dorsal fin, and no
barbels."

DISTRIBUTION.--Deep waters of the Atlantic, Madeira.


FAMILY 84.--GYMNOTIDÆ. (5 Genera, 20 Species.)

"Fresh-water fishes, with elongate bodies, pointed tail, and no dorsal
fin."

DISTRIBUTION.--Tropical America from Trinidad to the River Parana.

The genera are distributed as follows:--

_Sternarchus_ (8 sp.), Guiana and Brazil; _Rhamphichthys_ (6 sp.), Guiana
and Brazil; _Sternophygus_ (4 sp.), Tropical America; _Carapus_ (1 sp.),
Trinidad to Brazil; _Gymnotus_, (1 sp.--the Electric eel), Tropical South
America.


FAMILY 85.--SYMBRANCHIDÆ. (4 Genera, 6 Species.)

"Marine and fresh-water fishes, having elongate bodies without fins, and
very minute scales or none."

DISTRIBUTION.--Fresh waters and coasts of Western Australia and Tasmania.

The genera are:--

_Amphipnous_ (1 sp.), Bengal; _Monopterus_ (1 sp.), Siam to Northern China
and Sunda Islands; _Symbranchus_ (3 sp.), Tropical {456}America, and India
to Australia; _Chilobranchus_ (1 sp.), Australia and Tasmania.


FAMILY 86.--MURÆNIDÆ. (26 Genera, 230 Species.)

"Marine or fresh-water fishes, with cylindrical or band-like bodies and no
ventral fins."

DISTRIBUTION.--The seas and fresh waters of temperate and tropical regions.
This family is divided by Dr. Günther into two sub-families and nine
sections. The genus _Anguilla_, comprising our common Eel and a number of
species from all parts of the world, is the only one which is found in
fresh water, though even here most of the species are marine. _Anguilla_
and _Conger_ are the only British genera.


FAMILY 87.--PEGASIDÆ. (1 Genus, 4 Species.)

"Small marine fishes, covered with bony plates, and short opposite dorsal
and anal fins."

DISTRIBUTION.--Indian Ocean and seas of China and Australia.


_Order V.--LOPHOBRANCHII._

"Fish with a segmented bony covering, long snout, and small toothless
mouth."


FAMILY 88.--SOLENOSTOMIDÆ. (1 Genus, 3 Species.)

"Marine Lophobranchii, with wide gill openings and two dorsal fins."

DISTRIBUTION.--Indian Ocean, from Zanzibar to China and the Moluccas.


{457}FAMILY 89.--SYNGNATHIDÆ. (15 Genera, 112 Species.)

"Marine Lophobranchii, with very small gill opening and one soft dorsal
fin."

DISTRIBUTION.--All the tropical and temperate seas. Some species of
_Syngnathus_, _Doryichthys_, and _Coelonotus_ enter fresh water, and a few
live in it exclusively. _Siphonostoma_, _Syngnathus_, _Nerophis_, and
_Hippocampus_ are British genera. The _Hippocampina_ (5 genera, 25 sp.), or
Sea-horses, are peculiar to the Indian and Pacific Oceans, except three or
four species of _Hippocampus_ in the Atlantic and Mediterranean.


_Order VI.--PLECTOGNATHI._

"Fishes covered with rough scales or shields, having a narrow mouth, and
soft posterior dorsal fin."


FAMILY 90.--SCLERODERMI. (7 Genera, 95 Species.)

"Marine Plectognathi, with toothed jaws."

DISTRIBUTION.--Temperate and Tropical seas, but much more abundant in the
Tropics.


FAMILY 91.--GYMNODONTES. (10 Genera, 82 Species.)

"Marine or fresh-water Plectognathi, with jaws modified into a beak."

DISTRIBUTION.--Temperate and tropical regions.

Some species of _Tetrodon_ are found in the rivers of Tropical America,
Africa, and Asia. Species of _Tetrodon_ and _Orthagoriscus_ have been found
on the British coasts.


{458}SUB-CLASS II.--DIPNOI.


FAMILY 92.--SIRENOIDEI. (3 Genera, 3 Species.)

"Eel-shaped fresh-water fishes, covered with cycloid scales; the vertical
fins forming a continuous border to the compressed tapering tail."

DISTRIBUTION.--Rivers of Tropical Africa, South America, and Australia.

The genera are:--_Protopterus_ (1 sp.), Tropical Africa; _Lepidosiren_ (1
sp.), Amazon Valley; _Ceratodus_ (1 sp.), Queensland.


SUB-CLASS III.--GANOIDEI.


_Order I.--HOLOSTEI._

"Body covered with scales."


FAMILY 93.--AMIIDÆ. (1 Genus, 1 Species.)

"A fresh-water fish, with cycloid scales and a long soft dorsal fin."

DISTRIBUTION.--United States.


FAMILY 94.--POLYPTERIDÆ. (2 Genera, 2 Species.)

"Fresh-water fishes, with ganoid scales and dorsal spines."

DISTRIBUTION.--Central and Western Africa.

The genera are:--

_Polypterus_ (1 sp.), the Nile and rivers of West Africa; _Calamoichthys_
(1 sp.), Old Calabar.


{459}FAMILY 95.--LEPIDOSTEIDÆ. (1 Genus, 3 Species.)

"Fresh-water fishes, with ganoid scales, and dorsal and anal fins composed
of articulated rays."

DISTRIBUTION.--The genus Lepidosteus, the Garfishes or Bony Pikes, inhabits
North America to Mexico and Cuba.


_Order II.--CHONDROSTEI._

"Sub-cartilaginous scaleless fishes with heterocercal tail, the skin with
osseous bucklers or naked."


FAMILY 96.--ACCIPENSERIDÆ. (2 Genera, 20 Species.)

"Marine or fresh-water fishes with osseous bucklers and inferior mouth."

DISTRIBUTION.--Temperate and Arctic regions of the northern hemisphere.
ACCIPENSER (19 sp.), comprising the Sturgeons, has the distribution of the
family; most of the species are marine, but some are confined to the
Caspian and Black Seas and the great American lakes with the rivers flowing
into them, while the Danube, Mississippi, and Columbia River have peculiar
species. The other genus, SCAPHIRHYNCHUS (1 sp.), is confined to the
Mississippi and its tributaries.


FAMILY 97.--POLYDONTIDÆ. (1 Genus, 2 Species.)

"Fresh-water fishes, with wide lateral mouth and naked skin."

DISTRIBUTION.--The Mississippi and Yang-tse-kiang rivers.


{460}SUB CLASS IV.--CHONDROPTERYGII. (SHARKS AND RAYS.)


_Order I.--HOLOCEPHALA. (Chimæras.)_


FAMILY 98.--CHIMÆRIDÆ. (2 Genera, 4 Species.)

"Shark-like marine fishes, snout of the male with a prehensile organ."

DISTRIBUTION.--Northern and Southern temperate seas. _Chimæra_ is British.


_Order II.--PLAGIOSTOMATA._

Sub-order.--SELACHOIDEA. (Sharks.)


FAMILY 99.--CARCHARIIDÆ. (11 Genera, 59 Species.)

"Sharks with two dorsals and a nictitating membrane."

DISTRIBUTION.--Seas of the Arctic, temperate, and tropical regions. Species
of _Galeus_ and _Mustelus_ have occurred on our coasts.


FAMILY 100.--LAMNIDÆ. (5 Genera, 7 Species.)

"Sharks with two dorsals and no nictitating membrane."

DISTRIBUTION.--Temperate and tropical seas. Species of _Lamna_,
_Alopecias_, and _Selache_ have occurred in British seas.


{461}FAMILY 101.--RHINODONTIDÆ. (1 Genus, 1 Species.)

"Sharks with two dorsal fins, the second small, and no nictitating
membrane."

DISTRIBUTION.--South and East Africa.


FAMILY 102.--NOTIDANIDÆ. (1 Genus, 4 Species.)

"Sharks with one dorsal fin and no nictitating membrane."

DISTRIBUTION.--Temperate and tropical seas, from the North Atlantic to the
Cape of Good Hope and California. One species has occurred on our southern
coasts.


FAMILY 103.--SCYLLIIDÆ. (7 Genera, 25 Species.)

"Sharks with one dorsal fin and no nictitating membrane."

DISTRIBUTION.--All temperate and tropical seas. Species of _Scyllium_ and
_Pristiurus_ are British.


FAMILY 104.--CESTRACIONTIDÆ. (1 Genus, 4 Species.)

"Sharks with two dorsal fins and no nictitating membrane."

DISTRIBUTION.--Pacific Ocean from Japan to New Zealand, Moluccan Sea.


FAMILY 105.--SPINACIDÆ. (10 Genera, 21 Species.)

"Sharks with two dorsal fins and no nictitating membrane, no anal fin."

DISTRIBUTION.--Arctic, temperate, and tropical seas. Species of
_Acanthias_, _Læmargus_, and _Echinorhinus_ have occurred on our coasts.


{462}FAMILY 106.--RHINIDÆ (1 Genus, 1 Species.)

"Sharks with depressed flat body and large expanded pectoral fins."

DISTRIBUTION.--Temperate and tropical seas, from Britain to California and
Australia.


FAMILY 107.--PRISTIOPHORIDÆ. (1 Genus, 4 Species.)

"Sharks with produced flat snout, armed with teeth on each edge."

DISTRIBUTION.--Seas of Japan and Australia.


Sub-order BATOIDEI. (Rays.)


FAMILY 108.--PRISTIDÆ. (1 Genus, 5 Species.)

"Rays with produced snout and lateral saw-like teeth."

DISTRIBUTION.--Seas of tropical and sub-tropical regions.


FAMILY 109.--RHINOBATIDÆ. (3 Genera, 15 Species.)

"Rays with long and strong tail, having a caudal and two dorsal fins."

DISTRIBUTION.--Tropical and sub-tropical seas.


FAMILY 110.--TORPEDINIDÆ. (6 Genera, 15 Species.)

"Rays with broad smooth disc, and an electric organ."

DISTRIBUTION.--Tropical and temperate seas, from Britain to Tasmania.


FAMILY 111.--RAIIDÆ. (4 Genera, 29 Species.)

"Rays with broad rhombic disc and no serrated caudal spine."

DISTRIBUTION.--All temperate and tropical seas. Several species of _Raia_
are found on our coasts.


{463}FAMILY 112.--TRYGONIDÆ (6 Genera, 43 Species.)

"Rays with the pectoral fins extending to end of snout."

DISTRIBUTION.--Seas of all temperate and tropical regions, and rivers of
Tropical America. A species of _Trygon_ has occurred on our Southern coast.
_Ellipesurus_ and _Tæniura_ are found in the fresh waters of the interior
of South America, while the latter genus occurs also in the Indian seas,
but not in the Atlantic.


FAMILY 113.--MYLOBATIDÆ. (5 Genera, 22 Species.)

"Rays with very broad pectoral fins not extending to end of snout."

DISTRIBUTION.--Temperate and tropical seas. A species of MYLIOBATIS is
British, but most of the species and genera are confined to tropical seas.
_Dicerobatis_ and _Ceratoptera_ are very large Rays, commonly called
Sea-devils.


SUB-CLASS V.--CYCLOSTOMATA.

"Cartilaginous fishes, with suctorial mouths and without lateral fins."


FAMILY 114.--PETROMYZONTIDÆ. (4 Genera, 12 Species.)

"Marine or fresh-water eel-like fishes, with suctorial mouths and without
barbels."

DISTRIBUTION.--Coasts and fresh waters of temperate regions of both
hemispheres. Three species of _Petromyzon_ (Lampreys), are British.


{464}FAMILY 115.--MYXINIDÆ. (2 Genera, 5 Species.)

"Marine eel-like fishes, with four pairs of barbels."

DISTRIBUTION.--Seas of the temperate regions of both hemispheres.


SUB-CLASS VI.--LEPTOCARDII.


FAMILY 116.--CIRRHOSTOMI. (1 Genus, 1 Species.)

"A small marine fish with no jaws or fins, and with rudimentary eyes."

DISTRIBUTION.--The only species, the Lancelet (_Amphioxus_), is the lowest
form of living vertebrate. It is found in the temperate regions of both
hemispheres, and has occurred on our southern coast.


_Remarks on the Distribution of Fishes._

_Marine Fish._--There are about 80 families of marine fishes, and of these
no less than 50 are universally, or almost universally, distributed over
the seas and oceans of the globe. Of the remainder many are widely
distributed, some species even ranging from the North Atlantic to
Australia. Six families are confined to the Northern Seas, but four of
these consist of single species only, the other two being the Discoboli (2
genera, 11 sp.), and the Accipenseridæ (2 genera and 20 sp.). Only one
family (Acanthoclinidæ) is confined to the Southern oceans, and that
consists of but a single species. Four families (Sternoptychidæ,
Stomiatidæ, Alepocephalidæ and Halosauridæ) are confined to the Atlantic
Ocean, while 13 are found only in the Pacific; and of the remainder several
are more abundant in the Pacific than the Atlantic. Two families (Lycodidæ
and Gadidæ) are found in the Arctic and Antarctic seas only, though the
{465}latter family has a single species in the Indian seas. Among the
curiosities of distribution are,--the extensive genus _Diagramma_, confined
to the Pacific with the exception of one species in the Mediterranean; the
single species constituting the family Lophotidæ, found only in the
Mediterranean and Japan; the small family of Notacanthi, confined to
Greenland, the Mediterranean, and West Australia; and the four families,
Sternoptychidæ, Stomiatidæ, Alepocephalidæ, and Halosauridæ, which are
believed to inhabit exclusively the depths of the ocean, and are therefore
very rarely obtained.

_Fresh-water Fish._--There are 36 families of fishes which inhabit fresh
water exclusively, and 5 others, which are both marine and fresh-water.
These present many interesting peculiarities of distribution. The
Neotropical region is the richest in families, and probably also in genera
and species. No less than 22 families inhabit it, and of these 6 are
altogether peculiar. The Ethiopian and Nearctic regions each have 18
families, the former with 3, and the latter with 5 peculiar. Several
isolated forms, requiring to be placed in distinct families, inhabit the
great American lakes; and, no doubt, when the African lakes are equally
well known, they will be found also to possess many peculiar forms. The
Oriental region comes next, with 17 families, of which 3 are peculiar. The
Palæarctic has 12, and the Australian 11 families, each with only 1
altogether peculiar to it.

If we take those regions which are sometimes supposed to be so nearly
related that they should be combined, we shall find the fresh-water fishes
in most cases markedly distinct. The Nearctic and Palæarctic regions, for
example, together contain 20 families, but only 11 of these occur in both,
and only 5 are exclusive inhabitants of these two regions. This shows an
amount of diversity that would not, perhaps, be exhibited by any other
class of animals. The Ethiopian and Oriental regions together possess 24
families, only 11 of which are found in both, and only 1 exclusively
characteristic of the two. The Australian and Neotropical regions possess
together 27 families, of which 7 are found in both, and 3 are exclusively
characteristic of the two. This last fact is very interesting: the marine
family of {466}Trachinidæ possesses a fresh-water genus, _Aphritis_, one
species of which inhabits Tasmania, and two others Patagonia; the
Haplochitonidæ (2 genera, 3 sp.) are found only in Tierra del Fuego, the
Falkland Islands, and South Australia; and the Galaxidæ (1 genus, 12 sp.)
inhabit the same regions, but extend to Chili, to New Zealand and to
Queensland. We have here an illustration of that connection between South
America and Australia which is so strongly manifested in plants, but of
which there are only scattered indications in most classes of animals. The
dividing line across the Malay Archipelago, separating the Oriental from
the Australian regions, and which is so strikingly marked in mammalia and
birds, is equally so in fresh-water fishes. No less than six families have
their eastern limits in Java and Borneo; while the extensive family of
Cyprinidæ has no less than 23 genera in Java and Borneo, but not a single
species has been found in Celebes or the Moluccas.

The distribution of fresh-water fishes lends no support to the view that
the peninsula of India belongs to the Ethiopian region. A large proportion
of the Oriental families are common to the whole region; while there is
hardly a single example, of a characteristic Ethiopian family or genus
extending into the peninsula of India and no further.

Among the special peculiarities of distribution, is the curious fish,
forming the family Comephoridæ, which is confined to Lake Baikal, among the
mountains of Central Asia, 2,000 feet above the sea, and a thousand miles
distant from the ocean; yet having its nearest allies in the exclusively
oceanic family of the mackerels (Scomberidæ). The Characinidæ are confined
to Africa and South America, distinct genera inhabiting each region. The
Salmonidæ are confined to the two northern regions, except a single species
of a peculiar genus in New Zealand. The genus _Osteoglossum_ has a species
in South America, another in the Sunda Islands, and a third in Queensland;
while the curious Sirenoidei are represented by single species of peculiar
genera in Tropical America, Tropical Africa, and Tropical Australia.

_Fossil Fishes._--Fishes have existed from a very remote era, and it is
remarkable that the first whose remains have been {467}discovered belong to
the Ganoidei, a highly developed group which has continued to exist down to
our times, and of which the sturgeon is the best known example. We may
therefore be sure that the Upper Silurian rocks in which these are found,
although so very far back in geological history, do not by any means lead
us to the time when the primitive fish-type appeared upon the earth. In the
Carboniferous and Permian formations numerous remains of fishes are found,
allied to the _Lepidosteus_ or Gar-pike of North America. The next group in
order of appearance, are the Plagiostomata, containing the existing Sharks
and Rays. Traces of these are found in the highest Silurian beds, and
become plentiful in the Devonian and Carboniferous formations and in all
succeeding ages, being especially abundant in Cretaceous and Eocene strata.
The Holocephali appear first in the Oolitic period, and are represented by
the living Chimæridæ. The Dipnoi, to which belong the _Lepidosiren_ and
_Ceratodus_, are believed to have existed in the Triassic period, from the
evidence of teeth almost identical with those of the existing Australian
fish. All the ancient fossil fishes belong to the above-mentioned groups,
and many of them have little resemblance to existing forms. The Teleostean
fishes, which form the great bulk of those now living, cannot be traced
back further than the Cretaceous period, while by far the larger number
first appear in the Tertiary beds. The Salmonidæ, Scopelidæ, Percidæ,
Clupeidæ, Scombresocidæ, Mugilidæ, and Siluridæ, or forms closely allied to
them, are found in the Cretaceous formation. In the Eocene beds we first
meet with Squammipennes, Cyprinidæ, Pleuronectidæ, Characinidæ, Murænidæ,
Gadidæ, Pediculati, Syngnathidæ, and Hippocampidæ.

Most of these fossils represent marine fishes, those of fresh-water origin
being rare, and of little importance as an aid in determining the causes of
the distribution of living forms. To understand this we must look to the
various changes of the land surface which have led to the existing
distribution of all the higher vertebrates, and to those special means of
dispersal which Mr. Darwin has shown to be possessed by all fresh-water
productions.



{468}CHAPTER XXI.

THE DISTRIBUTION OF SOME OF THE MORE IMPORTANT FAMILIES AND GENERA OF
INSECTS.


Although insects are, for the most part, truly terrestrial animals, and
illustrate in a very striking manner the characteristic phenomena of
distribution, it is impossible here to treat of them in much detail. This
arises chiefly from their excessive numbers, but also from the minuteness
and obscurity of many of the groups, and our imperfect knowledge of all but
the European species. The number of described species of insects is
uncertain, as no complete enumeration of them has ever been made; but it
probably exceeds 100,000, and these may belong to somewhere about 10,000
genera--many times more than all vertebrate animals together. Of the eight
Orders into which Insects are usually divided, only two--the Coleoptera and
Lepidoptera--have been so thoroughly collected in all parts of the globe
that they can be used, with any safety, to compare their distribution with
that of vertebrate animals; and even of these it is only certain favourite
groups which have been so collected. Among Lepidoptera, for example,
although the extensive group of Butterflies may be said, in a general
sense, to be thoroughly well known--every spot visited by civilized man
having furnished its quota to our collections--yet the minute Tineidæ, or
even the larger but obscure Noctuidæ, have scarcely been collected at all
in tropical countries, and any attempt to study their geographical
distribution would certainly lead to erroneous results. The same thing
occurs, though perhaps in a less degree, among the Coleoptera. While the
Carabidæ, Buprestidæ, and {469}Longicorns of the Tropics, are almost as
well known as those of the Temperate Zones, the Staphylinidæ, the smaller
Elateridæ, and many other obscure and minute groups, are very imperfectly
represented from extra-European countries. I therefore propose to examine
with some care the distribution of the Butterflies, and the Sphingina among
Lepidoptera, and the following large and well-known families of
Coleoptera:--Cicindelidæ, Carabidæ, Lucanidæ, Cetoniidæ, Buprestidæ, and
the three families of Longicorns. These families together contain over
30,000 species, classed in nearly 3,000 genera, and comprise a large
proportion of the best known and most carefully studied groups. We may
therefore consider, that a detailed examination of their distribution will
lead us to results which cannot be invalidated by any number of isolated
facts drawn from the less known members of the class.



_Range of Insects in Time._--In considering how much weight is to be given
to facts in insect distribution, and what interpretation is to be put upon
the anomalies or exceptional cases that may be met with, it is important to
have some idea of the antiquity of the existing groups, and of the rate at
which the forms of insect life have undergone modification. The geological
record, if imperfect in the case of the higher animals, is fragmentary in
the extreme as regards indications of former insect life; yet the positive
facts that it does disclose are of great interest, and have an important
bearing on our subject. These facts and the conclusions they lead to have
been discussed in our first volume (p. 166), and they must be carefully
weighed in all cases of apparent conflict or incongruity between the
distribution of insects and that of the higher animals.


{470}_Order--LEPIDOPTERA._

Sub-order--_Lepidoptera_ RHOPALOCERA, or BUTTERFLIES.

FAMILY 1.--DANAIDÆ. (24 Genera, 530 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |-- 2 -- -- |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4
             |           |           |           |           |

The Danaidæ are now held to comprehend, not only the whole of the group so
named by Doubleday, but a large portion of the Heliconidæ of that author.
Their range is thus extended over the whole of the tropical regions. A few
species spread northwards into the Palæarctic and Nearctic regions, but
these are only stragglers, and hardly diminish the exclusively tropical
character of the group. The more remarkable genera are,--_Hestia_ (10 sp.),
and _Ideopsis_ (6 sp.), confined to the Malayan and Moluccan districts;
_Danais_ (50 sp.), which has the range of the whole family; _Euploea_ (140
sp.), confined to the Oriental and Australian regions, but especially
abundant in the Malayan and Moluccan districts; _Hamadryas_ (4 sp.),
Australian region only. The remaining genera constitute the Danaioid
Heliconidæ, and are strictly confined to Tropical America, except a few
species which extend into the southern parts of the Nearctic region. The
chief of these genera are:--

_Ithomia_ (160 sp.), _Melinæa_ (18 sp.), _Napeogenes_ (20 sp.),
_Mechanitis_ (4 sp.), _Ceratina_ (32 sp.), _Dircenna_ (10 sp.), and
_Lycorea_ (4 sp.). Florida, Louisiana, and Southern California, mark the
northern extent of these insects.


{471}FAMILY 2.--SATYRIDÆ. (60 Genera, 835 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4
             |           |           |           |           |

This family has an absolutely universal distribution, extending even into
the Arctic and Antarctic regions. Many of the genera are, however,
restricted in their range.

_Hætera_, _Lymanopoda_, _Calisto_, _Corades_, _Taygetis_, _Pronophila_,
_Euptychia_, and some allied forms (25 genera in all) are Neotropical, the
last named extending north to Canada; _Debis_, _Melanitis_, _Mycalesis_ and
_Ypthima_, are mostly Oriental, but extending also into the Australian and
the Ethiopian regions; _Gnaphodes_, _Leptoneura_, and a few other small
genera, are exclusively Ethiopian; _Xenica_, _Hypocista_, and
_Heteronympha_, are Australian; _Erebia_, _Satyrus_, _Hipparchia_,
_Coenonympha_, and allies, are mostly Palæarctic, but some species are
Ethiopian, and others Nearctic; _Chionabas_, is characteristic of the whole
Arctic regions, but is also found in Chili and the Western Himalayas. The
peculiar genera in each region are,--Neotropical, 25; Australian, 7;
Oriental, 11; Ethiopian, 5; Palæarctic, 3; Nearctic, 0.


FAMILY 3.--ELYMNIIDÆ. (1 Genus, 28 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- 2 -- -- |-- -- 3. 4 |1 -- -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

The genus _Elymnias_, which constitutes this family, is characteristic of
the Malayan and Moluccan districts, with some species in Northern India and
one in Ashanti. It thus agrees with several groups of Vertebrata, in
showing the resemblance {472}of Malaya with West Africa independently of
the Peninsula of India.


FAMILY 4. MORPHIDÆ. (10 Genera, 106 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- 2. 3 -- |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- 3. 4 | 1 -- 3 --
             |           |           |           |           |

The Morphidæ are a group of generally large-sized butterflies, especially
characteristic of the Malayan and Moluccan districts, and of Tropical
America; with a few species extending to the Himalayas on the west, and to
Polynesia on the east. The genera are:--

_Amathusia_ (6 sp.), Northern India to Java; _Zeuxidia_ (9 sp.), the Malay
district; _Discophora_ (7 sp.), Northern India to Philippines, Java and
Timor; _Enispe_ (3 sp.), Northern India; _Hyades_ (15 sp.), Moluccan and
Polynesian districts, except one species in Java; _Clerome_ (11 sp.),
Northern India to Philippines and Celebes; _Æmona_ (1 sp.), Sikhim;
_Hyantis_ (1 sp.), Waigiou; _Thaumantis_ (10 sp.), Indo-Chinese and Malayan
districts; _Morpho_ (40 sp.), Neotropical region, Brazilian and Central
American sub-regions.


FAMILY 5. BRASSOLIDÆ. (7 Genera, 62 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- 2. 3 -- |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

The Brassolidæ have the same distribution as the genus _Morpho_. The genera
are:--

_Brassolis_ (5 sp.); _Opsiphanes_ (17 sp.); _Dynastor_ (2 sp.); _Penetes_
(1 sp.); _Caligo_ (21 sp.); _Narope_ (5 sp.); and _Dasyopthalma_ (3 sp.)


{473}FAMILY 6.--ACRÆIDÆ. (1 Genus, 90 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- 2. 3 -- |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2 -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

The genus _Acræa_ is especially abundant in the Ethiopian region, which
contains two-thirds of all the known species; 3 or 4 species only, range
over the whole Oriental, and most of the Australian regions; while all the
rest inhabit the same districts of the Neotropical region as the
Brassolidæ.


FAMILY 7.--HELICONIDÆ. (2 Genera, 114 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- 2. 3. 4 |-- -- 3 -- |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

The true Heliconidæ are very characteristic of the Neotropical region; one
species only extending into the Southern States of North America as far as
Florida. The genus _Heliconius_ (83 sp.), has the range of the family;
while _Eueides_ (19 sp.), is confined to the Brazilian and Central American
sub-regions.


FAMILY 8.--NYMPHALIDÆ. (113 Genera, 1490 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4
             |           |           |           |           |

This is the largest and most universally distributed family of butterflies,
and is well illustrated by our common Fritillaries, {474}Tortoise-shell,
Peacock, Painted Lady, and Purple Emperor butterflies. They are found
wherever butterfly-life can exist, and some single species--like the
Painted Lady (_Pyrameis cardui_)--range almost over the globe. A few of the
more extensive and remarkable genera only, can be here noticed:--

_Colænis_, _Agraulis_, _Eresia_, _Synchloe_, _Epicalia_, _Eunica_,
_Eubagis_, _Catagramma_, _Callithea_, _Ageronia_, _Timetes_, _Heterochroa_,
_Prepona_, _Hypna_, _Paphia_, and _Siderone_, are wholly Neotropical, as
well as many others which have a smaller number of species. _Euryphene_,
_Romaleosoma_, _Aterica_, and _Harma_, are exclusively Ethiopian.
_Terinos_, _Athyma_, _Adolias_, and _Tanæcia_, are Oriental, but they
mostly extend into the Moluccan region; the last however is strictly
Malayan, and _Adolias_ only reaches Celebes. _Mynes_ alone, is exclusively
Australian, but _Prothoe_ is almost so, having only one outlying species in
Java. _Eurytela_ and _Ergolis_ are confined to the Oriental and Ethiopian
regions, but the latter reaches the Moluccas. _Cethosia_, _Cirrhochroa_,
_Messaras_, and _Symphædra_, are both Oriental and Australian; while
_Junonia_, _Cyrestis_, _Diadema_, _Neptis_, and _Nymphalis_, are common to
the three tropical regions of the Eastern Hemisphere, the latter extending
into the Mediterranean district, while _Junonia_ occurs also in South
America and the Southern United States.

The most cosmopolitan genus is _Pyrameis_, which has representatives in
every region and every district. _Apatura_ is found in all but the
Ethiopian and the Australian, although it just enters the confines of the
latter region in Celebes; _Limenitis_ is abundant in the Oriental region,
but extends eastward to Celebes and westward into Europe, North America,
and even into South America. _Argynnis_, _Melitæa_, and _Vanessa_, are
almost confined to the Palæarctic and Nearctic regions; the former however
occurs in the Himalayas and in the mountains of Java, and also in Chili and
in Jamaica. Two genera--_Dicrorrhagia_ and _Helcyra_--have both one species
in North India and another in the island of Ceram. The number of genera
peculiar to each region is as follows:--Neotropical, 50; Australian, 2;
Oriental 15; Ethiopian, 14; Palæarctic, 1; Nearctic, 0.


{475}FAMILY 9.--LIBYTHEIDÆ. (1 Genus, 10 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
   -- 2 -- 4 | -- 2.3 -- |1. 2 -- -- | -- 2 -- 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1 -- -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

The genus _Libythea_, which constitutes this family, appears to have its
head-quarters in the Oriental region, but extends on all sides in an
erratic manner, into various remote and disconnected portions of the globe,
as indicated above.


FAMILY 10.--NEMEOBIIDÆ. (12 Genera, 145 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- 2. 3 -- |-- -- -- --|1 -- -- -- | -- 2 -- 4 |-- -- 3. 4 |1 -- -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

This group has been separated from the Erycinidæ of the older authors, and
contains all the non-American genera and species. Half the genera and
nearly four-fifths of the species of this group are, however, Neotropical;
one is European; two or three African; and twenty-six Oriental and
Australian. The genera are:--

_Nemeobius_ (1 sp.), Europe; _Dodona_ (6 sp.), North India; _Zemeros_ (2
sp.), North India and Malaya; _Abisara_ (11 sp.), North India, Malayan and
Moluccan districts, Madagascar and West Africa; _Taxila_ (8 sp.), North
India and Malaya; _Dicallaneura_ (2 sp.), Moluccan district; _Alesa_ (6
sp.), _Eunogyra_ (2 sp.), _Cremna_ (7 sp.), _Bæotis_ (3 sp.), are all from
the Brazilian sub-region; _Eurybia_ (10 sp.), _Mesosemia_ (80 sp.), inhabit
both the Brazilian and Mexican sub-regions.


{476}FAMILY 11.--EURYGONIDÆ. (2 Genera, 78 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- 2. 3 -- |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --| -- --- -- |-- -- -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

This small family, separated from the true Erycinidæ by Mr. Bates, is
confined to the tropical forest-districts of continental America. The
genera are:--

_Eurygona_ (71 sp.); _Methonella_ (1 sp.); the latter found in Equatorial
South America.


FAMILY 12.--ERYCINIDÆ. (59 Genera, 560 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3 -- |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

This extensive family of small, but exquisitely beautiful butterflies, is
especially characteristic of the virgin forests of the Neotropical region,
only a few species of three genera extending into the Nearctic region. The
more important genera, and those which have an exceptional distribution,
can alone be here noticed. _Charis_ extends from Brazil to New York;
_Apodemia_ from Brazil to California, Utah, and Oregon; _Amarynthis_
inhabits the Brazilian and Antillean sub-regions; _Lepricornis_ and
_Metapheles_ are small genera found only in the Mexican sub-region;
_Lymnas_, _Necyria_, _Ancyluris_, _Diorhina_, _Esthemopsis_, _Anteros_,
_Emesis_, _Symmachia_, _Cricosoma_, _Calydna_, _Lemonias_, _Nymphidium_,
_Theope_, and _Aricoris_ are common to the Brazilian and Mexican
sub-regions. All the other genera (40 in number) are only known from the
Brazilian sub-region, and of these a considerable proportion are confined
to the damp equatorial forests of the Amazon Valley.


{477}FAMILY 13.--LYCÆNIDÆ. (39 Genera, 1,220 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4
             |           |           |           |           |

The Lycænidæ--of the variety and beauty of which in tropical regions our
own "Blues" and "Coppers" give but a faint idea--are a group of universal
distribution. We shall therefore indicate those genera which are restricted
to one or more regions, or are nearly cosmopolitan. The large genus
_Polyommatus_ (containing 325 species) has the same universal distribution
as the entire family. Our common "Blues" well represent this genus.
_Lycæna_ (comprising the "Coppers") is more especially characteristic of
the Palæarctic and Nearctic regions, but straggling species occur also in
North India, South Africa, Chili, and New Zealand. _Thecla_ is especially
characteristic of the Neotropical region, where there are about 370
species; in the Nearctic region, 36; in the Palæarctic 13; and in the
Ethiopian 3. _Miletus_, _Lucia_, _Hypolycæna_, _Myrina_, and _Deudorix_ are
common to the three tropical regions of the Eastern Hemisphere--the
Ethiopian, Oriental, and Australian. _Aphneus_ and _Iolaus_ are common to
the Ethiopian and Oriental regions, the latter extending to Celebes.
_Ialmenus_, _Pseudodipsas_, _Curetis_, and _Amblypodia_ are common to the
Oriental and Australian regions, but the first-named is found also in
Madagascar. _Zephyrus_ is found only in the Nearctic and Palæarctic,
_Eumæus_ in the Nearctic and Neotropical regions. The Nearctic region has
one peculiar genus (_Feniseca_); the Palæarctic has two--_Thestor_ and
_Læosopis_; the Ethiopian has nine--_Pentila_, _Liptana_, _D'Urbania_,
_Axiocerces_, _Capys_, _Phytala_, _Epitola_, _Hewitsonia_, and _Deloneura_;
the Oriental has five--_Allotinus_, _Ilerda_, _Poritia_, _Camena_, and
_Liphyra_; the Australian has three--_Hypochrysops_, _Utica_, and _Ogyris_;
and the Neotropical also three--_Lamprospilus_, _Theorema_, and
_Trichonis_.


{478}FAMILY 14.--PIERIDÆ. (35 Genera, 817 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3 --
             |           |           |           |           |

The Pieridæ are distributed almost, if not quite, as widely over the globe
as the last family, and we shall group the genera in the same manner.
_Pieris_ (130 sp.) is cosmopolitan; _Terias_ and _Callidryas_ are found in
all the four tropical regions, and as far north as Pennsylvania in the
Nearctic region; _Pontia_, _Tachyris_, _Eronia_, and _Thestias_ are common
to the Ethiopian, Oriental, and Australian regions, the last-named,
however, only extending as far as Timor; _Colias_ is pre-eminently
Palæarctic and Nearctic, with a few Ethiopian species, one Indian, two in
Chili, and one in the Sandwich Islands; _Anthocharis_ is wholly Palæarctic
and Nearctic; _Midea_ has two species Nearctic, and one in Japan;
_Gonepteryx_ is Palæarctic and Neotropical, extending into Texas; _Idmais_
and _Callosune_ are Ethiopian and Oriental; _Thyca_ and _Iphias_ are
Oriental and Australian; _Meganostoma_ is Nearctic and Neotropical;
_Nathalis_ and _Kricogonia_ are Neotropical, ranging into Florida, Texas,
and Colorado.

The peculiar genera are pretty equally distributed. The Neotropical region
has ten, two being confined to Chili; _Euterpe_ and _Leptalis_ are the most
remarkable, the latter containing a number of forms mimicking the
Heliconidæ and Danaidæ. The Oriental region has two, _Prioneris_ and
_Dercas_, the Australian one, _Elodina_; the Ethiopian two, _Teracolus_ and
_Pseudopontia_; the Palæarctic two, _Leucophasia_ and _Zegris_; the
Nearctic one, _Neophasia_.


{479}FAMILY 15.--PAPILIONIDÆ. (13 Genera, 455 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4
             |           |           |           |           |

The Papilionidæ, comprising many of the noblest and richest-coloured
butterflies, and long placed at the head of the group, are almost as
universally distributed as the Pieridæ, but they do not extend to so many
remote islands nor so far into the Arctic and Antarctic regions.
Nine-tenths of the species belong to the genus _Papilio_, and these are
especially abundant in tropical regions, although species occur in every
region and every sub-region. Well-marked sub-divisions of this large genus
are characteristic of each great region--as the "Æneas" group in the
Neotropical, the "Paris" group in the Oriental, the "Ægeus" group in the
Australian, the "Zenobius" group in the Ethiopian, and many others. The few
species of the Palæarctic region belong, on the other hand, to a group of
universal distribution, and the Nearctic has a good number of species
allied to Neotropical forms.

The other genera have mostly a very restricted range. _Parnassius_ is an
Alpine genus, confined to the Palæarctic and Nearctic regions. The
Palæarctic region further possesses 5 peculiar genera--_Mesapia_,
_Hypermnestra_, _Doritis_, _Sericinus_, and _Thais_; the Oriental has 4,
_Calinaga_, _Teinopalpus_, _Bhutanitis_, and _Leptocircus_, the latter
going as far as Celebes; the Australian has 1, _Eurycus_; and the
Neotropical 1, _Euryades_, confined to the Chilian sub-region. The
Ethiopian and the Nearctic regions have no peculiar genera.


{480}FAMILY 16.--HESPERIDÆ. (52 Genera (?), 1,200 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4
             |           |           |           |           |

The Hesperidæ, or Skippers, are an immense group of mostly small obscurely
coloured butterflies, universally distributed, and of which hosts of
species still remain to be discovered and described. As the grouping of
these into genera is not yet satisfactorily accomplished, only the more
extensive and best known groups will be here noticed. _Pamphila_ and
_Hesperia_ are universally distributed; _Nisoniades_ seems to be only
absent from the Australian region. The Neotropical region is pre-eminently
rich in Hesperidæ, 33 genera being found there, of which 20 are peculiar to
it; the Australian region has 12 genera, only 1 (_Euschemon_) being
peculiar; the Oriental has 18, with 3 peculiar; the Ethiopian, 13, with 3
peculiar; the Palæarctic 6, with 1 (_Erynnis_) almost peculiar, a species
occurring in Mexico; the Nearctic 9, with none peculiar, 4 being found also
in the Neotropical region, 2 in the Palæarctic, and the rest being of wide
distribution. Many new genera have, however, been recently described in the
United States, but it is impossible yet to determine how many, if any, of
these are peculiar. More than 100 species of the family are included in Mr.
Edwards' "Synopsis of North American Butterflies,"--a very large number
considering that Europe possesses only about 30.


{481}Sub-order--LEPIDOPTERA HETEROCERA, or MOTHS.

The Lepidoptera Heterocera, or Moths, are of such immense extent, and are,
besides, so imperfectly known compared with the Butterflies, that it would
serve no purpose to go into the details of their distribution; especially
as most of the families and a considerable number of the genera are
cosmopolitan. We propose therefore to notice only the Sphingina, which,
being generally of large size and finely marked or coloured, and many of
them day-fliers, have been extensively collected; and whose numbers are
more manageable than the succeeding groups.


_Group I.--SPHINGINA._


FAMILY 17.--ZYGÆNIDÆ (46 Genera, about 530 Species).

The Zygænidæ are universally distributed, but many of the genera are
restricted in their range. _Zygæna_ (85 sp.) is mainly Palæarctic, but 2
species are South African, and 1 North American; _Procris_ (22 sp.) has a
scattered distribution, from the Palæarctic region to South America, South
Africa and North India; _Heterogynis_ (3 sp.) and _Dysauxis_ (3 sp.) are
European; _Pollanisus_ (3 sp.) is Australian; _Glaucopis_ (120 sp.) is
mainly Neotropical, with a few Oriental; _Syntomis_ (94 sp.) is found in
all the Old-World regions; and _Euchromia_ (150 sp.) is found in all warm
countries, though especially abundant in South America.


FAMILY 18.--CASTNIIDÆ (7 Genera, 63 Species).

The Castniidæ have an interesting distribution, being mainly Neotropical,
with four genera in Australia and New Guinea. _Castnia_, _Coronis_, and
_Gazera_, with 51 species, are Neotropical; _Synemon_, _Euschemon_,
_Damias_ and _Cocytia_, with 12 species, are Australian, the latter being
found only in the Papuan Islands.


{482}FAMILY 19.--AGARISTIDÆ (13 Genera, 76 Species).

The Agaristidæ are beautiful diurnal moths, allied to the Castniidæ, but
almost confined to the Australian and Oriental regions, with a few in the
Ethiopian. The most important genera are,--_Agarista_ (21 sp.), Australia
and New Guinea; _Eusemia_ (31 sp.), _Ægocera_ (7 sp.), Oriental and
Ethiopian regions; the other genera being confined to the islands from Java
to New Guinea.


FAMILY 20.--URANIIDÆ (2 Genera, 12 Species).

These magnificent insects have a singular distribution. The gold-spangled
_Urania_ (6 sp.) is characteristic of Tropical America, but a single
species of great magnificence occurs in Madagascar. The large but
sober-tinted _Nyctalemon_ (6 sp.) is found in the Neotropical, Oriental,
and Australian regions.


FAMILY 21.--STYGIIDÆ. (3 Genera, 14 Species.)

These insects are confined to the Palæarctic and Neotropical regions, 2
genera in the former, 1 in the latter.


FAMILY 22.--ÆGERIIDÆ. (24 Genera, 215 Species.)

This family is found in all parts of the world except Australia. _Ægeria_
is most abundant in Europe, but is found also in North and South America.


FAMILY 23.--SPHINGIDÆ. (40 Genera, 345 Species.)

The Sphinx Moths are cosmopolitan. The most important genera
are,--_Macroglossa_ (26 sp.), _Chærocampa_ (46 sp.), and _Macrosila_ (21
sp.), all cosmopolitan; _Sesia_ (12 sp.), Europe, Asia, and North America;
_Deilephila_ (19 sp.), Palæarctic and Oriental regions, Nearctic region,
and Chili; _Sphinx_ (21 sp.), Europe, {483}North and South America;
_Smerinthus_ (29 sp.), all regions except Australia. Our Death's Head Moth
(_Acherontia atropos_) ranges to Sierra Leone and the Philippine Islands.


_General Remarks on the Distribution of the Diurnal Lepidoptera and
Sphingidea._

The Diurnal Lepidoptera or Butterflies, comprehend 431 genera and 7,740
species, arranged in 16 families, according to Mr. Kirby's Catalogue
published in 1871. The Sphingidea consist of 135 genera and 1,255 species,
arranged in 7 families, according to the British Museum Catalogue dated
1864; and as this includes all Mr. Bates' collections in America and my own
in the East, it is probable that no very large additions have since been
made.

The distribution of the families and genera of Butterflies corresponds
generally with that of Birds--and more especially with that of the
Passerine birds--in showing a primary division of the earth into Eastern
and Western, rather than into Northern and Southern lands. The Neotropical
region is by far the richest and most peculiar. It possesses 15 families of
butterflies, whereas the other regions have only from 8, in the Palæarctic,
to 12 in the Ethiopian and Oriental regions; and as none of the Old World
regions possess any peculiar families, the New World has a very clear
superiority. In genera the preponderance is still greater, since the
Neotropical region possesses about 200 altogether peculiar to it, out of a
total of 431 genera, many of which are cosmopolitan. Comparing, now, the
Eastern regions with the Western, we have two peculiar families in the
former to 4 in the latter; while the Southern regions (Australian and
Neotropical) possess not a single peculiar family in common.

In the Sphingidea the same general features recur in a less marked degree,
the Neotropical being the richest region; but here we have one family
(Castniidæ) which appears to be confined to the two southern regions,--the
Australian and Neotropical.

The distribution of the genera affords us some facts of special interest,
which must be briefly noticed. There are several {484}genera typically
characteristic of the North Temperate regions which have a few species
widely scattered on mountains, or in the temperate parts of the Southern
Hemisphere. Chili possesses representatives of four of these
genera--_Argynnis_, _Lycæna_, _Colias_, and _Deilephila_; and this has been
thought by some naturalists to be of such importance as to outweigh the
purely Neotropical character of a large portion of the Chilian fauna, and
to render it advisable to join it on, as an outlying portion of a great
North Temperate zoological region. But when we remember that _Argynnis_
occurs also in Java, and _Lycæna_ in New Zealand, while _Colias_ ranges to
Southern Africa, Malabar, and the Sandwich Islands, we can hardly admit the
argument to be a sound one. For a fuller discussion of this question see
Vol. II., pp. 43-47. The remarkable fact of the existence of the otherwise
purely Neotropical genus, _Urania_, in Madagascar is even more striking,
supported as it is by the Antillean, _Solenedon_, belonging to a family of
Mammalia otherwise confined to Madagascar, and by one or two Coleopterous
genera, to be noticed farther on as common to the two countries. Our view
as to the true explanation of this and analogous phenomena will be found at
Vol. I., p. 284.

The division of the Castniidæ (a family almost confined to the Tropics),
between the Neotropical and Australian regions, is also a very curious and
important phenomenon, because it seems to point to a more remote connection
between the two countries than that indicated by the resemblance between
the productions of South Temperate America with those of Australia and New
Zealand; but we have already shown that the facts may be explained in
another way. (See Vol. I., pp. 398 and 404).

The division of the Malay Archipelago between the Oriental and Australian
regions is clearly marked in the Lepidoptera, and it is very curious that
it should be so, for in this, if in any group of animals, we should expect
an almost complete fusion to have been effected. Lepidoptera fly readily
across wide tracts of sea, and there is absolutely no climatal difference
to interfere with their free migration from island to island. Yet we find
no less than 10 genera abundant in the Indo-Malayan {485}sub-region which
never cross the narrow seas to the east of them; 6 others which only pass
to Celebes; and 2 more which have extended from Java along the closely
connected line of islands eastwards to Timor. On the other side, we find 5
strictly Austro-Malayan genera, and 2 others which have a single
representative in Java. The following is a list of these genera:--

INDO-MALAYAN GENERA:--_Amathusia_, _Thaumantis_, _Tanæcia_, _Eurytela_,
_Ilerda_, _Zemeros_, _Taxila_, _Aphneus_, _Prioneris_, _Dercas_, _Clerome_,
_Adolias_, _Apatura_, _Limenitis_, _Iolaus_, _Leptocircus_, (the last six
reach Celebes); _Discophora_, _Thestias_; (the last two reach Timor.)

AUSTRO-MALAYAN GENERA:--_Hamadryas_, _Hypocista_, _Mynes_, _Dicallaneura_,
_Elodina_, _Hyades_, _Prothoë_ (the last two reach Java).

The most characteristic groups, which range over the whole Archipelago and
give it a homogeneous character, are the various genera of Danaidæ, the
genus _Elymnias_, and _Amblypodia_ with a few other Lycænidæ. These are all
abundant and conspicuous groups, but they are nevertheless exceptions to
the general rule of limitation to one or other of the regions. The cause of
this phenomenon is probably to be found in the limitation of the larvæ of
many Lepidoptera to definite species, genera, and families of plants; and
we shall perhaps find, when the subject is carefully investigated, that the
groups which range over the whole Archipelago feed on genera of plants
which have an equally wide range, while those which are limited to one
region or the other, have food-plants belonging to genera which are
similarly limited. It is known that the vegetation of the two regions
differs largely in a botanical sense, although its general aspect is almost
identical; and this may be the reason why the proportion of wide-ranging
genera is greater among such insects as feed upon dead wood, than among
those which derive their support from the juices of the living foliage.
This subject will be again discussed under the various families of
Coleoptera, and it will be well to bear in mind the striking facts of
generic limitation which have been here brought forward.

{486}Fossil Butterflies, apparently of existing genera, occur in the
Miocene and Eocene formations, and an extinct form in the Lower Oolite; but
these cannot be held to give any adequate idea of the antiquity of so
highly specialised a group, which, in all probability, dates back to
Palæozoic times, since one of the Bombycidæ,--a group almost as
highly-organised--has been discovered in the coal formation of Belgium.
(See Vol. I. p. 168.)


_Order--COLEOPTERA._

GEODEPHAGA, or CARNIVOROUS GROUND BEETLES.

The Geodephaga consist of two families, Cicindelidæ and Carabidæ, differing
in their form and habits no less than in their numbers and distribution.
The former, comprising about 800 species, are far more abundant and varied
in Tropical regions; the latter, more than ten times as numerous, are
highly characteristic of the North Temperate zone, where fully half of all
the known species occur.


CICINDELIDÆ. (35 Genera, 803 Species.)

The Cicindelidæ, or Tiger Beetles, are a moderately extensive group, spread
over the whole globe, but much more abundant in tropical than in temperate
or cold countries. More than half of the species (418) belong to the single
genus _Cicindela_, the only one which is cosmopolitan. The other large
genera are,--_Collyris_ (81 sp.), wholly Oriental; _Odontochila_ (57 sp.),
South American, with species in Java and Celebes; _Tetracha_ (46 sp.),
mostly South American, but with species in South Europe, North America, and
Australia; _Tricondyla_ (31 sp.), characteristic of the Oriental region,
but extending eastward to New Guinea; _Ctenostoma_ (26 sp.), wholly
Neotropical; _Dromica_ (24 sp.), wholly African, south of Lake Ngami and
Mozambique; _Therates_ (18 sp.), wholly Malayan, from Singapore to New
Guinea.

The genera are distributed in the several regions as follows:--the Nearctic
region has 5 genera, 3 of which are peculiar to it; the {487}Palæarctic has
2, but none peculiar; the Ethiopian 13, with 11 peculiar; the Oriental 8,
with 3 peculiar; the Australian 9, with 2 peculiar; and the Neotropical 15,
with 10 peculiar. The connection between South America and Australia is
shown by the latter country possessing 9 species of the characteristic
South American genus _Tetracha_, as well as one of _Megacephala_. The small
number of peculiar genera in the Oriental and Australian regions is partly
owing to the circumstance that two otherwise peculiar Oriental genera have
spread eastward to the Moluccas and New Guinea, a fact to be easily
explained by the great facilities such creatures have for passing narrow
straits, and by the almost identical physical conditions in the Malayan
portion of the two regions. The insects of Indo-Malaya were better adapted
to live in the Austro-Malay Islands than those of Australia itself, and the
latter group of islands have thus acquired an Oriental aspect in their
entomology, though not without indications of the presence of an aboriginal
insect-fauna of a strictly Australian type. The relation of the Australian
and Neotropical regions is exhibited by this family in an unusually
distinct manner. _Tetracha_, a genus which ranges from Mexico to La Plata,
has 9 species in Australia; while _Megacephala_ has 2 American and 1
Australian species. Another curious, and more obscure relation, is that
between the faunas of Tropical America and Tropical Africa. This is also
illustrated by the genus _Megacephala_, which has 4 African species as well
as 2 South American; and we have also the genus _Peridexia_, which has 2
species in South America and 2 in Madagascar.

Several of the sub-regions are also well characterised by peculiar genera;
as _Amblychila_ and _Omus_ confined to California and the Rocky Mountains;
_Manticora_, _Ophryodera_, _Platychile_ and _Dromica_, characteristic of
South Africa; _Megalomma_ and _Pogonostoma_ peculiar to the Mascarene
Islands; and _Caledonica_ to the islands east of New Guinea. The extensive
and elegant genus _Collyris_ is highly characteristic of the Oriental
region, over the whole of which it extends, only just passing the limits
into Celebes and Timor.

The Cicindelidæ, therefore, fully conform to those divisions of {488}the
earth which have been found best to represent the facts of distribution in
the higher animals.


CARABIDÆ. (620 Genera, 8500 Species.)

The enormous extent of this family, necessitates a somewhat general
treatment. It has been very extensively collected, while its classification
has been most carefully worked out, and a detailed exposition of its
geographical distribution by a competent entomologist would be of the
greatest interest. A careful study of Gemminger and Harold's Catalogue,
however, enables me to sketch out the main features of its distribution,
and to detail many of its peculiarities with considerable accuracy.

The Carabidæ are remarkable among insects, and perhaps among all
terrestrial animals, as being a wonderfully numerous, varied, conspicuous,
and beautiful group, which is pre-eminently characteristic of the
Palæarctic region. So strikingly and unmistakably is this the case, that it
must be held completely to justify the keeping that region distinct from
those to which it has at various times been proposed to join it. Although
the Carabidæ are thoroughly well represented by hosts of peculiar genera
and abundant species in every part of the world without exception, yet the
Palæarctic region alone contains fully one-third, or perhaps nearer
two-fifths, of the whole. It may also be said, that the group is a
temperate as compared with a tropical one; so that probably half the
species are to be found in the temperate and cold regions of the globe,
leaving about an equal number in the much more extensive tropical and warm
regions. But, among the cold regions, the Palæarctic is pre-eminent. North
America is also rich, but it contains, by far, fewer genera and fewer
species.

The magnificent genus _Carabus_, with its allies _Procerus_ and
_Procrustes_, containing about 300 species, all of large size, is almost
wholly confined to the Palæarctic region, only 10 species inhabiting North
America, and 11 Temperate South America, with one on the African mountain
of Kilimandjaro. Twelve large genera, containing together more than 2000
species, are truly cosmopolitan, inhabiting both temperate and tropical
{489}countries all over the globe; but many of these are more abundant in
the Palæarctic region than elsewhere. Such are _Scarites_, _Calosoma_,
_Brachinus_, _Cymindis_, _Lebia_, _Chlænius_, _Platynus_, _Harpalus_,
_Bembecidium_, _Pæcilus_, and _Argutor_. Of tropical cosmopolites, or
genera found in all the tropical regions, but not in the temperate zones,
there seem to be only four,--_Catascopus_, _Coptodera_, _Colopodes_, and
_Caasnonia_. _Pheropsophus_ is confined to the tropics of the Old World;
while _Drimostoma_, though widely scattered, is characteristic of the
Southern Hemisphere.

The Palæarctic region has about 50 genera of Carabidæ which are strictly
confined to it, the most important being,--_Leistus_ (30 sp.), _Procerus_
(5 sp.), _Procrustes_, (17 sp.), _Zabrus_ (60 sp.), _Pristonychus_ (42
sp.), and _Ophonus_ (60 sp.); but it possesses a large number in common
with the Nearctic region. The more remarkable of these are,--_Carabus_,
_Nebria_, _Amara_, _Cyrtonotus_, _Bradycellus_, _Anopthalmus_, _Celia_,
_Cychrus_, _Patrobus_, _Elaphrus_, _Notiophilus_, _Bradytus_,
_Callisthenus_, _Blethisa_, and several others. Many too, though not
strictly confined to the North Temperate regions, are very abundant there,
with a few species isolated in remote countries, or widely scattered, often
in an eccentric manner. Among these may be mentioned, _Trechus_ (120 sp.),
all North Temperate but 8, which are scattered in Java, New Caledonia and
South America; _Dyschirus_ (127 sp.), North Temperate, with 3 or 4 species
in Australia, China and La Plata; _Omaseus_, (88 sp.), _Steropus_ (90 sp.),
_Platysoma_ (114 sp.), and _Pterostichus_ (138 sp.), are mostly North
Temperate, but each has a few species in the South Temperate zone, New
Zealand, Australia, Chili, and the Cape of Good Hope. _Dromius_ (54 sp.),
is about two-thirds Palæarctic, the rest of the species being scattered
over the world, in Chili, North and South America, South Africa, Burmah,
Ceylon, and New Zealand. The North Temperate genera _Calathus_ and
_Olisthopus_, have each one species in New Zealand; _Percus_ has most of
its species in South Europe, but 3 in Australia; _Abax_ is confined to the
north temperate zone, but with one species in Madagascar; while
_Læmosthenes_ is said to have a species identically the same in South
Europe and Chili. Some of these apparent anomalies may be due to wrong
{490}determination of the genera, but there can be little doubt that most
of them represent important facts in distribution.

The Nearctic region is comparatively poor in Carabidæ. Its more important
peculiar genera are,--_Dicælus_ (22 sp.), _Pasimachus_ (17 sp.),
_Eurytrichus_ (9 sp.), _Sphæroderus_ (7 sp.), _Pinacodera_ (6 sp.), and
others of smaller extent, about 30 in all. It also possesses
representatives of a considerable number of Palæarctic genera, as already
indicated; and a few of South American genera, of which _Helluomorpha_ and
_Galerita_ are the most important.

The Neotropical region is very rich in peculiar forms of Carabidæ, as in
almost all other great groups. It possesses more than 100 peculiar genera,
but about 30 of these are confined to the South Temperate sub-region. The
more important peculiar genera of Tropical America are,--_Agra_ (144 sp.),
_Ardistomus_ (44 sp.), _Schizogenius_ (25 sp.), _Pelecium_, (24 sp.),
_Calophena_ (22 sp.), _Ctenodactyla_ (7 sp.). Among the Chilian and South
Temperate peculiar forms are,--_Antarctia_ (29 sp.), _Scelodontis_ (10
sp.), _Tropidopterus_ (4 sp.). Among the Neotropical genera with outlying
species are,--_Pachyteles_ (50 sp.), one of which is West African;
_Selenophorus_ (70 sp.), with 4 African, 4 Oriental, and 1 from New
Caledonia; _Ega_ (11 sp), with one in the East Indies, and one in New
Caledonia; _Galerita_, with 36 American species, 8 African, and 3 Indian;
_Callida_ and _Tetragonoderus_, mostly American, but with a few African,
Oriental and Australian species; and _Pseudomorpha_, common to America and
Oceania.

The Australian region is almost equally rich, possessing about 95 peculiar
genera of Carabidæ, no less than 20 of which are confined to New Zealand.
The most important are, _Carenum_, _Promecoderus_, _Scaraphites_,
_Notonomus_, _Ænigma_, _Sphallomorpha_, _Silphomorpha_, and _Adelotopus_.
The gigantic _Catadromus_ has 4 Australian species and 1 in Java;
_Homalosoma_ has 31 species in Australia and New Zealand, and 1 in
Madagascar. Celebes and New Guinea have each peculiar genera, and one is
common to Australia and the Cape of Good Hope.

The Oriental region possesses 80 peculiar genera, 10 of which are confined
to Ceylon. The more important are,--_Pericallus_, _Planetes_, and
_Mormolyce_. _Distrigus_ is also characteristic of this {491}region, with
one species in Madagascar; while it has _Orthogonius_, _Hexagonia_,
_Macrochilus_, and _Thyreopterus_ in common with the Ethiopian region, and
is rich in the fine tropical genus, _Catascopus_.

The Ethiopian region has 75 peculiar genera, 8 of which are confined to
Madagascar. The more important are,--_Polyhirma_, _Graphipterus_, and
_Piezia_. _Anthia_ is chiefly African, with a few species in India;
_Abacetus_ is wholly African, except a species in Java, and another in
South Europe; and _Hypolithus_ is typically African, but with 7 species in
South America and 1 in Java.

The facts of distribution presented by this important family, looked at
broadly, do not support any other division of the earth into primary
regions than that deduced from a study of the higher animals. The amount of
speciality in each of these regions is so great, that no two of them can be
properly united; and in this respect the Carabidæ accord wonderfully with
the Vertebrates. In the details of distribution there occur many singular
anomalies; but these are not to be wondered at, if we take into
consideration the immense antiquity of Coleopterous insects--which existed
under specialised forms so far back as the Carboniferous epoch,--the ease
with which they may be dispersed as compared with larger animals, and the
facilities afforded by their small size, habits of concealment, and often
nocturnal habits, for adaptation to the most varied conditions, and for
surviving great changes of surface and of the surrounding organic forms.
The wonder rather is, not that there are so many, but so few cases of
exceptional and anomalous distribution; and the fact that these creatures,
so widely different from Vertebrates in organisation and mode of life, are
yet on the whole subject to the same limitations of range as were found to
occur among the higher animals, affords a satisfactory proof that the
principles on which our six primary regions are founded, are sound; and
that they are well adapted to exhibit the most interesting facts of
geographical distribution, among all classes of animals.

Much stress has been laid on the fact of a few species of such typical
European genera as _Carabus_, _Dromius_, and others, being {492}found in
Chili and Temperate South America; and it has been thought, that in a
system of Entomological regions this part of the world must be united to
the Northern Hemisphere. But these writers omit to take into account,
either the large numbers of isolated and peculiar forms characteristic of
South Temperate America, or the indications of affinity with Tropical
America and Australia, both of which are really more important than the
connection with Europe. The three important Chilian genera, _Cascelius_,
_Barypus_, and _Cardiopthalmus_, are closely allied to the Australian
Promecoderus; others, as _Omostenus_ and _Plagiotelium_, are quite
isolated; while _Antarctia_ and _Metius_, according to Lacordaire, form a
distinct division of the family. Chili, too, has many species of
_Pachyteles_, _Coptodera_, and other South American genera; and this
affinity is far stronger in many other families than in the Carabidæ. The
existence of representatives of typical northern forms in Chili, is a fact
of great interest, and may be accounted for in a variety of ways; (see Vol.
II. p. 44) but it is not of such a magnitude as to be of primary importance
in geographical distribution, and it can only be estimated at its fair
value, by taking into account the affinities of all the groups inhabiting
that part of the world.


LUCANIDÆ. (45 Genera, 529 Species.)

Passing over a number of obscure families, we come to the remarkable group
of the Lucanidæ, or Stag-beetles, which, being almost all of large size,
and many of them of the most striking forms, have been very thoroughly
collected and assiduously studied.

The most curious feature of their general distribution, is their scarcity
in Tropical South America, and their complete absence from Tropical North
America and the West Indian Islands, though they appear again in Temperate
North America. In the New World they may, in fact, be looked upon as a
temperate group characteristic of the extra-tropical regions and the
highlands; while in the Old World, where they are far more abundant, they
are distinctly tropical, being especially numerous {493}in the Oriental and
Australian regions. No genus has the range of the whole family, _Dorcus_
and _Lucanus_ being absent from Africa, while _Cladognathus_ is unknown in
the New World and on the continent of Australia. The Oriental region is the
richest in peculiar forms, possessing 16 genera, 7 of which are wholly
confined to it, while 3 others only just range beyond it to North China on
the one side, or to the Austro-Malayan islands on the other. The Australian
region comes next, with 15 genera, of which 7 are wholly peculiar. South
America has 12 genera, 10 of which are peculiar. The Ethiopian region has
10 genera, 7 of which are peculiar, and 2 of these are confined to the
island of Bourbon. The Palæarctic region has 8 genera, and the Nearctic 5;
one genus being peculiar to Europe, and two confined to Europe and North
America. The Ethiopian and Oriental regions have 3 genera in common and
peculiar to them; the Oriental and Australian 3; while the Australian and
Neotropical have 1 in common, to which may be added _Streptocerus_, which
represents in Chili the Australian _Lamprima_.

Among the special features presented by the distribution of the Lucanidæ,
may be mentioned--the remarkable group of genera, _Pholidotus_,
_Chiasognathus_, and _Sphenognathus_, confined to Temperate South America,
the Andes, and mountains of Brazil; _Lucanus_ (19 sp.), almost confined to
the Oriental and Palæarctic regions, three species only inhabiting North
America; _Odontolabris_ (29 sp.), wholly Oriental, with 2 sp. in Celebes;
_Nigidius_ (11 sp.), Ethiopian, but with species in Formosa, the
Philippines, and Malacca; _Syndesus_ (11 sp.), common to Australia, New
Caledonia, and South America; _Figulus_ (20 sp.), divided between Africa
and Madagascar on the one hand, and Australia, with the Malay and Pacific
Islands, on the other.

The facts of distribution here sketched out are in perfect accordance with
those of many groups of Vertebrates. The regions are sharply contrasted by
their peculiar and characteristic genera; the several relations of those
regions are truly indicated; while there is a comparatively small
proportion of cases of anomalous or eccentric distribution.


{494}CETONIIDÆ. (120 Genera, 970 Species.)

As representative of the enormous group of the Lamellicorns, which,
according to continental entomologists, forms a single family numbering
nearly 7,000 species, we take the Cetoniidæ or Rose-Chafers. These comprise
a number of the most brilliant and beautifully-coloured insects, including
the gigantic _Goliathi_, which are among the largest of known beetles. They
have been assiduously collected in every part of the world, and their
classification has been elaborated by many of our most eminent
entomologists.

The Cetoniidæ are especially abundant in tropical and warm countries, yet
far more so in the Old World than in the New; and in the Old World, the
Ethiopian region exhibits a marvellous richness in this family, no less
than 76 genera being found there, while 64, or more than half the total
number, are peculiar to it. Next in richness, though still very far behind,
comes the Oriental region, with 29 genera, 17 of which are peculiar. The
Neotropical has only 14 genera, but all except two are peculiar to it, and
one of these is not found out of the New World. The Australian region has
11 genera, three only being peculiar. The Palæarctic region has 13, with 4
peculiar; the Nearctic 7, with 2 peculiar. The affinities of the regions
for each other, as indicated by the genera confined to two adjacent
regions, are in this family somewhat peculiar. The Ethiopian and Oriental
show the most resemblance, 6 genera being common and peculiar to the two;
the Oriental and the Australian are unusually well contrasted, having only
one genus exclusively in common, while 8 genera are found in the Indo-Malay
Islands which do not cross the boundary to the Austro-Malayan division, and
several others only pass to the nearest adjacent islands; on the other
hand, the only large Australian genus, _Schizorhina_, is found in many
parts of the Moluccas, but not further west. The Australian and Neotropical
regions exhibit no direct affinity, the nearest ally to the South American
Gymnetidæ being _Clinteria_, an African and Asiatic genus; while not a
single genus is common {495}to Australia and South America. The Nearctic
and Palæarctic regions have 3 genera in common, which are found in no other
part of the world.

Among the special features of interest connected with the distribution of
this family, we must first notice the exceptional richness of Madagascar,
which alone possesses 21 peculiar genera. South Africa is also very rich,
having 8 peculiar genera. _Stethodesma_ is very peculiar, being divided
between South America and Mexico on the one hand, and West and South Africa
on the other. _Stalagmosoma_ is a desert genus, ranging from Persia to
Dongola. No genus is cosmopolitan, or even makes any approach to being so,
except _Valgus_, which occurs in all the regions except the Neotropical;
and even the family seems to be not universally distributed, since no
species are recorded either from New Zealand, the Pacific Islands, or the
Antilles.

The facts here brought forward, lead us to the conclusion that the
Cetoniidæ are an Old-World tropical family, which had been well developed
in Africa and Asia before it spread to Australia and America; and that it
is only capable of being freely dispersed in the warmer regions of the
earth. This view will explain the absence of affinity between the
Australian and Neotropical regions, the only closer connection between
which, has almost certainly occurred in the colder portions of the
Temperate zone.


BUPRESTIDÆ. (109 Genera, 2,686 Species.)

The next family suited to our purpose is that of the Buprestidæ, consisting
as it does of many large and some gigantic species, generally adorned with
brilliant metallic colours, and attracting attention in all warm countries.
Although these insects attain their full development of size and beauty
only in the Tropics, they are not much less abundant in the warmer parts of
the Temperate zone. In the Catalogue of the Coleoptera of Europe and the
Mediterranean Basin, by M. de Marseul (1863), we find 317 species of
Buprestidæ enumerated, although {496}the district in question only forms a
part of the Palæarctic region, which would thus seem to possess its full
proportion of the species of this family. Confining ourselves to the
generic forms, we find far less difference than usual between the numbers
possessed by the tropical and the temperate regions; the richest being the
Australian, with 47 genera, 20 of which are peculiar; and the poorest the
Nearctic, with 24 genera, of which 7 are peculiar. The Oriental has 41
genera, 14 of which are peculiar; the Neotropical 39, of which the large
proportion of 18 are peculiar; the Ethiopian 27, of which 6 are peculiar;
and the Palæarctic also 27, but with 9 peculiar.

A most interesting feature in the distribution of this family, is the
strong affinity shown to exist between the Australian and Neotropical
regions, which have 4 genera common to both and found nowhere else; but
besides this, the extensive and highly characteristic Australian genus,
_Stigmodera_, is closely related to a number of peculiar South American
genera, such as _Conognatha_, _Hyperantha_, _Dactylozodes_,--the last
altogether confined to Chili and Temperate South America. Here we have a
striking contrast to the Cetoniidæ, and we can hardly help concluding,
that, as the latter is typically a tropical group, so the present family,
although now so largely tropical, had an early and perhaps original
development in the temperate regions of Australia, spreading thence to
Temperate South America as well as to the tropical regions of Asia and
Africa. The Australian and Oriental regions have 4 genera exclusively in
common, but they also each possess a number of peculiar or characteristic
genera, such as the Indo-Malayan _Catoxantha_ (which has only a single
species in the Moluccas) and nine others of less importance; and the
exclusively Austro-Malayan genus, _Sambus_, with five smaller groups, and
_Cyphogastra_, with only 2 Indo-Malay species. The Oriental and Ethiopian
regions are very distinct, only possessing the single genus, _Sternocera_,
exclusively in common. The Nearctic and Palæarctic are also distinct, only
one genus, _Dicerca_, being confined to America (North and South) and
Europe, a fact which again points to a southern origin for this family, and
its comparatively recent extension into the {497}North Temperate zone. It
must be remembered, however, that in view of the immense geological
antiquity of the existing families of Beetles, dating back certainly to the
Secondary and probably to the Palæozoic epoch, "comparatively recent" may
still be of considerable antiquity.

It is somewhat singular that North and South America have no genera
exclusively in common. The connection between South America and Africa
seems to be shown,--by the genus _Psiloptera_, the mass of the species
being divided between these regions, with a few widely scattered over the
globe; and the American genus _Actenodes_, which has one species in West
Africa. Somewhat allied, is the extensive genus _Polybothris_, strictly
confined to Madagascar. The genus _Agrilus_ is perhaps cosmopolitan,
although no species of the family is recorded from New Zealand. Among the
peculiarities of distribution we may notice,--the genus _Sponsor_, with 8
species in the island of Mauritius, 1 in Celebes, and 1 in New Guinea;
_Ptosima_, scattered between the United States, Mendoza in South Temperate
America, South Europe, the Philippine Islands, and North China;
_Polycesta_, which besides inhabiting South America, North America, and
Europe, has a single species in Madagascar; and _Belionota_, which has 8
species African, 8 Indo-Malayan, 2 Austro-Malayan, and 1 in California. The
extensive genus _Acmæodera_, is most abundant in the warm and dry portions
of the Palæarctic, Ethiopian, and Nearctic regions, with some in the Andes
and South Temperate America, a few in Brazil and the West Indies, and 1
said to be from the Philippines. About one-third of the genera (containing
more than half the species) have a tolerably extensive range, while the
genera confined to single regions contain only about one-fourth of the
total number of species.

It will, I think, be admitted, after a careful study of the preceding
facts, that the regions and sub-regions here adopted, serve to exhibit,
with great clearness, the chief phenomena of distribution presented by this
interesting family.


{498}LONGICORNIA. (1,488 Genera, 7,576 Species).

The elegant and admired group of the Longicorn Beetles, is treated by
continental authors as a single family, consisting of three
sub-divisions--the Prionidæ, Cerambycidæ, and Lamiidæ of English
entomologists. These are so closely related, and are so similar in form,
habits, and general distribution, that it will be best to consider the
whole as one group, noticing whatever peculiarities occur in the separate
divisions. The endless structural differences among these insects, have led
to their being classed in an unusual number of genera, which average little
more than 5 species each; a number far below that in any of the other
families we have been considering, and probably below that which obtains in
any of the more extensive groups of animals or plants. This excessive
subdivision of the genera, a large number of which consist of only one or
two species, renders it difficult to determine with precision the relations
of the several regions, since the affinities of these genera for each other
are in many cases undetermined. A group of such enormous extent as this,
can only be properly understood after years of laborious study; we must
therefore content ourselves with such results as may be obtained from a
general survey of the group, and from a comparison of the range of the
several genera, by means of a careful tabulation of the mass of details
given in the recent Catalogue of Messrs. Gemminger and Harold and the noble
work of Lacordaire.

The proportionate extent of the three families of Longicorns is very
unequal; the Prionidæ comprising about 7 per cent., the Cerambycidæ 44 per
cent., and the Lamiidæ 49 per cent. of the total number of species; and the
genera are nearly in the same proportions, being almost exactly 10, 40, and
50 per cent. of the whole, respectively; or, 135 Prionidæ, 609 Cerambycidæ,
and 746 Lamiidæ. The several regions, however, present marked differences
in their proportions of these families. In the two North Temperate regions,
the Cerambycidæ are considerably more numerous than the Lamiidæ, in the
proportion of about 12 to {499}9; and in this respect the Neotropical
region agrees with them, though the superiority in the proportion of
Cerambycidæ is somewhat less. In the Old World tropical regions, however,
and in Australia, the Lamiidæ greatly preponderate--being nearly double in
the Oriental and Ethiopian regions (or as 11 to 6), while in the Australian
it is as 6 to 5. The Prionidæ show a similar difference, though in a less
degree; being proportionately more numerous in the North Temperate and
Neotropical regions. Now, as regards the North Temperate regions, this
difference can be, to some extent explained, by a difference in the habits
of the insects. The Lamiidæ, which both in the larva and perfect state have
exceedingly powerful jaws, exclusively frequent timber trees, and almost
always such as are dead; while the Cerambycidæ, are generally more delicate
and have weaker mandibles, and many of the species live on shrubs, dead
twigs, foliage, and even on flowers. The immense superiority of the Tropics
in the number and variety of their timber trees, and the extent of their
forests, sufficiently accounts for their superiority to the Temperate
regions in the development of Lamiidæ; but the great excess of Cerambycidæ
in South America as compared with the rest of the Tropics, is not to be so
readily explained.

Bearing in mind the different proportions of the families, as above noted,
we may now consider the distribution of the Longicorns as a whole. In
number of generic forms, the Neotropical region, as in so many other
groups, has a marked superiority. It possesses 516 genera, 489 of which (or
about 19/20 of the whole) are peculiar to it. The Australian and Oriental
regions come next, and are exactly equal, both possessing 360 genera, and
having almost exactly the same proportion (in each case a little less than
¾) peculiar. The Ethiopian region has 262 genera, with about 5/6 peculiar;
the Palæarctic 196, with 51 (rather more than ¼) peculiar; and the Nearctic
111, with 59 (a little more than half) peculiar. The more isolated of the
sub-regions are also well characterised by peculiar genera. Thus, Chili
with Temperate South America possesses 37, a large proportion being
Cerambycidæ; the Malagasi group 26, {500}with a preponderance of Lamiidæ;
and New Zealand 12, of which the Cerambycidæ are only slightly in excess.

The relations between the Longicorn fauna of the several regions, are such
as are in accordance with the dependence of the group on a warm climate and
abundant vegetation; and indicate the efficiency of deserts and oceans as
barriers to their migration. The Neotropical and Australian regions have
only 4 genera in common, but these are sufficient to show, that there must
probably once have been some means of communication between the two
regions, better adapted to these insects than any they now possess. The
Nearctic and Neotropical regions have 5, and the Nearctic and Palæarctic 13
genera in common and peculiar to them, the latter fact being the most
remarkable, because no means of inter-communication now exists, except in
high latitudes where the species of the Longicorns are very few. The
Oriental and Australian regions, on the other hand, are closely connected,
by having no less than 52 genera of Longicorns in common and peculiar to
them. Most of these are specially characteristic of the Malay Archipelago,
often extending over all the islands from Sumatra to New Guinea. This large
number of wide-spread genera of course gives a character of uniformity to
the entire area over which they extend; and, with analogous facts occurring
in other families, has led many entomologists to reject that division of
the Archipelago between the Australian and Oriental regions, which has been
so overwhelmingly demonstrated to be the natural one in the case of the
higher animals. The general considerations already advanced in Chapter II.
enable us, however, to explain such anomalies as this, by the great
facilities that exist for the transfer from island to island of such small
animals, so closely connected with woody vegetation in every stage of their
existence. That this is the true and sufficient explanation, is rendered
clear by certain additional facts, which those who object to the sharp
division of the Indo-Malay and Austro-Malay sub-regions have overlooked.

An analysis of all the Malay Longicorns proves, that besides the 52 genera
characteristic of the Archipelago as a whole, there are 100 genera which
are confined to one or other of its component {501}sub-regions. Many of
these, it is true, consist of single species confined to a single island,
and we will not lay any stress on these; but there are also several
important groups, which extend over the Indo-Malay or the Austro-Malay
islands only, stopping abruptly at the dividing-line between them. For
example, on the Indo-Malay side we have _Euryarthrum_, _Leprodera_,
_Aristobia_, _Coelosterna_, and _Entelopes_, and what is perhaps even more
satisfactory, the large genera _Agelasta_ and _Astathes_, abundant in all
the Indo-Malay islands, but having only one or two species just passing the
boundary into Celebes. On the other side we have _Tethionea_,
_Sphingnotus_, _Arrhenotus_, _Tmesisternus_ (the last three genera
abounding from New Guinea to Celebes, but totally unknown further west),
_Hestima_, _Trigonoptera_, _Amblymora_, _Stesilea_, _Enes_, and the large
genus _Micracantha_, with but a single species beyond the boundary,--30
Austro-Malayan genera in all, each found in more than one island, but none
of them extending west of Celebes. Here we have clear proof that the
boundary line between the two great regions exists for Longicorns, as well
as for all other animals; but in this case an unusually large number have
been able to get across it. This, however, does not abolish the barrier,
but only proves that it is not absolutely effectual in all cases. Those who
maintain that the Malay Archipelago forms a single Coleopterous region,
must disprove or explain the instances of limited range here adduced.

Out of nearly 1500 known genera of these insects, only one genus, _Clytus_,
appears to be cosmopolitan. _Saperda_ and _Callichroma_ are the only others
that perhaps occur in every region; but these are both wanting over wide
tracts of the earth's surface, _Saperda_ being absent from Tropical Africa
and the Malay Archipelago; and _Callichroma_ from the Australian region,
except one species in Polynesia. Many of the genera of Longicorns have a
somewhat wide and scattered distribution, indicative of decadence or great
antiquity. _Mallodon_ and _Parandra_ are mostly South American, but have
species in Australia and Africa; _Oeme_ is found in Brazil and the United
States, with one species in West Africa; _Ceratophorus_ has 2 species in
West Africa and 1 in New Zealand. _Xystrocera_ is mostly African, but has
single species in {502}Borneo, Java, Amboyna and South Australia; _Phyton_
has one species in North America and the other in Ceylon; _Philagetes_ has
2 in South Africa, and 1 in Malacca; _Toxotus_ abounds in North America and
Europe, with one species away in Madagascar. _Leptura_ is also North
Temperate, but has a species at the Cape, one at Singapore and a third in
Celebes. _Necydalis_ has species in North and South America, Europe and
Australia. _Hylotrupes_ has 1 species in North America and Europe, and 1 in
Australia; _Leptocera_ prefers islands, being found only in Ceylon,
Madagascar, Bourbon, Batchian, the New Hebrides, New Caledonia and North
Australia; _Hathliodes_ is Australian, with 1 species in Ceylon;
_Schoenionta_ has 3 Malayan species, and 1 in Natal. Many other cases
equally curious could be quoted, but these are sufficient. They cannot be
held to indicate any close relation between the distant countries in which
species of the same genus are now found, but perhaps serve to remind us
that groups of great antiquity, and probably of great extent, have dwindled
away, leaving a few surviving relics scattered far and wide, the sole
proofs of their former predominance.


_General Observations on the Distribution of Coleoptera._

We have now passed in review six of the most important and best known
groups of the Coleoptera or Beetles, comprising about 2,400 genera, and
more than 21,000 species. Although presenting certain peculiarities and
anomalies, we have found that, on the whole, their distribution is in very
close accordance with that of the higher animals. We have seen reason to
believe that these great and well-marked groups have a high geological
antiquity, and by constantly bearing this fact in mind, we can account for
many of the eccentricities of their distribution. They have probably
survived changes of physical geography which have altogether extinguished
many of the more highly organised animals, and we may perhaps gain some
insight into the bearing of those changes, by considering the cross
relations between the several regions indicated by them. On carefully
tabulating the indications given by each of the groups here discussed, I
arrive at the following approximate result. The {503}best marked affinities
between the regions are those between the Nearctic and Palæarctic,--the
Oriental and Australian,--the Australian and Neotropical,--which appear to
be about equal in each case. Next comes that between the Ethiopian and
Oriental on the one side, and the Ethiopian and Neotropical on the other,
which also appear about equal. Then follows that between the Nearctic and
Neotropical regions; and lastly, and far the least marked, that between the
North Temperate and South Temperate regions. That the relation between the
Ethiopian and Neotropical region should be so comparatively well marked, is
unexpected; but we must consider that in such a comparison as the present,
we probably get the result, not of any recent changes or intermigrations,
but of all the long series of changes and opportunities of migration that
have occurred during many geological epochs,--probably during the whole of
the Tertiary period, perhaps extending far back into the Secondary age.

It appears evident that Insects exhibit in a very marked degree in their
actual distribution, the influence both of very ancient and very modern
conditions of the earth's surface. The effects of the ancient geographical
features of the earth, are to be traced, in the large number of cases of
discontinuous and widely scattered groups which we meet with in almost
every family, and which, to some extent, obscure the broader features of
distribution due to the period during which the barriers which divide the
several primary regions have continued to exist. And this, which we may
consider as the normal distribution, is still further obscured in those
cases where the barriers between existing regions are of such a nature as
to admit of the free passage of insects or their larva in a variety of
ways, and (what is perhaps of more importance) in which the physical
features on both sides of the barrier are so nearly identical, as to admit
of the ready establishment of such immigrants as may occasionally arrive.
These conditions concur, for some families of insects, in the case of the
Oriental and Australian portions of the Malay Archipelago; and it is there
that the normal distribution has been sometimes greatly obscured, but
never, as we have sufficiently shown, by any means obliterated.




{504}CHAPTER XXII.

AN OUTLINE OF THE GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF MOLLUSCA.


The Mollusca being for the most part marine, it does not enter into the
plan of this work to go into much detail as to their distribution. The
orders and families will, however, be passed briefly in review, and all
terrestrial and fresh-water groups discussed in somewhat more detail; with
the object of showing how far their distribution accords with that of the
higher animals, and to what extent the anomalies they present can be
explained by peculiarities of organisation and habits. If the views
advocated in our fifth chapter are correct, the regions there marked out
must apply to all classes of animals; and it will be the task of the
students of each group, to work out in detail the causes which have led to
any special features of distribution. All I can hope to do here, is to
show, generally and tentatively, that such a mode of treatment is possible;
and that it is not necessary, as it is certainly not convenient or
instructive, to have a distinct set of "Regions" established for each class
or order in the Animal and Vegetable Kingdoms.

For all the Marine groups I have merely summarised the information
contained in Mr. Woodward's _Manual of the Mollusca_, but in the case of
the Land Shells I have consulted the most recent general works, and
endeavoured to give an accurate, though doubtless a very incomplete,
account of the most interesting facts in their distribution. As their
classification is very unsettled, I have followed that of the two latest
great works, by Martens and Pfeiffer.


{505}CLASS.--CEPHALOPODA.


_Order I.--DIBRANCHIATA._


FAMILY 1.--ARGONAUTIDÆ. "Paper Nautilus." (1 Genus, 4 Species).

DISTRIBUTION.--Open seas of all warm regions. Two species fossil in
Tertiary deposits.


FAMILY 2.--OCTOPODIDÆ. "Polypi." (7 Genera, 60 Species).

DISTRIBUTION.--Norway to New Zealand, all tropical and temperate seas and
coasts.


FAMILY 3.--TEUTHIDÆ. "Squids or Sea-pens." (16 Genera, 102 Species.)

DISTRIBUTION.--Universal, to Greenland; 2 other genera are fossil, in the
Lias and Oolite.


FAMILY 4.--SEPIADÆ. "Cuttle Fish." (1 Genus, 30 Species).

DISTRIBUTION.--All seas: 4 other genera are fossil, in Eocene and Miocene
deposits.


FAMILY 5.--SPIRULIDÆ. (1 Genus, 3 Species).

DISTRIBUTION.--All the warmer seas.


{506}FAMILY 6.--BELEMNITIDÆ. Fossil. (6 Genera, 100 Species).

DISTRIBUTION.--Lias to Chalk in Europe, India and North America.


_Order II.--TETRABRANCHIATA._


FAMILY 7.--NAUTILIDÆ. (1 Genus, 3 Species, Living; 4 Genera, 300 Species,
Fossil).

DISTRIBUTION.--Indian and Pacific Oceans; and the fossil species from the
Silurian Period to the Tertiary, in all parts of the world.


FAMILY 8.--ORTHOCERATIDÆ. Fossil. (8 Genera, 400 Species).

DISTRIBUTION.--Lower Silurian to Lias.


FAMILY 9.--AMMONITIDÆ. Fossil. (14 Genera, 1100 Species).

DISTRIBUTION.--Upper Silurian to Chalk. Found at 16,000 feet elevation in
the Himalayas.


{507}Class.--GASTEROPODA.

_Order I.--PROSOBRANCHIATA._


FAMILY 1.--STROMBIDÆ. (4 Genera, 86 Species.)

DISTRIBUTION.--The Strombidæ, or Wing-shells, inhabit tropical and warm
seas from the Mediterranean to New Zealand; most abundant in the Indian and
Pacific Oceans. There are nearly 200 fossil species, from the Lias to
Miocene and recent deposits.


FAMILY 2.--MURICIDÆ. (12 Genera, 1000 Species.)

DISTRIBUTION.--All seas, most abundant in the Tropics. _Trichotropis_ is
confined to Northern seas; _Murex_ and _Fusus_ are cosmopolitan. There are
about 700 fossil species, ranging from the Oolite to the Miocene and recent
formations.


FAMILY 3.--BUCCINIDÆ. (24 Genera, 1100 Species.)

DISTRIBUTION.--The Buccinidæ, or "Whelks," range over the whole world, but
some of the genera are restricted. _Buccinum_ inhabits the north and south
temperate seas; _Monoceros_ the West Coast of America; _Cassidaria_ the
Mediterranean; _Phos_, _Harpa_, _Eburna_, and _Ricinula_, are confined to
the Pacific; _Dolium_ inhabits the Mediterranean as well as the Pacific.
There are about 350 fossil species, mostly from the Eocene and Miocene
beds.


{508}FAMILY 4.--CONIDÆ. (3 Genera, 850 Species.)

DISTRIBUTION.--The Cones are universally distributed, but this applies only
to the genus _Pleurotoma_. _Conus_ is tropical and sub-tropical, and
_Cithara_ is confined to the Philippine Islands. There are about 460 fossil
species, from the Chalk formation to the most recent deposits.


FAMILY 5.--VOLUTIDÆ, (5 Genera, 670 Species.)

DISTRIBUTION.--The Volutes are mostly tropical; but a small species of
_Mitra_ is found at Greenland, and a _Marginella_ in the Mediterranean.
_Cymba_ is confined to the West Coast of Africa and Portugal. _Voluta_
extends south to Cape Horn. There are about 200 fossil species, from the
Chalk and Eocene to recent formations.


FAMILY 6.--CYPRÆIDÆ. (3 Genera, 200 Species.)

DISTRIBUTION.--The well-known Cowries are found all over the world, but
they are much more abundant in warm regions. One small species extends to
Greenland. There are nearly 100 fossil species, from the Chalk to the
Miocene and recent formations.


FAMILY 7.--NATICIDÆ. (5 Genera, 270 species.)

DISTRIBUTION.--The Naticidæ, or Sea-snails, though most abundant in the
Tropics, are found also in temperate seas, and far into the Arctic regions.
Two other genera are fossil; and there are about 300 extinct species,
ranging from the Devonian to the Pliocene formations.


{509}FAMILY 8.--PYRAMIDELLIDÆ. (10 Genera, 220 Species.)

DISTRIBUTION.--These turreted shells are very widely distributed both in
temperate and tropical seas; and most of the genera have also a wide range.
There are about 400 extinct species, from so far back as the Lower Silurian
to the Pliocene formations.


FAMILY 9.--CERITHIADÆ. (5 Genera, 190 Species.)

DISTRIBUTION.--These are marine, estuary, or fresh-water shells, of an
elongated spiral form; they have a world-wide distribution, but are most
abundant in the Tropics. _Potamides_ (41 sp.), is the only fresh-water
genus, and is found in the rivers of Africa, India and China, to North
Australia and California. Another genus is exclusively fossil, and there
are about 800 extinct species, ranging from the Trias to the Eocene and
recent formations.


FAMILY 10.--MELANIADÆ. (3 Genera, 410 Species.)

DISTRIBUTION.--Fresh-water only: lakes and rivers in warm countries, widely
scattered. South Palæarctic and Australian regions, from Spain to New
Zealand; South Africa, West Africa, and Madagascar; United States. There
are about 50 fossil species, from the Wealden and Eocene to recent
formations.


FAMILY 11.--TURRITELLIDÆ. (5 Genera, 230 Species.)

DISTRIBUTION.--Universal. _Cæcum_ is found in north temperate seas only.
The other genera are mostly tropical, but some species reach Iceland and
Greenland. There are near 300 species fossil, ranging from the Neocomian to
the Pliocene formations.


{510}FAMILY 12.--LITTORINIDÆ. (9 Genera, 310 Species.)

DISTRIBUTION.--The Littorinidæ are mostly found on the coasts in shallow
water; as the common Periwinkle (_Littorina littorea_). They are of
world-wide distribution; but _Solarium_ and _Phorus_ are tropical; while
_Lacuna_, _Skenea_, and most species of _Rissoa_ are Northern. About 180
species are fossil, ranging from the Permian to the Pliocene formations.


FAMILY 13.--PALUDINIDÆ. (4 Genera, 217 Species.)

DISTRIBUTION.--The Paludinidæ, or River-snails, are all fresh-water, and
range over the whole world. _Paludina_ (60 sp.), is confined to the
Northern Hemisphere; _Ampullaria_ (136 sp.), is tropical; _Amphibola_ (3
sp.), inhabits New Zealand and the Pacific Islands; _Valvata_ (18 sp.),
North America and Britain. There are 72 fossil species of _Paludina_ and
_Valvata_, in the Wealden formation and more recent fresh-water deposits.


FAMILY 14.--NERITIDÆ. (10 Genera, 320 Species.)

DISTRIBUTION.--All warm seas, ranging north to Norway and the Caspian Sea.
_Neritina_ and _Navicella_ inhabit fresh or brackish waters, the latter
confined to the countries bordering the Indian Ocean and the islands of the
Pacific. There are 80 fossil species, from the Trias, Lias, and Eocene
formations down to recent deposits.


FAMILY 15.--TURBINIDÆ. (10 Genera, 425 Species).

DISTRIBUTION.--The genus TROCHUS (200 sp.) has a world-wide range, but the
other genera are mostly tropical, and are most abundant in the Indian and
Pacific Oceans. There are more than 900 fossil species, found in all parts
of the world, from the Lower Silurian to the Tertiary formations.


{511}FAMILY 16.--HALIOTIDÆ. (6 Genera, 106 Species).

DISTRIBUTION.--The Ear-shells are most abundant in the Indian and Pacific
Oceans; some are found on the east coasts of the Atlantic, but there are
very few in the West Indies. _Ianthina_ (10 sp.) consists of floating
oceanic snails found in the warm parts of the Atlantic. Three other genera
are fossil, and there are near 500 fossil species of this family ranging
from the Lower Silurian to the Pliocene formations.


FAMILY 17.--FISSURELLIDÆ. (5 Genera, 200 Species).

DISTRIBUTION.--All seas. _Puncturella_ (6 sp.) is confined to Northern and
Antarctic seas; _Rimula_ to the Philippines; and _Parmophorus_ (15 sp.)
from the Cape of Good Hope to the Philippines and New Zealand. There are
about 80 fossil species, ranging from the Carboniferous formation to the
deposits of the Glacial epoch.


FAMILY 18.--CALYPTRÆIDÆ. (4 Genera, 125 Species).

DISTRIBUTION.--The Calptræidæ, or Bonnet-Limpets, are found on the coasts
of all seas from Norway to Chili and Australia; but are most abundant
within the Tropics. The genera are all widely scattered. There are 75
fossil species, ranging from the Devonian to recent formations.


FAMILY 19.--PATELLIDÆ. (4 Genera, 254 Species).

DISTRIBUTION.--The Patellidæ, or Limpets, are universally distributed, and
are as abundant in the temperate as in tropical seas. There are about 100
fossil species, ranging from the Silurian to the Tertiary formations.


{512}FAMILY 20.--DENTALIADÆ. (1 Genus, 50 Species).

DISTRIBUTION.--The genus _Dentalium_ is found in the North Atlantic,
Mediterranean, West Indies and India. There are 125 fossil species, found
in various formations as far back as the Devonian in Europe and in Chili.


FAMILY 21.--CHITONIDÆ. (1 Genus, 250 Species).

DISTRIBUTION.--On rocky shores in all parts of the world. There are 37
fossil species ranging back to the Silurian period.


_Order II.--PULMONIFERA. ("Terrestrial Molluscs.")_

The Land and Fresh-water snails are so important and extensive a group, and
their classification has been so carefully studied, that their geographical
distribution is a subject of much interest. The range of the genera will
therefore be given in some detail. For the Helicidæ I follow the classical
work of Albers--_Die Helicien_, Von Martens' Edition (1860); and for the
Operculate families, Pfeiffer's _Monographia Pneumonopomorum Viventium_,
2nd Supplement, 1865. The number of species is, of course, very
considerably increased since these works were published (and the probable
amount of the increase I have in most cases indicated), but this does not
materially affect the great features of their geographical distribution.


FAMILY 22.--HELICIDÆ. (33 Genera, 3,332 Species) (1860).

GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.--Universal.

The Helicidæ, or Snails, are a group of immense extent and absolutely
cosmopolitan in their range, being found in the most barren deserts and on
the smallest islands, all over the globe. They reach to near the line of
perpetual snow on mountains, and {513}to the limit of trees or even
considerably beyond it, in the Arctic regions; but they are comparatively
very scarce in all cold countries. The Antilles, the Philippine Islands,
Equatorial America, and the Mediterranean sub-region are especially rich in
this family. Comparatively few of the genera, and those generally small
ones, are restricted to single regions; but on the other hand very few are
generally distributed, only two--_Helix_ and _Pupa_--occurring in all the
six regions, while _Helix_ alone is truly cosmopolitan, occurring in every
sub-region, in every country, and perhaps in every island on the globe.

The Neotropical region is, on the whole, the richest in this family, the
continental Equatorial districts producing an abundance of large and
handsome species, while the Antilles are pre-eminent for the number of
their peculiar forms. This region possesses 22 of the genera, and 6 of them
are peculiar.

The Palæarctic region seems to come next in productiveness, but this may be
partly owing to its having been so thoroughly explored. It possesses 16 of
the genera, and 3 of them are confined to it. The great mass of the species
are found in the warm and fertile countries surrounding the Mediterranean
Sea.

The Ethiopian region has 13 genera, only one of which is peculiar.

The Australian region has 14 genera, 2 of which are confined to the Pacific
Islands.

The Oriental has 15 genera and the Nearctic 12, but in neither case are
there any peculiar generic types.

The following is the distribution of the several genera taken in the order
of their magnitude:--

_Helix_ (1,115 sp.), cosmopolitan. This genus is divided into 88
sub-genera, a number of which have a limited distribution. An immense
quantity of species have been recently described, so that the number now
exceeds 2,000.

_Nanina_ (290 sp.) is characteristic of the Oriental and Australian
regions, over the whole of which it extends, just entering the Palæarctic
region as far as North China and Japan. Isolated from this area is a small
group of 4 species occurring {514}in West Africa. The number of species in
this genus have now been increased to about 400.

_Clausilia_ (272 sp.) is most abundant in Europe, with a few species widely
scattered in India, Malaya, China, Japan, Equatorial America, and one in
Porto Rico. The described species have been increased to nearly 500.

_Bulimulus_ (210 sp.) is American, and almost exclusively Neotropical,
ranging from Montevideo and Chili, to the West Indian Islands, California
and Texas; with two sub-genera confined to the Galapagos Islands. About 100
new species have been described since the issue of the second edition of
Dr. Woodward's Manual.

_Pupa_ (210 sp.) abounds most in Europe and the Arctic regions, but has a
very wide range, being scattered throughout Africa, continental India,
Australia, the Pacific Islands, North America to Greenland, and the
Antilles; but it is absent from South America, the Himalayan and Malayan
sub-regions, China and Japan. An extinct species has occurred abundantly in
the carboniferous strata of North America. About 160 additional species
have been described.

_Bulimus_ (172 sp.) abounds most in Tropical South America; it is also
found from Burmah eastward through Malaya to the Solomon and Fiji Islands;
there are also scattered species in Patagonia, St. Vincents, Texas, St.
Helena, and New Zealand. More than 100 additional species have been
described.

_Buliminus_ (132 sp.) ranges from Central and South Europe over the whole
Ethiopian and Oriental regions to North China, and through the Australian
to New Zealand; there is also a single outlying species in the Galapagos
Islands. About 50 more species have been described.

_Cochlostyla_ (127 sp.) is almost peculiar to the Philippine Islands,
beyond which, are a species in Borneo, one in Java, and two in Australia.
Very few new species have been added to this genus.

_Achatinella_ (95 sp.) is absolutely confined to the Sandwich Island group.
Recent researches have more than tripled the number of described species.

{515}_Achatina_ (87 sp.) is most abundant and finest in the Ethiopian
region, over the whole of which it ranges; but there are also species in
Florida, the Antilles, the Sandwich Islands, Ceylon and India. The
described species are now more than doubled.

_Hyalina_ (84 sp.) inhabits all Tropical America and the Antilles, North
America to Greenland, and Europe to the Arctic regions. Comparatively few
new species have been described.

_Cylindrella_ (83 sp.) inhabits the West Indian islands and Guatemala to
Texas, with a sub-genus in the Philippine Islands. Species since described
have more than trebled the number in this genus.

_Cionella_ (67 sp.) is widely scattered; in India from Ceylon to the Khasia
Mountains, Brazil, New Granada, the West Indian islands, Palæarctic, and
northern part of Nearctic regions, Pacific Islands, New Zealand, and Juan
Fernandez. About 20 new species have since been described.

_Glandina_ (66 sp.), Peru to South Carolina and the Antilles, with three
species in Central Africa and one in South Europe. About 40 species have
been added to this genus.

_Stenogyra_ (49 sp.), widely distributed: Tropical America and West Indies
to Florida, South and West Africa, the Mediterranean region, India and the
Philippines. About a dozen new species have been described.

_Succinea_ (41 sp.), widely scattered in all the regions, and in St.
Helena, Juan Fernandez, Tahiti, Chiloe, Greenland, West Africa, Himalayas
and Australia. The described species are now more than 100.

_Partula_ (39 sp.), Solomon Islands to Tahiti and Sandwich Islands. This
genus has also been increased to near 100 species.

_Streptaxis_ (34 sp.), most abundant in Tropical South America, but occurs
in West Africa, the Seychelles and Rodriguez Islands, Ceylon and Burmah. It
now contains over 100 described species.

_Spiraxis_ (33 sp.), Yucatan to Mexico, and less abundant in the West
Indian Islands. About 20 species have been added.

{516}_Macroceramus_ (27 sp.), Antilles, Florida, and Peru. The species have
been more than doubled.

_Vitrina_ (26 sp.), widely scattered through North and Central Europe,
North-west America and Greenland, Abyssinia, Madagascar and South Africa,
Himalayas to Burmah and Australia. Species since described have more than
doubled the number in this genus.

_Orthalicus_ (23 sp.), Bolivia to Mexico and Antilles. This genus has been
increased to about 40 species.

_Sagda_ (19 sp.), Antilles only. Very few new species, if any, have been
described.

_Zonites_ (12 sp.), South Europe, with one species of a distinct type in
Guatemala. The number of species in this genus has been since about
tripled.

_Leucochroa_ (11 sp.), Mediterranean region to Syria and Arabia Petrea.

_Simpulopsis_ (7 sp.), Bahia, Antilles, and far away in the Solomon
Islands. Two or three have been added.

_Balea_ (6 sp.), Middle and North Europe, Brazil, and the Island of Tristan
d'Acunha.

_Daudebardia_ (6 sp.), Central and South Europe; and a species has since
been discovered in New Zealand.

_Macrocycles_ (4 sp.), Chili, California, Oregon and Central North America.

_Columna_ (3 sp.), West Africa, Princes Islands and Madagascar.

_Stenopus_ (2 sp.), Island of St. Vincent (West Indies.)

_Pfeifferia_ (2 sp.), Philippines and Moluccas.

_Testacella_ (2 sp.), West Europe and Teneriffe. About 8 species have been
since described, including one from New Zealand.

Fossil species of _Helix_, _Bulimus_, _Achatina_, _Balea_, and _Clausilia_,
are found in all the Tertiary formations; while a species of _Pupa_ (as
already stated) occurs in the carboniferous formation. For interesting
details of the distribution of the sub-genera and species of _Achatinella_
in the Sandwich Islands, see a paper by Rev. J. T. Gulick in the _Journal
of the Linnean Society_. (Zoology, vol. xi. p. 496.)


{517}FAMILY 23.--LIMACIDÆ.--(12 Genera, 116 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- -- -- --|1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |-- -- 3 -- |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4
             |           |           |           |           |

The Limacidæ, or Slugs, are widely distributed, but they are absent from
South America, where they are represented by the next family. They also
seem to be absent from the greater part of Africa. The genera are
distributed as follows:--

_Limax_ (51 sp.), Palæarctic region, Australia and the Sandwich Islands;
_Anadenus_ (2 sp.), Himalayas; _Philomychus_ (9 sp.), North America, China
and Java; _Arion_ (25 sp.), Norway to Spain and South Africa; _Parmacella_
(7 sp.), South Europe, Canary Islands and North India; _Janella_ (1 sp.),
New Zealand; _Aneitea_ (1 sp.), New Hebrides and New Caledonia; _Parmarion_
(4 sp.), India; _Triboniophorus_ (3 sp.), Australia; _Testacella_ (3 sp.),
South Europe, Canary Islands, and New Zealand; _Hyalimax_ (2 sp.), Bourbon
and Mauritius; _Krynickia_ (8 sp.), Eastern Europe and North America. A few
species of _Limax_, _Arion_, and _Testacella_ have been found fossil in
Tertiary deposits.


FAMILY 24.--ONCIDIADÆ. (2 Genera, 36 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  1. 2. 3. 4 |-- -- -- --|1. 2 -- -- |-- -- -- 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 | -- 2 -- 4
             |           |           |           |           |

The Oncidiadæ, or Slugs with a coriaceous mantle, inhabit the Oriental
region, Mauritius, Australia, the Pacific Islands, South America and South
Europe. The genera are:--

{518}_Oncidium_ (16 sp.), South Europe (1 sp. British), Mauritius,
Australia and Pacific Islands; Vaginulus (20 sp.), Neotropical and Oriental
regions.


FAMILY 25.--LIMNÆIDÆ. (7 Genera, 332 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |-- -- 3 -- |1. 2. 3. 4 |-- -- -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

The Limnæidæ, or Fresh-water Snails, inhabit ponds and rivers in most parts
of the world, but appear to be absent from the Australian region. The
genera are distributed as follows:--

_Limnæa_ (95 sp.), Nearctic, Palæarctic, and Oriental regions;
_Choanomphalos_ (2 sp.), Lake Baikal; _Pompholyx_ (2 sp.), Western America;
_Chilinia_ (18 sp.), South America; _Physa_ (20 sp.), Nearctic, Palæarctic,
Ethiopian and Oriental regions, and extends to above 73° North Latitude in
Siberia, being the most Arctic of land or fresh-water shells; _Ancylus_ (49
sp.), Nearctic and Neotropical regions, Europe and New Zealand; _Planorbis_
(145 sp.), Nearctic, Palæarctic and Oriental regions. Several genera are
found fossil, chiefly in the Wealden, Eocene, and Miocene formations.


FAMILY 26.--AURICULIDÆ. (3 Genera, 210 Species.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
   1 -- -- 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1. 2 -- -- |1. 2. 3 -- |1. 2. 3. 4 | 1. 2 -- 4
             |           |           |           |           |

The Auriculidæ are chiefly found near the sea in hot countries, and are
most abundant in the Eastern tropics. They are absent {519}from the East
coast of South America. The genera have a somewhat restricted distribution
as follows:--

_Auricula_ (128 sp.), India, Pacific Islands, Peru and West Indies;
_Melampus_ (56 sp.), West Indies and Europe; _Carychium_ (9 sp.), Europe
and North America; _Plectrotrema_ (14 sp.), Australia, Malay Islands,
China, Cuba; _Blauneria_ (2 sp.), West Indian and Sandwich Islands. There
are many fossil species ranging back to the Eocene formation.


FAMILY 27.--ACICULIDÆ. (4 Genera, 65 Species.) (1865.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- 2. 3. 4 |1. 2 -- -- | 1. 2 -- 4 |-- -- -- 4 | -- 2 -- 4 |1. 2. 3 --
             |           |           |           |           |

The Aciculidæ are small cylindrical shells chiefly found in the West Indian
Islands, but with representatives widely scattered over the globe.

_Acicula_ (5 sp.) is European only; _Geomelania_ (21 sp.), and _Chittya_ (1
sp.), are confined to the Island of Jamaica; _Truncatella_ (38 sp.), is
most abundant in the Antilles, but is also found in some part of each of
the six regions, as indicated by the diagram of the family. But few new
species have been added to this group.


FAMILY 28.--DIPLOMMATINIDÆ. (3 Genera, 23 Species.) (1865.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- 2 -- -- |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --| 1 -- 3. 4 | 1. 2. 3. 4
             |           |           |           |           |

The Diplommatinidæ are minute shells of the Oriental and Australian
regions.

{520}_Diplommatina_ (18 sp.) inhabits India to Burmah, and the greater part
of the Australian region; the number of species has now been doubled, and
one has been discovered in the island of Trinidad; _Clostophis_ (1 sp.),
Moulmein; _Paxillus_ (3 sp.), Borneo, Hong Kong, and Loo Choo Islands.


FAMILY 29.--CYCLOSTOMIDÆ. (41 Genera, 1009 Species.) (1865.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- 2. 3. 4 |-- -- 3 -- |-- -- -- 4 |-- -- 3. 4 |1. 2. 3. 4 |1 -- -- --
             |           |           |           |           |

This extensive group, comprising the largest of the operculated
land-shells, is especially characteristic of the Oriental region, which
possesses 25 genera, no less than 12 of them being wholly confined to it.
The Neotropical region comes next, with 15 genera, 9 of which are peculiar;
but a large number of these are confined to the West Indian Islands, South
America itself being very poor in this group. The Palæarctic region has 3
peculiar genera; the Ethiopian and Australian 1 each. The Nearctic region
has but a single West Indian species in Florida. The distribution of the
genera is as follows:--

Peculiar to or characteristic of the Oriental region are, _Opisthoporus_
(11 sp.), _Rhiostoma_ (6 sp.), _Alycaeus_ (39 sp.), _Opisthostoma_ (1 sp.),
_Hybocistis_ (3 sp.), _Pterocyclos_ (19 sp.), extending to the Moluccas;
_Aulopoma_ (4 sp.), _Dermatocera_ (4 sp.), _Leptopoma_ (54 sp.), extending
west to the Seychelles and east to the Moluccas and New Guinea;
_Cyclophorus_ (163 sp.), most abundant in the Oriental region, but ranges
to Japan, to Chili, and all Tropical America, over the whole Australian
region, and to Natal and Madagascar; _Cataulus_ (15 sp.), confined to
Ceylon, the Neilgherries and Nicobar Islands; _Rhaphaulus_ (4 sp.), Penang
to Ceram; _Streptaulus_ (1 sp.), _Arinia_ (3 sp.), _Pupinella_ (2 sp.),
_Pupina_ (24 sp.), half in North India to Philippines and {521}Japan, the
other half in Moluccas, New Guinea and Australia; _Cyclotopsis_ (2 sp.),
India and Malaya; _Registoma_ (9 sp.), Philippines and Moluccas, New
Caledonia and Pacific.

Characteristic of the Neotropical region are:--_Cyclotus_ (111 sp.), half
in the Antilles and Tropical America, the rest in the Moluccas, China,
Malaya, India, Natal, and the Seychelle Islands; _Megalomastoma_ (27 sp.),
abundant in Cuba, West Indies and South America, others in India, Malaya,
and Mauritius; _Jamaicia_ (2 sp.), Jamaica; _Licina_ (5 sp.), Antilles;
_Choanopoma_ (49 sp.), Antilles; _Ctenopoma_ (25 sp.), Antilles;
_Diplopoma_ (1 sp.), Cuba; _Adamsiella_ (15 sp.), Jamaica, Cuba, Guatemala;
_Cyclostomus_ (113 sp.), abundant in Antilles, also occurs in Madagascar,
Arabia, Syria, Hungary and New Zealand; _Tudora_ (34 sp.), Antilles, and
one species in Algeria; _Cistula_ (40 sp.), _Chondropoma_ (94 sp.),
_Bourcieria_ (2 sp.), Tropical America.

Peculiar to or characteristic of the Palæarctic region are:--_Craspedopoma_
(5 sp.), confined to Madeira, the Azores and Canaries; _Leonia_ (1 sp.),
Spain and Algeria; _Pomatias_ (22 sp.), Europe and Canaries with a species
in the Himalayas; _Cecina_ (1 sp.), Manchuria.

The Ethiopian region has the peculiar genus _Lithodion_ (5 sp.),
Madagascar, Socotra and Arabia; and _Otopoma_ (19 sp.), Mascarene Islands
and Socotra, with a species in Western India and another in New Ireland.

The Australian region is characterised by _Callia_ (3 sp.), in Ceram,
Australia, and the Philippines respectively; _Realia_ (7 sp.), New Zealand
and the Marquesas Islands; _Omphalotropis_ (38 sp.), the Australian region,
with some species in India, Malaya, and the Mauritius.

The remaining genus, _Hydrocena_ (27 sp.), has a very widely scattered
distribution, being found in South Europe, Japan, the Cape, China, Malaya,
New Zealand, the Pacific Islands and Chili. From 10 to 20 per cent. of new
species have been since described in most of the genera of this family.


{522}FAMILY 30.--HELICINIDÆ. (7 Genera, 433 Species.) (1868.)

                           GENERAL DISTRIBUTION.
   __________________________________/\__________________________________
  /                                                                      \
  NEOTROPICAL| NEARCTIC  |PALÆARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL  | AUSTRALIAN
  SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS|SUB-REGIONS.
  -----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------
             |           |           |           |           |
  -- 2. 3. 4 |-- -- 3 -- |-- -- -- --|-- -- -- --|-- -- 3. 4 |1. 2. 3 --
             |           |           |           |           |

The Helicinidæ are very characteristic of the Antilles, comparatively few
being found in any other part of the world except the Islands of the
Pacific. The genera are:--

_Trochatella_ (33 sp.), Antilles with a species in Venezuela, and another
in Cambodja; _Lucidella_ (5 sp.), Antilles; _Helicina_ (274 sp.), Antilles,
Pacific Islands, Tropical America, Southern United States, Moluccas,
Australia, Philippines, Java, Andaman Islands and North China;
_Schasicheila_ (5 sp.), Mexico, Guatemala and Bahamas; _Alcadia_ (28 sp.),
Antilles; _Georissa_ (5 sp.) Moulmein to Burmah. About 10 per cent. of new
species appear to have been since described in the larger genera of this
family.


_General Observations on the Distribution of the Land Mollusca._

A consideration of the distribution of the families and genera of
land-shells shows us, that although they possess some special features, yet
they agree in many respects with the higher animals in their limitation by
great natural barriers, such as oceans, deserts, mountain ranges, and
climatal zones. A remarkable point in the distribution of these animals, is
the number of genera which have a very limited range, and also the
prevalence of genera having species scattered, as it were at random, all
over the earth. No less than 14 genera (or about one-sixth of the whole
number) are confined to the Antilles, while the greater part of the
sub-genera of modern authors are restricted to limited areas.

If we first compare the New World with the Old, we find the difference as
regards genera quite as great as in most of the {523}vertebrates. In the
Helicidæ, 10 genera are confined to the New, and 7 to the Old World, 16
being common to both. In the Operculata the number of genera of restricted
range is greater,--the New World having 15, the Old World 32 genera, only 8
being common to both. Of the New World genera 12 out of the 15 do not occur
at all in South America; and of those of the Old World, 22 out of the 32
occur in a single region only. If we take the northern and southern
division proposed by Professor Huxley (the latter comprising the Australian
and Neotropical regions), we find a much less well-marked diversity. Among
the Helicidæ only 4 are exclusively northern, 8 southern; while among the
Operculata 22 are northern, 16 southern. The best way to compare these two
kinds of primary division will be to leave out all those genera confined to
a single region each, and to take account only of those characteristic of
two or more of the combined regions; which will evidently show which
division is the most natural one for this group. The result is as
follows:--

GENERA COMMON TO TWO OR MORE REGIONS IN, AND CONFINED TO, EACH PRIMARY
DIVISION OF THE EARTH.

               Helicidæ    Operculata.    Totals.
  { Northern      0             0            0 }
  { Southern      0             0            0 }

  { Old World     1            12           13 }
  { New World     4             0            4 }

We find then that the northern and southern division of the globe is not at
all supported by the distribution of the terrestrial molluscs. It is indeed
very remarkable, that the connection so apparent in many groups between
Australia and South America is so scantily indicated here. The only facts
supporting it seem to be, the occurrence of _Geotrochus_ (a sub-genus of
Helix) in Brazil, as well as in the Austro-Malayan and West Pacific Islands
and North Australia; and of _Bulimus_ in the same two parts of the globe,
but peculiar sub-genera in each. But in neither case is there any affinity
shown between the temperate portions of the two regions, so that we must
probably trace this resemblance to some more ancient diffusion of types
than that which led to the similarity of plants and insects. Still more
curious is the entire {524}absence of genera confined to, and
characteristic of Africa and India. One small sub-genus of _Helix_,
(_Rachis_), and one of _Achatina_, (_Homorus_), appear to have this
distribution,--a fact of but little significance when we find another
sub-genus of _Helix_, (_Hapalus_), common and confined to Guinea and the
Philippine Islands; and when we consider the many other cases of scattered
distribution which cannot be held to indicate any real connection between
the countries implicated. No genus is confined to the Palæarctic and
Nearctic regions as a whole. A large number of sub-genera, many of them of
considerable extent, are peculiar to one or other of these regions, but
only 3 sub-genera of _Helix_ and 2 of _Pupa_ are common and peculiar to the
two combined, and these are always such as have an Arctic range and whose
distribution therefore offers no difficulty.

We find, then, that each of our six regions and almost all of our
sub-regions are distinctly confirmed by the distribution of the terrestrial
mollusca; while the different combinations of them which have at various
times been suggested, receive little or no support whatever. Even those
remarkably isolated sub-regions, New Zealand and Madagascar, have no
strictly peculiar genera of land-shells, although they both possess several
peculiar sub-genera; being thus inferior in isolation to some single West
Indian Islands, to the Sandwich Islands, and even to the North Atlantic
Islands (Canaries, Madeira, and Azores), each of which have peculiar
genera. This of course, only indicates that the means by which land
mollusca have been dispersed are somewhat special and peculiar. To
determine in what this speciality consists we must consider some of the
features of the specific distribution of this group.

The range of genera, and even of sub-genera is, as we have seen, often wide
and erratic, but as a general rule the species have a very restricted area.

Hardly a small island on the globe but has some land-shells peculiar to it.
Juan Fernandez has 20 species, all peculiar. Madeira and Porto Santo have
109 peculiar species out of a total of 134. Every little valley, plain, or
hill-top, in the Sandwich Islands, though only a few square miles in
extent, has its {525}peculiar species of _Achatinella_. Another striking
feature of the distribution of land molluscs, is the richness of islands as
compared with continents. The Philippines contain more species than all
India; and those of the Antilles according to Mr. Bland almost exactly
equal the numbers found in the entire American continent from Greenland to
Patagonia. Taking the whole world, it appears that many more species of
land-shells are found in the islands than on the continents of the globe, a
peculiarity that obtains in no other extensive group of animals.

Looking at these facts it seems probable, that the air-breathing molluscs
have been chiefly distributed by air- or water-carriage, rather than by
voluntary dispersal on the land. Even seas and oceans have not formed
impassable barriers to their diffusion; whereas they only spread on dry
land with excessive slowness and difficulty. The exact mode in which their
diffusion is effected is not known, and it may depend on rare and
exceptional circumstances; but it seems likely to occur in two ways. Snails
frequently conceal themselves in crevices of trees or under bark, or attach
themselves to stems or foliage, and either by their operculum or mucous
diaphragm, are able to protect themselves from the injurious effects of
salt water for long periods. They might therefore, under favourable
conditions, be drifted across arms of the sea or from island to island;
while wherever there are large rivers and occasional floods, they would by
similar means be widely scattered over land areas. Another possible mode of
distribution is by means of storms and hurricanes, which would carry the
smaller species for long distances, and might occasionally transport the
eggs of the larger forms. Aquatic birds might occasionally get both shells
and eggs attached to their feet or their plumage, and convey them across a
wide extent of sea. But whether these, or some other unknown agency has
acted, the facts of distribution clearly imply that some means of transport
over water is, and has been, the chief agent in the distribution of these
animals; but that its action is very rare or intermittent, so that its
effects are hardly perceptible in the distribution of single species.

Another important factor in enabling us to account for the
{526}distribution of these animals is the geological antiquity of the
group, and the amount of change exhibited in time, by species and genera.
Now we find that most of the genera of land-shells range back to the Eocene
period, while those inhabiting fresh water are found almost unchanged in
the Wealden. In North America a species of _Pupa_ and one of _Zonites_,
have been discovered in the coal measures, along with Labyrinthodonts; and
this fact seems to imply, that many more terrestrial molluscs would be
discovered, if fresh-water deposits, made under favourable conditions, were
more frequently met with in the older rocks. If then the existing groups of
land-molluscs are of such vast antiquity, and possess some means, however
rarely occurring, of crossing seas and oceans, we need not wonder at the
wide and erratic distribution now presented by so many of the groups; and
we must not expect them to conform very closely to those regions which
limit the range of animals of higher organization and less antiquity.

The total number of species of pulmoniferous mollusca is about 7,000,
according to the estimate of Mr. Woodward, brought down to 1868 by Mr.
Tate. But this number would be largely increased if the estimates of
specialists were taken. Mr. Woodward for example, gives 760 as the number
of species in the West Indian Islands; whereas Mr. Thomas Bland, who has
made the shells of these islands a special study, considers that there were
1,340 species in 1866. So, the land-shells of the Sandwich Islands are
given at 267; but Mr. Gulick has added 120 species of Achatinellidæ,
bringing the numbers up to nearly 400,--but no doubt several of these are
so closely related that many conchologists would class them as varieties.
The land-shell fauna of the Antilles is undoubtedly the most remarkable in
the world, and it has been made the subject of much interesting discussion
by Mr. Bland and others. This fauna differs from that of all other parts of
the globe in the proportions of the operculate to the inoperculate shells.
The Operculata of the globe are about one-seventh, the Inoperculata about
six-sevenths of the whole; and some general approximation to this
proportion (or a much smaller one) exists in almost all the continents,
islands, and {527}archipelagoes. In the Philippines, for example, the
proportion of the Operculata is a little more than one-seventh; in the
Mauritius, between one-third and one-fourth; in Madeira, one-fourteenth; in
the whole American continent about one-eighth; but when we come to the
Antilles we find them to amount to nearly five-sixths, about half the
Operculata of the globe being found there!

Mr. Bland endeavours to ascertain the source of some of the chief genera
found in the West Indian Islands, on the principle that "each genus has had
its origin where the greatest number of species is found;" and then
proceeds to determine that some have had an African, some an Asiatic, and
some an American origin, while others are truly indigenous. But we fear
there is no such simple way of arriving at so important a result; and in
the case of groups of extreme antiquity like the genera of mollusca, it
would seem quite as possible that the origin of a genus is generally _not_
where the greatest number of species are now found. For during the repeated
changes of physical conditions that have everywhere occurred since the
Eocene period (to go no further back) every genus must have made extensive
migrations, and have often become largely developed in some other district
than that in which it first appeared. As a proof of this, we not
unfrequently find fossil shells where the species and even the genus now no
longer exists; as _Auricula_, found fossil in Europe, but only living in
the Malay and Pacific Islands; _Anastoma_ and _Megaspira_, now peculiar to
Brazil, but fossil in the Eocene of France; and _Proserpina_ of the West
Indies, found in the Eocene formation of the Isle of Wight. The only means
by which the origin of a genus can satisfactorily be arrived at, is by
tracing back its fossil remains step by step to an earlier form; and this
we have at present no means of doing in the case of the land-shells. Taking
existing species as our guide we should certainly have imagined that the
genus _Equus_ originated in Africa or Central Asia; but recent discoveries
of numerous extinct species and of less specialized forms of the same type,
seem to indicate that it originated in North America, and that the whole
tribe of "horses" may be, for anything we yet know {528}to the contrary,
recent immigrants into the Old World! This example alone must convince us,
that it is impossible to form any conclusion as to the origin of a genus,
from the distribution of existing species only.

The general conclusion we arrive at, therefore, is, that the causes that
have led to the existing distribution of the genera and higher groups of
the terrestrial mollusca are so complex, and have acted through such long
periods, that most of the barriers which limit the range of other
terrestrial animals do not apply to them, although the species are, in most
cases, strictly limited by them. Some means of diffusion--which, though
probably acting very slowly and at long intervals, and more powerfully on
continents than between islands, is yet highly efficient when we consider
the long duration of genera--has, to a considerable extent, dispersed them
across continents, seas, and oceans. On the other hand, those mountain
barriers which separate many groups of the higher vertebrates, are
generally less ancient than the genera of land-shells, which are thus often
distributed independently of them. In order to compare the distribution of
the terrestrial mollusca on equal terms with those of land animals
generally, we must take genera of the former as equivalent to family groups
of the latter; and we shall, I believe, then find that the distribution of
the sub-genera and smaller groups of species do accord mainly with those
divisions of the earth into regions and sub-regions which we have here
indicated. Mr. Harper Pease, in a communication on Polynesian Land Shells
in the _Proceedings of the Zoological Society_ for 1871 (p. 449), marks out
the limits of the Polynesian sub-region, so as exactly to agree with that
arrived at here from a consideration of the distribution of vertebrata; and
he says that this sub-region, (or region, as he terms it) is distinctly
characterised by its land-shells from all the surrounding regions. The
genera (or sub-genera) _Partula_, _Pitys_, _Achatinella_, _Palaina_,
_Omphalotropis_, and many others, are either wholly confined to this
sub-region or highly characteristic of it. Mr. Binney, in his _Catalogue of
the Air-breathing Molluscs of North America_, marks out our Nearctic region
(with almost identical limits) as most clearly {529}characterised. He also
arrives at a series of sub-divisions, which generally (though not exactly)
agree with the sub-regions which I have here adopted. The Palæarctic, the
Ethiopian, and the Oriental regions, are also generally admitted to be well
characterised by their terrestrial molluscs. There only remain the
Australian and the Neotropical regions, in which some want of homogeneity
is apparent, owing to the vast development and specialisation of certain
groups in the islands which belong to these regions. The Antilles, on the
one hand, and the Polynesian Islands, on the other, are so rich in
land-shells and possess so many peculiar forms, that, judged by these
alone, they must form primary instead of secondary divisions. We have,
however, already pointed out the inconvenience of any such partial systems
of zoological geography, and the causes have been sufficiently indicated
which have, in the case of land-shells as of insects, produced certain
special features of distribution.

We therefore venture to hope, that conchologists will give us the advantage
of their more full and accurate knowledge both of the classification and
distribution of this interesting group of animals, not to map out new sets
of regions for themselves, but to show what kind of barriers have been most
efficient in limiting the range of species, and how their distribution is
actually effected, so as to be able to explain whatever discrepancies exist
between the actual distribution of land-shells and that of the higher
animals.


_Order III.--OPISTHO-BRANCHIATA._

There are ten families in this order, all of which, as far as known, are
widely or universally distributed. Some of them are found fossil, ranging
back to the Carboniferous epoch. They are commonly termed Sea-slugs, and
have either a thin small shell or none. We shall therefore simply enumerate
the families, with the number of genera and species as given by Mr.
Woodward.

{530}FAMILY 31.--TORNATELLIDÆ. (7 Genera, 62 Species living, 166 fossil.)

FAMILY 32.--BULLIDÆ. (12 Genera, 168 Species living, 88 fossil.)

FAMILY 33.--APHYSIADÆ. (8 Genera, 84 Species living, 4 fossil.)

FAMILY 34.--PLEUROBRANCHIDÆ. (7 Genera, 28 Species living, 5 fossil.)

FAMILY 35.--PHYLLIDIADÆ. (4 Genera, 14 Species living, 0 fossil.)

FAMILY 36.--DORIDÆ. (23 Genera, 160 Species living, 0 fossil.)

FAMILY 37.--TRITONIADÆ. (9 Genera, 38 Species living, 0 fossil.)

FAMILY 38.--ÆOLIDÆ. (14 Genera, 101 Species living, 0 fossil.)

FAMILY 39.--PHYLLYRHOIDÆ. (1 Genus, 6 Species living, 0 fossil.)

FAMILY 40.--ELYSIADÆ. (5 Genera, 13 Species living, 0 fossil.)


{531}_Order IV.--NUCLEO-BRANCHIATA._

These are oceanic, swimming molluscs, of a delicate texture. They are found
in all warm seas, and range back to the Lower Silurian epoch. There are
only two families.

FAMILY 41.--FIROLIDÆ. (2 Genera, 33 Species living, 1 fossil.)

FAMILY 42.--ATLANTIDÆ. (5 Genera, 22 Species living, 159 fossil.)


CLASS.--PTEROPODA.

These are swimming, oceanic mollusca, inhabiting both Arctic, Temperate,
and Tropical seas. The three families have each a wide distribution in all
the great oceans. They range back to the Silurian period.

FAMILY 1.--HYALEIDÆ. (9 Genera, 52 Species living, 95 fossil.)

FAMILY 2.--LIMACINIDÆ. (4 Genera, 19 Species living, 0 fossil.)

FAMILY 3.--CLIONIDÆ. (4 Genera, 14 Species living, 0 fossil.)


{532}CLASS.--BRACHIOPODA.

These are sedentary, bivalve, marine mollusca, having laterally symmetrical
shells, but with unequal valves. Both in space and time they are the most
widely distributed molluscs. They are found in all seas, and at all depths;
and when any of the families or genera have a restricted range, it seems to
be due to our imperfect knowledge, rather than to any real geographical
limitations. In time they range back to the Cambrian formation, and seem to
have had their maximum development in the Silurian period. It is not,
therefore, necessary for our purpose, to do more than give the names of the
families with the numbers of the genera and species, as before.

FAMILY 1.--TEREBRATULIDÆ. (5 Genera, 67 Species living, 340 fossil.)

FAMILY 2.--SPIRIFERIDÆ. (4 Genera, 0 Species living, 380 fossil.)

FAMILY 3.--RHYNCHONELLIDÆ. (3 Genera, 4 Species living, 422 fossil.)

FAMILY 4.--ORTHIDÆ. (4 Genera, 0 Species living, 328 fossil.)

FAMILY 5.--PRODUCTIDÆ. (3 Genera, 0 Species living, 146 fossil.)

FAMILY 6.--CRANIADÆ. (1 Genus, 5 Species living, 37 fossil.)

FAMILY 7.--DISCINIDÆ. (2 Genera, 10 Species living, 90 fossil.)

FAMILY 8.--LINGULIDÆ. (2 Genera, 16 Species living, 99 fossil.)


{533}CLASS.--CONCHIFERA.

The Conchifera, or ordinary Bivalve Molluscs, may be distinguished from the
Brachiopoda by having their shells laterally unsymmetrical, while the
valves are generally (but not always) equal. They are mostly marine, but a
few inhabit fresh water. As the distribution of some of the families
presents points of interest, we shall treat them in the same manner as the
marine Gasteropoda.


FAMILY 1.--OSTREIDÆ. (5 Genera, 426 Species.)

DISTRIBUTION.--The Ostreidæ, including the Oysters and Scallops, are found
in all seas, Arctic as well as Tropical. There are nearly 1,400 species
fossil, ranging back to the Carboniferous period.


FAMILY 2.--AVICULIDÆ. (3 Genera, 94 Species.)

DISTRIBUTION.--The Aviculidæ, or Wing-shells and Pearl Oysters, are
characteristic of Tropical and warm seas, a few only ranging into temperate
regions. Nearly 700 fossil species are known from various formations
ranging back to the Devonian, and Lower Silurian.


FAMILY 3.--MYTILIDÆ. (3 Genera, 217 Species.)

DISTRIBUTION.--The Mytilidæ, or Mussels, have a world-wide distribution.
There is one fresh-water species, which inhabits the Volga. There are about
350 fossil species, ranging back to the Carboniferous epoch.


{534}FAMILY 4.--ARCADÆ. (6 Genera, 360 Species.)

DISTRIBUTION.--The Arcadæ are universally distributed, and are most
abundant in warm seas. The genus _Leda_ is, however, abundant in Arctic and
Temperate regions, and _Solenella_ is confined to the South Temperate zone.
There are near 1,200 fossil species, found in all strata as low as the
Lower Silurian.


FAMILY 5.--TRIGONIADÆ. (1 Genus, 3 Species.)

DISTRIBUTION.--The living _Trigoniæ_ are confined to Australia, but there
are 5 other genera fossil, containing about 150 species, and found in
various formations from the Chalk to the Lower Silurian.


FAMILY 6.--UNIONIDÆ. (7 Genera, 549 Species.)

DISTRIBUTION.--The Unionidæ, or Fresh-water Mussels, are found in all the
fresh waters of the globe, but some of the genera are restricted.
_Castalia_, _Mycetopus_ and _Mulleria_ are confined to the rivers of South
America; _Anodon_, to the Nearctic and Palæarctic regions; _Iridina_, and
_Etheria_, to the rivers of Africa; _Unio_ has a universal distribution,
but is especially abundant in North America. About 60 fossil species are
found in the Tertiary and Wealden formations.


FAMILY 7.--CHAMIDÆ. (1 Genus, 50 Species.)

DISTRIBUTION.--The Chamidæ, or Giant Clams, are confined to Tropical seas,
chiefly among coral reefs. There are two other genera and 62 species
fossil, ranging from the Chalk to the Oolite formations.


FAMILY 8.--HIPPURITIDÆ. (5 Genera, 103 Species.)

Fossils of doubtful affinity, from the Chalk formation.


{535}FAMILY 9.--TRIDACNIDÆ. (1 Genus, 8 Species.)

DISTRIBUTION.--The Tridacnidæ, or Clam-shells, are of very large size, and
are confined to the Tropical regions of the Indian and Pacific Oceans. A
few species have been found fossil in the Miocene formation.


FAMILY 10.--CARDIADÆ. (1 Genus, 200 Species.)

DISTRIBUTION.--The Cardiadæ, or Cockles, are of world-wide distribution.
Another genus is fossil, and nearly 400 fossil species are known, ranging
back to the Upper Silurian formation.


FAMILY 11.--LUCINIDÆ (8 Genera, 178 Species.)

DISTRIBUTION.--The Lucinidæ inhabit the Tropical and Temperate seas of all
parts of the world; but the genus _Corbis_ is confined to the Indian and
Pacific Oceans, _Montacuta_ and _Lepton_, to the Atlantic. There are nearly
500 extinct species, ranging from the Tertiary back to the Silurian
formation.


FAMILY 12.--CYCLADIDÆ. (3 Genera, 176 Species.)

DISTRIBUTION.--The Cycladidæ are small fresh- or brackish-water shells
found all over the globe. The genus _Cyclas_ is most abundant in the North
Temperate zone, while _Cyrena_ inhabits the warmer shores of the Atlantic
and Pacific, but is absent from the West Coast of America. There are about
150 species fossil, ranging back from the Pliocene to the Wealden
formations.


FAMILY 13.--CYPRINIDÆ. (10 Genera, 176 Species).

DISTRIBUTION.--Universal. _Cyprina_ and _Astarte_ are Arctic and North
Temperate; _Cardita_ is Tropical and South Temperate. There are several
extinct genera and about 1,000 species found in all formations as far back
as the Lower Silurian.


{536}FAMILY 14.--VENERIDÆ. (10 Genera, 600 Species.)

DISTRIBUTION.--Universal. _Lucinopsis_ is confined to the North Atlantic;
_Glauconeza_ to the months of rivers in the Oriental region; _Meroe_ and
_Trigona_ to warm seas. There are about 350 fossil species, ranging back to
the Oolitic period.


FAMILY 15.--MACTRIDÆ. (5 Genera, 147 Species.)

DISTRIBUTION.--All seas, but more abundant in the Tropics. _Gnathodon_ is
found in the Gulf of Mexico; _Anatinella_ in the Oriental region. There are
about 60 fossil species, ranging back to the Carboniferous period.


FAMILY 16.--TELLINIDÆ. (11 Genera, 560 Species.)

DISTRIBUTION.--All seas; most abundant in the Tropics. _Galatea_ is
confined to African rivers. There are about 60 fossil species, mostly
Tertiary, but ranging back to the Carboniferous period.


FAMILY 17.--SOLENIDÆ. (3 Genera, 63 Species.)

DISTRIBUTION.--All Temperate and Tropical seas. There are 80 fossil species
which range back to the Carboniferous epoch.


FAMILY 18.--MYACIDÆ. (6 Genera, 121 Species.)

DISTRIBUTION.--All seas. _Panopæa_ inhabits both North and South Temperate
seas; _Glycimeris_, Arctic seas. There are near 350 fossil species, ranging
back to the Lower Oolite formation.


FAMILY 19.--ANATINIDÆ. (8 Genera, 246 Species.)

DISTRIBUTION.--All seas. _Pholadomya_ is from Tropical Africa; _Myadora_
from the Western Pacific; _Myochama_ and _Chamostræa_ are Australian. There
are about 400 fossil species, ranging back to the Lower Silurian formation.


{537}FAMILY 20.--GASTROCHÆNIDÆ. (5 Genera, 40 Species.)

DISTRIBUTION.--Temperate and warm seas. _Aspergillum_ ranges from the Red
Sea to New Zealand. There are 35 fossil species, ranging back to the Lower
Oolite.


FAMILY 21.--PHOLADIDÆ (4 Genera, 81 Species.)

DISTRIBUTION.--These burrowing molluscs inhabit all Temperate and warm seas
from Norway to New Zealand. There are about 50 fossil species, ranging back
to the epoch of the Lias.


_General Remarks on the Distribution of the Marine Mollusca._

The marine Mollusca are remarkable for their usually wide distribution.
About 48 of the families are cosmopolitan, ranging over both hemispheres,
and in cold as well as warm seas. About 15 are restricted to the warmer
seas of the globe; but several of these extend from Norway to New Zealand,
a distribution which may be called universal, and only 2 or 3 are
absolutely confined to Tropical seas. Two small families only, are confined
to the Pacific and Indian Oceans. Marine fishes, on the other hand, have a
much less cosmopolitan character, no less than 30 families having a limited
distribution, while 50 are universal. Some of these 30 families are
confined to the Northern seas, some to the Atlantic and Mediterranean, and
a considerable number to the Indian Ocean and Western Pacific. Many of
these families, it is true, are much smaller than those of the Mollusca,
which seem to possess very few of those small isolated families of two or
three species only, which abound in all the Vertebrate classes. These
differences are no doubt connected with the higher organisation of fishes,
which renders them more susceptible to changed conditions of life; and this
is indicated by the much less antiquity of existing families of fishes, the
greater part of which do not date back beyond the Cretaceous epoch, and
many of them only to the Eocene. In striking contrast we have the vast
antiquity of most of the families of {538}Mollusca, as shown in the
following table of their range taken from Mr. Woodward's work, but
re-arranged, and somewhat modified.

  1 = Lower Silurian.        6 = Trias.                 11 = Eocene.
  2 = Upper Silurian.        7 = Lower Oolite.          12 = Miocene.
  3 = Devonian.              8 = Upper Oolite.          13 = Pliocene.
  4 = Carboniferous.         9 = Lower Cretaceous.      14 = Recent.
  5 = Permian.              10 = Upper Cretaceous.

  +-----------------------------+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+
  |    Range of Families of     |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |
  |  Mollusca in Time; arranged |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |
  | in their order of appearance|  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |
  |      and disappearance.     | 1| 2| 3| 4| 5| 6| 7| 8| 9|10|11|12|13|14|
  +-----------------------------+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+
  | Productidæ                  |--|--|--|--|--|  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |
  | Orthoceratidæ               |--|--|--|--|--|--|  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |
  | Spiriferidæ, Orthidæ        |--|--|--|--|--|--|--|  |  |  |  |  |  |  |
  | Atlantidæ, Hyaleidæ         |--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|
  | Pyramidellidæ, Turbinidæ    |--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|
  | Ianthidæ, Chitonidæ         |--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|
  | Lingulidæ                   |--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|
  | Aviculidæ, Mytilidæ         |--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|
  | Arcadæ, Trigoniadæ          |--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|
  | Cyprinidæ, Anatinidæ        |--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|
  | Nautilidæ                   |  |--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|
  | Rhynchonellidæ, Craniadæ, } |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |
  |   Discinidæ               } |  |--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|
  | Cardiadæ, Lucinidæ          |  |--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|
  | Ammonitidæ                  |  |  |--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|  |  |  |  |
  | Naticidæ, Calyptræidæ       |  |  |--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|
  | Dentalidæ, Terebratulidæ    |  |  |--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|
  | Helicidæ                    |  |  |  |--|  |  |  |  |  |  |--|--|--|--|
  | Fissurellidæ, Tornatellidæ  |  |  |  |--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|
  | Pectinidæ, Solenidæ         |  |  |  |--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|
  | Cerithiadæ, Littorinidæ, }  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |
  |   Astartidæ              }  |  |  |  |  |  |--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|
  | Belemnitidæ                 |  |  |  |  |  |  |--|--|--|--|  |  |  |  |
  | Teuthidæ, Sepiadæ           |  |  |  |  |  |  |--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|
  | Neritidæ, Patellidæ, }      |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |
  |   Bullidæ            }      |  |  |  |  |  |  |--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|
  | Gastrochænidæ, Pholadidæ    |  |  |  |  |  |  |--|--|--|--|--|--|--|--|
  | Limnæidæ, Melaniadæ         |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |--|--|--|--|--|--|--|
  | Chamidæ, Myadæ              |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |--|--|--|--|--|--|--|
  | Cycladidæ, Veneridæ, }      |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |
  |   Tellinidæ          }      |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |--|--|--|--|--|--|--|
  | Hippuritidæ                 |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |--|--|  |  |  |  |
  | Unionidæ                    |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |--|--|--|--|--|--|
  | Strombidæ, Buccinidæ        |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |--|--|--|--|--|--|
  | Conidæ, Volutidæ            |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |--|--|--|--|--|--|
  | Auriculidæ, Cyclostomidæ    |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |--|--|--|--|--|--|
  | Mactridæ                    |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |--|--|--|--|--|--|
  | Limacidæ                    |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |--|--|--|--|
  | Argonautidæ                 |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |--|--|
  | Tridacnidæ                  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |--|--|
  +-----------------------------+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+

Nor is this enormous antiquity confined to family types alone. Many genera
are equally ancient. The genus _Lingula_ has {539}existed from the earliest
Palæozoic times down to the present day; while _Terebratula_,
_Rhynchonella_, _Discina_, _Nautilus_, _Natica_, _Pleurotomaria_,
_Patella_, _Dentalium_, _Mytilus_ and many other living forms, range back
to the Palæozoic epoch. That groups of such immense antiquity, and having
power to resist such vast changes of external conditions as they must have
been subject to, should now be widely distributed, is no more than might
reasonably be expected. It is only in the case of sub-genera and species,
that we can expect the influence of recent geological or climatal changes
to be manifest; and it must be left to special students to work out the
details of their distribution, with reference to the general principles
found to obtain among the more highly organised animals.




{540}CHAPTER XXIII.

SUMMARY OF THE DISTRIBUTION, AND LINES OF MIGRATION, OF THE SEVERAL CLASSES
OF ANIMALS.

Having already given summaries of the distribution of the several orders,
and of some of the classes of land animals, we propose here to make a few
general remarks on the special phenomena presented by the more important
groups, and to indicate where possible, the general lines of migration by
which they have become dispersed over wide areas.


MAMMALIA.

This class is very important, and its past history is much better known
than that of most others. We shall therefore briefly summarise the results
we have arrived at from our examination of the distribution of extinct and
living forms of each order.

_Primates._--This order, being pre-eminently a tropical one, became
separated into two portions, inhabiting the Eastern and Western Hemispheres
respectively, at a very early epoch. In consequence of this separation it
has diverged more radically than most other orders, so that the two
American families, Cebidæ and Hapalidæ, are widely differentiated from the
Apes, Monkeys, and Lemurs of the Old World. The Lemurs were probably still
more ancient, but being much lower in organisation, they became extinct in
most of the areas where the higher forms of Primates became developed.
Remains found in the Eocene formation indicate, that the North American and
European {541}Primates had, even at that early epoch, diverged into
distinct series, so that we must probably look back to the secondary period
for the ancestral form from which the entire order was developed.

_Chiroptera._--These are also undoubtedly very ancient. The most
generalised forms--the Vespertilionidæ and Noctilionidæ--are the most
widely distributed; while special types have arisen in America, and in the
Eastern Hemisphere. Remains found in the Upper Eocene formation of Europe
differ little from species still living in the same countries; so that we
can form no conjecture as to the origin or migration, of the group. Their
power of flight would, however, enable them rapidly to spread over all the
great continents of the globe.

_Insectivora._--This very ancient group, now probably verging towards
extinction, appears to have originated in the Northern continent, and never
to have reached Australia or South America. It may, however, have become
extinct in the latter country owing to the competition of the numerous
Edentata. The Insectivora now often maintain themselves amidst more highly
developed forms, by means of some special protection. Some burrow in the
earth,--like the moles; others have a spiny covering,--as the hedgehog's
and several of the Centetidæ; others are aquatic,---as the _Potamogale_ and
the desman; others have a nauseous odour,--as the shrews; while there are
several which seem to be preserved by their resemblance to higher
forms,--as the elephant-shrews to jerboas, and the tupaias to squirrels.
The same need of protection is shown by the numerous Insectivora inhabiting
Madagascar, where the competing forms are few; and by one lingering in the
Antilles, where there are hardly any other mammalia.

_Carnivora._--Although perhaps less ancient than the preceding, this form
of mammal is far more highly organised, and from its earliest appearance
appears to have become dominant in the world. It would therefore soon
spread widely, and diverge into the various specialised types represented
by existing families. Most of these appear to have originated in the
Eastern Hemisphere, the only Carnivora occurring in North {542}American
Miocene deposits being ancestral forms of Canidæ and Felidæ. It seems
probable, therefore, that the order had attained a considerable development
before it reached the Western Hemisphere. The Procyonidæ, now confined to
America, are not very ancient; and the occurrence of a few allied forms in
the Himalayas (_Ælurus_ and _Æluropus_) render it probable that their
common ancestors entered North America from the Palæarctic region during
the Miocene period, but being a rather low type they have succumbed under
the competition of higher forms in most parts of the Eastern Hemisphere.
Bears and Weasels are probably still more recent emigrants to America. The
aquatic carnivora (Seals, &c.) are, as might be expected, more widely and
uniformly distributed, but there is little evidence to show at what period
the type was first developed.

_Ungulata._--These are the dominant vegetable-feeders of the great
continents, and they have steadily increased in numbers and in
specialisation from the oldest Tertiary times to the present day. Being
generally of larger size and less active than the Carnivora, they have
somewhat more restricted powers of dispersal. We have good evidence that
their wide range over the globe is a comparatively recent phenomenon.
Tapirs and Llamas have probably not long inhabited South America, while
Rhinoceroses and Antelopes were once, perhaps, unknown in Africa, although
abounding in Europe and Asia. Swine are one of the most ancient types in
both hemispheres; and their great hardiness, their omnivorous diet, and
their powers of swimming, have led to their wide distribution. The sheep
and goats, on the other hand, are perhaps the most recent development of
the Ungulata, and they seem to have arisen in the Palæarctic region at a
time when its climate already approximated to that which now prevails.
Hence they are pre-eminently a Temperate group, never found within the
Tropics except upon a few mountain ranges.

_Proboscidea._--These huge animals (the Elephants and Mastodons) appear to
have originated in the warmer parts of the Palæarctic region, but they soon
spread over all the great {543}continents, even reaching the southern
extremity of America. Their extinction has probably depended more on
physical than on organic changes, and we can clearly trace their almost
total disappearance to the effects of the Glacial epoch.

_Rodentia._--Rodents are a very dominant group, and a very ancient one.
Owing to their small size and rapid powers of increase, they soon spread
over almost every part of the globe, whence has resulted a great
specialisation of family types in the South American continent which
remained so long isolated. They are capable of living wherever there is any
kind of vegetable food, hence their range will be determined rather by
organic than by physical conditions; and the occupation of a country by
enemies or by competing forms, is probably the chief cause which has
prevented many of the families from acquiring a wide range. The occurrence
of isolated species of the South American families, Octodontidæ and
Echimyidæ in the Ethiopian and Palæarctic regions, is an indication that
the range of many of the families has recently become less extensive.

_Edentata._--These singular and lowly-organised animals appear to have
become almost restricted to the two great Southern lands--South Africa and
South America--at an early period; and, being there free from the
competition of higher forms, developed a number of remarkable types often
of huge size, of which the Megatherium is one of the best known. The
incursion of the highly-organised Ungulates and Carnivora into Africa
during the Miocene epoch, probably exterminated most of them in that
continent; but in America they continued in full force down to the
Post-Pliocene period; and even now, the comparatively diminutive Sloths,
Ant-eaters, and Armadillos, form a large and important portion of the
fauna.

_Marsupialia and Monotremata._--These are probably the representatives of
the most ancient and lowly-organised types of mammal. They once existed in
the northern continents, whence they spread into Australia; and being
isolated, and preserved from the competition of the higher forms which soon
arose in other parts of the world, they have developed into a variety of
types, which, however, still preserve a general {544}uniformity of
organisation. One family, which continued to exist in Europe till the
latter part of the Miocene period, reached America, and has there been
preserved to our day.

_Lines of Migration of the Mammalia._--The whole series of phenomena
presented by the distribution of the Mammalia, looked at broadly, are in
harmony with the view that the great continents and oceans of our own epoch
have been in existence, with comparatively small changes, during all
Tertiary times. Each one of them has, no doubt, undergone considerable
modifications in its area, its altitude, and in its connection with other
lands. Yet some considerable portion of each continent has, probably, long
existed in its present position, while the great oceans seem to have
occupied the same depressions of the earth's crust (varied, perhaps, by
local elevations and subsidences) during all this vast period of time.
Hence, allowing for the changes of which we have more or less satisfactory
evidence, the migrations of the chief mammalian types can be pretty clearly
traced. Some, owing to their small size and great vitality, have spread to
almost all the chief land masses; but the majority of the orders have a
more restricted range. All the evidence at our command points to the
Northern Hemisphere as the birth-place of the class, and probably of all
the orders. At a very early period the land communication with Australia
was cut off, and has never been renewed; so that we have here preserved for
us a sample of one or more of the most ancient forms of mammal. Somewhat
later the union with South America and South Africa was severed; and in
both these countries we have samples of a somewhat more advanced stage of
mammalian development. Later still, the union by a northern route between
the Eastern and Western Hemispheres appears to have been broken, partly by
a physical separation, but almost as effectually by a lowering of
temperature. About the same period the separation of the Palæarctic region
from the Oriental was effected, by the rise of the Himalayas and the
increasing contrast of climate; while the formation of the great
desert-belts of the Sahara, Arabia, Persia, and Central Asia, helped to
complete the separation of {545}the Temperate and Tropical zones, and to
render further intermigration almost impossible.

In a few cases--of which the Rodents in Australia and the pigs in
Austro-Malaya are perhaps the most striking examples--the distribution of
land-mammals has been effected by a sea-passage either by swimming or on
floating vegetation; but, as a rule, we may be sure that the migrations of
mammalia have taken place over the land; and their presence on islands is,
therefore, a clear indication that these have been once connected with a
continent. The present class of animals thus affords the best evidence of
the past history of the land surface of our globe; and we have chiefly
relied upon it in sketching out (in Part III.) the probable changes which
each of our great regions has undergone.


_Birds._

Although birds are, of all land-vertebrates, the best able to cross seas
and oceans, it is remarkable how closely the main features of their
distribution correspond with those of the Mammalia. South America possesses
the low Formicaroid type of Passeres,--which, compared with the more highly
developed forms of the Eastern Hemisphere, is analogous to the Cebidæ and
Hapalidæ as compared with the Old World Apes and Monkeys; while its Cracidæ
as compared with the Pheasants and Grouse, may be considered parallel to
the Edentata as compared with the Ungulates of the Old World. The
Marsupials of America and Australia, are paralleled among birds, in the
Struthionidæ and Megapodiidæ; the Lemurs and Insectivora preserved in
Madagascar are represented by the Mascarene Dididæ; the absence of Deer and
Bears from Africa is analogous to the absence of Wrens, Creepers, and
Pheasants; while the African Hyracidæ and Chrysochloridæ among mammals, may
well be compared with the equally peculiar Coliidæ and Musophagidæ among
birds.

From these and many other similarities of distribution, it is clear that
birds have, as a rule, followed the same great lines of migration as
mammalia; and that oceans, seas, and deserts, have {546}always to a great
extent limited their range. Yet these barriers have not been absolute; and
in the course of ages birds have been able to reach almost every habitable
land upon the globe. Hence have arisen some of the most curious and
interesting phenomena of distribution; and many islands, which are entirely
destitute of mammalia, or possess a very few species, abound in birds,
often of peculiar types and remarkable for some unusual character or habit.
Striking examples of such interesting bird-faunas are those of New Zealand,
the Sandwich Islands, the Galapagos, the Mascarene Islands, the Moluccas,
and the Antilles; while even small and remote islets,--such as Juan
Fernandez and Norfolk Island, have more light thrown upon their past
history by means of their birds, than by any other portion of their scanty
fauna.

Another peculiar feature in the distribution of this class is the
extraordinary manner in which certain groups and certain external
characteristics, have become developed in islands, where the smaller and
less powerful birds have been protected from the incursions of mammalian
enemies, and where rapacious birds--which seem to some degree dependent on
the abundance of mammalia--are also scarce. Thus, we have the Pigeons and
the Parrots most wonderfully developed in the Australian region, which is
pre-eminently insular; and both these groups here acquire conspicuous
colours very unusual, or altogether absent, elsewhere. Similar colours
(black and red) appear, in the same two groups, in the distant Mascarene
islands; while in the Antilles the parrots have often white heads, a
character not found in the allied species on the South American continent.
Crests, too, are largely developed, in both these groups, in the Australian
region only; and a crested parrot formerly lived in Mauritius,--a
coincidence too much like that of the colours as above noted, to be
considered accidental.

Again, birds exhibit to us a remarkable contrast as regards the oceanic
islands of tropical and temperate latitudes; for while most of the former
present hardly any cases of specific identity with the birds of adjacent
continents, the latter often show hardly any differences. The Galapagos and
Madagascar {547}are examples of the first-named peculiarity; the Azores and
the Bermudas of the last; and the difference can be clearly traced to the
frequency and violence of storms in the one case and to the calms or steady
breezes in the other.

It appears then, that although birds do not afford us the same convincing
proof of the former union of now disjoined lands as we obtain from mammals,
yet they give us much curious and suggestive information as to the various
and complex modes in which the existing peculiarities of the distribution
of animals have been brought about. They also throw much light on the
relation between distribution and the external characters of animals; and,
as they are often found where mammalia are quite absent, we must rank them
as of equal value for the purposes of our present study.


_Reptiles._

These hold a somewhat intermediate place, as regards their distribution,
between mammals and birds, having on the whole rather a wider range than
the former, and a more restricted one than the latter.

Snakes appear to have hardly more facilities for crossing the ocean than
mammals; hence they are generally absent from oceanic islands. They are
more especially a tropical group, and have thus never been able to pass
from one continent to another by those high northern and southern routes,
which we have seen reason to believe were very effectual in the case of
mammalia and some other animals. Hence we find no resemblance between the
Australian and Neotropical regions, or between the Palæarctic and Nearctic;
while the Western Hemisphere is comparatively poor as regards variety of
types, although rich in genera and species. Deserts and high mountains are
also very effectual barriers for this group, and their lines of migration
have probably been along river valleys, and occasionally across narrow seas
by means of floating vegetation.

Lizards, being somewhat less tropical than snakes, may have passed by the
northern route during warm epochs. They are also more suited to traverse
deserts, and they possess some unknown {548}means of crossing the ocean, as
they are not unfrequently found in remote oceanic islands. These various
causes have modified their distribution. The Western Hemisphere is much
richer in lizards than it is in snakes; and it is also very distinct from
the Eastern Hemisphere. The lines of migration of lizards appear to have
been along the mountains and deserts of tropical countries, and, under
special conditions, across tropical seas from island to island.

Crocodiles are a declining group. They were once more generally
distributed, all the three families being found in British Eocene deposits.
Being aquatic and capable of living in the sea, they can readily pass along
all the coasts and islands of the warmer parts of the globe. Tortoises are
equally ancient, and the restriction of certain groups to definite areas
seems to be also a recent phenomenon.


_Amphibia._

The Amphibia differ widely from Reptiles in their power of enduring cold;
one of their chief divisions, the Urodela or Tailed-Batrachia, being
confined to the temperate parts of the Northern Hemisphere. To this class
of animals the northern and southern routes of migration were open; and we
accordingly find a considerable amount of resemblance between South America
and Australia, and a still stronger affinity between North America and the
Palæarctic continent. The other tropical regions are more distinct from
each other; clearly indicating that, in this group, it is tropical deserts
and tropical oceans which are the barriers to migration. The class however
is very fragmentary, and probably very ancient; so that descendants of once
widespread types are now found isolated in various parts of the globe,
between which we may feel sure there has been no direct transmission of
Batrachia. Remembering that their chief lines of migration have been by
northern and southern land-routes, by floating ice, by fresh-water
channels, and perhaps at rare intervals by ova being carried by aquatic
birds or by violent storms,--we shall be able to comprehend most of the
features of their actual distribution.


{549}_Fresh-water Fishes._

Although it would appear, at first sight, that the means of dispersal of
these animals are very limited, yet they share to some extent the wide
range of other fresh-water organisms. They are found in all climates; but
the tropical regions are by far the most productive, and of these South
America is perhaps the richest and most peculiar. There is a certain amount
of identity between the two northern continents, and also between those of
the South Temperate zone; yet all are radically distinct, even North
America and Europe having but a small proportion of their forms in common.
The occurrence of allied fresh-water species in remote lands--as the
_Aphritis_ of Tasmania and Patagonia, and the _Comephorus_ of Lake Baikal,
distantly allied to the mackerels of Northern seas--would imply that marine
fishes are often modified for a life in fresh waters; while other facts no
less plainly show that permanent fresh-water species are sometimes
dispersed in various ways across the oceans, more especially by the
northern and southern routes.

The families of fresh-water fishes are often of restricted range, although
cases of very wide and scattered distribution also occur. The great
zoological regions are, on the whole, very well characterized; showing that
the same barriers are effectual here, as with most other vertebrates. We
conclude, therefore, that the chief lines of migration of fresh-water
fishes have been across the Arctic and Antarctic seas, probably by means of
floating ice as well as by the help of the vast flocks of migratory aquatic
birds that frequent those regions. On continents they are, usually, widely
dispersed; but tropical seas, even when of small extent, appear to have
offered an effectual barrier to their dispersal. The cases of affinity
between Tropical America, Africa, Asia, and Australia, must therefore be
imputed either to the survival of once widespread groups, or to analogous
adaptation to a fresh-water life of wide-spread marine types; and these
cases cannot be taken as evidence of any former land connection between
such remote continents.


{550}_Insects._

It has already been shown (Vol. I. pp. 209-213 and Vol. II. pp. 44-48) that
the peculiarities of distribution of the various groups of insects depend
very much on their habits and general economy. Their antiquity is so vast,
and their more important modifications of structure have probably occurred
so slowly, that modes of dispersal depending on such a combination of
favourable conditions as to be of excessive rarity, may yet have had time
to produce large cumulative effects. Their small specific gravity and their
habits of flight render them liable to dispersal by winds to an extent
unknown in other classes of animals; and thus, what are usually very
effectual barriers have been overstepped, and sometimes almost obliterated,
in the case of insects. A careful examination will, however, almost always
show traces of an ancient fauna, agreeing in character with other classes
of animals, intermixed with the more prominent and often more numerous
forms whose presence is due to this unusual facility of dispersal.

The effectual migration of insects is, perhaps more than in any other class
of animals, limited by organic and physical conditions. The vegetation, the
soil, the temperature, and the supply of moisture, must all be suited to
their habits and economy; while they require an immunity from enemies of
various kinds, which immigrants to a new country seldom obtain. Few
organisms have, in so many complex ways, become adapted to their special
environment, as have insects. They are in each country more or less adapted
to the plants which belong to it; while their colours, their habits, and
the very nature of the juices of their system, are all modified so as to
protect them from the special dangers which surround them in their native
land. It follows, that while no animals are so well adapted to show us the
various modes by which dispersal may be effected, none can so effectually
teach us the true nature and vast influence of the organic barrier in
limiting dispersal.

It is probable that insects have at one time or another taken advantage of
every line of migration by which any terrestrial {551}organisms have spread
over the earth, but owing to their small size and rapid multiplication,
they have made use of some which are exclusively their own. Such are the
passage along mountain ranges from the Arctic to the Antarctic regions, and
the dispersal of certain types over all temperate lands. It will perhaps be
found that insects have spread over the land surface in directions
dependent on our surface zones--forests, pastures, and deserts;--and a
study of these, with a due consideration of the fact that narrow seas are
scarcely a barrier to most of the groups, may assist us to understand many
of the details of insect-distribution.


_Terrestrial Mollusca._

The distribution of land-shells agrees, in some features, with that of
insects, while in others the two are strongly contrasted. In both we see
the effects of great antiquity, with some special means of dispersal; but
while in insects the general powers of motion, both voluntary and
involuntary, are at a maximum, in land-molluscs they are almost at a
minimum. Although to some extent dependent on vegetation and climate, the
latter are more dependent on inorganic conditions, and also to a large
extent on the general organic environment. The result of these various
causes, acting through countless ages, has been to spread the main types of
structure with considerable uniformity over the globe; while generic and
sub-generic forms are often wonderfully localized.

Land-shells, even more than insects, seem, at first sight, to require
regions of their own; but we have already pointed out the disadvantages of
such a method of study. It will be far more instructive to refer them to
those regions and sub-regions which are found to accord best with the
distribution of the higher animals, and to consider the various anomalies
they present as so many problems, to be solved by a careful study of their
habits and economy, and especially by a search after the hidden causes
which have enabled them to spread so widely over land and ocean.

The lines of migration which land-shells have followed, can {552}hardly be
determined with any definiteness. On continents they seem to spread
steadily, but slowly, in every direction, checked probably by organic and
physical conditions rather than by the barriers which limit the higher
groups. Over the ocean they are also slowly dispersed, by some means which
act perhaps at very long intervals, but which, within the period of the
duration of genera and families, are tolerably effective. It thus happens
that, although the powers of dispersal of land-shells and insects are so
very unequal, the resulting geographical distribution is almost the
opposite of what might have been expected,--the former being, on the whole,
less distinctly localized than the latter.


CONCLUSION.

The preceding remarks are all I now venture to offer, on the distinguishing
features of the various groups of land-animals as regards their
distribution and migrations. They are at best but indications of the
various lines of research opened up to us by the study of animals from the
geographical point of view, and by looking upon their range in space and
time as an important portion of the earth's history. Much work has yet to
be done before the materials will exist for a complete treatment of the
subject in all its branches; and it is the author's hope that his volumes
may lead to a more systematic collection and arrangement of the necessary
facts. At present all public museums and private collections are arranged
zoologically. All treatises, monographs, and catalogues, also follow, more
or less completely, the zoological arrangement; and the greatest difficulty
the student of geographical distribution has to contend against, is the
total absence of geographical collections, and the almost total want of
complete and comparable local catalogues. Till every well-marked
district,--every archipelago, and every important island, has all its known
species of the more important groups of animals catalogued on a uniform
plan, and with a uniform nomenclature, a thoroughly satisfactory account of
the Geographical Distribution of Animals will not be possible. But more
than this is wanted. Many of the most curious relations between animal
{553}forms and their habitats, are entirely unnoticed, owing to the
productions of the same locality _never_ being associated in our museums
and collections. A few such relations have been brought to light by modern
scientific travellers, but many more remain to be discovered; and there is
probably no fresher and more productive field still unexplored in Natural
History. Most of these curious and suggestive relations are to be found in
the productions of islands, as compared with each other, or with the
continents of which they form appendages; but these can never be properly
studied, or even discovered, unless they are visibly grouped together. When
the birds, the more conspicuous families of insects, and the land-shells of
islands, are kept together so as to be readily compared with similar
associations from the adjacent continents or other islands, it is believed
that in almost every case there will be found to be peculiarities of form
or colour running through widely different groups, and strictly indicative
of local or geographical influences. Some of these coincident variations
have been alluded to in various parts of this work, but they have never
been systematically investigated. They constitute an unworked mine of
wealth for the enterprising explorer; and they may not improbably lead to
the discovery of some of the hidden laws (supplementary to Natural
Selection), which seem to be required, in order to account for many of the
external characteristics of animals.

In concluding his task, the author ventures to suggest, that naturalists
who are disposed to turn aside from the beaten track of research, may find
in the line of study here suggested a new and interesting pursuit, not
inferior in attractions to the lofty heights of transcendental anatomy, or
the bewildering mazes of modern classification. And it is a study which
will surely lead them to an increased appreciation of the beauty and the
harmony of nature, and to a fuller comprehension of the complex relations
and mutual interdependence, which link together every animal and vegetable
form, with the ever-changing earth which supports them, into one grand
organic whole.


{557}GENERAL INDEX.


All names in Italics refer, either to the genera and other groups of
Extinct Animals in Part II. of the First Volume;--or to the genera whose
distribution is given under Geographical Zoology (Part IV.) in the Second
Volume; the Families and higher groups being in small capitals. All other
references are in ordinary type.

The various matters discussed under Zoological Geography (Part III.), are
indexed as much as possible by subjects and localities. None of the genera
mentioned in this Part are indexed, as this would have more than doubled
the extent of the Index, and would have served no useful purpose, because
the general distribution of each genus is given in Part IV., and the
separate details can always be found by referring to the region,
sub-region, and class.


  A.

  Aard-vark of East Africa, figure of, i. 261

  Aard-vark, ii. 246

  Aard-wolf, ii. 196

  _Abacetus_, ii. 491

  _Abax_, ii. 489

  _Abisara_, ii. 475

  _Ablabes_, ii. 375

  _Ablepharus_, ii. 395

  _Abramis_, ii. 453

  _Abronia_, ii. 392

  _Abrornis_, ii. 258

  _Abrostomus_, ii. 451

  _Aburria_, ii. 343

  _Acalyptus_, ii. 384

  _Acanthias_, ii. 401

  _Acanthicus_, ii. 444

  _Acanthion_, ii. 240

  _Acanthis_, ii. 283

  _Acanthisitta_, ii. 265

  _Acanthiza_, ii. 258

  _Acanthobrama_, ii. 453

  ACANTHOCLINIDÆ, ii. 432

  _Acanthodactylus_, ii. 391

  _Acanthodelphis_, ii. 209

  _Acantholabrus_, ii. 437

  _Acanthomys_, ii. 229

  _Acanthophis_, ii. 383

  _Acanthopsis_, ii. 453

  ACANTHOPTERYGII, ii. 424

  ACANTHOPTERYGII PHARYNCOGNATHI, ii. 437

  _Acanthopthalmus_, ii. 453

  _Acanthoptila_, ii. 261

  _Acanthopyga_, ii. 390

  _Acanthorhynchus_, ii. 275

  _Acanthosaura_, ii. 402

  _Acara_, ii. 438

  Accentor, ii. 260

  Accentorinæ, ii. 257

  _Accipenser_, ii. 459

  ACCIPENSERIDÆ, ii. 459

  _Accipiter_, ii. 348

  _Accipitres_, European Eocene, i. 163

  Accipitres, classification of, i. 97
    range of Palæarctic genera of, i. 248
    range of Ethiopian genera of, i. 312
    range of Oriental genera of, i. 385
    range of Australian genera of, i. 484

  ACCIPITRES, ii. 345
    general remarks on the distribution of, ii. 351

  ACCIPITRINÆ, ii. 347

  _Acerina_, ii. 425

  _Aceros_, ii. 317

  _Acerotherium_, ii. 214

  _Acerotherium_, European Miocene, i. 119
    N. American Tertiary, i. 136

  _Acestra_, ii. 444

  _Acestura_, ii. 108

  _Achalinus_, ii. 375

  _Acharnes_, ii. 434

  _Achatina_, ii. 515

  _Achatinella_, ii. 514

  _Acherontia_, ii. 483

  _Achilognathus_, ii. 452

  _Achænodon_, N. American Tertiary, i. 138

  _Acicula_, ii. 519

  ACICULIDÆ, ii. 519

  _Acmæodera_, ii. 497

  _Acodon_, ii. 230

  ACONTIADÆ, ii. 399

  _Acontias_, ii. 399

  _Acotherium_, European Eocene, i. 126

  _Acotherium_, ii. 215

  _Acræa_, ii. 473

  ACRÆIDÆ, ii. 473

  _Acrantus_, ii. 390

  _Acredula_, ii. 266

  _Acridotheres_, ii. 287

  _Acris_, ii. 419

  _Acrobata_, ii. 252

  _Acrocephalus_, ii. 258

  _Acrochilus_, ii. 452

  ACROCHORDIDÆ, ii. 382

  _Acrochordonichthys_, ii. 442

  _Acrochordus_, ii. 382

  ACRONURIDÆ, ii. 433

  _Acropternis_, ii. 297

  _Acryllium_, ii. 340

  _Actenodes_, ii. 497

  _Actinodura_, ii. 261

  _Ada_, ii. 390

  _Adamsiella_, ii. 521

  _Adapis_, European Eocene, i. 125

  _Addax_, ii. 223

  _Adelomia_, ii. 108

  _Adelotopus_, ii. 490

  _Adenomera_, ii. 416

  _Adolias_, ii. 474

  _Aedon_, ii. 259

  _Ægeria_, ii. 482

  ÆGERIIDÆ, ii. 482

  _Ægialitis_, ii. 356

  _Ægithaliscus_, ii. 266

  _Ægithalus_, ii. 266

  _Ægocera_, ii. 482

  _Ægotheles_, ii. 318

  _Æluredus_, ii. 275

  _Ælurichthys_, ii. 443

  ÆLURIDÆ, ii. 201

  _Ælurogale_, European Eocene, i. 125

  _Æluropus_, ii. 201

  _Ælurus_, ii. 201

  _Æmona_, ii. 472

  _Ænigma_, ii. 490

  _Æolidæ_, ii. 530

  _Æpyceros_, ii. 223

  _Æpyornis_, of Madagascar, i. 164

  _Æpyornis_, ii. 370

  ÆPYORNITHIDÆ, ii. 370

  _Æsacus_, ii. 355

  _Æshna_, from the Lias, i. 167

  _Æthopyga_, ii. 276

  _Æthya_, ii. 364

  _Agama_, ii. 402

  AGAMIDÆ, ii. 401

  _Agapornis_, ii. 328

  _Agarista_, ii. 482

  _Agaristidæ_, ii. 482

  _Agelasta_, ii. 501

  AGELASTINÆ, ii. 340

  _Agelæus_, ii. 282

  _Ageniosus_, ii. 443

  _Ageronia_, ii. 474

  _Aglæactis_, ii. 108

  _Agnopterus_, European Eocene, i. 163

  _Agoniates_, ii. 445

  _Agonostoma_, ii. 435

  _Agonus_, ii. 428

  Agouti, ii. 241

  _Agra_, ii. 490

  _Agraulis_, ii. 474

  _Agrilus_, ii. 497

  _Agriochoerus_, N. American Tertiary, i. 138

  _Agrion_, from the Lias, i. 167

  _Agriornis_, ii. 100

  _Ahætulla_, ii. 379

  _Ailia_, ii. 442

  _Aipysurus_, ii. 384

  _Aithurus_, ii. 107

  _Aix_, ii. 363

  _Akysis_, ii. 442

  _Alæmon_, ii. 289

  Alaska, birds of, ii. 136

  _Alauda_, ii. 289

  ALAUDIDÆ, ii. 289

  Albatrosses, ii. 365

  _Albulichthys_, ii. 452

  _Alburnus_, ii. 453

  _Alca_, ii. 367

  _Alcadia_, ii. 522

  ALCEDINIDÆ, ii. 315

  _Alcedo_, ii. 316

  ALCEPHALINÆ, ii. 224

  _Alcephalus_, Indian Miocene, i. 122

  _Alcephalus_, ii. 224

  _Alces_, ii. 219

  ALCIDÆ, ii. 367

  _Alcippe_, ii. 261

  _Alcurus_, ii. 267

  _Alcyone_, ii. 316

  Aldabra Islands, land-tortoises of, i. 289

  _Alectorurus_, ii. 100

  _Alectroenas_, ii. 332

  ALEPOCEPHALIDÆ, ii. 454

  _Alesa_, ii. 475

  _Alestes_, ii. 445

  _Alethe_, ii. 262

  _Aletornis_, N. American Eocene, i. 163

  Aleutian Islands, birds of, ii. 137

  Algeria, Post-Pliocene deposits and caves of, i. 111

  _Algira_, ii. 391

  Alleghany sub-region, ii. 130
    mammalia of, ii. 132
    birds of, ii. 132
    reptiles of, ii. 133
    amphibia of, ii. 134
    fishes of, ii. 134
    islands of, ii. 134

  Allen, Mr. J. A., on Zoological regions, i. 61
    objections to his system of circumpolar zones, i. 67
    objections to his zoo-geographical nomenclature, i. 68
    on birds of N. America, ii. 133, 136

  _Alligator_, ii. 406

  ALLIGATORIDÆ, ii. 406

  Alligators, ii. 406

  _Allotinus_, ii. 477

  _Alopecias_, ii. 460

  _Alsæcomus_, ii. 332

  _Alsecus_, ii. 259

  _Alseonax_, ii. 270

  _Alsodes_, ii. 417

  Altai mountains, fossils in caves, i. 111

  _Alytes_, ii. 417

  ALYTIDÆ, ii. 417

  _Amadina_, ii. 287

  _Amara_, ii. 489

  _Amarynthis_, ii. 476

  _Amathusia_, ii. 472

  _Amauresthes_, ii. 287

  _Amaurospiza_, ii. 285

  _Amazilia_, ii. 109

  _Amblyrhiza_, Pliocene of Antilles, i. 148

  AMBLYCEPHALIDÆ, ii. 380

  _Amblycephalus_, ii. 380

  _Amblyceps_, ii. 443

  _Amblychila_, ii. 487

  _Amblymora_, ii. 501

  _Amblyopsis_, ii. 450

  _Amblyornis_, ii. 275

  _Amblypharyngodon_, ii. 452

  _Amblypodia_, ii. 477

  _Amblyrhamphus_, ii. 282

  _Amblyrhiza_, ii. 237

  _Amblyrhynchichthys_, ii. 452

  _Amblystoma_, ii. 413

  _Ameiva_, ii. 390

  America, recent separation of North and South, i. 40
    extinct mammalia of, i. 129
    N., Post-Pliocene fauna of, i. 129

  American Creepers, ii. 295

  AMIIDÆ, ii. 458

  _Amiurus_, ii. 442

  _Ammodromus_, ii. 284

  _Ammodytes_, ii. 440

  _Ammomanes_, ii. 289

  AMMONITIDÆ, ii. 506

  _Amomys_, N. American Tertiary, i. 134

  _Ampeliceps_, ii. 287

  AMPELIDÆ, ii. 280

  _Ampelio_, ii. 102

  _Ampelis_, ii. 280

  _Amphechinus_, European Miocene, i. 117
    ii. 188

  Amphibia, means of dispersal of, i. 28
    classification of, i. 100
    peculiar to Palæarctic region, i. 186
    of Central Europe, i. 196
    of the Mediterranean sub-region, i. 205
    of the Siberian sub-region, i. 220
    of the Manchurian sub-region, i. 226
    table of Palæarctic families of, i. 237
    of the Ethiopian region, i. 255
    of West Africa, i. 264
    S. African, i. 268
    of Madagascar, i. 280
    table of Ethiopian families of, i. 298
    of the Oriental region, i. 317
    of the Indian sub-region, i. 326
    of Ceylon, i. 327
    of the Indo-Chinese sub-region, i. 331
    of the Indo-Malay sub-region, i. 340
    table of Oriental families of, i. 369
    of the Australian region, i. 397
    resemblances of Australian and South-American, i. 400
    of New Guinea, i. 416
    of New Zealand, i. 457
    Neotropical, ii. 11
    of South Temperate America, ii. 41
    of the Mexican sub-region, ii. 54
    of the Antilles, ii. 72
    table of Neotropical families of, ii. 89
    of the Nearctic region, ii. 120
    of California, ii. 128
    of Central North America, ii. 131
    of Eastern United States, ii. 134
    table of Nearctic families of, ii. 143

  AMPHIBIA, ii. 411
    general remarks on the distribution of, ii. 422
    fossil, ii. 423
    summary and conclusion, ii. 548
    lines of migration of, ii. 548

  _Amphibola_, ii. 510

  _Amphibos_, Indian Miocene, i. 122
    ii. 225

  _Amphicyon_, European Miocene, i. 118
    Indian Miocene, i. 121
    N. American Tertiary, i. 134
    ii. 198
    ii. 202

  _Amphiglossus_, ii 398

  _Amphimericidæ_, European Miocene, i. 119

  _Amphimoschus_, European Miocene, i. 120
    ii. 220

  _Amphioxus_, ii. 464

  _Amphipnous_, ii. 455

  _Amphisbæna_, ii. 389

  AMPHISBÆNIDÆ, ii. 388

  _Amphisorex_, European Miocene, i. 118
    ii. 191

  _Amphitragulus_, European Miocene, i. 120
    ii. 218

  _Amphiuma_, ii. 412

  AMPHIUMIDÆ, ii. 412

  _Amphixestus_, ii. 397

  _Ampullaria_, ii. 510

  _Amydrus_, ii. 288

  _Amytis_, ii. 258

  _Anabatoides_, ii. 103

  _Anabazenops_, ii. 103

  _Anableps_, ii. 450

  ANACANTHINI, ii. 439

  _Anacyrtus_, ii. 445

  _Anadenus_, ii. 517

  _Anadia_, ii. 393

  ANADIADÆ, ii. 393

  _Anæretes_, ii. 101, 291

  _Anaides_, ii. 413

  _Analcipus_, ii. 268

  _Anarhynchus_, ii. 356

  _Anarrhichas_, ii. 431

  _Anas_, ii. 363

  _Anastoma_, European Tertiary, i. 169
    ii. 527

  _Anastomus_, ii. 361

  ANATIDÆ, ii. 363

  ANATINIDÆ, ii. 536

  _Anatinella_, ii. 536

  _Anausorex_, ii. 191

  _Anchilophus_, European Eocene, i. 125

  _Anchippodus_, N. American Eocene, i. 139

  _Anchippus_, N. American Tertiary, i. 135

  _Anchitheridæ_, N. American Tertiary, i. 135
    ii. 212

  _Anchitherium_, European Miocene, i. 119
    European Eocene, i. 125
    N. American Tertiary, i. 135

  Ancient fauna of New Zealand, i. 459

  _Ancistrops_, ii. 103

  _Ancylotherium_, Miocene of Greece, i. 116
    European Miocene, i. 121

  _Ancylotherium_, ii. 246

  _Ancyluris_, ii. 476

  _Ancylus_, ii. 518

  Andaman Islands, zoology of, i. 333
    probable past history of, i. 334

  _Andigena_, ii. 307

  _Andrias_, European Miocene, i. 165

  _Androdon_, ii. 107

  _Andropadus_, ii. 267

  _Aneitea_, ii. 517

  _Anguilla_, ii. 456

  _Anguis_, ii. 397

  Angwantibo, ii. 176

  Animal kingdom, primary divisions of, i. 85

  Animals, development of, affecting distribution, i. 7
    dispersal and migration of, i. 10
    rapid multiplication of, i. 10

  _Anisacodon_, N. American Tertiary, i. 137

  Anoa of Celebes, peculiarities of, i. 428

  _Anoa_, ii. 222

  _Anodon_, ii. 534

  _Anolius_, ii. 400

  _Anomalurus_, ii. 235

  _Anomalpus_, ii. 397

  _Anoplodipsas_, ii. 381

  _Anoplotheriidæ_, European Miocene, i. 119

  _Anoplotherium_, European Miocene, i. 119
    European Eocene, i. 126
    S. American Eocene, i. 1

  _Anopthalmus_, ii. 489

  _Anostomus_, ii. 445

  _Anous_, ii. 365

  _Anser_, ii. 363

  _Anseranas_, ii. 363

  Anseres, arrangement of, i. 98
    peculiar Palæarctic genera of, i. 250
    peculiar Ethiopian genera of, i. 313
    peculiar Australian genera of, i. 485

  ANSERES, general remarks on the distribution of, ii. 367

  _Antarctia_, ii. 490
    ii. 492

  Ant-eaters, ii. 247

  _Antechinomys_, ii. 249

  _Antechinus_, ii. 249

  Antelopes in the Indian Miocene deposits, i. 122
    birthplace and migrations of, i. 155
    Palæarctic, i. 182
    ii. 221

  _Antelotherium_, Indian Miocene, i. 122

  _Antennarius_, ii. 431

  _Anteros_, ii. 476

  _Anthia_, ii. 491

  _Anthipes_, ii. 270

  _Anthocharis_, ii. 478

  _Anthochæra_, ii. 275

  _Anthornis_, ii. 275

  _Anthracotheridæ_, N. American Tertiary, i. 137

  _Anthracotherium_, European Miocene, i. 119
    ii. 215

  _Anthreptes_, ii. 276

  Anthropoid apes, ii. 170

  _Anthropoides_, ii. 357

  _Anthus_, ii. 290

  _Antiacodon_, N. American Tertiary, i. 133

  Antillean sub-region, ii. 61
    mammalia of, ii. 62
    birds of, ii. 64
    illustration of zoology of, ii. 67
    table of distribution of resident land-birds of, ii. 68
    reptiles and amphibia of, ii. 72
    fresh-water fish of, ii. 73
    insects of, ii. 73
    land-shells of, ii. 75
    past history of, ii. 78

  Antilles, Pliocene Mammalia of, i. 148
    land-shells of, ii. 526

  _Antilocapra_, ii. 223

  ANTILOCAPRINÆ, ii. 223

  _Antilope_, Post-Pliocene, i. 112
    in Brazilian caves, i. 144
    ii. 223
    ii. 226

  Antiquity of the genera of insects, i. 166
    of the genera of land and fresh-water shells, i. 168

  _Antrostomus_, ii. 319

  Ant-thrushes, ii. 297

  _Anumbius_, ii. 103

  ANURA, ii. 414

  _Anurosorex_, ii. 190

  _Aonyx_, ii. 199

  _Apalis_, ii. 258

  _Apaloderma_, ii. 314

  _Apatura_, ii. 474

  _Aphanapteryx_ of Mauritius, i. 164
    ii. 352

  _Aphantocera_, ii. 107

  _Aphelotherium_, European Eocene, i. 125

  _Aphneus_, ii. 477

  _Aphobus_, ii. 283

  APHREDODERIDÆ, ii. 425

  _Aphritis_, ii. 428
    ii. 549

  _Aphriza_, ii. 356

  _Aphysiadæ_, ii. 530

  _Aphyocypris_, ii. 452

  _Aplocerus_, ii. 224

  _Aplodontia_, ii. 236

  _Aplonis_, ii. 288

  _Aplopelia_, ii. 383

  _Apodemia_, ii. 476

  _Apogon_, ii. 425

  _Aprasia_, ii. 396

  APRASIADÆ, ii. 396

  _Aprosmictus_, ii. 325

  _Aptenodytes_, ii. 366

  APTERYGIDÆ, ii. 369

  _Apteryx_, ii. 369

  _Apua_, ii. 453

  _Aquila_, European Miocene, i. 161
    ii. 348

  AQUILINÆ, ii. 348

  _Ara_, ii. 328

  _Arachnechthra_, ii. 276

  _Arachnothera_, ii. 277

  ARAMIDÆ, ii. 357

  _Aramides_, ii. 352

  _Aramus_, ii. 357

  _Arapaima_, ii. 454

  _Arborophila_, ii. 338

  ARCADÆ, ii. 534

  _Archæomys_, ii. 238

  _Archæopteryx_, Bavarian Oolite, i. 163

  _Archibuteo_, ii. 348

  Arctic shells, ii. 518
    zone not a separate region, i. 68

  _Arctitis_, ii. 195

  _Arctocebus_, ii. 176

  _Arctocephalus_, ii. 202

  _Arctocyon_, European Eocene, i. 125
    ii. 206

  _Arctodus_, N. American Post-Pliocene, i. 130
    ii. 202

  _Arctogale_, ii. 195

  _Arctomys_, European Pliocene, i. 113
    ii. 235, 236

  _Arctonyx_, ii. 199

  _Arctopithecus_, ii. 244

  _Arctotherium_ in Brazilian caves, i. 144
    S. American Pliocene, i. 146

  _Ardea_, ii. 359

  ARDEIDÆ, ii. 359

  _Ardistomus_, ii. 490

  _Argentina_, ii. 488

  _Arges_, ii. 444

  ARGONAUTIDÆ. ii. 505

  _Argus pheasant_, figure of, i. 339
    peculiarity in display of plumage, and confirmation of Mr. Darwin's
      views, i. 340

  _Argusianus_, ii. 340

  _Argutor_, ii. 489

  _Argynnis_, ii. 474

  _Aricoris_, ii. 476

  _Ariella_, ii. 195

  _Arinia_, ii. 520

  _Arion_, ii. 517

  _Aristobia_, ii. 501

  _Arius_, ii. 443

  Armadillos, ii. 245

  _Arnoglossus_, ii. 441

  _Aromochelys_, ii. 408

  _Arremon_, ii. 99

  _Arrhenotus_, ii. 501

  _Artamia_, ii. 268
    ii. 271
    ii. 288

  ARTAMIDÆ, ii. 288

  _Artamides_, ii. 269

  _Artamus_, ii. 288

  _Arthroleptis_, ii. 421

  _Artiodactyla_, European Eocene, i. 126
    N. American Tertiary, i. 137
    S. American Pliocene, i. 146

  _Artomyias_, ii. 270

  _Arundinicola_, ii. 100

  _Arvicola_, European Pliocene, i. 113
    in Brazilian caves, i. 145
    S. American Pliocene, i. 147
    S. American Eocene, i. 148

  _Arvicola_, ii. 230, 231

  _Asio_, ii. 350

  _Aspergillum_, ii. 537

  _Aspidoparia_, ii. 452

  _Aspidorhinus_, ii. 391

  _Aspidura_, ii. 374

  _Aspius_, ii. 453

  _Aspredo_, ii. 444

  _Aspro_, ii. 425

  _Astarte_, ii. 535

  _Astathes_, ii. 501

  _Asterophys_, ii. 421

  _Asterophysus_, ii. 443

  _Asthenodipsas_, ii. 381

  _Astrapia_, ii. 274

  _Astroblepus_, ii. 444

  _Astur_, ii. 348

  _Asturina_, ii. 348

  _Asturinula_, ii. 348

  ATELEOPODIDÆ, ii. 440

  _Ateles_, ii. 174

  _Atelopus_, ii. 416

  _Atelornis_, ii. 312

  _Aterica_, ii. 474

  _Athene_, ii. 350

  _Atherina_, ii. 434

  _Atherinichthys_, ii. 434

  ATHERINIDÆ, ii. 434

  _Atheris_, ii. 386

  _Atherura_, ii. 240

  _Athylax_, ii. 195

  _Athyma_, ii. 474

  ATLANTIDÆ, ii. 531

  _Atlapetes_, ii. 284

  ATRACTASPIDIDÆ, ii. 383

  _Atractaspis_, ii. 383

  _Atretium_, ii. 375

  _Atrichia_, ii. 299

  ATRICHIIDÆ, ii. 299

  _Atropos_, ii. 385

  _Attagis_, ii. 354

  ATTALINÆ, ii. 293

  _Atthis_, ii. 108

  _Atticora_, ii. 281

  _Attila_, ii. 102

  _Auchenaspis_, ii. 443

  _Auchenia_, N. American Post-Pliocene, i. 130
    ii. 217

  _Auchenipterus_, ii. 443

  Auckland Islands, birds of, i. 455

  _Augastes_, ii. 108

  _Auks_, ii. 367

  _Aulia_, ii. 102

  _Aulacodes_, ii. 239

  _Aulacodon_, ii. 239

  _Aulacorhamphus_, ii. 307

  _Aulopoma_, ii. 520

  _Aulopyge_, ii. 452

  _Auricula_, ii. 519, 527

  AURICULIDÆ, ii. 518

  _Auriparus_, ii. 266

  Australia, physical features of, i. 387

  Australia and S. America, supposed land connection between, i. 398

  Australian region, description of, i. 387
    zoological characteristics of, i. 390
    mammalia of, i. 390
    birds of, i. 391
    reptiles of, i. 396
    amphibia of, i. 397
    fresh-water fish of, i. 397
    summary of vertebrata of, i. 397
    supposed land-connection of with S. America, i. 398
    insects of, i. 403
    lepidoptera of, i. 404
    coleoptera of, i. 405
    land-shells of, i. 407
    sub-regions of, i. 408
    early history of, i. 465

  Australian sub-region, mammalia of, i. 438
    illustration of mammalia of, i. 439
    birds of, i. 440
    illustration of fauna of, i. 441

  Australian hedgehog, ii. 254

  Austro-Malayan sub-region, physical features of, i. 388
    zoology of, i. 409

  _Automolus_, ii. 103

  AVICULIDÆ, ii. 533

  _Avocettula_, ii. 107

  _Avocettinus_, ii. 108

  Aye-aye, figure of, i. 278
    ii. 177

  _Axiocerces_, ii. 477

  Azores, visited by European birds, i. 17
    birds of, i. 207
    butterflies of, i. 207
    beetles of, i. 207, 209
    peculiarly modified birds of, i. 207
    stragglers to, i. 208
    how stocked with animal life, i. 208

  B.

  Babirusa of Celebes, peculiarities of, i. 428

  _Babirusa_, ii. 215

  Badger, figure of, i. 195

  _Badis_, ii. 433

  _Bæotis_, ii. 475

  _Bagarius_, ii. 443

  _Bagrichthys_, ii. 442

  _Bagroides_, ii. 442

  _Bagrus_, ii. 442

  Baird, Professor, on fauna of Cape St. Lucas ii. 130
    on representative birds of United States, ii. 180

  _Balæna_, European Pliocene, i. 112
    ii. 207

  _Balæniceps_, ii. 360

  BALÆNIDÆ, ii. 207

  _Balænodon_, European Pliocene, i. 112

  _Balænoptera_, ii. 207

  _Balænopteridæ_, ii. 207

  _Balea_, ii. 516

  _Balearica_, ii. 357

  Baly, Mr., on Phytophaga of Japan, i. 230

  Banca, its peculiar species and solution of a problem in distribution, i.
      356

  Band-fish, ii. 435

  Bandicoots, ii. 250

  _Barangia_, ii. 199

  _Barbatula_, ii. 306

  Barbets, ii. 305

  _Barbichthys_, ii. 452

  _Barbus_, ii. 451

  _Barilius_, ii. 452

  _Barissia_, ii. 392

  Barriers, as affecting distribution, i. 6
    permanence of, as affecting distribution, i. 7
    to the dispersal of birds, i. 17

  _Baryphthengus_, ii. 313

  _Barypus_, ii. 492

  _Basileuterus_, ii. 279

  _Basilornis_, ii. 287

  _Bassaris_, ii. 200

  _Batara_, ii. 104

  Bates, Mr., on Carabidæ of Japan, i. 228
    on Longicorns of Japan, i. 230

  _Bathmodon_, N. American Tertiary, i. 136

  _Bathrodon_, N. American Tertiary, i. 133

  _Bathyerges_, ii. 231

  BATOIDEI, ii. 462

  BATRACHIDÆ, ii. 431

  _Batrachocephalus_, ii. 443

  _Batrachoseps_, ii. 413

  _Batrachostomus_, ii. 318

  Bats, powers of flight of, i. 15
    classification of, i. 87
    of New Zealand, i. 450

  _Baucis_, ii. 108

  _Baza_, ii. 349

  _Bdeogale_, ii. 195

  Bearded Reedling, ii. 262

  Bears, probable cause of absence of, from tropical Africa, i. 291
    ii. 201

  Beaver, N. American Tertiary, i. 140

  Beavers, ii. 234

  Bee-eaters, ii. 312

  Beetles, families selected for study, i. 103
    from the Lias, i. 167
    of Azores, i. 207
    of Japan, i. 228
    of S. Temperate America, ii. 44

  BELEMNITIDÆ, ii. 506

  _Belemnoziphius_, European Pliocene, i. 112

  _Belideus_, ii. 252

  _Belionota_, ii. 497

  _Belodontichthys_, ii. 441

  _Belone_, ii. 450

  _Belonesox_, ii. 450

  Belt, Mr., his theory of a great Siberian lake during the glacial epoch,
      i. 218; ii. 206
    on change of climate caused by diminution of obliquity of ecliptic, i.
      466

  _Beluga_, ii. 209

  _Bembecidium_, ii. 489

  _Berardius_, ii. 208

  _Berenicornis_, ii. 317

  Bermudas, zoology of, ii. 134

  _Bernicla_, ii. 363

  _Bernieria_, ii. 258

  BERYCIDÆ, ii. 424

  _Bessonornis_, ii. 256

  _Bettongia_, ii. 251

  _Bhringa_, ii. 269

  _Bhutanitis_, ii. 479

  _Bias_, ii. 270

  _Biatas_, ii. 104

  _Bibos_, ii. 222

  _Bison_, ii. 222, 225

  Binney, Mr., on Air-breathing Molluscs of N. America, ii. 528

  Birds, means of dispersal of, i. 15
    dispersal of by winds, i. 16
    American, found in Europe, i. 16
    reaching the Azores, i. 17
    barriers to dispersal of, i. 17
    limited by forests, i. 17
    classification of, i. 93
    Miocene of Greece, i. 116
    extinct, i. 160
    fossil of Palæarctic region, i. 161
    European of Miocene period, i. 161
    Eocene of Europe, i. 162
    relations of, i. 162
    extinct of North America, i. 163
    recently extinct in New Zealand, i. 164
    Cretaceous of N. America, i. 164
    remains of in Brazilian caves, i. 164
    recently extinct in Madagascar and the Mascarene Islands, i. 164
    cosmopolitan groups of, i. 176
    numerous Palæarctic genera, i. 183
    of the European sub-region, i. 193
    northern range of in Europe, i. 193
    of the zone of pine forests, i. 194
    of Iceland, i. 198
    of the Mediterranean sub-region, i. 203
    of Malta, i. 206 (_note_)
    of the Azores, i. 207
    of the Cape Verd Islands, i. 215
    of the Siberian sub-region, i. 219
    Oriental found in Siberia, i. 219
    extreme northern Asiatic, i. 219
    of northern Asiatic forests, i. 220
    of the Manchurian sub-region, i. 223
    Palæarctic genera of, in the Manchurian
    sub-region, i. 224
    Oriental genera of, in the Manchurian
    sub-region, i. 224
    characteristic of N.W. China and Mongolia, i. 226
    table of Palæarctic families of, i. 235
    of West Africa, i. 243
    list of Palæarctic genera of, i. 243
    of the Ethiopian region, i. 253
    of the East African sub-region, i. 260
    S. African, i. 267
    genera of, peculiar to Madagascar, i. 275
    common to Madagascar and Oriental or Ethiopian regions, i. 276
    species common to Madagascar and Africa or Asia, i. 277
    table of Ethiopian families of, i. 295
    table of Ethiopian genera of, i. 306
    of the Oriental region, i. 316
    of the Indian sub-region, i. 323
    Oriental genera of in Central India, i. 324
    Palæarctic and Ethiopian genera in Central India, i. 325
    of Ceylon, i. 327
    of the Indo-Chinese sub region, i. 330
    of the Indo-Malayan sub-region, i. 337
    illustration of peculiar Malayan, i. 339
    of the Philippine Islands, i. 346
    table of Oriental families of, i. 366
    table of Oriental genera of, i. 375
    of Australian region, i. 391
    specially organized Australian families of, i. 392
    of the Papuan Islands, i. 410
    peculiarities of, i. 413
    brilliant colours of, i. 413
    remarkable forms of, i. 414
    of the Moluccas, i. 418
    peculiarities of, i. 421
    of the Timor group, i. 423
    of Celebes, i. 428
    of Australia, i. 440
    of New Zealand, i. 451
    peculiar to New Zealand, i. 452
    of Norfolk Island, i. 453
    of Lord Howe's Island, i. 453
    of the Chatham Islands, i. 454
    of the Auckland Islands, i. 455
    table of families of Australian, i. 471
    table of genera of Australian, i. 478
    of the Neotropical region, ii. 6
    distinctive characters of Neotropical, ii. 7
    of the Mexican sub region, ii. 52
    of the Antilles, ii. 64
    table of distribution of, ii. 68
    table of families of Neotropical, ii. 86
    table of genera of Neotropical, ii. 86
    of the Nearctic region, ii. 116
    list of typical genera of, ii. 118
    of California, ii. 127
    of Central N. America, ii. 130
    of Eastern United States, ii. 132
    of Canada, ii. 136
    table of Nearctic families of, ii. 141
    table of Nearctic genera of, ii. 148
    and Mammals, parallelism of distribution of, ii. 545
    lines of migration of, ii. 545
    peculiar development of, in islands, ii. 546
    contrast of distribution in tropical and
    temperate oceanic islands, ii. 546

  _Biziura_ , ii. 364

  _Blacicus_, ii. 102

  Black ape of Celebes, i. 427

  Bland, Mr. Thomas, on Antillean land-shells, ii. 19
    ii. 526

  Blanford, Mr. W. T., on the "Indian" region, i. 60
    on relations of Indian sub-region with Africa, i. 321

  _Blapsidium_, Oolitic insect, i. 167

  _Blarina_, ii. 191

  _Blauneria_, ii. 519

  BLENNIDÆ, ii. 431

  _Blenniops_, ii. 431

  _Blennius_, ii. 431

  _Blethisa_, ii. 489

  Blind burrowing snakes, ii. 372

  Blunt-heads, ii. 380

  Blyth, Mr., on zoological regions, i. 60
    on the relations of Indian sub-region with Africa, i. 321

  _Boa_, ii. 381

  _Boædon_, ii. 380

  Boas, ii. 381

  _Bola_, ii. 452

  _Bolborhynchus_, ii. 328

  _Boleosoma_, ii. 425

  BOMBINATORIDÆ, ii. 416

  _Bombinator_, ii. 417

  _Bonasa_, ii. 339

  Bonnet-limpets, ii. 511

  Bony Pikes, ii. 459

  _Bootherium_, ii. 225

  Borneo, probable recent changes in, i. 357

  _Bos_, Post-Pliocene, i. 112
    Indian Miocene, i. 122
    ii. 222, 225

  _Botaurus_, ii. 359

  _Bothriodon_, ii. 215

  _Botia_, ii. 453

  Bourbon, zoology of, i. 280
    reptiles of, i. 281

  _Bourcieria_, ii. 108
    ii. 521

  _Bovidæ_, European Miocene, i. 120

  BOVIDÆ, ii. 221

  BOVINÆ, ii. 222

  _Brachinus_, ii. 489

  BRACHIOPODA, ii. 532

  _Brachiurophis_, ii. 383

  _Brachiurus_, ii. 175

  _Brachyalestes_, ii. 445

  _Brachycephalus_, ii. 414

  _Brachygalba_, ii. 311

  _Brachylophus_, ii. 401

  _Brachymeles_, ii. 397

  _Brachymerus_, ii. 416

  _Brachymys_, European Miocene, i. 120
    ii. 232
    ii. 236

  _Brachymystax_, ii. 447

  _Brachypteryx_, ii. 256

  _Brachypternus_, ii. 303

  _Brachytarsomys_, ii. 230

  _Brachypteracias_, ii. 312

  _Brachyrhamphus_, ii. 367

  _Bradybates_, ii. 413

  _Bradycellus_, ii. 489

  _Bradyornis_, ii. 271

  BRADYPODIDÆ, ii. 244

  _Bradyptetus_, ii. 258

  _Bradypus_, ii. 244

  _Bradytus_, ii. 489

  _Brama_, ii. 429

  _Bramatherium_, Miocene of Perim Island, i. 122
    ii. 226

  _Branchiosteus_, ii. 442

  _Branta_, ii. 364

  BRASSOLIDÆ, ii. 472

  _Brassolis_, ii. 472

  Brazilian cave-fauna, i. 143
    remarks on, i. 145

  Brazilian sub-region, description of, ii. 21
    mammalia of, ii. 23
    birds of, ii. 24
    illustration of mammalia of, ii. 23
    illustration of birds of, ii. 28
    islands of, ii. 29

  _Breviceps_, ii. 416

  _Breyeria borinensis_, Carboniferous insect, i. 168

  Britain, peculiar species in, i. 197

  British Isles, zoology of, i. 197

  Broad-bill, Malayan, figure of, i. 340

  Broad-bills, ii. 294

  _Bronchocela_, ii. 402

  _Brontes_, ii. 444

  _Brontotheridæ_, N. American Tertiary, i. 137

  _Brontotherium_, N. American Tertiary, i. 137

  _Brotogerys_, ii. 328

  Brush-turkeys, ii. 341

  _Brycon_, ii. 445

  _Bryconops_, ii. 445

  _Bryttus_, ii. 425

  _Buarremon_, ii. 99

  _Bubalus_, ii. 222

  _Bubo_, European Miocene, i. 162
    ii. 350

  BUCCINIDÆ, ii. 507

  _Buccinum_, ii. 507

  _Bucco_, ii. 310

  BUCCONIIDÆ, ii. 310

  _Bucephala_, ii. 364

  _Bucephalus_, ii. 379

  _Buceros_, ii. 317

  BUCEROTIDÆ, ii. 316

  _Bucorvus_, ii. 317

  _Budorcas_, ii. 224

  BUDORCINÆ, ii. 224

  _Budytes_, ii. 290

  Buffaloes, ii. 221

  _Bufo_, ii. 415

  BUFONIDÆ, ii. 415

  _Bulbuls_, ii. 267

  BULLIDÆ, ii. 530

  _Buliminus_, ii. 514

  _Bulimulus_, ii. 514

  _Bulimus_, Eocene, i. 169
    ii. 514, 523

  _Bunælurus_, N American Tertiary, i. 134

  _Bungarus_, ii. 383

  _Bungia_, ii. 452

  _Bunocephalichthys_, ii. 444

  _Bunocephalus_, ii. 444

  _Buphaga_, ii. 288

  BUPRESTIDÆ, ii. 495

  _Buprestidium_, Oolitic insect, i. 167

  _Busarellus_, ii. 348

  Bush-shrikes, ii. 297

  Bustards, ii. 356

  _Butalis_, ii. 270

  _Butastur_, ii. 348

  _Buteo_, ii. 348

  _Buteogallus_, ii. 348

  BUTEONINÆ, ii. 348

  _Buteola_, ii. 348

  _Buthraupis_, ii. 98

  Butterflies, arrangement of, i. 103
    Palæarctic, i. 187
    of Central Europe, i. 196
    of the Mediterranean sub-region, i. 205
    of Azores, i. 207
    peculiar to Siberian sub-region, i. 220
    of Japan and North China, i. 227
    of the Ethiopian region, i. 255
    number of Ethiopian species, i. 256
    of Indo-Malay sub-region, i. 342
    of the Australian region, i. 404
    of the Austro-Malay sub-region, i. 404
    of the Moluccas, i. 419
    of Celebes, peculiarities of, i. 434
    of New Zealand, i. 457
    ii. 470
    general remarks on the distribution of, ii. 483
    fossil, ii. 486
    of S. Temperate America, ii. 43

  _Bycanistes_, ii. 317

  C.

  _Cabalus_, ii. 352

  _Cabrita_, ii. 391

  _Cacatua_, ii. 325

  CACATUIDÆ, ii. 324

  _Caccabis_, ii. 339

  _Cachius_, ii. 453

  _Cacomantis_, ii. 309

  _Cacophis_, ii. 383

  _Cacopitta_, ii. 261

  _Cacopus_, ii. 416

  _Cacotus_, ii. 417

  _Cactornis_, ii. 284

  _Cadurcotherium_, European Eocene, i. 125

  _Cæcilia_, ii. 411

  CÆCILIADÆ, ii. 411

  _Cæcum_, ii. 509

  _Cælodon_, in Brazilian caves, i. 145

  _Cælogenys_, in Brazilian caves, i. 144
    ii. 241

  _Cænopithecus_, European Eocene, i. 124
    ii. 178

  _Cæntropus_, ii. 445

  _Cainotherium_, European Miocene, i. 120
    European Eocene, i. 126

  _Cairina_, ii. 364

  _Caica_, ii. 328

  _Calamanthus_, ii. 258

  _Calamaria_, ii. 374

  CALAMARIIDÆ, ii. 374

  _Calamodon_, N. American Eocene, i. 139

  _Calamodus_, ii. 258

  CALAMOHERPINÆ, ii. 287

  _Calamoichthys_, ii. 458

  _Calamospiza_, ii. 285

  _Calandrella_, ii. 289

  _Calao_, ii. 317

  _Calathus_, ii. 489

  _Caledonica_, ii. 487

  _Calendula_, ii. 289

  _Calicalicus_, ii. 271

  _Calictis_, ii. 195

  _Calidris_, ii. 353

  _Caliecthrus_, ii. 309

  California, illustration of zoology of, ii. 128

  Californian sub-region, ii. 127
    mammalia of, ii. 127
    birds of, ii. 127
    reptiles of, ii. 128
    amphibia of, ii. 128
    fresh-water fishes of, ii. 128

  _Caligo_, ii. 472

  _Calinaga_, ii. 479

  _Calisto_, ii. 471

  _Callæas_, ii. 287

  _Callia_, ii. 521

  _Callichroma_, ii. 501

  _Callichrous_, ii. 442

  _Callichthys_, ii. 444

  _Callida_, ii. 490

  _Callidryas_, ii. 478

  _Callionymus_, ii. 430

  _Calliope_, ii. 259

  _Callipepla_, ii. 339

  _Calliperidia_, ii. 108

  _Calliphlox_, ii. 198

  _Callirhynus_, ii. 375

  _Callisaurus_, ii. 401

  _Calliste_, ii. 98

  _Callisthenus_, ii. 489

  _Callithea_, ii. 474

  _Callithrix_, in Brazilian caves, i. 184
    ii. 175
    ii. 178

  _Callocephalus_, ii. 204

  _Callochen_, ii. 363

  _Callomystax_, ii. 443

  _Callophis_, ii. 383

  _Callophysus_, ii. 443

  _Callopistes_, ii. 390

  _Callorhinus_, ii. 202

  _Calloselasma_, ii. 385

  _Callosune_, ii. 478

  _Callula_, ii. 416

  _Calobates_, ii. 290

  _Calocitta_, ii. 273

  _Calodromas_, ii. 344

  _Caloenas_, ii. 333

  _Caloperdix_, ii. 339

  _Calophena_, ii. 490

  _Calopsitta_, ii. 325

  _Caloragia_, ii. 375

  _Calorhamphus_, ii. 306

  _Calornis_, ii. 288

  _Calosoma_, ii. 489

  _Calostethus_, ii. 419

  _Calotes_, ii. 402

  _Calothorax_, ii. 108

  _Calydna_, ii. 476

  _Calypte_, ii. 108

  _Calyptocephalus_, ii. 421

  _Calyptomena_, ii. 295

  _Calyptorhynchus_, ii. 325

  CALYPTRÆIDÆ, ii. 511

  _Calyptura_, ii. 102

  _Camarhynchus_, ii. 284

  _Camaroptera_, ii. 258

  Camel, fossil in Indian Miocene, i. 122
    birth-place and migrations of, i. 155
    Palæarctic, i. 182

  _Camelidæ_, essentially extra-tropical, i. 112
    N. American Tertiary, i. 138

  CAMELIDÆ, ii. 216

  CAMELOPARDALIDÆ, ii. 221

  _Camelopardalis_, Miocene of Greece, i. 116
    Indian Miocene, i. 122
    ii. 221

  _Camelotherium_, S. American Pliocene, i. 147
    ii. 217

  Camels, ii. 216

  _Camelus_, ii. 216

  _Camena_, ii. 477

  _Campephaga_, ii. 269

  CAMPEPHAGIDÆ, ii. 268

  _Campephilus_, ii. 303

  _Campsiempis_, ii. 101

  _Camptolaimus_, ii. 364

  _Campylopterus_, ii. 107

  _Campylorhynchus_, ii. 264

  Canadian sub-region, mammalia of, ii. 135
    birds of, ii. 136
    reptiles and fishes of, ii. 137
    insects of, ii. 137

  Canaries, birds of, i. 208
    beetles of, i. 209

  _Cancroma_, ii. 359

  _Canidæ_, European Miocene, i. 118
    European Eocene, i. 125
    N. American Tertiary, i. 134
    remarkable S. African, i. 267

  CANIDÆ, ii. 197

  _Canis_, European Pliocene, i. 112
    Post-Pliocene, i. 112
    European Miocene, i. 118
    Indian Miocene, i. 121
    European Eocene, i. 125
    N. American Post-Pliocene, i. 129
    N. American Tertiary, i. 134, 135
    in Brazilian caves, i. 144
    S. American Pliocene, i. 146
    ii. 197

  _Cantharus_, ii. 427

  _Cantoria_, ii. 376

  Cape Ant-eater, ii. 246

  Cape of Good Hope, peculiar flora and fauna of, i. 266

  Cape Verd Islands, zoology of, i. 214

  Cape-hare, S. African, i. 267

  _Capito_, ii. 306

  CAPITONINÆ, ii. 306

  _Capoeta_, ii. 451

  _Capra_, ii. 224, 225

  _Capreolus_, ii. 219

  CAPRIMULGIDÆ, ii. 319

  _Caprimulgus_, ii. 319

  CAPRINÆ, ii. 224

  _Capromys_, ii. 238

  _Capys_, ii. 477

  CARABIDÆ, ii. 488

  _Carabus_, ii. 488
    ii. 489

  CARANGIDÆ, ii. 429

  _Carassius_, ii. 451

  CARCHARIIDÆ, ii. 460

  _Carcineutes_, ii. 316

  _Cardellina_, ii. 279

  CARDIADÆ, ii. 535

  _Cardinalis_, ii. 285

  _Cardiodus_, S. American Pliocene, i. 147

  _Cardiopthalmus_, ii. 492

  _Cardita_, ii. 535

  _Carenum_, ii. 490

  _Cariama_, Brazilian caves, i. 164
    ii. 357

  CARIAMIDÆ, ii. 357

  _Caridonax_, ii. 316

  _Carlia_, ii. 397

  _Carnivora_ of European Pliocene, i. 112
    Miocene of Greece, i. 115
    European Miocene, i. 118
    Indian Miocene, i. 121
    European Eocene, i. 125
    N. American Post-Pliocene, i. 129
    N. American Tertiary, i. 134
    of Brazilian caves, i. 144
    S. American Pliocene, i. 146

  Carnivora, classification of, i. 88
    antiquity of, i. 153
    of the Palæarctic region, i. 182
    list of Palæarctic genera of, i. 240
    list of Ethiopian genera of, i. 302
    range of Oriental genera of, i. 373
    list of Australian genera of, i. 476

  CARNIVORA, ii. 192
    general remarks on the distribution of, ii. 204
    range of, in time, ii. 206
    summary and conclusion, ii. 541

  Caroline Islands, birds of, i. 444

  Carpenter, Dr. Philip, on Panama shells, ii. 20

  _Carpiodes_, ii. 451

  _Carpococcyx_, ii. 309

  _Carpodacus_, ii. 285

  _Carpodectes_, ii. 102, 294

  _Carpophaga_, ii. 332

  _Carterodon_ in Brazilian caves, i. 145
    ii. 239

  Carus, and Gerstaeker on classification of animals, i. 85
    Professor, on classification of the Cetacea, i. 88

  _Carychium_, ii. 519

  _Casarca_, ii. 363

  _Cascelius_, ii. 492

  _Casiornis_, ii. 102, 293

  _Casoryx_, N. American Tertiary, i. 138
    ii. 225

  _Casnonia_, ii. 489

  _Cassiculus_, ii. 282

  _Cassicus_, ii. 282

  _Cassidaria_, ii. 507

  _Cassidix_, ii. 283

  _Cassinia_, ii. 270

  Cassowaries, ii. 368

  _Castalia_, ii. 534

  _Castnia_, ii. 481

  CASTNIIDÆ, ii. 481

  _Castor_, European Pliocene, i. 113
    European Miocene, i. 120
    ii. 234

  CASTORIDÆ, ii. 234

  _Castoroides_, ii. 234

  _Casuarius_, ii. 369

  CASUARIIDÆ, ii. 368

  _Catadromus_, ii. 490

  _Catagramma_, ii. 474

  _Catamblyrhynchus_, ii. 285

  _Catamenia_, ii. 285

  _Catascopus_, ii. 489
    ii. 491

  _Cataulus_, ii. 520

  _Catharistes_, ii. 346

  _Cathartes_, Brazilian caves, i. 124
    ii. 346

  _Catharus_, ii. 256

  _Catherpes_, ii. 264

  _Catla_, ii. 451

  _Catoblepas_, ii. 224

  _Catodon_, ii. 208

  _Catodontidæ_, ii. 207

  _Catopra_, ii. 433

  _Catoprion_, ii. 446

  _Catostomus_, ii. 451

  _Catoxantha_, ii. 496

  _Catriscus_, ii. 258

  Cats, ii. 192

  Cave-fauna of Brazil, i. 143

  _Cavia_, European Miocene, i. 121
    in Brazilian caves, i. 144
    S. American Pliocene, i. 147
    ii. 241

  Cavies, ii. 241

  CAVIIDÆ, ii. 241

  CEBIDÆ, ii. 174

  _Cebochoerus_, European Eocene, i. 126
    ii. 215

  _Cebus_ in Brazilian caves, i. 144
    ii. 174
    ii. 178

  _Cecina_, ii. 521

  Celebes, physical features of, i. 389
    mammalia of, i. 426
    birds of, i. 428
    insects of, i. 434
    origin of fauna of, i. 436

  _Celestus_, ii. 327

  _Celeus_, ii. 303

  _Celia_, ii. 489

  _Cenchris_, ii. 385

  _Centetes_, ii. 188

  _Centetidæ_, European Miocene, i. 118

  CENTETIDÆ, ii. 188

  _Centrarchus_, ii. 425

  CENTRISCIDÆ, ii. 436

  _Centriscus_, ii. 436

  _Centrites_, ii. 101, 291

  _Centrocercus_, ii. 339

  _Centrolabrus_, ii. 437

  _Centrolophus_, ii. 429

  _Centromochlus_, ii. 443

  _Centronotus_, ii. 431

  _Centropus_, ii. 309

  _Centronyx_, ii. 286

  _Centropyx_, ii. 390

  _Centurus_, ii. 303

  _Cephalepis_, ii. 108

  _Cephalopeltis_, ii. 389

  CEPHALOPHINÆ, ii. 224

  _Cephalophus_, ii. 224

  CEPHALOPODA, ii. 505

  _Cephalopterus_, ii. 103, 294

  _Cephalopyrus_, ii. 266

  _Cepola_, ii. 435

  CEPOLIDÆ, ii. 435

  CERAMBYCIDÆ, ii. 493

  _Ceratichthys_, ii. 452

  _Ceratina_, ii. 470

  Ceratodus, remarkable Australian fish, i. 397

  _Ceratodus_, ii. 458

  _Ceratohyla_, ii. 418

  _Ceratophora_, ii. 402

  _Ceratophorus_, ii. 501

  _Ceratophrys_, ii. 420

  _Ceratoptera_, ii. 463

  _Ceratorhina_, ii. 367

  _Ceratorhinus_, ii. 213

  _Ceratotherium_, ii. 213

  _Cerberus_, ii. 376

  _Cercaspis_, ii. 380

  _Cerchneis_, ii. 349

  _Cercocebus_, ii. 173

  _Cercolabes_ in Brazilian caves, i. 145
    ii. 240

  CERCOLABIDÆ, ii. 239

  _Cercoleptes_, ii. 200

  _Cercomacra_, ii. 104

  _Cercomela_, ii. 260

  _Cercomys_, ii. 239

  _Cercopithecus_ in European Pliocene, i. 112
    ii. 173

  _Cercosaura_, ii. 394

  CERCOSAURIDÆ, ii. 394

  _Cereopsis_, ii. 363

  _Ceriornis_, ii. 340

  CERITHIADÆ, ii. 509

  _Certhia_, ii. 264

  _Certhidea_, ii. 278

  CERTHIADÆ, ii. 264

  _Certhilauda_, ii. 289

  _Certhiola_, ii. 278

  _Certhiparus_, ii. 266

  _Cervicapra_, ii. 224

  CERVICAPRINÆ, ii. 224

  _Cervidæ_, European Miocene, i. 120
    birth-place and migrations of, i. 155

  CERVIDÆ, ii. 218

  _Cervulus_, ii. 219

  _Cervus_, European Pliocene, i. 113
    Indian Pliocene and Miocene, i. 122
    N. American Post-Pliocene, i. 130
    N. American Tertiary, i. 138
    in Brazilian caves, i. 144
    S. American Pliocene, i. 147
    ii. 219

  _Ceryle_, ii. 316

  CESTRACIONTIDÆ, ii. 461

  _Cetacea_, European Pliocene, i. 112
    European Miocene, i. 119
    N. American Post-Pliocene, i. 130
    N. American Tertiary, i. 140

  Cetacea, classification of, i. 89
    range of Oriental genus, i. 374

  CETACEA, ii. 207

  _Cethosia_, ii. 474

  CETONIIDÆ, ii. 494

  _Cetopsis_, ii. 443

  _Cettia_, ii. 258

  _Ceuthmochares_, ii. 309

  _Ceycopsis_, ii. 316

  Ceylon and Malaya, resemblance of insects of, i. 327

  Ceylonese sub-region, i. 326
    mammalia of, i. 327
    birds of, i. 327
    reptiles of, i. 327
    amphibia of, i. 327
    insects of, i. 327
    past history of, as indicated by its fauna. i. 328

  _Ceyx_, ii. 316

  _Chaca_, ii. 441

  _Chæmarrhornis_, ii. 259

  _Chæmepelia_, ii. 333

  _Chærocampa_, ii. 482

  _Chætobranchus_, ii. 439

  _Chætocercus_, ii. 108
    ii. 249

  _Chætodon_, ii. 427

  _Chætomys_, ii. 240

  _Chætops_, ii. 256

  _Chætoptila_, ii. 276

  _Chætorhynchus_, ii. 269

  _Chætostomus_, ii. 444

  _Chætura_, ii. 320

  _Chætusia_, ii. 356

  _Chalceus_, ii. 445

  CHALCIDÆ, ii. 393

  _Chalcinopsis_, ii. 445

  _Chalcinus_, ii. 445

  _Chalcis_, ii. 393

  _Chalcochloris_, ii. 189

  _Chalcopelia_, ii. 333

  _Chalcophaps_, ii. 333

  _Chalcostetha_, ii. 276

  _Chalicomys_, European Pliocene, i. 113

  _Chalicotherium_, European Miocene, i. 119
    Indian Miocene, i. 122
    fossil in N. China, i. 123

  _Chamæleo_, N. American Eocene, i. 165

  _Chalybura_, ii. 107

  _Chamæa_, ii. 264

  CHAMÆIDÆ, ii. 264

  CHAMÆLEONIDÆ, ii. 402

  Chamæleons, ii. 402

  _Chamæpetes_, ii. 343

  _Chamæospiza_, ii. 284

  _Chamæsaura_, ii. 394

  CHAMÆSAURIDÆ, ii. 394

  _Chamæza_, ii. 104

  CHAMIDÆ, ii. 534

  Chamois, figure of, i. 195
    ii. 224

  _Chamostrea_, ii. 536

  _Chanodichthys_, ii. 453

  CHARACINIDÆ, ii. 444

  _Characodon_, ii. 450

  CHARADRIIDÆ, ii. 355

  _Charadrius_, ii. 356

  _Charina_, ii. 373

  _Charis_, ii. 476

  _Charitornis_, ii. 274

  _Charmosyna_, ii. 327

  _Chasiempis_, ii. 271

  _Chasmodes_, ii. 431

  _Chasmorhynchus_, ii. 103, 294

  _Chatarrhæa_, ii. 261

  Chatham Islands, birds of, i. 454

  Chatterers, ii. 293

  _Chaulelasmus_, ii. 364

  _Chauna_, ii. 361

  _Chaunonotus_, ii. 272

  _Chaunoproctus_, ii. 284

  _Chela_, ii. 453

  _Chelemys_, ii. 408

  _Chelidon_, ii. 281

  _Chelidoptera_, ii. 311

  _Chelidorynx_, ii. 271

  _Chelodina_, ii. 408

  _Chelomeles_ ii. 397

  _Chelone_, ii. 409

  Chelonia, classification of, i. 100

  CHELONIA, ii. 407
    remarks on the distribution of, ii. 410
    fossil, ii. 410

  CHELONIIDÆ, ii. 409

  CHELYDIDÆ, ii. 408

  _Chelydobatrachus_, ii. 416

  _Chelydra_, European Pliocene, i. 165
    ii. 408

  _Chelys_, ii. 408

  _Chenalopex_, ii. 363

  _Chera_, ii. 286

  _Chersina_, ii. 408

  _Chersydrus_, ii. 382

  Chevrotain of Malaya, figure of, i. 336

  Chevrotains, ii. 218

  _Chiamela_, ii. 397

  _Chiasognathus_, ii. 493

  _Chibia_, ii. 269

  _Chilabothrus_, ii. 381

  Chili should not be placed in the Palæarctic or Nearctic regions, i. 63

  Chili and Temperate S. America, distribution of Carabidæ in, ii. 492

  Chilian Andes, illustration of zoology of, ii. 40

  Chilian sub-region, ii. 36
    mammalia of, ii. 36
    birds of, ii. 37
    illustration of zoology of, ii. 40
    reptiles and amphibia of, ii. 40
    fresh-water fishes of, ii. 42
    insects of, ii. 42
    origin and migrations of insects of, ii. 47

  Chili, islands of, ii. 49

  _Chilinia_, ii. 518

  _Chilobranchus_, ii. 456

  _Chilomeniscus_, ii. 375

  _Chimæra_, ii. 460

  CHIMÆRIDÆ, ii. 460

  China, fossil mammals in, resembling those of Indian and European
      Miocene, i. 362
    North, mammalia of, i. 222

  _Chinchilla_, ii. 237

  _Chinchillidæ_ in Brazilian caves, i. 145
    S. American Pliocene, i. 147
    Pliocene of Antilles, i. 148

  CHINCHILLIDÆ, ii. 237

  _Chioglossa_, ii. 413

  _Chionabas_, ii. 471

  CHIONIDIDÆ, ii. 354

  _Chionis_, ii. 354

  CHIROCENTRIDÆ, ii. 454

  CHIROCOLIDÆ, ii. 393

  _Chirodon_, ii. 445

  _Chirodryas_, ii. 418

  _Chirogaleus_, ii. 176

  _Chiroleptes_, ii. 421

  _Chiromachæris_, ii. 102, 292

  _Chiromantis_, ii. 419

  CHIROMYIDÆ, ii. 177

  _Chironectes_, ii. 248

  Chiroptera, classification of, i. 87
    list of Palæarctic genera of, i. 239
    list of Ethiopian genera of, i. 300
    range of Oriental genera of, i. 371
    list of Australian genera of, i. 475

  _Chiroptera_, European Eocene, i. 125
    in Brazilian caves, i. 144

  CHIROPTERA, ii. 181
    remarks on the distribution of, ii. 185
    fossil, ii. 185
    summary and conclusion, ii. 441

  _Chirotes_, ii. 388

  CHIROTIDÆ, ii. 388

  _Chiroxiphia_, ii. 102, 292

  CHITONIDÆ, ii. 512

  _Chittya_, ii. 519

  _Chlænius_, ii. 489

  _Chlamydodera_, ii. 275

  _Chlamydophorus_, ii. 246

  _Chlamydotherium_, ii. 246
    in Brazilian caves, i. 145

  _Chlenasicus_, ii. 262

  _Chloëphaga_, ii. 363

  _Chlorochrysa_, ii. 98
    ii. 99

  _Chloronerpes_, ii. 303

  _Chlorophanes_, ii. 278

  _Chlorophonia_, ii. 98
    ii. 99

  _Chloropipo_, ii. 102

  _Chlorospiza_, ii. 283

  _Chlorospingus_, ii. 99
    ii. 100

  _Chlorostilbon_, ii. 109

  _Choanomphalus_, ii. 518

  _Choanopoma_, ii. 521

  _Choeromorus_, European Miocene, i. 119

  _Choeropotamus_, European Eocene, i. 126
    ii. 215

  _Choeropus_, ii. 250

  _Choerotherium_, Indian Miocene, i. 122

  _Cholæpus_, ii. 244

  _Chologastes_, ii. 450

  _Cholornis_, ii. 262

  _Chondestes_, ii. 285

  _Chondropoma_, ii. 521

  CHONDROPTERYGII, ii. 46

  CHONDROSTEI, ii. 459

  _Chondrostoma_, ii. 452

  _Choneziphius_, European Pliocene, i. 112

  _Chordeiles_, ii. 320

  Chough, Alpine, figure of, i. 195

  Choughs, ii. 274

  CHROMIDÆ, ii. 438

  _Chromis_, ii. 438

  _Chrysichthys_, ii. 442

  _Chrysobronchus_, ii. 108

  _Chrysococcyx_, ii. 310

  CHRYSOCHLORIDÆ, ii. 189

  _Chrysochloris_, ii. 189

  _Chrysocolaptes_, ii. 303

  _Chrysocyon_, ii. 197

  _Chrysolampis_, ii. 108

  _Chrysomitris_, ii. 283

  _Chrysopelea_, ii. 379

  _Chrysophrys_, ii. 427

  _Chrysoptilus_, ii. 303

  _Chrysothrix_, ii. 175

  _Chrysotis_, ii. 328

  _Chrysuronia_, ii. 109

  _Chthonicola_, ii. 258

  _Ciccaba_, ii. 350

  _Cichla_, ii. 439

  _Cichladusa_, ii. 261

  _Cichlopsis_, ii. 260

  _Cicigna_, ii. 392

  _Cicindela_, ii. 486

  CICINDELIDÆ, ii. 486

  _Cicinnurus_, ii. 275

  _Ciconia_, ii. 360

  _Ciconiidæ_, ii. 360

  CINCLIDÆ, ii. 262

  _Cinclocerthia_, ii. 256

  _Cinclodes_, ii. 103

  _Cinclorhamphus_, ii. 260

  _Cinclosoma,_ ii. 261

  _Cinclus_, ii. 263

  _Cinnicerthia_, ii. 264

  _Cinnyricinclus_, ii. 276
    ii. 288

  _Cinosternon_, ii. 408

  _Cinyxis_, ii. 408

  _Cionella_, ii. 515

  _Circaëtus_, ii. 348

  _Circe_, ii. 109

  Circumpolar zones, objections to system of, i. 67

  _Circus_, ii. 347

  _Cirrhina_, ii. 451

  CIRRHITIDÆ, ii. 427

  _Cirrhochroa_, ii. 474

  CIRRHOSTOMI, ii. 464

  _Cissa_, ii. 273

  _Cissopis_, ii. 99

  _Cisticola_, ii. 257

  _Cistothorus_, ii. 263

  _Cistula_, ii. 521

  _Cithara_, ii. 508

  _Citharinus_, ii. 445

  _Cittura_, ii. 316

  _Cladognathus_, ii. 493

  _Clais_, ii. 108

  Clam-shells, ii. 535

  _Clarias_, ii. 441

  _Clarotes_, ii. 442

  Classification as affecting the study of distribution, i. 83

  _Claudius_, ii. 408

  _Clausilia_, Eocene, i. 169
    ii. 514

  _Clerome_, ii. 472

  _Clibanornis_, ii. 103

  _Climacteris_, ii. 265

  Climate, as a limit to the range of mammalia, i. 11
    gradual change of, before the glacial epoch, i. 41

  _Clinteria_, ii. 494

  CLIONIDÆ, ii. 531

  _Clostophis_, ii. 520

  _Clupea_, ii. 454

  CLUPEIDÆ, ii. 454

  _Clymenia_, ii. 209

  _Clypeicterus_, ii. 282

  _Clytoctantes_, ii. 104

  _Clytolæna_, ii. 108

  _Clytus_, ii. 501

  _Cnidoglanis_, ii. 441

  _Cnipodectes_, ii. 101

  _Cnipolegus_, ii. 101, 291

  _Cobitis_, ii. 453

  Cobras, ii. 382

  _Coccothraustes_, ii. 284

  _Coccygus_, ii. 309

  _Coccystes_, ii. 310

  _Cochlognathus_, ii. 452

  _Cochlostyla_, ii. 514

  _Cochlothraustes_, ii. 309

  _Cochoa_, ii. 269

  Cockatoos, ii. 324

  Cockles, ii. 535

  Cocos Islands, bird of, ii. 60

  _Cocytia_, ii. 481

  _Coeligena_, ii. 107

  _Coelodon_, ii. 245

  _Coelonotus_, ii. 457

  _Coelopeltis_, ii. 377

  _Coelosterna_, ii. 501

  _Coenonympha_, ii. 471

  _Coereba_, ii. 278

  COEREBIDÆ, ii. 278

  _Cogia_, ii. 208

  _Colaptes_, ii. 304

  Coleoptera, families selected for study, i. 103
    Palæarctic, i. 188
    number of Palæarctic species, i. 189
    of Central Europe, i. 196
    of the Mediterranean sub-region, i. 205
    of the Cape Verd Islands, i. 215
    of the Ethiopian region, i. 256
    S. African, i. 268
    of Madagascar, i. 282, 283
    of the Oriental region, i. 319
    of Indo-Malay sub-region, i. 342
    of the Australian region, i. 405
    affinity of Australian and South American, i. 406, 407
    of Celebes, i. 435
    of New Zealand, i. 457
    of the Neotropical region, ii. 15
    of S. Temperate America, ii. 44
    of the Mexican sub-region, ii. 56
    of the Antilles, ii. 74
    of the Nearctic region, ii. 123

  COLEOPTERA, ii. 486
    general observations on the distribution of, ii. 502 (_see also_
      Beetles)

  _Colias_, ii. 478

  Colies, ii. 307

  COLIIDÆ, ii. 307

  _Colius_, ii. 307

  _Coliuspasser_, ii. 286

  _Collocalia_, European Miocene, i. 161
    ii. 320

  _Colluricincla_, ii. 272

  _Collyris_, ii. 486, 487

  _Colobus_, European Miocene, i. 117
    ii. 172

  _Colænis_, ii. 474

  _Colonoceras_, N. American Tertiary, i. 136

  _Colopterus_, ii. 101

  _Colossochelys_ of Indian Miocene, i. 123, 165

  _Colpodes_, ii. 489

  _Coluber_, ii. 375

  COLUBRIDÆ, ii. 375

  COLUBRINÆ, ii. 375

  Columbæ, classification of, i. 96
    range of Palæarctic genera of, i. 248
    range of Ethiopian genera of, i. 311
    range of Oriental genera of, i. 384
    range of Australian genera of, i. 485

  _Columba_, ii. 332

  COLUMBÆ, ii. 331
    general remarks on the distribution of, ii. 335

  COLUMBIDÆ, ii. 331

  _Columbula_, ii. 333

  _Columna_, ii. 516

  COLYMBIDÆ, ii. 366

  _Colymbus_, ii. 366

  COMEPHORIDÆ, ii. 432

  _Comephorus_, ii. 549

  Comoro islands, zoology of, i. 281

  _Compsosoma_, ii. 98, 375

  CONCHIFERA, ii. 533

  _Condylura_, ii. 190

  Cones, ii. 508

  _Conger_, ii. 456

  CONIDÆ, ii. 508

  _Conirostrum_, ii. 278

  _Conognatha_, ii. 496

  _Conophaga_, ii. 100

  CONOPHAGINÆ, ii. 291

  _Conophis_, ii. 375

  _Conopias_, ii. 101

  _Conorhynchus_, ii. 443

  _Conostoma_, ii. 262

  Continents, distribution of, i. 37
    recent changes of, i. 38

  Continental extension in Mesozoic times, i. 156

  _Contopus_, ii. 102, 291

  CONURIDÆ, ii. 327

  _Conurus_, ii. 328

  _Conus_, ii. 508

  _Copea_, ii. 416

  _Cophoscincus_, ii. 397

  _Copidoglanis_, ii. 441

  _Coptodera_, ii. 489, 492

  _Copurus_, ii. 101

  _Copsychus_, ii. 259

  _Coracias_, ii. 311

  CORACIIDÆ, ii. 311

  _Coracopsis_, ii. 328

  _Corades_, ii. 471

  _Corallus_, ii. 381

  _Corbis_, ii. 535

  _Cordylosaurus_, ii. 392

  _Cordylus_, ii. 392

  _Coregonus_, ii. 447

  _Coriphilus_, ii. 327

  _Coris_, ii. 437

  _Coronella_, ii. 375

  CORONELLINÆ, ii. 375

  _Coronis_, ii. 481

  _Cornufer_, ii. 419

  CORVIDÆ, ii. 272

  _Corvina_, ii. 428

  _Corvinella_, ii. 272

  _Corvultur_, ii. 274

  _Corvus_, European Miocene, i. 161
    ii. 274

  _Corydalla_, ii. 290

  _Corydon_, ii. 295

  _Corynopoma_, ii. 445

  _Coryphistera_, ii. 103

  _Coryphodon_, European Eocene, i. 126

  _Coryphospingus_, ii. 284

  _Corythaix_, ii. 307

  _Corythopis_, ii. 100

  _Corythornis_, ii. 316

  _Cosmeteira_, ii. 277

  _Cosmetornis_, ii. 320

  Cosmopolitan groups enumerated, i. 175

  _Cossypha_, ii. 256

  _Cotinga_, ii. 102, 294

  COTINGIDÆ, ii. 293

  _Cottus_, ii. 428

  _Coturniculus_, ii. 284

  _Coturnix_, ii. 338

  _Cotyle_, ii. 281

  _Coua_, ii. 309

  _Couchia_, ii. 439

  Coues, Dr., on the blue crow of the Rocky Mountains, ii. 128

  Coursers, ii. 355

  Cowries, ii. 508

  Coypu, ii. 238

  CRACIDÆ, ii. 342

  CRACINÆ, ii. 343

  _Cracticus_, ii. 273

  Cranes, ii. 357

  CRANIADÆ, ii. 532

  _Cranorrhinus_, ii. 317

  _Craspedocephalus_, ii. 385

  _Craspedopoma_, ii. 521

  _Crateropus_, ii. 261

  _Crax_, ii. 343

  _Creadion_, ii. 287

  _Creagrus_, ii. 364

  _Creagrutus_, ii. 445

  Creepers, ii. 264

  _Cremna_, ii. 475

  _Crenicichla_, ii. 439

  _Crenilabrus_, ii. 437

  _Crenuchus_, ii. 445

  _Creurgops_, ii. 99

  _Cricetodon_, European Miocene, i. 120
    ii. 230

  _Cricetomys_, ii. 230

  _Cricetulus_, ii. 230

  _Cricetus_, European Pliocene, i. 113
    ii. 230

  _Cricosoma_, ii. 476

  _Crinia_, ii. 420

  _Criniger_, ii. 267

  _Crithagra_, ii. 285

  _Crocidura_, ii. 191

  Crocodiles, Eocene, i. 165
    ii. 406
    lines of migration of, ii. 548

  Crocodilia, classification of, i. 100

  CROCODILIA, ii. 405
    general remarks on the distribution of, ii. 406
    fossil, ii. 407

  CROCODILIDÆ, ii. 406

  _Crocodilurus_ ii. 390

  _Crocodilus_, ii. 406

  Crook-billed plovers of New Zealand, i. 456

  _Crossarchus_, ii. 195

  _Crossochilus_, ii. 451

  _Crossodactylus_, ii. 419

  _Crossoptilon_, ii. 340

  _Crossopus_, ii. 191

  CROTALIDÆ, ii. 384

  _Crotalophorus_, ii. 385

  _Crotalus_, ii. 385

  Crotch, Mr., on beetles of the Azores, i. 209

  _Crotophaga_, ii. 309

  Crowned-pigeon, figure of, i. 415

  Crows, ii. 273

  _Crypsirhina_, ii. 273

  _Cryptoblepharus_, ii. 395

  _Cryptodacus_, ii. 375

  _Cryptoprocta_, ii. 194

  CRYPTOPROCTIDÆ, ii. 194

  _Cryptopterus_, ii. 441

  _Cryptornis_, European Eocene, i. 163

  _Cryptotis_, ii. 421

  _Crypturus_, ii. 344

  _Ctenodactyla_, ii. 490

  _Ctenodactylus_, ii. 238

  _Ctenolabrus_, ii. 437

  _Ctenomys_, S. American Pliocene, i. 147
    ii. 238

  _Ctenopharyngodon_, ii. 452

  _Ctenopoma_, ii. 521

  _Ctenostoma_, ii. 486

  Cuba, extinct mammalia of, i. 148

  _Curculionidium_, Oolitic insect, i. 167

  _Cubina_, ii. 400

  CUCULIDÆ, ii. 308

  _Cuculus_, ii. 309

  Cuckoo-shrikes, ii. 268

  Cuckoos, ii. 308

  _Culter_, ii. 453

  Cunningham, Professor, lizard discovered by, in Tierra-del-Fuego, ii. 41

  _Cuniculus_, ii. 230

  _Cuphopterus_, ii. 272

  _Cupidonia_, ii. 339

  Curassows, ii. 342

  _Curæus_, ii. 282

  _Curetis_, ii. 477

  _Curimatus_, ii. 445

  _Curruca_, ii. 259

  _Cursoria_, ii. 382

  _Cursorius_, ii. 355

  _Cuscus_, ii. 252

  _Custa_, ii. 390

  _Cutia_, ii. 266

  Cuttle fish, ii. 505

  _Cyanecula_, ii. 259

  _Cyanocorax_, ii. 273

  _Cyanomyia_, ii. 109

  _Cyanopica_, ii. 273

  _Cyanoptila_, ii. 270

  _Cyanorhamphus_, ii. 325

  _Cyanospiza_, ii. 284

  _Cyanotis_, ii. 101

  _Cyanurus_, ii. 273

  _Cybernetes_, ii. 101

  _Cychloris_, ii. 280

  _Cychrus_, ii. 489

  CYCLADIDÆ, ii. 535

  _Cyclas_, ii. 535

  _Cyclocorus_, ii. 380

  _Cycloderma_, ii. 409

  _Cyclodina_, ii. 397

  _Cyclodus_, ii. 397

  _Cyclophis_, ii. 376

  _Cyclophorus_, ii. 520

  _Cyclopterus_, ii. 430

  _Cyclopsitta_, ii. 326

  _Cyclorhamphus_, ii. 420

  _Cyclostoma_, Eocene, i. 169

  CYCLOSTOMATA, ii. 463

  CYCLOSTOMIDÆ, ii. 520

  _Cyclostomus_, ii. 521

  _Cyclothorus_, ii. 247

  _Cyclotopsis_, ii. 521

  _Cyclotus_, ii. 521

  _Cyclusa_, ii. 401

  _Cygnus_, ii. 363

  _Cylindrella_, ii. 515

  _Cylindrophis_, ii. 373

  _Cyllo sepulta_, European Cretaceous, i. 167

  _Cymba_, ii. 508

  _Cymbilanius_, ii. 104

  _Cymbirhynchus_, ii. 295

  _Cymindis_, ii. 489

  _Cynælurus_, in Brazilian caves, i. 144
    ii. 193

  _Cynanthus_, ii. 108

  _Cynictis_, ii. 195

  _Cynocephalus_, ii. 173

  _Cynodictis_, ii. 198

  _Cynodon_, ii. 445

  _Cynogale_, ii. 195

  CYNOPITHECIDÆ, ii. 172

  Cynopithecus of Celebes, affinities of, i. 427

  _Cynopithecus_, ii. 173

  _Cynomys_, ii. 235

  _Cyornis_, ii. 270

  _Cyotherium_, European Eocene, i. 125
    ii. 198

  _Cyphogastra_, ii. 496

  _Cyphorhinus_, ii. 264

  CYPRÆIDÆ, ii. 508

  _Cyprina_, ii. 535

  CYPRINIDÆ, ii. 451
    ii. 535

  _Cyprinus_, ii. 451

  _Cyprinion_, ii. 452

  _Cyprinodon_, ii. 450

  CYPRINODONTIDÆ, ii. 450

  CYPSELIDÆ, ii. 320

  _Cypseloides_, ii. 320

  _Cypselus_, ii. 320

  _Cypsnagra_, ii. 99

  _Cyrena_, ii. 535

  _Cyrestis_, ii. 474

  _Cyrtonotus_, ii. 489

  _Cyrtonyx_, ii. 339

  _Cyrtophis_, ii. 383

  _Cystignathus_, ii. 420

  _Cystophora_, ii. 204

  D.

  _Dacelo_, ii. 316

  _Dacnis_, ii. 278

  _Dactylethra_, ii. 422

  DACTYLETHRIDÆ, ii. 422

  _Dactylomys_, ii. 239

  _Dactylopsila_, ii. 249

  _Dactylozodes_, ii. 496

  _Dafila_, ii. 363

  _Dama_, ii. 219

  _Damias_, ii. 481

  _Damophila_, ii. 109

  DANAIDÆ, ii. 470

  _Danais_, ii. 470

  _Dangila_, ii. 451

  _Danio_, ii. 452

  _Daptophilus_, N. American Tertiary, i. 134

  Darters, ii. 365

  Darwin, Mr., his explanation of the cause of the abundance of apterous
      insects in Madeira, i. 211
    on the relation of flowers and insects, i. 463
    amphibia collected by, in S. Temperate America, ii. 41
    mice collected by, in S. Temperate America, ii. 37
    on physical geography of the Galapagos, ii. 33

  _Dasia_, ii. 397

  _Dasylophus_, ii. 309

  _Dasyopthalma_, ii. 472

  _Dasypeltis_, ii. 377

  DASYPODIDÆ, ii. 245

  _Dasyprocta_, European Miocene, i. 121
    in Brazilian caves, i. 144
    ii. 241

  _Dasyptilus_, ii. 329

  _Dasypus_, in Brazilian caves, i. 145
    S. American Pliocene, i. 147
    ii. 246

  DASYURIDÆ, ii. 249

  _Dasyurus_, Australian Post-Tertiary, i. 157
    ii. 249

  _Daudebardia_, ii. 516

  David, Père, his researches in China and Thibet, i. 221, 222
    on birds of N. China, i. 226

  _Debis_, ii. 471

  Deer, fossil in N. American Tertiary formations, i. 138
    Palæarctic, i. 182
    probable cause of absence from tropical Africa, i. 291
    ii. 218

  _Deilephila_, ii. 482

  _Deltatria_, ii. 107

  _Delma_, ii. 395

  _Deloneura_, ii. 477

  _Delphinapterus_, ii. 209

  DELPHINIDÆ, ii. 208

  _Delphinus_, European Pliocene, i. 112
    ii. 209

  DENDRASPIDIDÆ, ii. 383

  _Dendraspis_, ii. 383

  _Dendrexetastes_, ii. 104

  _Dendrochelidon_, ii. 320

  _Dendrocitta_, ii. 273

  _Dendrocolaptes_, ii. 103

  DENDROCOLAPTIDÆ, ii. 295

  DENDROCOLAPTINÆ, ii. 295

  _Dendrocincla_, ii. 103

  _Dendrocygna_, European Miocene, i. 162
    ii. 363

  _Dendroeca_, ii. 279

  _Dendrohyrax_, ii. 229

  _Dendrolagus_, ii. 251

  _Dendromus_, ii. 303

  _Dendromys_, ii. 230

  _Dendrophila_, ii. 265

  DENDROPHIDÆ, ii. 378

  _Dendrophis_, ii. 378

  _Dendropicus_, ii. 303

  _Dendroplex_, ii. 103

  _Dendrornis_, ii. 103

  _Dendrortyx_, ii. 339

  _Denisonia_, ii. 383

  DENTALIADÆ, ii. 512

  _Dentalium_, ii. 512
    ii. 539

  _Dentex_, ii. 426

  _Dercas_, ii. 478

  _Dermatemys_, ii. 408

  _Dermatocera_, ii. 520

  _Dermatochelys_, ii. 409

  _Deroptyus_, ii. 328

  _Dermognathus_, ii. 413

  Desert-snakes, ii. 377

  Desman of S. Russia, figure of, i. 219

  _Desmodus_, ii. 182

  _Deudorix_, ii. 477

  _Diadema_, ii. 474

  _Diagramma_, ii. 426

  _Dibamus_, ii. 372

  DIBRANCHIATA, ii. 505

  DICÆIDÆ, ii. 277

  _Dicælus_, ii. 490

  _Dicæum_, ii. 277

  _Dicallaneura_, ii. 475

  _Dicamptodon_, ii. 413

  _Diceratherium_, N. American Tertiary, i. 137

  _Dicerca_, ii. 496

  _Dicerobatis_, ii. 463

  _Dichobune_, European Eocene, i. 126

  _Dicotyles_, N. American Post-Pliocene, i. 130
    N. American Tertiary, i. 137
    in Brazilian caves, i. 144
    S. American Pliocene, i. 146
    birthplace and migrations of, i. 155
    ii. 215

  _Dicotylinæ_, ii. 214

  _Dicrocerus_, European Miocene, i. 120
    ii. 220

  _Dicrodon_, ii. 390

  _Dicroglossus_, ii. 421

  _Dicrorrhagia_, ii. 474

  DICRURIDÆ, ii. 269

  _Dicrurus_, ii. 269

  DIDELPHYIDÆ, ii. 248

  _Didelphys_, European Eocene, i. 126
    N. American Post-Pliocene, i. 130
    in Brazilian caves, i. 145
    ii. 248

  _Dididæ_, i. 164

  DIDIDÆ, ii. 334

  _Didocus_, ii. 417

  DIDUNCULIDÆ, ii. 333

  _Didunculus_, ii. 334

  _Didus_, ii. 334

  _Dieba_, ii. 197

  _Diemenia_, ii. 383

  _Diglossa_, ii. 278

  _Diglossopis_, ii. 278

  _Dilophus_, ii. 287

  _Dilophyrus_, ii. 402

  _Dimodes_, ii. 377

  _Dimylus_, ii. 190

  _Dinictis_, ii. 194

  _Dinoceras_, N. American Eocene, i. 139

  _Dinocerata_, N. American Tertiary, i. 139

  _Dinornis_, allied form in European Eocene, i. 163
    of New Zealand and Australia, i. 164
    ii. 369

  _Dinornithidæ_ of New Zealand, i. 164

  DINORNITHIDÆ, ii. 269

  _Dinotherium_, Miocene of Greece, i. 116
    European Miocene, i. 120
    Miocene of Perim Island, i. 123

  _Dinyctis_, N. American Tertiary, i. 134

  _Dinylus_, European Miocene, i. 117

  _Diomedia_, ii. 365

  _Dioplodon_, ii. 208

  _Diorhina_, ii. 476

  _Diphlogæna_, ii. 108

  _Diphylla_, ii. 182

  _Diphyllodes_, ii. 274

  _Diplacodon_, N. American Tertiary, i. 136

  _Diplodactylus_, ii. 399

  _Diploglossus_, ii. 397

  _Diplolæmus_, ii. 401

  _Diplomesodon_, ii. 191

  DIPLOMMATINIDÆ, ii. 519

  _Diplommatina_, ii. 520

  _Diplomystax_, ii. 443

  _Diplopelma_, ii. 416

  _Diplopoma_, ii. 521

  _Diplopterus_, ii. 309

  DIPNOI, ii. 458

  DIPODIDÆ, ii. 231

  _Dipodomys_, ii. 233

  Dippers, ii. 263

  _Diprotodon_, Australian Post-Tertiary, i. 157
    ii. 251

  DIPSADIDÆ, ii. 379

  _Dipsadoboa_, ii. 379

  _Dipsas_, ii. 379

  _Diptychus_, ii. 452

  _Dipus_, ii. 232

  _Dircenna_, ii. 470

  _Discina_, ii. 539

  DISCINIDÆ, ii. 532

  _Discoboli_, ii. 430

  DISCOGLOSSIDÆ, ii. 421

  _Discoglossus_, ii. 421

  _Discognathus_, ii. 451

  _Discophora_, ii. 472

  _Discura_, ii. 107

  Dispersal of animals, i. 10
    of mammalia, i. 10
    of reptiles and amphibia, i. 28

  _Disteira_, ii. 384

  _Distichodus_, ii. 445

  Distribution, affected by climate, i. 5
    affected by physical features, i. 5
    contrasts of, in similar climates, i. 5
    similarities of, in diverse climates, i. 6
    barriers as affecting, i. 6
    study of, dependent on a good classification, i. 83
    of animals an adjunct to geology, i. 8
    of animals requires certain preliminary studies, i. 8
    of animals dependent on physical geography, i. 35
    of animals, as affected by the glacial epoch, i. 40
    of animals, as affected by changes of vegetation, i. 43
    of animals, as affected by organic changes, i. 44
    of animals, hypothetical illustration of, i. 46
    of animals, complexity of the causes affecting the, i. 49
    of animals, problems in, i. 51
    of plants, as affected by the glacial epoch, i. 42

  _Distrigus_, ii. 490

  _Diuca_, ii. 284

  _Diucopis_, ii. 99

  _Diva_, ii. 98

  Divers, ii. 366

  _Docimastes_, ii. 108

  Dodo of Mauritius, i. 282
    ii. 334

  _Dodona_, ii. 475

  _Dolerisca_, ii. 107

  _Dolichodon_, ii. 208

  _Dolichonyx_, ii. 282

  _Dolichopterus_, European Miocene, i. 162

  _Dolichotis_, ii. 241

  _Doliophis_, ii. 383

  _Dolium_, ii. 507

  _Dommina_, N. American Tertiary, i. 134

  _Donacobius_, ii. 264

  _Donacola_, ii. 287

  _Donacospiza_, ii. 284

  _Doras_, ii. 443

  _Dorcatherium_, European Miocene, i. 120

  _Dorcopsis_, ii. 251

  _Dorcus_, ii. 493

  _Doricha_, ii. 108

  DORIDÆ, ii. 530

  _Doritis_, ii. 479

  Dormice, ii. 232

  _Doryichthys_, ii. 457

  _Doryphora_, ii. 107

  Douroucoulis, ii. 175

  _Draco_, ii. 402

  _Dremotherium_, Miocene of Greece, i. 116
    European Miocene, i. 120
    ii. 218

  DREPANIDIDÆ, ii. 277

  _Drepanis_, ii. 277

  _Drepanornis_, ii. 275
    ii. 276

  Dresser, Mr. H. E., on northern range of European birds, i. 193

  _Drimostoma_, ii. 489

  _Dromæus_, ii. 368

  _Dromas_, ii. 356

  _Dromatherium_, N. American Triassic, i. 134
    oldest American mammal, i. 160

  _Dromica_, ii. 486, 487

  _Dromicia_, ii. 252

  _Dromicus_, ii. 375

  _Dromius_, ii. 489

  _Dromococcyx_, ii. 309

  _Dromolæa_, ii. 260

  _Dromophis_, ii. 377

  Drongo-shrike, Malayan, figure of, i. 340
    ii. 269

  DRYADINÆ, ii. 375

  DRYIOPHIDÆ, ii. 379

  _Dryiophis_, ii. 379

  _Drymocataphus_, ii. 261

  _Drymodes_, ii. 259

  _Drymoeca_, ii. 257

  DRYMOECINÆ, ii. 257

  _Drymomys_, ii. 230

  _Drymornis_, ii. 103

  _Dryocopus_, ii. 303

  _Dryopithecus_, European Miocene, i. 117
    ii. 178

  _Dryospiza_, ii. 284

  _Dryotriorchis_, ii. 348

  _Dubusia_, ii. 98

  Ducks, ii. 363

  _Dulus_, ii. 280

  _Dumerilia_, ii. 408

  _Dumetia_, ii. 261

  _Dumeticola_, ii. 258

  Duncan, Dr., on fossil corals of the Antilles, ii. 21

  _D'Urbania_, ii. 477

  Dwarf-ground snakes, ii. 374

  _Dynastor_, ii. 472

  _Dyschirus_, ii. 489

  _Dysauxis_, ii. 481

  _Dysithamnus_, ii. 104

  _Dysopes_, ii. 184

  E.

  Eagles, ii. 347

  Eared Seals, ii. 202

  Ear-shells, ii. 511

  East Africa, geographical features of, i. 258
    wide range of genera and species over, i. 259
    few special types in, i. 260

  East African sub-region, description of, i. 258
    genera and species ranging over the whole of, i. 259
    mammalia of, i. 260
    birds of, i. 260
    reptiles of, i. 260
    amphibia and fishes of, i. 260
    insects of, i. 260
    few peculiar types in, i. 260
    illustration of zoology of, i. 261

  East Australia, peculiar birds of, i. 440

  East Thibet, mammalia of, i. 222

  Eaton, Rev., A. E., on insects of Kerguelen Island, i. 211

  _Eburna_, ii. 507

  _Echidna_, ii. 254

  ECHIDNIDÆ, ii. 254

  _Echimyidæ_, in Brazilian caves, i. 145

  ECHIMYIDÆ, ii. 238

  _Echimys_, ii. 239

  _Echinogale_, European Miocene, i. 118

  _Echinops_, ii. 188, 189

  _Echinorhinus_, ii. 461

  _Echiothrix_, ii. 230

  _Echis_, ii. 386

  _Eclectus_, ii. 326

  _Ectognathus_, N. American Eocene, i. 139

  _Ectopistes_, ii. 332

  _Edentata_, Miocene of Greece, i. 116
    European Miocene, i. 121
    N. American Post-Pliocene, i. 130
    N. American Pliocene, i. 140
    of Brazilian caves, i. 145
    S. American Pliocene, i. 147

  Edentata, classification of, i. 90
    probable birthplace of, i. 155
    range of Ethiopian genera of, i. 305
    range of Oriental genus of, i. 375

  EDENTATA, ii. 244
    general remarks on the distribution of, ii. 247
    summary and conclusion, ii. 543

  _Ega_, ii. 490

  _Egerina_, ii. 397

  _Elainea_, ii. 101, 291

  ELAINEINÆ, ii. 291

  _Elania_, ii. 397

  _Elanoides_, ii. 349

  _Elanus_, ii. 349

  _Elaphodus_, ii. 220

  _Elaphrus_, ii. 489

  ELAPIDÆ, ii. 382

  _Elapochrus_, ii. 375

  _Elaps_, ii. 383

  _Elapsoidea_, ii. 383

  _Elasmognathus_, ii. 212

  _Electra_, ii. 209

  ELEPHANTIDÆ, ii. 227

  Elephants, fossil, of Indian Miocene, i. 123
    fossil in N. American Post-Pliocene formations, i. 130
    birthplace and migrations of, i. 155
    ii. 227

  Elephant shrews, S. African, i. 267
    ii. 186

  _Elephas_, Post-Pliocene, i. 112
    fossil in N. China, i. 123
    N. American Tertiary, i. 138
    ii. 227

  _Eliomys_, ii. 232

  Elliot, Mr., his great work on the birds of paradise, i. 415
    on classification of the birds of paradise, ii. 274

  _Ellipesurus_, ii. 463

  _Ellipsoglossa_, ii. 413

  _Ellisia_, ii. 258

  _Ellobius_, ii. 231

  _Elminia_, ii. 271

  _Elodina_, ii. 478

  _Elopichthys_, ii. 453

  _Elornis_, European Miocene, i. 162

  _Elosia_, ii. 419

  _Elotherium_, N. American Tertiary, i. 137, 139
    ii. 215, 216

  _Elseya_, ii. 408

  Elwes, Mr., on birds of Persia, i. 204
    on true relations of the birds of Central India, i. 323

  _Elymnias_, ii. 471

  ELYMNIIDÆ, ii. 471

  ELSIADÆ, ii. 530

  _Embasis_, N. American Tertiary, i. 134

  _Emberiza_, ii. 285

  EMBERIZINÆ, ii. 285

  _Emberizoides_, ii. 284

  _Emblema_, ii. 287

  _Embernagra_, ii. 284

  EMBROTOCIDÆ, ii. 438

  _Emesis_, ii. 476

  Emeu, figure of, i. 441

  Emeus, ii. 368

  _Emminia_, ii. 390

  _Empidagra_, ii. 101

  _Empidias_, ii. 102, 291

  _Empidochanes_, ii. 102

  _Empidonax_, ii. 102, 291

  _Empidonomus_, ii. 102

  _Emyda_, ii. 409

  _Emydida_, Indian Miocene, i. 123

  _Emydocephalus_, ii. 384

  _Emys_, Indian Miocene, i. 123
    Miocene and Eocene, i. 165
    ii. 408

  _Enes_, ii. 501

  _Engystoma_, ii. 416

  ENGYSTOMIDÆ, ii. 416

  _Enhydrina_, ii. 384

  _Enhydrion_, Indian Miocene, i. 121
    ii. 200

  _Enhydris_, ii. 199

  _Enicurus_, ii. 263

  _Enispe_, ii. 472

  _Enodes_, ii. 288

  _Enophrys_, ii. 375

  _Ensophleus_, ii. 420

  _Entelopes_, ii. 501

  _Entomiza_, ii. 276

  _Entomophila_, ii. 275

  _Enygrus_, ii. 381

  _Eobasileus_, N. American Eocene, i. 139

  Eocene period, i. 124
    fauna of S. America, i. 148

  _Eophona_, ii. 284

  _Eopsaltria_, ii. 271

  _Eos_, ii. 327

  _Epalzeorhynchus_, ii. 451

  _Ephemera_, from the Lias, i. 167

  _Ephthianura_, ii. 260

  _Epicalia_, ii. 474

  _Epicrates_, ii. 381

  EPIMACHINÆ, ii. 275

  _Epimachus_, ii. 275

  _Epiodon_, ii. 208

  _Epirhixis_, ii. 419

  _Epitola_, ii. 477

  _Eporeodon_, N. American Tertiary, i. 138

  EQUIDÆ, ii. 211

  _Equidæ_, European Pliocene, i. 112
    Miocene of Greece, i. 115
    European Eocene, i. 125

  _Equus_, European Pliocene, i. 112
    Post-Pliocene, i. 112
    Indian Miocene, i. 121
    N. American Post-Pliocene, i. 130
    N. American Tertiary, i. 135
    Brazilian caves, i. 144
    S. American Pliocene, i. 146
    ii. 211

  _Erebia_, ii. 471

  _Eremias_, ii. 391

  _Eremomela_, ii. 258

  _Eremophilus_, ii. 444

  _Ereptodon_, N. American Post-Pliocene, i. 130

  _Eresia_, ii. 474

  _Erethistes_, ii. 444

  _Erethizon_, ii. 239

  _Ereunetes_, ii. 353

  _Ergaticus_, ii. 279

  _Ergolis_, ii. 474

  _Ericulus_, ii. 188

  _Ericymba_, ii. 452

  ERINACEIDÆ, ii. 187

  _Erinaceus_, European Miocene, i. 117
    ii. 187

  _Eriocnemis_, ii. 109

  _Eriodes_, ii. 174

  _Erismatura_, ii. 364

  _Erithacus_, ii. 259

  _Eroessa_, ii. 258

  _Eronia_, ii. 478

  _Erpornis_, ii. 267

  ERYCIDÆ, ii. 381

  ERYCINIDÆ, ii. 476

  _Erynnis_, ii. 480

  _Erythrinus_, ii. 445

  _Erythrocercus_, ii. 270

  _Erythrocnema_, ii. 347

  _Erythrogonys_, ii. 356

  _Erythrolampus_, ii. 375

  _Erythromachus_ of Rodriguez, i. 164
    ii. 352

  _Erythrospiza_, ii. 285

  _Erythrosterna_, ii. 270

  _Erythrura_, ii. 387

  _Eryx_, ii. 382

  ESOCIDÆ, ii. 449

  _Esox_, ii. 449

  _Esthemopsis_, ii. 476

  _Esthonyx_, N. American Eocene, i. 139

  _Estrilda_, ii. 286

  _Etheria_, ii. 534

  Ethiopian region should not include any part of India, i. 63
    defined, i. 73
    subdivisions of, i. 73
    general features of, i. 251
    zoological characteristics of, i. 252
    mammalia of, i. 253
    great speciality of, i. 253
    birds of, i. 253
    reptiles of, i. 254
    amphibia of, i. 255
    fresh-water fish of, i. 255
    summary of vertebrates of, i. 255
    insects of, i. 255
    coleoptera of, i. 256
    terrestrial mollusca of, i. 257
    sub-regions of, i. 258
    Atlantic islands of, i. 269
    the probable past history of, i. 285
    tables of distribution of animals of, i. 293

  _Euanemus_, ii. 443

  _Eubagis_, ii. 474

  _Eucephala_, ii. 109

  _Euchætes_, ii. 98

  _Eucometis_, ii. 99

  _Euchromia_, ii. 481

  _Eucichla_, ii. 298

  _Euclyptosternum_, ii. 443

  _Eudromias_, ii. 356

  _Eudynamis_, ii. 310

  _Eudyptes_, ii. 366

  _Eueides_, ii. 473

  _Eugenes_, ii. 107

  _Eugenia_, ii. 107

  _Euhyrax_, ii. 229

  _Eulabeornis_, ii. 352

  _Eulabes_, ii. 287

  _Eulampis_, ii. 107

  _Eumæus_, ii. 477

  _Eumeces_, ii. 397

  _Eumetopias_, ii. 203

  _Eumomota_, ii. 313

  _Eumys_, N. American Tertiary, i. 140
    ii. 231

  _Eumyias_, ii. 270

  _Eunectes_, ii. 381

  _Eunica_, ii. 474

  _Eunogyra_, ii. 475

  _Eupetes_, ii. 263

  _Eupetomena_, ii. 107

  _Euphema_, ii. 325

  _Eupherusa_, ii. 109

  _Euphonia_, ii. 98

  _Euphractus_, S. American Pliocene, i. 147

  _Euphryne_, ii. 401

  _Euphysetes_, ii. 208

  _Eupleres_, ii. 195

  _Euploea_, ii. 470

  EUPLOCAMINÆ, ii. 340

  _Euplocamus_, ii. 340

  _Eupodotis_, ii. 356

  _Euprepes_, ii. 397

  _Eupsychortyx_, ii. 339

  _Euptilotis_, ii. 314

  _Euptychia_, ii. 471

  _Eurinorhynchus_, ii. 353

  _Eurocephalus_, ii. 272

  Europe, recent changes in physical geography of, i. 39
    Miocene fauna of Central, i. 117
    Miocene fauna of, allied to existing fauna of tropical Asia and Africa,
      i. 124

  European sub-region, description of, i. 191
    forests of, i. 192
    mammalia of, i. 192
    birds of, i. 193
    reptiles and amphibia of, i. 195
    fresh-water fish of, i. 196
    insects of, i. 196
    islands of, i. 197

  _Eurostopodus_, ii. 320

  _Euryades_, ii. 479

  _Euryapteryx_, ii. 370

  _Euryarthrium_, ii. 501

  _Eurybia_, ii. 475

  Euryceros of Madagascar, figure of, i. 278

  _Euryceros_, ii. 288

  _Eurycus_, ii. 479

  _Eurygona_, ii. 476

  EURYGONIDÆ, ii. 476

  EURYLÆMIDÆ, ii. 294

  _Eurylæmus_, ii. 295

  _Euryodon_, in Brazilian caves, i. 145
    ii. 246

  _Euryphene_, ii. 474

  _Eurypyga_, ii. 358

  EURYPYGIDÆ, ii. 358

  _Eurystomus_, ii. 312

  _Eurytela_, ii. 474

  _Eurytherium_, European Eocene, i. 126

  _Eurytrichus_, ii. 490

  _Euscarthmus_, ii. 101

  _Euschemon_, ii. 480
    ii. 481

  _Eusemia_, ii. 482

  _Euspiza_, ii. 285

  _Eustephanus_, ii. 108

  _Eustira_, ii. 453

  _Eutatus_, S. American Pliocene, i. 147
    ii. 246

  _Eutelodon_, European Eocene, i. 126

  _Eutemnodus_, S. American Eocene, i. 148

  _Euterpe_, ii. 285

  _Euthyrhynchus_, ii. 276

  _Eutoxeres_, ii. 107

  _Eutriorchis_, ii. 348

  _Eutropia_, ii. 209

  _Eutropiichthys_, ii. 441

  _Eutropius_, ii. 442

  _Eutroplus_, ii. 438

  _Exocetus_, ii. 449

  _Exoglossum_, ii. 452

  _Exostoma_, ii. 444

  Extinct mammalian fauna of Europe, general considerations on, i. 126
    mammalia of N. America and Europe, comparison of, i. 140
    mammalia of the Antilles, i. 148
    mammalia of the Old and New Worlds, general remarks on, i. 148
    fauna of New Zealand, i. 459
    Amphibia, ii. 423
    Ant-eaters, ii. 247
    Armadillos, ii. 246
    Bovidæ, ii. 225
    Bradypodidæ, ii. 245
    Camelidæ, ii. 217
    Camelopardalidæ, ii. 221
    Canidæ, ii. 197
    Castoridæ, ii. 234
    Caviidæ, ii. 241
    Centetidæ, ii. 189
    Cercolabidæ, ii. 240
    Cetacea, ii. 209
    Chinchillidæ, ii. 237
    Chiroptera, ii. 185
    Crocodiles, ii. 407
    Deer, ii. 220
    Didelphyidæ, ii. 249
    Dipodidæ, ii. 232
    Echidnidæ, ii. 254
    Echimyidæ, ii. 239
    Elephants, ii. 227
    Equidæ, ii. 211
    Erinaceidæ, ii. 188
    Felidæ, ii. 193
    Hippopotami, ii. 214
    Hyænas, ii. 196
    Hystricidæ, ii. 240
    Insectivora, ii. 192
    Lacertilia, ii. 404
    Lagomyidæ, ii. 242
    Leporidæ, ii. 243
    Macropodidæ, ii. 251
    Muridæ, ii. 230
    Mustelidæ, ii. 199
    Myoxidæ, ii. 232
    Octodontidæ, ii. 238
    Ophidia, ii. 387
    Orycteropodidæ, ii. 246
    Otariidæ, ii. 203
    Procyonidæ, ii. 201
    Quadrumana, ii. 178
    Rallidæ, ii. 252
    Rhinocerotidæ, ii. 213
    Sciuridæ, ii. 236
    Seals, ii. 204
    Sirenia, ii. 210
    Struthionidæ, ii. 369
    Suidæ, ii. 215
    Talpidæ, ii. 190
    Tapirs, ii. 212
    Tortoises, ii. 410
    Tragulidæ, ii. 218
    Tupaiidæ, ii. 186
    Ursidæ, ii. 202
    Viverridæ, ii. 195

  Extinction of large animals, causes of, i. 158

  F.

  _Falcinellus_, ii. 360

  _Falco_, ii. 349

  FALCONIDÆ, ii. 347

  FALCONINÆ, ii. 349

  Falcons, ii. 347

  _Falculia_, ii. 228

  Falkland Islands, zoology of, ii. 49

  Fanged ground-snakes, ii. 380

  _Farancia_, ii. 377

  Fauna of Japan, general character and affinities of, i. 230
    of Palæarctic region, general conclusions as to, i. 231
    extinct, of Madagascar and Mascarene Islands, i. 282
    Malayan, probable origin of, i. 359
    Moluccan, peculiarities of, i. 419
    Timorese, origin of, i. 422
    of Celebes, origin of, i. 436
    of New Zealand, origin of, i. 460
    of Galapagos, origin of, ii. 33
    of Central America, origin of, ii. 57
    of Antilles, origin of, ii. 78
    of Neotropical region, origin of, ii. 80

  FELIDÆ, ii. 192

  _Felis_, Miocene of Greece, i. 115
    European Miocene, i. 118
    Indian Miocene, i. 121
    N. American Post-Pliocene, i. 129
    in Brazilian caves, i. 144
    ii. 193

  _Felis spelæa_, i. 110

  _Feniseca_, ii. 477

  _Fennecus_, ii. 197

  _Ferania_, ii. 376

  Fernando Po, zoological features of, i. 265

  _Feroculus_, ii. 191

  _Fiber_, ii. 230

  _Figulus_, ii. 493

  Fiji, Tonga, and Samoa Islands, birds of, i. 443

  Finches, ii. 283

  FIROLIDÆ, ii. 531

  Fishes, means of dispersal of, i. 29
    classification of, i. 101
    cosmopolitan groups of, i. 176
    of the Palæarctic region, i. 186
    of the European sub-region, i. 196
    of the Mediterranean sub-region, i. 205
    of the Manchurian sub-region, i. 227
    fresh-water, table of Palæarctic families of, i. 227
    of the Ethiopian region, i. 255
    of South Africa, i. 268
    fresh-water, table of Ethiopian families of, i. 298
    fresh-water, of the Oriental region, i. 318
    of the Indo-Malay sub-region, i. 341
    fresh-water, table of Oriental families of i. 369
    fresh-water, of the Australian region, i. 397
    fresh-water, resemblance of Australian and S. American, i. 400
    how the transmission may have taken place, i. 401
    fresh-water, of New Zealand, i. 457
    fresh-water, table of Neotropical families of, ii. 89
    of Central N. America, ii. 131
    of Eastern United States, ii. 134
    of Canada, ii. 137
    fresh-water, table of Nearctic families of, ii. 143
    remarks on the distribution of, ii. 464
    fossil, ii. 466

  Fishing-hawks, ii. 349

  FISSURELLIDÆ, ii. 511

  FISTULARIDÆ, ii. 436

  _Fitzroya_, ii. 450

  Flamingoes, European Miocene, i. 162
    ii. 361

  Flora, of New Zealand, as influenced by scarcity of insects, i. 462
    fossil of Australia, i. 467

  Floras, cretaceous and tertiary, of North America, ii. 155

  _Florisuga_, ii. 107

  Flower-peckers, ii. 277

  Flower, Professor, on classification of mammalia, i. 85
    classification of carnivora, i. 87

  _Fluvicola_, ii. 100

  Flycatchers, ii. 270

  Flying Lemur, Malayan, figure of, i. 337
    ii. 186

  Flying Lizards, ii. 401

  Flying Opossum, figure of, i. 442

  _Fordonia_, ii. 376

  Forests, essential to existence of many European animals, i. 192
    Siberian, greatest extent of, i. 216

  FORMICARIIDÆ, ii. 297

  FORMICARIINÆ, ii. 298

  _Formicarius_, ii. 104

  _Formicivora_, ii. 104

  FORMICIVORINÆ, ii. 297

  Formosa, zoology of, i. 332

  _Fossa_, ii. 195

  _Foudia_, ii. 286

  _Francolinus_, ii. 338

  _Fraseria_, ii. 272

  _Fratercula_, ii. 367

  _Fregetta_, ii. 365

  _Fregilupus_, ii. 288

  _Fregilus_, ii. 274

  Fresh-water fishes, Neotropical, ii. 12
    of S. Temperate America, ii. 42
    of the Mexican sub-region, ii. 54
    of the Antilles, ii. 73
    of the Nearctic region, ii. 120
    of California, ii. 128
    summary and conclusion, ii. 549

  Fresh-water mussels, ii. 534
    shell, the most Arctic, ii. 518
    snakes, ii. 376
    snails, ii. 518

  _Fringilla_, ii. 283

  _Fringillaria_, ii. 285

  _Fringillauda_, ii. 282

  FRINGILLIDÆ, ii. 284

  Frog-mouths, ii. 318

  Frogs, ii. 420

  _Fulica_, ii. 352

  _Fuligula_, ii. 364

  _Fulmarus_, ii. 365

  _Fundulus_, ii. 450

  FURNARIINÆ, ii. 295

  _Furnarius_, ii. 103

  _Fusus_, ii. 507

  G.

  GADIDÆ, ii. 439

  GADOPSIDÆ, ii. 439

  _Gadus_, ii. 439

  _Galago_, ii. 177

  Galapagos, scarcity of insects in, i. 463

  Galapagos islands, ii. 29
    mammalia of, ii. 29
    birds of, ii. 30
    reptiles of, ii. 32
    insects of, ii. 33
    land-shells of, ii. 33
    conclusions as to the origin of their fauna, ii. 33

  _Galatea_, ii. 536

  _Galaxias_, ii. 448

  GALAXIDÆ, ii. 448

  _Galbalcyrhynchus_, ii. 311

  _Galbula_, ii. 311

  GALBULIDÆ, ii. 311

  _Galecynus_, in European Pliocene, i. 112
    ii. 198

  _Galeichthys_, ii. 443

  GALEOPITHECIDÆ, ii. 186

  _Galeoscoptes_, ii. 256

  _Galeospalax_, European Miocene, i. 118
    ii. 190

  _Galeotherium_, Post-Pliocene, i. 111

  _Galera_, N. American Post-Pliocene, i. 130

  _Galerella_, ii. 195

  _Galerita_, ii. 289
    ii. 490

  _Galerix_, ii. 188

  _Galethylax_, European Eocene, i. 125
    ii. 198

  _Galeus_, ii. 460

  _Galictis_, in Brazilian caves, i. 144
    ii. 199

  _Galidia_, ii. 195

  _Galidictis_, ii. 195

  Gallinæ, classification of, i. 96
    range of Palæarctic genera of, i. 248
    range of Ethiopian genera of, i. 311
    range of Oriental genera of, i. 384
    range of Australian genera of, i. 485

  GALLINÆ, ii. 337
    ii. 340
    general remarks on the distribution of, ii. 344

  _Gallinago_, ii. 353

  _Gallinula_, ii. 352

  _Gallus_, Miocene of Greece, i. 116
    ii. 340

  _Gallus bravardi_, European Pliocene, i. 161

  _Galogale_, ii. 195

  _Gambusia_, ii. 450

  _Gampsonyx_, ii. 349

  _Gampsorhynchus_, ii. 261

  Gannets, ii. 365

  GANOIDEI, ii. 458

  Gape-eyed Scinks, ii. 395

  Gar-fish, ii. 459

  Garrod, Professor, on the Classification of Parrots, ii. 324

  _Garrulax_, ii. 261

  _Garrulus_, ii. 273

  GASTEROPODA, ii. 507

  GASTEROSTEIDÆ, ii. 424

  _Gasterosteus_, ii. 424

  _Gastornis_, European Eocene, i. 163

  GASTROCHÆNIDÆ, ii. 537

  _Gastropelecus_, ii. 445

  GAVIALIDÆ, ii. 405

  _Gavialis_, ii. 405

  Gavials, ii. 405

  _Gazella_, ii. 223

  GAZELLINÆ, ii. 223

  _Gazera_, ii. 481

  _Gecinulus_, ii. 303

  _Gecinus_, ii. 303

  _Gecko_, ii. 399

  GECKOTIDÆ, ii. 399

  Geese, ii. 363

  _Gehyra_, ii. 400

  Genera common to Post-Pliocene and Pliocene faunas of N. America, i. 132

  _Genetta_, ii. 195

  _Genidens_, ii. 443

  _Geobates_, ii. 103

  _Geobiastes_, ii. 312

  _Geocichla_, ii. 256

  _Geococcyx_, ii. 309

  _Geocolaptes_, ii. 304

  GEODEPHAGA, ii. 486

  _Geoffroyus_, ii. 326

  Geographical zoology, introduction, ii. 167
    materials for, ii. 168

  Geological history of Oriental region, i. 362

  Geology and Physical Geography of the Antilles, ii. 62, 79

  _Geomelania_, ii. 519

  _Geomys_, ii. 233

  _Geopelia_, ii. 332

  _Geophaps_, ii. 333

  _Geophagus_, ii. 439

  _Geopsittacus_, ii. 325

  _Georissa_, ii. 522

  _Georychus_, ii. 231

  _Geositta_, ii. 103

  _Geospiza_, ii. 284

  _Geothlypis_, ii. 279

  _Geotrochus_, ii. 523

  _Geotryon_, ii. 333

  _Geotrypus_, ii. 190

  _Geranospiza_, ii. 347

  _Gerbillus_, ii. 230
    ii. 232

  _Geronticus_, ii. 360

  _Gerrhonotus_, ii. 392

  _Gerrhosaurus_, ii. 392

  GERRIDÆ, ii. 438

  _Gervasia_, ii. 260

  _Gerygone_, ii. 258

  Giant-Clams, ii. 534

  Gibbon, ii. 171

  Gibraltar, cave fauna of, i. 114

  Giraffes, ii. 221

  _Girardinus_, ii. 450

  Glacial epoch, as affecting the distribution of animals, i. 40
    as a cause of the great change in the  fauna of the temperate zones,
      since Pliocene times, i. 151
    probably simultaneous in both hemispheres, i. 151
    causing a general subsidence of the ocean, i. 152

  _Glandina_, Eocene, i. 169
    ii. 515

  _Glareola_, ii. 355

  GLAREOLIDÆ, ii. 355

  _Glaucis_, ii. 107

  _Glaucidium_, ii. 350

  _Glauconeza_, ii. 536

  _Glaucopis_, ii. 481

  _Gliciphila_, ii. 275

  _Glis_, ii. 232

  _Globiocephalus_, ii. 209

  _Glossoptila_, ii. 278

  _Glossotherium_, in Brazilian caves, i. 145
    S. American Pliocene, i. 147
    ii. 247

  _Glycimeris_, ii. 536

  _Glyphidodon_, ii. 437

  _Glyphoglossus_, ii. 416

  _Glyphorhynchus_, ii. 103

  _Glyptodon_, S. American Pliocene, i. 147

  _Glyptosternum_, ii. 443

  _Gnaphodes_, ii. 471

  _Gnathodon_, ii. 536

  _Gnathopsis_, S. American Pliocene, i. 147

  Goats, Palæarctic, i. 182
    ii. 221

  Goat-suckers, ii. 519

  GOBIESOCIDÆ, ii. 436

  GOBIIDÆ, ii. 430

  _Gobio_, ii. 452

  _Gobius_, ii. 430

  Godman, Mr., on Natural History of the Azores, i. 207

  Golden Moles, S. African, i. 267

  _Goliathi_, ii. 494

  _Gonepteryx_, ii. 478

  _Goniodactylus_, ii. 400

  _Gongylophis_, ii. 382

  _Gonorhynchidæ_, ii. 453

  _Gonyocephalus_, ii. 402

  _Gonyosoma_, ii. 379

  _Gouldia_, ii. 107

  _Goura_, ii. 333

  _Graculavus_, N. American Cretaceous, i. 164

  Grallæ, arrangement of, i. 97
    peculiar or characteristic Palæarctic genera, i. 249
    peculiar Ethiopian genera of, i. 31
    peculiar Oriental genera of, i. 386
    peculiar Australian genera of, i. 484

  GRALLÆ, ii. 351
    general remarks on the distribution of, ii. 362

  _Grallaria_, ii. 104

  _Grallaricula_, ii. 104

  _Grallina_, ii. 273

  _Grammatophorus_, ii. 402

  _Grammatoptila_, ii. 261

  _Grampus_, ii. 209

  _Granatellus_, ii. 279

  _Grandala_, ii. 259

  _Graphidurus_, ii. 232

  _Graphipterus_, ii. 491

  _Graucalus_, ii. 268

  Gray, Dr. J. E., on classification of Cetacea, i. 88

  _Grayia_, ii. 376

  Grayson, Col, on birds of Tres Marias, ii. 59

  Grebes, ii. 367

  Greece, Upper Miocene deposits of, i. 115
    summary of Miocene fauna of, i. 116

  Green Bulbuls, ii. 267

  Greenland, zoology of, ii. 138

  Greenlets, ii. 280

  Groups peculiar to a region, how defined, ii. 184

  Grouse, ii. 328

  GRUIDÆ, ii. 356

  _Grus_, ii. 357

  _Grypsicus_, ii. 421

  _Grypus_, ii. 107

  Guacharo, ii. 107

  Guans, ii. 342

  Guaraunas, ii. 357

  _Gubernatrix_, ii. 285

  _Guillemots_, ii. 267

  _Guira_, ii. 309

  _Guiraca_, ii. 285

  Gulick, Rev. J. T., on Achatinellidæ of the Sandwich Islands, i. 446

  Gulls, ii. 364

  _Gulo_, ii. 199

  Günther, Dr., his classification of reptiles, i. 98
    his classification of fishes, i. 101
    on gigantic tortoises of Galapagos and the Mascarene Islands, i. 289
    on range of Indian reptiles in the Himalayas, i. 329
    on identical Atlantiic and Pacific fishes, ii. 21
    on fresh-water fishes of Central America, ii. 54

  _Gygis_, ii. 365

  GYMNARCHIDÆ, ii. 449

  _Gymnarchus_, ii. 449

  GYMNETINÆ, ii. 494

  _Gymnobucco_, ii. 306

  _Gymnocephalus_, ii. 103

  _Gymnocichla_, ii. 104

  _Gymnocorvus_, ii. 274

  _Gymnocypris_, ii. 452

  _Gymnodactylus_, ii. 400

  GYMNODERINÆ, ii. 293

  _Gymnoderus_, ii. 103

  GYMNODONTES, ii. 457

  _Gymnoglaux_, ii. 350

  _Gymnokitta_, ii. 273

  _Gymnomystax_, ii. 282

  _Gymnopelia_, ii. 333

  _Gymnops_, ii. 287

  GYMNOPHTHALMIDÆ, ii. 395

  _Gymnophthalmus_, ii. 395

  _Gymnopus_, ii. 199

  _Gymnorhina_, ii. 273

  _Gymnostomus_, ii. 451

  GYMNOTIDÆ, ii. 455

  _Gymnotus_, ii. 455

  _Gymnura_, ii. 188

  _Gypaëtus_, ii. 348

  _Gypohierax_, ii. 348

  _Gypoictinia_, ii. 349

  _Gyps_, ii. 346

  H.

  Haast, Dr., on extinct birds of New Zealand, i. 460

  Habitat, definition of, i. 4

  _Habrocomus_, ii. 238

  _Habroptila_, ii. 352

  _Habrura_, ii. 101

  _Hadrostomus_, ii. 102, 293

  _Hæmatoderus_, ii. 103

  _Hæmatopus_, ii. 356

  _Hæmatospiza_, ii. 285

  _Hæmophila_, ii. 284

  _Hæmulon_, ii. 426

  _Hætera_, ii. 471

  _Hagria_, ii. 397

  Hainan, zoology of, i. 334

  _Halcyon_, ii. 316

  _Halcyornis_, European Eocene, i. 103

  _Halicyon_, ii. 204

  _Haliæetus_, ii. 348

  _Haliastur_, ii. 348

  _Halichærus_, ii. 204

  _Halicore_, ii. 210

  HALIOTIDÆ, ii. 511

  _Halitherium_, European Pliocene, i. 112
    European Miocene, i. 119
    ii. 211

  _Halmaturus_, ii. 251

  HALOSAURIDÆ, ii. 455

  _Halys_, ii. 385

  _Hamadryas_, ii. 470

  Hang-nests, ii. 281

  _Hapale_, ii. 176
    ii. 178

  _Hapalemur_, ii. 176

  HAPALIDÆ, ii. 175

  _Hapalotis_, ii. 230

  _Hapalus_, ii. 524

  _Haplocerus_, ii. 374

  _Haplochilus_, ii. 450

  _Haplochiton_, ii. 446

  HAPLOCHITONIDÆ, ii. 446

  _Haplodactylus_, ii. 427

  _Haploodon_, ii. 236

  HAPLOODONTIDÆ, ii. 236

  _Haplospiza_, ii. 284

  _Hapsidrophis_, ii. 379

  _Harelda_, ii. 364

  Hares, ii. 242

  _Harma_, ii. 474

  _Harpa_, ii. 349
    ii. 507

  _Harpactes_, ii. 314

  _Harpagus_, ii. 349

  _Harpalus_, ii. 489

  _Harporhynchus_, ii. 256

  _Harpyhaliæetus_, ii. 348

  _Hartlaubius_, ii. 288

  _Hathliodes_, ii. 502

  Hatteria of New Zealand, i. 456

  _Hatteria_, ii. 405

  Hawks, ii. 347

  Hedgehogs, ii. 187

  _Hedymeles_, ii. 285

  _Helarctos_, ii. 202

  _Helcyra_, ii. 474

  _Heleothreptus_, ii. 320

  _Heliactin_, ii. 108

  _Heliangelus_, ii. 108

  _Helianthea_, ii. 108

  _Heliastes_, ii. 437

  HELICIDÆ, ii. 512

  _Helicina_, ii. 522

  HELICONIDÆ, ii. 473
    ii. 522

  _Heliconius_, ii. 473

  _Helicophagus_, ii. 442

  _Helicops_, ii. 377

  Helictis, Himalayan, figure of, i. 331

  _Helictis_, ii. 199

  _Heliobletus_, ii. 103

  _Heliochæra_, ii. 102

  _Heliodoxa_, ii. 107

  _Heliomastes_, ii. 108

  _Heliopædica_, ii. 107

  _Heliophobus_, ii. 231

  _Helioporus_, ii. 417

  _Heliornis_, ii. 352

  _Heliothrix_, ii. 108

  _Heliotrypha_, ii. 108

  _Helix_, Eocene, i. 169
    ii. 513

  _Helladotherium_, Miocene of Greece, i. 116
    European Miocene, i. 120
    ii. 221

  _Helluomorpha_, ii. 490

  _Helmintherus_, ii. 279

  _Helminthophaga_, ii. 279

  _Heloderma_, ii. 390

  HELODERMIDÆ, ii. 390

  _Helodromas_, ii. 353

  _Helogale_, ii. 195

  _Helogenes_, ii. 442

  HELORNITHINÆ, ii. 352

  _Helotarsus_, ii. 348

  _Hemibos_, Indian Miocene, i. 122
    ii. 225

  _Hemicentetes_, ii. 188

  _Hemicercus_, ii. 303

  _Hemichelidon_, ii. 290

  _Hemichromis_, ii. 438

  _Hemicyon_, European Miocene, i. 118
    ii. 198

  _Hemidacnis_, ii. 278

  _Hemidactylium_, ii. 413

  _Hemidactylus_, ii. 399

  _Hemierges_, ii. 397

  _Hemigalea_, ii. 195

  _Hemignathus_, ii. 277

  _Hemimantis_, ii. 419

  _Hemiodus_, ii. 445

  _Hemiphractus_, ii. 420

  _Hemipimelodus_, ii. 443

  _Hemiprocne_, ii. 320

  _Hemipus_, ii. 270

  _Hemirhamphus_, ii. 450

  _Hemisilurus_, ii. 442

  _Hemisorubim_, ii. 442

  _Hemistilbon_, ii. 109

  _Hemisus_, ii. 414

  _Hemitriccus_, ii. 101

  _Hemixus_, ii. 267

  _Henicognathus_, ii. 328

  _Henicopernis_, ii. 349

  _Henicophaps_, ii. 333

  _Henicorhina_, ii. 264

  _Henicornis_, ii. 103

  _Heptapterus_, ii. 444

  _Heredia_, ii. 413

  Herons, ii. 359

  _Heros_, ii. 438

  _Herpestes_, ii. 195

  _Herpetethiops_, ii. 376

  _Herpetodryas_, ii. 376

  _Herpeton_, ii. 376

  _Herpetoreas_, ii. 375

  _Herpetotheres_, ii. 348

  _Herpetotherium_, N. American Tertiary, i. 134

  _Herpsilochmus_, ii. 104

  Herring, ii. 454

  _Hesperia_, ii. 480

  HESPERIDÆ, ii. 480

  _Hesperomys_, N. American Tertiary, i. 140
    in Brazilian caves, i. 145
    S. American Pliocene, i. 147
    ii. 230, 231

  _Hesperornis_, N. American Cretaceous, i. 164

  _Hestia_, ii. 470

  _Hestima_, ii. 501

  _Heterobranchus_, ii. 441

  _Heterocephalus_, ii. 231

  _Heterocercus_, ii. 102

  _Heterochroa_, ii. 474

  _Heterocnemis_, ii. 104

  _Heterocorys_, ii. 289

  _Heterodactylus_, ii. 393

  _Heterodon_, in Brazilian caves, i. 145
    ii. 246
    ii. 376

  _Heterogynis_, ii. 481

  _Heterolocha_, ii. 287

  _Heteromorpha_, ii. 262

  _Heteromys_, ii. 233

  _Heteronota_, ii. 400

  _Heteronympha_, ii. 471

  _Heteropelma_, ii. 102, 292

  _Heteropus_, ii. 397

  HETEROPYGII, ii. 450

  _Heterospizias_, ii. 348

  _Heterotis_, ii. 454

  _Heterura_, ii. 290

  _Hewitsonia_, ii. 477

  _Hexagonia_, ii. 491

  _Hexaprotodon_, Indian Miocene, i. 122

  Hickman, Mr. John, on a cause of the extinction of large animals, i. 158

  _Hieracidea_, ii. 349

  _Hierax_, ii. 349

  _Hierococcyx_, ii. 310

  _Hierofalco_, ii. 349

  Hill-Tits, ii. 266

  Himalayas, altitude reached by various groups in the, i. 329, 333

  _Himantornis_, ii. 352

  _Himantopus_, ii. 353

  _Hinulia_, ii. 397

  _Hipistes_, ii. 376

  _Hipparchia_, ii. 471

  _Hipparion_, European Pliocene, i. 112
    Miocene of Greece, i. 115
    European Miocene, i. 119
    N. American Post-Pliocene, i. 130
    N. American Tertiary, i. 135
    ii. 211

  _Hippocampus_, ii. 457

  _Hippoglossoides_, ii. 441

  _Hippoglossus_, ii. 441

  HIPPOPOTAMIDÆ, ii. 214

  _Hippopotamus_, Post-Pliocene, i. 112
    European Pliocene, i. 113
    Indian Pliocene, i. 122
    ii. 214

  _Hipposyus_, N. American Tertiary, i. 133

  _Hippotherium_, European Miocene, i. 119
    Indian Miocene, i. 122

  HIPPOTRAGINÆ, ii. 223

  _Hippotragus_, European Miocene, i. 120
    ii. 223

  HIPPURITIDÆ, ii. 534

  _Hirundinea_, ii. 101

  HIRUNDINIDÆ, ii. 280

  _Hirundo_, ii. 281

  _Hoazin_, ii. 345

  _Holocanthus_, ii. 427

  _Holbrookia_, ii. 401

  _Holochilus_, ii. 230

  _Hologerrhum_, ii. 379

  HOLOSTEI, ii. 458

  _Holurophis_, ii. 380

  _Homalodontotherium_, S. American Pliocene, i. 146

  _Homalophis_, ii. 376

  _Homalophus_, European Miocene, i. 161

  HOMALOPSIDÆ, ii. 376

  _Homalopsis_, ii. 376

  _Homaloptera_, ii. 453

  _Homalosoma_, ii. 490

  _Hombronia_, ii. 397

  _Homocamelus_, N. American Tertiary, i. 138
    ii. 217

  _Homorus_, ii. 103
    ii. 524

  Honey-guides, ii. 304

  Honeysuckers, birds specially adapted to Australia, i. 392
    ii. 275

  Hooker, Dr., on deficiency of odours in New Zealand plants, i. 464

  Hoopoes, ii. 317

  _Hopladelus_, ii. 442

  HOPLEGNATHIDÆ, ii. 433

  _Hoplobatrachus_, ii. 421

  HOPLOCEPHALA, ii. 460

  _Hoplocephalus_, ii. 383

  _Hoplocetus_, European Pliocene, i. 112

  _Hoplophoneus_, N. American Tertiary, i. 134

  _Hoplophorus_, ii. 246

  _Hoplopterus_, ii. 356

  _Horites_, ii. 258

  Hornbills, ii. 316

  Horses, fossil, in Indian Miocene, i. 121
    perfect series of ancestral, in N. America, i. 136
    probable birthplace of, i. 154
    ii. 211

  Horse-shoe bats, ii. 182

  _Hortulia_, ii. 381

  Howling monkeys, ii. 175

  Hudson, Mr., on land-birds of Patagonia, ii. 39

  Humming-birds, ii. 321

  _Huro_, ii. 425

  Hutton, Capt. F. W., on origin of New Zealand fauna, i. 461

  Huxley, Professor, on zoological regions, i. 59
    division of animal kingdom by, i. 85

  _Hyades_, ii. 472

  _Hyæna_, Post-Pliocene, i. 112
    Miocene of Greece, i. 115
    European Miocene, i. 118
    Indian Miocene, i. 121
    fossil in N. China, i. 123
    ii. 196

  _Hyænarctos_ in European Pliocene, i. 112
    European Miocene, i. 118
    Indian Miocene, i. 121
    S. American Pliocene, i. 146

  _Hyænictis_, Miocene of Greece, i. 115
    European Miocene, i. 118
    ii. 196

  _Hyænidæ_, European Miocene, i. 118

  HYÆNIDÆ, ii. 196

  _Hyænodon_, European Miocene, i. 118
    European Eocene, i. 125
    N. American Tertiary, i. 134

  _Hyænodontidæ_, European Miocene, i. 118

  HYALEIDÆ, ii. 531

  _Hyalimax_, ii. 517

  _Hyalina_, ii. 515

  _Hyalosaurus_, ii. 392

  _Hyantis_, ii. 472

  _Hybocystis_, ii. 520

  _Hyborhynchus_, ii. 452

  _Hydrocena_, ii. 521

  _Hydrochelidon_, ii. 364

  _Hydrochoerus_, N. American Post-Pliocene, i. 130

  _Hydrochoerus_, ii. 241

  _Hydrocissa_, ii. 317

  _Hydrocyon_, ii. 445

  _Hydrogale_, ii. 199

  _Hydromedusa_, ii. 408

  _Hydromys_, ii. 230

  _Hydrophasianus_, ii. 355

  HYDROPHIDÆ, ii. 384

  _Hydrophis_, ii. 384

  _Hydropotes_, ii. 219

  _Hydropsalis_, ii. 319

  _Hydrornis_, European Miocene, i. 162
    ii. 298

  _Hydrosaurus_, ii. 389

  _Hyetornis_, ii. 309

  _Hygrogonus_, ii. 439

  _Hyla_, ii. 418

  _Hylactes_, ii. 297

  _Hylambates_, ii. 419

  _Hylaplesia_, ii. 415

  HYLAPLESIDÆ, ii. 414

  _Hylarana_, ii. 419

  _Hylatomus_, ii. 303

  _Hylella_, ii. 418

  HYLIDÆ, ii. 418

  _Hyliota_, ii. 270

  _Hylobates_, ii. 171

  _Hylocharis_, ii. 109
    ii. 271

  _Hylodes_, ii. 419

  _Hylomanes_, ii. 313

  _Hylomys_, ii. 186

  _Hylophilus_, ii. 280

  _Hylorhina_, ii. 420

  _Hylotrupes_, ii. 502

  _Hyloxalus_, ii. 419

  _Hymenolaimus_, ii. 364

  HYODONTIDÆ, ii. 453

  _Hyohippus_, N. American Tertiary, i. 135

  _Hyomoschus_, European Miocene, i. 120
    ii. 218

  _Hyopicus_, ii. 303

  _Hyopotamus_, European Miocene, i. 119
    N. American Tertiary, i. 137
    ii. 216

  _Hyopsodus_, N. American Tertiary, i. 133

  _Hyotherium_, European Miocene, i. 119
    ii. 215

  _Hypargos_, ii. 287

  _Hyperantha_, ii. 496

  _Hypergerus_, ii. 261

  _Hypermnestra_, ii. 479

  _Hyperodapedon_, ii. 405

  _Hyperolius_, ii. 417

  _Hyperoodon_, ii. 208

  HYPEROODONTIDÆ, ii. 208

  _Hyperopsius_, ii. 448

  _Hypertragulus_, N. American Tertiary, i. 138

  _Hyphantornis_, ii. 286

  _Hypherpes_, ii. 265

  _Hypisodus_, N. American Tertiary, i. 138

  _Hypna_, ii. 474

  _Hypnale_, ii. 385

  _Hypochera_, ii. 287

  _Hypochrysops_, ii. 477

  _Hypocista_, ii. 471

  _Hypocnemis_, ii. 104

  _Hypocolius_, ii. 272

  _Hypodes_, ii. 272

  _Hypogeomys_, ii. 230

  _Hypolais_, ii. 258

  _Hypolithus_, ii. 491

  _Hypolycæna_, ii. 477

  _Hypomesus_, ii. 477

  _Hypopachus_, ii. 416

  _Hypophthalmichthys_, ii. 453

  _Hypophthalmus_, ii. 442

  _Hypopyrrhus_, ii. 282

  _Hyporissus_, ii. 190

  _Hypothymis_, ii. 271

  _Hypoxanthus_, ii. 304

  _Hypsipetes_, ii. 267

  _Hypsiprymnus_, Australian Post-Tertiary, i. 157
    ii. 251

  _Hypsirhina_, ii. 376

  _Hypsirhynchus_, ii. 375

  _Hyrachyus_, N. American Tertiary, i. 136

  HYRACIDÆ, ii. 228

  _Hyracodon_, N. American Tertiary, i. 136
    ii. 214
    ii. 248

  _Hyracoidea_, classification of, i. 90
    Palæarctic, i. 242
    Ethiopian, i. 304

  HYRACOIDEA, ii. 228

  _Hyracotherium_, supposed, in European Eocene, i. 125
    European Eocene, i. 126
    ii. 216
    ii. 229

  _Hyrax_, ii. 228

  HYSTRICIDÆ, ii. 240

  _Hystricodon_, ii. 445

  _Hystrix_, European Pliocene, i. 113
    Miocene of Greece, i. 116
    N. American Tertiary, i. 140
    ii. 240

  I.

  _Ialmenus_, ii. 477

  _Ianthoenas_, ii. 332

  _Ianthina_, ii. 511

  _Ibidipodia_, European Miocene, i. 162

  _Ibidorhynchus_, ii. 353

  Ibidorhynchus, figure of, i. 331

  _Ibis_, ii. 360

  Ibises, ii. 360

  _Ibycter_, ii. 347

  Iceland, zoology of, i. 198

  _Ichneumia_, ii. 195

  _Ichthyoborus_, ii. 445

  _Ichthyopsis_, ii. 411

  _Icteria_, ii. 279

  ICTERIDÆ, ii. 281

  _Icterus_, ii. 282

  _Icthyornis_, N. American Cretaceous, i. 164

  _Icticyon_ in Brazilian caves, i. 144
    ii. 197

  _Ictinia_, ii. 349

  _Ictitherium_, Miocene of Greece, i. 115
    European Miocene, i. 118
    ii. 195
    ii. 197

  _Ictonyx_, ii. 199

  _Ictops_, N. American Tertiary, i. 133

  _Ideopsis_, ii. 470

  _Idmais_, ii. 478

  _Iguana_, ii. 401

  Iguanas, ii. 400

  IGUANIDÆ, ii. 400

  _Ilerda_, ii. 477

  _Ilicura_, ii. 102

  India, Miocene fauna of, allied to that of Europe, i. 123
    geological features of, i. 328

  Indian sub-region, description of, i. 321
    supposed relation to Ethiopian region, i. 321
    mammalia of, i. 322
    birds of, i. 323
    reptiles and amphibia of, i. 326

  _Indicator_, ii. 304

  INDICATORIDÆ, ii. 304

  Indo-Chinese sub-region, description of, i. 329
    zoological characteristics of, i. 330
    illustration of, i. 331
    reptiles of, i. 331
    amphibia of, i. 331
    insects of, i. 332
    islands belonging to, i. 333

  Indo-Malayan sub-region, description of, i. 334
    mammalia of, i. 336
    illustrations of, i. 336, 339
    birds of, i. 337
    remote geographical relations of, i. 339
    reptiles and amphibia of, i. 340
    fishes of, i. 341
    insects of, i. 341
    coleoptera of, i. 342
    terrestrial mollusca of, i. 343
    zoological relations of islands of, i. 345
    recent geographical changes in, i. 357
    probable origin of fauna of, i. 359

  _Inia_, ii. 209

  _Insectivora_, European Miocene, i. 117
    N. American Post-Pliocene, i. 129
    N. American Tertiary, i. 133

  Insectivora, classification of, i. 87
    of the Palæarctic region, i. 181
    of N. China and E. Thibet, i. 222
    range of Palæarctic genera of, i. 239
    of Madagascar, i. 273
    range of Ethiopian genera of, i. 301
    of the Oriental region, i. 315
    range of Oriental genera of, i. 372
    range of Australian genera of, i. 476

  INSECTIVORA, ii. 186
    general remarks on the distribution of, ii. 191
    summary and conclusion, ii. 541

  Insects, means of dispersal of, i. 32
    tenacity of life of, i. 33
    adapted to special conditions, i. 33
    groups selected for the study of their geographical distribution, i.
      102
    antiquity of the genera of, i. 166
    fossil of European Miocene, i. 166
    European Cretaceous, i. 167
    European Wealden, i. 167
    Palæozoic, i. 168
    Palæarctic, i. 187
    of Central Europe, i. 196
    of the Mediterranean sub-region, i. 205
    of the Siberian sub-region, i. 220
    of the Manchurian sub-region, i. 227
    of the Ethiopian region, i. 255
    of the E. African sub-region, i. 260
    of W. African, i. 265
    S. African, i. 268
    of Madagascar, i. 282
    general remarks on, i. 284
    of tropical Africa and America, probable cause of similarities in, i.
      291
    of Indo-Chinese sub-region, i. 332
    of the Oriental region, i. 318
    of Ceylon, i. 327
    of Indo-Malay sub-region, i. 341
    statistics of collecting in the various islands of the Malay
      Archipelago, i. 343
    of the Australian region, i. 403
    of New Guinea, i. 417
    of the Moluccas, i. 420
    of the Timor group, i. 426
    of Celebes, i. 454
    of New Zealand, i. 458
    scarcity of, in New Zealand, i. 462
    influence of, on the flora, i. 463
    of the Neotropical region, ii. 13
    of S. Temperate America, ii. 42
    of S. Temperate America, Palæarctic affinity of, ii. 45
    of the Mexican sub-region, ii. 55
    of the Antilles, ii. 73
    of the Nearctic region, ii. 122
    of Canada, ii. 137
    distribution of, ii. 468
    range of, in time, ii. 469
    summary and conclusion, ii. 550
    lines of migration of, ii. 551

  _Iodopleura_, ii. 102

  _Iolæma_, ii. 107

  _Iolaus_, ii. 477

  _Iole_, ii. 267

  _Iora_, ii. 267

  _Iphias_, ii. 478
    ii. 394

  IPHISADÆ, ii. 394

  _Irena_, ii. 269

  _Iridina_, ii. 534

  _Iridornis_, ii. 98

  _Irrisor_, ii. 318

  IRRISORIDÆ, ii. 318

  _Isacis_, N. American Tertiary, i. 133

  _Ischcognathus_, ii. 375

  _Ischyromys_, N. American Tertiary, i. 140
    ii. 236

  Islands, N. European, zoology of, i. 197
    of the Mediterranean sub-region, i. 206
    of the W. African sub-region, i. 265
    of the Ethiopian region, i. 269
    Mascarene, i. 280
    of the Indo-Chinese sub-region, i. 333
    of the Indo-Malay sub-region, i. 345
    Fiji, Tonga, and Samoa, i. 443
    Society and Marquesas, i. 444
    New Caledonia and New Hebrides, i. 445
    Sandwich, i. 446
    of New Zealand sub-region, i. 453
    Norfolk, i. 453
    Lord Howe's, i. 454
    Chatham, i. 454
    Auckland, i. 455
    of Tropical S. America, ii. 29
    of the Mexican sub-region, ii. 59
    of Eastern United States, ii. 134
    peculiar colours of pigeons in, ii. 336
    abundance of land-shells in, ii. 525

  _Isodactylium_, ii. 413

  _Ispidina_, ii. 316

  _Issiodromys_, European Pliocene, i. 113
    ii. 232

  _Ithaginis_, ii. 340

  _Ithomia_, ii. 470

  _Ithycyphus_, ii. 379

  _Ixalus_, ii. 419

  _Ixonotus_, ii. 267

  _Ixulus_, ii. 266

  J.

  _Jacamaralcyon_, ii. 311

  Jacamars, ii. 311

  _Jacamerops_, ii. 311

  Jacanas, ii. 255

  _Jacchus_, in Brazilian caves, i. 144

  _Jaculus_, ii. 232

  _Jaltris_, ii. 375

  _Jamaicia_, ii. 521

  _Janella_, ii. 517

  _Janthocincla_, ii. 261

  _Japalura_, ii. 402

  Japan and North China, physical features of, i. 221
    southern extremity of perhaps belongs to the Oriental region, i. 226

  Japan, general character of the fauna of, i. 230
    former land-connexions of, i. 231

  Java, mammalia of, i. 349
    productions of, well known, i. 350
    birds of, i. 351
    representative species of birds in, i. 352
    origin of the anomalous features of its fauna, i. 352
    Sumatra and Borneo, their geographical contrasts and zoological
      peculiarities explained, i. 357

  Jays, ii. 273

  _Jenynsia_, ii. 450

  Jerboas, ii. 231

  Juan Fernandez, Carabidæ of, ii. 44
    birds of, ii. 49
    beetles and land-shells of, ii. 51

  _Juida_, ii. 288

  _Juliamyia_, ii. 109

  _Junco_, ii. 284

  _Junonia_, European Miocene, i. 167
    ii. 474

  K.

  Kagu, ii. 359

  Kakapoe, of New Zealand, i. 455

  _Kalophrynus_, ii. 415

  Kangaroos, extinct in Australia, i. 157
    ii. 251

  _Keneuxia_, ii. 397

  Kerguelen Island, apterous insects of, i. 211 (_note_)

  _Kerodon_, in Brazilian caves, i. 144
    S. American Pliocene, i. 147
    ii. 241

  _Ketingus_, ii. 443

  _Ketupa_, ii. 350

  King-fisher, racquet-tailed, of New Guinea, figure of, i. 415

  King-fishers, ii. 315

  _Kittacincla_, ii. 259

  Kiwi of New Zealand, i. 455

  _Kneria_, ii. 453

  _Kobus_, ii. 224

  Koodoo antelope, figure of, i. 261

  _Kricogonia_, ii. 478

  _Krynickia_, ii. 517

  L.

  _Labeo_, ii. 451

  _Labrax_, ii. 425

  LABRIDÆ, ii. 437

  _Labrus_, ii. 437

  LABYRINTHICI, ii. 434

  _Lacerta_, ii. 391

  LACERTIDÆ, ii. 390

  Lacertilia, classification of, i. 99

  LACERTILIA, ii. 388
    general remarks on the distribution of, ii. 403
    fossil, ii. 404

  _Lacuna_, ii. 510

  Ladrone Islands, birds of, i. 444

  _Læmargus_, ii. 461

  _Læmosthenes_, ii. 489

  _Læosopis_, ii. 477

  _Lafresnaya_, ii. 107

  _Lagenocetus_, ii. 208

  _Lagenorhynchus_, ii. 209

  _Lagidium_, ii. 237

  LAGOMYIDÆ, ii. 242

  _Lagomys_, European Pliocene, i. 113
    European Miocene, i. 120
    ii. 242

  _Lagopus_, ii. 339

  _Lagorchestes_, ii. 251

  _Lagostomus_, in Brazilian caves, i. 145
    S. American Pliocene, i. 147
    ii. 237

  _Lagothrix_, ii. 174

  _Lais_, ii. 442

  Lake Baikal, seals of, i. 218
    ii. 206

  _Lalage_, ii. 269

  _Laletes_, ii. 280

  LAMIIDÆ, ii. 498

  _Lamna_, ii. 460

  LAMNIDÆ, ii. 460

  _Lampornis_, ii. 107

  Lampreys, ii. 463

  _Lamprima_, ii. 493

  _Lampris_, ii. 429

  _Lamprocolius_, ii. 288

  _Lamprolæma_, ii. 107

  _Lamrophis_, ii. 380

  _Lampropsar_, ii. 282

  _Lampropygia_, ii. 108

  _Lamprospilus_, ii. 477

  _Lamprospiza_, ii. 99

  _Lamprotes_, ii. 98

  Lancelet, ii. 464

  Land-lizards, ii. 391

  Land and water, proportions of, i. 35

  Land and fresh-water shells, antiquity of the genera of, i. 168

  Land-shells, Palæozoic, i. 169
    Palæarctic, i. 190
    of Madeira, i. 209
    of the Cape Verd Islands, i. 215
    of the Ethiopian region, i. 257
    of W. Africa, i. 265
    of Madagascar and the Mascarene Islands, i. 285
    of the Indo-Malay sub-region, i. 344
    of the Australian region, i. 407
    of the Sandwich Islands, i. 466
    of New Zealand, i. 459
    of the Neotropical region, ii. 19
    of the Antilles, ii. 75
    conditions favouring development of, ii. 75
    of N. America, ii. 124
    general observations on the distribution of, ii. 522
    richness of islands in, ii. 525
    their mode of diffusion, ii. 525, 528
    comparative distribution of Operculate and In-operculate, ii. 526
    estimated numbers of, ii. 526

  Land-snakes, ii. 382

  _Langaha_, ii. 379

  _Laniarius_, ii. 272

  _Lanicterus_, ii. 268

  _Laniellus_, ii. 272

  LANIIDÆ, ii. 272

  _Lanio_, ii. 99

  _Lanius_, European Miocene, i. 161
    ii. 272

  _Laopithecus_, N. American Tertiary, i. 133

  _Laornis_, N. American Cretaceous, i. 164

  _Laprissa_, ii. 421

  LARIDÆ, ii. 364

  _Larimus_, ii. 428

  Larks, ii. 289

  _Larus_, ii. 364

  _Larvivora_, ii. 259

  _Lasiomys_, ii. 229

  _Lasiuromys_, ii. 239

  _Latax_, ii. 199

  _Lates_, ii. 425

  _Lathria_, ii. 102

  _Latonia_, ii. 421

  _Latrunculus_, ii. 430

  _Layardia_, ii. 261

  Lea, Dr. Isaac, on N. American Unionidæ, ii. 125

  _Lebia_, ii. 489

  _Lebiasina_, ii. 445

  _Legatus_, ii. 101

  _Leiocephalus_, ii. 401

  _Leiolæmus_, ii. 401

  _Leistes_, ii. 282

  _Leistus_, ii. 489

  _Leiuperus_, ii. 420

  _Leiyla_, ii. 419

  _Lemonias_, ii. 476

  _Lemur_, ii. 176

  Lemur, fossil, ii. 178

  _Lemuravidæ_, N. American Tertiary, i. 133

  _Lemuravus_, N. American Tertiary, i. 133

  Lemuria, a hypothetical land, i. 76

  _Lemuridæ_, European Eocene, i. 124

  LEMURIDÆ, ii. 176

  Lemuroidea, range of Ethiopian genera of, i. 300
    range of Oriental genera of, i. 371

  LEMUROIDEA, ii. 176

  Lemurs, ii. 176

  _Leonia_, ii. 521

  _Lepadogaster_, ii. 436

  _Lepictis_, N. American Tertiary, i. 133

  _Lepidocepalichthys_, ii. 453

  _Lepidocephalus_, ii. 453

  _Lepidogrammas_, ii. 309

  _Lepidolarynx_, ii. 108

  Lepidoptera, cosmopolitan families of, i. 177
    table of Palæarctic families of, i. 238
    S. African, i. 268
    table of Ethiopian families of, i. 299
    of the Oriental region, i. 318
    table of Oriental families of, i. 369
    of the Australian region, i. 404
    table of Australian families of, i. 472
    of the Neotropical region, ii. 13
    of the Antilles, ii. 73
    table of Neotropical families of, ii. 90
    of the Nearctic region, ii. 122
    Nearctic families of, ii. 143

  LEPIDOPTERA, ii. 470

  _Lepidosiren_, ii. 458

  LEPIDOSTEIDÆ, ii. 459

  _Lepidosteus_, ii. 459

  LEPIDOSTERNIDÆ, ii. 389

  _Lepidosternon_, ii. 389

  _Lepilemur_, ii. 176

  _Lepistes_, ii. 450

  LEPORIDÆ, ii. 242

  _Leporinus_, ii. 445

  _Lepricornis_, ii. 476

  _Leprodera_, ii. 501

  _Leptalis_, ii. 478

  _Leptarchus_, N. American Tertiary, i. 135
    ii. 202

  _Leptasthenura_, ii. 103

  _Leptauchenia_, N. American Tertiary, i. 138

  _Leptobarbina_, ii. 452

  _Leptobrachium_, ii. 421

  LEPTOCARDII, ii. 464

  _Leptocera_, ii. 502

  _Leptochoerus_, N. American Tertiary, i. 137
    ii. 215

  _Leptocircus_, ii. 479

  _Leptodeira_, ii. 379

  _Leptodon_, Miocene of Greece, i. 116
    ii. 214
    ii. 349

  _Leptognathus_, ii. 381

  _Leptomantis_, ii. 419

  _Leptomeryx_, N. American Tertiary, i. 138
    ii. 220

  _Lepton_, ii. 535

  _Leptoneura_, ii. 471

  _Leptonyx_, ii. 204

  _Leptopogon_, ii. 101

  _Leptoma_, ii. 520

  _Leptoptila_, ii. 333

  _Leptoptilus_, European Miocene, i. 162
    ii. 361

  _Leptorhytaon_, ii. 380

  _Leptornis_, ii. 276

  LEPTOSOMIDÆ, ii. 310

  _Leptosomus_, allied form in European Eocene,
    i. 168
    ii. 310

  Leptosomus of Madagascar, i. 278
    figure of, i. 279

  _Leptotherium_, in Brazilian caves, i. 144
    ii. 226

  _Leptotriccus_, ii. 101

  _Leptura_, ii. 502

  _Lepus_, in Brazilian caves, i. 145
    S. American Pliocene, i. 147

  _Lerista_, ii. 395

  _Lerwa_, ii. 339

  _Lesbia_, ii. 108

  _Lestodon_, S. American Pliocene, i. 147

  _Leucippus_, ii. 109

  _Leuciscus_, ii. 452

  _Leucochroa_, ii. 516

  _Leucocyon_, ii. 197

  _Leucomelæna_, ii. 332

  _Leuconerpes_, ii. 304

  _Leucophantes_, ii. 270

  _Leucophasia_, ii. 478

  _Leucopleurus_, ii. 209

  _Leucosarcia_, ii. 333

  _Leucosomus_, ii. 452

  _Leucosticte_, ii. 285

  Lewis, Mr. George, his collection of Japan insects, i. 228

  LIALIDÆ, ii. 396

  _Lialis_, ii. 396

  _Liasis_, ii. 381

  _Libellula_, from the Lias, i. 167

  _Libythea_, ii. 475

  LIBYTHEIDÆ, ii. 475

  _Lichanotus_, ii. 381

  _Lichenops_, ii. 101

  _Licina_, ii. 521

  _Licmetis_, ii. 325

  Lilljeborg, Professor, on classification of the Rodentia, i. 90

  LIMACIDÆ, ii. 517

  LIMACINIDÆ, ii. 531

  _Limax_, ii. 517

  _Limenitis_, ii. 474

  _Limnæa_, Eocene, i. 169
    European Secondary, i. 169
    ii. 518

  LIMNÆIDÆ, ii. 518

  _Limnatornis_, European Miocene, i. 161

  _Limnocharis_, ii. 420

  _Limnocyon_, N. American Tertiary, i. 134

  _Limnodynastes_, ii. 420

  _Limnohyus_, N. American Tertiary, i. 136

  _Limnophis_, ii. 376

  _Limnornis_, ii. 103

  _Limnotheridæ_, N. American Tertiary, i. 133

  _Limnotherium_, N. American Tertiary, i. 133

  _Limnurgus_, ii. 450

  _Limosa_, ii. 353

  Limpets, ii. 511

  _Lingula_, ii. 538

  LINGULIDÆ, ii. 532

  _Linota_, ii. 285

  _Linsang_, ii. 195

  _Liocassis_, ii. 442

  _Liopelma_, ii. 417

  _Liopis_, ii. 375

  _Lioptilus_, ii. 267

  _Lioscelis_, ii. 297

  LIOTRICHIDÆ, ii. 266

  _Liothrix_, ii. 266

  _Lipaugus_, ii. 102

  _Liparis_, ii. 430

  _Liphyra_, ii. 477

  _Lipinia_, ii. 397

  _Lipoa_, ii. 342

  _Liposarcus_, ii. 444

  _Liptala_, ii. 477

  _Lissolepis_, ii. 397

  _Listriodon_, European Miocene, i. 119

  _Lithiodon_, ii. 521

  _Lithomys_, European Miocene, i. 120
    ii. 236

  _Lithornis_, European Eocene, i. 163

  _Litoria_, ii. 418

  _Littorina_, ii. 510

  LITTORINIDÆ, ii. 510

  Lizards, classification of, i. 90
    Tertiary, i. 165
    wide range of a species in Polynesia, i. 448
    distribution and lines of migration of, ii. 547

  _Lobodon_, ii. 204

  _Lochmias_, ii. 103

  _Locustella_, ii. 258

  _Loddigesia_, ii. 108

  _Loncheres_, in Brazilian caves, i. 145
    ii. 239

  _Lonchophorus_, in Brazilian caves, i. 145
    ii. 239

  LONGICORNIA, ii. 498

  Longicornia, Palæarctic, i. 188
    Ethiopian, i. 257
    Oriental, i. 320
    Australian, i. 407
    Neotropical, ii. 17
    of Chili, ii. 46
    Nearctic, ii. 123

  _Lontra_, ii. 199

  _Lophiodon_, European Eocene, i. 125
    N. American Tertiary, i. 136
    ii. 212

  _Lophiomeryx_, ii. 218

  _Lophiotherium_, N. American Tertiary, i. 136

  _Lophius_, ii. 431

  _Lophoaëtus_, ii. 348

  LOPHOBRANCHII, ii. 456

  _Lophocitta_, ii. 273

  _Lophogyps_, ii. 346

  _Lophoictinia_, ii. 349

  _Lopholaimus_, ii. 362

  _Lophiomys_, ii. 230

  _Lophophaps_, ii. 333

  _Lophophanes_, ii. 266

  LOPHOPHORINÆ, ii. 340

  _Lophophorus_, ii. 340

  _Lophorhina_, ii. 274

  _Lophornis_, ii. 107

  _Lophortix_, ii. 339

  _Lophostrix_, ii. 350

  LOPHOTIDÆ, ii. 432

  Lophotragus, ii. 220

  _Lophotriorchis_, ii. 348

  _Lophura_, ii. 402

  Lord Howe's Island, birds of, i. 453

  _Loricaria_, ii. 444

  _Loriculus_, ii. 326

  _Loris_, ii. 176

  _Lorius_, ii. 327

  _Lota_, ii. 439

  _Loxia_, ii. 285

  _Loxigilla_, ii. 285

  _Loxomylus_, Pliocene of Antilles, i. 148
    ii. 237

  _Loxops_, ii. 277

  _Lucania_, ii. 450

  LUCANIDÆ, ii. 492

  _Lucanus_, ii. 493

  _Lucia_, ii. 477

  _Lucidella_, ii. 522

  _Lucifuga_, ii. 440

  LUCINIDÆ, ii. 535

  _Lucinopsis_, ii. 536

  LUCIOCEPHALIDÆ, ii. 434

  _Lucioperca_, ii. 425

  _Luciotrutta_, ii. 447

  _Lucisoma_, ii. 452

  Lund, Dr., his researches in caves of Brazil, i. 143

  _Lupus_, ii. 197

  _Lurocalis_, ii. 320

  _Luscinia_, ii. 259

  _Lusciniola_, ii. 258

  _Lutra_, European Miocene, i. 118
    Indian Miocene, i. 121
    ii. 199

  _Lutronectes_, ii. 199

  _Lycæna_, Miocene of Greece, i. 115
    ii. 196

  LYCÆNIDÆ, ii. 477

  _Lycalopex_, i. 197

  LYCODIDÆ, ii. 439

  _Lycodon_, ii. 380

  LYCODONTIDÆ, ii. 380

  _Lycophidion_, ii. 380

  _Lycorea_, ii. 470

  _Lygosoma_, ii. 397

  _Lygosomella_, ii. 397

  _Lymanopoda_, ii. 471

  _Lymnas_, ii. 476

  _Lyncornis_, ii. 320

  _Lyncus_, ii. 193

  _Lytorhynchus_, ii. 376

  Lyre-bird, figure of, i. 441
    ii. 298

  M.

  _Mabouya_, ii. 397

  _Macacus_, European Pliocene, i. 112
    Miocene of Greece, i. 115
    Indian Miocene, i. 121
    supposed in European Eocene, i. 125
    ii. 173
    ii. 178

  Macaws, ii. 327

  _Machairodus_, i. 110, 111
    Miocene of Greece, i. 115
    European Miocene, i. 118
    Indian Miocene, i. 121
    N. American Tertiary, i. 134
    in Brazilian caves, i. 144
    S. American Pliocene, i. 146
    ii. 193

  _Machetornis_, ii. 101

  _Machærhamphus_, ii. 349

  _Machærirhynchus_, ii. 271

  _Machæropterus_, ii. 102

  _Machetes_, ii. 353

  _Macrauchenia_, S. American Pliocene, i. 146

  _Macrocalamus_, ii. 374

  _Macroceramus_, ii. 516

  _Macrochilus_, ii. 491

  _Macrocyclis_, ii. 516

  _Macrodipteryx_, ii. 320

  _Macrodon_, ii. 445

  _Macroglossa_, ii. 482

  _Macrones_, ii. 442

  _Macronus_, ii. 261

  _Macronyx_, ii. 290

  MACROPODIDÆ, ii. 250

  _Macropus_, ii. 251

  _Macropygia_, ii. 332

  _Macrorhamphus_, ii. 353

  MACROSCELIDIDÆ, ii. 186

  _Macroscelides_, ii. 186

  _Macrosila_, ii. 482

  _Macrotherium_, Miocene of Greece, i. 116
    European Miocene, i. 121
    ii. 246

  _Macrotus californicus_, ii. 182

  MACROURIDÆ, ii. 440

  MACTRIDÆ, ii. 443

  Madagascar, extinct birds of, i. 164
    description of, i. 272
    mammalia of, i. 272
    birds of, i. 274
    reptiles of, i. 279
    amphibia of, i. 280
    extinct fauna of, i. 282
    general remarks on insect fauna of, i. 284

  Madeira, birds of, i. 208
    land-shells of, i. 208
    beetles of, i. 210
    wingless insects numerous in, i. 211
    how stocked with animals, i. 213

  MALACANTHIDÆ, ii. 433

  Malacca, Sumatra, and Borneo, zoological unity of, i. 353
    comparison of mammalia, i. 354
    of birds, i. 355

  _Malacocircus_, ii. 261

  _Malacopteron_, ii. 261

  _Malacoptila_, ii. 310

  _Malacorhynchus_, ii. 364

  _Malacothrix_, ii. 230

  Malagasy sub-region, description of, i. 272
    mammalia of, i. 272
    birds of, i. 274
    illustration of zoology of, i. 278
    reptiles of, i. 279
    amphibia of, i. 280
    extinct fauna of, i. 282, 289
    insects of, i. 282
    early history of, i. 286

  _Malapterurus_, ii. 443

  Malaya and Indo-Malaya, terms defined, i. 345 (_note_)

  Malaya, meaning of term, ii. 261

  Malay Archipelago, distribution of butterflies in, ii. 484
    distribution of Cicindelidæ in, ii. 487
    distribution of Longicorns in, ii. 500

  Malayan forms of life reappearing in West Africa, i. 263
    fauna, probable origin of, i. 359
    resemblances to that of Madagascar and Ceylon explained, i. 361

  _Malimbus_, ii. 286

  _Mallodon_, ii. 501

  _Mallotus_, ii. 447

  Malta, Post-Pliocene fauna of, i. 114
    formerly joined to Africa, i. 201
    fossil elephants of, i. 201
    birds of, i. 206 (_note_)

  _Malurus_, ii. 258

  Mammal, the most ancient American, i. 134

  Mammalia, means of dispersal of, i. 10
    as limited by climate, i. 11
    as limited by rivers, i. 12
    how far limited by the sea, i. 13
    dispersed by ice-floes and drift-wood, i. 14
    means of dispersal of aquatic, i. 15
    of most importance in determining zoological regions, i. 57
    classification of, i. 85
    birthplace and migrations of some families of, i. 142, 153
    cosmopolitan groups of, i. 176
    of the Palæarctic region, i. 181
    of the European sub-region, i. 192
    of the Mediterranean sub-region, i. 202
    of the Siberian sub-region, i. 217
    characteristic of Western Tartary, i. 218
    of the Manchurian sub-region, i. 222
    Palæarctic genera of, in the Manchurian sub-region, i. 222
    Oriental genera of, on borders of same sub-region, i. 223
    peculiar to Japan, i. 223
    characteristic of N. W. China and Mongolia, i. 226
    table of Palæarctic families of, i. 234
    range of Palæarctic genera of, i. 239
    of the Ethiopian region, i. 253
    absence of certain important groups, i. 253
    of the E. African sub-region, i. 260
    of W. Africa, i. 262
    of S. Africa, i. 267
    of Madagascar, i. 272
    table of Ethiopian families of, i. 294
    table of Ethiopian genera of, i. 300
    of the Oriental region, i. 315
    range of the genera inhabiting the Indian sub-region, i. 322
    of Ceylon, i. 327
    of the Indo-Chinese sub-region, i. 330
    of the Indo-Malayan sub-region, i. 336
    illustration of characteristic Malayan, i. 336
    of the Philippine Islands, i. 345
    table of Oriental families of, i. 365
    table of Oriental genera of, i. 371
    of Australian region, i. 390
    of the Papuan Islands, i. 410
    of the Moluccas, i. 417
    of the Timor group, i. 422
    of Celebes, i. 427
    of Australia, i. 439
    illustration of, i. 439
    of New Zealand, i. 450
    table of families of Australian, i. 470
    table of genera of Australian, i. 475
    destinctive characters of Neotropical, ii. 6
    of S. Temperate America, ii. 36
    of Straits of Magellan, ii. 37
    of the Mexican sub-region, ii. 52
    of the Antilles, ii. 62
    table of Neotropical families of, ii. 85
    table of Neotropical genera of, ii. 91
    of the Nearctic region, ii. 115
    of California, ii. 127
    of N. American central plains, ii. 129
    of E. United States, ii. 132
    of Canada, ii. 135
    table of Nearctic families of, ii. 140
    table of Nearctic genera of, ii. 145

  _Mammalia_, extinct, of Old World, i. 107
    extinct, of historic period, i. 110
    extinct, comparative age of in Europe, i. 127
    extinct, of the New World, i. 129
    extinct, of N. America and Europe, compared, i. 141
    original birthplace of some families and genera, i. 142, 153
    of the secondary period, i. 160

  MAMMALIA, summary and conclusion, ii. 540
    lines of migration of, ii. 544

  Manakins, ii. 102

  MANATIDÆ, ii. 210

  _Manatus_, N. American Post-Pliocene, i. 130
    ii. 210

  Manchurian sub-region, description of, i. 220
    mammalia of, i. 222
    birds of, i. 223
    reptiles and amphibia of, i. 227
    fresh-water fish of, i. 227
    insects of, i. 227
    coleoptera of, i. 228

  MANIDIDÆ, ii. 245

  _Manis_, ii. 245

  _Manorhina_, ii. 276

  _Manticora_, ii. 487

  _Manucodia_, ii. 274

  _Mareca_, ii. 363

  _Margaroperdix_, ii. 338

  _Margarops_, ii. 256

  _Margarornis_, ii. 103

  _Marginella_, ii. 508

  Marine Mollusca, general remarks on the distribution of, ii. 537

  Marine shells of the Neotropical region, ii. 20

  Marmosets, ii. 175

  Marquesas Islands, birds of, i. 443

  Marsh, Mr., on improvability of Asiatic and African deserts, i. 200
    on camels and goats as destructive to vegetation, i. 200

  MARSUPIALIA, ii. 248
    general remarks on the distribution of, ii. 253

  Marsupials, classification of, i. 91
    N. American Post-Pliocene, i. 130
    European Miocene, i. 121
    first migration to America, i. 155
    diversified forms of, i. 391
    of America prove no connection with Australia, i. 399
    list of Australian genera of, i. 476

  MARSUPIALIA and MONOTREMATA, summary and conclusion, ii. 543

  _Martes_, N. American Tertiary, i. 135
    ii. 198

  Mascarene Islands, zoology of, i. 280
    extinct fauna of, i. 282
    gigantic land-tortoises of, i. 289

  _Masius_, ii. 102

  MASTACEMBELIDÆ, ii. 437

  _Mastodon_, European Pliocene, i. 113
    Miocene of Greece, i. 116
    European Miocene, i. 120
    in Brazilian caves, i. 144
    S. American Pliocene, i. 147
    Indian Miocene, i. 123
    N. American Post-Pliocene, i. 130
    N. American Tertiary, i. 138
    ii. 227, 228

  Mauritius, zoology of, i. 280
    reptiles of, i. 281

  McCoy, Professor, on Palæontology of Victoria, i. 466

  _Mechanitis_, ii. 470

  _Meda_, ii. 452

  Mediterranean, recent changes in, i. 39
    sub-region, description of, i. 199
    mammalia of, i. 202
    birds of, i. 203
    reptiles and amphibia of, i. 204
    fresh-water fish of, i. 205
    insects of, i. 205
    islands of, i. 206
    sea not separating distinct faunas, i. 201

  _Megabias_, ii. 270

  _Megablabes_, ii. 376

  _Magacephala_, ii. 478

  _Megacephalon_, ii. 342

  _Megacerops_, N. American Tertiary, i. 137

  _Megaderma_, ii. 182

  _Megærophis_, ii. 383

  _Megalæma_, ii. 306

  MEGALÆMIDÆ, ii. 305

  MEGALÆMINÆ, ii. 306

  _Megalixalus_, ii. 419

  _Megalocnus_, fossil in Cuba, i. 148

  _Megalomastoma_, ii. 521

  _Megalomeryx_, N. American Tertiary, i. 138

  _Megalomma_, ii. 487

  _Megalonyx_, N. American Post-Pliocene, i. 130
    in Brazilian caves, i. 145
    S. American Pliocene, i. 147

  _Megalophrys_, ii. 421

  _Megalostoma_, Eocene, i. 169

  _Megalurus_, ii. 258

  _Megalophonus_, ii. 289

  _Megamys_, S. American Eocene, i. 148
    ii. 238

  _Meganostoma_, ii. 478

  MEGAPODIIDÆ, ii. 341

  _Megapodius_, ii. 342

  _Megaptera_, ii. 207

  _Megarhynchus_, ii. 101

  _Megaspira_, European Tertiary, i. 169
    ii. 527

  _Megatheridæ_, in Brazilian caves, i. 145

  _Megatherium_, N. American Post-Pliocene, i. 130
    in Brazilian caves, i. 145
    S. American Pliocene, i. 147
    ii. 245

  _Meiornis_, ii. 369

  _Melampitta_, ii. 298

  _Melampus_, ii. 519

  _Melanerpes_, ii. 303

  _Melania_, European Secondary, i. 169

  MELANIADÆ, ii. 509

  _Melanitis_, ii. 471

  _Melanochlora_, ii. 266

  _Melanocorypha_, ii. 289

  _Melanophidium_, ii. 374

  _Melanoptila_, ii. 256

  _Melanotis_, ii. 256

  MELEAGRINÆ, ii. 340

  _Meleagris_, N. American Miocene, i. 163
    ii. 340

  _Meles_, ii. 199

  _Melidectes_, ii. 276

  _Melidora_, ii. 316

  _Melierax_, ii. 348

  _Melinæa_, ii. 470

  _Meliornis_, ii. 275

  _Meliphaga_, ii. 275

  MELIPHAGIDÆ, ii. 275

  _Melipotes_, ii. 276

  _Melirrhophetes_, ii. 276

  _Melitæa_, ii. 474

  _Melithreptus_, ii. 276

  _Melittophagus_, ii. 312

  _Melizophilus_, ii. 259

  _Mellisuga_, ii. 108

  _Mellivora_, Indian Miocene, i. 121
   ii. 199

  _Melolonthidium_, Oolitic insect, i. 167

  _Melopelia_, ii. 333

  _Melopsittacus_, ii. 325

  _Melopyrrha_, ii. 285

  _Melospiza_, ii. 284

  _Melursus_, ii. 202

  _Menetia_, ii. 395

  _Meniceros_, ii. 317

  _Meniscotherium_, N. American Tertiary, i. 138

  _Menobranchus_, ii. 412

  _Menopoma_, ii. 412

  MENOPOMIDÆ, ii. 412

  _Menotherium_, N. American Tertiary, i. 133

  _Menura_, ii. 298

  MENURIDÆ, ii. 298

  _Mephitis_, in Brazilian caves, i. 144
    ii. 199

  _Merganetta_, ii. 364

  _Mergulus_, ii. 367

  _Mergus_, ii. 364

  _Meriones_, ii. 232
    ii. 230

  _Meristes_, ii. 272

  _Merluccius_, ii. 439

  _Meroe_, ii. 536

  MEROPIDÆ, ii. 312

  _Meropiscus_, ii. 312

  _Meropogon_, ii. 312

  _Merops_, ii. 312

  _Merulaxis_, ii. 297

  _Merychus_, N. American Tertiary, i. 138

  _Merychippus_, N. American Tertiary, i. 135

  _Merychochoerus_, N. American Tertiary, i. 138

  _Merycodus_, N. American Tertiary, i. 138
    ii. 220

  _Merycopotamus_, Indian Miocene, i. 122
    ii. 214

  _Merycotherium_, of Siberian drift, i. 112
    ii. 217

  _Mesacodon_, N. American Tertiary, i. 133

  _Mesapia_, ii. 479

  _Mesites_, ii. 263

  _Mesohippus_, N. American Tertiary, i. 135

  _Mesomys_, ii. 239

  _Mesonauta_, ii. 438

  _Mesonyx_, N. American Tertiary, i. 134

  _Mesopithecus_, Miocene of Greece, i. 115
    ii. 178

  _Mesoprion_, ii. 425

  _Mesops_, ii. 439

  _Mesosemia_, ii. 475

  _Messalina_, ii. 391

  _Messaras_, ii. 474

  _Metallura_, ii. 108

  _Metapheles_, ii. 476

  _Methonella_, ii. 476

  _Metius_, ii. 492

  _Metopia_, ii. 102

  _Metopiana_, ii. 364

  _Metoponia_, ii. 283

  _Metopothrix_, ii. 102

  _Metriopelia_, ii. 333

  Mexican sub-region, ii. 51
    mammalia of, ii. 52
    birds of, ii. 52
    reptiles of, ii. 54
    amphibia of, ii. 54
    fresh-water fish of, ii. 54
    insects of, ii. 55
    land-shells of, ii. 57
    its relations to the N. and S. American continents, ii. 57
    islands of, ii. 59

  Meyer, Dr. A.B., on reptiles and amphibia of New Guinea, i. 415¨

  _Micræca_, ii. 270

  _Micracantha_, ii. 501

  _Micrastur_, ii. 347

  _Micrathene_, ii. 350

  _Micrhyla_, ii. 414

  _Microbates_, ii. 104

  _Microcebus_, ii. 176

  _Microcerculus_, ii. 264

  _Microchæra_, ii. 107

  _Microglossus_, ii. 325

  _Microhierax_, ii. 349

  _Microlestes_, oldest European mammal, i. 160

  _Micromeryx_, European Miocene, i. 120
    ii. 220

  _Micropelama_, ii. 353

  _Micropternus_, ii. 304

  _Micropterus_, ii. 364

  _Microscelis_, ii. 267

  _Microstoma_, ii. 448

  _Microsyops_, N. American Tertiary, i. 133

  _Microtherium_, European Miocene, i. 120

  _Midas_, ii. 176

  Middendorf, on extreme northern birds, i. 219

  _Midea_, ii. 478

  _Miglyptes_, ii. 304

  Migrating birds, in which region to be placed, i. 185

  Migration of animals, i. 10
    general phenomena of, i. 18
    of birds, i. 19
    of birds in Europe, i. 19
    probable origin of, i. 22
    of birds in India and China, i. 23
    of birds in N. America, i. 23
    changes in extent of, i. 24
    of birds in S. Temperate America, i. 25
    general remarks on, i. 25

  _Miletus_, ii. 477

  _Milvulus_, ii. 102, 291

  _Milvus_, European Miocene, i. 162
    ii. 349

  _Mimeta_, ii. 268

  _Mimetes_, ii. 170

  _Mimocichla_, ii. 256

  _Mimus_, ii. 256

  _Minla_, ii. 266

  Miocene fauna of the Old World, i. 114
    fauna of Geece, i. 115
    fauna of Greece, summary of, i. 116
    fauna of Central Europe, i. 117
    deposits of Siwalik Hills, i. 121
    faunas of Europe and Asia, general observations on, i. 123

  _Miohippus_, N. American Tertiary, i. 135

  _Mionectes_, ii. 101

  _Mirafra_, ii. 289

  _Miro_, ii. 260

  _Misgurnus_, ii. 453

  _Mitra_, ii. 508

  _Mitrephorus_, ii. 102

  _Mitua_, ii. 343

  Mivart, Professor, on classification of primates, i. 86
    on classification of insectivora, i. 87
    on classification of amphibia, i. 101
    of classification of lemurs, ii. 176

  _Mixornis_, ii. 261

  _Mniotilta_, ii. 279

  MNIOTILTIDÆ, ii. 278

  _Mochocus_, ii. 443

  _Mocoa_, ii. 397

  _Moho_, ii. 276

  Mole-rat of W. Tartary, i. 218

  Mole-rats, ii. 231

  Moles, almost wholly Palæarctic, i. 181
    ii. 190

  _Mollienesia_, ii. 450

  Mollusca, means of dispersal of, i. 30
    classification of, i. 104
    groups selected for study, i. 104

  MOLLUSCA, distribution of, ii. 504
    range of families of, in time, ii. 538

  Moluccas, zoology of, i. 417
    birds of, i. 419
    reptiles of, i. 420
    insects of, i. 420
    peculiarities of fauna of, i. 421

  _Molossus_, ii. 184

  _Molothrus_, ii. 282

  _Molva_, ii. 439

  MOMOTIDÆ, ii. 313

  _Momotus_, ii. 313

  _Monachalcyon_, ii. 316

  _Monarcha_, ii. 270

  _Monasa_, ii. 311

  _Monitor_, ii. 389

  Monkeys on the high Himalayas, i. 12
    fossil in N. American Miocene, i. 133
    in E. Thibet, i. 222
    abundance of in the Oriental region, i. 315

  _Monoceros_, ii. 507

  _Monodon_, ii. 208

  MONODONTIDÆ, ii. 208

  _Monoplocus_, ii. 390

  _Monopterus_, ii. 455

  Monotremata, classification of, i. 91
    list of Australian genera of, i. 477

  MONOTREMATA, ii. 253
    remarks on the distribution of, ii. 254

  _Monotrophis_, ii. 289

  _Montacuta_, ii. 535

  _Monticola_, ii. 256

  _Montifringilla_, ii. 284

  Mörch, Dr., on Panama shells, ii. 20

  _Morelia_, ii. 381

  "More-pork" of Australia, figure of, i. 442

  _Morethria_, ii. 395

  _Mormolyce_, ii. 490

  MORMYRIDÆ, ii. 448

  _Mormyrops_, ii. 448

  _Mormyrus_, ii. 488

  _Morococcyx_, ii. 309

  _Morotherium_, N. American Pliocene, i. 140

  MORPHIDÆ, ii. 472

  _Morphnus_, ii. 348

  _Morpho_, ii. 472

  _Morunga_, ii. 204

  _Moschus_, ii. 219

  _Motacilla_, European Miocene, i. 161
    ii. 290

  MOTACILLIDÆ, ii. 290

  _Motella_, ii. 439

  Moths, ii. 481

  Motmots, ii. 313

  Mound-builders, peculiar Australian birds, i. 393

  Moupin, position and zoology of, i. 221

  Mouse-deer, ii. 218

  _Moxostoma_, ii. 451

  _Mugil_, ii. 435

  MUGILLIDÆ, ii. 435

  _Mulleria_, ii. 534

  _Mulleripicus_, ii. 303

  MULLIDÆ, ii. 426

  _Mullus_, ii. 426

  _Mungos_, ii. 195

  _Munia_, ii. 287

  MURÆNIDÆ, ii. 456

  _Murænopsis_, ii. 412

  _Murex_, ii. 507

  MURICIDÆ, ii. 507

  _Muridæ_, S. American Pliocene, i. 147

  MURIDÆ, ii. 229

  Murray, Mr. Andrew, on zoological region, i. 60

  _Mus_, ii. 229

  _Muscardinus_, ii. 232

  _Muscicapa_, ii. 270

  MUSCICAPIDÆ, ii. 270

  _Muscicapula_, ii. 270

  _Muscigralla_, ii. 101

  _Muscipipra_, ii. 101

  _Muscisaxicola_, ii. 101, 291

  _Muscitodus_, ii. 271

  _Muscivora_, ii. 101

  _Musophaga_, ii. 307

  MUSOPHAGIDÆ, ii. 307

  Mussels, ii. 533

  _Mustela_, Miocene of Greece, i. 115
    European Miocene, i. 118
    S. American Pliocene, i. 146
    ii. 198

  _Mustelidæ_, in Brazilian caves, i. 144

  MUSTELIDÆ, ii. 198

  _Mustelus_, ii. 460

  MYACIDÆ, ii. 536

  _Myadora_, ii. 536

  _Mycalesis_, ii. 471

  _Mycerobas_, ii. 284

  _Mycetes_, ii. 175
    ii. 178

  _Mycetopus_, ii. 534

  _Mydaus_, ii. 199

  _Myiadestes_, ii. 260

  _Myiagra_, ii. 271

  _Myialestes_, ii. 271

  _Myiarchus_, ii. 102, 291

  _Myiobius_, ii. 101

  _Myioceyx_, ii. 316

  _Myiochanes_, ii. 102

  _Myiodioctes_, ii. 279

  _Myiodynastes_, ii. 101

  _Myiophonus_, ii. 263

  _Myiopithecus_, ii. 173

  _Myiotheretes_, ii. 100

  _Myiozetetes_, ii. 101

  _Mylesinus_, ii. 445

  _Myletes_, ii. 445

  MYLIOBATIDÆ, ii. 463

  _Myliobatis_, ii. 463

  _Mylodon_, N. American Post-Pliocene, i. 130
    S. American Pliocene, i. 147

  _Mylopharadon_, ii. 452

  _Mynes_, ii. 474

  _Myochama_, ii. 536

  _Myodes_, ii. 230

  _Myogale_, European Miocene, i. 118
   ii. 190, 191

  _Myoictis_, ii. 249

  _Myomorphus_, fossil in Cuba, i. 148

  _Myopotamus_, in Brazilian caves, i. 145
    ii. 239

  _Myospalax_, ii. 230

  MYOXIDÆ, ii. 232

  _Myoxus_, European Miocene, i. 120
    European Eocene, i. 126
    ii. 232

  _Myxomys_, ii. 230

  _Myrina_, ii. 477

  _Myrmeciza_, ii. 104

  MYRMECOBIIDÆ, ii. 250

  _Myrmecobius_, ii. 250

  _Myrmecophaga_, ii. 247

  MYRMECOPHAGIDÆ, ii. 247

  _Myrmotherula_, ii. 104

  _Myron_, ii. 376

  _Myrtis_, ii. 108

  _Mysarachne_, European Miocene, i. 118

  _Mysops_, N. American Eocene, i. 140
    ii. 231

  _Mystacina tuberculata_, ii. 184

  _Mystacoleucus_, ii. 452

  _Mystacornis_, ii. 258

  _Mystromys_, ii. 230

  MYTILIDÆ, ii. 533

  _Mytilus_, ii. 539

  MYXINIDÆ, ii. 464

  _Myxophagus_, N. American Post-Pliocene, i. 130

  _Myxophyes_, ii. 420

  _Myxus_, ii. 435

  _Myzomela_, ii. 275

  _Myzornis_, ii. 266

  N.

  _Nænia_, ii. 365

  _Naja_, ii. 383

  NANDIDÆ, ii. 433

  _Nandinia_, ii. 195

  _Nandus_, ii. 433

  _Nanina_, ii. 513

  _Nannophryne_, ii. 417

  _Nannophrys_, ii. 421

  _Nanodes_, ii. 327

  _Nanohyus_, N. American Tertiary, i. 137
    ii. 215

  _Nanotragus_, ii. 224

  _Napeogenes_, ii. 470

  _Napothera_, ii. 261

  _Nardoa_, ii. 381

  Narwhal, ii. 208

  _Narope_, ii. 472

  _Nasica_, ii. 103

  _Nasiterna_, ii. 325

  _Nasua_, in Brazilian caves, i. 144
    ii. 200

  _Nathalis_, ii. 478

  _Natica_, ii. 539

  NATICIDÆ, ii. 508

  _Nautilus_, ii. 539

  NATRICINÆ, ii. 375

  _Nattereria_, ii. 417

  _Nauclerus_, ii. 349

  _Naucrates_, ii. 429

  _Naultinus_ ii. 400

  NAUTILIDÆ, ii. 506

  _Navicella_, ii. 510

  Nearctic region, defined, i. 79
    subdivisions of, i. 80
    distinct from Palæarctic, i. 79
    ii. 114
    zoological characteristics of, ii. 115
    mammalia of, ii. 115
    birds of, ii. 116
    reptiles of, ii. 119
    amphibia of, ii. 120
    fresh-water fishes of, ii. 120
    summary of vertebrata of, ii. 120
    insects of, ii. 122
    land and fresh-water shells of, ii. 124
    sub-regions of, ii. 125
    concluding remarks on, ii. 138
    tables of distribution of animals of, ii. 139

  Nearctic and Neotropical regions, no decided boundary between, ii. 117

  _Nebria_, ii. 489

  _Necrornis_, European Miocene, i. 161

  NECTARINIIDÆ, ii. 276

  _Nectarinia_, ii. 276

  _Nectarophila_, ii. 276

  _Nectogale_, ii. 190

  _Necydalis_, ii. 502

  _Necyria_, ii. 476

  _Nelicurvius_, ii. 286

  _Nemachilus_, ii. 453

  _Nematogenys_, ii. 444

  NEMEOBIIDÆ, ii. 475

  _Nemeobius_, ii. 475

  NEMORHEDINÆ, ii. 224

  _Nemorhedus_, ii. 224

  _Nemoricola_, ii. 290

  _Nemosia_, ii. 99

  _Neobatrachus_, ii. 420

  _Neochloe_, ii. 280

  _Neocorys_, ii. 290

  _Neoctantes_, ii. 104

  _Neomeris_, ii. 209

  _Neomorphus_, ii. 309

  _Neophasia_, ii. 478

  _Neophron_, ii. 346

  _Neopipo_, ii. 102

  _Neopus_, ii. 348

  _Neorhynchus_, ii. 285

  _Neosorex_, ii. 191

  _Neotoma_, ii. 230

  _Neotomys_, ii. 230

  _Neotragus_, ii. 224

  Neotropical region, defined, i. 78
    subdivisions of, i. 78
    relations of W. African sub-region with, i. 265
    description of, ii. 1
    zoological features of, ii. 5
    birds of, ii. 6, 7
    distinctive features of mammalia of, ii. 6
    reptiles of, ii. 9
    amphibia of, ii. 11
    fresh-water fishes of, ii. 12
    summary of vertebrates of, ii. 13
    insects of, ii. 13
    land-shells of, ii. 19
    marine shells of, ii. 20
    summary of past history of, ii. 80
    tables of distribution of animals of, ii. 84

  Neotropical sub-regions, ii. 21

  _Neoziphius_, ii. 208

  _Nephæcetes_, ii. 320

  _Neptis_, ii. 474

  NERITIDÆ, ii. 510

  _Neritina_, ii. 510

  _Nerophis_, ii. 457

  _Nesoceleus_, ii. 303

  _Nesocichla_, ii. 256

  _Nesodon_, S. American Pliocene, i. 147

  _Nesomys_, ii. 230

  _Nesonetta_, ii. 364

  _Nesopsar_, ii. 282

  _Nessia_, ii. 399

  _Nestor_, ii. 329

  NESTORIDÆ, ii. 329

  _Nettapus_, ii. 363

  _Neusterophis_, ii. 376

  Newberry, Dr., on Cretaceous and Tertiary floras of N. America, ii. 155

  Newton, Professor, on position of _Menuridæ_ and _Atrichiidæ_, i. 95
    on birds of Iceland, i. 198
    on Neotropical sub-regions, ii. 25
    on genus _Camptolæmus_, ii. 39
    on peculiar genera of Nearctic and Neotropical birds, ii. 118
    on family _Panuridæ_, ii. 262

  _Newtonia_, ii. 270

  Newts, ii. 413

  New Caledonia, birds of, i. 444

  New Guinea, zoology of, i. 409
    mammalia of, i. 410
    birds of, i. 411
    peculiarities of its ornithology, i. 413
    illustration of ornithology of, i. 414
    reptiles and amphibia of, i. 415
    insects of, i. 416

  New Zealand, objections to making a primary zoological region, i. 62
    extinct birds of, i. 164
    sub region, description of, i. 449
    compared with British Isles, i. 449
    mammalia of, i. 451
    islets of, i. 453
    illustration of ornithology of, i. 455
    reptiles of, i. 456
    amphibia of, i. 457
    fresh-water fish of, i. 457
    insects of, i. 458
    Longicorns of, i. 458
    Myriapoda of, i. 458
    land-shells of, i. 459
    ancient fauna of, i. 460
    origin of fauna of, i. 460
    poverty of insects in, i. 462
    relations of insect-fauna and flora of, i. 472

  _Nicator_, ii. 272

  Nicobar Islands, their zoological relations, i. 332

  Nightingale, migration of the, i. 21

  Night-jars, ii. 319

  _Nigidius_, ii. 493

  _Nigrita_, ii. 286

  _Nilaus_, ii. 272

  _Niltava_, ii. 270

  _Ninox_, ii. 350

  _Nisaëtus_, ii. 348

  _Nisoides_, ii. 348

  _Nisoniades_, ii. 480

  NOCTILIONIDÆ, ii. 184

  Nocturnal tree-snakes, ii. 379

  _Nonnula_, ii. 311

  _Norbea_, ii. 397

  Norfolk Island, birds of, i. 453

  North Africa, zoological relations of, i. 202

  North America, remarks on Post-Pliocene, fauna of, i. 130
    Post-Pliocene fauna of, partly derived from S. America, i. 131
    extinct birds of, i. 163

  Northern Hemisphere, zoological importance of, ii. 155

  NOTACANTHI, ii. 437

  _Notaden_, ii. 415

  _Notharctos_, N. American Tertiary, i. 133

  _Nothocerus_, ii. 344

  _Nothocrax_, ii. 343

  _Nothoprocta_, ii. 344

  _Nothura_, ii. 344

  NOTIDANIDÆ, ii. 461

  _Notiophilus_, ii. 489

  _Notodela_, ii. 259

  _Notoglanis_, ii. 443

  _Notonomus_, ii. 490

  NOTOPTERIDÆ, ii. 455

  _Notopholis_, ii. 391

  Notornis of New Zealand, i. 455

  _Notornis_, ii. 352

  _Nototherium_, Australian Post-Tertiary, i. 157
    ii. 251

  _Nototrema_, ii. 418

  _Noturus_, ii. 442

  _Nucifraga_, ii. 273

  NUCLEO-BRANCHIATA. ii. 531

  _Nucras_, ii. 391

  _Numenius_, ii. 353

  NUMIDINÆ, ii. 340

  _Numida_, ii. 340

  _Nuria_, ii. 452

  Nuthatches, ii. 265

  _Nutria_, ii. 199

  _Nyctala_, ii. 350

  _Nyctalatinus_, ii. 350

  _Nyctalemon_, ii. 482

  _Nyctalops_, ii. 350

  _Nyctea_, ii. 350

  _Nyctereutes_, ii. 197

  _Nycteris_, ii. 182

  _Nyctibius_, ii. 319

  _Nycticorax_, ii. 359

  _Nyctidromius_, ii. 320

  _Nyctiornis_, ii. 312

  _Nyctipithecus_, ii. 175

  _Nyctiprogne_, ii. 320

  _Nymphalis_, ii. 474

  NYMPHALIDÆ, ii. 473

  _Nymphicus_, ii. 325

  _Nymphidium_, ii. 476

  O.

  _Ochetobius_, ii. 452

  _Ochotherium_, in Brazilian caves, i. 145
    ii. 245

  _Ochthæca_, ii. 100

  _Ochthodiæta_, ii. 100

  _Octodontidæ_, S. American Pliocene, i. 147

  OCTODONTIDÆ, ii. 237

  _Octodon_, ii. 238

  OCTOPODIDÆ, ii. 505

  _Ocyalus_, ii. 282

  _Ocydromus_, ii. 352

  _Ocyphaps_, ii. 333

  _Odontochila_, ii. 486

  _Odontolabris_, ii. 493

  _Odontophorus_, ii. 339

  _Odontophrynus_, ii. 420

  _Oedemia_, ii. 364

  _Oedicnemis_, ii. 355

  _Oëdura_, ii. 399

  _Oena_, ii. 332

  _Ogmodon_, ii. 383

  _Ogyris_, ii. 477

  _Oligdon_, ii. 375

  OLIGODONTIDÆ, ii. 374

  _Oligosarcus_, ii. 445

  _Olisthopus_, ii. 489

  _Olylogon_, ii. 418

  _Olyra_, ii. 442

  _Omaseus_, ii. 489

  _Ommatophoca_, ii. 204

  _Omolepida_, ii. 397

  _Omostenus_, ii. 492

  _Omphalotropis_, ii. 521

  _Omus_, ii. 487

  ONCIDIADÆ, ii. 517

  _Oncidium_, ii. 518

  _Onychodactylus_, ii. 413

  _Onychogale_, ii. 195

  _Onychogalea_, ii. 251

  _Onychognathus_, ii. 288

  _Onchorhynchus_, ii. 447

  _Oncostoma_, ii. 101

  Ophidia, classification of, i. 99

  OPHIDIA, ii. 372
    remarks on the general distribution of, ii. 386
    fossil, ii. 387

  OPHIDIIDÆ, ii. 440

  _Ophidium_, ii. 440

  OPHIOCEPHALIDÆ, ii. 435

  _Ophiodes_, ii. 397

  OPHIOMORIDÆ, ii. 398

  _Ophiomorus_, ii. 398

  _Ophiophagus_, ii. 383

  _Ophiops_, ii. 391

  _Ophioscincus_, ii. 397

  _Ophisaurus_, ii. 392

  _Ophites_, ii. 380

  _Ophonus_, ii. 489

  _Ophryodera_, ii. 487

  _Ophysia_, ii. 209

  OPISTHO-BRANCHIATA, ii. 529

  OPISTHOCOMI, ii. 345

  _Opisthocomus_, Brazilian caves, i. 164
    ii. 345

  _Opisthodelphys_, ii. 418

  _Opisthostoma_, ii. 520

  _Opisthoporus_, ii. 520

  _Oporornis_, ii. 279

  _Opossum_, extinct in European Miocene, i. 121

  Opossums, ii. 248

  _Opsariichthys_, ii. 452

  _Opsiphanes_, ii. 472

  Orang-utan, ii. 171

  _Orca_, ii. 209

  _Orcaella_, ii. 209

  _Orchesticus_, ii. 99

  _Orchilus_, ii. 101

  _Oreas_, ii. 223

  _Oreicola_, ii. 260

  _Oreinus_, ii. 452

  _Oreocephalus_, ii. 401

  _Oreocincla_, ii. 256

  _Oreodeira_, ii. 401

  _Oreodon_, N. American Tertiary, i. 138

  _Oreodontidæ_, N. American Tertiary, i. 138

  _Oreoeca_, ii. 271

  _Oreomanes_, ii. 278

  _Oreonectes_, ii. 453

  _Oreonympha_, ii. 108

  _Oreoperdix_, ii. 338

  OREOPHASINÆ, ii. 343

  _Oreophasis_, ii. 343

  _Oreophilus_, ii. 356

  _Oreopyra_, ii. 107

  _Oreortyx_, ii. 339

  _Oreoscoptes_, ii. 256

  _Oreothraupis_, ii. 99

  _Oreotrochilus_, ii. 107

  _Orestias_, ii. 450

  Oriental region, defined, i. 75
    subdivisions of, i. 75
    description of, i. 314
    zoological features of, i. 315
    mammalia of, i. 315
    birds of, i. 316
    reptiles of, i. 317
    amphibia of, i. 317
    fresh-water fishes of, i. 318
    summary of vertebrata of, i. 318
    insects of, i. 318
    sub-regions of, i. 321
    concluding remarks on, i. 362
    tables of distribution of animals of, i. 364

  Oriental relations of W. African sub-region, i. 265

  Oriental and Palæarctic faunas once identical, i. 362

  Oriental and Ethiopian faunas, cause of their resemblances, i. 363

  _Origma_, ii. 260

  _Oriocalotes_, ii. 402

  Orioles, ii. 268

  ORIOLIDÆ, ii. 268

  _Oriolus_, ii. 268

  _Orites_, ii. 266

  _Ornithion_, ii. 101

  ORNITHORHYNCHIDÆ, ii. 253

  _Ornithorhynchus_, ii. 253

  _Orocætes_, ii. 256

  _Orohippus_, N. American Tertiary, i. 136

  _Ortalida_, ii. 343

  _Orthagoriscus_, ii. 457

  _Orthalicus_, ii. 516

  ORTHIDÆ, ii. 532

  ORTHOCERATIDÆ, ii. 506

  _Orthodon_, ii. 452

  _Orthogonius_, ii. 491

  _Orthogonys_, ii. 98

  _Orthonyx_, ii. 260

  _Orthorhynchus_, ii. 108

  _Orthotomus_, ii. 257

  _Ortygometra_, ii. 352

  _Ortygornis_, ii. 338

  _Ortyx_, ii. 339

  _Ortyxelos_, ii. 341

  ORYCTEROPODIDÆ, ii. 246

  _Orycteropus_, ii. 246

  _Orycterus_, ii. 231

  ORYGINÆ, ii. 223

  _Oryx_, ii. 223

  _Oryzoborus_, ii. 285

  _Oryzorictes_, ii. 188

  _Osmerus_, ii. 447

  _Osphranter_, ii. 251

  _Osteobrama_, ii. 453

  _Osteochilus_, ii. 451

  _Osteogeniosus_, ii. 443

  OSTEOGLOSSIDÆ, ii. 454

  _Osteoglossum_, ii. 454

  _Ostinops_, ii. 282

  OSTREIDÆ, ii. 533

  _Ostrich_, Miocene of N. India, i. 162

  Ostriches, ii. 368

  _Otaria_, European Miocene, i. 118
    ii. 202

  OTARIIDÆ, ii. 202

  OTIDIDÆ, ii. 356

  _Otidiphaps_, ii. 333

  _Otilophus_, ii. 415, 428

  _Otis_, ii. 356

  _Otocorys_, ii. 289

  _Otocryptis_, ii. 402

  _Otogyps_, ii. 346

  _Otomys_, ii. 230

  _Otopoma_, ii. 521

  _Ovibos_, N. American Post-Pliocene, i. 130
    ii. 224, 225

  Owl-parrot, ii. 329

  Owls, ii. 350

  Oxen, birth-place and migrations of, i. 155
    Palæarctic, i. 182
    ii. 221

  OXUDERCIDÆ, ii. 431

  _Oxyæna_, N. American Tertiary, i. 134

  _Oxydoras_, ii. 443

  _Oxyglossus_, ii. 421

  _Oxygomphus_, European Miocene, i. 118
    ii. 186

  _Oxylabes_, ii. 262

  _Oxymycterus_, in Brazilian caves, i. 145
    S. American Pliocene, i. 147
    ii. 230, 231

  _Oxynotus_, ii. 269

  _Oxypogon_, ii. 108

  OXYRHAMPHIDÆ, ii. 292

  _Oxyrhamphus_, ii. 292

  _Oxyrhopus_, ii. 379

  _Oxyurus_, ii. 103

  Oysters, ii. 533

  P.

  _Pachybatrachus_, ii. 416

  _Pachycephala_, ii. 271

  PACHYCEPHALIDÆ, ii. 271

  _Pachydactylus_, ii. 400

  _Pachyæna_, N. American Tertiary, i. 134

  _Pachyglossa_, ii. 277

  _Pachynolophus_, European Eocene, i. 126

  _Pachyrhamphus_, ii. 102

  _Pachyrhynchus_, ii. 391

  _Pachyteles_, ii. 490, 492

  _Pachytherium_, in Brazilian caves, i. 145
    ii. 246

  _Pachyura_, ii. 191

  _Pæocephalus_, ii. 328

  _Pæcilus_, ii. 489

  _Pagellus_, ii. 427

  _Pagomys_, ii. 204

  _Pagophila_, ii. 364

  _Pagophilus_, ii. 204

  _Paguma_, ii. 195

  PAICTIDÆ, ii. 298

  Palæarctic region, ancient limits of, ii. 157
    defined, i. 171
    subdivisions of, i. 71
    general features of. i. 180
    zoological charcteristics of, i. 181
    has few peculiar families, i. 181
    mammalia of, i. 181
    birds of, i. 182
    high degree of speciality of, i. 184
    reptiles and amphibia of, i. 186
    fresh-water fish of, i. 186
    summary of vertebrata of, i. 186
    insects of, i. 186
    coleoptera of, i. 187
    number of coleoptera of, i. 189
    land-shells of, i. 190
    sub-regions of, i. 190
    general conclusions on the fauna of, i. 231
    tables of distribution of animals of, i. 233

  _Palæacodon_, N. American Tertiary, i. 133

  _Palæetus_, European Miocene, i. 162

  _Palægithalus_, European Eocene, i. 162

  _Palælodus_, European Miocene, i. 162

  _Palæocastor_, N. American Tertiary, i. 140
    ii. 234

  _Palæocercus_, European Miocene, i. 162

  _Palæochoerus_, European Miocene, i. 119
    ii. 215

  _Palæocyon_, ii. 198

  _Palæohierax_, European Miocene, i. 162

  _Palæolagus_, N. American Tertiary, i. 140

  _Palæolama_, S. American Pliocene, i. 147
    ii. 217

  _Palæomephitis_, European Miocene, i. 118
    ii. 200

  _Palæomeryx_, European Miocene, i. 120
    ii. 220

  _Palæomys_, European Miocene, i. 121
    ii. 238

  _Palæontina oolitica_, Oolitic insect, i. 167

  Palæontology, i. 107
    how best studied in its bearing on geographical distribution, i. 168
    as an introduction to the study of geographical distribution,
      concluding remarks on, i. 169

  _Palæonyctis_, European Eocene, i. 125

  _Palæoperdix_, European Miocene, i. 161

  _Palæophrynus_, European Miocene, i. 166

  _Palæoreas_, Miocene of Greece, i. 116

  _Palæornis_, ii. 326

  PALÆORNITHIDÆ, ii. 326

  _Palæonyctis_, ii. 196, 206

  _Palæortyx_, European Miocene, i. 161

  _Palæoryx_, Miocene of Greece, i. 116

  _Palæospalax_, i. 111
    European Miocene, i. 117
    ii. 190

  _Palæosyops_, N. American Tertiary, i. 136

  _Palæotheridæ_, European Eocene, i. 125

  _Palæotherium_, Enropean Eocene, i. 125
    S. American Eocene, i. 148

  _Palæotragus_, Miocene of Greece, i. 116

  _Palæotringa_, N. American Cretaceous, i. 164

  _Palamedea_, ii. 361

  PALAMEDEIDÆ, ii. 361

  _Palapterygidæ_ of New Zealand, i. 164

  PALAPTERYGIDÆ, ii. 370

  _Palapteryx_, ii. 370

  Palestine, birds of, i. 203

  _Pallasia_, ii. 289

  _Paloplotherium_, European Miocene, i. 119
    European Eocene, i. 125

  _Paludicola_, ii. 416

  _Paludina_, Eocene, i. 169
    European Secondary, i. 169
    ii. 510

  PALUDINIDÆ, ii. 510

  Pampas, Pliocene deposits of, i. 146

  _Pamphila_, ii. 480

  Panda, of Nepaul and E. Thibet, i. 222
    Himalayan, figure of, i. 331
    ii. 201

  _Pandion_, ii. 349

  PANDIONIDÆ, ii. 349

  _Pangasius_, ii. 442

  _Pangolin_, ii. 245

  _Panolax_, N. American Tertiary, i. 140

  _Panopoea_, ii. 536

  _Panoplites_, ii. 107

  _Panterpe_, ii. 109

  _Panthalops_, ii. 223

  PANURIDÆ, ii. 262

  _Panurus_, ii. 262

  _Panychlora_, ii. 109

  _Panyptila_, ii. 320

  Paper-Nautilus, ii. 505

  _Paphia_, ii. 474

  _Papilio_, ii. 479

  PAPILIONIDÆ, ii. 479

  Papuan Islands, zoology of, i. 409

  _Paracanthobrama_, ii. 452

  _Paradigalla_, ii. 275

  _Paradiplomystax_, ii. 443

  _Paradisea_, ii. 274

  Paradise-bird, twelve-wired, figure of, i. 414

  Paradise-birds, ii. 274

  PARADISEIDÆ, ii. 274

  PARADISEINÆ, ii. 274

  _Paradoxornis_, ii. 262

  _Paradoxurus_, ii. 195

  _Parahippus_, N. American Tertiary, i. 136

  _Paralabraz_, ii. 425

  _Paramys_, N. American Eocene, i. 140
    ii. 236

  _Parandra_, ii. 501

  _Paraphoxinus_, ii. 452

  _Pardalotus_, ii. 277

  _Pareas_, ii. 380

  _Parodon_, ii. 445

  _Pareudiastes_, ii. 352

  PARIDÆ, ii. 265

  _Pariodon_, ii. 444

  _Parisoma_, ii. 266

  _Parmacella_, ii. 517

  _Parmarion_, ii. 517

  _Parmophorus_, ii. 511

  _Parnassius_, ii. 479

  _Paroaria_, ii. 284

  _Parotia_, ii. 274

  _Parra_, ii. 355

  PARRIDÆ, ii. 354

  Parroquet, Papuan, figure of, i. 415

  Parrots, classification of, i. 96
    ii. 324, 329

  Partridges, ii. 338

  _Partula_, ii. 515

  _Parula_, ii. 279

  _Parus_, ii. 265

  _Pasimachus_, ii. 490

  _Passerculus_, ii. 284

  _Passerella_, ii. 284

  Passeres, arrangement of, i. 94
    range of Palæarctic genera of, i. 243
    range of Ethiopian genera of, i. 306
    range of Oriental genera of, i. 375
    range of Australian genera of, i. 478

  PASSERES, ii. 255
    general remarks on the distribution of, ii. 299

  _Passerita_, ii. 379

  _Pastor_, ii. 287

  _Patagona_, ii. 108

  _Patella_, ii. 539

  PATELLIDÆ, ii. 511

  _Patriofelis_, N. American Tertiary, i. 134

  _Patrobus_, ii. 489

  _Pauxi_, ii. 343

  _Pavo_, ii. 340

  PAVONINÆ, ii. 340

  _Paxillus_, ii. 520

  Pearl-oysters, ii. 533

  Pease, Mr. Harper, on Polynesian region of Land-shells, ii. 528

  Peccaries, ii. 215

  _Pectinator_, ii. 238

  Peculiar groups, geographically, how defined, ii. 184

  _Pedetes_, ii. 232

  PEDICULATI, ii. 431

  _Pediocætes_, ii. 339

  _Pedionomus_, ii. 356

  PEGASIDÆ, ii. 456

  _Pelagius_, ii. 204

  _Pelagornis_, European Miocene, i. 162

  _Pelamis_, ii. 384

  _Pelargopsis_, ii. 316

  _Pelea_, ii. 224

  PELECANIDÆ, ii. 365

  _Pelecanoides_, ii. 365

  _Pelecanus_, ii. 365

  _Pelecium_, ii. 490

  _Pelecus_, ii. 453

  Pelicans, ii. 365

  _Peliperdix_, ii. 338

  _Pellorneum_, ii. 261

  _Pelobates_, ii. 417

  PELODRYADÆ, ii. 418

  _Pelodryas_, ii. 418

  _Pelodytes_, ii. 421

  _Pelomedusa_, ii. 409

  _Pelomys_, ii. 230

  _Pelonax_, N. American Tertiary, i. 138

  _Peloperdix_, ii. 338

  _Pelotrophus_, ii. 453

  _Peltaphryne_, ii. 415

  _Peltocephalus_, ii. 408

  _Peltopelor_, ii. 385

  _Peltops_, ii. 270

  _Penelope_, ii. 343

  _Penelopides_, ii. 317

  _Penelopina_, ii. 343

  PENELOPINÆ, ii. 343

  _Penetes_, ii. 472

  Penguins, ii. 366

  _Pentadactylus_, ii. 399

  _Pentila_, ii. 477

  _Peragalea_, ii. 250

  _Perameles_, ii. 250

  PERAMELIDÆ, ii. 250

  _Peratherium_, European Miocene, i. 121
    European Eocene, i. 126
    ii. 249

  _Perca_, ii. 425

  _Percarina_, i. 425

  _Perchoerus_, N. American Tertiary, i. 137
    ii. 215

  _Percilia_, ii. 425

  _Percichthys_, ii. 425

  PERCIDÆ, ii. 425

  _Percnostola_, ii. 104

  PERCOPSIDÆ, ii. 448

  _Percus_, ii. 489

  _Perdix_, ii. 338

  _Pericallus_, ii. 490

  _Pericrocotus_, ii. 268

  _Peridexia_, ii. 487

  Perim Island, extinct mammalia of, i. 122
    probable southern limit of old Palæarctic land, i. 362
    character of fossils of, ii. 157

  _Periopthalmus_, ii. 430

  _Perisoreus_, ii. 273

  _Perissodactyla_, N. American Tertiary, i. 135

  _Perissoglossa_, ii. 279

  _Peristera_, ii. 333

  _Peristethus_, ii. 428

  Periwinkle, ii. 510

  _Pernis_, ii. 349

  _Perodicticus_, ii. 176

  _Perognathus_, ii. 233

  _Peropus_, ii. 399

  Persia, birds of, i. 204

  _Petasophora_, ii. 108

  _Petaurista_, ii. 252

  _Petenia_, ii. 438

  _Petrochelidon_, ii. 281

  _Petrodromus_, ii. 186

  Petrels, ii. 365

  _Petroeca_, ii. 260

  _Petrogale_, ii. 251

  _Petromys_, ii. 239

  _Petrophassa_, ii. 333

  _Petrorhynchus_, ii. 208

  _Petroscirtes_, ii. 431

  _Peucæa_, ii. 284

  _Pezophaps_, ii. 334

  _Pezoporus_, ii. 325

  _Pfeifferia_, ii. 516

  _Phacellodomus_, ii. 103

  _Phacochoerus_, ii. 215

  _Phænicophaës_, ii. 309

  _Phænicophilus_, ii. 99

  _Phænicothraupis_, ii. 98

  _Phænopepla_, ii. 280

  _Phæochroa_, ii. 107

  _Phæolæma_, ii. 107

  _Phæoptila_, ii. 109

  _Phaëthornis_, ii. 107

  _Phaeton_, ii. 365

  _Phalacrocorax_, ii. 365

  Phalangers, ii. 251

  _Phalangista_, ii. 252

  Phalangistidæ, ii. 251

  _Phalaropus_, ii. 353

  _Phapitreron_, ii. 333

  _Phaps_, ii. 333

  _Pharomacrus_, ii. 314

  _Phascogale_, ii. 249

  _Phascolarctos_, ii. 252

  PHASCOLOMYIDÆ, ii. 252

  _Phascolomys_, Australian Post-Tertiary, i. 157

  PHASIANIDÆ, ii. 339

  PHASIANINÆ, ii. 340

  _Phasianus_, Miocene of Greece, i. 116
    European Post-Pliocene, i. 161
    ii. 340

  _Phasidus_, ii. 340

  _Phatagin_, ii. 245

  Pheasants, in European Miocene, i. 161
    golden, of N. China, i. 226
    eared, of Mongolia, i. 226
    ii. 339

  _Phedina_, ii. 281

  _Phelsuma_, ii. 400

  _Phenacodus_, N. American Tertiary, i. 138

  _Pheropsophus_, ii. 489

  _Pheucticus_, ii. 285

  _Phibalura_, ii. 102

  _Philagetes_, ii. 502

  _Philemon_, ii. 276

  _Philentoma_, ii. 271

  _Philepitta_, ii. 298

  _Philetærus_, ii. 286

  _Philodryas_, ii. 376

  Philippine Islands, mammals of, i. 345
    birds of, i. 346
    origin of peculiar fauna of, i. 448

  _Philohela_, ii. 353

  _Philomycus_, ii. 517

  _Philydor_, ii. 103

  PHILYDORINÆ, ii. 295

  _Phlæomys_, ii. 230

  _Phlæocryptes_, ii. 103

  _Phlogoenas_, ii. 333

  _Phlogophilus_, ii. 108

  _Phlogopsis_, ii. 104

  _Phlogothraupis_, ii. 98, 283

  _Phoca_, ii. 204

  _Phocæna_, ii. 209

  _Phocidæ_, N. American Tertiary, i. 140

  PHOCIDÆ, ii. 203

  _Phodilus_, ii. 350

  _Phoenicocercus_, ii. 102, 293

  _Phoenicophaës_, ii. 309

  PHOENICOPTERIDÆ, ii. 361

  _Phoenicopterus_, ii. 361

  PHOLADIDÆ, ii. 537

  _Pholadomya_, ii. 536

  _Pholeoptynx_, ii. 350

  _Pholidotus_, ii. 245

  _Pholidotus_, ii. 493

  _Phonipara_, ii. 284

  _Phorus_, ii. 510

  _Phos_, ii. 507

  _Phractocephalus_, ii. 442

  _Phrygilus_, ii. 284

  PHRYNISCIDÆ, ii. 414

  _Phryniscus_, ii. 414

  _Phrynobatrachus_, ii. 421

  _Phrynocephalus_, ii. 402

  _Phrynoglossus_, ii. 421

  _Phrynorhombus_, ii. 441

  _Phrynosoma_, ii. 401

  _Phycis_, ii. 439

  _Phyllastrephus_, ii. 267

  PHYLLIDIADÆ, ii. 530

  _Phyllobates_, ii. 419

  _Phyllodactylus_, ii. 399

  _Phyllomedusa_, ii. 418

  _Phyllomyias_, ii. 101

  _Phyllomys_, in Brazilian caves, i. 145
    ii. 239

  _Phyllornis_, ii. 267

  PHYLLORNITHIDÆ, ii. 267

  _Phylloscartes_, ii. 101

  PHYLLOSCOPINÆ, ii. 257

  _Phylloscopus_, ii. 258

  _Phyllostomidæ_, in Brazilian caves, i. 144

  PHYLLOSTOMIDÆ, ii. 181

  _Phyllurus_, ii. 400

  PHYLLYRHOIDÆ, ii. 530

  _Phymaturus_, ii. 401

  _Physa_, ii. 518

  _Physalus_, ii. 207

  _Physeter_, European Pliocene, i. 112
    ii. 208

  Physical changes affecting distribution, i. 7

  _Physignathus_, ii. 402

  PHYSOSTOMI, ii. 441

  _Phytala_, ii. 477

  _Phytotoma_, ii. 294

  PHYTOTOMIDÆ, ii. 294

  _Phyton_, ii. 502

  _Piabuca_, ii. 445

  _Piabucina_, ii. 445

  _Piaya_, ii. 309

  _Pica_, ii. 273

  Picariæ, arrangement of, i. 95
    range of Palæarctic genera of, i. 247
    range of Ethiopian genera of, i. 309
    range of Oriental genera of, i. 381
    range of Australian genera of, i. 482

  PICARIÆ, ii. 302
    general remarks on the distribution of, ii. 322

  _Picathartes_, ii. 274

  _Picicorvus_, ii. 273

  PICIDÆ, ii. 302

  _Picoides_, ii. 303

  _Picolaptes_, ii. 103

  _Picumnus_, ii. 303

  _Picus_, European Miocene, i. 161
    ii. 303

  PIERIDÆ, ii. 478

  _Pieris_, ii. 478

  _Piezia_, ii. 491

  Pigeons, classification of, i. 96
    remarkable development of, in the Australian region, i. 395
    crested, of Australia, figure of, i. 441
    ii. 331
    abundant in islands, ii. 335

  Pigs, power of swimming, i. 13

  Pikas, ii. 242

  Pike, ii. 449

  Pikermi, Miocene fauna of, i. 115

  Pilchard, ii. 454

  _Pileoma_, ii. 425

  _Pimelodus_, ii. 443

  _Pimephales_, ii. 452

  _Pinacodera_, ii. 490

  _Pinicola_, ii. 285

  _Pinulia_, ii. 191

  _Pionus_, ii. 328

  _Pipa_, ii. 422

  PIPIDÆ, ii. 421

  _Pipile_, i. 343

  _Pipilo_, ii. 284

  Piping crows, ii. 273

  _Pipra_, ii. 102, 292

  _Pipreola_, ii. 102

  PIPRIDÆ, ii. 102

  _Pipridea_, ii. 98

  _Piprisoma_, ii. 277

  _Piprites_, ii. 102, 292

  _Piramutana_, ii. 442

  _Piratinga_, ii. 443

  _Pirinampus_, ii. 443

  _Pitangus_, ii. 101

  _Pithecia_, ii. 175

  _Pithecopsis_, ii. 420

  _Pithys_, ii. 104

  _Pitta_, ii. 298

  Pittas, ii. 297

  _Pittasoma_, ii. 104

  Pittidæ, abundant in Borneo, i. 355

  PITTIDÆ, ii. 297

  _Pituophis_, ii. 375

  Pit-vipers, ii. 384

  _Pitylus_, ii. 99

  _Pityriasis_, ii. 273

  _Plagiodontia_, ii. 238

  _Plagiolophus_, European Eocene, i. 126

  _Plagiotelium_, ii. 492

  PLAGIOSTOMATA, ii. 460

  _Planetes_, ii. 490

  _Planorbis_, European Secondary, i. 169
    Eocene, i. 169
    ii. 518

  Plantain-eaters, ii. 307

  Plant-cutters, ii. 294

  Plants, distribution of, probably the same fundamentally as that of
      animals, ii. 162

  _Platacanthomys_, ii. 230

  _Platalea_, ii. 360

  PLATALEIDÆ, ii. 360

  _Platanista_, ii. 209

  _Platemys_, ii. 408

  _Platurus_, ii. 384

  _Platycercidæ_, gorgeously-coloured Australian parrots, i. 394

  PLATYCERCIDÆ, ii. 325

  _Platycercus_, ii. 325

  _Platychile_, ii. 487

  _Platygonus_, N. American Post-Pliocene, i. 130
    ii. 215

  _Platylophus_, ii. 273

  _Platymantis_, ii. 419

  _Platynematichthys_, ii. 442

  _Platynus_, ii. 489

  _Platypoecilus_, ii. 450

  PLATYRHYNCHINÆ, ii. 291

  _Platyrhynchus_, ii. 101

  _Platysaurus_, ii. 392

  _Platysoma_, ii. 489

  _Platystira_, ii. 271

  _Platystoma_, ii. 442

  _Platystomatichthys_, ii. 442

  _Plecoglossus_, ii. 447

  _Plecostomus_, ii. 444

  _Plecotus_, ii. 183

  PLECTOGNATHI, ii. 457

  PLECTROMANTIDÆ, ii. 417

  _Plectromantis_, ii. 417

  _Plectrophanes_, ii. 286

  _Plectropterus_, ii. 363

  _Plectrotrema_, ii. 519

  _Plecturus_, ii. 374

  _Plesiarctomys_, European Eocene, i. 126
    ii. 236

  _Plesiomeryx_, European Eocene, i. 126

  _Plesiosorex_, European Miocene, i. 118

  _Plestiodon_, ii. 397

  _Plethodon_, ii. 413

  PLEUROBRANCHIDÆ, ii. 530

  _Pleurodeles_, ii. 413

  _Pleurodema_, ii. 420

  _Pleuronectes_, ii. 441

  PLEURONECTIDÆ, ii. 440

  _Pleurostrichus_, ii. 392

  _Pleurotoma_, ii. 508

  _Pleurotomaria_, ii. 539

  Pliocene period, Old World, mammalia of, i. 112

  Pliocene and Post-Pliocene faunas of Europe, general conclusions from, i.
      113
    of N. America, i. 132
    of S. America, i. 146
    of Australia, i. 157

  _Pliohippus_, N. American Tertiary, i. 135

  _Pliolophus_, European Eocene, i. 126
    ii. 216

  _Pliopithecus_, European Miocene, i. 117
    ii. 178

  PLOCEIDÆ, ii. 286

  _Plocepasser_, ii. 286

  _Ploceus_, ii. 286

  _Plotosus_, ii. 441

  _Plotus_, ii. 365

  Plovers, ii. 355

  _Pluvianellus_, ii. 356

  _Pluvianus_, ii. 355

  PLYCTOLOPHIDÆ, ii. 324

  _Pnoepyga_, ii. 263

  _Podabrus_, ii. 249

  _Podager_, ii. 320

  PODARGIDÆ, ii. 318

  _Podargus_, ii. 318

  _Podica_, ii. 352

  _Podiceps_, ii. 367

  PODICIPIDÆ, ii. 366

  _Podilymbus_, ii. 367

  _Podocnemis_, ii. 408

  _Poebrotherium_, N. American Tertiary, i. 138
    ii. 217

  _Poecilia_, ii. 450

  _Poecilophis_, ii. 383

  _Poecilothraupis_, ii. 98

  _Poephagus_, ii. 222

  _Poephila_, ii. 287

  _Pogonocichla_, ii. 271

  POGONORHYNCHINÆ, ii. 306

  _Pogonorhynchus_, ii. 306

  _Pogonornis_, ii. 275

  _Pogonostoma_, ii. 487

  _Pogonotriccus_, ii. 101

  _Pohlia_, ii. 418

  _Poiana_, ii. 195

  _Polemistria_, ii. 107

  _Polioaëtus_, ii. 349

  _Poliococcyx_, ii. 309

  _Poliohierax_, ii. 349

  _Poliopsitta_, ii. 328

  _Polioptila_, ii. 258

  _Pollanisus_, ii. 481

  POLYBORINÆ, ii. 347

  _Polyboroides_, ii. 347

  _Polyborus_, ii. 347

  _Polybothris_, ii. 497

  POLYCENTRIDÆ, ii. 434

  _Polycesta_, ii. 479

  POLYDONTIDÆ, ii. 459

  _Polyhirma_, ii. 491

  POLYNEMIDÆ, ii. 429

  _Polyommatus_, ii. 477

  Polynesian sub-region, description of, i. 442
    birds of, i. 443
    reptiles of, i. 447

  _Polypedates_, ii. 419

  POLYPEDATIDÆ, ii. 419

  _Polypi_, ii. 505

  _Polyplectron_, ii. 340

  _Polyprion_, ii. 425

  POLYPTERIDÆ, ii. 458

  _Polypterus_, ii. 458

  _Polytelis_, ii. 325

  _Pomacanthus_, ii. 427

  POMACENTRIDÆ, ii. 437

  _Pomacentrus_, ii. 437

  _Pomatias_, ii. 521

  _Pomatorhinus_, ii. 261

  _Pomotis_, ii. 425

  _Pompholyx_, ii. 518

  _Pontia_, ii. 478

  _Pontoporia_, ii. 209

  _Pooecetes_, ii. 284

  _Poodytes_, ii. 258

  _Poospiza_, ii. 284

  Porcupines, ii. 240

  _Poritia_, ii. 477

  _Porphyrio_, ii. 352

  Porpoises, ii. 208

  _Portax_, ii. 223

  _Porzana_, ii. 352

  Post-Pliocene, mammalia of Europe, i. 110
    remains imply changes of physical geography in Europe, i. 111
    fauna of N. America, i. 129
    fauna of N. America, remarks on, i. 130

  _Potamides_, ii. 509

  _Potamochoerus_, ii. 215

  _Potamodus_, ii. 258

  Potamogale of W. Africa, figure of, i. 264

  _Potamogale_, ii. 189

  POTAMOGALIDÆ, ii. 189

  _Potamotherium_, European Miocene, i. 118
    ii. 200

  Potto of W. Africa, figure of, i. 264
    ii. 176

  Pouched Rats, ii. 233

  _Praotherium_, N. American Post-Pliocene, i. 130

  _Pratincola_, ii. 260

  Pratincoles, ii. 355

  _Presbytes_, ii. 171

  _Prepona_, ii. 474

  Primates, classification of, i. 86
    probable birthplace of, i. 153
    range of Palæarctic genera of, i. 239
    range of Ethiopian genera of, i. 300
    range of Oriental genera of, i. 371
    range of Australian genera of, i. 475

  _Primates_, European Pliocene, i. 112
    Miocene of Greece, i. 115
    European Miocene, i. 117
    Indian Miocene, i. 121
    European Eocene, i. 124
    N. American Tertiary, i. 132
    of Brazilian caves, i. 144

  PRIMATES, distribution of, ii. 170-180
    general remarks on the distribution of, ii. 179
    summary and conclusion, ii. 540

  Prince's Island, birds of, i. 206

  _Prinia_, ii. 257

  _Prion_, ii. 365

  _Prioneris_, ii. 478

  PRIONIDÆ, ii. 498

  _Prionidium_, Oolitic insects, i. 167

  _Prionirhynchus_, ii. 313

  _Prioniturus_, ii. 326

  _Prionochilus_, ii. 277

  _Prionodontes_, ii. 246

  _Prionops_, ii. 272

  _Prionoteles_, ii. 314

  PRISTIDÆ, ii. 462

  _Pristimantis_, ii. 419

  PRISTIOPHORIDÆ, ii. 462

  _Pristiphoca_, in European Pliocene, i. 112
    ii. 204

  PRISTIPOMATIDÆ, ii. 426

  _Pristiurus_, ii. 461

  _Pristonychus_, ii. 489

  _Proboscidea_, classification of, i. 90
    range of Ethiopian genus, i. 303
    range of Oriental genus, i. 374

  _Proboscidea_, European Pliocene, i. 113
    Miocene of Greece, i. 116
    European Miocene, i. 120
    Indian Miocene, i. 122
    N. American Post-Pliocene, i. 130
    N. American Tertiary i. 138
    of Brazilian caves, i. 144
    S. American Pliocene, i. 147

  PROBOSCIDEA, ii. 227
    summary and conclusion, ii. 542

  _Procamelus_, N. American Post-Pliocene, i. 130
    N. American Tertiary, i. 138
    ii. 217

  _Procapra_, ii. 223

  _Procarduelis_, ii. 283

  _Procellaria_, ii. 365

  PROCELLARIIDÆ, ii. 365

  _Procerus_, ii. 488
    ii. 489

  _Prochilodus_, ii. 445

  _Prochilus_, ii. 202

  _Procnias_, ii. 98

  _Procris_, ii. 481

  _Procrustes_, ii. 488
    ii. 489

  _Proctotretus_, ii. 401

  _Procyon_, N. American Post-Pliocene, i. 130
    ii. 200

  _Procyonidæ_, in Brazilian caves, i. 144

  PROCYONIDÆ, ii. 200

  PRODUCTIDÆ, ii. 532

  _Progne_, ii. 281

  _Promecoderus_, ii. 490

  _Promephitis_, Miocene of Greece, i. 115
    European Miocene, i. 118
    ii. 200

  Promerops of East Africa, figure of, i. 261

  _Promerops_, ii. 276

  _Pronophilia_, ii. 471

  _Propalæotherium_, European Eocene, i. 126

  _Proparus_, ii. 266

  _Propyrrhula_, ii. 285

  _Prorastomus_, ii. 211

  _Proserpina_, ii. 527

  PROSOBRANCHIATA, ii. 507

  _Prosthemadera_, ii. 275

  PROTEIDÆ, ii. 412

  _Proteles_, ii. 196

  PROTELIDÆ, ii. 196

  _Protemnodon_, Australian Post-Tertiary, i. 157
    ii. 251

  _Proteus_, ii. 412

  _Prothoe_, ii. 474

  _Protohippus_, N. American Tertiary, i. 135

  _Protomeryx_, N. American Tertiary, i. 138
    ii. 217

  _Protonopsis_, ii. 412

  _Protonotaria_, ii. 279

  _Protopithecus_, in Brazilian caves, i. 144
    ii. 178

  _Protopterus_, ii. 458

  _Protornis_, European Eocene, i. 162

  _Prototomus_, N. American Tertiary, i. 134

  _Prototroctes_, ii. 446

  _Psalidoprogne_, ii. 281

  _Psaltria_, ii. 266

  _Psaltriparus_, ii. 266

  _Psammodromus_, ii. 391

  _Psammodynastes_, ii. 377

  _Psammomys_, ii. 230

  PSAMMOPHIDÆ, ii. 377

  _Psammophis_, ii. 377

  _Psammosaurus_, ii. 389

  _Psarisomus_, ii. 295

  _Psephotus_, ii. 325

  _Pseudacris_, ii. 418

  _Pseudælurus_, European Miocene, i. 118
    ii. 194

  _Pseudalopex_, ii. 197

  _Pseudecheneis_, ii. 444

  _Pseudechis_, ii. 383

  _Pseudeutropius_, ii. 442

  _Pseudis_, ii. 420

  _Pseudobagrus_, ii. 442

  _Pseudobias_, ii. 270

  _Pseudobufo_, ii. 415

  _Pseudochalceus_, ii. 445

  _Pseudochelidon_, ii. 312

  _Pseudocolaptes_, ii. 103

  _Pseudocordylus_, ii. 392

  _Pseudocyon_, European Miocene, i. 118
    ii. 198

  _Pseudodipsas_, ii. 477

  _Pseudogobio_, ii. 452

  _Pseudogryphis_, ii. 346

  _Pseudogyps_, ii. 346

  _Pseudohage_, ii. 383

  _Pseudolabuca_, ii. 453

  _Pseudoleistes_, ii. 282

  _Pseudomorpha_, ii. 490

  _Pseudomys_, ii. 230

  _Pseudonaje_, ii. 383

  _Pseudoperilampus_, ii. 452

  PSEUDOPHIDIA, ii. 411

  _Pseudophryne_, ii. 414

  _Pseudopontia_, ii. 478

  _Pseudopus_, ii. 392

  _Pseudorasbora_, ii. 452

  _Pseudorca_, ii. 209

  _Pseudoscops_, ii. 350

  _Pseudoxiphophorus_, ii. 450

  _Psilopogon_, ii. 306

  _Psiloptera_, ii. 497

  _Psilorhamphus_, ii. 104

  _Psilorhinus_, ii. 273

  _Psilorhynchus_, ii. 453

  Psittaci, classification of, i. 96
    range of Ethiopian genera of, i. 311
    range of Oriental genera of, i. 383
    range of Australian genera of, i. 484

  PSITTACI, ii. 324
    general remarks on the distribution of, ii. 329

  PSITTACIDÆ, ii. 328

  _Psittacula_, ii. 328

  _Psittacus_, European Miocene, i. 161
    ii. 328

  _Psittinus_, ii. 326

  _Psittirostra_, ii. 277

  _Psittospiza_, ii. 99

  _Psophia_, ii. 358

  PSOPHIIDÆ, ii. 358

  _Psophodes_, ii. 262

  PSYCHROLUTIDÆ, ii. 436

  _Pterocles_, European Miocene, i. 161
    ii. 337

  PTEROCLIDÆ, ii. 337

  _Pterocyclos_, ii. 520

  _Pterodon_, European Miocene, i. 125

  _Pteroglossus_, ii. 307

  _Pteromys_, ii. 235

  _Pteromyzon_, ii. 463

  PTEROMYZONTIDÆ, ii. 463

  _Pteronura_, ii. 199

  _Pterophanes_, ii. 108

  _Pterophyllum_, ii. 439

  PTEROPIDÆ, ii. 181

  PTEROPODA, ii. 531

  _Pteropodocys_, ii. 269

  PTEROPTOCHIDÆ, ii. 297

  _Pteroptochus_, ii. 297

  _Pterorhinus_, ii. 261

  _Pterosarion_, ii. 452

  _Pterostichus_, ii. 489

  _Pteruthius_, ii. 266

  _Pterygophlichthys_, ii. 444

  _Ptilocerus_, ii. 186

  _Ptilochloris_, ii. 102, 293

  _Ptilogonys_, ii. 280

  _Ptilonorhynchus_, ii. 275

  _Ptilopachus_, ii. 338

  _Ptilopus_, ii. 332

  _Ptilorhis_, ii. 275

  _Ptilostomus_, ii. 273

  _Ptilotis_, ii. 275

  _Ptosima_, ii. 497

  _Ptyas_, ii. 375

  _Ptychobarbus_, ii. 452

  _Ptyonotus_, ii. 428

  _Pucrasia_, ii. 340

  Puff-birds, ii. 310

  Puffins, ii. 367

  _Puffinus_, ii. 365

  PULMONIFERA, ii. 512

  _Pulsatrix_, ii. 350

  _Puncturella_, ii. 511

  _Pupa_, Eocene, i. 169

  _Pupa vetusta_, Palæozoic, i. 169

  _Pupa_, ii. 514

  _Pupina_, ii. 520

  _Pupinella_, ii. 520

  _Putorius_, ii. 198

  PYCNONOTIDÆ, ii. 267

  _Pycnonotus_, ii. 267

  _Pycnophrys_, ii. 270

  _Pyctorhis_, ii. 261

  _Pygarrhicus_, ii. 103

  _Pygmornis_, ii. 107

  _Pygomeles_, ii. 397

  PYGOPODIDÆ, ii. 395

  _Pygoptila_, ii. 104

  _Pygopus_, ii. 395

  PYRAMIDELLIDÆ, ii. 509

  _Pyrameis_, ii. 474

  _Pyranga_, ii. 98

  _Pyrenestes_, ii. 286

  _Pyrgisoma_, ii. 284

  _Pyrgita_, ii. 284

  _Pyriglena_, ii. 104

  _Pyrocephalus_, ii. 101, 291

  _Pyroderus_, ii. 103

  _Pyromelana_, ii. 286

  _Pyrophthalma_, ii. 259

  _Pyrrhocoma_, ii. 99

  _Pyrrhospiza_, ii. 285

  _Pyrrhula_, ii. 285

  _Pyrrhulauda_, ii. 289

  _Pyrrhulina_, ii. 445

  _Pyrrhulopsis_, ii. 325

  _Pyrrhuloxia_, ii. 285

  _Pyrrhura_, ii. 328

  _Pytelia_, ii. 287

  _Python_, ii. 381

  _Pythonidæ_, European Miocene, i. 165

  PYTHONIDÆ, ii. 381

  _Pythonodipsas_, ii. 379

  _Pythonopsis_, ii. 376

  Pythons, ii. 381

  _Pyxicephalus_, ii. 420

  _Pyxis_, ii. 408

  Q.

  Quadrumana, fossil, ii. 178

  Quail-snipes, ii. 354

  _Querquedula_, ii. 363

  _Querula_, ii. 102

  _Quiscalus_, ii. 282

  R.

  _Rachis_, ii. 524

  Racoon-dog of N. China, i. 226

  Racoons, ii. 200

  _Raia_, ii. 462

  RAIIDÆ, ii. 462

  Rails, ii. 351

  RALLIDÆ, ii. 351

  _Rallina_, ii. 352

  _Rallus_, ii. 352

  _Rana_, European Miocene, i. 166
    ii. 420

  _Raniceps_, ii. 439

  RANIDÆ, ii. 420

  _Ranodon_, ii. 413

  _Rappia_, ii. 419

  _Rasbora_, ii. 452

  _Rasborichthys_, ii. 453

  Rattle-snakes, ii. 384

  Rays, ii. 462

  _Realia_, ii. 521

  _Rectes_, ii. 272

  _Recurvirostra_, ii. 353

  _Regalecus_, ii. 432

  Region, the best term for the primary zoological divisions, i. 68
    Arctic, why not adopted, i. 69
    Palæarctic, defined, i. 71
    Palæarctic, subdivisions of, i. 71
    Ethiopian, defined, i. 73
    Ethiopian, subdivisions of, i. 73
    Oriental, defined, i. 75
    Oriental, subdivisions of, i. 75
    Australian, defined, i. 77
    Australian, subdivisions of, i. 77
    Neotropical, defined, i. 78
    Neotropical, subdivisions of, i. 78
    Nearctic, defined, i. 79
    Nearctic, distinct from Palæarctic, i. 79
    Nearctic, subdivisions of, i. 80

  Regions, zoological, i. 50
    zoological, how they should be formed, i. 53
    zoological, may be defined by negative or positive characters, i. 54
    zoological, by what class of animals best determined, i. 56
    for each class of animals, not advisable, i. 58
    zoological, proposed since 1857, i. 58
    zoological, Mr. Sclater's, i. 59
    zoological, discussion of those proposed by various authors, i. 61
    zoological, proportionate richness of, i. 64
    temperate and tropical, well marked in northern hemisphere, i. 65
    and zones, table of, i. 66
    comparative richness of, i. 81
    and sub-regions, table of, i. 81
    order of succession of the, i. 173

  _Registoma_, ii. 521

  _Reguloides_, ii. 258

  _Regulus_, ii. 258

  _Reinwardtænas_, ii. 333

  _Reinwardtipicus_, ii. 303

  _Reithrodon_, ii. 230

  Representative species, i. 4

  Reptiles, means of dispersal of, i. 28
    classification of, i. 98
    Miocene of Greece, i. 116
    of Indian Miocene deposits, i. 123
    extinct Tertiary, i. 165
    cosmopolitan groups of, i. 176
    peculiar to Palæarctic region, i. 186
    of Central Europe, i. 195
    of the Mediterranean sub-region, i. 204
    of the Siberian sub-region, i. 220
    of the Manchurian sub-region, i. 227
    table of Palæarctic families of, i. 236
    of the Ethiopian region, i. 254
    of the E. African sub-region, i. 260
    of W. Africa, i. 264
    S. African, i. 268
    of Madagascar, i. 279
    table of Ethiopian families of, i. 297
    of the Oriental region, i. 317
    of the Indian sub-region, i. 326
    of Ceylon, i. 327
    of the Indo-Chinese sub-region, i. 331
    of the Indo-Malay sub-region, i. 340
    table of Oriental families of, i. 368
    of the Australian region, i. 396
    of New Guinea, i. 415
    of the Moluccas, i. 420
    of the Polynesian sub-region, i. 447
    of New Zealand, i. 456
    table of Australian families of, i. 472
    Neotropical, ii. 9
    of S. Temperate America, ii. 40
    of the Mexican sub-region, ii. 54
    of the Antilles, ii. 72
    table of Neotropical families of, ii. 88
    of the Nearctic region, ii. 119
    of California, ii. 128
    of Central N. America, ii. 131
    of Eastern United States, ii. 133
    of Canada, ii. 137
    table of Nearctic families of, ii. 142
    summary and conclusion, ii. 547

  REPTILIA, ii. 372

  _Retropinna_, ii. 447

  Revillagigedo Islands, zoology of, ii. 60

  _Rhabdornis_, ii. 265

  _Rhabdosoma_, ii. 374

  RACHIODONTIDÆ, ii. 377

  _Rhacophorus_, ii. 419

  _Rhamnophis_, ii. 376

  RHAMPHASTIDÆ, ii. 306

  _Rhamphastos_, ii. 307

  _Rhamphichthys_, ii. 455

  _Rhamphocænus_, ii. 104

  _Rhamphococcyx_, ii. 309

  _Rhamphocinclus_, ii. 256

  _Rhamphocoelus_, ii. 98

  _Rhamphomicron_, ii. 108

  _Rhaphaulus_, ii. 520

  _Rhea_, in Brazilian caves, i. 164
    ii. 368

  _Rhinaster_, ii. 213

  _Rhinatrema_, ii. 411

  _Rhinechis_, ii. 376

  _Rhinelepis_, ii. 444

  _Rhinichthys_, ii. 452

  RHINIDÆ, ii. 462

  RHINOBATIDÆ, ii. 462

  _Rhinoceros_, Post-Pliocene, i. 112
    European Pliocene, i. 113
    Miocene of Greece, i. 116
    Indian Miocene, i. 122
    fossil remains of, at 16,000 feet elevation in Thibet, i. 122
    fossil in N. China, i. 123
    N. American Tertiary, i. 136
    ii. 213

  Rhinoceros-hornbill, figure of, i. 339

  _Rhinocerotidæ_, N. American Tertiary, i. 136

  RHINOCEROTIDÆ, ii. 213

  RHINOCHETIDÆ, ii. 359

  _Rhinochetus_, ii. 359

  _Rhinococcyx_, ii. 309

  _Rhinocrypta_, ii. 297

  _Rhinoderma_, ii. 416

  RHINODONTIDÆ, ii. 461

  _Rhinodoras_, ii. 443

  _Rhinogale_, ii. 195

  _Rhinoglanis_, ii. 443

  RHINOLOPHIDÆ, ii. 182

  _Rhinolophus_, ii. 183

  _Rhinophis_, ii. 374

  RHINOPHRYNIDÆ, ii. 414

  _Rhinophrynus_, ii. 414

  _Rhinoplax_, ii. 317

  _Rhinopoma_, ii. 183

  _Rhinortha_, ii. 309

  _Rhipidura_, ii. 271

  _Rhizomys_, ii. 231

  _Rhodeus_, ii. 452

  _Rhodinocincla_, ii. 256

  _Rhodona_, ii. 397

  _Rhodopis_, ii. 108

  _Rhodosttehia_, ii. 364

  _Rhombomys_, ii. 230

  _Rhombus_, ii. 441

  _Rhopodytes_, ii. 309

  _Rhopoterpe_, ii. 104

  _Rhynchæa_, ii. 353

  RHYNCHOCEPHALIDÆ, ii. 405

  RHYNCHOCEPHALINA, ii. 405

  _Rhynchocyon_, ii. 186

  _Rhynchocyclus_, ii. 101

  _Rhynchonella_, ii. 539

  RHYNCHONELLIDÆ, ii. 532

  _Rhynchops_, ii. 365

  _Rhynchopsitta_, ii. 328

  _Rhynchotus_, ii. 344

  _Rhytina_, ii. 210, 211

  _Rhytiodus_, ii. 445

  _Ricinula_, ii. 507

  _Rimator_, ii. 263

  _Rimula_, ii. 511

  _Rissa_, ii. 364

  _Rissoa_, ii. 510

  _Rita_, ii. 442

  River-hog, of West Africa, figure of, i. 264
    of Madagascar, figure of, i. 278

  Rivers, limiting the range of mammalia, i. 12
    limiting the range of birds, i. 17

  River-scene in West Africa, i. 264

  River-snails, ii. 510

  _Rivulus_, ii. 450

  Rock-snakes, ii. 381

  Rocky mountain sub-region, ii. 129
    mammalia of, ii. 129
    birds of, ii. 130
    reptiles, amphibia, and fishes of, ii. 130

  Rodentia, classification of, i. 90
    range of Palæarctic genera of, i. 242
    range of Ethiopian genera of, i. 304
    range of Oriental genera of, i. 374
    range of Australian genera of, i. 476

  _Rodentia_, European Pliocene, i. 113
    Miocene of Greece, i. 116
    European Miocene, i. 120
    European Eocene, i. 126
    N. American Post-Pliocene, i. 130
    N. American Tertiary, i. 139
    of Brazilian caves, i. 144
    S. American Pliocene, i. 147
    of S. American Eocene, i. 148

  RODENTIA, ii. 229

  Rodentia, general remarks on the distribution of, ii. 243

  _Rodentia_, summary and conclusion, ii. 543

  _Rohteichthys_, ii. 452

  Rollers, ii. 311

  _Rollulus_, ii. 339

  _Romaleosoma_, ii. 474

  Rose-chafers, ii. 494

  _Rostrhamus_, ii. 349

  Rough-tailed burrowing snakes, ii. 374

  Ruff, figure of, i. 195

  _Rupicapra_, ii. 224, 225

  RUPICAPRINÆ, ii. 224

  _Rupicola_, ii. 102, 293

  RUPICOLINÆ, ii. 293

  _Ruticilla_, ii. 259

  RUTICILLINÆ, ii. 257

  S.

  _Saccobranchus_, ii. 441

  _Saccodon_, ii. 445

  SACCOMYIDÆ, ii. 233

  _Saccomys_, ii. 233

  _Saccostomus_, ii. 230

  _Sagda_, ii. 516

  Sahara, a debatable land, i. 251

  Saiga, antelope of W. Tartary, i. 218

  _Saiga_, ii. 223

  _Saimiris_, ii. 175

  Sakis, ii. 175

  _Salamandra_, ii. 413

  SALAMANDRIDÆ, ii. 413

  _Salamandrina_, ii. 413

  _Salarix_, ii. 448

  _Salminus_, ii. 445

  _Salmo_, ii. 447

  SALMONIDÆ, ii. 447

  _Salpinctes_, ii. 264

  _Salpornis_, ii. 264

  _Saltator_, ii. 99

  Salvin, Mr., on birds of Galapagos, ii. 30

  _Sambus_, ii. 496

  Samoa Islands, birds of, i. 443

  Sand-grouse, Pallas', of Mongolia, i. 226
    ii. 337

  Sand-lizards, ii. 398

  Sandpipers, ii. 353

  Sandwich Islands, birds of, i. 445
    probable past history of, i. 446
    mountain plants of, i. 446
    depth of ocean around, i. 447

  _Sanzinia_, ii. 381

  _Saperda_, ii. 501

  _Sapphironia_, ii. 109

  _Sarcodaces_, ii. 445

  _Sarcophilus_, ii. 249

  SARCORHAMPHINÆ, ii. 346

  _Sarcorhamphus_, ii. 346

  _Sargus_, ii. 427

  _Sarkidiornis_, ii. 363

  _Saroglossa_, ii. 288

  _Sarotherodon_, ii. 438

  _Sasia_, ii. 303

  _Satanoperca_, ii. 439

  SATYRIDÆ, ii. 471

  _Satyrites Reynesii_, European Cretaceous insect, i. 167

  _Satyrus_, ii. 471

  _Saucerottia_, ii. 109

  Saunders, Mr. Edward, on the Buprestidæ of Japan, i. 229

  _Saurocetes_, ii. 210

  _Saurophis_, ii. 392

  _Saurothera_, ii. 309

  _Saxicola_, ii. 260

  _Saxicolinæ_, ii. 257

  _Sayornis_, ii. 100, 291

  Scallops, ii. 533

  _Scalops_, ii. 190

  _Scapanus_, ii. 190

  _Scaphiopus_, ii. 417

  _Scaphirhynchus_, ii. 459

  _Scaptochirus_, ii. 190

  _Scaptonyx_, ii. 190

  _Scaraphites_, ii. 490

  _Scardafella_, ii. 333

  _Scarites_, ii. 489

  _Scelidotherium_, in Brazilian caves, i. 145
    S. American Pliocene, i. 147
    ii. 245

  _Scelodontis_, ii. 490

  _Sceloporus_, ii. 401

  _Scelotes_, ii. 398

  _Schacra_, ii. 452

  _Schasicheila_, ii. 522

  _Schiffornis_, ii. 102

  _Schilbe_, ii. 442

  _Schilbichthys_, ii. 442

  _Schismaderma_, ii. 415

  _Schistes_, ii. 108

  _Schistopleurum_, S. American Pliocene, i. 147

  _Schizodon_, ii. 238

  _Schizogenius_, ii. 490

  _Schizopygopsis_, ii. 452

  _Schizorhina_, ii. 494

  _Schizorhis_, ii. 307

  _Schizothorax_, ii. 452

  _Schoenionta_, ii. 502

  Schweinfurth, Dr., on natural history of Central Africa, i. 252
    on limits of W. African sub-region, i. 262 (_note_)

  _Sciades_, ii. 443

  _Sciæna_, ii. 428

  SCIÆNIDÆ, ii. 428

  SCINCIDÆ, ii. 396

  _Scincus_, ii. 397

  Scinks, ii. 396

  _Scissirostrum_, ii. 288

  _Scissor_, ii. 445

  _Sciuravus_, N. American Eocene, i. 140

  _Sciuravus_, ii. 236

  SCIURIDÆ, ii. 234

  _Sciuropterus_, ii. 235

  _Sciurus_, European Miocene, i. 120
    European Eocene, i. 126
    ii. 235, 236

  Sclater, Mr., on zoological regions, i. 59
    why his six regions are adopted, i. 63
    on birds of Sandwich Islands, i. 445
    on systematic position of _Certhidea_, ii. 31

  Sclater and Salvin, Messrs., on Neotropical sub-regions, ii. 25

  SCLERODERMI, ii. 457

  _Sclerognathus_, ii. 451

  SCLERURINÆ, ii. 295

  _Sclerurus_, ii. 103

  _Scolecophagus_, ii. 282

  SCOLOPACIDÆ, ii. 353

  _Scolopax_, ii. 353

  _Scomber_, ii. 429

  SCOMBRESOCIDÆ, ii. 449

  _Scombresox_, ii. 449

  SCOMBRIDÆ, ii. 429

  SCOPELIDÆ, ii. 446

  _Scops_, ii. 350

  _Scopus_, ii. 360

  _Scortornis_, ii. 320

  _Scotopelia_, ii. 350

  _Scotophilus_, ii. 183

  _Scrapteira_, ii. 391

  Screamers, ii. 361

  Scrub-birds, ii. 299

  SCYLLIDÆ, ii. 461

  _Scyllium_, ii. 461

  _Scytale_, ii. 379

  SCYTALIDÆ, ii. 379

  _Scytalopus_, ii. 297

  _Scythrops_, ii. 310

  Sea, as a barrier to mammalia, i. 13

  Sea-devils, ii. 463

  Seals, fossil in European Miocene, i. 118
    of Lake Baikal, i. 218
    ii. 203

  Sea-pens, ii. 505

  Sea-snails, ii. 508

  Sea-snakes, ii. 384

  _Sebastes_, ii. 428

  Secondary formations, mammalian remains in, i. 169

  Secretary bird, of Africa, figure of, i. 261
    ii. 346

  Seemann, Dr., on protective resemblance of sloths, ii. 24

  _Seisura_, ii. 270

  _Selache_, ii. 460

  _Selasphorus_, ii. 108

  _Selenidera_, ii. 307

  _Selenophorus_, ii. 490

  _Seleucides_, ii. 275

  _Semioptera_, ii. 275

  _Semiplotus_, ii. 452

  SEMNOPITHECIDÆ, ii. 171

  _Semnopithecus_, European Pliocene, i. 112
    Miocene of Greece, i. 115
    European Miocene, i. 117
    Indian Miocene, i. 121
    ii. 171
    ii. 178

  Semper, Dr., on Philippine mammalia, i. 345

  _Senira_, ii. 397

  SEPIADÆ, ii. 505

  SEPIDÆ, ii. 398

  _Seps_, ii. 398

  _Sepsina_, ii. 398

  _Sericinus_, ii. 479

  _Sericornis_, ii. 258

  _Sericulus_, ii. 275

  _Serilophus_, ii. 295

  SERPENTARIIDÆ, ii. 346

  _Serpentarius_, European Miocene, i. 162
    ii. 346

  _Serphophaga_, ii. 101

  _Serranus_, ii. 425

  _Serrasalmo_, ii. 445

  _Sesia_, ii. 482

  _Setophaga_, ii. 279

  _Setornis_, ii. 267

  Seychelle Islands, zoology of, i. 281
    amphibia of, i. 281

  Shad, ii. 454

  Sharks, ii. 460

  Sharp, Dr., on Japan beetles, i. 229

  Sharpe, Mr. R. B., his arrangement of Accipitres, i. 97
    on birds of Cape Verd Islands, i. 215
    on classification of Cuckoos, ii. 309

  Sheath-bills, ii. 354

  Sheep, Palæarctic, i. 182
    ii. 221

  Short-tailed burrowing snakes, ii. 373

  Shrikes, ii. 272

  _Sialia_, ii. 260

  _Siamanga_, ii. 171

  _Siaphos_, ii. 397

  Siberia, climate of, i. 217

  Siberian sub-region, description of, i. 216
    mammalia of, i. 217
    birds of, i. 219
    reptiles and amphibia of, i. 220
    insects of, i. 220

  _Sibia_, ii. 262

  _Siderone_, ii. 474

  _Sieboldia_, ii. 412

  _Sigmodon_, ii. 230

  _Silondia_, ii. 442

  _Silphomorpha_, ii. 490

  _Silubosaurus_, ii. 397

  _Siluranodon_, ii. 442

  _Silurichthys_, ii. 441

  SILURIDÆ, ii. 441

  _Silurus_, ii. 441

  _Silybura_, ii. 374

  _Simenia_, ii. 197

  _Simia_, ii. 171

  SIMIIDÆ, ii. 170

  _Simocephalus_, ii. 380

  _Simocyon_, Miocene of Greece, i. 115
    ii. 198

  _Simorhynchus_, ii. 367

  _Simotes_, ii. 375

  _Simpulopsis_, ii. 516

  _Sinopa_, N. American Tertiary, i. 134

  _Siphia_, ii. 270

  _Siphneus_, ii. 230

  _Siphonopsis_, ii. 411

  _Siphonorhis_, ii. 320

  _Siphonostoma_, ii. 457

  _Siren_, ii. 411

  Sirenia, classification of, i. 89
    range of Ethiopian genera of, i. 303
    range of Oriental genus, i. 374
    range of Australian genus of, i. 476

  _Sirenia_, European Pliocene, i. 112
    European Miocene, i. 119

  SIRENIA, ii. 210

  SIRENIDÆ, ii. 411

  SIRENOIDEI, ii. 458

  _Sirystes_, ii. 101

  _Sisor_, ii. 444

  _Sitana_, ii. 402

  _Sitta_, ii. 265

  _Sittasomus_, ii. 103

  _Sittella_, ii. 265

  SITTIDÆ, ii. 265

  _Siurus_, ii. 279

  _Siva_, ii. 266

  _Sivatherium_, Indian Miocene, i. 122
       ii. 226

  Siwalik Hills, Miocene deposits of, i. 121

  _Skenea_, ii. 510

  Sloths, ii. 244

  Slugs, ii. 517

  _Smaragdochrysis_, ii. 109

  _Smerinthus_, ii. 483

  _Smiliogaster_, ii. 453

  _Sminthus_, ii. 230

  Smith, Mr. Frederick, on Hymenoptera of Japan, i. 230

  _Smithornis_, ii. 270

  _Smutsia_, ii. 245

  Snails, ii. 512

  Snake, at great elevation in Himalayas, i. 220

  Snakes, classification of, i. 99
    Eocene, i. 165
    large proportion of venomous species in Australia, i. 396
    of New Zealand, i. 457
    distribution and lines of migration of, ii. 547

  Snipes, ii. 353

  Society Islands, birds of, i. 443

  Socorro, zoology of, ii. 60

  Soft-tortoises, ii. 409

  _Solarium_, ii. 510

  _Solea_, ii. 441

  SOLENIDÆ, ii. 536

  _Solenodon_, ii. 188

  SOLENOSTOMIDÆ, ii. 456

  Solitaire, ii. 334

  _Somateria_, ii. 364

  _Soricictis_, European Miocene, i. 118
    ii. 196

  _Soricidæ_, European Miocene, i. 118

  SORICIDÆ, ii. 191

  _Soridia_, ii. 397

  _Sorubim_, ii. 442

  _Sotalia_, ii. 209

  South African sub-region, description of, i. 266
    mammalia of, i. 267
    birds of, i. 267
    reptiles of, i. 268
    amphibia of, i. 268
    fresh-water fish of, i. 268
    butterflies of, i. 268
    coleoptera of, i. 268
    summary of its zoology, i. 269

  South America, fossil fauna of, i. 143
    Pliocene deposits of, i. 146
    supposed land connection with Australia, i. 398

  South America and Africa, parallelism of their past zoological history,
      ii. 83

  South Australia, peculiar birds of, i. 441

  SPALACIDÆ, ii. 231

  _Spalacomys_, ii. 230

  _Spalacopus_, ii. 238

  _Spalax_, ii. 231

  _Sparganura_, ii. 108

  SPARIDÆ, ii. 426

  _Spatula_, ii. 364

  Species, representative, i. 4

  _Spelerpes_, ii. 413

  _Speothos_, in Brazilian caves, i. 145

  _Spermestes_, ii. 287

  _Spermophila_, ii. 285

  _Spermophilus_, European Miocene, i. 120
    ii. 235, 236

  _Spermospiza_, ii. 286

  Sperm Whales, ii. 207

  _Sphærocephalus_, ii. 209

  _Sphærodactylus_, ii. 400

  _Sphæroderus_, ii. 490

  _Sphallomorpha_, ii. 490

  _Sphecotheres_, ii. 268

  _Sphenæacus_, ii. 258

  SPHENISCIDÆ, ii. 366

  _Spheniscus_, ii. 366

  _Sphenocephalus_, ii. 398

  _Sphenodon_, in Brazilian caves, i. 115
    ii. 245

  _Sphenognathus_, ii. 493

  _Sphenoproctus_, ii. 107

  _Sphenops_, ii. 398

  _Sphenostoma_, ii. 266

  _Sphenura_, ii. 258

  SPHINGIDÆ, ii. 482

  Sphingidea, distribution of, ii. 483

  SPHINGINA, ii. 481

  _Sphingnotus_, ii. 501

  _Sphinx_, in European Oolite, i. 167
    ii. 482

  Sphinx Moths, ii. 482

  _Sphyrapicus_, ii. 303

  SPHYRENIDÆ, ii. 429

  Spider monkeys, ii. 174

  _Spilornis_, ii. 348

  _Spilotes_, ii. 376

  SPINACIDÆ, ii. 461

  _Spindalis_, ii. 98, 284

  _Spiraxis_, ii. 515

  SPIRIFERIDÆ, ii. 532

  SPIRULIDÆ, ii. 505

  _Spizaëtus_, ii. 348

  _Spizella_, ii. 284

  _Spiziapteryx_, ii. 349

  _Spiziastur_, ii. 348

  _Spodiornis_, ii. 285

  _Sponsor_, ii. 497

  Spoonbills, ii. 360

  _Sporadinus_, ii. 109

  _Sporopipes_, ii. 286

  Sprat, ii. 454

  _Spreo_, ii. 288

  _Squalodon_, ii. 210

  _Squaliobarbus_, ii. 452

  SQUAMIPENNES, ii. 427

  _Squatarola_, ii. 356

  Squirrel monkeys, ii. 175

  Squirrels, ii. 234

  St. Helena, zoological features of, i. 269
    coleoptera of, i. 270
    landshells of, i. 271

  St. Thomas's Island, birds of, i. 266

  _Stachyris_, ii. 261

  _Stactolæma_, ii. 306

  Stag-beetles, ii. 492

  _Stalagmosoma_, ii. 495

  Starlings, ii. 287

  _Starnoenas_, ii. 33

  Stations, definition of, i. 4

  _Staurotypus_, ii. 408

  _Steatomys_, ii. 230

  _Steatornis_, ii. 319

  STEATORNITHIDÆ, ii. 319

  _Steganura_, ii. 108

  _Stegnolæma_, ii. 343

  _Stegophilus_, ii. 444

  _Stelgidopteryx_, ii. 281

  _Stellio_, ii. 402

  _Stellula_, ii. 108

  _Steneofiber_, European Miocene, i. 120
    ii. 234

  _Steno_, ii. 209

  _Stenodactylus_, ii. 400

  _Stenogyra_, ii. 515

  _Stenopsis_, ii. 320

  _Stenopus_, ii. 516

  _Stenorhina_, ii. 375

  _Stenorhynchus_, ii. 204
    ii. 421

  _Stephanophorus_, ii. 98

  _Stercorarius_, ii. 304

  _Sterna_, ii. 364

  _Sternarchus_, ii. 455

  _Sternocera_, ii. 496

  _Sternoclyta_, ii. 107

  STERNOPTYCHIDÆ, ii. 446

  _Sternopygus_, ii. 455

  _Sternotheres_, ii. 408

  _Steropus_, ii. 489

  _Stesilea_, ii. 501

  _Stethodesma_, ii. 495

  _Sthenurus_, Australian Post-Tertiary, i. 157
    ii. 251

  _Stichæus_, ii. 431

  Sticklebacks, ii. 424

  _Stigmatura_, ii. 101

  _Stigmodera_, ii. 496

  STOMIATIDÆ, ii. 447

  Storks, ii. 360

  _Stabomantis_, ii. 419

  Straits of Magellan, mammalia of, ii. 37
    birds of, ii. 39

  _Strepera_, ii. 273

  _Strepsilas_, ii. 356

  _Streptaulus_, ii. 520

  _Streptaxis_, ii. 515

  _Streptocerus_, ii. 493

  _Streptocitta_, ii. 274

  _Streptophorus_, ii. 374

  STRIGIDÆ, ii. 350

  _Stringops_, ii. 329

  STRINGOPIDÆ, ii. 329

  _Strix_, European Miocene, i. 162
    ii. 350

  STROMBIDÆ, ii. 507

  _Struthio_, ii. 368

  Struthiones, arrangement of, i. 98
    range of Ethiopian genera of, i. 313
    range of Australian genera of, i. 485

  STRUTHIONES, ii. 368
    general remarks on the distribution of, ii. 370

  STRUTHIONIDÆ, ii. 368

  Struthious birds, probable origin of, i. 287

  Sturgeons, ii. 459

  _Sturnella_, ii. 282

  _Sturnia_, ii. 287

  STURNIDÆ, ii. 287

  _Sturnopastor_, ii. 287

  _Sturnus_, ii. 287

  STYGIIDÆ, ii. 482

  _Stygogenes_, ii. 444

  _Stylinodontia_, N. American Eocene, i. 139

  _Stylinodontidæ_, N. American Eocene, i. 139

  _Styporhynchus_, ii. 376

  _Sublegatus_, ii. 101

  Sub-regions, on what principle formed, i. 180
    Palæarctic, i. 191
    Ethiopian, i. 258
    Oriental, i. 321
    Australian, i. 408
    Neotropical, ii. 21
    Nearctic, ii. 125

  _Succinea_, ii. 515

  Sugar-birds, ii. 278

  _Suidæ_, European Miocene, i. 119

  SUIDÆ, ii. 214

  Sula Islands, fauna of, i. 433

  _Sula_, ii. 365

  Summary of relations of regions, ii. 155

  Sun-birds, ii. 276

  Sun-bitterns, ii. 358

  _Suricata_, ii. 195

  _Surnia_, ii. 350

  _Surniculus_, ii. 310

  _Sus_, European Pliocene, i. 113
    Miocene of Greece, i. 116
    European Miocene, i. 119
    Indian Miocene, i. 122
    ii. 215

  _Suthora_, ii. 262

  _Suya_, ii. 258

  Swallows, ii. 281

  Swallow-shrikes, ii. 288

  Swifts, ii. 320

  Swine, ii. 214

  Swinhoe, Mr., on zoology of Formosa and Hainan, i. 332

  _Sycalis_, ii. 284

  _Sylvia_, ii. 259

  _Sylvietta_, ii. 264

  SYLVIIDÆ, ii. 256

  SYLVIINÆ, ii. 257

  _Sylviorthorhynchus_, ii. 103

  _Sylviparus_, ii. 266

  _Syma_, ii. 316

  _Symborodon_, N. American Tertiary, i. 137

  SYMBRANCHIDÆ, ii. 455

  _Symbranchus_, ii. 455

  _Symmachia_, ii. 476

  _Symmorphus_, ii. 269

  _Symphædra_, ii. 474

  _Symphysodon_, ii. 439

  _Symplectes_, ii. 286

  SYNALLAXINÆ, ii. 295

  _Synallaxis_, ii. 103

  _Synaphodus_, European Miocene, i. 119

  _Synaptura_, ii. 441

  _Synchloe_, ii. 474

  _Syndesus_, ii. 493

  _Synemon_, ii. 481

  _Syngnathus_, ii. 457

  SYNGNATHIDÆ, ii. 457

  _Synodontis_, ii. 443

  _Synoplotherium_, N. American Tertiary, i. 134

  _Syntomis_, ii. 481

  _Syrnium_, ii. 350

  _Syrrhaptes_, ii. 337

  _Sysopygis_, ii. 101

  T.

  Tables of distribution of families and genera explained, i. 177

  _Taccocoua_, ii. 309

  _Tachydromus_, ii. 391

  _Tachyphonus_, ii. 99

  _Tachyris_, ii. 478

  _Tachytriorchis_, ii. 348

  _Tadorna_, ii. 363

  _Tæniogale_, ii. 195

  _Tænioptera_, ii. 100, 291

  TÆNIOPTERINÆ, ii. 291

  _Tæniura_, ii. 463

  _Talegallus_, ii. 342

  _Talpa_, European Miocene, i. 117
    ii. 190

  TALPIDÆ, ii. 190

  _Tamandua_, ii. 247

  _Tamias_, ii. 235, 236

  _Tanæcia_, ii. 474

  Tanagers, ii. 283

  _Tanagra_, ii. 98

  _Tanagrella_, ii. 98

  TANAGRIDÆ, ii. 283

  _Tantalus_, ii. 361

  _Tanygnathus_, ii. 326

  _Tanysiptera_, ii. 316

  _Taoniscus_, ii. 344

  _Taphozous_, ii. 183

  _Tapir_, fossil in N. China, i. 123

  Tapir, Malayan figure of, i. 337

  _Tapiridæ_, European Eocene, i. 125

  TAPIRIDÆ, ii. 212

  Tapirs, birthplace and migrations of, i. 154
    ii. 212

  _Tapirus_, European Pliocene, i. 113
    Indian Miocene, i. 122
    in Brazilian caves, i. 144

  _Tarandus_, ii. 219

  _Tarentola_, ii. 400

  Tarsier, Malayan, figure of, i. 337

  _Tarsiger_, ii. 259

  TARSIIDÆ, ii. 177

  _Tarsipes_, ii. 252

  _Tarsius_, ii. 177

  Tasmania, comparative zoological poverty of, i. 441

  _Tatare_, ii. 258

  _Tatusia_, ii. 246

  _Taxidea_, ii. 199

  _Taxila_, ii. 475

  _Taxodon_, European Miocene, i. 118
    ii. 200

  _Taygetis_, ii. 471

  _Tchitrea_, ii. 271

  TECTONARCHINÆ, ii. 275

  Teguexius, ii. 390

  TEIDÆ, ii. 390

  _Teinopalpus_, ii. 479

  _Teira_, ii. 391

  _Teius_, ii. 390

  _Teleopis_, ii. 375

  TELEOSTEI, ii. 424

  _Telephonus_, ii. 272

  _Tellia_, ii. 450

  TELLINIDÆ, ii. 506

  _Telmatobius_, N. American Cretaceous, i. 164
    ii. 417

  _Telmatolestes_, N. American Tertiary, i. 133

  _Temnotrogon_, ii. 314

  _Temnurus_, ii. 273

  _Tephrocorys_, ii. 289

  _Tephrodornis_, ii. 272

  _Teracolus_, ii. 478

  _Terebratula_, ii. 539

  TEREBRATULIDÆ, ii. 532

  _Terekia_, ii. 353

  _Terenura_, ii. 104

  _Teretristis_, ii. 279

  _Terias_, ii. 478

  _Terinos_, ii. 474

  Terns, ii. 364

  _Terrapene_, ii. 408

  Terrestrial Molluscs, ii. 512

  Terrestrial Mollusca, summary and conclusion, ii. 551
    lines of migration of, ii. 552

  _Tesia_, ii. 263

  _Testacella_, ii. 516
    ii. 517

  TESTUDINIDÆ, ii. 407

  _Testudo_, Miocene of Greece, i. 116
    Indian Miocene, i. 123
    great antiquity of the genus, i. 289

  _Testudo_, ii. 408

  _Tethionea_, ii. 501

  TETRABRANCHIATA, ii. 506

  _Tetracha_, ii. 486, 487

  _Tetrachus_, European Miocene, i. 117

  _Tetraceros_, ii. 224

  _Tetracus_, ii. 188

  _Tetradactylus_, ii. 397

  _Tetragonoderus_, ii. 490

  _Tetragonops_, ii. 306

  _Tetragonopterus_, ii. 445

  _Tetragonosoma, ii. 380_

  _Tetranematichthys_, ii. 443

  _Tetrao albus_, in Italian caverns, i. 161

  _Tetrao_, ii. 339

  _Tetraogallus_, ii. 339

  TETRAONIDÆ, ii. 338

  _Tetraophasis_, ii. 340

  _Tetrodon_, ii. 457

  TEUTHIDÆ, ii. 505

  TEUTHIDIDÆ, ii. 433

  _Textor_, ii. 286

  _Thais_, ii. 479

  _Thalassarctos_, ii. 201

  _Thalassictis_, Miocene of Greece, i. 115
    European Miocene, i. 118
    ii. 195
    ii. 197

  _Thalassornis_, ii. 364

  _Thaleichthys_, ii. 447

  _Thalurania_, ii. 107

  _Thamnistes_, ii. 104

  _Thamnobia_, ii. 260

  _Thamnodyastes_, ii. 379

  _Thamnomanes_, ii. 104

  THAMNOPHILINÆ, ii. 297

  _Thamnophilus_, ii. 104

  _Thaumalea_, ii. 340

  _Thaumantis_, ii. 472

  _Thaumastura_, ii. 108

  _Thaumatias_, ii. 109

  _Thecla_, ii. 477

  _Theloderma_, ii. 419

  _Theope_, ii. 476

  _Theorema_, ii. 477

  _Theraps_, ii. 438

  _Therates_, ii. 486

  _Theridomys_, European Miocene, i. 126
    European Eocene, i. 126
    S. American Eocene, i. 148
    ii. 239

  _Theropithecus_, ii. 173

  _Thestias_, ii. 478

  _Thestor_, ii. 477

  _Thetia_, ii. 391

  THINOCORIDÆ, ii. 354

  _Thinocorus_, ii. 354

  _Thinohyus_, N. American Tertiary, i. 137
    ii. 215

  _Thinolestes_, N. American Tertiary, i. 133

  _Thinornis_, ii. 356

  _Thomomys_, ii. 233

  _Thous_, ii. 197

  _Thrasaëtus_, ii. 348

  _Threnetes_, ii. 107

  _Thripadectes_, ii. 103

  _Thripophaga_, ii. 103

  _Thryophilus_, ii. 263

  _Thryothorus_, ii. 263

  Thrushes, ii. 255

  _Thyca_, ii. 471

  _Thylacinus_, Australian Post-Tertiary, i. 157
    ii. 249

  _Thylacoleo_, Australian Post-Tertiary, i. 157
    ii. 252

  _Thymallus_, ii. 447

  _Thynnichthys_, ii. 452

  _Thynnus_, ii. 429

  _Thyreopterus_, ii. 491

  _Thyrus_, ii. 398

  _Tiaris_, ii. 284
    ii. 402

  _Tichodroma_, ii. 264

  _Tiga_, ii. 303

  Tiger-beetles, ii. 486

  _Tigrisoma_, ii. 359

  _Tijuca_, ii. 102

  _Tillodontia_, N. American Eocene, i. 139

  _Tillotheridæ_, N. American Eocene, i. 139

  _Tillotherium_, N. American Eocene, i. 139

  _Tilmatura_, ii. 108

  _Timalia_, ii. 261

  TIMALIIDÆ, ii. 260

  _Timetes_, ii. 474

  Timor, physical features of, i. 389
    group, mammalia of, i. 422
    birds of, i. 422
    origin of fauna of, i. 424
    insects of, i. 426

  TINAMIDÆ, ii. 343

  TINAMINÆ, ii. 344

  Tinamous, ii. 343

  TINAMOTINÆ, ii. 344

  _Tinamotis_, ii. 344

  _Tinamus_, ii. 344

  _Tinca_, ii. 452

  _Tinoceras_, N. American Eocene, i. 139

  _Titanomys_, European Miocene, i. 121
    ii. 242

  _Titanotherium_, N. American Tertiary, i. 137

  Tits, ii. 265

  _Tityra_, ii. 102

  TITYRINÆ, ii. 293

  _Tmesisternus_, ii. 501

  Toads, ii. 415

  _Tockus_, ii. 317

  TODIDÆ, ii. 313

  Todies, ii. 313

  _Todirhamphus_, ii. 316

  _Todirostrum_, ii. 101

  _Todopsis_, ii. 271

  _Todus_, ii. 313

  _Tolypeutes_, ii. 246

  _Tomarctos_, N. American Tertiary, i. 135

  _Tomistoma_, ii. 405

  _Tomodon_, ii. 175

  Tonga Islands, birds of, i. 443

  _Topaza_, ii. 107

  TORNATELLIDÆ, ii. 530

  TORPEDINIDÆ, ii. 462

  Tortoises, classification of, i. 100
    of Mascarene Islands and Galapagos, i. 289
    ii. 407

  TORTRICIDÆ, ii. 373

  _Tortrix_, ii. 373

  _Totanus_, ii. 353

  Toucans, ii. 306

  Touraco of W. Africa, figure of, i. 264

  _Toxodon_, S. American Pliocene, i. 137

  _Toxodontidæ_, S. American Pliocene, i. 147

  _Toxotus_, ii. 502

  _Trachelyopterus_, ii. 443

  TRACHINIDÆ, ii. 428

  _Trachinus_, ii. 428

  _Trachurus_, ii. 429

  _Trachycephalus_, ii. 401
    ii. 418

  _Trachydosaurus_, ii. 397

  _Trachyphonus_, ii. 306

  TRACHYPTERIDÆ, ii. 432

  _Trachytherium_, European Miocene, i. 119

  TRAGELAPHINÆ, ii. 223

  _Tragelaphus_, ii. 223

  _Tragocerus_, Miocene of Greece, i. 116
    European Miocene, i. 120

  Tragopan, Himalayan, figure of, i. 331

  _Tragops_, ii. 379

  TRAGULIDÆ, ii. 218

  _Tragulus_, ii. 218

  _Trapelus_, ii. 402

  _Trechus_, ii. 489

  Tree-crows, ii. 273

  Tree-kangaroo, figure of, i. 415

  Tree-shrew of Borneo, figure of, i. 337

  Tree-snakes, ii. 378

  _Tremarctos_, ii. 202

  _Treron_, ii. 332

  Tres Marias, zoology of, ii. 59

  _Tribolonotus_, ii. 397

  _Triboniophorus_, ii. 517

  _Tribonyx_, ii. 352

  _Trichastoma_, ii. 261

  TRICHECHIDÆ, ii. 203

  _Trichechus_, N. American Post-Pliocene, i. 130
    ii. 203

  TRICHIURIDÆ, ii. 429

  _Trichixos_, ii. 262

  TRICHOGLOSSIDÆ, ii. 327

  Trichoglossidæ, birds specially adapted to Australia, i. 393

  _Trichoglossus_, ii. 327

  _Tricholæma_, ii. 306

  _Trichomycterus_, ii. 444

  _Trycondyla_, ii. 486

  _Trichonis_, ii. 477

  TRICHONOTIDÆ, ii. 435

  _Trichothraupis_, ii. 99

  _Trichotropis_, ii. 507

  _Triclaria_, ii. 328

  TRIDACNIDÆ, ii. 535

  _Trigla_, ii. 428

  TRIGLIDÆ, ii. 427

  _Trigona_, ii. 536

  TRIGONIADÆ, ii. 534

  _Trigonoptera_, ii. 501

  _Trimeresurus_, ii. 385

  _Tringa_, ii. 353

  _Tringoides_, ii. 353

  TRIONYCHIDÆ, ii. 409

  _Trionyx_, Indian Miocene, i. 123
    Miocene and Eocene, i. 165
    ii. 409

  _Triprion_, ii. 418

  _Triptorhinus_, ii. 297

  Tristan d'Acunha, zoology of, i. 271

  Tristram, Canon, summary of the birds of Palestine, i. 203
    on the arrangement of the Sylviidæ, ii. 257

  _Triton_, ii. 413

  TRITONIADÆ, ii. 530

  _Trochalopteron_, ii. 261

  _Trochatella_, ii. 522

  TROCHILIDÆ, ii. 321

  _Trochilus_, ii. 108

  _Trochus_, ii. 510

  _Troglodytes_, ii. 170
    ii. 263

  TROGLODYTIDÆ, ii. 263

  Trogon, European Miocene, i. 161
    ii. 314

  _Trogon_, ii. 314

  TROGONIDÆ, ii. 314

  TROGONOPHIDÆ, ii. 388

  Trogonophis, ii. 388

  _Trogontherium_, Post-Pliocene of Europe, i. 111
    ii. 234

  _Tropidechis_, ii. 383

  _Tropidococcyx_, ii. 379

  _Tropidodipsas_, ii. 379

  _Tropidolepis_, ii. 401

  _Tropidolepisma_, ii. 397

  _Tropidonotus_, ii. 375

  _Tropidophorus_, ii. 397

  _Tropidopterus_, ii. 490

  _Tropidorhynchus_, ii. 276

  _Trucifelis_, N. American Post-Pliocene, i. 129

  _Trugon_, ii. 333

  Trumpeters, ii. 358

  _Truncatella_, ii. 519

  _Trgyon_, ii. 463

  TRYGONIDÆ, ii. 463

  Tuatara, ii. 405

  _Tudora_, ii. 521

  Tundras of Siberia, greatest extent of, i. 216

  _Tupaia_, ii. 186

  TUPAIIDÆ, ii. 186

  _Tupaiidæ_, European Miocene, i. 118

  _Turacoena_, ii. 333

  Turacos, ii. 307

  _Turacus_, ii. 307

  TURBINIDÆ, ii. 510

  TURDIDÆ, ii. 255

  _Turdinus_, ii. 262

  _Turdus_, ii. 256

  _Turnagra_, ii. 262

  Turner, Mr., on classification of Edentata, i. 90

  TURNICIDÆ, ii. 341

  _Turnix_, ii. 341

  TURRITELLIDÆ, ii. 509

  _Tursio_, ii. 209

  Turtles, ii. 409

  _Turtur_, ii. 333

  _Tylas_, ii. 267

  _Tylodon_, European Eocene, i. 125
    ii. 196

  _Tylognathus_, ii. 451

  _Tylotriton_, ii. 413

  _Typhlina_, ii. 372

  _Typhline_, ii. 372

  _Typhlocalamus_, ii. 374

  TYPHLOPIDÆ, ii. 372

  _Typhlops_, ii. 372

  _Typhloscincus_, ii. 399

  _Typotherium_, S. American Pliocene, i. 147

  TYRANNIDÆ, ii. 290

  TYRANNINÆ, ii. 291

  _Tyranniscus_, ii. 101

  _Tyrannulus_, ii. 101

  _Tyrannus_, ii. 102, 291

  Tyrant-Shrikes, ii. 290

  U.

  _Uaru_, ii. 439

  _Uintacyon_, N. American Tertiary, i. 134

  _Uintatherium_, N. American Eocene, i. 139

  _Uintornis_, N. American Eocene, i. 163

  _Uma_, ii. 401

  UMBRIDÆ, ii. 449

  _Umbrina_, ii. 428

  _Ungalia_, ii. 381

  Ungulata, classification of, i. 89
    antiquity of, i. 154
    of the Palæarctic region, i. 182
    range of Palæarctic genera of, i. 241
    range of Ethiopian genera of, i. 303
    range of Oriental genera of, i. 374
    range of Australian genera of, i. 476

  _Ungulata_, European Pliocene, i. 112
    Miocene of Greece, i. 115
    European Miocene, i. 119
    Indian Miocene, i. 121
    European Eocene, i. 125
    N. American Post-Pliocene, i. 130
    N. American Tertiary, i. 135
    of Brazilian caves, i. 144
    S. American Pliocene, i. 146

  UNGULATA, ii. 211
    general remarks on the distribution of, ii. 226
    summary and conclusion, ii. 542

  _Unio_, European Secondary, i. 169
    ii. 534

  UNIONIDÆ, ii. 534

  _Upucerthia_, ii. 103

  UPUPIDÆ, ii. 317

  _Uragus_, ii. 285

  Urania of Madagascar, i. 282

  _Urania_, ii. 482

  URANIIDÆ, ii. 482

  _Uria_, ii. 367

  _Uroaëtus_, ii. 348

  _Urocissa_, ii. 273

  _Urochroa_, ii. 107

  _Urochroma_, ii. 328

  _Urocyon_, ii. 197

  URODELA, ii. 411

  _Urogalba_, ii. 311

  _Urolestes_, ii. 272

  _Uromastix_, ii. 402

  UROPELTIDÆ, ii. 373

  _Uuropeltis_, ii. 374

  _Uropsila_, ii. 264

  _Uropsilus_, ii. 190

  _Uropsophorus_, ii. 385

  _Urospatha_, ii. 313

  _Urospizias_, ii. 348

  _Urosticte_, ii. 108

  _Urotrichus_, ii. 190

  _Urotriorchis_, ii. 347

  _Ursidæ_, N. American Tertiary, i. 135
    in Brazilian caves, i. 144

  URSIDÆ, ii. 201

  _Ursitaxus_, Indian Miocene, i. 121
    ii. 200

  _Ursus_, Post-Pliocene, i. 112
    Indian Miocene, i. 121
    ii. 201

  _Urubutinga_, ii. 348

  _Urva_, ii. 195

  _Uta_, ii. 401

  _Utica_, ii. 477

  V.

  _Vaginulus_, ii. 518

  _Valgus_, ii. 495

  _Valvata_, ii. 510

  Vanga of Madagascar, figure of, i. 278

  _Vanga_, ii. 272

  _Vandellia_, ii. 444

  _Vanellus_, ii. 356

  _Vanessa_, ii. 474

  VARANIDÆ, ii. 389

  _Varanus_, Miocene of Greece, i. 116
    Indian Miocene, i. 123

  VENERIDÆ, ii. 536

  _Venilia_, ii. 303

  _Vermicella_, ii. 383

  _Verreauxia_, ii. 303

  Vertebrata, summary of Palæarctic, i. 186
    summary of Ethiopian, i. 255
    summary of Oriental, i. 318
    summary of Australian, i. 397
    summary of Neotropical, ii. 13
    summary of Nearctic, ii. 120

  _Vespertilio_, European Eocene, i. 125
    ii. 183

  VESPERTILIONIDÆ, ii. 183

  _Vidua_, ii. 286

  _Vipera_, ii. 385

  VIPERIDÆ, ii. 385

  _Viperus_, European Miocene, i. 165

  Vipers, ii. 385

  _Vireo_, ii. 280

  VIREONIDÆ, ii. 279

  _Vireolanius_, ii. 280

  _Vireosylvia_, ii. 280

  Viscacha, ii. 237

  _Vitrina_, ii. 516

  _Viverra_, European Pliocene, i. 112
    European Miocene, i. 118
    ii. 195

  _Viverricula_, ii. 195

  _Viverridæ_, European Miocene, i. 118
    European Eocene, i. 125

  VIVERRIDÆ, ii. 194

  _Vivia_, ii. 303

  _Volatinia_, ii. 284

  _Voluta_, ii. 508

  Volutes, ii. 508

  VOLUTIDÆ, ii. 508

  _Volvocivora_, ii. 269

  _Vulpes_, ii. 197

  _Vultur_, ii. 346

  VULTURIDÆ, ii. 345

  VULTURINÆ, ii. 346

  W.

  Wagtails, ii. 290

  Walden, Viscount, on birds of Philippine islands, i. 346
    on birds of Celebes, i. 428
    on arrangement of the Timaliidæ, ii. 261

  _Wallago_, ii. 441

  Wall-lizards, ii. 399

  Walrus, ii. 203

  Wart-snakes, ii. 382

  _Washakius_, N. American Tertiary, i. 134

  Waterhouse, Mr. G. R., on classification of rodentia, i. 90
    on classification of marsupials, i. 91

  Water-lizards, ii. 389

  Weaver-finches, ii. 286

  West African sub-region, description of, i. 262
    mammalia of, i. 262
    birds of, i. 262
    Oriental or Malayan element in, i. 263
    river scene with characteristic animals, i. 264
    reptiles of, i. 264
    amphibia of, i. 264
    Oriental and Neotropical relations of, i. 265
    insects of, i. 265
    land-shells of, i. 265
    islands of, i. 265

  West Australia, peculiar birds of, i. 441

  Whelks, ii. 507

  Whip-snakes, ii. 379

  Whydah finch of W. Africa, figure of, i. 264

  Wing-shells, ii. 507
    ii. 533

  Wollaston, Mr. T. V., on the Coleoptera of the Atlantic Islands, i. 209
    on the wings of the Madeiran beetles, i. 211
    on the origin of the insect fauna of the Atlantic Islands, i. 214
    on the Coleoptera of the Cape Verd Islands, i. 215
    on the beetles of St. Helena, i. 270

  Wombats, ii. 253

  Woodpeckers, ii. 302

  Wood-warblers, ii. 278

  Woolly monkeys, ii. 174

  Wrens, ii. 263

  Wrynecks, ii. 304

  X.

  _Xanthocephalus_, ii. 282

  _Xantholæma_, ii. 306

  _Xanthomelus_, ii. 275

  _Xanthopygia_, ii. 270

  _Xanthosomus_, ii. 282

  _Xanthotis_, ii. 275

  _Xema_, ii. 364

  _Xenelaphis_, ii. 376

  _Xenica_, ii. 471

  _Xenicus_, ii. 265

  _Xenochrophys_, ii. 375

  _Xenocypris_, ii. 452

  _Xenodermus_, ii. 376

  _Xenodon_, ii. 375

  XENOPELTIDÆ, ii. 373

  _Xenopeltis_, ii. 373

  _Xenophrys_, ii. 421

  _Xenopipo_, ii. 102

  _Xenops_, ii. 103

  _Xenorhina_, ii. 415

  XENORHINIDÆ, ii. 415

  _Xenospingus_, ii. 284

  _Xenurelaps_, ii. 383

  _Xenurus_, in Brazilian caves, i. 145
    ii. 246

  _Xiphias_, ii. 430

  _Xiphidiopicus_, ii. 303

  XIPHIIDÆ, ii. 430

  _Xiphius_, ii. 208

  _Xiphocolaptes_, ii. 103

  _Xiphodontidæ_, European Miocene, i. 119

  _Xipholena_, ii. 102

  _Xiphorhampus_, ii. 445

  _Xiphorhynchus_, ii.  103

  _Xiphostoma_, ii. 445

  _Xystrocera_, ii. 501

  Y.

  _Ypthima_, ii. 471

  _Yuhina_, ii. 266

  YUNGIDÆ, ii. 304

  _Yungipicus_, ii. 303

  _Yunx_, ii. 304

  Z.

  _Zabrus_, ii. 489

  _Zalophus_, ii. 203

  _Zamenis_, ii. 375

  _Zanclostomus_, ii. 309

  _Zaocys_, ii. 375

  Zebras, ii. 211

  _Zegris_, ii. 478

  _Zemeros_, ii. 475

  _Zenaida_, ii. 333

  _Zenaidura_, ii. 332

  _Zephyrus_, ii. 477

  _Zeuglodon_, ii. 210

  _Zeuglodontidæ_, N. American Tertiary, i. 140
    ii. 210

  _Zeus_, ii. 429

  _Zeuxidia_, ii. 472

  _Zoarces_, ii. 431

  _Zonites_, ii. 516

  _Zonites priscus_, Palæozoic, i. 169

  _Zonotrichia_, ii. 284

  ZONURIDÆ, ii. 391

  _Zonurus_, ii. 392

  Zoological characteristics of Palæarctic region, i. 181
    Ethiopian region, i. 252
    Oriental region, i. 315
    Australian region, i. 390
    of Neotropical region, ii. 5
    of Nearctic region, ii. 115

  Zoological regions, discussion on, i. 50
    their origin and relations, ii. 155-161

  _Zoothera_, ii. 256

  _Zootoca_, ii. 391

  _Zosterops_, ii. 277

  _Zygæna_, ii. 481

  ZYGÆNIDÆ, ii. 481

  _Zygnopsis_, ii. 398


THE END.


LONDON: R. CLAY, SONS, AND TAYLOR, PRINTERS.



Notes

[1] Messrs. Sclater and Salvin, and Professor Newton, divide the
    Neotropical Region into six sub-regions, of which our "Brazilian
    sub-region" comprises three--the "Brazilian," the "Amazonian," and the
    "Columbian;" but, after due consideration, it does not seem advisable
    to adopt this subdivision in a general work which treats of all the
    classes of terrestrial animals. (See p. 27.)

[2] Mr. Salvin, who has critically examined the ornithological fauna of
    these islands, has kindly corrected my MS. List of the Birds, his
    valuable paper in the _Transactions of the Zoological Society_ not
    having been published in time for me to make use of it.

[3] This name will be used for the whole island of St. Domingo, as being
    both shorter and more euphonious, and avoiding all confusion with
    Dominica, one of the Lesser Antilles. It is also better known than
    "Hispaniola," which is perhaps the most correct name.

[4] Myospalax has hitherto formed part of the next family, Spalacidæ; but a
    recent examination of its anatomy by M. Milne-Edwards shows that it
    belongs to the Muridæ, and comes near Arvicola.

[5] The species of the genera _Phylloscopus_ and _Hypolais_ are so mixed up
    in the _Hand List_, that Mr. Tristram has furnished me with the
    following enumeration of the species which in his view properly belong
    to them, by the numbers in that work:--

      _Phylloscopus._
      3032
      3033
      3048 = 3038
      3039
      3063 = 3047 = 3054 = 3061
      3048
      3049
      3050
      3051
      3052
      3053
      3056 = 3081
      3057
      3059
      3060

      _Hypolais._
      3026
      3028
      3029
      3054 = 3031 = 3036
      3042
      3043
      304
      3062 = 3047
      3046 = 2932
      3035
      2976

[6] The term "Malaya" is used here to include the Malay Peninsula, Sumatra,
    Borneo, and Java, a district to which many species and genera are
    confined. "Malay Archipelago" will be used to include both Indo-Malaya
    and Austro-Malaya.