Produced by Chris Curnow, Les Galloway and the Online
Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This
file was produced from images generously made available
by The Internet Archive)






[Illustration: PLATE I

The Cacao Tree—Theobroma Cacao, Linné.

  Zipperer, Manufacture of Chocolate etc. 3^{rd} edition.
  Verlag M. Krayn, Berlin W. 10.]




                                  THE

                              MANUFACTURE

                                  OF

                               CHOCOLATE

                     AND OTHER CACAO PREPARATIONS

                                  BY

                          DR. PAUL ZIPPERER.

                             THIRD EDITION

         REARRANGED, THOROUGHLY REVISED, AND LARGELY REWRITTEN.

                                EDITOR

                       DR. PHIL. HERM. SCHAEFFER

                  FOOD CHEMIST AND MANAGING DIRECTOR.

            WITH 132 ILLUSTRATIONS, 21 TABLES AND 3 PLATES.

                              [Colophon]

                               BERLIN W.
                         VERLAG VON M. KRAYN.

            LONDON                              NEW YORK
        E. & F. N. SPON LTD.      1915      SPON & CHAMBERLAIN
           PUBLISHERS                          PUBLISHERS
          57 HAYMARKET.                   123-125 LIBERTY STREET.




                         ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.

             Rosenthal & Co., Berlin NW.21, Alt-Moabit 105




Preface to the third edition of “The Manufacture of Chocolate” by Dr.
Zipperer.


It is now a decade since the appearance of the last edition, and owing
to continual delays in the compiling of the present volume, the book
has been out of print for several years. These delays ensued because
the editor wished to take into account the most recent determinations
and decrees of the guilds and various legislative factors connected
with the industry; but he was at length forced to the conclusion that
notwithstanding the excellent organisation and lofty standing of the
branch under consideration, it was useless to wait for anything final
and absolute in such a field. Suggestions of possible improvements and
indications of blemishes are therefore earnestly invited, in order
that they may be duly allowed for in the event of a new edition. — The
plan followed by Zipperer has been adopted in the main; a tribute due
to its previous success. Yet on the other hand, the arrangement of the
book has undergone some alteration, and is, at least in the editor’s
opinion, a perceptible improvement. — All scientific, industrial and
technical progress has been treated as fully as possible, the economic
part in particular having been diligently recast.

It would, of course, have been impossible for the editor to write all
these chapters without external aid, his knowledge of the respective
branches being by no means exhaustive enough. He may therefore
be allowed to express here his obligation and thanks to all his
fellow-workers; and in particular, to the ~Association of German
Chocolate Manufacturers~, Dresden; its managing director, Herr
Greiert; the director of the ~Cocoa Purchase Co.~, Hamburg,
Herr Rittscher, who contributed the whole of the chapter headed;
~Commercial Varieties of Cacao Beans~; further to Prof. Dr.
Härtel, Chief Inspector of the Royal Research Institute, Leipsic;
Dr. R. Böhme, Managing Director of Messrs. Stollwerck Bros. Chemical
Laboratory, Cologne; and to Superintendent Engineer Schneider, of
the firm J. M. Lehman, Dresden, among many others. Mention must also
be made of the manufacturers who so kindly placed material at the
editor’s disposal. Let us hope that the work will meet with a success
corresponding to the pains taken by the editor and publishers, and
prove a really serviceable ~Handbook to the Chocolate Industry~.

  Dr. Schaeffer.




Extracts from the prefaces to the first and second editions.


The object of this work is to furnish a source of information and
advice for those who are interested in the branch of industry to which
it relates.

The author of this treatise has therefore endeavoured not only to
describe the manufacturing processes; but he has also devoted special
attention to the raw materials employed, and endeavoured to make them
generally familiar by reference to the literature on the subject, as
well as by providing a precise account of the chemical constituents of
these substances and discussing the consequently necessary procedure to
be observed in the course of manufacture. The art of chocolate making
is no longer what it was a few decades ago; it has for the most part
passed from small operators into the hands of large manufacturers. A
short historical resumé will serve as a sketch of this development and
a cursory description of some forms of apparatus which have now merely
historical interest will serve to show how improvement in the industry
has been effected.

Chocolate is a favourite and most important article of food, and in
that sense it is subject to legal regulations for which allowances must
be made, as well as for the most suitable analytical methods by means
of which a manufacturer can ascertain the presence of unlawful mixtures
in competing products, so that knowing the regulations in force, he may
avoid any infringement of the same.

       *       *       *       *       *

Within the ten years that have elapsed since the first edition of this
work appeared, the manufacture of chocolate has undergone considerable
expansion. Not only has the ~modus operandi~ been simplified
and improved by the introduction of a number of new mechanical
appliances, but the technique of the subject has been so extended,
both from chemical and mechanical points of view, as partly to furnish
a new standard in estimating and determining cacao constituents and
preparations. The author has endeavoured to take due account of all
these advances, and made a point of collecting the material scattered
through the various professional journals, sifting or supplementing
where necessary, in order that all engaged in the industry, ~the
manufacturer as well as the food analyst and the engineer~, may be
in a position to derive a vivid impression of existing conditions in
the chocolate manufacture, from the present volume.

In consideration of the importance which several branches of the
industry have recently acquired, such as the preparation of cocoa
powder, soluble cocoa, cacao butter, pralinés and chocolate creams,
space has been given to descriptions of the respective details. On the
other hand no attempt has been made to introduce calculations as to the
cost of manufacture, since statements to that effect would possibly be
rather detrimental than otherwise.

Costs of production as regards cacao preparations is subject to great
variation, according to the scale on which they are carried out, so
that estimates made on the basis of large operations might eventually
lead to the conclusion that a small factory might be profitable, and
with no better result than that of creating undue competition in prices
and occasioning eventual failure. Moreover, the fluctuations in the
market price of cacao and sugar are so frequent, and there is such
possibility of new sources of expense, that calculations can only apply
to the time when they are made; they soon become out of date, and then
afford no trustworthy indication of probable profit and loss.

The section treating of legislative regulations relating to the trade
in cacao preparations has undergone complete revision to adapt it to
existing conditions.

To render the book more useful, an appendix has been added in which the
production and composition of a few cacao preparations are treated of,
providing valuable data for reference.

  Dr. Paul Zipperer.




CONTENTS


  First Part: =The Cacao Tree=                                      Page

  A. =Tree and Beans=                                                  1

  a) Description of the Cacao Tree and its Fruit                       1

  b) Geographical Distribution and History of the Cacao Tree           4

  c) Cultivation of the Cacao Tree; Diseases and Parasites             7

  d) Gathering and Fermentation                                        9

  e) Description of the Beans                                         12

  f) The Commercial Sorts of the Cacao Bean                           16

  1. American Cacao Varieties                                         19

  2. African Cacao Varieties                                          28

  3. Asiatic Cacao Sorts                                              32

  4. Australian Cacao Sorts                                           33

  g) The Trade in Cacao and the Consumption of Cacao Products;
  Statistics                                                          33

  B. =Chemical Constitution of the Bean=                              43

  a) The Cacao Bean Proper                                            43

  1. Water or Moisture                                                49

  2. Fat                                                              49

  3. Cacao red or Pigment                                             59

  4. Theobromine                                                      62

  5. Albumin                                                          67

  6. Starch                                                           70

  7. Cellulose or crude fibre                                         72

  8. Sugar and plant acids                                            73

  9. The mineral or ash constituents                                  73

  b) The Cacao Shells                                                 76

  Second Part: =The Manufacture of Cacao Preparations=

  A. =Manufacture of Chocolate=                                       85

  I. The Preparation of the Cacao Beans                               87

  1. Storing, cleansing and sorting                                   87

  2. Roasting the Beans                                               89

  3. Crushing, hulling and cleansing                                 100

  4. Mixing different kinds                                          108


  II. Production of the Cacao Mass and Mixing with Sugar             109

  5. Fine grinding and trituration                                   109

  6. Mixture with sugar and spices                                   117

  7. Treatment of the Mixture                                        119

  a) Trituration                                                     119

  b) Levigation                                                      123

  c) Proportions for mixing cacao mass, sugar and
  spices                                                             136

  III. Further Treatment of the Raw Chocolate                        138

  8. Manufacture of “Chocolats Fondants”                             138

  9. Heating Chambers and Closets                                    141

  10. Removal of Air and Division                                    143

  IV. Moulding of the Chocolate                                      149

  11. Transference to the Moulds                                     149

  12. The Shaking Table                                              156

  13. Cooling the Chocolate                                          162

  a) Cooling in Chambers.

  b) Cooling in Closets.

  V. Special Preparations                                            176

  a) Chocolate Lozenges and Pastilles                                176

  b) “Pralinés” or coated goods                                      182

  B. =The Manufacture of Cocoa Powder and “Soluble” Cocoa=           195

  a) The various methods of disintegrating or opening up the
  tissues of cacao                                                   195

  b) Methods of disintegration                                       197

  1. Preliminary Treatment of the Beans                              197

  2. Expression of the Fat                                           199

  3. Pulverising and Sifting the defatted Cacao                      209

  c) Disintegration after Roasting                                   216

  1. Disintegration ~prior~ to Pressing                         217

  2. Disintegration ~after~ Pressing                            224

  3. Opinions to these methods                                       225

  C. =Packing and Storing of the Finished Cacao Preparations=        228

  a) General hints                                                   228

  b) Suitable storage                                                228

  c) Machines for packing en masse                                   229


  Third Part: =Ingredients used in the Manufacture of Chocolate=

  A. =Legal enactments. Condemned ingredients=                       230

  B. =Ingredients allowed=                                           231

  I. Sweet Stuffs                                                    231

  a) Sugar                                                           231

  b) Saccharin and other sweetening agents                           234

  II. Kinds of Starch, Flour                                         236

  1. Potato starch or flour                                          236

  2. Wheat starch                                                    236

  3. Dextrin                                                         237

  4. Rice starch                                                     237

  5. Arrowroot                                                       237

  6. Chestnut meal                                                   238

  7. Bean meal                                                       238

  8. Salep                                                           238

  III. Spices                                                        238

  a) General Introduction                                            238

  b) Vanilla                                                         241

  c) Vanillin                                                        243

  d) Cinnamon                                                        246

  e) Cloves                                                          247

  f) Nutmeg and Mace                                                 247

  g) Cardamoms                                                       248

  IV. Other Ingredients                                              248

  a) Ether oils                                                      248

  b) Peru balsam and Gum benzoin                                     249

  V. Colouring Materials                                             250


  Fourth Part: =Examination and Analysis of Cacao Preparations=

  A. =Chemical and microscopial examination of cacao and cacao
      preparations=                                                  253

  a) Testing                                                         253

  b) Chemical analyses                                               254

  1. Estimation of moisture                                          254

  2. Estimation of ash                                               255

  3. Estimation of silicic acid in the ash                           256

  4. Estimation of alkalis remaining in cocoa powders                256

  5. Determination of the fatty contents                             258

  6. Determination of Theobromine and Caffeine                       263

  7. Determination of Starch                                         264

  8. Determination of crude Fibre                                    266

  9. Determination of Cacao husk                                     267

  10. Determination of Sugar                                         269

  11. Determination of Albuminates                                   271

  12. Investigation of Milk and Cream Chocolate                      272

  c) Microscopical-botanical investigation                           275

  B. =Definitions of Cacao Preparations=                             279

  a) Regulations of the Association of German Chocolate Manufacturers
  relating to the Trade in Cacao Preparations                        279

  b) Final Wording of the Principles of the Free Union of German
  Food Chemists for the estimation of the Value of Cacao
  Preparations                                                       282

  c) Vienna Regulations                                              284

  d) International Definitions                                       285

  C. =Adulteration of Cacao Wares and their Recognition=             288

  a) Introductory                                                    288

  b) The Principles                                                  288

  c) Laws and Enactments as to Trade in Cacao Preparations           291

  1. Belgium                                                         291

  2. Roumania                                                        293

  3. Switzerland                                                     294

  4. Austria                                                         298

  5. Germany                                                         301


  Fifth Part: =Appendix=

  A. =Installation of a Chocolate and Cacao Powder Factory (with
  2 plates=)                                                         304

  1. Chocolate Factory (Table I)                                     305

  2. Cacao Powder Factory (Table II)                                 306

  3. Appendix containing an account of the methods of preparation
  and the composition of some Commercial dietetic and other
  cacao preparations                                                 306


  INDEX

  A. Index to literature                                             319

  B. Tables                                                          320

  C. Figures                                                         321

  D. Authors                                                         323

  E. Alphabetical index to contents                                  326




+Part I.+

The Cacao Tree.


A. Tree and Beans.


a) Description of the Cacao Tree and its Fruit.

The cacao tree with its clusters of red blossom and golden yellow
fruits is conspicuous even in tropical vegetation. Of considerable
diameter at the base, it often attains a height of eight metres. Its
wood is porous and light; the bark is cinnamon coloured, the simply
alternating leaves are from 30 to 40 cm. in length and from 10 to 12
cm. broad, growing on stalks about 3 cm. long. The upper surface of
these leaves is bright green, and the other one of a duller colour, and
slightly hairy.

The flowers, which are often covered with hairs, occur either singly or
united in bunches not only on the thicker branches but also all along
the trunk from the root upwards. (Fig. 1 A.)

The formation of the fruit takes place only from the flowers of the
stem or thicker branches, and for a thousand flowers there is only one
ripe fruit.

The flowers (fig. 1 B & C) are very small and of a reddish white
colour. Calyx and corolla are five partite, the ten filaments are
united at their base (fig. 1 G) and only half of them are developed to
fruitful organs, such as bear pollen (fig. 1 J) in their four separate
anther compartments (fig. 1 H).

The pistil is formed of five united carpels and bears in each of its
five compartments eight ovules. (Fig. 1 E & F).

The fruit is at first green, and afterwards turns yellow, but with
streaks and tints of red occurring; many varieties also are entirely
crimson. Resembling our cucumber in size, shape and appearance (see
fig. 2 A & B), it has a length of about 25 cm. and a diameter of 10
cm., and the thickness of its shell is from 15 to 20 mm. This shell is
of rather softer consistency than that of the gourd, and has five deep
longitudinal channels, with five others of less depth between them.

 [Illustration: Fig. 1. (After Berg & Schmidt, Atlas.)

 _A_ Twig in bloom (1/2). _B_ Flower (3/1). _C_ Flower in vertical
 section (3/1). _D_ Leaf of flower (6/1) _E_ Bean-pod in vertical
 section (6/1) _F_ Bean-pod in cross section (9/1). _H_ Anther. _J_
 Pollen.]

The shell encloses a soft, sweetish pulp, within which from twenty-five
to forty almond shaped seeds are ranged in five longitudinal rows,
close to each other. The white colour of these seeds is frequently
tinged with yellow, crimson, or violet (Sec. Fig. 2 C. D. & G).

 [Illustration: Fig. 2. (After Berg & Schmidt).

 _A_ Fruit with half of shell removed (1/2). _B_ Fruit in cross section
 (1/2). _C_ Side view of seed (1/3). _D_ Front view of seed (1/1). _E_
 Seedling (1/1). _F_ Kotyledon or Seed-leaf (1/1). _G_ Seed in cross
 section (1/1).]

The fruits ripen throughout the whole year, though but slowly during
the dry season; and the time needed for its full development is about
four months. It may be gathered at all times of the year, although
there are regular gathering seasons, determined and modified by the
respective climatic conditions. So, for example, we find that in Brazil
the principal gathering takes place in February and July, whilst in
Mexico it is in March and April. In the primeval Amazonian forests the
fruit of the cacao tree is gathered and brought to market at all times
of the year, wherever Indian tribes obtain.


b) Geographical Distribution and History of the Cacao Tree.

The cacao tree flourishes in a warm, moist climate. It is therefore
indigenous to tropical America, from 23° north to 15° or 20° south
latitude.

Consequently the area in which it grows comprises the Central American
republic of Mexico down to the Isthmus of Panama; Guatemala, the
Greater and Lesser Antilles, Martinique, Trinidad, St. Lucia, Granada,
Cuba, Haiti, Jamaica, Puerto Rico, Guadeloupe, and San Domingo; in
South America, the republics of Venezuela, Columbia, Guiana, Ecuador,
Peru and the northern parts of Brazil, especially the districts lying
along the middle Amazon.

In all other countries where the cacao tree now flourishes, it has been
naturalised, either by colonists, or with government aid, as in Asia,
where the Philippine Islands, Java, Celebes, Amboyna and Ceylon in
particular are deserving of mention; and in Cameroon (Bibundi, Victoria
and Buea), Bourbon, San Thomé and the Canary Islands in Africa, where
the tree is sometimes found growing at an elevation of about 980 ft.
above sea level. Ceylon offers an instructive illustration of the zeal
with which the cultivation is carried on in some districts. According
to information furnished by Mr. Ph. Freudenburg, late German Consul
at Colombo, cacao had been planted in a few instances during the time
Ceylon was in possession of the Dutch, but only since 1819 has seed
been distributed out of the botanical gardens at Kalatura, and it was
still later before planters could obtain it from those established
at Peradenija. Systematic cultivation for commercial purposes was
commenced in 1872 or 1873. The principal seats of cacao plantations are
Dumbara, Kurunegalla, Kegalla and Polgahawella, together with North,
East and West Matala, Urah and Panwila.[1] According to statistical
records, the relation between the growth and export of cacao is shown
by the following table, which also shows the development of its
cultivation:

  Year       Area under         Exports
         cultivation (acres)     (cwts)

  1878         300                  10
  1879         500                  42
  1880        3000                 121
  1881        5460                 283
  1885       12800                7247
  1892       14500               17327
  1895       18278               27519
  1898       22500               32688
  1908       39788               62186

Like all other articles of human food, cacao has a history of some
interest, the most essential points of which are here summarised from
the excellent work of A. Mitscherlich.[2]

A knowledge of the cacao tree was first brought to Europe in 1519 by
Fernando Cortez and his troops. He found in Mexico a very extensive
cultivation of cacao, which had been carried on for several centuries.
In the first letter addressed by Cortez to Charles the Fifth, he
described cacao beans as being used in place of money. Cortez applied
to the cacao tree the name of “Cacap”, a word derived from the old
Mexican designation “Cacava-quahitl”. The Mexicans called the fruit
“Cacavacentli”, the beans “Cacahoatl” and the beverage prepared from
them “Chocolatl”[3], said to be derived from the root “Cacava” and
“Atl”, water. This term was adopted by the Spaniards, and it gave rise
in the course of time to the word “Chocolate”, which is now universal.

The botanical definition of the typical form of the cacao tree, which
belongs to the family BUTTNERIACEAE, is referable to Linnaeus, who gave
it the name “Theobroma Cacao” (food of the gods, from “Theos”, God,
and “Broma”, food). Probably chocolate was a favourite beverage with
Linnaeus, who may have been acquainted with the work of the Paris
physician Buchat, published in 1684, in which chocolate is alluded
to as an invention more worthy of being called food of the gods than
nectar or ambrosia. Clusius first described the cacao tree in his
“Plantae exoticae”. The taste for chocolate soon spread throughout
Spain after the return of Cortez’ expedition from the New World, not,
however, without encountering some opposition, especially on the part
of the clergy, who raised the question whether it were lawful to
partake of chocolate on fast days, as it was known to possess nutritive
properties. However, it found an advocate in Cardinal Brancatio, who
described it as an article belonging, like wine, to the necessaries of
life, and he therefore held that its use in moderation could not be
prohibited. In 1624 Franciscus Rauch published a work at Vienna, in
which he condemned the use of chocolate and suggested that the monks
should be prevented from partaking of it, as a means of preventing
excesses. About the commencement of the 17th century, the use of
chocolate spread from Spain to Italy, where it was brought to the
notice of the public by the Florentine Antonio Carletti (1606), who had
lived for some time in the Antilles. The method of converting cacao
beans into chocolate was also made known in Europe by Carletti, while
the Spaniards had kept it a secret. Under Theresa of Austria, wife of
Louis XIV, the habit of taking chocolate appears to have become very
common in France after the partial introduction of cacao by importation
from Spain. The first cacao imported from the French colony of
Martinique arrived in Brest in 1679 in “Le Triomphant”, the flagship of
admiral d’Estrées. Opinion in France as to chocolate was then divided:
Madame Sévigné, once an admirer of chocolate, afterwards wrote to her
daughter: “il vous flatte pour un temps et puis il vous allume tout
d’un coup fièvre continue qui vous conduit à la mort”, a theory which
nowadays must necessarily be regarded as ridiculous.

Chocolate was in general use in England about the middle of the 17th
century. Chocolate houses, similar to the coffee houses of Germany,
were opened in London. Bontekoë, physician to the Elector Wilhelm of
Brandenburg, published in 1679 a work entitled “Tractat van Kruyd,
Thee, Coffe, Chocolate,” in which he spoke very strongly in favour
of chocolate and contributed very sensibly to the increase of its
consumption in Germany. The first chocolate factory in Germany is said
to have been erected by Prince Wilhelm von der Lippe about the year
1756 at Steinhude. This prince brought over Portuguese specially versed
in the art of chocolate making.


c) Cultivation of the Cacao Tree; Diseases and Parasites.

The first information regarding the cultivation of the cacao tree
in Mexico is that obtained on the invasion of the country by the
Spaniards. Prior to that time there is a total absence of anything
definite. The tree flourishes best in situations where the mean
temperature is between 24° and 28° C. The farther the place of
cultivation from the equator the poorer is the product. The other
most essential conditions are long continued moisture of the soil
and a soft, loose texture with abundance of humus, and above all,
shelter from the direct rays of the sun. For these reasons, planters
select for their cacao areas ground the virgin soil of which has not
been exhausted by the cultivation of other plants. The plants are
either raised in a nursery until they reach the most suitable age
for transplanting, or the seeds are sown on the ground selected for
the plantation. The transport of live seed for new plantations is
attended with some difficulty, since the seeds very quickly lose their
vitality. C. Chalot[4] recommends that this vitality be preserved by
gathering the fruit before it is perfectly ripe, immersing it in melted
paraffin oil, and then wrapping it in paper; on which the fruit may be
transported without losing any of its nutritive qualities.

In the sheltered valleys of tropical countries, where the soft soil,
rich in humus, is kept constantly moist by large rivers, the cacao tree
blossoms throughout the whole year. When growing wild it is generally
isolated under the shadow of larger trees; when cultivated, the young
plant is placed under the shelter of banana trees, and at a later
period of its growth shelter is provided by the coral (called Erythrina
corallodendron or Erythrina indica), further known as “Coffie-mama”
among the Surinam Dutch and madre del cacao among the Spaniards. Yet
this tree, like the Maniok, is said not to enjoy so long a life as the
cacao plant, which sometimes reaches an age of forty years. On this
account the Castilloa or also Caesalpina dashyracis have recently been
recommended as a more lasting protection. The fact that it does not
lose its leaves during the dry season (e. g. on Java, during the East
Monsoon) is an additional advantage.

A cacao plantation requires a considerable area, in the proportion of
50 hectares for 20,000 trees. The quantity of fruit to be obtained
from that number of trees, as an annual crop, would be worth from
£ 1,200-1,300. In planting the seeds, they are set in rows that are
from 8 to 10 m. apart, four or five seeds being planted within from
1 to 2 m, the shading trees being planted between the rows. Of each
five seeds planted the greater number often fail to germinate, either
in consequence of unfavourable weather or as the result of attacks
by insects etc.; but if more than one plant grows, the weaker ones
are pulled up. Until the plants are two or three years old, they are
protected by a shed open at one side, and they are transplanted after
they have attained a height of 3 ft. The chief enemies of tropical
cultivation—weeds, aerial roots, insects, bacterial infection—have to
be provided against continually, so as to prevent damage; accordingly
if the ground be not moist enough, it should be systematically watered,
and so drained if marshy, for the tree requires most careful nursing
if it is to develop into a prolific fruit-bearing specimen. The seed
germinates about fourteen days after being planted; but flowers are not
produced till after 3 or 5 years. After the tree has once born fruit,
which may occur at the end of the fourth year it often continues to
do so for fifty years. The tree is most prolific when from twelve to
thirty years old.

As in the case of all cultivated plants and domestic animals, the
existence of which does not depend on the principal of natural
selection, and among which life is not a continuous development of
endurance in the face of adverse elements, the cacao tree has its
peculiar diseases. Indeed, it would seem as though it were beset by all
vermin extant. The reader may obtain some idea of the extent of the
damage done to cacao plantations by such noxious agents, if he turns up
the clear and exhaustive account published by the Imperial Biological
Institute for Agriculture and Forestry (Germany).[5] Unfortunately we
have not space here to mention more than a few of the most frequently
occurring and important diseases, such as the GUM DISEASE, which is
especially destructive, gum formations in the wood tissue and bark of
the tree eventually killing it. Next to be dreaded are the various
fungus growths, cancers and cancer-like incrustations (“Krulloten”) and
broom formations. It often happens that specii of beetle attack the
tree, causing decay and rot to set in; such e. g. are the wood-borer,
bark bug, and woodbeetle. Other parasites, again, do not destroy the
whole tree, but are equally detrimental, as they also preclude all
prospects of a harvest. Fruit rot and its like, fruit cancer, and
cacao moths, are notorious in this connection. There are also several
larger creatures which betray a preference for the nutritious fruit of
the cacao tree, various species of rat, and the squirrel, which unite
to make the planter’s life a burden.


d) Gathering and Fermentation.

The gathering of the fruit is effected by means of long rods, at
the end of which is a semi-circular knife for cutting through the
stalk. The fruits are then split in two, the beans separated from the
surrounding pulp and spread out on screens to dry, or exposed to the
sun on bamboo floors. Beans so prepared are described as unfermented.

In most lands where cacao is cultivated, another process is adopted,
calculated to heighten the flavour of the fruit and develop its
nutritious constituents. The newly gathered beans are first partially
freed from the fruity substances always adhering, then piled up into
heaps and covered with banana skins or cocoa-nut matting, in order
that they may be shut off as far as possible from all atmospheric
influence, and so left for some time, while the chemical processes of
warming and fermentation are gradually consummating. This procedure
is alternated with repeated exposures to the sun, according to the
maturity and species of the cacao bean, and the prevailing weather
conditions; though details as to the length of time and number of
repetitions necessary to the production of a marketable article
still await determination.[6] It may be taken as a general rule that
fermentation should proceed till the bean, or rather the cotyledon,
has acquired the light brown colour characteristic of chocolate. This
principle is nevertheless often violated, especially as loss of weight
in the bean is often intimately connected with complete fermentation.
Unsufficiently fermented varieties, but which were fully ripe when
gathered, develop a violet colour during this process; it is possible
for them to pass through what is known as “After fermentation” before
reaching the factory. This is not so in the case of beans developing
from unripe fruit, for obviously the valuable constituents of the
cotyledon are here not prominent, and scarcely calculated to ferment
properly. Such can be recognised by their betraying a bluish grey
colour in the drying processes, and the soft and smooth structure which
they then acquire. A normal progress of fermentation is indicated where
the interior of the mass of beans registers, on the first morning after
gathering, a temperature not exceeding 30-33° C, 35-38° on the second
day, and on the third morning a temperature not exceeding 43° C. If the
outer shells are marked, the heating has been too severe. In countries
where the harvest season suffers from the periodical rains, drying over
wooden fires[7] is often resorted to. The value of many specimens is
hereby greatly diminished when the roasting is carelessly managed, for
the smoke must on no account be allowed to come into contact with the
bean. Yet “Smoky” lots among the St. Thomas, Accra, and Kameroon sorts
were formerly much more frequent in commerce than now, for the planter
has learned to avoid this evil. After they have been fermented, the
beans are washed, or trodden with the naked foot, in some countries,
and so cleansed from the pulp remains still adhering. They are then
allowed to dry in the open air, and packed into sacks; contact with
metal or stone is strictly to be avoided, which as good conductors of
heat and rapid cooling agents are most disadvantageous. Instead of
piling the beans up in loose heaps, they may be fermented in “Tanks”
made of wood, and where possible, provided with partitions. According
to Kindt, cedar wood has been proved best for this purpose, because
of its enormous resisting capacity. It used to be thought that in
fermentation ensued a germination of the seed,[8] as in the preparation
of malt; but this idea has been proved erroneous. The contrary is
rather the case, for the process almost kills the seed; and when the
sensitiveness of the latter is taken into consideration, and also
the fact that it only develops under the most favourable conditions,
it must be allowed that the statement contains an obvious truth. Yet
chemical change does take place in the fermentation of the seed; but
as to its precise nature, owing to the lack of scientific research on
the scene of operations, we are still unable to dogmatise. It would
therefore be useless to discuss the manifold theories and speculations
bearing on this point, and waste of time to discuss the various
kinds of fermentation and the chemical processes therein involved.
Yet it may almost be taken for granted, that the fresh-plucked bean
contains a so-called glycoside[9] which decomposes into grape sugar,
into an equally amyloids colour stuff (the so-called cacao-red), and
the nitrogeneous alkaloids Theobromine and Kaffein; a change probably
incidental to the fermentation.[10] The sugar might further split
up into Alcohol and Carbonic Acid Gas, although this is by no means
established.

Whilst we have lost our bearings as far as the chemical aspect of
this process is concerned, we are much more firm in respect to the
biological, thanks to researches which Dr. v. Preyers has conducted on
the spot in Ceylon. Preyer’s[11] experiments leave absolutely no room
for objection, and it can safely be accepted that there are no bacteria
present in fermentation, but a fungus-like growth rich in life, a
kind of yeast by him called Saccharomyces Theobromae, and described
in passing;[12] facts which constitute the gist of his findings. He
further establishes that the presence of bacteria often noticed is
absolutely undesirable, and that better results are obtained when all
life is energetically combated, and especially these bacteria. We
should, then, be confronted with the same phenomenon in the preparation
of cacao as are already met with in beer brewing, and the pressing of
wine and which are still waited for in the preparing of tea and tobacco.

The kernel of the fresh bean, “Nips”, is white and has a bitter taste
and alternates in colour between whitish yellow, rose and violet; the
mere influence of solar heat is sufficient to produce the brown cacao
pigment, but drying is not so effective as fermentation in removing
the harsh bitter taste and hence fermented beans are always to be
preferred. These have often acquired a darker colour in the process,
their weight is considerably diminished, and their flavour modified to
an oily sweetness, without losing an atom of the original aroma[13].

Commercially and for manufacturing purposes only the seeds of the
cacao tree are of importance. The root bark is said by Herr Loyer of
Manila to be of medicinal value as a remedy for certain common female
complaints and is employed by the natives of the Philippine Islands as
an abortifacient. According to Peckoldt[14] the fruit shell contains
a considerable amount of material that yields mucilage and might
therefore be utilised as a substitute for linseed.


e) Description of the Beans.

The varieties of the cacao tree which yield the beans at the present
time occurring in commerce are.

Theobroma cacao, Linné the ~true cacao~, spread over the widest
area, and almost ~exclusively cultivated on plantations~, with
many varieties (Crillo, Forastero etc.) and Theobroma ~bicolor~, a
party-coloured cacao tree the seeds of which are mixed with Brazilian
and Caracas beans.

Theobroma speciosum Wildenow, which yields, like Theobroma cacao,
Brazilian beans (magnificent tree).

Theobroma quayanense, yielding Guiana beans.

Theobroma silvestre or forest cacao.

Theobroma subincanum, ~white-leaved-cacao~, and Theobroma
microcarpum, ~small-fruited cacao~, ~are met with as
admixtures~ in Brazilian beans.

Theobroma glaucum, ~grey cacao~, fruits of which variety are found
among Caracas beans.

Theobroma angustifolium the ~narrow-leaved~ and Theobroma
ovatifolium, ~oval leaf~, may be regarded as characteristic of
Mexican cacao.

Before describing the commercial kinds of cacao, a knowledge of which
is of first importance to manufacturers, it is desirable to consider
the beans in regard to external form and microscopial structure, in
order that the use of some indispensable scientific expressions in the
subsequent description of particular commercial kinds of cacao may be
intelligible.

The bean, page 3 Fig. 2 C-G, consists, according to Hanousek[15], of
a seed-shell, a seed-skin and the embryo or kernel with the radicle.
The oval-shaped seed is generally from 16 to 28 mm. long, 10 to 15
mm. broad and from 4 to 7 mm. thick. At the lower end of the bean
there is a depressed, flattened and frequently circular hilum visible,
from which a moderately marked line extends up to the apex of the
bean where it forms the centre of radiating longitudinal ribs—
vascular bundles-extending to the middle of the bean through the outer
seed-coating back to the hilum.

The outer seed shell (cf. Fig. 3) is of the thickness of paper,
brittle, scaly externally and reddish brown, lined with a colourless
translucent membrane peeling to the so-called silver membrane
(previously but falsely known as seed envelope) and penetrating into
the convolutions of the kernel in irregularly divided folds. The shells
of some of the better sorts of beans, such as Caracas, are frequently
covered with a firmly adherent, dense, reddish-brown powder, consisting
of ferruginous loam originating from the soil on which the beans have
been dried and serving as a protection against the attacks of insects.
But opinions are divided as to, the utility of this process.

The fermented kernel consists of two large cotyledons occupying the
whole bean; it is of fatty lustre, reddish grey or brown colour and
often present a superficial violet tinge; and under gentle pressure
readily breaks up into numerous angular fragments the surfaces of
which are generally bordered by the silver membrane. The fragments can
be easily recognised when laid in water. At the contact of the lobes
there is an angular middle rib and two lateral ribs are connected with
the radicle at the broader end of the bean. The ripe fresh-gathered
cacao-kernel is undoubtedly white and the reddish brown or violet
pigment is formed during the fermenting of the bean. But there is
also a white cacao, though seldom met with. According to information
furnished by Dr. C. Rimper of Ecuador, it is of rare occurrence and is
not cultivated to any great extent. In Trinidad also a perfectly white
seeded cacao, producing large fruit and fine kernels, was introduced
from Central America by the curator of the Botanic Gardens in 1893.

The microscopic structure of the shell, Fig. III., presents no
remarkable peculiarity that requires to be noticed here.

The delicate inner membrane (fig. 3) coating the cotyledons and
penetrating into their folds consists of several layers. Connected
with it are club-shaped glandular structures, fig. 4, consisting of
several dark coloured cells that are known as the ~Mitscherlich
particles~. According to A. F. W. Schimper[16] they are hairs fallen
from the epidermis (fig. 4) of the cotyledon and do not originate, as
was formerly supposed, in the inner silver membrane.

These structures, named after their discoverer, were formerly supposed
to be algae, or cells of the embryo sac, unconnected with the tissues
of the seed cells. They are, however, as true epidermoid structures,
similar to the hairs of other plants.

 [Illustration: Fig. 3. Cross Section of Shell of Cacao Bean
                        (Tschirsch).

  _gfb_ vascular bundles
  _co_ cotyledon
  _pc_ ducts
  _f_ pulp
  _fe_ endocarp, or inner coat of fruit
  _se_ epicarp, or skin
  _sch_ mucilagenous, or slime cells
  _lp_ parenchyma, or cellular tissue
  _st_ sklerogenous, or dry cells
  _is_ silver membrane
  _co_ cotyledon
  _gfb_ vascular bundles]

These Mitscherlich particles are not only ~characteristic of the seed
membrane~, but also of the entire seed as well as the preparations
made from it. Wherever ~cacao is mixed with other materials~,
its presence may be ascertained by microscopical detection of these
structures, which are peculiar to cacao.

In the large elongated, hexagonal cells of the seed membrane there are
two other structures to be seen with the aid of high power (250 fold),
one appearing as large crystalline druses, while the other consists of
extremely fine needles united in bundles.

 [Illustration: Fig. 4.

 Cross section of the cotyledon, showing “Mitscherlich particles”
 (Moeller).]

By addition of petroleum spirit the former, consisting of fat acid
crystals, are dissolved, the latter, remaining unaltered, are
considered by Mitscherlich to be theobromine crystals, since their
crystalline form closely resembles that of theobromine. A more
scientific explanation has not been forthcoming.

The cotyledons are seen under the microscope to consist of a tissue
of thin walled cells, without cavities, lying close together, and
here and there distributed through the tissue, cells with brownish
yellow, reddish brown, or violet coloured contents. These latter are
the pigment cells which contain the substance known as cacao-red and
analogous to tannin; it, together with theobromine, gives rise to
the delicate taste and aroma of cacao. The other cells of the tissue
are filled with extremely small starch granules the size of which
rarely exceeds 0.005 mm.; with them are associated fat, in the form of
spear-shaped crystals, and albuminoid substances.

In order to discriminate between these substances they must be stained
by various reagents. According to Molisch[17], theobromine may be
recognised, in sections of the seed, by adding a drop of hydrochloric
acid and after some time an equal drop of auric chloride solution (3
%) After some of the liquid has evaporated, bunches of long yellow
crystals of theobromine aurochloride make their appearance. On addition
of osmic acid the fat is coloured greyish brown. On addition to the
microscopic section a drop of iodine solution, or better iodozine
chloride, the starch becomes blue, while albuminous substances are
coloured yellow. Cacao starch granules are very small and cannot well
be mistaken for other kinds, except the starch of some spices such
as pimento or that of Guarana, prepared from the seeds of Paulinna
sorbilis. According to Möller the blue iodine colouration of cacao
starch takes place very slowly and it is probably retarded by the large
amount of fat present; but the point has been contested by Zipperer and
later investigators.

In order to make the starch granules of cacao and the cells containing
cacao-red distinctly visible under the microscope, it is advisable
to immerse the section in a drop of almond oil, because the addition
of water renders the object indistinct in consequence of the large
amount of fat present. Another excellent medium for the microscopic
observation of cacao is the solution of 8 parts of chloral hydrate in 5
parts of water, as recommended by Schimper.[18]

By these means it may easily be seen that the pigment or cacao red in
different sorts of cacao varies more or less in colour.

To complete the account of the microscopic characters of the cacao
cotyledon, mention must be made of the small ~vascular bundles~,
generally spiral, that are distributed throughout the tissues of the
cotyledons and are readily made visible by adding a drop of oil or a
drop of chloral hydrate solution.


f) The Commercial Sorts of the Cacao Bean.

Mindful of Goethe’s dictum: ~Friend, the paths of theory are
uncertain, and hid in gloom~, we propose to devote this chapter
to an exclusively practical discussion of the commercial value of raw
cacao, and from the merchant’s point of view.

Such differences of opinion prevail in manufacturing circles as to
the possible uses of each separate sort, that for this reason alone
any other than a purely geographical classification would scarcely be
feasible. But apart from this, varying as it does with the protective
duties imposed, the commercial value of cacao can by no means remain
a universal constant; and it must be noted that variations in the
national taste serve to heighten its instability.

This latter circumstance also causes a deviation from the nearly
related principal that the Motherland becomes chief consumer of the
varieties grown in her colonies. The cacao sorts of the English
Gold-Coast running under the collective name of ~Accra~, have
taken complete possession of the German market; Trinidad cacao enjoys
immense popularity in France, and the Dutch pass on the larger part of
their Java importations to other consuming nations. As regards this
latter sort, however, the fact they are chiefly employed as colouring
and covering stuffs for other cacaos must be taken into consideration.

In most cases either the producing country or a principal shipping
port gives its name to the different sorts. Yet paradoxical exceptions
will at once occur to the reader. The inferior and mediocre Venezuelan
varieties of the Barlovento district shipped from La Guayra are
generally denominated as ~Caracas~, notwithstanding the fact
that the capital of the republic Venezuela, situated as it is 1000
metres above sea level (being about 3300 feet), and therefore quite
outside the cacao zone, has practically no connection with the cacao
trade. The collective name, Samana still holds good for the cacaos
of the Dominican republic, at least in Germany, although this outlet
of a tiny mountainous peninsular has long ceased to export any but
very insignificant quantities. Consequently, and rightly, the French
merchant specifies these sorts as ~Sanchez~, adopting the name
of the principal cacao exporting port of the republic. Arriba, the
choicest product of Ecuador (port, Guayaquil) takes its name from the
Spanish word arriba, above, the plantations being situated along the
upper sources of the Rio Guayas (to wit, the rivers Daule, Vinces, and
Zapotal). Other Guayaquil cacaos are named after the rivers (Balao,
Naranjal) and districts (e. g. Machala) where they are most cultivated.

As in the case of so many other cultivated plants, distinguishing
characteristics of the various sorts are not only determined by the
different species of tree, but are rather and principally dependant on
the combined effect of physical and climatic conditions. So whether
the seedling Criollo, the splendid Creole bean native to Venezuela,
belongs also to the more fruitful Forastero species (spanish forastero,
foreign), a variety less sensitive and consequently commoner, is a
problem which can only claim secondary consideration.

Apart from the geographical influences mentioned, method and nicety
of procedure are of prime importance in the preparation of the cacao
sorts. Yet technically perfect implements do not always prove the
best means to an attainment of this end; it being a fact recorded by
experience that the chemical constituents of the cacao bean reach
their fullest developement in such simple and primitive processes as,
e. g. are still patronised in Ecuador and Venezuela. It is scarcely
necessary to observe that these simple and primitive methods postulate
nicety and carefulness, which failing, there will be no lack of defects
in the cacao prepared. On the Haiti/Domingo island, e. g. a variety
of cacao is harvested which is in itself very profitable, as stray
specimens finding their way to the market testify, but which as an
article of commerce proves most unreliable, being generally brought
on the market in such an unprepared state, that fermentation first
takes place on the sea voyage, and then of course only in insufficient
measure. During this period appear those disagreeable and accompanying
symptoms technically known as “Vice propre” and the beans, which
were not completely ripe in the first place, do not develop further,
and greenish breakings in the skin become pronounced, and remain a
source of terror to the manufacturing world. All attempts made in
European interests to bring about an alteration in this deplorable
state of affairs have hitherto been lost on the indolence of the
native planters. Indeed, until the political and economical conditions
prevalent among the mixed Negro population of Haiti/Domingo are
thoroughly reformed, no perceptible improvement can be expected in
the qualities of the Samana and Haiti cacaos, for which reason, with
rapidly disappearing exceptions, there are scarcely any well organised
plantations in these parts.

Turning to the Old World, we find in the West African Gold Coast a
typical example of the possibilities of cultivation on a small scale,
under proper and competent guidance, and with primitive processes;
for not only as far as quantitative progress is concerned, but also
in respect to quality, the varieties produced by the natives of this
English colony improve from year to year. Kameroon, a district which
like the Gold Coast has only taken to the cultivation of cacao of
late years, provides us with an exactly opposite instance. Here the
plantation system has been in force right from the commencement of
the industry, with all its technically perfected implements, yet
nevertheless the perfecting of the cacao proceeds very slowly, and
it will be a long time before the produce of this land can lay any
serious claim to specification as a variety for consumption. Its large
proportion of acid ingredient has been above all detrimental, almost
completely precluding its use as any other but a mixing sort, although
some plantations have been yielding comparatively mild cacaos now for
several years. We cannot stay to discuss the problem of causes in this
instance, and whether the fact that the Forastero species has been
exclusively planted prejudices the developement of the cacao, or the
climatic conditions, must remain an open question. Let it be noted
in passing that the Forastero Bean has taken universal possession of
Africa, as well in Kameroon, as in the Gold Coast, on the island of St.
Thomas and also in the Congo Free State. The Bahia cacao, again, owes
its origin to the Forastero seedling.

We will refrain from any further elaboration of this introduction,
however, so as not to anticipate the following review of the various
commercial sorts of cacao.


f) I. American Cacao Varieties.


A. Central America.

We begin with

~Mexico~, the classical cacao land, scarcely of importance to the
general trade, as the greater part of its entire produce, comprising
about three thousand tons yearly, is consumed in its native country. Of
the other Central American states, next to

~Nicaragua~, whose large Venezuelan-like beans find their way to
the Hamburg market from time to time,

~Costa Rica~ is above all worthy of mention. This state began to
export its home produce in 1912, averaging for that year about 60 tons;
and in 1909, the export had already increased to 350 tons, mostly to
England and North America, through the shipping port called Port Limon.


B. South America.

~Columbia.~ From this republic come two distinct sorts; the rare,
rounded, and native

~Cauca~ bean, which is nearly related to the Maracaibo variety,
and which cultivated along the Magdalena river is in the main shipped
from Baranquille, on the Caribbean sea, occasionally also from
Bueneventura on the Pacific coast; and then the

~Tumaco Cacao~, so named from the small shipping port on the
Ecuador border, which resembles the inferior sorts of the Ecuador coast.

Cauca-and Tumaco-cacaos are only seldom free from defective beans
and worm-eatings, probably less caused by the primitive processes of
preparation than the difficult means of communication in this country.
Then also considerable quantities are retained for home consumption.

~Ecuador~ is the home of the cacao richest in aroma, the country
which first developed the plantation system on a large and well
organised scale, and which was still at the head of cacao-harvesting
lands a few years ago, with a yearly produce of about 32,000 tons.
Yet although it had increased this amount to 40,000 tons in the year
1911, Ecuador can only take second rank among cultivating lands, the
Gold Coast coming first. The following and most valuable varieties are
embraced under the name of the chief shipping port.

GUAYAQUIL. They are:

1. ~Arriba~, i. e. above, these cacaos coming from the upper
tributaries of the rio Guaya (the rivers Daule, Vinces, Publoviejo, and
Zapatol). The Arribas, like the Guayaquil cacaos generally, are chiefly
used in the preparation of cacao powders. They form e. g. the principal
constituents of the Dutch cacao powders, especially the so-called
superior Summer-Arriba, harvested from the month of April to July. All
that is gathered in other seasons falls into the general class “Arriba
superior de la época

The cacaos of the months immediately following on Summer, the
~rebuscos~, after crop, are as a rule the most inferior varieties
of arriba, whilst the Christmas harvest of the months of January and
February (cosecha de Navidad) often yields quite excellent sorts.

2. ~Machála~, second in importance among the Guayaquil sorts,
rather more fatty than the ariba, and differing from this again in
Aroma and the colour of its kernel, which is of a rather darker brown.
Chief cultivation occurs in the low lying land bordering on Peru and
lying opposite the island of Jambeli, where the prevailing climatic
conditions are quite different from those in the arriba districts,
although these are not far removed. August and September are the
harvest months for Machala. Ten years ago this sort was shipped in
large measure from the then newly created harbour Puerto Bolivar. But
since large ocean going steamers no longer call there, it now takes the
more roundabout route via Guayaquil.

3. ~Baláo.~ This variety can be described as a mean between
Machala and Arriba. It has some of the characteristics of both, the
bean being somewhat rounder.

4. ~Naranjal~ and ~Tenguél~ are likewise subdivisions of
the foregoing, except that the bean is here much larger and flatter.
As the production of all three sorts, and especially of Balao, is
substantially greater than what finds its way to the market, we may
reasonably assume that a large proportion is used for mixing purposes,
and sails on commercial seas, as it were, under false colours.
Cultivating district: the Machala district situated along the Jambeli
canal, and the stretch of coast watered by the rivers Balao and
Naranjal.

5. Pegados (i. e. stuck together) or Pelatos (balls) is the description
of the cacaos comprised of series of 4-10 beans rolled together,
generally developing from overripe fruit. They experience a particular
kind of fermentation, apparently the result of the fruity substances
still evident, which gives the light coloured kernels a soft aromatic
flavour. For several years these sorts have rarely been seen on the
European market, they being generally reserved for home consumption.

6. ~Oscuros~, i. e. dark coloured, a refuse sort rightly viewed
with suspicion in manufacturing circles—Pelotas soaked in water, or
beans left in the clefts and fissures of the drying chamber floors.—The
black shell of the bean encloses a brownish and dirty-looking kernel,
the colour sometimes approaching black: the whole bean giving a
disagreeable impression, as it is often disfigured with mould, and
possessed of a disagreeable odour. For several years this variety
served the “crooks” of the commercial world as mixing material for
the so-called “flavouring” of Machala, but it now again appears as a
distinct sort.

The shipping port for all these cacao sorts is Guayaquil; though other
harbours also handle valuable varieties. Such, for example, are

 a) ~Bahia de Caraquéz~, and the small haven of Manta lying
 south of this town, which deals in a sort resembling a blended
 Machala-Balao, though occasionally light brown in appearance and of
 aromatic flavour. This cacao is generally labelled as ~Caraquéz~
 for short, and is to be distinguished from ~Caraque~, the French
 term for Caracas cacao.

 The chief harvesting months are June and July; the April-May arrivals,
 however, are usually better, as the setting-in of the rainy season
 increases the difficulties of drying. The harvest in 1909 reached
 3,000 tons, and is normally from 2000 to 5,000 tons yearly.

 b) ~Esmeraldas~, similar to the foregoing, but of perceptibly
 inferior output, possesses only a very insignificant yield (about 150
 tons a year), and this in spite of the cultivating capacities of the
 interior.

~Peru~, the most southerly producing land on the west coast can
likewise only boast of a very insignificant yield, chiefly destined for
home consumption.

~Brazil~, with its two great sorts for consumption, Bahia and
Para cacao, and a yearly production of round 33,000 tons, has from the
years 1906-1909 far outrun all other harvesting lands. Yet although it
was able to increase this to 36,250 tons in 1911 it must nevertheless
take second place among cultivating lands, the Gold Coast and Ecuador
preceding.

A most important factor on the market is included under the
specification ~Bahia~-cacao. Here again the shipping port has
given its name to the cacao sort. It is harvested in three southerly
situated districts, Ilheos, Belmonte, and Canavieiras, and is
despatched to Bahia from harbours of the same name, in sailing vessel
which sometimes ship a thousand sacks.

Ilheos despatches the inferior of the two principal varieties “Fair
fermented” and “Superior fermented” that is, the first-named, and so
furnishes two-thirds of the Bahia crop. The cacao areas in the district
of Ilheos are situated on rather high and mountainous ground, where
arresting atmospheric conditions often predominate. Also the absence of
any waterway whatever renders it a necessity to despatch the cacao to
Bahia on beasts of burden, which during the rainy season can scarcely
find a footing on the beaten tracks. It is, then, the unfavourable
atmospheric conditions, combined with a certain carelessness on the
part of the planter in the preparing processes, which prejudices the
otherwise excellent quality of the Bahia bean, and more especially in
the months of June, July and August.

At this period it is no rarity to find from 10 to 20 percent of waste
beans, and in general only the December-February months offer anything
approaching a guarantee as to quality. But here no hard and fast rule
can be adduced.

Belmonte and Canavieiras are the districts of the “Superior fermented”
cacaos. The lower lay of the land is responsible for other climatic
conditions, and in addition, both harbours here are situated at the
mouths of rivers which afford an easy and sure means of transport. So
the cacao, which is also better roasted,—a few planters even drying in
ovens—reaches the market in a much better condition, and fetches at
least from 3-4 sh. a cwt. more than the “Fair Fermented” variety.

In all three districts, the beans are prepared in wooden boxes, covered
with banana skin, in which the Ilheos variety is allowed to ferment
from 2-3 days, and the superior from 2-5 days: this after they have
been well shaken up. In Belmonte considerable drying takes place on the
sand there deposited by the river in large quantities.

The harvesting is generally reckoned from April 1st. to March 31st.
In June and July is the intermediate harvest, whilst the months from
October to February supply the bulkiest crops.

The Bahia district yields yearly about 33,500 tons, a fourth part of
which is devoted to the consumption of the United States, the remainder
chiefly going to Germany, France and Switzerland. The return is still
on the increase, and large stretches of land await cultivation.

~Para~ cacao is the denomination of all those sorts shipped from
the tracts of land lying along the banks of the Amazon and its mighty
tributaries, more especially from Manaos and Itacoatiara, through Para,
a port situated on the eastern arm of the delta. These varieties may
be classed as intermediary between Bahia and good Sumana. The yearly
yield (harvest months June-August) amounts to about 5,000 tons, a
comparatively small figure in view of the enormous expanses capable
of planting, where the cacao tree at present grows wild, or at least
uncultivated. It is true that the returns for 1891 reached 6,500; only
to be diminished by half in 1908. France is by far the chief country
consuming Para cacao; the sort not meeting with especial favour in
other states.

~Guiana.~ Of the three colonies belonging to France, Holland,
and Great Britain respectively, which go under this name, only the
intermediate one, Dutch Guiana, is of importance in the world’s cacao
trade. It comes into consideration under the name of

~Surinam~ cacao. The yield, which should in normal years amount
to about 3,000 tons (1899 providing the record with approximately
4,000 tons), has been considerably impaired by tree diseases and
parasites. The return for 1904 only amounted to 850 tons, for example.
But meanwhile Holland had hit upon excellent measures to battle against
the enemies of the tree, and the years 1909 and 1910 had in consequence
already improved this to 2,000 tons. The bean has some resemblance to
the Trinidad bean, as far as quality is concerned.

~Venezuela~, one of the earliest cultivating lands, is the
home of the Criollo bean, and of the most splendid specimens of
bean in general, sorts which play a prominent part in the Chocolate
Manufacture. The Venezuelan bean is rather long and round, and
its kernel of a beautiful light brown, with a mild sweet flavour.
Unfortunately the plantations have recently been interspersed with
Forastero or Trinidad-Criollo trees—called in Venezuela “Trinitarios
because brought over from Trinidad, a species which requires less
attention and bears more fruit, but which just on that account supplies
commoner and mediocre beans, slowly fermenting, and often developing a
violet hue. The preparation is here of the simplest; the beans e. g.
are dried on clay-covered floors, and in rainy weather earthy fragments
often adhere to them. Yet such “Patios” or “Then-dales”, (clay floors)
are only in use on the small “haciendas” (plantations). The colouring
of the Venezuelan bean with an ocre-like earth constitutes an especial
peculiarity. It is adopted in particular for the medium and finer
sorts. The earth is mostly sent from the neighbourhood of Choroni to
the two large shipping ports Puerto Cabello and La Guayra, where the
colouring or “Earthification” of the cacaos to be exported ensues. The
earth, varying in colour from a dirty yellow to brick-red, is mixed to
a thin paste with sea-water, and afterwards placed in the sun on large
sieves, or spread over cement floors. Where the colouring takes place
immediately on the plantation, the yellowish brown earth everywhere
available is utilised; and where sea-water cannot be obtained, as on
the Rio Tuy, for example, there the beans are coloured with a mixture
prepared from crushed and almost liquid cacao fruits and this same
yellowish brown earth, as the use of fresh water is thought to afford
but inferior protection against mould growths. Such juice-coloured
cacaos, and occasionally also the Ocumare sorts, are often covered
with a rather thick earthy crust. Professional opinion concerning the
utility of this colouring varies greatly. In France, the principal
country consuming Venezuelan cacao, it is still maintained that the
thin earthy crust not only enables the bean to resist the penetration
of mildew, but also admits of a kind of after-fermentation, together
with developement and preservation of the most valuable constituents
of the cacao bean. Colouring is then the rule for the finer Caracas
sorts, and all varieties shipped through Puerto Cabello; it is also in
use at Carupano, for export to Spain.

The Venezuelan cacaos are divided as follows, and with one exception
take their names from the chief shipping ports, to which they are
brought in small sailing vessels tapping the villages dotted along the
coast.

 1. ~Maracaibo~ cacao, the noble, large, and always uncoloured
 bean found on the shore of Sea of Maracaibo.

 2. ~Puerto Cabello~, quite the finest of all cacao sorts, with
 the following sub-classes, each named after tiny harbours in the
 vicinity: Chuáo, Borburato, Chichiriviche, San Felipe (coloured with
 its own peculiar light brown earth) Ocumare, Choroni.

 3. ~Caracas~ cacao, exceptionally so-called, although quite a
 small proportion, namely that brought over the mountains from the Rio
 Tuy district in donkey caravans, now touches the republican capital.
 La Guayra, rather, is the shipping port for the so-called Caracas
 sorts, to which belong all the cacaos from the fertile Barlavento
 district east of La Guayra, a region watered by two rivers, Rio Tuy
 and Rio Chico, and with the following outlets; Rio Chico (which gives
 its name to the most ordinary of sorts), Higuerote, and Capaya. The
 plantations hard on the mountainous coastal slopes produce a very fine
 bean, of equal value with the Puerto Cabello.

 4. ~Carupano~ cacao, a sound Venezuelan medium sort, generally
 coming into use uncoloured; the arrivals from the easterly harbour Rio
 Caribe also belong to this sort, and also the cacaos of Irapa, Guiria,
 and Cano Colorado, often shipped from the port of Trinidad lying
 opposite.

 From ~Angostura~ (Ciudad Bolivar) on the Orinoco and San Fernando
 on the Apure, only very insignificant quantities arrive.

 They speak of a Christmas and a Summer (June 21st) harvest in
 Venezuela; but the first four months of the year are generally the
 most productive. The total produce of Venezuela amounts to about
 16,000 tons, of which as export there fall to

  La Guayra          about 8,000 tons.
  Puerto Cabello     about 3,000 tons.
  Carupano                        about 4,500 tons.
  Maracabio and via Trinidad      about 500   tons.


C. The Antilles.

Trinidad produces a cacao which on many plantations, or estates, as
they are called, receives preparation at the hands of experts, and
is very highly esteemed in commerce, and especially in England and
France. The best and generally slightly coloured sorts are specified
as “Plantation”, the medium “Estates”, after the English name, and the
inferior “Fair Trinidad shipping cacao The bean “Trinidad criollo” is
oval, yet not so rounded as the Venezuelan; its kernel is for the most
part dark-coloured, still brown in the better varieties, but inky black
among the inferior. It is customary in Trinidad to trade the cacaos as
prime specimens and to assign to them the name of a species which not
infrequently furnishes no true indication of their origin. “Soconusco”
and “San Antonio” are particularly high-sounding; mention can further
be made of “Montserrat”, “La Gloria”, “Maraval”, “Belle Fleur”, “El
Reposo” etc. Chief harvest, December to February inclusive, by-harvest
May to August.

The total export from Trinidad amounts to about 22,500 tons yearly.
The substantially smaller island of Grenada, also British, contributes
about 6,000 tons a year to the world’s supply. Owing to the prevalence
of like climatic and geological conditions, the yield and quality are
here the same as on the neighbouring island of Trinidad. The chief
consumer of the Grenada cacaos is the Motherland, and the same holds
good for the small British islands of St. Vincent, St. Lucia and
Dominique, all of little import in the general trade of the world.

Martinique-and Guadeloupe-cacaos, hailing from the French islands so
named, with a yearly production varying from 5,000 to 7,500 tons,
only come into consideration for the consumption of the Motherland,
which affords them an abatement of 50 percent in connection with the
tariffs. San Domingo, the larger and eastern part of the Haiti island,
already contributes about 20,000 tons yearly to the universal harvest.
Especially in the last ten years has the cacao cultivation here
received considerable expansion (yield 1894 2,000 tons, 1904 13,500
tons) and as vast suitable tracts of land are to hand, this country
would justify the highest expectations, if the general political and
economical relations of the double republic and a certain indolence of
the planters, all small farmers, had not to be allowed for.

A methodical preparation only seldom takes place. Processes are limited
to a very necessary drying, as a rule, so that the cacao, excellent in
itself, takes rank among the lowest as a commercial quality. The chief
gatherings occur in the months of May, June and July. The shipping
ports are Puerta Plata on the north-coast, Sanchez and Sumana on the
Bight of Samana, and La Romana, San Pedro de Macoris and Santo Domingo
(the capital) on the south coast. Tiny Samana, situated on a small
tongue of land, and so outlet for no extensive region, has given its
name to Domingo cacao as a commercial sort, as from here the first
shipments were dispatched.

~Sanchez~ cacao, so named because Sanchez, where the transports
come from the fruitful district of Cibao as far as La Vega, is the
chief exporting harbour of the republic. From the same district,
starting at Santiago, there is yet another line, this time running
northwards to Puerto Plata on the coast. The cacao of this northerly
province of Cibao is generally held in higher esteem than that coming
from the southern harbours.

The United States, which have recently developed an interest in
the land for political reasons, have been promoted to first place
among its customers during the last few years; and then follow
France and Germany. It can only be hoped that this influence grows,
in view of the thereby doubtlessly accelerated improvements in the
preparation processes. Up to the present, varieties free from blame are
conspicuously rare. Uniformity as regards the weight of the sacks has
not been possible, owing to the diversity of the means of transport.
Districts lying along the railways, or close to the harbours, make use
of 80-100 kg. sacks (about 176-220 lbs.) But where transport must be
made on beasts of burden, sacks of from 65-70 kilos (143-154 lbs.) are
the rule.

~Haiti~ cacao, coming from the Negro republic of the same name,
is the most inferior of all commercial sorts, chiefly on account
of the incredibly neglective preparation which it undergoes, for
exceptions prove that the bean is capable of being developed into a
very serviceable cacao. Beans covered with a thick gray coloured earthy
crust, often even mixed with small pebbles and having a gritty, and
where healthy, black-brown beaking kernel. The “Liberty and Equality”
of the Negros and Mulattos in this corrupted republic are mirrored
in its plantation system, the land being cultivated but little, and
running almost wild. To effect a change in this state of affairs, that
island law must first of all be abolished, whereby every stranger is
prevented from acquiring landed estate in Haiti.

The yield, about 2,500 tons, is chiefly exported from Jérémic, then
also from the harbours Cap Haitien, Port de Paix, Petit Goave, and Port
au Prince. France and the United States are the principal customers.
The neighbouring island of

~Cuba~ also delivers the greater part of its cacao produce to
the United States, amounting to between 1,000 and 3,000 tons, a fact
explained by geographical, political and freight considerations.

Thanks to its careful preparation, this bean, which resembles the
Domingo in many respects, is preferred, and fetches a correspondingly
higher price. The shipping port is Santiago de Cuba, situated in the
south-eastern portion of the island.

Jamaica, with its yearly harvest of about 2,500 tons, principally
attends to the wants of the Mother Country.


II. African Cacao Varieties.

Cacao cultivation in Africa is of comparatively recent date. The
plantations found on the three islands San Thomé and Principe
(Portuguese), and Fernando Po (Spanish), lying in the Gulf of Guinea,
are the oldest. To the first-named island may be traced much of the
impulse given to cacao plantation in other African districts, so rapid
has been its success here, under the energetic guidance of the skilful
Portuguese planter, and the yet more effective propitious climatic
influences and favourable industrial conditions.

Rare sorts are nowhere to be met with, for the Forastero bean has
conquered the whole of Africa. The sorts produced are accordingly
rather adapted for general consumption. St. Thomas and the Gold Coast
provide a third of the world’s present-day cacao supply, and in the
English colony especially, the geological and climatic conditions are
of such a kind, that the

~Gold Coast~ might very well become to the raw cacao market of the
future what the Brazilian province, San Paulo, is now to the coffee
trade.

In the middle of the “Eighties”, the Swiss Missionary Society planted
in the vicinity of their station, and so started the cultivation of
the cacao tree now flourishing throughout the land. The first fruits
came to Europe in 1891, and in 1894 already totalled 20 tons. In 1901
it was 1,000 tons, 1906 approaching 10,000 tons, and the year 1911
provided the record with about 40,000 tons. It is true that complaints
were long and rightly lodged concerning the inferior quality, due to
carelessness on the part of the natives in conducting the processes
of preparation. But since the year 1909, there have appeared on the
market side by side with the inferior and so-called current qualities,
which still retains more or less of the defects of the earlier produce,
another and properly fermented cacao, in no mean quantities; it is very
popular in all cacao-consuming lands, and fetches from 2 to 3 shillings
per cwt. more than the current qualities. All this has been achieved
through intelligent and sympathetic guidance and control of the small
native planter on the government’s part, without resource to any large
organised plantation system.

~Accra~ cacao, then, as the sorts of the African Gold Coast are
collectively named, also promises to be the cacao of the future, if
it can maintain its quantitative and qualitative excellence. There is
indeed no want of soil and adequate labour strength in that province.
Apart from Accra, Addah, Axim, Cape Coast Castle, Prampram, Winebah,
Saltpond, Secondi must be mentioned above all. The chief harvest is
from October to February.

~Togo~, the small German colony adjoining the British Gold Coast, has
till now had only a yearly yield of 250 tons in a variety resembling
Accra. The excellent beans prepared on the plantations fetch several
shillings a cwt. more than Accra, whilst the deliveries of the natives
rank below the current specimens of this sort. Its port is Lome.

~Lagos~, the British Colony bordering on Dahomey and east of the Gold
Coast, is watered by the Niger and possesses cacao exporting ports in
Lagos, Bonni and Old Calabar, and exports about 4,000 tons of a sort
resembling Accra, but nevertheless not so well prepared and so of
inferior value.

The cacao plantations of the Lagos colony,—more properly known as
Southern Nigeria—lie on either side of the great Niger delta, in low
lying land where the climatic and geological conditions are quite
different from those in the neighbouring German possession of

~Kameroon~, in which country steep slopes and the narrow coastal strip
at the foot of the Kameroon range, lofty mountains, perhaps 13,000
ft. high, constitute the cacao cultivating region. Consequently the
same variety of seed, the Forastero, here produces a different kind of
fruit. The Kameroon bean has its own peculiar characteristics; although
there is some resemblance to that produced on the opposite islands of
Fernando Po, Principe, and St. Thomas; and the milder sorts from the
“Victoria” and “Moliwa” plantations often do duty as a substitute for
the latter variety. There is no other bean which contains so much
acid as the Kameroon, and although this statement must be modified in
view of improvements in recent years, the fact prevents the largest of
German colonial sorts from serving as any other than a mixing variety.

Cultivation is the rule throughout Kameroon, with the exception of
Doula, and the produce of the separate plantations, such as Victoria,
Bibundi, and Moliwe, Bimbia, Debundscha and so forth, all of which
belong to large Berlin and Hamburg companies, is influenced and
differentiated by variations in the technique of preparation. There
are smooth beans with blackish-brown shells, and others of a red-brown
hue and shrivelled, some with traces of fruit pulp, and others again
quite light-coloured, with occasional black specks resulting from a too
thorough drying.

The chief gathering begins in September and ends in January.
Exportation began in the year 1899 with 5 cwts. The produce in 1898
figured at 200 tons and it had in the year 1910 grown to 3,500 tons.
Germany is of course the principal consumer, although England has since
1909 bought very much Kameroon cacao as St. Thomas.

~Kongo~ is a bean resembling the finer St. Thomas, but smaller and
often smoky. It comes on the market via Antwerp. Up to the present
French Congo has only produced a few thousand hundredweights yearly,
but the Belgian Congo Free State has managed to achieve an annual
output of 900 tons towards the close of the last decade; and when this
country takes the Gold Coast as model, perhaps Congo cacao will one day
play an important rôle in the world of commerce.

~St. Thomas~, the small Portuguese island lying in the Gulf of
Guinea, and almost on the Equator, produces a sort which enjoys immense
popularity, and especially in Germany, which traces a fourth part of
its consumption back to this island. The export figures are

  1889       2,000 tons.
  1894       6,000 tons.
  1899      11,500 tons.
  1904      18,000 tons.
  1910      38,000 tons.

These are estimates which make the Portuguese planter worthy of all
respect. It is true that “Black ivory” has been utilised on a large
scale, the exploiting of black labour having resulted in a boycotting
of these St. Thomas sorts on the part of some English manufacturers,
but less on account of harsh treatment on the plantations themselves as
the manner of recruiting in Angola.

Fine Thomas is the description of those sorts which have been used
in an unmixed condition owing to their indigestibility, but properly
gathered and fermented. The inferior and slightly damaged cacaos picked
out from these are called by the Portuguese planter “Escolas”, or
assorted. Yet they do not come into commerce under this designation,
being mostly used for making up sample collections which illustrate the
difference between these and ~Fine Thomas~. The latter is traded
through Lisbon “On Approval of Sample

All the St. Thomas cacao trade passes through Lisbon; for the tariff
regulations of the Portuguese government make direct connection between
the island and the consuming land practically impossible. France indeed
chooses the route via Madeira, unloading and reloading, to avoid the
additional duties. The cacao is at Lisbon stored in the two great
Custom-houses there, and prepared for despatch to the respective lands.
Fine St. Thomas is reshipped in the original sacks.

The samples are offered under various marks, either the initials of
the planter or the name of a plantation. We mention a few of the best
known; U. B., D. V., R. O., “M. Valle Flor”, “Boa Entrada”, “Monte
Café”, “Santa Catarina”, “Pinheira”, “Agua Izé”, “Colonia Acoriana”,
“Queluz”, “Gue Gue”, “Rosema”, “Pedroma”, “Monte Macaco

The beans vary, as far as shell and kernel are concerned, according
to the mode of preparation on the plantations and the structure of
the soil from which they spring. Many which were formerly universally
esteemed are now no longer preferred because the soil in the meantime
has been worked out; and many are now described under different marks.
Yet particular characteristics still continue; there are mild and
strong sorts, smooth and shrivelled varieties which look as though they
have been washed, and others black like the Cameroon bean. All are
offered as Fine Thomas, and enjoy an immense popularity.

Good ~medium Thomas~ is the commercial designation of those
cacaos hailing from small plantations which have undergone a scarcely
sufficient preparation owing to the lack of proper apparatus, and
which are always interspersed with black or sham beans. In so far
as these are delivered from large plantations, they generally owe
their origin to overripe fruit, probably overlooked in the gathering
season; or fruits bitten by the rats which infest this island may also
contribute such beans. Almost all these inferior cacaos are sorted
in the Lisbon custom-houses, and thinned down to the quality “Medium
Thomas” free from objection or “Good Medium Thomas The two months of
the Summer harvest, July and August, supply a somewhat better variety
of cacao, known in commerce as “Pajol”, i. e. literally, “Hailing from
the country”, which generally fetches a rather higher price. During
the Winter harvest from November to February the medium St. Thomas
varieties come on the market, but not before the beginning of the
year, as previous to that point of time only the regular harvest of
~Fine St. Thomas~ comes into consideration. All attempts on the
part of consumers to effect an improvement in the quality of the medium
varieties have unfortunately hitherto proved abortive, for they are
regarded as by-produce on the larger estates, and the small ones do not
possess the apparatus necessary for a thorough preparation. Then again
it is seen that these inferior sorts are taken off the market at very
reasonable prices.

Fernando Po, a mountainous island, situated immediately off Cameroon,
may be regarded as a source of supply for the Motherland, Spain,
and only as such, for its yearly output of 2500 tons need fear no
competition, thanks to the excessive tariffs laid on the produce of
other lands here. The qualities here are inferior to those from St.
Thomas and Cameroon, chiefly because most plantation are in the hands
of blacks and consequently not well managed.

~German East Africa~, ~Madagascar~, ~Mayotta~ (Comoren) and ~Réunion~
with their dwarfish yield are only worthy of passing mention.


III. Asiatic Cacao Sorts.

The only cacao plantations deserving the name on the continent of
Asia are those occurring on the two islands of Ceylon and Java, both
producing a sort differing entirely from the Africans, the predominant
seedling here planted being the Trinidad-Criollo. The Ceylon-Java bean
is, like the genuine Criollo, oval shaped, inclining to a sphere; its
kernel is light brown and among the finer sorts even whitish. So both
varieties are principally used for colouring and covering the cacao
mass, for neither has a very pronounced flavour. The shell is light
brown or reddish brown after washing, and appears free from all traces
of pulp. It sits loosely on the kernel, at least in the case of the
Java bean, and is consequently often met with broken.

~Ceylon~, with the shipping port of Colombo, produces in a good
year from 3,500 to 4,000 tons, about two-thirds of which are traded
through London. Direct shipments to Germany have recently been more
and more frequent; Australia also claims consideration as a consuming
land.

The different sorts, or rather, qualities, for a very careful
preparation ensures the excellence of the goods, go under the
description fine, or medium, or ordinary, and occasionally are
utilised as typical examples. The better sorts come exclusively from
plantations, and the ordinary are the result of native enterprise.

~Java~ also produces a large quantity, the cacao here being chiefly
planted on the north side of this long, narrow island. More than a half
is exported from the port of Samarang, then follow Batavia, Soerabaja
and a few minor places, with a total output of about 2,500 tons. The
larger proportion of this cacao is sold in the markets of Amsterdam
and Rotterdam to Dutch merchants, who pass it on to other consuming
countries. England, North America, Australia, China and the Philippines
are the chief customers.

Those sorts coming from the neighbouring islands of Celebes, Timor,
Bali, Amboina and Lombok may also be considered as sub-classes of the
Java; but they do not total more than 75 tons.


IV. Australian Cacao Sorts.

Cacao plantation in Australia is still in its early stages. Most
progressive is

~Samoa~, which has increased its 1900 export of 30 cwt. to 200 tons at
the present time, among which right excellent qualities occur, culled
from Criollo trees. The deteriorated Forastero has also recently been
planted, which we must allow to be more fruitful and less dependent on
careful nursing. The Samoa Criollo bean resembles the large fine Ceylon
variety, except that it has a more pronounced flavour.

~New Guinea and Bismarck-Archipelagoes~ can only claim casual mention
as experimentally interested in cacao cultivation.


g) The Trade in Cacao and the Consumption of Cacao Products; Statistics.

Although cacao and cacao products have always been held in the highest
esteem, ever since they first became known in Europe, yet price
considerations long prevented them from enjoying the same widespread
popularity among the lower classes as tea and coffee. Thanks, however,
to the improved means of transport established in the course of
the last fifty years, which has cheapened all exotic produce, the
demand for these wares has of late been more frequent and urgent,
and is reflected in the constantly increasing influx of cacao on the
European markets and the systematic opening out of new regions to the
raw material, just as corresponding extensions in the factory world
contribute towards a reduction in the cost of the products. Hence cacao
may now be described as a luxury within the reach of everyman. Its
diffusion among all grades of the population may be regarded as a great
blessing, for in it has arisen a new [Transcriber’s Note: a line is
missing here] merely a stimulant, like tea or coffee, but a beverage in
the proper sense of the term, analytically so established.

It will accordingly prove of interest to glance through the returns
in connection with the trade in these goods, their importation
and exportation, commercial values of the same, and the relative
consumption of cacao, tea and coffee.

Such figures are always at hand. The surprisingly rapid growth of the
cacao cultivation, and the manufacture of cacao products, is e. g.
at once apparent in statistics furnished by the French government.
In 1857 the number of 5,304,207 kilos of beans were consumed there.
The importations of the year 1895, on the other hand, amounted to
32,814,724 kilos, having in the space of 38 years increased more than
sixfold. Of this quantity, almost the half, comprising about 15,234,163
kilos, is disposed of retail.

Turning to the trade in Germany, the cacao industry here and its
consumption,[19] we are again greeted with cheery prospects. According
to the official inquiry, German trade in Cacao products for the years
1907-1910 is shown in the following table:

~Table~ 1.

  ========================+===================+============================
  No. on offic. statistics|                   |  Exports from Germany
      +———————————————————+                   |Duty|
      |Description|     Imports to Germany    |Free|—————— inclusive —————
      |           | 1907 | 1908 | 1909 | 1910 |1910| 1907| 1908| 1909| 1910
  ====+===========+======+======+======+======+====+=====+=====+=====+=====
      |           |      |      |      |      |    |     |     |     |
   63 |Cacao Bean |      |      |      |      |    |     |     |     |
      | raw       |345154|343519|407248|439413|  — | 1390| 1186| 1429| 1620
      |           |      |      |      |      |    |     |     |     |
   64 |Cacao Shell|      |      |      |      |    |     |     |     |
      | whole     |    55|     1|     6|     6|  — |12802| 9901|11825|17006
      |           |      |      |      |      |    |     |     |     |
  168 |Cacao Butter|     |      |      |      |    |     |     |     |
      | Cacao Oil |   243|   106|   208|  263|22223|20804|18494|27291|22465
      |           |      |      |      |      |    |     |     |     |
  203a|Cacao Mass,|      |      |      |      |    |     |     |     |
      |Ground Cacao|     |      |      |      |    |     |     |     |
      | shells    |   165|  1196|   128|    58| 125| 3430| 3519| 3694| 5219
      |           |      |      |      |      |    |     |     |     |
  203b|Cacao      |  6792|  8148|  6497|  6446|2599| 3050| 1752| 2803| 3755
      |  Powder   |      |      |      |      |    |     |     |     |
      |           |      |      |      |      |    |     |     |     |
  204a|Chocolate &|      |      |      |      |    |     |     |     |
      | Chocolate |      |      |      |      |    |     |     |     |
      |Equivalents| 11636| 10050| 12197| 15183|1513| 5021| 3671| 4609| 4712
      |           |      |      |      |      |    |     |     |     |
  204b|Products   |      |      |      |      |    |     |     |     |
      |from Cacao |      |      |      |      |    |     |     |     |
      |Mass, Cacao|      |      |      |      |    |     |     |     |
      | Powder,   |      |      |      |      |    |     |     |     |
      |Chocolate  |      |      |      |      |    |     |     |     |
      |   and     |      |      |      |      |    |     |     |     |
      | Chocolate |      |      |      |      |    |     |     |     |
      |Equivalents,|     |      |      |      |    |     |     |     |
      | Acorn, and|      |      |      |      |    |     |     |     |
      | Oat cacaos|  1239|  1281|  1258|  1140|2027| 4260| 4439| 4555| 4964

The year 1910 brought a total import of 878,413 cwts. of raw cacao,
thus overtopping the figures of the previous year, which had created a
record with 814,496 cwts., by 64,330 cwts.

Coming to the geographical distribution, we find that they were
imported into Germany in the following proportions, namely:

                                                              Comparison
                                              1910     1909      with
                                                               previous
                                                                 years
  British West Africa                 cwts.  206 180  189 686  +  6 494
  Port. West Africa (St. Thomas etc.)  "     239 756  181 230  + 58 526
  Brazil (Bahia)                       "     128 760  137 396  -  8 636
  Ecuador (Guayaquil)                  "      97 454  101 038  -  3 584
  Dominican Republic (Samana)          "      64 932   66 210  -  1 278
  The Rest of British America          "      21 266   40 658  -  5 08
  Venezuela                            "      40 068   36 002  - 44 26
  Cameroon                             "      20 426   22 026  -  1 420
  Ceylon                               "      15 892   12 488  -  3 402
  East Indies (Dutch)                  "       8 802    6 772  -  2 030
  Cuba                                 "       2 610    3 066  -    456
  Haiti                                "       3 676    2 614  -  1 562
  Samoa                                "       3 216    2 230  -    314
  Togo                                 "         564      250  -    314

These figures, which we quote from the Thirty First Year’s Report of
the Association of German Chocolate Makers, speak volumes for the
recent development of the cacao trade. It is interesting, in view of
recent occurrences, to note the quantities despatched from the various
places. The importations from St. Thomas, for instance, show a striking
increase. They stand at the head of the raw cacao products coming into
Germany, with 239,756 cwts., and have pushed Accras down to second
place, this variety having failed to maintain its 1909 lead, for 1910
did not add more than 6,496 cwts. to its previous total of 199,686
cwts. Bahias came third, then as now, with 128,760 cwts. This order has
not always remained constant, but has suffered considerable deviations
in progressive years. We give below a table showing the chief cacao
producing lands and their imports into Germany between 1900 and 1908.

~Table~ 2. =Imports in Germany in tons.=

  ——————————————————————————————————————————————————
              | 1900 | 1901 |  1902  | 1903 | 1904 |
  ————————————+——————+——————+————————+——————+——————+
  Brit. West  |      |      |        |      |      |
    Africa    |      |      |        |      |      |
    Gold Coast|      |      |        |      |      |
    (Accra)   |  ——  |  ——  |   559·1| 935·2|1580·9|
  Portuguese  |      |      |        |      |      |
    West      |      |      |        |      |      |
    Africa    |      |      |        |      |      |
    (St.      |      |      |        |      |      |
    Thomas)   |2501·6|3116·0|  4069·2|3878·8|4526·6|
  Brazil      |      |      |        |      |      |
    (Bahia)   |3776·8|3239·0|  3125·5|2599·8|4130·4|
  Ecuador     |      |      |        |      |      |
    (Guaquil) |5397·9|4744·8|  4728·6|5092·7|5689·8|
  Dominican   |      |      |        |      |      |
    Republic  |      |      |        |      |      |
    (Samana)  | 586·1|1853·0|  2448·8|3116·0|4562·4|
  Rest of     |      |      |        |      |      |
    British   |      |      |        |      |      |
    North     |      |      |        |      |      |
    America   |1436·9|1195·6|  1544·7|1292·3|1851·5|
  Venezuela   |      |      |        |      |      |
    (Caracas) |1158·5| 956·6|   893·2| 829·4|1280·3|
  Cameroon    |  ——  | 190·9|   361·5| 470·7| 647·5|
  Ceylon      |  ——  | 107·4|   344·9| 350·1| 497·7|
  East Indies |      |      |        |      |      |
    (Dutch)   |  ——  |  ——  |   ——   |  ——  |  ——  |
  Cuba        |  ——  | 299·8|   345·3| 144·7| 189·0|
  Samoa       |  ——  |  ——  |   ——   | 101·3| 203·8|
  Columbia    |  ——  | 112·6|   104·3|  52·6|  ——  |
  Togo        |  ——  |  ——  |   ——   |  ——  |   3·7|
  via The     |      |      |        |      |      |
    Nether-   |      |      |        |      |      |
    lands     | 122·1| 363·9|   357·6|  60·9|  ——  |
  via Portugal|      |      |        |      |      |
    (probably |      |      |        |      |      |
    Thomas)   | 988·1|1311·4|  1349·1|2447·7|1734·9|
  Haiti       |1796·0| 340·4|In con- |  ——  |  ——  |
              |      |      |sequence|      |      |
              |      |      |of      |      |      |
              |      |      |tariff  |      |      |
              |      |      |struggle|      |      |

  ———————————————————————————————————————-
              | 1905 | 1906 | 1907 | 1908
  ————————————+——————+——————+——————+——————
  Brit. West  |      |      |      |
    Africa    |      |      |      |
    Gold Coast|      |      |      |
    (Accra)   |2775·9|4045·9|6009·2|5752·5
  Portuguese  |      |      |      |
    West      |      |      |      |
    Africa    |      |      |      |
    (St.      |      |      |      |
    Thomas)   |4259·3|4969·6|5559·9|7303·8
  Brazil      |      |      |      |
    (Bahia)   |4506·4|6106·1|6937·2|6233·7
  Ecuador     |      |      |      |
    (Guaquil) |5350·3|4693·6|4245·0|4123·6
  Dominican   |      |      |      |
    Republic  |      |      |      |
    (Samana)  |4514·1|5663·8|4037·4|4574·3
  Rest of     |      |      |      |
    British   |      |      |      |
    North     |      |      |      |
    America   |2009·0|2503·6|2293·2|2083·7
  Venezuela   |      |      |      |
    (Caracas) |1380·9|1685·9|2365·0|1435·6
  Cameroon    | 839·4|1199·0|1240·3|1397·7
  Ceylon      | 589·3| 588·0| 788·0| 604·7
  East Indies |      |      |      |
    (Dutch)   |  ——  |  ——  | 333·4| 347·2
  Cuba        | 195·6|  ——  | 331·4| 120·6
  Samoa       | 140·0|  ——  |  52·9| 124·2
  Columbia    |  ——  |  ——  |  75·2|  66·7
  Togo        |   6·0|  ——  |  15·0|  18·6
  via The     |      |      |      |
    Nether-   |      |      |      |
    lands     |  ——  |  ——  |  ——  |  ——
  via Portugal|      |      |      |
    (probably |      |      |      |
    Thomas)   |2853·4|2714·9| 103·3|  ——
  Haiti       |  ——  |  ——  |  ——  |  ——


The consumption of cacao in other civilised countries shows a
corresponding increase, although with occasional divergencies and
astounding relapses. We give the following table (3) to indicate its
progress between the years 1901 and 1908, and to facilitate comparison.

It must be borne in mind, when making use of this table (specially in
connection with Germany) that the falling off in the years 1907-8 is to
be attributed to the abnormally bad harvests and consequent increase in
prices.

~Table~ 3. =Import or Consumption in the Various Lands in tons.=

  ————————————————-+————————-+————————-+————————-+————————-+
                   |  1901   |  1902   |  1903   |  1904   |
  =================+=========+=========+=========+=========+
  The United States|         |         |         |         |
   of North America|2066595·8|2312072·8|2850808·2|3216415·6|
  Germany          |1841000·0|2060170·0|2163440·0|2710140·0|
  France           |1791650·0|1934300·0|2074150·0|2179450·0|
  England          |1890800·0|2038600·0|1868119·2|2054250·4|
  Holland          |1437300·0|1466627·4|1073047·4|1218440·0|
  Spain            | 593107·7| 925997·6| 602675·2| 581635·9|
  Switzerland      | 436330·0| 570700·0| 585650·0| 683910·0|
  Belgium          | 186548·7| 227763·3| 276779·1| 279200·8|
  Austria-Hungary  | 168650·0| 182010·0| 203460·0| 251010·0|
  Russia           |   —     |   —     | 190068·0| 205570·0|

  ————————————————-+————————-+————————-+————————-+————————-
                   |  1905   |  1906   |  1907   |  1908
  =================+=========+=========+=========+=========
  The United States|         |         |         |
   of North America|3523164·5|3794857·5|3752650·5|4261529·3
  Germany          |2963310·0|3526050·0|3451540·0|3435190·0
  France           |2174760·0|2340380·0|2318030·0|2044450·0
  England          |2119071·2|2013204·0|2015947·2|2105152·0
  Holland          |1073740·0|1122400·0|1221924·9|1582100·0
  Spain            | 610171·2| 563682·1| 562823·9| 658011·3
  Switzerland      | 521840·0| 646690·0| 712420·0| 582050·0
  Belgium          | 301899·7| 386168·6| 325396·7| 455408·1
  Austria-Hungary  | 266850·0| 331280·0| 347170·0| 370730·0
  Russia           | 222768·0| 267094·0| 247338·0| 258806·0

The relative consumption of coffee, tea and cacao has also inclined in
favour of the latter as far as Germany is concerned. According to the
19th. Report of the Association of German Chocolate Makers, No. 7,
the imports which passed through the custom-houses of that country, and
intended for consumption, figured at the following in tons; though in
this connection it is as well to remember that the German ton is about
50 lbs. less than the English.

                Coffee         Cacao        Tea
             (raw in bean)  (raw in bean)
  1886          12 360·5      3 686·7     1618·5
  1887         101 833·4      4 295·0     1760·0
  1888         114 658·1      4 979·8     1778·4
  1889         113 228·5      5 565·1     1875·0
  1890         118 126·3      6 246·5     1995·0
  1891         125 611·2      7 087·0     2221·0
  1892         122 031·9      7 460·9     2479·0
  1893         122 190·5      7 960·9     2676·0
  1894         122 357·5      8 319·9     2840·0
  1895         122 390·2      9 950·9     2544·0
  1896         129 896·6     12 209·5     2471·0
  1897         136 395·0     14 692·5     2852·0
  1898         153 270·4     15 464·9     3661·9

From the above columns it will be seen that the importation of coffee
has only increased 24 percent, that of tea 125 percent, but that
of cacao at the surprising rate of 330 percent. A comparison of the
totals for coffee, tea and cacao in the years 1886, 1898 & 1906 will
make the proportions still more evident.

                 1886     1898     1906
                ——————   ——————   ——————
  Coffee         96·0%    89·0%    82·6%
  Cacao           2·8%     8·9%    15·6%
  Tea             1·2%     2·1%     1·8%
                ————————————————————————
      Total     100·0%   100·0%   100·0%

So that whilst in the year 1886 thirty-five times as much coffee as
cacao found its way into Germany, the imports for 1898 were ten, and in
1906 only five and a half times greater in the case of the first named
article. It follows that there has been a corresponding increase as
regards cacao consumption in Germany. A momentary survey of the graphs
in Fig. 5, which we owe to the kindness of Herr Greiert, Managing
Director of the Association of German Chocolate Manufacturers, will
make this clear to the reader; and the diagram there illustrates the
relative growth of cacao consumption in Germany, when compared with
other countries. On calculating the quantity of cacao consumed per
head of the population, we get a graph (fig. 6) which puts the rapid
increases in this direction at a glance.

 [Illustration: Fig. 5. _Ausgestellt vom Verband deutscher
 Chocoladefabrikanten._

 Sitz Dresden

 _Verbrauch von Rohkakao_ 1896-1901

 in _Frankreich_. _Grossbrittanien._ _Holland_ den _Verein. Staaten v.
 N-A._ und _Deutschland_ in 1000 Dz. (100 kg).

 _Einfuhr von Rohkakao über die Deutsche Zollgrenze_ 1883-1901 _in
 Doppelzentnern_.

 _Prozentuale-Steigerung_ des durchschnittl. Verbrauchs von _Kakao_ (in
 Bohnen) _Kaffee_ u. _Tee_ in _Deutschland_ verglichen mit dem Stande
 von 1840. ]

 [Illustration: Fig. 6.

 Consumption of Cacao in Germany.

 Gramm Kakao auf den Kopf der Bevölkerung

 Graphical representation per head of the population for the last 75
 years.]

The curve for the last ten years represents enormous advances, and
contrasts with the more even line developed in earlier years. According
to official reports, the average consumption of cacao per head between
the years 1861-5 amounted to 0·03 kg. (tea 0·02 kg. and coffee 1·87
kg.) but had in 1910 risen to an average of 0·53 kg. per head.




B. Chemical Constitution of the Bean.


a) The Cacao Bean Proper.

Just as the beans of the cacao fruit are included under the botanical
concept “Seed”, so also their chemical constituents closely resemble
those common to every other seed. There are the usual reserve stuffs
inherited from the mother plant, which serve as sustenance for the
yet undeveloped organs, and compare with albumen in the feathered
world. Apart from the constituents incidental to all plant life at
this stage, such as albumin, starch, water, fat, sugar, cellulose and
mineral stuffs such as ash, the cacao seed has two other components
peculiar to itself; ~Theobromine~ and ~Cacao-red~. We adjoin
a succession of chemical determinations respecting the quantitative
proportions of these substances in the seed, and think further that we
may be allowed to cite the results of fore-time investigators in this
sphere, especially as their work has formed the basis for all future
operations, and again, in view of the doubt which still prevails in
scientific circles as to the “Normal” composition of the cacao bean.


~Table~ 4.

Percentage Composition of the Hulled Bean.

  =====================+=============+==================================
        Analyst        |   Payen[20] |Lampadius[20]|  Mitscherlich[20]
  =====================+=============+=============+===========+========
  Constituents percent| Undescribed | West Indies | Guayaquil | Caracas
  =====================+=============+=============+===========+========
  1. Water             |    10·0     |     3·40    |    5·60   |   —
  2. Nitrogenous matter|    20·0     |    16·70    |   14·39   |   —
  3. Theobromine       |     2·2     |      —      |    1·20   |   —
  4. Fat               |    52·0     |    53·10    |   45-49   |  46-49
  5. Cacao-red         |      —      |     2·07    |    3·50   |   —
  6. Sugar             |      —      |      —      |    0·60   |   —
  7. Gum and Starch    |    10·0     |     7·75    |   14·30   |  13·5
  8. Woody fibre       |     2·0     |     0·90    |    5·80   |   —
  9. Ash               |     4·0     |     3·43    |    3·50   |   —


~Table~ 5.

                                   Laube     &       Aldendorff
                           |—————————————————|—————————————————————————|
  ========================+========+=========+========+=======+========+
         Constituents     |Caracas |Guayaquil|Trinidad|Puerto |Surinam |
          percent        |        |         |        |Cabello|        |
  ========================+========+=========+========+=======+========+
  1. Water                |   4·04 |  3·63   |  2·81  |  2·96 |  3·76  |
  2. Nitrogenous          |        |         |        |       |        |
  matter                  |  14·68 | 14·68   | 15·06  | 15·03 | 11·00  |
  3. Fat                  |  46·18 | 49·04   | 48·32  | 50·57 | 54·40  |
  4. Starch               |  12·74 | 11·56   | 14·91  | 12·94 |    —   |
  5. Other non-nitrogenous|        |         |        |       |        |
      matter              |  18·50 | 12·64   | 12·06  | 11·49 | 28·32  |
  6. Woody fibre          |   4·20 |  4·13   |  3·62  |  3·07 |    —   |
  7. Ash                  |   3·86 |  3·72   |  3·22  |  3·94 |  2·35  |

                                         C. Heisch
                          |—————————————————————————————————|
  ========================+=========+=======+=======+=======+
         Constituents     | Granada | Bahia | Cuba  | Para
          percent        |         |       |       |
  ========================+=========+=======+=======+=======+
  1. Water                |   3·90  |  4·40 |  3·72 |  3·96
  2. Nitrogenous          |         |       |       |
  matter                  |  12·45  |  7·31 |  8·56 | 12·50
  3. Fat                  |  45·60  | 50·30 | 45·30 | 54·30
  4. Starch               |     —   |    —  |    —  |   —
  5. Other non-nitrogenous|         |       |       |
      matter              |  35·70  | 35·30 | 39·41 | 26·33
  6. Woody fibre          |     —   |    —  |    —  |   —
  7. Ash                  |   2·40  |  2·60 |  5·90 |  3·06

The analyses carried out by Zipperer in the year 1886 yielded the
following results[21]:

~Table~ 6.

A) Analysis of the Raw Shelled Bean (Kernel).

  =========================+============================================
                           |                  Names of Sorts
        Constituents       +—————————-+—————————-+—————————-+—————————-+
          percent         |  Ariba   | Machala  | Caracas  | Puerto   |
                           |          |Guayaquil |          | Cabello  |
  =========================+==========+==========+==========+==========+
  1. Moisture              |   8·35   |   6·33   |   6·50   |   8·40   |
  2. Fat                   |  50·39   |  52·68   |  50·31   |  53·01   |
  3. Cacaotannic acid,     |          |          |          |          |
      sugar, decomposition |          |          |          |          |
      products, phlobaphene|   8·91   |  13·72   |  10·76   |   7·85   |
  4. Theobromine           |   0·35   |   0·33   |   0·77   |   0·54   |
  5. Starch                |   5·78   |   8·29   |   7·65   |  10·05   |
  6. Cellulose and proteins|  22·10   |  14·45   |  19·84   |  15·83   |
                           |Proteins  |Proteins  |Proteins  |Proteins  |
                           |   to     |   to     |   to     |   to     |
                           |cellulose |cellulose |cellulose |cellulose |
  7. In the ratio          |  7·3:1   |   5:1    |  6·6:1   |  5·3:1   |
  8. Ash                   |   5·12   |   4·17   |    4·17  |   4·32   |
  =========================+============================================

                           |             Names of Sorts
        Constituents       +—————————-+—————————-+—————————-+————————-
          percent         | Surinam  | Trinidad | Port au  | Average
                           |          |          |  Prince  |
  =========================+==========+==========+==========+=========
  1. Moisture              |   7·07   |   6·20   |   6·94   |    7·11
  2. Fat                   |  50·86   |  51·57   |  53·66   |   51·78
  3. Cacaotannic acid,     |          |          |          |
      sugar, decomposition |          |          |          |
      products, phlobaphene|   8·31   |   9·46   |  11·39   |   10·02
  4. Theobromine           |   0·50   |   0·40   |   0·32   |    0·45
  5. Starch                |   6·41   |  11·07   |   8·96   |    8·33
  6. Cellulose and proteins|  24·13   |  18·43   |  15·81   |   18·71
                           |Proteins  |Proteins  |Proteins  | Proteins
                           |   to     |   to     |   to     |    to
                           |cellulose |cellulose |cellulose | cellulose
  7. In the ratio          |   8:1    |   6:1    | 5·25:1   |   6·2:1
  8. Ash                   |   2·72   |   2·87   |   2·92   |    3·60


In addition to these, there is an exhaustive succession of analyses
conducted by Ridenour,[22] which we accordingly submit as Table 8.
Following Filsinger,[23] we cannot regard these analyses as an
absolutely trustworthy representation of the “Normal” composition of
the cacao bean, the values in starch, albumin and ash considerably
deviating from all that have been established up to the present time.
Among more recent researches, we cite those carried out by Matthes and
Fritz Müller.[24]

~Table~ 7.

=B) Analysis of the Raw Shelled Bean (Kernel).=

  ===============+===============================================
                 |                      Names of Sorts
                 +——————-+——————-+——————-+——————-+——————-+——————-+
  Constituents   |       |Machala|       |       |       |       |
   percent      | Ariba | Guaya-|Caracas|Puerto |Surinam|Trini- |
                 |       | quil  |       |Cabello|       | dad   |
  ===============+=======+=======+=======+=======+=======+=======+
  1. Moisture    |  8·52 |  6·25 |  7·48 |  6·58 |  4·04 |  7·85 |
  2. Fat         | 50·07 | 52·09 | 49·24 | 48·40 | 49·88 | 48·14 |
  3. Cacaotannic |       |       |       |       |       |       |
     acid, sugar |       |       |       |       |       |       |
     and phloba- |       |       |       |       |       |       |
     phene       |  8·61 |  7·84 |  6·85 |  8·25 |  8·08 |  7·69 |
  4. Theobromine |  0·30 |  0·31 |  0·05 |  0·52 |  0·54 |  0·42 |
  5. Starch      |  9·10 | 11·59 |  9·85 | 10·96 | 10·19 |  8·72 |
  6. Cellulose   |       |       |       |       |       |       |
     and protein |       |       |       |       |       |       |
     bodies      | 19·43 | 18·17 | 22·16 | 21·21 | 24·39 | 23·06 |
        Proteins |  Pro  |  Pro  |  Pro  |  Pro  |  Pro  |  Pro  |
           to    |   :   |   :   |   :   |   :   |   :   |   :   |
        cellulose|  cel  |  cel  |  cel  |  cel  |  cel  |  cel  |
  7. In the ratio| 6·5:1 |   6:1 | 7·7:1 |   7:1 |   8:1 | 7·6:1 |
  8. Ash         |  3·89 |  3·75 |  3·92 |  4·08 |  2·88 |  4·12 |

  ===============+===============
                 |
                 +——————-+——————+
  Constituents   |       |      |
   percent      |Port au| Aver-|
                 |Prince |  age |
  ===============+=======+======+
  1. Moisture    |  6·27 |  6·71|
  2. Fat         | 46·90 | 49·24|
  3. Cacaotannic |       |      |
     acid, sugar |       |      |
     and phloba- |       |      |
     phene       |  7·19 |  7·78|
  4. Theobromine |  0·36 |  0·43|
  5. Starch      | 12·64 | 10·43|
  6. Cellulose   |       |      |
     and protein |       |      |
     bodies      | 21·82 | 21·43|
        Proteins |  Pro  |  Pro |
           to    |   :   |   :  |
        cellulose|  cel  |  cel |
  7. In the ratio| 7·3:1 | 7·1:1|
  8. Ash         |  4·82 |  3·92|


~Table~ 8. =Ridenour.=

  ==============+==========================================
                |             Commercial Varieties
                +—————+—————+—————+—————+—————+—————+—————+
                |     |     |     |     |Roas-|     |     |
  Constituents  |Bahia|Suri-|Java |Trin-| ted |Ariba|Cara-|
   percent     |     | nam |     | idad|Trin-|     | cas |
                |     |     |     |     | idad|     |     |
  ==============+=====+=====+=====+=====+=====+=====+=====+
  1. Fat        |42·10|41·03|45·50|43·66|41·89|43·31|36·81|
  2. Theobromine| 1·08| 0·93| 1·16| 0·85| 0·93| 0·86| 1·13|
  3. Albumin    | 7·50|10·54| 9·25|11·90|12·02|10·14|10·59|
  4. Glucose    | 1·07| 1·27| 1·23| 1·38| 1·48| 0·42| 2·76|
  5. Saccharose | 0·51| 0·35| 0·51| 0·32| 0·28| 1·58| 1·56|
  6. Starch     | 7·53| 3·61| 5·17| 4·98| 5·70| 6·37| 3·81|
  7. Lignin     | 7·86| 3·90| 6·10| 5·65| 5·87| 4·62| 3·28|
  8. Cellulose  |13·80|16·24|13·85|13·01|19·64|14·07|16·35|
  9. Extractive |     |     |     |     |     |     |     |
   by difference| 8·99|13·53| 8·90| 8·31| 5·84| 9·00|12·72|
  10. Moisture  | 5·96| 5·55| 5·12| 6·34| 2·63| 5·90| 6·63|
  11. Ash       | 3·60| 3·05| 3·31| 3·60| 3·70| 8·73| 4·36|

  ==============+====================================
                |            Commercial Varieties
                +—————+—————+—————+—————+—————+—————+
                |Roas-|     |     |     |     |     |
  Constituents  | ted |Gra- | Ta- | Ma- |Mara-|Ave- |
   percent     |Cara-| nada|basco|chala|caibo| rage|
                | cas |     |     |     |     |     |
  ==============+=====+=====+=====+=====+=====+=====+
  1. Fat        |37·63|44·11|50·95|46·84|42·20|42·99|
  2. Theobromine| 0·99| 0·75| 1·15| 0·76| 1·03| 0·97|
  3. Albumin    |12·36| 9·76| 7·85|12·69|11·56|10·51|
  4. Glucose    | 1·76| 1·81| 0·94| 1·60| 1·09| 1·46|
  5. Saccharose | 0·51| 0·55| 2·72| 0·46| 1·36| 0·89|
  6. Starch     | 6·07| 6·27| 3·51| 1·35| 1·69| 4·67|
  7. Lignin     | 9·05| 5·55| 6·44| 5·95| 7·16| 5·95|
  8. Cellulose  |11·69|13·49|12·57|11·32|17·32|14·44|
  9. Extractive |     |     |     |     |     |     |
   by difference| 9·22| 9·72| 9·26| 9·02| 6·79| 9·30|
  10. Moisture  | 5·69| 5·28| 1·55| 5·86| 5·67| 5·18|
  11. Ash       | 5·03| 2·71| 3·06| 5·15| 4·13| 3·70|


~Table~ 9.

  +—--+——————————————+——————+————-+———————+——-————+——-————+——————-+
  |   |              |      |     |       |       |    In water   |
  |   |              |      |     |       |       +———————+——————-+
  |No.| Description  |Moist |Ether| Non-  |Mineral|in-    |soluble|
  |   |              | -ure |     | fatty |consti-|soluble|ash    |
  |   |              |      |     |  dry  |tuents | ash   |       |
  |   |              |      |     |  sub- |       |       |       |
  |   |              |      |     |stances|       |       |       |
  |   |              |      |     |       |       |       |       |
  |   |              |      |     |       |       |       |       |
  |   |              |      |     |       |       |       |       +
  |   |              |    % |  %  |    %  |   %   |    %  |    %  |
  |   |              |      |     |       |       |       |       |
  +—--+——————————————+——————+————-+———————+—-—————+——-————+——————-+
  | 1 |St. Thomas II | 2·82 |55·87|   —   |  2·79 |  1·93 |  0·86 |
  | 2 |Java I        | 2·78 |53·88|   —   |  3·60 |  1·60 |  2·00 |
  | 3 |St. Thomas I  | 2·82 |54·50|   —   |  3·01 |  1·85 |  1·16 |
  | 4 |Caracas I     | 2·67 |53·78|   —   |  3·35 |  2·12 |  1·23 |
  | 5 |Puerto Cabello| 3·34 |53·29|   —   |  3·58 |  1·73 |  1·85 |
  | 6 |Machala       | 2·93 |53·98|   —   |  3·34 |  2·10 |  1·24 |
  | 7 |Samana        | 2·94 |55·28|   —   |  3·10 |  1·85 |  1·25 |
  | 8 |Accra         | 2·94 |53·94|   —   |  3·19 |  1·84 |  1·35 |

  B. Percentages for the non-fatty dry substances.

  | 1 |St. Thomas II |  —   |  —  | 41·36 | 6·536 | 4·672 |  1·864|
  | 2 |Java I        |  —   |  —  | 43·34 | 8·306 | 3·692 |  4·614|
  | 3 |St. Thomas I  |  —   |  —  | 42·68 | 7·053 | 4·311 |  2·742|
  | 4 |Caracas I     |  —   |  —  | 43·55 | 7·692 | 4·868 |  2·824|
  | 5 |Puerto Cabello|  —   |  —  | 43·37 | 8·254 | 3·989 |  4·265|
  | 6 |Machala       |  —   |  —  | 43·09 | 7·767 | 4·900 |  2·867|
  | 7 |Samana        |  —   |  —  | 42·78 | 7·246 | 4·325 |  2·921|
  | 8 |Accra         |  —   |  —  | 43·12 | 7·398 | 4·267 |  3·131|

  C. Percentages for the total of ash.

  | 1 |St. Thomas II |  —   |  —  |   —   |   —   | 71·49 | 28·51 |
  | 2 |Java I        |  —   |  —  |   —   |   —   | 44·45 | 55·55 |
  | 3 |St. Thomas I  |  —   |  —  |   —   |   —   | 61·12 | 38·88 |
  | 4 |Caracas I     |  —   |  —  |   —   |   —   | 63·38 | 36·62 |
  | 5 |Puerto Cabello|  —   |  —  |   —   |   —   | 48·33 | 51·67 |
  | 6 |Machala       |  —   |  —  |   —   |   —   | 63·09 | 36·91 |
  | 7 |Samana        |  —   |  —  |   —   |   —   | 59·69 | 40·31 |
  | 8 |Accra         |  —   |  —  |   —   |   —   | 57·68 | 42·32 |


  +—--+——————————————+—————————————-——+—————————+————————+
  |   |              |Alkali strength |Potassium|Pure    |
  |   |              +———————+——————-—+Carbonate|ash     |
  |No.| Description  |of     |of      |reckoned |(mineral|
  |   |              |the    |the     |from     |stuffs  |
  |   |              |soluble|in-     |Alkali   |minus   |
  |   |              |ash    |soluble |strength |Pot.    |
  |   |              |       |ash     |of       |Carb.)  |
  |   |              |       |        |soluble  |        |
  |   |              |       |        |ash      |        |
  |   |              +———————+———————-+         |        |
  |   |              | cb. mm. Nitric |    %    |   %    |
  |   |              |     acid.      |         |        |
  +—--+——————————————+—————————————-——+—————————+————————+
  | 1 |St. Thomas II |   3·6 |   4·8  |   0·25  |  2·54  |
  | 2 |Java I        |  10·4 |   6·8  |   0·72  |  2·88  |
  | 3 |St. Thomas I  |   2·6 |   5·0  |   0·18  |  1·83  |
  | 4 |Caracas I     |   4·6 |   4·8  |   0·32  |  3·03  |
  | 5 |Puerto Cabello|  10·4 |   3·8  |   0·72  |  2·86  |
  | 6 |Machala       |   2·6 |   5·6  |   0·18  |  3·16  |
  | 7 |Samana        |   4·6 |   6·2  |   0·32  |  2·78  |
  | 8 |Accra         |   3·6 |   4·8  |   0·25  |  2·94  |

  B. Percentages for the non-fatty dry substances.

  | 1 |St. Thomas II |   8·7 |  11·6  |   0·60  |  5·94  |
  | 2 |Java I        |  24·0 |  15·7  |   1·66  |  6·65  |
  | 3 |St. Thomas I  |   6·1 |  11·7  |   0·42  |  6·63  |
  | 4 |Caracas I     |  10·6 |  11·0  |   0·73  |  6·96  |
  | 5 |Puerto Cabello|  24·0 |   8·8  |   1·66  |  6·59  |
  | 6 |Machala       |   6·1 |  13·0  |   0·42  |  7·35  |
  | 7 |Samana        |  10·8 |  14·5  |   0·74  |  6·50  |
  | 8 |Accra         |   8·3 |  11·1  |   0·58  |  6·82  |

  C. Percentages for the total of ash.

  | 1 |St. Thomas II | 133·1 | 177·4  |   9·18  | 90·82  |
  | 2 |Java I        | 289·1 | 189·1  |  20·00  | 80·01  |
  | 3 |St. Thomas I  |  87·0 | 167·0  |   6·00  | 94·04  |
  | 4 |Caracas I     | 137·9 | 143·9  |   9·50  | 90·51  |
  | 5 |Puerto Cabello| 290·7 | 106·6  |  20·10  | 79·89  |
  | 6 |Machala       |  78·5 |   —    |   5·40  | 94·59  |
  | 7 |Samana        | 149·0 | 200·0  |  10·20  | 89·79  |
  | 8 |Accra         | 112·2 | 150·0  |   7·8   | 92·16  |


  +—--+——————————————+—————————————————————————+——————-+——————-+
  |   |              |     Phosphoric acid     |       |       |
  |   |              |——————-+————————+————————+       |       |
  |No.| Description  |total  |soluble |in-     |Silicic|Ferric |
  |   |              |       |in      |soluble |acid   |acid   |
  |   |              |       |water   |in      |(SiO   |(Fe_{2}|
  |   |              |       |        |water   | _{2}) | O_{3})|
  |   |              |   %   |    %   |    %   |   %   |   %   |
  |   |              |       |        |        |       |       |
  +—--+——————————————+———————+————————+————————+——————-+——————-+
  | 1 |St. Thomas II | 1·0243| 0·2474 | 0·7769 | 0·0154| 0·0416|
  | 2 |Java I        | 1·0753| 0·4667 | 0·6086 | 0·0300| 0·0224|
  | 3 |St. Thomas I  | 1·1136| 0·3621 | 0·7515 | 0·0122| 0·0464|
  | 4 |Caracas I     | 1·2708| 0·3392 | 0·9316 | 0·0080| 0·0184|
  | 5 |Puerto Cabello| 1·1433| 0·4692 | 0·6741 | 0·0260| 0·0207|
  | 6 |Machala       | 1·2836| 0·3647 | 0·9189 | 0·0116| 0·0200|
  | 7 |Samana        | 1·0881| 0·3213 | 0·7668 | 0·0090| 0·0560|
  | 8 |Accra         | 1·1221| 0·3672 | 0·3549 | 0·0082| 0·0284|

  B. Percentages for the non-fatty dry substances.

  | 1 |St. Thomas II | 2·4795| 0·5989 | 1·8806 | 0·0373| 0·1007|
  | 2 |Java I        | 2·4790| 1·0769 | 1·4021 | 0·0692| 0·0517|
  | 3 |St. Thomas I  | 2·6092| 0·8484 | 1·7608 | 0·0286| 0·1087|
  | 4 |Caracas I     | 2·9180| 0·7789 | 2·1356 | 0·0184| 0·0422|
  | 5 |Puerto Cabello| 2·6361| 1·0819 | 1·5542 | 0·0600| 0·0477|
  | 6 |Machala       | 2·9837| 0·8481 | 2·1356 | 0·0269| 0·0464|
  | 7 |Samana        | 2·5435| 0·7511 | 1·7934 | 0·0214| 0·1309|
  | 8 |Accra         | 2·6023| 0·8516 | 1·7507 | 0·0191| 0·0658|

  C. Percentages for the total of ash.

  | 1 |St. Thomas II | 37·94 |  9·16  | 28·78  | 0·571 | 1·541 |
  | 2 |Java I        | 29·87 | 12·96  | 16·91  | 0·833 | 0·623 |
  | 3 |St. Thomas I  | 37·27 | 12·12  | 25·15  | 0·408 | 1·551 |
  | 4 |Caracas I     | 37·94 | 10·12  | 27·82  | 0·240 | 0·549 |
  | 5 |Puerto Cabello| 31·94 | 13·11  | 18·83  | 0·727 | 0·578 |
  | 6 |Machala       | 38·42 | 10·92  | 27·50  | 0·346 | 0·597 |
  | 7 |Samana        | 35·12 | 10·37  | 24·75  | 0·295 | 1·806 |
  | 8 |Accra         | 35·18 | 11·51  | 23·67  | 0·258 | 0·889 |


~Table~ 10. =Commoner Varieties.=

  Key to Row 1b
             A   No.
             B
             C   Moisture
             D   Ether extract
             E   Mineral matter
             F   Potassium Carbonate reckoned on alkali
                         soluble in water
             G   Pure ash (mineral matter minus K_{2}CO_{3})
             Ha  according to König, as modified by us
             Hb  as yielded by the Wender process
             I   Silicic acid (SiO_{2})
             J   Ferric oxide (Fe_{2}O_{3})
             K   Soluble in alcohol P_{2}O_{5}

  +——+————————————————+————+————-+————+————+————+————+————+
  |  |                |    |     |    |    |    |Raw Fiber|
  | A|       B        | C  |  D  |  E |  F |  G |Ha  | Hb |
  |  |Description     | %  |  %  |  % |  % |  % | %  |  % |
  +——+————————————————+————+————-+————+————+————+————+————+
  | 1|Superior Ariba, |    |     |    |    |    |    |    |
  |  | Summer crop    |6·95|26·17|7·45|2·07|5·38|4·20|4·60|
  | 2|Machala 81%,    |    |     |    |    |    |    |    |
  |  | Thomé I 19%    |5·94|28·79|7·06|1·99|5·07|5·00|5·47|
  | 3|Machala 53%,    |    |     |    |    |    |    |    |
  |  | Thomé I 47%    |6·47|25·73|7·15|2·14|5·01|5·20|5·42|
  | 4|Cameroon        |6·36|26·41|7·05|2·33|4·72|4·63|4·64|
  | 5|Thomé I 73%,    |    |     |    |    |    |    |    |
  |  | Samana 27%     |7·97|24·90|6·89|2·29|4·60|4·20|4·38|
  | 6|Thomé II 60%,   |    |     |    |    |    |    |    |
  |  | Samana 20%,    |    |     |    |    |    |    |    |
  |  | Accra 20%      |7·37|22·85|7·39|2·24|5·15|4·23|5·00|
  | 7|Accra 60%,      |    |     |    |    |    |    |    |
  |  | Thomé II 40%   |6·93|22·80|7·36|2·25|5·11|4·06|4·40|
  | 8|A}Same variety,{|6·56|18·96|7·61|2·14|5·47|4·00|5·24|
  |  | } more        {|    |     |    |    |    |    |    |
  | 9|B} or less     {|6·06|24·75|7·16|2·01|5·15|3·58|4·61|
  |  | } defatted    {|    |     |    |    |    |    |    |
  |10|C}             {|5·58|29·72|6·57|1·89|4·68|3·20|4·42|
  |11|Monarch double  |    |     |    |    |    |    |    |
  |  |Ariba(R.& Cie.) |7·59|14·80|8·32|2·32|6·00|6·90| —  |
  |12|Helios(R.& Cie.)|7·37|17·25|7·91|2·12|5·79|6·40| —  |
  +——+————————————————+————+————-+————+————+————+————+————+
  | a|Ariba shells    |    |     |    |    |    |    |    |
  |  |(R. & Cie.) very|    |     |    |    |    |    |    |
  |  |fine ground     |7·17|14·00|7·40|2·20|5·20|7·49| —  |
  | b|germs, Ariba    |    |     |    |    |    |    |    |
  |  |(R. & Cie.) very|    |     |    |    |    |    |    |
  |  |fine ground     |6·64|18·02|6·93|2·43|4·50|7·42| —  |

  +——+————————————————+——————+——————+——————+
  |  |                |      |      |      |
  | A|       B        |   I  |   J  |  K   |
  |  |Description     |   %  |   %  |  %   |
  +——+————————————————+——————+——————+——————+
  | 1|Superior Ariba, |      |      |      |
  |  | Summer crop    |0·0170|0·0522|0·0605|
  | 2|Machala 81%,    |      |      |      |
  |  | Thomé I 19%    |0·0172|0·0373|0·0625|
  | 3|Machala 53%,    |      |      |      |
  |  | Thomé I 47%    |0·0186|0·0513|0·0612|
  | 4|Cameroon        |0·0160|  —   |0·0669|
  | 5|Thomé I 73%,    |      |      |      |
  |  | Samana 27%     |0·0167|0·0753|0·0690|
  | 6|Thomé II 60%,   |      |      |      |
  |  | Samana 20%,    |      |      |      |
  |  | Accra 20%      |0·0208|0·0678|0·0726|
  | 7|Accra 60%,      |      |      |      |
  |  | Thomé II 40%   |0·0198|0·0545|0·0766|
  | 8|A}Same variety,{|0·0390|  —   |  —   |
  |  | } more        {|      |      |      |
  | 9|B} or less     {|  —   |  —   |  —   |
  |  | } defatted    {|      |      |      |
  |10|C}             {|  —   |  —   |  —   |
  |11|Monarch double  |      |      |      |
  |  |Ariba(R.& Cie.) |0·0420|  —   |0·0877|
  |12|Helios(R.& Cie.)|0·0340|0·0400|0·0930|
  +——+————————————————+——————+——————+——————+
  | a|Ariba shells    |      |      |      |
  |  |(R. & Cie.) very|      |      |      |
  |  |fine ground     |0·2976|  —   |0·0383|
  | b|germs, Ariba    |      |      |      |
  |  |(R. & Cie.) very|      |      |      |
  |  |fine ground     |   —  |  —   |0·0587|


~Table~ 11. =Analysis of Cacao.=

Dry product, defatted and free from alkali.

  Column Headings
             A   No.
             B
             C   Defatted and alkali-free dry products
             D   Pure ash (mineral substances less K_{2}CO_{3})
             E   Ash insoluble in water
             F   Alkalinity of the insoluble ash Nitric acid
             Ga  total
             Gb  soluble in water
             Gc  insoluble in water
             H   Silicic acid (SiO_{2})
             I   Ferric oxide (Fe_{2}O_{3})
  Key to columns headed “Raw Fiber”
                 G1   P_{3}O_{5} soluble in alcohol
                 G2   after König (modified)
                 G3   as yielded by the Weender process
  ————+——————————————————+————-+————-+————-+————+——————+——————+——————+
      |                  |     |     |     |    |   Phosphoric Acid  |
      |                  |     |     |     |    |      (P 205)       |
   No.|   Description    |     |     |     |    +——————+——————+——————+
      |                  |  C  |  D  |  E  | F  |  Ga  |  Gb  |  Gc  |
      |                  |  %  |  %  |  %  | ccm|   %  |   %  |   %  |
  ————+——————————————————+————-+————-+————-+————+——————+——————+——————+
     1|Thomé II          |41·06|6·186|4·725|11·7|2·4947|0·6025|1·8922|
     2|Java I            |42·62|6·757|3·754|15·9|2·5229|1·0950|1·4279|
     3|Thomé I           |42·50|6·659|4·353|11·8|2·6202|0·8520|1·7682|
     4|Caracas I         |43·23|7·010|4·904|11·1|2·9391|0·7846|1·1545|
     5|Puerto-Cabello    |42·65|6·706|4·056| 8·9|2·6807|1·1001|1·5806|
     6|Machala           |42·91|7·365|4·894|13·1|2·9914|0·8499|2·1414|
     7|Samana            |42·46|6·548|4·357|14·6|2·5626|0·7802|1·7824|
     8|Accra             |42·87|6·858|4·292|11·2|2·6175|0·8565|1·7610|
      |                  |     |     |     |    |      +——————+——————+
      |                  |     |     |     |    |      |  Raw fibre  |
      |                  |     |     |     |    |      +——————+——————|
      |                  |     |     |     |    | G1   |  G2  |  G3  |
     9|Ariba             |64·81|8·301|  —  |  — |0·0933| 6·48 | 7·10 |
    10|Machala + Thomé I |63·28|8·013|  —  |  — |0·0984| 7·90 | 8·64 |
    11|Thomé + Machala   |66·66|7·517|  —  |  — |0·0919| 7·80 | 8·13 |
    12|Cameroon          |64·90|7·273|  —  |  — |0·1030| 7·13 | 7·15 |
    13|Thomé I + Samana  |64·84|7·095|  —  |  — |0·1064| 6·48 | 6·75 |
    14|Thomé II, Samana +|     |     |     |    |      |      |      |
      |Accra.            |67·54|7·625|   — |  — |0·1075| 6·27 | 7·40 |
    15|Accra + Thomé II  |68·02|7·513|  —  |  — |0·1126| 5·97 | 6·47 |
    16|A                 |72·34|7·561|  —  |  — |  —   | 5·53 | 7·24 |
    17|B                 |67·18|7·666|  —  |  — |  —   | 5·33 | 6·87 |
    18|C                 |62·80|7·452|  —  |  — |  —   | 5·10 | 7·04 |
    19|Monarch Ariba     |     |     |     |    |      |      |      |
      |(R. & Cie.)       |75·29|7·969|  —  |  — |0·1165| 9·16 |  —   |
    20|Helios Ariba      |     |     |     |    |      |      |      |
      |(R. & Cie.)       |73·39|8·880|  —  |  — |0·1266| 8·72 |  —   |
  ————+——————————————————+————-+————-+————-+————+——————+——————+——————+
     a|Shells            |76·63|6·786|  —  |  — |0·0499| 9·77 |  —   |
     b|Germs             |72·91|6·173|  —  |  — |0·0805|10·18 |  —   |
      |                  |     |     |     |    |      |      |      |

  ————+——————————————————+——————+—————-
      |                  |      |
      |                  |      |
   No.|   Description    |      |
      |                  |   H  |   I
      |                  |   %  |   %
  ————+——————————————————+——————+—————-
     1|Thomé II          |0·0375|0·1013
     2|Java I            |0·0704|0·0525
     3|Thomé I           |0·0287|0·1091
     4|Caracas I         |0·0185|0·0425
     5|Puerto-Cabello    |0·0610|0·0480
     6|Machala           |0·0270|0·0466
     7|Samana            |0·0212|0·1319
     8|Accra             |0·0191|0·0662
      |                  |      |
      |                  |      |
      |                  |      |
      |                  |      |
     9|Ariba             |0·0262|0·0806
    10|Machala + Thomé I |0·0272|0·0590
    11|Thomé + Machala   |0·0280|0·0770
    12|Cameroon          |0·0246|  —
    13|Thomé I + Samana  |0·0258|0·1162
    14|Thomé II, Samana +|      |
      |Accra.            |0·0308|0·1004
    15|Accra + Thomé II  |0·0290|0·0801
    16|A                 |   —  |  —
    17|B                 |   —  |  —
    18|C                 |   —  |  —
    19|Monarch Ariba     |      |
      |(R. & Cie.)       |0·0558|  —
    20|Helios Ariba      |      |
      |(R. & Cie.)       |0·0446|  —
  ————+——————————————————+——————+—————-
     a|Shells            |0·3884|0·0545
     b|Germs             |  —   |  —
      |                  |      |

  1) See Table 9 A and Table 10.

The foregoing tables provide us with a general idea of the chemical
constituents of the cacao bean, but their distinctive properties,
both chemical and physical, still remain to be defined, with which we
accordingly proceed, as such data will on the one hand enable us to
grasp how loss may be avoided in the manufacture of cacao and chocolate
wares, and at the same time render intelligible familiar processes
connected therewith.

As we have seen, the following substances occur in cacao in varying
amounts:

  1. Water.
  2. Fat.
  3. Cacao-red.
  4. Theobromine.
  5. Albumen.
  6. Starch.
  7. Cellular tissue or cellulose.
  8. Small percentages of grape and cane sugar.
  9. Mineral or ash stuffs.

Like the majority of plants and plant products, the cacao bean consists
of vesicles or cells, closed on all sides and arranged in a series
of layers. They are constructed of cellular tissue or cellulose, and
contain fat, albumen, water, starch, theobromine, cacao pigment,
besides sugar and salts in inferior quantities.


1. ~Water or Moisture.~

There is present in the bean from 6 to 8 percent of water, a factor
which bodes well for the proper germination of the seed, as when this
latter is deprived of moisture, e. g. in the course of a too thorough
drying, it speedily decays. Water is still evident in small quantities
even in the largest and almost withered beans, as will be seen on
comparison of the foregoing analyses.


2. ~Fat.~

As a constituent at the expense of which respiration is effected, fat
remains one of the most important resources of plant. It has a twofold
excellence in this connection, and firstly as a highly calorifacient
and carboniferous substance, and again because such a reserve enables
the living organism to oxidise with particular ease, wherefore it is
found accumulated in somewhat significant measure in the majority
of seeds. When seen under the microscope it appears either as round
coherent masses, or as crystalline aggregates clearly distinguishable
from the rest of the cell contents on treatment with a solution of
osmic acid. The fat in the cacao bean usually amounts to from 50-56
percent, or one half of the total weight of the shelled beans; the shell
also contains from 4 to 5 percent of fat.[25] The unfermented bean has
frequently, in addition to its bitter taste, a most unpleasant flavour,
attributable to the rancidity of its fatty contents.

The raw bean contains rather more fat than the roasted bean, for
whilst the one averages from 50 to 55 percent, there is seldom more
than 48-52 percent in the other. The cause of this phenomenon may
be connected with the enrichment of the shells in fat, and in some
instances, as when the beans are over-roasted, is to be ascribed to
the chemical change which the play of burning heat on fatty bodies
involves, when a destructive decomposition of the whole ensues, with
formations of acroleine. Chemically considered, cacao butter consists
of a mixture of so-called esters, or compounds connected with ether,
such as the glycerides of fatty acids, and contains, in addition to
stearine, palmatine, and laurine[26], the glyceride of arachidic acid.
It was also formerly supposed that formic, acetic and butyric acids
were among the constituents of this ingredient, but the view has
been proved erroneous by Lewkowitsch[27]; similarly, the presence of
theobromic acid alleged by Kingzett[28] has been called into question
by Graf.[29]

Cacao butter is a fairly firm fat of pleasant taste and smell, which
varies in colour between yellowish white and yellow. When freshly
expressed, it has frequently a brownish shade, passing after a short
time into a pale yellow, and turning almost white on long keeping. The
brown colour is due to pigment in suspension, which becomes sediment
in the course of melting, when the butter asumes a normal colour,
referrible to pigment dissolved in the butter oils, and secondarily
to a dissolution of the products of roasting in these liquids, rather
than to any matter in suspension. The pleasant smell and taste of cacao
butter is probably closely allied to the dissolved substances mentioned.

The fat extracted from cacao by solvents differs essentially from that
obtained by hydraulic pressure, a fact overlooked in some of even the
most recent experiments, and which therefore cannot be too strongly
emphasised. Extracted fat is yellowish white, sometimes approximating
to grey, and after having been kept a long time, the whole becomes
tinged with an actual whiteness, which first attacks the outer surface,
and then rapidly progresses towards the centre in concentric paths,
and which is a sign of rancidity. Its fracture is partly granular,
the smell is not so pronounced as that of expressed fat, being even
unpleasant at times, as in the case of faulty wares (but compare
page), and it has a keen taste. Cacao butter does not, as is generally
supposed, keep better than other vegetable fats, but is equally liable
to become rancid, as Lewkowitsch[30] demonstrates. By rancidity is
denoted that state of offensive taste and smell acquired by fatty
substances on longer or shorter keeping and especially when they are
not properly stored. What chemical re-arrangements of the respective
constituents this state presupposes is very questionable; though
it appears from the experiments of Lewkowitsch[30] and others[31]
that the formation of acids does not play as prominent a part as the
experimenter is inclined to think, nothwithstanding the marked increase
in quantity which may occur. The primary cause of rancidity will rather
be found in the oxidation products of the glycerine contained in all
fats.

The specific gravity of cacao butter varies considerably, according
as it has been expressed or extracted by means of solvents. White[32]
asserts that it can only be determined when the liquefied oil has
been solidified several days. According to Rammsberger the specific
gravity of expressed butter is 0·85; that of butter extracted by
treatment with ether figures at 0·958. Hager gives the normal specific
gravity of fresh cacao butter at 15° C. as from 0·95 to 0·952; stale
butter 0·945 to 0·946, and the same figures have been confirmed by
other investigations, though Dietricht gives 0·98 to 0·981 at 100° C.
The melting point is generally regarded as 33° C.; there is in this
respect, however, a great difference between the two descriptions of
fat. Expressed fat which has been kept for some length of time melts
between 34° C. and 35° C., and these figures remain constant, so that
it is advisable to read the melting point of fat which has been in
store some time rather than that of the fresh pressed product, and take
this as a standard. All other fat shows a lower melting point.

As the melting point of freshly melted cacao butter shows considerable
fluctuation, the liquid fat must be kept in darkness and cooled with
ice for about a week, and the reading should not be taken before the
expiration of this time, as only then is it possible to obtain any
definite and final result.

Experiments on the melting point of cacao butter as carried out by
Zipperer under special conditions yielded the following values; cf.
also Table 12.

    Kind of bean           Melting      Centigrade
                          point raw      roasted
  Machala Guayaquil         34·5           34·0
  Caracas                   33·5           34·0
  Ariba                     33·75          31·5
  Port au Prince            34·25          33·8
  Puerto Cabello            33·50          33·0
  Surinam                   34·20          34·0
  Trinidad                  34·00          34·0

White and Oldham[33] give the following melting points:

  Guayaquil                 33·6-33·9
  Granada                   33·0-33·3
  Trinidad                  31·5-32·5
  Caracas                   33·0-33·6
  Ceylon                    33·9-34·2

Filsinger and Henking found[34]:

  Cauca                     32·1-32·4
  Bahia                     32·7-33·4
  Porto Plata               33·1-33·6

These results vary somewhat, but the differences are to be ascribed
to the methods employed and to the manner in which the observations
of different experimenters are carried out. Generally it may be taken
that the melting point should not be under 3° or over 35°C. The fat
solidifies between 21·5° and 23° C. (solidifying point). The fatty
acids from the fat melt at 48°-52° C.; they begin to solidify at 45°
C., the solidifying ending generally at 51°-52° C. (see table 12).

Adulteration of cacao fat, as many experiments have shown, cannot be
detected simply by deflections in the melting point. Björklund’s ether
test,[35] which is very suitable for the detection of an admixture of
extraneous substances like tallow, wax and paraffin, is carried out as
described in paragraph....

Cacao fat, like all other fats, is saponified by alkalis, that is
to say, forms a soap or a chemical compound of the fatty acids with
alkalis such as potash, soda, ammonia etc. On the addition of a mineral
acid to the soap a salt of the mineral acid and alkali is formed, with
the separation of the fatty acid. The fatty acids are of two kinds:

1. The volatile acids or those which are volatile at 100°-110° C. or
more easily with steam than other vapours. These usually exist only
in very small quantity in cacao fat but may considerably increase in
amount in the fat obtained from imperfectly fermented beans.[36]

2. The solid fatty acids are such as are fixed, and do not act in the
manner above mentioned: cacao butter consists chiefly of the glycerides
of these acids.

Björklund’s tests will only detect, as has been stated, admixtures of
wax, paraffin, tallow and bodies of a relatively high melting point.
Another method must therefore be adopted to detect fat of low melting
points, as cocoa-nut fat, or liquid oils like cotton seed and sesame
oils. The methods in use in connection with cacao butter are the
~determination~ of the ~iodine~, ~saponification~ and
~acid values~, finding the ~melting point~ of the ~fatty
acids~, the ~Reichert-Meissl number~, and by means of Zeiss’
butyro-refractometer, its ~refractive index~.

The iodine value indicates the amount of iodine percent absorbed by
the fat, and is accordingly a measure of the unsaturated fatty acids.
As these latter differ in amount in vegetable and animal fats, though
constant for each separate kind, it is possible by means of this iodine
value to recognise a genuine cacao fat and to detect adulteration.
The determination of the iodine value is carried out by Hulbl’s[37]
method, and according to Filsinger,[38] it is advisable to let
the iodine solution act on the fat for from ten to twelve hours in
diffused daylight. Before determining the iodine value in cacao fat,
says Welmans[39] this substance should be dried at from 100-105°C. to
expel the acroleine produced by too high roasting, at the same time
avoiding too high a temperature, as acroleine can then be very easily
reproduced. Filsinger has determined the iodine value of many varieties
of cacao butter with the following results:

    ~Kind~:        ~Iodine value~:
  Cauca               36·2-36·7
  Bahia               36·8-37·1
  Porto Plata         36·6-36·9
  Ariba               35·1-36·8

Genuine cacao butter shows an average iodine value of from 33-37·5.[40]

The ~saponification value~ or ~Köttstorfer’s number~[41]
expresses the number of milligrammes of potassium hydrate required for
the complete saponification of 1 gramme of fat, or in other words, the
amount of potassium hydrate necessary to the saponification of the fat
in thents percent. Filsinger[42] gives the amount as between 192 and
202 in genuine cacao butter, although it usually fluctuates between 194
and 195. Its determination is the means of detecting adulterations with
cocoa-nut butter and its preparations.

The determination of the ~acid~ value has lately become of
importance, especially since the introduction of the so-called Dutch
Ha cacao or shell butter, which is obtained from cacao refuse and is
often rancid. This value or number expresses the amount of potassium
hydrate necessary to neutralise the free fatty acids in 1 gramme of
fat, and it is therefore a measure of the amount of free fatty acid.
As this constant has been variously stated, according to the methods
adopted (Burstyn, Merz), the fact must be taken into account when
comparing the literature on the subject. As the constants have been
determined by two different methods (Merz, Burstyn), this must be
taken into consideration when comparing the various data on the acid
value of fats. Whilst the “Vereinbarungen” (No. 1, 1897) in a chapter
on “Food Fats and Oils” still recognise two distinct methods in the
determination of free fatty acids, as well as two different ways of
recording the results (degree of acidity and free acid, calculated on
the oily acids) there occurs in the supplement to the recent margarine
code for Germany issued by the Chancellor on April 1st. 1898, entitled
“Instructions for chemical research in fats and cheeses” under c)
a dictum that there is only one absolute and precise procedure in
the “Determination of free fatty acids (degree of acidity) These
calculations are based on the Burstyn method, which we accordingly
annex, more especially as it is now in universal use. It should be
observed that the method of preparation and the age of the beans, as
well as that of the fat all tend to increase the acid value.

The Reichert Meissl value expresses the percentage value of the
volatile fatty acids present in the fat; as already mentioned, they
amount to 1·6 ccm, in cacao fat extracted by solvents. Milk chocolate,
says Welmans, yields a fat having a Reichert-Meissl value of 2·5, but
compare page....

The determination of the ~refractive index~ in Zeiss
butyrorofractometer is of value for ascertaining the purity of cacao
butter, and it serves as a control on the iodine value, for according
to Roques[43] the refractive index and the iodine value stand in equal
relation, so that fat having a high refractive index gives a high
iodine value and vice versa. The refractive index of cacao butter
ranges between 1·4565-1·4578 at 40°C. corresponding to 46-47·8 on the
scala of the Zeiss butyro-refractometer. The use of the latter is
recommended by Filsinger as a preliminary test for cacao butter, since
with a normal refraction it is not necessary to proceed further and
determine the iodine, saponification and acid values, nor the melting
point. In conclusion we annex table 12, where the respective constants
for different varieties of cacao butter will be found tabulated.[44]

For further information on all these methods, the reader is referred
to the excellent work of R. Benedict, entitled “Analysis of Fats and
Waxes”: VII. Edition, Berlin.

~Table~ 12.

Physical and Chemical Analyses of the Various Kinds of Pressed
Stollwerck Cacao Butter.

  ======================+=======+=======+=======+========+=======+
                        | Accra | Ariba | Bahia | Guay-  |Cam-   |
                        |       |       |       | aquil  | eroon |
                        |       |       |       |        |       |
  ======================+=======+=======+=======+========+=======+
                        |
                        |                  a) ~Fat~
  Point of refraction   |       |       |       |        |       |
    at 40° C            | 64·3  | 46·1  | 46·9  | 46·5   | 46·0  |
  Melting Point         |       |       |       |        |       |
    (Polenske)(1)       | 33·1  | 33·2  | 31·95 | 32·5   | 33·65 |
  Freezing Point        |       |       |       |        |       |
    (Polenske)          | 20·0  | 21·55 | 19·35 | 19·8   | 20·95 |
  Variations(2) between|       |       |       |        |       |
    Melting Point and   |       |       |       |        |       |
    Freezing Point      |       |       |       |        |       |
    (Polenske)          | 13·1  | 11·65 | 12·60 | 12·5   | 12·70 |
  Reichert-Meissl number|  0·49 |  0·33 |  0·38 |  0·55  |  0·33 |
  Polenske(2) number    |  0·50 |  0·50 |  0·60 |  0·42  |  0·40 |
  Köttstorfer number    |192·4  |191·7  |191·4  |190·8   |193·2  |
  Hübl’s iodine value   | 35·24 | 34·89 | 37·87 | 36·54  | 34·0  |
  Bellier’s reaction(4) | violet| as 1  | as 1  | as 1   | as 1  |
  R. Cohn’s reaction(5) |       |       |       |        |       |
    a) Fresh fat(6)     |neg-   |  “    |  “    |  “     |  “    |
                        |ative  |       |       |        |       |
    b) Rancid fat       |strong |weak   |pos-   |weak    |pos-   |
                        |pos-   |pos-   |itive  |pos-    |itive  |
                        |itive  |itive  |       |itive   |
                        |                 b) ~Fatty Acids~(7)
  Refractive index      |       |       |       |        |       |
    at 40° C            | 34·60 | 34·55 | 34·50 | 34·40  | 33·70 |
  Melting Point(8)      | 52·90 | 52·95 | 51·80 | 52·90  | 52·00 |
  v. Hübl’s iodine      |       |       |       |        |       |
    value               | 35·88 | 36·27 | 38·78 | 37·78  | 36·02 |

  ======================+========+=========+=========+===================+
                        |Puerto  | Thomé   |Trinidad |  Fluctuations of  |
                        |Cabello |         |         |  Analyses Values  |
                        |        |         |         |    from    | mean |
  ======================+========+=========+=========+===================+
                        |                                                |
                        |                a) ~Fat~                        |
  Point of refraction   |        |         |         |            |      |
    at 40° C            |  46·0  |  46·8   |  46·3   | 46·0-46·9  | 46·4 |
  Melting Point         |        |         |         |            |      |
    (Polenske)(1)       |  32·7  |  32·95  |  32·9   | 31·95-33·65| 32·9 |
  Freezing Point        |        |         |         |            |      |
    (Polenske)          |  20·8  |  18·60  |  20·66  | 18·6-21·55 | 20·2 |
  Variations(2) between |        |         |         |            |      |
    Melting Point and   |        |         |         |            |      |
    Freezing Point      |        |         |         |            |      |
    (Polenske)          |  11·9  |  14·35  |  12·30  | 11·65-14·35| 12·7 |
  Reichert-Meissl number|   0·41 |   0·55  |   0·55  |  0·33-0·55 |  0·45|
  Polenske(2) number    |   0·40 |   0·55  |   0·55  |  0·4-0·6   |  0·49|
  Köttstorfer number    | 191·6  | 191·7   | 191·5   |190·8-193·2 |191·8 |
  Hübl’s iodine value   |  32·72 |  37·24  |  33·72  | 32·72-37·87| 35·28|
  Bellier’s reaction(4) |  as 1  |  as 1   |  as 1   |     —      |  —   |
  R. Cohn’s reaction(5) |        |         |         |            |      |
    a) Fresh fat(6)     |   “    |   “     |   “     |     —      |  —   |
                        |        |         |         |            |      |
    b) Rancid fat       |opal-   |opal-    |opal-    |     —      |  —   |
                        |escence+|escence+ |escence+ |            |      |
                        |
                        |           b) ~Fatty Acids~(7)                  |
  Refractive index      |        |         |         |            |      |
    at 40° C            |  33·50 |  34·70  |  33·50  | 33·5-34·7  | 34·18|
  Melting Point(8)      |  51·45 |  52·05  |  52·50  | 51·45-52·95| 52·32|
  v. Hübl’s iodine      |        |         |         |            |      |
    value               |  33·85 |  39·60  |  36·02  | 33·85-39·78| 36·90|


                                Remarks
  (1) Exact point of liquefaction difficult to observe; therefore the
  average of several readings must be taken.

  (2) Work from the Imperial Office of Health 1907, 26, 444-463.

  (3) Work out of the Imperial Office of Health 1904, 20, 545-558.

  (4) Central Journal for Germany 1908, 36, 100.

  (5) Journal for Popular Chemistry 1907, 16, 308.

  (6) Obtained at the expiration of a four weeks’ treatment as
  recommended by Erlenmeyer.

  (7) Non-volatile fatty acids, insoluble in water, from the
  determination of the Reichert-Meissl number.

  (8) Obtained as under a). Freezing Point in various cases, 1 to 8
  equals 47·8—Melting Point minus Freezing Point: 52·3-47·8 4·5.


We have already stated that there is also cacao fat in the shells,
and though it only amounts to some four or five percent, it has long
been the care of experimenters to recover and realise that little as
fully as possible. It is commercially known as Dutch IIa or artificial
cacao butter, and cannot be obtained like the fat of the kernel by
mechanical means, but is obtained by some cheap solvent like benzene.
The traces of benzene are very difficult to hide, and consequently
this shell butter has little commercial value and its manufacture is
unremunerative.

Filsinger[45] gives the iodine value of shell butter as higher than
that of kernel butter, and fixes it between 39 and 40: its acid value,
especially if the fat is rancid, can reach 50-60° Burstyn, i. e. 50
to 60 ccm. normal alkali for 100 grammes of fat.[46] If the free acid
of shell butter be counteracted with sodium or magnesium carbonate,
the neutral fat then has the normal iodine value of pure cacao butter,
namely 36·5. In a sample giving an abnormally high iodine value it
is always necessary to determine the acid value, and if the latter
be too high, the fatty acids must be removed, when if the sample be
unadulterated, the normal iodine value will be obtained. It may be
noted in passing that the high acid values occurring in shell butter
may be due in part to the acidity of the benzene employed as a solvent.

Cacao butter has a considerable commercial value, and is consequently
liable to adulteration with many inferior fats of vegetable origin.
Among these are especially beef and mutton tallow, the purified
fatty acids of palm-nut oil, wax, paraffin, stearic acid, dicka fat
(nucoa butter, possibly) and cocoa-nut fat, as well as the numerous
preparations of the last named, variously known in commerce as Mannheim
cocoa-nut butter, vegetaline, lactine, finest plant butter, chocolate
butter, laureol vegetable butter, palmin, kunerol etc. Other but less
commoner are the sesame cotton-seed, arachidic, margarine and hazelnut
oils.

For the detection of these and similar adulterates, the reactions and
analytical methods described are all-sufficient. Benedict[47] discovers
that the presence of wax and paraffin considerably diminishes the
saponification value, cocoa, nut fat increases it and lowers the iodine
value, whereas stearic acid raises the acid value.

  ================+==========+===========+=========+============+
                  | Melting  |  Melting  |         |  Saponif-  |
                  |  point   | Point of  |  Iodine |  ication   |
                  |          |fatty acids|  value  |   value    |
                  |   °C.    |    °C.    |         |            |
  ================+==========+===========+=========+============+
                  |          |           |         |            |
  Cacao butter    |  30-34·5 |   48-52   |  34-37·5|  192-202   |
                  |          |           |         |            |
  Oil of Almonds  |    —     |     14    | 93-101·9|189·5-195·4 |
                  |          |           |         |            |
  Sesame oil      |    —     |   26-30   |106·4-109|  187-192   |
                  |          |           |         |            |
  Earth-nut       |          |           |         |            |
   (Arachis) oil  |    —     |   27-31   |  92-101 |  190-197   |
                  |          |           |         |            |
  Hazelnut oil    |    —     |   17-25   | 83·2-88 |191·4-197·1 |
                  |          |           |         |            |
  Cotton-seed oil |    —     |   38-40   | 106-111 |  191-197   |
                  |          |           |         |            |
  Oleo-margarine  |32·4-32·5 |     42    |43·8-48·5| 195-197·4  |
                  |          |           |         |            |
  Beef tallow     |  43-49   |   43-46   |35·4-36·5| 193·2-198  |
                  |          |           |         |            |
  Wax             |  62-64   |     —     | 8·0-11  |  97-107    |
                  |          |           |         |            |
  Paraffin        |  38-82   |     —     | 3·9-4   |    —       |
                  |          |           |         |            |
  Stearic acid    | 71-71·5  |     —     |    —    | 195-200    |
                  |          |           |         |            |
  Sebin           |37·6-37·8 |     —     |43·7-43·8|192·4-192·6 |
                  |          |           |         |            |
  Cocoa-nut fat   | 20-28    |   24-25   |   8-9   |254·8-268·4 |
                  | chiefly  |           |         |            |
                  |26·2-26·4 |           |         |            |

  ================+=========+============
                  |         | Refractive
                  | Acid    |  index
                  | value   | in Zeiss’s
                  |         | butyrometer
  ================+=========+============
                  |         |   46-47·8
  Cacao butter    |9·24-17·9|  at 40° C.
                  |         |
  Oil of Almonds  |    —    |   64-64·8
                  |         |  at 25° C.
  Sesame oil      |    —    |   67-69
                  |         |  at 25° C.
  Earth-nut       |         |
   (Arachis) oil  |    —    | 65·8-67·5
                  |         |  at 25° C.
  Hazelnut oil    |    —    |     —
                  |         |
  Cotton-seed oil |    —    | 67·6-69·4
                  |         |  at 25° C.
  Oleo-margarine  |    —    |   48·6
                  |         |  at 40° C.
  Beef tallow     |    —    |    49
                  |         |  at 40° C.
  Wax             |  19-21  |    —
                  |         |
  Paraffin        |    —    |    —
                  |         |
  Stearic acid    | 195-200 |    —
                  |         |
  Sebin           |    —    |    —
                  |         |
  Cocoa-nut fat   |    —    |   35·5
                  |         | at 40° C.


The presence of cocoa-nut fat can also be shown by the etherification
of the fatty acids with alcohol and sulphuric acid, when the
characteristic odour of the ester of cocoa-nut acid occurs. Vegetable
oils, such as almond, cotton-seed, arachidic, sesame and hazelnut
oils, lower the melting point of the fatty acids and raise the iodine
value. Sesame oil is easily detected by Baudouin’s reaction, yielding
a raspberry coloration whilst pure cacao butter keeps a fine yellow
or dark brown. It is possible to detect the presence of so minute a
quantity as 1% of sesame oil, by means of Baudouin’s reaction.

The following table, containing the analytical determinations of all
fatty substances which can possibly be employed in the adulteration of
cacao butter, will serve to facilitate reference to this subject.

In addition to its use in the manufacture of certain cacao preparations
and for lubricating parts of machinery which come into contact with
the cacao etc. cacao fat is also used in perfumery and especially in
pharmacy for making suppositaries, ointments, etc., but it is of no
importance in soap making. As an edible fat, in the true sense of the
word, like ordinary butter or lard, cacao butter is not used. It has
been maintained by Benedikt[48] that when in the form of chocolate
it is as easily digestible in the human organism as milk fat, which
is generally regarded as offering most favourable conditions for
absorbtion in the intestinal canal. The digestibility of both fats
varies from 92·3 to 95·38 percent, and both, in this respect, stand
very near to cocoa-nut fat from which the solid glycerides have been
removed, and to ordinary butter, the former according to Bourot and
Jean.[49] being digestible to the extent of 98 and the latter 95·8
percent.

Cacao butter is obtained as a by-product in the preparation of cocoa
powder and in every country where cocoa powder is produced there
is always a large trade in the former article. That is, apart from
Germany, especially the case in Holland, where the monthly supply to
the Amsterdam market is so large that during 1899 one firm alone—Van
Houten—had 855 tons for sale. The average price of late years has
considerably increased, and is now about 64-73 cents per kilogramme.


3. ~Cacao-red or Pigment.~

The majority of investigators interested in the cacao bean have
assigned its peculiar aroma and taste to the cacao-red which it
develops. As previously pointed out, the young fresh bean is
colourless, the pigment forming later, as can be observed in many
vegetable colouring materials, such as oakand cinchona-red, madder,
indigo and kola-nut red (from Sterculia acuminata). As the later
investigations of Hilger[50] have shown, the fresh colourless cacao
bean contains a diastasic ferment, as well as a glucoside body, which
C. Schweitzer[51] has termed glocoside or cacaonin. The term glucoside
may be noted in passing as including those bodies, the greater number
of which occur in plants, and which by treatment with alkalis, acids
or ferments are split up into an indifferent body and a sugar,
generally glucose. These bodies may be chemically regarded as ethyl
derivatives of the respective sugars. When the ripe, white seeds are
dried, the cacao-glycoside is partly decomposed by the agency of the
above-mentioned diastasic ferment and formations of grape sugar, pure
non-nitrogenous cacao-red, together with theobromine and coffeine
ensue. These substances, and likewise a certain amount of undecomposed
cacao glycoside, can all be detected in the seed, which has by this
time acquired a brownish to violet colour.

The unfermented bean, according to Schweitzer, has as much as 0·6%
unaltered glucoside. Fermentation produces the same effect as drying,
as here again the glycerine is not completely split up, for the
cacao-red, isolated in the ordinary way, consists according to Hilger
of a mixture of pure non-nitrogenous cacao-red and some glycoside.

The complete decomposition of the cacao glycoside can only be effected
in a chemical manner, by boiling the finely divided and defatted seeds
with dilute acids, a method which has made it possible to effect an
exact determination of the diureides, as the treatment with acid sets
free the totality of their theobromine and coffeine.

Schweitzer regards the molecule of cacao glycoside as an ester
comprised of one molecule of non-nitrogenous cacao-red, six molecules
of starch-sugar and one molecule of theobromine with double-sided
attachment and having the hypothetrical formula C_{60}H_{86}O_{15}N_{4}.

Before the appearance of Hilger’s researches, all statements of a
chemical nature respecting cacao-red related to a mixture of a pure
non-nitrogenous pigment and the glycoside, which must in all cases be
preliminarily obtained, before the pure pigment can be prepared. That
can be done[52] by treating the roasted beans with petroleum ether,
which removes the fat and part of the free theobromine then with water,
to extract the remaining theobromine, coffeine, sugar and salts,
and finally with alcohol, to extract the cacao-red. The alcoholic
residue is then quickly dried on porous plates. The material thus
obtained is a reddish brown amorphous bitter powder, which is scarcely
soluble in water, easily so in alcohol or in dilute alkali, and is
reprecipitated by acid from its alkaline solution. It gives a sublimate
of theobromine when heated. When the substance is ~distilled with
5 percent of sulphuric acid, the added glycoside is completely
decomposed into sugar, theobromine and the real cacao-red~, which
latter is represented by the formula C_{17}H_{12}(OH)_{10}. It appears
to stand in near relation to tannin, which it resembles in yielding
formic acid, acetic acid, and pyrocatechin by the action of caustic
alkalis. The pure non-nitrogenous cacao-red, at present, is of
exclusively scientific interest; for practical purposes only the crude
cacao-red, cacao-red glycoside, as naturally existing in the bean, is
of importance. The better and the more effectual the manner in which
the beans have been prepared by fermentation, the more intense is the
formation of the cacao red, especially its localisation in the cells
and cell tissues. This is the reason that the variations in colour of
different kinds of bean and the aqueous extracts which they yield are
so distinct.

Especially is this noticeable in carelessly dried beans, in which
the cotyledon tissue is of a dirty brown or yellow colour instead of
being brown or violet; the pigment here is not restricted to separate
cells but has the appearance of having penetrated into the contiguous
albuminous cells. The bean contains 2·6-5 percent of the crude
cacao-red; it is soluble in alcohol and in ether and partly so in hot
water, and is completely extracted from the bean by weak acetic acid.

The crude cacao-red can be determined quantitatively by precipitating
its solution with lead acetate, decomposing the lead precipitate with
sulphuretted hydrogen and evaporating the filtrate containing the
cacao-red to dryness.

The aqueous extract of the beans, which contains the cacao-red, is
coloured greenish brown by alkalis, red by acids; acetates give a
grey to yellowish colour; tincture of iodine, stannous chloride and
mercurous nitrate give a rose to brown precipitate. Iron and copper
salts produce grey precipitates which gradually become brown to black.
Gelatine solution, containing alum, and albumin give copious yellow
precipitates.

Stains produced on linen by the colouring matter of cacao-red can
be removed by treatment with hot water and finally bleaching with a
solution of sulphurous acid.


4. ~Theobromine.~

All those materials which are regarded as stimulants, like coffee, tea,
cacao, tobacco etc., owe their action to peculiar nerve stimulating
bodies, which are present only in small quantity in the seeds or leaves
of the respective plants and are termed by chemists alkaloids and
diureides.

The physiologically active constituents of tea, coffee and cacao are
considered, even up to to-day, by many authors as alkaloids or organic
bases and especially ranked among the xanthine or purine bases. Recent
investigations, however, separate these substances from the alkaloids
in the strict sense and comprise them within a particular group of
urea derivatives under the designation of ureides; the ureides of tea,
coffee and cacao representing two molecules of urea, they are to be
qualified as “diureides

A bitter substance in the cacao bean had already been observed by
Schrader, but Woscressensky[53] in 1841 was the first to isolate the
diureide, theobromine.

Theobromine is found in the unfermented and fermented beans in two
forms; as free theobromine, which has been eliminated from the
glucoside by the ferment in the drying and fermenting processes, and in
combination with glucose and cacao-red as a glucoside, from which it
can only be separated by chemical means.

Theobromine stands in near relation to caffeine, the diureide of tea
and coffee, as will be seen from their chemical formulae—in which
theobromine is shown to contain one methyl group CH_{3}, less, its
place being taken by an hydrogen atom;

            Caffeine                           Theobromine
   ____________/\____________          ______________/\______________
  /                          \        /                              \
  C_{5}HN_{2}O_{3}(CH_{1})_{3},       C_{5}H_{2}N_{2}O_{3}(CH_{1})_{2},

so that in all, theobromine falls short of caffeine by only one
radical. Strecker[54] was the first to show the relation between
the two substances, when he succeeded in converting caffeine into
theobromine by the action of methyl oxide on silver theobromine for 24
hours at 100° C. Caffeine and silver iodide are then formed and can
be separated by treatment with alcohol, which dissolves the caffeine,
leaving the silver iodide undissolved.

E. Fischer[55] was shown the relation of theobromine and caffeine to
uric acid by artificial synthesis of both substances from derivatives
of both. Fischer, starting with monomethyl pseudo-uric acid, converted
it into 7-methyl uric acid by distilling it with hydrochloric acid, and
afterwards, by treating the lead salt of the latter with methyl iodide
and ether, produced 3-7-methyl-uric acid. That acid was converted into
dimethyldioxychlor-purine by treatment with a mixture of phosphorus
oxychloride and phosphoric penta-chloride, with subsequent reduction
into 3-7 dimethyl-6-amino-2-oxy-purine, from which, by the action of
nitrous acid with loss of the amine group, theobromine was finally
obtained. The synthesis of theobromine is a brilliant exploit of
Fischer’s, and it is quite possible that at no distant period, when a
simple and cheap method of production has been arrived at, synthetical
theobromine will appear commercially as a rival of the natural product.
At present there is no prospect of this being immediately realised,
and cacao shells from which theobromine is now prepared are as yet in
no danger of displacement by the new substitute, but still serve as a
useful by-product in the manufacture of cacao.

Theobromine and caffeine, like the alkaloids or plant bases, have a
distinct physiological and even toxic action if taken in too large
quantities.

From the experiments of Mitscherlich it appears that theobromine has a
similar action to caffeine, but is somewhat less active owing to its
being less soluble in the gastric juice. Mitscherlich’s experiments
with frogs, pigeons and rabbits show that 0·05 grammes killed a frog in
40 hours, 0·05 grammes a pigeon in 24 hours, and 1 gramme a rabbit in
less than 20 hours. Death resulted in all cases from cramping of the
spinal cord, producing either convulsions or subsequent paralysis.

The results of these experiments do not detract from the nutritive
value of cacao, since the human organism requires ten times as much
theobromine as rabbits to exhibit the slightest toxic symptom; in
cacao mass containing 1 % not mentioned in discussion; just a head’s
up to PP for S&R] theobromine, that would involve the consumption of
5 lbs. averdupois of chocolate at once, a practical impossibility.
Similar conditions prevail in connection with the use of tea, coffee,
and especially tobacco, where symptoms of poisoning have been
occasionally noticed (the nicotine peril of excessive smokers) but it
would seem that cacao and chocolate are the most favourably placed of
these stimulants as regards such toxic action. It appears from the
experiments of Albanese[56] Bondzynski, Gottlieb[57] and Rost[58] that
3 percent of the theobromine administered passed out in the urine
unaltered, whilst on the other hand 20-30 percent of that decomposed
in the organism is found again as monomethyl-xanthine.

The larger proportion of the monomethyl xanthine is heteroxanthine (=
7 Methyl-X) and the inferior 3 Methyl-X. The excretion of theobromine
appears to be closely connected with the quantity of urine voided,
which is especially increased by the administration of theobromine.
Since 1890, as a result of W. v. Schröder’s[59] observations in 1888,
that property of theobromine has had an extended application in
practical therapeutics; theobromine has been used as a diuretic in
kidney diseases, and, unlike all similar medicinal agents, it exercises
no influence on the heart, a circumstance which essentially increases
its therapeutic value. It can be employed for medicinal purposes,
either uncombined or in the form of salicylate, acetate and certain
double compounds, as sodium or lithium and theobromine salicylate or
acetate.

The double compounds known as diuretin, agurin and uropherin are freely
soluble in water and are therefore more readily absorbed into the
system than pure theobromine, which is only with difficulty soluble in
water. Through the establishment of theobromine as a medicinal agent,
for which we are indebted to Chr. Gram[60] and G. See,[61] cacao husks,
hitherto a waste product in the manufacture of cacao, have become of
value for the preparation of theobromine, in which many of the largest
German chemical factories are now engaged.

Fluctuations as regards the percentage of theobromine in the beans
are so extraordinary that they can only be ascribed to the lack of
prescribed and definite modes of procedure in fermenting, which
obviously necessitates differences in the resulting products.

Eminger found from 0·88-2·34 percent of theobromine in the examination
of a rather considerable number of commercial kinds of cacao beans and
in the husks 0·76 percent of the diureide: C. C. Keller[62] has also
found it in the leaves and in the pericarp. Cacao contains 0·05 to 0·36
percent of caffeine.

Theobromine is a permanent white powder, appears under the magnifying
glass as small, white, prismatic or granular crystals. At first it has
only a slightly bitter taste, which becomes more intense when it is
kept in the mouth for some length of time; and indeed, the bitter taste
of the cacao bean and its preparations is mostly due to theobromine. It
sublimes at 220 ° C. without melting. This phenomenon explains why the
over roasted bean, that is, the kernel of beans which by accident have
been heated to more than 130-150 ° C. is poorer in theobromine than
the husks. When heated to 310 ° C. theobromine melts to a clear liquid
which re-crystallizes on cooling.

One part of absolutely pure theobromine dissolves according to Eminger
in 736·5 parts of water at 18 ° C., in 136 parts at 100 ° C. in 5399
parts alcohol (90 %) at 18 ° C. in 440 parts at boiling (90 %) point
and in 818 parts of boiling absolute alcohol. It dissolves in 21000
parts of ether at 17 ° C. in 4856 parts of methyl alcohol at 18 ° C.
in 58·8 parts of chloroform at 18 ° C. and in 2710 parts of boiling
chloroform[63]. Theobromine is partly decomposed by strong alkalis but
by cautious addition of alkalis it forms compounds with them, which,
are readily dissolved by solutions of sodium salicylate, acetate or
benzoate. These double compounds under the name of diuretin, agurin and
uropherin have lately become of therapeutic value.[64]

Sodium silicate and more particularly trisodiumphosphate according
to Brissemoret[65] are great solvents of theobromine. One and a half
molecules of the latter salt can dissolve one molecule of theobromine
so that in this way it is possible to prepare a solution of nearly
2 percent. Phenol also dissolves a large quantity of theobromine,
according to Maupy,[66] who has utilised this property for the
determination of theobromine. The defatted cacao preparation is
moistened with water and extracted with a mixture consisting of 15
percent of phenol and 85 percent of chloroform.

Theobromine, like caffeine, gives the so called murexide reaction when
evaporated with chlorine water—forming amalic acid—and when a watch
glass previously moistened with a little fluid ammonia is held over the
last few drops at the end of the operation. The residue thus obtained
has a violet colour, which serves to distinguish theobromine readily
from other plant bases which do not belong to the xanthine group.

Although theobromine is the most valuable constituent of cacao beans,
the importance attached to a greater or lesser amount in the beans as a
commercial article was formerly much exaggerated.

The investigations of Dragendorff and others have shown that the
value of various stimulants like tobacco, coffee and tea, does not
entirely depend on the amount of alkaloid or diureide but partly also
on the joint action of all the constituents of those articles, and it
is particularly the aromatic bodies which determine their commercial
value. Various kinds of coffee, for example, of inferior commercial
value contain considerably more caffeine than the costly Mocca beans.
The highly prized Havana tobacco ranges lower than the Sumatra kinds in
nicotine content, and the same conclusion with regard to cacao would
probably be correct. In support of this view, attention may be directed
to the following analyses performed by Wolfram.[67]


Percentage of theobromine at 100° C.

  ================================+========================================
           Description            |              % Theobromine %
  ================================+========+=========+=============+=======
  Caracas                         |        |   1·63  |             |   1·11
  Guayaquil (of considerably less |        |         |             |
    value than the first)         | In the |   1·63  |    In the   |   0·97
  Domingo                         |  bean  |   1·66  |    shells   |   0·56
  Bahia                           |        |   1·64  |             |   0·71
  Puerto Cabello (fine kind)      |        |   1·46  |             |   0·81
  Tabasco                         |        |   1·34  |             |   0·42
                                  |————————+————————-+————————————-+———————
                                  |Average | = 1·56% |             | =0·76%

Excluding the theobromine in the shells which are not used in the
preparation of cacao, it will be seen from the above table that the
Caracas bean, which is the finest and dearest, has an amount of
theobromine which is only equal to, or even a little less, than that in
the inferior beans from Guayaquil and Domingo.


5. ~Albumin.~

On the presence of albuminous bodies in the cacao bean, varying between
14-15 percent, depends to a great extent its nutritive value. The
albumin in plants, unfortunately, is not to hand in a form suitable
for direct absorption and assimilation in the animal organism, in
fact, only a fraction of it is so available. Before considering the
nutritive value of the albumin of the cacao bean it will be well to
give attention to the general chemical and physical properties of
albumin so far as a knowledge of them will assist in the elucidation of
the subsequent matter.

Albuminous bodies or proteins occur either dissolved in the sap of
plants or in a solid in the protoplasm of plant cells; also in the
form of granular deposits (Aleuron granules[68]). In cacao they are
apparently present in the three different conditions.

The term vegetable albumen, in its more restricted sense, is meant
to designate a protein substance which is soluble in water and is
coagulable by heat. The greater part of the proteid which exists in the
seeds and sap of plants and is coagulable by heat, is not albumin but
globulin, that is to say, it is insoluble in water, though dissolved
by solutions of neutral salts. Whilst many protein substances in
aqueous solution require a temperature of 100 ° C. before coagulating,
or becoming insoluble under certain conditions, others coagulate at
65 ° C. Concentrated acetic acid dissolves all albuminous bodies with
the aid of heat, concentrated nitric acid gives a yellow coloration
(xantoprotein reaction). Albuminous substances are decomposed when
heated to 150 ° C. developing a dark colour, swelling up and evolving
an offensive smell, finally leaving behind a difficultly combustible
coaly residue.

Globulins combine with aqueous solutions of alkalis such as potash,
soda, ammonia etc. producing alkaline albuminates; with acids they
form acid albuminates or syntonins. Both have the property in common,
that whilst they are insoluble in pure water, they readily dissolve
in slightly acidulated or alkaline water, as well as in weak saline
solutions, and are then no longer coagulable by boiling.

Albuminous bodies are converted first into albumoses (proteoses), and
then into peptons by gastric and intestinal digestion or by hydrolytic
decomposition with acids or alkalis, also by the action of steam under
pressure of many atmospheres, as well as by putrefaction. Albumoses,
with the exception of hetero-albumose, are soluble in water. Peptons
dissolve entirely and in that condition are absorbed by the animal
organism.

Albumins are precipitated from their solutions by strong alcohol,
and in that way Zipperer succeeded in precipitating 4·25 percent of
albumin from the aqueous extract of Trinidad cacao, which corresponds
to about 25 percent of the total amount of albumen in the bean.

The results of his investigation have shown that generally more soluble
albumen is present in the unfermented than in the fermented bean.
Consequently, it would appear that in the finer kinds of cacao beans,
in which very careful fermentation has been carried out, the albumin,
owing to fermentative alteration, is rendered less soluble.

The constitution of albumin is still not sufficiently known, despite
the excellent experiments of E. Fischer on this subject; generally it
is regarded as having the formula:

  C     52·31-54·33%
  H      7·13- 7·73%
  N     15·49-17·60%
  S      0·76- 1·55%
  O     20·55-22·98%

Accepting a mean formula corresponding to the above figures as
representation of the albumen (namely C_{72}H_{112}N_{18}SO_{22}),
it becomes possible to obtain a quantitative determination of this
constituent in the plants in which it is contained. There is, for
instance, 16 % of nitrogen here. Starting from such a standpoint,
and determining the percentage of Nitrogen contained in a plant, and
multiplying by 6·25 (i. e. 16 %), the amount of albumen is obtained.
For further particulars see paragraph 4. The albumen in cacao, as
previously mentioned, is in the form of globulin, that is, in a less
soluble form. In cacao preparations which are required for invalids,
especially those with affections of the stomach, it is important to
have the albumen in a more readily soluble condition. Various attempts
have been made with cacao preparations to obtain that result, and
later on, full illustrations and explanations will be given on this
subject. First of all, however, it is desirable to consider the
scientific methods employed to ascertain the relative digestibility or
indigestibility of albumen.

Professor Stutzer[69] of Bonn has been engaged in determining the
action of digestive ferments of the animal organism on alimentary
substances, and has worked out a method by which it is possible to
ascertain the proportion of albuminous substances which can be regarded
as digestible.

The method depends upon the fact that salivary, gastric and intestinal
digestion can be artificially imitated in the laboratory. But as the
salivary secretion only digests starch and is difficult to obtain, malt
diastase, which serves the same purpose, is used instead. On the other
hand albuminous material is only digested by juices of the stomach and
intestines as fresh obtained from the mucous membranes of the pig or
ox. If we suppose an average of 16 percent of total albumen in cocoa
powder, the following results would probably be given by Stutzer’s
method:

Of 16 % of total albumen there are on an average:

                                             | corresponding to percentage
                                             | of the total mass:
                                             |
           }  7·6% soluble in the stomach    |  47·5% } 65%
           }  2·8% soluble in the intestines |  17·5% }
  Albumen: }  5·6% insoluble                 |  35·0%
           } ——-                             | ———
           } 16·0%                           | 100·0%

As shown by the experiments of Forster[70] however, artificial
digestion does not correctly represent the actual consumption of
nutriment in the human body. ~Forster’s~ experiments, in which
cacao powder was administered to healthy men, gave a much higher value,
in fact, 80 percent of the nitrogenous substance was digested, against
65 percent by Stutzer’s artificial method of digestion. The results
obtained by artificial digestion must therefore be increased in that
proportion.


6. ~Starch.~

Starch is one of the most important constituents of cacao, as on
the starch taken in conjunction with the fat and albumen depends
the nutritive value of the cacao bean. As previously stated, cacao
starch is one of the smallest kinds which occur in the vegetable
kingdom; consequently it can easily be distinguished from the starch
granules of other plants. Owing to their minuteness the concentric
rings showing the stratified structure of the starch granules can
only be distinguished with difficulty under the microscope. Cacao
starch consists usually of globular granules, generally separate, but
sometimes in aggregations of two or three. The appearance under the
microscope of the starch granules is clearly shown in fig 7, which
represents a section of Ariba cacao enlarged 750 times.[71]

[Illustration: Fig. 7.]

=a= on the above represents the intercellular spaces, =b= the cell
walls, =c= the starch granules, =d= the fat crystals, those being the
contents and structural elements of the cacao cell that the microscope
will at once distinguish.

Cacao starch has the usual properties of ordinary kinds of starch,
namely:

1. ~It is gelatinised by hot water~, that is to say, the water
penetrates between the layers of starch granules, separating them
and causing by its penetration a swelling up of the starch whereby
a transparent mass know as “starch paste” is produced. It has been
supposed that cacao starch is less easily gelatinised than the starch
of other plants. According to investigations of Soltsien’s[72], which
Zipperer unreservedly endorses, this is not the case, for under certain
essential conditions, cacao starch gelatinises just as readily as other
kinds of starch.


~The blue coloration of starch with iodine.~

This is said to take place more slowly with cacao than with other
starches, though we have always found that once the cacao starch
is gelatinised, a blue coloration appears immediately on adding a
sufficiently strong solution of iodine.

There are certainly other materials in the cacao bean, such as fat,
which by more or less enveloping the starch, prevent access of water
to the starch granules and thus hinder gelatinisation; or again, the
albumen and cacao-red may exert some retarding influence on the iodine
reaction, ~especially if the iodine solution used is very dilute~.
Yet it is impossible to describe the reaction as slow.

According to Soltsien, if a mixture of two parts of cacao bean with
one part of calcinated magnesia and water is heated, a clear-filtering
decoction is obtained, which immediately assumes the blue colour
on addition of iodine solution. On neutralising the filtrate with
acetic acid, and adding 3-4 parts of strong alcohol, its starch is
precipitated.

~By boiling with dilute acids as well as by the action of ferments
like the saliva, diastase~ etc., ~starch is converted into starch
sugar~ (~glucose~, ~dextrose~). The empirical formula for
starch is C_{6}H_{10}O_{5}, that for starch sugar is C_{6}H_{12}O_{6},
so that in the conversion one molecule of water is introduced,
wherefore its chemical nature is greatly changed, and especially in
its becoming freely soluble in water. That alteration allows of starch
being quantitatively determined, as the dextrose thus produced has the
property of reducing an alkaline solution of copper sulphate (known as
Fehling’s solution, after the discoverer); that is to say, the copper
sulphate is converted into insoluble red cuprous oxide. As dextrose
always precipitates a definite amount of cuprous oxide, the quantity of
starch present can in that way be determined.

The chemical determination of starch is only in a limited degree
effectual in the recognition of an admixture of foreign starch in cacao
preparations. If more than 10-15 percent of starch (calculated on the
crude bean) has been found, then it must be assumed that there has
been an admixture of foreign starch, but chemistry affords no means by
which foreign starch can be distinguished from the genuine starch of
the cacao bean. For that purpose the foreign starch must be minutely
observed under the microscope, which not only serves to detect its
presence, but gives an approximate estimation of the amount present,
and its origin. Great caution should be exercised, or the result may be
easily exaggerated.


7. ~Cellulose or crude fibre.~

We have already made the acquaintance of this material as the chief
constituent of the cell walls and vascular tissues. Recent chemical
investigations have shown that it consists of the anhydrides of hexose
and pentose (sugar compounds) incrustated with many impurities, such as
cacao-red, gum, mucilage etc. From a chemical point of view, cellulose
has the same formula as starch, viz. C_{6}H_{10}O_{5}, or one of its
multiples represented in formula. One of its chemical properties is
solubility in ammonio-cupric sulphate, and affinity for alkalis such
as potash, soda, ammonia, causes it to swell when they act on the cell
fibres.

Weender’s process[73] as worked out by Henneberg is the one usually
adopted for the determination of crude fibre in plants, although
recently H. Suringar, B. Tollens[74] and more particular König[75] have
pointed out that in Weender’s process the so-called pentosan, that is
to say, the sugar-like constituent of the composition C_{5}H_{10}O_{5},
which comprises a not inconsiderable portion of the crude fibre,
undergoes a disproportionate alteration, so that the analytical results
thus obtained can by no means give an accurate representation of the
amount of cellulose. The crude fibre must therefore be treated in such
manner as to eliminate the pentosan. For this purpose the various
methods of König, Matthes and Streitberger have been proposed, to which
we shall return in Book 4. Filsinger, the meritorious experimenter
on the subject of cacao, has by König’s method determined the amount
of crude fibre in a series of different varieties of cacao bean, and
obtained the following results as regards shelled and roasted beans.

                         percent
   1. Puerto Cabello        5·37
   2. Java                  3·97
   3. Ariba Guayaquil I     4·10
   4. Ariba Guayaquil II    4·07
   5. Machala Guayaquil I   4·43
   6. Para                  4·01
   7. Surinam Guiana        3·01
   8. Bahia                 2·81
   9. Grenada               3·10
  10. Guatemala             3·50
  11. Machala Guayaquil II  3·58
  12. Caracas               3·65
  13. Samana                4·58
  14. St. Thomé A I         4·13
  15. St. Thomé A II        2·95
  16. St. Thomé B           3·15
  17. Haiti                 3·12[76]

These new values may be provisionally regarded as normal. From
these results not only can an idea of the functioning of the cacao
shelling machine be obtained, but also the presence of any occasional
admixture of husk in cacao preparations may be inferred, since the husk
contains a great deal more crude fibre than the kernel. Therefore the
determination of the crude fibre is an important item in the testing of
cacao preparations, as there is no doubt that the presence of vegetable
substances rich in crude fibre can be detected by the increase in the
amount of cellulose.


8. ~Sugar and plant acids.~

The presence of glucose in raw cacao beans was first pointed out
by Schweitzer[77]. The sugar is formed by the action of the cacao
ferment on the glucoside cacaonin during the processes of drying and
fermentation. In addition to sugar, malic and tartaric acids have been
observed. These substances, however, are only of interest to the plant
physiologist and not to the manufacturer, so it is sufficient merely to
notice them here in passing.


9. ~The mineral or ash constituents.~

When cacao beans are ignited, the constituents of an organic nature are
volatilised and only the non-volatile or inorganic constituents remain
behind. These consist of potash, soda, lime, iron magnesia, combined
with silicic acid, phosphoric acid, sulphuric acid and chlorine.

The amount of ash in raw and shelled cacao beans varies from 3-4 %.
Tuchen[78] found 2·9-3 %, Trojanowski[79] 2·08-3·93 %, Zipperer[80]
2·7-4 %, L’Hote[81] 2·2-4 %, H. Beckurts[82] 2·20-3·75, J. Hockauf[83]
2·84-4·4 percent. Of those kinds which are now most in use, Ceylon
gave 3·30 percent, Java 3·20 and Kameroon 2·95 percent. (Beckurts).

Quantitative analyses of the ash of the cacao beans have been made by
several investigators, and the following table gives a series of the
most complete analyses, made by R. Bensemann[84].

~Table~ 14. =Analysis of the ash of Cacao Beans by R. Bensemann.=

  The ash of the kernel free from husk dried at 100°C. contained:
  ————————————————————————+——————+——————+——————+——————+——————+——————-
   Insoluble respectively |Mara- |Cara- |Trini-|Mach- |Porto | Mean
   in dilute hydrochloric |caibo | cas  | dad  | ala  | Cab- |
   or nitric acid         |      |      |      |      | ello |
  ————————————————————————+——————+——————+——————+——————+——————+——————-
   a) Volatile dessicated | 0·142| 0·076| 0·144| 0·074| 0·198| 0·127
       at 100° C.         |      |      |      |      |      |
   b) Fixed at red heat   | 0·312| 1·663| 0·553| 0·630| 1·075| 0·846
                          |      |      |      |      |      |
   Soluble in dilute      |      |      |      |      |      |
     hydrochloric         |      |      |      |      |      |
    or nitric acid:       |      |      |      |      |      |
   c) Potassium oxide     |35·889|33·844|30·845|30·686|29·989|32·251
        K_{2}O            |      |      |      |      |      |
   d) Sodium oxide        | 0·515| 0·766| 1·964| 4·173| 3·427| 2·169
        Na_{2}O           |      |      |      |      |      |
   e) Calcium oxide CaO   | 4·118| 5·030| 4·638| 3·112| 2·923| 3·964
   f) Magnesium oxide MgO |15·750|15·151|16·060|16·172|17·562|16·139
   g) Ferric oxide        | 0·182| 0·217| 0·491| 0·629| 0·303| 0·364
        Fe_{2}O_{3}       |      |      |      |      |      |
   h) Aluminium oxide     | 0·080| 0·326| 0·490| 0·432| 0·305| 0·327
        Al_{2}O_{3}       |      |      |      |      |      |
   i) Silicic acid        | 0·214| 0·211| 0·169| 0·134| 0·240| 0·194
        SiO_{2}           |      |      |      |      |      |
   k) Phosphoric anhydride|27·741|29·302|28·624|37·000|35·274|31·588
        P_{2}O_{5}        |      |      |      |      |      |
   l) Sulphuric anhydride | 2·632| 2·740| 3·957| 2·042| 3·952| 3·065
        SO_{3}            |      |      |      |      |      |
   m) Chlorine Cl         | 0·295| 0·341| 0·427| 0·279| 0·085| 0·285
   n) Carbonic anhydride  |10·349| 8·435| 8·953| 2·788| 3·481| 6·801
        CO_{2}            |      |      |      |      |      |
   o) Water H_{2}O        | 1·847| 1·975| 2·781| 1·912| 1·205| 1·944
      Oxygen O equivalent | 0·066| 0·077| 0·090| 0·063| 0·019| 0·064
         to chlorine

In previously describing the aleuron granules of the cacao bean it was
mentioned that they contain a comparatively large globoid. According
to Molisch[85], when sections are cautiously heated on platinum foil,
these globules are found in the ash. From their number they give a
characteristic appearance to the ash of cacao beans, and thus may serve
as a good means of identifying cacao, since they can be detected in the
smallest quantity of a genuine cacao preparation.

A noteworthy fact may here be mentioned, namely the presence of a
rather small amount of copper in the ash of cacao beans as well as
the husks. Duclaux[86] was the first to point out this fact, which
several other observers, such as Skalweit[87] and Galippe[88] have also
confirmed. The amount of copper in the husk varies from 0·02 to 0·025
percent and in the beans from 0·0009-0·004 percent (Duclaux). Copper
in similar amount is found in all kinds of beans and husks, and its
presence is due to the absorption of copper by the plant from the soil,
whence it gradually accumulates in the fruit.


b) The Cacao Shells.

Most of the constituents which exist in the cacao kernels are also to
be found in the husks and the methods for isolating and determining
them are the same in both cases. The composition of the husk, according
to Laube and Aldendorff[89], is as follows:

~Table~ 15.

  Key to Row 1:
         Col 4A = Nitrogenous substance
         Col 6B = Non nitrogenous extractive
  ———————————————+——————+—————+————-+————-+————-+————-+————-+—————
                 |Amount|     |     |     |     |     |     |
                 | of   |     |     |     |     |Woody|     |
                 |husk  |Water|  4A | Fat |  6B |fibre| Ash | Sand
  ———————————————+——————+—————+————-+————-+————-+————-+————-+—————
                 |                    ~Per cent~
  ———————————————+——————+—————+————-+————-+————-+————-+————-+—————
  Caracas        | 20·09| 7·74|11·68| 5·99|35·29|12·79| 8·32|18·62
  Guayaquil      |  —   | 9·11|12·94|10·75|47·08|13·12| 6·79| 0·21
  Trinidad       | 14·04| 8·30|15·14| 4·23|46·05|18·00| 7·06| 0·92
  Puerto Cabello | 14·92| 6·40|13·75| 4·38|47·12|14·83| 6·06| 7·46
  Soconusco      | 18·58| 6·48|19·12| 6·48|39·39|15·67| 8·15| 4·71
  Mean           | 16·33| 7·83|14·29| 6·38|45·79|14·69| 7·12| 5·90


~Zipperer’s analysis[90] of the unroasted husks gave the following
results~:

~Table~ 16.

  Key to Row 1 abbreviations:
         Col 2 = Surinam        = Surin
         Col 3 = Caracas        = Carac
         Col 4 = Trinidad       = Trini
         Col 5 = Puerto Cabello = P Cab
         Col 6 = Machala        = Mach
         Col 7 = Port au Prince = P a P

  ————————————————————-+————-+————-+————-+————-+————-+————-+————-+—————
                       |Surin|Carac|Trini|P Cab|Mach |P a P|Ariba|Mean
  ————————————————————-+————-+————-+————-+————-+————-+————-+————-+—————
                       |                  ~Per cent~
  ————————————————————-+————-+————-+————-+————-+————-+————-+————-+—————
  Moisture             |13·02|11·90|13·09|12·04|  —  |  —  |  —  |12·51
  Fat                  | 4·17| 4·15| 4·74| 4·00|  —  |  —  |  —  | 4·23
  Cacao tannic acid    |     |     |     |     |     |     |     |
   soluble in 80%      |     |     |     |     |     |     |     |
   alcohol             | 5·10| 3·80| 4·87| 9·15|  —  |  —  |  —  | 4·58
  Theobromine          | 0·33| 0·30| 0·40| 0·32|  —  |  —  |  —  | 0·33
  Ash                  | 7·31|16·73| 7·78| 8·99|  —  |  —  |  —  |10·20
  Woody fibre          |14·85|17·99|18·04|15·98|  —  |  —  |  —  |16·71
  Nitrogen             |  —  | 2·25| 2·13| —   |  —  |  —  |  —  | 2·19
  Proportion of husk   |     |     |     |     |     |     |     |
    in the raw seeds   |14·60|15·00|14·68|12·28|16·14|16·00|18·68|15·34


Roasted cacao husks contain according to G. Paris[91] the following
constituents:

Moisture 12·57 percent, nitrogenous substance 14·69 percent, fat 3·3
percent, extractives 45·76 percent, crude fibre 16·33 percent and ash
7·35 percent.

50 grammes of the husks when boiled with 500 grammes of water give
25·08 percent extract, 20·68 % organic substance, 4·4 % ash, 0·21 %
sugar (reducing substance), 0·79 % theobromine, 0·12 % percent acid,
calculated as tartaric acid.

The following constituents have been found by R. Bensemann[92] in the
ash of cacao husks:

~Table~ 17[93].

  ==========================+========+=======+=======+========+========
                            | Mara-  | Cara- | Trini-|Machala | Porta
                            | caibo  |  cas  |   dad |Guayaquil| Plata
                            +————————+———————+———————+————————+————————
                            |                 ~Per cent~
  ==========================+========+=======+=======+========+========
  Ash dried at 100° C.      |        |       |       |        |
                            |        |       |       |        |
   I. insoluble in dilute   |        |       |       |        |
        hydrochloric        |        |       |       |        |
       or nitric acid:      |        |       |       |        |
  a) Volatile dessicated at |  0·113   0·421 | 0·979 |  0·306 |  1·247
       100° C.              |        |       |       |        |
  b) Fixed at red heat      |  1·917 |47·711 |29·315 | 37·662 | 51·513
                            |        |       |       |        |
   II. Soluble in dilute    |        |       |       |        |
         hydrochloric       |        |       |       |        |
       or nitric acid:      |        |       |       |        |
  c) Potassium oxide K_{2}O | 31·517 |11·812 |25·866 | 23·117 | 12·174
  d) Sodium oxide Na_{2}O   |  4·188 | 3·298 | 2·726 |  1·210 |  2·780
  e) Calcium oxide CaO      | 10·134 | 4·458 | 5·097 |  3·503 |  4·401
  f) Magnesium oxide MgO    |  9·546 | 4·703 | 5·206 |  4·837 |  4·090
  g) Ferric oxide           |  0·647 | 0·931 | 0·339 |  0·958 |  0·462
       Fe_{2}O_{3}          |        |       |       |        |
  h) Aluminium oxide        |   ·281 | 1·554 | 0·710 |  1·854 |  1·046
        Al_{2}O_{3}         |        |       |       |        |
  i) Silicic acid SiO_{2}   |  1·180 | 7·975 | 2·416 |  4·321 |  6·780
  k) Phosphoric anhydride   |  9·068 | 7·630 | 4·703 |  7·288 |  7·242
        P_{2}O_{5}          |        |       |       |        |
  l) Sulphuric anhydride    |  3·041 | 1·478 | 3·398 |  1·741 |  2·012
      SO_{3}                |        |       |       |        |
  m) Chlorine Cl            |  1·005 | 0·220 | 1·022 |  0·255 |  0·444
  n) Carbonic anhydride     | 25·454 | 5·399 |16·290 | 11·834 |  4·247
       CO_{2}               |        |       |       |        |
  o) Water H_{2}O           |  2·135 | 2·499 | 2·263 |  1·171 |  1·662
  p) Oxygen O equivalent    |  0·226 | 0·049 | 0·290 |  0·057 |  0·100
      to chlorine           |        |       |       |        |

As evidenced in the preceding examples, data as to the constituents of
the cacao husk deviate considerably with different authors. Laube and
Aldendorff, for instance, found 14-20 percent, while Zipperer obtained
12-18 percent of husks.

These discrepancies are mainly due to adhering sand and ferruginous
earth collected during the drying and fermenting processes. If the
beans are carefully collected and kept free from earthy substances, the
percentage of husks as against that of the bean will appear much lower;
it is, indeed, now possible to obtain properly treated beans which
contain on an average only some 10 percent of husks, such as Ariba
and Machala. The husks of these two varieties are exceedingly woody,
and their amount sometimes reaches 15 percent. The latest machinery
for cleaning the beans effects so complete a separation of the husks
from the kernel that very little of the former remains in the finished
cacao preparation (less than 1 percent in thin-shelled beans and no
more than 2 percent in thick-shelled beans such as Ariba). For some
years it was not possible to effect so thorough a removal of the husk,
so that there was always found an appreciably large amount of shells
in the finished preparations, which rendered it difficult to detect
adulteration. As, however, the quantity of ash present in the husk is
double that in the kernel, it was possible to form an opinion as to
the intentional admixture of shells from the increase of ash in cacao
preparations. Hence the ash was always required to be determined when
adulteration was suspected. Under existing conditions the addition of a
quantity of shells sufficient to increase the percentage of ash present
in the powder or chocolate is scarcely practicable, so that, for the
purpose of detecting small additions, other methods must be resorted
to, such as the estimation of the crude fibre or silica in the ash[94]
with the aid of the microscope, in which it is possible to easily
distinguish the forms of the cotyledon (kernel) mass and those of the
husk. The diagram on page 14, Fig. 3, clearly shows the elementary
forms of the cacao husk as represented by Mitscherlich. It illustrates
a longitudinal section of the husk of Bahia beans, enlarged about
500 times, with six different cell elements in alphabetical order.
First the compressed cells of the epidermis are to be seen on the
exterior, in several parallel series and succeeded by moderately broad
and thin-walled cellular tissue of the parenchyma, which sometimes
presents large empty spaces (sch) the results of the loosening of the
cell walls through the formation of mucilage. This cellular tissue
(lp) is also permeated by bundles of spiral vessels (gfb), which, with
the dry cells, are characteristic of the husk, as they exist only in
very small quantity in the kernel. Then follow parallel rows of cells
(lp) resembling epithelial cells; next comes a layer of cells with
thick walls, the dry cells (st) and finally several rows of elongated
ones (lp). The silver membrane (is) interposes between the husk and
the kernel, fragments of which remain adhering to the shell after
separation of the latter.

To conclude, we find that the husk of the cacao bean consists of the
inner coat of fruit, called endocarp and other parts of the fruit
covering, as well as the skin of the seed[95]. The following layers
may be distinguished;

 1. The pulp, (f in fig. 3) fragile large cells with frequent hiatus;

 2. the ~endocarp~ (fe), a single layer of fragile, very narrow
 and irregularly arranged cells, but ~without hiatus~;

 3. the ~epicarp~, or skin (se), polygonal and extended cells,
 with an outer wall of some thickness.

 4. the ~parenchyma~ or cellular tissue (lp), consisting of
 large and multiform cells, with vascular bundles (gfb), the large
 mucilagenous or slime cells (sch) and

 5. the ~sklerogenous or dry cells~ (st), a single layer of
 vessels shaped like a horseshoe, and thickening towards the interior,
 and in conclusion

 6. the ~silver membrane~ (is), belonging to the earlier inner
 coat of fruit, and consisting of two single rows of fat-bearing cells.

In examination of the husks of the plane surface enlarged 160 times
(fig. 8), it will be noticed that the characteristic epidermis (ep)
consists of large and rather elongated but irregular polygonal cells.
Frequently on the epidermis may be remarked a delicate network of
the cells constituting the fruit pulp (p). Beneath the epidermis
lies a very delicate transverse cellular layer (qu) followed by the
parenchyma, as already stated. The remaining elementary forms are
not readily observed on a plane surface but only in section, though
we adjoin a few diagrams, showing the layers as isolated from the
pericarp; namely, fig. 9 parenchyma, a layer of sklerogenous cells,
fig. 10, and the silver membrane (is) with two superjacent Mitscherlich
particles (tr) in fig. 11.

[Illustration: Fig. 8.]

[Illustration: Fig. 9.]

[Illustration: Fig. 10.]

For microscopical examination, the husk must first be defatted with
petroleum or ordinary ether and then treated with dilute chloral
hydrate (8: 5) to assist the definition of the forms. An approximate
estimation of the amount of husk in a cacao preparation can be made by
means of the microscope, adopting Filsinger’s[96] levigation method,
which consists of concentrating those elements of the cacao which are
seldom seen even in suspension in water, and which sink to the bottom
when repeatedly stirred in that liquid. To these belongs first of all
the husk, and its presence and determination in the levigation method
is accordingly greatly facilitated. The details of the method will be
further described in treating of husk admixtures in cacao preparations.

[Illustration: Fig. 11.]

Cacao shells are the only by-product in the cacao industry, and have
been developed and exploited to such an extent, that a rational
utilisation of the ever increasing quantities has become a matter of
urgent necessity. They are not used in our industry, for an admixture
of husk is not permissible, even in the inferior kinds of chocolate
or cocoa powder, but must be regarded as an adulteration. It is true
that they have been brought on the market as cocoa tea, and again,
have been coated with sugar, to make them tasty; and to this day,
candied husks constitute a favourite sweetmeat of the population of
East Germany. But in this way only comparatively inferior quantities of
the by-product were absorbed, and consequently projects of all kinds
have been suggested to use up larger percentage. As we have seen, the
fatty contents of the bean can be extracted with benzine, and there
is a resultant 4 or 5 percentage of fat of inferior value, which is
commercially known as “Dutch IIa Cacao Butter”; the defatted shells can
be further used for the preparation of theobromine, as Zipperer has
already noted in the first edition of this book.

Kathreiner’s successors in Munich[97] employ an extract of cacao
shells prepared with hot water, in order to improve coffee berries
during the roasting and to give a flavour to the coffee substitutes
prepared from corn and malt. Cacao extract is also prepared from the
shells[98] by first treating them with water or steam, and afterwards
extracting with water, and finally evaporating as far as necessary. The
thick extract thus prepared contains theobromine, and is intended for
use either alone or as an addition to cacao powder and chocolate.

Strohschein in Berlin[99] prepares from the shells a thick liquid
extract which he calls “Martol Its preparation was suggested by the
fact that the cacao husk gives evidence of containing a considerable
amount of iron. In “Martol”, the iron occurs as a tannate, and the
preparation further contains theobromine, carbohydrates, and phosphoric
acid. The preparation is said to be used as a medicinal remedy in
chlorosis, yet has scarcely justified such a statement.

Alfred Michel of Eilenberg[100] utilises the shells in the preparation
of a brown colouring material. The husks, free from impurities, are
first soaked in soft water, with or without the addition of sulphuric
acid, then washed and finally treated with a strong 35 % solution of
caustic soda. From the alkaline solution, the colouring matter is
precipitated with acid or acid metallic salt, collected on a filter,
and again washed. Thus obtained, it is a dark reddish-brown paste,
possessed of a vitreous fracture. The yield of colouring matter is from
20-25 % of the weight of the original shells. By re-treatment with
alkali, the paste can be again obtained in solution and can be used
as required, either in liquid or paste form. The colouring matter can
be obtained in different tints, either by soaking the shells in more
er less dilute sulphuric acid, or by precipitation from the alkaline
solution at various temperatures, or yet again, by the addition of
metallic oxides.

Boussignault[101] says that in Paris briquettes have been made from
cacao shells, and twenty-two years ago, Zipperer[102] proposed to
use them as fodder, especially for horses. Experimental work in that
direction was instituted, but for various reasons, had to be abandoned.
The question as to a rational working up of the husk of the cacao bean
is once more receiving special consideration, more particularly since
the publication by the “Association of German Chocolate Manufacturers”
of a prize essay on the subject. The fodder value of the husks as
determined by Märcker is apparent from the following figures:

~Table~ 18.

  ===========================+=============+===========+===========
                             |  free from  |           | whole and
            Shells           | dust, whole | fine meal |   dusty
                             |      %      |     %     |     %
  ===========================+=============+===========+===========
  Moisture                   |     9·08    |    6·50   |    9·95
  Albumen                    |    13·56    |   14·13   |   12·69
     “    digestible         |     6·06    |    7·07   |    4·38
  Fat                        |     2·65    |    6·76   |    3·96
  Raw fibre                  |    29·14    |   25·80   |   21·55
  Ash                        |     6·32    |    6·44   |    7·26
  Non-nitrogenous extractive |    39·25    |   40·37   |   44·59

Feeding experiments which were carried out in certain agricultural
institutes showed that the cacao husk stands in nutritive value
between good meadow hay and wheaten bran, and is not only a fattening
fodder for oxen, but also a valuable feeding material for cows and
deer[103]. These results have been confirmed by Prof. Feruccio Faelli
in Turin[104].

The advantages of cacao shells as fodder, when a comparison with bran
is established, are at once apparent. Two hundredweight (that is to
say, about 220 lbs. averdupois) cost only from six to seven shillings,
whilst the price of bran varies between nine and ten shillings. The
husks also keep better, for after having been stored eighteen months,
Professor Faelli found that they had undergone no alteration, whilst on
the other hand bran had become sour. A further advantage possessed by
the husk is that it will absorb four times its weight of water against
three times absorbed by bran. Cattle not only readily get accustomed
to the fodder but subsequently take to it with eagerness. The best
results were obtained with Dutch, Swiss and Parmesan milch cows. After
10 days feeding the butter and milk-sugar had increased, as well as the
daily average yield of milk from 44 to 49·5 kilogrammes. As soon as the
feeding with cacao husk was discontinued the yield of milk decreased.
Faelli concludes that cacao husk, which can be used as a fodder up to 4
kilog. daily, exercises a very favourable influence on milch cows, and
he purposes to continue the investigation with horses.

In a report on the Experimental Farms of Canada 1898, page 151,
reference is made to the manurial value of the husks in enriching the
soil with nitrogen and potash, a fact which had already been pointed
out by Boussignault.

The future use of the husks appears therefore to be ensured, and it
is to be hoped that it will allow of a permanent consumption of this
by-product.


FOOTNOTES:

[1] Of which the Central Province has 32,003 acres: North Western
Province 3689 acres, North Central Province 25 acres, Province of Uva
2153 acres and Province of Sabaragamura 1918 acres. (From information
kindly furnished in a letter of W. Freudenberg jun. German Consul at
Colombo.)

[2] See references at the end of this book.

[3] Pronounced Chocolatl.

[4] Revue des sciences pures et appliquées 1899, No. 4, page 127.

[5] Vol. 7, Part 2: Diseases and Parasites of the Cacao Tree. With
special reference to the conditions obtaining in the colonies belonging
to Germany. By Dr. F. C. Faber, Berlin 1909, Parey & Springer.

[6] Recently so-called fermenting-houses, as recommended by L. Kindt.
(Cf. Kultur d. Kakaobaues und seine Schädlinge, Hambourg 1904), have
answered very well. Yet the chemismus of fermentation is by no means
sufficiently explained, and quantitatively and qualitatively, there is
a lack of completeness in the analyses bearing on the process.

[7] Special ovens (System Mayfarth) are also used, and sometimes
complete heating and drying installations.

[8] This had already been noticed by J. Hinchley Hart; Cacao (Trinidad
1892). It is therefore scarcely conceivable that the “Germination”
theory should have held the field so long.

[9] According to Schweizer (Pharmazeut. Ztg. 1898, page 389)
these substances would be represented by the chemical formula
C_{60}H_{86}O_{15}N_{4}, corresponding to 1 molecule cacao red, 6
molecules grape sugar, and 1 molecule Theobromin.

[10] Cf. Hilger, Apotheker-Ztg. 1892, p. 469.

[11] Cf. Tropenpflanzer V. 4, 1901, April-Number.

[12] Loc. cit. page 167.

[13] The leaves of the tobacco plant must also be fermented, before
they acquire their rich brown colour and peculiar aroma.

[14] Reports of the German Pharmaceutical Society 1900, Vol. 5, page
115.

[15] J. F. Hanousek, Die Nahrungs-und Genußmittel aus dem
Pflanzenreiche. p. 437.

[16] Anleitung zur mikroskopischen Untersuchung der Nahrungs-und
Genußmittel. Jena 1886.

[17] Grundriß einer Histochemie der pflanzlichen Genussmittel.

[18] See page 16 loc. cit.

[19] Cf. Dr. Stollwerck. The Cacao and Chocolate Industries.

[20] Mitscherlich, p. 57.

[21] Cacao and its Preparation; a few Experiments.

[22] Ridenour, M. American Journal of Pharmacy, 1895. Vol. 67, p. 207.

[23] Filsinger, Chemical Journal, 1887, p. 202.

[24] Z. U. N. G., 1906. Vol. 12, p. 88 et seq.

[25] The husks contain no fat when in a fresh condition but absorb fat
from the bean when the cacao is fermented and dried; especially so also
in the later process of roasting, when they become saturated with it.

[26] Klimont, Ber. d. Dtsch. chem. Ges. 34, 2636; Monatssch. f. Chem.
1902 (23) 51; 1904 (25) 929; 1905 (26) 536.

[27] Journal of the Society of Chemical Industry 1899, p. 556.

[28] Chevalier & Baudrimont, Dictionnaire des alterations.

[29] Achiv de Pharmacie 1888, Vol. 26, p. 830.

[30] See previous reference.

[31] Schmidt, Ztschr. analyt. Chem. 1898, vol. 301 p. 301; cf. also P.
Welmans, Pharm. Ztg. 1894, p. 776.

[32] Pharm. Zeitung 1898 No. 10.

[33] Cor. Assoc. Germ. Choc. Man. 1889, Vol. 5, p. 65.

[34] The Brit. and Colon. Druggist 1897 No. 21.

[35] Zeitschr. anal. Chemie.

[36] The Reichert-Meissl number (to be discussed later), according to
a communication from P. Welmans, reaches 1 Burstyn in the expressed
fat and amounts to 1·66 cc. in the extracted fat (no. of cc. of normal
potash solution to 100 grammes of fat).

[37] Dingler, Polytechnical Journal, Vol. 253, p. 281. For details of
the method compare also P. Welmans Zeitschrift für öffentl. Chemie,
1900, No. 5.

[38] Zeitschrift für anal. Chemie 1896, p. 519.

[39] Zeitschrift für öffentl. Chemie 1900, p. 95.

[40] Though Strohl Zeit. Analyt. Ch. 1896. Vol. 35. p. 166. has
obtained with a Bahia fat an iodine value of 41·7, possibly exception
due to some over-roasting of the beans or to their fat having been
extracted by a petroleum ether of very high boiling point. Cf. also
table 12.

[41] Zeitschr. Analyt. Chem. B. 21. p. 394.

[42] Correspondence of the Association of German Chocolate
Manufacturers.

[43] Zeitschrift für angew. Chem. 1898, p. 116.

[44] We are indebted for this table to the kindness of Dr. Fritsche,
Superintendent Meat Inspector at Cleves (Cf. also table of experiments
of Matthes & Müller, loc. cit p.—et seq.).

[45] Benedikt-Ulzer, Analyse der Fett-und Wachsarten. 5th. edition.
1908. p. 840. also Literature.

[46] These high percentages of acid may also be caused by the high
percentage of benzine used in the production.

[47] A. Ruffin, Pharmaceutische Rundschau 1899, No. 51, p. 820.

[48] Therapeutische Monatshefte. 1895. p. 345 and following pages.

[49] Compt. rendus de l’aced. des sciences de Paris, Vol. 123, p. 587.

[50] Apotheker-Zeitung 1892, p. 469 and Deutsche Vierteljahrsschrift
für öffentl. Gesundheitspflege 1893, No. 3.

[51] Pharmaceut. Zeitung 1898, p. 389.

[52] Hilger and Lazarus, Compare also Schweitzer, Pharmaceut. Zeitg.
1898, p. 389.

[53] Ann. d. Chem. and Pharm. 1841, Vol. 41, p. 125.

[54] Ibid. Bd. 118, pag. 151.

[55] Berliner Chemische Berichte 1897, pag. 1839.

[56] Archiv f. experiment. Pathol. u. Pharmacol. 1895, Vol. 35, pag.
449.

[57] Ibid. 1896, Vol. 30, pag. 53.

[58] Ibid. 1896, Vol. 36, pag. 66.

[59] Ibid. 1888, Vol. 24, p. 101.

[60] Therapeut. Monatshefte 1890, p. 10.

[61] Semaine médicale 1893, p. 366.

[62] Pharmaceut. Centralhalle 1898, p. 901.

[63] Dekker (Swiss Weekly Journal, Chem. a. Pharm.) 40, p. 436, 441,
451 u. 463 gives the following figures at 15 ° C.: Water 1800 parts,
spirits 1600, pure alcohol 3570, chloroform 3845, ether 25000, acetic
unit 3845, benzol 100000 and amylic alcohol 1250.

[64] See before.

[65] Journal de Pharmacie et de Chimie 1898, p. 176.

[66] Ibidem 1897, p. 329.

[67] Zeitschrift für analytische Chemie, Vol. 18, p. 346.

[68] Aleuron granules were first microscopically observed by H. Molisch
(Grundriß einer Histochemie d. pflanzl. Genßmittel in the cellular
tissue of the cacao bean. They are very similar to the starch granules
of the bean and contain within them a relatively large globoid lime and
magnesium phosphates associated with an organic substance (sugar) which
becomes visible in the form of globules when a section is incinerated.

[69] Zeitschrift für physiologische Chemie, Vol. 11, p. 207-232.

[70] Hygienische Rundschau. 1900. p. 314 & 315.

[71] E. S. Bastin, American Journal of Pharmacy 1894, p. 369.

[72] Chemischer technischer Centralanzeiger 1886, No. 53, p. 777.

[73] Contributions to the establishment of a rational feeding of
ruminants. So-called Weender’sche Beiträge, 1864 Number, p. 48 and also
Landwirtsch. Versuchsstationen, Vol. 6, p. 497.

[74] Zeitschrift für angewandte Chemie 1896, p. 712 und 749.

[75] Zeitschrift für Untersuchung von Nahrungs-und Genußmittel. 1898.
p. 3.

[76] Zeitschrift für öffentliche Chemie 1900, p. 223.

[77] Pharmaceutische Zeitung 1898, p. 390.

[78] Archiv der Pharmacie 1860, Vol. 153, p. 59.

[79] Beitrag zur pharmak. und chem. Kenntnis des Cacaos.
Inaug.-Dissertation Dorpat 1875.

[80] Untersuchungen über Kakao und dessen Präparate, 1887.

[81] Jahresbericht über die Fortschritte der Pharmacognosie etc. 1883,
p. 314.

[82] Archive der Pharmacie 1893, Vol. 231, p. 694.

[83] Zeitschrift des allgem. öster. Apoth.-Vereins 1898, p. 434.

[84] Repert. f. anal. Chemie 1885, Vol. 5, p. 178; cf. also the
investigations of Mathes & Müller.

[85] Grundriß einer Histochemie der pflanzl. Genußmittel, p. 22.

[86] Bulletin de la société chimique Paris 1872, p. 33.

[87] Pharmaceut. Zeitung Vol. 24, p. 243.

[88] Journ. de Pharm. et de Chim. 1883, Ser. V, Vol. 7, p. 506.

[89] König, Die menschlichen Nahrungs-und Genußmittel, Vol. 1, p. 261.

[90] Zipperer, Untersuchungen über Cacao und dessen Präparate, p. 55.

[91] Zeitschr. für Untersuchung von Nahrungs-u. Genußmitteln 1898, No.

[92] Repertorium der analyt. Chemie 1885, Vol. 5, p. 178.

[93] Compare Matthes & Müller, Z. U. N. 1906, Vol. 12, p. 90 et seq.

[94] Almost a tenth part of the ash of the shells consists of silica.

[95] cf. Moeller Mikroskopie der Nahrungs-und Genußmittel. Berlin.
1905. II part Springer p. 412.

[96] Ztschr. öffentl. Ch. 1899, p. 27.

[97] German patent No. 71, 373, 8th. January 1873.

[98] Engl. Patent No. 14624, June 16th. 1897.

[99] Pharm. Rundschau 1898, p. 781.

[100] Ztschr. für chemische Industrie 1878, p. 303, German Patent No.
2112, Sept. 24th. 1878.

[101] Annales de Chimie et de Physique, Vol. 183, p. 423.

[102] Zeitschrift für Pferdekunde und Pferdezucht 1888, No. 7. Nowadays
cacao shells are often added to fodder.

[103] Quoted by Filsinger Zeitschr. f. öffentl. Chemie 1899, p. 27.

[104] Communication from the Assoc. German Choc. Manufacturers, 19th.
year, No. 7.




+Part II.+

The Manufacture of Cacao Preparations.


A. Manufacture of Chocolate.


The Preparation of the Cacao Beans.

Up to the end of the eighteenth century the manufacture of chocolate
was carried on entirely by hand, a method at once laborious and
inefficient. The workman used to kneel down on the ground, and crush
the beans in iron mortars. It was not until 1732[105] that Buisson
introduced the use of a bench and so rendered that inconvenient and
unwholesome practice unnecessary. Even to-day, the Chinese cooks on
the Philippine islands carry their chocolate “Factory” about with
them, in which the trestle is essential. It further comprises a small
marble mortar and warmed pestle, and by means of these utensils and
implements the hulled beans are pounded, and the triturated mass so
obtained spread out. It is then flavoured with sugar and spices. With
that exception, hand labour in the chocolate manufacture has since the
year 1778 been entirely displaced by machinery, when Doret exhibited
the first specimen before the medical faculty of Paris. According
to Belfort de la Roque,[106] a Genoese named Bozelly had already
constructed a mill by means of which he was able to prepare from six to
seven hundred pounds of chocolate daily, comparing favourably with the
thirty pound output yielded by hand labour. Pelletier[107], in 1819,
describes a machine for the mechanical preparation of chocolate of his
own construction, capable of doing the work of seven men. The machines
used in the chocolate manufacture have since that time been repeatedly
improved and re-constructed, although always with this one end in view,
namely to obtain a fine even cacao mass, and afterwards mix it as
thoroughly as possible with the other ingredients employed.

The first machines of the modern type were constructed by the Parisian
mechanic George Hermann (1801-1883) in the year 1830, to which inventor
we are indebted for the principle of fine grinding with varying
velocities, on which manufacture of chocolate is based to-day. There is
at the present time a rather large circle of manufacturers engaged in
the putting together of special machines for the preparation of cacao
and cacao products, chocolate apart.

Whether chocolate manufacture be carried out on a large or small scale,
it always involves the subjecting of the cacao bean to a regularly
succeeding series of operations, before the resulting product known
as “Chocolate” (in the strict commercial sense of the term) can be
obtained.

The respective operations succeed each other as follows:


I. ~Preparation of the Beans.~

 1. ~Storing~, ~cleansing~ and ~sorting~ of raw beans.

 2. ~Roasting~ the cleansed beans.

 3. ~Crushing~, ~shelling~ and ~cleansing~ the roasted
 bean (removing the radicles etc.)

 4. ~Mixing~ different kinds of beans.


II. ~Production of the Cacao Mass.~

 5. ~Grinding~ the beans till they yield a homogenous paste on
 heating.

 6. ~Mixture~ of the liquefied cacao mass with sugar, spices, etc.

 7. ~Trituration~ by rollers.


III. ~Preparation~ of the resulting ~Chocolate~.

 8. ~Extraction~ of ~air~, ~division~ and
 ~moulding~.

 9. ~Cooling.~

 10. ~Packing~ and ~storing~.

This represents the general course of manufacture, which we will now
proceed to describe in more detail, following the headings given above.




1. Preparation of the Beans.


1. ~Storing~, ~cleansing~ and ~sorting~.

Right up to the moment when they are to be used in the manufacture, the
raw cacao beans must be kept as originally packed, and stored in an
airy sun-lit room; although if they have accumulated moisture during
transport or sustained any manner of damage in harvesting, they should
then be emptied out of the sacks, spread out over the floor of such a
room as above described, and dried as effectively as possible. It has
also been recommended that such beans be washed with a dilute solution
of caustic potash (1 in 5000), and afterwards dried rapidly.

Unfermented beans, those damaged in the harvest, and those which have
received no proper fermentation, develop a greyish white colour with
occasional tints of violet and an unpleasant, bitter herbal flavour,
properties which unfortunately penetrate to the resulting cacao
products. Attempts have been made to meet this evil with a so-called
“Secondary Fermenting Gordian[108] proposes in this connection that the
beans be filled in water-butts, and steeped in warm water for at least
48 hours (so that obviously the butts must be kept in a warm room), at
the expiration of which time it can be poured off, and the beans dried
in a chamber heated to a temperature of between forty and fifty degrees
centigrade. There is said to ensue an appreciable improvement as to
flavour and colour, when this process is carried out.

The magazines in which cacao beans are stored have sometimes an
unwelcome visitor, to wit, a grub which according to W. Hauswaldt[109]
happens to attack just the best kinds of Caracas and Trinidad. As
eggs of the grub have on several occasions been found on the interior
of the still unshelled bean, we may assume that they were deposited
by a butterfly (species unknown, but possibly Ephestia cahiriteller,
cf. von Faber loc. cit. page 335) either before or immediately after
fermentation, and no later. Sometimes these grubs appear on the surface
of the sacks, which they overspread in a few days. Removal of the
infected packages, opening the sacks, and exposure to the sun, as
well as a thorough cleansing of the storehouses, is attended with a
qualified amount of success. The best plan is to destroy the moths
during their period of activity in the summer months June, July, and
August.

According to Hauswaldt, Stollwerck[110] and G. Reinhardt[111], this
can be effected by placing in the store rooms large, shallow basins
of water, near which burning petroleum lamps are introduced on the
approach of dusk, favourably placed on a pile of bricks and stone, so
that they clearly illuminate the reflecting water. The moths assemble
round the light en masse and either perish in the water or flame, a
fate which sometimes overtakes even the larvae, for they display the
same fatal attraction for any light, real or apparent. The water must
be changed every day, as otherwise the wing-dust collecting on its
surface affords a means of escape to the insects coming later. As the
weather becomes cooler, the doors and windows of the store-rooms should
be left open, so that when frost sets in, the rest of the maggots may
be destroyed.

The cleansing and sorting of the raw cacao bean is the most important
factor in the manufacture of chocolate, and yield a manifold return,
for inferior and cheaper kinds of bean which have passed through these
processes can be advantageously mixed with finer varieties. The chief
object of cleansing and sorting is the removal of foreign bodies and
such chance admixtures as sand, pebbles, and fragments of sacking,
which are liable to damage the stones used in grinding at a later stage
of the preparation, or communicate an unnatural and disagreeable smell
to the subsequent roast products. These admixtures are so multiform and
various that they cannot be removed solely by the aid of machinery, but
must be finally picked out by hand. Mechanical appliances are limited
to the removal of pebbles, dust, and possible fragments of iron, after
which preliminary cleaning the beans are thrown on straps, where they
can be picked by hand. The collector of these foreign bodies would find
himself with a rather interesting stock at the end of a few years, as
Wilhelm Schütte-Felsche points out.

The cleansing of the raw beans was formerly carried out in so-called
roller casks, placed horizontally, and revolving round an axle fitted
in the floor, whence it passed upward, cutting them slantwise. In this
apparatus the beans were rolled and vigorously rubbed together, and
afterwards the hand-picking succeeded. More recently, the roller casks
have been displaced by rotary cylindrical sieves, driven by motor power.

Such a machine is illustrated in fig. 12. The beans are lifted to a
rotatory cylindrical sieve by means of an elevator, where they are
freed from dust and dirt; in other sections of the sieve fragments of
blossom, sacking, or cloth are isolated, whilst occasional splinters of
iron are removed by a large magnet. So prepared, the beans are cast on
running belts, and here the hand-picking above-mentioned is carried out.

Fig. 13 shows a cleansing machine for the same purpose, which has
recently become rather popular. Here the dust passing from the sieve
is sucked up into a dust chamber, by means of an exhauster, whilst
pebbles, blossom fragments, and small beans are separately isolated.
The cleansed beans pass likewise under magnetic influence, which
removes traces of iron, and finally succeed to the running belting.

Often the beans are introduced into an extensive brushing machine
before roasting, to cleanse them from dirt etc. These are generally
found in such factories as have circular and cylinder roasters with
direct heating apparatus. Fig. 13 a shows such a brushing machine for
cacao beans.


2. ~Roasting the Beans.~

The cleansed and sorted beans are now subjected to a high temperature,
that is to say, they are now roasted. This roasting answers many
purposes;

 1. The aroma and flavour of the bean is so developed.

 2. The starch granules are gelatinised.

 3. The herbal constituents are so transformed that the flavour of the
 beans becomes milder; a distinct improvement.

 4. In the consequent drying, the shells are rendered brittle, and more
 easily removeable.

 5. The beans themselves can afterwards be better ground.

The roasting of the cacao bean does not demand so high a temperature
as that of coffee, to effect the above chemical and physical changes.
Experience has shown that the best temperature lies between 130-140 °
C., though deviations from this standard have recently become frequent
and considerable, according to the uses for which the cacaos are
intended, and roasting has sometimes taken place at a temperature even
as low as 100 ° C.

[Illustration: Fig. 12.]

The process of roasting can be carried out in the roasting drum or
machine in a variety of ways, as:

1. Direct roasting over a coal fire,

2. Passing of a hot-air stream over the beans,

[Illustration: Fig. 13.]

3. Roasting by means of gas, with compressed air, as far as ~sources
of heat~ are concerned; and as regards ~shape of the drum~, it
is to be noted that the cylindrical are most in use. The separation
of the shells from the kernel was still effected at the beginning of
the present century by stirring the beans in water and so detaching
the inner coating of the seeds, the method adopted by Weisched
(Mitscherlich page 112). Not till this stage had been reached were they
subjected to a strong heat, causing the shells to spring off.

This method has at the present time only historical interest, for the
so-called roasting drums, as used in the preparation of coffee, are now
universal.

[Illustration: Fig. 13a.]

Roasting must be attended with the greatest care, in order that it may
neither be too thorough nor insufficient. It is a great mistake to
think that the roasting machine can be handed over to the care of any
apprentice. That nicety of roasting which corresponds to the variety
and its subsequent utilisation constitutes the qualitative basis of
the chocolate manufactured later. It is impossible for even the best
chocolate maker to retrieve what has been spoilt in this important
preliminary operation, wherefore a skilled workman, endowed with a keen
sense of taste and smell, is always to be seen at the roasting machine.

It has already been attempted to provide a means of security against
over-burning by the construction of the so-called safety-roaster, about
which will be spoken later.

Overroasting is immediately indicated by a disagreeable empyreumatic
odour (resembling that of roasted coffee); the husks char and the
kernels crumble, also betraying a charring on the outside. There is
a correspondingly increasing keenness of flavour, and a transference
of theobromine from the kernel to the husks (cf. page 65). From the
destructive distillation of the cacao fat arises that volatile and
pungent acroleine which is the principal cause of the empyreuma of the
over-roasted bean.

[Illustration: Fig. 14.]

The following general precautions in roasting cacao are worthy of
note; 1. the beans should not remain too long in the roasting drum;
2. they should be kept on the stir, for which reason the apparatus is
made revolvable on its axles; 3. the heat applied should be carefully
regulated; and 4. to guard against a loss of aroma, the roasted beans
should be cooled as rapidly as possible.

As the cacao must be more or less roasted according to its quality and
ultimate destination, which entails the acquisition of considerable
empirical knowledge on the part of the workman entrusted with this
process, it would be neither advisable nor practicable to annex
definite instructions as to time and temperature requirements.

In the following we describe a machine which is to be found in most
factories and which corresponds to all the demands of technique.
From its heating system, it belongs to the class of hot-air current
roasters—direct coal fire assisting—and in shape to the cylindrical
roasters.

[Illustration: Fig. 14 a.]

This machine is illustrated in fig. 14 and shown in section in figs.
14 a and 14 b. To prevent loss of heat by radiation, to save fuel, and
preclude possibilities of danger from fire, the whole installation is
walled in. Driving shafts occur at the back of the machine, and the
charging apparatus is introduced in front. A furnace lies directly
under the drum, whilst on either side are chambers accessible to
currents of fresh air, which are provided with heating tubes and
which admit of a regulation of the air supply. They are shut off from
connection with the gases from the fire, so that only the fresh air
heated here can penetrate to the roasting products in the charged
drum. There are winnowing shovels fitted in this, calculated to keep
the beans in motion and facilitate the access of air. When the hopper
is closed, the gases arising from the roast product can be led off
by an annexed outlet pipe, and thereupon condensed and the resulting
liquid drained off at the foot of the machine. For the attainment of
the proper degree of roasting, as well as for controlling the whole
process, there is a sampler to every machine. The drum is emptied
whilst in motion, its door-like front being turned aside and the
roasted beans transferred by the winnowing shovels before mentioned to
trolleys wheeled underneath.

[Illustration: Fig. 14 b.]

The loss of heat by radiation is very insignificant, as the machine is
completely walled in. Any kind of fuel may be used. Since the stoking
as well as the removal of soot takes place at the front, several of
these roasters can be set up side by side. It is a great advantage
of this installation, that by removal of the front of the drum its
interior is laid quite open, admitting of a thorough overhauling which
is attended with every disadvantage for the flavour of subsequent
roasting lots.

The machine here described is constructed in varying sizes, with an
outside capacity of four hundred kilograms.

As already mentioned the so-called safety-roaster offers a certain
security against the burning of the beans as the roasting boiler is
lifted out of the fire by means of an automatically working safety
regulator. Figs. 15 a and b show a spherical roaster open and closed.

[Illustration: Fig. 15 a.]

The principal of construction is founded on the fact that each roasting
is connected with a loss of weight and it is logical that the same
quality of beans always yields the same loss of weight at a certain
degree of roasting. On an average cacao yields a loss of 6-7 %.
According to this, the loss of weight which can at first be empirically
ascertained, for example by a new kind of bean, can be calculated and
can be indicated on a regulator, on the principle of the Roman scale.
When the beans have lost the weight in question the counterpoise of
the regulator raises the axle of the roasting sphere by means of which
the working of the whole machine is set in motion.

There is no exception to the rule that only beans of one and the
same kind should be roasted and broken up together, as thickness or
thinness of the shells determines to a large extent the time required
for roasting, and also an even size of bean is necessary to the smooth
operation of the breaking machine. The husks of the roasted cacao bean
are hygroscopic, and consequently the roasted unshelled beans contain
more moisture after having been kept for a time, than they do in the
raw state; but the drier the bean is, the easier it shells. The cacao
is therefore to be worked up as quickly as possible, or at least kept
in well covered metal boxes till further treatment can be proceeded
with.

[Illustration: Fig. 15 b.]

As sources of heat we find direct and indirect stoking with house
coal and coal gas, and besides these, for the installations of larger
factories Dowson gas is especially suitable, as it does not involve
too high a temperature, and the outlay is not so great as when coal-gas
is used.

[Illustration: Fig. 16.]

The roasting machine in fig. 16 for Dowson or coal gas belongs to
the class of roasters with direct firing. It corresponds to the one
diagrammed in Fig. 15 as regards charging and emptying. Here also the
front wall of the drum can be removed, and the interior consequently
laid completely open. The transmission of gas is effected at an air
pressure of one atmosphere, for the attainment of which an air pump
is fitted up in the vicinity, capable of feeding four machines at the
same time. The drum holds about 150 kilos. It goes without saying that
the regulating of the requisite heat is in this instance of the utmost
ease and nicety. Another preponderating advantage of this machine as
compared with those heated with coke or ordinary coal is its clean
operation and the extraordinary speed with which it can be both started
and stopped. Form 3-4 cbm. of coal gas are needed for 100 kilos of
beans, whilst for Dowson gas, which has not such a high heating value,
much larger quantities are required, and consequently a stronger
framework becomes necessary, though here no air pumps need be put in
operation.

[Illustration: Fig. 17.]

Steam roasting apparatus have not proved particularly successful, as
has been evident in all experiments hitherto made with them, and steam
agency does not appear to be suitable for the cacao bean, it admitting
of no thorough and at the same time even roasting.

Yet on the other hand the hot air-current roasters described enjoy an
ever increasing popularity, partly because they are heated indirectly,
and again because they appreciably diminish the time taken up in the
actual process, which in other cases approaches to as much as thirty or
forty minutes, without exposing the beans to the danger of burning or
getting charred.

As just stated, the beans should be passed on to the next process as
speedily as possible, yet on the other hand be completely cooled
off, so as to loosen their shells before they arrive in the breaking
machine. There are also special constructions for this cooling. If the
roasting drums are fitted up directly on the ground, it is effected
by disposing the beans issuing from these machines in wide baskets or
sieves, and letting them cool there before bringing them to the next
process. Should they be situated at a sufficient height, the beans can
be slowly transferred down a shoot connected with the rooms below,
where crushing mills await them, and cooled on the journey by a play of
fresh air currents.

Very much to the purpose and well adapted as regards most of the
requisite conditions, are the cooling trucks with exhaust apparatus
shown in fig. 17.

These trucks are fitted with perforated false bottoms and with sliding
shutters at the side. After the contents of the roasting machine have
been discharged into the trucks, these are wheeled over to the exhaust
apparatus easily recognisable in the diagram, where the cacao is so far
cooled that subsequent “after-roasting” is impossible, whilst the gases
given off are conducted by the ventilator. This exhaust chamber can be
made to work from both sides.


3. ~Crushing, hulling and cleansing.~

Up to ten years ago, the crushing and shelling of cacao beans had not
been so far perfected as to effect the complete separation of husk and
radicle from all particles of kernel, or to prevent loss by isolating
and collecting the minute particles of kernel, which are drawn up
through the exhaust apparatus in conjunction with the lightest of the
cacao shells. Yet the requirements demanded of a satisfactory machine
advanced to such an extent that not only cacao nibs free from shell
were postulated—an end scarcely hard to attain—but shells free from
cacao nibs were made a further essential. A machine which performs
both these objects not only works excellently, but is also economical.
For a solution of this problem the Association of German Chocolate
Manufacturers, which is specially interested in all that concerns
the chocolate industry, offered a prize years ago; the firm of J. M.
Lehmann were the first to construct a machine answering every call made
on it to perfection.

Fig. 18 illustrates a crushing and cleansing machine averaging an
output of 2500-3000 kilos, of the latest and most modern type.

[Illustration: Fig. 18.]

The beans are first broken into smaller pieces in all machines now
employed as crushing, shelling or cleansing apparatus, and the one at
present under consideration provides no exception. An air-current is
made to play on these fragments, which finally isolates and transfers
the loosened shells to another part of the apparatus. The cacao next
succeeds to a crusher of regular capacity lodged in the upper part of
the machine, being despatched on an elevator. The fragments fall into
a cylindrical sieve, dust being detached in the first compartment,
whilst the meshes of subsequent compartments gradually increase in
size and sort the products therein transmitted in corresponding
sizes. There is a groove traversed by air-currents—proceeding from a
ventilator—immediately under each compartment. This current of air can
be regulated, i. e. made weaker for lighter and stronger for heavier
fragments, and there is a ventilator for every compartment to make this
regulation of the easiest, and in this way shells of equal size but
specifically lighter than, the cacao fragments are most efficaciously
separated. Contrasting with the older type of machine, it works almost
noiselessly, all shakings of grooves and sieves being entirely avoided;
in addition to which there is a perfect exclusion of dust, when the
shells are transferred into the dust-removing chamber. A further
advantage is that there is no wearing out of the machine, except as
regards the direct crushing apparatus, which occasionally need renewing.

The dust particles before mentioned, which possibly comprise as much
as one half of the cacao fragments, require a special kind of working
up, on ~different machines~, before the cacao still contained
therein can be obtained. It is a fact obvious and apparent, that the
smaller the fragments of shell mixed with this crushed cacao, the
more difficult will be their separation, a fact of equal importance
to technical and analytical science, and the more scrupulously this
process is to be carried out, the greater the lavishment on sieves and
ventilating compartments entailed.

To effect this operation on the breaking machine is seriously to
overtask the latter, and defeats its own end, as experiments carried
out in the Chocolate factory of Schütte-Felsche have proved, inasmuch
as it leads very easily to mixing of the products which are to be kept
separate.

Fig. 19 shows such a machine for the cleansing of this so-called cacao
“dust

The particles are raised to a large flat sieve by means of an elevator,
again sorted in different sizes, and submitted to air currents of
corresponding strength. The quantity obtained varies according to
the variety of cacao, though in some cases it may amount to 50 or 54
percent. What remains after this process is absolutely worthless and
can only be considered as refuse, at least as far as the chocolate
manufacturer is concerned.

[Illustration: Fig. 19.]

It has become necessary in modern manufacture that iron fragments
occurring in the machine not only be separated by distinct magnetic
fields in the respective machines, but that this also be effected in a
machine specially constructed for the purpose. Fig. 20 illustrates such
an electromagnetic apparatus. The advantages of this system are that it
avoids magnets limited in strength, and by the functioning of strong
electro-magnets perfect cleansing even in the case of the largest
output, as well as machines of the most simple construction, can be
guaranteed.

We submit the following description of the machine and its method of
working.

[Illustration: Fig. 20.]

The machine contains a hopper with sloping groove to obtain an even
introduction of the beans to be cleansed. At the end of this there is
an electro-magnet roller, consisting of a non-magnetised mantle and a
magnetic compartment round which it turns.

After traversing the sloping groove, the beans succeed to the roller,
meeting it at a tangent. As soon as they reach the field of magnetism,
all iron fragments are appropriated by the revolving mantle, whilst the
beans themselves do not come into contact with this, but pass directly
underneath. The iron fragments are disposed of separately, and outside
the magnetising area.

It is of prime importance in the preparation of chocolate and more
particularly of cocoa powder (easily soluble cacao), that the crushed
material proceeding from the crushing machine should undergo a
further purification, with a view to separating, and removing the
hard radicles. These constitute the gritty sediment of insufficiently
prepared cacao powder, when dissolved. J. M. Lehmann effects the
complete removal of the radicle by means of his machine D. R. G. M. No.
24,989 (Fig. 21).

[Illustration: Fig. 21.]

Here the finer siftings from the crusher are transferred to the
controlling feeder, under which a small ventilator occurs, which
provides for the removal of any still remaining portions of husk.
Cacao and radicle descend to a shaking sieve, the finer particles
passing through its meshes, whilst the larger grains fall into a
pocket attached to the end, as cleansed product. The former fragments
now succeed to a cylinder, having its inner surface punched with
small cavities (fig. 22) and while the cacao particles remain in
those cavities during the rotation of the cylinder, the radicles of
more elongated form are caught up by a special separator (1) and so
prevented from being carried round with the rest. The cacao particles
are then made to fall into a trough (3) by a brush (2) working against
the cylinder, and subsequently urged forward by a conveyor (4). That
process is enacted all along the cylinder, so that finally cacao and
radicle issue from the machine completely separated.

[Illustration: Fig. 22.]

The advantages, economical and otherwise, attending the use of the
above breaking and cleansing machines become apparent when the
following figures, registering results obtained in several experiments,
are considered. Formerly the loss experienced in sorting, roasting,
crushing and hulling averaged about 30 % of the total beans, but now
the employment of the above machines shows the following satisfactory
improvements.

The loss of 823 kg Machala beans, unroasted, amounted to a total:

  a)  in  picking     3·6  kg
  b)  "   roasting   63·5  "
  c)  "   shelling   61    "
  d)  "   dust       34    "
                   —————————
                    162·1  kg or 20%,

without taking into account the application of the waste; 2267 kg of
St. Thomé raw cacao lost:

  a)  in  picking      5  kg
  b)  "   roasting   170  "
  c)  "   shelling   152  "
  d)  "   dust        79  "
                  —————————
                     406  kg or 20%.

According to these data the use of these machines admits of a saving of
about 10 percent more material than in former work.

In connection with these particulars it is also of interest to consider
the qualitative and quantitative composition of the various waste
products of the manufacture. Filsinger[112] has at the instance of
the Association of German Chocolate manufacturers, examined a mixture
of 50 pounds of large Machala beans with an equal quantity of small
beans, after passing it through a shelling machine of the most modern
construction, and he thus obtained:

  70   pounds of large kernels,
   9·2   “    "  medium kernels,
   0·8   "    "  radicles,
  10     "    "  husk (outer woody shell),
   4     "    "  cacao waste,
   6     "    "  other loss,

The 4 pounds of cacao waste yielded by further sifting:

  a)  kernel   I. sort 250 grammes,
              II.  "    50    "
             III.  "   220    "
              IV.  "    25    "
  b)  husk     I.  "   185    "
              II.  "    55    "
             III.  "   370    "
              IV.  "    80    "
  c)  cacao dust       725    "
  d)  waste             30    "
  e)  loss              10    "
                   ————————
                      2000 grammes.

Chemical analysis of these portions gave the following results:

  ======================================+================================
                                        |          Percentages
                                        +———-—-—+—-—-——+————--—+——-—-——-
                                        |  Ash  | Sand |  Fat  |Fibre[113]
  ——————————————————————————————————————+—————-—+——————+—————-—+———————-
  1. Husk 10% of the raw cacao          | 11·15 | 1·90 |  4·50 |  21·36
  2. Cacao waste 4% of the raw cacao    |  4·80 | 0·35 | 15·40 |  16·31
  3. Seed shells I. sort 0·37% of       |  6·70 |  —   | 21·64 |  10·29
                         the raw cacao
  4.  "     "   II.  "   0·11%  "  "    |  7·10 |  —   | 18·39 |   8·75
  5.  "     "  III.  "   0·74%  "  "    |  7·20 |  —   | 15·76 |  12·16
  6.  "     "   IV.  "   0·16%  "  "    |  7·80 |  —   | 16·40 |  12·74
  7. Cacao dust 1·45% of the raw cacao  | 11·75 |  —   | 22·06 |   8·40
  8. Waste 0·06% of the raw cacao       |  7·05 |  —   | 20·44 |   9·81

From these data it is evident that there is a great difference between
the chemical composition of the so called cacao waste and that of the
exterior ligneous shells. From the large amount of fat present in the
former material it might be regarded, in the full sense of the term,
as a cacao constituent and, for that reason, its presence in cacao
preparations should not be objected to, while the husk containing
as much as 20 percent of woody fibre cannot be considered a cacao
constituent in the same sense.


4. ~Mixing different kinds.~

Stress has already been laid on the variations in taste incidental to
different species of bean. It has further to be noted that they develop
a milder and more aromatic flavour according as they have been more
properly fermented, and in contrary instances possess an astringent and
even acid taste. It therefore becomes an aim of the manufacturer so
to improve the flavour of inferior varieties by mixing with the finer
as to produce a resultant cacao giving perfect satisfaction to every
taste. Nevertheless the general rule still holds good that for the
preparation of the finest qualities of chocolate only the better sorts
of bean (as Caracas, Ariba, Puerto Cabello etc.) should be employed.
For inferior and less expensive ware other varieties of bean suffice,
the mixture being obviously regulated by the prevailing market prices.

In many instances the proportions of such mixtures are kept secret
by the manufacturer as matters of importance, and every individual
manufacturer has his own method and specialities as regards such
blends.

We compare here a few verified blends:

  1.
  Caracas  }
  Guayaquil}  of each 1 part

  2.
  Caracas = 1 part
  Bahia   = 5 parts

  3.
  Maracaibo}
  Maragnon }  each 1 part

  4.
  Trinidad}
  Maragnon}  equal parts

  5.
  Caracas  = 1 part
  Maragnon = 2 parts

  6.
  1 part Ariba
  1 part Surinam
  1 part Trinidad

  7.
  1 part Ariba
  1 part Trinidad
  1 part Surinam
  1 part Caracas

  8.
  3 parts Ariba
  1 part Trinidad
  1 part Surinam
  1 part Caracas

  9.
  1 part Machala
  1 part St. Thomas

Ceylon cacaos are not used so much as mixing varieties, but almost
exclusively as covering agents, to make other cacaos lighter coloured
(sometimes almost approaching yellow).

The beans are weighed off in these proportions on a sensitive scale,
and then passed on to be ground and triturated into cacao paste.


II. Production of the Cacao Mass.


5. ~Fine grinding and trituration.~

Formerly the roasted, crushed, and decorticated beans were frequently
ground before being transferred to the “Melangeur”,—a machine that will
be described later—, in which they were then reduced to a finer state
of sub-division and lastly mixed with sugar. For this grinding, mills
of various construction were employed (as Weldon, Pintus etc.). But
as time rolled on the Melangeur took the place of these preliminary
grinding mills, and in this it was endeavoured to effect that fine
division of the cacao mass which is essential to the production of a
homogeneous cacao and sugar intermixture, but without complete success.
Cylinder rolling machines (French method) were the first to attain this
result.

At the present time, the roasted and cleansed kernels are ground so
fine as to become a semi-liquid when subjected to heat, and that
is done whatever the ultimate destiny of the cacao, whether it be
intended for chocolate or cocoa powder. This object is obtained by
means of special mills, constructed with “Over-runners

[Illustration: Fig. 23.]

[Illustration: Fig. 24 a.]

These cacao mills, which were formerly but seldom met with in chocolate
factories, have now become indispensable necessaries, since they have
the advantage:

1. of rendering the cacao mass in this semi-glucose form more easily
miscible with sugar, a factor of the highest importance for the
commoner and cheaper qualities of chocolate;

2. of grinding the cacao as fine as possible in one operation and the
simplest manner.

[Illustration: Fig. 24 b.]

[Illustration: Fig. 24 c.]

But side by side with the appreciation which these mills met with,
there arose a corresponding increase in the demands made on them, such
as the utmost nicety, greatest possible output, and least possible
necessity of after-heating, and these have been successively answered
by twin, triple and at the present time even quadruple mills. fig. 23
shows a simple grinding mill which can only come into consideration
in connection with the smallest of branches, whilst Fig. 24 a and b
illustrates another with three successive stones arranged one above the
other, such as will be found in all the larger factories of to-day.
Also a triple mill but with grindstones of increasing size pictured in
fig. 24 c. A mill possessing four pairs of grinding stones is given in
fig. 25, and is calculated to meet each and every conceivable demand.

Whilst simple, double and triple mills are brought on the market in
different sizes, corresponding to the outputs required, these quadruple
mills are only constructed in the largest sizes. They grind perfectly,
and without detriment to the flavour, deliver quantities of cacao
figuring at from 1000 to 1200 kilos daily. There is naturally a larger
output if the fatty contents of the cacao are considerable, a thorough
roasting being always presupposed.

The axles occurring on these quadruple grinding mills are connected
with one another by means of spur-wheels, and the axles themselves
run in ball-bearings, which not only permits a perfectly noiseless
operation of the machine, but also makes the action very easy, that is
to say, dependent on only very little motor power. The cacao is raised
to the hopper by means of an elevator, where the quantity introduced
into the machine is regulated, and then passes between crushers
occurring in the middle of the first pair of grinding stones, which
it subsequently leaves as a pasty mass. It is then conducted along
a groove into the second mill, and here undergoes further grinding,
and so to the third and fourth, where the process can be described as
trituration, for the cacao leaves the machine in liquid form. Only in
this manner is it possible to obtain the finest ground product, without
any disastrous accompaniment of excessive heating.

Cacao mills with one stone suffice for the production of chocolate mass
on a small scale, but for the manufacture of cocoa powder, twin or
triple grinders must be employed.

All these are of the “Over-runner” type, act by their own weight, and
consequently do not involve the disastrous consequences which were
entailed by the “Under-runners” tried formerly.

About the middle of the nineties of the last century, experiments were
made with a view to superseding these types with mills having stones of
varying sizes, and first larger upper stones of a grinding pair were
tried, then larger under stones, but neither have been able to maintain
themselves in the workshop, and the grinders of equal size still hold
good as the fittest and most popular.

[Illustration: Fig. 25.]

Attempts have recently been made to introduce a machine combining mill
and roller. Its value lies in the fact that with a relative increase
in the grinding rapidity, it does not involve a greater than requisite
heat, and on emerging from the machine the cacao shows no deficiencies
as to flavour, and is withal much finer than that produced in other
processes.

[Illustration: Fig. 26.]

Fig. 26 shows such a machine. The mill on this serves merely to reduce
the hard kernel to a pulp, and this admits of the grinding stones being
placed farther apart, and so occasions no heat. Trituration is then
effected by a roller apparatus, for which operation machines with four
rollers have been proved most satisfactory. As such roller machines are
furnished with water-cooling systems, it is possible for the cacao to
be kept cool even on these.


6. ~Mixture with sugar and spices.~

[Illustration: Fig. 27.]

A thorough mixing with sugar can only be effected when the cacao paste
is heated to a temperature rather above the melting point of cacao
butter, that is to say, as high as from 35° to 40° C., and consequently
the incorporating machine in which that operation is carried on is
provided with a steam jacket. For this process it is advisable to
have the chocolate in a semi-liquid condition, wherefore the ground
cacao issuing from the mills is transferred to steam-heated vessels
(fig. 27) fitted with taps suitable for drawing off the mass as it is
required. Formerly the cacao mass was fed into the melangeur in lumps
and there liquefied. But as this necessitated the application of heat
to the melangeur, attended with the risk of cracking its under-plating,
and also a postponement of the mixing processes, whereby considerable
time was lost, this method no longer obtains to-day. It is at present
usual not only to warm the cacao mass beforehand, but the sugar also,
by storing it in warm chambers, so that the whole paste possesses
a uniform temperature, lowering of temperature in the melangeur is
avoided, and there is consequently no waste of the heating steam.

In some large factories the actual incorporation of cacao and sugar
is preceded by a preliminary mixing of large quantities, which
considerably relieves the strain on the melangeur, whilst it keeps the
machine rooms as far as possible free from superfluous dust.

[Illustration: Fig. 28.]

The mixing machine shown in fig. 28 can here be used with advantage.
As will be seen on comparing the illustration, it is provided with a
shifting trough. Such a machine, when closed down, is capable of mixing
from 100-500 kilos of chocolate. The mixing is effected by means of two
suitably shaped blades, and the heating by a steam jacket. After the
operation is completed, the mixed material is turned out into portable
troughs, and after having been kept in a warm chamber for some length
of time, transferred to the melangeur for further treatment.

It has been found advantageous to keep the chocolate mass so obtained
in suitable receptacles for several days[114], at a temperature of
not less than 20° C. and between that figure and 40° C. So the sugar
is enabled to penetrate the entire mass, which now proceeds to the
rolling processes carried out in the melangeur and rolling machines.
Shortly before its discharge from the latter, it is mixed with spices,
vanillin, eatherial oils and so forth.

[Illustration: Fig. 29.]


7. ~Treatment of the Mixture.~


a) Trituration.

In describing the mixing machines, we do not intend to enter into
details regarding the machines formerly in use, but merely to give a
brief outline of the principles illustrated in their construction.

Trituration was formerly produced;

  1. by rollers running backwards and forwards on a grinder;
  2. by several cones rotating in a circle on a disc-shaped bed;
  3. by means of rotating stones running in a trough;
  4. by means of several cylindrical rollers;
  5. by means of grooved cone moving in a grooved casing.[115]

At the present time only the type mentioned under 1. and 4. are in
general use. 3. is met with less frequently, and will be described at
greater length in a subsequent paragraph.

The machines 1. and 3. are put into operation prior to the cylinder
rolling mills, which finish off the incorporation of chocolate and
sugar and the levigation process only begun in the first-named.

The machines constructed in the manner described under 3., to which we
now turn, were introduced by G. Hermann of Paris, but are at present
almost obsolete. Since they have some historical interest and are
typical of the development of the melangeur, we annex a rough sketch
showing their general construction in fig. 29.

The ellipsoid runners _a_ made of granite work in the trough _i_ which
is also of granite and is fitted with the casing _h_. The runners
rotate on their axles _b_ so as to move in a circle. The two arms of
the axis _b_ have at the centre an elliptical ring with a quadrangular
opening, into which fits the similar shaped part of the vertical shaft
_c_ fitted with the toothed wheels, _d_ and _d′_, which are set in
motion by power transmitted to the shaft and its connections. The arm
_b_ has some play downwards, so that it can adjust itself vertically
according to the greater or less quantity of material in the mill. The
two steel blades, _e_ and _e′_, are shaped to fit the cavity of the
trough; being connected with the shaft _c_ they revolve with it and
sweep down the cacao mass adhering to the sides of the mill. Between
the foundation _k_ and the trough _i_ there is a space _l_ into which
steam can be introduced through _f_, the condensed water passing away
by _g_.

All machines of this kind have now been displaced by the melangeur
which is capable of turning out a much larger quantity of material with
a relatively smaller expenditure of power. The operation of mixing
chocolate is not a mere mixing, for the ~pressure~ exerted by
the ~runners~ is also an indispensable factor. On that account
the ordinary mixing machines have not proved serviceable, especially
in the case of chocolates containing a small amount of fat, such as
the cheaper kinds, while the addition of cacao butter to facilitate
the working of the machine would considerably increase the cost of
production. Melangeurs are generally constructed on the same principle
as the edge runner grinding mills which are so much used; but they
differ from them in so far as the bed-stone revolves, while the runners
merely rotate on their axles without revolving.

[Illustration: Fig. 30.]

The melangeur with travelling bed-stone, as constructed by Lehmann, is
shown at fig. 30; it is fitted with an arrangement for lifting out the
runners.

[Illustration: Fig. 31.]

The bed-stone as well as the runners are made of granite. Each runner
has an axis working in plummer blocks, so that it can be lifted out
independently of the other one. By that construction the runners are
prevented from taking an oblique position as was the case with the
mills formerly made, since one runner would be forced downwards or
tilted on its outer edge whenever the other one was raised up somewhat.
The bed-stone of this machine revolves and it is easily heated by steam
pipes from below. One important advantage of this machine is that
being low it can be very easily charged and emptied. The contrivance
for lifting out the runners prevents them thumping upon the bed-stone
that might otherwise readily happen when starting the machine, and it
also lessens the wear of the driving bands; moreover, large lumps of
sugar or cacao are very readily crushed down and, so, the working is
much facilitated. The emptying of the melangeur is readily and safely
effected, while the bed stone is revolving, by holding a shovel so
that the cacao is thrown up against the shovel. A melangeur of this
construction is represented by fig. 31; it has three runners and
underneath the bed-stone is fitted a steam engine which supplies
driving power, the exhaust steam being used for heating the machine.

Although this emptying by hand is not attended with any serious
drawbacks, yet it involves loss of time and is rather inconvenient,
so that the demand for mechanical automatism in this operation was
very considerable. It is now some years since Messrs. J. M. Lehmann
patented an apparatus for the mechanical discharging of the chocolate
mass from these machines, but their invention still holds good. A
melangeur provided with such apparatus is shown on fig. 31. Here
a vertically moving shovel is sunk behind the outlet, gradually
damming the material, and causing it to rise above the edge of the
tank and fall through the opening. A second but horizontally working
arrangement, which in this case as in the last is controllable by means
of a crank, conducts the remainder of the material to the same shovel.
So the material is discharged within a few minutes.—These melangeurs
are built for varying outputs. Fig. 32 illustrates one of the largest
yet constructed. Its base has a diameter of 2 metres, and the machine
itself has a capacity of 5 cwts. To avoid the mixing of dust with
the sugar as far as possible, the whole melangeur is provided with a
dust-proof protector.


b) Levigation.

An extreme fineness and homogeneity of the chocolate mass is obtained
in the employment of cylindrical rolling machines, for the construction
of which we are indebted to G. Hermann of Paris. Every kind of
chocolate must be passed through the rolling machine at least once
or twice even when finely powdered sugar is used, though in this
case it is less a question of sub-division than of incorporation and
intermixture. The best qualities are passed through the machine from
six to eight times, or even more. The mass is finally fed into the
machine in cold blocks and so ground off. Granite is the material
chiefly employed in making the rollers, although it is not every
variety which can be adapted to this purpose. Apart from the fact that
granite, or indeed any other mineral stone, seldom occurs in compact
masses and free from flaws, neither porphyry nor the stone generally
described as granite is suitable for employment in the construction of
mill rollers. A kind is generally preferred which intermediates between
granite and porphyry as to hardness and possesses excellent grinding
capacities, and which goes by the name of diorite. No other stone can
compare with this diorite in respect to the above qualities, and the
chief firms engaged in the construction of roller machines possess
their own quarries. But we shall return to this later, for recently
experiments with case-hardened casting rollers (Krupp steel) and hard
porcelain have yielded very flattering results.

[Illustration: Fig. 32.]

[Illustration: Fig. 33 a.]

[Illustration: Fig. 33 b.]

We shall now enter into more detail respecting the principle
illustrated by these rolling machines. The plasticity of the chocolate
mass necessitates a rotation of the cylinder surfaces in opposite
directions with dissimilar velocities. Accordingly two or more rollers
are caused to work against each other, and in compliance with this
principle of sub-division with differential velocities, their axles are
fitted with wheels, of which each has a different number of cogs.

So those rollers furnished with the greater number of teeth revolve
more slowly, whilst in opposite instances there is a corresponding
acceleration.

[Illustration: Fig. 34.]

The construction of the machines now in use differs more or less from
that of the type first invented by Hermann, plan and elevation of which
appear in figs. 33 a and 33 b respectively.[116]

The granite rollers at _a¹_, _a²_, _a³_ are fitted with an octagonal
iron axle that is somewhat thicker at the interior part and they are
mounted upon a frame as shown in the drawing. The sockets of the
central rollers _a²_ are fixed and each one is held in position by
three sets screws; those of the two other rollers can be shifted along
grooves in the frame and when the cylinders _a¹_ and _a³_ have been
brought into proper position relatively to the cylinder _a²_ they are
held fast by the set screws _p_.

[Illustration: Fig. 35.]

[Illustration: Fig. 36.]

For the purpose of this adjustment, there is at each end of the machine
a horizontal wrought iron shaft _f_ that can be turned by the winch
_e_, and these shafts are fitted with two endless screws _d_ working
in the corresponding wheels _c_. These occur on the spindles _a_,
which screw in and out of the bearing blocks of the rollers _a¹_ and
_a²_, but turn only in the fixed collars _b_ without being shifted
from their place. The result is that on turning the cranks _e_ the
corresponding cylinder _a¹_ or _a³_ is moved nearer to, or further
from, the central cylinder _a²_, while the position of all of them
always remains parallel. The shaft _Q_ is set in motion by the driving
wheel _L_ fitted with the loose wheel _L¹_. It acts first upon the
cog wheel _K_ which works in the larger wheel _J_ on the axle of the
central roller _a²_. That works in the cog wheel _O_ and the wheel _P_
fitted to the roller _a¹_ driving them as well as the wheel _M_ and
the pinion _N_ of the roller _a³_ The result is that the axle _a²_
makes 1¾ revolutions and _a³_ 6⅛ revolutions while _a¹_ in the
same time makes only one revolution.

[Illustration: Fig. 37.]

The cacao or chocolate is supplied to this machine by the hopper _R_
which is placed between the rollers _a¹_ and _a²_. The pasty mass
adhering to the rollers is carried forward by the quicker moving roller
_a²_ and it is ground finer between the rollers _a²_ and _a³_,
after which the material is removed from _a³_ at the outer side by an
adjustable blade _gg_ and then falls down into a receptacle below.

[Illustration: Figs. 38 and 39.]

On the design fig. 34 we see a machine of more modern construction
ready mounted. The receptacle parts of the same are arranged and
connected in full agreement with the above mentioned except that the
motion is effected by the driving power fitted to the machine on the
ground on the left side.

[Illustration: Fig. 40.]

The principle of this roller machine has long been applied in the
building of other types, and we find that these, variously altered,
renovated and improved, are to-day an indispensable equipment in every
chocolate factory. In the following pages we give a description of some
of the best-known constructions of refiner.

The so called battery rolling mills constitute a remarkable innovation.
It is apparent that the more rollers a cylinder machine contains,
and the greater their length and diameter, all the more efficacious
will the working of the machine be. Batteries have accordingly been
constructed, whereby two, three or more roller systems are combined,
one to every three rollers, and rising one above the other, so that
they slant upwards much as shown in Fig. 40.

As the battery rolling mills possessed the disadvantages that they took
up too much room and could not be well fed and regulated, they are
generally replaced by rolling machines of from 6 to 9 rollers, first
constructed by J. M. Lehmann. These rolling machines of 6 to 9 rollers
which we see before us in Figs. 35 and 36 are really systems of 3
rollers fitted one over the other. They therefore take up the room of a
3-roller machine and are quite as easy to work.

[Illustration: Fig. 41 a.]

As will be seen from the design of a nine-roller apparatus, fig. 37,
the chocolate mass descends from one roller system to the other, and
is fine rolled in a third of the time otherwise required, and at
one operation, with corresponding saving of labour. The nine roller
apparatus are provided with landing stage and steps, and fed either by
means of elevators, or from above.

Fig. 38 shows a recent construction, three roller apparatus (case
castings, cf. below) standing vertically, which accordingly takes
up little room. The hopper is low-lying, whilst the discharging
is effected from the upper roller, and accordingly admits of the
occasional use of a somewhat larger size of transport trolley. This
type also occurs with 6-9-12 rollers, as apparent from fig. 39.

[Illustration: Fig. 41 b.]

Whilst these systems were exclusively supplied with rollers made of
granite or hard porcelain up to a few years ago, it has been found
that good results are obtained by the use of cast rollers, and they
have been for some time employed on machines of three, four and five
rollers. (Figs. 38, 40, 41 a-c.) In consequence of the non-porous
surface of these steel rollers, it is possible to grind to a finest
powder, merely in one operation, without passing the chocolate through
the machine several times; and the so-called “Burning” of masses
which have not been properly mixed cannot arise in this case, though
it is true that the apparatus must be provided with water cooling
arrangements to avoid a too excessive heat. They are specially adapted
to the preparation of the more ordinary qualities, and are even
occasionally employed for finer chocolates, for obviously these must be
again submitted to a rolling process, when granite or porcelain rollers
are preferred.

[Illustration: Fig. 41 c.]

For this reason the 6, 9 or even 12 roller mills have been more
discarded since the last grinding process has been performed by granite
rollers (cold process).

In order to avoid the disadvantages of the pulley drive, it is in
certain cases advisable to drive each machine direct from an electric
motor. Fig. 42 illustrates a refining machine driven in this manner.

[Illustration: Fig. 42.]


c) ~Proportions for mixing cacao mass, sugar and spices.~

The relative proportions of cacao, sugar, and spices, as well as of
starch as in the manufacture of the cheaper sorts, vary considerably.
Generally speaking 50 or 60 parts of sugar are added for 50 or 40 parts
of cacao mass; the following are a few formulae applicable for the
production of those kinds of pure chocolate that are most used.


A. Hygienic chocolate.

  Cacao mass    }
  Powdered sugar} equal parts of each.


B. Spiced chocolate.

        a)
  Cacao mass        4 kg
  Sugar             6 kg
  Cinnamon         72 g
  Cloves           38 g
  Cardamoms        16 g

        b)
  Cacao mass        4 kg
  Sugar             6 kg
  Cinnamon        130 g
  Coriander         8 g
  Cloves           88 g
  Oil of lemons     2 g
  Cardamoms        16 g

        c)
  Cacao mass        5 kg
  Sugar             5 kg
  Cloves           80 g
  Cinnamon        220 g
  Mace              8 g

        d)
  Cacao mass        5 kg
  Sugar             5 kg
  Cinnamon        100 g
  Vanilla         100 g
  or Vanillin     2·5 g
  Mace              2 g
  Cardamoms       4·2 g

  e) ~Spanish spiced chocolate.~
  Cacao mass        5 kg
  Sugar             5 kg
  Cinnamon        116 g
  Cloves           50 g
  Cardamoms        82 g
  Mace             44 g
  Vanilla          40 g
  or Vanillin       1 g
  Oil of lemons     1 g


C. Vanilla chocolates.

        a)
  Cacao mass        5 kg
  Sugar             5 kg
  Cinnamon        160 g
  Vanilla          50 g
  (or Vanillin    1·2 g)


        b)
  Cacao mass   4½ kg
  Sugar        5½ kg
  Cinnamon   150 g
  Vanillin   1·5 g

        c)
  Cacao mass   4 kg
  Sugar        6 kg
  Cinnamon   120 g
  Cloves      20 g
  Vanillin   1·6 g

The powdered spices as given above may be replaced by corresponding
essential oils, but see page 237 for remarks on this point.

If the chocolates made from beans rich in oil contain too much fat to
mould properly, a small percentage of their constituent cacao mass
can be replaced by cocoa powder made from the same kind of bean,
but defatted, in the case of the finer qualities; and when inferior
varieties are under consideration, the same result may be attained by
a sufficient increase in the proportion of their other constituent,
sugar, as e. g. 55-60 parts of to 45 or 40 parts of cacao mass, so
disturbing the usual equality of the two ingredients mixed together.
Very cheap chocolates in particular are prepared from a smaller
percentage of cacao mass and show a corresponding increase in their
sugar content. But if the sugar exceeds 65 percent, it is no longer
possible to mould these chocolates, and the addition of fresh cacao
butter becomes a necessary preliminary to this operation, cf. also
the first part in section IV. Such varieties would have a composition
somewhat like the following:

  Cacao mass                     25 parts
  Sugar                          67   "
  Cacao butter                    7   "
  Spices  and vanillin as above   1   "

In the experimental preparation of samples of chocolate mass it is
not advisable to employ large quantities of ingredients, when a
waste of material is bound to ensue, but to begin with mixing small
quantities of one or two kilos. The small Universal Kneading and Mixing
Machines, Patent Werner & Pfleiderer, Type 1, Class BS, can here be
used with advantage. They are specially intended for small outputs and
experimental work; but we shall return to their description later,
after stating that they are furnished with heating apparatus, stuffing
boxes and air-tight lid, and can easily be taken to pieces, greatly
facilitating the removing of the mass.


III. Further Treatment of the Raw Chocolate.


8. ~Manufacture of “Chocolats Fondants”~

[Illustration: Fig. 43.]

Recently the creams sometimes described as in the heading have
enjoyed a vast popularity, and are sold as eatable chocolates in
ever-increasing quantities. As far as can be ascertained, they
were first manufactured in Switzerland, melt readily, and have a
correspondingly large amount of fat, resulting from the addition of
cacao butter, which distinguishes them from ordinary chocolates.
When readily melting chocolates were first introduced, it was a
prevailing opinion that the required property could only be obtained
by increasing the amount of fatty content. Now the excessive evidence
of fat in chocolates is very objectionable, both as regards taste and
digestibility. To avoid this, therefore, the chocolates are treated
mechanically, to attain the required character of readily melting.
The machines used for that purpose are termed “Conches”, because the
trough, in which the chocolate is rubbed into a long cylinder, has
somewhat the shape of a long shell. For the working up of chocolates in
conches, the necessary conditions are;

 1. that the chocolate should have been ground perfectly fine,

 2. it must contain such an amount of fat as to become glucose on
 warming, not indeed so thin as that used as coating material, but
 nevertheless softer than the ordinary cake-chocolate of good quality.

[Illustration: Fig. 43 a.]

[Illustration: Fig. 44.]

The machine can be heated by means of steam, hot water pipes, gas or
charcoal stoking, according as they are available in the place of
installation, and the temperature should rise above 70-80° C. for
fondants, and 50° C. for milk chocolates. In factories with water
power or electricity, continuous fondant machines can be worked day
and night, but when only worked during the day, must be kept warm
overnight. Constant tending of the machine is unnecessary, as it works
automatically. After a treatment of from 40-48 hours, the chocolate
attains the requisite character (i.e. it melts readily), and a rounding
off of taste, which are the properties of all good brands. Milk
chocolates can also be advantageously prepared in the conche, as also
covering or coating cacaos of all kinds, which harden considerably in
consequence of this treatment.

Figs. 43 and 43 a show quadruple conches of the modern type with hot
water, wherein four troughs are arranged in pairs, and one opposite the
other. Conches with only 1 and 2 troughs are also constructed, and in
various sizes, the troughs sometimes having a capacity of 125 and 200
kilos, so that the quadruple conche is capable of holding five or eight
hundred kilograms in all. The curved bottom of the troughs, as well as
the rollers fitted in them, are made of granite, and the front wall
strongly bent in at the corner, so that the mass is forced over the
border of the front wall, where there are openings for its discharge
as well. To prevent radiation as far as possible, it is best that the
troughs be walled in, the troughs are either walled. Fig. 44 shows the
room of a modern chocolate factory, with 15 conches.

“Chocolats fondants” are from a gastronomic point of view, the finest
chocolate product on the market, and it is not remarkable that this
branch of the chocolate manufacture has witnessed a considerable
extension, and is likely to extend still more.


9. ~Heating chambers and closets.~

The manufacture of chocolate has been very considerably facilitated
by the introduction of heating chambers and closets, which have now
become an indispensable feature of every factory in the industry. In
these chambers the chocolate which has still to be rolled, as well
as that already submitted to this operation, is stored and kept at a
temperature of 60° C. until it can be further treated (moulded). This
manner of heating involves an appreciable cheapening of the production,
for masses which are dry and apparently require an addition of fat
recover in such a manner during a twenty four hours’ storing in the
heating chambers that such addition becomes unnecessary. But especially
when chill casting rollers are employed, which the mass leaves in a
very dry state, the use of these heating chambers is indispensable.
They should be available in every factory to such an extent as to
find room for the total output of one day, though even twice or three
times this amount might very well be provided for. Closets heated by
steam are best adapted for small factories, such as are illustrated
in Fig. 45. They possess double doors, are walled in, and are capable
of holding from 300-400 kilos of chocolate mass for each metre of
length. Larger factories should furnish themselves with chambers, which
are more open to access and on the walls of which iron shelves can
be introduced, heated by steam pipes arranged underneath. A typical
chamber, measuring 2·8 metres in breadth (including passage) and 5
metres in length would hold about 2,500 kg of chocolate.

[Illustration: Fig. 45.]


10. ~Removal of Air and Division.~

[Illustration: Fig. 46.]

After emerging from the final rolling process, the chocolate is stored
up in heating chambers until it is ready to succeed to the moulding,
prior to which, however, it must be freed from air and cut up into
small portions. Until recently, it usually came next in a melangeur
provided with a dish-shaped bed-stone made of granite, as illustrated
in fig. 46, where it was kneaded and reduced to a uniform plasticity
and heated to the temperature required for moulding. The melangeurs
devoted to this purpose are now superseded by special tempering
machines.

A machine of this recent construction, used for working solid and
semi-liquid material, is shown in fig. 47. The tank intended as a
receptacle for the chocolate mass is in this case made of iron and, to
facilitate cleaning, smooth in the interior. It runs in a water-bath,
the supply in which can be controlled by steam or cold water. The
granite runner is provided with a lifting device, admitting of the
working up of material containing foreign ingredients like nuts, whole
and fine-split.

[Illustration: Fig. 47.]

The mass is taken out of the machine in lumps, and in order that it
may be reduced to a temperature suitable for the removal of air (about
26-32 ° C. on the outside) it is laid to cool on wooden, marble or iron
tables. When this temperature is arrived at, large lumps of chocolate
are introduced either into the air-extracting or the dividing machines.

[Illustration: Fig. 48.]

After the importance of the tempering processes had at length been
recognised, inasmuch as the maintenance of the temperature prescribed
is of immense influence on the chocolate subsequently produced, and it
had on the other hand been ascertained that such machines as described
above could not be absolutely relied upon, for the shaking tables
involve an occasional excess of tempering, the idea of a machine which
should completely and automatically perform this task was finally
conceived. This new machine, given in fig. 48, and already differing
from all other tempering machines in external appearance, ushers in an
entirely fresh process respecting the _modus operandi_ prevailing in
the present manufacture of chocolate, which does not fail to satisfy
the highest expectations. It may be said to work continuously, for no
matter what the temperature of chocolate passing into it may be, the
material leaves the machine at the temperature desired within a lapse
of one minute. According as more or less chocolate has to be turned
over in the moulding department, the machine can be stopped or set
in motion without detriment to its efficacy. Besides this, it cleans
almost automatically, so that a quick change of quality is always
possible. The special virtue of this machine is that it turns out the
material with such a degree of homogeneity as has never before been
known, making moulding at much higher temperatures a possibility. There
is yet another side issue, namely a doubling of the life of the moulds,
and finally, owing to the fact that the often considerable amount of
waste material is done away with in this process, the moulding shop
is spared to some extent. The series of rollers through which the
chocolate passes is maintained at a proper temperature by means of
automatic water apparatus. The daily output of the machine figures at
3000-4000 kilograms. The material is passed on out of this machine to
the dividing and moulding processes.

The necessary extraction of air follows immediately on the tempering
process, for the blades of the scraper then release the chocolate mass
from the rollers in thin layers, between which air penetrates. The
removal of air is effected by machines, an old type of which is shown
in fig. 49 (in front elevation).

It can be warmed by means of a charcoal fire placed in the space =i=,
or by any other suitable means. The chocolate mass is fed into the
cylindrical hopper =a=, at the base of which occurs an archimedian
screw =b=, which is propelled by the shaft and cog-wheel system =c d
e= in the direction indicated by the arrow. Thus the chocolate mass is
forced into the box =f=, leaving which in cylindrical form, it succeeds
to the travelling band =h=. It is now almost entirely freed from air.
As the material is pushed forward on the band, it is cut off either by
a knife =g= fixed to the box =f=, or divided as far as possible into
equal parts by a double knife with adjustable blades corresponding
to the weight required for a chocolate square. This manipulation
presupposes a fair amount of skill on the part of the machinist, but
this once attained, the division ensues as precisely and simply as can
be desired.

Air-extracting machines of recent construction, although still
partially built on the above principle, are at the same time generally
developed as automatic dividing machines.

[Illustration: Fig. 49.]

[Illustration: Fig. 50.]

Fig. 50 shows such a machine for solid and semi-liquid chocolates. By
means of this, the material is next conducted along a vertical screw
path in even mass to the horizontal screw, and so a second filling with
the hand is rendered unnecessary. After it has been freed from air in
this, it enters a revolverlike cutter, which discharges the divided
portions on a travelling belt. On the latter it is conducted to a table
standing near, where it is laid into moulds. The machine is of very
strong make, and puts out from 15-250 gr, divided into approximately
10-25000 squares, within a space of ten hours.

[Illustration: Fig. 51 a.]

Figs. 51 a and b give finally two of the best known types which have
a very extensive application, protected by patent imperial (Germany),
and built by J. M. Lehmann, Herm. Baumeister, J. S. Petzholdt in
Döhlen, G, near Dresden and others. With this patent dividing machine
of J. M. Lehmann, solid and semi-liquid chocolate material, as also
nut and almond chocolates are divided exactly, in any weight from 18
to 250 grammes, and then conducted in strips of equal size to the
mould previously mentioned. As far as cleanliness, purity, and easy
management are concerned, it fulfills all the demands which can be
expected of the most modern machine.

[Illustration: Fig. 51 b.]


IV. Moulding of the Chocolate.

[Illustration: Fig. 52.]

11. ~Transference to the Moulds.~

The pieces of chocolate, on emerging from the dividing processes, are
placed separately in iron moulds, that is to say, as far as this has
not already been done in the dividing machine. It is important that
these should have the same temperature as the chocolate mass, in order
to prevent the formation of spots on the surface of the cakes, and to
obtain a good and non-greyish fracture. The temperature for moulding
smaller objects can be fixed at between 27° and 32° C. and for the
larger may be considerably lower. In summer also, moulding may be
proceeded with at a lower temperature than in winter. According to a
note in the Gordian (1895, No. 4) the moulding may be carried out in
summer, when the atmospheric temperature is;

  from 25-31° C, at 26-27·5° C
    "  18·5-25° C, at 28·5-30° C
    "  12·5-18·5° C, at 31-32·5° C

In cold weather, the cakes may be moulded at a temperature of from
32·5-35° C., according to their thickness. When not manufactured in
the automatic machine shown in fig. 48, the mass should be otherwise
controlled as regards temperature, which should be registered by a
thermometer introduced therein. The moulds are for the most part
filled with plastic and liquid chocolates, and their depths determined
and modified by the weight of material which they are destined to
receive.

Fig. 52 shows a machine which conducts the semi-fluid mass to the
moulds in the following manner. The moulds are automatically introduced
under the apparatus, and filled from the small stirrer above. They then
succeed to the shaking table and are finally transported to the cooling
room. On this machine moulds of from 75-350 mm long and 75-225 mm broad
can safely be employed.

       *       *       *       *       *

There are two different forms in which chocolate is sold, namely, that
intended for domestic purposes, and that which is to be consumed as an
article of luxury. The kinds known as cake, rock and roll chocolate
belong to the first class, the several pieces weighing 50, 100, 200,
250, 500 up to 5000 grammes. Tin-plate is the only material of which
moulds are made; and these generally have a capacity rather greater
than is necessary for holding the particular quantities to be moulded.
The chocolate is therefore, as described above, divided into given
weights, and generally deposited direct in the moulds by the dividing
machine. The divided portions of chocolate are pressed down in the
moulds by hand, equally distributed in the latter, and then transferred
in the moulds to the shaking table or combination of shaking tables
to be described later. On the shaking table the soft chocolate soon
penetrates completely into all the corners and impressions of the
stamped tin moulds. The removal of the cooled cakes from the moulds is
easily effected by pressing.

These moulds are generally provided with from four to ten ridges or
indentations, so that the chocolate can be conveniently divided, and as
required for use. Others again have a similar number of compartments.

The compartments may be impressed with any kind of inscription, so that
such information as the name of a firm can always be reproduced on the
cakes.

Broken chocolate is generally of inferior quality, brought on the
market without any protective covering.

In those kinds of chocolate which are known as articles of luxury a
distinction is to be made between;

1. Those moulds which are in one piece and completely filled with
chocolate, so that the superfluous mass can be removed by a knife. In
such cases the weight of the cakes is exactly regulated by the capacity
of the moulds.

2. Those intended for moulding various figures of fruit etc. in which
two or three parts make a closed space which is of the form desired.

Among the moulds of the first type must be numbered those used in the
preparation of small tablets and sticks, and the sweetmeats known as
Napolitains and Croquettes.

The second class comprises moulds for making chocolate cigars and
chocolate eggs, and also the double moulds.

The moulds for the smaller tablets, cream sticks, napolitains and
croquettes are also made exclusively from tin-plate, and the separate
parts are enclosed in a stout iron frame, the top of which is ground
down smooth, so that any superfluous portion of the filling can easily
be scraped away. In that way from six to thirty pieces can be cast in
one mould at the same time: the cooled chocolate can be released from
the moulds by gently tapping one corner against a table. In napolitain
moulds protecting hooks are attached, to avoid their sustaining any
injury in this operation.


Examples of the more frequent moulds.


1. ~Chocolate Cigars.~

These are made either by introducing the chocolate mass between the
two halves of a double mould, of which each corresponds to a half of
the cigar shape to be moulded and which each fit exactly one on the
other; or else by pouring it into hollow moulds stamped out of one
complete piece. Moulding presses[117] are utilised in the manufacture
of material ~en masse~. In these the cigars are filled into
iron moulds, afterwards held together by means of iron combs, and so
introduced in to the press. For each size and shape special moulds
and plates are essential. Neither barium sulphate nor zinc white may
be employed to produce an imitation of the ash on ordinary cigars, as
both are objected to by health inspectors; nor are they necessary, for
in phosphate of lime (tricalcium carbonate) we possess a perfectly
harmless and at the same time efficient substitute, when it is mixed up
with starch syrup.

Other figures, such as fish etc., may also be produced in chocolate, by
means of the moulding press, when it is furnished with stamped moulds,
corresponding to the forms required.


2. ~Chocolate eggs.~

These are generally made hollow, unless they are very small, by
pressing chocolate in two halves of an egg-shaped mould and then
uniting the two parts. Another method patented by Th. Berger of
Hamburg[118] seems less practical. A mould is made of soft sheet
caoutchouc blown out; this is dipped into liquid chocolate and, after
the adhering coating has hardened, the air is let out of the mould. The
use of caoutchouc moulds would render this method too costly, since the
alternation of temperature soon makes the caoutchouc unserviceable.


3. ~Various figures, fruits, animals, and other small objects.~

Double moulds are used for making these objects in chocolate,
consisting sometimes of three or four parts; they are made either of
sheet iron, tinned, or, for more complicated forms, the moulds are cast
in tin, but these latter are not so durable as those of tinned sheet
iron with strong iron frames.

The several parts of the moulds, after having soft chocolate mass
pressed into them, are put together and excess of material is removed
by requisite pressure by the use of a press of the kind made by A.
Reiche in Dresden, which will admit of a large number of moulds
being placed in it at a time. By the use of such a press the moulds
are protected from injury, and the objects moulded have a better
appearance, as a result of the uniform as well as strong pressure
exerted.

After cooling, the moulded objects are readily detached from the moulds
and they only require to be scraped clean, or further ornamented as may
be desired. That is done in various ways, for example by painting with
coloured cacao butter.


4. ~Crumb Chocolate.~

This term is applied to the small pieces of chocolate of truncated
conical shape, with from 4 to 5 smooth surfaces. They are made by
a machine specially constructed for the purpose by A. Reiche (No.
1550); it consists of a four-cornered box with a removable bottom.
Inside the box there is a false bottom, from 1 to 2 cm above the other
bottom, which is fitted with a removable sheet iron plate, in which
pentagonal holes are stamped. A knife can be introduced at one corner
of the bottom of the box. After sufficient chocolate has been made to
penetrate through the pentagonal holes by agitating the box on the
table, the knife is rapidly drawn across the bottom and the box raised
up. The sheet iron plate is then taken out, and by gently tapping one
corner the small pieces of chocolate are shaken out.


5. ~Small tablets, sticks, fruits or figures filled with cream.~

These are prepared by pouring the cream contents in either wooden or
iron moulds, previously dusted with a little flour, and then moulding
round them chocolate in whatever form is required, always taking care
that this is kept as soft and plastic as possible, a suitable addition
of cacao butter proving invaluable for the purpose.

In former times chocolate moulds were manufactured exclusively in
France, where the firm Létang of Paris enjoyed what was to all
intents and purposes a world monopoly. But since the year 1870 the
oft-mentioned firm of Reiche in Dresden-Plauen has taken up the
manufacture, and has succeeded in conquering the market in a remarkably
short time. The moulds of this firm satisfy each and every possible
requirement, although it would be no disadvantage if the old type of
pattern mould were cleared away at one and the same time with the old
routine, to make room for a little artistic skill and embellishment.

Recently Reiche has brought out a special machine intended as an easy
and practical cleanser of his many moulds, which include bonbon cutters
and cutting rollers, numbering stamps, chocolate slicers, roller
machine boxes etc. He has lately brought on to the market a special
machine for quickly and efficiently cleaning the moulds, which is
illustrated in fig. 53.

In one end, a circular brush is introduced, and against this the moulds
to be cleaned are firmly pressed. In consequence of the large number of
revolutions which this brush passes through, the moulds are cleansed
of still adhering masses of chocolate in a half or third of the time
occupied when hand labour is employed. At the other end of the shaft
occurs a duster, sprinkled with Vienna white (a lime), which polishes
off the moulds previously and thoroughly cleaned by the circular brush.
The great advantage of this machine is that the daily expenditure on
polishing is considerably reduced One girl can do the work of two hand
workers, when this machine is employed. In addition, it makes possible
a continual touching up of the material used in the making of the
moulds, a ventilating apparatus removing all traces of dust.

[Illustration: Fig. 53.]


12. ~The Shaking Table.~

The pasty chocolate mass fills itself into the chocolate moulds
spontaneously, in consequence of its soft consistency. Yet to share it
evenly throughout the mould, so that it adapts itself to every bend
and hollow there occurring, and further to bring to the surface any
possible bubbles of air evident in the mass, the chocolate is whilst
still in the moulds subjected to brisk shaking.

This is effected by placing the chocolate on trays and transferring
these to the shaking table, of which types and construction are at the
present time manifold and various, the best and oldest being given in
front elevation below (Fig. 54).

[Illustration: Fig. 54.]

The movable slab =a=, fitted with an upright rim at its edges, has
underneath two projecting pieces =d=, working against deeply toothed
wheels =e=, which fastened on the shaft =b=, are driven round by the
pulleys =c=. The teeth of the wheels catch on the projecting pieces at
every revolution of the shaft and push them rather gently on one side,
and when the tooth-points slide from under the slab, it drops down as
much as it has been previously raised. Each tooth of the wheel coming
into contact with the projections, the same motion is repeated several
times, causing the slab to oscillate up and down.

This oscillation of the slab is controlled by means of a hand lever
=f=, occurring on the shaft =g=, and fixed crosswise thereon, so that
we can only show it in cross section on the diagram. The lever =f=
attaches itself to the under part of the slab, raises it, and so throws
the wheels out of contact with the projecting pieces, but without
stopping the rotation of the shaft =b=.

Shaking tables have also witnessed considerable improvements with the
lapse of time, and we shall now proceed to treat these in more detail,
especially as several recent constructions offer and illustrate many
interesting mechanical points.

[Illustration: Fig. 55.]

[Illustration: Fig. 56.]

An old type of machine, that is nevertheless still much employed, is
illustrated in fig. 55. Here the slab is caused to osculate by shaking
wheels introduced underneath, each possessing six, eight, or more
teeth. The slab is raised and lowered by contact with wedge-shaped
parts, the effect produced being greater or less according as the
moulds are large or small, heavy or light, and in proportion to the
consistency of the chocolate mass which they contain, e. g. whether it
is solid or semi-liquid.

Quite an improved construction is shown in fig. 56. Here the table
is attached to a vertical axle, which is moved up and down by means
of a toothed wheel fixed on its bottom end. There is also a cylinder
arrangement under the whole machine to assist in controlling the
vertical motion of the shaft, and as it is provided with automatic
lubrication, there is no danger of any wearing out of the apparatus and
consequent irregularity of functioning.

The shaking and jerking of the slabs is in itself attended by a
considerable amount of noise, and when to this is added that caused by
the tables, it will be seen that a chocolate factory may become to its
neighbours a very serious source of objection. For years attempts have
therefore been made to construct shaking tables, so that they would
not cause any greater noise than is absolutely inevitable. Pneumatic
contrivances and caoutchouc have met with right royal success in this
connection.

[Illustration: Fig. 57.]

The most recent and probably the most perfectly constructed shaking
table is given in figs. 57 and 57 a. It embodies all the latest
improvements and is self lubricating, a fact of the highest importance
as releasing the strain on the attendance, which would need to be very
perfect to ensure absence of noise in the case of a machine making
800 strokes a minute. When it is considered that the moulding room
is generally managed by girls who neither possess knowledge of, nor
interest in, the machines, the advantages of such automatic lubrication
become even more apparent.

[Illustration: Fig. 57 a.]

[Illustration: Figs. 58 and 58 a.]

Apart from the automatic lubrication, in itself a sufficient guarantee
for the efficiency of the machine, screws and nuts are entirely avoided
on this machine. The motive mechanism is also interesting. By a special
arrangement, the number of revolutions in relation to the number of
the elevations of the slab is reduced to one fourth, viz., from 760 to
190. Since the elevation of the slab can be regulated to zero, a loose
pulley for shifting the driving belt is unnecessary; in addition, the
driving shaft makes only a small number of revolutions, and works in
oil. The round shaped upright serves to carry the vertically moving
frame =i=, which supports the slab moving in an oiled groove at =s=,
and which is supported underneath by the pivot =m=. Both at =m= and
=s= there is automatic lubrication. The bearings of the spindle
=n=, attached to the upright, work into left and right screw threads
at =oo=, to which points the ends of a broad leather belt =p= are
attached, passing over the roller =g=, by which the frame =i= is
suspended. The driving pulley =k=, running in oil, carries in its
centre the four rollers =l=, which turn round and round the pulley =k=,
so as to come into contact with the belt =p= and press it outwards on
both sides. At the same time it shortens the belt in the vertical axle,
so raising up the table slab =i=. This is repeated four times by one
revolution of the driving pulley, so that working with 190 revolutions
a minute, the slab is raised 760 times. According as the screws =oo=
are moved to or from the centre, the vertical movement of the slab can
be increased or decreased to a point when the slab is completely out
of action, i. e. when the rollers l no longer touch the belt =p=. Under
favourable local conditions, a number of such tables can be driven by
one shaft, so that only one pulley and a single driving belt would be
needed, though each table would work quite independently of the others.
Such an arrangement is shown in figures 58 and 58 a.

[Illustration: Fig. 58 b.]

This shaking table, though only recently introduced, has quickly made
itself popular, and is especially suitable for the preparation of
readily liquefiable chocolate. The gentle vibratory motion produced by
this shaking table and its exact adjustability admit of the thinnest
cakes being made in a perfectly uniform thickness, without any
objectionable projections round their edges. Besides the shaking tables
of this construction there are others made in such a way that whether
the moulds are light or heavy, small or large, the slab is always
raised to the same height, the working of the slab being adjusted by
altering the number of revolutions. The manipulation of these tables is
much more difficult than that of tables constructed as above described,
and that is probably the reason why these have for decades been scarce
on the market.

The moulded chocolate spread out on trays is transferred as rapidly as
possible to the cooling chamber, with which we shall conclude section
IV.

Instead of several shaking tables alternately receiving the moulds,
which involve frequent changes, so-called shaking systems (fig. 58b)
have been generally adopted of late. They consist of a number of
shaking tables, having their frames attached to each other, possessing
a common motor control, and having their slabs arranged one after the
other in such a way that the filled moulds slowly proceeding from the
dividing machine can be automatically conducted over them. The shaken
moulds are then passed on to further processes, or they enter the
cooling chambers at once. The advantage of the shaking table system
lies in a reduction of the number of hands, who only need to be in
attendance at each end of the system, and further in the regularity,
both as regards time and strength, which prevails in connection with
the shaking of each mould.


13. ~Cooling the chocolate.~

Experience has shown that the more rapidly the moulded chocolate is
cooled the finer is its texture and the more uniform the appearance of
the fractured surface. That is due to the formation of smaller crystals
of the fat when the cooling is rapid, while in slow cooling larger
crystals are formed and the fracture consequently becomes dull and
greyish.

Formerly it was possible to distinguish chocolate made in summer from
that made in winter by the more uniform appearance of the fracture,
that was, in the latter case, the result of more rapid cooling.

At present, however, manufacturers are no longer dependent upon
favorable atmospheric conditions in that respect, for by suitable
arrangements it is now possible to produce the reduced temperature
requisite by artificial means.

The most suitable cooling chamber is an underground space which should,
however, be so situated as to be in convenient communication with the
moulding room. The cheapest and simplest place for a cooling chamber
is a cellar, if it be properly constructed and dry, as well as large
enough to contain the quantity of chocolate made in one day’s working.
The best temperature to be kept up ranges from 8° to 10° C. Within
those limits there is no danger of the chocolate being coated with
moisture, or that it will acquire a coarse grained texture by lying too
long. The following rules will serve for guidance in regard to this
point:

Generally, chocolate presents the finest fracture when it has been
fully levigated and when it contains a considerable amount of fat,
provided that the fat present is only cacao butter. Those kinds which
are not so well levigated, or have had some addition of foreign fat
of higher melting point, show an inferior fracture. It is possible to
obtain an equally vitreous fracture in a less cold cellar (16° C. and
upwards) when the chocolate is moulded at a temperature corresponding
to that of the cellar; to effect that, the chocolate should be moulded
at a proportionally lower temperature the warmer the cellar is. The
difference can be seen by the appearance of pale red spots on the
surface. When it is desired to dispense with artificial cooling, the
cellar should be as much as possible below the surface of the ground;
it should also be of sufficient height, not less than 3 m. If the
situation and height of the cellar be properly adjusted, the requisite
area for disposing of a daily production amounting to 5000 kilos
would be 400 sq. m. The cellar must be well ventilated and furnished
with double windows, so placed as to open towards the north and east.
Discharges of warm waste water, as well as steam pipes or furnaces
should be kept as far distant from the cellar as possible. The internal
arrangement of the cellar should be of such a nature that the whole
of the chocolate to be cooled can be deposited upon the floor, since
that is the place where cooling takes place most rapidly. With that
object in view it is desirable to construct brickwork pillars about 25
cm high, covered with white tiles. Passages are arranged between these
pillars. The cellar should be entered by as few persons as possible
and, therefore, the cooled cakes of chocolate should be taken at once,
in the moulds, to an adjoining room to be turned out and passed on to
the packing room and store.

Most of the existing factories, that have been established for any
time (large and small) have had to adopt artificial means of cooling,
because in most instances the quantity of chocolate to be cooled daily
has, in course of time, increased tenfold. The machine rooms have been
enlarged, the number of machines has also been increased, while the
cooling cellar has remained in its formerly modest proportions. But
those circumstances are not the only reasons for having recourse to
artificial refrigeration, which is often necessary in consequence of
the inconvenient situation of the cellar and the high underground water
level.

In the application of artificial refrigeration in a chocolate factory
it is not advisable to hasten the cooling of large quantities by
producing too low a temperature in small chambers. The cakes of
chocolate mass by that means come out of the moulds as hard as glass,
but it is questionable whether the consumer using the chocolate many
months afterwards, will make the same observation. Great care would
have to be taken with such rapidly cooled chocolate, to pass it
gradually through chambers of a medium temperature and thus prepare it
for exposure in the packing rooms and warehouses. Even when employing
artificial means for cooling, the reduction of the cellar temperature
and cooling upon pillars is to be preferred to the more direct
cooling upon a system of pipes, which after all is nothing else than
a cooling upon ice, as may be in some instances the only alternative.
Consequently, a well constructed cellar for cooling, furnished with a
system of cooling pipes on the roof is perhaps the most advantageous
arrangement, especially for large factories.

In carrying out artificial refrigeration various kinds of machines are
used for reducing temperature, in which the desired effect is produced
either directly by the condensation and evaporation of suitable
materials, such as liquid carbonic acid, ammonia, sulphurous acid, or
indirectly by making saline solutions (calcium chloride), cooled below
the freezing point, circulate through a system of pipes fitted on the
roof or walls of the space to be cooled. As the cold liquid is pumped
through the pipes, it takes up heat from the air in contact with them,
correspondingly reducing the temperature of the cooling chamber. The
cooling installations of the firm of C. G. Haubold, junior, Chemnitz,
are among the best and have long been extensively used in the chocolate
industry. Their cooling apparatus is a compressing machine, in
which coolness is obtained by the evaporation and recondensation of
such liquid gases as carbonic acid or ammonia. Like all compressing
machines, it is comprised of three main parts.

 I. The evaporator or refrigerator, consisting of a wrought iron
 system of pipes. The latter are placed in the spaces of the plant
 to be cooled, with a so-called direct evaporation arrangement, and
 are either arranged on the walls and ceiling, or built in a special
 chamber as dry or moist air coolers, according to the quality of the
 chocolate to be cooled, or the use for which it is destined. Whilst
 in the former case cooling is effected directly in the rooms, in the
 latter the air of the cooling room is conducted to the air coolers by
 means of ventilator, in order to be cooled and dried there, and then
 again introduced in the chamber.

 II. The compressor, a gas suction and pressure pump, working both
 simply and complex, which draws the refrigerating medium out of the
 evaporator, compresses it, and forces it along to the condenser.

 III. This condenser consists of a coil of wrought iron or copper
 pipes, which are enclosed in a barrel and are often described as
 the immersion condenser. There is another type, in which the pipes
 are united to one or more pipe-walls, introduced in a vessel which
 collects and drains off the condensations. In both cases the coil of
 pipes is played upon by a continual stream of water, in order that the
 gases which they contain may be condensed. The immersion condenser is
 generally employed when there is a plentiful supply of cheap water
 at hand, and the other in contrary cases. This latter condenser is
 provided with a separate liquid “after-cooler”, constructed on analogy
 with the before mentioned immersion condenser. The counter current
 principle holds good in both types, and admits of a better using up of
 the cooling water. The liquid gas then passes on to the evaporator,
 where it is responsible for further refrigeration.

[Illustration: Fig. 59a.]

The refrigerator also occurs in the form of a brine cooler. In this
construction the evaporating pipes are likewise enclosed in a barrel,
containing a high percentage of salt brine. In consequence of the
refrigerating apparatus occurring on the interior of the pipes, the
brine contained therein is cooled down to a very low temperature,
pumped along to the cooling chambers, and after delivering its alloted
refrigeration unit re-conducted to the cooling apparatus, where it is
once more subjected to the same series of processes.

A well-known arrangement for such artificial refrigeration is that
constructed by Wegelin & Hübner at Halle o. S., in which carbonic acid
is employed, and it has been found well adapted for use in chocolate
factories. The accompanying illustrations figures 59 a and 59 b
represent an arrangement of that kind in which the cooling is effected
on cooling trays judiciously arranged.

[Illustration: Fig. 59b.]

The refrigerating machine is constructed on the carbonic acid gas
compression system; it consists of 1. the compressing pump =a=, 2. the
condenser =b=, and 3. the system of pipes =c= and =d=, that constitute
the refrigerator. The coil of pipes in the refrigerator is connected
at one extremity with the compressing pump and at the other extremity
with the condenser. Liquid carbonic acid passes from the condenser
into the coil of pipes and is there evaporated. The heat necessary
for that change is withdrawn, either directly or indirectly, from the
cooling chamber and from the chocolate placed in it, until the desired
reduction of temperature is brought about.

[Illustration: Fig. 60.]

The compressing pump =a= is a peculiarly constructed suction and
pressure pump, it draws out of the refrigerating pipes the vaporised
carbonic acid by which they have been cooled and then subjects it to a
pressure which helps to effect its reconversion into the liquid state.

The condenser =b= consists of a coil of pipes over which a current of
cold water is kept flowing and the compressed carbonic acid vapour,
passing from the compressor into these pipes, is there cooled and
condensed by the surrounding water, so as to be transferred back to
the refrigerator through a valve fitted to it for that purpose. The
outer vessel of the condenser is constructed of cast-iron, in one piece
with the compressor frame. These cooling arrangements are constructed
either with or without mechanical ventilators. In figures 63 a and 63
b the compressing pump and condenser are represented as placed on the
ground floor, while the refrigerator is situated in the cellar space
lying beside them and at a lower level, in such a manner that both the
systems of cooling pipes are not situated upon the roof of the cellar,
but run along it at regular distances parallel to the side walls of the
cellar. The compressor and condenser form one apparatus and the former
is driven by a steam engine.

In the cooling cellar, the refrigerator is generally fixed to the walls
in such a way that the warm chocolate, taken into the cellar, can be at
once placed upon the stages formed by the system of cooling pipes, and
so there is some advantage in having the system of cooling pipes fitted
along the roof of the cellar.

The machine which is diagrammed in fig. 60 possesses an hourly
output of some 70000 calories, measured in salt water at -5 ° C. The
compressor is driven directly by an electric motor, and a stirring
apparatus is put in motion by the crankshaft of the compressor, the two
being connected by an intermediate gearing.

Wegelin and Hübner put out cooling plants with salt water cooling,
smaller and medium sized plants are on the contrary provided with
so-called direct evaporation.

The diagram in fig. 61 shows an air-cooler as built of late by Esher,
Wyss & Co. for chocolate cooling plants.

These air coolers are especially used for direct evaporation of
carbonic acid gas. They consist of three groups of ribbed wrought-iron
pipes, the whole constituting a system supported in a frame work of
U-shaped and angular iron. The separate tubes are welded and bent
together. The ribbed bodies are in themselves square shaped, and apart
from the tube opening have a nozzle introduced in their centre, which
pressed firmly against the press pipe effects a favourable transmission
of heat in the case of large surface areas of the support, the more so
as the tubes are square shaped.

Among the numerous advantages of this machine can be numbered the
abolition of the refrigerator and brine pump, prompt and instantaneous
refrigeration when the machine is started, and ease of control, as a
flange connection occurs immediately in front of the machine.

[Illustration: Fig. 61.]

A wrought iron trough is fitted up underneath the air-cooler to catch
the water drops. Above, and to the left, the three systems of the
air-cooler are connected by means of a catch.

In the foreground of the illustration is given a miniature of the
ribbed tube system, which very clearly illustrates the arrangement of
the separate ribs.

A ventilator not apparent on the diagram conducts air to the tubes in
the cooling chamber, and these present a considerable cooling area,
in addition to which, the air-stream taking a parallel direction,
resistance to its passage is reduced to a minimum.

Another method of cooling[119], that is carried out in France
consists in placing the moulds, containing cakes of chocolate, upon a
travelling belt running horizontally through the whole length of the
cooling chamber. The requisite reduction of temperature is effected
by apparatus similar to that described above in Wegelin & Hübner’s
arrangement. The liquefied carbonic acid flows through a system of
pipes fitted to the roof of the cooling chamber, producing by its
vaporisation the necessary cooling and then it passes back to the
refrigerating machine. Circulation of the air in the cooling chamber is
provided for by a suitable ventilator under the pipes of the cooling
system, gutters being fixed to carry away any water condensing upon
their surface and prevent it from falling upon the chocolate. The
travelling belt passes along so slowly that the moulds, containing
chocolate, placed upon it at one end, take from ten to fifteen minutes
in passing to the other end where they are taken off and carried to the
packing rooms.

[Illustration: Fig. 62.]

Another cooling arrangement that works very well is constructed by T. &
W. Cole of the Park Road Iron Works, London E.; figure 62, represents
a plan of this arrangement, which has the great advantage of providing
for the exclusion of moisture from the cooling chamber. Refrigeration
is effected, by means of Cole’s Arctic-Patent Dry Cold Air machines, by
compressing atmospheric air and then allowing it to expand, after being
cooled by water and having moisture removed by suitable arrangements.
The machine is of very solid construction; it works at a pressure of
from 70 to 80 atmospheres and drives the dry cooled air through a
system fitted in the cooling chamber where the chocolate is spread
out, either on portable trucks or on a travelling belt, so that it
remains in the chamber long enough to become perfectly cold. The system
of cooling can be changed in various ways. The sudden removal of the
cold chocolate into another chamber where the air is moist, would be
attended with a deposition of water upon the goods. For that reason
the goods are first transferred, for a short time, to a warm chamber
(ante-room) where they acquire a temperature at which no deposition of
moisture can take place. The chief advantage of this arrangement is
that it furnishes dry cold air economically, both in summer and also
in a moist climate. Cole guarantees that this machine will effect a
refrigeration of 5 ° C.; according to the statement of Messrs. Negretti
and Zambra the cooled air contains only 40 % of moisture. The cold
air from one of these machines can be led, by a well insulated run
of pipes, to any part of the factory and thus be made available for
cooling purposes in different places.

The cooling plants hitherto described may be classified as “Space
Coolers”, because in each case a special compartment of the cooling
chamber must be utilised. The increased prices of estate constitute no
mean objection to such a system.

A critical valuation of these plants brings out a few undisguisable
deficiencies. A large proportion of the cold is lost in the chamber
itself, before it has been of any avail; and then again the rooms are
generally insufficiently, sometimes even not at all, insulated from
adjacent and warmer chambers, which once more involves raising of
the low temperature essential in the process.[120] Detrimental also
is the presence of the personnel, the illuminations, and many minor
influences. It is evident that the larger the output required the
larger must the cooling chamber be, involving corresponding economical
waste.

With the recognition of these evils arose the problem of their
abolition. The aim was to employ small chambers and avoid loss of cold
air. It is now solved by a system already used in many and various
industries, namely, cooling in closets. Larger or smaller closets
may be employed, as required, and in consequence of their thorough
insulation may even be introduced into the warmest rooms. Their
principle is maximum efficiency with minimum occupation of space, and
avoidance of loss of cold as far as possible. In consequence of this
latter aim, the refrigerators in this case can be constructed on a
smaller scale than those destined for an equal output of material,
which are fixed up in cooling chambers; or they may be larger, which
is yet more important, for the efficiency of the machine under
consideration can be considerably increased by connecting it with one
of the closets.

There are two sorts of cooling chambers, those which transport the
moulds automatically, and those which contain layers where the moulds
are placed one over another. Both types are cooled by the circulation
of air, so effected, that cooled air currents are sucked up by a fan
out of a tubular system fitted underneath a horizontal partition,
and then forced along to the chambers above, where they are evenly
distributed over the rows of sheet-iron, laden with moulds, or where
they play upon the travelling belt which transports the moulds out of
the cooling chambers. The air passes once more into the tube chamber
on the opposite side, where it delivers up the warmth it has in the
meantime acquired, to enter finally the same system of circulation as
before. The general temperature of the closets is a mean between 8 °
C. and 10 ° C., and the cooling lasts from 20-40 minutes, according to
the strength and size of the tablets. As the temperature never goes
lower than 8 ° C., it is impossible for the tablets to become moist
when exposed to the warmer outer atmosphere. Fig. 63a shows a Cooling
Chamber built by J. M. Lehmann, which is adapted for a daily output of
some 1000 kilos, and divided into compartments one above the other.
The sections of this chamber, which in the illustration plainly shows
the small amount of space required for its erection, are divided by
vertical cross-partitions into four compartments, each of which is
provided with a shelf or stand to take a charge of 10 cooling trays,
and accessible by three spring-doors, thus giving as small apertures
as possible and reducing the loss of cold when charging to a minimum.
In addition to this, each compartment is fitted with a contrivance for
regulating and, if necessary, completely cutting of the draught. The
position of the system of pipes is shown by the two pipe-ends to which
it is connected. On the opposite side, or front of the chamber, is the
fan-drive, either a small electric motor, or shafting. The perforated
cooling trays are visible through the open doors. The sides of the
chamber consist of two layers of wood with thick slabs of cork between
them. All chambers of this system, including those with automatic
conveyance of the moulds, can be taken to pieces for transport, the
single pieces afterwards only requiring to be fastened together again
when erecting the chamber.—The chamber illustrated serves for cooling
moulded chocolate. For pralinés and the like similar chambers are
supplied, which are, however, smaller and lighter in construction.

Fig. 63b represents a cooling chamber with forced air circulation
and automatic conveyance of the moulds, built by the same firm. This
chamber, which, owing to the travelling belt conveying the moulds, is
of considerable length, is nowhere connected with the outside air; the
whole manipulation of the moulds is carried on through small adjustable
openings at the points where the travelling band enters and leaves
the chamber. The band consists of chains in links on to which wooden
laths are screwed and its speed can be regulated to suit the size of
the tables to be dealt with. The width of the belt and chamber can at
any time be varied to suit the place of erection and correspond with
the length.

[Illustration: Fig. 63 a.]

[Illustration: Fig. 63 b.]

[Illustration: Fig. 63 c.]

As is to be seen from the illustration, this cooling chamber requires
the minimum of attendance and thus complies with the principles lately
adopted in all large factories, in which the tendency is to substitute
as much as possible mechanical appliances for manual work. It will
be seen from the preceding chapters that this tendency is especially
marked in the moulding department, where automatic tempering,
moulding and mould-filling plants and shaking tables have already
been introduced. In order to utilise fully such automatic plants the
last link in the chain only was wanting, namely, a suitable means of
transferring the moulds from the shaking tables to the cooling chamber
and through the latter to the demoulding and packing room. The purpose
of the cooling chamber above described is to fill up this gap, and its
proper place is thus ranged in among the automatic machinery described.

Thus it is that many modern factories have united the above machines to
form a single working plant, as shown by Groundplan Fig. 63c.


V. Special Preparations.


a) ~Chocolate Lozenges and Pastilles.~

These chiefly consist of cacao mass, sugar and spices. Formerly they
were made by placing the semi-liquid chocolate material on a stone
slab, furnished with a rim of uniform height which served to regulate
the thickness of the goods manufactured, and then rolling out the mass
as required. The lozenges were punched from the rolled-out layer by
means of a cutter. After allowing the mass to cool, these lozenges were
detached from the remaining portions, which were then rolled again and
the same process repeated.

Pastilles, on the surface of which impressions of varying import, such
as figures, names, firms etc. are required, may also be manufactured by
placing the soft chocolate mass upon tin-plates in which depressions
occur corresponding to the device desired. A roller is employed to make
the material fit into the depressions, and superfluous chocolate is
removed with a knife.

These impressions come out especially fine, when the pastille moulds
are subjected to a shaking on the tables with which we are already
acquainted.

[Illustration: Fig. 64.]

[Illustration: Fig. 65.]

Yet these processes are becoming obsolete, and the chocolate slabs
or plates are at the present time superseded by the two forms of
apparatus constructed by A. Reiche, which we accordingly describe below.

[Illustration: Fig. 66.]

In the first of these simply constructed machines, fig. 64, the
material oozes through perforations in a square sieve-like arrangement,
at length issuing on the sheet-iron plate fitted underneath. The
process is aided by repeated shaking, and when sufficient chocolate has
penetrated to the plate, the box is raised on its hinge and chocolate
mass left ready for further treatment. By gentle additional shaking,
the still irregular heaps are rounded off to perfection; they are now
cooled down and finally detached. The coating of the lozenges with
coloured sugar grains is effected by passing them, together with the
plate to which they still adhere, through a box containing sugar dust.

This machine is scarcely used now; in its place come the two
constructions of A. Reiche, as already stated, the one being intended
for solid material, and the other for semi-liquid chocolate mass.

[Illustration: Fig. 67.]

By means of his pastille machine Nr. 14091, which we give in Figs. 65
and 66, chocolate lozenges of the most diverse size can be prepared
very rapidly and to advantage. The chocolate material, which in this
case is solid, is pressed through perforations in a metal plate and
otherwise treated as in previous cases.

In working with this machine, it must be previously and sufficiently
warmed, then partially filled with chocolate material of a proper
consistency (not more than 75 % of the total capacity may be utilised).
It is highly important in the preparation of lozenges that the material
should neither be too hard nor too plastic, but strike a just medium.

[Illustration: Fig. 68.]

Before pressing down the plunger, worked by a screw, a metal plate
is laid upon the chocolate to prevent contact with the plunger. By
slight pressure, the chocolate mass is forced through the perforations,
according to the required size of the lozenges, but the plunger must
not be screwed down further. This will admit of the plate on which the
lozenges rest being drawn out and another inserted.

[Illustration: Fig. 69.]

To this machine belong the usual perforated plates _f_, Fig. 66 of
which there are three of different sizes for each machine, as shown by
figures _a_ _b_ _c_, also the plates _d_ used for making the perforated
confections which find their way to the Christmas Tree. These plates
are impressed with larger or smaller designs, and so make two different
sizes of goods possible. A third plate is supplied for the manufacture
of whole pieces (various varieties of chocolate croquette).

The machine works smoothly and noiselessly and delivers excellent
products. If instead of the usual plain lozenges, such with the name of
a firm or other device are desired, the corresponding impressions must
be stamped out on the plate in which the chocolate is received after
being forced through the perforations. See fig. 66, g, h, i.

Fig. 67 illustrates the pastille machine Nr. 14 178 for thin
chocolate mass, constructed by A. Reiche (German Patent 227 200).
It resembles the foregoing apparatus in principle and appearance,
being only distinguished by a different aim, namely the treatment
of thin material. Used in conjunction with the peculiar moulds also
manufactured by the same firm (marked “Durabula”), even the deepest
impressions can be effected with an enormous saving of time and
material and in a most practical manner, as will be seen on comparing
figs. 69 _a_ to _d_.

In order to get the full value out of this machine, some little
practice is necessary on the part of the workman in charge. But
possessed of an average amount of skill, he can soon turn out with this
apparatus ten times as much as can be made with the ordinary type of
lozenge machine.

For a favourable accommodation of the different pastille plates,
the hurdle diagrammed in fig. 68 (by A. Reiche) is quite excellent.
It is manufactured out of one complete sheet of steel, is free
from any suspicion of soldering, and entirely galvanised. It thus
offers a strong guarantee as regards wear and tear. It may also be
advantageously employed as a transporting device.


b) ~Coated chocolates, pralinés etc.~

These delicacies are now held in high esteem, and of late the
consumption of pralinés and cheaper forms with imitative contents has
increased very considerably.

The designation praliné (properly pronounced prahlin) has been applied
to sugar-coated almonds and is derived from the name of a cook in the
employ of Marshal du Plessis, which was Pralins. This “chef” belonged
to the age of Louis XIV. and was the first to make these sweetmeats.
But now the term is applied to sweetmeats of various forms, soft
fruit-sugar, marmalade, cream, nut-paste etc. respectively enveloped
in chocolate. The special formulae employed in the preparation of
different kinds of pralinés are comprised in the confectioner’s art,
and do not need to be dealt with here.

The substances themselves are called fondants. Formerly the sugar was
boiled, placed upon a slab, and there manipulated with a spatula, an
operation difficult to manage, indeed almost impossible in the last
stages. In consequence of the increased demand for such preparations,
machines were introduced several years ago whereby the operation is
mechanically performed. Such a machine is shown in fig. 70.

[Illustration: Fig. 70.]

The bed-plate as well as all the working parts of the machine are
constructed of stout copper. The working parts admit of being raised
or lowered by means of the hand-wheel above, and they remain fixed
whilst the bed-plate turns and its underside is played upon by water.
The machine is capable of working up pure fondant without any syrup
addition, as well as that made up with syrup. The boiled sugar is
poured on the bed-plate of the fondant machine, cooled down from 10-20
minutes according to the syrup content, and to such an extent that the
machine can be set in motion, whilst the working parts are gradually
lowered to the previously mentioned bed-plate. The sugar poured out
is then cooled by means of the action of a ventilator fitted on a
crossbeam, occurring in the middle of the wooden cooler, and working
in conjunction with the ventilator, in consequence whereof a cooling
current of air is brought to strike the hot sugar centrally.—When pure
sugar is used, the fondant is finished within six minutes, but in the
case of a syrup addition the time required is lengthened.

[Illustration: Fig. 71.]

A quite recent type of fondant machine is given in fig. 71. It achieves
its end by employing an air-current and a cylinder with screw, which is
provided with water cooling apparatus. The _modus operandi_ presents
many and obvious advantages, chief among which is the possibility of
conducting new material to the machine uninterruptedly, and further the
preservation of the flavour of the chocolate worked up. The result is
a production of first-class quality in respect to taste and flavour,
which is quite ready to be passed on to the next processes.

[Illustration: Fig. 72.]

The fondant is then diluted with colouring matter in boiling pans,
and so prepared for subsequent treatment. The figures which have to
be poured in are then transferred to gypsum moulds, lined with starch
powder, and the fondant sugar is in its turn poured over these either
by means of pans held in the hand or such as are machine-driven.
Hand-pouring postulates a considerable amount of skill on the part of
the man in charge, especially when even weights of the separate pieces
are required. We annex an illustration of a motor-driven depositing
machine (fig. 72).

The sugar is here introduced into receivers heated by means of a
water-bath. The receiving boxes are moved under the outflow one
after another, after having been dusted with powder and filled with
chocolate, whilst the adjustment of the weight of each separate piece
is effected by the operation of a very ingenious mechanism, even from
0-8 grammes.

[Illustration: Fig. 73.]

After a stay of several hours in the drying room, the molten figures
are so hard that they can be raised out of the powder with the aid of
a shovel. Fig. 73 shows such a machine, whilst Fig. 74 illustrates a
machine where the work goes on unbrokenly, and from which the chocolate
figures are removed with a shovel.

The sweetmeats are next dipped into liquified chocolate (covering
stuff) to coat them with a layer of that material. The mass employed
for this purpose must contain up to 15 % more butter than that used
for ordinary chocolate, so that it may be kept soft long enough for
continuous working.[121] This is performed in the machine fig. 75. On
a bed-plate coming into contact with steam or cold water, as required,
occur rake-like stirrers, and a small ventilator introduced above
assists in cooling off the material. For the purpose of discharging,
there is an outlet on the rim of the pan. For storage of the tempered
coverings and also for occasional alleviations with cacao butter, a
machine illustrated in fig. 76 is utilised.

[Illustration: Fig. 74.]

[Illustration: Fig. 75.]

[Illustration: Fig. 76.]

The dipping of pralinés for the purpose of coating them was formerly
carried out by means of a fork, the nucleus masses being dropped into
the coating material, taken out with a fork, and placed upon metal
plates. Various kinds of ornamentation were designed by the same
instrument. In the preparation of the higher priced coated fondants,
a similar method of procedure is still in vogue, although such
manipulation presupposes a high degree of skill on the part of the
mechanics are at the machine. For articles of more general consumption,
whether ornamented or not, machines have been introduced for the
purpose by divers manufacturers, some of which function excellently.
Two of that kind which in every way respond to the calls made on them
are here described, but we shall not waste time and labour over the
more complicated and expensive machines.

[Illustration: Fig. 77.]

[Illustration: Fig. 78.]

 The first method of coating fondants, patented by A. Reiche of
 Dresden-Plauen, is not based on mechanical principles, but rather
 relies on a series of small appliances, represented in fig. 77. The
 jacketed casing _a_, fig. 77 contains water, and into it the pan
 containing coating material can be placed: that is kept in a liquid
 condition by heating the water in the jacket by spirit lamps or gas
 jets underneath. The adjoining vessel _b_ is closed on all sides,
 filled with water, and also kept warm in the same manner; it serves
 for the preparatory warming of the objects to be coated, which are
 spread upon a wire network, and for that purpose two of these wire
 frames can be hung upon the hooks inside the box. The mass dropping
 from the wire frame is conveyed into the covering box _a_, by means
 of a sheet of metal placed above it; _c_ serves as an apparatus for
 turning, and we give it on a larger scale in fig. 78.

[Illustration: Fig. 79.]

The tracings _h_ and _i_ in fig. 79 show the cross section and top view
of the wire gratings, on which cylindrical and ball-shaped sugar goods
are deposited. The other two kinds of grating are illustrated at _L_
and _M_ (fig. 80).

The size of the meshes of the sieve gratings depends on that of the
centres to be coated.

The method of covering is as follows:

The centres for the pralinés etc. are placed in the cavities of the
gratings, and, as soon as one of the gratings is full, the latter is
covered up by the fine-meshed grating the half of the cross-section of
which is shown in Fig. 79 and the full view in Fig. 80 (see K and N
respectively), K representing the cover-grating.

Both gratings are held simultaneously by the operator at their handles
and then dipped together in the liquid covering contained in the vessel
a, Fig. 77, after which the superfluous covering mass is removed by
knocking. The gratings are now deposited on the mechanism C, Figs.
77 or 78, as the case may be, the top sieve removed and a sheet of
paper or a metal plate put in its place. It is then turned by hand to
the opposite side, the grating with the impressions is removed and
the cover centres are found lying in regular order, and at regular
distances apart, on the metal plate. The object of the intervals
between the covered centres is to prevent the running together of the
latter.

[Illustration: Fig. 80.]

Beans and rings are only dipped up to the middle, and the process
repeated with the other half of the centre after the first half has
cooled. This ensures a pleasing, round appearance, and has further
the advantage that the cover grating need not be put on during the
operation. When dipping cylindrical or ball-shaped centres, the grating
K which has first been removed on dipping, is at once transferred to
the heater, to prevent it cooling and withdrawing too much warmth from
the covering material at the next immersion.

The dipping of pralinés etc. is exceedingly easy if the new type of
dipping machine is used, a full view of which is given in Fig. 81
and which has the highly appreciable advantage of simultaneously
cooling the dipped centres. All the parts are, in the main, worked
by hand, only the shaking and stirring contrivances and the cooling
fan requiring to be driven by motor power. The middle piece carries
the actual dipping apparatus, underneath which the tank holding the
covering chocolate is fixed, while the lefthand sidepiece serves for
feeding; as many as four operators can be engaged simultaneously at
the latter, the work consisting of laying the centres in the gratings
corresponding to the mouldings desired. The construction of these
gratings is, in the main, similar to the stamped trays of Anton Reiche,
but they are not provided with handles and are despatched along the
guide-rails by hand. The filled grating is then placed in a frame,
which is dipped by means of a winch into the liquid chocolate. The top
grating on the dipping frame is adjustable, and the object of this
grating is to keep the centres down, as without this arrangement some
of the centres might rise to the surface of the covering. The top
grating is, before commencing to dip, pushed over the filled grating
with the centres and is thus immersed with them. The frame having been
removed, the shaker is put in action to remove the superfluous material
from both the gratings and the centres. The grating is drawn out
after use from below the top grating and transferred to a book-shaped
ejector, on one side of which is a metal sheet covered with paper. The
whole of the centres are then discharged on to the sheet, by reversing
the two flap-sections.

The sheet containing the covered centres is then transferred to the
cooling apparatus at the right, in which it is gradually lowered on a
“paternoster” apparatus by turning round a handle. It is then conducted
to the left by an endless band, and finally discharged in a cooled
state by the machine. The ventilator should be supplied with air from
the cellars and is arranged to blow it out in the opposite direction to
the goods in the cooling apparatus.

[Illustration: Fig. 81.]

The shape of the design-gratings is reproduced in high relief on the
goods, and it will therefore be readily understood that further designs
or fancy shapes can be made on the gratings. For the production of
semi-dipped goods or such as are dipped round and remain uncovered at
the bottom, a device is attached to the striking gear which renders
it possible to regulate the depth of each immersion at will. The tank
containing the covering material is surrounded by a water-jacket,
which is heated by steam. The heat of the water is indicated by a
thermometer. The receptacle containing the covering can easily be drawn
out towards the front. In addition to this, the whole of the outside
of the machine, which also constitutes a complete water-jacket, is
heated by steam, and finally the ejector. The gratings containing the
impressions are taken out of the ejector after use and transferred to
the feeding side to be used again, so that, at the very most, four
gratings are required for each design.

The daily output of the machine is 300-600 kilos, and the size of the
gratings 280 by 400 millimetres, the output naturally depending on
whether the machine is operated by two, three or more persons.




B. The Manufacture of Cocoa Powder and “Soluble” Cocoa.


a. The various methods of disintegrating or opening up the tissues of
cacao.

The comparatively high fat content of pure cacao, which would deter
certain persons, especially those suffering from stomach disorders,
from taking it, has given rise to the now extensive demand for a cacao
preparation containing a less amount of fat and the constituents of
which are capable of being easily assimilated in the human organism. At
the same time the desire to obtain a cacao preparation easily capable
of complete and uniform suspension in milk or water may have played
its part, as this quality, in consequence of which the preparation can
rapidly and without difficulty be rendered ready for consumption, is
obviously a great advantage. The best way to obtain this appeared to
be the pulverisation of the cacao, which, when reduced to a powder,
more readily satisfies the above conditions. As, however, it was not
possible to pulverise cacao which still contained its full amount of
natural fat, it became necessary to devote attention to the operation
of extracting the cacao butter. It is many years since the first
appearance of certain preparations in Germany which went under the name
of “Cacogna”, and which had been deprived of their fat to the extent
of 20-25 %. This problem, however, was recognised and attempts and all
manner of experiments made to solve it at a much earlier period in
Holland. The founder of the well-known Dutch firm of J. C. van Houten
& Sons in Weesp, Mr. C. J. van Houten, was the first to attempt the
expression of the fat from cacao (1828) and to treat it with chemical
agents with a view to opening up or bringing about the disintegration
of the tissues, in order to render the cacao a fit and welcome article
of food, not only for healthy persons, but also for invalids and
convalescent persons.

It was not until the Dutch cocoa thus manufactured had been introduced
into England and Germany, where, as well as in Holland, it became very
popular, that manufacturers in Germany and Switzerland began to devote
their attention to the treatment with chemical agents. The consumption
of so-called “soluble” cocoa has increased to such an extent of late
years that it is now almost as large as that of chocolate goods.

The term “soluble”, as now generally applied to cocoa powders, is
undoubtedly a misnomer, inasmuch as such preparations are practically
not soluble at all. We have therefore termed cocoa for drinking
purposes in this book “disintegrated” cacao, as the processes described
in the following pages only render the elements of cacao, as, for
instance, the cellulose, capable of suspension in liquids. It would be
quite impossible to render cacao, by any special treatment, soluble
in the real sense of the term, as is the case with salt or sugar. It
will thus be readily understood that the expression “disintegrated” is
correcter and more logical than the term “soluble The degree to which
disintegration has been carried, i. e. the efficiency of the opening-up
processes adopted, is marked by the absence of any sediment worth
speaking of in the beverage prepared with boiling water, even after it
has been left standing some time. The greater the power of suspension
of the preparation, the less particles of cacao will settle to the
bottom, and the higher the beverage will be esteemed.

The disintegrating agents are, in practice, applied either to the raw
or roasted, but otherwise untreated beans, or to the more or less
defatted cacao, as follows:

 a) by treating the cacao with hot water, without or under pressure;

 b) by treatment with alkalis, such as carbonate of kali or
 sodium, carbonate of magnesia (Dutch method), spirits of ammonia
 (sal-ammoniac) and carbonate of ammonia (German method).

The chemical and physical effects brought about by these agents consist
chiefly in the swelling or steeping of the cellulose by the action
of the alkalis, as a consequence of which they sink less rapidly in
liquids than would be the case with untreated cacao. A further effect
is the partial neutralisation of the acids present, besides which the
cacao-red or pigment is also attacked, a result which may be regarded
as less desirable, as the cacao-red is the secreter of the aroma, which
naturally suffers with it. If the cacao is treated with steam or hot
water, the starch is apt to gelatinise, and the acids to begin to
ferment.

As the treatment with steam, for the reasons given above, is nowadays
rarely practised, we will at once proceed to consider the method of
disintegrating cacao most in use. Modifications of the methods of
manufacture bearing on this point will be dealt with in their place
under the corresponding heading later in this book.


b. Methods of Disintegration.


1. ~Preliminary Treatment of the Beans.~

The method of manufacture of disintegrated cocoa comprises the
following operations:

  a) The cleaning and sorting of the raw bean;
  b) Roasting;
  c) Shelling, breaking and grinding;
  d) Treatment with alkalis or water;
  e) Expression of the fat or cacao butter;
  f) Pulverising.

The order of the above processes is subject under certain conditions
to various modifications arising from the fact that the alkalis are
applied at various stages in the course of manufacture, i. e.:

  I. before roasting;
  II. during roasting;
  III. after roasting,

and further

  a) before pressing;
  b) after pressing (treatment of the defatted beans).

The cleaning and sorting of the raw beans, or, in short, the complete
treatment to which the raw cacao is subjected (a to c) is in all
methods effected by the same machines, a description of which has been
given on pages [Transcriber’s Note: Rest of line missing]

Some manufacturers proceed at once to treat the cacao with alkali on
completion of the above operations.

C. Stähle[122] effects the disintegration of cacao by subjecting the
beans to the chemical action of a mixture of ammonia and steam, at a
temperature not exceeding 100 Deg. C. The next process (roasting) is
then supposed to draw out the ammonia introduced into the material,
which, being volatile, easily escapes, and enables the flavour to
develop.

Pieper[123] moistens the raw beans with water, to which alkali has
been added, and this has the effect of neutralising the acids present
in the bean; afterwards the beans are fermented, dried and roasted.
The fermentation is described as rendering the particles of albumin or
protein bodies easily digestible and further imparts to the beans a
fine, reddish brown colour. This process is therefore nothing but an
after-fermentation of the cacao under the influence of alkalis. From a
scientific point of view, the process does not possess the advantages
which Pieper claims for it, with the exception of the really evident
improvement in colour. This effect can, however, be obtained equally
well by suitable treatment with water alone.

G. Wendt[124] has patented a method of improving the colour and
facilitating the disintegration of cacao, in which the beans are
treated, before roasting, with lime water and milk of lime (lime
solutions) and further washed with the solution during roasting.

We now turn to the methods of disintegration by means of fixed alkalis
(carbonate of magnesia, potash and sodium) first employed by the Dutch,
concerning which the following description will be useful.

The cleaned beans are first very superficially roasted, to facilitate
winnowing, and the cacao thus treated (half roasted cacao) broken
as small as possible, which is an equally important factor in the
shelling and winnowing processes. It should be observed here that the
less the cacao has been roasted, the finer it should be broken. The
material is then impregnated by one of the above-mentioned alkaline
solutions, which is sprayed on to the beans. The chief agent employed
is potash (carbonate of potassium) in the proportion of 1½-2 (3 at
the outside) parts of potash to 20-30 parts of water, for every hundred
parts of the defatted material to be treated. Some manufacturers use
sodium or a mixture of sodium and carbonate of magnesia in place of
the potash. As soon as the cacao has been uniformly impregnated by the
alkaline solution, the roasting process should be completed. Still more
care should be devoted to the roasting of cacao for pulverising than is
required in the case of eating chocolates, as taste and smell play a
more important part and the point of complete roasting is not so easily
recognised. The cacao being roughly broken and the shells removed, the
second roasting process must of course be conducted over a low fire.
The most suitable machines for this purpose are the large roasting
machines illustrated on page 93, Fig. 14, as in these machines there
is little possibility of over-roasting, even when dealing with large
quantities and the machine is intensely heated; another advantage is
the easy accessibility of the roasting drum, which can be immediately
exposed by removing the front cover, for cleaning; cleaning is very
necessary in roasting machines. Broken and moistened cacao chars
much more readily than raw beans which have not been deprived of
their shells. If it is not possible to thoroughly clean the interior
of the roasting drum, as is often the case with spherical roasters,
the particles of cacao remaining in the drum continually undergo
re-roasting, finally falling in a completely charred state into the
cacao, thereby greatly prejudicing its taste.

If necessary, the cacao can now be passed through the breaking machine
again, from which it is transferred to the triple cacao mill, which
provides for fine grinding. The material is then deposited in heated
pans (see page 117, Fig. 27) where it remains until ready for the next
process, the expression of the fat. The object of the fine grinding
in the mill is to render the cacao on being ground again after the
defatting process, easily capable of being sifted, and to obtain a
preparation which, on being mixed with hot water, leaves as little
sediment as possible.


2. ~Expression of the Fat.~

Hydraulic presses are nowadays exclusively used for this most important
operation in the manufacture of “soluble” cocoa. The methods of
pressing have, in common with the other operations in the course of
manufacture, undergone considerable modification and improvement.

 According to Macquer (see Mitscherlich, S. 58) the butter was
 extracted during the last century by pulverising the seeds, boiling
 them in water and cleansing the fat, which, on cooling, congealed on
 the surface of the water, by re-melting. According to Desprez (see
 Mitscherlich, S. 58), burned, shelled and finely pulverised beans were
 spread to a height of 12-15 inches on coarse linen or canvas, which
 was spanned across a vessel containing boiling water, to expose the
 fine powder thoroughly to the action of the hot vapour. The powder
 was then pressed, in linen bags, between two tin plates, whereby some
 50% of pure cacao butter was obtained. At a later period the heatable
 hydraulic pot-presses came into use. The mass had, however, to be
 introduced into these pots tied up in a cloth or sack, to facilitate
 which it was previously treated with water, forming a thickish syrup
 very convenient for pressing. All these methods, however, were
 attended with the great disadvantage that the cocoa, after being
 stored some time, acquired a grey colour, or became mouldy. To avoid
 these undesirable results presses were constructed which rendered
 it possible to liquefy the mass without any further treatment in the
 receptacle in which the pressing was conducted. Such a press, likewise
 acting hydraulically, is shown in Fig. 82 on the opposite page.

This machine exerts a total pressure of 320000 kilogrammes and works
with 400 atmospheres. The construction of the machine is similar to
that of the well-known types of presses used by oil manufacturers for
the preparation of vegetable oils. When pressing, however, the pots
containing the cacao must be rendered water-tight both at the top and
bottom, to prevent the liquid cacao from escaping, while such provision
is not necessary in the case of the oil presses. The stopping up of the
press-pots is effected by means of a side-handle, and arrangements are
provided for heating the pots both from above and below. The machine
illustrated has 4 pots, arranged one above the other, which can be
drawn out on guide-rails towards the front of the machine. During
pressing, they close telescopically with the piston arranged underneath
each pot. The pump which supplies the water for the hydraulic pressure,
works perfectly automatically, increases the pressure according to
the quantity of fat which has run off and keeps the pressure at its
maximum or at any degree required. With these presses it is possible
to extract, without difficulty, 85 % and even more of the total fat of
the cacao bean. If pressing is carried on at too high a temperature,
a pale, whitish grey butter is the result. If, however, a little
attention is paid by the operator at the press, the butter obtained is
usually perfectly clear, as it is first conducted through a horse-hair
pad covered with linen, or a camel-hair cushion 15 millimetres in
thickness. Sufficient attention is not always paid to the operation
of pressing, so that it often happens that some of the cacao escapes
with the butter, which is especially the case if the pressure has been
increased too rapidly at the beginning. If the butter is extracted
for use in the factory itself, the escape of the cacao with it is of
no serious consequence; if, however, the butter is intended for sale
for commercial purposes, its appearance is a most important factor,
wherefore it is advisable to filter the impure fat immediately after
pressing. It is true that, in most factories, the butter is in such
cases merely remelted to allow the impurities to settle to the bottom,
this part being then submitted again to the same treatment, while
the rest of the butter is disposed of on the market. If filtering is
necessary, the butter filter should be used, which, first constructed
in Holland, has been in use for a long time there. The principle of
these filters is to pass the butter through hanging tubes made of a
filtering material similar to flannel.

[Illustration: Fig. 82.]

The firm of Volkmar Hänig & Co. constructs special cocoa butter filters
which can be obtained through the firm of J. M. Lehmann. Figs. 83 and
83a show this type of filter (cross and vertical section), the manner
of working with it being the following:

 As soon as the butter has passed through the hair sieve in the upper
 part of the apparatus, which removes larger objects such as pieces of
 wood etc., it enters the hanging filter tubes, which, to facilitate
 cleaning, are interchangeable. The filter butter accumulates in
 the large space provided for the purpose and is withdrawn through
 a tap. An observing glass is attached to the apparatus for the
 purpose of watching the height of the butter, and the whole filter is
 water-jacketed, the water being heated by a steam coil fixed in the
 bottom of the apparatus. A thermometer is fixed to the side of the
 filter, for regulating the temperature.

[Illustration: Figs. 83 and 83 a.]

The degree to which cocoa powders should be defatted is an important
question which, some years ago, formed the subject of much
controversy. The relation between the percentage of fat contained in
the original cacao kernel, the expressed butter and the defatted cacao
mass is shown in tables 19 and 20.

The taste of defatted cacao is, as is well known, all the better for
being defatted to a low degree, and it is this which constitutes the
great advantage of cocoa prepared according to the Dutch method, the
remaining cacao content of which is some 24-33 percent, so that,
taking 50 percent as the average quantity of fat contained in the
cacao, only about 34-52 percent of the whole is removed from the mass.

If the expression of the butter is carried to a further degree, the
cacao will certainly become more easily capable of suspension in
liquids[125], but such treatment is detrimental to its flavour[126],
which is apt to become woody or bitter. The


~Table 19.~


Percentage of butter to be extracted.

  ========================================================================
  Percentage of fat      |
  to remain in the       |             Fat content of kernel
  finished cocoa         |
  powder                 |  50% |  51% |  52% |  53% |  54% |  55% | 56%
  =======================+======+======+======+======+======+======+====
                         |    Weight of butter to be expressed
                         |    (in proportion to the whole mass)
                   {33%  |25·4  |26·9  |28·4  |29·8  |31·3  |32·8  |34·4
                         |      |      |      |      |      |      |
                   {32%  |26·5  |27·8  |29    |30·9  |32·4  |33·3  |35·3
                   {     |      |      |      |      |      |      |
                   {31%  |27·5  |29    |30·4  |31·9  |33·3  |34·8  |36·2
                   {     |      |      |      |      |      |      |
                   {30%  |28·6  |30    |31·4  |32·9  |34·3  |35·7  |37·1
                   {     |      |      |      |      |      |      |
  Fatty Cacao      {29%  |29·6  |31    |32·4  |33·8  |35·2  |36·6  |38
                   {     |      |      |      |      |      |      |
                   {28%  |30·6  |31·9  |33·3  |34·7  |36·2  |37·5  |38·9
                   {     |      |      |      |      |      |      |
                   {27%  |31·5  |32·9  |34·2  |35·6  |37    |38·4  |39·7
                   {     |      |      |      |      |      |      |
                   {26%  |32·4  |33·8  |35·1  |36·5  |37·8  |39·2  |40·5
                   {     |      |      |      |      |      |      |
                   {25%  |33·3  |34·7  |36    |37·3  |38·7  |40    |41·3
  ——————————————————————-+——————+——————+——————+——————+——————+——————+————
                   {24%  |34·2  |35·5  |36·9  |38·2  |39·5  |40·8  |42·1
                   {     |      |      |      |      |      |      |
                   {23%  |35·1  |36·4  |37·7  |39    |40·3  |41·6  |42·9
                   {     |      |      |      |      |      |      |
                   {22%  |35·9  |37·2  |38·5  |39·8  |41    |42·3  |43·6
                   {     |      |      |      |      |      |      |
                   {21%  |36·7  |38    |39·2  |40·5  |41·8  |43    |44·3
  Non-fatty Cacao  {     |      |      |      |      |      |      |
                   {20%  |37·5  |38·8  |40    |41·3  |42·5  |43·8  |45
                   {     |      |      |      |      |      |      |
                   {19%  |38·3  |39    |40·7  |42    |43·2  |44·5  |45·7
                   {     |      |      |      |      |      |      |
                   {18%  |39    |40·2  |41·5  |42·7  |43·9  |45·1  |46·3
                   {     |      |      |      |      |      |      |
                   {17%  |39·7  |41    |42·2  |43·4  |44·6  |45·8  |47
  ——————————————————————-+——————+——————+——————+——————+——————+——————+————
  Diminution       {(16%)|(40·4)|(41·7)|(42·9)|(44)  |(45·2)|(46·4)|(47·6)
  in               {     |      |      |      |      |      |      |
  value K.         {(15%)|(41·1)|(42·4)|(43·5)|(44·7)|(45·9)|(47·1)|(48·2)
  ——————————————————

~Table 20.~

=Percentage of butter remaining in the finished cocoa powder.=

  =================++================================================
  Weight of butter ||
  to be expressed, ||             Fat content of kernel
  in proportion to ||      |      |      |      |      |      |
  the whole mass   ||  50% |  51% |  52% |  53% |  54% |  55% |  56%
  =================++======+======+======+======+======+======+======
                   ||
             { 30% || 28·6 | 30   | 31·4 | 32·9 | 34·3 | 35·7 | 37·1
  Fatty      { 31% || 27·5 | 29   | 30·4 | 31·9 | 33·3 | 34·8 | 36·2
  Cacao      { 32% || 26·5 | 27·9 | 29·4 | 30·9 | 32·3 | 33·8 | 35·3
             { 33% || 25·4 | 26·9 | 28·4 | 29·9 | 31·3 | 32·8 | 34·3
             { 34% || 24·2 | 25·8 | 27·3 | 28·8 | 30·3 | 31·8 | 33·3
               ====++======+      |      |      |      |      |
             { 35% || 23·1 | 24·6 | 26·2 | 27·7 | 29·2 | 30·8 | 32·3
             {     ||      +======+      |      |      |      |
             { 36% || 21·9 | 23·4 | 25   | 26·6 | 28·1 | 29·7 | 31·3
  Non-       {     ||      |      +======+      |      |      |
  fatty      { 37% || 20·6 | 22·2 | 23·8 | 25·4 | 27   | 28·6 | 30·2
  Cacao      { 38% || 19·4 | 21   | 22·6 | 24·2 | 25·8 | 27·4 | 29
             {     ||      |      |      +======+      |      |
             { 39% || 18   | 19·7 | 21·3 | 23   | 24·6 | 26·2 | 27·9
             {     ||      |      |      |      +======+      |
             { 40% || 16·7 | 18·3 | 20   | 21·7 | 23·3 | 25   | 26·7
               ====++======+      |      |      |      +======+
             { 41% ||(15·3)| 16·9 | 18·6 | 20·3 | 22   | 23·7 | 25·4
             {     ||      +======+      |      |      |      +======
             { 42% ||(13·8)|(15·5)| 17·2 | 19   | 20·7 | 22·4 | 24·1
             {     ||      |      +======+      |      |      |
             { 43% ||(12·3)|(14)  |(15·8)| 17·5 | 19·3 | 21·1 | 22·8
  Diminu-    {     ||      |      |      +======+      |      |
  tion in    { 44% ||(10·7)|(12·5)|(14·3)|(16)  | 17·9 | 19·6 | 21·4
  value K.   { 45% ||  —   |(10·9)|(12·7)|(14·5)| 16·4 | 18·2 | 20
             {     ||      |      |      |      +======+      |
             { 46% ||  —   |  —   |(11·1)|(13)  |(14·8)| 16·7 | 18·5
             {     ||      |      |      |      |      +======+
             { 47% ||  —   |  —   |  —   |(11·3)|(13·2)|(15·1)| 17
             {     ||      |      |      |      |      |      +======
             { 48% ||  —   |  —   |  —   |  —   |(11·5)|(13·5)|(15·4)

[Illustration: Fig. 84.]

[Illustration: Fig. 84a.]

statement, made by certain manufacturers and would-be connoisseurs,
that the bitter taste peculiar to the acid produced in cacao during
fermentation is the real aroma of the cacao, is undoubtedly erroneous.
It could, in the same way, be said of tea and its acids, the bitterer,
the better; which would of course end in the destruction of the true
flavour. Equally erroneous is the theory that bitter cacao is more
consistent. Such cacao must, previous to consumption, either be more
sweetened than usual or, if the same quantity of sugar is put in, less
of the beverage can be taken. When, for instance, very thin coffee
is made, the beans, on colouring an abnormally large quantity of
water, are said to be stronger, i. e. to yield more. The consistency
of all such beverages is, however, only a matter of taste, and it
would therefore be useless to discuss the subject in detail; some
persons prefer strong tea, which has been brewed a quarter of an hour,
others simply pour boiling water over the tea leaves and then drink
the beverage immediately. It may, however, safely be taken that the
highest amount of butter which can be expressed from cacao without
prejudicing the flavour of the finished powder is 66 percent of the
total fat content. Manufacturers nowadays try as a rule to express as
much butter as possible, as the butter has a high price on the market,
and this tendency naturally has the effect of lowering the quality of
the cocoa. We thus come across cocoa powders containing only 20, 17, 15
percent of fat and even less. Of course nothing can be said against
the production of such cocoas, provided they are sold at a lower price
than cocoas more rich in fat and the public are aware that they are
purchasing a non-fatty preparation, besides which the expression of
so high a percentage of the fat alone rendered cocoa a fit regular
beverage for certain classes of invalids and persons suffering from
disorders of the stomach. The only serious drawback in this case is
the great variability of the fat content, which fluctuates between
13 and 35 percent. Such fluctuations are absolutely impossible in
the case of any other article of food which is manufactured and sold
wholesale, or, at any rate, buyers know in all such cases exactly what
they are purchasing; this is a point to which serious attention must be
called. It is very much to be regretted that the Association of German
Chocolate Makers[127] has declined to follow up this matter, while
the Union of German Food Chemists, after considerable controversy,
advocated a distinct legal classification of non-fatty cocoa powders
containing up to 20 percent of fat.[128] We would prefer the Dutch
preparations, which have remained the same up to the present day,
so-called fatty cocoas containing more than 25 percent of fat, to be
classified specially and those preparations which contain less than
this percentage of fat to be termed “highly defatted” or “dry” cocoas,
the names applied to both kinds being of little importance as long as
the public has the means of clearly recognising the distinction (see
tables 19 and 20). Some 17 percent must be taken as the minimum
permissible butter value, which would mean the expression of about 80
percent of the total fat content, or two-thirds of the cacao mass
itself; cocoa powders with only 15 percent or less of butter are
to be regarded as inferior in quality and should not be produced.
Unfortunately, however, these suggested limits are, at any rate for the
present, not likely to be realised.

[Illustration: Fig. 84b.]

[Illustration: Fig. 85a.]

The pressure obtained by means of the pressing devices above described
is naturally not sufficient for the production of such highly defatted
cocoas. Stronger presses are therefore necessary, one of which, a very
powerful apparatus, is shown in Fig. 84.

 This machine, at the present time the most powerful cocoa butter press
 in the world, brings a pressure of over one million kilos to bear on
 the cacao mass, working with 400 atmospheres, and thus renders it
 possible to express as much as 90 percent of the total fat content
 of the bean. The construction of this press is exactly the same as
 that shown in Fig. 82, the pump Fig. 84a having, however, three
 pistons or plungers instead of one; it works, like the other machine,
 automatically, i. e., after the large quantity of water required at
 the commencement has been fed into the press, the large plunger is put
 out of gear at a pressure of 5 atmospheres; the two smaller pistons
 are then put into action together, and produce the enormous pressure
 of 400 atmospheres.

[Illustration: Fig. 85b.]

After defatting, the expressed cacao cakes are allowed to cool down,
for which purpose they are transferred to flat trays or other suitable
receptacles, and pulverising and sifting the powder thus obtained
commenced.


3. ~Pulverising and Sifting the Defatted Cacao.~

There are several methods of proceeding with these operations, such
as treating the expressed cacao in the melangeur already described
in an earlier part of this book (cf. 30-32 figs.) or passing it
through the centrifugal sifting machine (cf. 84b and 88 figs.) with
which we are now acquainted. At a time when the melangeur was to a
certain extent the universal machine of the manufacturer, it was almost
exclusively utilised for pulverisation, that up-to-date division of
labour whereby this machine is limited to mixing (and very properly so
limited, as its name implies) and the preparation of cacao powders on
the contrary assigned to more efficient constructions having then not
as yet been adopted. We annex a description of one or two specially
constructed arrangements for the pulverisation and sifting of cacao, as
manufactured by J. M. Lehmann and already repeatedly tested.

[Illustration: Fig. 86.]

First there is the cacao cake crusher (figs. 85a and 85b), which
reduces the pressed cake into rather large pieces about the size of
a walnut, previous to its being pulverised either in the melangeur,
centrifugal sifting machine or some similar apparatus. It has been
furnished with one (fig. 85a) and in some cases even with two (fig.
85b) pair of toothed or cogged rollers, and the cacao in this latter
type of construction is crushed as small as a pea, which reduction,
although it is by no means essential, considerably relieves the strain
on the pulverising machine and is also in some sort a protection
against unnecessary waste of material.

[Illustration: Fig. 87.]

Then again, there is the so-called pulveriser shown in fig. 86. This is
in principle an edge-mill with revolving bed-stone and runners, both
made of granite. The coarsely broken press cakes are fed into the mill
through a hopper provided with a slide, and are reduced to a loose
powder of firmly fixed colour, escape of dust being prevented by the
hood fitted to the mill. By turning a crank, a lateral sliding door is
opened, and an arrangement inside is set in motion, by which the ground
cacao is turned out of the mill. The pressure of the runners can be
diminished and even completely nullified.

For cacao that has been thoroughly defatted (“dry” cocoa), the hardness
of which demands a more efficient treatment than is possible in these
machines, they being only calculated to press or at the most exert a
rubbing effect, there are the crushers proper, called mills built in
pulverising plants for dry cocoas as illustrated on fig. 87.

The pressed cacao, already broken up to some extent in a preliminary
crusher (cf. figs. 85a and b), is systematically conducted through the
mill by an elevator provided with hopper and feeding apparatus. On the
interior of the machine, which is completely plated with steel-plates,
there is a cross-arm as on a windmill, which passes through a large
number of revolutions per minute. Chiefly owing to its thrashing
effect, the cacao in the mill is fine ground, without any rubbing
or exertion of pressure as in the melangeur and other machines. The
outer part of the frame consists of a grating with various widths of
hole, which can be readily changed. The whole of the powder which has
attained a certain degree of fineness falls through these meshes and is
so despatched from the machine at once, an additional advantage when
comparing this mill with the melangeur, in which all the powder, even
that sufficiently ground, must remain till the final discharging, much
to the detriment of its flavour and aroma.

[Illustration: Fig. 88.]

The powdered cacao next succeeds to the sifting operations, after it
has first cooled a little, and for these the centrifugal sifting
machines are used in the main. Special care must be taken that such
apparatus as is used is not too diminutive to deal with the quantities
of cacao introduced, as this is extremely injurious to the machine. It
is further to be noted that no type of sifter whatever can yield good
results if it has not been especially constructed for dry cacaos.

We have before us in fig. 88 centrifugal sifting machine constructed
on one of the largest scales. In this cacao is introduced in the
floor of the sieve through a feeder, and by means of an elevator. The
sifting cylinder is spanned with silk or bronze gauze, and conceals in
its interior a rough sort of preliminary sieve, the purpose of which
is to prevent the larger unpowdered pieces penetrating to the silk
gauze. There is a ventilator inside this rough sieve, which produces
and transmits an air current, so that the meshes are kept open. Under
proper guidance it is practically impossible for the machine to break
down, although the sieve must be cleansed twice daily, an operation
scarcely requiring more than two or three minutes, as it is not
necessary first to remove the part under consideration. Because of this
easy manner of cleaning, the centrifugal sifter far excels all others,
as the plan sifter, the latter generally having to be dismounted before
this operation can be proceeded with.

The powder issues from the first outlet of the sieve. There is a
second, where both preliminary and cylinder sieve transmit their
overflow, and this is then again conducted to the pulveriser in order
to be worked up once more. Pulverisers and sifting apparatus can
be so combined by means of conveyors and elevators that they work
automatically, which is always of immense advantage where a large daily
output is in question. But pressed cakes which are to be conducted
through the machine in broken pieces must first be treated in a
preliminary crusher (cf. figs. 85a and b).

Fig. 88a shows one of the plansieves of the firm Baumeister, and
protected by patent, which also finds employment for the sieving of
cacao powder.

This machine possesses four round sieves lying one upon another, on
which the material to be sieved is moved by a crank driving power
just as on a hand sieve, so that the surface of the sieve is fully
employed. The sieves possess neither projection nor hauling gear, the
sieving is effected without pressure or friction, and the powder is
therefore loose and woolly. A brushing arrangement revolves without any
mechanism, driven solely by the peculiar movement of the plansieve,
under the wholly flat sieves, and this brushing arrangement any cacao
powder which may adhere to the sieve and so prevents a displacement of
the tension, as far as possible.

[Illustration: Fig. 89.]

In the following illustration we give as an example the arrangement of
a pulverising plant with pulverisers (cf. fig. 86) for a second time.

The preliminary crusher receives the cakes, and then a conveyor brings
the broken pieces along to the elevator, which in its turn feeds the
filling box of the pulveriser, the connection between the two being
established by a sliding platform. The discharged material succeeds on
a landing where it is cooled down a little. A second conveyor brings
it to the elevator of the sifting machine. Whilst the fine powder is
taken up in barrels collectively introduced under the apparatus, the
remainder of the cacao passes along to the conveyor first mentioned,
is mixed with other broken pieces of cacao cake, and so returns to the
pulveriser.

In reference to the Dutch method of disintegration, mention must be
made of the process adopted by Moser & Co. in Stuttgart[129], where the
cleansed, shelled and moistened beans are enclosed in a rotating drum,
so that they can be subjected to the influence of ammonia and water
vapour, produced from a solution of ammonium carbonate, which is passed
through the hollow interior of the drum. The beans are then roasted and
so freed of superfluous ammonia, after which follow in regular order
the processes of grinding, defatting and pulverising.

After this description of the Dutch and other well-known methods of
disintegration obtaining in the manufacture of cocoa powder, we shall
now proceed to describe such of the remaining processes as seem to
deserve mention.


c. Disintegration after Roasting.

The chief difference between the following methods of procedure and
the Dutch and other processes previously referred to is that in the
former the beans are neither impregnated with alkalis before nor during
the roasting, but after it has been carried out, and the impregnation
occurs sometimes prior, and at other times subsequent, to the
expression of the fat. The several stages of treatment which proceed
this process succeed each other in the same order as in the preparation
of chocolate, cleansing, sorting, roasting, crushing, shelling and
trituration following one after the other. But if the treatment with
alkali is to take place before the fat is expressed, the cacao passes
from the grinding mill direct to the apparatus in which it is subjected
to the action of a solution of potash or some other alkali.


1. ~Disintegration prior to Pressing.~

The system of impregnating the ground but as yet undefatted beans with
alkali was first introduced into Germany by Otto Rüger, Lockwitzgrund.
The principle features of the Rüger process are similar to those of
other methods at present frequently met with, so that a detailed
description would seem to be rather superfluous. Melangeurs may be
conveniently employed in the treatment of cacao mass in a liquid state
with alkalis, such as we have previously described, and illustrated in
fig. 86 on page 210.

[Illustration: Fig. 90 a.]

As preparing machines for disintegration, the kneading and mixing
apparatus shown in working position in fig. 28, page 118, and in fig.
90 a with tilted trough for emptying are specially constructed and
patented and quite deserve the popularity they have acquired.

[Illustration: Fig. 90 b.]

[Illustration: Fig. 90 c.]

[Illustration: Fig. 91 a.]

Their construction and method of working are described on page 118.
Other well-known machines for the purpose are the “Universal” mixing
and kneading machines patented by Werner & Pfleiderer, which are shown
in figs. 90 b and 90 c. As regards the general outlines of their
construction, it will suffice to refer to the excellent descriptions
of the machines which occur in the catalogues issued by this firm.
Mention cannot fail to be made, however, of the circumstance that
in these machines the evaporation of the alkaline solvent is also
effected. The working of the kneading arms facilitates the escape of
vapour from the mass and prevents overheating from contact with the
walls of the apparatus. Underneath, the trough is provided with a
double jacket, that is heated by steam.

To maintain connection of the steam and water pipes whilst the trough
is reversed there are two flexible metal tubes. Both are screwed to
the fixed pipes. For carrying away the vapour given off there is a
tin plate cover to the trough, provided with a charging aperture and
a channel inside to catch the moisture collecting on the cover and
discharge it. When the machine is to be emptied, the cover is raised
and a receiver adapted to the size and form of the machine is so placed
that the charge can be diverted into it. The tilting of the machine is
effected mechanically, and depends on the working of a lever. So as to
prevent spurting of the liquid material when discharging, the stirring
arms can be stopped for a time.

From this “Universal” Kneader and Mixer the special type “Vacuum
Kneader”, system Werner-Pfleiderer, is distinguished, as its name
implies, by a vacuum arrangement. As seen on illustrations 91 a
and b, this comprises a pyramid-like cover made of cast iron, and
shutting down air-tight, which is provided with indiarubber caulking,
and binding screws, and is fitted up for steam heating. It moves on
the frame of the machine and is counterpoised with weights, so as to
facilitate its raising and lowering. On the front part of the lid
there is a small aperture paned in with glass, and opposite on the
interior in a specially protected compartment occurs an electric light
arrangement, which admits of the continual observation of the material
during the working up processes. In addition, small quantities of cacao
mass can be introduced on removal of the glass pane without lifting
up the lid; so that the advantages of the aperture are twofold. The
upper part of the cover tapers off into a suction pipe, which itself
terminates in a flanged support intended as a finish to the conduit
from the airpump.

[Illustration: Fig. 91 b.]

The kneading trough of the machine is made of cast iron, provided with
a false bottom, and fitted up for heating with hot water or steam to a
pressure of 7 atmospheres, or for cooling down with cold water. By way
of rapid discharging, the trough is counterpoised with weights, and
can easily be tilted over by means of a hand winch. Its interior, as
also the kneading shovels, are clean scoured, and the bearings of the
shovels stopped with easily adjustable stuffing boxes. These stuffing
boxes (German Patent) are so fitted in that no greasing substances
whatever can penetrate to the cacao mass, which is of the highest
importance, as in the case of the ordinary stuffing boxes grease is
sucked up into the kneading trough by the action of the air pumps and
the material contained in this so rendered impure. The steam and water
conduit to and fro is effected by means of supple metallic hose, which
follow the movement of the trough as it is tilted.

The vacuum kneading machines have acquired great importance in the
manufacture of milk chocolates, where it is chiefly a question of
reducing mixtures of cacao, sugar, and condensed milk to a requisite
thickness. Lately the value of the machine has been regarded as
consisting in the main of the possibility of preparing cacao under
vacuum which it affords.

It is easy to understand that the treatment of the cacao under vacuum
demands a much lower temperature and takes place in about half the time
requisite for open machines, where it must be carried out against the
constant and contrary influence of the atmosphere, apart from the fact
that the vacuum kneader preserves the aroma far better.

The alkali solution used in disintegration may be prepared in vats
fitted with draw-off cocks, or, in small factories, in glass carboys
such as are used for the conveyance of acids. Of the fixed alkalis,
potash is preferable, since it is a natural constituent of terrestrial
plants and therefore of the cacao bean, and so its employment
introduces no foreign ingredient. Magnesium carbonate seems to find
favour in many quarters, but we consider it less suitable as being
insoluble in water, and therefore can only be incorporated with the
cacao mass in a state of suspension. It is sufficient to have a potash
solution some 90 or 95 % strong, answering to the requirements of
modern medical treatises.[130] The salt is soluble in an equal quantity
of water.

In preparing the solution, the best plan is to dissolve a known
quantity in from 3 to 4 times as much water at the temperature of the
room and then by diluting with water reduce this composition to the
required strength. As for each 100 kilos of cacao still undefatted from
2 to at the most 3 kilos of potash and from 15 to 20 kilos of water are
required, this 2 or 3 kilos of the salt should be dissolved in about 10
litres of water and the solution after diluted with the remainder of
the water.

In using volatile alkalis, which are nevertheless falling into disuse
more and apparently no longer maintain their reputation, ordinary
ammonium carbonate which may be easily obtained in powder form at any
chemist’s, or a solution of ammonia, such as spirits of sal-ammoniac,
may be used. The former is easily soluble in about five parts of water.
From ½ to 3 kilograms of ammonium carbonate are generally reckoned
for every 100 kilos of undefatted cacao material, and this amount is
dissolved in water, the whole of the salt being at once introduced into
from 15 to 30 litres, as when smaller quantities are used there ensues
a decomposition of the salt and one of the products of decomposition,
the carbonate of ammonium, remains undissolved.

The spirits of sal-ammoniac operate much more effectively than the
ammonium carbonate on account of their high percentage of ammonia,
and so only a third as much of this substance may be employed, and
generally even smaller quantities prove quite sufficient. Consequently
100 kilos of defatted cacao should be mixed with 0·5-1 kilo of ammonia
solution (specific gravity 0·96), previously diluted with 20 or at
the most 29 litres of water. The mixture should be prepared in glass
carboys immediately before use, because of the volatility of ammonia.

In the treatment of the cacao, salt solution and cacao are together
introduced into a melangeur, or better into the kneading and mixing
machine, and the apparatus being set in working order, steam enters,
and removes the quantities of water which have been added, as well as
the volatile alkalis. Whether all the water has been driven off or no
can only be judged from the consistency of the mass after treatment,
and it is just this that renders the process of little value. The cacao
material issuing from the machine must be just as liquid as when it
comes out of the triturating mills, and so long as it appears as a
glucose substance, which very often happens where unsuitable mixing
machines are employed, so surely will it contain water, and this may
lead to the growth of mould or to the cacao developing a grey colour
when packed in boxes. If the cacao cannot be sufficiently dried in
these machines, it must be transferred to some sort of drying plant
(where the temperature is about 48 ° C.), and there deprived of its
still remaining moisture.

When volatile alkali is used, kneading and mixing machines cannot very
well be dispensed with, as they work up the cacao material much more
thoroughly and admit of a better distribution of the ammonia than the
melangeur or incorporator. In this case it is advisable that the entire
process be carried out in some apartment separated from the other rooms
of the factory, in order that the pungent smell of ammonia may not
be communicated to other products, a further evil connected with this
method of disintegration. At the same time provision must be made for
the escape of the discharged gas through flues leading out into the
open air.[131]

The treated cacao, when perfectly free from water and volatile
alkali, then passes on to the press, pulveriser and sifting machine
successively, the several operations being proceeded with exactly
as described. In the original process of Rüger’s, the defatted and
disintegrated cacao is dried after it has been reduced to smaller
pieces, and then mixed with fat in such proportions as seem requisite
and desirable, so that it is possible in this method to re-imbue a
disintegrated cacao with its original percentage of fatty contents.


2. ~Disintegration after Pressing.~

In this process, which may no longer be adopted as far as we can
ascertain the mechanically prepared beans are roasted, crushed and
decorticated, then ground in mills, defatted, and finally the cakes
are broken up into a rough powder and treated with alkali in the
manner above described. Care must here be taken to use as little water
as possible in dissolving the alkali. It is best to employ potash
exclusively, for it has been found that the last traces of volatile
alkali are extremely difficult to remove from defatted cacaos as
decomposed by the solution, and there is no means of neutralising the
ammonia without at the same time causing material damage to the flavour
and aroma of the product treated.

The concentrated solution of alkali may be conveniently sprayed on
the powder while the latter is subjected to a constant stirring, an
operation best effected in the melangeur. The final drying is carried
out in hot closets, provided with an effective ventilator suitable
to the purpose. After it has been thoroughly dried, the cacao next
succeeds to the pulverising and sifting processes.

Some methods of rendering cacao soluble remain to be mentioned,
wherein no alkali whatever is used, and in which the disintegration is
effected by means of either water or steam. The first process of the
kind was invented by Lobeck & Co of Dresden[132] in the year 1883. The
cacao beans, either raw, roasted, decorticated, ground or otherwise
mechanically treated are exposed to heat and the action of steam under
high pressure in a closed vessel, then subsequently powdered and
dried. The process has little to recommend it and has not been able to
establish itself accordingly, for hereby the starch in the cacao is
gelatinised, and acid fermentation is introduced, such as does not fail
to damage the final product. Then again, there is a danger of the cacao
becoming mouldy in the store rooms, after being treated by this process.

A second method, patented by Gädke, German Patent No. 93 394, 17 th.
Jan. 1895, consists in disintegrating by means of water in a less
practical manner. The roasted, decorticated but as yet unground beans
are moistened with water, and subsequently dried at a temperature of
100 ° C. after which succeed the processes of grinding, defatting,
pulverising and so forth. This process has also failed to establish
itself to any effect.

       *       *       *       *       *

In our opinion any one of these methods skilfully and properly carried
out will yield a marketable, hygienic and wholesome product, though
some of them can boast of their own particular advantages. This
holds good for the so-called “Dutch” method in particular, though
it is open to the objection that the cacao so prepared is combined
with an extraneous product and that the combination remains right up
to the moment of consumption. Considered from this point of view,
disintegration with fixed alkalis is generally less advisable than
the optional treatment with water or volatile alkali, but it may be
taken for granted that each manufacturer had better decide the several
details best adapted to his own particular outfit.

A well made soluble cocoa powder should have a pure brown colour,
without any suspicion of grey, should be perfectly dry, and feel light
and soft when finely divided, so betraying that property which the
French designate under the term “impalpable The peculiar aroma of
the cacao must be retained, and especially should the preparation be
preserved from the slightest taint of any ammonia combination, its
taste being kept pure and cacao-like, any hint of alkalinity indicating
defect in the manner of disintegration. Over and above delicacy
of aroma and taste, that characteristic described as “solubility”
constitutes a main criterion of quality in the eyes of the consuming
public. To ascertain that only an empirical test can be employed.[133]
About 7·5 grammes of cocoa powder are introduced into some 150 grammes
of hot milk or hot water contained in a graduated beaker, and then the
quantity of sediment which sinks to the bottom of the vessel in a given
time is noted. The more slowly a sediment is formed and the smaller it
is, the greater the “solubility” of the cocoa.

If it becomes necessary to give the cacao an additional flavouring, the
spices or ether-oils generally employed in the manufacture of chocolate
may be used in the course of pulverisation, and shortly before sifting.




C. Packing and Storing of the finished Cacao Preparations.


Chocolate will keep in its original condition for years, when protected
from atmospheric influence. It is therefore generally, and especially
where the finer qualities are concerned, packed up immediately after
it leaves the last process, and ornamented chocolates are previously
varnished with an alcoholic solution of benzoin and shellac (see page
250).

The inferior qualities are usually packed in paper and wooden boxes,
but the superior first in tin-foil and subsequently in paper. ~Cocoa
powder~ arrives packed in parchment boxes as a rule, and also in
cardboard or tin boxes.

Although packing in parchment or waxed paper is hygienically and
economically more advantageous than tin-foil packing, the latter
is nevertheless to be preferred, not only because it is a better
preservative of the aroma evident in the spices added, but also because
it prevents an evil which also in the end leaves its mark on cacao,
when stored a very long time, to wit, the development of rancidity.
This is explained by the fact that the tin-foil sticks to the
chocolate, and so hinders the penetration of air.

According to an act dating from June 25th. 1897, and in force in
Germany (Reichsgesetzblatt No. 22), metal-foil containing more than
one percent of lead may not be used in the packing of snuff, chewing
tobacco and cheese. What holds good for other articles of consumption
must also apply to cacao preparations, when they are so packed that
they come first of all into contact with metal-foil, and not with
paper. Tin-plating also, containing in its coating more than 1 % of
lead and in the soldering more than 10 % is also inadmissible in the
chocolate industry. Although it is said that the whole of the tin-plate
fittings made in Germany are constructed according to an imperial
standard, yet it may occasionally so happen that cheap packing material
does not correspond and answer to the legal requirements.

The manufacturer can only protect himself against possible prosecution
for contravening or neglecting the articles of this act by obtaining a
written guarantee as to the quality of the tin-plate supplied.

The rooms where chocolate wares are stored should not be too warm,
and it is indispensable that they be kept dry, for heat accelerates
the volatilisation of their aroma and also the rancidity to which
cacao is liable, whilst moisture spoils the general appearance of the
chocolate and promotes the growth of mould. This development of mould,
which is first noticeable after long storage in damp, dark warehouses,
is principally due to the growth of a fungus which Royer has named
“Cacao-oïdium[134]

As the numerous wrappings (in tin-foil, paper, etc.) are at present
only effected by hand labour, they mean an appreciable increase in the
price of the goods. This is of less moment for the chocolate tablets as
the small napolitains and the like. Therefore attempts have often been
made to effect this wrapping by means of machines[135], and I have seen
among others two models for napolitains, one on a large and the other
on a small scale, the property of a Hamburg chocolate factory, and
constructed by the firm of A. Savy & Co., Paris, which same machines
were said to effect the wrapping in tin-foil, folding and additional
packing in paper, as also the final closing, automatically and well;
but just as I requested to be shown the machines, I was told that they
were for the time being not in working order. Since then I have heard
no more of the matter, and regret that the firm of Savy & Co., who have
a branch in Dresden, have not been able to answer several letters which
I sent them inquiring for further particulars. It must be that the
machines have failed to answer their purpose, for otherwise they would
have been assured of a hearty reception, no matter how dear they might
have been. So for the nonce our chocolate packing must depend on hand
labour.

Quite a different arrangement obtains in respect to cocoa powder, which
was also originally packed up in paper bags by hand. This operation
is to-day despatched in machines, as also in the case of other powder
substances, like tooth-powder, dyes, patent foods, soap powder, etc.,
and this even in the smallest of factories. It is true that the machine
built a decade ago by L. Wagner in Heilbronn and at that time described
by Zipperer in our second edition, which was to wrap up a dozen packets
simultaneously, seems to have failed, for it is no longer constructed;
yet its place has been taken by a succession of other machines which
have stood the tests of many years. The principle has been altered,
many packets at one time not being filled, but always one only, and the
advantage lies in the fact that the machine fills more exactly and with
a higher degree of uniformity as regards the weights of the several
packets.

[Illustration: Figs. 92 and 93.]

Apart from the “Machines for packing en masse” Co., Ltd. Berlin, who
put out several automatic fillers, special mention may here be made of
the firm of Fritz Kilian, whose automatic filler and packer “Ideal”
(fig. 92) for quantities of from 25-2500 grammes, and “Triumph” (fig.
93), for quantities of from 1-100 grammes, have both long established
their right to a place in every factory, their excellence being
predominant.


FOOTNOTES:

[105] See Mitscherlich, page 111.

[106] Practical Guide to Chocolate Manufacture (no date given).

[107] Comptes rendus de l’Exposition, quoted by B. de la Roque.

[108] Gordian, A., German Chocolate and Sugar Industries, Vol. 1, p. 22.

[109] Correspondence of the Association of German Chocolate
Manufacturers 1878, p. 17.

[110] Correspondence of Ass. German Chocolate Manufacturers 1891, No. 5.

[111] Ibid 1891, No. 7.

[112] Zeitschrift für öffentliche Chemie 1898, p. 810.

[113] The determining of the fibre is reached by the Weender method.

[114] For that purpose boxes with handles and having a capacity of
from 10½ to 60 litres are employed, as well as the portable troughs
previously mentioned. The transport of the chocolate mass also takes
place in boxes made of compressed steel plates (Siemens-Martin),
galvanised or otherwise, e. g. as manufactured by the Stamp and Press
Works at Brackwede near Bielefeld. The firm of A. Reiche and others
also make similar boxes.

[115] Muspratt Encyclop. Handbuch der techn. Chemie. Vol. IV, p. 190,
1902.

[116] This description is taken from Muspratt, Encycl. Handb. d. Techn.
Chemie, Vol. IV, p. 1808 and Mitscherlich: Der Kakao u. die Schokolade
p. 115.

[117] Constructed by A. Reiche, Sheet Iron Works in Dresden-Plauen.

[118] German patent No. 62784.

[119] Villon-Guichard, Dictionnaire de Chimie industrielle, Vol. 1
Chocolat.

[120] Should such rooms eventually be insulated, the best material for
this operation are “Corkstone Plates”, as manufactured by various firms
(e. g. Korkstein-Werke Coswig i. Sa., etc.).

[121] This extensive employment of cacao butter in the preparation of
covering material on the one hand, and on the other the consequently
increased cost of chocolates rich in fat, have hitherto proved the
chief objection to the preparation of cocoa powder deficient in fatty
contents, which we shall discuss later.

[122] D.R.P. No. 66606.

[123] D.R.P. 74260 of Sept. 3rd. 1893.

[124] D.R.P. No. 178897, of July 15th, 1904 (reg. 15th Nov. 1908).

[125] This however, is true only to a certain degree, comp. Neumann,
The Use of Cacao as a Food Preparation, Munich & Berlin 1906, pag. 97
ff.

[126] cf. Z.U.N.G. 1900, vol. 18 p. 171.

[127] See enactments of the 16.9.1907 and 10.11.1909 (Coburg): Notices
of the Association of German Chocolate Makers XXX, No. 1 21.9.1909,
pag. 1.

[128] Cf. Z.U.N.G., Bd. 18 Nos. 1 and 2 (1909) p. 178.

[129] Eng. Patent No. 20436, 24. 11. 1891.

[130] The potash now generally in use is prepared from the carbon of
residuary molasses, and is technically considered, very pure. It is
supplied by Dr. Hensel & Co., Blumenthal (Hanover).

[131] The special model of the Universal Mixer and Kneader has for this
purpose (apart from the metal lid shutting down air-tight) a steam
drain pipe, which is fitted with a ventilator and led into the open, so
that the vapours and chemical exhalations can escape without causing
any damage.

[132] German Patent No. 30 894. See also Chemiker-Zeitung 1886, p. 1431.

[133] Cf. R. O. Neumann, loc. cit. page 98 and following pages.

[134] Beckurts Pharmac. Jahresbericht 1883-84, p. 990.

[135] The “Machines for packing en masse” Co. Ltd. Berlin, have
recently strongly recommended their “wrapping machines, for centres of
any shape or consistency, which work automatically, that is to say,
it is only necessary to heap the centres in continuous succession in
the machine, when they are urged forward and wrapped in paper or other
materials, being finally despatched out of the machine automatically.
The wrappers may be simple or double, loose, or tight fitting.”
Their employment in the packing of chocolate tablets is especially
recommended.—And so the problem would be solved! Unfortunately I am
in want of personal guidance, never yet having seen the machines in
working order, and so not being able to submit any opinion as to their
efficiency. Even if they are really able to deal with larger tablets,
yet the more critical problem regards the smaller goods, especially in
connection with the wrapping in tin-foil.




+Part III.+

Ingredients used in the manufacture of chocolate.


A. Legal enactments. Condemned ingredients.


Chocolate is a mixture of cacao mass with sugar, to which usually
spices and even cacao butter are also added. The sugar generally
amounts to rather more than one half (60 percent) of the total
mixture. Spices such as cinnamon, vanilla, cloves, nutmeg, mace,
cardamoms, as well as cacao butter, or perfumes like peruvian balsam,
are only added in small quantity so as to improve or alter the flavour
as required. Recently, the ethereal oils of the spices have been used
for this purpose as well as artificially prepared aromatic substances,
such as vanillin, for example. Flour and starch[136], although the
latter is seldom used, are permissible ingredients in cheaper kinds of
chocolate but only when the fact of the addition is plainly stated.
The kinds of flour usually employed are wheat and potato flours,
rice-starch and arrowroot, dextrin and, less frequently, oat, barley,
acorn, chestnut, or rye flour. In certain forms of dietetic chocolate,
sugar being injurious to invalids, it is replaced by saccharin; another
material, such as a leguminous flour from beans, peas or lentils,
must be employed in its place.[137] In some kinds of fancy chocolate,
harmless colours, tincture of benzoin etc. are used.


B. Ingredients allowed


I. Sweet Stuffs.


a) Sugar.

Both cane and beetroot sugar are employed in the manufacture of
chocolate. As this naturally possesses a brownish colour, brownish
white as well as white sugar is used for mixing with the cacao mass.
The kinds of sugar used are:

 1. Sugar dust, a white crystallisable and very fine powder.

 2. Crystal or granulated sugar, consisting of loose, plain crystals,
 and suitable for almost all purposes in the manufacture.

 3. Sugar flour I, II, and III which is a difficultly crystallisable
 sugar containing an amount of molasses increasing with the number, and
 it is of a more or less brown colour.

[Illustration: Fig. 94.]

The chocolate manufacturer nevertheless requires the sugar to answer to
certain characters. It must dissolve in half its weight of warm water
forming a sweet syrup. The syrup must have no action on either red or
brown litmus paper i. e. have neither acid nor alkaline reaction, and
on no account coagulate boiling milk.

The sugar is usually added to the cacao mass in the form of a very fine
powder and sometimes in a coarser condition, though that is not to be
recommended. By using finely powdered sugar, the rolling of the cacao
mass is considerably facilitated and the manufacture is accelerated.
The sugar must be perfectly dry, as damp sugar yields a dull chocolate
which readily crumbles.

[Illustration: Fig. 95.]

For grinding the sugar, the so called edge-runner mill as shown in
figure 94 was formerly employed.

It is like the melangeur constructed of a firmly fixed bed-stone and
two cylindrical runners.

The pulverised material issuing from such an apparatus must then be
passed through one of the various kinds of sifting machines, where
the finer parts fall through the meshes of a silken sieve, whilst
the rougher are discharged at the end of the arrangement: for small
factories such machines as the drum sifters illustrated in fig. 95, and
for the larger those centrifugal sifters which have already been fully
described.

The constructions for grinding have of late been considerably
perfected. The most practical arrangements for pulverising all kinds
of granulated sugar and so-called lump sugar, are those combined
grinding and sifting installations such as are executed by the
firm of J. M. Lehmann in Dresden. The grinding is here effected by
disintegrators (revolving arms, etc.) similar to those used in the
pulverising of cocoa powder as described on page 212. The output of
these disintegrators[138] is extraordinarily large, and the harder and
drier the ground sugar is, the finer the pulverised material resulting.
We annex a diagram of the machine in fig. 96.

[Illustration: Fig. 96.]

The granulated or lump sugar is filled into the hopper and thence lead
along a conveyor to be ground in another part of the machine, and can
be controlled as regards quantity. The blades, which pass through about
3000 revolutions a minute, seize the sugar and swing it against the
ribbed walls of the mantle, after which it falls in smaller fragments
on a grater fitted in the under part of the apparatus. The sugar which
passes through the grating is now conducted by conveyor and elevator to
the sifting arrangement, whilst the rougher material is again whirled
round by the blades. This sifting arrangement consists of a cylindrical
sieve, on the interior of which there occur revolving arms which
provide for the despatch of material through the various sieves. The
rougher stuff which remains is removed by hand or some other mechanical
means and transported to the hopper once more. A chamber placed above
the machine and connected with the grinding apparatus by means of pipes
provides for the protection of the machine against dust.

Such installations are constructed in various sizes and fashions, and
possess immense outputs (up to even 5000 kilogrammes daily). That they
must be built in special shops is clear from the fact that so large a
quantity of dusty sugar sacks need transporting after the processes are
completed. It is further to be noted that the fineness of the sugar
corresponds to the mesh-work of the sieves, which as we have previously
stated, can be chosen with any size of hole desired, yet this naturally
influences the machine, and recently a very high standard of fineness
has been generally dropped, and rougher siftings are now made, as when
the sugar is too fine.—e. g. in the case of the cheaper qualities—it
absorbs too much of the fatty contents, and so necessitates the
addition of cacao butter, whilst on the other hand, when the chocolate
is of a finer quality, the sugar is sufficiently reduced in the
trituration to which the mixed material is subjected.


b) Saccharin and other sweetening agents.

Apart from the sugar, which is such an important factor in the
chocolate manufacture, mention must also be made of another sweetening
material, formerly frequently used as a substitute for sugar, but now
only to be obtained at the apothecary’s on exhibition of a medical
order, in consequence of certain legal restrictions which have recently
come in force. It is called Fahlberg saccharin, and again zuckerin,
sykorin, crystallose, “Süßstoss Höchst” and sykose.

Saccharin is not like sugar a carbohydrate naturally produced by
plants, but a derivative of the aromatic compounds which the chemist
has artificially constructed from the products of the distillation of
coal.

Saccharin is benzoyl-sulphonimide, and it has the chemical formula

             /  CO  \
  C_{6}H_{4}<        >NH
             \SO_{2}/

It is a white, crystalline powder, so exceedingly sweet that its taste
can be perceived in a dilution of 1 in 70000. It is only slightly
soluble in cold water (1: 400) but more easily so in hot water (1: 28).
The material known as easily soluble saccharin is its sodium salt. It
contains 90 percent of saccharin and is the most easily digested
compound of saccharin.

For technical, domestic and medicinal purposes the soluble saccharin
which is only from 300-450 times as sweet as sugar is employed.
Besides being unfermentable saccharin has very slight antiseptic
properties; according to L. Nencki[139] the digestibility of albumin
is less affected by it, in the proportion usually added to articles of
food, than by Rhine wine, or by a sugar solution of equal sweetness.
Saccharin is entirely unaltered in the human organism, hence it forms
a welcome sweetening material for invalids suffering from diabetes,
corpulence or diseases of the stomach to whom ordinary sugar is
injurious. The substances known as dulcin and glucin are analogous to
saccharin in sweetening property, the first being phenetol-carbamid and
the latter a monosulphonate of amido-triazine.

The latest substance of this class is termed “sucramin” and consists of
the ammonium salt of saccharin. It is readily soluble in water, less
so in alcohol and is 700 times sweeter than sugar. It can be obtained
either in the pure form or mixed (20 percent) with sugar.

In chocolate making, saccharin is at present of little importance,
owing to the relatively small volume required as compared with sugar.
Recently it has again been recommended to the extent of 0·76 percent
as a sweetening material for cocoa powder. It would certainly be of
value in cocoa powders to be consumed by invalids and persons not
able to take sugar, although it will never come into general use. The
detection of saccharin has acquired increased importance in Germany
since the passing of the acts of October 1st 1898 and July 7th 1902,
regulating the trade in artificial sweetening materials. According to
Zipperer’s experiments, it may be detected in the following manner:
A mixture of 5 grammes of the finely powdered substance with 100 ccm
of water is allowed to stand for 2 hours, occasionally stirred and
afterwards filtered. The filtrate is acidulated with three drops of
hydrochloric acid and evaporated to 20 ccm, then shaken[140] with 50
ccm of ether in a separator and left standing for a day to separate
into two layers. The ether solution is separated and evaporated to
dryness in a beaker, the residue being mixed with 0·1 gramme of
resorcin and 4-5 drops of concentrated sulphuric acid[141] (Börnsteins
test). The mixture is then heated over a small Bunsen flame and the
melted material saturated with normal sodium hydrate. The appearance of
a strong fluorescence indicates the presence of saccharin. Saccharin
can also be easily recognised by the sweet taste of the ether residue.


II. Kinds of Starch, Flour.

The chief kinds of starch used in chocolate making are rice starch,
arrowroot, potato starch and wheat starch, occasionally also small
quantities of dextrine.


1. ~Potato starch or flour.~

Potato starch is a white or faintly yellowish powder in which single,
glistening granules can be seen by the naked eye. Under the microscope
the granules appear mostly single with evident striae, usually with
pointed ends containing the nucleus; they are also eccentric in
structure. This starch rarely contains fragments of tissue. It is
prepared by first treating finely divided pared potatoes with 1
percent. dilute sulphuric acid, then washing, drying and grinding the
starch.


2. ~Wheat starch.~

Wheat starch can be obtained either from crushed wheat or from wheaten
flour by treatment with water after the nitrogenous constituent,
gluten, has been separated by kneading. It amounts to about 60-70
percent of the grain. Under the microscope the granules appear to
differ considerably in size. They are distinguished from potato starch
by the nearly central hilum, surrounded by faintly marked concentric
striae, and again by the granules being more frequently adherent. Wheat
flour rather than the starch is generally used in chocolate making.


3. ~Dextrin.~

When starch is heated to between 200° and 210° C. it is converted
chiefly into dextrin or starch gum with a little sugar. Dextrin is
a white to yellowish and tasteless powder with a peculiar smell; it
differs from starch in being readily soluble in water. It gives a
reddish colour with an aqueous solution of iodine. Fehling’s solution
is unaffected by dextrin in the cold, but on long continued heating it
is reduced to red cuprous oxide.


4. ~Rice starch.~

Rice starch is obtained from inferior kinds of rice and from rice waste
by treatment with water. It appears under the microscope as small
granules or oval bodies of various sizes. According to their position
the granules always seem to be polygons,[142] formed by coalescence. It
is thus easily distinguished from the previously mentioned starches.


5. ~Arrowroot.~

Several kinds of starch, obtained from the tubers of various species of
plants are commercially known under this name.

1. West Indian arrowroot, from Maranta arundinacea, is a fine and
almost white powder. Under the microscope it always appears to consist
of pear or spindle-shaped granules with eccentric hilum.

2. East Indian arrowroot is obtained from various species of ginger
plants. It is a fine white powder and is seen under the microscope as
single granules with well marked eccentric hilum and closely stratified
at the spindle-shaped ends. It much resembles Guiana arrowroot, which
is obtained from varieties of Yam.

3. Queensland arrowroots from species of Cycas and Canna, appear
as flat, coarse and mostly single granules. They can be easily
distinguished from other kinds of starch by the large size of the
granules.

4. Brazil arrowroot, from the Manihot plants which belong to the order
of Euphorbiaceae. Under the microscope the granules appear compound,
the parts being of a drum or sugar loaf shape with many concentric
striae.


6. ~Chestnut meal.~

Chestnut or maron meal also comes under consideration in the chocolate
industry. The appearance of the starch granules is most characteristic.
They are partly single and partly composed of two individual granules.
The single granules, according to J. F. Hanausek[143], appear in such a
variety of forms as to defy a summarised description. Frequently they
occur oval, spindle, club, or flat kidney shaped, resembling those of
the leguminous family; but especially to be noticed is the triangular
contour of some granules, as well as some with projecting points.
The central nucleus and its cavity are generally distinct, but the
stratification is very slight or quite unrecognisable.


7. ~Bean meal.~

Of the leguminous meals that of beans is chiefly used as an adjunct
in cocoa powders and chocolate, sweetened with saccharin, on account
of its relatively large proportion of albuminous substance and small
amount of starch. The meal is generally obtained from the seed of the
common white bean. (Phaseolus vulgaris.) The starch granules under the
microscope appear oval or long kidney shaped, with distinct nucleus
cavities and furrows, as well as a distinctly marked stratification.
Their length averages from 0·033 to 0·05 mm. The meal has a
disagreeable leguminous taste when cooked, but that disappears when the
meal is slightly roasted.


8. ~Salep.~

Salep which is now very seldom used as an admixture to chocolate
(Rakahout of the Arabs)[144] is an amylaceous powder prepared from the
tubers of various kinds of orchids. Under the microscope salep appears
as fairly large translucent masses which consist of an agglomeration of
very delicate walled cells giving the starch reaction with iodine.


III. Spices.


a) General Introduction.

We cannot too strongly recommend the manufacturer to pulverise the
spices, e. g. cinnamon, cloves and the like, himself, for such as
are bought ready pulverised have frequently been adulterated with
admixtures of wood, flour or bark. This is the more essential as
sometimes pulverised cinnamon is distilled with steam to obtain
an extract of its ethyl oil, and then the residue, which is of
considerably inferior value as regards aroma, sold as genuine cinnamon
powder. Such adulteration can neither be demonstrated under the
microscope nor chemically, so that it is impossible to protect oneself
against them.

[Illustration: Fig. 97.]

The edge runner mill and sieving apparatus described in connection with
the pulverising of sugar also adapt themselves to reducing spices,
although generally other machines are used for this purpose, either
the well-known ball mills[145] consisting of a hollow spherical ball
revolving round its axle, inside which the spices are shaken, crushed
and completely pulverised by the action of a number of heavy metal
balls, or in other cases pulverising mills and stamping arrangements
proper.

[Illustration: Fig. 98.]

 The following stamp arrangement, shown in fig. 97, is very practical
 in the pulverisation of all manner of spices, and is driven by a
 force of 1·5 H.P. The strong frame, which is walled in with iron, is
 dust-proof. Whilst the stamper is being raised, the pots are revolved
 round their axles, and so the substances to be pulverised are mixed
 together. Other machines much used in pulverising are seen in fig. 94.
 Another smaller pulverising mill is pictured in fig. 98. This machine
 is adapted for a middle sized production. The grinding arrangement
 in which the pulverising takes place is conically built and is made
 completely of granite; the regulation is effected by means of a
 working beam, the batting arm of which is fitted on to the upper part
 of the apparatus. A sieving of the material to be pulverised does not
 generally take place in this machine. For small production for example
 for confectioners who manufacture chocolate also incidentally, one
 can also use the machines pictured in the figs. 95 & 99, the method
 of working of which may be at once understood. The different degrees
 of fineness of the material to be pulverised are reached by passing
 the powder through drum sieves of different widths of mesh and all the
 sieves are set in motion at the same time by the machines.


Vanilla.

Only the most important features of the spice so valuable in chocolate
making will be noticed, since the characteristic aroma of the
true vanilla has been to a large extent supplanted in practice by
artificially prepared vanillin.

Vanilla is the fruit capsule of an orchid, ~Vanilla planifolia~,
which is generally cultivated with the cacao tree, as the same climate
and soil suit them equally. According to Möller, the shoots of the
vanilla are fastened to the cacao tree, on the bark of which they
soon strike root. The aerial roots and tendrils then put forth fleshy
leaves, in the axils of which arise large odourless and dull coloured
flowers which yield after a lapse of two years long thin capsules.
The capsules are filled with a transparent balsam, in which the black
seeds are imbedded. It is in the balsam that the vanillin, which
gives vanilla its unequalled aroma, is produced. The fresh gathered
vanilla fruit (see the investigations of W. Busse[146] contains no free
vanillin or merely an infinitesimal quantity.

[Illustration: Fig. 99.]

It is rather developed by subsequent treatment in which heat appears
to be necessary. Vanillin, like cocoa-red and theobromine, is formed
by the splitting up of a glucoside by fermentative action. In some
kinds of vanilla, piperonal, an aromatic body, which occurs in larger
quantities in ~Heliotropium europaeum~ and ~peruvianum~, has
also been observed.

The commercial kinds of vanilla come from Mexico, Tahiti, Réunion,
Mauritius, Mayotte, Seychelles, Ceylon and Java, which in 1891 produced
respectively:

  Réunion (Bourbon)            50-65,000 kilos
  Mexico                          55,000   “
  Mauritius                    13-15,000   ”
  Mayotte (Comoro Islands)      8-10,000   “
  Seychelles                    4- 6,000   ”

The best commercial kinds of vanilla come from Mexico, Bourbon, and
Mauritius, and command a higher price than the other kinds. The
quantity is gauged by the length (10-24 cm), and plumpness of the
pods. Fine quality is fatty and dark coloured, inferior quality is dry
and reddish. The outside of the pods in the Bourbon vanilla, contains
highly esteemed vanillin crystals, which are wanting in the Mexican
variety. Vanilla flowers in October and November, is gathered in the
following months of May, June, and July, and is prepared in October
and November. At the beginning of November the first instalment of the
new harvest arrives in Marseilles, which is the chief commercial place
for vanilla. The most important operation, in preparing vanilla is to
attain the proper degree of dryness. This is arrived at nowadays by the
use of calcium chloride. The pods are first placed in a metallic box
lined with wool which is placed in warm water so as to superficially
dry them; they are then transferred to a suitable constructed drying
closet containing calcium chloride and allowed to remain there for
20-30 days. 100 pounds of vanilla are reckoned to require 40 pounds
of calcium chloride. The great advantage of this process is that the
fruit, so dried, better retains its aroma.[147] Insufficiently dried
vanilla does not keep, but soon becomes mouldy, whilst overheated
vanilla keeps well, but is brittle, breaks easily and consequently has
little commercial value. Vanilla covered with mould (~Aspergillus
repens~ and ~Mucor circinelloides~) is sought to be improved
in various ways and is sold as of inferior quality.[148] It is worth
observing that those persons who in the course of business handle
vanilla show characteristic symptoms of poisoning. It affects the eyes
and nervous system and produces eruptions on the skin. The complaint,
however, is not of a dangerous nature, for the workmen quickly become
accustomed to vanilla so that, after recovering from the first attack,
they can resume work without risk to health.[149]

On account of its high price, vanilla is much subjected to
adulteration; either by an admixture of the more cumarin-smelling
vanillin (Pompona or La Guayra Vanilla [Vanilla Pompona Schieder])
or other less valuable vanilla fruit; sometimes pods that have been
deprived of vanillin by extraction with alcohol are used for that
purpose; their colour and appearance being restored by immersion in
tincture of benzoin and coating with crystals of benzoic acid, powdered
glass etc. In doubtful cases of adulteration the vanillin must be
quantitatively determined.

That can be done by W. Busse’s method[150], in which the vanilla is
extracted with ether in a Soxhlet’s apparatus. The extract is shaken
with a solution of sodium bisulphite, the vanillin then set free with
sulphuric acid and the disengaged sulphurous acid removed by a stream
of carbon dioxide. The vanillin is then shaken out with ether and
on evaporating off the ether, vanillin is left in a pure condition.
Busse found by this method in East African vanilla 2·10 percent of
vanillin, in the Ceylon 1·48 percent, and in the Tahiti variety
from 1·55 to 2·02 percent. In America the so-called vanilla extract,
instead of vanilla, is used and it lends itself to adulteration much
more easily than natural vanilla. William Hesse has given methods and
results obtained in the investigation of the extract.[151]


5. ~Vanillin.~

Vanilla in the chocolate industry has recently been almost entirely
superseded by the use of artificially prepared vanillin, which serves
as a complete substitute for the essential and valuable constituent
of vanilla. In comparing vanillin with vanilla, regard must be had to
the amount of vanillin in the latter, which may vary to the extent of
50 percent according to whether the vanilla was damp, dry, fresh or
stored. The finest kinds of vanilla seldom contain more than 2
percent. of vanillin and in many kinds it varies between 0·5 and 2·5
percent. It may also happen that vanilla with 0·5 to 1·0 percent may
be equally as fine in appearance as one of high percentage, hence the
aroma value must be taken into consideration. In addition to possessing
a uniform and permanent perfume vanillin is cheaper in price.

Vanillin occurs naturally not only in vanilla but also in very small
amount in certain kinds of raw sugar, in potato skins and in Siam
benzoin; it can be produced artificially from coniferin which is
obtained from pine wood, or by the oxidation of eugenol, a substance
contained in oil of cloves, from both of which Tiemann and W.
Haarmann[152] first prepared it in 1872. In the course of the last ten
years a number of processes have been discovered whereby vanillin can
be artificially produced. The reader who is interested in this subject
will find it fully discussed in a paper by J. Altschul in No. 51 of the
Pharmazeutische Centralhalle 1895.

The competition which arose through the processes of Haarmann and
Reimer of Holzminden and G. de Laire of Paris, whose products owing to
patent rights had controlled the market from the commencement, produced
a steady decrease in the price of vanillin.

The following table drawn up by J. Rouché[153] shows the revolution
in price which has occurred in this article and how, in the course of
time, a small business with large profits has been transformed into a
large business with small profits.

~The variation in the price of vanillin~:

Marks per Kilo.

  =====+======+======+======+======+======+======+======
  1876 | 1877 | 1878 | 1879 | 1881 | 1882 | 1884 | 1885
  =====+======+======+======+======+======+======+======
  7000 | 4000 | 2400 | 1600 | 1600 | 1600 |  900 |  900

  +======+======+======+======+======+======+=====
  | 1886 | 1888 | 1890 | 1892 | 1893 | 1895 | 1897
  +======+======+======+======+======+======+=====
  |  700 |  700 |  700 |  700 |  700 |  560 |  108


The chemical formula of vanillin is C_{6}H_{3}(OCH_{3}) (OH)CHO; it
melts between 82-83 ° C. and sublimes at 120 ° C. The colourless
four-sided crystals have a strong vanilla odour and taste, are
difficultly soluble in cold water, easily in hot water and very readily
soluble in alcohol.

Vanillin is much adulterated. Cumarin, the aromatic principle of the
melitot (~meliotus officinalis~) and of tonquin beans etc., can
be prepared cheaply and it is fraudulently used in large or small
quantity to imitate the vanillin aroma. A sample of vanillin bought
in Switzerland was found by Hefelmann[154] to contain 26 percent
of antifebrin. The American “vanilla crystals” consist of a mixture
of vanillin and antifebrin, or vanillin, cumarin and benzoic acid;
latterly that article is stated to consist only of cumarin, antifebrin
and sugar.

The melting point of genuine vanillin is a characteristic indication.
Admixtures of vanillic acid and antifebrin cause depression of the
melting point (4-8 ° C. according to the amount and character of the
two substances [Welmans])[155]. For the quantitative determination of
vanillin in mixtures, Welmans takes advantage of its behaviour towards
caustic alkalis, with which, like phenol, it forms compounds that are
easily soluble in water, but sparingly so in alcohol. The process is as
follows: 1 gramme of the substance is placed in a cylinder of 200 ccm
capacity with 25 ccm of alcohol, 25 ccm of approximately semi-normal
alcoholic potash and 2 or 3 drops of phenolphthalein solution and
agitated until completely dissolved. The excess of alkali is then
titrated with semi-normal hydrochloric acid, and, at the same time,
the strength of the alcoholic potash after adding 25 ccm of alcohol is
ascertained. The number of cubic centimetres consumed is multiplied by
0·076, the semifactor for vanillin. In the case of vanilla sugar, 10
grammes are treated with 50 ccm of water to dissolve the sugar, then
the alcoholic potash is added and the operation carried out as before
described.

1 gramme of vanillin requires 6: 58 ccm of normal potash (= 0·36842 g
KOH).

                OCH_{3}
                /
  C_{6}H_{3}(OH)    : KOH
                \ CHO
         152                   : 56 ⚎ 1 : x

If cumarin is suspected to have been added to the vanillin it can be
detected and separated, according to Zipperer’s experiments, by the
method of W. H. Hess and A. B. Prescott.[156]

The substance is dissolved in ether and the solution shaken up with a
weak solution of ammonia. The vanillin will be found in the aqueous
layer in the form of an ammonium compound, whilst the cumarin will
be dissolved by the ether. The vanillin can be identified by the
sandal-wood oil reaction as described by Bonnema,[157] and the cumarin
can be determined by direct weighing.

The financial advantage in using vanillin in place of vanilla is
apparent. The average price of vanilla is now 45 to 50 shillings per
kilo. But as 25 grammes of vanillin are equal in perfume to 1 kilo of
vanilla and, at the rate of 35 shillings per kilo, that quantity costs
only 10½ vanilla is nearly sixty times dearer than vanillin. The
consumption of vanillin has increased to an enormous extent, and in the
United States Henning has estimated the consumption during 1897-1898
at over 100000 ounces. The same author points out the remarkable fact
that this enormous consumption of vanillin has scarcely any effect on
the demand for vanilla pods, the market value of which is not only
maintained but has a tendency to increase.

In order to have it in a finely divided condition, as required for the
factory, it is recommended to rub the vanillin down with sugar, in
the proportion of 100 grammes of vanillin to 2 kilos of sugar, in the
following manner; 100 grammes of vanillin are dissolved in 500 grammes
of hot alcohol and this solution added to 2 kilos of finely powdered
sugar; then the whole is placed in a rotatory comfit boiler and dried
by a blast of warm air at 40 ° C. Whilst vanilla must be very carefully
packed that it may not become mildewed and deteriorate, vanillin on the
other hand keeps very well in such mixtures so long as they are kept
from damp, which might cause the sugar to ferment and thus gradually
decompose the vanillin.


d) Cinnamon.

There are three commercial kinds of cinnamon in Europe.

1. Ceylon cinnamon, which represents the finest kind, is the bark
of ~Cinnamomum ceylanicum~, a native of the island of Ceylon.
The bark is very light and brittle, seldom more than 0·5 mm thick,
externally yellowish brown with long stripes, whilst it is somewhat
darker on the inside. Its fracture is short and fibrous, and a traverse
section shows externally a sharply defined light colour with a darker
inside zone.

2. Cassia or Chinese cinnamon is from ~Cinnamomum Cassia~, a
tree which grows wild in the forests of Southern China. The bark is
thicker than that previously described, often 2 mm thick. It is in
single tubes, harder and thicker than the Ceylon kind, with frequently
adherent fragmentary tissues of the corky layer. The colour is a
greyish brown, the fracture even, with a light zone in the section.

3. Malabar or wood cinnamon consists of the less valuable kinds and
is derived from different varieties of cinnamon trees which have been
planted in the Sunda and Phillipine islands. In appearance it resembles
the Chinese more than the Ceylon cinnamon.

The aromatic taste of cinnamon is due to the ethereal cinnamon oil
which, in Ceylon cinnamon, amounts to 1 percent; the ash should not
exceed 4·5 percent. An ethereal oil is also present (about 1·8
percent.) in the leaves of the Ceylon cinnamon tree, but it is quite
different from the bark oil, resembling in its properties more the oils
of cloves and pimento. On account of its penetrating odour and pungent
taste its employment in chocolate making is little to be recommended.

It cannot be too much insisted on that with spices like cinnamon,
cloves, etc. the manufacturer should grind them himself and not
purchase them in fine powder, as the latter is frequently adulterated
with admixtures of wood, meal bark, etc. This is more to be recommended
as ground cinnamon has frequently been deprived of the ethereal oil by
distillation with steam and the bark then flavoured with a small amount
of cinnamon oil and sold as powdered cinnamon. Such an adulteration can
be detected neither chemically nor microscopically.


e) Cloves.

Cloves are the incompletely developed flowers of the clove tree,
~Caryophyllusaromaticus~ of the Myrtaceae. The most important
commercial kinds are the Zanzibar, Amboyna, and Penang cloves. The
aromatic principle of cloves is an ethereal oil which they contain to
the extent of 18 percent. The adulteration of cloves is much the same
as in the case of cinnamon. Genuine cloves should not give more than 6
percent of ash.


f) Nutmeg and Mace.

Nutmeg is the seed kernel of the fruit of ~Myristica moschata~
known as the nutmeg tree, which is indigenous to Malacca. In the thick
pericarp of the fruit, resembling the apricot, is found the brown seed
surrounded by a deep red reticular mantle. This last is the seed mantle
or arillus and when separated from the kernel is known commercially as
mace.

The furrows on the surface of the nutty seeds are filled with a white
mass which consists of lime, in which the nuts have been laid after
drying in order to protect them from the attack of insects. The
aromatic constituent of nutmeg and of mace is also an ethereal oil.
The seeds contain 8-15 percent of ethereal oil with 25 percent of
a fatty oil; mace contains 4-15 percent of ethereal oil and 18
percent. of fatty oil. As both spices occur in commerce in whole pieces,
adulteration is not to be feared.


g) Cardamoms.

Of these there are two kinds on the market:

  1. The small or Malabar cardamoms.
  2. The long or Ceylon cardamoms.

Both are the fruit, although very different in form, of a species of
the ginger plants which is indigenous to Ceylon and Malabar.

The Malabar cardamom is three cornered oblong and about 1 cm in size.
In the fine brown pericarps are enclosed, adhering together, 6-8
angular seeds, 3 mm in size, having a pungent aromatic taste.

The Ceylon cardamom is four times larger than the Malabar kind. The
grey brown pericarp encloses about 20 dark greyish brown seeds about 6
mm large. The aroma of the Ceylon cardamom is due to an ethereal oil
which it contains in quantities sometimes reaching 6 percent. Madras
and Malabar cardamoms contain 4-8 percent of ethereal oil. As the
Ceylon cardamoms are cheaper than the Malabar kind a confusion of the
two seeds might possibly be to the disadvantage of the buyer, but the
above description of their relative size would suffice to distinguish
them.

Exact accounts of the characteristic properties, the chemical
and microscopical investigation as well as of the impurities and
adulterations of the materials previously mentioned as being used in
cacao preparations are to be found in volume II of the “Vereinbarungen
zur einheitlichen Untersuchung und Beurteilung von Nahrungs-und
Genußmittel sowie Gebrauchsgegenständen für das Deutsche Reich”[158] to
which those who desire further to investigate this subject are referred.


IV. Other Ingredients.


a) Ether oils.

As previously remarked in the case of vanillin, it is becoming more and
more the custom to substitute perfume substances for powdered spices.
This practice is quite justified since the entire perfume of a spice
is made use of and the worthless woody and indigestible fibre is thus
excluded from the finished preparation.

The following are the ether oils used in practice:

  1. Cinnamon oil,
  2. Clove oil,
  3. Cardamom oil,
  4. Coriander oil,
  5. Nutmeg oil (ethereal),
  6. Mace oil (ethereal).

The amount of ether oil that should be used in place of the
corresponding spice is a matter of taste. The maximum percentage of
the oil in the respective spice might serve as a standard, as for
example in the case of cinnamon oil, which is contained in the bark to
the extent of 1 percent, about the hundredth part of the oil would
be required to correspond with the prescribed weight of the bark. But
as the yield of oil from one and the same kind of spice varies to a
considerable extent according to season and locality, the percentage
value can only be used as a general guide, and the final decision must
be always regulated by the taste.

The ethereal oils can be incorporated in the cacao preparations (mass,
powder etc.) either in a spirit solution or ground down with sugar.
The latter method is naturally only used when sugar is to be added to
cacao preparations. To prepare the alcoholic solution 10 parts of the
ethereal oil are dissolved in 90 parts of strong alcohol. The mixture
of oil with sugar can be made by triturating 2·5 parts of the ethereal
oil with 100 parts of sugar in a porcelain mortar and grinding down
with the pestle until the sugar and oil are intimately mixed. Of
the alcoholic solution it is necessary to take 10 parts, and of the
oil-sugar 40 parts to one part of ethereal oil.


II. ~Peru balsam and Gum benzoin.~

Peru balsam is at present very much used as a perfume in chocolate
making. It is obtained from the ~Papilionaceous Myroxylon Pereira~
which is indigenous to the western part of Central America. It is a
thick, brownish black, liquid balsam which in thin layers appears
transparent and has a peculiar smell and burning taste; it is almost
completely soluble in alcohol, chloroform, and acetic ether. The
aromatic substance of this balsam is cinnameïn, which consists
essentially of the esters of benzoic and cinnamic acids and benzyl
alcohol together with an alcoholic body “Peruviol”, which has the smell
of honey. In addition to cinnameïn (71-77 percent) the balsam also
contains a resin ester (13-17 percent). According to K. Dieterich,
Peru balsam is the better for containing more cinnameïn and less
resin ester. Peru balsam is adulterated with fatty oils, copaiva,
gurjun-balsam, storax, colophony, turpentine, and tolu balsam. In
regard to the chemical investigation of this balsam the work of K.
Dieterich[159] may be consulted.

The Sumatra benzoin is the most important of the commercial kinds for
chocolate making. It is obtained from one of the Styracae, Styrax
benzoin, and is a reddish grey mass in which separate tiers of resin
are embedded. Benzoic acid and vanillin are the most important
constituents. It is adulterated with Palembang benzoin, colophony,
dammer, storax, and turpentine. Respecting the chemical investigation
of commercial benzoin the above-mentioned work of K. Dieterich may also
be referred to.

Benzoin is almost exclusively used for the preparation of chocolate
varnish and sweets laquer, which are prepared by dissolving from 25
to 45 grammes of the laquer body in 100 grammes of strong spirit. The
laquer body may contain varying quantities of benzoin and bleached
shellac. The decorations of chocolate are painted with this laquer in
order to give them a glistening appearance and greater durability.


V. Colouring materials.

The following colouring materials are permitted by the German law of
the 14th May 1879 to be used for sugar goods and consequently also for
chocolate and cacao preparations.

 ~White~: finest flour starch.

 ~Yellow~: saffron, safflower, turmeric.

 ~Blue~: litmus, indigo solution.

 ~Green~: spinach juice as well as mixtures of the permitted blue
 and yellow colours.

 ~Red~: carmine, cochineal, madder red.

 ~Violet~: mixtures of the harmless blue and red colours.

 ~Brown~: burnt sugar, licorice juice.

 ~Black~: chinese ink.

In the meantime a number of comparatively harmless aniline colours have
been permitted in Austria for colouring sugar goods and liqueurs, and
eventually also for cacao preparations.[160] As in the author’s opinion
there is no ground for objecting to their use in other countries,
a list of them is given under their commercial and scientific
designations.

 =Red=: ~Fuchsin~ = Rosaniline hydrochloride, soluble in water and
 alcohol.

 ~Acid Fuchsin~ or ~Fuchsin S~ or Rubin = Sodium or calcium
 acid salt of rosaniline disulphonic acid, soluble in water.

 ~Rocellin~ or ~Roscellin~ (Fast Red) = Sulpho
 oxyazonaphtalin, soluble in water.

 ~Bordeaux~ and ~Ponceau red~ = product of the combination of
 β naphtol-disulphonic acid with diazo-compounds of Xylol and higher
 homologues of benzol, soluble in water.

 ~Eosin~ = Tetrabrom-fluoresceïn, soluble in water and alcohol.

 ~Phloxin~ = Tetrabromo-dichlor-fluoresceïn, soluble in water.

 ~Erythrosin~ = Tetra iodio-fluoresceïn, soluble in water.

=Blue=: ~Alizarin blue~ = Dioxyanthraquinone-quinoline, slightly
soluble in alcohol.

 ~Aniline blue~ = Triplienylrosaniline, soluble in alcohol.

 ~Water blue~ = Triphenylrosaniline, sulphonic acid soluble in
 water.

 ~Induline~ = Azodiphenyl blue sulphonic acid and its derivatives,
 soluble in alcohol.

=Yellow=: ~Acid yellow R~ or ~fast yellow R~ = Sodium
amidoazobenzol-sulphonate, soluble in water.

 ~Tropaedlin~ 000 or ~Orange~ I = Sulphoazobenzoll [Greek:
 alpha]-naphthol, soluble in water.

 ~Naphtholyellow~ = Sodium salt of dinitro-α-naphthol sulphonic
 acid, soluble in water.

=Violet=: ~Methylviolet~ = Hexa-and penta-methylpara-rosaniline
hydrochloride, soluble in water and alcohol.

=Green=: ~Malachite green~ = Tetramethyl-diamidotriphenyl-carbinol
hydrochloride, soluble in water and alcohol.

The above, as well as the following colours: (blue) amaranth, brilliant
blue and indigosulfone, (red) erythrosin, also acid yellow S, orange
L and light green S F, have in the meantime been accepted by the
American Foods Act as perfectly harmless for colouring any and all
articles of food.[161]

For some time past E. Merck of Darmstadt has supplied a perfectly
harmless green colouring material under the name of chlorophyll, in
alcoholic and in water solutions, as well as technical chlorophyll, for
colouring oils and fats, which is the unaltered leaf green and is the
best green colouring agent for articles of food and therefore for cacao
preparations.

The chlorophyll which is soluble in fat has also been recommended like
some of the aniline colours which are soluble in fat, as for example:
Indulin 6 B (blue), Sudan yellow G, Sudan III (red), and Gallocyanin
(violet) for colouring cacao butter; but in regard at least to the
aniline colours mentioned, no authoritative sanction for their use has
yet been given.


FOOTNOTES:

[136] Flour can be more easily blended than starch with the cacao mass,
as the granules of starch are only with difficulty crushed.

[137] Recently in some inferior kinds of cocoa powder a quantity
of oatmeal has often been added (up to 5 percent), causing the
preparation to thicken when it is boiled with water.

[138] Still better, as less productive of dust, there being a
less rapid circulation of air, and also not so wasteful, are the
dismembrators as built by Paul Franke & Co.

[139] Chemiker-Zeitung 1899. Repert. No. 38, p. 372.

[140] Chemiker-Zeitung 1889, p. 408.

[141] Beckurts Annual Report of Pharmaceutical Progress etc. 1888, p.
307.

[142] See Möller p. 114.

[143] Die Nahrungs-und Genußmittel aus dem Pflanzenreiche p. 140.

[144] This consists of 15 parts of defatted cacao, 200 parts of
arrowroot 50 parts of salep and fifty parts of vanilla-sugar.

[145] Krupps Iron Works supply the latest constructions, strongly to be
recommended.

[146] Arbeiten des kaiserl. Gesundheitsamtes Vol. 15 p. 1-113 and
Zeits. f. d. Untersuch. von Nahrungs-und Genußmitteln Vol. 3 21.-25.
January.

[147] Der Tropenpflanzer 1898, p. 24.

[148] Journal of the Society of Arts 1897, Vol. 46, p. 39-40.

[149] Compare Gieseler, Vanillevergiftungen, Bonn 1896; Arning
(Deutsch. med. Wochenschrift 1897, pag. 435) and Guerin (Annales
d’occulistique, 1895 4. October).

[150] Arbeiten aus dem Kaiserl. Gesundheitsamte 1899.

[151] Journal of the American Chem. Society 1899, Vol. 21, p. 719 and
Chem. Ztg. Rep. 1899, p. 275.

[152] Berichte der Deutschen Chemischen Gesellschaft Vol. VII, p. 698
and Friedländer, Fortsch. der Theefarbenfabrikation, Berlin 1888, p.
583 and elsewhere.

[153] L’état actuel de l’industrie de la parfumerie en France. Revue
Générale des sciences pures et appliquées, Paris 1897, p. 663.

[154] Chem. Zeit. Repert. 1898, p. 181.

[155] Pharm. Zeit. 1888, p. 634 and Pharm. Centralhalle 1898, p. 673.

[156] Zeitschr. für angewandte Chemie 1899, p. 428.

[157] Pharmaceutische Centralhalle 1898, p. 357.

[158] Berlin 1899, Jul. Sprenger, page 53 et seq.

[159] K. Dieterich, Die Analyse der Harze, Balsame und Gummiharze,
Berlin 1900, page 76.

[160] Regulation of 22 and January 1896.

[161] See also Farbenzeitung 1909, vol. XV, pages 301, 348, 392 and 436.




+Part IV.+

Examination and Analysis of Cacao Preparations.


A. Chemical and microscopical examination of cacao and cacao
preparations.


The following observations will serve as an introduction to the
chemical and microscopical examination of cacao preparations calculated
to be of special value to the food chemist, corresponding as they do
to the state of scientific progress at the present day and special
attention being paid to the critical treatment of the methods of
analysis etc. adopted.


a) Testing.

This is a point of great importance, inasmuch as it directly influences
the result of the analysis of cacao goods. This is especially the
case when dealing with ~cocoa powders~, as the test is liable
to vary considerably according to the amount of moisture contained
in the preparation and the degree of fineness of the powder. In the
case of cocoa powders, the sample should be taken repeatedly from a
large supply, and from all parts of the material to ensure getting
an average sample. The samples taken should be of uniform volume and
should, before proceeding to apply the test, be closely mixed together,
being, if possible, first passed through a fine sieve. The material
ready for the following experiments should then be placed in tin, or
better still, glass receptacles with well-fitting corks or stoppers.
Paper wrappings or cardboard-boxes are not to be recommended, as the
powder is apt to become drier or moister according to the state of the
atmosphere to which the packets are exposed.

The most suitable quantity for experimental purposes is, in the case
of both chocolate and cocoa powder, as well as butter and covering
material, 100 kilogrammes. When determining the amount of foreign fat
in cacao preparations, however, as well as estimating the ash content
of powder, up to 250 kilogrammes of sample material can be used. In
Germany the regulations of the Commercial Agencies of the government
public food chemists obtain when sampling and analysing cacao
preparations.[162]


b) Chemical Analyses.

The analyses of all cacao preparations from a chemical point of
view are conducted, almost without exception, with the object of
determining the values for ~moisture~—~mineral matter~
(estimation of the amount of the carbonic acid alkalis and the silicic
acid)—~fat~ (estimation of foreign fat)—~theobromine~
and ~coffeine~—~sugar~—~starch~ (foreign
starches)—~albuminous matter~ and ~raw fibre~. The last
regulation may also be extended to the estimation of the quantity of
shell present.

1. ~Estimation of moisture.~ 5 grammes of material (i. e.
fine-crushed chocolate mass) are left to dry (if possible in a
double-walled glycerine drying chamber) for about 6 hours at a
temperature of 105 Deg. C., the loss of weight of the material being
estimated as moisture. The drying should not be continued longer than
6 hours, as fatty material is liable after the expiration of this time
to recover some of its weight, owing to the oxygen of the air entering
into chemical combination with the fat which rises to the surface or
detaches itself from the material. When analysing chocolate, great
care should be taken to prevent the mass from melting down and running
together at one point. If this occurs, the following treatment must be
adopted: A shallow watch-glass is filled with about 10 grammes of sand,
well washed and dried, a very fine sand such as so-called sea-sand
being preferable to others, the glass then transferred to the drying
closet, cooled, and finally 5 grammes of the fine-crushed chocolate
added. The mixture is then deposited for a period of 6 hours in the
drying chamber, at a temperature of 105 Deg. as indicated above and the
weight of the sand deducted when finally calculating the value of the
moisture.

If as low a quantity as 5 percent of gelatine has been added to
the chocolate, as much as 10 percent of water can be added without
in any way affecting the appearance of the material, although such a
proceeding is exceedingly detrimental to the taste and durability of
the preparation. Such chocolates usually have a dull surface and, if
stored in a warm place, are apt to break up and become paler in colour;
this result can, however, be prevented by an extra addition of fat. Too
high a[163] fat content points in any case of additions of gelatine. P.
Onfroy[164] determines the addition of gelatine by boiling 5 grammes
of chocolate chips in 50 cubic centimetres of water, adding 5 cubic
centimetres of a solution containing 10 percent of lead acetate, and
then filtering the whole. If gelatine is present in the chocolate, the
liquid, on a few drops of saturated picric acid being added, leaves
a yellow, amorphous sediment. If the addition of gelatine is very
trifling, the gelatine is held in check or neutralised by the tannic
acid. The defatting is then effected by ether and the chocolate stirred
up with 100 cubic centimetres of hot water. 5-10 cubic centimetres of
a solution of lye containing 10 percent of alkali and about 10 cubic
centimetres of the above-mentioned lead acetate solution are added.
The compound of gelatine and tannic acid is soluble in the hydrate of
the alkali, and is afterwards re-deposited by the action of the lead
acetate, so that it can easily be detected by means of picric acid in
the neutralised filtrate. As picric acid is incapable of effecting the
deposition of the theobromine, the deposition observed can only be
caused by the presence of gelatine.

Like gelatine and glue, the addition of a quantity of adraganth has
the power of binding the moisture and saving the fat. A method of
estimating the quality of this vegetable gum, of which at the most 2
percent should be present, has recently been described by Welmans;
this method is explained on page ... in the microscopic section.

2. ~Estimation of ash~[165]: 5 grammes of material are heated
in a platinum vessel, pan or flat tray, the latter or other similar
shallow receptacle being the most suitable, holding from 25 to 30 cubic
centimetres. Care should be taken when heating that the extremity of
the Bunsen flame only touches the bottom of the vessel. The resulting
gases are then ignited, and the ~completely~ charred mass pressed
or stirred to a powder by means of a platinum wire or rod hammered
flat at the end; the pan should be frequently made to revolve and its
contents continually stirred during heating, care being taken, too, to
hold it slanting the whole time. The pan should be held in this way
over a moderate flame until the ash assumes almost a white colour.
As soon as this occurs, the pan should be cooled down and the ash
uniformly saturated with a concentrated watery solution of carbonate of
ammonia, whereon the vessel is placed in the drying chamber and dried
at a temperature of 100 Deg. C. The contents of the pan are then heated
again very cautiously over the Bunsen flame, care being taken that the
bottom of the vessel is only allowed to become red-hot very gradually
and to remain so for a very short time; the pan is then covered up and
transferred to the dessicator to be cooled, and, on the completion of
this process, its weight determined.

After repeating the saturating process with the solution of carbonate
of ammonia, drying and heating for a short time as previously
described, the accuracy of the weight first obtained is again tested.

3. ~Estimation of silicic acid in the ash~: When examining cocoa
powders and chocolate mass, the determination of the silicic acid
content of the ash is sometimes a necessity, as this facilitates the
detection of any shells which may have been added.[166] The ash ~of
the cacao bean contains~ only between 0·25 and 1·0 percent of
silicic acid, while that of the shell shows on analysis as much as
9 percent; it must, however, be taken into consideration that an
unusually high value for silicic acid in the finished powder might
be caused by impurities in the chemical or other agents used to
effect the disintegration of the cacao. The signs of the presence
of an extraordinary quantity of silicic acid are, according to C.
R. Fresenius (Introduction to quantitative analysis)[167] a higher
percentage of the ash itself than usual, and the quantity of ash used
for the test should not be too small; it should further be remembered
that certain cacao preparations, such as, for instance, the Dutch cocoa
powders, contain large quantities of carbonic mineral matter, and
the special treatment explained by Fresenius when dealing with such
preparations separately should be applied.

4. ~Estimation of alkalis remaining in cocoa powders.~ The ash
obtained from 5 grammes of cocoa powder is washed out of the platinum
pan into an ordinary water glass or tumbler, distilled water only being
used for this purpose, afterwards finely crushed with a glass rod and
heated to boiling point. The liquid is then allowed to settle, filtered
and re-washed. At this stage 5 cubic centimetres of n/1 sulphurous acid
are added, the liquid again heated to boiling point and titrated with
2/n or n/4 alkaline lye. In this way the quantity of added carbonic
mineral matter is determined, in addition to the amount of carbonate
present in ordinary cocoa powders, which is formed from the organic
acid minerals when the ash is produced. Welmans has determined these
values in the commonest varieties of beans and placed the results
obtained at our disposal for the second edition of this book. These
results are as follows:

a) Unshelled roasted beans

  ===================+========+=========+=========+=========+
                     | Ariba  |  Ariba  | Caracas | Caracas |
       Per cent.     |   I    |    II   |    I    |   II    |
  ===================+========+=========+=========+=========+
  Ash                | 4·198  |  4·02   |  7·52   | 4·376   |
  Soluble in water   | 1·698  |  1·66   |  1·34   | 1·676   |
  Insoluble in water | 2·5    |  2·36   |  6·18   | 2·70    |
  Alkali (considered |        |         |         |         |
    as potash)       | 0·6417 |  0·6417 |  0·596  | 0·9936  |

  ===================+===========+==========+=======
                     | Guayaquil | Trinidad |  St.
       Per cent.     |           |          | Thomé
  ===================+===========+==========+=======
  Ash                |   5·12    |  3·6     | 3·92
  Soluble in water   |   2·11    |  1·565   | 1·604
  Insoluble in water |   3·01    |  2·035   | 2·32
  Alkali (considered |           |          |
    as potash)       |   0·84    |  1·125   | 0·67

b) Shelled, roasted beans:

  ====================+========+========+========+=========+=========+
                      | Puerto | Ariba  | Ariba  | Caracas | Caracas |
       Per cent.      |Cabello |  I     |  II    |    I    |   II    |
  ====================+========+========+========+=========+=========+
  Ash                 | 3·62   | 3·701  |  3·49  |  3·845  |  3·62   |
  Soluble in water    | 1·72   | 1·423  |  1·315 |  1·76   |  1·62   |
  Insoluble in water  | 1·90   | 2·273  |  2·175 |  2·08   |  2·00   |
  Alkali (potash)     | 0·603  | 0·323  |  0·388 |  0·8725 |  0·4478 |
  ————————————————————+————————+————————+————————+————————-+————————-+
  Alkali in powdered  |        |        |        |         |         |
    cacao with 33⅓    |        |        |        |         |         |
    percent of fat    |        |        |        |         |         |
    calculated        | 0·808  | 0·436  |  0·52  |  1·169  |  0·600  |
  Ash, calculated as  |        |        |        |         |         |
    above             | 4·822  | 4·959  |  4·676 |  5·152  |  4·85   |

  ====================+===========+==========+========
                      | Guayaquil | Trinidad |  St.
       Per cent.      |           |          | Thomé
  ====================+===========+==========+========
  Ash                 |   3·926   |  3·277   | 3·27
  Soluble in water    |   1·476   |  1·727   | 1·34
  Insoluble in water  |   2·45    |  1·55    | 1·93
  Alkali (potash)     |   0·402   |  0·4209  | 0·4048
  ————————————————————+——————————-+——————————+————————
  Alkali in powdered  |           |          |
    cacao with 33⅓    |           |          |
    percent of fat    |           |          |
    calculated        |   0·54    |  0·594   | 0·542
  Ash, calculated as  |           |          |
    above             |   5·26    |  4·39    | 4·38


These tables show that:

1. The ash of cocoa powder (containing 33⅓ percent of fat) is never
more than 5·5 percent.

2. The maximum amount of alkali (calculated as potash) is 1·2 percent.

3. The ash soluble in water is always less than that insoluble in
water. A reverse proportion shows a larger amount of alkali, that is,
alkali has been added.

In addition to the importance of determining the amount of alkali in
cocoa powder, it is very desirable that analytical chemists should
agree as to the methods to be adopted, since the determinations of
alkali seldom agree and may differ as much as 0·3 percent.[168] The
method of calculating the results should also be defined, that is to
say, an agreement should be arrived at as to whether the alkali should
be expressed as K_{2}O, K_{2}CO_{3} or Na_{2}CO_{3}.[169]

Cacao which has been rendered miscible by means of ammonia, sometimes
contains a small amount of ammonia, probably in combination with an
organic acid. To detect it, the Cocoa powder should be distilled with
water, which gives an alkaline distillate, as the ammonia salt would
be decomposed at the temperature of boiling water. The ammonia can be
volumetrically determined in the distillate with sulphuric acid.[170]

5. ~Determination of the Fatty Contents.~ In this operation 5
grammes of the finest powdered bean i. e. the finest cocoa powder
(in the case of chocolate, which must be finely flaked, 10 grammes)
should be mixed with an equal quantity of evenly grained quartz sand
in a warmed mortar, and then transferred per filter to a Soxhlet’s
apparatus, wherein it can be extracted with ether for from 10 to 12
hours at a stretch. The previously weighed carboy, which now contains
the fatty contents in solution, is placed on a water bath, and the
ether extracted as far as possible, after which the fatty residue
remaining is dried by first introducing the vessel in a water oven
and afterwards allowing it to stand for 2 hours in a dessicator. The
increase of weight in the flask is due to ether extract, consisting
almost exclusively of fat. It is true that small proportions of
theobromine will have been simultaneously dissolved (perhaps about 0·1
g.) but no special significance need be attached to them. If it should
seem advisable to avoid even this slight drawback, petroleum ether with
a boiling point of 50° C. should be employed instead of the ordinary
variety.

Welmans[171] has further described a quick and practical method for
determining fat in cacao and its preparations, which is not only
of value as a check on the extraction method, but also serves as a
determination of the constituents soluble in water. It is carried out
as follows:

5 grammes of Cocoa powder or cacao mass, which need not be very fine,
or 10 grammes of chocolate are stirred for some minutes in a separator
or cylinder with 100 ccm of ether (saturated with water) until coherent
particles are no more visible, that is to say, until the factory degree
of fineness has been attained. In two minutes all will have gone to
powder even if the chocolate has not been rubbed down but is in pieces;
100 ccm of water (saturated with ether) are then added, and the mixture
agitated until a complete emulsion takes place. With powdered cacao,
especially those kinds rich in fat, that occurs in ½ to 1 minute,
and with chocolate in 2 minutes. It is then allowed to rest until
the emulsion separates, which at the ordinary temperature of 15-20°
C. usually occurs in 6-12 hours in the case of chocolate, and 12-24
hours with cacao. The greater part of the water separates first and,
usually, amounts to 90-98 ccm with chocolate and 70-86 ccm with cocoa.
The powdery portion of the cocoa or chocolate floats on the surface of
the aqueous layer at the bottom of the ether layer. Only husk, sand,
particles of cacao beans, added starch, etc. accumulate at the bottom
of the separator and are to be removed with the aqueous layer, which
in the case of chocolate contains the sugar, but usually no trace of
fat. The ether layer, which freely separates from the emulsion in the
time mentioned, is quite clear and from 25 to 50 ccm can generally be
pipetted off and an aliquot part poured into a measuring cylinder or
graduated tube, or into a 25 or 50 ccm flask. If the ether solution
of fat is not sufficient in quantity, the separation can be effected
after removing the aqueous liquid by twirling round the separator.
The turbidity soon disappears and the non-fatty particles quickly
sink to the bottom. The ether solution of fat can also be examined
aräometrically, as with milk fat, by Soxhlet’s aräometric method,
after forcing it by means of an india rubber ball, into a pipette
or burette, but the constants to be used in that case have not been
ascertained. After the ether has been distilled off, in the normal
manner, the weight obtained must be calculated for 100 ccm and a small
correction made. For example, if 50 ccm of the ether solution of fat
give a residue of 0·8 gramme, then 100 ccm represents 1·6 gramme. But
this 1·6 gramme has not been obtained from 100 ccm of the original
(water saturated) ether, but from 100-x ccm, x representing the number
of cubic centimetres corresponding to 1·6 gramme of cacao butter and,
as the specific gravity of cacao butter is nearly = 1; the equation
becomes (100-1·6): 100 = 1·6: x; x = 160/98·4 = 1·627 gramme; so that
the 5 grammes of substance would contain 1·627 gramme of fat or 32·54
percent.

The remaining aqueous solution contains the whole of the constituents
of cacao or chocolate which are soluble in water. It is measured into a
graduated cylinder and its volume ascertained. Then, after the entire
amount has been evaporated to dryness, the residue is calculated on
a percentage basis. The following procedure, however, is preferable.
10 ccm of the liquid are evaporated and the residue well dried in a
vacuum before it is weighed. Multiplying the ascertained weight by
10, we obtain the amount of cacao or chocolate soluble in water and
present in 5 and 10 grammes of either substance respectively. The
amount of ~sugar~ in the aqueous extract can be determined in the
following manner. 50 ccm of the extract are heated in a water bath and
thus separated from ether; afterwards 2 ccm of lead acetate are added
and the whole immediately transferred to a special kind of filter
paper. The solution is now polarised in the usual way and the number
of grammes of sugar thus ascertained converted into ccm by division
(1·55 being the unit) and then the result subtracted from 100, which
gives the volume of water present in 100 ccm of sugar solution, and
so by further division until the percentage of sugar in chocolate is
finally obtained. If the polarisation yields more sugar than the weight
of the total residue, it is an indication that dextrine is present as
an adulteration. The quantitative determination of dextrine, which
is sometimes added to cocoa powder as well as to chocolate, for like
gelatine and tragacanth it holds water together and so ensures a saving
of fat, is best carried out in P. Welman’s polarising method.[172]

As the amount of fat obtained from 5 grammes of a cacao preparation
does not suffice for tests of purity, a larger quantity must be
extracted in order to carry out the following investigations. This has
reference to

 1. The determination of the melting point; 2. The determination
 of the iodine value (Welman)[173]; 3. The determination of the
 saponification value; 4. The determination of the acid value; 5. The
 determination of the Reichert-Meissl value; 6. Polen’s value[174]; 7.
 Cohn’s investigation[175]; 8. Melting point of the fatty acids; 9.
 Refraction of the fatty acids; 10. Iodine value of the fatty acids;
 11. Determination of the refractive index at 40° C. in Zeiss’ butter
 refractometer.

The following process is usually adopted in the determination of the
melting point of cacao fat:

The melted fat is sucked up a glass capillary tube, the internal
diameter of which does not exceed 2 mm (fluctuating between 1·8 mm
and that measurement) to somewhat above the part of the tube which is
graduated into tenths, and then so much of the capillary tube cut off
as suffices to make the fat column there half the height of the bulb of
the mercury thermometer used in the experiment.

As fresh molten fat has a very variable melting point, it is absolutely
essential that the fat in this experiment be allowed to cool about a
week in some dark chamber, and, because only after the expiration of
this period can the melting point be designated as a constant, not to
proceed with the further determination until this necessary stage has
been reached.

To carry out this determination the capillary tube is attached to the
bulb of the mercury thermometer by means of a rubber ring in such a
manner that the column of fat occurs directly in the middle.

The whole apparatus is now hung in a test tube of 2½ cm internal
diameter, which is just so far filled with water that this can only
penetrate to the fat in the capillary tube which is open at both ends
from the under side. To regulate the flow of heat, this test tube is
further introduced into a beaker also filled with water, which is
heated first. As soon as the fat is melted, the water penetrates to the
capillary tube and pushes along the fat column.

The reading is now taken at once the degree registered, the thermometer
showing the melting point of the fat.

We need not here launch on an exact description of the above mentioned
determination, but will only stay to point out the oft-mentioned book
of R. Benedikt’s, entitled “Analyses of Kinds of Fat and Wax”, as
enlarged and issued by F. Ulzer after the death of the author (Berlin
edition, J. Springer).

Should a doubt arise in comparing the results given by these six
tests, which may happen with some kinds of ordinary cacao butter, the
employment of Björklund’s empirical ether test[176] or Filsinger’s
alcohol-ether test is to be recommended, which latter is carried out as
follows.[177]

3 grammes of cacao butter are dissolved in 6 grammes of ether at 10° C.
Should the resulting solution be clear, this is an indication that no
wax is present. The solution is then introduced in its test tube into
water at 0° C. and the length of the time which transpires before it
begins to become cloudy or to deposit flocculent matter, observed, also
the temperature when the solution again becomes clear.

If the solution becomes turbid before ten minutes have elapsed the
cacao butter is not quite pure. Pure cacao butter becomes turbid in
from 10 to 15 minutes at 0° C. and clear again at from 19-20° C.;
an admixture of 5 percent of tallow renders the solution turbid at
19-20° C. in 8 minutes and it becomes clear again at 22° C.; 15
percent of tallow give a turbid solution in from 4-5 minutes at 0° C. that
becomes clear again at 22·5-28·5 ° C. Filsinger[178] has suggested
a modification of Björklund’s test. In his method 2 grammes of the
fat are dissolved in a graduated tube in a mixture of 4 parts of
ether (S. G. 0·725)) and 1 part of alcohol (S. G. 0·810). Pure cacao
butter should remain clear after some lapse of time, whereas foreign
fats and more especially tallow preparations cause a separation. But
Lewkowitsch[179] maintains that this test is not be relied on, as
genuine kinds of cacao butter will crystallise out from the ether
alcohol solution at 9° C. and some at 12° C.

Yet we are nevertheless of the opinion that liquid fats are of no great
moment at the present time, for they always involve a considerable
lowering of the melting point and so greatly impair the fracture of
the chocolate. Fats such as tallow, or the like, must be used, and
these are detected both by their flavour and by Björklund’s test.
Adulteration is therefore very rarely met with in the German chocolate
industry, thanks to these facts and the rigid self-control practised
by the Association of German Chocolate Manufactures and the sharp
supervision exercised by the inspectors of articles of consumption in
that country. The only regularly occurring adulterations are connected
with the preparation of Cocoa powder and consist in substitutions of
finely ground cacao husk; the detection of which still remains most
difficult and uncertain; and even here it is rather the Dutch firms
which are culpable; and generally speaking it is a trick of smaller
manufacturers, who consider such an admixture as quite the normal
procedure.

6. ~Determination of Theobromine and Caffeine.~ Methods for
the ascertainment of the quantity of theobromine are so numerous
that it would be impossible here to enter into the detail of their
advantages and disadvantages. Of the different processes adopted in
the determination of the cacao diureide perhaps only Eminger’s is
worthy of consideration at present, and this is described fully in the
following paragraphs, as best corresponding to our present knowledge of
the subject and its requirements, and most deserving recommendation to
chemists and food analysts on account of its reliability.

For the practical testing of cacao preparations the splitting up of
the diureide has no special advantage and so we can at once proceed
to treat of the compound particle, though rather inclined to maintain
that the diureide has very little importance on the whole, for it
establishes no basis from which we can judge of the quality of the
various products.

The procedure in Eminger’s process is as follows:

10 grammes of powdered bean of cacao preparation are placed in a
weighed glass flask, then stirred up with 100 grammes of petroleum
ether and allowed to settle. The petroleum ether is next carefully
poured off, without disturbing the sediment, and the treatment repeated
several times. After the last decantation, the residue is well drained,
then dried in the flask and weighed. The difference in weight of the
residue and the former figure represents the amount of fat. An aliquot
portion of the residue (about 5 grammes) is then boiled with 100
grammes of a 3-4 percent strong sulphuric acid in a flask connected
with a reflux condenser, until cacao red is given as a resultant, a
task which occupies three quarters of an hour. The contents of the
flask are then poured into a beaker, and neutralised, whilst hot,
with barium hydroxide. The whole is then mixed with sand in a basin
and evaporated to dryness; afterwards the dry residue is introduced
into a Soxhlet apparatus on a paper cone, and there extracted for
5 hours with 150 grammes of chloroform. The latter is carefully
distilled off and the residue dried for a period of one hour at 100°
C. As previously stated, the separation of the two diureides is not
necessary and in commercial analyses it is sufficient to state the
amount of each separate substance after the removal of fat by means of
some suitable solvent. But should the splitting up be desired, then
Eminger’s method should be adopted, which depends on the solubility of
caffeine in carbon tetrachloride.[180] With that object, the mixture
of fat, theobromine and caffeine is treated in the flask with 100
grammes of carbon tetrachloride and repeatedly agitated for one hour.
After filtration, the carbon tetrachloride, which now contains fat and
caffeine, is distilled off. The theobromine left undissolved in the
flask and the filter used to filter the carbon tetrachloride solution
are then extracted with boiling water, the solution is filtered and
evaporated to dryness, the residue representing theobromine. The
separation of caffeine and theobromine can also be effected by cautious
treatment with caustic soda, so dissolving the theobromine and leaving
the caffeine untouched in its entirety.[181] (Cf. Riederer.)

7. ~Determination of Starch.~ This can only be of importance in
rarer instances, as the starch naturally present in raw cacao generally
varies between 9 and 10 percent, and there is no chemical method of
separating foreign matter from cacao starch. But should the necessity
arise, a determination can be carried out as follows.

In order to render the starch more easily gelatinisable, the fat is
first removed by treating 5 grammes of cocoa powder or 10 grammes of a
cacao preparation with ether and then with an 80% solution of alcohol
to separate any sugar, theobromine and cacao red. The residue is then
mixed with water and subjected to a steam pressure of from three
to four atmospheres, which converts the starch into a soluble body
known as amylo-dextrine. This operation is generally carried out in
an autoclave or strong copper vessel[182] provided with an air-tight
and removable cover, the open flask, containing the sample to be
gelatinised (1 part of cacao and 20 parts of water) being placed in the
vessel half immersed in water.

After screwing on the lid, the temperature of the interior of the
vessel is raised to 133-144° C. corresponding to a pressure of 4
atmospheres, and maintained at that pressure for three or four hours
in order to allow the action to proceed on the mass for gelatinisation
of the starch. The flask is then removed from the apparatus and the
contents allowed to settle for a few minutes; the liquid is filtered
hot, the filtrate amounting to about 250 or 300 ccm after the filter
has been washed a few times with hot water. Only the cell fibre remains
on the filter, whilst the starch is dissolved in the filtrate. This is
now heated with 20 ccm of hydrochloric acid in a flask connected with
a reflux condenser, whereby the starch is converted into dextrose. The
sugar solution is neutralised with sodium carbonate, clarified with
basic lead acetate, any excess of the latter being removed with sodium
sulphate, finally filtered, and the whole made up to 500 ccm. The
sugar is determined in this solution by titration with alkaline copper
sulphate solution and from the number of cubic centimetres required
for the precipitation of the red cuprous oxide, the quantity of sugar
can be ascertained. As 99 parts of starch are equal to 108 parts of
dextrose or grape sugar, the following calculation must be made.

  dextrose starch     {dextrose}
                   =  {        }:x.
      108:99          { found  }

In the determination of sugar with copper sulphate it is more
advantageous to follow up F. Allihin’s[183] method, in which the
cuprous oxide is reduced by hydrogen gas to metallic copper, weighed
as such, and so the sugar calculated, or the cuprous oxide can be
collected on an asbestos filter and weighed in that condition. The
cuprous oxide must be previously washed with hot water, alcohol and
ether, which must be completely removed by subsequent drying in the
air bath, since an error of even 1 milligramme would seriously affect
the final result. Then again, the amount of sugar may be determined by
polarisation, a process which has also its own particular advantages.

The chemical determination of starch is only in a limited degree
effectual in a recognition of an admixture of foreign starch in cacao
preparations. If more than 10-15 percent of starch, as calculated on
the crude bean, has been found, it must certainly be assumed that there
is an admixture of foreign starch, but chemistry affords no assistance
by which foreign starch may be separated from the genuine starch of
the cacao bean. For that purpose the foreign starch must be observed
under the microscope, which not only serves to detect its presence
but affords a means of estimating the amount present to an approximate
degree, and its characteristics. Great care should be exercised, or the
result may be easily exaggerated. Standard preparations, i. e. which
have a known percentage of starch constituent, prove very serviceable
when comparing.

If Welman’s agitation method has been used for determining the fat,
the starch will be found in the sediment. The amount of foreign starch
can also be determined by Posetto’s[184] method, which depends on the
intensity and permanency of the iodine reaction. In the latter test 2
grammes of the powdered or finely divided cacao preparation are boiled
with 20 ccm water in a test tube for 2 minutes, cooled, and without
disturbing the liquid, 20 ccm of water and 5 ccm of iodine solution
(5 grammes of iodide and 10 grammes of potassium iodide in 100 ccm
of water) are added. The liquid from genuine cacao, according to the
variety used, turns brownish or light blue, changing in a short time
(12 minutes at the most) to brown and red. On the other hand, chocolate
or a cacao preparation adulterated with not more than 10% wheaten or
potato starch, chestnut, maize or commercial dextrine, will give a
blue coloration lasting for 24 hours. It must be noted that the result
in Posetto’s test is influenced by the amount of alkali, so that with
disintegrated cacao, for instance, a considerable quantity of iodine
has to be added before the blue coloration takes place, and this more
especially if the potassium carbonate employed contained caustic
alkali. Such preparations finally become coloured, but generally show a
mixed colour (blue and yellow): green to greenish brown.

8. ~Determination of crude Fibre.~ This can be carried out in two
ways; either by König’s new process as employed by Filsinger for cacao
or by the older method of Weender’s[185] as follows:

3 grammes of the defatted and atmospherically dried substance are
boiled for ½ hour with 200 ccm of a 1·24 percent solution of
sulphuric acid. It is allowed to settle, then decanted, and the residue
boiled twice with the same volume of water. The decanted liquids are
allowed to settle in cylinders and the sediment added to the rest of
the substance, which is then boiled half an hour with 200 ccm of a 1·25
percent solution of caustic potash, filtered through a weighed filter
and the residue twice boiled with 200 ccm of water. The cellulose-like
substance collected on the filter is washed first with hot water, then
with cold, afterwards with alcohol, and finally with ether.

After being dried and weighed, it is incinerated and the necessary
corrections made for ash.

The process worked out by Henneberg is the one usually adopted for the
determination of crude fibre in vegetable matter. Recently H. Suringer
and B. Tollens[186] and more particularly König[187] have pointed out
that in Weender’s process the so-called pentosan (sugar derivative)
of the composition C_{5} H_{10} O_{5}, which comprises a not
inconsiderable portion of crude fibre, would undergo a disproportionate
alteration, so that the analytical results thus obtained would not
represent the amount of cellulose correctly. The crude fibre must
therefore be treated in such a manner as to eliminate the pentosan.
König attains that result by treating 3 grammes of the defatted
substance with 200 ccm of glycerine (1·23 sp. gr.) containing per litre
20 grammes of concentrated sulphuric acid, under a pressure of three
atmospheres, for one hour. It is then filtered through an asbestos
filter whilst hot, and after being successively washed with hot water,
alcohol and ether, it is weighed, incinerated and the ash weighed. The
difference between the two weighings expresses the amount of ash-free
crude fibre.

Filsinger has determined by König’s method the amount of crude fibre
in a series of different varieties of bean, the results of which have
already been given on page 72. Which process is the better has yet to
be established, and in issuing results as data the method employed has
always to be indicated owing to the many variations which arise.

9. ~The determination of cacao husk~, which will be for the
most part a matter of ascertaining the amount of raw or crude fibre,
could formerly only be effected by means of the microscope. In 1899
Filsinger[188] proposed a method of levigation which according to P.
Welman’s[189] gives trustworthy results. Manifold treatises have been
devoted to the subject, and it would be advisable to turn a few of
these up and compare the details of the accounts.[190] In this method,
which works best with the modifications suggested by Drawe (see below)
5 grammes of cocoa or chocolate are defatted with ether and dried, then
ground in a mortar after a little water has been added, and levigated
with about 100 ccm of water in a cylinder. The liquid is allowed to
rest for some time and the suspended matter poured off almost to the
sediment, which is again shaken up with fresh water, allowed to settle,
and the operation repeated until all the fine particles have been
floated off and the water over the sediment no longer becomes cloudy,
but remains clear after the coarse and heavy particles have settled
down.

The powdery sediment is collected on a watch glass, dried in the water
bath, and after being cooled down in a desiccator, weighed. The weighed
residue is then softened with caustic soda and glycerine and examined
under the microscope. The presence of any cotyledon particles must be
carefully observed, such as have escaped separation in the grinding
and levigation, and whether particles of husk or epidermis or germ
preponderate. With proper levigation only traces of cacao substance,
especially here recognisable by the cacao starch, should be present.
The sand, which always adheres to the shells in the fermenting and
drying operations, is also easily recognised and many indications as to
the nature of the article under investigation can be noted by the use
of a simple magnifying glass applied to the washed residue on the watch
glass before drying.

Examined in that way, a sample of so-called Cocoas from unshelled beans
gave from 6 to 8 percent of husk; usually good cacao powder shows
a maximum of 2·5% husk. It is true that from this Filsinger-Drawe
procedure the correct percentage of shell can only be estimated in
very rare instances, for when it is necessary to be absolutely fair to
all concerned in the manufacture, the cacao must be so often washed
until no grains of cacao starch are visible under the microscope; and
so the result is often too small, more especially in the case of the
finer qualities. But when all particles of starch have been removed,
the finer particles of shell have often been taken along with them. Yet
when the residue certainly exceeds the standard percentage of shell, it
may be taken for granted that adulteration with husks has been carried
to excess, or that the cleansing processes have not been effectively
carried out. There is no other method which yields the same degree of
certainty.

The result obtained by the levigation method can be controlled by the
previously mentioned methods of Weender or Filsinger, as well as by the
determination of any silica in the ash (page 256).

Latterly the admixture of cacao husk with the cheaper kinds of cocoa
powder has largely increased, therefore the determination of the amount
of husk in cacao preparations has become of special importance.

10. ~Determination of sugar.~ There are three methods for the
quick determination of sugar, two of them polarimetric and the third
consisting of taking the specific gravity of the solution obtained
by shaking up the cacao with water. It is as well to note that in
all these methods the result includes the normal amount of sugar in
cacao, which Welmans[191] gives at 0·75-2 in cocoa and 0·4-1·0
percent in chocolate. That source of error is of no special significance,
for, as Welmans has shown, it is compensated for in the course of the
succeeding operations, so that these methods are of service.

For official investigations under this head the statutes of May 31st
1891 and May 27th 1896 respectively together with the instructions
issued by the council concerning the carrying out of the process
(Berlin, July 9th 1896, and Nov. 8th 1897, E) constitute a standard.

They read as follows: “Half the normal weight (13·024 g) of chocolate
is damped with alcohol and then warmed for 15 minutes with 30 ccm
of water on the water bath. While still hot, it is poured on to a
wet filter, the residue again treated with hot water, and until the
filtrate nearly amounts to 100 ccm. The filtrate is to be mixed with 5
ccm of basic lead acetate solution, allowed to stand for a quarter of
an hour, then clarified with alum and a little alumina, made up to a
definite volume (110 ccm) and polarised.” But it is to be noted that
these instructions are not exhaustive enough, and prove particularly
deficient as regards the employment of water, also through their
non-observation of the errors which can arise in using basic lead
acetate, though it is true that these are only of a minor character.

The Berlin chemist Jeserich (ex officio) had a rather hot dispute with
the official over the matter, who declared that his results were false
in spite of all protest, until he finally proved that it was not these
results but the process advised by law which lacked correctness. He
described the rencontre in very lucid if drastic detail to an assembly
of official chemists.

Something similar happened to the present editor, who in his office
of sworn chemist was called upon to determine the amount of sugar and
starch present in certain crumb chocolates on the one hand, and the
amount of cacao material on the other. As the official inspectors
insist on their prescriptions being carried out with scrupulous
exactitude, he found it necessary to give a double result, the one in
accordance with these prescriptions, and the other when double the
amount of water was used, taking care to explain the whole matter
at length. But it occasioned some surprise, and finally the task of
investigating and testing was withdrawn and given to another.

Another polarimetric method, recommended by Woy[192], is carried out
as follows. Two portions of half the normal weight (13·024 grammes) of
rasped or shaved chocolate are placed in 100 ccm and 200 ccm flasks
respectively, moistened with alcohol, then treated with hot water and
stirred up till the sugar is dissolved. 4 ccm of basic lead acetate
solution are added to each flask, by which means the chocolate in
suspension loses its viscosity. After being cooled, the solutions are
made up to the marks, well mixed and filtered. Two quickly filtering
liquids are thus obtained, which are then polarised in 200 mm tubes.
With chocolate containing meal, the temperature must not exceed 50° C.
From the two polarisations, the following equation results: a (100-x)
= b(200-x), in which _a_ and _b_ are the results of polarising, and x
the volume of the insoluble substances, including the lead precipitate,
contained in the half normal weight. The product of the equation gives
the amount of sugar present. Woy’s method has the great advantage of
avoiding the error due to the volume of the undissolved cacao and lead
precipitate.

The third method, as adopted by Zipperer[193], is as follows: 50
grammes of chocolate, finely divided with an iron grater or rasp, are
treated with exactly 200 ccm of cold water, frequently stirred for 4
hours, then poured on to a previously moistened and well wrung pointed
bag. The specific gravity of the filtrate is taken in an araeometer,
specially constructed for the purpose by Greiner of Munich on lines
suggested by Zipperer himself. On the scale of the araeometer is given
the percentage amount of sugar in the chocolate, from 5 to 5 percent,
with subdivisions of one percent, so that the reading can be quickly
taken, without correction.

In the determination of sugar by weight, the chocolate is first
defatted with ether, the sugar extracted with alcohol, then inverted,
the inverted solution treated with Fehling’s solution and the copper
precipitate weighed. The process has little to recommend it, being
troublesome and admitting of a large margin of errors.

Here again much has been written of late[194] concerning the two former
methods, their liabilities to error and the avoidance of these, yet
without bringing to light anything which calls for a specially detailed
treatment in this book.

11. ~Determination of Albuminates.~ The determination of albumin
is frequently required in the analysis of cacao powder and is necessary
to the ascertainment of its nutritive value. The determination of
nitrogen is determined by mixing 0·5 grammes of finely powdered bean
with soda lime and burning the mixture in a tube. (This determination
of nitrogen is a necessary part of the process.) Thus ammonia is
formed, which is passed through a known quantity of sulphuric acid.
When the combustion is finished, the acid solution is titrated with a
standard solution of barium hydroxide, and from the quantity consumed
the percentage of nitrogen is calculated. But as the diureides also
contain nitrogen (31·1 % of the theobromine and caffeine present) the
nitrogen corresponding to this amount must be deducted from the total
quantity of nitrogen yielded by combustion and the remainder multiplied
by 6·25 will indicate the amount of albumen present as a constituent.

Another and better method of determining the nitrogen is by
Kjeldahl’s[195] process. It has been frequently subjected to
modifications, but was originally carried out as follows. 0·25 grammes
of the nitrogenous substance (cacao preparation) is heated on the
sand bath together with 20 ccm of concentrated sulphuric acid and a
little quicksilver, till the solution becomes colourless or only of a
very pale yellow. After diluting with about 200 ccm of water, it is
made alkaline by the addition of soda lye (which must of course be
entirely free from nitrogen, the same remark applying to the sulphuric
acid used) and, potassium or sodium sulphide being added, it is then
distilled, and the ammonia given off collected and determined as above
described. As this method also determines the total amount of nitrogen,
an allowance must be made for the nitrogen in the theobromine and
caffeine before multiplying the result by 6·25. This modification is
still to be recommended as the best and most reliable.

In rare cases an excessive amount of albumen may be due to the
admixture of earth-nut cake or gelatine. As to the detection of the
latter adulteration, see page 254. Bileryst[196] says that earth-nut
cake can be recognised by its high percentage of albumen content,
amounting to between 45 and 47 percent.

12. ~Investigation of Milk and Cream Chocolate.~ The tests bearing
on these products really constitute a chapter in themselves, which has
acquired special importance owing to the great popularity they enjoy
and the consequently greatly increased production. According to the
unanimous opinion of the Association of German Chocolate Manufacturers
and the Free Union of German Food Chemists, expressed when considering
the respective claims of such chocolates, it is chiefly if not
exclusively a matter of determining the percentage of milk or cream,
which ought not to be below 12·5 or 10%, always supposing the milk
or cream to be a substitute for sugar, and this means therefore that
the quantity of cacao material in the chocolate product should on
no account sink below 32%. (Cf. p. 283 No. 3. Abs. 5.) The method
employed in the investigation is generally the same as that suggested
by Laxa in his treatise on “Milk Chocolates”[197] although it has been
considerably improved by Baier and his colleagues.[198] It is here a
matter of working backwards from the determination of the fatty and
nitrogenous components (or caseine) to the amount of milk or cream in
the chocolate. This presents a certain amount of difficultly as it
is not only necessary to determine the milk, but also to establish
that neither skimmed or whipped material (either in part or entirely)
has been employed. Yet it is possible here to proceed with absolute
certainty, as Baier[199] convincingly demonstrates, by taking into
consideration the relative proportion of milk fat, called caseum or
caseine.

If it is desired finally to characterise the respective chocolates,
determinations of the ~quantity~ of milk fat present and the
amount of milk product used become essential. Baier gives both as
calculable (cf. footnote 1)[200], the Reichert-Meissl number of the
total fat being ascertained, and from this, subtracting the R.-M.
number of the cacao fat present[201] the quantity of milk fat, finally
the amount of caseine, milk sugar, mineral matter and other factors.
No details of this somewhat extensive calculation are proved in the
original.[202] We give the following regulations (Laxa-Baier) for
carrying out the determination of the caseine, together with the
necessary formula.

20 grammes of fine divided chocolate are loosely introduced into a
Soxhlet’s extracting apparatus, and there extracted with ether for a
period of 16 hours. Of the residue, 10 grammes are used for testing in
connection with caseine, and this after the ether has evaporated. These
are mixed up in mortar with gradual and even addition of a 1% solution
of sodium oxalate, so that no lump formations occur, and then brought
into a marked carboy of 250 ccm capacity, until 200 ccm of the sodium
oxalate solution have been used. The carboy is then provided with an
asbestos net, and heated by means of a flame from the under side, until
its contents are brought to boil. The mouth of the carboy is covered
with a small funnel which has been hermetically sealed at its narrower
end. Then boiling oxalate solution is poured into the vessel up the
bend, and it is then allowed to stand over till another day, shaking
however being often repeated, then filled with sodium oxalate solution
up to the mark, agitated with a regular motion, and then filtered
through an ordinary filter. To 100 ccm of this solution 5 ccm of an
uranous acetate solution (5% strong) and drop by drop and with repeated
stirring a 30% solution of acetic are added until there is a deposit.
(This will require from 30 to 120 drops, according to the amount of
caseine present.) Then an extra 5 drops of acetic acid can be added.
This causes the deposit to stand out clearly from the liquid matter
and it can be readily separated by centrifugalising. Afterwards it can
be washed out with 100 ccm of solution, of which 5 ccm are uranous
acetate and 3 ccm acetic acid 3 % strong, until the sodium oxalate
can no longer be seen on adding calcium chloride (i. e. after about
three repeated centrifugalisations). The contents of the tube are then
rinsed on to the small filter by means of the wash fluid, stirred in a
Kjeldahl carboy with concentrated sulphuric acid and copper oxide, and
the quantity of nitrogen found converted into caseine by multiplying
with the factor k = 6·37.—Bearing in mind the quantity of fat, the
percentage of caseine in the original chocolate is calculated.[203]

In the following:

      b = signifies the total of fatty content of the chocolate[204],
      a = the Reichert-Meissl number of the total fat,
  and K = the amount of caseine as established by the Laxa-Baier method
          (nitrogen contents times 6·37).

         (a - 1) b              Further: 1. The desired quantity of fat
  1. F = ————————-          equal is to the R.M.N. a, of the total fat
            27              less that of the cacao fat (1·0) multiplied
                            by the total amount of fat and divided by the
                            average R.M.N. for butter fats = 27.

  2. a) E = 1·11 K              2. The total amount of albumen E is
                            equal to the amount of caseine K multiplied
            1·11 K · 132    by 1·11, as this constitutes about 90% of
     b) M = ————————————    the former; and as the albumen E, milk sugar
                100         M and the mineral constituents A (Ash V)
                            are present in the milk in the proportion of
            1·11 K · 21·4   100 : 132 : 21·4, this yields the formula
     c) A = ————————————-   given in b & c.
                100

  3. T = F + E + M + A          3. The total quantity of milk stuff T is
                            equal to the total of fatty contents,
                            albumen, milk, sugar and ash.

  4. x = Q · k                  4. The fatty constituency of the original
                            milk or cream to be calculated from the
           F                formula x = Q times k, where Q is the
     Q =  ——-               quotient resulting when the amount of fat
           K

     k = const.

  In the case of milk:      F is divided by that of caseine K, and k
     k_{1} = 3·15           the normal caseine consistency of average
     k_{2} = 3·05           milk preparation. Or it varies as the
     k_{3} = 2·7            numbers k_{1} etc. indicate in the case of
     k_{4} = 2·5            cream and so forth. Higher percentages
                            10% than those given do not come into
                            consideration.


c. Microscopic-botanical investigation.

[Illustration: Fig. 100.

 _A._ Parenchyma of the cotyledon after removal of fat and treatment
 with Iodine chloral hydrate, a: parenchyma cells with starch, b: with
 cacao red.

 _B._ Aleuron particles with globois (Molisch) from parenchyma cells.]

[Illustration: Fig. 101.

 _A._ Mitscherlich particles.

 _B._ Seed cells, above with starch bodies, underneath with violet
 colouring matter (cacao red) lying in chloral.

 _C._ Series of yeast germs.

 _D._ Threads of extraneous growth.

 _E._ Epidermis and layer of cells occurring on the outer shell
 (enlarged 340 times).]

Cacao is to no great extent particularly characterised anatomically.
The parenchyma cells fig. 100 are chiefly to be noticed, containing
either fat, albumin (protoplasm) aleuron granules, pigment, or
cacao starch. The ~starch~, as already remarked, consists of
especially small globular granules, mostly separate, but also two
or three adherent. It is somewhat more difficult to gelatinise than
other kinds of starch, and it is coloured blue by iodine somewhat more
slowly than many other starch granules, especially in the preparations
containing fat. Cacao preparations which have been disintegrated by
fixed alcalis, differ in this respect; according to Welmans, iodine
first forms colourless iodine compounds, and not until the alkali has
been saturated, is the blue colour developed. In such cases, care
must be taken, that an excess of iodine is present. In estimating the
amount of foreign starch, great care must be taken that the conspicuous
bluish-black granules of the foreign starch, which immediately strike
the eye, are not over estimated, which may easily occur. For control
observations, mixtures containing various known amounts of starch
should be tried comparatively. The pigment cells and the epidermis
with the Mitscherlich’s particles (figs 101 and 102) should be noticed
as well as the characteristic globoids, which occur in the ash of the
cotyledon tissues (compare page 67). The ~outside shell~, more
or less woody according to the origin of the bean, consists of four
layers of cells; this is best recognised by the large cells of the
principal tissue, which are distinguished by their form as well as by
their thickened side walls from the tissue of the cotyledon. Another
characteristic of this layer consists of the large number of coarse
spiral vessels, which exceed those of the seed lobes in size, and
finally, the inner elements of the stone cell layer, which, however,
on account of their limited development are seldom to be discovered.
The smooth, fine brown coloured, and light refracting fragments, which
frequently appear quite structureless and have their fibrous character
made perceptible only after treatment with caustic alkali, must be
regarded as characteristic of the inner part of the husk or the seed
membrane. The best observing medium is a solution of chloral hydrate or
almond oil, as well as dilute sulphuric acid and glycerine.[205] The
substance is always to be defatted with ether, before the microscopical
examination. A complete extraction of the fat, according to Welmans,
can occur only with exceedingly thin cuttings, in which every cell of
the section would be operated on, or in powdered preparations, when the
cells have been completely torn asunder by mechanical pulverisation.
The fat is not extracted by solvents from intact cells, as the cell
walls are impermeable by them.[206]

The detection of ~foreign starch~ is possible only by use of
the microscope; by means of standard preparations an approximate
estimate may be made as to the amount and kind of meal added.[207] The
examination of starch is especially facilitated by H. Leffmann and
W. Beam’s[208] centrifugal method: the sample suspended in water is
subjected to rotation for a short time in the centrifugal apparatus.
The presence of foreign starch is shown by a white layer in the
resulting sediment. This layer can be collected and microscopically
examined for foreign starch and husk. In the case of cacao
preparations, it is always well to distinguish between unimportant
traces and quantities that justify objection.[209]

[Illustration: Fig. 102.

 _A._ Silver membrane with the hairs (Mitscherlich particles) _tr_, and
 the crystals _f_ and _K_.

 _B._ Cocoa powder: _c_ Cotyledon tissue with cells of fat and
 colouring matter, _p_ shell parenchyma, _sp_ speriods, _d_ layer of
 dry cells.]

A means of detecting ~tragacanth~ in cacao preparations, has
lately been described by Welmans[210]. 5 grammes of the cacao
preparation are to be mixed with sufficient dilute sulphuric acid (1:
3) to form a thick pulp, then with 10 drops of solution of iodine (in
potassium iodide) and some glycerine. A portion of the mixture is
examined under the microscope (enlarged 160 times). The entire field
of view now appears to be thickly sown with countless blue dots, some
globular, others irregular, among which are especially to be noticed
the large tragacanth cells, resembling potato starch, which are not
seen in cocoa powder that is free from tragacanth, when similarly
prepared as an object; the small blue dots, due to cacao starch, are
visible only in the densely occupied portions.

An admixture of the ~carob~, which has been seldom observed, can
be easily recognised under the microscope by the characteristic reddish
wrinkled tubes of the fruit pulp, which are also coloured violet by
treatment with a warm solution of caustic potash.

The presence of ~earth-nut or earth-nut cake~ can be detected by
the aid of the microscope on treatment with chloral hydrate, by the
characteristic saw toothed epidermis cells of the husk of arachis seed.

~Hazelnut and walnut pulp~, so far as they are to be met with in
cacao preparations, can be distinguished under the microscope by shreds
of the tissue of the seed husks, in which broad streaks of spiral
vessels, lying close on one another, are distinctly prominent. If in
addition the woody fruit shell be admixed, it can be detected by the
great number of cells.


B. Definitions of Cacao Preparations.

The following formulae have been compiled by the Association of German
Chocolate Manufacturers for the purpose of fixing the definition of
cacao, and we may say that we agree with same in the main, as they
satisfy all just claims, and keep pace with the progress made in
consequence of the introduction of the modern machinery now in use,
both from a scientific and practical point of view. Only in a few
points are we of different opinion, and have referred to such clearly
in their place.


a) Regulations of the Association of German Chocolate Manufacturers
relating to the Trade in Cacao Preparations (cocoa, chocolate and
chocolate goods).

(Revision of September 16^{th} 1907.)


I.

 1. Cacao mass is the product obtained by simply grinding and moulding
 roasted and shelled cacao beans and no substance handled under this
 name may contain any admixtures of foreign matter.

 2. Disintegrated cacao mass is cacao which has been treated either
 with alkalis, alkaline earth, or steam.

 3. Cocoa powder, freed of oil (also soluble, disintegrated cacao) is
 the resulting product when the cacao bean is decorticated, roasted and
 more or less freed from its oil or also disintegrated in powder form.
 Cocoa powder, cacao from which oil has been extracted, disintegrated
 and soluble cacao may on no account contain foreign ingredient other
 than an addition of roots and spices.

 In the case of cacaos disintegrated with alkalis or alkali earths, not
 more than 3 % of alkali or alkali earth may be used in the process;
 they may not contain more than 8 % of ash, reckoned on cacao material
 with 56 % of cacao butter.

 4. ~Chocolate.~ The designation “Chocolate” may only be applied
 to those confections which are prepared by the addition of cacao
 butter, vanilla, vanillin, cinnamon, cloves or other spices to roasted
 and shelled beans or to a disintegrated mixture of cacao and sugar.

 The percentage amount of sugar may not exceed 70, and the occasional
 addition of other substances (medicinal, meals, and the like) is
 admissible, but the total percentage of these and the sugar may not
 exceed 70.[211]

5. ~Food chocolates~, ~chocolates for immediate consumption~,
and ~dessert chocolates~. For these confections the same
principles hold good, with the exception that here additions of
nuts, almonds and milk stuffs are permissible, up to a percentage
not exceeding 5 in total, without any declaration of the goods being
necessary.

6. ~Chocolate powder~ is a mixture of cacao material which may be
disintegrated and more or less freed from oil, with an amount of sugar
not exceeding 70% at the most. Spices as in the case of chocolate.[211]

7. Cacao butter is the fat obtained from the decorticated bean or cacao
material.


II.

The following are especially to be regarded as adulterations of the
goods mentioned under I. from 1 to 7.

 1. Foreign fats;

 2. Shells and other waste cacao products (dust or seed);

 3. Meal, though this is not expressly given;

 4. Colouring matter; the colouring of the surface of figures is
 permissible;

 5. So-called fat economisers, such as adraganth, gelatine, and
 dextrine.

An addition of substances for medicinal or dietetic purposes is
permissible, though in such cases the goods must be declared. The
addition of any fats other than cacao butter (i. e. of any foreign fat)
or of shells or waste products to cacao or chocolate or to cacao or
chocolate goods is also not permissible even when these are designated
in such a manner that the words chocolate and cacao do not occur in
their description.


III.

~Declaration of Added Ingredients.~

The declaration must be transcribed in legible script and form, as
e. g. “Meal” so as to be readily understood by all, and composed in
German.

The declaration must occur together with the description of contents
and as part of the same on despatching original packages in retail
transactions.

In wholesale trade the declaration must occur on all offers,
quotations, bills and all boxes, etc. provided with description of
contents.

When offered for sale or exhibited in an unpacked condition, every box
etc. containing the goods must have such a declaration introduced so as
to be visible to every buyer in the premises, where possible; or the
declaration shall be placed on the goods themselves.

 1. Skimmed milk chocolates must be literally described as such, and
 must be manufactured with at least 10 % of skimmed milk powder or the
 corresponding quantity of skimmed milk proper. Addition of ordinary
 milk or its powder is permissible and need not be declared;

 2. Milk chocolate must be manufactured with ordinary milk containing
 at least 3 % of fat, and in such a manner that at least 10 % of milk
 powder or the corresponding quantity of milk proper are employed;

 3. Cream chocolate must be prepared from cream containing at least 10
 % of fat, and in such a manner that at least 10 % of a cream powder
 or the corresponding amount of cream, in each case containing 50 % of
 milk fat, are employed. It may be varied to taste with milk proper or
 its powder, without any further declaration being necessary.

These percentages represent a minimum. It remains at the manufacturer’s
choice whether he shall employ larger quantities of cream or milk.

The associated firms are further recommended to annex the following
guarantees:

 a) that the powder of milk proper contain at least 26 % of fat and be
 prepared from a milk guaranteed as pure;

 b) that the cream powder contain at least 40 % of milk or be prepared
 from cream containing at least 10% of fat.

It is especially emphasised that these quantities are minimums, and
every manufacturer is free to add as much cream or milk as he pleases.

We particularly recommend the procuring of a guarantee from the
milk purveyor as to its purity for every delivery in order to be
covered against fines in case the product should prove to contain an
insufficient amount of fat. Analytical testings of trial samples are
also to be recommended.

By way of comparison we refer to the “Principles for Estimating Cacao
Products and their Food Value” determined by the Free Union of German
Food Chemists in their 8th annual assembly at Heidelberg (1909) and
finally established in their 10th held at Dresden (1911), which are
said to have found general acceptance from the 1st July, 1912.


b) Final Wording of the Principles of the Free Union of German
Food Chemists for the estimation of the Value of Cocoa and Cacao
Preparations.


I.

~Cacao mass~ is the product which is purely and simply obtained
from the roasted and shelled cacao bean by grinding and moulding.

Cacao mass may not contain any kind of foreign substance. Traces of
shell may only be present in minor quantity. The waste product falling
in the cleansing of the bean must not be added to the cacao mass, nor
may it be worked up into cacao material separate and apart from other
cacao.

Cacao mass shows 2·5-5% of ash and contains 52-58 % of fat.

Disintegrated cacao is such material as is treated with alkalis or
alkaline earths, ammonia or its salts, under pressure of steam.


II.

~Cocoa powder~, cacao that has been pressed and its oil removed,
soluble Cocoa and disintegrated cacao are synonyms for cacao mass
which has been reduced to powder form after they have been partially
separated from fat by expression under heat; and generally treatment
with alkalis or their carbonates, alkaline earths, ammonia, and ammonia
salts under a strong steam pressure are presupposed.

Cocoa powder containing under 20% of fat, as well as that treated with
spices (aromatised or scented) must be declared accordingly.

Cocoa powder may not contain any kind of foreign substance. Traces of
shell may only be present in minor quantity. The waste product falling
in the cleansing of the bean may neither be added to the cocoa powder
nor itself worked up into such a powder.

The added alkali or alkaline earths may not exceed 3 % of the raw
material.

Only powdered cacao and cocoa powder which has been treated with
ammonia and its salts under strong steam pressure shows from 3 to 5 %
of ash on cacao mass containing 55 % of fat.

Cocoa powders disintegrated with alkalis and alkaline earths must not
show more than 8 % of ash on cacao containing 55 % of fat.

The percentage of water must not rise above 9.


III.

~Chocolate~ is a mixture of cacao material with beetroot or cane
sugar and a proportionate admixture of spices (vanilla, vanillin,
cinnamon, cloves and so forth). Many chocolates contain apart from that
an addition of cacao butter.

The percentage of sugar may not amount to more than 68.

Addition of substances for dietetic and medicinal purposes is
permissible, and then the total of sugar and such addition must not
exceed 68% of the whole.

Apart from the addition of spices no other vegetable admixtures are
permissible. Nor may chocolate contain any foreign fat or foreign
mineral constituents. Cacao shells may only be present in faint traces.
The waste product falling in the cleansing of the bean must not be
added to the cacao mass, nor may it be worked up into cacao material
itself.

Chocolates which contain meal, almonds, walnuts, hazelnuts and milk
stuffs must be provided with a declaration indicating such addition
precisely, and here again the total addition of foreign ingredients
shall not exceed 68 %.[212]

The percentage of ash constituent shall not exceed 2.5.


IV.

~Covering or coating material~ must satisfy the requirements
holding good for chocolate even when the coated goods bear declarations
in which the words cacao or chocolate do not expressly occur, although
admixtures of nuts, almonds and milk stuffs not exceeding a total of 5%
may be made without declaration.


V.

~Chocolate powder~ may not contain more than 68 % of sugar.


VI.

~Cacao butter~ is the fat obtained from the hulled bean or cacao
mass.


~Milk and Cream Chocolates.~

1. Cream, milk and skimmed milk-chocolates are products which are
manufactured with addition of cream, milk (skimmed or unskimmed) in a
natural, thickened or dry form. They must be declared as cream, milk or
skimmed milk chocolates.

2. The fat content of full milk should amount to at least 3 percent,
and that of cream itself 10 percent. If the full milk or cream is
added in a condensed or dried state, these ingredients must be in
corresponding proportions. As it is at present not possible to produce
a cream powder containing at least 55 percent of fat, the normal
preparation of this class is, for the time being, represented by a
production containing 5.5 percent of milk fat in the form of cream
and milk.

3. Milk chocolate prepared from skimmed milk must contain at least 12.5
percent of dried milk or skim-milk, and “Cream” chocolates not less
than 10 percent of cream or full-cream powder.

4. The percentage of the milk or cream preparation added must in all
chocolates be deducted only from the percentage of the sugar, i. e. the
cacao content of all chocolates containing these ingredients must be
the same as in the case of the commoner varieties.

~Special notice.~ In the case of butter chocolates, in which the
cream is replaced by pure cacao fat, the same regulations naturally
obtain; thus the amount of butter added must be not less than 5.5
percent. of the whole, and the butter should be used in place of the sugar
only.

(Regulations relating to the manner of examining chocolates as to the
presence of the prescribed quantities of the above ingredients will
probably be issued in the course of a year or two.)


c. Vienna Regulations.

The Assembly of Microscopical and Food Chemists in Vienna, held on
the 12th-13th October 1897, the object of which was to fix a “Codex
Alimentarius Austriacus”, also arrived at some just and appreciable
definitions, which are well worthy of repetition here:[213]

1. Chocolate should consist of a mixture of cacao, Austrian sugar
capable of fermentation, further an addition of spices (cinnamon,
cloves, vanilla or vanillin) amounting to as much as 1 percent of the
whole.

2. Cacao mass should consist of the roasted and shelled cacao bean,
ground and moulded, only.

3. Cocoa Powder should be a preparation obtained from cacao mass only
by the partial expression of the 50 percent of fat which the latter
contains and frequently treated with alkalis. The alkalis may reach 2
percent of the whole, and the object of the treatment with them is
to effect the disintegration of the tissues of cacao or to render the
cacao “soluble


d) International Definitions.

An International Congress of Chocolate and Cocoa Manufacturers was
finally held in Berne on August 21st-23rd 1911, which, unlike the
meeting held by the White Cross in Geneva (1908), the object of which
was the prevention of food adulterations, was really international
and attended by numerous manufacturers from Belgium, Germany,
England, France, Holland, Italy, Mexico, Austria, Hungary, Russia and
Switzerland, the total number of visitors amounting to 250.[214]


1. ~Cacao Mass.~

§ 1. Cacao mass is obtained by roasting or drying[215] cacao beans
which have previously been well cleaned and freed from the shells
and dust. Cacao mass can either be disintegrated, i. e. “soluble” or
untreated with disintegrating agents, i. e. “insoluble

Cacao which has been treated according to § 5 is in the real and
business sense of the term to be regarded as a ~pure~ article of
food, seeing that the treatment with alkaline carbonates or pure alkali
is a purely chemical, or technical, operation. Such cacao may therefore
be justly termed “pure

§ 2. Cacao mass may contain a quantity of added cacao butter
proportionate to the prescribed, or suitable, fat content of the cacao
preparation to be made.


2. ~Cocoa Powder.~

§ 3. Cocoa powder should consist of defatted, or fatty, pulverised
cacao mass.

§ 4. Cocoa powder which has been opened up by means of alkalis or
otherwise is termed “soluble” or disintegrated cacao.

Disintegrated cacao which has been treated as described under § 5 may
in the real and business sense of the word be regarded as a “pure”
article of food, as the treatment with alkaline carbonates or pure
alkalis is a purely chemical, or technical, operation. Such cacao may,
therefore, be justly termed “pure

§ 5. The quantity of alkali used to effect the treatment described
should not exceed 5·75[216] grammes of potash or the equivalent of
another alkaline carbonate, to 100 grammes of dry defatted cacao.


III. ~Cacao Butter.~

§ 6. Cacao butter consists of the fat obtained from either untreated or
disintegrated cacao.


IV. ~Chocolate~ and ~Chocolate Powder~.

§ 7. Chocolate is a mixture of cacao mass and sugar, with or without
the addition of cacao butter. On pulverising chocolate, ~chocolate
powder~ is obtained.

§ 8. Both chocolate and chocolate powder may, if the methods of
manufacture require it, be prepared from partially defatted cacao mass.

§ 9. The amount of cacao mass and cacao butter contained in chocolates
and chocolate powders should be at least 32 percent[217] of the whole.


V. ~Milk Chocolate.~

§ 10. Milk chocolate should consist of a mixture of cacao mass, cacao
butter, sugar and milk or milk powder. The quantity of cacao mass and
cacao butter contained in such preparations should amount together to
at least 25 percent[218] of the whole.

§ 11. All chocolates which are brought on to the market under the name
of milk chocolate, must contain at least 12·5 percent of milk or milk
powder.

§ 12. No milk used for the preparation of milk chocolate may contain
any preserving agent.


VI. ~Covering Matter.~

§ 13. The definitions of chocolate proper apply also to covering
material.

§ 14. Covering chocolate may, without special designation, contain up
to 5 percent of its weight as sold of almonds, nuts, milk or milk
powder. All other additions must be clearly declared on the packages in
which the covering material is sold, or in the invoices referring to it.


VII. ~Flavouring matter~ (Spices).

§ 15. All material (spices etc.) used for flavouring cacao preparations
must be harmless.[219]

  Key to horizontal text = HT = Forbidden colouring matters

  ————————————+—————————————-—+——————————————————————————————+——————————
     Name of  |               |                              |
      cacao   | Adulteration  |       Mode of Detection      | Reference
   preparation|               |                              |
  ————————————+—————————————-—+——————————————————————————————+——————————
  Chocolate   |               |{ a) Microscopically          |   277
  Cacao mass  |               |{ b) By excess in glucose     |   264
  Coated      |Meal (kind     |{ c) By decreasing the amount |
    Goods     |  not stated)  |{    of ash                   |
    Covering  |               |{                             |  —
  Chocolats   |               |{ a) By increasing the amount |
    fondants  | Cacao husks   |{    of ash and the amount of |
              |   and sawdust |{    silicic acid in the ash  |   256
              |               |{ b) Method of levigation     |   267
              |               |{ c) Determination of fibre   |   266
              |               |{ d) Microscopically          |   275
              |               |                              |
              |               |{ a) Melting point            |   260
              |               |{ b) Iodine value             |   —
              |Foreign fats   |{ c) Saponification value     |   —
              |  and oils     |{ d) Refractometer test       |   —
              |               |{ e) Björklund’s test         |   261
              |               |                              |
              |Bad (rancid)   |{ a) Acid value               |   260
              |  cacao-butter |{ b) Reichert-Meissl number   |   —
              |               |                              |
              |  {Yellow ochre|}                             |
              |  {Red ferric  |} Increase in the             |
              |HT{oxide       |}  amount of ash              |   —
              |  {Brickdust   |}                             |
              |  {Coal        |}                             |
  only        |               |                              |
  observed    |Cacaolol       |                              |
  in soup     |               |                              |
  powders;    |Zinc white and |}                             |
  only used   |  heavy spar   |} Analytically in the ash     |   —
  to imitate  |               |                              |
  the ash of  |               |                              |
  chocolate   |               |                              |
  cigars;     |               |                              |
              |Besides        |}                             |
              |  inorganic    |}Increase in the              |
              |  weighting    |}  amount of ash              |   —
              |  material     |}                             |
              |    Sand  }    |                              |
              |    Clay  }    |Polarisation                  |
              |    Dextrine}  |  by Welmans’ process         |   258
              |               |                              |
              |Excess of sugar|{ a) Polarimetric test        |   269
              |               |{ b) Aräometric test          |   270
              |               |{ c) Decrease in ash          |   —
              |Excess of cacao|Determination of amount of fat|   258
              |  butter       |                              |
              |Excess of water|Determination of moisture     |   254
              |Gelatine       |Picric acid test and albumin  |
              |               |  determination               |   —
              |Tragacanth     |Microscopically               |   277
              |Earth-nut      |Microscopically               |   278
              |Earth-nut-cake |Determination of albumin      |   271
              |Walnut- and    |Microscopically               |   278
              |  hazelnut     |                              |
              |  pulps        |                              |
  Cocoa-      |{ Husk         |                              |
    Powder    |{ Foreign fat  |As with chocolate             |   —
              |{ Meal         |                              |




C. Adulterations of Cacao wares and their Recognition.


a) Introductory.

Cacao preparations are subject to manifold and various kinds of
adulteration. The following table gives a list of proved adulterating
agents, and contains in the last column but one hints as to how such
foreign additions can be detected, which hints are given in more detail
on various pages in this edition, the numbers of which are annexed in
the last column.

Bases for the judgment of cacao preparations appear on the one hand
in the definitions and formulas previously given, and on the other in
the rougher and finer adulterations which we had the opportunity of
detecting. We give these bases once more, at least such as we deem
necessary to a proper estimation of the purity of cacao goods, and in
general rather incline to the principles which Filsinger has worked out
for the Imperial Health Office (Germany) and which received a hearty
reception at the hands of the various unions connected with the trade.


b) The Principles.

~Chocolate~, ~Cacao material~, and ~cocoa powder~
(defatted and disintegrated cacao) may on no account contain any kind
of foreign vegetable mixtures like starch, meal, peanut cake, hazel nut
and walnut admixtures, nor cacao shells nor yet waste products, neither
may it contain any mineral stuffs or foreign fats. Chocolates with meal
addition must contain on the wrapper a concise and definite declaration
of such addition on the wrapper. The presence of cacao shells is
detrimental to the nutritious value of the cacao preparation, being
little suited for human consumption, as they contain a large quantity
of woody substance, and apart from this, always occur with adhering
sand and earth. The removal of such shells is since the perfecting of
the cleaning machinery intended for the purpose, become a very easy
matter, and so none but very inferior quantities are permissible.
Any additional shells (even when declared, and very fine ground) are
illegal. The addition of spices or their corresponding ethereal oils
are allowed, and as such may be considered almonds and nuts, more
especially in the case of coating material and so forth, although they
are subject to compulsory declaration.

The same conditions prevail in the case of ~chocolate enamelling~
and ~coating~ material as for ordinary chocolate, and in
particular they must be free from all kind of foreign fats and cacao
shells.

The use of dyes (earth-and tar-colouring matter) which are intended as
substitutes for a percentage of cacao, and not merely as ornamental, is
not permissible; and such dyes as are objectionable from a hygienical
standpoint are impossible, even when they are used for decorating
purposes. Cacao material contains on an average from 3-4 % of ash and
from 50-55 % of fat.

Admixtures of glue, tragacanth or dextrine are not permissible, when
they are intended to conceal an addition of water or to save the use of
expensive cacao fat.

~Cocoa powder~ contains arbitrary quantities of fat, and shows
accordingly a varying quantity of ash to correspond with the amount of
fat expressed. It is therefore necessary to declare the quantity of
fat contained in quite a general manner and something in the following
grade: skimmed milk cacao under 25 % of fat, cacao freed from oil,
fatty and ordinary milk chocolate up to a percentage not exceeding
35.[220] For the same reason it is necessary to convert the established
ash contents, possibly of cacao material with 50% of fat, or none at
all. It is most to the purpose to convert in the case of dry material
which has been freed of fat, as occasionally considerable amounts of
moisture remain over from the processes of preparation. Cocoa powder
which has been disintegrated without the use of potassium, sodium
or magnesia agents (carbonic acid) will therefore show the same ash
contents as the corresponding material freed from oil, whilst that of
cacao disintegrated by means of the fixed alkalis will be greater. The
ash contents of powder freed of oil may nevertheless not exceed 3 %,
corresponding to a total 7 %. The mixture of cocoa powder and sugar is
not permissible.

Chocolates, chocolate fondants and coating mass contain variable
quantities of sugar and fat; accordingly no limits can be assigned to
the ash contents of these preparations.

A unanimity of opinion as to the least possible amount of cacao for the
chemical estimation of chocolate has become an urgent necessity. Hereby
it should be established that in good chocolate the fatty contents,
apart from the sugar,[221] exceed a definite percentage.[222] A minimum
percentage of 35% of cacao mass in chocolate destined for export, which
must possibly be covered, has been fixed by the council of commerce.

As percentage of chocolate in cacao the double quantity of non-fatty
cacao material must be taken, on the supposition that raw cacao
contains on an average 50% of fat.


c) Laws and Enactments as to Trade in Cacao Preparations.

So far traffic in cacao has only been brought under legal control in
three European countries, namely Belgium, Roumania, and Switzerland.
We annex in the following pages a resumé of the legal prescriptions
appertaining thereto, as being of especial importance to exporting
manufacturers.


1 ~Belgium.~

The ~Belgian~ royal decree of the 18th November 1894 established
on the basis of the law for articles of consumption, August 4th 1890,
and article 454 to 457, 500 to 503, and 561 of the penal code book runs
(according to the “Moniteur Belge” of the 3rd and 4th December, 1894,
as follows:

Art. 1. It is illegal to sell, expose or hold in possession for sale,
or to transmit, any other product as “all cocoa” than the fruit of the
cacao tree, raw and prepared by roasting, hulling and grinding with or
without addition of spices, and finally moulded into tablets or reduced
to powder form.

It is permissible to sell, expose or have in possession for sale, or
to transmit such cacao as has suffered a loss of butter by expressing,
provided that the amount of this ingredient is not diminished by more
than 20 % of the whole, under the designation “cocoa or cocoa powder”;
and again under the designation “alkalinised cacao” (cacao alcalinisé)
such as has had its alkali content increased in special treatment by
not more than 3% of the total weight. The declaration “alkalinised” is
not, if a matter of mere possession or transmittance in export, to be
considered as necessary.

Cacao which has been prepared other than as above described may only
be sold, exposed or held in possession for sale, or transmitted, under
a special label which declares this special manner of preparation next
to the word “cacao” or under a label that does not contain the word
“cacao” at all.

The word “alkalinised” or any other words which indicate alterations or
additions in the natural composition of the cacao must be introduced on
the label in distinct and similar type to the word “cacao

Cacao in which the proportion of alkali amounts to more than 3% is
regarded as injurious, and the sale, having and holding in possession
or despatch of same for sale is illegal.

Art. 2. It is illegal to sell, have in possession or expose for sale,
or to transmit any product whatever, under the designation “chocolate”,
that is not manufactured exclusively from shelled cacao, and that
in a minimum proportion of 35%, and ordinary sugar, with or without
admixture of spices.

Products which though containing the requisite 35% of shelled cacao
are also made of other substances than those above signified may only
be sold, held in possession, exposed or transmitted for sale under a
label that clearly describes the nature of such ingredients next to
the word “chocolate” and in the same type, or under a label that does
not contain the word “Chocolate” at all. In the case indicated by
impressing them on each separate tablet.

Products which contain less than 35% of cacao may only be sold, held
in possession, exposed, or transmitted for sale under the designation
“cacao bonbons” or some similar description, from which the word
chocolate has been rigidly excluded.

Art. 3. Entries of the labels prescribed for the products of irregular
composition in articles 1 and 2 must be made on the invoices despatched
with the goods.

Art. 4. The box, case or wrapper etc. containing cacao or chocolate
which is sold, exposed, held in possession or transmitted for sale must
bear the name and address of the manufacturer or seller, or at least
some regular and authorised trade mark.

Art. 5. The articles of this decree, as far as they refer to chocolate,
are only applicable to ordinary chocolates in tablet, block, spherical
or powder form, not however to cream and various sugar confections in
chocolates (such as pralinés, pastilles etc.).

Art. 6. Any infringement of the articles of this decree will incur a
fine in accordance with the code of fines issued on Aug. 4th 1890, over
and above the ordinary penalties.

Art. 7. Our Board of Trade and Agriculture is hereby entrusted with the
carrying out of this decree, which shall come into force on April 1st
1895.


2. Roumania.

The royal enactment of this land respecting the health supervision of
foods and drinks and the trade in foods and drinks, articles 154, 155,
156 and 157 of the Health act of the 11th September, 1895, says the
“Buletinul directiunei generale a serviciului sanitar” 1895, No. 18 and
19, pages 277 et seq.

No. XIII, Article 137.

No product may be sold, exposed or held in possession or transmitted
for sale, under the designation cacao, other than the seed of the fruit
obtained from the tree “Theobroma Cacao It may be brought on the market
raw, roasted, or powdered after roasting.

Under the designation “Cocoa powder, defatted”, such may be sold as
has suffered loss of butter by extraction, provided that there still
remains a minimum 22% of cacao butter in the product. As disintegrated
cacao may be sold such powder as does not contain more than a maximum
2% of sodium or potassium carbonate.

Art. 138. It is illegal to sell or expose for sale artificially dyed
and pulverised cacao, and also such as has been mixed with starch
meals, foreign fats or any other foreign ingredients. It is in like
manner illegal to mix cocoa powder with shells, and the former may not
contain more than a maximum 15% of powdered shell.[223]

Art. 139. Under the designation “Chocolate”, only the foodstuff
prepared from a mixture of roasted and powdered bean and sugar, with or
without admixture of aromatic ingredients, as vanilla, cinnamon and the
like substances, may be sold and exposed for sale.

Art. 140. The manufacture and sale, as also the exposure for sale of
chocolate from cacao that does not answer the several demands of this
decree, articles 137 and 138, as well as of chocolate that is mixed
with starch, meals, mineral and artificially coloured substance, is
illegal.


3. Switzerland.

The association of analytic chemists in this country have issued a
book entitled “The Swiss Book of Nutritious Stuffs and Articles of
Sustenance”, where the methods and standards prevailing in research
work connected with such substances are finally established for
Switzerland. This work served as a guide as regards articles of
sustenance up to the time when the Swiss food act came into force, and
we accordingly annex a few extracts from it, dealing with our subject,
cacao preparations.


Definitions.

1. Cacao mass is obtained by grinding and moulding the shelled and
roasted cacao bean, without any admixture whatever, or extraction of
butter.

2. Cacao ~freed of oil~ is cacao that has been reduced by from 20%
to 35% as regards its butter contents by means of pressure under heat.

3. ~Disintegrated cacao.~ The roasted beans are treated with
carbonic acid alkalis (generally potassium) subjected to pressure
under ammonia or steam, and so the cellular tissue of the albuminous
substance disintegrated or broken up and converted into a soluble
modification (peptone and alkalinous albuminate).[224] The so treated
beans are next dried, reduced, defatted and pulverised.

4. ~Chocolate~ is the description of a mixture of cacao and
sugar which comes into commerce either moulded or in powder form. The
percentage of sugar amounts to between 40 and 70%. Admixture of other
substances than cacao, sugar and the usual spices must be regarded as
adulterations.[225]

5. ~Chocolate~ and ~cacao~ (powdered or moulded) may be
aromatised with the following substances: vanilla, benjamin gum, tolu
and peru balsam, cinnamon, cloves and nutmeg.

6. ~Chocolate fondants~ are chocolates with an unusually large
proportion of sugar and fatty contents.

7. ~Milk chocolate~ is a preparation prepared from milk, sugar
and cacao. It may not contain the preserving materials dis-allowed for
milk, such as boracic acid, borax, formic aldehyde and derivatives of
the aromatic series. It comes into commerce in powder form.

8. ~Covering~ or ~coating~ material is a mixture of cacao,
sugar, spices, with almonds and hazel nuts. This preparation is almost
exclusively employed for bonbon confectionery.

9. ~Medicinal Chocolate~ is a chocolate or cacao preparation
containing additions of medicaments.


Tests and Definitions always to be applied.

  1.  Touch test.
  2.  Reaction.
  3.  Microscopical examination.
  4.  Examination of the fat.
  5.  Estimation of cacao butter.
  6.  Determination of sugar.
  7.  Determination of ash.


Tests and Definitions eventually necessary.

  8.  Determination of moisture.
  9.  Determination of theobromine.
  10.  Determination of starch.
  11.  Determination of cellulose.


Guide to Classification:

Unripe, badly fermented cacao beans and those which have been
attacked by insects or mould or have suffered during transport from
the influence of salt-water, should never be used for manufacturing
purposes.

Goods prepared from such beans have an unpleasant taste, which it
is impossible to get rid of by the various operations in the course
of manufacture. The use of all such beans is to be regarded as
adulteration. The tests to be applied for determining them are tasting,
microscopical examination and perhaps the estimation of the common salt
contained in them.

All good chocolates are of a fine brown colour. Grey-coloured or
spotted chocolate are objectionable. Spots or the grey colour alluded
to may be caused either by damp or heat. At an ordinary temperature the
fracture of the chocolate is hard, glassy and even. The quality of the
fracture constitutes an excellent basis in judging of the manner and
methods employed in working up the raw material.

Cacao and chocolate that become thick and pulpy on boiling are in all
probability adulterated with meal, starch, dextrine or resin.

The following are to be considered as adulterations:

1. Admixtures of cacao or other shells, and sawdust.

2. Admixtures of foreign starch, meals, castania and resin.

3. Admixtures of mineral substances like ochre, clay and sand.

4. The substitution of cheaper fats, such as beef and pork dripping,
almond, poppy seed, cocoa-nut and vaseline oils.


Limitations.

1. For ~cacao material~.

  Ash { Maximum: 5% (Porto Cabello 4·65%)[226]
      { Minimum: 2% (Surinam 2·25%)
  Cacao butter { Maximum: 54·5% (Machalla 54·06)
               { Minimum: 48·0% (Porto Cabello 45·87).[226]

2. ~For cacao fat.~ Melting point 29 to 33·5° C.; freezing point
24 to 25° C.; refraction at 40° C., 46 to 49[226]; iodine value 34 to
37; point of saponification, 192 to 202.

3. ~Disintegrated cacao~: the amount of added alkali is not to
exceed 3%. In no case shall the ash content be more than 8%. This
figure is not inconsistent with the above stated maximum ash content,
as disintegrated or soluble cacao is manufactured from a mixture of
several sorts of cacao, in each of which (although they have been
defatted) there is not more than 5% of ash.

4. ~Chocolate~: although at the present time there are no limits
fixed for cacao and sugar, it may nevertheless be safely assumed that
the fat and sugar together may not exceed 80 to 85%, and that the rest
shall be pure non-fatty cacao material, in the proportion of from
15-20%. The ash in a good chocolate does not exceed 3·5%.

5. ~Milk chocolate~: here the separate ingredients require a
thorough drying. If the percentage of moisture amounts to as much as
five percent, the whole preparation is objectionable and liable to
lose its hard consistency.

6. ~Chocolate~ à la noisette, ~oat~, ~meat~ and
~medicinal chocolates~. The testing of these takes two chief
directions:

 1. It must be established that the ingredients given on the label are
 of good quality, and

 2. that only the ingredients there mentioned occur in the packet.

The constituents and their proportions shall be declared on the
wrappers in the case of medicinal chocolate.

On the 1st July then, in the year 1909, the act passed in connection
with foods and articles of consumption December 5th, 1905 came into
force in Switzerland. Thereby the whole of Swiss trade in such
foodstuffs and articles of consumption is systematically controlled.
Of the 268 articles which are generally representative, we annex here
those concerning cacao, powder and chocolate, namely, nos 146 to 149.

=Art. 146.= Under the designation ~cacao~ or ~cacao powder~
only the pure, unaltered or only partially defatted natural product may
be brought into commerce.

A cacao powder may only be described as ~soluble~ when it has been
treated with carbonic acid alkalis or disintegrated with steam.

Soluble cacao may only contain 3% added alkalis on the outside.

=Art. 147.= Under the designation ~chocolate~, only a mixture of
cacao and sugar with or without addition of cacao butter and spices is
to be understood, and no other may be brought on the market as such.

The percentage of sugar in chocolate may not exceed 68.[227]

=Art. 148.= Cacao and chocolate may not contain starch, meal, foreign
fat, mineral substances, colouring matter and so-called fat economisers
(dextrine, gelatine, resin and tragacanth) and only traces of cacao
shell. They may not be gritty nor foul smelling nor otherwise spoilt.

=Art. 149.= Special products of cacao and chocolate with addition of
oats, milk, acorns and hazel nuts must be declared accordingly (as oat
cacao, milk chocolate etc.). Fancy confections fall also under this
obligation.

Cacaos and chocolates which are put on the market in packets, boxes and
packages must contain the name of the firm on the wrapper, or some mark
of the manufacturer or salesman which is recognised in Switzerland.

If saccharine, dulcine or other artificial sweetstuffs are added to
chocolate, such admixture must be declared on the wrapper.[228]


4. Austria.

Legal control of the traffic in cacao preparations in this country may
be expected in the near future.

~Austria~ is indeed already in possession of a law (dated January
19th, 1896) concerning the traffic in articles of consumption, although
the special determinations have hitherto not reached perfection, and
the treatment of the separate detailed articles must proceed gradually.
As in Switzerland, the Association of Food Chemists and Analysts here
have worked out designs for a “Codex alimentarius austriacus The work
of this code commission is of a purely private nature and accordingly
no official importance accrues to it, but it is none the less
recognised by all Austrian chemists and has indirectly (and even in law
courts) about the same weight as the opinion of an expert, especially
as the single articles of consumption are almost exclusively limited to
specialists in this country. We therefore introduce the most important
points of this code which bear on our subject, although various
alterations must be made in these as they succeed to legal recognition,
for since the appearance of the code many changes have developed as
regards the methods of research.


I. Cacao Mass.

~Definition.~ Under cacao mass is to be understood the material
constituting a regular and uniform dough when warmed, which has been
exclusively prepared and manufactured from the shelled cacao bean.

~Ingredients.~ Cacao material contains the same ingredients
chemically as the shelled bean.

Microscopical investigation should only reveal the presence of seed
kernel, and not particles of root, which should be removed in the
course of preparation.

The ash may not exceed 3·5%[229], the fibre 3%[229], and the starch
10·5%. The amount of fat figures at between 48 and 52 percent.


II. Cocoa powder.

(Pulverised cacao, defatted, and disintegrated.)

~Definition.~ Hereby is understood the steamed preparations or
the powder obtained by expressing at least half the total fat from
ordinary cacao material and further grinding and sifting.

~Characteristics.~ The cocoa powder shall on boiling with 20 to
30 times its volume of water yield a suspension, in which there are no
traces of lumpy formation, and which does not show a sediment after the
expiration of a few minutes.[230] Should there be any such sediment, it
shall be examined under the microscope.

Cocoa powder shall be sifted and ground free from meal, and may not, on
sifting through a miller gauze (No. 12) show more than 5% of material
on the sieve.

The chemical composition of cocoa powder is modified according to the
degree of defatting. If 30 parts out of 100 are defatted, which is the
usual procedure. If 30 parts fat are expressed from 100 parts cacao
material, which usually happens, then the cocoa powder contains 30%
fat, 5% ash[231], 3·5% fibre, and 13%.

The amount of moisture shall not exceed 6%.

The fat shall be pure cacao butter.

~Addition of alkalis is not allowed.~

Microscopical investigation as under I.


III. Chocolate.

~Definition.~ Chocolate is the cacao material evenly and regularly
worked up with cane sugar (refined, ordinary or coarse).

The completely uniform pasty mass, when warmed, is allowed to set in
moulds and then forms pieces of fatty appearance, finely granular or
close fracture (tablets, blocks).

Good chocolate consists of 40 to 50 percent of cacao mass and 50 to
60 percent of sugar.

It may also contain a small amount of harmless aromatic substances.

Should the sum of the cacao fat and sugar in chocolate amount to over
85 percent, it is termed “Sweetmeat chocolate”, and should the sum
of those ingredients be more than 90 percent, the chocolate is to be
declared as “Very sweet

All the ingredients in chocolate, after deducting the sugar, shall be
present in the same relative proportion and in the same condition as in
pure cacao mass (compare I).

Sweetened chocolate is an exception, in so far as it has had in its
preparation an addition of cacao butter. Fine kinds are also prepared
with an addition of defatted cacao.

~Unmoulded~ chocolate or chocolate powder shall answer to the same
requirements.


IV. Cacao surrogate and chocolate surrogate.

~Definition.~ Cacao preparations containing admixtures of meal are
to be described as surrogates.

The addition of other substances than meal is inadmissible.

Absence of cacao husk is also required as in I, II, III.

Mixtures of cacao powder, sugar and meal are also to be regarded as
surrogates.

The extent of the addition of meal is to be distinctly noted by the
seller on the article sold.


V. Couverture (coating mass).

~Definition.~ This includes various preparations of pure cacao
butter and chocolate (or mixtures of chocolate with cacao butter and
cacao mass), which form a thin liquid, when warmed, and are used for
coating or pouring over confectionery. All other substances (roasted
hazel nuts or almonds and the like) shall be declared.


Investigation.

~To be carried out without exception with all cacao preparations~:

1. ~Determination of fat.~ The fat is extracted from the dry
substance which has been mixed with an indifferent body (sand) by pure
and absolutely dry ether (distilled over sodium) or by petroleum ether.
Cacao mass and chocolate must first be shaved or rasped.

2. ~Jesting of the fat.~

a) Determination of the melting point in a capillary tube (three days
after the fat has been melted into the tube).[232] Pure cacao butter
usually melts at 33° C.

b) Determination of the iodine value; usually 35·0 with pure cacao fat.

It is further recommended to make a refractometric determination, which
in a Zeiss butter-refractometer must be 46·5° at 40° C.

3. The ~microscopic test~ of the substance, from which the fat and
the sugar have been removed.

~The following are also essential~:


I. With cacao mass.

The determination of fibre and ash.


II. Cacao powder.

Determination of moisture at 100° C., of the fibre and ash and
examination of the ash (quantitative determination of phosphoric acid
and potash).


III. Chocolate.

Determination of the sugar by polarisation of the aqueous solution.


IV. Surrogates.

Determination of the starch.

If it is considered necessary to proceed further, then:

1. Determination of theobromine by a modification of Wolfram’s method,
the method employed is to be exactly stated.[233]

2. In the determination of starch, the gelatinisation is to be carried
out under steam pressure and the inverted sugar gravimetrically
determined with Fehling’s solution.

An opinion of the quality of the preparation can be formed from the
taste, smell and colour of the sample on boiling with water.


5. Germany.

In ~Germany~, unfortunately, there is at present no law, which
regulates the trade in cacao goods. It is true that there exists the
decree of the 14th May, 1879 respecting the trade in food, alimentary
substances and comestibles, which contains the usual penal enactments
in regard to adulteration of food materials offered for sale. The
enactments are supplemented with data relating to the administration of
the law, among which a definition of chocolate, as well as the means
of judging as to the quality or its adulteration, are treated of. But
those data do not in all respects apply to existing conditions, nor
do they deal fully with the question as to what admixtures are to be
permitted or prohibited, for in the introduction to the appendix A,
there is the following statement:

“Like the former provision, the present one is not intended to be an
~exhaustive~ description of all subjects of the kind referred
to, but a compilation of those examples which appear to be especially
calculated to serve as an illustration of legislative requirements.”

The data referred to have not an officially authoritative significance,
and they cannot be regarded as having established validity in
connection with the administration of the law by the police or by legal
authorities. (See: Commentary by Meyer-Finkenburg, page 116.)

Even the complete publication of the “Vereinbarungen zur einheitlichen
Untersuchung von Nahrungs-und Genußmitteln sowie Gebrauchsgegenständen
für das Deutsche Reich”, collected at the instance of the national
health department, will not have the effect of giving certainty in
the law relating to the manufacture of chocolate. That section of the
“Vereinbarungen”, which deals with cacao products, was published in
Book III (Berlin, Julius Springer 1912) pages 68-81, but the conditions
in Germany are at present only similar to those existing in Switzerland
and in Austria. The “Vereinbarungen” are nothing more, than a valuable
semiofficial guide for the valuation and examination of food and
comestibles, the provisions of which, not being obligationary, have
no legal effect. They have long been in need of a thorough revision,
as recent scientifical results testify, and indeed “The Voluntary
association of German Food Chemists” have for years been engaged in
such revision.

The consequence is, that the prosecution of various manipulation which
certainly deserve to be objected to, such as the preparation of cacao
or chocolate from undecorticated beans, would be difficult to carry
out. The Association of German Chocolate Manufacturers has protested
against that unsuitable state of affairs, and since a remedy is to be
looked for only from the enactment of a law regulating the trade in
cacao products, that association prepared a draft act, at its XVII.
annual meeting at Leipsic on the 15th January 1893, and has submitted
it to the government health department.

That draft is in accordance with the provisions printed on pages 231
and 232 a-e. The provisions of the association in reference to the
trade in cacao products also contain the following paragraphs:


§ 2.

It is not to be considered adulteration or counterfeit, within the
meaning of the law (§ 10) relating to trade in food materials,
comestibles or articles of consumption (of 14th May 1879,
Reichsgesetzblatt page 145):

1. When the productions referred to under a, b, c are mixed with meal
or other substances for medicinal purposes, provided, they are of a
character by which they are distinctly recognisable, or are kept in
stock or offered for sale under a designation distinguishing them from
chocolate, cacao mass, or cacao powder.

2. When covering or coating material, or sweetmeat chocolate is mixed
with burnt almonds or hazel nuts to the extent of 5 %.


§ 3.

Adulteration within the meaning of the law dated May 14th 1879, § 10
(Reichsgesetzblatt, page 145) comprises:

1. The addition of foreign fat to chocolate, cacao mass or cacao butter.

2. The addition to chocolate, cacao material or cocoa powder of cacao
husk, meal or other substances, except in the cases mentioned on page
279, § 2, pos. 1 and 2.[234]

3. The addition of colouring materials to chocolate.

4. The addition to chocolate or chocolate surrogates of any but cane
sugars (beetroot sugar).


§ 4.

As already pointed out, the terms of this proposed legislative step
naturally command approval and we should be the first to welcome the
appearance of a “Deutsches Lebensmittelbuch” or some similar work[235],
intended to serve as an authoritative regulation of the trade in cacao
preparations and as a protection of honest manufacturers against the
uncertainty now attending legal proceedings. In that case, other
civilised countries might be expected to follow.


FOOTNOTES:

[162] Ztschr. öffentl. Ch. 1900, page 324, 325.

[163] Ztschr. öffentl. Ch. 1900, p. 478.

[164] Journ. de Pharm. et Chim. 1898, Vol. 2, page 7.

[165] See also Farnsteiner Z. U. N. & G., vol. 23 (1907), page 308.

[166] See Farnsteiner’s method, Z.U.N. & G., Vol. 13 (1907), page 308.

[167] 6th. edition, 2nd vol., page 644.

[168] Compare: Froehner & Lührig, Z.U.N. & G. IX (1903), p. 257 and
Lührig ibid. IX p. 263.

[169] cf. the methods of Farnsteiner Z.U.N. & G. XIII, 1907 p. 308.

[170] cf. also Farnsteiner Z.U.N. & G. XVI 1908, p. 642 yet according
to information from Dr. Böhme from the laboratory of Stollwerk Bros,
bluing from red or violet litmus paper should also take place in the
case of cacao prepared with potash, and on the contrary the Kurkuma
brown not result.

[171] Ztschr. für öffentl. Chemie 1900, page 304.

[172] Ztschr. für öffentl. Chemie 1900, page 481.

[173] Ibid. 1900, pages 86 et seq.

[174] Arbeiten aus dem Kaiserl. Gesundh.-Amt 1904, page 20.

[175] Ztschr. f. öffentl. Chemie 1907, page 308.

[176] Forschungsberichte über Lebensmittel etc. 1896, III page 275,
also Beckurt’s Jahresbericht der Pharmazie 1896, page 746.

[177] Ztschr. f. anal. Ch. vol. 3, page 233.

[178] Ztschr. f. anal. Ch., vol. 19, page 246.

[179] Journal of Society for Chem. Research 1899, page 556.

[180] The solubility of caffeine in carbon tetrachloride is said by
Eminger to be 1:100, but Scherr maintains that a much larger quantity
is required.

[181] Merck’s Catalogue of Reacting Agents (2^{nd}. Edition, page 88)
gives a convenient method of determining the presence of theobromine
and caffeine (Gerard’s reaction). We annex an extract.

~Gerard’s Reaction on Theobromine.~

A mixture of 0·05 g of theobromine, 3 ccm of water and ccm of soda
wash is decomposed with 1 ccm of a silver nitrate solution 10 percent
strong, heated to 60 C. and the solution so obtained cooled down. It
then gelatinises very perceptibly. Caffeine does not give this reaction.

Cf. Pharmaceutical and Chemical Journal 1906, p. 476. Apoth.-Ztg. 1906,
p. 432. Pharm. Ztg. 1906, p. 512. Chemical Leaflet 1906 II, p. 167
among others.

[182] Soxhlet’s so-called steam digester, as constructed by Esser of
Munich.

[183] Ztschr. f. anal. Ch. 1882, Vol. 22, page 448.

[184] Giornale di Farmacia, di Chimica etc. 1898.

[185] Lectures for the Establishment of Rational Feeding of Animals
(Weender, Lectures), vol. 1864, p. 48. Cf. also “Landwirtschaftl.
Versuchsstationen”, vol. 4, page 497.

[186] Journal of Applied Chemistry 1896, p. 712 & 749.

[187] A new process for the determination of crude fibre in food
stuffs. Z.U.N. u. G. 1898, p. 3.

[188] Ztschr. öff. Chemie 1899, vol. 2, p. 29.

[189] Ibid. 1899, vol. 32, p. 479.

[190]

  B. Fischer & Grünhagen, Z. U. N. u. G. 1902, V, p. 83.
  P. Drawe, Ztschr. öff. Ch. 1903, IX, p. 161.
  G. Lagerheim, Z. U. N. u. G. 1902, V, p. 83.
  J. Decker, Schweiz. Wchschr. f. Chem. u. Pharm. 1908, 40, p. 463.
  H. Lührig, Bericht d. chem. Unters.-Amtes Chemnitz 1905.


[191] Pharmaceutische Zeitung 1889, p. 847.

[192] Ztschr. f. öffentl. Chem. 1898, vol. IV, p. 224 u. 225.

[193] Untersuchungen über Kakao und dessen Präparate, page 48.

[194]

  See A. Leys, Journ. Pharm. et Chim. 1902 (6), 16, p. 471.
  A. Steimann, Ztschr. öffentl. Ch. 1903, 9, p. 239 u. 261.
  P. Welmanns, ibid. 1903, 9, p. 93 u. 115.
  R. Woy, Schweiz. Wochenschr. f. Chem. u. Pharm. 1903, 41, p. 27.
  A. Steimann, ibid. 1903, 41, p. 65.
  Fr. David Söhne, Ztschr. öffentl. Ch. 1904, 10, p. 7.
  H. Lührig, Bericht d. chem. Unters.-Amtes zu Chemnitz, 1905, p. 43.
  F. Bordas & Touplain, Compt. rendues 1905, 140, p. 1098.


[195] Ztschr. f. analyt. Chemie, vol. 22, p. 366.

[196] Journal de Pharmacie et Chémie 1877, page 29.

[197] Z.U.N. u. G. 1904, 7, p. 471.

[198] Ibid. 1909, 18, p. 16 et seq.

[199] Ibid. p. 17.

[200] Z. U. N. and G. 1909, XVIII p. 19.

[201] A word about the R.-M. number seems not out of place here. Baier
indeed gives it as an average 1·0 but it varies considerably, as his
own investigations show (8 tests of pressed or extracted fats), where
there are fluctuations of 1·65—2·37. Information kindly volunteered by
Prof. Härtel and our own experience convinces us that such fluctuations
proceed generally from the Glycerine employed, which has itself a R.-M.
number, sometimes even amounting to 1·0. It is therefore necessary to
fix the standard of Glycerine used in the experiment, only too much
neglected in professional investigations.

[202] Loc. cit. p. 21.

[203] As starting point it may be taken for granted that the R. M.
number for milk chocolate is at a minimum 3·75, for cream chocolate 5·5
assuming that 10% cream possesses the R. M. number 3·0 and 20% that
between 5·9-6. Various roundabout calculations are so avoided, when
the percentages of cream are thus immediately converted into the R. M.
number, and the method is quite adequate for estimating purposes.

[204] Method of Laxa-Baier, compare Z. U. N. and G. 1909, XVIII p. 18
and 19.

[205] Compare: Welmans Zeitschrift für öffentl. Chemie 1900, page 480.

[206] The reader who would further consider the form elements of cacao
is referred to the excellent paper by Py in the Journal de Pharm. et
Chimie 1895. Vol. 1, page 593.

[207] Compare: E. Guenez, Revue internationale des falsifications des
denrées alimentaires 1895. Vol. 9, pages 83-84.

[208] Chemiker-Zeitung 1890. Vol. 14, Rep. page 48.

[209] Zeitschrift für öffentliche Chemie 1900, page 480.

[210] Cf. Beytheon, Pharm. Central-Halle 47, page 749.

[211] Compare page 283 and the remarks there.

[212] There may be, however, an enormous difference.

[213] Report and stenogr. prot. publ. by the periodical
Nahrungsmittel-Untersuchung u. Hygiene; Pertes, Wien, page 60.

[214] Comp. Dr. Böhme, The Chocolate and Confectionery Industries,
VI 1911, No. 37. The assembly came to an agreement on all points
discussed, and it would be well to repeat the resolutions here.

[215] Dissimilar to all other existing definitions and adapted to the
new method with slightly roasted beans only.

[216] I. e. about 2·3-2·5 kilos of potash to 100 kilos of cacao mass.

[217] Thus satisfying the demands of the Free Association of German
Food Chemists.

[218] Would thus be too little according to the regulations under II.

[219] Cocoa powder may thus, according to international custom, also be
flavoured with spices.

[220] Cf. in this connection page 204 and tables 19 & 20.

[221] According to recent resolutions of the Free Union (cf. page 282)
the percentage of sugar in chocolate (together with additions for
medicinal and dietetic purposes) may not exceed a total 68%; but there
is no fixed standard for the fatty contents, except in the case of milk
chocolates etc.

[222] The excessive use of cacao butter as an admixture has lately
assumed large proportions. In commerce there are to be found many
preparations designated as “pure cacao and sugar” which contain only 15
or 20% of cacao with 50% of fat, which are said to met a need of the
public, but the maintenance will scarcely hold water.

[223] The Roumanian law admits of the sale of a cacao prepared from the
unshelled bean and only precludes secondary admixtures of shell.

[224] Better albumose, or still better not included at all, as this
conversion of the albumen is by no means proved.

[225] Accordingly an addition of cacao butter would be objectionable.
But with 70% of sugar, admixture of cacao butter is unconditionally
necessary, where by the pure cacao material sinks to between 10% and
20%.

[226] Editor’s note: These figures are subject to correction, as they
do not tally with the majority of accepted results.

[227] Cf. note on page 294 under 2.

[228] Whilst in Germany such admixture is not permissible at all.

[229] Editor’s note: These values would seem to require some revision,
as generally only the very inferior cacaos, like St. Thomé, Domingo,
Cuba and Haiti, show a lower ash percentage than 3·5%; Ariba, Porto
Cabello, Caracas and Guayaquil cacaos show a higher percentage the same
remark applies also to the fibre content.

[230] This also requires revision, as on boiling 7·5 grammes cacao with
250 grammes water there will always be a sediment after the solution
has stood for some minutes.

[231] Requiring revision. Cf. remarks on previous page and also the
values of raw fibre found by Filsinger. Editor’s note.

[232] Requires revision, compare page 261. Editor’s note.

[233] We would prefer Eminger’s method.—Editor’s note.

[234] Cf. above, § 2, 1 and 2.

[235] The “Deutsche Nahrungsmittelbuch” issued by the Association
of Manufacturers and Dealers Trading in Articles of Consumption has
unfortunately only complexed matters as it was a private undertaking
and has endeavoured to sanction various usages, better termed
misusages, such as the use of forbidden preserving and conserving
agents, artificial colouring stuffs etc. It is true that the part
connected with cacao preparations constitutes a glorious exception, and
also that there are recent indications of an agitation to reform the
whole code.




+Book 5.+

Appendix.


A. Installation of a chocolate and cacao powder factory.


In constructing a new factory and fixing the situation of the
buildings, the first thing to be considered is their convenient
arrangement. It is therefore advisable to rely upon an experienced
person for the plan to be adopted, and then to leave the proper
construction of the works in the hands of the architect. Small
operations can be carried on in any building, but in the case of larger
works a well devised arrangement of the machines and appliances must
be decided upon before hand, that will admit of rational and, to some
extent, automatic working. In case of erecting small works which will
require only one manager, the best plan would be to have the whole
manufacture carried out on one story, or at the most two stories, to
facilitate supervision.

The case is different with large works, in which the different
departments are controlled by especially qualified persons.

Tables I and II[236] represent, in section, a chocolate factory and a
cacao powder factory. As both plans represent only a model section,
they serve only to show the most convenient arrangement of the machines
with each other. In reality there would be more or less machines of the
same kind placed together. Such arrangements might, with modifications,
serve for medium sized works, as well as for larger ones. In that sense
the following explanations of the two plans are to be understood.

[Illustration: PLATE II

Longitudinal Section of a model Chocolate Factory

For explanation of figures see text.

  Zipperer, Manufacture of Chocolate etc. 3rd edition.
  Verlag M. Krayn, Berlin W. 10.]


[Illustration: PLATE III

Longitudinal Section of a model Cocoa Factory

For explanation of figures see text.

  Zipperer, Manufacture of Chocolate etc. 3rd edition.
  Verlag M. Krayn, Berlin W. 10.]


=1. Chocolate factory= (Table I).

By means of the lift (1) all the raw materials, sugar, cacao, packing
materials, etc. are carried up to the store rooms (2). In these occur
the machines for cleansing and picking the raw cacao beans. The raw
cacao is fed into the elevator boxes (3), above the cleansing machine
(4) where it is freed from dust; it passes to the continuous band (5)
where it is picked and then falls into the movable boxes (6). It is
then transferred to the hoppers (7) and is fed, by opening a slide in
the hoppers, into the roasting machine (8). The capacity of the hoppers
is sufficiently large for holding the quantity of beans for charging
the roasting machine. After the roasting is completed, the cacao is
emptied into the trucks (9) and carried to the exhaust arrangement (10)
where the beans are cooled down and the vapour given off is passed out
into the open air. At the same time, the roasting chamber is sucked
out through the funnel shaped tube fitted to the cover of the chamber.
The roasted cacao is then passed to the boxes (11) to be conveyed by
the elevator to the crushing and cleansing machine (12). After being
cleansed, the cacao is carried in trucks (13) to the hoppers (14) by
which they are fed into the mills (15) in the lower floor. The sugar
mill and the sifting apparatus (27) placed near the crushing and
cleansing machines are also fed by a hopper from above. The dust sugar,
there produced, is carried by the lift (1) to the machine room on the
first floor. Cacao and sugar are there supplied to the incorporator
(16) to be worked together, before being passed to the rolling mill
(17), where the final rubbing is effected. After passing once or
oftener through the mill, the finished chocolate mass is then taken
to the hot room (18) where it remains in boxes until further treated
and it is then taken to the moulding room. In the incorporator (19)
the mass acquires the consistence necessary for moulding and also the
requisite temperature. The mass is then taken in lumps to the dividing
machine (20) and cut into pieces of the desired size and weight. On the
table (21) the moulds, lying upon boards, are filled with the pieces of
chocolate and they are then taken to the shaking table (22).

From this they succeed to the cooling arrangement, which consists of an
endless chain provided with travelling stages at definite and regular
intervals. The latter moves slowly through the artificially cooled room
and finally brings the moulds to the outlet (25) where the chocolate
is removed. It is then transferred on the lift to the packing and
despatching apartments specially reserved for these operations, but not
distinctly noticeable on our section.

=2. Cacao powder factory= (Table II).

The course of manufacture of cacao powder is the same as in the
manufacture of chocolate, up to the point where the cacao has passed
through the crushing and cleansing machines (12). The broken beans
are then taken by the elevator (27) to the machine for separating the
radicles (28) and thence through the hopper (14) to the mills (15).
The liquid cacao mass, passing from these mills, runs into the pans
(29) from which as much required for charging the hydraulic presses
as is can be drawn up by cocks. The accumulator (31) supplies all the
presses with water. The pressed cakes are first put into the boxes of
the frame (32). In an adjoining room is the automatic cacao pulverizing
apparatus. It is fed through the preliminary crusher (34) from which
the cacao is taken by the worm and elevator (35) to the pulveriser
(36). The powdered cacao is then taken by a worm and elevator to the
sifting machine (38).

The sifted powder falls into the tub (39) while the coarser portion
is carried back again to the pulveriser (36). The arrangements for
treating and the disintegrating cacao powder can be provided in the
manner already described.

In both plans, the boiler and engine house are to be understood as
placed in an adjoining building.

FOOTNOTES:

[236] Both are designs of the firm J. M. Lehmann, by whom they have
been obligingly placed at our disposal.




Appendix

Containing an account of the methods of preparation and the composition
of some Commercial dietetic and other Cacao preparations.


The following statements and recipes have no pretension to be
complete; they are only introduced to serve as a brief summary of
those commercial cacao preparations, now in commerce, which are
mixtures of various kinds of substances with cacao or chocolate and
are largely used for dietetic purposes. Notwithstanding its necessary
incompleteness, the following account, which has been collected
from various sources, will satisfy practical requirement, since the
manufacturer, as well as the food chemist, frequently desires to obtain
information at once, that even a complete technical library is not
always able to supply. Medicinal chocolates have not been considered in
the following list, since they belong to the province of pharmacy.

 =Acorn-cacao Michaelis’= contains according to an analysis by R.
 Fresenius: Total nitrogen 2·29 percent, albumin 8·13 percent, sugar
 25·17 percent, starch 23·39 percent, fat 14·42 percent, tannin,
 expressed as gallotannic acid 1·96 percent, cellulose 1·88 percent.

 =Acorn-cacao= of Hartwig & Vogel of Dresden contains water 7·5 per
 cent, ash 3·88 percent, fat 16·54 percent, albumin 11·25 percent,
 carbohydrates 38·76 percent, tannin 2·50 percent.[237]

 =Acorn-cacao= of Th. Timpe of Magdeburg contains in the dry substance:
 albumin 13·88 percent, tannin and cacao-red 5·37 percent,
 carbohydrates etc. 66·41 percent, fat 10·62 percent, ash 3·73 per
 cent.[238]

 Acorn-cacao can be prepared by mixing 10 parts of pure cacao mass, 20
 parts defatted cacao powder, 5 parts roasted barley meal, 35 parts of
 the meal from shelled and roasted acorns (or 10 parts of an aqueous
 extract of roasted acorns), 30 parts powdered sugar, and 2 parts pure
 calcium phosphate.

=Acorn-chocolate= is a mixture of 100 parts shelled and roasted acorns
with 500 parts sugar and 400 parts cacao mass in addition to spices.

=Acorn-malt-cacao (Dieterich)= is prepared by mixing 1 kilo of acorn
malt extract (Dieterich-Helfenberg) with 6 kilos of sugar (dust), and 3
kilos defatted cacao.

=Acorn-malt-chocolate (Dieterich)= is prepared by accurately mixing 2
kilos acorn malt extract (Dieterich-Helfenberg) with 3½ kilos of
powdered sugar and 4½ kilos of cacao mass.

=Albuminous chocolate and cacao.= Riquet & Co. of Leipsic have
protected a process by various patents[239] for “The production of a
tasty and genuine chocolate or cocoa powder[240] rich in albuminous
constituents.” The kernels of the thoroughly roasted bean are worked
up with a mixture (?) of water and dry albumen, allowed to stand for
some time, the water evaporating, and then the beans are worked up once
more. Instead of water an aqueous sugar solution may also be employed,
and further the addition of albumen may occur at any stage[241] and
in particular when sugar solution is first taken, then the albumen
and sugar necessary for the chocolate mixed up, and finally the cacao
material (with additions of cacao oil) added. Still better (than the
sugar solution) would it be, if the albumen were incorporated in
the chocolate or cocoa material in the form of a mixture with some
emulsion (!), especially a mixture with milk.

=Barley-chocolate= is prepared by mixing 1 kilo of prepared barley
meal[242] 4½ kilos powdered sugar and 4½ kilos cacao mass. The
moulded chocolate is to be coated with varnish.

=Cacao and chocolate preparations containing milk= are prepared
according to A. Denayer, Brussels (German patent No. 112220, 4 February
1899) by evaporating, in the open air, a mixture of milk and sugar to
the consistency of cream, and to the hot mass, defatted or not defatted
cacao is added in the form of powder. The resulting mixture is spread
out in thin layers and exposed to the influence of a temperature of
80-100°C. in a rarefied atmosphere, then finally completely dried at a
lower or ordinary temperature under the same conditions.

=Cacao-egg-cream= (so called African punch) is thus prepared: 10 yolks
of eggs are beaten up with 300 grammes of syrup (1 part sugar to 2
parts water) and, whilst being continually whisked up, 500 grammes of
cacao essence (see next paragraph) are added. The whole is to be iced
before being consumed.

=Cacao-essence= is prepared by macerating 125 grammes of defatted
cacao, 2 grammes vanilla, 2 grammes cinnamon, 0·75 gramme cloves, 0·3
gramme mace and 0·10 gramme of ginger with 750 grammes of proof spirit
and 250 grammes of water for 8 days, and then filtering into hot syrup,
which is prepared with 550 grammes of sugar and 750 grammes water.

=Cacao-liqueur.= A well tested recipe for the preparation of this
liqueur is to the following effect: Defatted cacao 200 grammes,
cinnamon powder 5 grammes, vanillin 0·2 gramme, are digested for 6
days with 1500 grammes of water and 1700 grammes of alcohol (90%) and
then mixed with 2600 grammes syrup (1400 parts sugar and 1200 parts of
water) and filtered.

=Cacaol=, 70 parts cocoa powder, 10 parts oatmeal, 17·5 parts sugar,
2·5 parts common salt.

=Cacao-malt= is a mixture of 200 parts defatted cacao, 500 parts sugar
with an aqueous extract of 300 parts of kiln dried malt.

 =Cacaophen Sieberts= (Cassel) is a mixture of cacao powder with flour,
 sugar and milk albumin. It shows the following numbers on analysis:
 fat 13·23 percent, water 7·7 percent, albumin 24·25 percent,
 soluble carbohydrates 17·95 percent, insoluble carbohydrates (starch)
 26·66 percent, woody fibre 2·27 percent, ash 5·5 percent (calcium
 oxide 0·82 percent, phosphoric acid (P_{3}O_{5}) 0·54 percent).

 =Children’s-Nährpulver (Lehmann-Berlin)= is a mixture of meat extract,
 cacao powder, salep, sugar and specially treated oyster shells.

 =Chocleau=, (Reichardt) a glucose chocolate material in tin tubes.

 =Chocolate-cream-syrup= (for aërated waters): 125 grammes of rasped
 chocolate, 62 grammes cacao powder and 325 grammes of water are well
 mixed and to this add 148 grammes infusion of quillaia (1·8). After
 standing some time add the contents of a pot of condensed milk with
 7·5 grammes of boric acid and make up with 3·8 litres of sugar syrup
 (american recipe).

 =Chocolat digestif= (Vichy chocolate) is a mixture of chocolate with
 about 5 percent of sodium bicarbonate.

 =Chocolate-health-beer=, J. Scholz (German patent No. 28819). An
 extract is prepared from 10 kilos of cacao beans, which have been
 kiln-dried at 75° C., shelled, broken in small pieces and digested for
 half an hour with twice their weight of distilled water at 62° C.,
 then boiled for another half an hour and finally allowed to stand for
 48 hours at a temperature of 75° C., with an addition of a solution
 of 10 kilos of sugar in distilled water, then once more boiled until
 one half of the water, originally added, has been evaporated. It is
 filtered, in as warm a condition as possible, in order to separate
 pieces of cacao and fat, and the extract is ready for use. The brewing
 process is similar to that of brewing Bavarian beer. After the
 finished wort obtained in that process has been boiled for 3 hours,
 100 litres are taken, for which 35 kilos of pale kiln-dried barley
 meal have been used, and to this are added 200 grammes of the best
 Bavarian hops and 12 kilos of cacao extract. The whole is once more
 boiled and the subsequent operation then carried out as usual. The
 fermentation (at 7·5° C.) occupies 7-8 days and the storage in the
 fining vats 3-4 weeks.

 =Chocolat rétablière=, a Vienna speciality, contains reduced metallic
 iron, dried meat, pea and wheat flour, sugar and cacao in uncertain
 proportions.

 =Chocolate-syrup= (for soda and seltzer water). 250 grammes of
 defatted cacao powder are rubbed down with 2½ litres of boiling
 water in a porcelain basin on a steam bath, until it is in the
 condition of an uniformly thick mass and then 1 kilo pot of condensed
 milk and 2·5 kilos of powdered sugar are added, and when the sugar is
 dissolved the vessel is cooled. After cooling, the fatty particles on
 the surface are carefully removed, and then 30 grammes of commercial
 vanilla extract and 30 grammes of mucilage (from gummi arabicum) are
 added, and the whole filtered through a stout cotton cloth (american
 recipe).

 =Chocolate-tincture (cacao-tincture)= is prepared by macerating 1½
 kilos of defatted cacao powder with 10 kilos of dilute alcohol for 8
 days and then filtering.

 =Corn-cacao contains= according to Notnagel[243]: water 6·10 per
 cent., fat 16·96 percent, albuminoids 19·81 percent, theobromine
 0·68 percent, fibre 3·30 percent, non-nitrogenous extractives
 48·69 percent, ash 4·46 percent. The preparation under the
 microscope is shown to contain, in addition to the constituents
 of cacao, a large amount of oat starch, and it may be regarded as
 corresponding to a mixture of equal parts of defatted cacao and oat
 meal, based on the above analysis and König’s mean value.

 =Covering or coating materials= have the following composition: 50%
 sugar, 30-35% fat and 20-15% cacao material free from fat, whereby
 (especially in Belgium, e. g. Brussels) it is in part supplanted by
 almonds, nuts etc. In such cases the iodine value of the fat is equal
 to 41-42.

 =Diabetic chocolate= has the following composition.[244] Nitrogenous
 substance 10·07 percent, fat 25·47 percent, levulose 19·38 per
 cent, starch and cellulose 25·19 percent, besides non nitrogenous
 substances 14·54 percent, saccharin 0·5 percent, mineral
 constituents 2·15 percent.

 In this formula there is a disproportionately high percentage of
 starch and cellulose and, in that respect, the composition appears
 to be irrational, since the introduction of carbohydrates into food
 for diabetics should be avoided as much as possible. A more rational
 preparation would be a simple mixture of:

  50 parts levulose | 50 parts cacao mass,
  and 0·25 parts vanillin.

 Aufrecht’s recipe for =diabetic cacao= is as follows:

  cocoa powder          500 grammes
  levulose              200    "
  wheat flour           280    "
  saccharin               5    "
  aromatic substances    15    "

 In this recipe, also, the substitution of levulose for wheat meal is
 to be recommended.

=Diabetic cacao= can be prepared according to J. Apt of Berlin by
the following patented process (German patent No. 116 173, 30. 1.
1900). The starch is first gelatinised by long boiling of the coarsely
powdered cacao, the mass then dried in a vacuum and heated, or roasted
at 130 to 140° C. in order to caramelise the gelatinised starch (!).
Before being boiled, it is recommended to de-fat the cacao (with
petroleum ether, for example!). Instead of caramelising the gelatinised
starch by heat direct, it can be first converted into sugar by means of
acid, then heated to caramelisation and as much cacao fat added as may
be desirable. In order to increase its capability of emulsifying, dried
albumin is to be added.[245]

=Dictamnia= of Groult and Boutron-Russel is composed of cacao, prepared
wheat flour, starch, sugar and vanilla.

=v. Donat’s albumin chocolate= (German patent No. 82 434) is prepared
by mixing dried albumin in powder or in pieces with chocolate or cacao
mass, damped with a liquid medium, which does not dissolve albumin,
such as benzol, petroleum ether, ether, acetone, methyl or ethyl
alcohol. The mass is further treated in the mixer and finally after
being completely mixed, the added liquid is allowed to evaporate.

=Eucasin-chocolate and cacao= are preparations containing 20 percent
of eucasin (ammonium caseinate). Eucasin is prepared by Majert & Ebers
of Grünau-Berlin.


 =Galactogen-Cacao=, Thiele & Holzhause-Barleben near Magdeburg,
 contains 30-32 percent of galactogen, an easily soluble and natural
 preparation of milk albumin, which is prepared from skimmed milk and
 contains 70 percent albumin, 3·5-4 percent fat as well as 1·5-1·79
 percent phosphoric acid. ~Galactogen-amylaceous cacao~,
 contains wheaten flour in addition to 20-22 percent galactogen.
 Galactogen-Speise-Schokolade (eating chocolate with 30 percent
 galactogen and Galactogen-Koch-Schokolade (cooking chocolate) are also
 prepared.

 Plasmon, Jropon, Somatose and lacto-egg-powder are similar products to
 galactogen, and are met with in commerce combined with cacao mass and
 chocolate (see plasmon cacao).

=Gaugau= is a children’s tea (Vienna) and consists of cacao husk.

=Haema chocolate=: 25-30 parts cocoa powder, 25-20 parts meal (potato
starch), 45 parts sugar, 5 parts haemoglobin and common salt.

=Hansa-Saccharin-Cacao= is defatted cacao, which contains about 0·5
percent. saccharin (270 times as sweet as sugar), 30 percent fat and 20
percent albuminoids (Hahn-Holfert).

=Hardidalik=, an Asiatic chocolate, is composed according to Chevallier
of 42 parts cacao, 180 parts sugar, 112 parts starch flour, 64 parts
rice flour and 3 parts vanilla.

=Hensel’s Nähr-Cacao=, is a mixture of defatted cacao-powder with
various inorganic salts, such as calcium carbonate and phosphate;
the ash of this preparation was found to contain a larger amount of
sulphuric acid, soda and iron, than is present in normal cacao. The fat
amounted to only 5·3 percent.

=Homeopathic-Chocolate= of E. Kreplin, Lehrte, consists of 35 percent
pure cacao mass, 20 percent slightly roasted wheat flour and 45
percent. sugar (Hager).

=Husson’s Mixture= contains the following materials: Arrow root 500,
oat meal 500, powdered sugar 500, powdered sago 400, cacao 50, calcium
phosphate 50, vanilla 1.

=Hygiama= resembles cacao in appearance and flavour and was introduced
into commerce by Dr. Theinhardt’s Nahrungsmittel-Gesellschaft of
Cannstatt (Wurtemberg). It is prepared from condensed milk with the
addition of a specially prepared cereal and defatted cacao. It contains
22·8 percent of albumin, 6·6 percent fat, 52·8 percent soluble
carbohydrates, 10·5 percent insoluble carbohydrates, 2·5 percent
food salts, 4 percent moisture.

=Iceland-moss-chocolate= contains 10 percent of iceland moss gelatine.

=Kaïffa= (Fécule orientale) is a mixture of 500 parts cacao mass, 1250
parts rice flour, 250 parts groats, 250 parts Iceland moss gelatine,
2300 parts starch, 750 parts salep, 1000 parts sago, 6000 parts sugar
and 50 parts vanilla.

=Kola-Chocolate= is prepared by mixing 400 grammes of cacao mass, 450
grammes sugar, 100 grammes kola seeds in powder, 40 grammes cacao fat
and 5 grammes vanillin sugar (3 percent).

=Kraft-Chocolate (Mering’s).= This is a trade preparation in which
cacao butter is converted into an emulsion, probably by means of oleic
acid, and is thus rendered more digestible. Kraft-chocolate should
contain 21 percent of easily digestible fat.

=Lipanin-Chocolate= contains 42·38 percent fat, albumin 8·07
percent., starch 2·7 percent, sugar 31·44 percent, in addition to
non-nitrogenous substances 18·19 percent, ash 0·68 percent, as well
as some vanillin and Peruvian balsam (Aufrecht).

=Malt-cacao= according to Franz Abels (German patent No. 96 318, 9. May
1896) is prepared in the following manner: The cacao mass after being
mixed with malt meal is defatted by strong hydraulic pressure in order
that the malt may be permeated with cacao fat. It is then pulverized.

=Malt-cacao-syrup= or =malted chocolate= is prepared by mixing 240
grammes malt extract and 24 ccm vanilla extract with about 950 grammes
of chocolate syrup. Vanillin or essence of cinnamon may be used instead
of vanilla extract. This preparation serves for the making of american
effervescing lemonade.

=Malt-chocolate.= 2 kilos of finely powdered malt and 3½ kilos
powdered sugar, both well dried, are mixed in small quantities with
4½ kilos cacao mass in the mixing machine. The tablets are to be
coated with varnish to preserve them. (E. Dieterich.)

=Malt-extract-chocolate.= 4½ kilos of the finely rubbed down cacao
mass, contained in the mixing machine, are intimately mixed with 1 kilo
dried malt extract and 4½ kilos powdered sugar. The finished tablets
are to be coated with varnish. (E. Dieterich.)

=Malto-leguminose-cacao= gives the following numbers on analysis:
water 7·38 percent, nitrogenous substance 19·71 percent (18·26
percent digestible), theobromine 0·71 percent, maltose 1·88
percent., dextrin etc. 3·53 percent, starch 27·82 percent, besides
non-nitrogenous extractives 13·8 percent, fibre 2·36 percent, ash
4·94 percent potash 1·74 percent, phosphoric acid 1·51 percent.

=Meat-extract-chocolate= is prepared by placing 500 grammes of meat
extract (Cibil’s or Liebig’s) in a porcelain basin and evaporating as
much as possible on the water bath: 4·7 kilos of powdered sugar are
then added and the whole rubbed down with the pestle until the extract
is homogeneous. 5 kilos of cacao mass are added and the chocolate
finished in the mixer. The moulded tablets must be coated with varnish
(Dieterich).

=Milk-cacao= is prepared with 1 kilo of condensed milk (prepared in a
vacuum with the addition of 10 percent of milk-sugar[246] 500 grammes
milk sugar and sufficient powdered arrowroot to produce a paste, which
is then rolled out, broken up and lightly baked. This milk biscuit
is ground and passed through a fine hair sieve. 750 grammes of the
pulverized milk biscuit are then carefully mixed with 250 grammes
of defatted cacao and 10 grammes of an aromatic mixture and the
preparation finally preserved in metallic boxes.

=A more bitter milk-cacao= can also be prepared with 50 kilos cacao
powder and 50 kilos pure milk powder. This proportion may also be
varied, so that more milk powder may be used, as for example 40 kilos
cacao powder and 60 kilos pure milk powder or 30 kilos cacao powder and
70 kilos pure milk powder.

=A sweet-milk-cacao= can be obtained thus:

  a) 30 kilos cacao powder,
     20   "   powdered sugar,
     50   "   pure milk powder


  b) 20 kilos cacao powder,
     30   "   powdered sugar,
     50   "   pure milk powder,

  c) 15 kilos cacao powder,
     35   " powdered sugar,
     50   " pure milk powder.

=Milk-chocolate= is prepared with 28 kilos of cacao mass, 36 kilos of
powdered cane sugar, 24 kilos of milk powder and 12 kilos of cacao
butter. The material is very finely rolled at 60-70°C. in the grinding
machine described on page 000, and the finished mass not allowed to
remain in the hot closet, but almost immediately moulded and packed.
The mild kinds of cacao (Ariba, Caracas, Ceylon, Java) are the most
suitable for making milk chocolate.

In the manufacture of ~pure milk cacao~, the cacao powder is
worked up for some time in the warmed mixing machine, the sugar and
the milk powder being added successively. Cacao preparations, which
are only used as beverages with water, should have at least two parts
of pure milk powder to one part of cacao powder in order to yield a
suitable preparation.

=Mutase-cacao= with 20 percent mutase: contains water 5·66 percent,
fat 25·24 percent[247], albumin 28·31 percent, fibre 3·81
percent., theobromine 1·67 percent, non-nitrogenous extractives 30·72
percent, ash 6·26 percent.

=Mutase-chocolate= (with 20 percent mutase) contains 16-17 percent
of albumin. Mutase is an albumin preparation obtained, without the
use of chemical reagents, from nutritive plants, also containing the
nutritive salts of the plant (10 percent). Mutase contains 60
percent. of albumin.

=Nährsalz-cacao (Lahmann), i. e. “Food-salt cacao= It contains water
8 percent, nitrogenous substance 17·5 percent, theobromine 1·78
percent, fat 28·26 percent, starch 11·09 percent, non-nitrogenous
extractives 26·24 percent, fibre 4·21 percent, ash 4·7
percent (potash 1·66 percent, phosphoric acid 1·56 percent).
~Nährsalz-cacao or chocolate~ is prepared by mixing a vegetable
extract (from leguminous plants) with cacao or chocolate. The analysis
of ~Lahmann’s Nährsalz-chocolate~ gave the following numbers: fat
24·5 percent, ash 1·36 percent, water 1·08 percent, albumin 6·25
percent, phosphoric acid (P_{2}O_{5}) 0·44 percent.

=Nähr-und Heilpulver.= (Food and health-powder) of =Dr. Koeben=
contains sugar, cacao, pollards and acorn coffee. (Hager’s Handbuch der
Pharmaceutischen Praxis.).

=Natur-cocoa and natur-chocolate= (natural cacao etc.) Spindler,
Stuttgart (German patent No. 47226) are obtained by mixing cacao
mass with hot honey. This effects a defatting of the cacao mass by
spontaneous separation of the fat. The defatting can be suitably
carried further by pressing. Instead of using honey, the defatting can
be carried out with syrups, malt extract, condensed milk, fruit juices
or plant mucilage (extracts from pulse).[248]

=Nuco-cocoa= is a mixture of cacao with “nuco”, which is a highly
praised preparation of albumin. The analysis of nuco cacao gave ash
4·06 percent, moisture 6 percent, fat 15·23 percent, albumin 47
percent, the iodine value of the fat is = 86. The fragments of tissue
under the microscope appear completely analogous to that of earth nut
(arachis hypogaea). Nuco-cacao is consequently nothing more than a
mixture of defatted cacao with defatted earth nut (earth nut cake).

=Oat-cocoa, Hallenser (half and half)= contains 6·5 percent moisture,
4·1 percent mineral constituents, 89·4 percent organic substances
(containing 4·3 percent nitrogenous matter) digestible albumin 14·7
percent, fat 17·2 percent, theobromine 0·77 percent, starch and
other non-nitrogenous extractives 48·93 percent, cellulose 3·5
percent. This is evidently a mixture of equal parts of oat meal and cacao
powder as the name implies.

=Oat-cacao Kasseler= (Hansen & Co.) is prepared according to the German
patent No. 93500, 28th June 1896, by mixing oat meal with cacao. This
mixture is moulded, pressed and, after being wrapped in perforated tin
foil, defatted by ether. It contains 7·2 percent moisture, 3·5
percent mineral substances, 89·3 percent organic substances, which are
composed of nitrogenous substance 3·9 percent digestible albumin 18·8
percent, fat 18·3 percent, theobromine 0·46 percent, starch and
other non-nitrogenous extractives 44·94 percent, cellulose 2·9
percent.[249] It is likewise a mixture of 50 percent of oat meat with 50
percent of cacao.

=Oat-cocoa= can be simply prepared by mixing cacao powder with an
equal part of prepared oat meal, such as is produced by Hohenlohe’s
Präservefabrik, by Knorr of Heilbronn and by the Quaker Oats Company.
In order to cover the taste of the oat meal 1-2 percent of sodium
chloride is to be added.

=J. Berlit=, German patent No. 72449, describes the following method
for the preparation of =oat-cacao=, Oats are cleaned, bruised, slightly
roasted and ground. The powder is wetted and by means of a kneading
machine worked up to a paste which is dried in a vacuum, finally ground
and mixed with defatted cacao in the required proportions.

=Palamoud des Turcs= consists of cacao mass, rice-meal, starch and
sandal wood.

=Peptone-cocoa= contains: water 4·08 percent, nitrogenous
substance 20·56 percent, albumose 8·25 percent, peptone 4·41
percent, theobromine 1·03 percent, sugar 49·51 percent, besides
non-nitrogenous constituents 9·37 percent, woody fibre 1·43 percent,
mineral substance 4·17 percent (potash 1·97 percent, phosphoric acid
1·21 percent).

=Peptone-powder-cocoa= (20 percent) is prepared by mixing 20 parts of
Koch’s meat peptone in the form of extract with 50 parts of sugar and
40 parts cacao powder.

=Peptone-chocolate= contains 10 percent of dry peptone.

=Plasmon-chocolate and cocoa= contains 20 percent plasmon[250]
(Siebold).

=Racahout des Arabes= see page 00, note.

=Raspberry chocolate= (Sarotti), German patent 181760 and 204603,
prepared with addition of the juice of the raspberry.

=Saccharin-cocoa= gives the following results on analysis: water 7·26
percent, nitrogenous substance 20·5 percent, theobromine 2·09
percent, fat 32·25 percent, saccharin 0·4 percent, starch 13·02
percent, non-nitrogenous extractives 13·51 percent, woody fibre 5·27
percent, ash 5·93 percent, (potash 2·16 percent, phosphoric acid 1·69
percent). See also Hansa-Saccharin-cacao on page. 00.

=Somatose-cocoa with sugar and somatose-chocolate= contains about 10
percent somatose[251]; the first preparation contains 20·71 percent
total nitrogenous substance, and the latter 10·24 percent, of which
about ⅓ consists of soluble nitrogenous compounds. (Mansfeld.) The
first preparation could be readily prepared by mixing 10 parts of
somatose (Farbwerke Bayer &. Cie., Elberfeld) with 50 parts of sugar
and 40 parts of cocoa powder.

=Theobromade= (theobromine) is a dry extract from cacao husks.

=Dr. Thesen’s Proviant= comes into commerce in the form of chocolate
and is chocolate with an addition of albumin. Its analysis gives the
following results: Albumin 20·5 percent, theobromine 0·56 percent,
fat 39·79 percent, carbohydrates a) (soluble) 26·95 percent, b)
(insoluble) 5·66 percent, ash 2·25 percent, water 1·57 percent. A
similar product to Thesen’s Proviant results from mixing: albumin 12·5
parts, fat (cacao butter) 10 parts, fat (cocoa nut butter 7·5 parts,
sugar 25 parts, cacao 45 parts.

=Tropon-cocoa= is a varying mixture of tropon, 15-33⅓ percent, with
cacao powder. A tropon cocoa containing 20 percent of tropon gave on
analysis: water 5·75 percent, albumin 38·49 percent, fat 27·77
percent., fibre 3·76 percent, ash 4·51 percent, theobromine 1·6
percent., extractives 22·78 percent.

=Tropon-chocolate= is a chocolate containing 25 percent tropon.[252]

=Tropon-Oat-cocoa= contains 20 percent of tropon, 30 percent of oat
meal and 50 percent of cocoa powder.

=Wacaca des Indes= consists of 60 parts cacao powder, 165 parts sugar,
8 parts cinnamon, 2 parts vanilla and some tincture of ambergris.

=White chocolate= contains sugar 3000 parts, rice meal 860 parts,
potato flour 250 parts, cacao butter 250 parts, gum arabic 125 parts
and vanilla tincture 15 parts.[253]


FOOTNOTES:

[237] Hahn-Holfert, Spezialitäten und Geheimmittel, page 300.

[238] Pharmazeutische Zeitung 1888, page 512.

[239] German patent No. 182747 (Jan. 4th 1905) 182748 (May 4th 1906).

[240] German patent No. 189733 (26th February 1906), 189734 (Dec. 11th
1906).

[241] Which would seem to be the only proper employment of the total
patent claim.

[242] According to Dieterich (Neues Pharmazeutisches Manual, 7. edition
page 191) prepared barley meal is obtained as follows: 1 kilo barley
flour is firmly pressed into a suitable metallic (tin) vessel, so that
it is about ⅔ full and then heated on a water bath for 30 hours in
all. After the lapse of 10 hours the powder is removed and ground in a
mixer them again placed in the vessel and re-heated for 10 hours. After
twice repeating this manipulation, about 900 grammes of a reddish mass
will be obtained which is prepared barley meal.

[243] Apotheker-Zeitung 1900, page 181.

[244] Compare Aufrecht, Pharm. Zeitung 1910, page 558.

[245] The absurdity of this process is too evident to need remark;
would it not have been better, if the process had not had the sanction
of the patent mark? The treatment, which the cacao here undergoes, is
so barbarous, that the product must always be spoiled. The only point
attained is the complete gelatinisation of the starch, which by further
heating is to some extent converted into dextrin. Caramelizing cannot
and will not take place by heating gelatinised starch in mixtures
with a dry substance, as it occurs in cacao. But in addition, the
claim is weak that cacao so mistreated would be especially suitable
for diabetics, since cacao serves that purpose a great deal better.
The addition of albumin every properly disintegrated is not at all
new, for mixtures of albumin and cacao have existed for a very long
time.—Editor’s note.

[246] Instead of which pure milk powder may also be used.

[247] All cacao preparations, to which albumin is added, require a
large amount of cacao butter as the albuminoids largely absorb the fat.

[248] The composition of the preparation must be stated on the wrapper
as such terms as “Natur-cacao” and “Natur-chocolate” are liable to lead
the purchaser astray.—Editor’s note.

[249] Alfr. Beddies, Ueber Kakaoernährung, Berlin 1897.

[250] Plasmon is an albuminoid preparation from milk, to which a little
sodium bicarbonate is added to effect complete solution.

[251] Somatose is a nutritive preparation made from meat and contains
the nitrogenous constituents of the muscle flesh exclusively in the
form of an easily soluble albumose.

[252] Tropon is a mixture of 2 parts flesh albumin (from muscle flesh
and fish) and one part plant albumin.

[253] The preparation must also bear on the wrapper a statement of its
composition in order not to mislead the purchaser.




A. Index to literature.


In the following list are specified in chronological order only
those works and memoirs which refer to the culture of cacao and the
manufacture of cacao preparations. The remaining literature on the
subject, so far as it refers to the scientific side, has already been
mentioned in the form of footnotes.


a) ~Cultivation.~

 Jumelle Henry, Le Cacaoyer, sa culture et son exploitation dans tous
 les pays de production, Paris 1900.

 J. Hinchley Hart, F. L. S., Cacao, A treatise on the cultivation and
 curing of cacao. II. Edition. Trinidad 1900.


b) ~Technology.~

 ~Dictionnaire technologique~ ou nouveau Dictionnaire universel
 des arts et métiers et de l’économie industrielle par une société de
 savans et d’artistes. Paris 1823 et 1824. Tomes 4 et 5.

 ~J. J. R. von Prechtl’s~ Technologische Encyclopädie, Stuttgart
 Bd. III und Supplement-Bd. II. Stuttgart 1859.

 ~Mitscherlich, A.~, Der Kakao und die Schokolade. Berlin 1859.

 ~Zipperer, P.~, Die Neuerungen in der Fabrikation von Schokoladen
 und diesen verwandten diätetischen Produkten. Chemiker-Zeitung 1892
 No. 58; 1893 No. 54; 1895 No. 21.

 ~Gordian, A.~, Die deutsche Schokoladen-und
 Zuckerwaren-Industrie. Hamburg 1895.

 ~Gordian~, Zeitschrift für die Kakao-, Schokoladen und
 Zuckerwaren-Industrie etc., Hamburg, seit 1896.

 ~De Belfort de la Roque, L.~, Guide practique de la Fabrication
 du chocolat. Paris 1895.

 ~Filsinger, F.~, Fortschritte in der Fabrikation von Schokolade
 und ihr verwandten diätetischen Präparaten in den Jahren 1895-1899,
 Chemiker-Zeitung 1897, No. 22 des Jahres 1897; ibid. 1898, No. 42 des
 Jahres 1898; des Jahres 1899, ibid. 1899, No. 48.


 ~Spamer’s, O.~, Buch der Erfindungen, Gewerbe und Industrieen.
 Leipzig 1897, Band IV.

 ~Muspratt’s~ Theoretische, praktische und analytische Chemie in
 Anwendung auf Künste und Gewerbe, begonnen von F. Stohmann und B.
 Kerl, herausgegeben von H. Bunte. Braunschweig 1898, Bd. VI.

 ~Villon, A. M.~, Dictionnaire de Chimie industrielle, contenant
 les applications de la chimie à l’industrie, à la metallurgie, à
 l’agriculture, à la pharmacie, à la pyrotechnie et aux arts et
 métiers. Paris 1898, Tome premier.

 ~Luegers, O.~, Lexikon der gesamten Technik und ihrer
 Hilfswissenschaften. Stuttgart und Leipzig 1899.

 ~Ettling~, Der Kakao, seine Kultur und Bereitung, Berlin 1903.

 ~Kindt~, Die Kultur des Kakaobaues und seine Schädlinge. Hamburg
 1904.

 ~Faber~, Dr. ~F. C. von~, Die Krankheiten und Parasiten
 des Kakaobaums. Berlin 1909. (Arb. aus der Kais. Biolog. Anstalt f.
 Landund Forstwissenschaft).




B. Tables.


  Table   1.  German Imports and Exports of cacao products 1907-1910  35
    "     2.  Imports in Germany 1900-1908                            37
    "     3.  Imports or Consumption in the various countries         38
    "   4/5.  Analysis of hulled bean                               3/44
    "   6/7.     "     of raw shelled bean (kernel)                 4/45
    "     8.     "     of Ridenour                                    45
    "     9.     "     of roasted, shelled cacao (Matthes & Müller)   46
    "    10.     "     of commoner varieties of cacao
                          (Matthes & Müller)                          47
    "    11.     "     of cacao (defatted and free from alcali)       48
    "    12.  Physical and chemical analysis of the various kinds of
              pressed Stollwerck Cacao Butter (Fritzsche)             56
    "    13.  Constituents of different fats and oils contained in
               cacao                                                  58
    "    14.  Analysis of the ash of cacao beans by R. Bensemann      74
    "    15.  Composition of cacao shells (Laube & Aldendorff)        76
    "    16.  Analysis of unroasted cacao husks (Zipperer)            76
    "    17.  Constituents contained in the ash of roasted cacao husks
                 by R. Bensemann                                      77
    "    18.  Fodder value of cacao husks (Maercker)                  83
    "    19.  Percentage of butter to be extracted                   203
    "    20.  Percentage of butter remaining in the finished cacao
                 powder                                              204
    "    21.  Adulteration and their detection                       289




C. Illustrations.


                                                                    Page

  Fig. 1. Branch of cacao tree with blossom and leaves                 2

  Fig. 2. Fruit and single seeds in long and cross section             3

  Fig. 3. Cross section of the cacao shell (enlarged)                 14

  Fig. 4. Cross section of edge of seed leaf (enlarged)               15

  Fig. 5. Graph showing consumption of raw cacao                   40/41

  Fig. 6. Graph per head of population in Germany                     42

  Fig. 7. Grains and starch in cacao bean (section of ariba, enlarged
  750 times)                                                          70

  Fig. 8. Plan of cacao shell (enlarged)                              80

  Fig. 9. Spongy paranchyma (enlarged)                                80

  Fig. 10. Dry cells or skereides (enlarged)                          80

  Fig. 11. Silver membrane with Mitscherlich particles (enlarged)     81

  Fig. 12. Preliminary cleansing machine (J. M. Lehmann)              90

  Fig. 13. Preliminary cleansing machine (J. M. Lehmann)              91

  Fig. 13 a. Brushing machine for cacao beans (Bauermeister)          92

  Fig. 14. Cylindrical roasting machine (Lehmann)                     93

  Fig. 14 a and b. Same in section                                 94/95

  Fig. 15 a and b. Spherical safety roasters (Bauermeister)        96/97

  Fig. 16. Roaster with gas heating (Lehmann)                         98

  Fig. 17. Cooling carriage with exhauster (Lehmann)                  99

  Fig. 18. Crusher and cleanser (Lehmann)                            101

  Fig. 19. Dust cleanser (Lehmann)                                   103

  Fig. 20. Electro-magnetic selecting machine (Lehmann)              104

  Fig. 21. Seed picking machine (Lehmann)                            105

  Fig. 22. Seed picking (sectional drawing)                          106

  Fig. 23. Simple cacao mill (Lehmann)                               110

  Fig. 24 a. Triple cacao mill (Lehmann)                             111

  Fig. 24 b. Triple cacao mill (Bauermeister)                        112

  Fig. 24 c. Triple cacao mill (Franke)                              113

  Fig. 25. Fourfold cacao mill (Lehmann)                             115

  Fig. 26. Cacao mill and roller apparatus combined (Bauermeister)   116

  Fig. 27. Warming through (Lehmann)                                 117

  Fig. 28. Preliminary mixing machine (Lehmann)                      118

  Fig. 29. First melangeur (Hermann)                                 119

  Fig. 30. Design of modern melangeur (Franke)                       121

  Fig. 31. Modern melangeur with outlet at side (Lehmann)            122

  Fig. 32. Larger melangeur with cover and outlet (Lehmann)          124

  Fig. 33 a. Design of first roller machine, front elevation (Savy)  125

  Fig. 33 b. do. Plan                                                125

  Fig. 34. Later machine (Savy)                                      126

  Fig. 35. Modern six roller machine by Lehmann                      127

  Fig. 36. Nine roller apparatus (Bauermeister)                      128

  Fig. 37. Same in design                                            129

  Fig. 38. Three roller machine with cast iron rollers (Lehmann)     130

  Fig. 39. 2 three roller machines, attached to a “Battery”          130

  Fig. 40. Three roller machine with cast iron rollers (Franke)      131

  Fig. 41 a and b. Four and five roller machines with cast iron
  rollers (Lehmann)                                                132/3

  Fig. 41 c. Five roller machine with cast iron rollers
  (Bauermeister)                                                     134

  Fig. 42. Three roller machine with electric motor (Lehmann)        135

  Fig. 43. Front elevation of triturating machine (Conche) by Franke 138

  Fig. 43 a. Conche (Lehmann)                                        139

  Fig. 44. Conche room (Lehmann)                                     140

  Fig. 45. Warming closet with steam heating (Lehmann)               142

  Fig. 46. Small melangeur with one runner (Lehmann)                 143

  Fig. 47. Do. modern construction (Lehmann)                         144

  Fig. 48. Modern tempering machine (Lehmann)                        145

  Fig. 49. Design of air exhausting machine (Lehmann)                147

  Fig. 50. Air exhausting machine (Lehmann)                          147

  Fig. 51 a and b. Chocolate dividing machines (Lehmann and
  Bauermeister)                                                    148/9

  Fig. 52. Moulding and layering machine (Lehmann)                   150

  Fig. 53. Reiche’s mould cleansing and polishing machine            155

  Fig. 54. Design of shaking table                                   156

  Fig. 55. do. (Lehmann)                                             157

  Fig. 56. do. (Lehmann)                                             157

  Fig. 57. do. modern construction (Lehmann)                         158

  Fig. 57 a. do. Front elevation                                     159

  Fig. 58, 58 a. and b. Shaking table batteries (Lehmann)          160/1

  Fig. 59 a. and b. Cooling plant (Wegelin & Hübner)               165/6

  Fig. 60. do. perspective                                           167

  Fig. 61. Modern air cooling apparatus (Escher, Wyss & Co.)         169

  Fig. 62. Cooling plant of Cole’s Arctic Patent Dry Cold
  Air Machine                                                        170

  Fig. 63 a. and b. Cooling chambers by Lehmann                    173/4

  Fig. 63 c. Automatic moulding and cooling plant by Lehmann         175

  Fig. 64/65. Pastille machines (Reiche)                             177

  Fig. 66 a-i. Moulds to these machines                              178

  Fig. 67. Pastille machines for thin chocolate material (Reiche)    179

  Fig. 68. Pastille and praliné metal hurdle (Reiche)                180

  Fig. 69. Mould metal Durabula Reiche                               181

  Fig. 70. Fondant machine (Lehmann)                                 183

  Fig. 71. do. modern construction (Lehmann)                         184

  Fig. 72. Fondant casting machine (Lehmann)                         185

  Fig. 73. Fondant powdering off machine, for hurdles (Lehmann)      186

  Fig. 74. do. non-stop (Lehmann)                                    187

  Fig. 75. Coating machine (Lehmann)                                 188

  Fig. 76. Stirring apparatus for coating material (Lehmann)         188

  Fig. 77/78. Coating or dipping machines (Reiche)                   189

  Fig. 79/80. Grating to these                                     190/1

  Fig. 81. Modern dipping machine constructed by Lehmann             193

  Fig. 82. Cacao press, 400 atmospheres (Lehmann)                    201

  Fig. 83 a. Cacao butter filter, design (Hänig & Co.)               202

  Fig. 84. Cacao press on larger scale (Lehmann)                     205

  Fig. 84 a. Pump for cacao press (Lehmann)                          206

  Fig. 84 b. Cacao cake crusher (Seek)                               207

  Fig. 85 a. do. (Bauermeister)                                      208

  Fig. 85 b. do. (Lehmann)                                           209

  Fig. 86. Pulveriser (Lehmann)                                      210

  Fig. 87. Pulverising and sifting machine (Lehmann)                 211

  Fig. 88. Centrifugal sifting machine, modern construction
  (Lehmann)                                                          213

  Fig. 89. Automatic pulverising plant (Lehmann)                     215

  Fig. 90 a. Mixing machine (Lehmann)                                217

  Fig. 90 b. Universal kneading and mixing machine
  (Werner & Pfleiderer)                                              218

  Fig. 91 a. Vacuum kneader, closed (Werner & Pfleiderer)            219

  Fig. 91 b. Vacuum kneader, open and upturned (Werner & Pfleiderer) 221

  Fig. 92. Filling and packing machine                               229

  Fig. 93. do. “Triumph” (Fritz Kilian)                              229

  Fig. 94. Edge-runner mill                                          231

  Fig. 95. Drum sifting machine (Lehmann)                            232

  Fig. 96. Combined sugar-grinding and sifting apparatus (Lehmann)   233

  Fig. 97. Spice and stamping apparatus (Lehmann)                    239

  Fig. 98. Pulverising mill (Savy)                                   240

  Fig. 99. Sifting machine (Savy)                                    241

  Fig. 100. Parenchyma of the cotyledon, enlarged                    275

  Fig. 101. Cocoa powder, enlarged                                   276

  Fig. 102. do. enlarged                                             277

  Plate  I: The Cacao Tree

    “   II: Chocolate factory (design)                               305

    ”  III: Cocoa powder factory (design)                            306




D. Authors. Alphabetical index.


              Page

  Abels, Franz, 313

  Albanese, 64

  Aldendorf & Laube, 44, 76, 77

  Allihn, F., 265

  Altschul, J., 244

  Abt, J., 311

  Arning, 243

  Aufrecht, 310, 311


  Baier, 272, 273

  Bastin, E. S., 70

  Baudrimont & Chevalier, 50

  Baudonin, 59

  Bauermeister, H., 148, 214

  Bayer & Co., 317

  Beam & Leffmann, 276

  Beckurts, H., 74, 228, 236, 261

  Beddies, Alfr., 316

  Benedict,  55, 57, 59, 261

  Bensemann, R., 74, 77

  Berg & Schmidt, 2, 3

  Berger, Th., 153

  Berlit, J., 316

  Beythien, 277

  Bilterist, 272

  Björklund, 53, 261, 262

  Boehme, Dr. Rich., 258, 285

  Börnstein, 236

  Bondzynski & Gottlieb, 64


  Bonnema, 245

  Bonteköe, 6

  Bordas & Touplain, 271

  Bourot & Jean, 59

  Boussignault, 83

  Bozelli, 85

  Branlatio, 6

  Brissemoret, 65

  Buchat, 6

  Buisson, 85

  Burstyn, 53, 54, 55

  Busse, W., 241, 243


  Carletti, Antonio, 6

  Chalot, C., 7

  Charles V., 5

  Chevalier & Baudrimont, 50

  Cibil, 314

  Clusius, 6

  Cohn, 56, 260

  Cole, 170

  Cortez, Fernando, 5


  David & Söhne, 271

  Dekker,  65, 267

  Denayer, A., 308

  Desprez, 199

  Dieterich, E., 307, 308, 313,  314

  Dietrich, K., 51, 249, 250


  Dingler, 53

  Donat, von, 311

  Dove, 85

  Dowson, 97

  Dragendorff, 66

  Drave, 267, 268

  Ducleaux, 75


  Eminger, 65, 263, 264

  Escher Wyss & Co., 168

  Ester, 264

  d’Estrées, 6

  Ettling, K., 320


  Faber, Dr. F. C. von, 8, 87, 320

  Faelli, Prof., 83

  Fahlberg, 234

  Farnsteiner, 255, 256, 258

  Fehling, 71, 237, 271

  Filsinger, 44, 52, 53, 54, 57, 72, 81, 83, 107, 261, 267, 268,
            269, 288, 299, 319

  Filsinger & Henking, 52

  Fischer, B. & Grünhagen, 267

  Fischer, Emil, 63, 68

  Forster, 69

  Franke, Paul & Co., 233

  Fresenius, C. R., 256

  Freudenberg, Ph., 4

  Freudenberg, W., 5

  Fritzsche, Dr., 55


  Gädke, 225

  Galippe, 75

  Gérard, 264

  Gieseler, 243

  Goethe, J. W., 16

  Gordian, 87, 319

  Gottlieb & Bondzynski, 64

  Graf, 50

  Gram, Chr., 64

  Greiert, 39

  Greiner, 270

  Groult & Boutron-Russel, 311

  Grünhagen, B. & Fischer, 267

  Gruson, 239

  Guenez, E., 277

  Guerin, 243


  Haarmann, W., 244

  Haarmann & Reimer, 244


  Hänig, Volkmar & Co., 202

  Härtel, 273

  Hager, 51, 312

  Hahn-Holfert, 307, 312

  Hanausek, J. V., 12, 238

  Hausen & Co., 312, 316

  Hart, J. Hinchley, 10

  Hartwig & Vogel, 307

  Haubold, C. G., 164

  Hauswaldt, W., 87, 88

  Hefelmann, 245

  Heisch, C., 44

  Henking & Filsinger, 52

  Henneberg, 72, 267

  Henning, 246

  Hensel, Dr. & Co., 222

  Hermann, G., 86, 120, 123, 126

  Hess & Prescott, 245

  Hesse, William, 243

  Hilger, 11, 60, 61

  Hilger & Lazarus, 61

  Hockauf, 74

  Hohenlohe, 316

  van Houten, C. J., 59, 195

  von Hübl, 53, 56

  Husson, 312


  Jean & Bourot, 59

  Jeserich, 269


  Kathreiner, 82

  Keller, C. C., 65

  Kilian, Fritz, 229

  Kindt, L., 9, 10, 320

  Kingzett, 50

  Kjeldahl, 171

  Klimont, 50

  Knorr, 316

  Knoch, 317

  Koeben, Dr., 315

  König, 72, 76, 266, 267

  Köttsdorfer, 54

  Kreplin, E., 312

  Krupp, 125, 239


  Lahmann, 315

  Lagerheim, G., 267

  de Laire, G., 244

  Lampadius, 43


  Laube & Aldendorff, 44, 76, 77

  Laxa, 273, 274

  Lazarus & Hilgers, 61

  Leffmann & Beam, 277

  Lehmann, Berlin, 309

  Lehmann, J. M., 100, 105, 121, 132, 148, 172, 202, 210, 233

  Létang, 154

  Lewkowitsch, 50, 51, 262

  Leys, 271

  L’Hôte, 74

  Liebig, 314

  Linné, 6

  Lobeck & Co., 224

  Loher, 11

  Louis XIV., 182

  Louis XVI., 6

  Lueger, O., 320

  Lührig, H., 267, 271


  Macquer, 199

  Maerker, 82

  Majert & Ebers, 311

  Mansfeld, 317

  Matthes, 72

  Matthes & Fritz Müller, 45, 74, 77

  Maupy, 66

  Mayfarth, 10

  Meissl-Reichert, 53, 55, 260, 273, 274

  Merck, E., 252, 264

  Mering, 313

  Merz, 54

  Meyer-Finkenburg, 302

  Michaelis, 306

  Michel, Alfr., 82

  Mitscherlich, A., 5, 13, 43, 63, 85, 92, 126, 199, 276

  Moeller, 15, 16, 79, 237, 241

  Molisch, 16, 67, 75

  Moser & Co., 216

  Müller, Matthes & Fritz, 45, 74, 77

  Muspratt, 120, 126, 320


  Nencki, L., 235

  Neumann, R. O., 203, 226

  Notnagel, 310


  Oldam & Withe, 52

  Onfroy, P., 255


  Paris, G., 76

  Payen, 43

  Peckoldt, Th., 12

  Pelletier, 86

  Petzholdt, J. S., 148

  Pieper, 198

  Pintus, 109

  du Plessis, 182

  Polenske, 56

  Posetto, 266

  Pralin, 182

  von Prechtl, 319

  Prescott & Hess, 245

  Preyer, Dr. A. von, 11

  Py, 277


  Rammsberger, 51

  Rauch, F., 6

  Reichardt, 309

  Reiche, Anton, 119, 152, 153, 178, 182, 189

  Reichert-Meissl, 53, 55, 260, 273, 274

  Reinhardt, G., 88

  Ridenour, 44, 45

  Riederer, 264

  Rimbach, Dr. C., 13

  Riquet & Co., 307

  Rocques, 55

  Roque, Belfort de la, 85, 319

  Rost, 64

  Rouché, 244

  Royer, 228

  Rüger, Otto, 217, 224

  Ruffin, A., 57


  Savy, A. & Co., 228

  Sarotti, 317

  Schimper, A. F. W., 13, 16

  Schmidt, 51

  Schmidt & Berg, 2, 3

  Schrader, 62

  Scholz, J., 309

  Schröder, W. von, 64

  Schütte-Felsche, Wilh., 102

  Schweitzer, C., 11, 60, 61,, 73

  Seck, Gebr., 207

  See, G., 64

  Sévigné, Madame de, 6


  Sieberts, 309

  Siebold, 317

  Skalweit, 75

  Soltsien, 71

  Soxleth, 259, 264, 273

  Spamer, O., 320

  Spindler, 315

  Stähle, C., 197

  Steinmann, A., 271

  Stollwerck, Dr. W., 34

  Stollwerck Broth., 56, 88, 258

  Strecker, 62

  Streitberger, 72

  Strohl, 54

  Strohschein, 82

  Stutzer, A., 69

  Suringar & Tollens, 72, 267


  Theinhardt, Dr., 312

  Theresia of Austria, 6

  Thesen, Dr., 317

  Thiele & Holzhause, 312

  Timpe, Th., 307

  Tollens & Suringar, 72, 267

  Touplain & Bordas, 271

  Trojanowsky, 74


  Tschirch, 14

  Tuchen, 74


  Ulzer, Benedict-, 57, 261


  Villon, 320

  Villon-Guichard, 169


  Wagner, L., 229

  Weender, 72, 108, 266

  Wegelin & Hübner, 165

  Weldon, 109

  Welmans, 5, 53, 55, 245, 258, 260, 266, 268, 269, 271, 275, 276, 277

  Wendt, G., 198

  Werner & Pfleiderer, 137, 219

  White, 51

  White & Oldam, 52

  William, Prince of Lippe, 6

  William of Brandenbourg, 6

  Wolfram, 66

  Woseressenzky, 62

  Woy, Rud., 270, 271


  Zeiss, 55, 261

  Zipperer, 16, 44, 52, 74, 76, 77, 83, 229, 270




E. Index.


        Page

  Accra-Cacao, 17, 29

  Acid benzoic, 243

  Acid hydrochloric, 16

  Acid yellow, 251

  Acids, solid, fatty, 53

  Acids volatile, 53

  Acids, sugar and plant—, 73

  Acid value, determination of, 54

  Acorn-Cacao, Michaelis, 306

  Acorn-Cacao, Hartwig & Vogel, 307

  Acorn-Cacao, Th. Timpe, 307

  Acorn-Chocolate, 307

  Acorn-Malt-Cacao, Dieterich, 307

  Acorn-Malt-Chocolate, 307

  Acrolein, formation of, 50, 93

  Adraganth, 255

  Adulteration of cocoa goods and its detection, 288

  African cacao varieties, 28

  Air, removal of, 143

  Air extracting machines, 144

  Albumin, 67

  Albuminates, determination of, 271

  Albuminous chocolate and cocoa, 307

  Albumoses, 67

  Alcohol ether test, Filsinger’s, 262

  Aleuron granules, 67

  Alizarin blue, 251

  Alkali solution, 222, 224

  Alkalis for soluble cocoa, 196, 216, 222

  Alkalis fixed, 198

  Alkalis remaining in the cocoa, estimation of, 256

  Alkaloids, 63

  Amaranth, 251

  American cacao varieties, 19

  Ammonia, 164

  Analysis of cacao, 48

  Analysis of cacao-butter, 58

  Analysis of mixtures of different blends, 109

  Analysis of the raw shelled bean, 44, 45

  Analysis of the various kinds of pressed Stollwerck cocoa butter, 56

  Analysis of waste products, 108

  Analysis and examination of cocoa preparations, 253

  Anilin blue, 251

  Anilin colours permissible, 250

  Antifebrin, 245

  Aroma of the bean, 59

  Arriba cacao, 17, 20

  Arrowroot, 237

  Arctic Machines, Cole’s, 170

  Artificial refrigeration, 163

  Ash, estimation of, 255

  Ash or mineral constituents, 73

  Ash remaining in raw and shelled cacao beans, 74

  Asiatic cacao varieties, 32

  Aspergillus, 242

  Australian cacao varieties, 33

  Automatic dividing machines, 146

  Automatic filling and packing machine 229


  Bahia Cacao, 22

  Bahia de Caraquez, 21

  Balao, 21

  Barley-Chocolate, 308

  Battery-Refiners, 132

  Battery-Shaking Tables, 160

  Beans, in general, 1

  Beans, description of, 12

  Beans, preliminary treatment of, 197

  Beans, preparations of, 85

  Bean meal, 238

  Benzoic acid, 243

  Benzoic tincture, 243

  Benzoin, gum-, 249

  Björklund’s ether test, 262

  Bordeaux red, 251

  Botanical definition of the cacao tree, 5

  Brazil cacao, 22

  Brilliant blue, 251

  Brine for cooling purposes, 165

  Brushing machine for cacao beans, 89

  Burning of chocolate mass, avoiding it, 134

  Butter of Cocoa, 58, 138, 187, 195, 284, 286

  Buttneriaceae, 5

  Butyro-refractometer, 55

  By-products in the cocoa industry, 81


  Cacaohoatel, 5

  Cacao beans, 1

  Cacao beans, description of, 12

  Cacao beans, preparation of, 85

  Cacao beans, preliminary treatment of, 197

  Cacao blanco, 13

  Cacao butter, 58, 138, 187, 195, 284, 286

  Cacao butter filters, 202

  Cacao butter, percentage to be extracted, 203

  Cacao butter, remaining in the finished cocoa, 204

  Cacao cake crusher, 210

  Cacao egg-cream, 308

  Cacao essence, 308

  Cacao fruit and flowers, 1, 2

  Cacao glycoside, 60

  Cacao husk, determination of, 267

  Cacao liqueur, 308

  Cacao, malt, 308

  Cacao mass, production of, 109, 282, 285

  Cacao mills, 110

  Cacao plantation, 7

  Cacao powder, 105, 187, 195, 210, 282, 285, 290

  Cacao powder-factory, installation of, 306

  Cacao preparations, definition of, 279

  Cacao presses, 199

  Cacao red, 43, 59

  Cacao shells, 1, 2, 76, 82

  Cacao soluble, 105, 195

  Cacao, substances of, 49

  Cacao tincture, 310

  Cacao tree, cultivation, diseases and parasites, 7

  Cacao tree, description of, 1

  Cacao tree, distribution and history, 4

  Cacao and chocolate preparations containing milk, 308

  Cacaol, 308

  Cacaophen Sieberts, 309

  Cacap, 5

  Cacava-quahitl, 5

  Cacogna, 195

  Caesalpina, 7

  Caffeine, determination of, 263

  Caracas, 17, 25

  Caraquez, 21

  Carbonic acid for cooling purposes, 164

  Cardamoms, 248

  Cardamom oil, 249

  Carob in the cacao, 278

  Carupano cacao, 25

  Castilloa, 7

  Cauca bean, 20

  Cellulose or crude fibre, 72, 266

  Centrifugal sifting machine, 210

  Ceylon Cacao, 5, 32

  Chemical and microscopical examination of cocoa preparations, 253

  Chemical constitution of the bean, 43

  Chestnut meal, 238

  Children’s Nährpulver, 309

  Chilled metal rollers, 125, 130

  Choclean, 309

  Chocolate, manufacture of, 85, 283

  Chocolate-cigars, 152

  Chocolate cooling plants, 166

  Chocolate cream syrup, 309

  Chocolate croquettes, 181

  Chocolate, crumb-, 153

  Chocolate digestif, 309

  Chocolate, dividing it, 143

  Chocolate eggs, 153

  Chocolate factory, installation of, 305

  Chocolate, Fondants-, 138, 189

  Chocolate, health-beer-, 309

  Chocolate, hygienic, 136

  Chocolate lozenges and pastilles, 176

  Chocolate, milk-, 141, 222, 272, 284, 286

  Chocolate, moulding it, 150

  Chocolate moulds various, 151, 152, 153, 154

  Chocolate powder, 283, 286

  Chocolate raw, treatment of, 138

  Chocolate rétablière, 309

  Chocolate spiced, 136

  Chocolate syrup, 310

  Chocolate tincture (cacao tincture), 310

  Chocolate vanilla, 136

  Chocolate varnish, 250

  Chocolatl, 5

  Christmas tree articles, 181

  Cinchona red, 60

  Cinnamon, 246

  Cinnamon oil, 249

  Cleaning machine for moulds, 154

  Cleaning machine for beans, 90, 91

  Cleaning, storing and sorting of the beans, 87

  Cloves, 247

  Clove oil, 249

  Coated chocolates, 182, 187

  Coating materials, 138, 141, 182, 187, 283, 286, 310

  Coffie-mama, 7

  Cole’s Arctic Machines, 170

  Colour of the cotyledon, 9

  Colouring of cocoa powder, 204

  Colouring materials, 250

  Coloration of starch with iodine, 71

  Columbia, 19

  Combined cocoa mill and refiner, 116

  Commercial kinds of cacao, 12, 16

  Commercial value of raw cacao, 17

  Compressor, 164

  Composition of the hulled bean, 43

  Conches, 138

  Condenser, 165

  Constituents, mineral or ash-, 73

  Constituents of cacao husks, 76

  Constituents in ash of cacao husks, 77

  Constitution of the bean, chemical, 43

  Consumption of cocoa products, 33, 38, 42

  Consumption of coffee, cocoa and tea, comparison, 39

  Cooling cellars, 168

  Cooling chambers, 162

  Cooling the chocolate, 162

  Cooling the roasted beans, 100

  Cooling trucks with exhaust apparatus, 100

  Copper in the ash of beans and husks, 75

  Coriander oil, 249

  Corn cacao, 310

  Costa Rica, 19

  Cotyledon, 15

  Covering or coating materials, 138, 141, 182, 187, 283, 286,, 310

  Cream chocolate, examination of, 272, 284

  Criollo, 18

  Crude fibre, 72, 266

  Crumb chocolate, 153

  Crushing of cocoa and sugar lumps, 122, 210

  Crushing, hulling and cleaning of the beans, 100

  Crushing, hulling and cleaning machines, 101

  Crystal sugar, 231

  Cuba, 28

  Cultivation of the cacao tree, 7

  Cumarin, 244, 245


  Declaration of added ingredients, 281

  Defatted cocoa, 203, 208

  Definitions of cocoa preparations, 279

  Depositing machine, 186

  Description of the beans, 12

  Dextrin, 237

  Dextrose, 71, 265

  Diabetic chocolate, 310

  Diabetic cocoa, 311

  Dictamnia, 311

  Dietetic cocoa preparations, 306

  Diorit rollers, 125

  Dipping machine, 192

  Dipping of pralinés, 187, 189

  Diseases of the cocoa tree, 7

  Disintegrating the cocoa tissues, 195

  Disintegration, methods of, 197

  Disintegration before roasting, 197

  Disintegration after roasting, 216

  Disintegration prior to pressing, 217

  Disintegration after pressing, 224

  Disintegrators, 233

  Distribution of the cacao tree, 4

  Diureides, 62

  Diuretin, 64

  Dividing machines, 148, 149

  Division of chocolate, 143

  v. Donat’s albumin chocolate, 311

  Double cocoa mills, 114

  Dowson gas, 97

  Dry cocoas, 208

  Dulcin, 235

  Durabula-moulds, 182

  Dust particles in cacao beans, 102

  Dutch cocoas, 195, 203

  Dutch IIa cocoa butter, 82


  Earth nut in the cocoa, 278

  Easin, 251

  Ecuador, 20

  Electric motors, 134, 168

  Electro-magnetic metal extracting machine, 103

  Erythrina indica, 7, 8

  Erythrosin, 251

  Esmeraldas, 22

  Estates, 26

  Estimation of alkalis remaining in the cocoa powder, 256

  Estimation of albuminates, 271

  Estimation of ash, 255

  Estimation of cocoa husk, 267

  Estimation of crude fibre, 266

  Estimation of the fatty contents, 258

  Estimation of moisture, 254

  Estimation of silicic acid in the ash, 256

  Estimation of starch, 264

  Estimation of theobromine and caffeine, 263

  Ether oils, 248

  Ether test, Björklund’s, 262

  Eucasin chocolate and cocoa, 311

  Evaporator, 164

  Examination and analysis of cocoa preparations, 253

  Exports from Germany, 35

  Extraction of cocoa butter, 195, 199, 203, 204


  Fair shipping cocoa, 26

  Fat contained in cocoa, 49

  Fat contained in cocoa shells, 57

  Fat, extraction of, 195, 199, 203, 204

  Fatty contents, determination of, 258

  Fermentation of the beans, 9, 60, 198

  Fermentation secondary, 87

  Fermentation tanks, 10

  Fernando Po, 32

  Fibre, determination of, 108

  Fibre crude, 72, 254, 266

  Fibre woody, 108

  Filsinger’s alcohol ether test, 262

  Filters for cocoa butter, 202

  Flavour of the finished cocoa powder, 206, 226

  Flavouring matter (spices), 287

  Flour, 236

  Fodder value of the husks, 83

  Fondant chocolate, 138, 182

  Fondant machines, 183, 184

  Food salt cocoa, 315

  Food and health powder, 315

  Forastero, 19

  Fuchsin, 251


  Galactogen cocoa, 312

  Gathering and fermentation of the beans, 9

  Gauga, 312

  Gelatine, 255

  Geographical distribution and history of the cacao tree, 4

  Germ separating machine, 105

  Globoids, 75, 276

  Globulins, 68

  Glucin, 235

  Glucose, 71, 138

  Glycoside, 11, 60, 253

  Gold Coast, 28

  Granite rollers, 123

  Granulated sugar, 231

  Grinding and trituration of the cocoa mass, 109

  Guadeloupe cacaos, 26

  Guarana paste, 16

  Guayaquil cacaos, 17, 20

  Guiana, 23

  Gum benzoin, 249

  Gum disease, 8


  Haema chocolate, 312

  Haiti cacaos, 27

  Hansa saccharin cocoa, 312

  Hardidalik, 312

  Hazelnut pulp in cocoa, 278

  Heating of the cocoa mass, 117

  Heating trough, 117

  Heating chambers and closets, 141, 142

  Heliotropium, 242

  Hensel’s Nähr-cacao, 312

  Hetero albumose, 68

  Hetero xanthine, 64

  History of the cacao tree, 4

  Homeopathic chocolate, 312

  Hulled bean, composition of, 43

  Hulling the cacao beans, 100

  Husks of cocoa, 76, 82, 267

  Husks, fodder value of, 83

  Husson’s mixture, 312

  Hydraulic presses, 199

  Hygiama, 312

  Hygienic chocolate, proportions for mixing it, 136


  Iceland moss chocolate, 313

  Imports to Germany, 35, 37

  Imports or consumption in the various countries, 38

  Index, refractive-, 55

  Indigo, 60

  Indigosulfone, 251

  Induline, 251

  Ingredients added, declaration of, 281

  Ingredients condemned, 230

  Ingredients used for chocolate, 230

  Iodine value, 53, 54


  Java cacao, 17, 33


  Kaiffa, 313

  Kameroon cacaos, 19, 29

  Kernels, analysis of, 44, 45, 76

  Kneading and mixing machines, 217

  Kola chocolate, 313

  Kola nut, 60

  Kongo, 30

  Kraft chocolate, 313


  Lagos, 29

  Leguminous meals, 238


  Levigation of chocolate, 81, 123

  Lipanin chocolate, 313

  Loss of weight by roasting, 96

  Lozenges, 176


  Mace, 247

  Mace oil, 249

  Machalla, 20

  Malachite green, 251

  Malt cacao, 313

  Malt cacao-syrup or malted chocolate, 313

  Malt chocolate, 313

  Malt extract-chocolate, 313

  Malto-leguminose cacao, 313

  Manioc, 7

  Manufacture of cocoa powder and soluble cocoa, 195

  Manufacture of cocoa preparations 85, 282

  Manufacture of chocolate, 85, 283

  Maracaibo, 25

  Martinique cacaos, 26

  Meat-extract-chocolate, 314

  Melangeurs, 121, 122, 124, 209,, 217

  Melting kettle, 187, 188

  Melting point of the cocoa butter, 52, 117, 261

  Methylviolet, 251

  Mexican cacaos, 19

  Microscopic-botanical investigation, 275

  Microscopic-chemical examination of cocoa preparations, 253

  Milk chocolate, manufacture of, 141, 222, 286, 314

  Milk cocoa, 314

  Milk and cream chocolate, examination of, 272, 284

  A more bitter milk cocoa, 314

  Milk cocoa sweet, 314

  Mill and refiner combined, 116

  Mineral or ash constituents, 73

  Mitscherlich particles, 13

  Mixing cocoa powder with alkalis, 223

  Mixing different kinds of cocoa, 108, 109

  Mixing machines, 118, 210, 217

  Mixture with sugar and spices, 117

  Moisture, contained in cocoa, 49

  Moisture in cocoa powder, 222

  Moisture, estimation of, 254

  Monomethyl xanthine, 64

  Motors, electric, 134, 168

  Moulds, 151, 152

  Mould cleaning machines, 154

  Moulding the chocolate, 149

  Moulding machines, 150

  Mucor circinelloids, 242

  Murexide reaction, 66

  Mutase-cacao, 315

  Mutase-chocolate, 315


  Nährsalz-cacao (Lahmann), 315

  Nähr- und Heilpulver, 315

  Naphtolyellow, 251

  Naranjal, 21

  Natural cocoa and chocolate, 315

  Nicaragua cacao, 19

  Nips, 11

  Nuco-cacao, 315

  Nutmeg, 247

  Nutmeg oil, 249


  Oat-cocoa Berlit, 316

  Oat-cocoa Hallenser, 316

  Oat-cocoa Kasseler, 316

  Official enactments respecting the trade in cocoa preparations, 280

  Official enactments respecting the trade in cocoa preparations
    — Belgium, 291
    — Roumania], 293
    — Switzerland, 294
    — Austria, 298
    — Germany, 301

  Oidium of cocoa, 228

  Oils, ether-, 248

  Oil sugar, 249

  Opening up the cacao tissues, 195

  Orange I, 251

  Orange L, 251

  Ornamented goods, 181, 189

  Oscuros, 21


  Packet filling machine, 228

  Packing and storing of finished cocoa preparations, 227

  Palamoud des Turcs, 316

  Para cacao, 23

  Parasites of the cacao tree, 7

  Pastilles, 176

  Pastille machines, 177, 179

  Paternoster, 192

  Pegados, 21

  Pelatos, 21

  Peptons, 68

  Peptone-cocoa, 316

  Peptone-chocolate, 317

  Peptone-powder-cocoa, 317

  Percentage of butter to be extracted, 203

  Percentage of butter remaining in the finished cocoa, 204

  Peru, 22

  Peru balsam, 249

  Peruviol, 249

  Phloxin, 123

  Pigment, 59

  Plansieves for cocoa powder, 214

  Plantation, 26

  Plasmon chocolate and cocoa, 317

  Polen’s value, 260

  Ponceau red, 251

  Porcelain rollers, 215, 133

  Porphyry rollers, 123

  Potato starch, 236

  Powder, chocolate-, 283

  Pralinés, 182, 187, 189

  Preliminary crushers, 212

  Preparation of the cacao beans, 85

  Presses, hydraulic-, 199

  Production of the cocoa mass, 109

  Proportions for mixing cocoa mass, sugar and spices, 136

  Proteins, 67

  Proteoses, 68

  Puerto Cabello, 25

  Pulverisation of the cocoa, 195

  Pulverisation of the seeds, 199

  Pulverisers, 210, 233, 239

  Pulverising plant, 211, 212

  Pulverising and sifting the defatted cocoa, 209

  Pulverising the sugar, 233


  Quadruple cocoa mills, 115


  Racahout des Arabes, 317

  Raspberry chocolate, 317

  Raw fibre, 254

  Raw shelled bean (kernel) analysis of, 44, 45

  Refining machines (rollers), 126, 134

  Refiner and mill combined, 116

  Refractive index, 55

  Refractometer-butyro, 55

  Refrigeration, artificial-, 163

  Reichert-Meissl value, 55

  Removal of air and division of the chocolate, 143

  Rice starch, 237

  Roasting the cacao beans, 89, 199

  Roasting machines, 93

  Root bark of cacao, the use of it, 11

  Roscellin, 251


  Saccharin, 234

  Saccharin-cocoa, 317

  Salep, 238

  Samana, 17

  Samoa, 33

  San Antonio, 26

  San Thomas, 30

  Sanchez, 17, 27

  Santo Domingo, 27

  Saponification of cocoa fat, 53, 54

  Secondary fermenting, 87

  Seed membrane of the bean, 11, 15

  Semi-dipped goods, 192

  Shaking tables, 156

  Shaking table-batteries, 160

  Shellac bleached, 250

  Shell of the cacao bean, 14, 76

  Shelling of the cacao beans, 100

  Sifting the defatted cocoa, 209

  Sifting machines, 210, 232

  Silicic acid in the ash of cocoa, 256

  Silver membrane, 79

  Simple cocoa mills, 110

  Soconusco, 26

  Soluble cocoa, 105, 195

  Somatose-cocoa with sugar, 317

  Somatose-chocolate, 317

  Spices and sugar, 117, 238, 287

  Spiced chocolate, proportions for mixing it, 136

  Starch cleaning machines, 186, 187

  Starch, coloration of, with iodine, 71

  Starch determination of, 264, 277

  Starch foreign in cocoa, 275

  Starch granules, 16, 70, 275

  Starch, kinds of, 236

  Starch powder, 185

  Starch sugar, 71

  Statistics of the cocoa trade, 35

  Steel rollers, 125, 130

  Stirring machines, 187

  Storing and packing of finished cocoa preparations, 227

  Storing and sorting of the beans, 87

  Substances albuminous, 67

  Substances occurring] in cacao, 49

  Sucramin, 235

  Sugar, determination of, 269

  Sugar and plant acids, 73

  Sugar and spices, 117, 231, 238, 287

  Sugar, boiling it, 183

  Sugar dust, 231

  Sugar flour, 231

  Sugar pulverising machines, 233

  Sugar sifting machines, 232

  Suisse Fondant machines, 138

  Surinam cacao, 23

  Sweetmeats, 186

  Sweetening stuffs, 231

  Sweets laquer, 250

  Sykorin, 234

  Sykose, 234

  Syrup, 183


  Temperature in cooling chambers, 172

  Temperature in heating chambers, 141

  Temperature for chocolate fondant and milk chocolate, 141

  Temperature for moulding chocolate, 150

  Temperature for roasting the beans, 89

  Tempering machines, 144, 145, 188

  Tenguel, 21

  Testing the cocoa powder and chocolate, 253

  Theobroma cacao, 5, 12

  Theobromade, 317

  Theobromine, 16, 43, 62, 263

  Dr. Thesen’s Proviant, 317

  St. Thomas, 30

  Tin boxes, 227

  Tincture of benzoin, 243

  Togo, 29

  Trade in cocoa, 32

  Tragacanth in cocoa goods, 277

  Treatment of the cocoa mixture, 119

  Trinidad-Criollo, 26, 32

  Triple cocoa mills, 111

  Trituration of the cocoa mass, 109, 119

  Tropaedlin, 251

  Tropon-cocoa, 317

  Tropon-chocolate, 318

  Tropon-oat-cocoa, 318

  Trough, heating-, 117

  Tumaco-cacaos, 20


  Ureides, 62

  Uropherin, 64


  Vacuum kneader, 220

  Vanilla, 241

  Vanilla-chocolate, proportions for mixing it, 136

  Vanillin, 119, 241, 243

  Vascular bundles, 16

  Venezuelan cacao, 17, 24

  Volatile acids, 53


  Wacaca des Indes, 318

  Walnut pulp in the cocoa, 278

  Waste products in cleaning, 106

  Waste products in sifting, 107

  Waste products in sorting, roasting, crushing and hulling, 107

  Water blue, 251

  Water cooling of steel rollers, 131

  Water or moisture contained in the cacao, 49, 254

  Weighing-machines, 148, 149

  Wheat starch, 236

  White chocolate, 318

  Woody fibre, 108


  Yellow acid R, 251


  Zuckerin, 234




  ANTON REICHE A. G.
        :DRESDEN:

  Manufacturer of Chocolate
  Moulds, decorated tin Boxes etc.

  ~ESTABLISHED 1870~


  =Chocolate Moulds=
  of every description
  latest are

  =“Plattinol” Moulds=
  which impart a =rich lustre= and =finish= to the chocolate

  =Chocolate Drop Presses=
  for Paste Chocolate for hand
  and for liquid chocolate, Automatic Power

  =Chocolate Covering
  Apparatus=

  =Machine for granulated
  Chocolate=
  (Streussel-Machine)

  =Decorated Tin Boxes=


  WRITE FOR CATALOGUES AND PRICES
  About 2000 employees




  J. M. LEHMANN   ·   DRESDEN

  =Founded       Oldest and largest Engineering Works for      =Founded
  1834=         the construction of modern Machines for         1834=
                   the Manufacture of Cocoa and Chocolate

  =PARIS=,                        =NEW YORK=,
  1, Passage St. Pierre Amelot.        13/15, Laight Street.

  +Sole Agents for Great Britain+: =Bramigk & Co., London E=, 5, Aldgate

  Hydraulic Cocoa Presses

[Illustration: Hydraulic Cocoa Presses.]

Total Pressure over 1000 Tons

Pressure on the Cocoa over 4 Tons per square inch.

Strongest Press in the market for the Extraction of Cocoa Butter

Automatically working Pulverising Plants for the Manufacture of Pure
and Soluble Cocoa

Execution of complete installations. Alterations in existing systems
carried out after the most approved methods.

Plans and Estimates at request.




  J. M. LEHMANN  ·  DRESDEN

  =Founded       Oldest and largest Engineering Works for      =Founded
  1834=         the construction of modern Machines for         1834=
                   the Manufacture of Cocoa and Chocolate

  =PARIS=,                        =NEW YORK=,
  1, Passage St. Pierre Amelot.        13/15, Laight Street.

  +Sole Agents for Great Britain+: =Bramigk & Co., London E=, 5, Aldgate

[Illustration: Melangeurs]


Melangeurs

of latest construction

Capacities from ½ to 6 Cwt.

With automatic discharge, saving Time and Labour.

Easy handling and economical working

[Illustration: Refining Machine]


Refining Machines

with 3, 4, 5, 6 and 9 rollers of granite or chilled metal (steel) with
water-cooling

Very large output, great saving of space and driving power.
Extraordinary Fineness of the finished material




  J. M. LEHMANN  ·  DRESDEN

  =Founded       Oldest and largest Engineering Works for      =Founded
  1834=         the construction of modern Machines for         1834=
                   the Manufacture of Cocoa and Chocolate

  =PARIS=,                        =NEW YORK=,
  1, Passage St. Pierre Amelot.        13/15, Laight Street.

  +Sole Agents for Great Britain+: =Bramigk & Co.=, London E. 5, Aldgate


Chocolate Cooling Plants

improved construction

Mechanical Cooling Plant in conjunction with Tempering and Moulding
Machines

[Illustration: Cooling Plant]

Melting Pan, automatic Tempering Machine, one or more Moulding
Machines, Shaking Tables and continuously working Cooling Chamber with
forced air circulation

Largest output. Great Saving of time and Labour. Automatic conveyance
of the full moulds over the shaking table and through the cooling
chamber to the packing room, and conveyance of the empty moulds back to
the moulding machine




Kunstanstalt vorm.

ETZOLD & KIESSLING A.-G.

CRIMMITSCHAU, SAXONY

The Chromolithographic Institute


Patent Folding & Fancy Paper Boxes of all kinds, for commercial and
other purposes, Showcards, Labels, Wrappers etc., Calendars, Catalogue
Covers, Reproductions of articles of merchandise in actual colours,
Insets and Advertising Novelties

[Colophon]

+Specialists in Chocolate Wrappers and Boxes+




[Illustration: Cocoa Pulveriser]

[Illustration: Chocolate Tempering Machine]

All machines

for the

manufacture of Chocolate, Cocoa and Confectionery


Paul Franke & Co.

Engineering Works

Leipzig-Böhlitz-Ehrenberg

Catalogues and Estimates on demand

[Illustration: Strong Hydraulic Cocoa Press]




~M. KRAYN~, Verlagsbuchhandlung, ~BERLIN~ W. 10


In meinem Verlage erschienen:

 =Die Chemie in industrie, Handwerk und Gewerbe= von =Joseph
 Spennrath=, weil. Direktor der gewerblichen Schulen der Stadt
 Aachen. _Fünfte vermehrte und verbesserte Auflage_, bearbeitet von
 =Dr. L. Sender=. Ein Lehrbuch zum Gebrauch an Schulen, sowie zum
 Selbstunterricht. Preis brosch. =Mk. 3.60=, kart. =Mk. 3.90=.

 =Die Bedienung und Wartung elektrischer Anlagen und Maschinen= von
 =Joseph Spennrath=, weil. Direktor der städt. gewerbl. Schulen
 und der Kgl. Baugewerbeschule in Aachen. _Zweite, vollständig neu
 bearbeitete u. bedeutend erweiterte Auflage_ v. Dipl.-Ing. =Franz
 Menge=. I. ~Einführung in die Grundlagen der Elektrotechnik.~
 Mit 207 Abbildungen und 1 Tafel. II. ~Einführung in den Bau und
 die Wirkungsweise der Stromerzeuger.~ Mit 210 Abbildungen. Preis
 pro Band brosch. =Mk. 2.80=, kart. =Mk. 3.25=. Preis komplett I./II.
 brosch. =Mk. 5.50=, kart. =Mk. 6.—=.

 =Temperaturmeßmethoden.= Handbuch zum Gebrauch bei praktischen
 Temperaturmessungen von =Bruno Thieme=. 35 Figuren im Text. Preis
 brosch. =Mk. 4.=—[, geb. =Mk. 5.—=.

 =Rechenhilfsbuch. Berechnungstabellen für Handel und Industrie,
 insbesondere für jede Lohn-und Akkordberechnung=, nach langjähriger
 Erfahrung herausgegeben von =G. Schuchardt=. D. R. G. M. _Dritte
 verbesserte Auflage._ Preis geb. =Mk. 5.=—. ~Für größere
 Betriebe unentbehrlich!~ Durch eine ganz neuartige, geschützte
 Register-Anordnung vermittelt das Schuchardt’sche Rechen-Hilfsbuch
 ~schnellste Auffindung~ der gewünschten Zahlen.

 =Der Praktische Lohnrechner.= Handbuch für jede Lohnberechnung von
 =G. Schuchardt=. Preis geb. =Mk. 2.=—. Es sind in diesem Buche die
 Lohnsätze von 7½-75 Pf. in Intervallen von 2½ Pf. aufgenommen,
 ferner auch die häufig üblichen Lohnsätze von 18, 22, 28, 32 Pf. Die
 Stundeneinteilung ergibt die Uebersicht von ¼ bis 99¾ Stunden.
 ~Für kleinere und mittlere Betriebe unentbehrlich!~

 =Die Kontrolle industrieller Betriebe.= Praktische Anleitung zur
 Durchführung einer modernen Betriebskontrolle von =G. Schuchardt=.
 Preis brosch. =Mk. 1.60.=

 =Der praktische Maschinenwärter.= Anleitung für Maschinisten und
 Heizer sowie zum Unterricht in technischen Schulen von =Paul
 Brauser=, Oberingenieur des Dampfkessel-Revisions-Vereins für den
 Regierungsbezirk Aachen und =Joseph Spennrath=, weil. Direktor der
 gewerblichen Schulen der Stadt Aachen. _Vierte verbesserte und
 vermehrte Auflage._ Mit 42 Holzschnitten. Preis kart. =Mk. 1.50.=

 =Der praktische Heizer und Kesselwärter= von =Paul Brauser=,
 Oberingenieur des Dampfkessel-Revisions-Vereins für den
 Regierungsbezirk Aachen und =Joseph Spennrath=, weil. Direktor der
 gewerblichen Schulen der Stadt Aachen. _Siebente verbesserte Auflage
 mit 60 Holzschnitten._ Preis kart. =Mk. 1.80.=


Zu beziehen durch jede Buchhandlung oder direkt vom Verlag




~M. KRAYN~, Verlagsbuchhandlung, ~BERLIN~ W. 10

+Für alle Kalkulationsbüros!+

Rechen-Resultate

Tabellen zum Ablesen der Resultate von Multiplikationen und Divisionen
(in Bruchteilen und ganzen Zahlen)

von 1 bis 1000

Zum praktischen Gebrauch für Stückzahl-, Lohn-und Prozentberechnungen,
sowie für jede Art Kalkulation

Preis gebunden 10 Mark

Herausgegeben von

  =F. TRIEBEL=,     Kaiserlicher Revisor
                  der Reichsdruckerei


Die Papierverarbeitung

von MAX SCHUBERT

weiland Fabrikdirektor a. D., Prof. a. d. Königl. techn. Hochschule zu
Dresden


I. ~Band~:

Die Kartonnagen-Industrie

Praktisches Handbuch für Techniker, Kartonnagen-Fabrikanten und
Buchbinder

_Mit 479 Illustrationen und 2 Musterbeilagen_

Preis broschiert 10.—Mark, gebunden 11.50 Mark


II. ~Band~:

Die Buntpapier-, Tapeten-, Briefumschlag-, Düten-oder Papiersack-,
Papierwäsche-und photographische Papier-Fabrikation

Praktisches Handbuch für Techniker, Buntpapier-, Tapeten-und
Dütenfabrikanten-Direktoren

_Mit 278 Illustrationen_

Preis broschiert 10.—Mark, gebunden 11.50 Mark


I. u. II. Band, zusammen bezog., brosch. 18.—M., geb. 20—M.

_Ausführlicher Prospekt gratis_


Zu beziehen durch jede Buchhandlung oder direkt vom Verlag


       *       *       *       *       *


Transcriber's Notes

Obvious typographical errors have been silently corrected. Variations
in hyphenation have been standardised but all other spelling and
punctuation remains unchanged.

Italics are represented thus _italic_, bold thus =bold=, underline thus
+underline+ and Gesperrt thus ~Gesperrt~.

Subscripts are shown thus _{n} and superscripts ^{n}.

Page 64. “cacao-red~, which latter is represented by the formula
C_{17}H_{12}(OH)_{10}.” The first digit in the {10} is illegible in the
original, 1 is a best guess.

Page 159. “By a special arrangement, the number of revolutions in
relation to the number of the elevations of the slab is reduced by one
fourth, viz., from 760 to 190.” by corrected to “to”

Part III section headings added

Page 259. “For example, if 50 ccm of the ether solution of fat give a
residue of 8·8 gramme, then 100 ccm represents 1·6 gramme. But this ·6
gramme...” corrected to 0.8 gramme and 1.6 gramme respectively.

Page 309. “with 3·8 litres of withe sugar syrup (american recipe).”
withe removed

Page 134 “For this reason the 6, 9 or even 12 roller mills have been
more discarded since the last grinding process has been perform granite
rollers (cold process).” corrected to performed by

In order to fit within width constraints many of the larger tables have
been split and underlining and italic markings have been omitted.

The following spellings have been standardised:

Arctic and Artic, Arctic used.

by-product and bye-product. by-product used.

percent, percent., per cent, per cent., and per-cent. percent used.