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[Illustration: The Historical Department.]

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                                  THE
                            MUSEUM GAZETTE.

                 NO. 2.      JUNE, 1906.      VOL. 1.

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OUR HISTORY ROOM. (_See Frontispiece._)

A department of our Museum to which, as regards its educational
usefulness, we attach very great importance, is that which attempts the
illustration of Human History. It is displayed in a separate division
of the main building, and is arranged, as far as possible, on “the
space-for-time method.” This method, which, following the pattern of
an ordinary diary, allots to every period of time the same amount of
space, is, of course, possible only where the time-periods and dates
are fairly well established. It is not well adapted, excepting as
a sort of open and, to some extent speculative, framework for the
illustration of prehistoric times. A courageous example of such use of
it we ventured to offer in our last number in reference to prehistoric
man in Britain. It was not history in any other sense than that the
periods of time were real; the events assigned to them were largely
conjectural. In the Museum itself we do not attempt to deal with very
remote periods in this manner. Our space-for-time arrangement begins
only with 2000 B.C. It might now, perhaps, fairly begin with 4000 B.C.,
but, unfortunately, we have not space enough. In this Schedule, which
occupies the whole of one side of a long room (70 feet), a measured
space on the wall, of nearly two feet, is allotted to each century.
The centuries are marked out by strong black lines, drawn vertically
from roof to the table-shelf below. This table-shelf is 18 inches wide,
and runs the whole length of the room. It is upon it that the busts
shown in our frontispiece are standing. Each bust is supposed to be in
its appropriate century, and with it are placed any other illustrative
objects belonging to the period--medals, coins, small architectural
models (when we have them), and the like. For instance, a model of
Stonehenge stands in the century in which it seems probable that that
most remarkable structure was built, and portions of Roman pavement
and other relics mark the period of the Italian occupation of Britain.
Upon the wall itself are placed engravings, photographs, and the like,
illustrative of the century, and representing either human personality
or some results of human effort. In order to aid the memory each
century is designated by the name of some prominent person of the time,
to whom other associations may conveniently cling. These names, painted
in bold characters, head the columns which represent the centuries.
Beneath these prominent names we have (in the case of a considerable
number of the most recent centuries) put up schedules of the principal
events, and lists of some of the principal persons. The appended
schedule is one of them and will illustrate what is meant:--

                            FOURTEENTH A.D.

                               CHAUCER.

                    The Three Edwards.
                    Bannockburn.
                    Famine in England.
                    The Hundred Years’ War begins.
                    Battle of Crecy.
                    The Black Death (Plague).
                    Battle of Poictiers.
                    Bolingbroke dethrones Richard II.
                    Froissart’s Chronicle.

    Wallace and Bruce. Dante. John of Gaunt. Rienzi. Van Artevelde.
          Wickliffe. Huss. Boccaccio. Petrarch. William Tell.

It will, if what we have tried to describe has conveyed its intended
meaning, be seen that an observer passing slowly down the length of
the room, may appreciate at a glance the relative position of the
principal events in the world’s history. He can hardly avoid noticing,
with fair accuracy, the distance between Homer and Socrates, between
Socrates and Paul, and between the Christian epoch and the times of
Milton and Shakespeare. He will be impressed at once, as, possibly,
he never was before, with a perception of the brief and very recent
portion of time which contains the whole of the annals of our own
nation. If, in addition to thus obtaining a sort of bird’s-eye view
of the progress of the world, it is desired to go into detail and
devote time to the enquiry, a certain amount of help will be found
to have been provided on the table-shelf. Detailed schedules taken
from the “The Centuries” (see advertisement) have been mounted on
board conveniently for hand use, and are placed on the table-shelf at
the foot of each century. A few books of reference in biography and
history, and numerous maps, have also been suitably placed, and there
are chairs.

The “Historical Schedule” described takes up, as we have said, the
whole of one side of the long room. The other side of it, as well
as much of the floor-space, is occupied by somewhat miscellaneous
illustrations of prehistoric times, and of nations and races which
have not as yet attained to history. The anthropoids, anthropology
and ethnology in general here find illustration, in large part, but
not wholly, by pictorial aid. We have also a few interesting objects
suitable, as illustrating social progress, for what is now known as a
Folk-Museum.

It is believed that this department of the Museum offers special
facilities to teachers, who bring their classes into it and give
explanations on the spot, and that by enabling the pupil to obtain a
wide purview of historical times, it may do somewhat to obviate the
inevitably cramping influence of the too detailed study of single
epochs.

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FAMOUS WOMEN AT THE NATIONAL PORTRAIT GALLERY.

We have climbed to the third landing. Let us turn into the left-hand
gallery and we shall come to one of the most interesting groups in the
whole Museum.

It is that which contains portraits of English women whose names
have become famous in literature. Here we have Mrs. Browning, Sarah
Austin, Mrs. Carter, Miss Strickland, George Eliot, Mary Somerville,
and many others. The collection is not nearly so complete as could
be wished--for Jane Austen, Anne and Jane Taylor, Hannah More, the
Brontës, and many others are wanting--still, it is very good. But
few males are admitted. Robert Browning is very properly allowed
to accompany his wife, and the fact, we presume, that his wife was
with him, has also gained access for Thomas Hood. A portrait of Lady
Hamilton strikes us as a little out of place, but the Museum has as
yet no department for female charm, and as this is by Romney it may
have been difficult to refuse it. With the exception of it and one of
Elizabeth Fry, all the others have more or less direct claim to be
associated with literature or science. To Mrs. Opie, Mrs. Browning
and Miss Strickland no one will hesitate to accord the praise of good
looks, and many others exhibit in a remarkable degree the bright-eyed
intelligence which we expect from authoresses. Several show a splendid
breadth of forehead, the accompaniment, no doubt, of a brachycephalic
or broad head. Mrs. Carter, Miss Mitford (of “Our village”), Mrs.
Trimmer, Miss Strickland and George Eliot are the best, but not the
only instances of this. It might be hardly good manners to describe
too exactly the various features of feminine faces, and the fact that
but few show the profile makes it difficult to judge accurately as to
size and shape of nose and chin. Few are, in any sense, disappointing.
That of Mrs. Carlisle might have been kept back without loss, since,
if it is in the least true to life, it gives a too painful sense
of justification to the rumours of married unhappiness, which were
probably to a large extent unfounded. The portrait of Sarah Austin,
when old and ill, might also perhaps be spared, since there is a very
pleasing one of her in earlier life. At any rate, the two ought to be
placed together. Declining, as we do, in reference to almost the whole,
the task of detailed analysis of features, we cannot, in the interests
of physiognomical research, exempt those behind which lay the most
profound intellect ever possessed by a woman. Mrs. Carter in classical
and literary attainments, and Mary Somerville in the domain of science,
must be accorded foremost places. Mrs. Browning is second, perhaps, to
none in depth of human sympathy and beauty of poetic expression; but
if we estimate character by profundity of insight, we shall probably
accord to George Eliot amongst women much the same position as that
which Shakespeare holds amongst men. We do not for a moment compare her
with Shakespeare.

Of George Eliot the Museum possesses three portraits. Most fortunately,
it has also one of her father. It would add enormously to the value
of portraits as a means to the illustration of character, if we might
always have associated with that of a distinguished individual those
of his parents, and even of his brothers and sisters. The portrait of
Robert Evans (George Eliot’s father) is a very pleasing one--a grave,
serious face, with a large Roman nose, well-formed lips and chin, and
a really magnificent forehead. The nose probably gives a clue to his
family descent.

Of those of the authoress herself, the first, taken when she was 23,
by a lady friend (Mrs. Bray), is a poor work of art, and exhibits a
commonplace face, surmounted by a very large rounded forehead. It is
impossible to judge of the nose. A second is of some years older, and
is much better executed. The forehead is still there, and the nose is
shown of good size and shapely, and the lips and chin are well formed.
The face is a shorter one than in the next, and the hair is of a much
lighter tint. The face is pleasing and attractive, not much unlike, if
we remember rightly, one which represented Jenny Lind.

Lastly, we come to the often copied and well-known portrait at age 46,
by Sir F. Burton. In this the nose and face are long, almost suggesting
an approach to what is called a horse face. The chin is good, but as
the fine forehead is much concealed by folds of hair, the balance of
features is not perfect, and the whole result not pleasing. All the
three show the eyes light grey or blue. There can be no doubt that
George Eliot had a large forehead and a fairly large nose and chin, but
further than this these somewhat disaccording portraits do not take us.
We must fall back on her father’s Roman nose and really beautifully
balanced features.

Mary Somerville’s face is a very intellectual one, but a trifle cold as
regards mouth and chin. Looking at Mrs. Carter’s width of forehead, no
one can doubt that she had “skull-room” for many languages and what had
been written in them. There is a most pleasant expression on her face,
suggesting a genial companion and ready conversation, but her chin is
weak and small. Mrs. Browning’s face is alive with graceful vigour, and
her forehead, as we have already said, is full and round.

It is held that the heads of women are dolichocephalic (long in
proportion to breadth) in larger average than those of men. There is
certainly nothing in this collection of portraits which would oppose
the supposition that the higher developments of intellect in women,
as in men, are usually met with in heads unusually broad. Such an
inference must, however, be accepted with some caution.

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THE BRAIN IN RELATION TO INTELLECT.

When we speak of size of brain in reference to intellectual endowments
we must draw a clear distinction between the eminence of a specialist
and that of one of wide attainments. A man may become famous as a
specialist by the sedulous cultivation of one branch of knowledge,
whilst far from being distinguished by wide grasp of thought. Indeed,
the absence of interest in some branches of knowledge may greatly
favour the exclusive devotion to a single one. Peschell quotes
the weights of the brains of some Göttingen professors which were
considerably below the average: Gauss, Fuchs (pathologist), Hermann
(philologist), Haussmann (mineralogist).

Cuvier and Lord Byron are usually cited as having had brains much
heavier than the average, but there is some uncertainty, especially as
to the latter. None of his lordship’s portraits suggest a large head.

Although there are considerable discrepancies in the statements of
those who have examined the matter, there can be little or no doubt
that the brain increases somewhat with the advance of civilisation, and
that it was smaller in the prehistoric races of man than in the more
advanced ones of the present age. The differences are probably not so
great as many may expect, but they are real. The Australian natives
stand the lowest, and the Europeans the highest. The American Indian
had a larger brain than the Asiatic, and the Asiatic than the African.
The Chinese stand between the European and the Negro. Two Irish skulls
are perhaps the largest on record.

The size of the skull may possibly not be always a safe indication of
the amount of useful brain matter contained in it. It is said that the
large-skulled Germans have brains which are of lower specific gravity
than those of others.

There are many sources of fallacy as regards the weight of the brain
in different persons, different races, and in the two sexes. We must
not trust too implicitly to statistics or to tabulated records. It is
better to be content with general results, and to state even these with
great caution.

There can, however, be but little doubt that the brain of woman weighs
less than that of man, and that this difference is greatest in highly
civilised races. The brains of the broad-headed are, as a rule,
somewhat heavier than those of the long-headed. This conclusion has
been arrived at by comparing the brains of different individuals of the
same race, not those of different races (Peschell, p. 70).

There are some observations which support the conclusion that the brain
attains its greatest weight before 30 years of age, and then undergoes
diminution. At the age of 80 this diminution is supposed to reach 10
per cent. The diminution concerns the brain proper and the cerebellum,
but not their connecting part, the pons, which increases up to the
fiftieth year. Whilst it is, however, difficult to imagine methods
by which, without risk of great fallacy, such conclusions could be
arrived at, we may safely believe that the advance of age is attended
by some reduction in the size of the skull cavity and the weight of its
contents.

It appears to be a constant law that with advance of civilisation the
differences between the sexes in general become increased. This is seen
in measurements of the skull and in the weight of the brain. In the
brains of negroes the woman is but little below that of the man, 984
to 1,000, but in the English it is only 860, and Germans 838. These
figures indicate, of course, proportions only, and like all other
calculations in this difficult subject, must be received with caution;
but they probably indicate, if they do not precisely express, the fact.

The height of the skull is usually in inverse ratio to its breadth. The
variation in height is far less than is common in breadth.

The brachycephalic have heavier brains than the dolichocephalic.

In Hottentots both indices, breadth and height, are low.

The following may be mentioned as examples of remarkably broad heads
(wide foreheads), in association with genius: Shakespeare, Beranger,
Mirabeau, Peacock (the novelist), Miss Austen, Blackmore (“Lorna
Doone”), Tennyson, Erskine.

The following had heads both tall and broad: Scott, Goethe, Cervantes,
Ambrose Paré, John Foster, Father Paul, Galileo, Michael Angelo,
Machiavelli, Benjamin West.

We shall be indebted to any of our readers who may direct our attention
to other well-marked examples.

The following afford instances of remarkably tall heads: Motley (the
historian of the Netherlands), Remin (engineer), Richard Roberts
(engineer).

The following had remarkably long faces: Francis I., Inigo Jones,
George Eliot (Miss Evans), Savonorola.

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THE EGG MARKET IN ENGLAND.

A wholesale dealer gives us the following items as to the consumption
of eggs in London: When eggs are 16 for a shilling the sale amongst
the working classes is enormous. When they are 12 a shilling it falls
at once 40 per cent., and when only 8 it drops very low. The bulk
of London eggs are imported; Italy supplies many, France many, and
some even come from Turkey. They will travel from Trebizond and be
perfectly fresh when they arrive in London. We are assured that most
of the new-laid eggs consumed in Haslemere come from Italy, and this
at all periods of the year. Our English housewives are not clever at
preserving eggs, and the witty classification of eggs into new-laid
eggs, fresh eggs, and eggs, is but too often illustrated.

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ON OUTGROWTHS AND APPENDAGES.

(_Part of a Museum Lecture._)

Let us draw a clear distinction between “Appendages” and “Outgrowths.”
The prickles which are formed on the branch of a rose are appendages;
they may be detached without really breaking any part of the bush.
The spines which grow on the blackthorn are outgrowths, and cannot be
so detached. I wish that some better word than “appendages” could be
found, for it seems almost to imply insignificance, and many of the
appendages to plants are of the utmost importance. Still, it is true of
them all that they may be removed and yet leave the plant, as a plant,
complete, and many or most of them have only a transitory life, which
does not by any means equal that of the plant itself. They are like the
luncheon basket at the summer day’s ramble, not absolutely essential,
but very conducive to perfection. Now most forms of leaf, flower, fruit
and prickle are in this sense merely appendages. From the very earliest
stages of their formation arrangements exist for their separation, in
whole or part, from the plants on which they are produced. You will
see that I am cautious in my terms, and say in part or in whole, for
in truth some appendages never are detached as wholes, and very great
variety exists in the ways in which they are dealt with. For the most
part they are susceptible of death, and have their fixed duration
of life quite independently of the plant which bears them. In many
this independent death is the cause of their being cast off. In some
instances, however, it is not death, nor even sickness, but the fulness
of life and the attainment of adult age which causes them to leave the
parental home. I hold in my hand an oak twig with two empty acorn cups.
The acorns having attained maturity, have fallen out. Shall we say they
have detached themselves, or that the tree has detached them? They
have not fallen by mere weight, for they were doubtless nearly, if not
quite, as heavy whilst still green, and they were then firmly fixed.
You see at the bottom of the empty cup the large round scar which marks
the site of former attachment. It is brown and dry. It was by changes
which took place here that the acorn was loosened. The acorn had
ripened and ceased its growth. It no longer attracted sap through its
base of attachment, and the latter consequently became dry and brittle.
Possibly its feeding tubes were choked; at any rate, it is certain that
it underwent a sort of death and was no longer able to keep the acorn
in place. The process was much like that which occurs in the shedding
of leaves, with, however, the very noteworthy difference that the acorn
itself was still alive.

We have not, however, done with our oak twig. The acorns which it
bore were only appendages to an appendage, and it now becomes the
turn of the cups themselves and the whole of the long foot-stalk on
which they are mounted to become detached. These are no part of the
tree, and are of no use to it. They were developed in order to bear
flowers and fruit; that function they have now discharged, and they
must die. Life is preserved only by the discharge of function, or at
any rate the effort to discharge it. Utter inactivity leads to death,
and death leads to separation from the living and to decay. You see
that the whole foot-stalk is brown and shrunken and evidently dead.
This condition ends abruptly where the foot-stalk joins the stem. At
this spot, if you look carefully, you will see that there is a ring
of constriction, marking definitely where detachment is in progress.
This was the spot at which the production of the whole appendage began,
and here a sort of joint was left at which the final detachment was
destined to occur. Just one word of caution, that we must not carry
our distinctions too far. After all, they are to some extent matters
of degree. The joint which separates the appendage from the twig on
which it is produced can hardly be termed a true joint, for certain
structures run in unbroken continuity from the stem to the appendage.
These are the fibro-vascular bundles by which the appendage is fed and
also fixed in place. These bundles are usually quite visible in the
scar-surface left when a leaf or fruit is broken off. They are “the
nails in the horse-shoe” of the leaf-scar of the horse chestnut. Still,
it is certain that a sort of joint is present, and that the structures
are continuous in a very different sense from that of a stem or true
branch. You may observe this difference in my acorn-bearing twig, for
there are two acorn cups, and one has been produced by a branching out
from the stem of the other. This little branch is smoothly continuous
with the parent branch, and shows no preparation for detachment
whatever.

Thus we have seen that the arrangements under which leaves are shed
are exactly repeated in the case of fruits, and that it is by no means
needful that the object to be detached should be dead or dying. It
may perhaps surprise you to be told that sometimes appendages are
shed which have by no means accomplished their prospective work. Some
plants shed their flowers and do this deliberately, having made their
arrangements for a step which is apparently suicidal. In reality it is
not suicidal, nor is it one of limitation of population, but simply of
preferential employment of capital. The potato gives a good example of
this. Every spring you may see on the heads of this plant beautiful
flowers produced, which are destined in the course of another week to
be only flowerless foot-stalks. The flowers break off at a pre-existing
joint, just as leaves are shed. The influence which causes them to fall
is inability to attract sap, in consequence of inability to proceed to
the further stage of producing fruit. The young tubers underground make
such overpowering demands upon the sap-furnishing capabilities of the
roots that the flowers cannot obtain sufficient for their seed forming.
Thus they at once die: if not obviously, at any rate practically, and
detachment follows as a natural result.

It is a case of competitive growth and the tubers win. After a time the
plant will in the course of inheritance learn that it is useless to
produce flowers, will give up the attempt; indeed, many varieties have
already done so to a considerable extent.

No better instance could perhaps be given of the law which goes through
all animated Nature that activity is almost essential to continuance of
life, whether in individuals or their parts.

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THE OLDEST FOSSILS (Lingula).--It is a noteworthy fact that these, the
oldest fossil animals known, belong to species by no means low in the
scale. Yet every trace of the many millions which must have preceded
them, and have gradually led up to their development, have perished.
The period of time which must have elapsed subsequent to the advent of
life upon the planet and the development of the lingula mollusc was
probably quite as long as that which has passed since the lingula left
its shell in the mud of the Portmadoc slate. The oldest fossils which
are known are found in the lower Cambrian rocks. They are small oval
shells, which were, during life, the protection of small soft-bodied
sea animals of highly complex structure: they had red blood. Their
descendants are still found in great numbers burrowing in sand on the
shores of tropical oceans. They have received the name of Lingula, and
have in turn conferred that name on certain hard rocks in which their
shells occur in abundance, the “Lingula flags” of Wales (RAY LANKESTER).

       *       *       *       *       *

HUGE SHARK’S TEETH.--Ray Lankester figures, in his interesting lectures
on extinct animals from which we have quoted the above a gigantic
shark’s tooth. It is that of the _Carharodon megalodon_, and is three
times the length of the tooth of any living shark. Specimens of this
fossil tooth of smaller dimensions are common, and one should be found
in every museum. They are obtained from the bone bed of the Red Crag
at Felixstowe, but were not originally deposited in it. Many of them
have fragments of a yet older sandstone adhering to them. Lankester
calculates that his shark was 100 feet long.

       *       *       *       *       *

THE GREAT FAMILY OF THE CAMELS AND DEER.

The Camel, the Camelopard, the Musk-deer and the Deer are all more or
less nearly related. They constitute a branch of the great family of
Ruminants, and all chew the cud. With the Camel are associated the
Bactrian or two-humped Camel, the Alpaca, the Llama and the Vicuna.
With the Giraffe we have the Okapi, and several extinct animals. The
Musk-deer stands almost alone. Of Deer there are a great many species.
It is easy enough to distinguish these various animals the one from the
other when seen living in a Zoological Garden or stuffed in a museum.
Indeed, at first sight, there might seem to be no great similarity
between a Camel, a Giraffe, and a Fallow-deer. To the student of
natural history, however, it becomes of great interest to observe the
essential peculiarities of each. These may be grouped as those which
prove relationship and those which show differences. We will leave
aside the very important peculiarities in the stomach, because but few
of our readers will have opportunities for examining them, and will
confine our attention to the feet, horns, skull and teeth. All have two
hoofs or more, and the Camel group have behind their hoofs a pad which
covers the sole. None of them have hollow horns, and in none are their
weapons of offence--horns, teeth, tusks, &c.--very effective. In all
when adult the cutting teeth (incisors) in the upper jaw are absent,
and in most the canines are either absent or much modified.

The Camel tribe differ from Giraffes in possessing a pad, and in
having, when young, incisor teeth in the upper jaw, and fewer lower
incisors by two. They have also strong canines in both jaws, no trace
of horns, and nothing to be called tusks.

The Giraffes have two, three, or even five abortive horns of very
peculiar development. They have very long necks, no pads, no tusks.
The canine teeth in the lower jaw, which look like incisors, are much
specialised in being cleft or notched.

The little Musk-deer has no sort of horn; but his upper canine teeth
are large and form tusks.

The true Deer have antlers (in the male), which they shed every year.
The males, and sometimes the females, have canine teeth in the upper
jaw. The antlers are dermal bones, that is, are formed in the skin, and
do not grow from the skull. They have two rudimentary digits above the
hoofs.

The whole of this group, which we may call the Camel and Deer family,
are almost wholly defenceless, the Giraffe the most so of all, and,
excepting those which are useful in domestication, are threatened with
extinction. The Camels and the Llamas, although separated as distantly
as Peru and Arabia, have in common the very peculiar habit of snorting
most offensively at those who oppress or annoy them.

This large family of Camels and Deer stands between a small one which
comprises Pigs, and a very large one, to which Cattle, Sheep, Goats and
Antelopes are assigned. Pigs are not ruminants, and have incisor teeth
in the upper jaws. Cattle, sheep, &c., like camels and deer, ruminate,
and have no cutting teeth in the upper jaw. Their distinctive features
are hollow horns (which are present in both sexes), and the invariable
absence of tusks.

The canine teeth in all members of the Giraffe group are peculiar,
in that they show a cleft in the free edge which divides them into
two lobes. These teeth look as if they belonged to the incisors, but
various facts prove them to be really the canines. Those of the extinct
Sivatherium, and those of the recently discovered Okapi, have similar
peculiarities, and thus prove their relationship.

It is curious that our natural history authorities are not yet agreed
as to whether the Giraffe has his fore limbs longer than the hind ones
or not. Claus and Sedgwick say, “hind legs much shorter, and therefore
the back slopes backwards.” Those who have measured the bones, however,
say that there is no difference, and that the slope depends entirely
upon the setting of the shoulder blade.

       *       *       *       *       *

ENGLISH EDIBLE SNAILS.

“WALL-FISH.”

The term “wall-fish” will be unknown to many of our readers. It is
applied by dealers in Covent Garden and other markets to the common
garden snail (_Helix aspersa_). This mollusc is held in especial esteem
by the poor in Bristol, and in consequence is now very scarce in the
environs of that city. There are men who make a livelihood during the
winter by collecting these snails from their hybernating places. In
November, 1896, the writer met a “wall-fish” collector in a remote
village in Somerset, and had an interesting conversation with him. He
was collecting for a Bristol dealer, his home being in Kent, where he
worked as a carpenter in summer and autumn. For many winters past he
had regularly visited Somerset to collect snails. According to his
experience these snails seldom hybernate in banks facing east or north,
but usually seek winter quarters in those facing south-west.

They generally congregate in some numbers, and appear to have a
predilection for certain spots. From an hybernaculum near the village
he had that morning taken a gallon and a half of them, but this was
very unusual; his “takings” as a rule did not exceed a gallon per day.

Ash stumps, or crannies at the base of ash-trees, are very favourite
haunts. They seldom hybernate under oaks, and although old walls are
favourite places in summer, whence they probably owe their name of
“wall-fish,” they seldom hybernate in them.

Our “wall fisherman” carried an iron rod about 2 feet long, slightly
crooked at one end for probing likely nooks and corners. _H. aspersa_
is quite the most nearly domesticated of the snail tribe. It loves the
haunts of man, and is seldom found in any numbers in places remote from
villages and roadsides.

A conchologist should never miss an opportunity of examining the bag of
a wall-fish collector. Occasionally rare varieties--_scalariforme_ for
instance--may be secured in this way. I asked my friend to allow me to
inspect his “catch,” and he very obligingly turned out the contents of
his creel. I found nothing better than three or four examples of the
variety _exalbida_, which is greenish-white. It is, however, widely
distributed in the southern counties. It is stated by Forbes and Hanley
(“Hist. Brit. Moll.,” vol. iv., p. 46), that “owing to its being an
article of food in some countries, or else a supposed remedy for
pulmonary affections, _H. aspersa_ has been transported and distributed
by the agency of man to all parts of the world. It is especially
abundant in the neighbourhood of gardens.” In 1840, according to
Turton, _H. aspersa_ was sold in Covent Garden and elsewhere as a cure
for diseases of the chest, and was sent to the United States as a
delicacy. “The glassmen at Newcastle once a year have a snail feast;
they generally collect the snails themselves in the fields and hedges
the Sunday before the feast day.” This feast is, we believe, now given
up.

       *       *       *       *       *

DORMANT LIFE.--The conditions under which vital activity may become
dormant obtained a curious illustration in the instance of a beetle
which was taken alive out of the wood of a desk which had been in the
office of the London Guildhall for twenty years. The wood was deal from
the Baltic, the beetle was the _Buprestis splendens_. It was alive and
in beautiful colour. The observation was confirmed by Sir Joseph Banks.
The description is given by Mr. Thos. Wrenham in the tenth volume of
_Transactions of Linnæan Society_, 1810.

       *       *       *       *       *

DODDER AND IVY.--Ivy is a climber only, Dodder is a true parasite.
Ivy does not in any degree derive nourishment from the trees on which
it grows. It is obvious that it cannot get any from walls. It may be
plausibly disputed whether it does any injury to the trees to which it
clings, for it is often seen on very large ones. It is reputed to be
wholesome for sheep and deer in spite of its rank odour, and pheasants
are fond of its seed.

       *       *       *       *       *

HOW TO FORM A TEMPORARY MUSEUM.

A temporary museum will, in all probability, be a Vacation- or
Summer-museum; there will, therefore, be no need for stoves or fires,
and scarcely any for artificial light. The sun rises in summer as early
as any members of the museum committee are likely to be stirring, and
by sunset it will be time to close. We will suppose, then, that the
season is summer and the place a small town in the country. In the
first place a small local committee of those interested in the scheme
should be formed, and a small sum of money guaranteed. The next step
should be to borrow a set of school premises, or hire for a couple
of months an empty house. If only a small cottage were obtainable
it should have a back garden in which a large wooden shed could be
put up. The essentials are plenty of room, plenty of light, and good
protection from weather. If the premises secured be those of a school,
the next thing will be to arrange with some carpenter for the hire of a
quantity of boards which, laid across the desks, will make tables. It
may be possible, on similar terms, to obtain from a draper a quantity
of baize, or its very cheapest equivalent, but this would not be
absolutely necessary. Having secured plenty of table-space, the next
point is to prepare the walls. It will be required to display on these,
Portraits, Maps, Illustrations, &c., &c., and for pinning these up
some sort of framework is desirable. The carpenter will soon put this
together and cover it with baize or flannel.

The rooms being made ready, the next step is to fill them, and about
this there will be no difficulty. As a preliminary measure a circular
will have been sent out, inviting all residents to contribute their
curiosities on loan. It will be strange if this be not bountifully
responded to by cases of stuffed animals and birds, collections of
eggs and of shells, and boxes of minerals. Ammonites, elephants’
teeth, mammalian skulls, butterflies, wasps’ nests, flint implements,
and Missionaries’ curios will be brought in great abundance. All
these, properly arranged, with descriptive labels, may be made most
interesting and instructive. A certain number of glass-covered
display-cases, with locks, will now be required in order that fragile
or valuable specimens, and especially those on loan, may be properly
taken care of. Such cases may be made inexpensively, and our Haslemere
Museum will be glad to supply patterns, or even, if wished, to loan the
cases themselves.

At this stage the Committee should remember that a museum has been
well defined as “a collection of labels illustrated by specimens,” and
should obtain, if it has not already done so, a set of our printed
labels, and ascertain for how many of them illustrative specimens
can be produced. Steps should next be taken to obtain elsewhere any
specially desirable exhibits which may not be forthcoming. Some
Horns, Antlers, Skulls, &c., are sure to be wanted, and no doubt
the Geological series and the Flint implements will need to be
supplemented. These deficiencies may be supplied in some instances by
borrowing from other adjacent museums, or they may be purchased at
various dealers.

A very important and attractive department of the temporary museum
will be the display of Pictures, Maps and Portraits. These, like those
just mentioned, may be hired, if they cannot be begged or borrowed.
A diligent ladies’ sub-committee, well supplied with bundles of old
unbound copies of _The Illustrated London News_, _Graphic_, _Vanity
Fair_ and _Punch_ would soon construct an attractive portrait gallery,
as well as sundry most interesting series in illustration of social
history, scenery, geography and natural science. There is not anywhere
a small town in which material of this kind may not be brought to light
from the cupboards in which it is uselessly stowed away. The best way
of dealing with it would be to procure some false-backed frames, such
as we have in use at Haslemere. In many instances portraits, maps, &c.,
will not need to be put into frames, but may be at once pinned up in
well-classified series on the walls.

We have said nothing as yet as to a department which ought to be made
one of the most important, especially at a sea-side resort. A Vivarium
for the display of local specimens in their fresh and living states
should be arranged either in an ante-room or hall, or in a shed, or
under a verandah outside the building. In this should be a stand
for flowers (all named), and bell glasses and large saucers for the
reception of shell-fish, sea anemones, sponges _au naturel_, sea-weeds
and corallines. Illustrations and explanatory labels for most of these
our Haslemere press can supply.

The charges for admission to the show should be: before its completion,
sixpence each person; when complete and in good order, threepence for
adults, half-price for children; and on Saturdays a penny all round.
Books of tickets, making a very liberal reduction, should be available.
The result would be, if circumstances were favourable and zeal
abounded, that the guarantors would lose nothing and might possibly
carry forward a modest balance to begin next year with. Meanwhile
the prosperity and reputation of the sea-side resort would have been
helped and a large number of persons would have been entertained and
instructed.

       *       *       *       *       *

The following paragraph appeared a short time ago in one of the daily
papers:--

    The complaint is often made that there is little opportunity
    to learn anything about the specimens exhibited in museums. At
    Brooklyn the experiment has been tried of placing for the use
    of visitors books bearing upon the subjects exhibited alongside
    the cases. This experiment seems to have been most successful.

The Brooklyn experiment is not a new one. It has been practised for
many years past in our museum (_vide_ _Museums’ Journal_, vol. ii.,
1902).

       *       *       *       *       *

BRITISH SNAKES.

[Illustration: The Viper. The Common Snake.]

We have in Great Britain only three representatives of the class
Reptilia which come under the name of Snake. They are the Common Snake,
the Smooth Snake and the Viper. In Ireland there are--as the result of
events to which we referred in our previous number--none at all. Of
the three British Snakes, one, the Smooth Snake,[1] is so rare that
it is of interest only to the naturalist. It is met with in Hampshire
and Dorset, and perhaps in Scotland, but it is nowhere frequent. It
is more nearly allied to the Common Snake than to the Viper, and is
quite harmless. It is much smaller than the others. We will concern
ourselves for the present only with the other two. The Common Snake[2]
is quite harmless and should never be injured by any humane person.
The Viper[3] is venomous, and should be destroyed without mercy. It is
easy enough to distinguish between the two even when in movement. The
Common Snake is always, when full grown, much longer than the Viper.
It may measure 4 feet and is usually 3, whilst the Viper is never more
than 2. The Common Snake tapers off very gradually at its tail, whilst
the Viper has a short tail, which is abruptly constricted at its base.
The Viper is usually brown, often deeply coloured, whilst the Snake is
much lighter coloured, of a light grey-brown tinged with green. The
Common Snake has only spots of black, whilst the Viper is marked down
the whole of its back with large zig-zag black lozenges. This is a most
important feature, is characteristic at all ages of the animal, and is
easily seen under all conditions.

We have named the characters which are most easily seen when the
animal is gliding about on the sward or path, there are others which
are available when the animal is dead or in captivity. Under such
conditions it will be seen that the scales which clothe the Viper are
much smaller in size than those of the Snake, more especially on the
head, and further, that the head of the Viper is marked with black,
somewhat in the form of the letter V.

Snakes, as well as Vipers, have sharp teeth, but they use them only for
seizing their prey, and they have no poison fangs.

The venom apparatus of the Viper consists of a gland which secretes the
poison, a receptacle which stores it, and a long, sharp fang, which
can be extruded and through a groove in which the poison is conveyed.
The animal darts open-mouthed at its enemy rather than bites. Its fang
being in its upper jaw it becomes well exposed when the mouth is agape.
As there is a fang on each side there will usually be two punctures in
the skin about a third of an inch apart.

No doubt there occur every year in England a good many instances of
viper-bites in men and boys. There are, however, exceedingly few
deaths, and many persons of considerable experience have doubted
whether the bite is ever actually fatal. A very urgent and severe
illness is almost invariably the result; but the patient just pulls
through.

In a case in which the writer was, in boyhood, a particeps, two fine
vipers were captured in mistake. They were put into a botanical box
and were repeatedly inspected, and their tongues freely touched. It
was only when on arrival at home that one of them, during an attempt
to transfer it to a cage, made a dart and struck the finger of a boy
of fourteen. The accident was concealed until, about a quarter of an
hour later in attempting to cross the floor, the victim fell down in a
deadly faint. He became very sick and having been got to bed remained
in collapse, apparently near death for several hours. Brandy was of
course freely given.

The medical adviser who had been summoned, arrived in hot haste with a
big volume under his arm, in order to make reference to “snake-bite”
and its treatment. It was, however, too late to do anything more than
give stimulants, and happily these were successful. A fortnight’s
illness ensued, during the early part of which the whole arm was
enormously swollen, and later partly covered with boils.

This case affords, we believe, a very fair example of what usually
follows the incautious capture of the English adder. The reptile does
not attack willingly, but only after much provocation, and he cannot,
as a rule, destroy the life of his human enemy. His poison fangs are
designed for other purposes, and for much smaller animals.

Within the last few weeks a case at Folkestone has attracted much
attention, in which two school-boys in pursuit of what is called
“Nature Study,” were bitten by a viper, with the result that one of
them died. Several other well-authenticated instances of death have
been recorded. We repeat, however, that they are very rare.

The early summer is the best time for killing vipers, since the males,
which at other seasons hide themselves, may now often be found. Warm
heaths and banks exposed to the sun are the places which they frequent.
The common snake, on the other hand, loves water, or may be found in a
hay-field or near an old barn or on a dung-heap. The snake lays eggs
and leaves them to be hatched by the heat of the dung or the rays of
the sun, taking no care whatever for her progeny. The viper, on the
contrary, brings forth her young alive and tends them carefully, even
allowing them, according to fairly well-accredited narratives, to
retreat in case of danger into her mouth and gullet.

The first aid in case of viper-bite should consist in placing a tight
ligature (string or a boot-lace) around the limb above the punctures.
This should be as tight as possible so as to prevent the circulation
of the blood and passage of the venom towards the heart. Next,
incisions should be made across the punctures, or if circumstances
are favourable, the bit of skin comprising the two punctures may be
cut out. The wound thus made should be sucked or well bathed so as to
favour bleeding, and to remove as much of the poison as can be got
away. If ammonia or potash, or Jeye’s fluid or Condy’s fluid be at hand
the wound should be continuously bathed with a weak solution of it.
The ligature, if tight, should not be kept on for more than an hour,
but by this time medical advice will probably have been obtained. To
combat the faintness, &c., brandy, or still better ammonia (that is,
sal volatile or hartshorn well diluted), should be given.

[1] _Coronella lævis_, or _austriaca_.

[2] _Tropidonotus natrix_, or _Natrix vulgaris_.

[3] _Pelias berus_, or _Coluber verus_.

       *       *       *       *       *

THE VIVARIUM. (HASLEMERE MUSEUM.)

During June and July the botany of a district may be very fully
illustrated in the Museum-vivarium. Mr. Douglas Taylor, who has
charge of that department in our Museum, experiences no difficulty in
exhibiting one hundred species simultaneously. No very rare species
are exhibited. At the present time the only plants in our collection
to which the term “uncommon” may be applied are herb Paris, bird’s
nest orchis, Solomon’s seal, and climbing corydalis. The flowers are
arranged, in zinc cylinders, on an ordinary florist’s stand. For the
printed labels now in use we are indebted to the generosity of E. E.
Lowe, Esq., F.L.S., of the Plymouth Museum.

Vipers and grass snakes are not difficult to obtain (see page 53).
The former, when discovered, should be carefully pinned with a stick,
whilst a vasculum (or large bottle) containing leaves and heather is
placed before it. Upon release the viper, judiciously guided by the
stick, will take refuge in the receptacle prepared for it. Grass-snakes
thrive well in captivity, their chief food being frogs and mice. On the
other hand, the English viper nearly always refuses food under such
conditions.

Our vivarium contains, in addition to the above, two of the three
British newts, viz., _Lophinus punctatus_ and _L. palmatus_. The
former, though usually spoken of as the “common newt” is in many
districts (as at Haslemere) not so common as the palmate newt. The
latter is smaller, and the tail terminates abruptly in a threadlike
filament, instead of gradually tapering to a point.

An ants’ nest contained between sheets of glass, on the plan devised
by Sir John Lubbock (Lord Avebury) and described in his “Ants, Bees,
and Wasps” (p. 2), always proves a source of attraction to visitors in
the winter, as well as summer months. We have had for two seasons past
a nest of the amber-coloured meadow ant (_Formica flava_) displayed
under these conditions. It is probably the most intelligent of European
species, forming the grassy hillocks from 9 to 18 inches high, so
commonly seen in some districts. The queen, which is much larger than
either workers or males, requires very careful searching for upon
opening a nest; but the peculiar little white woodlice (which delights
in the long name of _Platyarthous hoffmanseggii_, they are a sort of
guest of the ants) may be always easily discerned.

Every spring we take out of the Museum and arrange in this department a
series of our summer migrants, accompanied with general notes on bird
migration. The following may be seen now: Swallow, martin, swift, sand
martin, cuckoo, corncrake, nightingale, wryneck, nightjar, redstart,
yellow wagtail, garden warbler, wheatear, chiffchaff and whinchat.

Kept under a bell glass and fed with lettuce and cabbage leaves are
some half a dozen examples of the large edible or vine snail (_Helix
pomatia_), the largest of our native land molluscs. This species occurs
chiefly on the chalk in the southern counties. At one time it was
supposed to have been introduced by the Romans, but of late years the
opinion has gained ground that it was indigenous. In the same quarters
is an example of a shell-slug, the _Testacella haliotidea_, sent from
Torquay. The shell-slugs differ from ordinary slugs in having a shell
on the tail. They are carnivorous and feed upon earth-worms, which they
pursue in their burrows; hence may be considered as gardeners’ friends.

       *       *       *       *       *

A GILBERT WHITE PAGE.

(_Continued from p. 27._)

The curious effect of insect attacks in stimulating the growth of
certain parts of the plant which they have damaged may be found
illustrated in hundreds of instances. We have just mentioned the
pine-apples on the spruce fir, but the currant gall on the male catkin
of the oak is yet more striking. In this case a structure which
is naturally very shortlived has its vigour enhanced and its life
prolonged by the presence of the parasite. In this instance the fly
attacks the pollen-bearing flowers and deposits its eggs. These flowers
would, in the ordinary course, wither and fall as soon as the pollen
has ripened and been blown away. Under the stimulating influence of
the larvæ, however, sap is attracted, their stems thicken and become
fleshy, and instead of withering, they produce what looks like a
handsome bunch of currants.

Another instructive instance of parasitism stimulating growth may be
observed at this season in any patch of the common field thistle. Some
of the plants are almost sure to be affected by a parasitic fungus. It
is present in the stole of the plant, and its influence will cause the
affected plants to put forth leaves earlier than the healthy ones. They
will also grow faster, and in the course of a month be twice the height
of their fellows. The fungus grows in the stem, and finally it will
flower out on the surface of the leaves. When this happens the plant
will die, but up to that period its growth has been notably vigorous.
The fungus is the _Puccinia suaveoleus_ (_see_ Plowright, p. 183.) In
some plants it is visible even in early spring, and if abundant will
dwarf the plant so affected instead of stimulating its growth.

       *       *       *       *       *

SEASONAL NOTES. JUNE.

It is scarcely too much to say that “leafy June” is the month in the
year least favourable to natural history observation. Its glorious
beauty is distracting and the profusion of objects of interest hinders
attention to any. We hope, however, that our last month’s Notes
may have directed the attention of some of our readers to certain
special topics and particularly to the wonders of Gall-formation now
in progress. The pine-apple galls on the spruce firs are now in full
growth. Two varieties will be abundantly found. Some are small, not
bigger than large peas, and remain green. These are covered with spines
rather than scales. Others much larger have scales, which at their
margins are beautifully tinged with various shades of red and crimson.
These are the “pine-apples” and these alone simulate true cones. Their
changes will advance rapidly and already their valves may have opened
and allowed the aphis larva, which has escaped from its egg at their
base, to crawl up and enter. This most remarkable process may be
verified by any one who will watch carefully.

Those objects of universal disgust, the Cuckoo-spits, may be shown to
have features of interest which will to some extent counteract the
repugnance of all juvenile naturalists. Hidden in a mass of iridescent
spume there will be found a little greenish insect revelling in the
double luxury of warmth and moisture, to which perhaps is added a
paradise of many-coloured light. The observer’s attention may be
attracted to the fact that the insect has chosen chiefly thistles and
nettles as its hosts, these not being likely to be eaten by cattle.
Later in the season it will be less careful. The insect here concerned,
although a relative of the “plant lice,” is not a true aphis.

June is the month for the Orchis tribe. The Bee must be looked for in
its earliest weeks or never. So also of the Spider and the Frog. Others
continue in flower much longer, but almost all are in their perfection
in June.

Rhododendrons are now plentiful, and the very interesting arrangement
by which their anthers open at their points to discharge their pollen
may easily be observed. It is characteristic of the whole family of
heaths, but as the anthers of rhododendrons are far larger than those
of our English heaths, it is best seen in them.

Those who have never observed it before will be amused to be shown the
jack-in-the-box manner in which the curled up stamens of the Broom
spring out when the bee touches the shoulders of the petals. June is
the month for Broom and both will soon be past.

Amongst our summer visitants the pretty little Turtle-dove is one of
the last to arrive. It waits until the season is well settled and
rarely comes to us before the middle of May. As perhaps a result of
this caution its numbers remain each year much the same. We have now
plenty of turtle-doves at Haslemere, whilst all representatives of the
Swallow tribe are scarce. Some observers think that Nightingales also
have been less frequently heard this spring than usual. Their song,
which ceases when the young are hatched and the business of feeding
begins, will soon be over for 1906.

Speaking of Birds of Passage, we may say that we shall be glad to
receive from any readers in different parts of the kingdom, estimates
of the year’s abundance of the various species. The spring was
remarkably variable, and much of it cold, and this may have had the
result of much diminishing the supply of food which would await our
guests. So far as our enquiries have gone we believe that there is
a general impression that the early spring migrants are this year
somewhat defective in number.

Peach and Almond trees, with their leaves curled, distorted and
thickened, some yellowish-green, others rosy or purplish, are infested
with a fungus, scientifically known as _Exoascus deformans_. It is
one of the ascomycetes; in the same genus is included the fungus
responsible for the “witches’ besoms” of our birch-trees. At maturity
the fungus bursts through the cuticle of the leaf, coming to the
surface to disperse its spores or seeds. The part of the leaf with the
ripe spores upon it, is minutely velvety; the whitish bloom may be
easily seen with the unaided eye, but of course individual spores could
not be seen without the aid of a powerful microscope.

It is said that this disease is very rarely seen in seasons following
an uniformly mild spring.

At the moment of writing we have not observed many oaks defoliated
by caterpillars. The following note is taken from the Museum Record
Book, June 1, 1899: “Oak-trees badly attacked by the larvæ of the
green leaf-roller (_Tortrix viridana_), which cause much damage to
the foliage. The continuous falling of the excreta of these small
caterpillars sounds like paper being pricked by a fine pin, and is very
noticeable in a quiet wood.” In 1902 these larvæ were again equally
troublesome in this district.

The ingenious work of the leaf-rolling Beetles (_Genera apoderus_,
_Attelabus and Rhynchites_) may be observed at this time of the year.
The female, in some species, rolls a leaf into a tube, in others she
makes a compact little thimble of the upper half of the leaf, in the
centre of which she puts an egg. Hazel, oak and chestnut leaves so
folded are not uncommonly seen in this district. Specimens may be
usually seen in the vivarium towards the end of the month.

June is a good month for the observation of what are termed Social
Flowers. The veronica, in many meadows, especially those in which the
grass is kept short by grazing, now exhibits round patches of several
yards in diameter, which are beautifully blue. The little mouse ear
(Myosotis) makes similar patches, but in much less conspicuous tints.
These plants appear to have the power not only of spreading themselves,
but of excluding intruders, and their territories sometimes show no
other form of vegetation. The common daisy is also a social flower,
but much less able to keep others at a distance. So also the wild
strawberry.

       *       *       *       *       *

QUESTIONS FOR ANSWERS.

(_Continued from p. 31, which see._)

(14) Give the meanings of the following prefixes: (1) sub, (2) pseudo,
(3) ob, (4) hypo, (5) hyper, (6) para, (7) ab, (8) aero, (9) con, (10)
amphi, (11) ana, (12) pro.

(15) The late Mr. Holyoake tells us that as the result of a street
accident in which he was much bruised he remembers “squalling for
a fortnight on being taken out of bed.” In another place we read
respecting an accident that “a huge dog had loitered behind, and
suddenly discovered his master had driven ahead, and he, like a Leming
rat, made straight for his master, quite regardless of our being in
his way.” Explain the reference to the Leming rat, and rewrite both
quotations so as to make them express what you think that the author
intended that they should.

(16) What is meant by “a rootless tooth”?

(17) When the number of digits differs on the front and hinder feet of
a quadruped, which has usually the most?

(18) Amongst the principal divisions of the mammalian kingdom are
Rodentia, Carnivora, Insectivora, Cheiroptera, Primates and Ungulata.
Name an English representative of each.

(19) Why are Bees named Anthophila?

(20) Was Captain Cook killed at Owhyhee or in Hawaii?

(21) What do the figures 2123 mean when applied to the teeth, and how
many teeth would the animal possess to which that formula would be
suitable?

(22) At what time in the morning do Daisies open their flowers?

(23) In the _Times_ of September 13, we read, respecting the Sakhalin
coast, “The number of walruses and sea-beavers have been greatly
reduced by the destructive methods of the American fishers.” What
animals are meant by the term “sea-beavers,” and is the name a suitable
one?

(24) If you have watched a stableman washing the wheels of a carriage,
you will have seen him use an implement for lifting the vehicle from
the ground. Why does he use it? What is its name? Explain its mechanism.

(25) If you pour hot water upon a dry sponge it will sink down to half
its size, whereas if the water were cold it would swell up. Try the
experiment and explain the different results.

(26) When a man’s hands are cold he will swing his arms so as to strike
the hands violently against the sides of his shoulders. What is this
action called, and why is it practised?

       *       *       *       *       *

NOTICES OF BOOKS RECEIVED.

ORNITHOLOGY.--Messrs. West, Newman and Co., have recently published a
very handy and useful “Pocket Book of British Birds,” which we have
much pleasure in recommending to field ornithologists. The arrangement
followed is that given in Howard Saunders’ well-known “Manual of
British Birds.” Species “of which only a few specimens have been
observed or obtained in this country” are omitted. The notes are
arranged under the heads of localities, haunts, observation, plumage,
language, habits, food, nest, site, material, eggs. The size is very
convenient for the pocket. Price, 2s. 6d.

THE TRANSACTIONS OF THE BRITISH MYCOLOGICAL SOCIETY for the season 1905
(published, May 19, 1906) contain a full account of the Fungus Foray
held at Haslemere during the week ending September 30, 1905.

The specimens collected were exhibited in the Museum. The exhibition
was a record one as regards the number of species, as no less than four
hundred and eighty-five were identified during the foray, including
twenty-five mycetozoa. Four plates, three coloured, accompany the
Transactions.

Amongst the species depicted we may mention _Polystictus montagnei_,
a new British species found near Haslemere in 1898, and _Sparassis
laminosa_ (also a new British record) found by Mr. Douglas Taylor on
the occasion of the Society’s visit to Woolmer Forest on September 26,
last.

Full particulars respecting the Society may be obtained of the Hon.
Secretary, Carelton Rea, Esq., B.C.L., M.A., at 34, Foregate Street,
Worcester.

       *       *       *       *       *

DESCRIPTIONS OF MUSEUM SPECIMENS.

[_These descriptions are adapted for Museum Labels, and they may be had
separately._]

SKULL OF MONTJAC, OR BARKING DEER.

The skull of the little Montjac, or Barking deer, is of interest
as showing better than any other the relation of the antler to its
pedestal. The pedestal is very long and the antler very small. The
latter usually possesses only two tines, the main one and a short stout
one which grows near its base. From the front of the pedestal there
runs a strong bony ridge down the outer border of the frontal bone as
far as the junction with the nasal. This evidently gives strength to
the prolonged and rather slender pedestal.

SKULL OF A LLAMA (Camel of America).

The skull of the Llama resembles that of the Camel, and both differ
from those of the other ruminants in having incisor teeth in the upper
jaw. “These teeth are placed at the side of the intermaxillary bone
close to the canines, and agree with them in form” (Van der Hoven, vol.
ii., 644).

“There are six incisors only in the lower jaw, and this jaw is
undivided.”

The camels and llamas form transition species between horses and oxen
(ruminants and solid-ungulates).

THE HORNS OF A GNU.

The Gnu’s horns are alike in both species and may be known at a glance
by their hook-like curves. They pass outwards and downwards and then
suddenly curve upwards and forwards. They resemble those of buffaloes
and perhaps most closely those of the American bison. They are never
very large, and always black. They are of fibrous structure and of
large girth at their bases, emulating those of the buffaloes. The Gnu
in some of its features resembles a little horse, possessing a mane
and having its face, tail, and hindquarters much like those of a pony.
It has, however, a cleft hoof and a beard which, as well as its horns,
distinguish it from the horse family.

One of the gnus has a brindled neck and forequarters, pale streaks on
a dark ground, and a black and tufted tail; another has a white tail
covered with long hair from its base, and shows no brindling. The
latter has an almost straight back, whilst the former stands higher in
its forequarters like the bison. The horns of the brindled black-tailed
gnu do not pass forwards nearly so much as those of the other.

All the Gnus are South African and would appear to bear the same
relation to the buffaloes of that continent that the North American
bison does to the American buffalo.

They are active but rather awkward animals, and their self-important
airs are sometimes amusing.

THE SKULL OF THE DUGONG, OR HALICORE.

This animal is allied to the Manati, both belonging to the order
_Sirenia_. They are water-living mammals. The dugong occurs only in
Eastern and Australian seas, the manati on the coasts of South America
and Africa. The grotesquely misshapen aspect of the skull of the dugong
is due to the enormous development of the bones in its upper jaw which
carry the cutting teeth (premaxillary bones and incisor teeth), and
its clumsy lower jaw. The former bear a tusk in the male, which in the
female is present but is never cut. There are no canine teeth, and in
the massive lower jaw no incisor teeth are ever cut. The rudiment of
one is, however, present in the jaw. It may be noted that the bones
carrying the upper incisors do not become united to those of the upper
jaw. The back teeth (chewing teeth), are only four, five, or six in
number in the dugong, whereas in the manati there may be twenty. A
remarkable tendency to vary in their dentition is characteristic of
this group of animals, and is no doubt in relation with differences in
food. A recently extinct member of the family (Steller’s sea-cow) had
no teeth at all, but masticated the soft sea-weeds on which it fed by
the aid of a horny palate (_Rhytina Stelleri_).

HEAD OF THE WART HOG (_Phacochœrus Æthiopicus_).

The Wart Hog is a native of Africa. His name makes reference to a pair
of wart-like excrescences, which are formed, one under each eye. These
may be an inch and a half in length.

There is an enormous development of the base of the zygoma. The incisor
teeth in the upper jaw are often wanting, and sometimes those in the
lower also. The snout is short and square. The so-called warts are
fleshy skin-growths and may be large enough to look like ears.

There is another Wart Hog (_Œliani_), met with in Abyssinia. It differs
from the Cape Wart Hog in that its incisor teeth in both jaws are more
persistent. It has two “warts.”

THE SKULL OF A PIG (_Sus scrofa_).

The skulls of most of the swine family may be recognised by the long
face, and the large size, in both jaws, of their dog-teeth or tusks.
These are especially large in the male sex, and are often curiously
curved, those of the upper jaw upwards, and those of the lower outwards
and upwards. The incisor, or biting, teeth vary very much in different
species and at different ages. They are often shed early, especially
those of the upper jaw. In some pigs the lower incisors are strong
and slope directly forwards, as if for digging. The incisor teeth
are of less service in the pig than in most animals, and are only
exceptionally used for biting or grazing. The pig makes great use of
the snout, and the nasal bones are strong and prominent. The molar
teeth are well adapted for chewing, and are usually worn flat on their
surfaces. Pigs champ but do not ruminate. They are, for the most part,
root-eaters. The rim of the orbit is always imperfect. The normal
dentition is three incisors, one canine, and seven molars in each
jaw. If the upper canine is extracted the lower one will grow into a
complete circle and reach the gum close to the root of the tooth. When
thus curved it forms an ornament much valued in Fiji.

SKULL OF THE BABIRUSSA.

Note especially that the tusk of the upper jaw grows upward from the
first. No part of it is directed into the mouth. This tusk is of
extraordinary size, and it curves upwards so as to touch, and sometimes
even to pierce, the skull. They are, as compared with those of other
swine, slender tusks, more especially the under ones. The upper tusk
grows through the skin of the upper lip. In old animals, when it is
well curved, it must be useless as a weapon. It may serve to protect
the eyes when the animal rushes through brushwood. In the female the
tusks are small.

       *       *       *       *       *

ANSWERS TO CORRESPONDENTS, &c.

CONCHOLOGIST.--Your shells are _Helix nemoralis_ (immature), _Hyalinia
(Vitrea) pura_, and _Buliminus obscurus_. _Vitrea pura_ is a much
smaller shell than _V. nitidula_, the latter may be distinguished from
_V. radiatula_ by the striæ not being continued from whorl to whorl.
_B. obscurus_ is much smaller than any member of the genus _Clausilia_.
If you examine in May the trunks of beech trees growing on calcareous
soils you will find _B. obscurus_ and _Clausilia laminata_ ascending
them in large numbers to spend the summer aloft, coming down again in
October to go into hybernation at the base of the trees during the
winter months. You will find _C. rugosa_ (in modern terminology, _C.
bidentata_) equally common on the trees, it is smaller and thinner than
_C. laminata_. _B. obscurus_ is a short, stout little shell, seldom
exceeding 9 millimetres in height.

GARDENER. _Diseases of the Cultivated Chrysanthemum._--At the present
time three diseases are recorded for this country, viz., sclerotium
disease (_Sclerotinia sclerotiorum_, Massee); corticium disease
(_Peniophora chrysanthemi_, C. B. Plowright), and the only too familiar
Rust (_Puccinia hieracii_, Mart). The sclerotium, which first appears
as a white mould on the stem just above the ground, forms black lumps
within the stem. The stem becomes very brittle and falls. From the
black nodules in the following spring, small funnel-shaped brownish
fungi with long, weak, dark stems appear. The spores from these settle
upon dead organic matter, forming an abundant mycelium which ultimately
attacks the base of the stems of chrysanthemums. It is said that fresh
stable manure favours the spread of the disease. Diseased stems should
be carefully collected and burnt.

The corticium disease also appears on the lower part of the stem,
forming a white growth in autumn; Dr. Plowright, who first discovered
it, says it resembles a splash of whitewash. It is not confined to the
stems but extends into the adjacent soil. Diseased plants are shorter
in height and thinner in the stem than healthy; they always die within
the year. This disease has hitherto been observed only at King’s Lynn
in Norfolk, but it is very possible it occurs in other parts of the
country. Dr. Plowright remarks that the only treatment is burning the
diseased plant. It is useless to separate the apparently healthy shoots.

The well-known chrysanthemum rust first appeared in 1897, and spread
with great rapidity in the very dry summer of 1898. The snuff-coloured
uredo spores (summer form) are familiar to all cultivators of
chrysanthemums. This fungus occurs on many wild plants of the order
_Compositæ_, notably the hawk-weeds (_Hieracium_). All diseased plants
should be burnt. The disease may be prevented by spraying the new
leaves with potassium sulphide solution.

It is to be hoped that the chrysanthemum leaf blight (_Cylindrosporium
chrysanthemi_), which has caused so much damage to cultivated plants
in Ontario, Canada, will not find its way into this country. It forms
large dark patches on the leaves, which turn yellow and hang down; the
flower buds do not expand. It is stated that fungicides are useless.